HARVARD UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
OF THE
GRAY HERBARIUM
Received | i\ )/
#
The Journal of the
Midland Union of Natural History Societies
WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED THE ENTIRE
Transactions of the Birmingham Natural
History and Microscopical Society,
'o/imh «
EDITED BY
E. W. BADGER & W. J. HARRISON, F.G.S
Come forth into the light of things,
Let Nature be your teacher.”
Wordsworth
VOLUME VIII
London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co
4, Stationers’ Hall Court.
Birmingham : Cornish Brothers,
37, New Street.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED AT THE
HERALD PRESS, UNION ST., BIRMINGHAM
AVORThlNCTON SMITH DEL.ETSC
yicro .
Gray Herbarium
Harvard University
PREFACE.
The Editors gladly avail themselves of the opportunity to
publicly thank their many able contributors for the valuable
papers sent in for publication during the present year. It
has been a source of much pleasure to them to have had the
privilege of publishing Mr. J. E. Bagnall’s “ Flora of War¬
wickshire,” the last instalment of which appears in the
December number. This important work will no doubt be
issued in a complete form before very long, and when it is it
will be found to be largely added to, Mr. Bagnall having
devoted all his leisure, since the publication began in the
Magazine, to the further study and investigation of the
Flora of his native county.
The Editors would once more urge their readers to send
for publication short notes on natural history topics embody¬
ing their personal observations. Communications of this
kind would add materially to the value of the “ Midland
Naturalist.”
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME.
W. J. Abel, B.A., F.R.M.S., Nottingham.
E. W. Badger, Birmingham.
James E. Bagnall, A.L.S., Birmingham.
W. Harcourt Bath, Sutton Coldfield.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc., Loughborough.
T. Bolton, F.R.M.S., Birmingham.
H. J. Carter, F.R.S., Budleigh Salterton.
R. W. Chase, Birmingham.
M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., London.
F. Enock, Woking.
Francis Fowke, F.R.M.S., London.
Edward Francis, F.L.S., Nottingham.
Thomas Gibbs, Jun., Bretby.
W. S. Gresley, F.G.S., Overseal.
W. B. Grove, B.A. , Birmingham.
W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., Birmingham.
John B. Haycraft, M.B., B.Sc., F.R.S., Edin., Birmingham.
W. Hillhouse, M.A., F.L.S., Birmingham.
C. T. Hudson, LL.D., F.R.M.S., Clifton, Bristol.
W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., Birmingham.
Lewis J. Major, Wolverhampton.
W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., Birmingham.
W. Mathews, M.A,, F.G.S., Birmingham.
F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S., Leicester.
Joseph Smith, Jun., M.A. I., Warrington.
W. Southall, F.L.S., Birmingham.
B. Thompson, F.C.S., F.G.S., Northampton.
Rev. J. I). La Touche, Stokesay, Salop.
G. C. Turner, Leicester.
T. H. Waller, B.Sc., Birmingham.
W. H. Wilkinson, Birmingham.
E. Wilson, F.G.S., Bristol.
C. L. Wragge, F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., Adelaide.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VIII.
P L A
Floscularia Mutabilis
T E S .
Plate
I., to
PAGE.
face *33
Map of the Lias Marlstone Rock in
tershire District
the Leices-
Plate
II.
„ 61
GEdogonium Crassiusculum
• • • •
Plate
III.
89
Ctenodrilus Pardalis
• • • •
Plate
IV. 1
„ 117
Nais Hamata
• • • •
Plate
V. f
Dicentra Cucullaria
• • • •
Plate
VL \
„ 273
Trillium Grandiflorum
• •
Plate
VII.)
INDEX
A Fungus Phantasy, 285-6
A Week’s Work among the Cannock
Chase Lepidoptera, 326-7
Abel (W. J.), The Ear and Hearing, 119-23,
167-9, 199-201, 213-17, 281-5, 314-7
Aberdeenshire, on Certain Deposits of
Graphite and Iron in, 85
Abnormal Inflorescence of the Hazel, 84
Additions to the Flora of Sutton Park, 56
Africa, Scenes on the North Coast of,
233-4
Alga, Life History of a Filiform, 74-6,
89-94
Alpes, les Plantes des, 13-14
America, Notes on the Flora of, 273-6,
314-18
An Interesting Section, 237
Analysis, Schellen’s Spectrum (Review),
295—6
Anker Flora, 28
Annelids, Notes on two Rare, 117-18
Anthropology, its Meaning and Aim,
286-91, 319-25, 338-41
Aquarium Department, The, in the In¬
ventions Exhibition, 111
Aregma Bulbosum, 297-8
Arums, some Facts about, 301-5
Ash, Leafing of Oak and, 206
Association, British, 140
Atlas, Ordnance, of the British Isles
(Review), 205
Bacillus, Koch’s Comma, 46-7, 247-50
Bacillus, The First Discovery of the
Cholera, 247-50
Bacteria, 57
Bagnall (J. E.), Abnormal Inflorescence
of the Hazel, 84
- Additions to the Flora of Sutton
Park, 56
- Anker Flora, 28
- Flora of Warwickshire, 18-23
48-54, 78-83, 234-5, 266-8, 291-5,
348-52
- - Lycopodium Clave turn, 85-6
- The British Moss Flora (Revieiv),
24-5
- The Fungi of Norfolk (Review), 25
Bank Notes, The Micro-Vegetation of, 26-7
Bath (W. Harcourt), Notes on the Natural
History of Sutton Park, 107-10, 198
Berridge (Wm.), Meteorological Notes,
27, 55-6, 84, 110-11, 139-40, 173, 205, 237,
268-9, 296, 327, 347-8
Best Methods of Studying Botany for
Beginners, On the, 34-8
Biology, The Principles of, Exposition of,
- Classification, 202-4
- Distribution, 333-7
- Genesis, 40-3
- Genesis, Heredity, and Variation,
128-31
- Heredity, 104-7
- Variation, 106
Birmingham, Deep Boring near, 261
Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society, Address by Mr. W.
R. Hughes, 305-9
Bittern, The, in Sutton Park, 198
Bolton (T), A Successful Pond Hunt, 188-90
- Notes on Two Rare Annelids,
117-18
Boring (Deep) near Birmingham, 261
Botanical Notes from South Beds, 236
Botanical Research, 112
Botany —
- A Fungus Foray, 28
- Abnormal Inflorescence of the
Hazel, 84
- Additions to the Flora of Sutton
Park, 56
- Anker Flora, 28
- Aregma Bulbosum, 297-8
- - Botanical Notes from South Beds,
236
- Botanical Research, 112
- British Moss Flora, 56
- British Moss Flora (Revieiv), 24-5
- - Part IX., 328
- Chemical Study of the Skeleton
of Plants, 84
- Cultivated Plants, Regions where
originated, 15-16
- Flora of Derbyshire, 56
- Flora of the Lake District, 173
- Flora of Warwickshire, 18-23, 48-
54, 78-83, 234-5, 266-8, 291-5, 348-52
- Fungi of Norfolk (Review), 25
- Leafing of Oak and Ash, 206
- Leicestershire Forms of Capsella
Bursa-Pastoris, 217-20
- Life History of a Filiform Alga
(CEdogonium), 74-6
- Lycopodium Clavatum, 85-6
- New British Fungi, 269, 328
- Notes on the Flora of America,
273-6, 314-18
- On the best Methods of Studying,
for Beginners, 34-8
- On the Development of a Fern
from its Spore, 44-6
- On The Nervous System of Vege¬
tables — Do Plants Feel ? 67-8
- Fuccinia Sonchi, Desm., 352
- Some Facts about Arums, 301-5
Breaking of the Meres, 17-18
British Association, 140
British Coal-fields, A Warning from the,
141
British Fungi, New, 269, 328
British Isles, Ordnance Atlas of the
(Revieiv), 205
British Moss Flora, 56
British Moss Flora, The (Review), 24-5
Broads and Rivers, Norfolk (Review), 25-6
Bulbosum, Aregma, 297-8
Bursa-Pastoris (Capsella), The Leicester¬
shire Forms of, 217-20
Butterflies, The Weapons of, 297
11.
INDEX.
Candolle (A.de), Regions where Cultivated
Plants Originated, 15-16
Cannock Chase Lepidoptera, A Week’s
Work among the, 326-7
Capsella Barsa-Pastoris, The Leicester¬
shire Forms of, 217-20
Carter (H. J.), Report on Marine Sponges,
7-10
Cells, Hermaphroditism of Germigenal,
140
Chemical Study of the Skeleton of Plants,
84
Cholera Bacillus, The First Discovery of
the, 247-50
Clee Hill, The Geological Structure of
the Titterstone, 220-3
Coal-field, some Inaccuracies upon the
Geological Survey Maps and Sections
of the Leicestershire, 342-3
Coal-fields, A Warning from the British,
141
Coloured Sounds, 141
Comma Bacillus, Koch’s, 46-7, 247-50
Cooke (M. C.), Life History of a Filiform
Alga (CEdogonium), 74-6, 89-94
Ctenodrilus Pardalis, i 17—18
Cultivated Plants, regions where origi¬
nated, 15-16
Death’s Head Hawk Moth, 269, 296-7
Deep Boring near Birmingham, 261
- - - at King’s Heath, near Bir¬
mingham, 352
Department, The Aquarium, in the In¬
ventions Exhibition, 111
Deposits of Graphite and Iron in Aber¬
deenshire, 85
Derbyshire, Flora of, 56
Development of a Fern from its Spore,
on the, 44-6
Discovery of the Cholera Bacillus, The
First, 247-50
Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, 76-7
Ear, The, and Hearing. 119-23, 167-9, 199-
201, 213-17, 281-5, 344-7
Ejected Pellet of a Robin, 328
Encouragement of Scientific Research,
112
Enock (F.), Notes from Woking, 8 >
- Notes on the Mymaridse, 158-62
Eyes on Shells, 141
Fauna, The, of Warwickshire, Worces¬
tershire, and Staffordshire, 111
Fern, on The Development of a, from its
Spore, 44-6
Filiform Alga, Life History of a, 74-6,
89-94
First Discovery of the Cholera Bacillus,
247-250
Floor of the Midlands, on The Pre-Car-
boniferous, 38-40, 69-73, 100-4, 131-5,
163-7, 194-8
Flora, Anker, 28
- British Moss, 56
- of America, Notes on the, 273-6,
314-18
- of Derbyshire, 56
Fauna of Sutton Park, Additions to the,
56
- of the Lake District, 173
- - of Warwickshire, 18-23, 48-54,
78-83, 234-5, 266-8, 291-5, 348-52
- The British Moss {Review), 24-5
Floscularia Mutabilis, 33
Forms of Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, The
Leicestershire, 217-20
Fowke (Francis), The First Discovery of
the Cholera Bacillus, 247-50
Francis (Edward), on Starch, 256-61
Fungi of Norfolk (Review , 25
- New British, 269, 328
Fungus Phantasy, a, 285-6
Gamma, A Fungus Phantasy, 285-6
Gaye (Selina), Some Facts about Arums,
301-5
Geological Structure of the Titterstone
Clee Hill, 220-3
Geological Survey, The, 113
Geology, Phillips s Manual of (Review), 26
- - The Student’s Elements of (Re¬
view), 55
Geology—
- An Interesting Section, 237
- - Deep Boring near Birmingham,
261
- - at King’s Heath, near
Birmingham, 352
- Of London, Guide to the, 352
- Graphite and Iron in Aberdeen¬
shire, 85
- Mr. Joseph Prestwich, 85
- Niagara, and its Physical and
Geological Conditions, 241-7
- Penmaenmawr, 1-7
- Phillips’s Manual of Geology (Re-
view), 26
- Pre-Carboniferous Floor of the
Midlands, 38-10, 69-73, 100-3,
131-5, 163-7, 194-8
- Some Inaccuracies upon the
Geological Survey Maps and
Sections of the Leicestershire
Coal-field, 342-3
- Some Recent Observations on the
Structure of Rowley Rag, 261 -66
- Students’ Elements of Geology
(Review), 55
- The Geological Structure of the
Titterstone Clee Hill, 220-3
- The Geological Survey, 113
- The Lias Marlstone of Leicester¬
shire, 61-6, 94-7, 123-7, 152-8
- The Middle Lias of Northampton¬
shire, 135-9, 148-53, 185-8, 209-13,
250-5, 276-81, 309-14
- The Ordnance Survey, 113
- The Origin of the Microzymas and
Vibrionians everywhere, 85
Germigenal Cells, Hermaphroditism of,
140
Gibbs (T., jun.), A Week’s Work among
the Cannock Chase Lepidoptera, 326-7
Graphite and Iron in Aberdeenshire,
Certain Deposits of, 85
Gresley (W. S.), Some Inaccuracies upon
the Geological Survey Maps and
Sections of the Leicestershire Coal¬
field, 342-3
INDEX.
Ill
Grove (W. B.), A Fungus Foray, 28
- - Aregma Bulbosum, 297
- A Short Handbook of Natural
History (Review), 28-4
- Koch’s Comma Bacillus, 46-7
- New British Fungi, 269, 328
- Principles of Biology, 40-3, 128-31
- The Bittern in Sutton Park, 198
Guide to the Geology of London, 352
Hamata, Nais, 118
Hamel (Egbert de), Death’s Head Hawk
Moth, 269
Harrison (W. J.), Deep Boring near Bir
mingham, 261
- Magnetism and Electricity (Re¬
view), 55
- Norfolk Broads and Rivers (Re¬
view), 25-6
- On the Pre-Carboniferous Floor
of the Midlands, 38-40, 69-73,
100-4, 131-5, 163-7, 194-8
- Phillips’s Manual of Geology
(Revieiv), 26
- The Student’s Elements of Geo¬
logy (Review), 55
Hawk Moth, Death’s Head, 269, 296-7
Hawkes (H.), ruccinia Sonchi, Desm., 352
Haycraft (J. B.), The Physiology of the
Medicinal Leech, 98-100
Hearing, The Ear and, 119-23, 167-9, 199-
201, 213-17, 281-5, 344-7
Hermaphroditism of Germigenal Cells,
140
Hillliouse, Professor, 111
- - On the Intercellular Relations of
Protoplasts, 145-8
- Principles of Biology, 202-4
How and Why, 58
Hudson (C. T.), Floscularia Mutabilis, 33
Hughes (W. R.), Address to Sociological
Section of Birmingham Natural
History and Microscopical Society,
305-9
Hunt, a Successful Pond, 188-90
Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts, On
the, 145-8
Iron in Aberdeenshire, On Certain De¬
posits of Graphite and, 85
Iroix, The Lias Marlstone of Leicester¬
shire as a source of, 61-6, 94-7, 123-7,
152-8
Jackdaw, The, 57
Jeffreys, Dr. J. Gwyn, 76-7
King’s Heath, near Birmingham, Deep
Boring at, 352
Koch’s Comma Bacillus, 46-7, 247-50
La Touche (Rev. J. D.), The Geological
Structure of the Titterstone Clee
Hill, 220-3
Lake District, Flora of the, 173
Leafing of Oak and Ash, 206
Leech, The Physiology of the Medicinal,
98-100
Leicestershire Coal-field, Some Inaccu¬
racies ujion the Geological Survey
Maps and Sections of the, 342-3
Leicestershire Forms, The, of Capsella
Bursa-Pas toris, 217-20
Leicestershire, The Lias Maidstone of, as
a Source of Iron, 61-6, 91-7, 123-7,
152-8
Lepidoptera, A Week’s Work Among the
Cannock Chase, 326-7
Les Plantes des Alpes, 13-14
Lias Maidstone of Leicestershire, The,
as a Source of Iron, 61-6, 94-7,
123-7, 152-8
- The Middle, of Northampton¬
shire, 135-9, 148-52, 185-8, 209-13,
250-5, 276-81, 309-14
Life History of a Filiform Alga (CEdogo-
nium), 74-6, 89-94
London, Guide to the Geology of, 352
Lycopodium Clavatum, 85-6
Magnetism and Electricity (Revieiv), 55
Major (Lewis J.), The Principles of Bi¬
ology — Heredity, 104-7
Manual of Geology, Phillips’s (Review),
26
Marine Sponges, Report on, 7-10
Maidstone, The Lias, of Leicestershire,
as a Source of Iron, 61-6, 94-7, 123-7,
152-8
Marshall ( W. P.), Niagara and its Physical
and Geological Conditions, 241-7
- Roraima Mountain, 169-70
- on The Pennatulida, 191-3
Mathews (W.), Principles of Biology, 333-7
Meaning and Aim of Anthropology.
286-91, 319-25, 338-41
Medicinal Leech, The Physiology of the,
98-100
Meres, Breaking of the, 17-18
Meteorological Notes, 27, 55-6, 84, 110-11,
139-40, 173, 205, 237, 268-9, 296, 327, 347-8
Meteorological Stations in Queensland,
328
Methods of Studying Botany for Begin¬
ners, On the Best, 34-8
Micro-Vegetation of Bank Notes, The,
26-7
Microscope, Objects for the, 56
Microzymas, on The Origin of the, and
Vibrionians Everywhere, 85
Middle Lias, The, of Northamptonshire,
135-9, 148-52, 185-8, 209-13, 250-5, 276-81,
309-14
Midland Union, The, 111, 140
Midland Union of Natural History
Societies, 171-2, 177-185, 224-33
Midland Union of Microscopical and
Natural History Societies, 343-4
Midlands, On the Pre-Carboniferous Floor
of the, 38-40, 69-73, 100-4, 131-5, 163-7,
194-8
Morchella Semilibera, DC., 190
Moss Flora, British, 56
Moss Flora, The British (Review), 21-5
Moss (Wilfred), Death’s Head Hawk, 296-7
Mosses, On the Structure of, 10-13
Moth, Death’s Head Hawk, 269, 296-7
I
IV
INDEX
Mott (F. T.), ou the Structure of Mosses,
10-13
- On the Best Methods of Studying
Botany for Beginners, 34-8
- On The Nervous System of Vege¬
tables— Do Plants Feel? G7-8
- The Leicestershire Forms of
Capsella Bursa-J? astoris, 217-20
- - The Weapons of Butterflies, 297
- Ejected Pellet of a Robin, 328
Mountain, Roraima, 169-70
Mr. James E. Bagnall, 58-9
Mutabilis, Floscularia, 33
Mymaridse, Notes on the, 158-62
Nais Hamata, 118
Natural History, a Short Handbook of
{Review), 23-4
Natural History Societies, Midland Union
of, 171-2, 177-85, 221-33
Natural History Notes—
- A New Protozoon, 111
- Abnormal Inflorescence of the
Hazel, 84
- Additions to the Flora of Sutton
Park, 56
- An Interesting Section, 237
- Anker Flora, 28
- Aquarium Department of the
Inventions Exhibition, 111
- Aregma Bulbosum, 297-8
- Botanical Research, 112
- British Association, 140
- British Moss Flora, Part IX., 328
- British Moss Flora, 56
- - Certain Deposits of Graphite and
Iron in Aberdeenshire, 85
- Chemical Study of the Skeleton
of Plants, 84
- Coloured Sounds, 141
- - Death’s Head Hawk Moth, 269,
296-7
- Ejected Pellet of a Robin, 328
- - Encouragement of Scientific Re¬
search, 112
- Eyes on Shells, 141
- Fauna of Warwickshire, Worces¬
tershire, and Staffordshire, 111
- Flora of Derbyshire, 56
- - Flora of the Lake District, 173
- - Fungus Foray, A, 28
- - Geological Survey, 113
- - Hermaphroditism of Germigenal
Cells, 140
- - How and Why, 58
- Lycopodium Clavatum, 85-6
- Meteorological Stations inQueens-
land, 328
- Midland Union, 111, 140
- Mr. James E. Bagnall, 58-9
- Mr. Joseph Prestwich, 85
- New British Fungi, 269, 328
- Nitrates, 57
- Notes from Woking, 85
- Notes on the Natural History of
Sutton Park, 107-10, 198
- - Objects for the Microscope, 56
- Only a Dead Spider, 28-9
- Ordnance Survey, 113
- Origin of the Vertebrata, 112
- Origin of the Microzymas and
Vibrionians Everywhere, 85
- - Professor Hillhouse, 111
Natural History Notes —
- Sparrows versus Starlings, 173-4
- The Jackdaw, 57
- The Weapons of Butterflies, 297
- Warning from the British Coal¬
fields, 141
Nervous System of Vegetables, on the —
Do Plants Feel ? 67-8
Neville ( J. W.), Aregma Bulbosum, 297-8
New British Fungi, 269, 328
New Protozoon, 111
Niagara and its Physical and Geological
Conditions, 241-7
Nitrates, 57
Norfolk, the Fungi of (Review), 25
- Broads and Rivers {Review), 25-6
North Coast of Africa, Scenes on the,
233-4
Northamptonshire, The Middle Lias of,
135-9, 148-52, 185-8, 209-13, 250-5, 276-81,
309-14
Notes, Botanical, from South Beds, 236
- from Woking, 85
- Meteorological, 27, 55-6, 84, 110-11,
139-40, 173, 205, 237, 268-9, 296,
327, 347-8
- on the Natural History of Sutton
Park, 107-10, 198
- on two Rare Annelids, 117-18
- on The Mymaridse, 158-62
- on The Flora of America, 273-6,
314-18
Oak and Ash, Leafing of, 206
Objects for the Microscope, 56
Observations, some Recent, on the Struc¬
ture of Rowley Rag, 261-6
On Starch, 256-61
Only a Dead Spider, 28-9
Ordnance Atlas of the British Isles (Re¬
view), 205
Ordnance Survey, The, 113
Origin of the Microzymas and Vibrio¬
nians Everywhere, 85
Origin of the Vertebrata, 112
Pardalis, Ctenodrilus, 117-18
Penmaenmawr, 1-7
Pennatulida, 191-3
Phantasy, A Fungus, 285-6
Phillips’s Manual of Geology (Review), 26
Phillips (W.), Morchella Semilibera, DC.,
190
Photo-Micrography (Review), 206
Physiology of the Medicinal Leech,
98-100
Plantes des Alpes, Les, 13-14
Pond Hunt, A Successful, 188-90
Pre-Carboniferous Floor of the Midlands,
On the, 38-40, 69-73, 100-4, 131-5, 163-7,
194-8
Prestwich, Mr. Joseph, 85
Principles of Biology, 40-3, 104-7, 128-31,
202-4, 333-7
Professor Hillhouse, 111
Protoplasts, On the Intercellular Rela¬
tions of, 145-8
Protozoon, A New, 111
Puccinia Sonchi, Desm., 352
Quilter (H. E.), An Interesting Section, 237
INDEX
V.
Rats, 127
Regions where Cultivated Plants Origi¬
nated, 15-16
Relations of Protoplasts, On the Inter¬
cellular, 145-8
Report on Marine Sponges, 7-10
Research, Botanical, 112
- Encouragement of Scientific, 112
Reviews
A Short 11 andbook of Natural History,
23-4
Magnetism and Electricity, 55
Norfolk Broads and Rivers, 25-G
Ordnance Atlas of the British Isles,
205
Phillips’s Manual of Geology, 26
Photo-Micrography, 206
Spectrum Analysis, 295-6
The British Moss Flora, 24-5
The Fungi of Norfolk, 25
The Student’s Elements of Geology,
55
Robin, Ejected Pellet of a, 328
Roraima Mountain, 169-70
Rowley Rag, Some Recent Observations
on the Structure of, 261-6
Saunders(J.\ Botanical Notes from South
Beds, 236
- Leafing of Oak and Ash, 206
Scenes on the North Coast of Africa,
233-4
Schellen’s Spectrum Analysis, 295-6
Scientific Research, Encouragement of,
112
Section, an Interesting, 237
Shells, Eyes on, 141
Smith (Jos., jun.), Anthropology, its
Meaning and Aim, 286-91, 319-25, 338-41
Societies, Midland Union of Natural
History, 171-2, 177-85, 224-33
Societies, Midland Union of Microscopi¬
cal and Natural History, 343-4
Societies, Reports of —
Birmingham Microscopists’ and
Naturalists’ Union, 30-1, 60, 87-8,
115, 143-4, 175, 207, 239-40, 270-1, 299,
300, 331-2
Birmingham Natural History and
Microscopical Society, 29-30, 59-60,
86-7, 113-15, 142-3, 174-5, 206-7, 238-9,
269-70, 298-9 (Address, 305-9), 328-31,
352-4
Caradoc Field Club, 144, 207-8, 271-2
Dudley and Midland Geological
Society, 272
Leicester Literary and Philosophi¬
cal Society, 31-2, 60, 88, 116, 144,
175-6, 208, 240, 300, 332, 354
Peterborough Natural History,
Scientific, and Archaeological
Society, 32, 116
Some Facts about Arums, 301-5
Some Inaccuracies upon the Geological
Survey Maps and Sections of the
Leicestershire Coal-field, 342-3
Some Recent Observations on the Struc¬
ture of Rowley Rag, 261-6
Sonchi, Desm., Puccinia, 352
Sounds, Coloured, 141
South Beds, Botanical Notes from/236
Southall (Wm.), Breaking of the Meres,
17-18
- Sparrows versus Starlings, 173-4
Sparrows versus Starlings, 173-4
Spectrum Analysis (Review), 295-6
Spider, Only a Dead, 28-9
Sponges, Report on Marine, 7-10
Spore, on the Development of a Fern
from its, 44-6
Starch, On, 256-61
Structure of Mosses, The, 10-13
Structure, the Geological, of the Titter-
stone Clee Hill, 220-3
Successful Pond Hunt, A, 188-90
Survey, The Geological, 113
- The Ordnance, 113
Sutton Park, Additions to the Flora of, 56
- Notes on the Natural History of,
107-10, 198
- The Bittern in, 198
Thompson (B.), The Middle Lias of
Northamptonshire, 135-9, 148-52, 185-8,
209-13, 250-5, 276-81, 309-14
Titterstone Clee Hill, The Geological
Structure of the, 220 3
Turner (G. C.), On the Development of a
Fern from its Spore, 44-6
Union of Natural History Societies, Mid¬
land, 171-2,177-85, 224-33
Union of Microscopical and Natural
History Societies, Midland, 343-4
Union, The Midland, 111, 140
Vegetables, On the Nervous System of.—
Do Plants Feel ? 67-8
Vertebrata, Origin of the, 112
Vibrionians, On the Origin of the Micro-
zymas and, Everywhere, 85
Waller (T. H.), on Penmaenmawr, 1-7
- Some Recent Observations on the
Structure of Rowley Rag, 261-66
Warning from the British Coal Fields, A,
141
Warwickshire, Flora of, 18-23, 48-54, 78-
83, 234-5, 266-8, 291-5, 348-52
Weapons of Butterflies, 297
Week’s Work, A, among the Cannock
Chase Lepidoptera, 326-7
Why and How, 58
Wilkinson (W. H.), Notes on the Flora of
America, 273-6, 314-18
Wilson (E.), On the Lias Marlstone of
Leicestershire as a Source of Iron,
61-6, 94-7, 123-7, 152-8
Woking, Notes from, 85
Wragge (C. L.), Scenes on the North
Coast of Africa, 233-4
*
/
Plate I
Floscularia mutabilis
THE MIDLAND NATURALIST.
“ Come forth into the light of things,
Let Nature be your teacher.”
Wordsworth.
PENMAENMAW R *
BY T. H. WALLER, B.SC.
Between the villages of Penmaenmawr and Llanfairfeclian,
O 7
on the coast of North Wales, there lies a mass of igneous
rock forming the mountain from which the former place takes
its name, The seaward face falls so precipitously that to carry
the road along the coast the solid rock has had to be cut
away, and to allow the railroad to pass a tunnel has been
made through the projecting spur. At the height of about
1,000ft. above the sea there is a considerable space of table¬
land, with a nearly level surface, from which a rough peak
rises to about another 500ft. Several quarries have been
opened in the mass, as the stone is in considerable demand
both for squared setts and for macadamising roads. Of
these the .most westerly lies just above the village of Llan-
fairfechan, the floor of the uppermost working being about
900ft. above the sea. In this quarry the sharply jointed
character of the rock at once strikes the eye, and it is specially
well seen in a large mass which is just now left in the form
of a great tooth, at the edge of the floor. It is this jointing
which makes it so well adapted for paving setts, and the
smooth, flat surfaces are conspicuous in many of the railway
bridges of the neighbourhood, distinguishable from artificially
worked surfaces only by their rusty- brown skin of weathered
stone. The stone does not, so far as I saw it, exhibit any of
the gently curved surfaces which are so common in the
Rowley Rag ; and I saw no instance of the spheroidal
weathering which is so characteristic of our local stone, and
no approach to columnar structure, unless a very marked and
curious — almost stratified — appearance in the extreme edge
of the mass towards the west can be considered such.
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society. Read October 28th, 1884.
PENMAENMAWR.
So far as I know, tlie character of the rock has been
mentioned only by Professor Rosenbuscli, Mr. J. A. Phillips,
and Mr. J. J. Harris Teall. By the former it is stated that
“ the traps of Penmaenmawr and Conway, in North Wales,
belong to the Enstatite-bearing Diabases, of which they are
indeed most typical examples.” Mr. Phillips, in a paper in the
“Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” 1877, p. 428,
gives a detailed account of the varieties to be observed in the
mass, giving analyses showing the different stages of alteration,
and a description of the mineralogical character as deter¬
mined microscopically. He considers the mineral associated
with the felspar to he hornblende, recognising its slight
dichroism but overlooking its rhombic crystallisation. I
shall have to refer to this paper again later on. Mr. Teall
tells me that he has mentioned the Penmaenmawr stone in
his paper on the Whin Sill of the North of England, which
he read before the Geological Society in June, but the paper
has not yet been published, so I cannot say to what extent
he has investigated it. I believe, however, only so far as to
confirm the description given by Rosenbuscli. The specimens
which I obtained while staying at Llanfairfechan this sum¬
mer are all from the western end of the mass, which, how¬
ever, Phillips states to be the least altered by weathering.
On making our way towards the quarry we find, as soon
as we get clear of the village and come upon any rock, that it
is slate, the planes of cleavage (or deposition) dipping towards
the igneous mass, though probably the dip is not much
affected by the latter. This continues until we arrive at the
rough wooden ladders which the quarrymen have fixed in a
cleft in the rock to facilitate their laborious journey to and
from work. Here we find the igneous rock, and can trace it
inwards, gradually changing in character for a few feet. The
first we come to is split up into quite thin plates, and this
structure, on a large scale, gives its peculiar appearance to
the line of cliff which forms the boundary of the mass.
A little further in the rock is very compact, sometimes
of a light grey colour, sometimes almost black, but usually
containing a quantity of white patches which are either
felspar crystals or minerals replacing them. On examining
a specimen of this microscopically, we find it to be almost
entirely made up of interlacing felspar crystals, with
occasional porpliyritic ones of larger size, and in the inter¬
stices I think we may detect a small amount of residual
glassy matter. In one specimen, which, however, I got from
a wall in the village, there are dark veins and patches which,
on examination, proved to be the parts where the felspar is
PENMAENMAWR
o
o
clearest of opaque granular enclosures, due probably to some
amount of decomposition. I saw no similar specimen cer¬
tainly in situ, but one or two in such situations that I have
no doubt of their being derived from the mountain imme¬
diately above them ; and one of them occurred in a part
which was much more obviously and coarsely crystalline.
This border portion has occasionally a well-marked conclioidal
fracture ; one specimen shows concentric rings, though unfor¬
tunately they are not perfect.
In one of my specimens from this fine-grained border of
the mass, a very remarkable felspar crystal occurs. It is one
of the larger ones — probably of an older generation — which
imparts a slightly porpliyritic character to this part of the
rock ; but only one end is visible, and that is of an irregu¬
larly oval shape. Over the greater part of the extent of the
section there is fairly normal twinning, with angle of 48°
between the extinctions of the two sets of lamellae, which
suggests labradorite ; but all round the visible edge there is a
narrow zone, which is apparently of such different compo¬
sition that its optical position is quite different from that of
the kernel so to speak, although it is obviously continuous
with it as to its crystal shape. It extinguishes so very nearly
at 45° from the direction of the trace of the twinning plane
that it is difficult to say whether it is twinned or not, but I
believe not. Strictly speaking, it appears to be made up of a
considerable number of very narrow parallel zones, with
very slightly different extinction angles.
The ladders already spoken of land us at the level of the
quarry, or very nearly so ; and from the pathway round the
corner of rock which we have to pass, the views over the
country westward and Anglesey are very fine. Possibly as
we linger here out of sight of the working, we may be sur¬
prised to see what seems like a fog drift over us and pass
away up the valley to the south. It is, however, dry, and
smells dusty, and is the dust arising from the throwing down
the seaward face of the mountain the waste stone of the
quarry. The quantity so disposed of is enormous, amounting
sometimes I was told to 1,800 truck loads per week, and has
resulted in the disfiguring fans of bare stones which are so
unfortunately conspicuous from Llanfairfeclian.
In the quarry we find that we are on the highest of three
floors, each of which is being extended further and further
into the hill, while the edge of each of the two upper ones
is being invaded by the one immediately below it. The stone
is worked in the usual manner, the jointing of the rock being
taken advantage of to reduce the labour of getting it down.
4
PENMAENMAWR.
*
After a blast, tlie men loosen the shaken masses with crow¬
bars, their safety being as far as possible secured by ropes
fixed at the top of the face of the rock on which they are
working.
An examination of the rock in this section shows that it is
composed of felspar, and a rhombic pyroxene, with a very few
crystals of augite. The felspar is in the usual elongated
forms and is triclinic, but its exact species is not certain ;
although from the fact that six extinctions were measured
betwen 54° and 56°, it is almost certain that labradorite
is present. In specimens from this quarry it is pretty fresh
and free from decomposition, but in other parts it is not in
such good condition. The augite and the enstatite are very
similar in appearance, and where the plane of the section
has happened to cut across the prism I do not think they are
distinguishable. They are both pale in colour — the augite is
perhaps a little darker. When the section is more or less
parallel to the prism, however, the difference of crystal
system is at once shown. Speaking generally, the long
narrow sections of enstatite “ extinguish ” when the length
is parallel to the principal plane of one of the nicols prisms,
whilst in the case of the monoclinic augite this only happens
in the case of the section being in the zone of the ortho-
pinacoid and base. In all other cases, and they are natu¬
rally likely to be much the most numerous, the length of the
crystal when it “extinguishes” makes an angle with the
planes of the nicols, which may vary from 40° downwards.
The colours in polarised light which the enstatite shows are
paler and more washed out than those of the augite, and the
latter does not show the slight dichroism which charac¬
terises the former, giving a green or yellow tint according to
the position of the crystal section with regard to the principal
plane of the polarising prism. Some of the crystals are
twinned. When some decomposition has taken place the
pyroxenes are replaced by a fibrous green mineral.
Of this constituent of the rock Phillips says : — “ The
form of these crystals is seldom sufficiently perfect for com¬
plete identification, but some of them are strongly dicliroic,
and their structure is that of hornblende ; others, which are
very pale in colour, are not distinctly dicliroic.” The colour
he describes as “ light greenish brown.”
A few flakes of light brown mica are met with here and
there, characterised by their strong dichroism and pronounced
cleavage.
Irregularly distributed through the stone are certain grey
veins and patches of apparently coarser texture, cnlled by the
PENMAENMAWR.
5
quarrymen “ spar,” and much disliked, as they refuse to
“ cut ” cleanly as the normal stone. I think it likely that
Phillips refers to these when he says, “ In one of the sections
examined a group of felspathic crystals, °f an inch in
length, which do not exhibit the structure of plagioclase, is
eii closed in the finely crystalline base.” Of these grey portions
I procured a considerable quantity, as I thought the crystals
would be sufficiently' large to permit of the separation and
identification of the felspar. This hope was disappointed, as
on account of the minute intergrowth of quartz and felspar,
the veins are capital examples of micropegmatite. The
felspar also is filled with an opaque white dust, probably due
to decomposition. The amount of quartz present seemed so
great that an analysis promised to be of interest, and so it
turned out, for in addition to showing 6*6 per cent, more
silica than the general mass of the stone, as analysed by Mr.,
Phillips, the prevailing alkali is potash instead of soda. The
analyses are as follow : —
I.
II.
Silica..
58-45 .
. 65-1
Alumina
17-08 .
. 12-9
Ferrous oxide
4-61 .
4-7
Ferric oxide
0-76 .
2-0
Manganese oxide . .
trace
. trace
Lime . .
7-GO .
. 4-7
Magnesia
5-15 .
2-8
Potash
1-02 .
. 3-9
Soda . .
4-25 .
2-8
Phosphoric acid
trace
W ater
1-07 .
. 1-9
99-99
100-7
Specific gravity . .
2-94
2-72
I. — By Mr. J. A. Phillips of stone from most westerly quarry.
II. — By T. H. W. of grey vein from the same quarry.
It would thus seem that a considerable proportion of the
felspar is ortlioclase. The quartz exhibits occasional fluid
cavities, with spontaneously moving bubbles. In addition to
these two constituents the microscope shows a number of
grains of pyroxene and nests of some mineral, apparently a
zeolite, forming radiating fans of crystals, which seem ail to
extinguish parallel to their iengtli, and are, therefore, in all
probability orthorhombic. In some cases these blades are so
mixed up with quartz as to suggest a simultaneous origin for
the two minerals, and the probability is, therefore, that some
at any rate of the quartz is of secondary introduction.
Phillips queries whether, seeing that the quantity seems to
increase with the decomposition of the rock, it may not be
due to the progressive crystallization of dissociated silica in
G PENMAENMAWE.
the process of change. I think, however, that most of that
in these grey veins must be contemporaneous with the felspar
with which it is so intimately and intricately mingled.
An attempt to determine the nature of this constituent
by acting on the powdered stone with acid and separating the
constituents was not successful, on account of the large
amount of iron which was also dissolved out, as well as on
account of the decomposition products of the felspar being
attacked.
In the Neues Jahrbuch (Beilage Band) of this year is a
paper on some rocks of the Southern Black Forest, in which
mention is made of certain parts where, along cracks, labra-
dorite is changed into an intimate mixture of a more highly
acid felspar, namely an albite, and a zeolite almost perfectly
free from alkali. I think, however, that the appearances
here are somewhat different, and the bulk analysis of the
veins seems to show that this explanation will not hold good.
The greater acidity of these veins, as compared with the
mass of the rock, recalls certain grey or red veins in our local
Rowley Rag, which Mr. Allport has described to this Society
in past years. An analysis has revealed the fact that these
also are much more (9°/°) acid than the bulk of the rock,
and moreover, that they contain about 11% of alkalis. I
hope, however, to make some recent observations on these
the subject of a future paper, so will not further refer to
them here.
The order of consolidation, therefore, appears to be the
usual one — first the more basic minerals and then the more
acid, so that the magma becomes progressively more and more
acid in the process of crystallization. This crystallization is
accompanied by contraction, which is further increased by
the contraction due to the cooling of the mass, so that the
formation of cracks is quite a conceivable thing, and it would
appear that the still fluid or viscous residuary portion of the
mass has filled these, forming the grey veins. It has been
ascertained that the glassy base of many rocks is much more
acid than the total rock, as in the case of the great Cockfield
Dyke, mentioned by Mr. Teall, in his paper on some north
country dykes, in the “ Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society” for May, 1884, where the general analysis of the rock
gave 58- 1 per cent, of silica, and 4-2 per cent, of alkalis, while
the glassy base, when as perfectly isolated as possible, gave 70*8
silica, and 7*2 alkalis. The analysis of this dyke, as analysed
by Mr. Stock, quoted by Mr. Teall, is strikingly similar to
that of the rock we have under our notice to-night, except
that it has apparently some 5 or G per cent, of alumina replaced
by peroxide of iron.
MARINE SPONGES.
7
As to the question what we should call the Penmaenmawr
rock, we are met by the ever-recurring difficulty that, accord¬
ing to the German petrologists, the geological age is a factor
in the question, and I do not know that any indication of the
age of the mass is known. It is certainly newer than the
Lower Silurian flags and grits through which it has broken
its way, but no newer rocks are pierced by it, so that we have
a sufficiently wide range. Assuming, however, as is probably
the case, that it is at any rate pre-Tertiary, the main mass
may be fairly called with Rosenbuscli an enstatite diabase,
for the structure is in great measure that fully crystalline
one characteristic of the diabases, and the prevailing
pyroxene is certainly the rhombic one.
REPORT ON MARINE SPONGES*
OBTAINED IN THE OBAN DREDGING- EXCURSIONS OF
THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY IN JULY 1881 AND 1883.
BY II. J. CARTER, ESQ., F.R.S., ETC.
1°. — Specimens collected by the dredge on board the
“Curlew” in about 15-30 fths., together with others gathered
on the shores of the Island of Kerrera, respectively, in 1881.
The Sponges having been separated from the other debris
in this collection, and the species of the former from each
other, they have been tied up in separate pieces of calico,
numbered as follows : —
1. — Hymeniaculon carnosa, Bowerbank (Monograph of
British Spongiadte, vol. iii., pi. 86).
2. — Halichondria Patter soni , Bk. (75., pi. 46).
3. — Hymeniacidon suberea, Bk. (lb., pi. 36).
4. — Microciona arrnata , Bk. (lb., pi. 23).
5. — Halichondria panicea , Bk. (lb., pis. 39 and 40).
6. — Isodictya fucorum, Bk. (Ib., pi. 56.)
7. — Debris, consisting of Shells, Ascidians, Polyzoa, Fuci,
&c., &c.
The specimens collected from the shores of the Island of
Kerrera are all of one species, viz., Halichondria panicea.
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micros¬
copical Society. Communicated by Mr. W. R. Hughes, November
11th, 1884.
8
MARINE SPONGES.
Observations. — Hymeniacidon carnosa, Bk. = Sube rites
Nardo, apud Schmidt, is generally stipitate, but may be simply
contracted and sessile towards the base ; it contains no flesh-
spicule.
Halichondria Pattersoni may be known by its dark brown
colour and spiculation.
Hymeniacidon suberea, Bk. = Suberites domuncula, Nardo, ap.
Sclnnidt, generally grows over a gasteropodous shell tenanted
by a hermit crab ( Payurus ), and deposits its ova on the surface
of the upper or remaining part of the shell (see Ann. Mag.
Nat. History, 1883, vol. xii., p. 36) ; while it differs among
other things from H. carnosa , in possessing the little centrally
inflated flesli-spicule common also to H. ficus, &c. Dr. Bower-
bank seems not to have noticed this, as it is omitted in his
illustrations of II. suberea (/. c .) and said (vol. ii. , p. 208) to
be characteristic only of H. ficus , &c. I enclose for your
acceptance some dried specimens of H. suberea dredged off
this place (Budleigh-Salterton, S. coast of Devon), one of
which has been divided vertically to show the ova, &c., in situ.
Of Microciona armata, Bk., there is only one specimen
which has grown over the ventral valve of a Brachiopod
(? species).
Halichondria panicea, Bk. = Amorphina, Schmidt, is a deep-
sea as well as a littoral species, apparently the most plentiful
of all, all over the world ; in which the only difference appears
to be in the size of the spicules which are smallest in the
latter.
Isodictya fucorum, Bk. = Halichondria fucorum , Johnston ;
may be known by its habit of growing over the stems ofFuci,
together with its spiculation, in which there is a little equi-
anchorate flesh-spicule of the navicula-shaped kind. There
is very little difference between this and Isodictya aided, Bk.,
as I have learnt from an examination of the type specimens
of these species now in the British Museum.
Of the Debris I can add nothing to what has been above
stated.
Thus, in point of general classification, Halichondria panicea
and H. Pattersoni, respectively, belong to the groups Nos. 1
and 6 in the first family of my order Holorhaphidota, viz., the
Renierida (Ann. Mag. Nat. History, 1875, vol. xvi., pp. 177
and 190). Hymeniacidon carnosa and H. suberea to the second
family, viz., the Suberitida. Microciona belongs to the
Microcionina in my order Ecliinonemata, and here also I
should be inclined to place Isodictya fucorum chiefly on account
of the form of its skeletal spicules and the presence of the
little navicula-shaped equianchorate.
MARINE SPONGES.
9
2°. — Specimens collected by tlie dredge on board the
“ Aerolite” steam-launch in 15-20 fths. in 1883.
These have been treated precisely in the same way as the
dredgings on board the “ Curlew” above mentioned, and the
species tied up separately in bits of muslin, numbered as
follows : —
1. — Hymeniacidon carnosa, Bk.
2. — Halichondria Pattersoni, Bk.
8. — Hymeniacidon suberea, Bk.
4. — Halichondria panicea, Bk.
5. — Isodictya fucorum, Bk.
Calcareous Sponges.
G. — Grantia compressa, Bk., (Op. cit., vol. iii., pi. 1), and
Grantia ciliata , Bk., (Ib., pi. 2,) growing together on small
Fuci.
7. — Lencosolenia botryoides, Bk., (Ib., pi. 3.)
8. — Lencosolenia contorta , Bk., (Ib., pi. 3.)
9. — Debris, contents similar to those above mentioned.
Observations. — Although there is no specimen of Micro-
ciona here, all the rest of the species obtained in the dredging
of 1881 appear in that of 1883, so that the “observations”
already made on them are equally applicable to those of 1881.
But, in addition to these species, all of which are provided
with siliceous spicules, there are several others here whose
spicules, minerally, are compossed of carbonate of lime, i.e.,
the so-called “ Calcareous Sponges,” of which it might be
observed that : —
Grantia compressa may be known by its compressed form,
smooth surface and unfringed or naked mouth, growing
together on small Fuci here, with Grantia ciliata, from which
again it may be distinguished by the rough surface and
fringed mouth of the latter.
Lencosolenia botryoides, a branching little sponge, requiring
the aid of a two-inch focus lens to be well seen ; growing in
small patches, with the ends of the branches terminating in
a little sacciform head respectively ; on small Fuci.
Lencosolenia contorta — Clathrina, Gray = Ascetta, Haeckel;
is represented by one specimen only. It grows abundantly on
the rocks between tides, at this place, and an account of it
may be found in the Ann. Mag. Nat. History for 1884,
vol. xiv., p. 17, under its original name of Sponyia coriacea,
Montagu.
In short, all four species, with many others, may
often be found growing together on the same Fucus or piece
of rock.
10
THE STRUCTURE OF MOSSES.
I also enclose for the kind acceptance of the Society, a
specimen, with slice to show its structure, of Suberites Wilsoni,
a beautifully carmine- coloured sponge which occurs in pyra¬
midal masses, sometimes upwards of fifteen inches high, on
the south coast of Australia, and which, among other species,
was sent to me by J. Bracebridge Wilson, M.A., F.L.S., of
the Church of England Grammar School, Geelong, Victoria
Colony, after whom I have named and described it.
It is sufficiently different from the Alcyonium purpureum
of Lamarck, which also came from Australia, as I learn from
the type -specimen of the latter in the British Museum, to
constitute a new species, and was dredged up by Mr. Wilson,
with the rest, off Port Philip Heads in about nineteen
fathoms.
ON “ THE STRUCTURE OF MOSSES.”
BY F. T. MOTT.
Dividing the vegetable kingdom primarily into
Plnenogams and Cryptogams, and subdividing
the Cryptogams into three classes, viz., Vascular
Acrogens, Cellular Acrogens, and Thallogens,
the mosses stand in the group of Cellular Acro¬
gens, and at the head of that group. They are
the most highly organised of all the purely
cellular plants. Below them are the Hepaticae, Lichens,
Fungi, and Algae ; above them the vascular Cryptogams,
Lycopods, Horsetails, and Ferns, and then the great host of
the Phaenogams.
As Cellular Acrogens they should consist of soft cellular
tissue, increasing only at the growing points. But Nature
draws no hard and fast lines. She is infinite and we are
finite, and our attempts to map out the infinite are always
baffled.
These highest Cellular Acrogens are not always cellular.
There is in the stems of many species a central thread of
narrow elongated cells approaching to fibro-vascular tissue,
and the cortical cells are often thickened with woody matter
so as to form a rigid bark. There is another point in which
Mosses are more nearly allied to the orders above them than
to those below them — this is in the phenomenon of alter-
* Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬
sophical Society. Bead February 19th, 1884.
THE STRUCTURE OF MOSSES.
11
nation of generations. The most marked distinction between
alternate generations is that between the sexual and the
asexual. In the very lowest forms of algae and fungi there is
no sexual generation and no alternation. All the cells are
similar, and propagate by simple fission without fertilisation.
In the higher forms there is a sexual generation, soijietimes
regularly alternating with an asexual one, sometimes coming
in at more distant intervals, and sometimes there is a third
generation different from either. But mosses, in common
with all the vascular cryptogams above them, have an
unchangeable succession of sexual and asexual generations.
The germinating spore produces a branching plant, with
stem and leaves, a true cormophyte — Kopp.os <pvrov — a plant with
a stem. This is the sexual generation, bearing the antheridia
which fertilise the arcliegonia. But the fertilised arcliegonium
does not develop into a seed or a true fruit. It gives rise
to a slender thread-like branch, which afterwards enlarges
at the end into a thallus, on the surface of which arise
spores requiring no fertilisation. This is the asexual gene¬
ration. The thallus in mosses takes the form of a capsule,
and is commonly called a fruit ; but morphologically it is
the same as the spore-bearing thallus of the tliallophytes
— the fungi and algae — and not homologous with the fruit of
phoenogams.
Thus in Mosses the cormophyte generation is sexual and
the tliallopliyte asexual, while in ferns the cormophyte or
stem and leaf form is asexual, the spore bearing frond ; and
the thallophyte— the pro-tliallus, is the sexual generation
bearing antheridia and arcliegonia.
When our present systems of classification were founded,
these alternate generations were but little understood, and
were not regarded. But they seem to be so fundamental to
the different modes of growth and development that they will
probably take a conspicuous place in the classifications of the
future.
Now let us trace the various stages of growth in a moss.
When a spore germinates, it produces first a branching
septate thread on the surface of the ground, the cells of
which contain green chlorophyll. This is called the
■protoncma. From different parts of this thread leaf-buds
arise, which grow at the points into stems producing leaves
as they lengthen.
The leaves are sometimes disticliou, that is in two
opposite rows, but more often alternate and in spirals of
different formulae, which cause the leaves to stand in three,
five, or eight rows.
12
THE STRUCTURE OF MOSSES.
Tlie leaves of mosses are always sessile and broad based.
In shape they vary from rounded to very narrow and pointed,
but are never lobed or divided. They have no branching
veins, but frequently have a midrib, sometimes two, and
are often finely toothed on the edges.
The stems in one section are mostly upright and slightly
branched. In another mostly decumbent and very much
branched in a pinnate fashion.
These two sections are very distinct, and form well
'marked divisions of the order.
The upright mosses bear their fruit at the points of the
stems and are called acrocarpous. The much branched
creeping mosses bear their fruit along the sides of the stems
and are called pleurocarpous.
Now we come to the fructification. At all times of the
year there are some mosses bearing their fruits, but the
spring and the autumn are the most prolific. Mosses as a
rule love moisture, and they get most of it at these seasons.
Some time before the appearance of the fruit, the
antlieridia and arcliegonia are formed hidden in the axils
of the leaves, or among the tuft of leaves at the top of the
stem. These organs are very minute, and have only been
known to exist as sexual organs within the last fifty years.
They occur sometimes both together on the same plant, and
sometimes each on a separate plant.
The antlieridia are mostly long oval bodies filled with
ciliated antherozoids which have a power of locomotion in
water. The arcliegonia are rounded at the base and tubular
above, and the antherozoids pass down the tube to reach and
fertilise the oosphere.
After fertilisation the oosphere develops into a straight
stalk which grows vigorously upwards, tears asunder the tube
or neck of the archegonium, and carries away the top of it in
the form of a cap called the calyptra. Within this cap the
top of the stalk begins to swell, and gradually grows into a
hollow capsule of very interesting construction. In the centre
is a little pillar called the columella , round which the spores
cluster thickly. Surrounding the mouth are one or two
circlets of fine teeth called the peristome, sometimes brightly
coloured, and often strongly liygrometric, opening and closing
with changes of moisture in the air. Above the peristome is
the lid, or moveable cover of the capsule, which has often a
long beak, and which drops off when the capsule is ripe to let
the spores fall out. Above the lid is the calyptra, a kind of
hood or penthouse protecting the young capsule, which at
last outgrows it and pushes it off, leaving the lid exposed.
LES PLANTES DES ALPES.
13
The time occupied from the appearance of the antheridia
and archegonia to the ripening of the spores varies from
about two months to ten or twelve in different species. When
the spores are ripe they have to be discharged from the
capsule. This is mostly effected by the capsule bending
downwards. Sometimes the stalk bends, sometimes the
capsule itself becomes arched. But where the capsule
remains erect a jerk 'is produced either by the elasticity of
the peristome or by a sudden twist of the stalk, and the
spores are so small and light that a very slight jerk throws
them out as a fine floating dust. Then they find tlieir way
to the moist earth, and give rise to a new protonema.
Some mosses — two at least of our common species — have
another method of asexual propagation, by the production of
gemmae, which are not single cells like spores, but clusters
of cells produced on special stalks, and which also give rise
to a protonema.
In this short sketch I have omitted many exceptions and
specialities of aberrant genera, my object being merely to
give a general outline of the subject by way of introduction
to the examination of the living specimens.
LES PLANTES DES ALPES*
The name of M. Correvon is already familiar to readers of the
“Gardeners’ Chronicle” as the writer of some useful notes on the
cultivation of alpine plants, founded on an experience gained whilst
curator of the Botanic Gardens at Geneva. He has now given us, in
French, a small book on the same subject, containing some 260 pages
of post 8vo., printed in large clear type.
The Jardin d’Acclimatation of Geneva was instituted last year, and
seems likely to play an important part in the distribution of alpine
plants. M. Correvon tells us that a few lovers of flowers, amongst
whom he seems to have been the leading spirit, being horrified at the
enormous number of alpine plants which are every year dug up in the
Alps by tourists of all nations, and taken home when in full flower
only to die, thought this the best remedy. “ This new horticultural
establishment,” he says, “has for its object the raising of large
quantities of the choicest alpines, to offer them to amateurs at a
low price. We hope to be able to supply foreign nurserymen with
these plants from seed, so they will have no more occasion to get their
stock from the mountains.”
After a hundred pages about the origin, and distribution, and
native conditions of alpine plants, we come- to the more practical part
of the book, which concerns their selection and their cultivation.
The flora of the Alps, we are reminded, is the richest in the world,
* Les Plantes des Alpes. By H. Correvon, Directeur de Jardin d’Accli¬
matation, Geneve.
14
LES PLANTES DES ALPES.
containing about 230 species of flowering plants, which are found
nowhere else. M. Correvon estimates that out of about 900 species
of flowers found in the alpine districts upwards of 700 are worth
cultivating. About fifty of these have hitherto defied all attempts to
tame them, but even of these M. Correvon does not despair. Perhaps
half of the remainder may strictly be called mountain or rock plants,
but besides these we have a catalogue of all the best rock plants
in cultivation from all the mountains in the world. These are all
arranged according to their botanical orders, and the soil and aspect
in which each is to be planted are given. We extract two examples
of the way in which the directions are given : —
Polygala chamcchuxus. — A somewhat capricious plant ; sometimes it
grows very well in ordinary soil, provided it has shade, whilst in other
cases no care or precautions will make it grow. In general it prefers
bog soil, moisture, and sunshine. I have raised it from seed, and
cultivate it in light soil mixed with sphagnum.
Gypsophila repens. — Indigenous to limestone rocks, but it grows so
readily that one meets with it' everywhere, even on granite. It is one
of the best of rockery plants ; it flowers from May to November, and
suits itself to all soils and all aspects. It is also a useful basket plant,
because of its long hanging branches, which are very effective when
loaded with flowers.
These extracts are sufficient to show the style of the book ; for the
cultivation of some plants we have more precise and detailed
directions. All who grow alpines know how difficult a plant
Soldanella alpina is — not to make grow, but to make flower, and it
is interesting to read the minute details of the plan by which M.
Correvon succeeded in making it flower well.
The chapters which deal with the formation of rockeries and alpine
beds cannot fail to be read with interest. We are rightly told that
many alpines may be grown quite as successfully in level borders as
on steep rockeries, provided the conditions of drainage and soil are
suitable ; if the soil is heavy and wet these defects may be remedied
by the bed being raised two feet above the ground level, though it is
not wet, but stagnant wet, which hurts alpines. We cannot, however,,
entirely agree with M. Correvon in the directions he gives for the
formation of a rockery, when he speaks of cementing the stones
together. Stones for rockery ought to be so fitted as to interlock
firmly without any possibility of their either sinking or slipping, and
ought not to depend on the soil, or on mortar, for being kept in their
places. There is one more point to which we would direct the special
attention of those interested in the growth of alpines — the way in which
old walls may be utilised for this purpose. In the concluding chapter of
the work we have this subject treated of in such a way as to make us
wish we could convert all our boundary walls into alpine gardens.
We are told on the last page that the growth of alpines is “ more a
question of suitable conditions of soil than anything else,” and we
may say that every year’s experience tends more to convince us of the
truth of this maxim. — Gardener's Chronicle.
WHERE CULTIVATED PLANTS ORIGINATED.
15
REGIONS WHERE CULTIVATED PLANTS
ORIGINATED.
BY ALPHONSE I)E CANDOLLE.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century the origin of most of
our cultivated species was unknown. Linnaeus made no efforts to
discover it, and subsequent authors merely copied the vague or
erroneous expressions by which he indicated their habitations.
Alexander von Humboldt expressed the true state of the science in
1807 when he said, “The origin, the first home of the plants most
useful to man, and which have accompanied him from the remotest
epochs, is a secret as impenetrable as the dwelling of all our domestic
animals. . . We do not know what region produced spontaneously
wheat, barley, oats, and rye. The plants which constitute the natural
riches of all the inhabitants of the tropics — the banana, the papaw,
the manioc, and maize, have never been found in a wild state. The
potato presents the same phenomenon.” *
At the present day, if a few cultivated species have not yet been
seen in a wild state, this is not the case with the immense majority.
We know, at least, most frequently, from what country they first came.
This was already the result of my work of 1855, f which modern more
extensive research has confirmed in almost all points. This research
has been applied to 247 species cultivated on a large scale by agri¬
culturists or in kitchen gardens and orchards. I might have added a
few rarely cultivated, or but little known, or of which the cultivation
has been abandoned ; but the statistical results would have been the
same.
Out of the 247 species which I have studied, the old world has
furnished 199, America 45, and three are still uncertain.
No species was common to the tropical and austral regions of the
two hemispheres before cultivation. Allium schcenoprasum, the hop
( Humulus tupulus), the strawberry (Fragaria vesca), the currant (Riles
minim), the chestnut ( Castanea vulgaris), and the mushroom (Agaricus
campestris) were common to the northern regions of the old and new
worlds. I have reckoned them among the species of the old world,
since their principal habitation is there, and there they were first
cultivated.
* “ Essai sur la Geographic des Plantes,” p. 28.
+ A. de Candolle, “Geogr. Bot. Baisonnee.”
\ Common Haricot Phaseolus vulgaris, Musk gourd Curcubita moschata, and
the Fig-leaved gourd M. ficifolia.
16
WHERE CULTIVATED PLANTS ORIGINATED.
A great number of species originated at once in Europe and
Western Asia, in Europe and Siberia, in the Mediterranean basin and
Western Asia, in India and the Asiatic archipelago, in the West
Indies and Mexico, in these two regions and Columbia, in Peru and
Brazil or in Peru and Columbia, &c. This is a proof of the impossi¬
bility of subdividing the continents and of classing the islands in well-
defined natural regions. Whatever be the method of division there
will always be species common to two, three, four, or more regions, and
others confined to a small portion of a single country.
A noteworthy fact is the absence in some countries of indigenous
cultivated plants. For instance, we have none from the arctic or
antarctic regions, where, it is true, the floras consist of but few species.
The United States, in spite of their vast tei’ritory, which will soon
support hundreds of millions of inhabitants, only yields as nutritious
plants worth cultivating the Jerusalem artichoke and the gourds.
Zizana aquatic , which the natives gathered wild, is a grass too inferior
to our cereals and to rice to make it worth the trouble of planting it.
They had a few bulbs and edible berries but they have not tried to
cultivate them, having early received the maize, which was worth far
more.
Patagonia and the Cape have not furnished a single species ;
Australia and New Zealand have furnished one tree, Eucalyptus globulus,
and a vegetable, not very nutritious, the Tetragonia. Their floras were
entirely wanting in graminae similar to the cereals, in leguminous
plants with edible seeds, in cruciferae with fleshy roots. In the moist
tropical region of Australia rice and Alocasia macrorhiza have been
found wild, or perhaps naturalised, but the greater part of the country
suffers too much from drought to allow these species to become widely
diffused.
In general the austral regions had very few annuals, and among
their restricted number none offered evident advantages. Now annual
species are the easiest to cultivate. They have played a great part in
the ancient agriculture of other countries.
In short, the original distribution of cultivated species was very
unequal. It had no proportion with the needs of man or the extent
of territory.
[The foregoing article is extracted from M. Alphonse de Candolle’s
admirable new book on the “ Origin of Cultivated Plants ” — the
latest volume of the “ International Scientific Series,” published
by Ivegan Paul, Trench, and Co. — a volume of moderate size,
embodying the results of much profound research, extending over
many years, and containing much that is singularly interesting to
botanists. We cordially commend it to all our readers, as
deserving a place in their libraries. — Eds. Mid. Nat.]
BREAKING OF THE MERES.
17
BREAKING OF THE MERES,
SIMULATED BY AN EXCESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF
UROGLENA VOL VOX.
BY WM. SOUTHALL, F.L.S.
The interesting phenomena called the “Breaking of the
Meres” is, I believe, usually explained as resulting from an
excessive multiplication and growth of various algae ; therefore
I suppose there is no direct comparison between that and the
occurrence 1 am about to describe, which had an animal origin,
hut as some of the appearances were to a certain extent similar,
the parallel between the two naturally suggested itself.
This apparently sudden and excessive development of one
of the Infusoria occurred in a pond at Edgbaston, having the
extent of about a quarter of an acre, rather deep, and nearly
surrounded by trees ; no stream runs into it, and it is fed by
springs. It communicates with another pool at a lower level,
but in dry weather the water does not run over but only
percolates through the bank.
I noticed about the middle of May, 1883, that the water
had assumed a deep vivid green colour, and regret that I did
not examine it to ascertain the cause. Rather before the end
of the month the whole of the water became almost suddenly
of a light reddish brown colour, very opaque, and almost
exactly like that we see in the gravel pits in this neighbour¬
hood after a storm of rain. It had a curious effect amongst the
green trees, and singularly enough the lower pool was not in the
least affected, retaining its original colour and transparency.
A tumblerful of the affected water showed a large population
of lively swimming bodies that I at first took to be Volvox
< flobator , but I wTas then unable to determine their proper
identity. I left home on the 1st of June, and was informed
that it was some weeks before the water resumed its usual
appearance.
This year I looked out anxiously for a reappearance, and
early in May found the same organisms were easily observed
in a glass of the water. After a short time, however, they
entirely disappeared, whether owing to a change of wind or
temperature I cannot say, but I strained a large quantity of
water without finding any. After a while the vivid green
colour again showed itself in large patches, and they returned
and again became pretty plentiful, but I could not connect
the green colour in any way with the organisms, as their
colour was a dull greenish brown. I now found that they
were not plants, but animals — Uroglena Volvox — one of the
18
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
Infusoria. It is curious, however, to note that a number of
them in a tumbler produced in the light a large crop of bubbles
of gas after the fashion of submerged plants. There was
not, however, much appearance of chlorophyll to account for
this. I regret it was not tested to determine its nature,
which I supposed at the time to be oxygen. This organism
was considered to be a plant, at all events as recently as the
date of the third edition of the Micrograpliical Dictionary, about
nine years since, and I for some time looked for it amongst
the algae. I sent specimens to some of my friends for deter¬
mination, but in no case did they bear the shaking undergone
in carriage, having, though sent in considerable numbers,
entirely disappeared in a short time. I took, however, no
precautions, except filling the bottles quite full. The figure
in Saville Kent’s great work is correct, but hardly doing it
justice and wanting in details. I observed numerous double
specimens, the shape of a short old-fashioned silk purse, and
which seemed to swim as freely as the globular single families.
Whether this is a species frequently met with or not I do
not know ; not being so beautiful as Volvox globator, it may
not receive a comparative meed of notice ; but, at all events,
it seemed to me that its occurrence in countless millions,
as in the present case, and the singular effects produced
thereby were worthy of record.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL.
( Continued from page 327 , Vol. VII.)
CYPERACEvE ( continued ).
ERIOPHORUM.
E. vaginatum, Linn. Hare's-tail Cotton Grass.
Native : In bogs and boggy lieatli lands. Rare. March.
I. Bannersley Pool ! Coleshill Bog ! Bree, Burt, i, 66, Packington !
Aglesfonl, B.G., 633. Sutton Park, abundant ; marshy coppice
near Packington ; near Honily.
II. Shrewley Pool, H.B.
E. angustifolium, Both. Common < otton Grass.
Native : In bogs and boggy heath lands. Rather rare. April, May.
I. (E. polystachion.) Packington, Aylesford, B.G., 633. Bogs about
Poleswortli, J.P., M.S. note , B.G. Sutton ! Freeman, Phyt., i,
261. Sutton Park ; Coleshill Pool and bog ; marshy coppice
near Packington ; sand quarry, Cornels End ; Bradnock’s Marsh.
II. Near Honily Mill, H.B.; pool near Tile Hill Wood, 1882 ; Shrewley
Pool.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
19
CAREX.
C. dioica, Linn. Creeping Dioecious Sedge.
Native : On peaty and boggy heaths. Rare. June, July.
I. Abundant in Sutton Park ; marshy heath land, Ballard’s Green,
near Arley.
II. Styvieliall Pool, T. K., Herb. Perry.
C. pulicaris, Linn. Flea Sedge. Harpoon Carex.
Native : On boggy and damp peaty heaths. Rare. June, July.
I. Sutton Park, abundant ; Ballard’s Green, near Arley ; Cornel’s
End.
II. In some marshy ground near Rugby, Part ., ii, 441 ; banks of canal
near Hill Moreton Locks, R. S. R., 1880.
C. disticha, Huds. Soft Brown Sedge.
Native : In damp pastures, and near pools and rivers. Local. June,
July.
I. Honily, Y. and B.; Sutton Park, rare ; abundant in Water Works
Ground, Witton Lane ; by the Cole, near Colesliill Mill ;
Bradnock’s Marsh.
II. In a thicket in the road from Dunnington to Abbott’s Moreton,
Purt., ii, 442 ; near Chesterton ; Rounsel Lane ; Hill Wootton,
Herb. Perry; Blue Boar Lane, and near Cosford, Rugby,
L. Cummin g ; Rowington Canal Bank ; marshy heath land,
near So we Waste Canal.
C. teretiuscula, Good. Lesser Panicled Sedge.
Native : In spongy bogs. Very rare. June, July.
“ 38. Warwick. Kirk. Cat.” Top. Bot., 437.
Var., b. Ehrhartiana, Hoppe. Very rare.
I. Sutton Park, very abundant, 1883-4.
C. paniculata, Linn. Greater Panicled Sedge.
Native: Near rivers, canals, pools, and in damp woods. Locally
common. May to July.
I. Sutton Park, abundant ; canal side near Curdwortli ; Water Works
Ground, Witton Lane; Marston Green ; Olton Pool; Henfield,
near Knowle ; canal bank, near Temple Balsall ; Knowle Canal
bank; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Earl’s Wood.
II. Honily ; Radford, Y. and /!. ; Bearley Bushes ; Hatton Canal ;
Binley Common ; canal, near Newbould-on-Avon ; Farnborougli.
C. vulpina, Linn. Great Sedge.
Native : In ditches, marshes, and damp meadows. Common. May
to August. Area general.
C. muricata, LAnn. Greater Prickly Sedge.
Native : On banks, near canals, waste heathy spots, &c. Common.
May to July. Area general.
b. pseudo-divulsa. Rare.
II. Near Havwoods.
C. divulsa, Good. Grey Sedge.
Native : On banks and heathy roadsides. Local. May to July.
I. Near Blythe Hall, Coleshill; Bannersley Rough ; heathy roadsides,
near Barston Marsh ; heathy waysides, Blythe Bridge, near
Solihull.
II. Harbury, II. B. ; on a hedge bank between Wixford and Popliills,
Part., ii, 413; Honington, Newb.; Iron Cross, near Wixford;
Salford Priors ; Red Hill, near Alcester ; near Morton Bagot ;
Little Alne ; Aston Cantlow ; Studley, near the railway station ;
Baddesley Clinton.
20
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
C. echinata, Murr. ( C. stellulata, Good.) Little Prickly Sedge.
Native: In bogs, marshes, and damp woods. Local nnd rare. May
to Angust.
I. About Middleton ! Ray, Cat., p. 150 ; Coleshill Bog ! Ick. Anal., 1837 ;
Bradnock’s Hayes, near Little Sutton ; School Bough, Marston
Green; Coleshill Pool; pasture by Olton Pool; Hill Bicken-
hill ; sand quarry, Cornel’s End; near Berkswell ; damp
pastures, near Packwood Mill ; Earl’s Wood ; Eorshaw Heath.
II. Haywoods! ; Milverton, Y. and B. ; marsh on Binley Common.
C. remota, Linn. Distant-spiked Sedge.
Native : On damp banks by ditches, drains, &c. Common. June,
July. Area general.
C. axillaris, Good. Axillary Sedge.
Native : In damp copses and on damp banks. Bare. May to July.
I. Abundant in an osier plantation near Solihull, 1872-8 ; abundant
on damp banks near Hampton-in-Arden, 1881 ; near Kingsbury
Bailway Station, lane to Hurley, 1883.
II. Near Bounsel Lane, Kenilworth, H. B., Herb. Brit. Mus. Extinct.
In abundance near Ansty, Coventry, 1883.
C. Boenninghauseniana, Weihe. Bonninghausen’s Sedge.
Native : In bushy pits. Very rare. July.
II. Bushy pit near Bounsel Lane, Kenilworth, H.B. Extinct.
C. elongata, Linn. Elongated Sedge.
Native : On damp hedge banks. Very rare, June, July.
I. Abundant in several places near Hampton-in-Arden ; abundant in
pool near Birchey Leasowes, Shirley.
C. canescens, Innn. ( f\ curta, Good.) White Sedge.
Native : In boggy meadows, near pools, and on damp banks. Very
local. May, June.
I. In a pool not far from Middleton towards Coleshill, Ray, Cat.,
ed. 1, p. 147 ; Sutton Park, near several of the pools ; on the
shores of Coleshill Pool ; marshy meadow near Earl’s Wood,
abundant, 1883.
C. leporina, Linn. (C. ovalis, Good.) Oval-spiked Sedge.
Native : In turfy bogs, damp heathy roadsides and pastures.
Common. May, June. Area general.
C. stricta, Good. Tufted Sedge.
Native: “Water sides and in marshy places. Not uncommon.
April.
At Pophills on the side of a ditch near to the Biver Arrow,” Purt.,
iii, 556. “38, Warwick, Kirk. Cat,” Top. Bot., 440.
I have not seen this plant in any Warwickshire locality.
C. acuta, I Ann. a lender-spiked Sedge.
Native : Near rivers, canals, and pools. Very local. June, July.
I. Banks of the Blythe, Bradnock’s Marsh ; near Bighton End ;
Barston Marsh ; Temple Balsall ; Blythe Bridge, near Solihull.
II. Blacklands, near to Oversley Bridge, Purt., ii, 451. Binley, T. K.,
Herb. Brit. Mus. Chesterton, Y.and B. Chesterton Mill Pool!
//. B. Biver Avon, near Stratford ! H.B. In a stream near
Newbold and near Stanford Hall, R. S. R., 1877 ; by Swift at
Brownsover, by Brandon Wood, L. Cumming ; canal near
Yarningale Common ; canal near Bowington.
C. Goodenovii, Gay. (0 vulgaris, Fries.) Common edge.
Native : In bogs, marshes, damp pastures, and roadsides. Common.
April to June. Area general.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
21
There appear to be more than one distinct variety of this common
species, which I think deserve closer study than I have yet
given to them.
C. glauca, Scop. Glaucous Heath Sedge.
Native: In dry heathy pastures, on heathy roadsides, and in quarries.
Common. April to July. Area general.
b. Micheliana , Sm. Rare.
II. Wyken Colliery. “Teste Borrer.” T. K., Herb. Perty. Wyken
Rumps. T. Iv., 1855, Herb. Brit. Hus.
C. glauca is not only widely spread, but also differs remarkably
in character, and deserves more attentive study than has been
as yet given to it.
C. pilulifera, Linn. Round-headed Sedge.
Native : In wroods, and on heaths and heathy roadsides. Very local.
May, June.
I. Sutton Park ; Chelmsley Wood ; School Rough, Marston Green ;
Colesliill Heath; Ballard’s Green, near Arley; Earl’s Wood,
in several places; Forshaw Heath.
II. Yai’ningale ! ; Haywoods, Y. and B.; spinney, near Rugby, R.S.R.,
1880.
A form approaching C. 1 eesii , Ridley, occurs with the type on
Coleshill Heath.
C. praecox, Jacq. Vernal edge.
Native : On heaths, heathy roadsides, and turfy banks. Rather
local. April to June.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Heath ; near Chelmsley
Wood ; Marston Green ; near Sheldon ; Olton Reservoir ;
Earl’s Wood Reservoir; Forshaw Heath.
II. Kenilworth, frequent, Y. and B. Yarningale Common ; Shrewley
Heath ; near Haywoods, Ac.
C. pallescens, Linn. Pale Sedge.
Native: In woods, damp pastures, and damp roadsides. Locally
abundant. May, June.
I. Middleton! Rag, Cat., ed. 1, 144; Honiley ! Y. and B. New Park
Middleton ; Hartsliill Hayes ; Kingsbury Wood ; damp pastures
near Solihull Railway Station ; Wlieyporridge Lane, near
Solihull ; damp pastures near Knowle Railway Station ;
pastures near Lapw'orth Church ; road sides near Earl’s
Wood.
II. Oversley Wood,! Purt., ii, 447. Drayton Bushes ; pastures near
Wroxall ; wrood near Tile Hill Railway Station ; Combe Woods;
Prince Thorpe Wood, 1870, very abundant.
C. panicea, Linn. Pink-leaved Sedge.
Native : In turfy bogs, on damp heaths and damp roadsides.
Rather common. May, June.
I. Coleshill Bog; Ick. Anal., 1837; Sutton Park; Middleton Heath ;
Tricklev Coppice ; Hartshill Stone Quarries ; Whitacre Heath ;
Earl’s Wood.
II. Beausale Heath, Y. and B. Roadsides near Stratford-on-Avon,
Chesterton, Ac.
C. pendula. Huds. Great Pendulous Sedge.
Native : In damp woods and woody places, and in drains. Locally
abundant. May, June.
I. Maxtoke ; Shustoke ; Arley Wood ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Kingsbury
Wood; Bentley Park ; Spring Coppice, Hockley.
22
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
II. Oversley Wood! Spernal Park, Purt., ii, 444; Honily, Y. and B.;
Waverley Wood, near Rugby, L. dimming ; Seas Wood, Arbury ;
Combe Woods ; Tile Hill Woods ; Baddesley Clinton ; Row-
ington Canal Bank; Kingswood ; Bearley Bushes; Aston
Cantlow ; Henley-in-Arden ; Moreton Bagot, &c.
C. sylvatica, Huds. Pendulous Wood Sedge.
Native : In damp woods, and in damp pastures. Locally abundant.
May, June.
I. Tumble Hole, near Shustoke ; Hartshill Hayes ; Bentley Park ;
Kingsbury Wood ; Drakenidge, near Hurley ; woods at Escole’s
Green ; damp pasture near Solihull Railway Station ; Spring
Coppice, Hockley ; woods near Earl’s Wood.
II. Kenilworth, Y. and B.; Honington, Newb. ; Alveston Pastures;
Oversley Wood; Drayton Bushes; Aston Cantlow; Bearley
Bushes ; Hay woods ; Tile Hill Woods ; Combe Woods ; Prince
Thorpe Wood ; Chalcote Wood, Umberslade ; Moreton Bagot.
C. laevigata, cm. Smooth-stalked Sedge.
Native: In shady wet places. Rare. June, July.
I. Sutton Park.
II. Harbury Railway cutting ; Fosse Road, near Harbury ; Sitch
Fields, Chesterton, H. B. ; spinney, near Rugby, R. S. R., 1880.
C. binervis, Sm. Green-ribbed Sedge.
Native : On damp heaths, heathy roadsides, damp woods and
pastures. Locally common. June, July.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Colesliill Heath ; Bannersley
Rough ; Little Hell, near Honily ; Forshaw Heath, Tan worth.
II. Oversley Wood ; Drayton Rough Moors ; Alveston Pastures ; Hay-
woods ; Combe Woods.
Not recorded by Purton. Possibly his C. distans is referable to this
species.
C. distans, L inn. Distant-spiked Sedge.
Native : In turfy, brackish bogs. Rare. June, July.
II. Oversley ; Coughton, Purt., ii, 445. Near Harborough-Magna,
Rev. A. Blox. Itchington ! Chesterton! Y. and B. Southam
Holt, H.B. ! Inland form about Honington ; Tredington ; a
plant of the district in suitable places, Newb. Itchington Holt ;
marshy places in Alveston Pastures; boggy land near the Avon.
Binton Bridges.
C. fulva, Good. Tawny it edge.
Native : In shady, turfy bogs, and marshy places. Very rare. June.
I. Sutton Park ; abundant in 1875, but now almost exterminated by
the railway workings and drainage.
II. Near Stivicliall, T. Kirk.
C. flava, Linn. Yellow Sedge.
Native : In bogs and marshes. Very local. May, June.
I. North end of Sutton Park ; Bannersley Pool ; marshy coppice,
Hill Bickenhill ; roadsides near Earl’s Wood.
II. Snitterfield Bushes ; Oversley, Purt., ii, 445 ; Hill Wootton, H. B. ;
Milverton, Y. and B. ; Rowington.
b. lepidocarpa, Tauscli. Local, often occurring with the type.
1. Sutton Park, very abundant ; Middleton Heath. Baxterley
Common ; Ballard’s Green ; Bannersley Pool ; marshy coppice,
Hill Bickenhill ; Colesliill Pool ; Marston Green ; sand quarry,
Cornel’s End ; damp pasture, Olton Pool ; Shirley Heath ;
Earl’s Wood Reservoir ; Forshaw Heath.
II. Haywoods ; Kenilworth Heath; Yarningale Common, B. PL;
Chalcot Wood, Umberslade.
REVIEWS.
28
Both these varieties have been compared with specimens received
from the late H. C. Watson with which they agree truly, but the var.
lepidocarpa of all the districts recorded by myself would be included
under C.Jiava var. minor (Townsend, Journ. Bot., x, 163, June, 1881).
C. hirta, Linn. Hammer Sedge.
Native : In meadows and damp places, Locally abundant. May
to July.
I. Stew at Edgbaston, With., ed. 7 ; Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ;
roadsides near Colesliill ; Cornel’s End ; Bradnock’s Marsh ;
Henfield ; Knowle ; Solihull ; Packwood.
II. Honily, II . B. ; Honington ; Tredington, Neivb. ; Alveston Heath ;
Binton Bridges ; Drayton Bushes ; Chesterton Mill Pool ; Sowe
Waste Canal ; Brinklow ; Brandon ; canal near Newbold-on-
Avon ; Combe Pastures ; Ansty, near Coventry, Ac.
(To be continued.)
A Short Hand-book of Natural History. Chester. 1884.
This pamphlet, which is published by the Chester Society of Natural
Science, for use at the Annual Conversaziones and other meetings of
the Society, contains a very good but brief account of the two biological
kingdoms, a few words at the end being devoted to the mineral king¬
dom, the polariscope, and the spectroscope. It seems to be founded
upon that published in 1882 by the Birmingham Natural History
and Microscopical Society, but has been greatly enlarged and
improved.
The authors state that they have adopted the classification which
they deemed most likely to be known. But that with which they
begin the Vegetable Kingdom (p. 4) viz., the arangement of the Fungi
and Algae in two parallel series (due to Sachs), while it scarcely seems
to fulfil the condition which they impose, has lately suffered a curious
fate. The philosophers of that happy land across the Rhine, who so
obligingly furnish us with new classifications ad infinitum at frequent
internals, have now thrown it overboard again, even its author con¬
curring in its rejection. It is at present a high crime and mis¬
demeanour in the centres of English biological (at any rate, botanical)
teaching, to venture to differ from the latest G-erman authorities on
any point, the only difficulty being to make oneself quite sure which
is the latest. This classification of the two allied groups will there¬
fore now probably disappear from our books — a fate much to be
regretted, because it has a good deal to recommend it, although one
class, the “ Carposporese,” is about the most heterogeneous group
of forms that the perverted ingenuity of a systematist ever within
recent times brought together.
It is much to be wished that our writers would give up the
mistaken application of the name Torula (p. 4) to the common yeast
and various yeast-like forms. Torula is in the eyes of the mycologist
a well-marked genus belonging to a widely different group. The
24
REVIEWS.
Myxomycetes (p. 6) are not now included among the Zygosporese, it
being at last recognised by our German friends that the “ analogy ”
of the plasmodium to a zygospore existed only in a distorted
imagination. The ungrammatical “ and which ” on the same page
(line 19) makes the sentence bear a meaning that is not intended.
It is nearly time, moreover, that British cryptogamists learned to
call the formation of new plants by ordinary vegetative growth by
the name of “multiplication,” confining the term “reproduction”
to the cases in which some act of sexual union actually or presumably
takes place. The English student who reads that the spores formed
within the sporangium of Mucor are called “ conidia ” (p. 6) will
probably stare with surprise, although in so naming them the authors
are in accordance with the very latest German dictum. The genus
Micrasterium (p. 5) would be a new one to most collectors of Desmids.
Again, the statement (p. 9) that the “ Rust of wheat, JEcidium
berberidis ,” is “ also known as Puccinia graminis ,” is very misleading ;
it is easy to present the facts in a way which will convey to a layman
the meaning intended, but certainly not expressed.
The Equisetineae (p. 12), which ought to be placed after the
Filicineac, possess, equally with the other Vascular Cryptogams, both
isosporous and heterosporous forms, the latter being represented by
the fossil Annulariae and possibly by Asterophyllites. Despite a few
errors of this kind the book is a useful and readable one. the chief
distinctions between the various classes and subdivisions of animals
and plants being described with remarkable clearness, and the
examples of each, taken from the Chester district itself, being
numerous and well chosen. W. B. G.
The British Moss Flora. By R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S., &c. Part
VIII. Fam. VIII. Tortulacese I. Small 4to. ; 6s. The Author,
303, Clapham Road, S.W.
However bryologists may differ in their views of classification and
nomenclature from the author of this elegant work, I am convinced
that all will agree in ascribing to him the highest praise for his power
as a delineator and for his clearness as a descriptive botanist. The
present part contains six plates, with illustrations of forty-two species,
and the text embraces descriptions of the various species belonging to
the genera Ephemerum, Acaulon, Pliascum, Pottia , and part of Tortula.
Both the illustrations and descriptions are excellent, and make one
wish that so valuable a work could make more rapid progress. With
regard to the classification the author remarks, “This widely dis¬
tributed family, so rich in species — for it includes probably not less
than 800 — is a most difficult one to deal with, and has taxed the
ingenuity of every bryologist to arrange the species in well-defined
genera. The variations in habit, colour, and leaf structure afford
more stable ground for generic characters than the peristome, and
this was first advocated by Mr. Mitten in his Musci Indice Or. (1859) ;
but there has been an indisposition to break up the greit genus
REVIEWS.
25
Tortula resting solely on the twisted peristome, but combined with a
variable structure of leaves ; and still stronger was the objection to
admit gymnostomous species as congeners with the peristomate ones,
although no mosses more clearly exhibit the weakness of this dis¬
tinction than some of the old Gymnostomums now referred to Pottia ,
and the genus Anacalypta. Lindberg, in his Musci Scandinavia, has
fully carried out the modern views, and I can only advise all
bryologists to study the plants themselves under this newer aspect,
feeling assured that they will soon appreciate the soundness of a
natural classification.” (Page 181.) With these remarks I fully agree,
and am convinced that the only natural arrangement that is likely to
be lasting must be one in which the cell structure of the leaves takes
a prominent part. How far the nomenclature adopted by the author
will be accepted by British bryologists it is impossible to predict, but
a careful study of the long lists of synonyms will show that the
author’s desire to do justice to the original authorities has been strictly
followed out throughout the work. Part IX., which will conclude
the Family VIII., Tortulaceae, and also complete Vol. I. of this work,
is promised for the early part of next year. J. E. Bagnall.
The Fungi of Norfolk. By Charles B. Plowright, M.R.C.S. Demv
8vo., pp. 21, 1884.
The investigation of the Fungus Flora of Norfolk appears to have
been first commenced by the Rev. G. Munford, who, in 1864, published
a list of seventy-two species found in the county. This botanist was
afterwards followed by the present author, and so ably that in 1872 he
was able to communicate to the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’
Society a list of nearly eight hundred species. To this, during the
twelve years that have since elapsed, eight hundred more species have
been added, so that the present list comprises nearly sixteen hundred
species. This is one of the most comprehensive county lists of Fungi
that has as yet been published, and does great credit to the industry
and scientific ability of the author.
In addition to the list of Fungi there is a “ Note on the Classifica¬
tion of the Sphseriacese,” in which the system adopted by Prof.
Saccardo is ably expounded.
The assistance is acknowledged of Canon Du Port, Mr. Frank
Norgate, and Mr. J. Harvey Bloome. J. E. Bagnall.
Norfolk Broads and Rivers. By G. C. Davies. Second edition. 8vo.,
328 pp., 7 plates. W. Blackwood and Sons.
Mr. Davies’s book contains the best description of the water-ways of
East Anglia with which we are acquainted. While he appeals specially
to the sympathies of the yachtsman and the angler, there is much —
very much— of deep interest to the naturalist. The account of the
qec0yS — to which three plates are also devoted — is valuable, because it
appears that owing to the improved drainage this interesting method
26
REVIEWS.
of catching wild-fowl will before long have passed out of use. The
accounts of holidays spent on the Broads in summer, in a little centre-
hoard yacht, are very tempting, and will, we fancy, lead many to follow
the author’s example. W. J. H.
Phillips's Manual of Geology. Yol. I. Physical Geology and Palaeon¬
tology. By H. G. Seeley, F.R.S. 8vo., 516pp., 147 woodcuts and
coloured plate. Price 18s. C. Griffin and Co.
The last edition of Prof. Phillips’s valuable work was published in 1855,
and the progress of science since that date has been so great that the
book, the title of which appears at the head of this notice, is practically
a new work. It is a work on which Prof. Seeley has expended great
labour, and from a careful study of its contents we can say that it will
prove a most valuable book of reference for students of geology — British
geology especially. The introductory chapters deal with the origin of
geology and the earth ; minerals have one chapter allotted to them,
while rocks require four. Volcanic rocks — ancient and modern — are
treated of in great detail, while the chapters on “ Coast Lines and their
Origin,” and on the “Relation of Scenery to Geological Phenomena,”
are of great interest for even the general reader. Two chapters are
devoted to an introduction to Palaeontology. Those who know the
valuable work which Prof. Seeley has done at Cambridge and in
London, together with the ripeness and catholicity of his knowledge,
will be pleased to possess this book, which contains much that is both
new and true, while the old truths on which the science of geology
rests are set forth with simplicity and accuracy. The illustrations are
well conceived and telling. W. J. H.
THE MICRO-VEGETATION OF BANK NOTES.*
The recent researches of Paul Reinscli in Erlangen have revealed
the occurrence, on the surfaces of the coins of many nations, of different
bacteria and two minute algae (Cliroococcus monetarum and Pleuro-
coccus monetarum, P. Reinscli), living in a thin incrustation of organic
detritus composed especially of starch-grains, fibres, &c., deposited
upon their surfaces during the course of long circulation. This thin
incrustation renders the coins very suitable for this micro- vegetation,
but the same phenomenon is exhibited by paper money, and, indeed,
by notes of clean and, to the naked eye, unaltered surface.
I have scraped off some of these minute incrustations with hollowed
scalpels and needles, and divided them into fragments in distilled
water that had been boiled shortly before, and, upon examining them
with lenses of high power (R. T. Beck’s 1-lOtli inch), have seen the
various Scliizomycetes distinctly.
* The Micro-vegetalion of Bank Notes. By Dr. Jules Schnarsckmidt, Privat-
docent of Cryptogamic Botany and Anatomy of Plants, Assistant of the Botanic
Institutes and Royal Gardens, Hungarian University, Kolosvar.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
27
I can now proceed to give a brief account of the results I have
obtained from the investigation of the paper money. I have investigated
the Himgarian bank and State notes, recent and old (from the years
1848-49), also Russian rouble notes, and have found bacteria upon all
of them, even upon the cleanest.
On the surface of all the paper money is always to be found the
special bacterium of putrefaction, viz., Bacterium Termo, Dujardin.
In the thin incrustations on the paper money I ascertained the
occurrence of starch-grains (especially those of wheat), linen and cotton
fibres and animal hairs, and, in this deposit upon the florin State
notes, the Blastomycete, Saccliaromyces cerevisiae, in full vegetation.
Various Micrococci, Leptotriches (many with club-shaped, swollen
ends), and Bacilli are also the most frequent plants in the deposit on
the paper money.
The two new species of algae described by Paul Reinsch are very
rare on paper money. The green pleurococcus cells have been observed
in some cases on 1 and 5 florin State notes, and the bluish-green minute
Cliroococcus on the border of the 5-florin State notes.
The vegetation of the paper money is, according to my researches,
composed of the following minute plants : —
1. Micrococcus (various forms) ; 2. Bacterium Termo ; 3. Bacillus
(various forms); 4. Leptotlirix (species?); 5. Saccliaromyces cere¬
visiae; 6. Chroococcus monetarum ; 7. Pleurococcus monetarum.
From a hygienic point of view, an investigation of the commonest
household objects, and especially of books, &c., used by students may
not be superfluous. — A. K., Klausenburg , Hungary , in “ Bulletin of the
Torrey Botanical Club.”
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— November, 1884.
Barometric pressure was very unsteady throughout the month, and
consisted of a series of fluctuations between 29-6 inches and 30-5
inches. The mean was, however, above the average. Temperature
was about the average. The range was greatest at the commencement
of the month, least in the middle. On the 14th the range did not
amount to 3 degrees. The highest maxima observed were 59°0 at Coston
Rectory, on the 2nd ; 58°6 at Hodsock, on the 1st ; 58°2 at Lough¬
borough, on the 2nd; 57°1 at Strelley, on the 1st; and 57°0 at Henley-
in-Arden, on the 5tli and 7th ; 101°2 was recorded at Hodsock in the
rays of the sun, and 98°5 at Loughborough, on the 9tli. The lowest
minima occurred on the 30tli, and were 20°0 at Coston Rectory ; 21C10
at Henley-in-Arden ; 21°8 at Hodsock ; 22°1 at Loughborough ; and
23°3 at Strelley. On the same date, the thermometer exposed on the
grass, registered 17°9 at Loughborough ; 18°1 at Strelley ; and 19Q5
at Hodsock. The rainfall was again decidedly below the average,
especially in the East Midlands, where the amount in no case reached
1£ inches. At Henley-in-Arden the total value was 2-20 inches. Snow
fell on the 30th. The prevailing winds were westerly, and generally
light in force. Sunshine was deficient. Much inconvenience has been
occasioned in several districts through the scarcity of water.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
28
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
lateral ¥)tstoni Botes.
A Fungus Foray. — If Mr. Bagnall will refer to former volumes of
the “ Midland Naturalist ” he will find Ag. ditopus recorded in the
volume for 1S8B, pp. 264, 272, and An. furfuraceus in the volume for
3 882, p. 184. — W.B. G.
Anker Flora. — About the middle of last month (November), in
company with Mr. E. De Hamel, of Tamworth, I had a short
botanical walk over Warwickshire Moors, Rye Hills or Royals, by
Rimington Hall, and so back to Tamworth. Much of the ground we
went over is moorish pasture land, drained by the River Anker, and
numerous tributary streams. The season was too late for me to form
a true estimate of the floral riches of the district, but from what I was
able to identify I should think the flora of this river basin would be
found to be both rich and varied if the ground were well worked
earlier in the season. During our walk I took notes of all that could
be still recognised, and found when I reached home that we had
observed over 126 species, representing 88 genera and 38 natural orders
of flowering plants, and several very local mosses. Among the plants
recorded two are new as records for the Tame basin, viz. : (Enanthe
ftuviatilis and Potamogeton densns , and the following are species that I
consider noteworthy : — Ranunculus circinnatns, R. fluitans, Callitriclie
obtusangula, C. hamulata, Helosciadium inundatum, (Enantliefluviatilis,
Tanacetum vulgare, Veronica polita, V. Anagallis, Lemna gibba, L.
trisulca, Acorus calamus, Potamogeton serratus, P. densus, Zannichellia
palustris, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Butomus umbellatus, Agrostis nigra,
Phragmites communis, G-lyceria aquatica, Chara fragilis. The more
noteworthy mosses are : — Tortula latifolia, Fontinalis antipyretica,
Leskea polycarpa, Scleropodium cfespitosum.— J. E. Bagnall.
Only a dead Spider. — I fancy I hear many say — “ Well, what is
there extraordinary in a dead spider; throw it away, the nasty horrid
thing ; I hate all spiders.” But I am glad to say that this particular
dead spider, and the lesson learned from it, has not been thrown
away upon one human being at any rate, and I write these few lines
hoping that others may have their hearts touched and rebuked. A
short time ago I had occasion to visit a grocer’s shop, when one of the
assistants (knowing my love for all creeping things) said — “Oh, Mr.
- , we have got a great big dead spider for you which we found
some time ago at the bottom of a tea chest which had just been
emptied.” On examining the specimen, I found it to measure over
four inches across its legs, the head or cephalo-thorax being half an
inch long, the abdomen shrivelled up, but grasped tightly within its
jaws was a large round and flat cocoon of eggs, one inch diameter.
This latter fact at once gave me an idea as to what family it belonged,
viz., the Lycosidse, of which we have in Great Britain between thirty
or forty representatives, all of which are in the habit of carrying about
with them their cocoon of eggs, grasping it firmly with their powerful
jaws, besides having a silken cord attached to it from their spinners.
On a warm, sunny day in June I have often seen thirty or forty
specimens of Lycosa agretica, males and females, basking in the sun
on an old box, tin pot, or broken piece of pottery lying about near a
hedge, at the approach of anyone running and hiding away underneath
stones and among the dry herbage at the bottom of the hedge, waiting
until all danger is past. But if the intruder on their peace attempts
their capture, they do, indeed, run for their lives,- dodging in and
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
29
out, taking advantage of every nook and cranny wherein they can
hide, so as to avoid detection, and just as the entomologist makes a
pounce upon one, it makes another effort to escape capture by running
through the rank grass, when suddenly it stops in its rapid retreat, and
actually turns hack ! as if in seach for something, apparently having
lost all desire to escape, moving slowly and carefully, when all at once
it starts off again as if filled with new life, and as often as not succeeds
in reaching a place of safety at the bottom of a thorny hedge. What
is the cause of all these strange changes in its behaviour? The poor
spider has not been running to save its own life only, but for the
safety of its precious cocoon of eggs, and its sudden stop was caused by
having its load rudely jerked from its grasp as it was running through
the coarse grass, and then it was that it seemed to care so little for its
own safety, but as soon as it had regained its treasure, then all its
energy was renewed, and nothing would induce the spider to part with
its cocoon. Such is a rough sketch of one of our indigenous spiders,
to which family this big dead one belonged ; it had, no doubt,
been basking on the sides of an empty tea chest, when a “ Heathen
Chinee” came along and emptied his load in, smothering the poor
spider, which might have effected its escape had it not been
encumbered by its load of eggs, no mean hindrance to its free move¬
ment when buried in the tea ; but rather than loose its hold and
escape, it, like the standard bearer, held on with the grasp of death.
Surely we mortals can learn something from the affection displayed
by this spider, and perhaps the heart of some brother naturalists may
be touched in a practical manner at this time of year, when there are
thousands of poor little half-starved waifs and strays who have never
had the parental affection shown to them such as “only a dead spider”
showed to its offspring as long as life lasted, and, “being dead, yet
speaketh.” — A Lover of Spiders.
ihpot'ts of jlotictifs.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — General Meeting, December 2nd. — Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A.,
read a paper on “ New or Noteworthy Fungi,” part 2, which was illus¬
trated by numerous and beautifully-executed microscopical drawings.
He described several species new to science, and a large number
new to Great Britain, and nearly all collected in this district.
Biological Section, December 9tli. — Mr. W. P. Marshall in the chair.
Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Nais hamata, a worm described as anew species
last year by Professor Tims, of Wurzburg. Also the larva of the Fairy
Shrimp, Cheirocephalus diaplianm, and mounted specimen of a very rare
entomostracan, Lynceus acanthoceroides, both from near Bewdley.
Mr. W. H. Wilkinson : Lichens, Physcia parietina, Peltigera horizontalis,
P. rufesceus, Evernia furfuracea , liamalina fastiyiata , Usvea barbata,
Alectoria jabata, Lccanora atra, and other lichens from Scotland. Also
the Kilmarnock Willow, a pendulous variety of the common Goat
Willow, Salix caprea , from the banks of the River Ayr, in Scotland.
Professor Haycraft, M.B., then read his paper on “ Some New
Observations upon the Physiology of the Medicinal Leech,”
Hirudo medicinalis , illustrated by a large diagram, black board
illustrations, and a series of specimens under the microscopes.
Professor Haycraft described some experiments performed by him in
the Physiological Laboratory of Mason College. He had found that the
30
RETORTS OF SOCIETIES.
medicinal leech secretes from its sucker and gullet a juice which has
the peculiar property of preventing the coagulation of blood. This
juice can be extracted with water, and if the extract be added to
blood, freshly drawn, this remains permanently fluid, instead of
clotting in the usual way. The coagulation of blood is due to the
formation of a substance called fibrin, by the action of a specific
ferment. This latter is destroyed by the leech extract. On inver¬
tebrate blood, when the clotting is due to another cause, the secretion
has no action. From experiments which he had recently performed
iii Germany, the Professor found that an extract of three or four
leeches, injected into veins of a living dog or rabbit, produced well
marked fluidity of the blood, and other symptoms more interesting to
the physician than to the naturalist. In the leech’s own economy the
juice plays an important part. As is well known, the blood “ sets” in
a solid mass around the edges of an ordinary wound — say that produced
by a razor cut. This stops the continuous bleeding which would
otherwise follow. Now but for this juice, which flows from the sucker
into the wound when the leech bites, the creature would suck in vain.
After the first few drops had exuded no more would flow, and that
which had passed into its gullet would set into an indigestible clot.
One can now explain why, when the leech is removed, the wound
continues to bleed often for a very long time ; its edges are impregnated
with the juice, and clotting only occurs when this has been all washed
away. — A discussion followed, in which the Chairman, and Messrs.
W. R. Hughes, R. W. Chase, T. Clarke, France, Cullis, and others took
part. Professor Haycraft also presented to the Library of the Society
a copy of his paper as read before the Royal Society. Microscopical
General Meeting, December 16th. — Mr. C. Pumphrey exhibited, by
the aid of the lantern, a series of photographs taken by him during his
journey and visit to Canada and America. The first was a view of the
Liverpool Docks, then several pictures taken on board the steamship
“ Vancouver ” during the voyage to Quebec, such as groups of
passengers, some in repose, others occupied in games to pass away the
time ; then waves and icebergs. On arriving at Quebec Mr. Pumphrey
did not go on to the meeting of the British Association, but made his
way to the Yellowstone Park, a large tract of land about sixty miles
square, set apart by the Americans as a park for ever ; it is reached by a
southern branch on the North Pacific Railway. He also exhibited several
views taken on the way, such as an Indian town with its wigwams, the
city of Winnipeg, interior of a Pulman car, and interior of a dining
saloon in a steamboat on Lake Superior. Arriving at the Park there
was the Mammoth Hotel, containing a thousand beds, and another
hotel, which was composed of canvas tents only. Views were given of
the hot springs, showing the peculiar shapes assumed by the tufa,
formed by the lime from the hot water ; also views of the geysers,
showing how they deposited siliceous matter ; but the grandest views
were those taken of the great canon, or ravine, which is about one
thousand feet deep, and at the top one mile wide. Through this
the Yellowstone River runs, and in one part it falls three hundred
and fifty feet. Here the scenery is grand, and Mr. Pumphrey has
obtained several good pictures. The exhibition was very interesting
and instructive, and as only half the pictures were shown the members
will have an opportunity of seeing the others on some future occasion.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. - November 17tli. — Mr. Madison exhibited various specimens
11EP0RTS OF SOCIETIES.
81
of foreign Helices. Under the microscope the following objects were
shown : by Mr. Moore, antennas of Volucella plumata ; Mr. Darley, larva
of Ephemera marginata; Mr. Tylar, an electro-deposit of Silicon
resembling a chain diatom ; Mr. J. W. Neville, a palate of Fnsus
Islandicus. Mr. Betteridge then contributed his third paper on the
“ Birds of the District.” November 24th. — A Lecture was delivered
by the President, Mr. C. Beale, C.E., on “ What is under us,” in which
he described the surface beds from the place of meeting, through Deep-
fields, to Sedgley Beacon ; from this point the Lecturer dealt with
“ What is under us.” The Silurian rocks were described in their
descending order : the arrangement of the beds of the upper, middle,
and lower Ludlow and Wenlock formations, the circumstances under
which they were deposited and the forms of life most prevalent and
peculiar to each. The formations of Cambrian age were next
described as rocks in which the traces of life could still be made out,
and the Laurentian, of which only an inconsiderable portion was
found in this country. In the Pre-Cambrian rocks the records of life
were nearly obliterated, and the few found only of the lowest kind.
The lecture concluded by assigning reasons for the great antiquity of
the earth — an antiquity altogether beyond human comprehension, and
pointing out that, notwithstanding the diligent researches made in
geology, we are as yet only on the border-land of knowledge. The
lecture was illustrated by a beautifully drawn section of the earth’s
crust and some of the rarer rocks and fossils. December 1st. — Mr.
Hawkes exhibited the following fungi : Lecythea euphorbia:, Coleozporium
senecionis, Puccinia variabilis, Puccinia lyclinidearum , and Puccinia
sonchi, the latter pronounced by Mr. W. B. Grove a species new to
Great Britain. Mr. Hawkes also showed the paraphyses of this
fungus under the microscope. Mr. Rodgers then read a paper on
“ Other Worlds than this,” in which he described the sun and its analysis
by the spectrum, the solar system, three stages in the life of a world —
youth, maturity, and old age, and the arrangement of the planets in
their stages of development judged by telescopic appearances. The
paper also described stellar worlds, and their great distance adding to
the difficulty of observation, the motion of the solar system in space,
its direction, &c. The paper was illustrated by diagrams. December
8th. — Mr. Moore exhibited a large specimen of Unio pictorum from
Ossington Lake ; Mr. Rodgers, a collection of shells from Lamlasli
Bay. Under the microscope, Mr. Dunn showed a specimen of Hydra
vulgaris with a branched tentacle (probably the result of an injury) ;
Mr. Tylar, marine organisms, larval stage of starfish, echini, etc. ;
Mr. Sanderson, Riccia Jluitans. December 15th. — Special : Geology.
Mr. Insley showed fossils from Wenlock limestone, including Calymene
Blumenbachii, and quartz crystals from various localities ; Mr. Hawkes,
specimens of asbestos and some of its manufactured products ; Mr.
J. W. Neville, fossil calamites, and a transverse section of the same
under the microscope ; Mr. Moore, section of fossil coral, Gyathophyllum
articulatum. Among other exhibits Mr. Madison showed a singular
shell of Helix aspersa, having two complete lips ; Mr. Hawkes, pods of
cotton plant, and ornamental articles from India made of native seeds ;
Mr. Deakin, jaw of porpoise, Phoccena communis.-
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D, Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F. R.G.S. — -
Monthly Meeting, December 17tli. Attendance 10 (3 ladies).
Exhibits: The rather uncommon lichen Collema pulposum (?) by Mr.
32
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
F. Bates, who had prepared a microscopic slide showing the moniliform
character of the gonidial layer. These moniliform curved filaments
were, he considered, quite undistinguishable from Nostoc, a fact which
favoured the theory of Schwendeer that lichens consist of a fungus
parasitical on an aiga ; a collection of dried leaves of various species
of American oaks, by Mr. Vice ; oak spangle -galls, and the fungus
Agciricus conflucns , by Mr. Grundy; large haws borne by the scarlet-
fruited thorn, and a camera drawing of the large mole flea x 40, by
Mr. Mott. Paper, “ On the life-history of Puccinia graminis, the Wheat-
Bust fungus,” by Mr. G. Ward, describing its three stages, viz. : — the
iEcidium stage on the leaves of the Barberry, formerly ranked as a
distinct species under the name of Mcidium berberidis ; the Uredo stage
on wheat and other grasses in the summer, producing globular spores ;
and the Puccinia stage on the same plants in the autumn, producing
the final, resting, or teleuto-spores, which are clavate and uniseptate.
Mr. Ward had prepared several interesting slides, which were exhibited
under the Society’s fine binocular microscope, illustrating the stages of
this remarkable fungus. The Chairman asked how it happened that
while Bust was everywhere abundant, the wild Barberry was quite a
rare plant in Leicestershire hedges. He thought there must be some
other plant on which the Bust could pass through its first stage. The
Chairman presented a list of 15 birds which frequented his garden,
arranged in the order of their abundance, viz. : — 1, House Sparrow ;
2, Starling ; 3, Missel Thrush, Song Thrush, Blackbird ; 4, Bubin ;
5, Hedge Sparrow, Chaffinch, Blue-tit, Wren ; 6, Great-tit, Pied Wag¬
tail; 7, Yellowliammer, Spotted Flycatcher, Greenfinch. He remarked
upon the scarcity of the Yellowliammer in his neighbourhood, and
suggested that it might lead to interesting comparisons, if other
members living in the different suburbs would prepare lists of birds
arranged on the same principle.
PETEBBOBOUGH NATUBAL HISTOBY, SCIENTIFIC AND
ABCHZEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. — At a well-attended meeting of the
members of this Society, held on November 28th, Mr. James T. Irvine,
clerk of the Bestoration Works at the Cathedral, gave a very interesting
address on “ Saxon Architecture,” illustrated by numerous drawings
collected or made by himself. After pointing out the imitation of
wooden construction this style presented in buildings actually of stone,
the lecturer dealt with its other chief characteristics — the great
internal height of the buildings when considered in regard to their
length and breadth, the extreme thinness of the walls, the great
height and narrowness of the openings, such openings in the earlier
examples being wider at the base than at the top, whilst in the later
ones the sides were parallel — the wedge-shaped quoin stones — the
rude imitation of Boman mouldings — the gradual adoption toward
the close of the Saxon period of features closely approaching Norman
work. Mr. Irvine also called attention to the position of the window
sashes, the earlier ones being fixed in the mid- wall, and later ones
near the outside and provided with shutters; the ornamental character
of the window jambs as at Boarhunt near Portsmouth, and in some
remains found at Peterborough Cathedral ; the use of coloured stone
decoration as at Stone-juxta-Faversham ; the singularly fine carvings
found at Bradford in Wilts, date probably about A.D. 975, and at
Barnack Church, near Stamford, the date of which the lecturer
considered to be about A.D. 1060. Mr. Irvine also referred to the
singular fancy for sundials, of which a beautifully carved specimen
exists at Barnack.
FLOSCULARIA MUTABILIS.
83
FLO SC U LARI A M UTA BILIS.
This very curious Floscule was discovered by Mr. Bolton
in Olton Reservoir, near Birmingham, on August 7tli, 1884,
and he has since found it in several other pools in the neigh¬
bourhood. It is remarkable for having a disc with only two
lobes ; for possessing what appear to be two eyes on the
dorsal lobe, near its summit ; and for its habit of altering
the shape of its disc till it somewhat resembles that of an
(Ecistes or Limnias, and then of swimming by vibrating the
short set* that surround the edge of the disc. There is
another two-lobed Floscule, discovered by Mr. Hood, of
Dundee, an account of which I shall shortly publish. I
have named it F. calva from its remarkably short set*. It does
not, however, swim like F. mutabilis , nor does it possess red
eyes. Oddly enough, however, it also is attached to its tube,
and not to the stem of the alga on which the tube rests, so
that it almost always tumbles off its perch when sent by post.
F. mutabilis generally swims backwards, circling very
slowly, and sure to be soon pulled up by some obstacle. Now
and then it has a fit of energetic straight swimming, but even
then it is usually stem foremost. It frequently shuts up its
lobes like a puckered bag ; and I have seen it often protrude
the real mouth (which, as in all Floscules, lies deep down at
the bottom of the “ vestibule”) right beyond the outer edge of
the lobes.
The young female (Fig. 8) is somewhat similar in shape to
the adult, but has the swelling of the foot more marked.
I have seen three specimens of what I believe to be the
male (Fig. 4), but from my not having seen it hatched I can¬
not be certain. The figure shows its external shape — it was
on each occasion too lately hatched to detect the sperm bag
and penis : it had no teeth or alimentary tract.
I may add that Mr. W. Dingwall, of Dundee, has sent
me two or three specimens of a one-lobed (or rather lobeless)
Floscule, an account of which will soon appear. There is
now a regular series of Floscules with 7, 5, 3, 2, and 0 lobes.
C. T. Hudson, LL.D., F.R.M.S.
15th September, 1884.
Fig. 1.
n
M
9 9
2.
3.
4.
PLATE I.
Description of the Figures.
Floscularia mutabilis (side view) at rest E\ inch.
swimming ^ „
„ ,, young female ^ ,,
,, ,, supposed male ,,
9 9
34
STUDY OF BOTANY.
ON “ THE BEST METHODS OF STUDYING BOTANY
FOR BEGINNERS.” *
BY F. T. MOTT, F.R.G.S.
Persons who begin to “study Botany”
do not generally realise the vastness of the
subject. Botany is the history of the whole
Vegetable Kingdom, and the Vegetable
Kingdom occupies much more space on the
surface of this globe than the Animal
Kingdom does, and has probably a much
larger number both of individuals and species.
Such a subject can only be attacked piecemeal. We must
divide it into Sections and study each Section separately, not,
however, losing sight of their relations to each other and to
the whole.
The history of Vegetables may be conveniently divided
into six great Sections, viz.: —
1. The visible structure of a Plant ; its parts or organs,
as stem, leaf, flower, &c., the various forms of
these, and the tissues of which they are built up.
This is called Structural Botany.
2. The chemical constituents of these tissues, the
chemical processes which go on within them, and
the vital functions carried on by the different
organs. This is called Physiological Botany.
3. The grouping together of plants of similar form, and
the tracing of the blood relationship among these
groups. This is Classification or Systematic
Botany.
The distribution of these groups on the various parts
of the earth’s surface, on the land, and in the
water. This is Geographical Botany.
The plants of previous geological periods which are
now found fossilized in the rocks, and the correla¬
tion of these with existing species. This is
Palamntological Botany.
G. The uses of plants to man and animals as food or
medicine, or as materials for clothing, building,
and various other arts. This is Economic Botany.
4.
5.
* Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬
sophical Society. Itead March 19th, 1884.
STUDY OF BOTANY.
35
I have arranged these Divisions in a natural sequence,
answering the questions —
What is a Plant ?
How do Plants differ from one other, and how are they
related to each other ?
How are they distributed in space and in time ? And
What is their value to animals ?
But for the purpose of amateur study I should arrange
them differently. What beginners find most interesting is
the knowledge of plants by sight and by name, and some
knowledge also of their economic uses.
We may arrange the sections, therefore, into an
Elementary Department and an Advanced Department.
The Elementary Department will include Nos. 1, 3, and 6 —
Structure, Classification, and Economic Use ; and the
Advanced Department will include Nos. 2, 4, and 5 — Physi¬
ology, Geography, and Palaeontology. As we are concerned
at present with beginners only, we may dismiss the Advanced
and confine our attention to the Elementary Department.
How may an Amateur best set about to obtain some personal
acquaintance with plants and their uses ?
The plants which come under our notice in this country
are in two groups — the wild and the cultivated. Some of
our cultivated plants are also found wild, but the majority are
importations from other countries and are only to be seen in
gardens and hothouses. This does not make them any the
less interesting to the Botanist, but for a beginner there is
considerable advantage in restricting his early studies to our
native wild plants, because these form a comparatively small
and yet a fairly representative group, and an acquaintance
with these will give him a general view of plant forms and
plant life which may be afterwards extended in all directions.
Moreover, wild plants of all the principal forms are readily
accessible to everyone, while an average garden will only
contain a small selection of the more showy forms.
Let a beginner, therefore, begin with the study of the
British wild plants.
The first step is to get some knowledge of the structure of
plants. In most towns there are, during the winter, courses
of lectures by certificated Science teachers, and if Botany is
one of the subjects no better introduction can be had than
passing through such a course. The course usually consists
of from twenty to thirty lectures of an hour each, and the
usual fee is 2s. 6d. for artisans who can earn the Government
grant for the teacher, and from 10s. to 20s. for all other
persons for whose teaching the Government will pay nothing.
3G
STUDY OF BOTANY.
The course begins in the autumn and finishes in the
spring, and the student who goes through it conscientiously
will gain a fair knowledge of the principles of Elementary
Botany.
If no such course is available, there are plenty of good
books from which he may get similar information, but it is
rather drier and harder work to read for yourself than to
follow a teacher. Among the many books on Elementary
Botany, of which I have no less than sixteen in my own
library, the following three may be particularly recom¬
mended, viz. : —
Dr. Hooker’s “Primer of Botany,” price Is.
Prof. Oliver’s “ Lessons in Elementary Botany,”
price 4s. Gd.
Mrs. Kitchener’s “ A Year’s Botany,” price about 6s.
If the student happens to possess any , other recent work
of the kind it will do nearly as well. If not, let him buy one
or all of these and read them through, carefully following their
instructions. Nearly every book will contain something not
found in the others.
The next step will be to get a personal acquaintance with
the wild plants, to learn to know them by sight and by name,
to be able to classify them, and to ascertain their uses.
Something of all this will have been gathered in going
through the books already mentioned, but a good deal more
is required. In order to impress upon the memory the
appearance and the names of plants they require to be
brought frequently under notice — once or twice is not
sufficient.
For this purpose there is no better method than the
forming of an Herbarium or a Botanical Garden, or both.
The plants must be collected, the names and classification
worked out from books, the specimens frequently handled, and
then preserved either dried in an Herbarium or living in a
classified garden — the latter is the less common but perhaps
the more interesting method; but it is also much more
difficult, because some plants are too large and others too
small to be easily manageable, while some want water, others
rock, or peat, or sea sand, and will not flourish in common
garden soil. The dried garden, hortus siccus, or Herbarium, is
therefore the usual method of preserving the specimens, and
it is easy, cheap, and fairly satisfactory. Many of the books
give full instructions for drying and mounting the plants, but
I may say here that perhaps the best paper for drying is that
supplied by West, Newman, and Co., 54, Hatton Garden,
London ; that a beginner should have at least three quires
STUDY OF BOTANY
37
of this paper, and that the plants must be changed into
dry papers at least three times — first after twenty-four hours’
pressure, then after two or three days more, and again after
a week. Or they may be laid in the drying papers in a tin
dish just large enough to hold them, dry sand spread on the
top an inch thick, and placed on a warm stove or in an oven
of moderate heat. They will want careful watching so as not
to bake too rapidly, but with proper attention they may be
got perfectly dry in one or two days, or even in a few hours,
by this method, and will keep their colour better than if dried
more slowly. The mounting paper should be about lG^ins.
by lOJins., and the specimens fastened on by strips of
gummed paper, using only just as many as will hold all parts
firmly to the paper, and cutting them broad enough to give a
firm adhesion. They are often used too narrow. Some
persons glue the whole specimen to the paper, and in
Herbariums subject to continual turning over, as in public
museums, this is the safest ; but in private collections it is, I
think, unnecessary and undesirable, as it takes more time,
gives a more unnatural appearance, and prevents the specimen
from being changed or in any way moved for examination.
The species of each genus should be put together in a sheet
of coloured paper, labelled outside, and the packets properly
arranged in a cabinet, or in a set of boxes made to stand up
like large books on a shelf.
For determining the names and characters of British
plants there are several good works. The most costly of
these is Sowerby’s “English Botany,” of which the third
edition consists of eleven volumes, with a twelfth now in
preparation, price about £20, giving a coloured plate of every
species. This is excellent as a help and for additional infor¬
mation, but it is not good to work by, having no synopsis
or key of any kind. I should recommend for beginners
Bentbam’s “Illustrated Handbook of the British Flora,” in
two volumes, with admirable woodcuts of each species.
When they have acquired some knowledge of common plants
Hooker’s “ Student’s Flora,” price 9s., will be better, as
although without plates or woodcuts it is very compact, very full
and clear, and contains most of the modern seggregates, or dis¬
tinct varieties of certain species, which are omitted by Bentham
for the sake of simplicity. Babington’s “ Manual ” is nearly
as good as Hooker and about the same price. Anne Pratt’s
large work with coloured plates is useful for reference and for
popular information about the history and qualities of plants,
but is not precise enough in its descriptions nor accurate
enough in its plates for the real student. Leo Grindon’s
38
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
“British and Garden Botany” contains an immense amount
of interesting information, but is not a good working book.
When a fair acquaintance with British plants has been
obtained, if the student wishes to go further and examine the
plants of gardens or of the world, the number of species is
so large that no one book has yet attempted to describe them
all. Loudon’s “ Encyclopaedia of Plants ” gives descriptions
of nearly 20,000 species, and woodcuts of 10,000, and is an
invaluable work; while Le Maout and Decaisne’s “Descriptive
and Analytical Botany,” edited by Dr. Hooker, gives an
excellent account of the 800 orders of known plants arranged
according to the most modern system of classification. The
price of the first is about two guineas and of the second 30s.
If to these the student adds Sachs’s “ Text-book of Botany,”
price about 30s., he will have, in addition to the works
previously recommended, a Botanical Library sufficient for
most amateurs.
ON THE PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF
THE MIDLANDS.
BY W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
The researches of British geologists, continued without
intermission since the beginning of the present century, have
at last rendered possible the study of the physiography of the
Midlands during the geological ages which are past.
The completion of the one-inch geological map of England
by the Government Survey during the year 1883 marks an
epoch in the history of geology ; but, in the case of amateur
geologists, it is certain that the publication of these maps,
furnishing — as they are supposed to do — a “ royal road” to
the study of the rocks of any district, has led them to take too
many things for granted, and to suppose that finality in things
geological has been attained.
In this paper I propose to consider what is known of the
Pre- Carboniferous strata — the Arcluean, Cambrian, Silurian,
and Devonian Formations — of the Midlands ; to detail some
startling discoveries which have been made within the last
two or three years with regard to them, and to point out
their bearing upon palseo-physiography and upon certain
geological problems of high interest.
Methods of Investigation. — Fortunately for local geologists
the rocks of the British Isles have, perhaps, been more
crumpled up, broken, eroded, and disturbed than any other
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
89
area of equal dimensions upon the surface of the globe. The
axis of greatest elevation now lies to the west, running
through the Lake District and Wales. From this it results
that the strata have a general dip or slant to the south-east,
the oldest rocks forming the actual surface of the ground in
these western tracts, but being covered over and concealed
by newer rocks as we proceed eastward. If all the beds of
rock lay in regular undisturbed sheets, as they must have
originally been deposited on the sea bottom, we, in the
Midlands, could never hope to discover any Pre- Carboniferous
strata at the surface, for they would be below thousands of
feet of later-deposited rocks. But, during the upheavals
and depressions which the British Isles have experienced
— and they have undergone many changes of level, amount¬
ing to thousands of feet — the rocks have cracked, and the
beds along one side of the crack or “ fault” have been
elevated or depressed as the case may be. Then lateral
pressure, whose effects have but lately been recognised on a
grand scale in the Highlands of Scotland, has thrown the
rocks into great folds, having crests and hollows. Follow¬
ing these earth movements, the agents of denudation
have swept away the material from the “ upthrow ” sides
of the faults, and from the crests of the earth-folds, and thus
the wonderful variety of rocks which characterises our
country has been produced, and we are able to find strata
of the same age and of similar lithological characters to
those of Wales and the Lake District within a short distance
of Birmingham and Leicester.
But to discover and identify every exposed area of these
old rocks in the Midlands our search must be both keen and
careful, and we must have a competent knowledge of what to
look for, gained by the study of typical sections and specimens.
Although the geological surveyors are instructed to walk along
the four sides of every field and to examine every patch of
rock — and I can bear testimony to their hard and generally
excellent method of work — yet they missed the true inter¬
pretation of many important exposures, and it is clear that
in the present position of British geology more good will
result from the close study of a limited area than from
occasional scamperings over a wide region. I remember
well, many years ago, how I walked over all Leicestershire
to find an outcrop of the Rhaetic beds, which I discovered at
last in a brick pit close to my own back door !
We will consider, in the first place, those Midland areas
in which the old Pre-Carboniferous strata actually rise to
the surface ; secondly, the places where they have been
40
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
reached by mines or deep bore holes ; and lastly, the probable
manner in which they extend underground between the
points where their presence has been actually determined.
Only those points will be considered in detail which have
not been already published.
Surface Exposures of P re- Carboniferous Iiocks. — The ancient
rocks which we have to describe crop out as “ islands ”
or “bosses,” along a line from south-west to north-east,
extending from the Malvern Hills, by the Wrekin, the Lickey
Hills, and the Hartsliill Range to Charnwood Forest in
Leicestershire.
1. — The Archaean Rocks of Charnwood * — Charnwood
Forest is a hilly rocky tract of about thirty square miles,
lying between the towns of Leicester, Loughborough, and
Burton. The rocks consist of coarse slates, grits, and
agglomerates, about ten thousand feet in thickness, and of
volcanic origin. They strike from north-west to south-east,
and are broken through by syenitic and granitic masses, with
the result that at one point (Brazil Wood) the slate has been
converted into a micaceous schist. The Charnwood axis is
continued to the south-east, beneath the Triassic strata of
South Leicestershire, being overlaid in that direction by
Cambrian rocks presently to be described. The ashy slates
of Charnwood are believed to be of Archaean or Pre-Cam¬
brian age, for the following reasons : — (a) they agree well,
both when studied in the field and when examined micro¬
scopically, with the Pebidian Formation of Dr. Hicks ; (b) they
have yielded no fossils of any kind ; (c) they are certainly
overlaid by Cambrian strata, although the junction is con¬
cealed from view by newer beds.
(To be continued.)
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
BY HERBERT SPENCER.
EXPOSITION OF CHAPTER VII. - GENESIS.
BY W. B. GROVE, B.A.
Genesis is the multiplication of individuals. In the cases
most familiar to us this takes place in such a way that like
produces like, the offspring closely resembles the parent.
But modern science shows us that this is not the most
* See “ Geology of Leicestershire,” by W. J. Harrison ; and Hill
and Bonney, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
41
common form of genesis ; in the great majority of plants
and in numerous animals like produces unlike, the offspring
does not resemble the parent. This is the exact reverse of
the opinion which the ancients held and the unscientific of
the present day would express, but it is nevertheless the
correct one, and the scope of its application every year grows
wider. These two modes of multiplication are designated respec¬
tively by the apt names of homogenesis when the successive
generations are alike, and heterogeneais when they are diverse.
But we may look at the matter from another point of
view — the production of a new individual may result from
the fusion of the whole or a portion of each of two more
or less distinct previously existing individuals, from a sexual
act ; or it may originate merely by the separation of a part of
one individual in such a form as to be capable of independent
growth. These two modes are called by the delightfully
expressive names of go mo genesis and agamogenesis respectively.
Herbert Spencer then lays down the following laws : —
(1) Homogenesis is always gamogenesis ; (2) Heterogenesis
is agamogenesis interrupted more or less frequently by gamo¬
genesis. These statements we will now examine.
The kind of liomogenesis with which we are most familiar
is that met with in the .larger animals, where each genera¬
tion consists of males and females ; it occurs under three
forms, as viviparous, oviparous, and the intermediate ovo-
viviparous genesis. As we descend in the animal kingdom
we find liomogenesis become rarer and rarer, and at last
entirely replaced by the other mode. Amongst plants, as will
be seen hereafter, liomogenesis, strictly speaking, never occurs.
When lieterogenesis prevails we shall find that after a
generation of perfect males and females there will be a
generation of asexual individuals, which produce the next
generation by a process of budding. This next generation
may consist of males and females like those with which we
started, or may be itself also asexual, and produce another
generation by budding ; but sooner or later the sexual gene¬
ration will again occur and complete the cycle. Illustrations
of both these modes are most readily seen in plants. Take a
simple uniaxial plant, originating from a seed, and having a
terminal flower. The stem and leaf appendages of this
constitute a single individual, which is itself sexless, and pro¬
duces buds, each bud being a new individual. From certain
of these buds, which are male, pollen-grains are formed ;
from certain others, which are female, ovules (or rather
embryo-sacs) are produced. In certain of the lieterosporous
higher cryptogams the homologous parts are called micro-
42
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
spores and macrospores respectively. Each of these sexual
individuals undergoes further growth (reduced to a very
small amount in the Phanerogams), and then, by the union
of their products, i.e ., the sexual organs, a seed is produced.
The cycle, if I understand it rightly, is thus represented by
A, B ; A, B ; etc. In multiaxial plants the only difference
is that fresh individuals may be produced by budding for
many generations before the sexual generation recurs. In
Ferns and Mosses the same arrangement is seen except that
a spore in these cases is usually capable of giving rise to
both male and female organs, though even here we meet
with a decided tendency to unisexuality. Analogous cases
to all these are met with in the lower groups of the animal
kingdom. The agamogenesis, i.e., the production of buds,
may take place in different way which are called metagenesis
(both external and internal), parthenogenesis, and pseudo¬
parthenogenesis, but space forbids me to enter into these.
It is obvious that the classification given by Herbert
Spencer does not exhaust the possible modes of occurrence
of homo- and hetero-genesis. It is conceivable (1) that
an organism should multiply by continued agamogenesis,
which might be either continual liomogenesis or that com¬
bined with heterogenesis ; and (2j, that when gamogenesis
recurs it might recur at more than one point in the cycle and
under more than one form. I am not aware that any
instance is known of the latter mode, but it is at least
possible. There are, however, numerous instances which
seem to fall under the first head, and in which proof of the
recurrence of gamogenesis is wanting, although in many
cases it is probable. In the realm of Fungi, e.g., the whole
series of the Bacteria and Yeast-fungi, the greater part of
the so-called “Fungi Imperfecti” — the Hypliornycetes and
Coniomycetes — the Basidiomycetes to which the larger Fungi,
the mushroom, &c., belong, and scattered examples in other
groups, would fall, so far as is at present known, under this
head. In most of these cases we can only account for the
seeming absence of gamogenesis by supposing either that it
occurs in some form which has hitherto eluded research, or
that these are merely parts of the life cycle of some other
organisms with which their connection is as yet unsuspected
or unproved, and in which the gamogenesis will be found.
The subject will be better discussed in connection with a
future chapter.
The essential act of gamogenesis is the “ union of two
centres or cells produced by different parent organisms.” We
find all possible stages of this union, from the fusion of two
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
43
entire individuals, as in the Monads, and the fusion of their
contents as in the Diatoms and Desmids, and in the Conju¬
gate Algie (for there each cell is practically a distinct indi¬
vidual) upwards to the higher animals and plants, in which
the portion separated for the reproductive process is but an
extremely small part of the parent organism.
The mysterious result of this union suggests that the cells
which take part in it are specialised in some peculiar way,
but the evidence goes to prove that they are rather un-
specialised ; that, in fact, in proportion as cells are specialised
they are unfitted for reproductive purposes. Accepting
Herbert Spencer’s hypothesis of physiological units, we may
say that a cell which is fitted to reproduce the species must
contain all the physiological units essential for that species,
and that specialisation consists in the removal of certain of
these units, so that some kinds of them either entirely
disappear or are reduced below the necessary standard.
The fact that the reproductive cells, in most cases, are
capable of only a very slight further growth, if they remain
un-united with each other, is a proof that the units of which
they are composed are very nearly in a state of stable equili¬
brium among themselves ; by their mixture, the equilibrium is
destroyed and a new series of structural changes is instituted.
Why does this mixture occur, and when.? Here we
consider only the latter question, reserving the attempt
to supply an answer to the former for a future chapter.
It is found that in most cases in the higher plants agamo-
genesis prevails when nutrition is abundant, and that when
from any cause nutrition becomes reduced nearly to the level
of expenditure, that is, when active growth is beginning to
cease, then gamogenesis intervenes. The same connection is
observable in many animals. I need not recount these
well-known instances, but it is interesting to notice that
illustrations of the same law are more and more being
observed among the lower plants. It has long been known
that to obtain the zygospores of Mucor it is necessary to
starve the plant, to grow it without access of air ; and
Brefeld’s more recent discoveries prove that the same method
is required to obtain the sexual (sclerotoid) condition of
Penicillium, which in the natural state is probably very rare.
In fact, the instances of the law thus connecting innutrition
and reproduction are so numerous, and the exceptions
comparatively so few, though well marked, that it cannot but
be true as a general rule, though probably complicated with
some other law (unknown) which in certain cases interferes
with its action.
44
DEVELOPMENT OF A FERN.
ON “THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FERN
FROM ITS SPORE.”*
BY Gr. C. TURNER.
XTwo hundred and fifty years ago it would
have been a dangerous thing to have discussed
a subject so intimately connected with the
powers of darkness as “fern seed.” The
researches of latter days have, however,
cleared away from the character of ferns the
“uncanny” imputations of former ages. We
know now that “ fern seed,” though collected on St.
John’s Eve, will not assist even an insolvent debtor to
become invisible ; we know that moonwort, though gathered
by the light of a hundred full moons, has not the least effect
in loosening locks, bars, or fetters, nor will it with a touch
“ Unshoe the new-shod steed. ’•
We know so much, but most of us do not yet understand
the curious little drama which is being acted humbly and
quietly upon those minute “ marchantia-like ” green specks
which are strewn over our ferneries and wayside banks
and woods.
The development of the fern from the spore had been a
mystery through all time up to the middle of the present
century. The honour of the discovery of the true mode of
reproduction in ferns is due to Nageli of Zurich, who, in 1844,
published a memoir entitled “ Moving Spiral Filaments in
Ferns,” wherein he announced the existence of the bodies
now called antlieridia. But he did not ascertain the whole
truth, for he described the arcliegonia as modified forms of
the antlieridia. In fact, he seems to have been so taken up
with his “ moving filaments” (movement in the vegetable
world being considered as a novelty in those days) that he
regarded other phenomena as of secondary interest, and
evidently watched them less carefully, for he describes an
archegonium filled with sperm cells which emerged from it as
from the antlieridia. However, in the following year Count
Suminski, of Berlin, cast clearer light upon the subject, and
Hofmeister and others following confirmed previous obser¬
vations and added new ones.
* Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬
sophical Society. Head October 17, 1883.
DEVELOPMENT ON A FERN.
45
The development of the fern from the spore may be
watched thus : —
Choose a frond with ripe spores, place it between drying
paper for a day or two, and then shake it over prepared soil.
Shaking is preferable to scraping unless you are trying to
porduce new varieties ; in that case the spores should be sown
as thickly as possible. By “prepared soil” is meant soil that
has been either roasted or scalded in order to destroy all
vegetable or animal germs that may be in it. Shallow pans
should be used half filled with bits of broken pot to ensure
good drainage, and the surface of the soil should be made
smooth by gentle pressure.
The spores should not at first be watered directly, but the
pots should either stand in water (distilled or boiled), or be
plunged in water once a day for a few seconds.
For more convenient observation the spores may be sown
on glass or on a bit of pot ; the former is rather a tedious
process.
The spore, like all true spores, will germinate from any
point of its surface indifferently.
All spores do not germinate equally soon, spores from
Osmunda germinating much sooner than others.
Usually the spore gives rise first to a long slender filament
the terminal cell of which divides and sub-divides into a flat
leaf-like and usually kidney-shaped expansion termed the
prothallium, but in the case of Osmunda the pro thallium is
formed at once, and there is no long filament.
Scattered round the margin of the prothallium and on
the under side are the antheridia, which are minute cellular
sacs usually stalked — (I have even seen them on the stem of
the young fern) — whilst on the under surface just behind the
indented portion are the archegonia, which are bottle-shaped
organs, buried in the substance of the “cushion,” as this
part is called, because here the protliallium consists of several
layers of cells, instead of a single layer, as it does nearer the
margin.
The protliallium shows a decided dioecious tendency.
Sometimes from a whole sporangium all the prothallia
developed will bear antheridia only ; in others the archegonia
appear later, to be fertilised by antheridia from younger
prothallia.
Under certain conditions a protliallium will produce pro¬
thallia by gemmae, and will sometimes, though rarely,
produce the new fern by a process of budding.
The antheridia which contain the sperm or antherozoid
cells are protected by a wall of thin cells.
46
koch’s comma bacillus.
When these sperm cells are ripe the parietal cells absorb
water violently and swell up, until finally the antlieridium is
ruptured at the apex aud the antherozoid cells escape, and out
of each cell is set free an antherozoid, coiled spirally round
three or four times. The finer anterior end of each anthe¬
rozoid is furnished with cilia, while the other or posterior end
often drags with it a vesicle containing colourless granules ;
this subsequently fails off and remains at rest, while the
filament continues its motion alone.
Imbedded at the base of the arcliegonium is the central
cell, and leading up from it is the central canal. The central
cell divides and rounds itself off, forming a smaller cell, the
oospliere. When this oospliere is ready to be fertilised the
canal swells up and becomes mucilaginous, and finally watery
mucilage, and the protoplasm from the canal cells is forced
out of the opened neck.
The antlierozoids are retained in numbers by this mucilage,
several of them obtain an entrance into the canal, stopping it
up — a few reach the oospliere, force themselves into it, and
disappear. After thus being fertilised the oospliere swells up,
develops root, and frond, absorbing in the process the proto¬
plasm contained in the protliallium, and begins life on its
own account as a seedling fern.
Note. — The above account is partly condensed from Sachs's
Text Book.
KOCH’S COMMA BACILLUS.
BY W. B. GROVE, B.A.
At the Conversazione of the Midland Institute in January
I exhibited a slide of this now famous microbe, which was
especially interesting from its history. It was prepared by
Professor Strauss, of the French Egyptian Cholera Mission
(so I am informed), from bacilli grown by himself in gelatine.
He prefers for the present to call it, not the Cholera Bacillus,
but by the name given above. I obtained it from Dr. R.
Suzor, of Paris. An examination under a sufficiently high
power (a one-tenth is the lowest that is satisfactory) reveals a
number of minute rod-like organisms, some single, others con¬
nected in chains of two or more, mingled with occasional
threads in which no division into rods could be detected.
Their most striking feature was that which gives them their
common name ; most of the rods were more or less bent,
some so as to form about the sixth of a circle ; others were
quite straight, and every intermediate stage could be found,
koch's comma bacillus.
47
One of our chief biologists lias attempted to parody the
famous joke about the crab, by saying that Koch’s Comma
Bacillus is so-called (1) because it is not comma-shaped ; (2),
because it is not a Bacillus. But an inspection of these
authentic specimens shows that he is wrong in both particu¬
lars ; they are curved exactly like a written comma, but of
course without the distinct head which we see in a printed
comma. Moreover, they do belong to the genus Bacillus —
in the Vibrio form it is true, but without the spiral which
distinguishes the genus Spirillum. It is now well known
that the members of the old genus Vibrio were of two kinds,
some merely undulated (Bacillus), some truly spiral (Spirillum).
For this reason, the word Vibrio is now dropped as a generic
term.
Other observers than Koch have met with Bacilli curved
in a similar comma fashion ; among these one is stated to be
very common in the mouth of many healthy persons, and
another has just been discovered by Dr. Deneke, of Gottingen,
in mouldy cheese. These all present great similarity in their
form, although differing slightly in their mode of growth in
nutrient media. But it is obvious that this similarity is no
proof of identity. There are already numerous instances
known of Bacilli which, while morphologically almost iden¬
tical, are physiologically widely different, e.y ., the hay-bacillus
and that of splenic fever, the bacillus of glanders and that of
tubercle.
Through the kindness of Mr. Sampson Gamgee, of this
town, my attention has been called to a book just published
in Italy by Dr. A. Bianclii* containing the observations made
by the famous Italian physician, Prof. F. Pacini, during the
cholera epidemic in Florence in 1855. Copies are given of
drawings of the micro-organisms which Pacini found in the
bodies of those who died of cholera, made by him at the time,
thirty years ago, but not published during his lifetime.
Among these, one which he calls a Vibrio so closely resembles
Koch’s Comma Bacillus that it can scarcely be doubted that
Pacini met with the same organism which Koch afterwards
rediscovered. In one striking point this similarity is most
convincing ; in Koch’s Bacillus it frequently happens that
when two curved cells are in contact, end to end, the conca¬
vities are turned in opposite directions, thus forming a
distinct S, and this feature is well represented by Pacini.
* Nuove Osservazioni Microscopiche sul Col^ra (Milan, 1885),
p. 4, fig. 2.
48
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
(Continued from page 23, Vol. VIII.)
CYPERACEiE (continued).
CAREX ( continued ).
C. Pseudo-cyperus, Linn. Cyperus-like Sedge.
Native : Moist, shady places, damp banks, and near pools. Local,
but widely spread. June.
I. Sutton Park, nearly extinct ; Bentley Park ; Maxtoke ; Marston
Green ; bank near Olton Railway Station ; copse near Henfield,
Knowle ; pool by Barber’s Coppice, Hampton-in-Arden. Earl’s
Wood Reservoir, with female flowers in the top of male
catkin ; small pool, near Three Maypoles, Shirley Heath.
II. On the edge of a pool at Kimvarton, Bufford , Purt., ii, 418.
Kenilworth, Y. and B. Side of pools and waters near Arbury
Hall; Pinley, near Stoke Heath, Kirk. Phyt., ii, 971. Pond
near Cawston House ; pond outside Frankton Wood, Ii. S. B.,
1877. Honington, Newb. Twelve o’clock riding, Combe Woods,
1875 ; abundant in a wood at Tile Hill ; pond near Tile Hill
Wood ; Bearley Bushes ; Snitterfield Bushes ; Sliortwood
Coppice, near Tardebigg.
C. paludosa, Good, Lesser Pond Sedge.
Native: Near canals, ditches, marshy ground, and damp woods.
Locally common. April to June.
I. Sutton Park; Middleton ; in several places on the Warwick Canal
from Olton to Knowle ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Barston Marsh ;
Blythe Bridge, &c.
II. Near Wroxall Abbey; Hill Wootton ; near Kenilworth, II. B.
Radford, Y. and 13. Side of river by Little Lawford Mill,
B. S. B., 1877. Canal near Newbold-on-Avon ; canal near
Rowington ; canal near Yarningale Common ; Binton Bridges ;
pool, Combe Abbey Grounds.
Var. b. Kochiana. More local.
I. Pool Hollies Wood, Sutton Park ; Water Works Ground, Witton
Lane ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Blythe Bridge; canal near Hockley;
Henfield ; Knowle.
II. Tredington, Newb.; canals near Rugby, L. Cumming ; Old Canal
near Newbold-on-Avon ; Binton Bridges.
This variety occurs frequently with the type, but it requires
minute examination to separate them, so that it may be found in
many of the districts assigned to var a.
C. riparia, Curtis. Greater Pond Sedge.
Native : Near rivers, pools, canals, and in damp woods. Locally
common. April to June.
I. In most of the canals in the Tame basin ; Sutton Park, very rare ;
Middleton ; Kingsbury ; Anstrey, near Tamwortli ; Bradnock’s
Marsh ; Rigliton End ; boggy coppice near Stonebridge ;
Meriden Marsh ; Blythe Bridge, near Solihull ; Henfield and
Temple Balsall.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE
49
II. Honiley, Y. and B.; Honington, Newb. ; in all the canals in the Avon
basin more or less abundant ; Alveston Pastures Wood ; Binton
Bridges ; wood near Spernal ; Seas Pool, Arbury ; pool in
Combe Abbey Grounds.
A peculiar form occurs in a boggy coppice near Stonebridge in
which there are female flowers and perfect fruit at both top and
bottom of male spike.
C. ampullacea, Good. Bottle Sedge.
Native : Near pools and ponds. Very local. May, June.
I. In several pools about Middleton, Bay, Cat., ed. 1, p. 145 ;
Packiugton, Aylesford, B. G., 636 ; Edgbaston Pool, With.,
ed. 4, 110; Sutton Park, very abundant; Coleshill Pool;
Marston Green ; near Solihull.
II. Pit at Wroxhall, H. B. ; Hill Wootton, II. B. ; Milverton, Y. and B.
C. vesicaria, Linn. Bladder Sedge.
Native : In marshes, near pools, and in damp woods and copses.
Local, but widely spread. May, June.
I. Packiugton, Aylesford, B. G., 636 ; Edgbaston Pool, With., ed. 4, 110;
Kingsbury Wood ; damp pastures near Coleshill ; Coleshill
Pool ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Olton Pool ; osier plantation near
Solihull ; copse near Henfield, Knowle ; Earl’s Wood in several
localities.
II. At the edge of a large pit near to Great Alne Mill, rurt., ii, 451 ;
Harbury, Rev. A. Blox.; pond by Blue Boar Lane, Blox., B.S.B.,
1874 ; pond at Frankton Wood, B. S. B., 1877 ; Seas Pool,
Arbury; Binley Common; footway from Eastern Green to
Allesley ; Sliortwood Coppice, Tardebigg.
GRAMINA.
[Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop. Mr. Bromwich finds this as a casual weed
near Kenilworth Station.]
SETARIA.
S. viridis, Beauv. Green Bristle-Grass.
Casual : In gardens and cultivated land. Bare. August.
II. Kenilworth, H. B., Herb. Brit. Mas., Myton, on railway banks,
H. B. ! Leamington, Y. and B. Old gardens in the Soutliam
Koad, near Leamington.
[S. glauca, Beauv. This occurs as a weed of cultivation near
Milverton, H. BYj
ANTHOXANTHUM.
A. odoratum, Linn. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass.
Native : In pastures, woods, on heath lands, roadsides, and banks.
Common. April to June. Area general.
The var. a. genuinum is the more frequent plant on healthy pastures.
Var. b. villosum occurs abundantly in several of the damp shady woods.
I cannot think these are more than inconstant forms.
-
DIGRAPHIS.
D. arundinacea, Trin. Ribbon Grass.
Native: By rivers, streams, pools, and in drains, &c. Common,
June, July.
I. Aston, in River Tame ; Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Poles-
worth ; canal near Atherstone ; Plant’s Brook; Water Orton;
Forge Mills ; Marston Green ; Bentley Heath ; Temple Balsall ;
Earlswood.
50
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
II. Near Leamington, Perry FI. ; Rugby district ; R. S'. R., 1874,
Honington; Tredington; Alveston Heath; Stratford-on-Avon;
Wixford; Oversley; Rowington ; Sowe Waste and Ansty
Canals ; pool in Combe Abbey Grounds ; Binley Common.
PHALARIS.
P. canariensis , Linn. Canary Grass.
Alien : On waste heaps; and in cultivated fields. Rare, July.
I. On waste heaps near Wylde Green ; roadsides near Oscott College,
Old Chester Road ; railway banks, Sutton Park.
II. Coventry Park, Kirk, Herb. Perry, near Leamington ; canal side
near the Cape, Warwick, II. B. ; corn fields near Bilton, Rugby
ALOPECURUS.
A. agrestis, Linn. Slender Fox-tail Grass.
Colonist : In cultivated land end on roadsides. Local and common.
June, July.
I. Fields near Middleton ; Colesliill ; Marston Green ; abundant near
Sheldon Church ; Hampton-in-Arden ; Barston Marsh ; Marston
Green ; Henfield, near Knowle.
II. Frequent in fields near Leamington and Warwick, H.B.; Honing¬
ton ; Tredington ; Armscote ; Ilmington, Newb.; Rugby district,
R.S.R., 1872 ; Wilmcote ; Lapwortli.
A. geniculatus, I Ann. Bent-stemmed Fox-tail Grass.
Native: Near pools, marshes, waysides, ditches, and other wet
places. Common. May to September. Area general.
A. fulvus, hn. Orange -anther ed Fox-tail Grass.
Native: Near pools and ponds. Rare. June to August.
I. Edgbaston Park, With., ed. vii, 151 ; meadows by Powell’s Pool,
Sutton Park, 1872 ; abundant on the shores of Colesliill Pool,
1875-8 ; marsh near Hill Bickenliill ; Earl’s Wood Reservoir,
abundant.
II. Pit in Ilounsel Lane, Kenilworth, 77. B., Herb. Brit. Mas.; Shrewley
Pool, II. B.; Kenilworth Old Park, Y. and Z>.
A. pratensis, Linn. Meadow Fox-tail Grass.
Native: In pastures, meadows, on roadsides and banks. Common.
May to August. Area general.
b. promts.
Occasionally with the type, a variety scarcely to be distinguished.
PHLEUM.
P. pratense, Linn. Cats-tail Grass. Common Timothy Grass.
Native : In pastures, meadows, and roadsides. Common. May to
July. Area general.
b. nodosum, Linn. Local or rare.
I. Borders of a pasture footway from Righton End to Barston Marsh.
II. Near Taclibrook, Y. and B. ; Alveston Heath! Newb.; Harbury
Heath ; sandy pasture near Rose Hall, Oversley ; fields near
Binton ; sandy road sides near Little Lawford Mill ; Combe
Fields.
Var. may us. Very local.
II. Honington, Newb.\ near Chesterton, H.B. ; Harbury Heath,
abundant on the borders of cornfields ; in principal drive of
Alveston Pastures Wood ; on the borders of fields, Baddesley
Clinton.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
51
This is a tall form, often four feet high, with spikes six or more
inches long, growing singly, and usually thinly scattered on the
borders of cornfields.
GASTRIDITJM.
G. lendigerum, Gaud. Aioned Nitgrass.
Colonist : On the borders of cultivated fields. Very rare, and of
uncertain occurrence. July.
II. Cornfields near Alcester, Biox. N.B.G.S. ; Hampton-on-the-Hill ;
Grove Park ; Norton Lindsay ; Wilmcote ; King’s Lane,
Stratford-on-Avon, Herb. Ferry ; Taclibrook, H.B. !
POLYPOGON.
[P. monspeliensis, Desv. Annual Beard Grass.
Casual : In waste heathy places. Pare, July.
II. Kenilworth Heath, Dr. St. Brody !]
Probably brought with foreign skins.
AGROSTIS.
[A. spica-venti, Linn. Spreading Silky Bent Grass.
Casual : On the borders of corn fields. Very rare. July.
II. Saltisford, J.G.P., Herb. Perry ! Abundant in sandy corn fields,
Milverton, H.B. J
A casual of uncertain occurrence.
A. canina, Linn. Brown Bent Grass.
Native : In damp woods and copses, and on damp roadsides. Local
but widely spread. June, July.
I. Sutton Park ; New Park, Middleton ; Heatliland, Atherstone Out-
woods; Bentley Park ; roadsides near and in Ironstone Wood,
Oldbury ; Bannersley Pool ; marshy coppice near Packington ;
damp roadsides Brockhill Lane, near Balsall Street ; Temple
Balsall ; Olton Pool.
II. Woodloes ! Haywoods ! Y. and B.; Haseley ; Rounsel Lane, II. B.;
marshy coppice near Kingswood ; Old Park, Kagley.
A. alba, Linn. White Squitch. Marsh Bent Grass.
Native: In damp places by roadsides, pastures, and meadows.
Common. June, July.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton ; Temple Balsall ; Arley, &c.
II. Chesterton Wood ; Alveston Heath ; Wilmcote ; near YVootton
Wawen ; canal, Newbold-on-Avon, &c.
b. stolonifera. Rare.
II. On sandy banks, old railway cutting near Henley-in-Arden.
A. nigra, With. Black Squitch; Black Bent Grass.
Native: On the borders of cultivated fields, railway sidings, old
brickyards and waysides. Local, but widely spread. July,
August.
I. Sutton Park, on railway sidings abundant ; in like places at Penns
and Castle Bromwich ; lane by The Grange, Erdington ; borders
of fields, near Bentley and Hartshill ; Tamwortli ; Temple
Balsall ; brickyard near Berkswell Station ; fields, Meriden, Ac.
II. Borders of fields near Itcliington ; marly banks near Chesterton
Wood; borders of fields, Alveston Heath; Wilmcote; fields
and lanes, Ragley and Alcester ; Tile Hill ; Allesley ; Kenil¬
worth ; Stoneleigli.
52
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE
More robust, with rough leaf sheaths and more strongly-toothed
spikelets rachis and pedicels, ligule more prominent, and flowering
nearly a month later than A. vulgaris.
A. vulgaris, With. Common Bent Grass.
Native: In pastures, meadows, roadsides, and banks. Common.
June, July. Area general.
h. pumila. Rare. Wet sandy places.
I. Above Blackroot Pool, Sutton Park ; wet sandy roadsides near
Stonebridge.
II. Lye Green ! Herb. Perry. Honily, II. B. ! Haseley Common ;
Sitch field, Chesterton; near Hatton, II. B.
CALAMAGROSTIS.
C. Epigejos, Both. Wood I mall Reed.
Native: In woods and shady damp places. Local. July.
I. Upper stew in Edgbaston Park, With., ed. 7, 197 ; small wood near
Tyburn, F. Terry! wood at Walmley, J. B. Stone! Colesliill
Pool ; Arley Wood.
II. Dunington ; Salford; Wetherly, rnrt. i., 178; woods at Alcester,
Blox. ; Allesley, Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist. iii. , 163 ; Brandon Wood ;
near Arbury Hall, T. Kirk , Phyt. ii., 972; Stoneleigh, T. K .,
Herb. Brit. Mus. ; Moreton Morrell, Y. and B.; Tachbrook and
Harbury ; Liglithorn Roughs ; Grove Park ! H. B. ; between
Shipston and Darlingcote, Newb.; Alveston Pastures; Warwick
Old Park ; Chesterton Wood ; Oversley Wood ; Old Park Wood,
Ragley ; Bearley Bushes; Combe Woods ; Prince Thorpe Wood ;
Ufton Wood ; Wayland Coppice.
C. lanceolata, Both. Purple-flowered Small Beed.
Native : In damp woods and near pools. Very rare. July.
I. Olton Pool, J. Bagnall, Herb. Brit. Mas.
II. Near Griff, T. Kirk, Herb. Brit. Mus.; Binley Bogs, T. K., Herb.
Perry ; Ufton Wood.
PHRAGMITES.
P. communis, Trill. Common Beed.
Native : On river banks, near pools, and in damp shady places, &c.
Locally abundant. August, September.
I. Near Sutton ; near Polesworth ; Bole Hall, Tamworth ; Plant’s
Brook Reservoir ; near Water Orton railway cutting ; footway
from Marston Green to Elmdon ; Olton Pool ; canal bank
between Baddesley Clinton and Baker’s Lane, near Knowle.
II. Honington ; Tredington, Newb., near Bilton ! Wolston ! R.S.B.,
1877 ; Alveston Pastures; Stratford-on-Avon ; Oversley ; Claver-
don; Eastern Green, near Coventry; Kenilworth; Warwick;
Tachbrook; banks of the Learn, Leamington; canal from
Radford Semele, near Quinton Mills ; Pool in Combe Abbey
Grounds.
MILIUM.
M. effusum, Linn. Wood Millet Grass.
Native: In woods and on shady banks. Local. May, June.
I. Arley Wood ; Kingsbury Wood ; Bentley Park ; Hartsliill Hayes ;
Meriden Shafts ; Spring Coppice, Hockley.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
53
II. Ragley ! and Oversley Woods! Purt., i, 72; Haywoods; Honily,
lr. and IK; near Guy’s Cliff; Woodloes; Fern Hill Wood!
Gilbert’s Coppice, Rowington, H.B.; woods, Edge Hills ; Alves-
ton Pastures ; Austey Wood, near Wootton Wawen ; woods,
near Claverdon ; lanes about Lapworth ; Haywoods ; Quarry
Lane, Rowington ; Crackley Wood, Kenilworth ; Cubington
Wood ; Brandon Wood ; Combe Woods.
DESCHAMPSIA.
D. caespitosa, Beauv. ( Aira caspitosa , L.) Tufted Hair Grass.
Native : Near rivers, streams, pools, drains, and on damp roadsides.
Common. June — July. Area general.
A variety closely approaching var. brevi folia occurs in Sutton Park
and near High-down, Taclibrook.
D. flexuosa, Trin. (Aira fie.ruosa, L.) Heath Hair Grass.
Native: on heaths, heathy roadsides, banks, and in open woods.
Locally abundant. June, July.
I. Dry woods in Sutton Park! With., ed. 7, 161. Middleton Heath;
Trickley Coppice, New Park ; Bentley Park ; heath lands near
Atherstone Outwoods ; Baxterley and Baddesley Commons ;
Bannersley Rough ; Coleshill Heath ; Marston Green; Hampton-
in- Arden ; lanes about Solihull and Knowle ; Hockley ; Earls-
wood ; Forshaw Heath.
II. Haywoods ! Y. and B. Spinney between Blue Boar and Wolston !
Near Overslade, Dunchurch Road ; It. S. It., 1877. Kenilworth ;
Oversley ; Combe Woods, Ac.
A form remarkably like the var. b. montana is occasional on exposed
heath lands, Sutton Park ; and a robust form with long ligule, but in
other matters like the type grows in boggy and damp woods in Sutton
Park and near Earlswood.
AIRA.
A. caryophyllea, Linn. Silver Hair Grass.
Native: On sandy heaths, roadsides, pastures, and banks. Local
and rare. June, July.
I. Common about Edgbaston, Freeman, Phyt. i. Atherstone Out¬
woods, Herb. Per. Sandy banks, Gravelly Hill ; roadsides near
Wvlde Green Railway ; sandy waysides, Hill, near Sutton ;
Middleton Heath; Atherstone Outwoods; Coleshill Heath;
Hill Bickenliill ; Bannersley Rough ; Hampton-in-Arden.
II. In Oversley Wood on a sandy bank, Purt., i., 73. Milverton ;
Kenilworth, Y. and B. Yarningale Common ! H. B. Near
Brandon.
A. prsecox, Linn. Early Hair Grass.
Native : On heaths and heathy roadsides. Local. April, May.
I. Roadside near Wylde Green Railway Station ; Sutton Park ;
Middleton Heath ; Hartsliill Stone Quarries ; Baddesley
Common ; Bannersley Rough ; Coleshill Heath ; Hampton-in-
Arden ; Forshaw Heath ; Earlswood.
II. Wliitnasli ; Taclibrook ! Y. and B. Sandy field, Milverton, II. B.
Kenilworth Heath.
TRISETUM.
T. flavescens, Beauv. Yellow Oat Grass.
Native : In meadows, pastures, and on roadsides and banks.
Rather common. June, July.
54
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
I. Canal bank, Gravelly Hill; pastures near Sutton Park; Middleton ;
Ansley ; Baddesley Ensor ; Baxterley; Kingsbury; Colesbill ;
Marston Green; Solihull; Knowle ; Temple Balsall ; Earls-
wood, &c.
II. Sherbourn, Y. and B. Honington, Tredington, Newb., Edge Hills;
Kineton ; Alveston Heath ; Stratford-on-Avon ; Binton ;
Wixford ; Salford Priors ; Oversley ; Henley-in- Arden ; Foles-
hill ; Combe Fields, &c.
AVENA.
A. pubescens, Linn. Downy Oat-Grass.
Native : In pastures, heathy commons, and on roadsides in marly
and calcareous soils. Locally abundant. May, June.
I. Slade Lane, Witton ; pasture near Sutton ; lane by Erdington
Grange ; Sybill Hill, near Kingsbury ; Oldbury ; Baddesley
Ensor ; Colesliill ; meadows near Blythe Bridge, Solihull.
II. Myton, Chesterton! Y. and B. Tredington, Newb., Wroxall ;
Longbridge, Warwick, H. B. Farnborougli, near the village ;
Marl cliff, near Bidford ; roadside between Alcester and Strat¬
ford ; Bardon Hill ; Foleshill.
A. pratensis, Linn. Glabrous Oat Grass.
Native: In pastures, and on roadsides and banks in calcareous
soils. Rather rare. July.
I. Roadside near Bradnock’s Marsh, June, 1882.
II. Lightliorne ; Tachbrook ; Compton Verney, II. P. Chesterton !
Y. and B. Tredington ! Newb. Oversley Hill, near the wood ;
Warwickshire meadows, Salford Priors ; Marl cliff near
Bidford ; roadsides between Stratford-on-Avon and Drayton
Bushes ; pastures near Sliottery ; Bardon Hill.
[A. strigosa, Schreb. Black Oat.
Casual: In corn fields. Rare. July.
II. Casual about Myton, E. B. Moreton Morrell, in wheat fields.]
A casual of very uncertain occurrence.
A. fatua, Linn. Wild Oat.
Colonist : In corn and other cultivated fields. As an aggregate
species locally common. July.
a. pilosissima. Rather common.
I. Long Lane, Sutton ; near Over Green, Wishaw, Curdworth ;
Hartsliill ; Coleshill ; Marston Green.
II. Wliituash ; Tachbrook, Y. and B. Lambcote ; Stratford-on-Avon
Newb. Wixford ; Binton ; Exhall ; Alne Hills ; near Rugby.
b. intermedia. Local or rare.
II. Myton, E. B., Alne Hills; Spernall Ash.
c. pilosa. Rare.
II. Harbury, E. B. ! Cultivated fields near Stratford-on-Avon.
The two latter varieties have probably a more extended range than
is given here, but sufficient attention has not been given to them to
allow of fuller record.
(To be continued.)
REVIEWS - METEOROLOGICAL NOTES
55
Ilcbietos.
Magnetism and Electricity. By Professor F. Guthrie. New edition,
revised by Mr. C. Y. Boys ; 428 pp., 328 illustrations. Published
by W. Collins and Sons ; price 3s. 6d.
The lai’ge circulation of Professor Guthrie’s book — it has now reached
its twentieth thousand — is the natural result of the high merit of the
book and its low price. To the present edition Mr. Boys has added a
valuable chapter dealing with electrical measurements and with the
wonderful discoveries which have rendered the last few years famous
in the history of electricity.
The Student's Elements of Geology. By Sir C. Lyell. Fourth edition,
edited by Professor P. M. Duncan. 621 pp., 8vo. ; 636 woodcuts;
price 9s. Published by 0 . Murray.
Students will hail with pleasure the appearance of a new edition of
“ Lyell’s Elements,” a standard work which has been out of print for
several years. It has been revised with great care by Prof. Duncan,
who has incorporated with the book the most recent geological
discoveries, including even Prof. Geikie’s acknowledgment of the true
arrangement of the rocks of the Highlands, a statement only published
a few weeks ago. The illustrations, which are very numerous, appear
to have been re-drawn, as they are as fresh as those of the first edition.
The Table of British Fossils given in the appendix, which extends
over twenty-two pages, and shows at a glance the successive appear¬
ance and development in time of the chief orders, classes, or families
of animals and plants, is a valuable feature. There can be no doubt
but that this book still remains the best general text-book of geology —
considering its fullness of detail, the fact that it is contained in one
volume, and ibs moderate price. W. J. H.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— December, 1884.
The barometer was unsteady throughout the month — fluctuating
between 29*1 inches and 30*1 inches until the 20tli, when it fell to
28*857 inches, and rose in forty-eight hours to 30*311 inches, remaining
high during the remainder of the month. Temperature was about
the mean, and was variable in the earlier part of the month. The
highest maxima were 57*7° at Hodsock, on the 13th ; 54*2° at Lough¬
borough, 54*0° at Henley-in-Arden, and 53*3° at Coston Rectory, on
the 6tli ; and 52*8° at Strelley, on the 13th. In the rays of the sun
84*2° was registered at Hodsock, on the 13th; 76*9° at Loughborough,
on the 5tli; and 72*3° at Strelley, on the 7th. The lowest minima
occurred on the 31st, and were 22*0° at Coston Rectory, 23*3° at
Hodsock, 24.0° at Henley-in-Arden, 24*6° at Loughborough, and 25*6°
at Strelley. On the same date the thermometer on the grass recorded
18.7° at Strelley, 19*4° at Hodsock, and 21*7 at Loughborough. The
rainfall was below the average, and consisted of small amounts. The
12th and 15tli were the only days before the 21st on which there was
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
50
not a fall of 0-01 of an inch or more. The latter portion of the month
was generally dry. The total values were 2-58 inches at Henley-in-
Arden, 2T9 inches at Strelley, 2-06 inches at Coston Rectory, 2-01
inches at Loughborough, and 1-45 inches at Hodsock. The heaviest
fall in one day was 0-44 inches at Coston Rectory, on the 18th. Snow
fell on the 1st, 17tli, 18tli, and 20tli. At Loughborough a lunar halo
was seen at 6 a.m. on the 8th, and on the afternoon of the 18tli light¬
ning and thunder were observed, and distant lightning in the evening
of the same day. Sunshine was deficient. Gales, chiefly S.W.,
were experienced on the 2nd, 7th, 10th, and 18tli.
Wm. Berridge, F.R.Met.Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
British Moss Flora. — In the notice of this work, Vol. VIII., p. 25,
it should have been stated that Part X. will conclude Vol. I., not
Part IX., as there stated.
Flora of Derbyshire. — The Rev. W. Hunt Painter, has for
some time past been engaged in preparing a new Edition of his
“ Notes on the Flora of Derbyshire,” and has made numerous
additions thereto both of Plants and Habitats. It will be issued to
subscribers, as soon as printed, at 2/6 per copy. Subscribers’ names
may be sent to Messrs. Wright, Dain, Peyton, and Co., “ The Herald
Press Office,” Birmingham.
Objects for the Microscope. — Messrs. James Carter and Co., 237,
High Holborn, London, W.C., announce in their new seed catalogue
for the present year that they are prepared to supply curious seeds for
microscopic objects to those who desire them, at the following rates : —
12 varieties for 2s. Gd., 25 for 5s., 50 for 10s. 6d., and 100 for 21s. This
is the first occasion on which, so far as we know, such an offer has
been made by either of our largest seedsmen, who must have unusual
facilities for supplying the microscopist with many interesting opaque
objects.
Additions to the Flora of Sutton Park. — I am pleased to say
that two very interesting additions to this flora — as recorded in the
“Notes on the Flora of Sutton Park” — have been made, namely,
Walileribergia liederacea and Lycopodium clavatum. Wahleubergia
liederacea has been found associated with Anagallis tenella in several
places by my kind friend Mr. A. W. Wills. This is a very pleasing
addition and one that I had always expected would be found in this
locality, as there are in this place all the natural surroundings required
by such a plant. Lycopodium clavatum has also been found in this
locality by Miss Ethel Stone, of Erdington, a young lady who takes
great interest in botanical science, and whose more keen observation
has enabled her to find a plant for which I have searched hitherto in
vain. Lycopodium clavatum is recorded for “ Sutton ” by Samuel
Freeman in the “ Pliytologist ” for July, 1842, page 262, but as Miss
Stone had never heard of this record her discovery of the plant in
Sutton Park is as truly an original one as was Freeman’s. When the
“ Notes on the Flora of Sutton Park” was published I was not aware
of the existence of Freeman’s paper, hence was unable to acknowledge
— as I should gladly have done — his priority of record in the case of
some of the rarer plants I have therein recorded. J. E. Bagnall.
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
57
The Jackdaw. — It may be interesting to some of your readers to
know that a pair of jackdaws located themselves for a time in the very
heart of the busiest part of Birmingham. In the spring of last year
these birds took possession of the elevated spire of the Cobden Coffee
House, in Corporation street. During the nesting season it was most
amusing to see the way in which the birds supplied themselves with
building material. From daylight until about 8 a.m. the pair were
engaged in collecting sticks, Ac., which were deposited on the roof of
an adjoining building. The remainder of the day was occupied in
carrying supplies from the store to the nest. Occasionally the birds
would perch on the vane — one at each end — and on a windy day the
vane would actually go round without at all disturbing the occupants
of this exalted position. Though the nest was prepared, and one or
other of the birds was to be seen daily during the period of incubation,
it is somewhat doubtful whether young birds were hatched. It was
not until September that any increase in numbers was noticed ; but on
this occasion there was considerable commotion round the spire, four
pairs of birds being observed, all apparently making a careful examina¬
tion of the amount of accommodation available for another season.
It would be interesting to know the district from which these jackdaws
came, and why they selected a place so far from any feeding ground.
It appears somewhat remarkable that they should have selected this
new spire in preference to the larger and older building of St. Philip’s
Church, which is only about a hundred yards distant. At the present
time (January) the place is visited daily for about two hours by one
pair of birds only. W. H.
Nitrates. — Of the salts just mentioned, the nitrates are of extreme
importance, inasmuch as nitrogen is an essential constituent of
protoplasm — without nitrogen there can be no protoplasm, without
protoplasm there can be no plant. The nitrogen is supplied to the
plants from the soil in the form either of nitrates (potassic nitrate,
sodic nitrate), or of ammonia salts in which the nitrogen is in
combination with hydrogen. The ammonia in the soil is made to
combine with oxygen, and thus to form nitric acid, through the
agency of minute organisms called “ Bacteria,” which, like the yeast
fungus, act as ferments; and by their agency it is, as Mr. Warington
has pointed out, in confirmation of the researches of Schloesing and
Muntz, that the ammonia salts, which themselves are inert, or it may
be harmful, get converted into useful nitrates. Ammonia salts
applied to some soils do no good, because the needful germs or ferment
bodies are not present in the soil ; but where they do exist, they
convert the useless into the useful, as before said. These bacteria
occur in all fermenting material, such as farmyard dung, whose value
as manure is in part accounted for by their presence and agency. It
is probable in the future that just as the brewer uses his yeast to
secure the conversion of starch into sugar, and the chemist “ seeds”
his solutions to effect the changes he wishes to bring about, and just as
the gardener sows the spawn or germs of mushrooms in his mushroom
bed, and obtains thereby a crop of succulent fungi, so the farmer may
be able to apply to the soil the ferment-producing germs needed to
change its quality, and render it available for plant food. When we
have arrived at that point, manuring will be reduced to a science, and
a pinch of the right material will be as efficient as a ton of our present
compounds, the larger part of which are undoubtedly wasted under
existing circumstances. — Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.K.S., in his
“ Plant Life." (London : Bradbury, Agnew, and Co.)
58
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
How and Why. — No torn scrap of that very sea-weed, which to¬
morrow may manure the nearest garden, but says to us, “Proud
man ! talking of spores and vesicles, if thou darest for a moment to
fancy that to have seen spores and vesicles is to have seen vie, or to
know what I am, answer this. Knowest thou how the bones do grow
in the womb ? Knowest thou even how one of these tiny black dots,
which thou callest spores, grow on my fronds?” And to that question
what answer shall we make ? We see tissues divide, cells develop,
processes go on — but how and why ? These are but phenomena ; but
what are phenomena save effects ? Causes, it may be, of other effects ;
but still effects of other causes. And why does the cause cause that
effect? Why should it not cause something else? Why should it
cause anything at all ? Because it obeys a law. But why does it
obey the law ? and how does it obey the law ? And, after all, what is
a law? A mere custom of Nature. We see the same phenomenon
happen a great many times ; and we infer from thence that it has a
custom of happening ; and therefore we call it a law : but we have
not seen the law ; all we have seen is the phenomenon which we
suppose to indicate the law. We have seen things fall : but we never
saw a little flying thing pulling them down, with “ gravitation ’’labelled
on its back ; and the question, ivhy things fall, and how, is just where
it was before Newton was born, and is likely to remain there. All we
can say is, that Nature has her customs, and that other customs ensue,
when those customs appear : but that as to what connects cause and
effect, as to what is the reason, the final cause, or even the causa causans,
of any phenomenon, we know not more but less than ever ; for those
laws or customs which seem to us simplest (“ endosmose,” for
instance, or “ gravitation ”) are just the most inexplicable, logically
unexpected, seemingly arbitrary, certainly supernatural — miraculous,
if you will ; for no natural and physical cause whatsoever can be
assigned for them ; while if anyone shall argue against their being
miraculous and supernatural on the ground of their being so common,
I can only answer, that of all absurd and illogical arguments, this is
the most so. For what has the number of times which the miracle
occurs to do with the question, save to increase the wonder? Which
is more strange, that an inexplicable and unfathomable thing should
occur once and for all, or that it should occur a million times every
day all the world over ? — Charles Kingsley.
Mr. James E. Bagnall. — Mr. Smiles, in his charming “ Life of a
Scotch Naturalist, Thomas Edward, Associate of theLinnean Society,”
has told the history of one of the most zealous naturalists that ever
lived — a man who, under the most adverse circumstances, made great
and important additions to natural knowledge. In 1806 these arduous
labours were signally recognised and, in a sense, rewarded by his being
elected an Associate of the Linnean Society. The society never has
more than twenty-five Associates on its roll of members, and Edward’s
biographer very accurately says of him when he became one of the
number, that it was “ one of the highest honours that science could
confer upon him.” Not only is it an honour to be elected an Associate,
but the honour is all the greater inasmuch as no one is elected who
has not done some really good work in at least one branch of Natural
History. It is, therefore, a source of much pleasure to us to be able
to announce that this honourable distinction has lately been conferred
on our mucli-respected contributor, Mr. James E. Bagnall, of Bir¬
mingham, who, at a recent meeting of the Linnean Society, was
unanimously elected an Associate, the proposition being made,
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
59
seconded, and supported by several eminent scientific men. Mr.
Bagnall is one of the Vice-Presidents of the Birmingham Natural
History and Microscopical Society, of which he has for something like
a quarter of a century been one of the most useful and hard-working
members. He has devoted his principal attention to the study of
botany — structural and systematic. Years since he won for himself a
name as a bryologist. He has communicated numberless papers to
the Society, and scarcely a meeting has taken place for a very long
period at which he has not exhibited some plant “ new to the district ”
or of great rarity. He has always been a ready helper to young
beginners, and many local botanists have benefited by his assistance.
Many of his contributions have appeared in the scientific journals.
His most important published work is the latest and by far the best
“ Flora of Warwickshire,” which has appeared by instalments
extending over several years in the pages of this magazine. This
important work will, we are informed, shortly appear in a thoroughly
revised form as an independent publication. We cannot entertain
a doubt that it will be warmly welcomed by botanists in all parts of
the kingdom, for it has already won the reputation of being one of the
fullest and most carefully prepared county floras in the English
language. If we are not misinformed, Mr. Bagnall has achieved his
success as a scientific man in the leisure hours of a working life spent
in one of our large manufactories, where he has been as “diligent in
business” as he has been diligent in observation and study when the
day’s work has been finished.
T\ cport.s of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Microscopical General Meeting, January 20tli, 1885. —
The following resolution was passed : — “ That this meeting desires to
express its sincere sorrow and regret at the loss which the Society has
sustained by the death of their Assistant Curator, Mr. Cox, who fulfilled
the duties of his office with satisfaction to the Society, and advantage
to the members; and this meeting further desires to express its
sympathy with Mr. Cox’s relatives on this occasion.” Mr. W. R.
Hughes, F.L.S., exhibited Arbutus vnedo, in flower and fruit, from
Colwyn Bay, North Wales. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited Glycerin
fluitans from the warm water of a canal at a Wolverhampton Iron
Works. Also some large acorns from a tree near the Wrekin, Shropshire,
probably Quercus albus, an American species of Oak, brought into
cultivation here about 1793. Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited rare varieties
of the following birds : — Variety of Fringilla coelebs, from Small Heath ;
Sylvia cinerea , from Tamworth ; Erithacus rvbecula ,from Burton ; Sturmis
vulgaris, local; Tringa minuta, from Breydon Broad; also nests and
eggs of Erithacus rubecula , Anthus obscurus, Fringilla ccelebs, Motacilla-
rail; and clutches of eggs of Accipiter nisus , and Larus fuscus. All the
above eggs were of unusual colouring. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., ex¬
hibited under the microscope, Koch’s Comma Bacillus, from a specimen
cultivated in gelatine, put up by Dr. Strauss, of the German Cholera
Commission. This is the alleged germ of cholera, and there is great
probability that the allegation will be proved. The opinions which
60
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
have been expressed, against it are all unsupported by trustworthy experi¬
ments. In opposition to Professor Ray Lankester’s published opinion,
it may be stated that these specimens are comma-shaped, i.e., curved
in a sixth of a circle, but of course without the head, and also are a
true species of Bacillus in the vibrio form.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION.— December 22nd.— Mr. Deakin exhibited specimens of land
shells of the following genera : — Helix, Clausilia, and Bulimus, from
Mount Carmel, Palestine ; also carvings in soapstone, from Agra and
Ceylon. Mr. Moore, a collection of named marine shells from Ceylon.
Mr. Madison, the following shells: — Helix irce, from Queensland; H.
■ pennsylvanica , from Ohio ; and Planorbis corneus , from Slavonia. Mr.
J. W. Neville, Permian marl, with fern impressions. Mr. J. Betteridge
contributed his fourth paper on “ Birds of the District.” January 5th.
—Mr. Moore exhibited a collection of foreign shells, Cypraa canrica,
G. andria , C. caput-serpent is, etc., etc. Mr. Madison, Unio luteolus and
Anodonta subcylindrica , from United States. Mr. Hawkes, a specimen
of Pinnothere from shell of mussel. Under the microscope Mr. Dunn
showed Gantliocamptus minutus. Mr. J. W. Neville, Foraminifera,
dredged off coast of Galway. January 12th. — Mr. Moore exhibited
specimens of Nerita virginea and other foreign shells. Mr. Hawkes,
a collection of plants from Llandudno, including Echium vulgare ,
Statice Limonium, and Gentiana Amarella. Under the microscope Mr.
J. W. Neville showed a polyzoon, Membranipora rnembranacea, from
New Zealand.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.—
Section D.— Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. ;
monthly meeting, January 21st; attendance, twelve (four ladies).
Exhibits : Fruit of the Mango {Mangifera indica) and the Butter-nut
( Garyocar nuciferum ) by the Chairman. Branch of Ribes speciosum
from a garden in Hampshire, showing its numerous triple spines and
young winter leaves, by Miss Grundy. The large common lichen,
Peltigera canina , with abundant fruit, by Mr. Grundy. Papers (1), by
Mr. F. Bates “ On two rare filamentous algte new to the county,” viz.,
( Edogonium platygynum and (E. cdandicum , the former only recorded
hitherto from Ireland, and the latter entirely new to Great Britain.
These very interesting plants Mr. Bates had discovered in bogs and
pools on Cliarn wood Forest, andhe exhibited under the microscope admir¬
ably prepared slides showing the oogonia in several stages, and with
the dwarf males attached. The paper described the extraordinary and
complex process of fecundation in this remarkable group. (2) By Mr.
H. G. Quilter, “ On some Analogies between Plant and Animal Life,”
showing how both originated from the simple cell, how the processes of
development were nearly similar in each case, and how all the attributes
and functions of animals might be traced in plants also, only in a less
advanced stage, and on a lower level. (3) By Mr. F. T. Mott, “ On
Acaulon ( Phascum ) muticum, one of the smallest Leicestershire mosses.”
This minute moss, one-twelfth of an inch in height only, he had found
in his own garden in company7 with Phascum cuspidatum and Pottia
truncata. It had only once before been recorded for the county, viz.,
by the Rev. A. Bloxam at Congerstone. Several specimens were
exhibited prepared as microscopic slides by Mr. J. H. Garnar, also
some specimens of the smallest flowering plant, Wolffia arrhiza, for
comparison of size. This small moss was specially notable for its
beautiful little bright red globular capsule.
■
/
Plate E .
/
Map of the Lias Marlstone Rock in the Leicestershire District.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
01
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE AS
A SOURCE OF IRON.
BY E. WILSON, F.G.S. , CURATOR OF BRISTOL MUSEUM.
The Marlstone Rock or Rock Red is a hard, ferruginous,
earthy, and highly fossiliferous limestone, passing into an
ironstone, which lies in the midst of the softer shales of the
Lias formation. It constitutes the upper member of the
Middle Lias series, the lower member comprising a series of
sandy shales, which graduate into the underlying clays of the
Lower Lias.
From the large amount of iron it contains, the Marlstone
Rock has during the past ten or twelve years acquired a con¬
siderable commercial importance, and the mining industry to
which it has given rise in the Leicestershire district is,
without a doubt, destined in the future to attain far greater
dimensions than it has at present reached. In times long
passed, and of which we have no historical record, the rock
bed was worked for iron both in Leicester and Rutland, as is
evidenced by the ancient slags which arc occasionally met
with. Having fallen into disuse, however, its value as a
source of iron has been, until quite recently, either entirely
overlooked or altogether underestimated. For many years
past it has been quarried for building, road metalling, and
lime burning, and for all of these purposes it is still to a
certain extent used. During the construction of the new
local lines of the Great Northern Railway Company, the
Marlstone met with in the cuttings proved of considerable
service both for the building of bridges and the ballasting
of the line.
The rediscovery of the Leicestershire ironstone in modern
times appears to have been made by Mr. 1. A. Ivnipe, who
also constructed a geological map of the Belvoir district
where the ore occurs, and brought it to the notice of the
Duke of Rutland. This was prior to 1855, in which year a
trial of the marlstone from Croxton was made at the furnaces
of the Clay Cross Company. At that period, however, there
were no means of getting the stone away, and it was mainly
on that account, I believe, that no further steps were then
taken in the matter. To Mr. R. Dalgliesh, manager of the
Ilolwell Iron Company, and Mr. H. A. Allport belongs the
credit of having been the first to actually commence the
working of the Leicestershire Marlstone for iron, and
thus to give the ore a commercial value. Mr. Dalgliesh,
62
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
while employed on the parliamentary survey of the Notting¬
ham and Melton line fon the Midland Railway Company, was
struck by the redness of the ground in the neighbourhood of
Holwell, and concluded that there was iron there. In the
year 1873 Messrs. Dalgliesli and Allport examined the district.
Samples of the Holwell ironstone were procured and sent to
Mr. E. Riley, F.C.S., of London, to be analysed, and that
gentleman gave a very favourable report of the stone. A
large sample of the ore was in the following year sent to
Staveley to be smelted. The result proved the correctness of
Mr. Riley’s opinions, the stone turning out easy to smelt,
and the pig-iron produced from it being of good quality. In
1875 a company was formed and a lease of the ironstone
obtained. In the following year a mineral branch line was
constructed from Holwell to the Midland Nottingham and
Melton line near Asfordby, and the district was thus opened
out, and the ironstone got into the market. At first
the Holwell Company sent the whole of their ore to the
Staveley Company and other large iron smelting firms
in Derbyshire and elsewhere. In 1881 they erected a couple
of furnaces at Asfordby, near Melton Mowbray, and since
that year they have smelted the bulk of the ironstone they
have got in the district at their own works. At the present
time they have a third furnace ready to put into blast.
These, it should be. mentioned, are the only furnaces in the
Leicestershire ironstone field, and at Asfordby the manu¬
facture of iron is carried on with due regard to the most
approved scientific methods.
The Marlstone Rock as a formation— though not for the
whole distance as an available source of iron — extends
uninterruptedly through the district for a distance of thirty-
five miles, namely, from Welbourn in Lincolnshire, on the
north, to Medbourn, near Market Harborough, on the south.
Within these limits its prevailing north-easterly strike varies
somewhat, whilst its thickness varies very considerably.
Owing to these causes and to subsequent unequal atmospheric
denudation, as also to the effects of at least one considerable
fault, its outcrop is extremely irregular. The maximum
thickness of thirty feet is attained in the middle part of its
range, or between Barrowby, near Grantham, and Scalford,
near Melton. When followed north and south of these two
points, the Marlstone is found at first gradually, and then
more rapidly to thin away and eventually to die away
altogether/1' Hence, wo may look upon the Leicestershire
* The Marlstone also displays a tendency to attenuate in an
easterly direction.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
63
Marl stone as a lenticular mass of rock enclosed in the Lias
shales. From its superior hardness, the Rock-bed has been
able to withstand denudation to such an extent that, when
well developed, it forms an elevated table land or terrace
from half a mile to two miles in width, rising with a gentle
inclination from the base of the slopes of the Upper Lias
shales on the east, and terminating in a bold escarpment
overlooking the Lower Lias country on the west. This escarp¬
ment has in many places become deeply indented by valleys,
and carved into promontories and even outliers through the
wearing action during the course of ages of the many streams
that breach its face. The porosity and extensive jointing of
the exposed Rock-bed, which rests upon comparatively imper¬
vious clays, render it a copious reservoir for water. Most of
the brooks of the adjoining Lower Lias district take their
origin in springs thrown out at its base.
The Marlstone Rock shows great variations in mineral
character. When quarried in an unweathered state in deep
pits or under beds of impervious clay, it is a hard crystalline
rock of a bluish-green tint, but where it has for a length of
time been exposed to the disintegrating influences of the
atmosphere it becomes, owing to chemical changes to be
hereafter explained, of a rusty brown colour, and porous and
friable in texture. At the surface the marlstone breaks up
into a very characteristic deep red ferruginous soil, which
forms an excellent corn land, and contrasts in a marked
manner with the pasturage of the adjoining country occupied
by the heavy clays above and below. Trees attain a large
growth on this rock, and root-crops, as well as all the cereals,
thrive upon it.
In a general way the Marlstone Rock consists of two very
distinct portions — an upper and a lower — each of which
constitutes, roughly speaking, about half its entire thickness.
When the rock is in an unweathered state, this distinction is
not very obvious to the eye, though it comes out on analysis.
In the brown or weathered condition, however, the difference
of these two portions is readily discerned. The upper part
then appears as a highly ferruginous laminated limestone, the
lower as massively bedded, but softer and more or less concre¬
tionary sandstone. It is a noteworthy fact that only the
upper portion of the Marlstone is sufficiently rich in iron to pay
for working, so that even when that rock attains a thickness
of twenty-live feet or more the ironstone beds actually worked
will not at the outside exceed some eight or ten feet. If then
these upper beds are absent, the Marlstone will be unproduc¬
tive of iron. Some beds of the Marlstone are crowded with
64
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
fossils, though they belong as a rule to a very limited number
of species. These beds, termed “ Jacks” by the quarrymen,
are made up of an agglomeration of the shells of Rhynchonella
tetraedra and Tercbratuia punctata, associated with which
we also find Belemnites paxillosus and Belemnites elongatus.
The hitter forms serve to distinguish the Lias marlstone from
the Northampton Sands ironstone, to which it bears a con¬
siderable lithological resemblance, but from which it is both
geologically and mineralogically quite distinct. Certain beds
are almost entirely composed of encrinite fragments or of
broken shells. Now and then an Ammonites spinatus will
turn up, but this, the characteristic fossil of the Marlstone
horizon, is in the Leicestershire district generally characteristic
by its rarity or entire absence. The bottom bed of the Marl¬
stone usually contains small fiattish phosphatic nodules in
such numbers as to give the rock a conglomeratic aspect.
Having described the general features of the Marlstone
Bock, as exhibited in the counties of Leicester, Rutland, and
(South) Lincoln, I will now proceed to notice in somewhat
greater detail its varying character and thickness, and in
particular its mineral products and organic remains within
the limits of the above district. For convenience we will
commence in the centre of Rutland, a typical Marlstone
country, and thence trace the rock southwards towards
Northamptonshire, and northwards into Lincolnshire.
In the neighbourhood of Oakham the Rock-bed, though
only eight or nine feet in thickness, covers a very extensive
area of low-lying ground forming the fioor of the famous
Yale of Catmos. Its decomposition gives rise to the highly
productive red soil for which this district is renowned, and
which probably gave the name Rutland (Red-land) to the
county. A little further to the south this rock may be seen
forming terraces on the sides of the valleys of the Cliater
and Gwasli. To the north of Oakham, about Teigh, Edmond-
tliorpe, and Wymondham, the Marlstone Rock stands out as a
bold escarpment on the west, with a gentle dip-slope to the
east. Going westwards from here we find the Rock-bed
stretching out by Whissendine and Pickwell to terminate in
the bold promontory of Burrow-on-the-Hill. This district,
diversified as it is by deep valleys and surmounted by the
cliff-like masses of the Rock-bed, displays hereabouts
really picturesque scenery. Bending round by Somerby and
Ouston the Marlstone sends out another fine branch by
Tilton to Billesdon. This western projection of the Marlstone
is due to the preservative influence of the great Billesdon
and Lodington fault, which has a downthrow to the north of
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
G5
fully 150 feet. In this neighbourhood, the Marlstone attains
more than twice the thickness it exhibits in the Oakham
district. In the vicinity of Tilton there are several interesting
exposures of the Marlstone Hock. It is finely displayed in
the railway cutting south of Tilton Station in its grey
unweathered form beneath a thick capping of Upper Lias
shales, and in this section its junction with the underlying
Middle Lias shales is well shewn.
Section in railway cuttiny south of Tilton Station.
Ft. In.
Upper Lias Shales, in grass-grown slopes, about ... 80 0
Middle Lias: Marlstone Bock —
(/*.) Bluisli-green calcareous ironstone, massively
bedded with an irregular flakey capping con¬
taining Nautilus truncatus, Ammonites acu-
tus (in great numbers), A. spinatus, A. com¬
munis, A Holandrei, A. serpentinus, A.
annulatus, A. Ccecilia, Belemnites elongatus,
B. paxillosus, B. apicicurvatus, Lima pec-
tinoides, Pecten aequivalvis, Cerithium fer-
reum, C. confusum, C. reticulatum, Eucyclus
Gaudryanus, Pliasianella turbinata, Troclms
ariel, T. aeolus, Cryptasnia expansa, Plicatula
spinosa, Bliynchonella tetraedra var.
Northamptonensis, Terebratula punctata, and
var. and occasionally fragments of fossil
wood ... ... ... ... 0 G to 0 9
passing down into dark bluisli-green cal¬
careous ironstone finely oolitic, containing
Am. communis, A. acutus, Pecten lunulans,
P. aequivalvis, Terebratula punctata, Belem¬
nites ... ... ... ... ... 28 82
{(j.) Grey finely oolitic calcareous ironstone,
Pecten lunularis, Belemnites ... ... 1 7
(/.) Encrinital bed, grey finely oolitic rock,
obliquely laminated with encrinital frag¬
ments, Belemnites .. ... ... OG 10
(0.) Bluisli-green oolitic rock, with irregular
seams of encrinital fragments, Belemnites ... 1 2
id.) Bluish-green finely oolitic rock, with encri-
nite fragments, Pecten lunularis, P. aequivalvis 2 0
(c.) Bluisli-green rock, becomes locally a “jack,”
Pecten aequivalvis, Belemnites, Pthynclionella
tetraedra, Terebratula punctata .. ... 1 G
THE LIAS MAULSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
66
(b.) Greenish arenaceous rock, locally a “jack”
in upper portion, Belemnites, Terebratula
punctata, and Rliynchonella tetraedra. The
lower portion of this bed is nodular and
veined with calcite ... ... ... ... 4 6
(a.) Greenish arenaceous rock, with “jack” in
upper half; the lowest six inches contain
many phosphatic nodules, Gresslya lunulata,
G. intermedia, Pleuromya sp. Rliynchonella
tetraedra, and Terebratula punctata... ... 8 6
* 18 ^5
Middle Lias: Shales — with bands of sandstone and
scattered limestone nodules ... (exposed) 13 0
The dip is here very well shewn. It is about 1° in a
S.E. direction.
Note. — The Marlstone Rock is traversed by numerous joints. Along
these fissures as also along the bedding planes the iron carbonate has,
to the depth of a few inches on either side, become converted into
the hydrated oxide, causing the stone to assume a yellowish brown
colour.
The uppermost stratum, or rather the top layer of this
stratum is remarkable for the organic remains it contains.
Of these, one of the Ammonites, A. acutus, is especially
noticeable, for it occurs in great numbers and in all stages of
growth, yet not a single individual has ever been found else¬
where in the district. In addition, we find several other
Ammonites and some interesting little Gastropoda, as well as
ordinary bivalves and Bracliiopoda. This top bed, or at any
rate the special fauna it contains, is extremely local, being, so
far as I know, limited to Tilton. On the north side of Robin-
a- Tiptoes there is a brickyard section which exposes the
upper beds of the Marlstone Rock and its junction with the
Upper Lias shales ; but although this point is only half-a-
mile from the Tilton section we see no trace of the A. acutus
bed.*
* A somewhat similar fossiliferous bed, containing some Upper
Lias forms, has been noticed at the top of the Marlstone of Oxfordshire
by Mr. Beesley, of Banbury, and is considered by him to be a passage
bed to the Upper Lias. The A. acutus band at Tilton, however,
although it contains certain Upper Lias forms, cannot properly be
considered a passage bed.
('To be continued.)
ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF VEGETABLES.
07
ON “THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF VEGETABLES.—
DO PLANTS FEEL?”*
BY F. T. MOTT, F.R.G.S.
It is well known that many plants possess,
in some of their organs and tissues, a certain
irritability by which various functional move¬
ments are set up and regulated. The folding-
leaves of sensitive plants, of which there are
many ; the sleep of plants, the twisting-
petioles and tendrils of climbers, the fly-traps
of Drosera and Dionaea, the sensitive anthers of the Barberry,
are familiar examples of this irritability which induces
motion. But how is the motion produced ? and what is the
fundamental cause concealed under the term “ irritability”?
These movements, which are all curvilinear, and represent
the bending of some organ to one side, may arise either from
the contraction of tissue on the inner side or from its
expansion on the outer side. In the common sensitive-plant
it is believed by Sachs that the leaf movements are caused
by a sudden rush of liquid from the cells on one side of the
articulation to those of the other side, which become at once
turgid and enlarged, and bend the leaf over towards the
empty cells. But in curving stems and tendrils Asa Gray
has shown that if a slice is cut oft* the convex side, so as to
make it thinner, the bending is more rapid, which shows that
it is due to the contractions of cells on the inner side, not to
the expansion of those on the outer.
Here, then, is something approaching to true contractile
tissue, that tissue which constitutes the active muscles in the
higher animals. But such animal muscle contracts only at
the bidding of some delicate nerve fibre, and no such fibre
has anywhere been found in the Vegetable Kingdom.
There are, however, among the lowest orders of animal
life many examples of a contractile tissue which operates in
the same manner as the muscles of the higher animals, and
yet is not controlled by any discoverable system of nerve
fibres. The Amaeba has no nerves, yet it moves about
apparently at its own will. The Medusae swim by contractions
of the gelatinous bell, and according to Mr. G. J. Romanes
irritation is conveyed from side to side of this bell, yet no
trace of nerve fibre can be found in it.
Surely, then, we may be justified in attributing the
contraction of vegetable tissue to a power the same as, or
* Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and
Philosophical Society- Read June 20th, 1883.
68
ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF VEGETABLES.
analogous to, that which contracts the tissue of the lower
animals. What is this power ?
In organic structures we may recognise four fundamental
systems of tissue, viz.: —
The soft cellular tissue,
The hard bony tissue,
The contractile muscular tissue, and
The energy-conveying nerve tissue.
In the highest animals we find all those systems well
developed. As we descend the scale we find them fading out
in the order in which I have placed them. First the nerve
tissue diminishes, then the muscular, then the bony, till the
lowest organic forms consist of soft cells only.
But since, according to the laws of organic Evolution,
the highest forms have been developed from the lowest, the
capacity for this development must exist in those lowest
forms, in the same manner as the capacity to develop into
an oak exists in the acorn. In fact, the first embryonic form,
even of mail himself, is still a single cell.
Now in the Vegetable Kingdom we find that the first two
systems of tissue are well developed, the cellular and the
bony. The third system — that of the laminated and con¬
tractile muscle, is imperfectly represented by the foliage
which clothes the hard skeleton and with which most of the
contractile movements are connected; but the last and highest
system, that of nerve tissue, is quite undeveloped.
The laws of true analogy, however, suggest the immense
probability that this is only one of the regular phenomena of
organic development; that the form of vital energy which
constitutes thought and sentiment in man and which repre¬
sents itself in the material world by nerve tissue, exists through¬
out the descending scale of life in a gradually less developed
condition till in the Protozoa and Badiata among animals,
and in all vegetables, it is so completely embryonic that it is
not represented to our senses by any differentiated tissue.
From this point of view irritability in plants is seen to
have precisely the same origin as in animals.
It is a nervous phenomenon ; the result of nerve energy
in its lowest form acting through contractile cells. In the
most general sense the plant “feels” in the same way that
the animal does, but probably in the most general sense only.
No man can absolutely say what amount of consciousness of
feeling may exist in any creature other than himself. But
all the evidence we can gather points to the conclusion that
consciousness is one of the highest conditions to which nerve
energy attains, that it becomes continually less definite along
the descending scale of life, and that in cellular animals and
all plants there exists only a faint trace of it, or none.
PRE- CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS
69
THE PRE-CAR I30NIFER0US FLOOR OF THE
MIDLANDS.
BY W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
( Continued from pa ye 40.)
2. — The Syenites of South Leicestershire. — The little bosses
of syenitic or dioritic rocks which crop out in South Leices¬
tershire have been so recently described by me in the
“Midland Naturalist,”* that I need not now allude to them in
detail. They are largely worked for paving-setts, &c., at
Enderby, Narborougli, Croft, Stoney-Stanton-witli-Sapcote,
and Barrow Hill — little villages lying on either side of the
railway from Nuneaton to Leicester. In most of the stone-
pits the Keuper marls and sandstones are well exposed,
resting upon the eroded surface of the igneous rock, and
showing in a striking manner the difference between stratified
and unstratified rocks. The microscopic character of the
syenite proves it to be allied to the Cliarnwood rocks of the
same character. At one point (the lower quarry at Enderby )
the syenite is seen to break through a dull green slaty rock.
This slate was assigned by the discoverers of the section
(the Revs. E. Hill and T. Gf. Bouncy) to the Cliarnwood
series, but I believe that it is of later date, forming part of
the Cambrian formation, which probably encircles Cliarnwood
on all sides, although its junction with the older rocks is (in
that district) everywhere covered over and concealed by
newer strata.
But if Cliarnwood rocks themselves are not exposed in
South Leicestershire these four or five low round-topped
hills afford valuable evidence of an extension of the Pre-
Carboniferous rocks for at least nine miles in a southerly
direction.
3. — The Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian Rocks of the Hartshill
Pi any e. — Walking south-west from the hummocky rocks of
Croft and Sapcote across the Triassic plain of South Leices¬
tershire, wo soon arrive at the foot of a well-defined ridge,
which extends from Nuneaton, by Hartshill, to beyond
Atherstone, a distance of six or eight miles. The rocks
forming this ridge have a strike in strict accordance with its
extension from north-west to south-east, and they dip to the
south-west at high angles — from thirty to sixty degrees —
rising abruptly from the Leicestershire plain on the one
* Vol, VII., pp. 7 and 41.
70
PRE-CARBONIFEIiOUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS
hand, bat gradually sloping to the higher surface of the
Warwickshire coal-field which lies to the west and south.
The altitude of the ridge is about 500ft., and from the road
which runs along the crest the view extends to the blue hills
of Cliarnwood, fifteen miles away, and westward— across the
*
coal-field — to the bossy mass of Dost Hill. Examining the
very base of the Hartshill Range, rocks of Pre- Cambrian age
can be detected near the windmill at Caldecote. Here, in a
little spinney between the mill and a large house, there is an
old disused quarry in which a good section is exposed. The
bulk of the rock is a dark basaltic-looking mass — possibly a
diabase — which breaks across a very interesting rock — a
quartz -felsite* — of which only a small portion is visible at
the northern end of the quarry. This quartz-felsite nmeli_
resembles similar rocks which occur in the Pre-Cambrian
formation near Llanberis in North Wales. Below these rocks,
in a kind of tunnel leading towards the house, we find volcanic
grits and ashes comparable with those which are so common
in Cliarnwood Forest. Altogether the Pre-Cambrians here
form a narrow strip rather more than a mile in length, bounded
to the east by a fault whose throw must be very great, since
it brings the Keuper marls to a level with the Arcluean strata.
The Quartzite of Hartshill. — Resting upon the volcanic
rocks just described we find a considerable thickness of a
metamorphosed sedimentary rock — a quartzite (once a sand¬
stone) about 1,000 feet in thickness. Its base is a breccia,
composed of small pebbles of the underlying rocks, but
higher up it becomes exceedingly hard and compact. In the
upper portion narrow bands of shale appear, which increase
in number and thickness towards the top. The strike of the
quartzite strictly accords with the direction of the ridge
which is composed of it, being from north-west to south-east
(parallel to the Cliarnwood axis), while the dip is to the south¬
west at an average angle of 35 degrees. The rock is
extensively worked for road-metal, and is exposed in the
quarries in a series of magnificent sections, all the way from
Nuneaton to Hartshill. Its colour varies from white to red ;
although fossils have been diligently searched for, not a
trace of one has as yet been discovered. Two dykes of dioritc
traverse the quartzite nearly parallel to its strike. One is
well seen on either side of the Midland Station at Nuneaton ;
the other, which is much thinner, is exposed in the quarries
close to Hartshill. The geological age of the quartzite is a
* Mr. T. II. Waller has kindly promised to examine these rocks
microscopically, and to report upon them in an early number of the
Midland Naturalist.
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
71
%
difficult question, and its consideration will be better deferred
till the mode of occurrence of the same rock in other localities
has been described.
The Stockingford Shales. — Resting upon the quartzite, and
forming a region of rugged ground which lies to the west of
the Hartshill range, we find a considerable thickness— nearly
2,000 feet — of rubbly shales or mud-stones, which may be called
the Stockingford Shales, because they are well exposed in the
railway cutting of the Midland line between Stockingford and
Nuneaton. At the base — where they rest upon the quartzite —
these Cambrian shales vary from red to purple in colour, but
higher up they are more commonly grey or black. Nodules
of manganese — formerly worked in several little pits — occur
in the red shales. The general dip of these beds is to the
south-west, at angles of from thirty to as much as seventy
degrees. Lying parallel to the quartzite, the shales occupy a
much larger area, extending from beyond Atherstone in the
north to Marston Jabet in the south, a distance of more than
ten miles ; while they occupy a surface-strip whose breadth
varies from half a mile to rather more than a mile. At each
extremity of this strip the beds roll over and assume an
easterly dip, which is well seen in the old quarry near the
Hall at Marston Jabet ; and which is also indicated by the
corresponding anticlinal of the coni measures north of Ather¬
stone. Thus the structure of the country is that of an
anticlinal, broken through by a great fault about the centre
(near Hartshill), but preserving its crest to the north and
south of this point of maximum dislocation. The shales are
traversed by several dykes or intrusive sheets of diorite (well
described by Mr. S. Allport *) which run more or less parallel
to the strike of the shales. Here and there the dioritic rock
thickens out into a boss, such as the great mass which is
quarried near Oldbury Hall. Further south a fine section
showing four dykes, traversing and sending out tongues into
the shales, can be seen in the railway cutting at Cliilvers
Coton.
Owing to the difference in hardness between the diorites
and the shales, steep ravines have been eroded in the latter ;
these form a striking feature in the scenery round Hartshill.
In the Stockingford cutting red shales are seen at the
Nuneaton end, and these are overlaid by purple, grey, and
black shales which undulate considerably, but whose average dip
is at a high angle to the west. The only fossil I obtained here
was an Obolella. At Camp Hill the red basement shales are
*
Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Yol. XXXV., p. G37.
72
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
exposed, and there are numerous other exposures along the
general line of outcrop, all of which have the same character.
Where the diorite crosses the sedimentary rocks the latter
are much altered, being baked, bleached, and shattered.
Fossils of certain genera are fairly numerous, although
imperfect ; but the species are few. They include the trilobite
Aijnostus (probably A. pisifonnis), and a small Limptlella which
is very like L. ferriujinea . Professor Lapworth has also
identified Lingulella Nicholsoni, Obolella Saltcri, Kuton/ina
cingulata, and Acrotreta socialis. These are undoubtedly
Cambrian species, but they are hardly sufficient to enable us
to refer the Stockingford shales to a precise horizon in the
Cambrian formation. Taking all points into consideration,
however, we may, perhaps, assign these slialy beds to the
period of the Upper Lingula Flags and Tremadoc Slates,
in which the same general assemblage of fossils occurs.
The Stockingford shales are separated from the coal-
measures by a considerable fault which runs curving along
the strike. It is marked by a line of brick pits, in which
the rubbed-up material or “fault-stuff” is worked, and its
effects are well seen in the deep pit in coal-measure binds
and sandstones about a quarter-mile east of Stockingford
station. All the diorite dykes end abruptly along this
line of fault, showing that the period of their intrusion into
the Cambrian shales was Pre-Carboniferous.
4. — The Cambrian Hocks of DosthUl. — The western boundary
of the Warwickshire coal-field is, like the eastern, marked bv
the appearance of Cambrian rocks which have been brought
to the level of beds of much more recent geological age, by
the agency of faults running parallel to the strike of the
strata.
Dostliill is a low eminence, four miles south of Tamworth,
and not far from the Kingsbury Station of the Birmingham
and Derby Pailway. It owes its present elevation to igneous
rocks of two or three varieties — mainly diorite — which traverse
Cambrian shales. On the west of the hill, which rises pre¬
cipitously from the course of the River Tame, a line of fault
runs, by which the Triassic strata are placed on a level with
the Cambrian shales, while on the eastern side a parallel fault
of less “throw ” places the coal-measures in a similar position;
the latter rocks are well exposed along the railway, and a line
of collieries marks the outcrop of the coal-seams, which in
some cases are worked from their outcrop almost vertically,
so greatly have they been bent up by the elevating action to
which the central slice of Cambrian strata — sandwiched
between Carboniferous and Trias— owes its position.
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
73
The Dos thill Shales are remarkable for the abundance of
worm-tracks which they contain. In a small field-pit, quite
close to the main road, at the southern extremity of the hill,
there is a good exposure of these “ annelidean” shales, through
which a neck or pipe of igneous rock is seen to rise, spreading
out above into a horizontal sheet. Altogether the Cambrians
of Dosthill occupy but a small area — less than a square mile.
I have not detected the quartzite in situ here, but it is probably
at no great depth, as large loose blocks lie upon the surface,
brought up, it may be, along the line of fault.
It would thus appear that the floor of the Warwickshire
coal-field is composed of Cambrian rocks, the Silurian and
Devonian strata being absent. This is confirmed by the
Leicestershire borings to which we shall presentty allude.
A note as to the discovery of the true age of the Pre-
Carboniferous rocks of Warwickshire may not be out of
place here. In February, 1882, I read a paper* before the
Philosophical Society of Birmingham, in which it was insisted
that the hard rocks that occur as pebbles in the Permian,
Bunter, and Keuper strata of the Midlands were derived — not
from Wales and Scotland as Professors Ramsay and Hull had
asserted — but from old rocks which formerly stretched more
or less continuously right across Central England, and of which
patches still existed at the surface. This paper, and the
discussion which followed it, led to the announcement a
few weeks later by Mr. F. T. S. Houghton and Professor
Lapworth of the distinction between the Llandovery sandstone
and the Cambrian quartzite of the Lickey Hills. By this time
I had myself examined the Lickey Hills and I was at once
struck with the resemblance between the true quartzite, which
forms the greater part of the ridge, and specimens of the
Hartsliill quartzite which my students had brought to me
when I was curator of the Leicester Museum. This Hartsliill
rock had been mapped as “ altered Millstone Grit,” by the
officers of the Geological Survey.
I found that my doubts as to the correctness of the Survey
classification were shared by Professor Lapworth, and in May,
1882, we paid our first visit to Nuneaton. A glance at the
quartzite there was almost sufficient to prove its identity with
that of the Lickey, so exact was the petrological agreement.
Within the next few days we found the Pre-Cambrians below
the quartzite at Caldicote, and the fossiliferous Cambrian
shales both at Stockingford and Dosthill.
(To be continued.)
* On the Quartzite Pebbles contained in the Drift, and in the Triassic
strata of England, and on their derivation from an ancient Land Barrier
in Central England. Proc. Phil. Soc., Vol. III., p. 157.
74
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA
( (EDO G ONI UM ) . *
BY M. C. COOKE, M.A., A.L.S.
Tlie subject selected for a short communication this
evening is a somewhat commonplace one, and also one on
which I do not pretend to have anything novel or sensational
to say. All that I have set myself to do is to go over the
history of a single species of Filamentous Algae such as is
found in our ponds and ditches.
At first I proposed to myself to give a general summary
of Fresh- water Algae, but being convinced by experience
that generalisation is a most unsatisfactory process both to
speaker and hearers, I resolved to limit my illustrations as
much as possible to one species, leaving that to stand as a
type of the Thread-like Algae ; merely reminding you that
other species and other genera, or families, will differ more
or less, in different directions, even as one family of flowering
plants differs from another.
The object which I have in view may be briefly stated at
the outset, and thus we shall come to understand each other,
and perhaps avoid disappointment at the close. That object
is simply to call your serious attention to those little-known
aquatic plants which we call Fresh -water Alga3, and, if
possible, give you a sufficient interest in them to stimulate
enquiry and, it may be, awaken a desire to learn somethiug
more. There is a notion which some people possess, that
everything outside their own particular circle of knowledge
is unworthy of their attention. This is at best a foolish
notion, and I may take it for granted that your presence here
to-night exonerates you from any participation in it. If I
should err in treating the subject in too elementary a manner,
I beg that you will not imagine that I deem it necessary for
your sakes to follow such a course, but that I am trusting to
your indulgence, for the sake of those outsiders who may
read my remarks, in the hope of obtaining some information.
I was out one early day in the summer on an excursion
near the confines of Epping Forest, together with some
kindred spirits, hunting in ponds and pools for living objects
to furnish material for work witli the microscope. There are
still numerous small pools or ponds left in that neighbourhood,
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society. Read October 21st, 1884.
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA
75
although the hand of man is ever doing its best to
improve them off the face of the earth. Instead of
leaving ns Nature unadorned, as we love to see her, public
corporations always want to do too much, and convert
our Epping Forests or Sutton Parks into ornamental tea
gardens.
Some dead rushes were bent down near the edge of the
pool, and totally immersed in the water. The naked eye
was quite sufficient to discern that these rushes were covered
with slender delicate filaments which floated out for half an
inch into the surrounding water, almost of the colour of
whitcy-brown paper. Several of the most promising rushes
were drawn out of the water, cut into short lengths, and
placed in a glass tube, carefully corked, and transferred to
the pocket. It matters not what else was collected during
the day, since it is only of these delicate floating filaments
found attached to the dead rushes that I desire to speak. It
may be taken for granted that they were the filaments of a
filamentous, or thread-like Water Alga, growing attached to
dead plants. All that we would learn of them beyond this
must be discovered by the use of the microscope.
I will not detain you with any details of manipulation ;
suffice it to say that a little of this floating mass, taken off on
the point of a sharp penknife, was placed in a drop of water,
and submitted to inspection under a quarter of an inch
objective. The first glance was sufficient to show that it was
a species of the genus (Edoyonium. But why? I will endeavour
to explain.
In the first place all the threads are discovered to bo
simple, without branches of any kind from the base to the
apex, and these threads parted off by transverse partitions
or septa at regular distances throughout their entire length.
We will call these joints, or the intermediate space between any
two of the partitions, a cell. These threads are made up, then,
of a series of elongated cylindrical cells, attached end to end,
so as to form a filament, it may be half an inch in length.
Each of these cells contains within it a granular matter, at one
time wholly green, but now partially discoloured, which we
will call the cell contents. Looking again carefully at the
membrane which constitutes the wall or boundary of these
cells, we soon observe that some of the cells have delicate
parallel lines or striae crossing them near the top, and some
of the cells have none. Whatever these lines may be, and we
shall endeavour to discover their meaning presently, it is due
to their presence that we have been able to affirm at once
that this Alga is a species of ( Eduyonium .
76
DR. GWYN JEFFREYS.
Ill many genera of Confer void Algie, and indeed in most,
vegetation goes on at the apex, so that the basal cells are the
oldest, and the terminal cells the youngest ; the thread being
increased in length by continued growth and subdivision of
the terminal cell, but in (Edorjonium this is not the case, since
the intermediate cells possess the power of dividing and
increasing by interposing a new cell, hence old and new cells
will alternate. When a cell has reached maturity, and is
about to divide, a little circular line is seen near its upper
end. Gradually this line widens, and then it is seen that the
wall of the mother cell has divided all round, and the cell
above it is being slowly raised by the growth of a new cell, a
daughter cell, arising, as it were, out of the apex of the
mother cell, and carrying upwards the first streak, or cap,
which was left by the breaking away of the wall of the mother
cell. In this manner the new cell soon attains a length equal
to that of the mother cell from whence it sprung. This
accounts for the single line, which crosses just below the
apex of some of the cells. When this young cell is matured
it becomes in turn a mother cell, the splitting round is
repeated, a second streak or line is formed just below the
first, indicating that a second cap is being carried upwards,
and so on until as many as four, five, or six striae or caps are
formed, which indicate that four, five, or six cells have been
successively formed, the last one carrying up on its apex, one
within the other, all the caps left by the circumscissile
division of eacli successive cell, the number of caps or striae
corresponding to the number of cells produced consecutively
immediately beneath the gaps. By careful observation it will
be seen that the youngest cells are narrower than the parent
cells by the thickness of the cell wall.
Thus much, then, for the vegetative growth of the filament
which accounts for the striae at the apices of many of the cells.
( To be continued. )
DR. J. GWYN JEFFREYS.
On tlie 24th of January last there passed away, after a long and
active life, the veteran concliologist, Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys. He
belonged to a school of bygone scientists, whose honoured names live
in the remembrance of the present generation by their works —
beautiful alike in matter and production — and of daily reference by
the student and worker. Retiring from the Bar about 1857, he was
enabled to follow up his favourite pursuit of science, which he did
with unflagging vigour until the day before he was seized with the
illness which terminated his active and honourable career.
It would be a task outside the scope of this short notice— dictated,
as it is, by a feeling of regard for the late Doctor — to enumerate the
DR. GWYN JEFFREYS.
77
many valuable essays and papers published by him ; they are known
to most students of conchology ; his largest and most popular work,
“ British Concliology,” in five volumes, is the standard work of our
time on the subject.
Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys was a great dredger. From 1861 to 1868 he
explored the Northern seas in the “ Osprey,” his own boat ; between-
times visiting the Channel Isles, S. W. Ireland, Ac. In 1869, in the
“ Porcupine,” under the auspices of the British Government, and in
charge of the expedition, he explored the West coast of Ireland ;
in 1870, the great depths of the Southern coasts of Europe were
explored; in 1876, in the “Valorous” (going out with the Arctic
Expedition as far as Baffin’s Bay), he dredged in Davis’ Strait and the
North Atlantic ; in 1880, by invitation of the French Government, he
was with the Gallic savants dredging the depths of the Bay of
Biscay ; in 1878-9, he accompanied the well-known naturalist, the
Bev. Merle Norman (often before a fellow-worker) to Norway, for
dredging the fiords. He was well known to every locum tenens digni¬
fied by the name “ naturalist” of the best collecting grounds on our
own coast. “ Why, bless your life, sir,” said one of these worthies to
us years ago, “ I’ve took Forbes and Jeffreys and Thomson and lots
o’ them gentlemen, many’s the time, out for days an’ days together.”
What further passport to oracular belief need he advance !
Had the lamented Doctor been spared “yet a little while” he
would have added still further to our knowledge, as some of his
intended work remains awaiting the “ touch of a vanished hand.”
An excellent trait in him was his kind and ever ready help to all who
sought it in the elucidation of problems or the identification of species,
as will be testified by a large circle of amateurs. The writer is rich
in many letters from him. He was always punctual in reply, never
sparing himself, but giving the benefit of his large and varied
experience ungrudgingly.
It is a matter of regret to us that his great and valuable collection
of typical and representative forms has gone to America. Worthy and
noble supporter of science, ungrudging and liberal in its cause, an
example to nations — we only regret our loss ; we do not envy you
your gain.
Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys took an active part in the work of the British
Association, supporting the resolutions recommending its last, and
coming, meetings in Birmingham.
Dying at the ripe age of seventy-six — what a revolution has taken
place since, at the early age of nineteen, he contributed his “ Synopsis of
the Pneumonobranchous Mollusca of Great Britain” to the pages of the
Linnean Transactions. With many other of the older naturalists
he did not take kindly to the new doctrine, whose trumpet blast
“ shook the walls of the ancient Jericho,” though, if he did not all
accept it, he never actively opposed it. We do not carp; those who
make the bricks build, and the temple of knowledge has been raised
by many and varied hands. The builders have happily “ wrought
with anxious care,” according to the “ light which was in them.”
G. S. T.
78
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
( Continued from pa ye 54.)
GRAMINA (continued).
ARRHENATHERUM.
A. avenaceum, Beauv. False Oat Grass.
Native: On banks, "roadsides, and in cultivated ground and
pastures. Common. June to August. Area general.
b. nodosum. Rare or overlooked.
II. Occasionally in marly land about Warwick, //. Z>.
I have never seen this variety anywhere in the county.
HOLCUS.
H. mollis, Linn. Creeping Soft Grass.
Native : On banks, roadsides, and damp shady woods. Locally
common. July, August. Area general.
H. lanatus, Linn. Meadow Soft Grass. Yorkshire Fog.
Native : In pastures, meadows, on banks, roadsides, and heathy
lands. Very common. June to September. Area general.
TRIODIA.
T. decunibens, Beauv. Decumbent Heath Grass.
Native: On heaths, heathy roadsides, and sandy meadows. Local.
June, July.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Heath, over a wide
area ; Marston Green ; meadows near Ansley Hall ; meadows
near Berkswell Hall ; roadsides near Balsall Street ; Forshaw
Heath.
II. ( I'oa decumbens.) Footway from Alcester to Wetlierly, Part., i.,
81. Beausale Common; Haywoods! Y. and B. Kenilworth
Heath ! Honilv, II. B. Taclibrook Pastures ; near Umberslade
Hall ; near Wilmcote ; Austey Wood, Wootton Wawen ; Stoke
Ileatli, near Coventry.
KOELERIA.
K. cristata, revs. Crested Hair Grass.
Native : In old pastures and on grassy roadsides, in marly and
calcareous soils. Very local. June, July.
I. Footbridge, Bradnock’s Marsh. June, 1882.
II. Taclibrook ! Y. and B. Pastures near Asliorn ! //. B. Honington ;
Tredington, Newb. Marly field, near Oversley Wood ; bridle
road from Billesley to Wilmcote ; Bardon Hill ; pastures and
roadsides near Chesterton Wood; roadsides near Prince Thorpe.
7 (J
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
MOLINIA.
M. coerulea, Moench. purple Hair Grass.
Native: In bogs and damp woods and on moist lieatli lands. Local.
August.
I. (Melica coerulea) Coleshill Bog! Purt., i., 75 ; Sutton Park; Trickley
Coppice, Middleton ; Bentley Park ; Coleshill Heath ; Arley
Wood ; Marston Green ; Bradnock’s Marsh ; Olton Reservoir ;
Bentley Heath, near Solihull ; Forsliaw Heath, near Tan worth ;
Windmill Naps, near Little Ladbrook.
II. Rounsliill Lane! Y. and R. ; Frankton Wood, RM.R., 1878;
Alveston Pastures ; All Oaks Wood, Catliiron Lane.
MELICA.
M. uniflora, Linn. Wood Melic Grass.
Native : In woods and shady lanes in marly soils. Locally
abundant. May, June.
I. Pool Hollies Wood, Sutton Park ; lanes about Oldbury and
Hartsliill ; Edge Hill and Kingsbury Woods ; lanes near
Arley ; Shustoke ; Maxtoke ; ( oleshill : Ivenwalsey ; Fillongley ;
Corley Moor ; Holly-Berry End ; Marston Green ; Berkswell ;
Frogmore Wood, Fen End ; Solihull ; Packwood.
II. Oversley Lane! Part., i., 75; Yarningal ! Y. and B.; Allesley !
Coventry ; Bolton King ; Little Alne ; Shelfield Green ; Moreton
Bagot ; lane near Bush Wood, Lapworth ; Green Hill Green,
near Spernall ; Out Hill, near Studley; Baddesley Clinton;
Brandon.
CATABROSA.
C. aquatica, Beauv. Water Whorl Grass.
Native: On the margins of pools, ponds, and canals. Rather rare.
I. ( Aim aquatica.) Edgbaston Pool, With., od. 4, 138 ; Sutton Park ;
near Polesworth ; Tamworth ; canals near Atherstone and
Mancetter ; Hartsliill ; small pool near Solihull Railway
Station; near Brown’s Wood, Sliarman’s Cross; Bradnock’s
Marsh.
II. [Aim aquatica.) Bidford, Part., i., 74 ; brook in Baly’s Lammas,
Warwick, Perry FI., 8; Kenilworth, Y. and B. ; pond near
Bilton, R.JS.R., 1867 ; old canal near Harborougli Magna !
L. Camming ; pond near Farnborougli ; canal near Wilmcote ;
canal, Sowe Waste and Ansty ; canal, Longford ; canal near
Preston Bagot, abundant ; Pool Green Hill Green, near
Spernal.
GLYCERIA.
G. fluitans, Brown. Floating Meadow Grass.
Native : In pools, ponds, ditches, streams, and canals. Common.
June to August. Area general.
b. pedicellata , Towns.
I. Ditches near Plant’s Brook; small pond near Bradnock’s Marsh.
II. Honington ! F. Townsend ; Tredington, Newb. ; Rounsliill Lane !
II. B. ; canal, Rowington ; canal near Preston Bagot ; canal,
Tardebigge ; canal, Sowe Waste; near Stoke.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
80
G. plicata, Fries. Folded-leaved Meadow Grass.
Native : Near pools, ponds, ditches, and canals. Local, but widely
spread. June to August.
I. Small pond near Bradnock’s Marsh ; pool near Chesset’s Green ;
Monkspath.
II. My ton ! II. B.; Rowington; Kingswood ; canal near Tardebigge ;
wayside drain, Brinklow ; canal, Sowe Waste ; pool near
Ansty.
Var. subspicata.
II. Fern Hill, II. B.; canal near Tardebigge.
G. aquatica, Sin. Water Meadow Grass.
Native : In rivers, pools, and canals. Locally common. August,
September.
I. Near Sutton; Plant’s Brook ; canal near Atherstone; river Anker,
Tam worth ; in the Blythe, near Packington ; near Blythe Hall,
Colesliill ; Dukesbrfdge ; River Blythe, near Stonebridge ; Blythe
Bridge, near Solihull ; Olton Reservoir ; canal, near Three May-
poles, Shirley Heath.
II. Honington, Newb. ; Kineto n, Bolton King; frequent in the Rivers
Avon, Alne, and Arrow ; canal, Rowington ; Oversley ; Bid-
ford ; canal, Longford ; Sowe Waste and Ansty ; near
Birdingbury Wharf ; near Long Itchington Wharf.
SCLER0CHL0A.
S. rigida, Link ( Poa. Purt). Hard Meadow Grass.
Native : On wall tops, roofs, and sandy places. Rather rare. May
to July.
II. Wall at Oversley Green Bridge, Purt., i., 80; a very robust form is
abundant at the foot of the bridge near Oversley, but not on
the walls about there, 1880 ; Ufton, Y. and B.; walls, Fenny
Compton ; walls at Abbott’s Salford ; Binton Church ; Temple
Grafton ; Exhall and near Stratford-on-Avon ; old walls on the
Edge Hills; in marly fields near .the Golden Cross, Exhall;
marly roadsides and banks, near Prince Thorpe.
POA.
P. annua, Linn. Annual Meadow Grass.
Native on roadsides, walls, and heath lands, pastures, Ac. Flowers
all the season, and is common throughout the county.
P. nemoralis, Linn. Wood Meadow Grass.
Native: In woods, copses, and on marly banks and wall tops.
Locally abundant. June, July.
I. Plentiful in lanes between Shustoke and Arley ; lanes about
Maxstoke ; fordrough in the lane from Water Orton to Min-
worth ; near Sheldon Church ; lane from Stonebridge to
Meriden Marsh ; near Bradnock’s Marsh ; Cornel’s End ;
Henlield, near Ivnowle ; Frogmore Wood, Fen End.
II. Bushy bank between Alcester and Arrow, Purt., iii., 9 ; Woodloes ;
Milverton, 1'. and B.; Ragley Wood ; marly banks near Overs¬
ley Wood; lane near Wootton Wawen ; between Berkswell
and Tile Hill ; lanes about Wyken, Ansty, Sowe and Stoke.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
81
b. angustifolia. More rare.
I. Coppice near Minwortli.
II. Wall tops, Oversley Village ; Oversley Wood ; Ragley Wood.
P. compressa, Linn. Flat-stemmed Meadow Grass.
Native : On old walls, banks, ruins, and in cultivated land. Local.
July.
I. Maxtoke Priory ruins ; old walls near Fillongley Hall ; banks near
Oldbury Hall ; cornfields near Cornels End ; lane near Meriden
Shafts ; Waste Lane, Berkswell ; old walls near Balsall Heath.
II. Chesterton ! Taclibrook, Y. and B. ; house tops about Harborough-
Magna, Rev. A. Blox ; on walls, Marl Cliff ; Bidford; Oversley;
Wilmcote ; Bearley ; in fields, Spernal Ash, and Great Alne ;
wall, Red Hill, near Alc.ester ; on walls near Stratford-on-Avon ;
quarry near Little Lawford ; pastures, Newbold-on-Avon.
b. polynoda, Parn.
II. Brick Hill Lane, Coventry, T. K., Herb. Brit. Mm.; railway cutting
near Henley-in-Arden ; old walls, Wootton Wawen ; Binton ;
old walls, Shottery ; Tredington Village.
P. pratensis, Linn. Smooth Meadow Grass.
Native : In fields, pastures, on banks, wall tops, Ac. Very common.
May, June. Area general.
Var. b. angustifolia , Gaud. Rare.
II. Marly banks near Prince Thorpe ; banks near Moreton Bagot.
Var. c. subccernlea , Sm.
On heaths, heathy roadsides, and wall tops, more or less frequent
throughout the county.
Var. d. strigosa , Gaud. Rare or overlooked.
II. On old walls near Bidford.
P. trivialis, Linn. Rough Meadow Grass.
Native : In woods, shady places, on banks, and in meadows, Ac.
Common. June, July. Area general.
Var.. b. Kbhleri , DC. Very rare or overlooked.
II. Oversley Wood.
A very singular and marked variety of P. trivialis, having smaller
flowers and more compact panicles than the type. A marked form of
/'. trivialis also occurs in sandy fields near Wilmcote ; this I have not
yet been able to assign to its proper place.
[/'. sudetica, Haenke, is abundant and well established in a coppice
near Leek Wootton (see Exchange Club Report, 1876), but is not more
than an alien or casual weed.]
ERIZA.
B. media, Linn. Common Quaking Grass.
Native : In pastures, by roadsides, and rarely on damp heath lands.
Rather local. July.
I. Sutton Park, on damp heath lands ; roadsides near Penns ;
Bircliley Heath ; Water Orton ; near Knowle and Solihull, Ac.
82
FLOllA OF WARWICKSHIRE .
II. Chesterton ! Y. and B.; near Henley-in- Arden ; near Stratford-on-
Avon ; near Binton Bridges ; Bardon Hill ; Newbold-on-Avon.
CYNOSURTJS.
C. cristatus, Linn. Crested Dog's-tail Grass.
Native : In meadows, pastures, by roadsides, Ac. Very common.
June, July. Area general.
Occasionally I have found it with proliferous spikes.
DACTYLIS.
D. glomerata, Linn. Bough ('ock's-foot Grass.
Native : In meadows, pastures, and on roadsides and banks. Very
common. June to September. Area general.
FESTUCA.
F. Pseudo-myurus, Soger. Mouse-tail Fescue Grass.
Native: On wall tops and sandy roadsides. Rather rare. June,
July.
I. Slade Lane, Witton, on sandy roadsides ; on banks near
Erdington.
II. Emscote, II. B., Herb. Brit. Mas.; Warwick, old walls! Herb. Perry ;
Milverton, Y. and B.
F. sciuroides, Both. Barren Fescue Grass.
Native : In pastures, on grassy roadsides, and on walls. Locally
common. May, June.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Heath ; lanes near
Hampton-in-Arden ; Solihull, Ac.
II. (Festuca bromoides) King’s Cougliton ; Cougliton Court! Burt., i., 83 ;
Kenilworth, Y. and B. ; Honington, Newb.; near Oversley ; in
hilly pastures near Great Alne.
F. ovina, Linn. Sheep's Fescue Grass.
Native: On heaths, heathy roadsides, and woods. Locally
abundant. June, July.
I. Sutton Park, on the common land near Four Oaks; Middleton
Heath ; Baddesley Common ; Bannersley, near Coleshill ;
Coleshill Heath : Bentley Heath, Ac.
II. Milverton, Y. and B.; Armscote, Neivb.
b. tenuifolia, Sibth. Local and rare.
I. Hilly pastures near Gravelly Hill Station ; very abundant on
heaths and in woods at Sutton Park ; near Middleton Hall ;
Middleton Heath ; Spinney, near Bannersley Rough ; Baddesley
Common ; Marston Green ; Earl’s Wood ; Balsall Common ;
Forsliaw Heath.
II. Armscote, Newb.
F. rubra, Linn. Linn. Sin. Hard Fescue Grass.
Native: In damp pastures, and on sandy banks and roadsides.
Very common. June, July. Area general.
A very variable grass both as to its habit of growth and colour,
many of the forms being so distinct as to be at once recognised, and the
varieties require, I think, more careful investigation than I have been
able to bestow upon them.
FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
83
Y ar. fa l lax. Rare.
I. Earlswood Reservoir, 1883 ; canal siding near Hockley.
This was named for me by Prof. Haekel, of St. Poelton, and will, I
think, be found more common than now appears when better known.
Var. lonyi-aristata , Haekel, il I.S.
This was sent to Prof. Haekel in 1882 and was considered by him
to be new as a variety ; it grew fairly abundant near Combe Abbey in
1880, but I could not find it again this year, so that it may be, as since
suggested by Prof. Haekel, an accidental form. It is noticeable for
the very long awn, longer even than the flowering glumes.
F. elatior, Linn. Tall Fescue Grass.
Native: On roadsides and near canals in marly soils. Local and
rare. June, July.
I. Near Witton Reservoir ; near Olton Pool ; rare in the Tame basin.
II. Itchington Holt! Y. and B.; Honington ; Tredington ; Sliipston,
Newb.; Little Lawford, H. W.T.; Marl Cliff ; Binton, Redhill;
roadsides between Redhill and Stratford-on-Avon ; canal banks
near Wilmcote and near Rowington ; Catliiron Lane and canal
siding near Brinklow.
Two forms occur in the county, one of them being very near the
variety b. arundinacea , but scarcely agreeing with the maritime forms of
that variety.
F. pratensis, Huds. Shadow Fescue Grass.
Native : In meadows, damp pastures, and on roadsides. Common.
June, July. Area general.
b. loliacea, Huds. Rare.
I. Roadsides near Moor Hall, near Sutton; near Oldbury Hall ; damp
meadows Blythe Bridge, near Solihull.
II. Shut Lane, Coventry, T.K., Herb. Perry ; Myton, Y. and B.
F. gigantea, Fill. Tall Fescue Grass.
Native: In woods, copses, and on shady banks. Locally common.
July to September.
I. Middleton Woods; Heathland, near Tam worth ; Hartsliill Hayes ;
Bentley Park ; near Arley Railway Station ; Dukesbridge, near
Coleslnll ; lane to Hams Hall from Curdwortli Bridge; Olton
Pool ; Shelly Lane, near Solihull ; wood near Berkswell Hall ;
woods near Earlswood.
II. Wixford Lane, Burt., i., 77; Tachbrook, Y. and B. ; Honington;
Tredington ; Sliipston-on-Stour, Newb. ; Alveston Pastures
Wood ; Oversley Wood ; Bearley and Snitterfield Pastures ;
Stooper’s Wood, near Wootton Wawen; in several of the lanes
from Lapwortli Street to Ivingswood ; coppice in Quarry Lane,
Wrox all ; Oakley Wood; Cubbmgton Wood; Stoneleigh ;
Combe Woods.
b. trijlora, Linn. Rare.
II. On marly banks in a lane from Great Able to Alne Hills, abundant
there. A mere form.
(To be continued.)
84
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES - NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— January, 1885.
The barometer was high at the commencement of the month
(80-31)2 inches), but fell slightly till the 5th, rising again to the 7tli,
after which it fell rapidly till the 11th (28-773 inches), and again rose
till the 19tli, falling again gradually till the end of the month. The
weather was, for the most part, overcast and dull, with rarely a bright
day. The temperature was variable, but at no period of the month
very cold. The mean was, however, nearly 2 degrees below the
average, and 7 degrees lower than that of January, 1884, but this is
attributable to the low maxima, which were under 40 degrees on 16
days. The highest readings generally were on the 29th, and were as
follows : — 53-8° at Hodsock, 53-7° at Loughborough, 52-0° at Coston
Rectory and Henley -in-Arden, and 50-8° at Strelley. 85-1° was registered
in the rays of the sun at Loughborough on the 27th, and 76-4° at
Hodsock on the 14th. The minimum readings were 18-6° at Hodsock
on the 22nd, 19-0° at Coston Rectory on the 6th, 20-9° at Strelley on the
22nd and 23rd, 21-0° at Henley-in-Arden, and 21-4° at Loughborough on
the 22nd. On the grass 15 0° was registered at Hodsock, and 15-7° at
Loughborough on the 22nd ; and 16-5° at Strelley on the 6th. The
rainfall was decidedly below the average, and was confined to two
periods — at the middle and end of the month. The total values were
2-03 inches at Strelley, 2-08 inches at Henley-in-Arden, 1‘61 inches at
Coston and Loughborough, and 1*42 inches at Hodsock. The heaviest
fall generallv was on the 10tli, and the number of “ rainv” days varied
from 18 to 23. Snow, in small quantities, fell on the 12th, 13th, 14th,
and 17tli. Sunshine was very deficient. Lunar halos were seen at
Loughborough on the 25tli and 27th. Lightning was observed at
Coston Rectory on the 10th. Wm. Berridge, F.R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
Jjistorj) Botes.
MM. Fremy and Urbain on the 5tli of January brought before the
Academie des Sciences their “ Chemical Study of the Skeleton of
Plants.” They drew attention to cutose, the substance which covers
and protects the aerial organs of plants, and is shown to approach the
fatty bodies in its properties and composition. Cutose resists the
action of energetic acids, it is insoluble in dilute alkalies, neutral
solvents have no action upon it, but boiling alkaline liquids modify
its conditions. This paper opens out a new field of enquiry.
Abnormal Inflorescence of the Hazel. — My friend Mr. Frederick
Enock, of Woking, has recently sent me a very interesting example
of what appears to be a “ multiplication of axile organs” in the case
of an abnormal state of the male inflorescence of the Hazel, Gorylus
Avelhma. In this instance the branch is terminated by a truly cone¬
like head of catkins, about seventy in number. The catkins are
immature, and their arrangement is quite symmetrical. An illustration
ot a somewhat similar instance is given in Dr. Masters’ valuable
“ Vegetable Teratology,” page 349, which will give a fair idea of this
abnormality, except that the arrangement of the catkins in Mr.
Enock’s specimen is more regular. This abnormal condition is
possibly due to an over-development of male buds, with an abnormal
suppression of the internodes ; the bracts are absent in this case.
I have never before seen a like case, and think it must be a rare
phenomenon. — J. E. Bagnall.
Batumi
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
85
Mr. Joseph Prestwick, Professor of Geology in the University of
Oxford, has, by thirty-two votes out of fifty, been elected a corre¬
sponding member in mineralogy of the Academie des Sciences in the
place of the late Quintino Sella.
M. A. Bechamp brought before the Academie des Sciences, on
January 19tli, a paper “ On the Origin of the Microzymas and
Vibrionians Everywhere.” He argues against M. Pasteur that these
germs are to be sought for originally in the ground and water, where
they are deposited by the disintegration of the neozoic and palaeozoic
rocks and by decomposing animal and vegetable matter of all kinds.
Mr. Ferguson, of Kinmundy, read a paper before the Edinburgh
Geological Society at the last meeting “ On Certain Deposits of
Graphite and Ii*on in Aberdeenshire.” Details were given of veins of
haematite iron and manganese which are very extensive, and many of
the veins were found to be as rich as the Spanish ore. Plumbago is
plentiful, the only question being its production and transport so as to
be used economically.
Notes from Woking. — On April 13th, 1883, as recorded in the
“Midland Naturalist,” I found a large colony of the British Trap¬
door Spider, Atypus piceas (Sulzer), in this neighbourhood. Since that
time I have found three other colonies, to all of which I have made
very frequent tours of inspection, carefully noting down on the spot
something relating to the habits and economy of this most interesting
spider, whose life-history I shall be able to give in a few months hence.
On December 30th, 1884, whilst examining one of the “ tubes ” or
nests, I displaced some of the loose sand, causing it to fall down, when
out crawled an Andrena, which, after shaking itself clean, tried to fly,
but was quickly boxed, and before I had time to transfer it to my
pocket, I saw a Nomada extricate itself from the loose sand, and it
succeeded in flying a few inches before I captured it. The day had
been beautifully fine and spring-like, though the night following was
frosty. I transferred both bees to a large pot nearly full of sand, and,
on examining next day, found both had buried themselves, the
Nomada coming up again in a few days, remaining on the moss,
except when the weather was warmer, when it became very active. I
took it out on January 21st, and next day dug the Andrena out, which
had burrowed down four inches deep. I sent both specimens to Mr.
Ed. Saunders, who always is so kind in giving me the names of bees,
&c. He identified them as male Andrena nigroeenea and female Nomada
alter nata. No doubt the exceedingly mild November had brought
them forward more than three months before the usual time of their
appearance. — Fred. Enock.
Lycopodium clavatum. — Mr. Enock has also sent me specimens of
the Wolfs Claw, Lycopodium clavatum , from heath lands, near London,
and the sight of this interesting plant recalled to my recollection the
fact that it was first recorded as a British plant from Hampstead
Heath by Gerarde in his “History of Plants,” 1597. Some of the
readers of this magazine may feel an interest in knowing what our old
and quaint friend Gerarde had to say about this plant, for it is some¬
times pleasant to hear what our predecessors of 300 years ago thought
and said about objects which interest some of us who live in more
enlightened times. Speaking of this plant, which he calls Muscus
clavatum, site Lycopodium , Club Mosse, or Wolfe Claw Mosse, he says,
“ There is likewise another sort of mosse, which I have not elsewhere
found than upon Hampstead Heath, near unto a little cottage, grow-
86
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
ing close upon the ground amongst hushes and brakes, which I have
shewed unto divers surgeons of London, that have walked thither
with me for their further knowledge in simples, who have gathered
this kinde of mosse, whereof some have made them liat-bands, girdles,
and also bands to tye such things as they had before gathered, for
which purpose it most fitly served; some pieces whereof are six or
eight feet long, consisting, as it were, of many liairie leaves set upon a
tough string, very close couched and compact together, from which is
also sent certain other branches like the first; in sundry places there be
sent down fine little strings, which serve instead of roots, wherewith
it is fastened to the upper part of the earth and taketh hold likewise
upon such things as grow next unto it. There spring also from the
branches bare and naked stalks, on which grow certaine ears as it
were like the Katkins or blowings of the Hasell Tree ; in shape, like a
little club or the reede Mace, saving that it is much lesser, and of a
yellowish white colour, very well resembling the claw of a wolfe,
whereof it tooke his name ; which knobby katkins are altogether
barren bringing fortlie neither seed nor floure.” He also informs us,
that “Being stamped and boyled in wine and applied, it mitigateth
the paine of the gout. Floting wine, which is become slimie, is
restored to his former goodness, if it be hanged in the vessel.”
Ger. Em., pp. 1562-4. The catkins which he mentions are the male
flowers of the plant, and produce a great quantity of spores, the
existence of which appears to have been unknown to him. Johnson,
“Useful Plants of Great Britain,” states that “The spores are
collected in considerable quantities for the manufacture of fireworks,
being so extremely inflammable that they burn with a kind of explosion
when brought into contact with flame. This powder is likewise sold
in the druggist’s shops for preventing excoriation in young children,
and for rolling pills in to prevent them sticking together. It is known
as Lycopodium or Vegetable Sulphur, and under these names is
imported in considerable quantity from the northern part of Europe,
where it is more abundant than here.” The medicinal properties of the
plant have been extolled by our older writers, from Gerarde down to
Dillenius, but the plant holds no place in the British Pharmacopoeia.
The spores of this plant are so repellent of moisture that if scattered
over the surface of water in a basin a stone may be picked from the
bottom without wetting the hand. Lightfoot, in his “Flora Scotica,”
says that “ The Swedes make mats of the club moss to rub their feet
on.” Newman, in “The Phytologist,” i, p. 5, seems to discredit this
statement. He says, “ If this be true, it is remarkable that the fact
should have escaped the notice of such observant men as Linmeus
and Wahlenberg.” Mr. J. B. Stone, however, assures me that he saw
such mats made of Lycopodium clavatum and offered for sale, during
his last journey through Norway. — J. E. Bagnall.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Geological Section. — January 27tli. — Mr. R. W. Chase
in the chair. Mr. Clias. Elcock, of Belfast, exhibited seven type slides
of foraminifera— two of fifty different species each, four of different
species each, of different orders — Miliolidce , Hyaline , Porcellanous , and
Layena ; one of thirteen different species of the Arenaceous order ;
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
87
and several species of living foraminifera. Annual Meeting, February
3rd. — Mr. T. H. Waller, 13. A., 13. Sc., presided. The twenty-sixth
annual report of the committee, which was read by the Chairman,
referred with pleasure to the very valuable work which had been done
during the past year. It w«s with pleasure that the committee
recorded the honour conferred upon Mr. J. E. Bagnall by his being
elected an Associate of the Linnean Society in recognition of his
valuable original work in the various branches of botanical science.
He was one of the oldest members of that society, and had rendered to
it most useful service, his papers on Bryology and his “ Flora of
Warwickshire” having gained for him a reputation far beyond his
native town. At the end of 18S3 the society numbered 300 members.
The total number of members and associates was now 288, being a
decrease of twelve. The reports of the proceedings of the different
sections were also presented. The statement of accounts, which was
read by the Treasurer (Mr. C. Pumphrey), showed an expenditure of
£293 18s. 10^d. for the past year, and there was a sum of £60 owing to
the treasurer. The deficiency, it was explained, was due to arrears of
subscriptions. The election of officers for the ensuing year was then
proceeded with. Mr. B. W. Chase was elected president, Mr. J. E.
Bagnall and Professor Hillhouse vice-presidents, Mr. C. Pumphrey
treasurer, Mr. W. B. Grove librarian, and Messrs. Morley and Wilkin¬
son lion, secretaries. Biological Section. — February 10th. Mr. J. Morley
in the chair. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited mounted specimens of
Batrachospermum mouili forme, var. Boltoni, the new variety recently
found by Mr. T. Bolton. Mr. J. E. Bagnall mosses, Sclcropodium
ccespitosum , in fruit, from near Brinklow, very rare in fruit. For Mr.
J. B. Stone, mosses, Eurhynchium circinatum and Orthotrichum saxatile
from Tenby. For Mr. R. Rogers. Pleuridium mhulatum and other
mosses from Hampton-in- Arden. For Mr. Frederick Enock, Lycopo¬
dium clavatum (wolf’s claw), and an abnormal condition of the male
flowers of the common hazel, Corylus Avellaua, in which a cone-like
body was formed of about seventy-five of the catkins. Mr. R. W.
Chase then gave his short notes upon Panurus hiarmicus (bearded Tit),
with specimens showing their life history, from observations made in
Norfolk, illustrating his remarks by specimens in various stages, also
nests and eggs. He stated that owing to the drainage of the fens the
localities suitable to this beautiful species are annually becoming more
limited, and afterwards described the nest, which is placed nearly on
the ground amongst the reeds and other aquatic foliage, but not
attached to them. Nidification commences about the first week in
April, but owing to the demand for eggs the marshmen rarely allow
the first clutches to hatch, consequently eggs can be taken as late as
July. He concluded with a description of their habits, food, and
internal construction. A discussion followed, in which Messrs. Wilkin¬
son, Morley, France, Udall, Grove, Pumphrey, and Bagnall took part.
THE BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — January 19th. — Mr. Moore exhibited specimens of Burying
Beetle, Necrophorus vespillo; also gizzard of the same under the micro¬
scope. The following objects were also shown under microscopes : —
Mr. Rodgers, a marine alga, Ceramium strictum ; Mr. J. W. Neville,
Bicellaria ciliata and Catenicella viargaritacea, Australian polvzoa ;
Mr. Hawkes, calcareous granules from A vion a ter. January 26tli. —
The President, Mr. Beale, exhibited a skull of Bottle-nosed Porpoise ;
Mr. Madison, Terebratula caput-serpentis , and other shells from Oban.
88
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Under the microscopes, Mr. Moore, specimens of wasp paper, showing
in some pieces bands of scalariform tissue, and in others a utilisation
of insect remains; Mr. J. W. Neville, Flustra episcopalis, from New
Zealand ; Mr. Rodgers, stellate hairs of Elaeagnus ; Mr. Hawkes,
sponge spicules, Muricea luniformis ; Mr. Grew, flea of Hedgehog,
Fule.v erinacei. February 2nd. — Mr. Moore showed under the micro¬
scope first and third leg of Honey Bee, with pollen brush and basket ;
Mr. J. W. Neville, larva of Orgyia pudibunda, mounted whole, popu¬
larly known as the Hop Dog. Mr. W. Tylar then read a paper,
“ Notes on the Hydra,” which traced the early history of observations
on this polype, and described the four kinds found in this country. The
peculiarities of their structure were noticed at some length, with the
various kinds of thread-cells, some so small as only to be seen with
very high objectives ; supposed muscular and nervous system ; and the
simplicity of their digestive organs. The paper also described their
power of repairing injury and building up a complete polype from a
small part, their various modes of reproduction, and the parasites
frequenting them ; and concluded by describing a ready method of
killing them with their tentacles extended, and the most suitable
medium for mounting them in. The paper was illustrated by diagrams
and microscopic preparations. February 9tli. — Mr. Hawkes exhibited
a specimen of large Mussel and ether shells from Peru ; also specimens
of silver ore. Under the microscopes Mr. Tylar showed crystals of
oxalate of potash ; Mr. Moore, pulmonary plates of Spider, stained ;
Mr. J. W. Neville, Oak Apple Fly, Cynips terminalis ; Mr. Sanderson,
spores of a New Zealand Fern, Steichenia Jiabellata ; Mr. Hawkes,
Gamasus coleopterorum. February 16tli. — Mr. Moore exhibited a
collection of Ichneumon Flies and their nests. Under the micro¬
scopes, Mr. Tylar, transverse section of Rat’s tongue, injected, and
Hydra vulgaris stained with osmic acid, showing filaments projecting
from thread cells. Mr. J. A. Grew then read a paper, “ Insect
Tragedies,” which pointed out that the classification of insects had
received more attention than their habits, economy, and instincts, and
described the predacious habits of many, both in the larval and imago
stage ; showing that from the number of their foes an extraordinary
fecundity was a necessity against their extermination. The paper
concluded by describing some uses of insects, certain protective
disguises, and the necessity of Nature preserving a balance of power.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.—
Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman : F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
Monthly Meeting, February 18tli. Attendance, fourteen (five ladies).
Exhibits : Fruit of a cucurbitaceous plant from Madeira, called
“ Chou-chou,” used as a vegetable ; specimen of the fresh-water shell
(Planorb is corneiis) from the Soar, near Leicester, by the Chairman;
a parasitic mite from the common house-fly, mounted as a microscopic
slide, by Mr. Grundy. Paper, by the Chairman, “ On the weapons of
animals,” showing how carnivorous habits necessitate the use of
weapons both of offence and defence ; describing how nearly every
external organ of the body has been modified for this purpose under
various conditions of life ; how a variety of special growths in the
shape of horns, spurs, stings, Ac., have also been developed in certain
families ; and how man, though the most widely spread and most
omnivorous of large animals, is the most naturally defenceless, his
superior brain power enabling him to provide artificial weapons and so
to keep his limbs in the best condition for other uses.
Plate IH
M C C .Del
W.B.G.Lit h
Herald Press . Imp
CEDOGONIUM CRAS SIUSCULUM
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
89
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA
(C VDOGONIUM ).
BY M. C. COOKE, M.A., A.L.S.
( Continued from page 76.)
Having for the time disposed of the ordinary cells
such as are observed in both the sterile and fertile condition
of the plant, we now return to the microscope and look along
the threads in search of any divergence from this ordinary
condition of vegetative cells. And, supposing the threads to
be in the fertile state in which we found them, we soon
become conscious of the presence of certain special cells
interspersed amongst the rest, which are broader, more oval,
and contain within them not the granular cell contents, but
a large, opaque, definite, somewhat globose body, of a dark
colour, which we will call a spore. Its proper designation is
oospore, or a spore produced in an ovarian sac, or cell, which
sac, or cell, is termed the oogonium. The oogonium is a little
larger than the oospore but of the same form, and the oospore
lies free within it, being at first greenish and granular but at
length invested with a brown coat, which again has an outer
transparent layer more or less thick, according to the species.
Concerning ourselves only with this one species of ( Edoyonium ,
we find it producing nearly elliptical brown oospores, with a
very thick hyaline outer coat, hence called crassiuscidum. One
PLATE III.
Description of the Figures.
Fig. 1. —Illustrations of the growth of new cells. At a it has just
commenced1, leaving a ring at the apex of the daughter cell ;
b, the daughter cell has attained an equal size to the mother
cell ; at c a second new cell has commenced, bearing the first
and second ring at its apex, x 200.
Fig. 2. — Asexual reproduction ; a, zoospore being formed in mother
cell ; b, zoospore escaping by rupture of the mother cell ;
c, germinating asexual zoospore, x 200.
Fig. 3. — a, androsporangia of ffi. crassiuscidum ; b, androspore ; c, the
same, with the cilia absorbed ; d, <?,/, g, successive stages in
the development of dwarf males from the androspore ;
h, spermatia. x 200.
Fig. 4. — a, portion of filament of the CEdogonium, with oospore in the
oogonium, and four dwarf males attached to the supporting
cell ; b, c , d, formation of four sexually produced zoospores
from the fertilised oospore ; e, zoospore at rest, and attached
at its base ; /, commencement of growth of the first cell of
the young (Edogonium . x 200.
90
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
thread may have several oogonia, although they are usually
scattered over the filament, and not contiguous. The striae,
or caps, at the apex of the oogonium indicate that the oospore
has been developed in one of the youngest cells. Near the
top, or certainly above the middle of the oogonium, is a small
hole perforated through the wall of the oogonium. It is
through this opening only that any small body can find
entrance to the enclosed oospore, and it is through this
opening that fertilisation is effected.
Leaving the oogonia for a while, we will traverse with our
eyes one of the filaments, to see if we can trace any other
cell modification, and by careful observation we at length find
from four to six short cells, not more than half as long as
broad, lying together in one part of the filament towards the
apex, the whole six short cells not occupying so much in
length as any one of the vegetative cells. These short cells
are the spore cells, or androsporangia, of the male organs.
As there is no other similar mode of reproduction amongst
Algae, and this rather a complicated one, I must ask you to
follow me into the details of the process.
I have said that these four, five, or six short cells in the
filaments are destined to produce the male organs ; the
female, or oogonium, containing the oospore, or unfertilised
egg, being seated in the same filament, lower down. When
mature and the fulness of time is come, the outer wall of
each of these short cells, or androsporangia, is ruptured, and
about two zoospores of a peculiar kind called androspores
make their escape. These are green oval bodies, paler at
one end, where they are furnished with a fringe of movable
cilia. By means of these cilia, the newly- escaped zoo¬
spores move about in the water actively for a time,
apparently enjoying their freedom, until at length they grow
more and more sluggish until finally they attach themselves
by the paler end, and another change takes place. It must
be remarked here, that when these zoospores escape from
their androsporangia, on a roving commission, they evidently
have a definite work to accomplish, although they appear to
be only indulging in frivolous pastime, because when they
settle down and attach themselves by their paler end and
abandon all frivolity, they invariably fix themselves to the
cell immediately beneath the oogonium. I will leave you to
explain or moralise upon this fact as you please, but to me it
is one of extreme suggestiveness, that two or three or half-a-
dozen active little bodies, without sense or sensibility, or
instinct, should quit their parent cells and travel down the
filament, it may be for half its length, and then attach them-
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
91
selves, not to any promiscuous cell which may be near tliem,
but to the cell which immediately joins the oogonium, and
not by mistake the cell above, but the cell below the oogonium,
and there remain permanently fixed. What is the attraction
powerful enough to draw them to this spot, and no other ?
“ Surely there are more things in heaven and in earth than
are dreamt of in your philosophy.”
We have followed the androspores from their parent cell
until they attach themselves to the cell immediately beneath
the oogonium. When they have done so the base elongates
into a kind of stem ; the upper portion also grows and
elongates until it assumes more or less a club-shaped form.
The apex narrows into a mouth, covered with an operculum,
or movable lid. Meanwhile active little spermatozoids are
being formed in the interior, and the androspores are con¬
verted into little male plants (nannandres), clustered around
the oogonium, ready at any moment for their spermatozoids
to escape and enter the little opening in the wall of the
oogonium to fertilise the oospore which it contains. Thus,
then, we trace this process ; the formation of an ovum or
unfertilised spore in its ovarian sac or oogonium, and the
same thread producing androspores (or spores of male plants)
which escape and then attach themselves close beneath the
oogonium, produce their own spermatozoids, which in fulness
of time issue at the apex, by the falling off of a deciduous
operculum, and immediately enter the aperture of the
adjacent oogonium and fertilise the oospore. This work
being accomplished, the male plants have no other mission
in this world, therefore they dry up and wither away, whilst
the oospore, now rendered feitile, passes through a period of
rest and in due time produces a new generation.
From these fertilized oospores we may now follow the
young plants until we reach the point at which our history
commenced and the cycle is complete.
Before completing this history, we may make a diversion
here to explain another method of reproduction which prevails
in this interesting genus of aquatic plants. We have hitherto
been watching a truly sexual reproduction in which male and
female elements perform their part, but in this other method
there is no visible evidence of sexuality ; it is, as far as
we can judge, a purely asexual or nonsexual reproduction,
analogous to budding in higher plants.
In this method for the continuance of its species, any cell
in an ordinary vegetative filament will serve. In one of these
cells there is a turbulence in the cell contents, which at length,
draw closer together, and in a short time an ovate body is
92
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
formed similar in size and appearance to the androspores,
from which the dwarf male plants are seen to be produced.
This ovate body, nestling within its parent cell, is seen to be
furnished near its paler apex with vibratile cilia. When
mature, the enclosing cell is ruptured, and the imprisoned
zoospore, endowed with active motion, makes its escape.
In its movements through the water it seems impossible to
distinguish this new zoospore from the zoospores, or andro¬
spores, of the short cells. Life them, it moves about for
some time, then becomes sluggish, and ultimately conies to
rest. The cilia are absorbed, and the pale end of the zoospore
is attached to some object but not as in the previous instance
to any special cell of the parent plant, nor in any proximity to
the oogonium. Alike as they are in size, form, and movement,
they are different in their origin and in their destiny.
When, at length, these asexually produced zoospores come
to rest, they form at the base a kind of clasping radicle, or
more or less lobed expansion, by means of which they attach
themselves ; then there follows a lengthening or expansion
upwards, which in process of time is cut off by a septum from
the basal cell, and becomes the first cell of a new plant, or
rather the second, including the basal cell, which is persistent
and remains through the whole life of the plant. Hence
the basal cell in all perfect filaments of (Edogonium threads,
whether proceeding from an asexual zoospore or the zoospores
of a resting spore, is always more or less bulging, or clavate,
with a spreading, discoid, or somewhat lobed base. It is
unnecessary to follow the growth of this young plant into a
filament, in all respects resembling its parent.
We now return to the fertilised resting spores from which
we recently diverged. We will suppose that the old plant
has decayed and nothing remains but these quiescent spores,
which are now sunk to the bottom of the pond or nestling in
the axils of some aquatic plant. In due time, but always
after some period of rest, these spores exhibit evidences of
vitality, at first by becoming more greenish in color. And
soon it will be found that a special membrane has been
formed around the cell contents. Upon germination slit-like
openings are formed in the old spore membrane, and the new
inner membrane, and the contents escape, surrounded by an
exceedingly delicate covering. The contents are now not a
single oval body, but composed of fcur greenish oval masses,
each surrounded by a hyaline membrane. Now and then, by
abortion, there are only two or three oval masses, but the
normal number is four. After the four cells have remained
some time enclosed in the hyaline covering, this becomes
LIFE HISTORY OF A FILIFORM ALGA.
03
subsequently reabsorbed, and tlie four cells lie still and motion¬
less. After a short time they break at one end by a circular
slit, and the apex separating becomes elevated like a lid.
Through this opening the contents emerge in the form of an
oval zoospore, paler at the foremost end, which is furnished
with movable cilia. Thus four active zoospores are normally
the produce of one oospore, and these are in all respects
similar in size, form, and movement to those we have seen
originating male organs, or produced, asexually, from the
cells of the filament. From this point, the same process is
repeated. The zoospores move about freely for a time in the
water, they then gradually become more sluggish, finally they
become still, the pale end is directed downwards, the cilia are
absorbed, an expansion like a radicle is formed, and by this it
is fixed. Then the upper portion elongates, the apex becomes
a growing point, a septum cuts off the first new cell, and a
3roung plant has fairly started on its career, to produce in its
turn its own oospores, androspores, and asexual zoospores,
even as its parent had done.
We have now traced the life history of (Edogonium cras-
siusculum, and, as far as we can judge, the cycle seems to be
tolerably complete. We have had to guess at nothing and
to assume nothing ; the continuity is unbroken, and, strange
as some of the phenomena may be, there is no offence against
our judgment or our experience, and no reasonable foundation
for doubt.
To such a story it is unnecessary for me to append a moral
at the end, such as we find in all goody-goody books for
goody-goody boys and girls. Yet, I cannot help asking you,
as naturalists, whether organisms about which such a history
can be written do not deserve a more widely extended study
than they as yet receive. Any of you may take a phial in
your pocket and trudge to Sutton Park. If you have none
other, utilise that which held your last “ black draught.” If
that fails, be content with a pill box, or even a square of
brown paper. There are certainly some half a dozen species
to be found there. By perseverance and experience you may
find them all, and trace out their history. You require no
elaborate apparatus, only three things, all of which are essen¬
tial : — (1) A microscope ; (2) ability to use it ; and (3) a good
resolution. With these no one needs to fail.
This may be a humble organism that I have brought to
your notice, it may be a low form of vegetable life, one of the
lower Cryptogamia — facts which I am not prepared to dispute.
They live, vegetate, thrive ; some in rather dirty places, col¬
lecting their own food, supporting themselves by the exercise
94
THE LIAS MAULSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE
of tlieir own powers, pass through childhood, youth, man¬
hood, and age ; enjoy the pleasures and sorrows of conjugal
life, but with only one object, as far as we can see, although
in lesthetic eyes they may have a higher — to live and repro¬
duce their species, to increase and multiply, and replenish
the waters. Of how many higher organisms could we say —
nothing more.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE AS
A SOURCE OF IRON.
BY E. WILSON, F.G.S., CURATOR OF BRISTOL MUSEUM.
( Continued from page 66.)
North of Tilton Station, at Halstead, there is an extensive
working of the West Yorkshire Iron Company in the upper
beds of the weathered Marlstone at its outcrop on the
hillside. The Maidstone Rock and underlying shales are
also well shown in the railway cuttings immediately north
of Tilton Station. In the neighbourhood of Billesdon
there are several interesting exposures of the Rock- bed,
which, in that neighbourhood, attains a thickness of over
twenty feet. Billesdon Coplow, a hill famous in hunting
annals itself, bears a small capping of this stone. Going
south from Tilton the Maidstone Rock can be traced as
a terrace on the hill sides by Lodington and East Norton to
Allexton and Stockerston and thence by Hallaton to Slawston
and Medbourn. In this direction a great change takes place,
the Rock'bed thinning away very rapidly. At Billesdon and
Tilton the Maidstone Rock is from eighteen to twenty feet in
thickness, but at Allexton it is only two feet, and between
Keythorpe and Hallaton not more than one foot in thickness.
In the neighbourhood of Cranhoe, Hallaton, and Blaston the
Rock-bed is so thin as to be scarcely traceable ; it has, however,
been observed in the outliers of Slawston Hill, Staunton Hill,
and Great Bowden. South of the Welland the Maidstone
reappears in a modified and attenuated form at* Ashley
Sutton Basset and Market Harborougli, and three or four
miles west of this latter place it forms an outlier between
Gurnley and Laughton.
To the north of Melton Mowbray the Maidstone constitutes
a considerable outlier at Holwell. It is extensively quarried
in the vicinity of that village by the Holwell Iron Company
and the Stanton Coal and Iron Company. The ordinary
ferruginous stone alternates with brasliy shell beds or jacks,
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
05
and a few local blue-liearted encrinital bands. The ironstone
is here well jointed, a feature which facilitates its extraction.
The lower arenaceous and unproductive beds appear in a rail¬
way cutting in one of the quarries, faulted against the
ferruginous beds.
From Holwell the Marlstone extends westwards by
Wartnaby to Green Hill, near Old Dalby. At Wartnaby it is
worked close to the edge of the escarpment by the Stanton
Iron Company. The stone is friable, and contains very few
fossils ; this, however, is no disadvantage from an iron¬
master’s point of view. The ore is taken away by a short
mineral line to a tip on the Nottingham and Melton
(Midland) line at Old Dalby.
From Green Hill the Marlstone extends eastwards in a fine
line of escarpment to the railway tunnel at Long Clawson. At
this point the Rock-bed and underlying Lias shales have been
broken through and their place occupied by boulder clay to a
depth of nearly one hundred feet. From Long Clawson the
Marlstone Rock bends round to the north-east along the well-
wooded heights of the Belvoir Hills to Belvoir Castle, that
noble edifice itself crowning a diminutive outlier of this rock.
On the way we pass the extensive workings of the Eastwell
Iron Company, situate at the edge of the escarpment, about two
miles south of Statliern Station. The ironstone here is porous
and highly absorbent, containing as much as 25 per cent, of
moisture, and is but slightly fossiliferous. It is quarried
along two working faces nearly half-a-mile in length. At
the crest of the hill the cutting for the tram incline, by which
the ironstone is taken on to the Great Northern Railway
below, shows the Marlstone Rock, of which twenty-five feet
are exposed, resting on Middle Lias shales.
At the time of writing ferruginous marlstone is also
exposed in the cuttings of the Eastwell branch of the Great
Northern Railway, and also of their Eaton branch, north of
its junction with the Eastwell branch. At Black’s Barn,
a little south of the Eaton viaduct, the Marlstone, twenty-
four feet thick, was penetrated in a well beneath thirty feet of
boulder clay. The Holwell Iron Company are now working
the stone by the side of the new line at Eaton, and the
Staveley Company and Messrs. Oakes and Company near
Swaine’s Lodge, about a mile further north. In the Belvoir
district there are numerous exposures of the Marlstone Rock,
chiefly in small roadside quarries. Of these we will notice a
single one, viz., the Duke’s Farm Quarry, near Woolsthorpe
Old Church, in order to illustrate the character of the stone
in this neighbourhood.
9G
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
Section in Marlstone at the Dulce's barm Quarry ,
near Bclvoir. Ft.
Soil and rubble ... ... ... ... ... 3
Ferruginous marlstone, tliinly laminated with dark
ferruginous streaks ... ... ... ... 4
Fossiliferous bed “ jack ” ... ... ... ... 0
Ferruginous marlstone ... ... ... ... 1
Second “jack” ... ... ... ... 0 9 1
Ferruginous marlstone, Am. spinatus, Pecten
lunularis, P. requivalvis, Lima pectinoides,
Modiola scalprum, Belemnites elongatus,
Terebratula punctata, and var., Rhynchonella
tetraedra ... ... ... ... 0 9 1
Arenaceous beds (unproductive), massive open
jointed, unfossiliferous, blue-centred rock ... 5
Rubbly stone ... ... ... ... ... 1
18
In.
0
9
9
0
2
0
4
0
0
To the south of Belvoir the Marlstone Rock is exposed in
the quarries of Woolsthorpe, Knipton, and Branston, and in
all of these the junction of the ferruginous and arenaceous
beds is very sharply defined. On the high ground opposite
Belvoir Castle the Marlstone is worked in a field south of
Woolsthorpe Cliff Wood, by the Stanton Coal and Iron
Company. Throughout this extensive area, that is to say
between Hoi well and Scalford on the south, and Woolsthorpe
and Denton on the north, or broadly speaking, in the district
lying between Melton Mowbray and Grantham, the Marlstone
Rock maintains an average thickness of from twenty-five to
thirty feet. Over the greater part of this area the upper or
iron-bearing beds, generally in a thoroughly weathered or
oxidised and friable condition, very favourable for working,
are well represented. It is in the above district that the
Marlstone is now coming most extensively into the market as
an iron- producing rock. Towards this end, very material
assistance will be rendered by the new mineral lines of the
Great Northern Railway, namely the Eaton and Eastwell
branches of the Waltham branch, now rapidly approaching
completion, the Woolsthorpe branch of the Nottingham and
Grantham line, with its projected extension through Denton
to Harston, and by the Midland Railway Company’s Holwell
Extension branch of their Nottingham and Melton line. At
the present time the ironstone is being worked by the Holwell
Iron Company, the Eastwell Iron Company, the Stanton
Coal and Iron Company, the Staveley Coal and Iron Company,
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
97
and Messrs. Oakes and Company. In tlie course of time, no
doubt, other large North- Midland ironmasters will be induced
to make a venture in this very accessible and highly produc¬
tive ironstone region.
From Wooistliorpe the Marlstone Rock extends by Denton
and Harlaxton in Leicestershire to Grantham, and by Barrowby
and Great Gonerby to Caytliorpe and Welbourn in Lincoln¬
shire. The escarpment due to this rock falls all the way
from Wooistliorpe coincidently with the dip of the beds,
coupled with a certain amount of attenuation. At Caytliorpe
the ironstone is being extensively quarried by the West
Yorkshire Iron Company and the Stanton Iron Company.
Section in the Marlstone at Caytliorpe, near Grantham.
Ft. In.
Soil ... .. ... .. ... ... ... 5 0
Ironstone, thinly laminated, encrinital and shelly
beds obliquely laminated ... ... ... 1 0
Ironstone, calcareous rock with ferruginous streaks 0 8
Do. do. with local blue-liearted streaks 2 0
Ironstone, with ferruginous and shelly layers in
equal proportions ... ... ... ... 1 0
Ironstone (good quality) ... ... ... ... 0 6
Do. shelly ... ... ... ... ... 1 2
Fossiliferous bed,“ jack, ’’hard blue thinly laminated 0 G
Ferruginous ironstone to base ... ... ... 1 0
12 10
The ironstone at this place contains an excess of carbonate
of lime, analysis showing Calcic carbonate 62’ 14, and Ferric
oxide 25*71 . This stone, therefore, is found valuable to mix
with ores less rich in lime. The Bestwood Coal and Iron
Company use it advantageously in conjunction with the more
earthy Eastwell ironstone, and the siliceous Northamptonshire
iron ore from Weldon. Beyond Caytliorpe the Rock-bed is
much reduced in thickness, and its outcrop becomes very
narrow. At Leadenliam the rock is not more than ten feet
thick, though it still forms a feature. In the station yard at
this place a few ferruginous flaggy beds are seen resting on
compact sandstone. North of Leadenliam the Rock-bed
rapidly attenuates, and it soon becomes merged in the sloping
ground at the foot of the oolitic escarpment. Finally, the
Marlstone thins out altogether at Welbourn, and it does not
apparently set in again until we reach the village of Burton,
near Lincoln, about twelve miles to the north of this place,
and then not in a workable form.
(To be continued. )
98
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MEDICINAL LEECH.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MEDICINAL LEECH.*
BY JOHN B. HAYCRAFT, M.B., B.SC., F.R.S. (EDIN.), PROF. OF
PHYSIOLOGY, MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM.
When blood is withdrawn from the body it coagulates in
a few minutes, and forms a solid mass. Not only is this seen
in the cup into which the blood may have been shed, but
occurs also in the region of the wound, filling this up, and
plugging the little vessels which have been cut. But for
this coagulation we should bleed to death from the slightest
wound. Sometimes the blood loses its power to clot, and
very serious consequences ensue. The study of coagulation
is, therefore, very important, and physiologists and medical
men have paid much attention to its investigation.
While thinking over some obscure questions connected with
this matter, in the autumn of 1888, 1 recalled a fact familiar to
every surgeon, viz., that after a leech bite the blood flows from
the wound, and is very difficult to staunch ; and moreover
that the blood which the leech has sucked remains permanently
fluid within its stomach. So much was known at that time
about the coagulation that I was able to predict an explanation
of these curious and hitherto unexplained facts, which my
experiments enabled me to confirm. These I will now
describe, confining myself to those points which will be of
most interest to the general biologist.
A blood-clot consists of a sponge of albumen (fibrin) which
encloses the corpuscles in its meshes. When shed from the
body the blood contains red and white microscopic particles —
corpuscles — floating in a fluid — the liquor sanguinis. Very
soon the white corpuscles form small quantities of a very
active substance, a kind of ferment, which acts on the liquor
sanguinis, and causes the formation in it of this sponge of
fibrin. Now this is prevented in some way by the leech.
If you cut out with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors the
sucker and gullet of a leech, and after chopping these into
very small pieces, place them for an hour or so in very weak
salt solution, you will obtain a watery solution, a specimen of
which I show you in this bottle. If I add a drop of this to
a few drops of blood freshly drawn it will remain quite fluid,
while this similar portion will clot in a few minutes.
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society. Abstract of an Address, read December 9th, 1884.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MEDICINAL LEECH.
99
We have extracted from the leech then a substance which
prevents coagulation. What is it ? I am not in a position
to answer this question. I have tried to find out, and one of
the most distinguished of the German chemists, Professor
Schmiedeberg, has tried also, but without success. The
smallest quantity only is present, but it has an action on the
blood as powerful in its way as the venom of the rattlesnake.
A quantity of the substance, obtained as yet in an impure
state, less than a grain in weight, will prevent a gallon of
blood from clotting.
This substance the leech secretes from its sucker ; and if
this organ be examined with a microscope, a large number of
little glands will be seen opening on its surface. These are
single cells and they may be compared with the salivary
glands of man, and their secretion — containing the substance
— with the saliva.
The saliva of the leech prevents coagulation. How does
it operate ? It kills the ferment which produces the fibrin
from the liquor sanguinis. The experiments conducted in
order to prove this point would take long to describe, but I
may mention that the saliva although it kills the ferment does
not kill the cells which produce it. If a drop of blood be
mixed with a drop of this extract of leech saliva and examined
with the microscope, carefully warming the preparation with
suitable apparatus, the little white corpuscles will be seen
moving about as in normal blood.
In this preparation you will see the blood of a crab under
the microscope. There are a mass of white corpuscles — no red
ones exist — welded together by processes of their protoplasm
called pseudopodia. This forms the clot seen in invertebrate
blood, which is then due not to the formation of fibrin, but
to the fusion of the white corpuscles. We have seen that
in human blood the leech saliva does not affect the white
corpuscles. These are homologous of those of the crab just
alluded "to, and we should anticipate then that the saliva will
not prevent the clotting of crab’s blood. This is the case.
If a small quantity of the extract be injected into the jugular
vein of a rabbit or dog the animal will be thrown into a very
curious condition, in which it resembles a patient suffering
from a disease called haemophilia. The slightest wound in
the skin continues to bleed. In haemophilia this may lead to
fatal consequences, but as the leech saliva is eliminated pretty
rapidly from the system, its injection is not so very serious a
matter.
Now you will be in a position to see the reason why
the blood continues to flow for so long a time from the leech-
100
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
bite. In this case there is a local injection of the secretion
into the tissues of the wound, and a local effect only is pro¬
duced. While the leech is sucking, this secretion bathes the
wound, and being very diffusible it passes into the tissues
around. When the leech drops off at the end of ten or
fifteen minutes, the wound is literally soaked with the
secretion, and the blood not only flows from the wound, but
some of it will probably find its way into the tissues around
its edges, so that the skin becomes blue just as if it had been
bruised — ■ (this is generally but not always seen). If you wish
to stop a leech bite you must wash the wound well with water to
wash away the secretion.
To the leech, the possession of this secretion is essential
for its existence. It thus obtains sufficient blood for its
nourishment. A cut such as the leech can inflict would very
soon stop bleeding, and the creature would at most obtain
a few drops. But in addition the blood remains fluid within
its body cavity. We know — many at least — by our own ex¬
perience how difficult it is to digest a milk-clot ; for the
coagulation of the milk within the stomach is perhaps the
chief reason that it is to some a forbidden article of food.
So with the leech ; it can easily assimilate the fluid blood,
but its digestive juices would refuse to attack a solid blood- clot.
THE PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE
MIDLANDS.
BY W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
( Continued from pa ye 73.)
5. — The Silurians of Walsall. — Ten miles due west of
Dosthill, the intervening space being occupied by the Trias,
we find a considerable area of Upper Silurian beds lying
around and east of Walsall. The lowest stratum exposed
is the Upper Llandovery or May Hill Sandstone, which crops
out near Hay Head and at Shustoke Lodge, two miles east
of Walsall. * It is here very fossiliferous, and has a westerly
dip. The rocks which lie below it are not visible, but if the
fault which has brought the May Hill Sandstone to the
surface had had but a little greater throw, we should, doubt¬
less, have found Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian rocks at the
surface, for the entire thickness of the Lower Silurian strata
is wanting in this part of South Staffordshire.
* Jukes’ South Staffordshire Coalfield; Suney Memoir; p. 109.
FRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
101
The overlying beds include the Barr or Hay Head
(Woolliope) limestone; then 800ft. of Wenlock shales (well
shown in the railway cuttings) ; and lastly, at Dun End and
Walsall Town, the two bands of the Dudley ( = Wenlock)
limestone ; these being immediately overlaid by coal-
measures, the whole series of rocks dipping westerly.
6. — The Silurians of Dudley and Sedgley. — Crossing now
to the western boundary of the South Staffordshire Coalfield,
we find that also formed by a fault, which has again brought
Silurian rocks to the surface. But as the throw of this fault
is somewhat less than that of the eastern boundary, we here,
at Sedgley, find the lowest rock exposed to be the Wenlock
Shales. Above these come the two bands of Dudley
( = Wenlock) limestone, then a great thickness, perhaps
1,000 feet, of Ludlow Shales, near the top of which we
find the Sedgley ( = Aymestry) limestone. Although the
beds undulate, their yeneral dip is to the east.
A little south of the Sedgley area the Silurian rocks again
rise to the surface in the two dome-like masses of the Wren’s
Nest and Dudley Castle ; here we get the Wenlock shales
and limestone only. A little farther south there is a small
exposure of the same beds at the Lye. Thus far we are able
to see a strong resemblance between the structure of the South
Staffordshire and the Warwickshire Coalfields. Each is
bounded on the east and on the west by faults which run north
and south, and by which the rocks lying beneath the coal
measures are brought to the surface. The differences, how¬
ever, are considerable. In Warwickshire the boundary line is
a double fault, and the rocks brought up are Cambrians, while in
Staffordshire they are Silurians. The coal-seams of Warwick¬
shire, moreover, increase in depth from the surface, and pass
beneath newer rocks as we follow them southward, and the
southern boundary of that coalfield is unknown. But in
Staffordshire just the opposite happens ; we know that the
coals there terminate in a southerly direction against a buried
ridge of Silurian rocks, the actual outcrop of the seams being
hidden by the upper coal measures which overlap. But a little
further south these old Silurian rocks, and others of still
greater antiquity, are brought to the surface in a manner
which strongly reminds us of the Hartshill region.
7. — The Lower Lickey Hills. — The Lower Lickey Hills form
part of the southern boundary of the South Staffordshire
Coalfield. They consist of a low camel-backed ridge, some
500 feet in height, running from north-west to south-east for
between two and three miles. Access is easy from the Barnt
Green Station (at the southern end of the ridge), on the
102
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
Birmingham and Worcester line ; while a new railway lias lately
been opened from Rubery (at the north end) to Halesowen.
The basement rock of the Lickey is best seen along a
stream-course at the southern end of the hills. It is a greyish
blotchy rock — probably an altered volcanic ash — which has
harder (quartzose) bands in its upper part ; only a small area
is exposed, and there is no good section. This rock is probably
of Pre- Cambrian age.
Next m order we get the hard, much-jointed, greyish-white
to red quartzite, of which the main ridge is composed. It is
well exposed in numerous sections — that at Rubery Station
being especially fine — where it is worked for road-metal.
The thickness of the quartzite is about 350 feet, and its
prevailing dip is to the north-east, at angles of from twenty
to thirty degrees. But at the Rubery end of the hills — where
the section is most complete — the quartzite rolls over, and
dips westward, thus forming a true anticlinal. No fossils
occur in the quartz-rock, but whitish specks of decomposed
felspar are common in it. At the southern end of the ridge
the rock is much contorted. The geological age of the
quartzite is again a matter of difficulty. Lithologically it is
identical with the Hartsliill quartzite, and rests, like it, upon
Archaean strata. The Cambrian shales — which probably
come above the quartzite — are here hidden by the overlap of
the Silurian strata. The quartzite is, without doubt, either
Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian, but, in the absence of fossils and
of sections showing its relations to the rocks above and below
it, it is hardly possible to refer it with certainty to its precise
geological horizon.
Above the quartzite we find representatives of several
Silurian rocks. First we get the May Hill Sandstone — a
coarse, friable rock full of characteristic fossils, Strickland inia.
l i rata being especially numerous — which is well seen in the
road-cutting at Snead’s Heath, just opposite the wall of the
Lunatic Asylum. Here the newer sandstone rests upon an
eroded surface of the metamorphosed rock, filling up its hollows,
and containing rounded pebbles of the quartzite. There are
hard quartzose bands in the May Hill Sandstone, and these
probably led to the erroneous idea — promulgated by Murchison
and endorsed by the Geological Survey — that the Cambrian
quartzite of the Lickey was simply a metamorphic form of
the May Hill rock which reposed upon its flanks. The true
facts of the case were observed by Professor Lapworth and
Mr. Houghton early in 1882 ; the underlying Pre-Cambrian
strata were discovered by the former geologist a little later,
the clue to them being afforded by the rocks of like age which
underlie the quartzite of Hartsliill.
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
103
Above the May Hill Sandstone of the Lickey are Silurian
shales with irregular bands of limestone representing the
Wool hope Limestone, while at the southern end of the ridge,
near Barnt Green, an old quarry in a wood reveals the Wen-
lock Limestone. At the northern end, where the anticlinal is
complete, Silurian rocks occur on the east and on the west
sides of Rubery Hill, and these are overlaid in turn by coal-
measures. Above these come Permian and Triassic strata,
which abound in fragments of the older rocks.
8. — The Wrekin and Church Stretton District. — The Pre-
Carboniferous rocks of Shropshire have been so ably described
by Dr. Callaway that it will be only necessary to briefly re¬
capitulate his conclusions.
About twenty miles north-west of Dudley— at Lille shall,
in Shropshire — we reach the termination of an axis which
extends from this point to the south-west for thirty or forty
miles, and along which Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian rocks
have been brought up on the east side of a line of fault. The
Pre-Cambrian rocks were mapped by the Survey as intrusive
greenstones, while the Cambrians were regarded as Silurian
strata altered by the heat, &c., proceeding from the said
greenstones at the time of the intrusion ! Mr. S. Allport was
the first to prove that the so-called greenstones were really
bedded volcanic rocks.* They occur as isolated bosses at
Lillesliall, the Wrekin Range, Wrockwardine, and Charlton
Hill. Then there is an interval of six miles (occupied by
Cambrian and Silurian strata) when the Pre-Cambrians again
form the rounded hills north and east of Church Stretton,
known as the Lawley, Caer Caradoc, Cardington Range, &c.
The beds of altered volcanic ash, lava, &c., have a general
strike from east to west, or across the direction of the ridges
which they form.
Resting unconformably upon these volcanic rocks we find
a quartzite, about 200 feet thick, identical in appearance with
that of the Lickey and Hartsliill.
Above the quartzite — where the section is most complete,
as on the east side of the Wrekin — is the Hollybush Sandstone,
greenish or brown in colour, and about 300 feet thick. Its
fossils prove it to belong to the Upper Lingula Flags, so that it
is of Upper Cambrian age. Above this sandstone, which is
little altered, are the Sliineton shales — bluish shale, 1,500 feet
thick — containing many new species of fossils, which Dr.
Callaway places on the horizon of the Lower Tremadoc Beds,
and which must be of pretty nearly the same age as the
Stockingford Shales of Warwickshire.
* Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Yol. XXXIII., p. 449.
104
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
Next come the Silurian strata, and we now meet, for the
first time, with representatives of the Lower Silurian forma¬
tion, in the shape of Caradoc sandstones and shales ; but even
these are not found north of the Severn, while the Aremg
Beds and the Llandeilo Flags are still wanting. Neither is
there any trace of the Lower Llandovery Beds, but the Upper
Llandovery, or May Hill Sandstone, rests unconformably on
all the rocks below it, while above it come all the Upper
Silurians in due order — this is, indeed, their typical district —
the Woolhope, Wenlock, and Aymestry Limestones forming
long ridges, running from north-east to south-west (of which
Wenlock Edge is the most prominent), while the softer shales
form the valleys between. Then, west of Bridgnorth, and
south of Broseley, we find the Old Red Sandstone here termina¬
ting its north-easterly extension. Of the Lower Carboniferous
strata the Mountain Limestone and Millstone Grit are but
feebly developed at Lilleshall and south-east of Wellington ;
while fifteen miles farther south, in the Brown Clee Hills,
the Coal-Measures repose upon the Old Red Sandstone.
(To be continued.)
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
BY HERBERT SPENCER.
BY LEWIS J. MAJOR.
ABSTRACT OF CHAPTERS VIII. AND IX., VOL. I.
Heredity.
The universal law of Heredity is that each plant or animal
produces plants or animals of the same general structure
with itself, and though the various instances of heterogenesis,
as given in the preceding chapter, are at first sight at
variance with this law, they are not really so, the recurrence
of forms being cyclical instead of direct. But the law of
Heredity applies not only to main characters of structure but
also to the smaller details, and though the tendency to
repetition is qualified somewhat by the tendency to variation,
the law may be considered as unlimited. Thus the members
of any one sub-species habitually transmit their distinctive
peculiarities to their descendants. We have, for example,
several varieties of wheat, many varieties of potatoes and
peas and of numerous other vegetables, not to speak of
flowers.
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
105
Such variations from the original type would be impos¬
sible were it not that distinctive peculiarities, encouraged by
a natural or artificial selection, have been and are habitually
transmitted in an equal, in a greater, or in a less degree. In
the absence of other evidence that which ethnology alone
furnishes would suffice.
The illustrations of Heredity are then divided into two
classes — (1) cases where congenital peculiarities, not traceable
to any obvious causes, are bequeathed to descendants ; (2)
cases where peculiarities, not congenital, but resulting from
changes in function during the lives of the individuals
bequeathing them, are inherited. The necessity of this
distinction is not very evident, and seems only to confuse,
as there are many instances of Heredity which it would be
difficult to place under one class more than the other. There
are numerous instances of the inheritance of forms modified
by natural and artificial selection, of the transmission of
special deformities, of the inheritance of diseases, of pecu¬
liarities of skin and of teeth, &c., whilst the direct inheritance
of an acquired peculiarity is sometimes observable. Mr. Lewes
gives a case of a puppy that took to begging spontaneously
(an accomplishment of his mother), and young pointers have
been noticed to stand and point when first taken into the
field.
[The inheritance of an acquired peculiarity can be by no
means uncommon. Most people can recall instances of an
inherited twitching of the mouth or eyes, of a peculiar way
of shaking hands or even of holding a teacup, and of numerous
other cases of the inheritance of the minutest details of
habit. Darwin, in the expression of the emotions, gives a
very singular instance— where a trick of lifting the arm and
dropping it again with a jerk on to the nose, during sleep,
was observed to be inherited.]
As an instance of functional Heredity, Spencer particularly
cites the musical faculty, the growth of which he explains in
a remarkably clear and powerful manner. There are two
modifications of Heredity given on p. 252 ; atavism, and the
limitation of Heredity by sex, to which we may add what
Darwin styles a much more important rule than either of
these, viz., that at whatever age a change appears in the
parent, it appears in the offspring, e.<j., horns in cattle.
[Even peculiarities of structure will appear at the same
age in the offspring as in the parents. In a family known to
a friend of mine, with several members of two generations,
one of the eye-teeth has failed to appear till they have reached
twenty-two or twenty-three years of age.]
106
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
Variation.
No organism is exactly like its parent. Variation is
co-extensive with Heredity, and the evidence which proves
Heredity in its smaller manifestations is the evidence which
proves variation, for it is only when there occur variations
that anything beyond the transmission of structural peculi¬
arities can be proved.
The transmission of variations is itself variable. An
individual trait in one parent may be counteracted in the
offspring, or may appear in an equal, or in a less, or in a
higher degree. An instance of this is cited from Dr. Strothers
of a family in which the transmission of digital increase was
traced through four generations varying in position and degree.
Though unlikeness among progenitors is one antecedent of
variation, it is by no means the only one, for successive
offspring of the same parent are never exactly alike. This is
accounted for by the functional variation of the parents, and
is shown by the fact that twins are more nearly alike than
children born in succession. But why are not seeds
out of one pod and animals born at one birth exactly
alike ? There is another cause for variation yet to seek.
In any series of dependent changes a small initial
difference often works a marked difference in the result —
instance the great likeness that exists between all babies a
few weeks old. And again, no two parts of any aggregate
can be similarly conditioned with respect to incident forces.
Hence, no two ova, no two ovules, no two spermatozoa, no
two pollen-cells can be identical, and the reproductive centres
must begin to differentiate from the very outset.
The inferences from the power that organisms display of
reproducing lost parts is, that the units of which an organism
is built have an innate tendency to arrange themselves into
the organism, but as reasons have been given for believing
that the reproductive cells are not highly specialized, and it
was actually seen in one of the organisms that the units of
each undifferentiated cell were capable of arranging them¬
selves into the form of species, we are driven to the assump¬
tion, as Spencer says: —
(1.) That sperm cells and germ cells are essentially nothing
more than vehicles in which are contained small groups of
the physiological units in a fit state for obeying their pro¬
clivity towards the structural arrangement of the species they
belong to.
(2.) That the likeness of any organism to either parent
is conveyed by the special tendencies of the units derived
from the parents.
NATURAL HISTORY OF SUTTON PARK.
107
(3.) That in the progress of evolution of the fertilised
germ, the two kinds of units are working in unison to pro¬
duce an organism of the species from which they were
derived, but in antagonism to produce copies of the respec¬
tive parent organisms.
NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OT
SUTTON PARK
(situated in the north-west extremity of the county of Warwick).
BY W. HARCOURT BATH.
The Bittern. — Although a rare occasional visitor, I believe
the bittern had never been known to breed in these parts
until last year, when I had the fortune to discover its nest.
The haunt of this bird was in a thick wooded morass at the
head of one of our largest pools, which it is almost impossible
for anyone to penetrate except after an absence of rain for
several weeks. During some fine weather in June last year
I was engaged in exploring this bog in quest of information.
I entered from the land side, and after some time and care
spent in springing from one clump of reeds to another in
order to evade the water, in doing which I was obliged to
guide myself with the branches of the trees, I managed to
arrive close to the water’s edge.
The nest was about a yard from the pool, and was diffi¬
cult to discern at first sight, as it was almost entirely obscured
from view by the quantity of vegetation growing around it.
It was built very high up out of the water on a mass of
reeds, in order to protect it, I presume, from a sudden rising
of the water to which these bogs are very liable. It was
composed exclusively of sticks and reeds, the inside being
lined with the latter. In size it was somewhat similar to
that of a coot’s nest.
The eggs were partially hidden from view by a thin layer
of reeds, which had the appearance of having been hurriedly
put on in order to prevent their detection.
On removing this I found the eggs five in number and all
quite warm, which proves that the parent bird must have
left them only at the last minute.
The colour of the eggs is pale oclireous-brown, and their
shape is similar at each end. They may be readily dis¬
tinguished from the egg of any other bird on account of their
soft velvety touch and beautiful glossy appearance.
108
NATURAL HISTORY OF SUTTON PARK.
The Black Tern. — A pair of these birds has the last two
years been known to breed in one of the marshes, but at
present I have been unable to discover the whereabouts of
their nest.
They arrive here about the end of April or beginning of
May. A single specimen was shot on one of the pools in the
summer of 1882.
Long-Eared, Owl. — Each year since my residence at Sutton
I have been accustomed to find the nest of this bird.
Its situation is usually selected about the end of February
or beginning of March, and about a week later the eggs, from
four to six in number, are laid, and ten or twelve days
afterwards the birds commence sitting. This bird never
builds a nest of its own, but appropriates some disused nest of
a crow, sparrow hawk, or magpie, entwining among the sticks
a little dried grass, and on this placing a mass of feathers
which the old bird plucks from its own breast.
The young are full fledged towards the end of April, and
in May and June may be seen on moonlight nights in com¬
pany with their parents scouring the woods in search of
prey. They very seldom show themselves in the open,
though I have seen them on several occasions. Their food
consists principally of small birds, mice, and shrews, judging
from the quantity of pellets found in their haunts.
During the day, the long-eared owl is very sluggish, and
may be approached within a very short distance, but it is
seldom seen in the day time, except on rare occasions, as it
effectually hides itself in the thickest parts of the woods, and
bears such a close resemblance to the trunks of trees in
colour.
When disturbed off its nest, it almost invariably drops
down immediately into the bushes, and very seldom flies far
away, except on an exceptionally dull day.
I have never heard this species of owl utter a call.
The Kestrel. — It is rather singular that this bird in North
Warwickshire, and especially in the neighbourhood of Sutton,
should be of less frequent occurrence than the Sparrow Hawk,
which is usually the opposite in other parts of the country.
Where twenty of the latter are seen, there is not one of the
former. Can any of your readers explain this ?
The Stone-chat I believe is only a summer visitor to these
parts, arriving about the 1st March, and departing again in
November. It would be interesting to know in what localities
it stays throughout the winter. Probably some of your
correspondents on the South Coast will kindly inform us.
NATURAL HISTORY OF SUTTON PARK.
109
The Adder is by no means extinct here. I am frequently
informed of single specimens having been seen. A large
retriever dog belonging to a friend of mine died last year
from the effects of a bite of one of them.
I captured a specimen last spring, in the bogs near Brace-
bridge Pool; it measured twenty-three inches in length. Old
residents inform me that the viper used to literally swarm
on the Coldfield about twenty years back.
1 he Ringed Snake is less frequently seen, though a few
occur near Walmley (about three miles from here) in damp
situations.
Pine Marten. — A single specimen of this now somewhat
rare animal was seen by myself in Upper Nut Hurst last
summer. I was only about four feet off when I first saw
it asleep in the sunshine on the low branch of an oak. When
awakened it darted immediately up the tree and hid itself
from view, and although I waited about lialf-an-hour after¬
wards, and continued to throw up stones with the hope of
seeing it again, I had to turn away disappointed.
The Squirrel is still not uncommon in the less-frequented
woods, and any early morning’s walk will reveal it to the
enquirer. Their nests may be seen any time ; the usual
situations being in the forket of an oak tree, or at the top of
some thick pine or holly. They usually breed in May, and
have from three to five young ones at a birth. A nest at the
top of a thick holly tree that I found last year contained
three young ones, — the prettiest little creatures in creation.
The nest measured about twenty inches in length, and nine
or ten inches thick. The outside was composed of the twigs
of the pine tree, and the inside lined with the needles of the
same ; it was oval in shape, and slanting in order to let the
rain run off; there were two openings, one at each end, which,
however, are always kept closed. When I touched the top
the young ones scrambled out and ran down the branches of
the tree to the ground, uttering squeaks in doing so. I
captured one of them and took it home, and fed it upon
bread and milk ; it appeared to be very docile, but only sur¬
vived a few days.
Squirrels seldom become dormant in these parts but remain
lively all the winter through. They are amply provided with
food, but their numbers seem to be steadily on the decrease.
The Glow-Worm. — Mr. T. B. Grove informs me that he saw
one of these insects last summer on a bank in Holly Hurst. I
believe this is the first recorded in Sutton Park. Perhaps
Mr. B latch can inform us.
110
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
Anoclonta anatina. — I have seen great quantities of this shell
at a large pool at Langley (2J miles from Sutton), belonging to
a friend of mine. Some of the specimens are of an unusual
size.
Birds that nest earliest in these parts : —
Name.
Rook
Redbreast
Long-eared Owl ...
House Sparrow ...
Starling ...
Carrion Crow
H awfincli
Heron
Common Wren ...
Mistletoe Thrush
Song Thrush
Blackbird...
Hedge Accentor ...
Wild Duck
Teal
Lapwing ...
Snipe
Ringdove ...
Green Woodpecker
Lesser spotted ditto
J ackdaw ...
Date.
February 19tli — March 1st.
February 29th — March 14th.
End of February and beginning
of March.
Beginning of March.
Ditto.
March 14tli — 19th.
Middle of March.
Ditto.
Ditto.
End of March.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto,
Ditto.
Ditto.
(To be continued.)
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. — February, 1885.
Barometric pressure was decidedly unsteady this month, and the
changes numerous and rapid. The height of the mercurial column
was about 29 inches at the commencement of the month ; about
30 inches at its close. The weather was generally unsettled. The
mean temperature was about 2 degrees above the average, although a
short “spell” of frost occurred about the 21st, when the readings were
lower than those in February since 1879. The range of temperature
was unusually wide. The highest maxima occurred on the 24th, and
were — 59,2° at Loughborough, 59-0° at Henley-in-Arden, 57'9° at
Hodsock, 57*4° at Strelley, and 57T° at Coston Rectory. In the rays
of the sun, 99T° was registered at Hodsock on the 28tli, 97T° at
Loughborough on the 12th, and 93-0° at Strelley on the 28th. The
lowest minima were on the 21st, and were lS’S0 at Hodsock, 20-3° at
Coston Rectory, 21-0° at Loughborough and Henley-in-Arden, and
22-3° at Strelley ; 13-3° was registered on the grass at Strelley and
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
Ill
Hodsock, and 15-6° at Loughborough, also on the 21st. Rainfall was
slightly above the average, the total values for the month being 3‘50
inches at Henlev-in-Arden, 2-56 inches at Loughborough, 2*38 inches
at Strelley, 2'35 inches at Coston Rectory, and 2*19 inches at Hodsock.
The greatest fall occurred on the 16th, and varied from 0-64 to 0-52 of
an inch. A little snow fell on two or three days. The prevailing
winds were southerly, and occasionally strong in force. Sunshine was
again deficient. A lunar halo was observed at Loughborough on the
evening of the 27th.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
♦
The Midland Union. — The Birmingham Societies are making
vigorous preparations for the Annual Meeting of the Union, which is
to be held in Birmingham in the middle of June. We trust that all
the Societies in the Union will arrange their Meetings so as to leave
the days selected (June 16tli and 17tli) free, and that a large number
of their members will take part in the General Meeting, and attend
the Soiree and Excursions.
The Aquarium Department will form an attractive feature of the
forthcoming Inventions Exhibition. Lord Onslow has lately presented
1,500 exceedingly fine carp ; and a large number of fish indigenous to
the Canadian Lakes have also been received for exhibition.
The Fauna of Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Staffordshire.
— As I am compiling for publication lists of the Fauna of the above-
named three counties, I shall be very much obliged for any assistance
that the readers of the “ Midland Naturalist ” can give me. I am
particularly in want of lists of Iusecta occurring in the three counties,
with their localities and notes on abundance or scarcity, &c. Specialists
wishing to contribute will kindly correspond with W. Harcourt Bath,
Sutton Park, near Birmingham.
Professor Hilliiouse, it is announced, will shortly publish, through
Messrs. Sonnenschein and Co., an English version of Professor Stras-
burger’s “ Das Kleine Botanische Practicum,” itself an abridgment of a
much larger work published in the spring of last year. The book is
intended primarily for students and practical workers, and, commencing
with the most elementary researches, with the aid of the simplest
apparatus only, it is carried up to embryological and other complex
work. The volume will be fully illustrated by woodcuts drawn by the
author, who is adding fresh notes of most recent information.
A New Protozoon. — The new chloropliyllogenous protozoon, dis¬
covered by Mr. Thomas Bolton, has recently been described by
Professor Ray Lankester. He has named it after its discoverer, and
after Mr. William Archer, of Dublin (the discoverer of so many
Heliozoa), Archerina Boltoni. It is simply a sphere of dense proto¬
plasm, with radiating pseudopodia, one or more vacuoles (but none
contractile), and a single or bifid chlorophyll corpuscle. It passes
through actinophryd, encysted, and vegetative stages. Some may
regard it as a case of symbiosis between a moner-like protozoon and
a unicellular alga, but Professor Lankester thinks there is no ground
for such a supposition.
112
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
Origin of the Yertebrata. — The question whether the Yertebrata
are derived from a worm-like ancestor or from a neinertine-like form,
which gave rise to the Vertebrata on the one hand and the Annelids on
the other, has long been of deepest interest to morphologists. Mr. J.
T. Cunningham, Director of the Scottish Marine Survey, discusses the
subject in the recent issue of the “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science,” and strongly advocates the theory which regards theVertebrate
as a worm turned on its back. Since in the Worm the oesophagus is
embraced by two nerve-cords connecting the brain and ventral nerve-
cord, but in the Vertebrate no such arrangement exists, the brain and
spinal cord being entirely dorsal to the alimentary canal, the theory
requires that a remnant of the original annelid mouth and oesophagus
should be found in the vertebrate brain. This remnant Mr. Cunning¬
ham finds in the Infundibulum of the brain, which is a deep conical
depression on the ventral surface in connection with the Pituitary body,
the latter being regarded by Dr. Dohrn as the rudiment of a gill. Mr.
Cunningham also regards the notochord as of mesoblastic, and not
of liypoblastic origin, as hitherto supposed, and homologous with the
three giant fibres beneath the nerve-cord in the earth-worm.
Botanical Research. — A writer in “Nature ” (March 19th) gives afew
very interesting particulars of the much-increased facilities which are
now offered to a student who, having completed his botanical course
at our Universities, desires to plunge at once into some original
research. Instead of the customary method of visiting Germany, and
there sitting at the feet of one of the giants of botanical science whose
names have been so familiar to him throughout his University course,
he can now avail himself of the opportunity offered at the Botanical
Garden at Buitenzcrg, in Java, where, in a not unhealthy locality, he
would have all the rich materials of a tropical flora at his command.
Dr. Treub, the Director of the Garden, who speaks English, has
accommodation in his laboratory for four investigators simultaneously,
and the offer is made freely to those of any nation. But even in
Europe we have now, besides the well-known station at Naples, a
second marine station at Antibes, in the south of France, where, on
suitable application, foreigners can obtain admission to the laboratories
of the Villa Thuret, and prosecute their researches under the director¬
ship of M. Naudin. The writer also refers to the Jodrell laboratory at
Kew, and laments that so little is done by us to utilise in our gardens
at Calcutta and Peradeniya opportunities as great as those which ihe
Dutch have at Buitenzorg. There is hope, however, that as regards
Britain, the Marine Biological Associations will remove the reproach
under which we now labour that there is no station at which an earnest
student could prosecute his studies in marine botany, without accepting
the help of a foreign Government.
Encouragement of Scientific Research. — The Royal Society of New
South Wales offers its medal and a money prize for the best commu¬
nication (provided it be of sufficient merit) on each of eight subjects of
scientific interest. Among these are : — Anatomy and Life-history of the
Echidna and Platypus ; Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar
to Australia ; Tin Deposits of New South Wales ; Iron-ore Deposits of
New South Wales ; List of Marine Fauna of Port Jackson, with
descriptive notes, Ac., as to habits, distribution, Ac.; Infusoria peculiar
to Australia. The competition is open to all the world, without any
restriction, excepting that the competition must be either wholly or
in part original — mere compilation will not be sufficient.
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
118
The Geological Survey. — The year 1883 witnessed the completion
of the one inch to a mile geologically-coloured map of England and
Wales. Commenced by De La Beclie in 1835, the work was
continued by Murchison and Ramsay, and has been completed
under Geikie. But although the map is nominally completed, much
remains to be done. Some of the staff have been transferred to Scot¬
land, but Mr. H. B. Woodward is engaged in Dorsetshire — preparing
an important memoir on the Oolite— and others are revising, correcting,
or adding to the work previously done in other districts. The fact is,
we want (1) a re-survey of the country on the six-incli scale ; for we
have learnt much since the West of England and Wales was mapped —
thirty to fifty years ago — and the old maps are partly obsolete : (2) the
preparation of an independent set of diift maps, showing the surface
deposits so important to the agriculturist ; and (3) the issue of des¬
criptive memoirs which shall treat fully of the nature and contents of
the rocks.
The Ordnance Survey. — Having completed the map of Scotland,
on the scale of six inches to a mile, the officers and sappers of the
Royal Engineers have for the last year or two been very busy in the
Midland Counties of England. Their poles and marks are conspicuous
objects on every liill-top, and already numerous maps of various
parts of the district have been issued by the agents — Longmans, Stan¬
ford, Ac. — for the sale of Government publications. Maps of the whole
country on the scale of six inches to a mile, and of towns on the scale
of twenty-five inches to a mile, are being executed. The immense value
of the six-incli maps to all engaged in scientific pursuits need not be
indicated. The detail of these maps is such that they show the out¬
line of every field and the position of every tree. The geologist will,
for the first time, be able to lay down accurately on a large scale map
the results of his observations, and the archaeologist and the botanist
will derive equal benefit. It is hoped that the entire Survey will be
completed by 1890.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — General Meeting, February 17th. Mr. Wm. Pumphrey,
of Bath, displayed a series of photo-micrographs, and read a paper in
which he gave a description of the apparatus, and method by which
they wrere produced. He called attention to the great advantage
obtained by the use of parallel rays — such parallelism being obtained
by causing the light (in this case the light from a powerful paraffin lamp)
to traverse two apertures, placed 1 £ inches from each other, interposed
between the lamp and the object. By this means the intervention of
a condensing lens is dispensed with, and a much finer definition
attained. Mr. Pumphrey concluded by a display on the screen of a
great variety of objects. The selection embraced portions of insects,
such as the head appendages of gnats, flies, bees, crickets, &c. ;
sections of wood, bone, and shell ; perfect insects, as Trombi ilium,
Pulex, Pedicvlus, &c. In order to illustrate the subject more fully,
the objects were shown on the screen, in both the positive and negathe
condition, by which the company were enabled more fully to appreciate
the details of the process and the results. It was explained that the
lens used was one of Swift’s new 40° lin. objectives, and that the plates
were the extra sensitive (XXXXX) of the Paget Plate Company. The
reproduction of those parts of the objects in which the natural colour
is inactive excited great attention. At the conclusion a lively conver¬
sation ensued, in which many of the members present took part.—
114
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Geological Section. February 24tli. Mr. T. H. Waller elected
Chairman ; Mr. John Udall Secretary. Exhibits by Mr. Waller : —
I, A case for microscopic slides, by Russell, of Newgate Street,
London ; 2, a section of one of the old lavas of Ischia. The
special point of interest is the disposition of the glass inclusions
in one of the sections of leucite. This is radial instead of parallel
to the sides of the section. The event of the evening was a
paper, by Mr. Marshall, on “Niagara and its Physical and Geological
Conditions.” The paper was admirably illustrated with maps and
diagrams, and brought together a large and appreciative audience. —
General Meeting. March 8rd. Mr. R. W. Chase in the chair.
Mr. Lawson Tait presented a number of photographs of diatoms,
Ac., which he had received from the Government Museum at
Washington. The best thanks of the meeting were given to Mr.
Tait for the present. Mr. Chase gave some very interesting notes on
the esculent swallow ( CoIIocallia esculenta). Mr. J. T. Blakemore
exhibited the dead bodies of a spider and a beetle which had been in
water for some time and had become covered with fungi, supposed to
belong to the genus Saprolegnia. Mr. T. Bolton, Cercarice, or tailed larvae
of the fluke, which had escaped from their intermediate hosts the
Livincea (water snail). They were seen under the microscope swimming
by the vigorous lashing of the tail, and at other times crawling like a
leech by the alternate attachment of the suckers, one surrounding the
mouth and the other about the centre of the ventral surface. Prof.
Hillhouse, a plant of the Hyacinth that had been grown without light ;
the leaves were white, but the flowers retained their natural colour
and odour. He also exhibited a brass rack for holding a number
of microscopic slides while they dry. Mr. W. P. Marshall, a singular
abnormal growth of a hen’s egg containing a second egg. Mr. J. Morley,
the horned ichneumon fly (Euloplius Nemati j, mounted without pressure
by Mr. F. Enock. — Biological Section. March 10th. Mr. W. P. Marshall
in the chair. Mr. Marshall read some interesting notes on the Roraiina
Mountain in British Guiana, which Mr. Im Tliurm ascended in
December last, this being the first ascent that has been made. This
mountain is 0,000ft. above the sea level and the summit is twelve
miles long by four miles wide, and it may be truly described as the
garden of orchids. Beside these plants there are also found interesting
species belonging to the Sarraceniacece , or water pitchers, and the
Utricular iacece, or bladder worts. Prof. Hillhouse illustrated these
notes with some excellent models of both these orders, together with
the Nepenthes , or pitcher plants, and also made some very interesting
remarks on the various orders, pointing out their differences and
peculiarities. A discussion followed, in which the Chairman, Prof.
Hillhouse, and Messrs. France, R. W. Chase, W. H. Wilkinson, and
J. E. Bagnall took part. Mr. J. E. Bagnall read some short notes on
the uses of mosses, illustrating these by the plants mentioned, and
exhibited also a number of mosses from the Nuneaton district ; and
for Mr. J. B. Stone, Hypnum cupressifonne, var. ela turn, from near
Bletcliley. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited the larvae of Spio seticornis , with
an illustration, and Diatoms with the filaments referred to by Mr. J.
Badcock in his paper in the “ Journal of the R. M. S.,” July, 1884.
Mr. R. W. Chase, Somateria mollissima, the Eider Duck, showing the
various stages from the young to the adult in both male and female ;
he also gave some extremely interesting notes on the habits and life
history of these birds. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson also exhibited a number
of lichens from near Crieff, Scotland, calling special attention to the
following : — Parmelia conspersa , Physcia speciosa , Cladonia squamosa,
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
115
and Collema nigrescens ; also rhyscia stellaris , var. actinota, from
Blockley. — Microscopical Section. March 17tli. Mr. W. H. Wilkin¬
son exhibited a specimen of the pretty white-flowered Allium from
France, sold in shops as the “ Star of Bethlehem,” in which the
central axis was continued upwards through the umbel, then forming
a second and smaller umbel of flowers above. He also exhibited an
abnormal orange, which Professor Hillhouse explained was a double
orange, viz., a second orange, with carpels and rind quite complete,
growing inside the other. Mr. C. Pumplirey then exhibited, by the aid
of the lime-light lantern, the second series of photographs taken by
him during his late visit to America. After showing maps and plans of
the district visited, he threw upon the screen a large number of
beautiful views, comprising scenes in Quebec, the Falls of Mont¬
morency, Chicago, the steam engines with their peculiar chimneys
(spark catchers), the style of carriages used, the railway lines and
bridges ; also views on the St. Lawrence and Hudson Rivers, showing
the tall steamboats used there ; views of Lake George, and a very
interesting series of pictures of Niagara Falls, showing the grandeur
of the falling mass of water from many different points of vantage.
The display was much appreciated, and complimentary remarks were
made by the chairman, Mr. R. W. Chase, and Mr. W. P. Marshall;
and a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Pumphrey was passed unanimously.
— Sociological Section. March 5th. Mr. W. H. France read the
second chapter of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Study of Sociology,” and
the reading was followed by an interesting discussion. — At a meeting
of the Section held on Thursday, March 19th, Chapters 6 and 7 of
Part III. of Mr. Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology ” were considered,
the discussion being introduced in a paper by Dr. Hiepe.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — February 23rd. Mr. J. W. Neville exhibited twelve
botanical sections, double stained, prepared by Mr. G. Wilkes, of
Manchester; Mr. Bradbury, a collection of butterflies, from the Malay
Archipelago. Under the microscope, Mr. Hawkes showed cirrhi of
barnacle (Balanus balanoid.es) ; also ova of the same and young in the
first stage — March 2nd. Mr. T. H. Waller, B.A., B.Sc., delivered a
lecture on “ The Microscopic Structure of Rowley Rag,” which was
largely illustrated by specimens and sections under the microscopes. —
March 9th. Mr. Moore exhibited specimens of the slug Testacella
haliotoidea, from Chiswick ; Mr. Tylar, a fossil Echinus, in Lias
clay, with spines in situ ; Mr. Insley, a collection of ferns, grasses, Ac.,
made in Afghanistan and the district. Under the microscope Mr.
Tylar showed larva of Coretlira plumicornis , pierced with threads of
hydra ; Mr. J. W. Neville, mouth organs of wasp, mounted without
pressure, and explained the mode of its preparation. — March 16th.
Mr. Wykes showed stems of Ijepidodendron in true coal. The follow¬
ing objects were exhibited under the microscopes : — Mr. Dunn, pulsa¬
tions of the heart in rianorbis vortex ; Mr. Tylar, anchor plates of
Synapta inhcerens and S. digitata ; Mr. Foster, parasite of Red-
throated Diver (Colymbus septentrionalis ); Mr. Moore, alimentary canal
of Agrion pulcliellum. A paper was then read by Mr. A. Foster on
“ Some common objects of the microscope,” which described the edu¬
cational advantages to be derived from microscopic observations. The
minute structure of entomological, botanical, and anatomical objects
was described, and the additions made by the microscope to our know¬
ledge of the structural peculiarities of the objects by which we are
surrounded. The paper was largely illustrated by microscopic slides.
116
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman : E. T.Mott, F.R.G-.S.
Monthly Meeting, March 18th. Exhibits : The Text-book of
Zoology, by Clans, translated by Sedgwick ; “ Notes Algologiques,” by
Bornet and Thuret ; Microscopic slides of Lyngbya, Ulothrix, Draparn-
aldia , and other algae, by Mr. E. Bates. A box of marine shells, Trochi
neritee, &c., by Miss Adderly. A gathering of mosses from Leicester¬
shire, and another from Hampshire, by Miss Grundy. Four dead
freshwater shells taken from the underside of a small piece of
Marchantia polymorpJia, growing on a stone in Bradgate Brook, viz.,
Valvata piscinalis , Planorbis albus, Pisidium pulchellum, and a very
small Linnceus , only a quarter of an inch long, probably the young of
Stagnalis ; also a curious small Hepatic, not yet identified, by the
Cliairman. Specimens of Erojilrila vulgaris (Draba nerna) in flower,
only three-quarters of an inch high, by Mr. Quilter. Papers (1) “ On
Heterostylism,” by Mr. E. F. Cooper, F.L.S., describing the dimorphic
flowers of Primula vulgaris , and the trimorphic flowers of Lythnim
salicaria, and showing how the latter is probably approaching to a
dioecious condition. The paper was illustrated by specimens and
drawings. (2) “On a wild bee’s nest,” by Mr. Thomas Carter, LL.B.,
describing and exhibiting the clay cells, with cocoons, and pellets of
pollen found in the interior of a door lock, which two bees were
observed frequently to visit. Also several cells from an inch to an
inch-and-a-lialf long, composed entirely of portions of leaves found in
another corner of the same lock. A bee was also exhibited which
was believed to be one of those seen visiting the lock, and which
appeared to be a species of Osmia. (3) “ On a possible origin of organic
life,” by the Chairman, suggesting that as the most fundamental
difference between organic and inorganic objects was the greater
concentration of energy in the former, the differentiation may have
occurred when the concentrating energy which produced this earth
from nebulous matter was at its maximum ; that as that period is long
past, the conditions necessary for such differentiation do not now
exist, so that no change from inorganic to organic is now possible,
except under the law of biogenesis. It was arranged to take the first
field day of the season on April 8th, to Kirby Muxloe Castle.
PETERBOROUGH NATURAL HISTORY, SCIENTIFIC, AND
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.— February 19tli.— Exhibits :— Mr.
A. Gee, various foraminifera and diatoms, including Isthmia
nervosa in situ ; Mr. A. W. Beale, various diatoms, crystals of gold
quartz and peacock copper, and the water flea, Daphnia pulex ; Mr. J.
W. Bodger, unripe and ripe capsules of Tortula mural is, showing
peristome and spores. Miss Perkins exhibited a collection of local
mosses, made by the Marchioness Dowager of Huntly, and kindly
lent for the occasion. Mr. J. W. Bodger exhibited and presented to
the Society, Balanus tintinnabulum from the Coromandel coast,
Balanus spinosus from Ceylon, and Neritina viridis from Barbadoes.
Dr. W. Easby presented to the Society an apprentice’s indenture
dated 1714 ; a Sudbury token, 1793 ; a Chatteris token, 1813 ; a March
silver token, 1811. Mr. W. Heath presented a cuckoo, Cuculus canorus ;
starling, Sturnus vulgaris ; skylark, Alauda arvensis ; chaffinch, Erin-
gilla cailebs; yellow hammer, Emberiza citrinella ; royston or hooded
crow, Coitus cornix. Mr. W. Doughty, a barn owl, Strix Jiammea.
Mr. G. Thompson, a common gull, Earns eanus. Mr. W- Heath, jun.,
a little grebe, Podiceps minor. Mr. A. W. Nicliolls exhibited Gnaphalium
leontopodium from the Alps, and G. uliginosum from Fletton. Mr. <T.
Perkins exhibited Neritina fiuviatilis from River Lane.
Plate IV
Jtf ber J. kesirul
C TEPODRILUS PAR DAL IS .
*
Plate V .
<_AfUr H Timm,
"NATS HAMATA
NOTES ON TWO RARE ANNELIDS.
117
NOTES ON TWO BARE ANNELIDS.*
BY T. BOLTON, F.R.M.S.
CTENODRILUS PAR DALIS.
This interesting little annelid turned up for a short time
in abundance in one of the marine aquaria in my studio.
It is impossible to say 'what its source may have been, as I
have added organisms to my aquarium from the south¬
west, and north-east coasts of England, and also from
North Wales.
It was described in 1863, by Edward Claparede, from a
single immature specimen which he had found two years
before near St. Vaast la Hougue, on the coast of Normandy,
nearly opposite the Isle of Wight, and was named by him
Ctenodrilus partialis, nov. gen. et sp. Professor E. Ray
Lankester considers that the same animal was described
in 1857 by Oscar Schmidt under the name of Parthenope
serrata. Dr. J. Kennel gives a long report on this annelid
in the Arbeiten Zool. Zoot. Inst, in Wurzburg, 1882,
as a contribution to the knowledge of the anatomy and
gemmation of annelids. He had the opportunity, in 1879,
of examining it very carefully in the Zoological Station of
Naples, where it appeared in great abundance in the
diatomacean slime on the surface of the tanks in the
aquarium.
He gives the following as the characteristics of the genus
and species : —
“ Fam. CtenodrilidcD : Small marine annelids, consisting of
few segments, bundles of bristles on each side bilateral,
bristles pectinate at the point, blood-vessel system not closed,
dorsal vessel is only in the first body-segments, and opens
into the ventral cavity in the first abdominal-segment.
A single pair of segmental organs in the head. Continuous
multiplication by subdivision in combination with budding-
processes. Sexual reproduction unknown.
“ Ctenodrilus: 12 — 15 segments, head consisting of two or
three segments, mouth with a strong evertible underlip ;
in the dorsal blood-vessel a string-like organ of doubtful
*Exliibited before tbe Birmingham Natural History Society, oil
November 18th and December 9th, 1884.
118
NOTES ON TWO BARE ANNELIDS.
signification. Budding-zones in the abdominal region
between every two segments. The whole nerve system in
the epidermis.
“ C. pardalis : Clap. Intestine, dark brown ; in the skin
numerous green drops. Amongst algae and diatoms.”
NAIS HAM AT A.
This annelid, which is new to Great Britain, I found
lately amongst a quantity of desmids and diatoms in a
shallow ditch in Sutton Park, and I have more recently
found associated with it Nais lurida. Both these were first
discovered in Lower Franconia by B. Timm, and were
figured and described by him in the Arbeiten Zool. Zoot.
Inst, in Wurzburg, 1883. He describes the Nais harnata
as follows : —
“ The number of segments varies in a single individual
between 20 and 30 ; body colourless, pellucid. Ventral
bristles fine, generally two or three together. Dorsal bristles,
begin in the fourth segment, reaching nearly three times as
long as the thickness of the body, arched like a scimitar,
furnished on the convex side with fine barbs, which are at
least as long as the bristle is thick. In every bundle there
are four to seven long and one to three shorter bristles.
Tactile bristles (especially on the head), somewhat abundant.
Brain not so distinctly divided into two lobes as in the other
Naidina. Alimentary canal proportionately very large, with
unusually strong, not interrupted, cell-layer. Muscular
system extremely minute ; whether a ring muscular layer is
present, I cannot say ; for the rest, it resembles that of the
other Naidina. Both the blood-vessels have a considerable
volume ; their transverse section is mostly greater than that of
the alimentary canal.- I have only been able to see vessel-
loops in the head segments, but it must not be understood
that they are wanting in the remaining segments.
Intestinal net distinct. The eyes, whose occurrence generally
in the Naidina is very variable, are not always present.
The extraordinarily thin epidermis thickens itself in the
head and tail considerably, so that at both ends it forms a
kind of cap. Length of each single animal, three to five mm.
“I have only found a few examples of this species in the
act of budding, and then the zooids always holding together
only in twos. Of these, the second was universally richer in
segments than the first, while in the two-jointed chains of
Nais elinguis I generally found the reverse condition.”
THE EAR AND HEARING.
119
THE EAR AND HEARING.*
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
Sound may be described as the vibration of solids and
fluids, propagated, by means of waves, through some inter¬
vening medium, to a specially prepared sentient surface. The
function of the ear is to intercept and collect these undula¬
tions, and convey the result to the brain, by which organ they
are made manifest to the individual as sound sensations. We
may thus define the sensation of hearing as the conscious
state resulting from the impinging, upon a specially prepared
part of the sentient surface of the body, of aerial or other
fluid vibrations, caused by the molecular disturbance of bodies
in a state of tremor or vibration. Thus, in hearing, as in
the other sensations, we take cognisance by the mind, not of
the sonorous object, but of the condition of the auditory nerve ;
and all the ideas we form of sounds, as to their nature,
intensity, direction, &c., must be based upon the changes
which they produce in it.
The essential part of an organ of hearing is obviously
a nerve endowed with the peculiar property of receiving and
transmitting sonorous undulations.
Since all matter is capable of propagating sonorous vibra¬
tions, the simplest conditions must be sufficient for mere
hearing, as all substances surrounding the auditory nerve
can communicate sound vibrations to it. In the eye a
certain disposition of parts is essential to cause the rays of
light to impinge on the sentient surface with the same rela¬
tive disposition as that which they held when they left the
visible object ; but in the ear, whenever and however
sonorous undulations affect the nerve, they must cause a
sensation of sound. It is, therefore, by no means indispen¬
sable, as some assert, that any specially modified surface
should be included in the auditory apparatus, since the
auditory nerve if merely in contact with any solid part — as
the head — will be affected by the vibrations in which it is
continually participating ; and we are thus unable to assert
that the sense is present only where we can discover a special
organ.
The two modifications most constantly present in all
auditory organs hitherto identified are —
I. A cavity wholly or partially filled with fluid, and
lined with a membrane on which the nerve is
distributed.
* Read before the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, February 17, 1885.
120
THE EAR AND HEARING.
II. A solid body, or bodies, of greater specific gravity
than the surrounding substance.
The whole course of the development of the ear will be
found to consist in a progressive series of adaptations for
rendering more perfect the propagation of the sonorous
vibrations, for their multiplication by resonance, and tlicir
more delicate discrimination.
The simplest form of ear hitherto identified is found in
aquatic animals. It is marked only by the first of the two
modifications noted above, and seems capable of receiving
sonorous vibrations but imperfectly, and quite incapable of
resolving them into tones. The next advance is marked
by the addition of the second of the above modifications,
thereby increasing the sensibility to vibratory influence.
A still greater advance is the suspension of the whole sac
in a more liquid material (the perilymph), followed succes¬
sively by the evolution of an aperture, covered by a membrane
upon which the external medium can at once act — the
differentiation of the appendages of the vestibule, the cochlea,
and, lastly, by the appearance of an external ear.
The lowest forms in which I am aware of the discovery of
an ear are the Medudda , amongst the Coelenterates. In the
edge of the umbrella of the common jelly fish (. Rhizostoma
Pulmo ), the microscope, with a half-inch objective, shows
small vesicles at the bases of the tentacles. In each of these
vesicles may be seen a minute body, closely resembling a
bell-clapper, suspended by a ligamentous neck, and vibrating
about one hundred times a minute. These oval cells are
thought to be the ears of the creature, and the solid particles
contained in them to be otoliths (ear stones). In the next
group — Echinozoa — I am not aware of the discovery of any
auditory apparatus, although a true nervous system is
present in the higher forms, amongst which eye spots are
found (e.fj., some of the Entozoa and Botifera).
Coming to the next sub-kingdom — Annulosa— we find that,
although the sense of hearing in insects seems evident, little
is known about their auditory apparatus. Bamdolir has
placed it in the jaws, Strauss and Durckheim in the antenme,
De Blainville in the tracheal tubes on the sides of the body,
and Agassiz in the legs. Professor von Graber finds what he
terms “ chordotonal sense organs” in the rod-like secretory
structures of the nerves of various parts (chiefly legs or
wings) of insects. He states that the general type of rod is
pencil-like (scolopal), being pointed at its proximal end, and
hollow, with extremely refractive walls. In some genera
these rods are fastened to the integument by a special
THE EAR AND HEARING.
121
ligament, consisting of a tliin- walled tube, continuous
with the sheath of the nerve, and filled with a homogeneous
and slightly granular mass. From an examination of upwards
of sixty genera he gives as the most usual seat of the organ,
the hind rudimentary wings (lialteres) amongst the Diptera,
next the fore wings, and, in the lower orders, the legs. He
considers that in the Gryllidie (grasshoppers) the tympanum
and auditory meatus are both represented — the latter by the
tracheal tubes, and the former by a peculiar enlargement of
the trachea — whilst he identifies the above noted scolopophorous
and other chordotonal nerve-endings with the organ of Corti
(of which we shall treat shortly), and holds that the percep¬
tion of auditory sensations is shared with the brain and head,
by part of the ventral ganglia.
In the class Antchnida, exemplified by mites, spiders, and
scorpions, F. Dahl considers that he has established, by
experiment, the existence of a sense of hearing, which he
localises in two kinds of hairs found on the legs and palps of
these arthropods — (a) a hair of equal thickness throughout,
fringed with a short pile near the apex, implanted in a
cup-like depression, extremely mobile, and connected with a
nerve at its base ; and ( b ) a hair set in rows, and projecting
outwards more than the ordinary protective hairs.
Some of the hairs on the claw-joints of scorpions are said
by Dahl to have a like function ; and the pits found by Haller
in ticks (Ixodes) may possibly come under the same category.
Amongst the Crustaceans (cyclops, shrimps, lobsters, &c.),
the ear consists of a small cavity excavated in the solid
framework of the head. It may be easily found in the
lobster or crayfish by examining the bases of the smaller
antenme (antennulge). It is a little prominence of very hard
shell, having a circular opening at the apex, across which is
placed a thin membrane. Inside this is a sac filled with liquid,
having the auditory nerve distributed over its inner surface,
and containing one or more small bodies called otoliths.
Siebold was the first to notice the organs of hearing in
the next sub-kingdon of invertebrates — the Mollusca. In the
Lamellibranchiates (including mussels, oysters, cockles. &c.),
they are situated in the foot, and consist of a large central
ganglion, on each side of which is a minute cavity filled with
the usual endolympli, and enclosing a small otolith. This
otolith may be conveniently seen oscillating rapidly in the
foot of the Cyclas, by using a lialf-incli objective.
In the Gastropods (snail, whelk, &c.), the ear is at the
base of the tentacles. It consists of an auditory sac con¬
taining otoliths, which vary with the species.
122
THE EAR AND HEARING.
Iii the Cephalopoda (sepia, cuttle, nautilus, &c.), the
auditory sac is situated in the nervous ganglia at the base
of the head. The first approach to a labyrinth makes its
appearance in this class.
Ascending to the sub-kingdom, Vertebrata, we find the
organ but little more complicated in the lowest order of fishes.
In the Cyclostome (round-mouthed sucker fishes, as the
hag fish), the vestibule, represented by the sac amongst inver¬
tebrates, gives off a single annular passage, which may be
considered as a semicircular canal, containing a few twigs of
the auditory nerve. Amongst the higher Cyclostomes — as the
lamprey — two such canals exist, whilst all other fish have
three holding the same relation to each other as they do
in man.
In the higher orders of fish, as just noted, we find the
important addition of the labyrinth, consisting of three semi¬
circular canals communicating with the vestibule, which, with
the two ampullae, formed by the expansion of the semicircular
canals, give rise to three cavities at each side of the base of the
brain. In each of these cavities is suspended an otolith,
enclosed by the gelatinous endolymph, and enveloped by a
thin membrane traversed in every direction by minute
branches of the auditory nerve, forming an exquisite
suspensory ligament. These otoliths are best studied in
the skate, herring, sprat, mackerel, or salmon. They
are calcareous concretions, pulverulent in the cartilaginous
fishes (as the shark and ray), but hard and stony, and of a
porcellanous appearance, in the osseous tribes.
Some rudiment of a tympanic cavity may be found in
fishes, but there is no trace of a cochlea. In several of the
species there is a connection between the labyrinth and the
air bladder, made by a chain of bones, appearing to fore¬
shadow the eustacliian tube of the higher vertebrates. In
the loach the air bladder is exceedingly small, extending
under only two vertebrie, and is united with the head in this
way. The skate has rudimentary external ears on the top of
its head.
In the Amphibia (proteus, newt, frog, &c.), which are in
many respects intermediate between the true reptiles and
fishes, some species have a tympanum, whilst others, like fish,
are destitute of it. Wherever the tympanum is distinct,
there is also an eustacliian tube connecting it with the fauces
(top of throat).
The true Reptiles (turtles, snakes, lizards, and crocodiles)
possess constantly a tympanic membrane and cavity con¬
taining a chain of bones. A rudimentary cochlea is also
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
123
found (exemplified in the frog), not coiled as in mammals,
but only slightly bent. There is, however, in the aquatic
forms no external orifice, for, were the membrane exposed, as
in mammals, sounds would be intolerable to the animals
when in water. Abbe Nollet performed many experiments
to prove this, which he reasoned should be owing to water
being a better conductor of sonorous vibrations than air.
Amongst other experiments, he struck together two pieces of
metal or stone, whilst totally immersed in water, and found
that the resulting sound sensations were painfully intense.
Hence the drum in this class is completely covered with skin,
and its position is only marked by a slight circular depression
behind and a little below each eye. In these animals the
otoliths appear to change their character. The stapeolus
(the smallest of the three otoliths found on either side of the
head of fish) here elongates into a trumpet-like body — the
columella — whilst the other two otoliths on each side are much
diminished, and become partly embedded in the fibres of the
tympanic membrane. The expanded part of the columella
forms a kind of disc closing the fenestra ovalis, which,
like the fenestra rotunda, is found in the vestibule of reptiles.
Amongst Birds (Ares) the structure of the ear is essentially
the same as in the higher reptiles. In birds, however, we
notice a small external orifice, and, in some of the owl tribe,
a rudimentary concha, or external ear. A distinct cochlea
exists, resembling that in reptiles. It is divided into two
passages by a membranous partition, on which the nerve is
spread out. The tympanum, also, communicates with cavities
in the cranial bones, which are thus filled with air, and, by
increasing the extent of surface, would seem to produce a
more powerful resonance.
(To be continued.)
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE AS
A SOURCE OF IRON.
BY E. WILSON, F.O.S. , CURATOR OF BRISTOL MUSEUM.
( Continued from page 97.)
The accompanying map (see Plate II.) shows the outcrop
of the Marlstone Rock in the Leicestershire district. It is
based on the lines of the Government Geological Survey, and
is on the scale of of an inch to the mile. We may, I believe,
take it as approximately correct; if not absolutely accurate, at
every point. It must not, however, be imagined that this
124
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
map gives a true idea of the area where the Rock-bed may he
profitably worked for iron. In two distinct ways the Marl-
stone area shown on the map is very much larger, and in one
way it is a little smaller, than the productive ironstone area
met with in the field. In the first place the Marlstone Rock
is, over a large portion of the district (namely, in the whole of
the Rutland area, also south of Tilton and north of Caythorpe),
too thin to work. In other places where it normally possesses
a workable thickness, the whole or a large part of the upper
or iron-bearing beds have been removed by denudation so
that only the lower or unproductive arenaceous beds remain.
This will be the case more particularly on the hill slopes.
In some cases, too, the Marlstone may be covered with a
thicker capping of boulder clay than it would pay to remove.
For these reasons the Marlstone area is larger than the Iron¬
stone area. On the other hand, where the prevailing dip carries
the Marlstone Rock under newer formations, the ironstone,
when present, may be followed for a short distance, until the
“head” becomes too great and the rock gets too calcareous for
profitable working. In these places, then, the Marlstone area
delineated on the map may be somewhat smaller than the
available Ironstone area. It should also be borne in mind
that in the productive region the ironstone varies considerably
in quality, its richness increasing apparently in proportion to
the amount of atmospheric disintegration it has undergone,
and the greater completeness with which oxidation of the
iron carbonate and removal of the calcic carbonate have in
consequence been carried.
After making all due allowance for the above causes of
limitation and deterioration we cannot but be impressed with
the vastness of the stores of iron which must be contained in
this field. When we remember that the workable ironstone
averages seven feet in thickness and covers many square miles
of country, and that every acre yields 2,000 tons of ore per
foot thick (or a total, say, of 12,000 tons of ore and 4,000
tons of metallic iron per acre), we see what an immense
amount of mineral wealth is contained in the Marlstone Rock
of the Leicestershire district. The proximity of this stone to
a coalfield, viz., the Notts-Derbysliire, is also greatly in its
favour, and enables this Lias ironstone to successfully compete
with the somewhat richer but more distant Northamptonshire
ore. It is impossible to do more than give a rough estimate
of the total annual output of the Marlstone ore in the Leicester¬
shire district. No complete mineral statistics are published
for this field, and if there were they would not be reliable,
seeing that new workings are constantly being opened out.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
125
At the present time there are four principal workings, viz.,
Holwell, Woolsthorpe, Eastwell, and Wartnaby, which each
raise between 400 and 600 tons of ore daily, and four smaller
ones, viz., Caytliorpe, Tilton, Eaton, and Swaine’s Lodge, which
each get between 200 and 800 tons daily. This would make
for the whole district a total of about 3,000 tons per diem, or
15,000 tons per week of five working days, and for the year,
therefore, no less than 750,000 tons. The above estimate
must not, however, be considered as anything more than a
rough approximation of the truth, and is also liable to correc¬
tion, as the output from some of the smaller workings is
increased, and as new workings are from time to time opened
out. There is an immediate prospect of such new workings,
both on the Eastwell branch and on the extended Woolsthorpe
branch, as well as at one or two other places in the district.
In the course of the next two or three years the total annual
output of iron ore in the Leicestershire district will, in all
probability, exceed rather than fall short of a million tons.
The general method followed in working the ironstone is
to drive a cutting for a considerable distance — from an eighth
to half a mile — in a straight line, and to work along either
one or both faces of the cutting. The soil, with the earthy
debris of the top rubble, which is generally sifted out by using
quarry -forks, is strewn over the rock-surface laid bare by the
quarrying operations. The land thus restored is equal, and
indeed superior, to what it was before the ironstone was
removed, the shaking together of the particles of the somewhat
too loose surface soil, and the addition thereto of the earthy
debris of the underlying rubble, having a decidedly beneficial
effect. We may frequently see good crops of corn or grass
growing on the made-ground to within a few feet of the
present working face. These ironstone workings do not then
permanently injure, but rather improve the property of the
fortunate landowners of the district.
The state of combination of the iron in the Marlstone ore
is that of the hydrated oxide, or the same as in the very
similar Northamptonshire ore of Oolitic age. It differs
from that ore, however, in being essentially a calcareous
instead of a siliceous stone. The Marlstone ore contains on
an average from 30 to 33 per cent, of metallic iron. This
percentage, though somewhat less than that of the Northamp¬
tonshire ore, is equal to the average percentage of the
celebrated Cleveland ironstone, and distinctly superior to
that of the Marlstone of Oxfordshire. The metal extracted
from the marlstone of Leicestershire is said to be superior in
quality to that obtained from the Northamptonshire ironstone.
126
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
It is, however, found advantageous to mix a certain amount
of the Northamptonshire stone with the Marlstone ore.
The flux in general use is Derbyshire Limestone. Notwith¬
standing the large amount of water present, it is not usual to
calcine the stone before putting it into the furnace. So far
as the experiment has been at present tried, it is found that
calcination, though it lessens the cost of manufacture, de¬
preciates the quality of the metal, the furnaces tending to work
hotter and make a more siliceous iron, which is not so highly
valued in the market. For the purpose of comparison, I
append a couple of analyses of the Marlstone ores of Leicester¬
shire, the Cleveland district, and Oxfordshire, which may be
taken as fairly representative of the quality of the stone in
each instance. In reference to the Eastwell and Holwell ores,
however, I wish to say that these analyses must not be taken
as giving the relative richness of the ironstone at those two
places, or, indeed, anything more than a rough idea of their
general composition. The Marlstone ore varies so much in
different beds, and in the same beds in short distances, that
no two analyses, even in the same bed in the same quarry,
would correspond. Hence, it is impossible from one or two
analyses to determine the average percentage of this ironstone
anywhere.
When unweathered, the Leicestershire Marlstone is very
similar in appearance and has a very similar composition to
the Cleveland ironstone, being a fine grained oolitic rock of
a bluish-green colour, and containing the iron in the state of
a carbonate. It also belongs to the same geological horizon
(Middle Liasj, and the two rocks may, therefore, be considered
as approximately synchronous. In order to ascertain whether
the percentage of iron in the unweathered marlstone of
Leicestershire was such as to render it workable or otherwise,
I have had two analyses of the Tilton stone made for me by
Mr. G. F. Downar, analytical chemist, Bestwood, Notts.
These analyses show that iron is present in the upper beds of
the unweathered Marlstone Kock to the extent of from 25 to
BO per cent. — a percentage quite equal to that of certain beds
which have been profitably worked in Cleveland and else¬
where, and falling but little short of the average peicentage
of the weathered marlstone ore of Leicestershire. It is not,
however, to be supposed that it would pay to mine the
unweatliered ironstone in a district where the weathered rock
covers many square miles of country, is of about equal thickness,
has a better percentage of iron, and, being a much softer
stone, and lying at the surface of the ground, and at a good
altitude too, can be much more economically worked.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
127
A point of some interest that arises out of the consideration
of the mineral character of the Marlstone Rock is the question
of its coloration. Originally grey or greenisli-blne, this rock
becomes, when exposed to the prolonged action of the air (or of
water containing oxygen), of a rusty brown colour; coincidently
with tins change in colour, the carbonate of iron becomes
converted into the hydrated ferric oxide. There appears to be
good deal of doubt as to what gives the grey tint to the
unweatliered stone. Dr. Sorby, with many others, supposes
that the (bluish) green colour in this class of rocks is due to
the presence of glauconite — an earthy mineral, having the
composition of silicate of iron with some magnesia and water,
and that the blue colour is given by the phosphate of iron.
Prof. Judd, following Ebelman, holds that the blue colour in
many oolitic limestones is due to a small quantity of sulphide
of iron distributed through the rock mass, and ascribes the
grey tint of the unweatliered Northamptonshire ironstone, and
therefore, also of the Leicestershire marlstone, to this substance.
The green colour he ascribes to either the silicate or the
phosphate of iron. The bisulphide of iron is certainly
present in small quantity in the Tilton stone, but it seems
rather difficult to understand how this material could give a
blue colour to the rock. A small amount of the silicate of
iron is present in the rock, and perhaps also a little phosphate
of iron. The simplest explanation would be to ascribe the
original grey colour of the marlstone to the carbonate of iron,
a material which, as a chemical salt, is white, but becomes
grey on exposure, or possibly to this and the phosphate of
iron which gives a more pronounced grey tint. The green
colour of the partially weathered marlstone may, I believe,
be looked upon rather as a transitional stage from the blue to
the brown stone, than as an original tint. I consider that
it may be explained by the formation, in gradually increasing
quantities, during exposure, of particles of the yellow hydrated
ferric oxide, disseminated through the unaltered grey particles
of the rock, just as by mixing blue and yellow pigments
together we get a green tint.
(To be continued.)
Rats. — A gentleman saw repeatedly the singular spectacle of three
rats running abreast over his grounds. Noting their track, and their
usual times, he shot them, and then found that the middle rat was
blind, and that all three held a straw in their mouths. It is almost
too good to be true. — “ Reminiscences,” by Rev. T. Mozley, M.A.
Yol. I., p. 115. (London: Longmans, 1885.)
128
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
BY HERBERT SPENCER.
Exposition of Chapter X. — Genesis, Heredity, and Variation.
BY W. B. GROVE, B.A.
This chapter is devoted to the final elaboration of the
grand doctrine of physiological units (the plastides of some
authors), by which Herbert Spencer tries to dissipate in some
degree the mysterious phenomena of Genesis. We may make
the preliminary remark that the mystery is, and cannot be,
pay, is not intended to be, completely dissipated ; the
hypothesis only lends definiteness to our conceptions, and
enables us to picture faintly to ourselves the mode of action.
In this respect it resembles that other great doctrine of which
it is an extension, the atomic theory itself ; for after all we do
not know (perhaps may never know) that atoms really exist ;
they are only mental representatives of something which does
exist, and which, whatever its nature, obeys the same laws of
combination and action which we feign for the atoms. It
amounts to this — that Herbert Spencer’s theory is true in
fact, if not in form. It reduces the phenomena that we have
been considering into their places in that vast reign of order,
the slow, but sure, establishment of which is the object of
scientific aims.
These phenomena may be represented in a formula : —
Genesis — Homogenesis (Gamog.) + Heterog. (Gamog. + Agamog.)
and we have discovered that the latter part of the formula,
agamogenesis interrupted by more or less frequently recurring
gamogenesis, represents the more normal and frequent state
of things. The question, when gamogenesis recurs, has been
already answered ; but why ? Let us consider the facts from
the beginning.
We suppose '■matter to be built up of atoms, which, by
their combinations, give rise to molecules. These molecules
are of gradually increasing complexity. We have the crystal¬
loids, composed of few atoms, and comparatively stable ; and
the colloids, composed of many atoms, and comparatively
unstable. The modern chemist is familiar with molecules
consisting of hundreds of atoms, and we have no reason for
supposing the process to end there. We may reasonably
imagine these colloidal molecules to unite in molecules of a
still higher order : these are the physiological units. It is
known that as the number of unlike, but allied, atoms
comprising the molecule increases, so in general does its
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
129
instability, its susceptibility to external forces, and the
number of its kinds. Illustrations are found in tlie fusible
metals, which melt at a lower temperature than their
constituents.
It is established in “ First Principles ” that any aggregate
of molecules tends always towards equilibrium, and change
cannot cease till equilibrium is reached. The aggregate acts
upon the molecules in such a way as to cause them to tend
towards certain positions ; it is to this tendency that we
apply the much-abused word “ polarity.” Its effect is seen in the
growth of a crystal and the annealing of glass. If we
imagine an aggregate of molecules of iron, for instance,
unacted upon by external forces, they would exhibit a ten¬
dency, supposing them free to move, to place themselves
all “ heads and tails” ; and we see instances of an approach
to this state in the sometimes disastrous change which a
wrought-iron bridge suffers when subject to continuous jar,
and m the magnetisation of a bar of iron by hammering it
while placed parallel to the terrestrial magnetic axis.
Now in the case of a growing organism we know how
much greater and more rapid the changes are at first ; the
rate of change gradually diminishes, life becomes less active,
the state of equilibrium draws nearer and nearer, and finally,
when the molecules of the organism in certain parts cease to
react to the stimulus of external forces, life has ceased, the
organism is dead. The degree of activity of life is propor¬
tional to the susceptibility of the organic molecules, i.e., the
physiological units, to the action of the environment. “ When
therefore we see,” as we have seen, “that gamogenesis recurs
only when growth is decreasing or has come to an end, we
must say that it recurs only when the organic units are
approximating to equilibrium — only when their mutual re¬
straints prevent them from readily changing their arrange¬
ments in obedience to incident forces.”
We deduce then this result, that the use of gamogenesis
lies in the necessity of overcoming this tendency to equi¬
librium and re-establishing the capacity for active molecular
change, “ a result which is effected by mixing the slightly -
different physiological units of slightly-different individuals.”
The cells which unite have severally nearly reached a condition
of equilibrium ; this is shown by the fact that, if ununited, they
are capable of only a little further growth. But though they
are individually in equilibria, yet, as they are derived from
more or less unlike parts, the product of their union is not
so ; in fact, the slight unlikeness which exists is, as is known
from inorganic chemistry, the very condition which ensures
130
PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
great instability, i.e., in this case, great capacity for growth,
in the product. Too great a difference is as ineffective as
too little.
We know from the instance of Begonia that a single cell
can contain within itself all the physiological units necessary
for the reproduction of a species. Assuming then that the
fertilised germ contains all the required units — derived
jointly from both parents, and in a state suited for further
growth — let us test the hypothesis by comparing it with
established facts.
In the first place, Heredity and Variation become mere
matters of course. The offspring cannot but resemble at the
same time that it differs from its parents. Then the superi¬
ority of cross fertilisation to self-fertilisation is manifest in
the greater unlikeness between the combining units which it
ensures, and the consequent greater vitality of the offspring.
Upon these, which are so fully treated in the original, it is
not necessary to enlarge. Though self-fertilisation is not
impossible, yet it is probable that it could not go on for ever ;
the species would in most cases die out. A fortiori, then
agamogenesis could not go on for ever ; yet as we have seen
before, so far as our present knowledge extends, there seem
to be cases in which no gamogenesis ever occurs. The cases
of plants propagated, as it would appear, indefinitely by buds
or cuttings or offsets, e.<j., the prolific banana, in which it is
said no seeds have ever been produced within historic times,
as well as those extremely numerous cases of fungi which were
mentioned in a previous chapter, all show that the theory so
far presented, though true, is not the whole truth.
We find agamogenesis prevailing the more the lower the
type of the organism, the less differentiated its parts, the
simpler and more uniform the conditions under which it lives;
and this view is confirmed by observing that the only large
class of plants in which no gamogenesis is known in any of
its members is the lowest of all, the Bacteria. Hence it is
obvious that the need for gamogenesis increases in proportion
to the complexity of the forces which act upon the organism.
Now, what causes a species to continue to live ? Its fitness
for its environment. If then this fitness can be easily main¬
tained on the average, if the species exhibits no great
tendency to vary in such a way as to unfit itself for its con
ditions of life, if in fact the forces which act upon it are not
relatively complex, then it can maintain its position for long
periods even by agamogenesis ; but if the conditions are
complex the individuals must be severally acted upon
in different ways by their special environments, they must
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
131
tend to vary so as to suit those environments, and be,
“in so far, unfitted for the average habits proper to the
species. But these undue specialisations are continually
checked by gamogenesis.” Thus the individual differences
which would, if agamogenesis were the only means of multi¬
plication available, be a bane, are by gamogenesis turned into
a positive advantage. Any member of a class of organisms
which had previously multiplied by agamogenesis would, if
gamogenesis should become available to it, thereby get an
advantage over its fellows and rise into higher society. Thus
we can account for the fact that the gamogenetic act not only
becomes more common as we rise in the organic scale, but
also less incidental, and a more serious and regular part of
the life-history of the species. We can trace it from its
origin in what was a mere chance fusion of two individuals to
the highly specialised form in which it occurs in the highest
vertebrates.
But there is more than this, I think. It is a common
truth that in agamogenetic modes of multiplication more
individuals are produced than by gamogenesis. Therefore, if
the species maintains its ground, more individuals must die,
proportionately, in the former case than in the latter. Those
that die must have been less fitted for the average life of the
species ; so also must their offspring be, if they produced any
before death. But in gamogenesis, cross-fertilisation and to
a less extent self- fertilisation neutralise that “fatal narrowness
of adaption” which tends to arise, and, in so far, requires the
production of fewer young to ensure the continuance of the
species. This is another advantage of gamogenesis.
Finally, we must not suppose that this theory will explain
everything. We must be content if it gives an intelligible
reason for the cardinal facts and most of the details, leaving
the apparent exceptions to be cleared up by future research.
THE PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE
MIDLANDS.
BY W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
(Continued from page 104.)
9. — The Longmynd Hills and the Stiper Stones. — West of
Church Stretton the Lower Cambrian rocks, striking north¬
east and south-west, occupy a breadth of six miles, rising in
the Longmynd Hills to a height of 1,674 feet. They consist
of grey, purple, or green grits, sandstones, slates, and con¬
glomerates, whose thickness, unless they are repeated by
132
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
strike-faults or folds, which, however, seems very probable,
must be as much as 25,000 feet. We see neither the base nor
the top of these beds, for they are bounded by great faults both
on the east (near Church Stretton) and on the west. The
western line of fault runs along the centre of the valley,
which separates the Longmynd Hills from the ridge of the
Stiper Stones. In this valley Dr. Callaway has recently
detected numerous small bosses of Pre-Cambrian strata, of
which Pontesford Hill occupies the largest area. Still walk¬
ing westward we find the ascent to the Stiper Stones to be
composed of the Shineton Shales. The Stiper Stones them¬
selves are quartzose sandstones distinguishable lithologically,
and by the fact that they contain an Arenig fauna, from the
Wrekin quartzite. They may be regarded as forming the
true base of the Silurian system, and are comparable with
the Gres Armoricain of Brittany. They are overlaid by
Arenig Shales, beyond which Upper Silurian rocks stretch
westward into Wales.
10. — The Malvern Hills. — About thirty miles south-east
of Church Stretton we find the Malvern Hills. They rise in
conical masses from the plain of the Severn, being bounded
on their eastern side by a fault of great magnitude. Gneissic
and granitoid rocks form the core of the range, and are well
exposed at the Herefordshire Beacon, Worcester Beacon, and
North Hill. These are overlaid by indurated volcanic rocks,
ashes, and lialleflintas, certainly belonging to the Pebidian
division of the Pre-Cambrian era. Dr. Callaway has
identified both these varieties of rocks in the Wrekin
district.* The rocks exposed below the Quartzite at the
Lickey, and at Hartshill, in all probability belong to the
Pebidian formation, together with the entire series of the
Cliarnwood rocks.
On the west side of the Malverns we find the Hollybush
Sandstone resting upon the Pre-Cambrians (the Quartzite
being absent), while above it are the Malvern Shales (com¬
parable in part with those at Shineton and Stockingford).
All the Lower Silurian strata are missing, but the Upper
Silurians are in full force, the May Hill Sandstone forming
their base, and they extend northwards to Abberley, and west¬
wards until they disappear beneath the Old Bed Sandstone.
11. — Borings which have reached the Pre-Carboniferous
Bocks in the Midlands. — “ Soundings on land,” in search of
either coal or water, have been executed at numerous points
within the Midland Counties during the last few years.
* Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Yol. XXXVI., p. 536.
'{9A9rJ-'B9CJ
Mopq sqooy;
oiozoas^j
jo q^d9d
0
wot>
t-
r-4
0
00
CO t-4 i-4
CM
H
ro>
C5
GO t> ^
»o
CO
T—l
o.o.o. o.
o o o o
lO »o o o
•pgure^T?
q^dgp
9u.19.1pxg;
o h< o *o th <m
O l> O l> CO o
05 CO TH O H CO
0«5^0Ht>05>Oin005NC005
10^C5lCi>OCOCOTtno>OHOCMM
QC005CDCOC5I>HOINOOOOO
tH tH rH r— 1 CM
<U
3
o
c3
©
H
CO
d
44
c3
O
td
o
N
O
8
r~~~<
e3
PM
CO
CD
r— H
c3
rd
w
d
©
©
%A
rd
d
d
<-d
©
54
d
• rH
d
o
>
©
Q
*4
(0
CM
Qj
©
Cd
rd
- 02
rd
o
o
d
d
©
£
d
d
O
>
©
CO
d
o
5-1
• ©
=4—1
• rH
d
o
H
d
Qm Q
O I o
CM CM £
CM P4 O
PPhl
co
d
o
54
©
44
• rH
d
o
rO
54
d
o
SM
©
£
:3
• d
• •
• • •
• • •
c3
54
dr
rH
rj h
rH H
• a
* ,°3
• Co Co
■ cS
■
* ‘Si *£h
Q
rQ
(H
rO
(H H
©
d
a ^
. ^4
. d
# c5
•PH
• O
.00
CO co
© ©
54 54
d d
© ©
d d
© ©
*=5 t^A
I I
r H r— H
cS
O O
.2 ^
o ^
n d
9 °
© 44
,<P _
©3
d
453
©
©
£ H
9 o
43
• rH
r— i
03
O
o
Hi
rd
d
d
© ©
d
©
©
54
o
o
O
©
r-H
rd
rd
54 54
zO_
©
44
• rH
r H
o
O
-43
Co
CD .
-43 4-=» „ - -
C4H 4H
— H O ~i-J 43
jo f n ^ ^ ^
^ ^ — h
43
CO
<D
O
43
C O
U
CD
s-P
c3
o ^ i>
1C CD
CO
CO
c3
3S
co
c6
CO
cS
r'l -P d H i EH
d d K
-j • r— 1 • r— I • r— i * r— i • i— r • p— l • i— i • r— 1
© ©
o3 cS
• rH • i— (
?H -lH
EH eh
„ _ ,43
. 4H
43 Oi
«4H _j
oS
S' a
r* d
• rH
co d
c3 s
• rH ^H
5-1 ©
HPh
’HH ’
r— H
d3
• • • •
• O
. . d
• ® ©T
■ *d r2 O
fl d H
• • • •
• d
©
©
. . 0
44
CM
• • •?
• • •
• H
: a
Ed' §
: £rd
rH ^ a
o
44
Sc
-54
pp
n
d
©
. d
£
rd
o
d
© PH
*4 ,
P d
m 2
PP
'44
54
d
o
O
B
d
rd ‘
© a
^4 <H
0) r-J
r-H (X)
43 rj
® *
&0
£
o
EH
-d
©
• H
43
d
©
bd
4-1
d
H
d
Eh
44
o
44
54
o
44
©
©
44
54
o
H O
£
0 ° d
•4 f_i o
PhOcP
^4
o
44
d
^4
d
Eh
o
rd
d
O
cP
©
©
1^ 8 rS © O
^ g Ph CM^i
^ ^044
,pd o
© ^4 44
tiO ©
^ 5
j_, © .d jz
pqMdj^
' ' ©
H M
cs
©
rd
d
c3
O
©
d
O CD
CD
©
©
SjH
<D
r— H
rd
o
©
W
W
©
d
o
d .0
©
■S rd <X>
C> dP >
ro
O
44
CM
4 3
d c3
0 rd
■e P3
54
d O
S a
© CD
53
a
01
54
© e3
CO
©
54
c3
134
PEE -CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
Thanks to the modern appliances by which such borings are
executed, depths of from 800 to 2,000 feet have been readily
reached ; with the result that old rocks have been pierced at
several points, and specimens in the form of “cores”
brought to the surface.
The preceding list includes borings which have been made
along a line extending nearly due north and south, from
Scarle in Lincolnshire to Netherfield near Brighton. It
shows in each case: — (1.) The lowest Mesozoic formation
found ; (2.) The Palaeozoic formation upon which this
Mesozoic rock rested (in those cases where the Palaeozoic
rocks were reached) ; (3.) the extreme depth to which the
bore-liole descended ; and (4.) the depth of the old Palaeozoic
surface below the present sea-level. Detailed sections of
several of these deep borings have been already given by me
in the pages of the “Midland Naturalist.” #
Commencing on the south this chain of borings revealed
an unexpected thickness of Oolitic strata below Sussex.
The Caterham boring disappointed those who hoped to
obtain a water-supply for London from the Lower Greensand ,
which only a few miles further south is of considerable
thickness. At Caterham this bed is only twenty feet thick,
showing that we are quite close to its old shore-line, of which
there are indications at its outcrop (round Sevenoaksl in
the shape of numerous pebbles of quartzite and other hard
rocks.
The Richmond boring showed below the Gault eighty-
seven feet only of Oolitic strata, resting on red rocks (probably
Triassic), in which the boring terminated. Under London
only one boring has actually reached the Palaeozoic axis, viz.,
that at Meux’s Brewery in the Tottenham Court Road, where
red and green Upper Devonian Shales were found to contain
fossils of types such as occur in the Eifel district — Spirifera
YerneuUii for instance. Mr. Wliitakerf has pointed out that
this strongly bears against the theory that the red beds at
the bottom of the Kentish Town and the Crossness borings
can he Old Red Sandstone, since in no known locality are the
two types — the Devonian and the Old Red — found in such
close proximity.
At Turnford the Gault rested upon purple Devonian Shales,
and at Ware upon Upper Silurian (Wenlock) Shales. The
four Northampton borings clearly proved the Trias there to
* Midland Naturalist, Yol. III., p. 188.
f Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Yol. XL., p. 724. Geology
of London, p. 21.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
185
be very thin — a mere littoral accumulation, sixty or seventy
feet in thickness — resting upon a degenerate representative
of the Mountain Limestone, evidently also deposited close to
an old coast-line. Some hard red marls and coarse grits and
sandstones at the very bottom of the Gayton boring have
been assigned to the Old Red Period, but it is more probable
that they are Lower Carboniferous.
(To be continued.)
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
CONSIDERED
1. — STRATIGRAPHICALLY.
2. — PALEONTOLOGICALLY.
3. — AS A SOURCE OF BUILDING STONE, ROAD METAL
AND IRONSTONE.
4. — AS A SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS
AND VILLAGES.
5. — AS A RECEPTACLE FOR WATER, WHEREBY
FLOODS MAY BE MITIGATED.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.C.S., F.G.S.
INTRODUCTION.
For several years the town of Northampton has had
a very short supply of water, and yet during some
portion of this period the district around has been subject to
excessive and destructive floods. It is very commonly
believed that excessive agricultural drainage is one of the
chief causes of both these evils. My own ideas of the matter
will be sufficiently explained later on, but it may be as well
to state at once that the primary object of this treatise is to
show that the Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, which is
the chief water-bearing bed to the west and south-west of
Northampton, offers considerable facilities for remedying the
condition of things above referred to by one operation — that
of artificially letting in to the porous beds of the district the
water which is now largely kept out by natural and artificial
means. This explanation will account for, and I hope excuse,
the introduction of a section dealing with the springs of the
county generally.
13G
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
PART I.
The Middle Lias of Northamptonshire considered
Stratigraphically.
There is considerable difference of opinion amongst
geologists as to the vertical limits of the Middle Lias, par¬
ticularly downwards, so it is necessary for me at the outset
to state explicitly what I consider to be Middle Lias in
Northamptonshire, and my reason for claiming this and no
other as belonging to the period in question.
To all who have studied the Lias deposits in England it
must be evident that there was no great break in the con¬
tinuity of the series at any time, and it is more than probable
that, so far as the Lower and Middle Lias are concerned, a
break at one place is represented by a continuous deposit at
another. Such being the case, it appears to be only neces¬
sary to accurately state where the line is drawn in any
locality by the local geologists. Professor Judd, in his
“ Geology of Rutland, &c.,” places this matter, which is still
one of controversy, in a very clear light ; and I am sure I
need offer no apology for quoting some of his remarks on
the matter.
The Lias formations were first divided into “ Upper,”
“ Middle,” and “ Lower,” by Phillips, in a book published in
1829 : — “ Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire.” Part I.,
“ The Yorkshire Coast. ”*
Louis Hunton was probably the first geologist who made the
attempt to localise fossils, and so divide formations into zones
characterised by a particular fauna ; and a paper of his on
this subject was published in Yol. Y. of the second series of
the “ Geological Transactions,” in 1836. This was followed
by another paper in the same volume, by W. C. Williamson,
which was an attempt to divide the whole of the Lias into
zones.
■Quenstedt, in 1843, divided the Lias into six stages,
a j8 y 5 e f. Dr. Albert Oppel, in 1856, published a work as
the result of his study of the German and English Lias
(chiefly Yorkshire, I think), in which Hunton’s ideas of Palae¬
ontological zones was more completely developed ; and since
then this method of dividing the various formations, particu¬
larly the Lias and Oolites, has been largely followed.
* “ The Yorkshire Lias,” by Messrs. Tate and Blake.
ai
£
O
N
O
Eh
55
H
Eh
M2
pH
M2
M2
<!
H
K
H
fe
O
55
O
i— i
M2
t-H
>
M
o
H
ffi
EH
O
55
i— i
£
O
K
M2
W
m
«
C
Eh
©
o
25
ce >) .
o
2
cc
© '
©
r~ I
o
S]
be
• rH
fH
CD
£
ce
co
CD
CSj
0
0
"3
. — i
in
CD
•rH
S3
4^
CD
=4H O
4H Oj
«4H P
e+H
o ©
© 2
O 4-1
CD
0 O
O O
0 P
o
0
3 3
3 ©
3 >>
rH
o ce
©0
O X
o
esq f-D
N ce
N o
N
<5
?H
<
!|
23
©
-tJ
a
o
23
c3 >.
©>©'
o
S3
o
LO
00
©
CO
b£
O
O
©
fH
40
O
!5
c3
o a
4H
o
Baa
3 o o
0^5 Jh
N SS
o
P3
©-£
© 2
2.3
o a
S3 ©
◄
!*!— | CD
O 3
40
© c3
3 «
©>
N c6
. U
rH rH
© ce
pi
ftp
^<H
«w ©
O 3
40
© ce
3 -13
2 '^H
O fH
© o3
i? 3
o
23
©
40
a
o
"3 23
^ >>23
© 32 3
© 1-3
rH
o
CsJ
to
«tH 'rH
O 2
© ©
rH rH
O 3
NT"--
° 3
© 3
3 3
° ©
N o
23
©
co
be
O
©
©
rH
4H
O
55
CD
3-H S3
0 rr
rH • rH
o a
CS3 ©
<j
4H ^
0 23
rH
2 a
3 to
O fH
N g
a
<i
*S 2
2 ^
SO
x rH C)
° ce ©
© .o ©
© 3 2
3 © 3
K3
CD
S3
-+=>
C+H Cj
CD
rH
«fH JL
CD
«fH
o
CD
© o
o ©
© o
© 3
3 ©
3 t»
3S
°'2
O X
© o
n a
S3 O
N
fH
<
<
•Apio 90U9.I9JUI no pgqsq
-qi3^s9 snoisTAip 9S9qjj
40
ce
© ©
32
3
EH
23
=H 3
o ce
©3
3 ©
O 3
Npq
"44 C
© o
© o
2 '3
2 5-1
o a
N ce
©
23
3
ce
X'
©
32
• 2
<i 3
4h ce
O
CO •
©<d
3
o
KJ
40
I ce
a
a
<
«W
O
©
3
O
N!
ri | i—*
° O
O X
S3 o
<5
CD
«4H P
O CD
2^
1°
<5
©
3 »
2 a
0O
ce .
-S 2
o
o
o
a-
©
©
©
<3
<fH
o
o
S]
23
3
ce
r-H
o
3
a
4H 40
o ce
©3
N 3
CD
° o
© a
0.5
tsj a
4-1 4J
o ce
2 W)
O 3
n a
4H 32
O fH
©2
§3
n a
<5
CD
•rH
CD
0
■Hp
CD
•rH
a-H ^
CD
S3
rH
a-H .p
TO
3
4H 40
o.2>
° a
C 4-)
o CS
0 CD
0 S
© a
©3
3 ©
O.H
« a
O P
© 2
© u
a a
O r->
S3 3
O
tS3 8
N ©
CD
n s
•rH
CD
4H ©
O 3
■H ©
o 3
CD
3
O
©
S3
4H
ce
4H .
O *»H
©
* .3
CD
P
«fH 4^>
0
4-J
0 c3
-4— »
© ce
<*H -J-J
rH
4h ^
0
a
a
fH
CD
©'S
O 25
m =h 3
•rH
4H 32
p • i— <
C Jh
©0
© o
ce
ce
o o
Or2
-d °r2
o ce
2 g
bq ce
b£
ts] ce
be
CD 0
rH *r— 1
^ rH
<
0
g ;»
S3rX
^ ©
rH 0M
ce ^ 0
©■a
(-H i“H
tc
2 3
rH ?H
© §
la
© a
«i
4H
© X
H
am
O rH
° 2
© 3
aa
p-j
N ce
©
<1
«tH
o
©
3
o
o
3
o
• rH
t£
0
S] o
<
©tqW
T3
[o <1
kH
^4
N S
tsi a
<
S3
Ph
M2
6
Pm
f-S
33
rO
ce
r— H
4H
fi
4H
o
>3
be
O
'o
©
0
©
a
EH
3
O
25
©
40
O
3
O’
©
35
ce
r- H
PQ
rH
c6
0
-4— >
ce
H
CD
CD
0
K*"J
32
m
ce
•rH
Hi
0
rH
•rH
35
©
31
rH
o
©
31
EH
23
©
40
O
2
o*
23
©
40
a
o
©
31
ce
r-H
a
>)f3
HIH fl
© ce
o
N
©
40
ce
Eh
31 ©
CD r*-
•rH fH
br
M2
r— H
o
©
0
a a3
a-q
0^
©d
3 ©
0c3
3 'co
O ©
o
© ©
a ce
a-2
pal
o a
n ©
23 ©
23 2
© co
£ ce
O'h
©
r-H
t3 1
© ©
^ ce
o'3
3 S
a ^
.2 ©
rf i !•■ ■ H-3
•22 o cd
> ° 3
•rH (T)
Q 3
H- O’
A-r>
to
QQ.
138
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
This table to a large extent explains itself, but a few remarks
on it are perhaps advisable ; thus, taking the divisions of
Quenstedt as a starting point, it appears that the Continental
—particularly German— geologists, take the divisions a and p
as Lower Lias, y and 8 as Middle, and e and p as Upper,
though some of the French geologists carry the Middle Lias
lower down, and make it to include a good part of p. Each
of these divisions may be justifiable in the district where it is
adopted, but not so in others. The classification most com¬
monly adopted in England is that which regards all the
zones from that of A. annulatus to A. armatus, both inclusive,
as Middle Lias ; though in the English Geological Survey
they draw the line between the zones of A. maryaritatus and
A. ccipricornus ; and Mr. K. Tate, in a paper in the “ Journal
of the Geological Society ” for August, 1870,* has given
reasons for drawing the line of demarcation between the
zones of A. obtusus and A. oxynotus. Mr. Tate’s reasons are
entirely palaeontological, and are based on a study of the
Gloucestershire Lias in the Cheltenham district.
So far as Northamptonshire is concerned there seems to
me little doubt that the divisions adopted by the Geological
Survey are justifiable for the following reasons, which also
hold good in most of the North Midland counties. f
1. — There is a very marked change in the mineral
character of the beds when the zone of Ammonites maryari-
tatus is entered, sands, sandy shales, and ferruginous lime¬
stones being met with instead of clays.
2. — The division is quite defensible on palaeontological
grounds, for the ammonites of the group of the Capricorni
disappear entirely and are replaced by the Amalthei group.
3. — Very much confusion and ambiguity is saved, and the
mapping of the district much facilitated, by drawing the line
of demarcation between a set of sands and clay, for not only
are they more easily distinguished in a section but the line of
division is often sharply indicated by a line of springs ; whilst
it is almost impossible to draw a line of boundary in the
midst of a series of clays of almost uniform character, like
those composing the beds below this division.
Whether the classification adopted by the English Geo¬
logical Survey is best or not for general purposes it is
certainly the best for use here, because it gives almost exactly
* “ On the Palaeontology of the Junction Beds of the Lower and
Middle Lias of Gloucestershire,” by Ralph Tate, Esq., Assoc. Lin.
Soc., F.G.S., &c.
f See “ The Geology of Rutland,” by Jno. W. Judd, F.G.S. Intro¬
ductory Essay.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
139
the limits of the set of beds I intend to describe under the
head of the Middle Lias, though a term such as “ Upper
Middle Lias” might be preferable, and is indeed at times
used.
There is not much difficulty in fixing the upward limit of
the Middle Lias, although what I shall in this paper call the
Transition Bed has been variously named, and variously
classed, and sometimes ignored. Mr. Day* calls this bed the
Pleurotomaricc Bed, as it exists in Dorsetshire. In York¬
shire its equivalent has been described by Messrs. Tate
and Blake, under the name of the Zone of Ammonites
annulatus, and in the Midland Counties we commonly call it
the Transition Bed, a name first used by Mr. E. A. Walford,
F.G.S.f There is a decided mixing of Middle and Upper
Lias fossils, and the ammonites in this bed are almost entirely
Upper Lias ; nevertheless there is such a large prepon¬
derance of Middle Lias fossils that there is scarcely a doubt
as to where it should be placed. I have between ninety and
a hundred species from this bed in Northamptonshire, and I
believe quite tliree-fourtlis of them would be regarded as
Middle Lias.
(To be continued.)
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— March, 1885.
The barometer experienced several fluctuations during the month,
and some of the changes of pressure were both sudden and rapid.
On the 14th the reading was 30-630 inches at Loughborough, at 8 a.m.,
its highest point. Temperature was below the average, the mean
being 2’4° less than that of February ; the range was smaller than
usual for the time of year. The highest maxima were 60-0° at
Henley-in- Arden, on the 20tli ; 58-4° at Hodsock, 53-7° at Strelley,
and 53-5 at Coston Rectory, on the 17tli ; and 55-5° at Loughborough,
on the 28th. In March, 1884, the highest maximum at Loughborough
was 69-1°. In the rays of the sun 117-1° was registered at Hodsock,
and 101-2° at Strelley, on the 17th ; and 105-8° at Loughborough, on
the 27th. The lowest minimum readings were 22-5° at Coston
Rectory, on the 24th ; 23-5° at Hodsock, on the 2nd ; 24-4° at
Loughborough, on the loth ; 26-0° at Henley-in- Arden, on the loth ;
and 28-0° at Strelley, on the 2nd and 23rd. On the grass, the
thermometer recorded 17-3° at Hodsock, 18-1° at Strelley, and 20-2° at
Loughborough, on the 23rd. The rainfall was below the average, the
* “On the Middle and Upper Lias of the Dorsetshire Coast,” by
E. C. H. Day, Esq., “ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,”
August, 1863.
f “ On Some Middle and Upper Lias Beds in the Neighbourhood
of Banbury,” by Edwin A. Walford ; “ Proceedings of the Warwick¬
shire Naturalists’ and Archaeologists’ Field Club,” 1878.
140
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
total values being 1-21 inches at Strelley and Henley-in- Arden, 1*06 at
Hodsock, 0-83 at Loughborough, and 0'79 at Coston Rectory. The
greatest fall occurred at each station on the 3rd, and the number of
“rainy days” ranged from 11 to 15. The greater portion of the rain
fell in the earlier days of the month, so that vegetation was not
sufficiently advanced to suffer much injury from the frequency of
radiation frosts. Snow fell on the 6tli, 18tli, 20th, and 21st. Sunshine
was deficient. The wind varied in direction, and was not of so much
force as is customary in March. The dry nature of the soil was highly
advantageous for farming operations.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
Batumi tl) is torn Botes.
The Midland Union. — The following arrangements for the Annual
Meeting in June are nearly completed : — on the morning of June 16th,
the Committee will meet in the Council Chamber at the Council House ;
in the afternoon the General Meeting will be held in the Examination
Hall at the Mason College ; and in the evening there will be a Soiree
in the Town Hall, when the electric light will be used for illumination
instead of gas. On the 17th, there will be three excursions ; one to
Kinver and Enville, one to Cannock Chase, and one to Bromsgrove
Lickey. The reception room will be in the Library of the Birmingham
Natural History and Microscopical Society in the Mason College. We
hope to see delegates and friends from all the Societies in the CJnion.
British Association. — Arrangements as to the accommodation of
the British Association in Aberdeen at its meeting in September are
now being finally made, in consonance with the suggestions of Professor
Bonney in April last. In addition to £2,000 obtained by personal
application, other sums have been received for the guarantee fund, in
answer to a circular recently issued. It has been arranged that the
Artists’ Society shall hold its exhibition during the session of the
Association, instead of in the summer months, and that it shall be
open free to members of the Association ; natural history and
archaeological exhibitions have also been proposed, as well as a project
for establishing telephonic connection between the various halls placed
at the disposal of members.
Hermaphroditism of Germigenal Cells. — The development of ova
and spermatozoa has of late years formed the subject of many elaborate
researches, the latest of which by E. Van Benedenis full of importance
and interest. The phenomenon of the separation of polar vesicles from
the ovum has been regarded by some authorities, including the late
Professor Balfour, of Cambridge, as simply a case of cell-division,
and by others as the exclusion of the male element from the origin¬
ally hermaphrodite ovarian cell. Since the phenomenon does not occur
in cases of Parthenogenesis the latter theory seem very probable ; but,
on the other hand, the obvious question is whether any similar exclu¬
sion of a female element from the spermatozoon takes place, and hitherto
no satisfactory instance has been given. In his last paper, Van Beneden,
who is a strong upholder of this theory, states that the male germigenal
cell before its development into spermatozoa throws off a globule which
he regards as the female element of the nucleus. We shall await with
interest the confirmation or disproof of this remarkable statement.
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
141
“ A Warning from the British Coal-Fields” is the title of a pam¬
phlet published in Liverpool, which advocates the formation of a
national association, the purpose of which should be to inquire into
the exhaustion of our coal. At the present rate the author thinks
British coal will come to an end in 110 years. It is to he regretted
that such an alarming statement should he made except on the most
trustworthy authority. We call attention to this pamphlet mainly to
remind our readers that the Royal Coal Commission, whose report was
published in 1871, gave nearly 450 years for the duration of the coal to
the depth of 4,000 feet. In the zone exceeding that limit a quantity
of coal which amounts to 48,465,000,000 tons is believed to exist.
Eyes on Shells. — Professor Moseley has lately discovered
the presence of eyes on the shells of certain Chiton id®. They are
restricted to the exposed areas of the outer surfaces of the shells — that
is, to the tegmenta of Carpenter. Each eye lies in a pear-shaped pit,
which is covered externally by a calcareous cornea. The cavity of the
pit is lined by a dark brown pigmented substance, which curves
inwards beneath the cornea, forming a sort of iris. The lens, which is
perfectly transparent, hyaline, and strongly bi-convex, lies behind the
iris aperture. The fibres of the optic nerve, within the pigmented
cavity, become separated from one another and loose, and pass directly
to a retina composed of a single layer of short well-defined rods. The
absence of eyes has hitherto been regarded as a characteristic of the
Chiton id®, and the ignorance of their existence is, perhaps, due to the
fact that they do not occur in any common European representative ;
they are not easily seen in dried specimens of shells, which require to
be moistened with spirit before the eyes become visible ; and Schizo-
chiton, in which they are largest and most evident, is a rarity in
museums.
Coloured Sounds. — It is said that the blast of a trumpet has been
compared to scarlet, and a serious dissertation has been written on
the problem “ Of what colour is A flat.” But, joking apart, the
phenomenon of coloured hearing has now a recognised scientific place.
In “ La Nature,” April 18tli, 1885, M. de Boclias gives an account of
several observations which have been made on the subjective colours
associated with sounds in certain persons. A man examined by Dr.
Pedrono, of Nantes, perceived a different colour for each musical
note ; neighbouring notes produced similar colours : the high notes
were accompanied by brilliant colours and the low by sombre ones.
A musical chord produced a single colour, the resultant of those due
to the separate notes ; if the chord contained a dissonance, the colour
proper to that appeared as a detached patch near to the other.
Human voices appeared coloured according to their timbre ; yellow,
red, green, and blue voices could be distinguished, the blue voices
being the commonest ; green voices were very rare. An Italian,
Doctor Z., examined by M. Ughetti, attached different colours to
different vowels ; thus a was black, e yellow, i red, o white, and ou
coffee-coloured (the vowels of course bearing their continental pro¬
nunciation.) In conversation the rapid succession of vowels generally
prevented the Doctor from perceiving the colour due to each; but if a
word contained the same vowel several times repeated then the colour
became distinct ; thus ballata was black, neve yellow. Other similar
cases, differing, however, in their details, are known, and M. de Rochas
promises to describe one which he has himself met with, still more
interesting than those now given.
142
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
iu'ports of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Geological Section. March 24tli. T. H. Waller, Esq.,
in the chair. Exhibits: — 1. Mr. J. E. Bagnall. A number of mosses
from near Stockingford, including Hypnum molluscum, II. chry sophy llum ,
H. pumilum, Tortula spadicea, Fissidens tamarindifolius, Ac. 2. Mr.
T. H. Waller. The following sections : — (a) Red vein in Rowley Rag,
showing radiating zeolite ; (b) Rowdey Rag, showing parallel arrange¬
ment of plates oi ilmenite ; (c) Very coarse Rowley Rag, showing large
quantities of apatite ; (d) Rowley Rag from Tansley Hill, showing
microporphyritic structure and fluidal arrangement ; (r) Grey vein in
Rowley Rag, showing long blade-like crystals of orthoclase ; (/) Grey
vein in Rowley Rag, showing inclusions in the glassy base ; (y) Rowley
Rag from Hailstone Hill, showing olivine; (7a) Rowley Rag from
Tansley Hill, Dudley, showing microporphyritic structure. Mr. Allport
then took the chair, while Mr. Waller read his paper, entitled
“ Some recent observations on the structure of Rowley Rag.” After
the paper, a very interesting discussion ensued. Mr. Waller congratu¬
lated the section on once more having Mr. Allport in the chair.
— General Meeting. March 31st. Mr. James Mathews, Clent, sent
for exhibition Thuja occidentalis covered with blossom. Mr. W. B.
Grove, B.A., exhibited the following fungi: — S clii zopliy llum commune
and (Ecidium grossularice , collected by Mr. W. H. Wilkinson in America ;
also OEc. plilogis, CEc. podophyllalum , (Ec. convallarice, (Ec . porosum and
Hypocrea citrina , all from Iowa, U.S.A . ; Sphcerellapinodes, from Ireland ;
also from this neighbourhood Ilelmint hosporium cylindricum, Hyalopus
ater, Acrothecium tenebrosum (all three new to Britain), Hypomyces
candicans (very rare), and Entyloma ranunculi. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson
read his paper on the “ Flora of N. America,” and exhibited 85 sheets of
specimens collected, containing nearly 150 different species, including
many curious and interesting plants. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited
living specimens of Balanus balanoid.es, also the larval (Narplius)
form, under the aquarium microscope'. — Sociological Section. April
2nd. At this meeting Mr. F. J. Cullis tendered his resignation as
lion, secretary, in consequence of the pressure of his engagements.
It was unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the section be
presented to Mr. Cullis for the able and courteous manner in which he
has fulfilled the duties of the office. Mr. Alfred Browett was unani¬
mously appointed as his successor. Mr. Browett then read, with
illustrative comments, Chapter III. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Study of
Sociology, “Nature of the Social Science,” upon which an interesting
discussion followed. A suggestion that a second excursion should be
made to George Eliot’s Country early in June next met with approval.
— Biological Section. April 14th. Mr. R. W. Chase in the chair. Mr.
T. Bolton exhibited the larval form of the common fresh-water mussel,
Anodon cygneus ; the rose beetle, Cetonia aurata, sent by Mr. Sylvanus
Wilkins, and discovered in an old thatched roof near Lyme Regis ; and
also one of the Jungermanniae, Pellia epipliylla, from Sutton Park. Mr.
J. Levick, a fine gathering of Volvox globator and Argulus foliaceus.
Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, Hellebonis viridis, Hepatica trilobata, Omphalodes
verna, and a lichen ( Peltigera canina) in fine fruit, all from Blockley,
Worcestershire. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Webera carnea, Eurhynchium
piliferum, Tlypnum cordifolium, and other mosses from the Anker
district. The Rev. H. Boyden then read a paper, “ Natural History
Rambles in the Neighbourhood of Llandudno.” Having first given a
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
148
very interesting and humorous description of the various scenes and
episodes to be noted by the observant visitor to such places during the
tripping season, he then passed on to notice some of the geological
features of the district, then the seaweeds and corallines, mosses and
flowering plants, illustrating his remarks by a fine and beautifully
prepared collection of the various objects ; among the more rare were
Trollius Europceus, Helianthemum canuvi, Frankenia Icevis, Geranium
sanguineum , Erodium viaritimum, Spiraa Filipendula, and many others.
A discussion followed, in which Messrs. It. W. Chase, J. E. Bagnall,
W. B. Grove, J. Morley, and W. H. Wilkinson took part. Mr. Boyden
also presented to the library of the Society a carefully prepared MS.
list of over *250 flowering plants noticed in the Llandudno district. —
Microscopical General Meeting. April 21st. Mr. W. P. Marshall,
M.I.C.E., explained the new process of continuous section cutting,
the apparatus for which he described from a diagram, and illustrated
it by the exhibition of a series of twenty-nine slides with eight hundred
sections of the Pennatulida, prepared by Dr. A. M. Marshall and
himself. The slides were shown under about a dozen microscopes,
and the members were much interested and pleased with the very
successful results. Mr. Frederick Fitch, F.R.M.S., exhibited a series
of exquisitely mounted specimens of dissections, showing the anatomy
of the earwig, snout fly, &c., which he had prepared himself. Mr.
W. H. Wilkinson exhibited three lichens, finely in fruit, from Blockley,
viz., Physcia ciliaris var. actinota, Evernia prunastri, and Parmelia
plnjsodes. Although the two latter are amongst our commonest tree
lichens they are very rarely found in fruit. — Sociological Section.
April 16th. The President, Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., in the chair.
Mr. W. H. France read a paper on Chapters VIII., IX., X., of part 3,
of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Biology , “ How is Organic
Evolution Caused?” “External Factors,” “ Internal Factors.” Speeches
upon the subjects treated were delivered by the President, Dr. Hiepe,
Mr. F. A. Walton, and Miss Naden, and a generally interesting discus¬
sion followed, in which all the members present took part.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION.- — March 23rd. Mr. Insley exhibited remains of fossil fish
from the Lower Lias formation of Lyme Regis. Mr. Tylar described
the use of osmic acid in the preparation of microscopic objects, and
showed a number of slides of entomostraca, &c., prepared by it that
retained a life-like appearance. Mr. J. W. Neville showed, under the
microscope, Carchesium polypinum. — March 30tli. Mr. H. Hawkes
exhibited a male specimen of the four-horned spider crab, risa tetraodon ;
Mr. Madison, specimens of Zonites radiatulus ; Mr. F. Shrive, two living
adders taken a few days previously in Sutton Park. Under the micro¬
scope, Mr. Tylar showed a section of coralline limestone, and also one
of pentacrinite from Lyme Regis. Mr. Moore, palate of slug, Testacella
haliotoidea ; Mr. H. Hawkes, Batracliospermum moniliforme, showing
oospores ; Mr. Insley, fossil polyzoa, from the mountain limestone. —
April 13th. Mr. J. W. Neville showed a collection of marine algae
from Weymouth ; Mr. Madison, leaf impressions from Tertiary beds,
near Bournemouth ; Mr. Sanderson, specimens of Jungermannia
bidentata. Under the microscope, Mr. Moore showed stomach of
green saw-fly, containing pollen and insect remains ; Mr. Tylar, Hydra
vulgaris, greatly distended through swallowing a phantom larva ; Mr.
H. Hawkes, Epistylis grandis, and Vorticella nebulifera; Mr. Grew,
operculum of Cyclostovia elegans. Mr. J. Betteridge presented to the
Society, as a first instalment, nineteen specimens of birds preserved
144
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
and set for the cabinet, in illustration of his series of papers on “The
Birds of the District,” recently read before the Society. They
included, among the less common birds, specimens of the golden-
crested wren, Regulus cristatus ; great titmouse, Pants major ; King¬
fisher, Alcedo ispida ; and great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus. A
hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Betteridge for his kind gift
and his zealous labours in popularising ornithology. Mr. Betteridge
replied, and intimated that the second instalment, including many of
our summer visitors, would be ready in the early part of July.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D, Zoology and Botany. Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. —
Monthly meeting, April 15th, attendance nine (two ladies). Exhibits:
Pellia epipliylla , in fruit, one of the larger liepaticae, by Mr. Quilter.
Cells of the common wall bee, Osmia mi fa , taken from an old mud
wall, containing pupae in two stages, some in which the larvae were
only just enclosed, others in which the perfect insect was ready to
emerge, and from one of which, on being broken, the live bee escaped and
crept about, its wings being not yet dry enough for flight ; also several
Coleopterous and Dipterous larvae found in a ball of bee-bread in
another cell, and a number of mites from an empty cell, where they
appeared to be feeding on the propolis with which it was lined, by Mr.
W. A. Vice. Several numbers of the periodical Cole’s “Micro¬
scopical Science,” containing finely executed coloured figures of
microscopic objects, accompanied by slides, by Mr. W. E. Grundy ;
Dumortier’s “ Hepaticae Europae,” with coloured plates, price 10s. ;
and Watson’s “ Topographical Botany,” price 16s. ; also a square of
compressed camphor, very suitable for use in cabinets and herbaria,
by the chairman. Paper “ On the Ricciacece ,” by the chairman, illus¬
trated by specimens, and a coloured drawing of Riccia glauca, recently
collected from a shady bed in his garden at Birstal Hill. This species
had not hitherto been recorded in Leicestershire, although it was
perhaps the one referred to in Coleman’s list under the name of R.
crystallina. The fruit of these abnormal Hepaticae was particularly
curious and interesting, each of the hard black spores being shaped
like the fourth part of a sphere, rounded on one side and pyramidal
on the other.
THE CARADOC FIELD CLUB.— The annual meeting of this
Club was held at Shrewsbury, March 19tli, the Rev. J. D. La Touche,
president, in the chair. After re-electing the officers and transacting
the other ordinary business of the club, the following programme for
the coming season was fixed upon : — Tuesday, May 19th, Titterstone
Clee Hill ; Wednesday, June 17tli, Bishop’s Castle, for the Bishop’s
Moat and Offa’s Dyke ; Tuesday to Thursday, September 28-30, to
Cader Idris, North Wales ; Friday, October 9th (subject to alteration),
Pontesford Hill and Abberley Valley. This last meeting has for its
special object the study of cryptogamic botany. The Club has made
it a practice for some years past to offer prizes to the children in the
National Schools in the county, up to fourteen years of age, for the
best collections of fossils, wild flowers, and insects. Three com¬
petitors appeared with collections of fossils, each of which was con¬
sidered worthy of a prize. These collections were purchased by the
Club and presented to the Shrewsbury Free Museum. The completion
and publication of “A Handbook to the Geology of Shropshire,” by
the President, to the cost of which a grant had been made from the
funds of the Club, was a subject of warm congratulation, especially as
the sale of the work had already been so large as to secure its financial
success.
ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 145
ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF
PROTOPLASTS.— IV.
BY WILLIAM HILLHOUSE, M.A., F.L.S., ETC.
( Continued from Vol. VII., p. 126.)
Having at times probably a genetic relationship with sieve
tubes are the articulated latex vessels, an interesting memoir
on which was published in 1882 by D. H. Scott."' Dippelt
had believed the resemblance to be sometimes carried to the
extent of the presence of sieve-like perforations in the
septa, as in < jheliclonium and Papaver, and of actual
lateral sieve-plates in the same genera, thus producing
intermediate structures between sieve tubes and latex
vessels. It must, however, be borne in mind that
the conception of a sieve plate has greatly developed
since 1863. A sieve plate, as lias been fully noted earlier in
this paper, has special structure besides its mere sieve-like
perforation ; and while it is quite true that the septa of latex
vessels are often perforate, and that not merely by one, but
often by a group of perforations, they are large in size,
irregular in outline, and altogether devoid of callus.
Thus far, therefore, sieve tubes must be regarded as the
only structures in which any approach to protoplasmic
continuity (not bodily) had been universally recognised ; and
even with these it must be especially remembered that the
protoplasmic threads connecting the contents of the adjoining
cells constituting the tubes are products of protoplasmic
activity, and are not relics of initial unity. They are the
last term of a series of resorption phenomena which manifest
themselves in so many stages of vegetable development —
the fusion of the conjugating canals in Zygnemaceae and
Mucorime, the union of rows of cells into vessels and ducts,
the anastomosis of cells in a latex system, the peculiar wood
cells of the mistletoe ( Viscum album).
It remained for TanglJ to open up, in 1879, a new vista
of possibilities in a memoir, in which he demonstrated the
* D. H. Scott, B.A., “ The Development of Articulated Laticiferous
vessels,” Q. Journ. Mic. Sc., 1882, pp. 136 — 153 and 1 plate.
f Dippel, “ Entstehung der Milclisaftgefasse,” Verliandl. d. Ba-
taafsch. Genootschap, &c., te Rotterdam, tom. XII., p. 3 (1863).
t Tangl, “ Ueber offenen Communicationen zwischen den Zellen
des Endosperms einiger Samen.” Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher f. wiss.
Bot. XII., pp. 170 — 190, and plates 4 — 6.
146 ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS.
existence of open communication between neighbouring cells
in the endosperm of the seeds of certain palms — Strychnos nux-
vomica , Areca oleracea , and Phcenix dactylifera. As this
investigation of Tangl’s, although describing what for some
years appeared to be isolated phenomena, is still the starting
point of recent research in this direction, we will give to it
brief special attention.
The endosperm of Strychnos nux-vomica is bounded out¬
wardly by layers of cells elongated at right angles to the
surface, and therefore shown best in a section taken in this
direction. The inner tissue of the endosperm, shown by
sections taken parallel with the surface of the seed, and at
some little distance below that surface, consists of thick
walled cells, with strongly- swelling membranes. Under the
influence even of water these membranes swell very greatly,
and show strongly-marked lamination. If a dried section of
this inner endosperm tissue is allowed to swell in dilute alcohol
the lamination of the membrane is manifest, and at the same
time a fine cross striation is seen in the walls of adjoining
cells. But if a section of this same portion of the endosperm
is treated with potassium iodide iodine, these stride stain
yellow or brown, and show as “ fine threads penetrating the
cell walls in their entire thickness” (see fig. 7).* For reasons
derived from the relations of these strite towards colour
re-agents, Tangl came to the conclusion that the striae were
none other than delicate prolongations of the outer layer of the
cell protoplasm penetrating the cell walls and communicating
with one another. They are not visible in the dry state, nor
in absolute alcohol, from the close relationship of their
refractive index with that of the surrounding cell membrane.
By absorption of water these refractive indices are changed in
unlike degree, so that the threads show out in the laminated
membrane with a greater or less degree of clearness, just as
the lamination itself of the membrane shows for the same
reason.
The endosperm of Areca oleracea , examined by means of
sections taken parallel with the surface of the seed, and
swollen in water, shows walls of considerable thickness and
homogeneous structure, with local thin areas, corresponding
in position in adjoining cells, but presenting no structural
peculiarities. If, however, similar sections are allowed to
swell in chlorzinc iodine (“Schultz’s solution”) until the
cell-walls have taken a uniform blue coloration, it will then
* The figures illustrating this portion of the paper will be published
in connection with a future instalment.
ON THE INTERCELLULAR RELATIONS OF PROTOPLASTS. 147
be seen that the middle lamella, separating the widened
bases of the pits in adjoining walls, is penetrated by fine
threads passing from pit to pit (see Fig. B). While the more
median of these threads appear to pass in a straight line from
pit to pit, the lateral ones are progressively more and more
curved, so as to make the figure described by the outermost
elliptic, or even almost circular. (The same relations are
visible in the threads passing through the normal thick parts
of the walls in Strychnos nux-vomica .) The threads are
brought out with still greater clearness when, prior to treat¬
ment with chlorzinc iodine, the section has been laid in
potassium iodide iodine.
In Phoenix dactylifera sections of the endosperm taken
parallel to the surface of the seed, as well as at right angles
with it, first saturated with potassium iodide iodine solution,
and then allowed to swell in chlorzinc iodine, show a
structure analogous if not similar. The thickened walls of
the cells show numerous strongly-marked pits, corresponding
in position in adjoining walls. The untliickened wall
separating the bases of the pits, stained feebly yellow, is seen
clearly to be pierced by dark yellow or brownish rods. These
rods, likewise, are protoplasmic in nature.
It will be seen, therefore, that Tangl claimed to have
found in these seeds evidence of protoplasmic continuity of
a clear kind. In Stnjchnos mix- comica the protoplasmic
threads pass through the thickened wall at, practically, any
point of its periphery, exceptiug perhaps at the actual angles
of the cells, and are of extreme tenuity ; while in the case of
Areca oleracea and Phoenix dactylifera the threads are some¬
what coarser, in the latter notably so, and pass only through
the unthickened parts of the cell wall, i.e. through the closing
membrane of the pits.
While carefully guarding himself against the suggestion
of the general occurrence of such protoplasmic threads even
in the group of palms, Tangl closes his memoir with the
following important sentences : —
“ Ueberblicken wir die gewonnenen, in der vorliegenden Abhandlung
niedergelegte Besultate der Untersucliung, so wird durcli dieselben die
Thatsache festgestellt, dass die verdickten Membranen des Endo¬
sperms einiger Samen von einem System von Verbindungskaniilen
durckzogen werden, durcli welcke eine offene Communication zwiscken
benaclibarten Zell-elementen und ein continuirlicker Zusammenliang
ilirer Protoplasma-kOrper liergestellt wird.
Der Umstand, das die Darstellung des bescliriebenen Baues in den
verdickten Membranen des Endosperms in systematischer Bezieliung
sehr weit abstekender Piiauzen gelungen ist, darf der Hoffnung
berechtigen, dass wir demselben aucli nock bei anderen Objecten
begegnen werden.”
148
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
This “ open communication between neighbouring cell-
elements ” and “ continuity of tlieir protoplasmic body,”
which Prof. Tangl ventured to hope would be found in
objects other than those in which he describes it, has in the
last three years been shown to exist in such widely-different
plants and parts of plants as to lend foundation to a broader
hypothesis of the protoplasmic unity of the entire vegetal
organism.
(To be continued).
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.C.S., F.G.S.
Part I .
(Continued from page 139.)
The parts of the Lias then that I am about to describe
include the following divisions : —
1. — The Transition Bed.
2. — The Zone of Ammonites Spinatus.
8.— The Zone of Ammonites Margaritatus.
These divisions include twelve distinct beds, six of them being
fairly hard and six soft. Below is what may be regarded as
a typical section for the county, or perhaps I should say the
west and south-western parts of the county, for there only
can all these beds be seen.
Typical Section of the Middle Lias of Northamptonshire.
“Transition” Bed.
Aver, thickness.
Ft. In.
A. — Soft grey marl, or stone, passing upwards into red
sandy clay, containing Ammonites cicutus and
small yasteropods in great abundance ... ... 0 6
“ Spinatus ” Zone.
B. — Rock bed. — A calcareous and ferruginous rock,
containing Ehynclionella tetrahedra , Terebratula
punctata , Pecten ecquivalvis , and large Belemnites ,
all in great abundance ... ... ... ... G 0
Springs nearly always met with.
C. — Marly clay, containing concretionary ferruginous
nodules . 2 0
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
149
D. — Soft sandy limestone, often slialy in character,
abounding in fossils, the most common being
Pecten liasinus , Protocardiiun truncatum , Astarte ,
q n
E. — Sandy or marly clay ... ... 2Jft. to 8 0
“ Margaritatus ” Zone.
F. — Soft sandy and ferruginous limestone, generally
slialy; very fossiliferous. The following rather
abundant : — Ammonites margaritatus, Protocar-
dium truncatum, Plwladomya ambigua, Pleu-
romga costata ... ... ... ... ... 3 0
(i. — Sandy marl or clay, micaceous and ferruginous;
Ammonites margaritatus, dc. ... ... ... 6 0
H. — Soft sandy limestone, abounding in fossils, very
ferruginous, containing Ammonites margaritatus,
Pholadomya ambigua, Protocardium truncatum,
Avicula inccquivalvis, Modiola, dc. ... ... 3 0
I. — Sandy micaceous clay, very soft and friable ... 4 0
J. — Micaceous and calcareous sandstone ; Protocar¬
dium truncatum, Pecten liasinus, Fucoul markings,
all abundant ... ... ... ... ... 2 6
K. — Sandy, micaceous, and ferruginous shale or clay,
abounding in fossils, mostly casts: — Protocardium
truncatum , Avicula, Pectens, Modiola, dc. .. 5 6
L. — A mottled, yellow and green, shelly limestone,
sometimes very hard, containing many well
preserved fossils ; large specimens of Pecten
liasinus rather characteristic ... ... ... 2 0
Springs commonly met with.
“ Capricornus ” Zone.
Dark blue clay.
1 have found this typical section a very useful aid in
the study of the Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, and
although constructed three or four years ago with consider¬
able diffidence, I have seen no reason for altering it materially
since. It must be borne in mind, however, that the Middle
Lias of Northamptonshire, like that of most districts, is a
very variable formation, and so the section may be approxi¬
mate only in any particular place, but certainly all the beds
described do exist, as the numerous sections 1 shall give will
show, and I think there are no others that it does not include.
The variations that may be expected are these : — (1) An
absence of some of the beds altogether, and this, perhaps,
more often at the junction of the “ spinatus” and “margari¬
tatus” zones than elsewhere. (2) A coalescence of two or
150
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
more of the hard beds cutting out the usual intervening
clay. (3) A layer of fossiliferous nodules in place of the
continuous bed.
The portion of the Middle Lias I am describing is often
called the Marlstone, a term first used by Mr. William
Smith to indicate that it contained hard stone bands. To
this term there is some objection, for although it was applied
to the whole of the formation between the Upper Lias and
the zone of A. capricomus, the only part usually to be seen
in the Midland district was the upper hard bed, here
called the Lock bed, and so the term Maidstone got to be
applied to this bed only. In Yorkshire Professor Phillips has
named the equivalents of these beds the “ Ironstone ” and
“ Maidstone” series, the Rock bed itself being called the top
Ironstone bed, and the lower beds the Marlstone.
Description of Beds in the “ Margaritatus ” Zone. Bed “L.”
The only account that I can find of this, the lowest bed
of the “margaritatus” zone, and of the Middle Lias as I
intend to speak of it, in Northamptonshire, occurs in the
“Memoirs of the Geological Survey,” description of sheet 45
of the maps. It was written by Mr. A. H. Green, M.A.,
F.G.S., and runs as follows : — “ At the base of the Marlstone
hereabouts lies a bed of very hard, fine grained, dark blue
limestone, giving out a bituminous smell when struck. It
makes good road metal, and has been largely worked about
Overtliorpe. It may also be seen in a brick pit north-west of
King’s Sutton, where Twyford Lane crosses the canal.”
There are not many sections in Northamptonshire where
the lower beds of the Middle Lias can be seen, and for a
considerable time I only knew of one where the lowest bed
of the “margaritatus” zone was exposed; that was at
Chalcomb, near to Banbury. Recently, however, we have
been able to trace this bed over an area large enough to
include Daventry to the north and Northampton to the
north-east, the latter place being about twenty miles from
Chalcomb. The bed has some decided characteristics, by
which it can be usually identified ; fossils are rather
abundant, the matrix is peculiar, and it is a water-bearing
bed. The particular condition of the bed at any place is
better maintained along the line of strike than at right
angles to it. Under Northampton it consists of a rather
hard rock, yielding a fair amount of water ; the matrix is
green, but there are numerous patches (inclusions) of an
oclireous colour, quite different to the rock itself, and so
giving to it a peculiar mottled appearance. The green part
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
151
is concretionary, and quite oolitic in places, the grains being
flattish and elliptical in shape; a few grey micaceous patches,
also many small pebbles, and some larger concretions are
present. This description is quite sufficient for the same
bed as it exists at Gay ton, some five miles south-west of
Northampton, almost exactly on the line of strike.
At Milton , to the east of this line, and Bughrook to the
west, the bed is a little different in character. At the former
place the oolitic character is not noticeable, whereas at the
latter it is very pronounced ; also fossils seem more abundant
as we go westward, because there is less matrix.
At Dav entry, where the bed is superficial, and Staverton,
where it has been long exposed, the green colour is not to
be observed, partly owing to oxidation and partly because at
these places it is almost entirely composed of fossils. The
situation of these two sections is almost exactly on the line
of strike, and near the westerly limits of the Middle Lias
outcrop. If the lines connecting Northampton and Gayton
and Daventry and Staverton respectively be produced, it will
be seen that Chalcomb lies nearly midway between them, and
the bed there possesses intermediate characters.
At Chalcomb the bed has the same mottled appearance
that it has at Northampton, though the colour is much less
decided ; also it is more fossiliferous, though less so than the
same bed at Staverton. Some portions of the bed at
Chalcomb are exceedingly pretty ; they are highly vesicular,
the cavities being filled in partially or entirely with calcspar,
which shows up well against the other portion of the stone —
red in these cases. Several good springs issue from the base
of this bed hereabouts, and no doubt running water has
effected the change above referred to. An experiment in the
laboratory with some of the stone from Northampton showed
that the green portion was mostly soluble in hydrochloric
acid, with effervescence, the ochreous portions being much
less soluble.
The bed near Northampton seems to be characterised by
very large specimens of Pecten liasinus, and everywhere by
small pebbles. A little iron pyrites was found in one or two
specimens, which accounted for the sulphurous odour emitted
when they were struck by the hammer. The thickness seems
to decrease in a northerly direction but to increase eastwards.
At Chalcomb it is probably 2ft., Staverton 1ft. 4in., Daventry
lft. Sin., Northampton between 3ft. and 4ft.
Fossils.
Ichthyosaurus tooth (?) ... Staverton.
Fish remains, vertebra and teeth of small Jish, dc. Staverton
and Northampton,
152
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
Ammonites capriconius (?) Clialcomb.
Betemnites apicurvatus ... Staverton. Some Belemnites from
other places not identified.
Dentalium (?) . Staverton.
Turbo cyclostoma . Milton.
Eucyclus (sp. ?l . Staverton.
Ostrea cymbium (?) . Northampton. Other Ostrea not
identified.
Pecten cequivalvis, some very large. Northampton, Milton,
Daventry, Staverton.
Pecten liasinus, mostly large specimens. Northampton, Milton,
Gay ton, Daventry, Staverton.
Lima . Staverton.
Limea acuticosta . Clialcomb, Staverton, Milton.
Plicatula (sp. ?) . Milton.
Plicatula spinosa . Northampton, Milton.
Avicula cygnipes . Northampton, Daventry.
Avicula inccquivalvis . Northampton, Milton, Daventry,
Staverton.
Inoceramus (?) . Staverton.
Modiola (sp. ?) . Northampton.
Mod iota (sp ?), very small. Staverton.
Macrodon (sp. ?) . Northampton.
Macrodon (sp. ?) . Staverton.
Protocardium truncatum.. Northampton, Milton, Staverton.
Cardita multicostata . . Byfield.
Cardinia antiqua . Bugbrook, Staverton, Daventry,
Milton.
Cardinia lands . Northampton, Milton, Bugbrook,
Staverton.
Astarte striato-sidcata . Bugbrook, Staverton.
Grossly a intermedia . Northampton.
Pleuromya costata . Daventry.
Pentacrinite . Staverton.
Serpida . Daventry, Staverton (very abundant).
{To be continued.)
THE LIAS MAKL STONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE AS
A SOURCE OF IRON.
BY E. WILSON, F.G.S., CURATOR OF BRISTOL MUSEUM.
( Continued from page 127.)
Finally, let us very briefly consider what was the probable
origin of the Leicestershire Ironstone. At the outset we may
affirm that it is impossible to suppose that the carbonate of iron
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE,
153
contained in the Maidstone could have been deposited in the
open sea in the state in which we now find it in that rock,
because the carbonate, if introduced into such an area, would,
on account of its strong affinity for oxygen, inevitably become
converted into the peroxide. The presence, in abundance too,
of mollusca in the Marlstone Bock precludes the idea of its
contemporaneous deposition, for these animals could never
have lived in such a concentrated solution of this iron com¬
pound as a percentage of thirty parts of the metal implies.
The iron must, therefore, have been introduced subsequently
to the formation of the rock. Speaking of the Cleveland
ironstone, which, for all practical purposes, may be considered
as identical with the Leicestershire stone, Dr. Sorby says, the
calcic carbonate of many of the fossil shells it contains is
often found to be partially or wholly replaced by the carbonate
of iron, and the exteriors of the oolitic grains are also
similarly replaced, indicating that they, too, have been altered
after deposition. He concludes that the Cleveland ironstone
was once an oolitic limestone in ter stratified with clays con¬
taining a large amount of oxide of iron and organic matter,
which, by their mutual reaction, gave rise to a solution of
bicarbonate of iron — that this solution percolated through
the limestone, and, removing a large part of the carbonate of
lime by solution, left in its place carbonate of iron (see Report
Geol. and Polytech. Soc. of Yorkshire, Yol. II., 1856). With
slight modification we may, I think, accept this theory as the
most feasible one to account for the origin of the Leicestershire
ironstone. For the source of the iron, however, we shall, I
think, have to look beyond the beds themselves. If carbonate
of iron were by any process developed in the impervious clays
enclosing the Marlstone Bock, as suggested by Dr. Sorby, it
would, in all probability, be deposited within those clays in
the same way, for example, that it was in the clay-ironstone
nodules of the coal measure shales, and, as a matter of fact,
such nodules occur in the underlying Middle Lias shales.
We have yet a great deal to learn as to the origin and distri¬
bution of metallic compounds in the sedimentary rocks.
What the precise source of the carbonate of iron contained in
the Marlstone of Leicestershire was, and when and how
introduced, it is at the present time, and perhaps always will
be, impossible to say.
APPENDIX, No. I.
Analysis of Middle Lias Iron Ores of Leicestershire, Oxon, and
154
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
ft
£
d
W
>
W
d
O
i
Normauby
(Cleveland)
O co
co o
bq do
CO
cq d- co o hh t>-
O b- rH CO rH O
lb cb A O tH
rH
lO
hJH
Ah
22-00
96-47
31-40
C3
O t>
0*0 10 10 . o
O
X
o
cq
A3 cd
o
CO
H lO H CO fe lO
• • • • 4^ •
GO
CO
o
h}H
IlS®
cb
cb
Xli>CO H rH
bq
ib
6
do
© >
CO
rH
cq
o
cq
ft -2
rH
to 2.
t>-
OOCOOOhH
cq
o
o
w ■
IQ
00
O O CD X O lO
ID
o
X
o
ib
cb
CS cb rH cb
o
6
Ah
-M
OI
t— 1 rH
cq
o
cq
• r-t
H
H
gA
co
cq
0 0 0 0X0
o
o
o
CO
CO
co t> cq oq o o
1C
o
CO
rH
cb
cb
o o bi o
tA
6
6
4->
CO
rH
cq
o
X
•rH
rH 1
H
lO o CO X • no
rH rH O)
cq
CO
X HH
x cq o h p ro
rH X rH
X
o
& §
tA o
cb o cb
6
6
rdO
rH rH
o
X
few
A —
H
>>
rH ,
O O
o x t>- cq t-
CO CO
o
t>-
.§?
Cl
, j • • • •
. H cq
cb *b
o
cb
53 X
^ o
6
CO
cb
O T— 1 T— 1
rH tH
6
o
cq
^ H-
H
Hi
4-3
j-3 =3
o
co
x o x ci o rH
lO
o
o
O o
© 'O ..j.
> 33 f .
O
rH
o cq x co o o
lO
o>
o
*? X
-P HOI
ib
bn A cb
H
rH
o
X .
Cfi rH
<H CM
lO
rH rH \
H
o
X >
H 2
c3
o
.
co
o
L- t- X H CC N
o
o cq
t-
13
o
HH
•
CO rH Q Q Q IQ
TtH
co 9
X
CO
&
cb
X rH rH O
tH
o
o
’o
rH
rH
rH
o
>
w
o
03
o
o
• r-H
Sh
5h
03
rA
<H-i
O
03
ro
• rH
O
-tJ
o
03
co
03
<H
rH
c3
bn
d
sh
O
03
nd
• r-H
X
O
o
c3
pj 03
CO
03
PI ^
tD. 2
ci . — i
&
o
c3
o
d-
co
O
c3
&D
c3
f-4
03
•4-3
c3
>
1 o
03
rO
a
o
o
03
T*
• r-H
O
cC
C3 <D
c3
o3
A
CO
'o
03
bD
c5
4-3
d
03
O
C3
+3
03
#
When first got this ore contains about 25 per cent, of moisture. f Insoluble residue.
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
155
APPENDIX II.
Xotes on the Palccontoloyy of the Marlstone of Leicestershire.
With the exception of PJujnchoneUa tetraedra and Terehratula
punctata, which are found everywhere, and in enormous
numbers in the “jacks,” the fossils of the Leicestershire
Marlstone are neither very numerous nor greatly varied. In
comparison with the Marlstone of Oxfordshire the fauna is
extremely limited. Mr. Beesley, of Banbury, gives a list of
upwards of 250 species from the zone of A. spinatus in that
county ; whereas for Leicestershire I am not able to mention
more than a quarter of that number. Of these A. spinatus
is rare, and except at Tilton, where we also get A. communis,
A. annul atm, A. Holandrei, A. Coecilia (?), A. acutus, and A.
serpentinus, no other ammonite is to be found. The remark¬
able abundance of A. acutus in the top bed at Tilton has
already been mentioned. Belenmites occur everywhere in the
Rock-bed, the prevailing forms being B. elonrjatus and B.
paxillosus. The only other common fossils are Pecten aiquivalvis,
P. lunularis, and Lima pectinoides. Some very interesting
little Gasteropoda are to be found in the railway cutting south
of Tilton Station, and also in a quarry on the east side of
Pickwell, a village about three miles to the north-east. Both
Rhynchonella tetraedra and Terehratula punctata show varietal
forms : they also show great variations in the stage of growth
of the shells, and the latter occasional monstrosities.
The general character of the Marlstone Rock, its coarse
arenaceous nature and oolitic texture, the occurrence of
beds largely composed of shell fragments, the presence of
current-bedding, and the occurrence of drift wood indicate
that it was originally a shallow water, and probably a
shore (if not an estuarine) deposit. The local development
of this rock is, I believe, to be explained by original
limitation of deposition and not by subsequent denudation.
I have already mentioned that, on lithological grounds,
the Marlstone Rock can be divided into two very distinct
portions — an upper calcareo-ferruginous and fossiliferous
division and a lower arenaceous and much less fossiliferous
division. The Rock- bed cannot be further sub-divided into
zones either on palaeontological grounds or by lithological
characters. As a rule the “jacks,” of which there maybe
one, two, or more, occur in the lower half of the upper or
ferruginous series, but they are sometimes met with in the
lower series. The “jacks ” rapidly pass into ordinary compact
marlstone, and cannot be identified in the different exposures.
156
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
The encrinital bands are generally found above the “jacks,”
but at Holwell and also at Knipton and Branston near Belvoir
they occur at the base of the ferruginous series. The base of
the Maidstone can always be fixed by the band of pliosphatic
concretions above referred to. Ammonites acutus and the
other ammonites, A. spinatus only excepted, are never found
except at the top, but so far these ammonites have only been
found at one place, viz., Tilton. I append a list of the organic
remains already known to occur in the Maidstone Bock of the
Leicestershire district. The species from Tilton are placed
in a separate column, from which it appears that a greater
number of fossil forms have been found at that place than at
all the other localities put together. Further search, especially
in fresh exposures, will no doubt appreciably extend the list
here given.
In drawing up this list I have received very material
assistance from Mr. T. Beesley, F.C.S., of Banbury, and also
from Mr. H. E. Quilter, of Leicester, who has very kindly
placed a number of his fossils at my disposal. I wish also to
acknowledge the valuable information that has been at different
times given me by Mr. H. W. Sadler, resident engineer for
the new Eaton and Eastwell branches of the Great Northern
Kailway, as to the character of the rocks met with on those
lines; and also by Mr. W. Ingram, of Belvoir; Mr. H. A.
Allport, of Barnsley; Mr. B. Dalgliesli, of Holwell; and Mr.
E. E. Coke, of Nottingham, as to the history of the Leicester¬
shire ironstone industry.
List of Fossils from the Marlstone Bock of the
Leicestershire District.
Plantce.
Tilton.
Other
localities.
Fossil wood ...
...
X
X
Ech inocl erm a ta .
Pentacrinus ltevis, Mill.
• • •
X
,, sp.
...
X
X
Annelida.
Serpula quinquesulcata, Goldf.
...
X
Brachiopoda.
Bhynchonella tetraedra, Sow.
...
X
X
,, var. Northamptonensis xtop
acuta, var. bidens, Phil. ... x
THE LIAS MARLSTONE OF LEICESTERSHIRE.
157
Tilton.
Other
localities.
Terebratula punctata, Sow. ...
X
X
11 n
var. sub-punctata, Dav.
X
X
1 1 ’5
,, Eadstockensis, Dav.
X
11 11
,, Edwardsii, Dav. ...
X
X
1 1 11
,, Haversfieldensis, Dav.
Lamellibranchiata .
?
Cardinia concinna, Sow.
X
Monotis inaequivalvis, Sow. ...
X
X
Gresslya lunulata, Tate
X base
„ intermedia, Simpson
X base
Cardium truncation, Sow. ...
X
,, substriatulum d’Orb.
X
Leda complanada, Phil.
X
Ostrea, sp.
X
X
Plicatula spinosa, Sow.
X top
X
Placunopsis, sp.
X
Pleuromya, sp.
X base
Pecten dentatus, Sow.
X
,, aequivalvis, Sow.
X
X
,, prisons, Scliloth.
X
,, sublasvis, Pliill.
X
,, cingulatus, Goldf.
X
,, lunularis, Eom. (P. Liasinus Nyst.)...
X
X
,, textorius, Scliloth.
X
Hinnites abjectus, Phil.
X
,, tumidus, Zieten
X
Lima pectinoides, Sow.
X
X
Macrodon Buckmanni, Buck. ( = Arca elon-
gata, Quenstdt.) ...
X
X
Modiola scalprum, Sow.
X
X
Mytilus, sp.
X
Inoceramus substriatus, Goldf.
X
Unicardium subglobosum, Tate
X
Gasteropoda.
Ceritliium ferreum, Tate
X top
,, confusum, Tate ...
X top
X
,, reticulation
X
Actaeonina Ilminsterensis, Moore ...
•
X
Eucyclus Gaudryanus, d’Orb.
X top
Phasianella turbinata, Stoliczka
X top
X
Cryptasnia expansa, Sow.
X top
X
158
NOTES ON THE MYM ARID/E.
Tilton.
Other
localities.
Troclius ariel ... ... ...
x top
X
,, iEolus, d’Orb.
• • •
X
Turbo Brannoviensis, Dumort.
• • •
X
,, latilabrus, Stoliczka ...
...
X
Cephalopoda.
Nautilus tnuicatus, Sow.
X top
Ammonites spinatus, Brug. ...
xtop
X
,, communis, Sow. ...
X top
X
,, annulatus, Sow. ...
X top
,, margaritatus, De Montf.
xbase
,, Holandrei, D’Orb.
X top
,, serpentinus, Rein.
X top
,, Caecilia, Rein.
X top
,, acutus, Tate
X top
Belemnites paxillosus, Sclilotli.
... X
X
,, elongatus, Mill. ...
... X
X
,, clavatus, Sclilotli.
X
,, apicicurvatus, Blainville
... X
Pisces.
Sp. (?) — tooth
. . .
X
Reptilia.
Ichthyosaurus, sp. — vertebra
X
X
NOTES ON THE MYMARID2E.
BY F. ENOCK.
Iii the sixth volume of “ The Entomologist/' 1873, p. 498,
under the above heading, is the following remark by the late
Francis Walker: — “ The Mymaridae are more atom-like than
all the other Hymenoptera, and thus, in comparison with
them, are nearest on the surface of creation to spaceless
infinity.”
Many of these exquisitely beautiful “Fairy Flies” are
very common, and only want to be carefully looked for
to bring to light many new species, but unfortunately our
knowledge of the Mymaridae is far too small ; therefore the
difficulty of identifying our captures is very great. I should
not have been able to give these few notes had it not been for
NOTES ON THE MYMARIDiE
159
the kindness of Mr. Ed. Fitch, Hon. Secretary of the Entomo¬
logical Society, London, who named over a hundred and
fifty specimens of Mymaridae and other minute Hymenoptera
for me from the various German authors. I trust that ere
long some “native” will endeavour to give some account
with figures of the British MymaridEe, as no doubt there are
plenty of materials in our own country to form a very good
monograph.
The following is a copy of “ Foerster’s Synopsis,” which
has been very much simplified by an old friend, so that anyone
can easily ascertain to which genus any specimen belongs.
The numbers on the right refer to those on the left.
2.
5.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
MYMARLDiE.
f Tarsi 5- jointed
\ 4 ,, . . . . . .
f Abdomen distinctly petiolated . .
4 ,, sessile or nearly sessile (male)
l „ „ „ ,, (female)
/'Antennae of the male 10-jointed ; female, 9-jointed —
I Camptoptera
d Antennae of the male 13-jointed ; female, 11-jointed —
^ Ooctonus
Male.
Marginal branch extending to the middle of the costa —
Female.
J ?
n
2
8
3
4
6
Limacis
(
( Marginal branch not extending to the middle of the costa. . 5
f Antennae 13-iointed
I „ 10 „
Gonatocerus
Alaptus
. . Gonatocerus
. . Litus
f Antennae 11-jointed
4 „ 9
l „ 8
f Marginal branch extending to the middle of the costa —
I Limacis
| Marginal branch not extending to the middle of the costa —
V. Alaptus
f Club of the antennae with two joints . . . . . . . . 9
\ ,, ,, not jointed . . . . . . . . 10
( Marginal branch very long— Tarsi of the four hinder legs
J shorter than the tibiae . . . . . . . . Eustochus
| Marginal branch very short — Tarsi of the four hinder legs
longer than the tibiae . . * . . . . . . Doriclytus
J Abdomen distinctly petiolated . . . . . . . . . . 11
f ,, sessile or nearly sessile .. .. .. ..14
f Fore wings only widened at the tip . . . . Mvmar
( ,, ,, ,, throughout .. .. .. ..12
< Marginal branch punctiform . . . . . . Cosmocoma
1 ,, ., elongated .. .. .. .. ..13
ICO
NOTES ON THE MYMARID/E.
13.
( Metathorax with two keels, antennae of female 9-jointed —
I Caraphractus
| Metathorax not keeled, antennae of male 10- jointed ; female,
V 9-jointed . . . . . . . . . . Stichothrix
14.
' Antennae of the male 12-jointed; female, 9-jointed, marginal
branch elongated, somewhat thickened near the tip —
(Anaphes
Antennae of the male 13-jointed ; female, 9-jointed, marginal
branch linear, not thickened near the tip . . . Anagrus
My first acquaintance with the Mymaridae was made at
Holloway, London, where, in the garden, surrounded by the
usual “cats’ highway” (a four foot wall) I used to find
Anaphes and Anagrus tolerably plentiful on hot sunny days.
I have seen them flying, and have caught them in my hand ;
though more frequently they were entangled in the webs of
the Garden Spider, Epeira diadema, but far too small for that
individual to notice. It was in a very dirty web that I first
found the long-sought-for gem My mar pulchellus, so no one
living in town need despair of being able to find some of
the Mymaridae.
During the latter end of the summer of 1884 I obtained
a large number of various species, representing the following
genera, viz. : — Anaphes, Anagrus, Alaptus, Camptoptera,
Cosmocoma, Gonatocerus, Litus, Mymar, and Ooctonus. The
first to appear was Anaphes puncttim, which I found in June —
flying, on various shrubs, walking about window panes, besides
sweeping them from low herbage in fields and on banks.
This is one of the strongest built, its black colour enabling
it to be easily seen on windows, as it runs steadily up and
across until it meets with some obstacle, when it immediatly
hops oft* (I can scarcely call it flying) a short distance. The
delicate yellow Anagrus moves along in the most graceful
manner, its long fringed wings just sweeping the glass, and
when needful altering its direction by a most fairy-like turn
of its train ; when disturbed it quietly, and apparently with
some difficulty, disengages its wings one from the other, then
it takes a short flight, settling upon the glass again like a tiny
speck of dust.
Alaptus is the smallest, therefore the most difficult to see,
rendered still more so by its habit of not putting in an appear¬
ance until September, and seldom before half-past four or five
o’clock ; it has a most peculiar jerky gait, walking for about
an incli-and-a-lialf ; then off at an angle or back again for the
same distance.
Camptoptera too appears in September, and, like Alaptus,
seems to prefer the waning light of day before taking its
NOTES ON THE MYMARIDjE.
161
walks abroad on the panes of a greenhouse, which is one of
the best places to look for these “Fairy Flies, ” and I would
recommend some of those “ arm-chair collectors,” who
cannot possibly take so much exertion as is necessary to bend
their back or legs to run after an insect, to take their seat
at the end of the greenhouse, and if not too lazy to raise
their eyes they will, in the course of an hour or two, see
enough insect life on the glass to occupy their thoughts for a
long time. But I am wandering away from Camptoptera,
which is one of the most gracefully built of all the Mymarid®,
the head, thorax, and abdomen being beautifully shaped, the
wings too are arched in a line of beauty and grace with long-
fringes of hair or set® on the margins, and its step is indeed
light as a fairy.
Comnocoma contains some of the largest species of the
family, the wings paddle shaped with long set® especially
along the outer margin, and one, the name of which I am
unable to certify, has these long set® on both sides of the
upper wings as well as along the margins, thus resembling a
bottle brush. Gonatocerus and Ooctonus are about the plainest
fairies, but nevertheless beautiful.
Litas, when seen crawling up the glass, looks much like a
very minute flea ; it has a decidedly heavy body, but the
wings are very narrow and delicately fringed. I have left
My mar pulchellus until last, as it is one of the most extra¬
ordinary insects I have ever met with, the anterior wings are
almost the exact shape of a battledore or lawn tennis bat, the
posterior being but short bristles, with a few booklets which
hook into the groove in the anterior wings, and when this
insect is examined under the microscope we cannot help
being struck with the marvellous arrangement of this under
wing which so supports and “ties in” the long rib of the
anterior one, thus preventing it from unduly bending.
I have often been asked “ Where do you get these things
from,” and I can only add that they are to be found almost
everywhere if looked for ; since I have devoted some little
time to the study of them, I am almost afraid to tread upon
a lawn, knowing that each step taken crushes the life out of
many of these most marvellous atoms, for no doubt a great
many are parasitic upon the various dipterous and other
larv® feeding in the stems and upon grasses and other low
herbage, whilst others keep down the swarms of Aphides.
Still more wonderful, some of them search for the eggs of
Lepidoptera, which they pierce with their minute ovipositor,
then transmit one egg or more of their own, the young larv®
feeding upon the fluids contained in the butterfly’s egg until
NOTES ON THE MYMARIDjE.
162
they are full fed, when they assume the pupa state, and when
fully matured the perfect fly eats its way through the shell of
the butterfly’s egg, emerging into light and freedom.
Sir John Jlubbock mentions in the “ Linmean Trans¬
actions,” Vol. 24, p. 142, having found one species, which he
named Prestwichia aquatica, as using its wings to enable it to
swim under water. This one lays its eggs within those of a
dragon fly.
It is a curious fact that in most cases the females are far
more plentiful than the males, as the following list will prove,
taken from my journal for the past three years : —
Anagrus
Males.
. . 6
Females.
41
Anaphes
55
40
Mymar
1
4
Litus
0
12
Cosmocoma
2
5
Alaptus
3
24
Camptoptera . .
0
110
Gonatocerus
. . 5
10
Ooctonus
1
5
I cannot in any way account for the extraordinary differ¬
ence in Camptoptera ; in fact, I could not believe all were
females until I had most carefully counted the joints of the
antennae, and even the setae around the wings ; but I was
obliged to own I had never captured a male, though I searched
for them at all hours, in all sorts of places, and in all sorts of
weather. I never saw the ghost of one until Mr. Goocli, of
Eton, very kindly sent some specimens of Mymaridae for my
examination, amongst them two Camptoptera, one of which
was a male.
Beside the above representatives, I have two species which
I have utterly failed to identify as belonging to any of the
genera mentioned in “ Foerster’s Synopsis no doubt they
will prove additions to this most interesting family, many of
which do not measure more than one-fiftieth of an inch from
head to tail, and yet within this compass is contained the
complete organism of a perfect insect, almost too wonderful
for our minds to grasp.
“ Then sweet to muse upon his skill displayed,
(Infinite skill) in all that he has made !
To trace in Nature’s most minute design
The signature and stamp of pow’r divine,
Contrivance intricate, express’d with ease ;
Where unassisted sight no beauty sees,
The shapely limb and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point.
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,
His mighty work who speaks and it is done.
Th’ invisible in things scarce seen reveal’d,
To whom an atom is an ample field.” — Cowper.
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
163
THE PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE
MIDLANDS.
BY W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
(Continued from page 135.)
In tlie Orton boring even the Trias was absent, and the
Lower Lias reposed on a quartz-felsite which was penetrated
to a depth of seventy-four feet. This rock appears to me*
identical with the quartz-felsite of the Caldicote pit (Nuneaton).
Its position — twenty-five miles south-east of Cliarnwood —
shows a much greater extension of the line of upheaval
marked by the anticlinals of Cliarnwood and Hartsliill than
was previously known. At Rugby the boring was clearly in
a filled-up valley, for although several hundred feet of red
marls and sandstones were passed through (underlying an
equal thickness of Lias), yet the boring terminated in the
Upper Trias. A good supply of water was obtained, but it
was so salt as to be unfit for domestic use.
The Sapcote boring in South Leicestershire was com¬
menced in 1863. After passing through 540 feet of Triassie
marls and sandstones the boring tool reached indurated slialy
and slaty beds of a dark colour, much jointed, and dipping at
a very high angle; a total depth of 1,655 feet was obtained.
I believe these beds to represent part of the Stockingford
Shales, and therefore to be of Cambrian age. Mr. Boswortli,
by whom the Sapcote boring was executed, speaks of the
shales of the Stockingford cutting (at a time when the latter
wrere thought to be Coal-Measures), as “ similar to those at
Sapcote.” He also refers to the Sapcote cores as “ precisely
similar to those found at Evington.”
. The three borings next in order — those commencing in the
Rluetics and Lower Lias on the east side of the town of
Leicester — were executed between 1876 and 1880. At the first
boring, on the eastern foot of the Spinney Hills, a bed of running
sand was met with in the Trias at a depth of 750 feet, and the
difficulties were so great that the boring was abandoned at
this point. At the next attempt old rocks were reached at
a depth of 728 feet, and the boring was discontinued at 819
feet. The third boring, a mile further east, reached similar
strata at 836 feet, and ended at 1,002 feet. The bottom
rocks in these two bore-lioles were dark-blue, much jointed,
coarse, indurated shales or slates, just like what the Stocking¬
ford shales would be when unweathered. No fossils were
* I have examined the cores from most of the borings given in the
table.
104
PRE -CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
detected in them, but they may be assigned with much
probability to the Cambrian period. The Owtliorpe boring,
six or seven miles south of Nottingham, passed through sixty-
six feet of Lower Lias and Rliaetic beds, and 1,000 feet of the
Trias, below which the coal-measures were found.
At South Scarle, between Newark and Lincoln, the Trias
occurred in full force. The section here gives
Drift .
Feet.
. 10
Keuper Waterstones
Feet.
.... 244
Lower Lias .
. 65
Bunter Sandstone . .
.... 542
Rliostic Beds .
. 66
Permian Beds .
.... 519
Iveuper Marls .
. 573
Coal-Measures ? . . . .
.... 10
The pebble-beds of the Bunter were here entirely wanting.
At a depth of 2,019 feet deep red indurated marls with
nodules of haematite were found, which are believed to be
upper coal-measures.
Of borings east or west of the line which we have now
described, only two or three need be mentioned. On the east,
at Harwich, the Oault was found to rest — at a depth of
1,030 feet— upon dark slaty rocks, which the presence of a
Posidonia proved to be of Lower Carboniferous age.
On the west, two or three borings were put down in the
neighbourhood of Market Boswortli, in West Leicestershire,
between 1878 and 1880. These proved that the coal-measures
do not extend uninterruptedly beneath the new red marls as
was originally supposed. Indurated and jointed shales varying
in colour from red or purple to blue or grey (probably the
Stockingford Shales) were found and pierced to a considerable
depth without being bottomed. At Burford, near Oxford, a
considerable thickness of the Trias was found to rest upon
coal-measures, which were reached at a depth of 1,184 feet.
The cores brought up from these borings in many cases
show clearly the dip of the old rocks — usually at a considerable
angle, 30 degrees or more — but unfortunately we are unable
to determine from them the direction of the dip, for the cores
are of necessity moved and, perhaps, rotated many times
before they can be brought to the surface. By letting down a
compass which could be fixed to the top of the core, and then
fixing the direction of the needle by means of a stop, actuated
by an electric current, it would seem to be possible to find
out this important point.
It is most desirable that the borings which have been
made should be supplemented by others, put down at points
selected by a committee of those geologists who have
specially studied the subject. The expenses might be
defrayed partly by Government, partly by a rate (voluntary
or otherwise) levied upon the landowners of the district,
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
165
As the coal supply diminishes from the exhaustion of
the present proved areas, such experimental borings will
doubtless be undertaken.
Relations of the Post-Silurian strata to the Midland Axis. —
There is no evidence of the extension of the Old Bed Sandstone
to the east of the Severn. Whether it was formed in a lake,
or in a delta, it is probable that it was prefcty well confined
to the region where it is now exposed. The Carboniferous
rocks thin from north to south in the most marked manner
as they approach the Charnwood-Longmynd line. There is
a thin impure representative of the mountain limestone on
the north-west flank of Charnwood, but even this is absent
(together with the millstone grit) in Warwickshire and
Staffordshire. It is true that the Northampton borings
yielded fossils of this age, but they were from sandstones
and marls, the shallow water representatives of the grand
3,000 feet thick deep-sea limestone of Derbyshire.
The manner in which the South Staffordshire coal-
measures rise up and terminate against a sub-terrestrial ridge
of Silurian rocks on the south of Halesowen has already
been described.
Of the succeeding Permian strata, we find that in Notts,
the Magnesian Limestone (Lower Permian) decreases from
above 100 feet at Shireoaks to 30 feet at Bulwell ; showing
that as we pass southwards we are approaching its ancient
limit or shore-line, the region round Charnwood Forest.
Westward, in South Staffordshire and Shropshire, the
Permians are thicker, but they show every sign of the
presence of land immediately to the south during the time
of their formation. South of the line of the ancient axis
we get no indications of Permian strata ; they are wanting in
all the borings made in this direction, and they nowhere
occur at the surface.
The Tnassic Formation, above 3,000 feet thick in
Cheshire, and possibly of equal thickness in Yorkshire and
Durham, thins away steadily (the lower beds disappearing
first) to the south. The Bunter Pebble Beds barely reach to
Leicestershire ; their thickness decreasing from above 300
feet in Cannock Chase to a mere band of 10 feet in the
railway-cutting at Gresley in north-west Leicestershire, and
the borings further south show only a small thickness of the
“ red rocks,” and that of a littoral nature, between North¬
ampton and London. Between the Malvern and the Mendip
Hills the Bunter Beds (Lower Trias) are absent, and a thin
layer of the Keuper, evidently a shore deposit, rests on
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks.
166
PRE-CARBONIFER.OUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
The Jurassic System lias an uninterrupted outcrop from
Dorset to Yorkshire, crossing the old land, and probably
filling up one of its valleys, near Northampton. But neither
Liassic nor Oolitic strata have any eastward extension, for the
borings prove their absence, except in the most fragmentary
form, between Ware and Richmond.
Fragments of the P re- Carboniferous Floor contained in newer
rocks. — The Carboniferous strata of the Midlands contain but
few rock-fragments or pebbles of the formations upon which
they rest. This is not a matter of surprise when we remember
that the mountain limestone is a deep-water formation, whose
actual junction with its southern shore-line is nowhere ex¬
posed, although we approach within a hundred yards or so of
it at Gracedieu, on Charnwood Forest.*
The Millstone Grit of Stanton Harold and Ticknall
(N.W. Leicestershire) is only 200 feet thick, and contains a
quartzitie conglomerate. Much of the rock may be termed
“ arkose,” the cemented felspar and quartz crystals of which
it is composed having suffered very little wear.
The coal-measure shales must have been deposited in very
quiet waters — perhaps in the swamps and deltas of the many
mouths of a mighty river like the Amazon or the Mississippi.
No bare rocky ledges or abrupt sea-cliffs existed along the
shore-line to furnish shingle beaches, but monotonous Hats,
formed perchance by the Silurian shales.
In Leicestershire the Permians exist only as thin patches
of breccia, consisting of green slates, grits, quartzites, and
greenstones, some of which are polished and striated. The
so-called Permians of the Warwickshire coal-field I believe to
be largely upper coal-measures.
In Staffordshire the Permians of the Clent Hills are so
charged with rock-fragments that these heights were formerly
thought to consist of solid trappean rock. Near Nortlifield
the same strata are crowded with angular blocks of Silurian
limestone and sandstone, quartzite, &c., so that Prof. Jukes
(who surveyed the district) was compelled to the belief that
“ a boss, or peak, or ridge of the Silurian sandstone lies
concealed under the Permian rocks somewhere close by.”f
In Shropshire the Permian breccias of Alberbury west of
Shrewsbury, consisting of angular fragments of Silurian and
Lower Carboniferous rocks, are no less than 400 feet thick.
* The actual junction is here hidden by a patch of Triassic sand¬
stone, which rests unconformably on the edges of the Forest rocks and
the limestone.
f Geol. S. Staff. Coal-field, p. 9.
THE EAR AND HEARING.
167
But it is in the Trias that evidences of the proximity of
land become most numerous and most striking. Breccias
and pebble beds occur on two distinct horizons in the
Triassic series — (a) in the Bunter Conglomerate, and (b) in
the Keuper Basement Breccia.
( To be continued. )
THE EAR AND HEARING.
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
( Continued from page 123.)
In Animals partaking of the nature of two classes, the
ear is still a constant mark of difference. The Ornithorhynehus
and other Monotremata, for example, possess the columella
of a bird ; whilst the whale and other Cetacea have a peculiar
iclitliyic-mammalian ear. The whale, for example, would
seem to hear, as it were, backwards, for the eustacliian
tube opens into the blow-liole, and the external orifice is
nearly closed. The petrotympanic bone acts as a true
otolith, whilst the mammalian ossicula (small ear bones)
and tympanic membrane are also present. When, therefore,
the cetacean comes to the surface for air, it is able to hear
aerial vibrations through the medium of the eustacliian
tube, the while the otolithic ear 'is immersed, and cognisant
of aquatic sounds.
It is in the mammalian ear that we reach the highest
perfection. The external ear is now added (very motile
in the lower animals, and to some extent also in certain
men, especially savages), possessing a suite of muscles, and
every ap*pliance for the discrimination of the faintest sounds.
The cochlea, which we found commencing in reptiles, is
here very complex, enabling the mammal to distinguish
delicate shades of tone. The tympanic membrane is also
fully exposed to aerial vibrations, whilst the columella is
replaced by a chain of exquisite ossicles, connecting, as
the columella does in birds and reptiles, the tympanic mem¬
brane with the covering of the fenestra ovalis, which com¬
municates with the internal ear.
Taking the human as our type of the mammalian ear,
we may describe it as consisting of three parts — the external,
middle, and internal ear (or labyrinth).
The External Ear includes the visible part called the
Auricle or Pinna and the passage leading to the membrane of
the drum. The auricle consists of one piece of cartilage
having divisions scattered throughout it, and penetrating
168
THE EAR AND HEARING..
nearly through its thickness, thus giving to it great flexibility.
It is attached to and moved upon the head by three sets
of muscles — anterior (attrahens), superior ( attollens '), and
posterior ( retr aliens ). It possesses also several intrinsic
muscles, which in man are feeble and scarcely distinguishable,
seeming to be merely rudimental of those more highly
developed muscles found in the large ears of most quadru¬
peds, enabling them to alter the form and direction of the
auricle. The divisions of the Pinna are (1) the Helix, or
outer rim ; (2) the Anti-lielix, parallel with it ; (3) the
Concha, or deep depression which focusses and reflects sound
vibrations ; (4) the Notch, or lowest part of the concha ; (5)
the Tragus, on the cheek side of the notch ; (6) the Anti
Tragus; and (7) the Lobe, or soft pendulous part below the
notch. The canal ( Meatus Externus) opening to the Drum is
about an inch to an inch and a-half long — shortest in child¬
hood, when the inner or bony portion of the meatus is
wanting, being represented by a mere tympanic ring.
Its direction is curved, and slightly tortuous, convex
above, and oval in section. It is closed internally by the
nearly circular membrane of the drum, which is inclined
outwardly at an angle of about 45deg. with the floor of the
canal. The canal is lined in its external part with fine hairs,
and studded with ceruminous glands, most numerous about
the centre. These glands secrete the Cerumen or ear wax,
which serves partly for cleansing the passage, and partly
perhaps, by its intensely bitter taste, to keep out insects.
The Middle Ear or Tympanum is the irregular space
between the tympanic membrane and the internal ear. It
measures about Jin. from the membrana tympani to the
vestibule, and about Jin. in its other two diameters. The
tympanic membrane is fitted into a groove in a ring of bone,
which is said to assist in conveying to the membrane sound
vibrations communicated through the cranial bones. The
membrane is thin and semi-transparent, but consists of three
layers — an outer layer continuous with the cuticle of the
external meatus — an inner layer continuous with the mucous
membrane of the tympanum, and a middle layer of fibrous
tissue on which its strength depends; very elastic and con¬
taining blood vessels and nerves. Its fibres are chiefly
radial, but there appear to be a few circular ones near the
outer edge. The roof of the tympanum communicates
posteriorly with a number of air cavities (the mastoid cells
in the mastoid process of the temporal bone). In the floor
is the opening of the eustachian tube, a narrow canal about
an inch and a half long, enlarged at both ends, especially at
RORAIMA MOUNTAIN.
169
its nasal end, where it forms a trumpet-like dilatable open¬
ing on the side of the pharynx just behind and above the soft
palate (velum) and tonsil. The use of the tube is to preserve
an equilibrium between the air within and without the
tympanum, and to sweep away, by means of its cilia, the
mucus secreted in the cavity of the tympanum and by its own
walls. The outer air is constantly varying in density, and,
were the drum a closed chamber, the membrane would be
liable to strain from without with each increase in density of
the outer air, and from within with each decrease. The
sense of pain felt in the ears when going up in a balloon
or down in a diving bell, and sometimes also after vigorously
blowing the nose, is relieved by repeated swallowing, which
act dilates the pharyngeal end of the tube for the admission
of air from the mouth and nose, thereby equalising the
density of the tympanic and external air.
(To be continued.)
RORAIMA MOUNTAIN.*
BY W. P. MARSHALL.
Roraima is a remarkable mountain in South America that
has just been ascended for the first time by a special traveller
and botanist, who have obtained some very interesting results.
The mountain is in British Guiana, near the middle of the
northern coast of South America, about 200 miles distant
from the coast and close to the boundaries of Brazil on the
south, and Venezuela on the west. British Guiana is a state
about equal in size to England, containing several ranges of
mountains of moderate heights (about the height of those in
Great Britain) ; but one mountain, Roraima, the highest of
them, is 6,000 feet high, or half as high again as Ben Nevis,
our highest mountain. The country is tropical, being within
five degrees of the equator, and is a specially rich orchid
region ; the approach to the mountain is difficult, and is
described as “four days’ walking through a purely savannah
but most glorious country, and over splendid mountain passes,
leading to an inconceivably magnificent valley on the southern
slope of Roraima.”
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society.
170
RORAIMA MOUNTAIN.
The mountain is of a very singular and unique form ; the
base rises with a gradual slope all round of about 1,500 feet
height, and the mountain then suddenly shoots up with nearly
vertical cliffs several hundred feet high to the full height of
6,000 feet above the sea; these vertical cliffs extending all
round, and making the mountain exceptionally difficult of
ascent. The ascent has now been made by Mr. Everard F. Im
Tliurm, who was sent out jointly by the Royal Society and the
Royal Geographical Society, and was accompaied by Dr.
Siedel, a German orchid collector; this ascent of Roraima has
been a cherished object of botanical exploration in South
America for the last quarter of a century.
The ascent, though laborious, was not dangerous, but in
order to make the ascent of the latter steep portion, “the
travellers were compelled to climb trees and to leap from
rock to rock.” The top of the slope is described as “ a most
beautiful spot, a very garden of orchids and most beautiful
and strange plants,” and “ when they ultimately reached the
summit they were surprised to find that it consisted of a
broad plateau, twelve miles in length by four in breadth, on
which they discovered some forms of vegetation previously
unknown to science, and a vast number of fantastically-shaped
rocks.” Mr. Im Tliurm states — “ The vegetation on the
top was most wonderful, but somewhat scanty and quite
dwarf. I have, I believe, 800 to 400 species ; also some living
plants, including Heliampliora and three most exquisite
Utricularias, two of which are I fancy new.” It has hitherto
been assumed that the mountain was crowned with trees,
whereas they could find nothing of larger growth than shrubs
about three feet high. Another delusion which has also been
dissipated is that the loftier altitudes of Roraima sheltered
strange animals ; but these existed only in the imagination of
Indians, for, with the exception of a few butterflies, the
travellers saw no trace of animal life. All the explorers of
British Guiana refer to the cascades that abound on the sides
of the mountain ; and these, it appears, are fed from nume¬
rous pools of water on the top plateau, the view from which
is described as being of surpassing grandeur. Mr. Im Tliurm
by his achievement has added another page to the history of
successful geographical research, and has fully justified the
support he has received from the Royal Geographical Society.
He started on his exploration on 16th October last, made the
ascent of the mountain on December 3rd, and reached
George Town, the port of British Guiana, on his return
journey on January 31st.
MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
171
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
The Eighth Annual Meeting will be held at Birmingham on Tues¬
day and Wednesday, the 10th and 17tli June instant.
PROGRAMME FOR TUESDAY.
The Annual Meeting will be held in the Examination Hall, Mason
College, Birmingham, on Tuesday, June 16th, at 3.15 p.m., the
President of the Union (Mr. R. W. Chase) in the Chair. The business
of the Meeting will be to receive the Report of the Council and the
Treasurer’s Accounts ; to fix the place of the next Annual Meeting in
1886 ; to award the Darwin Medal for the year 1885 ; to consider any
suggestions that Members may offer ; to discuss the work of the
Union during the coming year ; and to transact all necessary business.
The President will open the Meeting with an Address.
Reception Room.— A Reception Room will be provided at the
Society’s Library, Mason College, for members of the Union and other
visitors, and letters may be addressed there. An arrival book will
lie on the table, and it is hoped that all visitors will enter their names
and temporary addresses in it, for the information of friends who may
desire to communicate with them. The same room will also serve as
a news room, and will be supplied with newspapers.
Conversazione. — A Conversazione will be held, by permission of
the Mayor (Aid. Martineau), in the Town Hall, Birmingham, on
Tuesday Evening, June 16th. There will be an Exhibition of
Objects of general Scientific Interest, Microscopy, various depart¬
ments of Natural History, Art, and Archaeology. Members of
Societies in the Union and friends willing to contribute specimens,
or to exhibit or lend microscopes, will oblige by at once communica¬
ting with Mr. J. Morley, Society’s Room, Mason College, Birmingham.
At intervals a selection of music will be performed upon the grand
organ by Mr. Stimpson. The charge for admission to the Conversa¬
zione will be 2s. 6d. Doors open at half-past seven. Morning Dress.
Carriages may be ordered for half-past ten. Tickets are now ready,
and can be obtained by members for themselves, and for friends not
members of the Union, through any of the Secretaries of the Societies
in the Union, or direct from Mr. J. Morley, Mason College, Bir¬
mingham.
PROGRAMME FOR WEDNESDAY.
Excursions. — On Wednesday, June 17th, there will be three Excur¬
sions, viz. : to Coventry and Kenilworth ; to Cannock Chase ; and to
The Lickey.
Coventry and Kenilworth. — The train will leave Birmingham (New
Street) at 9.40, arriving at Coventry at 10.11. The party will be met
at the station by Mr. W. G. Fretton, F.S.A., who will conduct the
members to the following places of interest in the city : Site of Cheyles-
more Manor House, Grey Friars Spire, now attached to Christ Church ;
all that remains of the Franciscan Monastery, Ford’s Hospital, a mag-
172
MEETING OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
nificent specimen of timber work; St. Michael’s Church, St. Mary’s
Hall, Holy Trinity Church, Remains of the Benedictine Priory and
Cathedral, Remains of City Walls and Gates, St. John’s Hospital, now
the Free Grammar School, Batlake Hospital, and St. John’s Church,
to Craven Arms Hotel to lunch at 12 o’clock.
Leave for Kenilworth in conveyances at 1 o’clock, via Stivichall,
Avenues of Oak, along the Warwick Road. Turn off at Gibbet Hill
for Stoneleigh, Ancient Church, Motslow Hill, the Abbey, and Thick-
tliorne Woods, to Kenilworth Castle. Mr. Fretton will describe the
ruins and conduct the party by way of the remains of the Priory and
the Parish Church, to the Station.
Leave Kenilworth at 5. 84 ; arrive in Birmingham at 6.10 ; Meat Tea
at Grand Hotel at 6.20. Tickets 12/- each, or without Meat Tea 10/-.
Cannock Chase. — The train will leave Birmingham (New Street
Station) at 9 20, arriving at Brownhills at 10 10 ; proceed by Cannock
Chase Colliery Company’s engine up their line of railway and visit
their collieries ; proceed to the Cannock and Rugeley Collieries, look
over the surface arrangements at Cannock Wood Pits, and those
persons who are so disposed can descend the various pits. Luncheon
will be provided at the Anglers’ Hotel, Hednesford, at 2 30. After
luncheon, visit the Cannock and Rugeley Company’s Pool Pits and
the Hednesford Canal Wharfs. Leave Hednesford Station at 4 55,
arriving in Birmingham at 6 15. Tickets, 8s. each. Meat tea at the
Grand Hotel, at 6 20. Tickets, 2s. 6d. each.
The Lower Lickey Hills. —For Geologists, Photographers,
Botanists, Ac. — Leave Snow Hill Station (Great Western) by 10 a.m.
train, arriving at Rubery 10 51. Examine coal measures and Upper
Silurian rocks in the Asylum Grounds, with the basement bed —
Llandovery Sandstone resting on an eroded surface of Quartzite.
Study the Quartzite in the grand section at the railway station
(Rubery), and in numerous fine sections between that point and Barnt
Green. Walk to Kendal End, where the Wenlock Limestone and
brecciated rocks are exposed, and trace the sequence down to the
Quartzite (which is of either Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian age) and to
the rocks which, at the southern end of the Lickey, lie beneath the
Quartzite — volcanic ashes unquestionably of Pre-Cambrian age. The
last-named strata are exposed in the brook-course near Kendal End.
Numerous fine boulders of Welsh felstone are scattered over this
region. Distance to be walked, about four or five miles. Return by
5 20 train (Midland) from Barnt Green, arriving in Birmingham
(New Street Station) at 6 p.m. ; Tea at the Grand Hotel at 6 20.
Tickets 5s. each, or 3s. without Meat Tea. A call will be made at the
“New Rose and Crown Inn,” where light refreshments may be
obtained.
Tickets must be applied for not later than Monday, June 15tli,
and may be procured from Mr. J. Morley or Mr. T. Bolton, Society’s
Room, Mason College, Birmingham, between twelve and three
o’clock, or by post.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. - NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. 173
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— April, 1885.
The barometer was rising at the commencement of the month, but
fell from the 3rd to the 6th, and thence rose gradually to the 19tli,
when it reached its highest point, 30-328 inches ; it again fell rather
rapidly to the 26th, and continued unsteady. Temperature was low
until the 17th, when the maximum was 64-7°, as against 43-9° the
previous day. The mean was about one degree below the average.
The highest readings were 7T5° on the 19th and 7T4° on the 21st at
Loughborough ; 71T° at Hodsock, on the 21st ; 70-0° at Henley-in-
Arden, on the 19th ; 69'9° at Coston Rectory, and 69-8° at Strellev, on
the 21st. These maxima are unusually high for the month of April.
In the rays of the sun, 126-7° was recorded at Hodsock and 123-9° at
Loughborough, on the 21st ; 123-6° at Strelley, on the 20th. The mini¬
mum readings were lower than usual : 20*7° at Hodsock and 22-0° at
Coston Rectory, on the 14th ; 23-0° at Henley-in-Arden and 23-6° at
Loughborough, on the 5th ; 27*0° at Strelley, on the 4tli and 5th. On the
grass, 15-0° at Hodsock, on the 4th ; 17*5° at Loughborough, on the
5th ; 17-7° at Strelley, on the 2nd. Rainfall was rather above the
average, the totals varying from 1-94 to 1-47 inches, and the number
of “ rainy days” from 16 to 13. The greatest fall was 056 inch,
which was the value at Loughborough and Henley-in-Arden on the 1st.
Sunshine was about the average. The wind was moderate in force
and of variable direction. A lunar halo was observed at Loughborough
on the evening of the 27th. The cuckoo was heard at the close of the
month. Swallows were seen at Henley-in-Arden on the 17th.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough. Wm. Bebridge, F.R. Met. Soc.
The Flora of the Lake District.— -We are pleased to be able to
announce that Messrs. Bell and Co. have just published “ A Flora of
the English Lake District,” by J. G. Baker, F.R.S., F.L.S. This very
excellent work contains a record of about fifty ferns and 850 flowering
plants, native of the Lake district ; together with about 100 recent
additions, and valuable introductory matter relative to citizenship, the
range and the type of distribution of the plants enumerated. There
is also a truly interesting Bibliography of the Lakeland district. The
eminent position as a botanist enjoyed by the author of this Flora
ensures its being an able and correct record of the botanical wealth of
one of the most classic and romantic districts in England, and will
ensure for it a wide circulation among all who are interested in the
study of British botany.
Sparrows versus Starlings. — The impudence of sparrows is
proverbial, but I do not remember to have noticed until lately
sparrows attending upon starlings that were collecting worms to
feed their young and when opportunity occurred seizing hold of the
worms and pulling them out of their beaks. It looked very ridiculous
to see a starling waddling along with its insecure gait, poking its
long bill here and there into the grass, and now and then a struggle
for the spoils. In one instance I noticed five sparrows following, and
the starling was fairly driven away. Sparrows peck away on the
♦lawn incessantly, but I was not aware that, they eat worms, as they do
not pull them up as robins do. I remember that some years ago there
was a controversy in the “ Zoologist ” as to whether starlings poked
their open beaks into the turf ; I agreed with my relative, the late
Edward Newman, that they did, and do not see any reason to change
174
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
my opinion. A thrush or a blackbird seizes hold of the worm and
pulls it out by leverage, but a starling pushes his bill into the ground
on either side of the worm and pulls it out or bites it off with one
effort. The quantity of worms I have noticed the starlings take to
their young is very great — backwards and forwards all day long.
I have not noticed sparrows attack blackbirds or thrushes when
collecting. — Wm. Southall.
ii r ports of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SCCILTY. — General Meeting, April 28tli. — The retiring President
(Mr. T. H. Waller, B.A., B.Sc.) read an address, which will appear in
extenso in the “ Midland Naturalist.” Mr. R. W. Chase exhibited a
male specimen of Somateria spectabilis , the King Eider, shot at the
Fame Islands, Northumberland. This bird is rarely seen in Great
Britain, its home being in the Arctic regions. Mr. A. Browetb
exhibited the common viper or adder, Vipera ferns , from Bourne¬
mouth, and a flower spike of Aponogeton distachyus. — General Meet¬
ing, May 5tli. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Volvox globator , with the
rotifer Notomata parisitica living inside it, and Phalansterium digi-
tatum, from King's Norton, an infusorian new to Great Britain.
— Biological Section, May 12tli. Mr. W. H. France in the chair.
— Mr.J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S., exhibited and described the follow¬
ing: — Taraxacum palustre, Cardamine amara, and Carex pnecox from
Arbury ; Nasturtium amphibium , Alisma lanceolatum from Griff ; mosses,
Didymodon fiexifolium, new to Warwickshire, from Atherstone ;
Eurhynchium striatum, E. piliferum, Tortula Icevipila, Hypnum chryso-
pliyllum, Fissidcns exilis, Campylopus pyriformis, and other mosses
from the Anker basin. Also a peculiar abnormal state of one of the
agarics, in which a group had been transformed or degenerated into a
mass of beautiful purple filamentous threads, found growing on a
block of wood in a drain in Buckingham Street. For Mr. J. T. Slatter,
of Evesham, the morrel, Morchella esculenta, one of the esculent fungi,
found near Redditch. Mr. T. Bolton, F.R.M.S., Volvox globator,
infested with the rotifer Notommata parasitica ; Rhinops vitrea, from
King’s Norton ; and Limnocodium Sowerbei, the fresh-water medusa. —
General Meeting, May 19. Mr. Waller exhibited a method of cleaning
No. 1 microscopic glass covers. Mr. Bolton exhibited Syncoryne frutescens,
the living hydrozoa, with the medusoid planoblasts attached and free.
Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., read a paper by Mr. Francis Fowke, F.R.M.S.,
on “The First Discovery of the Comma Bacillus of Cholera,” accom¬
panied by photographs, and a number of impressions of similar objects
from engravings on wood. Mr. Fowke claimed that two English doctors,
Messrs. Brittan and Swayne, had discovered the Bacillus of Cholera
during the epidemic of 1849, and figured it in a journal of that time.
Mr. Grove regretted that he was unable to agree with Mr. Fowke in
according to the English observers the right of priority. The sketches
given by them bear no indication of their scale, but, making a guess at
that from the other particulars given, it will be seen that they represent
objects much larger than the Bacillus; moreover, the drawings do not
in any case resemble the Bacillus, which never forms rings, and, when
septate, is widely different from the only figure they give in which the
septa are shown. — Sociological Section, May 7tli. The President, Mr.
W.R. Hughes, F.L.S., read Chapters IY. and V. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s
“ Study of Sociology,” viz., on the “ Difficulties of the Social Science ”
HEPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
175
and “ Objective Difficulties,” interspersed at intervals with valuable
disquisitions and instructive explanations, to which all present
contributed. May 21. Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., in the chair.
Miss Naden ably read and expounded Chapters XI. and XII. “ Direct
equilibration” and “Indirect equilibration” of the 3rd part of Mr.
Herbert Spencer’s “Principles of Biology.” A very interesting dis¬
cussion on the mauy intricate biological problems introduced, followed
the paper, in which the President, Dr. Hiepe, Mr. W. H. France, Mr.
F. A. Walton, and Miss Naden took part.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — April 20tli. Mr. J. W. Neville showed various specimens
of helices from Spain ; Mr. Madison, a singularly distorted specimen
of Glausilia rugosa from Hamstead ; Mr. Deakin, a pair of Emperor
Moths and eggs of the same. Under the microscope, Mr. Moore
exhibited stomach, malpighian tubes, Ac., of Pulex irritans ; Mr.
J. W. Neville, Volvox globator, A paper' was then read on practical
microscopy, “Mounting in Glycerine,” by Mr. H. Insley, which
described the advantages of glycerine as a mounting medium more
particularly for botanical objects, and also some of the difficulties
attending the use of glycerine jelly and Deane’s gelatine. The process
of preparation was then shown and the mode of securely sealing the
cover glass described. — April 27tli. Mr. Tylar exhibited specimens
of silver ore from Utah ; Mr. Madison, a collection of caddis cases
typical of the district ; Mr. Hawkes, specimens of a fungus Peziza
cyathoidea. Under the microscope, Mr. Moore showed lancet and
suctorial organ of Pulex irritans ; Mr. J. W. Neville, palate of Nassa
reticulata. — May 4tli. Mr. Moore exhibited specimens of Paludina
contecta, and Helix rotundata var. alba, the latter from Great Barr ;
Mr. Hawkes, the following fungi : — Puccinia Saxif rag arum ,
P. JEgopodii, and AEcidium ranunculacearum. Under the microscope,
Mr. Dunn showed eggs of cypris ; Mr. J. W. Neville, mouth organs of
mosquito ; Mr. Hawkes, slides of entomostraca, desmids, and diatoms
from the digestive organs of small fish. — May lltli. Mr. Madison
showed a number of distorted specimens of Limncea peregra from near
King’s Norton. Under the microscope, Mr. Moore, hair of white mole ;
Mr. Beale, eggs of Gobius niger, with advanced embryo ; Mr. Hawkes,
the buttercup mite, Brgobia haustor. — May 18tli ; Special — Geology.
A large collection of carboniferous fossils was placed upon the table,
made by the members in the Bentley district during an excursion on
the previous Saturday afternoon. Mr. Insley showed polished
specimens of Favosites gothlandica , and a slab of Lower Lias containing
fish remains, the latter from Lyme Regis ; Mr. Madison, large
specimens of Unio tumulus, and some varieties of Anodonta anatina ;
Mr. Hopkins, a white variety of Limncea stagnalis from Barnt Green.
Under the microscopes, Mr. Moore showed sections of Devonshire
corals; Mr. J. W. Neville, section of lleliolites interstinetus ; Mr.
Hawkes, Draparnaldia tenuis.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
— Monthly Meeting, Wednesday, May 20th. Attendance, ten (one
lady). Election of officers for the ensuing year: Chairman, F. T.
Mott; Hon. Secretary, C. W. Cooper, M.D., in the place of Mr. J. H.
Garnar, who desired to resign, to the great regret of the Section, by
whom his valuable services for the past two years were much appre¬
ciated. The Chairman reported that at the Field Day on the previous
17G
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Wednesday five members went to Kirby Muxloe, examining the ruins
of the castle and surrounding district, and two others visited Syston
for the purpose of procuring a number of specimens of Petasites vul¬
garis. At Kirby were found Lilium martagon , Polygonum Bistorta ,
Vinca minor , Myosotis collina, Ac., growing in various parts of the old
inclosure and about the ruined walls ; several of them perhaps relics
of a garden all traces of which are now lost under a uniform green
turf. Rooted in the foundations of what was once a wall, and hanging
far over the weedy moat, was a large bush of Cornus mascula , with a
stem three or four inches in diameter, and the branches loaded with
the curious umbels of young fruit. This shrub is not a native of Britain,
but was introduced from Europe about three hundred years ago, and
is described and figured by Parkinson in his “ Theatrum Botanicum,”
published in 1640. This also is probably a descendant of what was
planted long ago as a choice novelty. On the banks of the moat were
Lunularia vulgaris , Neckera complanata, Barbula fallax, and other
hepaticae and mosses. The party who went to Syston brought back
a number of flower-spikes of Petasites, all of which proved to be the
sub-male form. The sub-female, however, which is said to be com¬
paratively rare, has been found in several districts of the county.
The Evening Meeting was devoted to the exhibition of specimens and
to general discussion ; there was no paper. The following objects
were exhibited : — By Dr. Finch, several admirable slides of the Bacilli
of Anthrax and Tuberculosis, mounted by Dr. Buck, and well shown
by Mr. Garnar, with a power of about eight hundred ; by Mr. E. F.
Cooper, F.L.S., slides of the male and female flowers of Petasites
vulgaris, and a specimen of the rare Lamium intermedium, new to this
county; by Mr. W. A. Yice, fruits of Liriodendron , Catalpa, Juglans
nigra, Laurus Sassafras, Platanus, &c. ; a bunch of the remarkable
epiphyte, Tillandsia usneoidea, from the West Indies, looking like a
mass of tangled twine ; two kinds of American oak-galls, one a single
cell, the other an aggregate of cells ; and specimen plates of Mr. F. W.
Kirby’s new Text Book of Entomology, published by Swan Sonnen-
scliein and Co., which was particularly interesting to the members,
Mr. Kirby being a Leicester man ; by Mr. W. E. Grundy, capsules of
the cotton plant, Gossypium ; ripe fruit of the castor oil plant, Ricinus
communis ; and well mounted slides of the peristome of Milium hornum,
and several algae ; by the Chairman, fresh flowers of the curious
umbellifer, Dondia Epipactis ; the summer snow-flake, Leucojum
(Bstivum; and the wild cowslip grown in good garden soil, showing the
large clusters of flowers and the tendency to proliferous growth which
is a common effect of cultivation on this plant ; dried specimens of
the large common sea weeds Fucus vesiculosus, serratus, and nodosus ;
Laminaria saccharina and digitata; also of Polysiphonia fastigiata,
showing under the microscope the peculiar and elegant structure of
this genus ; and the floating gulf weeds Sargassum vulgare and bacci-
ferum; also a series of marine shells, Oliva, Conus, Murex , Trochus ,
Cerithium, Cyprcea, Ac., showing the characters which distinguish
mature from young shells, the marks indicating periods of growth,
the peculiar nature of porceilanous shells, and the difference between
the entire mouth of the herbivorous species and the canaliculated
mouth of the carnivorous ones. The Society having decided to apply
under the new rules of the British Association for recognition as a
Corresponding Society, the Chairman urged upon the members of
the section the necessity of earnest work, especially upon local
zoology and botany, in order to maintain the position and reputation
of the Society.
president’s address.
177
MIDLAND UNION OF NATUEAL HISTOEY SOCIETIES.
ANNUAL MEETING AT BIRMINGHAM,
JUNE 16th, 1885.
ADDRESS BY MR. R. W. CHASE, PRESIDENT OF THE UNION.
At the annual meeting of the Midland Union of Natural
History Societies it is the not unpleasing duty of the President
to deliver an address. Considering the somewhat festive
character of onr annual reunion, an abstrusely scientific
paper would probably be unwelcome to the majority of my
hearers. Indeed, I would ask you not to expect a learned
discourse from me, for I have had no scientific training
which would fit me to deliver one, and there are many present
who are, I am sure, better qualified to give an address than
to learn anything from me.
I have taken up only one branch of Natural History, viz. :
Ornithology, and that entirely in the position of an amateur.
The principal reason why I have chosen that especial branch
is, that birds seem to attract one’s notice more than any
other members of the animal kingdom, frequenting, as they
do, all the haunts of man. To this science I will ask your
attention for a short time ; but before enlarging upon it I
should like to make a few remarks upon the work done by the
Union.
In looking through the list of those Societies forming the
Midland Union, and considering the large number of members
composing the same, amongst whom will be found many well
known as votaries of Natural Science, I am astonished that
such a considerable amount of individual labour should be
undertaken — which I know to be the case — and that yet the
result in the aggregate should be so small.
I think it would be an advantage if at the annual meeting
of the Union a special line of study or research could be
decided on, so that the accumulated knowledge might be
published : a course which would greatly benefit future
students. No doubt the chief drawback to a plan of this
kind is the jealousy which frequently exists between students
of the same subject, and prevents them from working har¬
moniously together ; but this rivalry, if properly exercised,
would cause healthy emulation and consequently greater
efficiency.
178
president’s address.
I also wish to call attention to what may be aptly
termed economic natural history — I mean the study of such
creatures as are injurious to agriculture — with a view to work
out their life history, and if possible to point out the best
method of preventing their depredations ; to distinguish the
n on-injurious from the injurious kinds, and so to prevent the
sacrifice of many innocent victims to popular ignorance or
prejudice. A good work of this description is being done by
Miss Ormerod on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society,
and I feel sure that many of our county Natural History
Societies might follow in her footsteps, both to the advantage
of the farmer and to the credit of the society.
The compilation of local lists of the fauna and flora ought
to be undertaken by the different societies in their respective
districts and published under their auspices. Such lists
would form valuable works of reference, and be of incalcu¬
lable use in future years. Should such work be decided upon
no delay ought to take place, as in all probability many of
our animals and plants which are still to be found in locali¬
ties suitable to their respective habits will in a short time
become extinct. This is especially true of many of our rarer
ferns, which in some districts could be found growing plenti¬
fully a few years back, but are now only conspicuous by their
absence, which is principally due to the depredation of tourists
and exchange clubs. I remember a spot in Hants where
Osmunda regalis grew so plentifully that the labourers used to
cut the fronds for litter ; but owing to the demand for speci¬
mens the place is now cleared.
I think the amalgamated societies might well raise their
protest against such proceedings, and I feel confident that
unanimous action on their part would have a satisfactory
result.
The principal utility of Natural History Societies, in my
opinion, is the finding of employment for the leisure hours of
those who are engaged in commercial or other pursuits. In
this way the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical
Society has been of great service to me. The recreation to
which membership of such a society leads is not only
deeply interesting and instructive, but practically affords tlie
greatest amount of rest, inasmuch as different muscles are
called into play, while the mind is differently occupied.
This change of function produces a great feeling of rest, far
greater than that which results from sitting in an armchair,
doing nothing, which to me is a state of semi- torture ; and
it is from this point of view that I have taken up Ornithology
as my hobby.
PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
179
I have confined myself chiefly to the study of British birds,
because I think a man ought to be thoroughly conversant with
the Natural History of his own country before undertaking
that of foreign lands, as a resident has a much better oppor¬
tunity of studying the life history of any species than he
possibly can have when travelling through a strange country.
The Bibliography of Ornithology is most voluminous, hut
the majority of works are simply compilations from previous
authors, and in many instances multiply their errors. I
trace the cause of this to the fact that it is impossible for
one man to personally investigate the life of all the species
of which he gives an account ; therefore I strongly advocate
the publication of monographs instead of works comprising
all orders of birds. The beautiful woodcuts of Bewick gave
a great impetus to the study of Ornithology, and the reason
why his drawings caused such admiration was that in most
cases the drawings were made from life instead of from
stuffed specimens, which had been the case in most of the
previous works. Since the days of Bewick the art of litho¬
graphy has been brought to a great state of perfection, and
now that we have works illustrated like Gould’s, or Sharpe
and Dresser’s, little is left to be desired. The only improve¬
ment I could suggest would he the illustration of the inter¬
mediate stages and young birds, instead of the finest adult
specimens that can he conceived, which are well known,
whereas many birds of the year, or those undergoing partial
change of plumage, are little known or appreciated ; indeed
I have known instances where such birds have been thrown
away as not worth preserving, because not adult, though in
my opinion such specimens are actually more interesting.
Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” — of which a fourth edition
is now being published — with McGillivray’s accurate and
observant work, will be found sufficient to give a student a
very fair knowledge of our native avi-fauna.
As there are two ways in which Ornithology can be
studied I may consider it under two distinct headings,
Indoors and Out-of-doors. No doubt a man sitting comfort¬
ably in his laboratory can, by the examination of dried skins,
specimens in spirits, or the anatomical structure and the
formation of the digestive organs of birds, obtain a large
amount oi knowledge, and with some degree of certainty
assign each individual species to its proper family and genus,
whatever system of classification he may be following, until
he imagines that he has discovered the natural affinity, and
forthwith publishes a new system, making confusion more
confused, forgetting that there is a marked difference between
180
PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
affinity and analogy, the one being a natural, the other only
an artificial arrangement and liable to error, as in Nature all
things are perfect in my opinion. This method also leads to
multiplication of synonymous names and cannot be too
deeply deplored.
I have occupied many hours in studying the Morphology
and Physiology of Birds and know of few more beautiful
things than the skeleton of a bird, combining as it does
strength and lightness with perfect adaptability for the
purpose it was designed.
The digestive organs have provided me with a large
amount of interesting study, varying as they do in a consider¬
able manner according to the food upon which the bird
subsists. The examination of these organs will also show
the exact substances which the bird was feeding upon. Only
this last week I received from Norfolk two specimens of
Circus cineraceus whose maws wrere full of the egg shells of
various birds, and from the one, an egg of Emberiza scham-
iclus was taken out unbroken, proving clearly that this species
swallows eggs whole. I make a point of preserving the
contents of the stomachs in spirits when this is possible,
and I find that even in closely allied species their food will
often differ slightly.
This style of studying Ornithology may satisfy some
people, but I felt that a great deal more knowledge and
pleasure was to be obtained by investigating the life history
and habits of our native birds as they are displayed in their
natural habitats and in a living state. To do this necessitates
some exertion and a considerable amount of time, because
many of the breeding haunts of our most interesting species
are situated in wild spots difficult of approach, but which
when visited amply repay the enthusiast. Anyone exploring
the Bass Bock would learn more of the natural history of
Sulci bcissana in one hour than he would acquire from all the
books he might read in a lifetime.
In order to become thoroughly conversaut with the natural
history of a bird you ought to know its habits, the manner in
which it forms its nest, the situation in which it builds, and
the localities which it frequents. These points are far more
interesting to me than any classification, which I look upon
as merely an assistance to memory.
One of the most interesting spots that I know for an
ornithological visit is the Fame Islands, off the coast of
Northumberland ; you will find the various islands composing
that group tenanted by their respective species in wTell-
regulated colonies, and the manner in which they are
PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
181
governed might give some useful hints to our political
economists. The following species will be found breeding
upon these islands, which I have had the pleasure of visiting-
more than once : — Upon the wide opens Eider Ducks breed in
considerable numbers ; with care you can approach within a
few teet of the old ducks upon their nests, which they do not
leave providing you keep still and make no sudden movements.
In a small patch of nettles I should think there were quite
ten or more nests. The males of this species undergo a
considerable change of plumage before attaining the lovely
dress of the adult. That rare bird, the King Eider, Somateria
spcctabilis, has been obtained on these islands twice, once in
1873, and again in this present year. This last bird is in my
collection. I saw an example of this species two years ago,
whether the same bird as the one I now have it is impossible
to say.
The Arctic and Common Terns also breed plentifully upon
the same island, the first named choosing the bare shingle
just above high water mark, the latter preferring the top of
the cliff amongst the short grass and sea campion. On the
Knoxes will be found a colony of Sandwich Terns, which lay
their eggs upon the bare sand, and you have to walk carefully
not to crush the eggs, so closely are they placed together.
I thought I never had seen a more beautiful sight when I saw
these birds sitting on their eggs early one morning, but as
soon as they were aware of my presence they rose in a flock,
uttering their shrill cry.
The lovely Boseate Tern also occurs in small numbers, but
has no separate breeding station as far as I know.
Puffins and Lesser Black-Backed Gulls, Oyster Catchers,
and Bing Dotterels also breed on many of the islands. The
Pinnacles, three detached rocks which stand a little way from
the island of that name, are a charming sight when the
summits are covered with Guillemots, amongst which a few
Bingeyes are occasionally discernible, whilst the jutting points
of the rock lower down are appropriated by the Kittiwake Gulls
for their nests.
Perhaps the most striking spectacle is the Cormorant
colony on the Megstone Bock, where the nests are placed on
the summit in close proximity to each other, formed of coarse
seaweed, some being two feet in height. I have a lively
recollection of this breeding station ; upon my first visit,
after climbing to the top, my foot slipped and I fell down
into the odoriferous refuse surrounding these nests. It was
some time before I could think of or imagine anything else
but Cormorants.
182
president’s address.
I was so struck with the beauty of bird life of these
islands that I induced Mr. Green, of Berwick, to photograph
the various colonies, with the birds on their nests, which he
has done most successfully, and copies of the series no doubt
he would supply upon application. I certainly claim the
credit of originating the idea of photographing the birds in
their breeding haunts at the Fames. Since then Mr. Green
has visited the Bass Rock, and has taken a splendid series of
pictures of the Gannet.
The Broads of Norfolk are also well worth a visit. There
you will find that fast-disappearing little bird Panurus biar-
micus, the Bearded Tit ; the large reed beds in that county
forming its last strongholds. In May last year I had the
opportunity of seeing this species breeding upon one Broad.
It is rather particular in choosing the spot exactly suitable to
its requirements, and to a. casual observer many of the Broads
seem equally suitable ; but as this species breeds early in the
year, before the reed has grown to any height, they choose
the outlying skirts of the reed beds where last year’s growth
has not been cut, and place their nest close to the ground,
amongst but not attached to the reed stems. The marshmen
rob the nests time after time ; the Tits at once nest again,
and instances have been known where the birds have died
upon the nest from sheer exhaustion — in fact, have laid them¬
selves to death ; even when the birds are allowed to rear a
clutch, instead of eight or nine fine young birds hatched early
in spring, only three or five are reared, and that so late that
the young ones are hardly able to care for themselves before
the cold weather sets in. During this same visit I also saw a
flock of Ruffs ( Tringa pugncuc) , which were associated with
some Redshanks upon one of the marshes. I only saw one
with his ruff fully developed, which was of rich black colour.
Wild Ducks, Redshanks, and Lapwings breed plentifully in
most of the fens ; also a few nests of the Water Rail can be
found m almost inaccessible places amongst the thick sedge.
The rarest nest I found was that of the Garganey Teal
( Querquedula circia). The old bird flew from the nest almost
under the feet of one of my companions, and the temptation
being too strong, I pulled the trigger, and the Teal fell
wounded. My friend, in his excitement to secure the speci¬
men, went nearly up to his middle in a blind dyke. On Ormsby
Broad the Great Crested Grebes ( Podiceps crista tus ) are very
abundant. I counted over twenty in sight at one time.
The Scotch moors are well worthy of a visit, and you
will find quite a distinctive class of birds in these wild and
rugged districts. Some time ago, through the courtesy of
183
president’s address.
the owner of a large shooting tract in Perthshire, I had the
opportunity of seeing that splendid bird the Capercailzie
( Tetrao urogaUus), breeding on the summit of the pine-clad
mountains. Accompanied by the keepers as guides, I arrived
nearly at the top of the mountain, and before long had the
pleasure of seeing a nest of this species, which was placed
at the foot of a large pine, with a few dried leaves and sticks,
simply an apology for a nest, and containing eight eggs.
After a further search, I saw a tine male fly from a tree.
He went with his head stretched out and tail slightly raised.
Soon after a female rose, but I did not get a good view, and
did not succeed in discovering her nest.
On the moors, of course, Red Grouse (. Lagopus scoticus)
are predominant, but Common Sandpipers ( Tringoides hgpo-
leums) will be found breeding on the loch sides, also Curlews
and Golden Plover. I took a nest of young, in down, of this
last species, and more beautiful little creatures in their black
and gold livery I never saw. The keeper and myself were
watching a pair of old birds, when I heard “ peep,” “ peep,”
close to me. Of course I at once instituted a search, and
soon found one of the little fellows, and in a short time
secured two more. They had run from the nest, and then
crouched under a piece of heather or against a lichen-covered
stone, trusting that their colour, assimilating with the sur¬
roundings, would prove a protection, but their voices and
bright eyes betrayed their whereabouts.
There is a very interesting place a few miles from Towyn,
called Craig-y-diren or Bird Rock, where some Cormorants
for years past have taken up their abode during the breeding
season, leaving again in autumn, and when we come to
consider that this rock must be about six miles in a straight
line from the sea, some idea can be formed as to the labour en¬
tailed upon the parent birds to feed a numerous family of young
cormorants when their voracious appetites are considered.
In the Cader Idris range, Ravens, Buzzards, and Peregrine
Falcons still continue to hold their own against the perse¬
cutions of gamekeepers and shepherds.
A visit to any of the places I have just sketched would
teach more to a student than years of book- work, because in
the first place Nature herself is his teacher, and secondly what
he sees is so impressed upon his memory through being
associated with many pleasant episodes that he never forgets
such knowledge in after years.
One of the specialities of my collection (and every student
must necessarily become a collector in his special branch of
study, as he requires examples for examination and reference)
184
president’s address.
is tlie maimer in which my specimens are mounted. If a
purely scientific arrangement is wished for, a collection should
be formed entirely of skins, as being more convenient for
examination and requiring less space to store. The stuffed
abortions in the majority of our museums cannot give a
student the slightest idea of what the bird is in life ; rows
upon rows of these mummies are placed upon turned stands,
all of one pattern ; and whether the bird in life would
frequent rocks, trees, sea coast, or marshes, it matters not ;
they are all placed in like circumstances in the glass cases.
In my collection I have endeavoured to reproduce as far as
possible the natural habitat of each species, employing surround¬
ings to denote the locality which the species would frequent.
Moreover I have shewn the life-history from the young to the
adult where possible, and thanks to the improvement of late
years in taxidermal art, birds can be made to look perfectly
natural, lacking only vitality, which it is impossible to give.
Many collectors I know consider that the bird ought to
be the most conspicuous object in the case without any
surroundings, as in their opinion they detract from the
specimen itself, but I hold that a collection of skins, which
I mentioned before, is preferable to specimens mounted in
this style. Of course I am well aware that the surroundings
can be overdone ; the bird itself should be of the first import¬
ance, but if judicious treatment of the accessories be shown,
they rather add to than detract from the appearance of the
bird. I shall exhibit in the Town Hall this evening some of
cases representing the class of work and system I am
endeavouring to carry out.
Many of the auxiliaries in the mounting of the specimens,
such as sand, shingle, grasses, &c., also rocks and stones from
which the models have been taken, were procured from the
same spots as the birds themselves.
I am happy to say that a portion of our national collec¬
tion, under the care of Mr. R. B. Sharpe, F.Z.S., is being
mounted in a somewhat similar manner. Probably many
here present have had the pleasure of viewing these new
cases in the galleries of South Kensington.
It may be thought by some that our immediate district is
rather a poor locality in which to study Ornithology, but if
I had time to read over some of my notes, I think the
number of species of birds to be found in the neighbourhood
of Birmingham would astonish my hearers ; but this only
goes to prove what I have long contended, that it is not
objects and specimens in any locality that are deficient, but
Natural History students to discover them.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
185
Natural History. I venture to say in conclusion, is one of
the most rational hobbies a man can take up ; it brings him
in direct contact and communication with Nature ; it improves
his health and elevates his mind, and, whatever branch he
may undertake to study, he will find that honest work never
fails of its reward.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
Part I.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.C.S., F.G.S.
( Continued from page 152.)
Bed “K.”
This bed is a sandy clay or shale, highly micaceous,
varying in colour from grey to light reddish brown, according
to the amount of weathering it has undergone. At Chalcomb
the joints and surfaces are red, and there is a thin line of
small concretionary ferruginous nodules. The light-coloured
specimens do not effervesce with acids, and the grey ones
only slightly. The material of the bed seems very pervious
to water, and when it is wet it readily crumbles down, In
consequence of these properties most of the fossils are only
casts, and they are preserved with difficulty unless the
material is dry when they are extracted, but they are
rather abundant. The thickness of this bed appears to be
about Gf't. At Chalcomb it measures 5ft. 7in., Staverton,
5ft. 9in. The fossils in this bed so nearly agree with those in
the two beds above it that I have not thought it necessary to
give separate lists.
Bed “ J.”
This bed differs very little in appearance and fossils from
the two softer beds between which it occurs. It is yellowish
brown in colour, micaceous, and ferruginous where I have
found it, and when specimens of it are placed side by side
with others from the beds immediately above and below it
they are scarcely distinguishable without an appeal to the
hardness. The hardness appears to be due to carbonate of
lime, at least there is no other evident cause for it. Although
this bed is so nearly like the two between which it is placed,
and is probably not persistent over any large area, I have
found it useful in giving an idea of the development of the
Middle Lias beds, where the softer beds are covered up — on
186
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
the grassy slopes of a railway bank, for instance. The
thickness of this bed is about 2ft. at Staverton, and nearly
3ft. at Watford.
Bed “ I.”
The number of sections in which this bed can be seen is
very limited, but it appears to be almost exactly like the bed
“ K.” I have only been able to actually measure it at one
place, Staverton, and there it has a thickness of 4ft.
List of Fossils from Beds “ K,” “ J,” “ I.”
Ammonites margaritatus... Clialcomb, Milton, Newnliam.
Belemnites . Milton.
Ostrea submargaritacea — Clialcomb.
Ostrea sportella . Milton.
Ostrea cymbium . Milton.
Pecten cequivalvis . Clialcomb, Milton.
Pecten liasinus (small) ... Clialcomb, Staverton, Watford,
Newnliam.
Limea acuticosta . Clialcomb, Staverton, Watford,
Newnliam.
Plicatula spinosa . Milton (abundant).
Avicula inaiquivalvis . Clialcomb, Milton (abundant).
Modiola subcancellata (?) .. Clialcomb.
Modiola numismalis (?) _ Clialcomb.
Protocard turn truncatum .. Clialcomb, Milton, Staverton, Wat¬
ford.
Cardinia antiqua . Milton (abundant).
Astarte striato- sulcata . Clialcomb.
Pholadomya ambiyun . Clialcomb, Newnliam.
Area liasina . Clialcomb, Watford.
Arcomga hispid a . Clialcomb.
Unicardium globosum . Clialcomb.
Pleuromya eostata . Milton, Clialcomb.
Pleuromya granata (?) . Milton.
Fncrinite stems . Milton, Staverton.
Fucoid markings . Staverton, Watford.
Bed “ II.”
The general character of this bed is that of a soft red
sandstone abounding in fossils. It appears to be micaceous
and calcareous in some places and not in others ; also it
varies considerably in the amount of iron it contains, and
in the relative abundance of certain fossils. The bed may
be best examined at Byfield, Staverton, and near Daventrv.
At Byfield it is 3ft. Bin. in thickness, and is a homogeneous
red sandstone containing two or three species of Pholadomya
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
187
in abundance, together with a fair number of specimens of
Protocardium truncatum and Pleuromya costata. At Staverton
it is almost an ironstone, and somewhat cellular in structure ;
Pholadomyas are not so common, but Protocardium truncatum
more so. I believe the latter fossil is more common in this
bed than in any other bed of the Middle Lias of Northampton¬
shire. It is found in masses — somewhat like Rhynchonella
tetrahedra in the Rock bed — at certain places. Thickness at
Staverton, 2ft. 9in.
Fossils.
Ammonites margciritatus... Byfield.
Ostrea cymbium . Staverton.
Pectcn liasinus . Byfield.
Limea acuticosta . Byfield.
Avicula inaquivalvis . Byfield, Staverton.
Area elongata . Staverton.
Modiola numismalis . Byfield.
Protocardium truncatum ... Byfield, Staverton, &c.
Cardita multicostata . Staverton, Byfield.
Pholadomya ambigua . By field, Staverton.
Pholadomya Simpsoni . Byfield.
Pholadomya ohtusalis . Byfield.
Pleuromya costata . Byfield, Staverton.
Arcomya concinna (?) . Staverton.
Ceromya petricosa . Byfield.
Goniomya heteropleura _ Byfield.
Isocarclia liassicci (?) . Byfield.
Pentacrinite stems . Staverton.
Wood, and cavities left by
stems of plants . Byfield, Staverton.
Calc spar — a little . Byfield.
Bed “ G.”
This bed is a micaceous sandy clay or marl, of a dark blue
colour when first exposed, but getting much lighter coloured
on exposure ; it appears to contain fewer fossils than any of
the beds below it. There was a very good exposure of it near
to Byfield during the making of the East and West Junction
Railway, where it was found to measure 6ft. 2in. It may be
seen at Staverton , but it is so situated that I have not been
able to measure it. It is probably between 6ft. and 7ft. in
thickness near Northampton. I have found no fossils in this
bed that are not also in the beds both above and below it.
Bed “ F.”
A soft, sandy, ferruginous limestone, generally slialy, and
very fossiliferous, some parts being made up of comminuted
188
A SUCCESSFUL POND HUNT.
shells. The fossils in this bed are better preserved than in
any of the beds at present described, except “ L.” Ammonite s
maryaritatus and Pleuromya costata are particularly abundant
at Byfield. The best places for examining it are near to
Byfield and Watford respectively. At each of these places it
has a thickness of about 8ft.
Fossils.
Ammonites maryaritatus ... Byfield.
Ammoni tes m ary a ) ita ti is ,
var. snbnodosus . Byfield.
Belem, nit es . By field, Watford.
Chemnitzia ( [sp . ?) . Watford.
Turbo aciculus . Byfield.
Ostrea cymbium . Byfield, Watford, &c.
Ostrea sportella . Byfield .
Pecten ccquivalvis . Byfield, Watford.
Pecten liasinus . By field, Watford.
Limea acuticosta . Byfield, Watford.
Plicatula spinosa . Byfield, Watford.
Avicula ineequiralris . Byfield.
Pinna (sp.1?) . Byfield.
Inoceramus substriatus _ Byfield.
Modiola numismalis . Byfield.
Protocardium truncatum ... Byfield, Watford.
Cucullcca transversa . Byfield.
Unicar dium ylobosum . Byfield.
Astarte striato-sulcata . Watford.
Cardita multicostata . Byfield, Watford.
Pholadomya ambiyua . Byfield, Watford.
Pleuromya costata . Byfield, Watford.
Pleuromya (sp. ?) . Byfield.
A r corny a h ispida . By field .
Cardinia Icevis . Watford.
Serpula . Byfield, Watford.
(To be continued.)
A SUCCESSFUL POND HUNT.
BY THOMAS BOLTON, F.R.M.S.
On Saturday afternoon, May 2nd, the President of the
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society took
me to a small farm at King’s Norton “ pondemeering,” as a
friend of mine calls it ; nearly every field on the farm con¬
tained a small pool or marl-pit, and I think it may interest
your readers to give an account of my collections.
A SUCCESSFUL POND HUNT
180
In the first pool I saw at a glance that there was a
promise (afterwards confirmed) of Spirogyra in conjugation,
which I wanted for a botanical class. The water was also
full of Entomostraca, watermites, and beetles.
The second pool we visited was thick with Vole ox r/lobator,
amongst which were plenty of Diaptomus castor and the
larvae of Corethm plwnicornis, the glass-larva, which latter
wonderfully transparent larva, with its curious kidney-shaped
air-vessels in its chest and tail by which it floats horizontally,
was abundantly found in nearly all the pools.
From the last and one of the largest pools I was glad to
pull out some transparent Nitella, which proved to be Nitella
Jiexilis, not, I think, previously recorded for Worcestershire.
I could see that it was nicely covered with various living-
animals, and the first dip from this pool showed that the
water was thick with countless numbers of the Infusorian,
Peridinium tabulation. I then threw in my drag and pulled
out some of the Potamogeton, which I found to be bristling
with the universal favourite of microscopists, the wonderful
building Rotifer, Melicerta rimjens.
I was well pleased with my visit, and could see with my
pocket lens that there were many free Rotifers and Infusoria,
too small to identify without the more powerful table micro¬
scope ; so when I called at my studio on my return to deposit
my collections I took a hasty glance at the Nitella, and soon
found amongst a host of interesting organisms a beautiful
Floscularia longicaiulata , which was discovered near Aberdeen
for the first time by Mr. Hood in 1871 (see “ Royal Micro¬
scopical Society’s Journal,” 1878), and which has not
previously been recorded in England. I could with pleasure
have studied this little bit of Nitella, and the inhabitants that
clothed it, for hours, but it was so late that I was obliged to
defer further examination of it. On Monday I was pleased
to find an Infusorian I had not seen before, Phalansterium
i lajitatum , which Mr. Saville Kent reports in his Manual of
the Infusoria as not having been discovered in Great Britain ;
his description and figure were copied from the German
publication of Stein. The small zoophyte trough in which
I have discovered this has remained unchanged in the
Society’s library ever since, forming a diminutive aquarium,
and a good part of the organisms enumerated below I have
seen in this small portion of my gathering.
As we were walking round, the gentleman holding the
farm told us the cattle in the neighbourhood suffered from the
fluke, so I at once looked for the water snails, which usually
form the intermediate host, giving out the Cercaria which
190
A SUCCESSFUL POND HUNT.
the sheep or cattle devour with the grass. I did not find a
single specimen then, but have since found in a pool on a
neighbouring farm an abundance of Limnaia stagnalis, with
quantities of that same Cercaria which I have shown before
as parasites of this snail, and of which I have given a sketch
in my Portfolio, No. 6.
At the time I issued that sketch I was under the impres¬
sion that this was the Cercaria of the sheep fluke, Fasciola
hepatica, but Mr. A. P. Thomas, in his exhaustive account of
the life-history of this parasite in the “ Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science” (January, 18S8), states that that
species cannot exist in Limncca stagnalis, and that its usual
host is a much smaller species, Limncca truncatula.
On comparison of my sketch with Mr. Thomas's figures
they will be found to differ, I think, sufficiently to suggest
that this is another species, and it would be well if some one
would work out its life history, as it is quite possible that the
Cercaria from Limncca stagnalis may be the larval form of the
fluke of the cattle.
LIST OF ORGANISMS COLLECTED.
Nitella fiexilis (in fructifica¬
tion).
Spirogyra (in conjugation).
Bulbocliaete.
Yolvox globator.
Uroglena AMlvox.
Phalansterium digitatum.
Vorticelke (various).
Carcliesium polypinum.
Epistylis grandis.
Stentor coeruleus.
Cotliurnia imberbis.
Vaginicola tincta.
Tlmricola valvata.
Platycola decumbens.
Peridinium tabulatum.
Amphileptus meleagris.
Clnetogaster diaplianus.
Nais - ?
ROTIFER A.
Cluetonotus larus.
Floscularia cornuta.
F. longicaudata.
Stephanoceros Eichhornii.
Melicerta ringens.
Cephalosiphon limnias.
Notommata parasita.
Rhinops vitrea.
Triarthra longiseta.
Mastigocerca carinata.
Metopidia acuminata.
Euchlanis triquetra.
Salpina mucronata.
Rotifer macrurus.
Philodina megalotrocha.
Tardigrada.
Plumatella repens (emerging
from the statoblast).
Morchella semilibera, DC. — This somewhat rare fungus was
gathered at Eaton Constantine, near Shrewsbury, by Mr. W. E.
Beckwith, in the beginning of May last. This is the first record of
its occurrence in Shropshire. — W. Phillips, Shrewsbury.
PENNATULIDA.
191
PENNATULIDA.
MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS AND THE MODE OF AUTOMATIC
SECTION-CUTTING AND MOUNTING.*
BY W. P. MARSHALL, M.I.C.E.
The preparation of the objects for section- cutting by
hardening, staining, and imbedding is the same as usual ;
the special points to be described are the method of cutting
the sections and of mounting them.
The sections are cut by an automatic machine, which
performs the operation with great rapidity, as many as 100
sections being cut per minute, and with such absolute
uniformity and regularity that the successive sections as
they are cut adhere together by their edges, following close
after one another, so as actually to form a continuous ribbon
of one or two feet in length. This ribbon is then divided
into about 2J inch lengths, suitable for mounting on the
ordinary three inch glass slides, three separate rows of the
sections being often got upon a single slide. The special
practical advantage arises from this, that the very large
number of these sections, each only T(footh or ^ooth inch
thickness, that are required to make up a complete object,
can be all conveniently contained upon only a few slides ;
also all these sections are retained strictly in their correct
consecutive order for proper examination of the structure of
the object. In the case of the Funiculina slides now exhi¬
bited, there are as many as fifty separate sections on a single
slide, and the total number of 270 sections that is required
to complete the set of sections of a single polype from one
extremity to the other is contained upon only six slides.
The process of preparing an object for section-cutting is
first to harden or toughen it sufficiently to stand the subse¬
quent imbedding without distortion or displacement, and
then to imbed the object in paraffin for giving firm support
to it during the operation of cutting the sections.
The object is taken from the ninety per cent, alcohol in
which it had been previously kept, and in which it can be
safely kept any length of time till wanted for preparing, and
is then hardened by soaking in a weak solution of picric
acid or chromic acid, the strength of acid and time of soaking
being varied according to the delicacy of the object. The
object is then transferred to absolute alcohol for getting rid
of all traces of water, and at this stage it is in most cases
stained by hematoxylin or other reagents for the purpose of
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History ancl Micro¬
scopical Society. Read at a Meeting of the Society. April 21st., 1885.
192
PENNATULIDA.
distinguishing clearly the transparent tissues in the sections.
In the case of the Funiculina and Pennatula polypes, which
both contain a number of hard calcareous spicules, these
have also to be decalcified before the sections can be cut, by
soaking the object in very dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid
for a week or fortnight ; a very gradual process being desirable
in order to avoid any evolution of gas in the tissue that might
cause some rupture or displacement.
The object is then imbedded in paraffin in a small paper
trough or mould, not larger than enough to insure a margin
of paraffin of not less than J,h inch on all sides beyond the
object. Some melted paraffin is poured into the mould, the
object is laid centrally upon this, and the mould filled up
with melted paraffin ; the whole is then exposed to a uniform
temperature of 130° or 140° Fahr. in a soaking chamber of a
water-oven for a whole day, for the purpose of getting the
paraffin thoroughly to permeate the tissues of the object.
This is a point of special importance, as it is requisite to have
the whole like a thoroughly solid block of paraffin in order to
obtain sound unbroken sections. Also it is necessary to
employ paraffin of the exact degree of hardness and stiffness
according to the temperature of the room in which the section¬
cutting is to be done, that will give sections tough enough
not to break, and soft enough to stick together at their edges,
without being so soft as to stick to the razor, which is used
quite dry and clean. This point is obtained by selecting the
paraffin from several different qualities, which can be obtained
having melting points at different temperatures, and varying
the selection according to the seasons of the year and
circumstances of the room. This plan is found, with a little
practice, to yield the most satisfactory results, the material
being homogeneous, and working better in the cutting than
any mixture of oil or other material with the paraffin to
modify its hardness.
A holder is then made for the object whilst being cut, by
a small brass tube as a mould, closed at the bottom with a
cork, and filled with melted paraffin, into which, when set,
the little paraffin block containing the object is fixed by
making a central cavity with a hot wire, and bedding it in
solid by melting the paraffin around it with the hot wire,
leaving the little block projecting partly at the top. The
projection is pared away carefully until the imbedded object
is seen to be near the surface, and the sides are pared away
into a square form with parallel sides, leaving only such a
margin at the sides beyond the object as is found by experience
to supply sufficient strength to the sections to hold together
when cut, without incumbering them with any superfluous
PENNATULIDA
198
quantity of paraffin. It is important for the sides to be cut
parallel in order to get the successive sections to stick together
properly for forming a continuous ribbon.
The razor blade by which the sections are cut is in the
machine made a fixture, and the object to be cut is moved to
and fro against the blade ; instead of the object being stationary
and the blade moved, as in section-cutting by hand. The use
of this is to obtain a continuous unbroken series of sections
forming a continuous ribbon, which passes across the blade,
and is received upon a travelling band that moves forward
at the same rate as the sections are cut, standing still during
the return motion of the sliding block that carries the object
back in preparation for the next cut. The object holder is
supported by a screw of fine pitch which has a ratchet wheel
fixed upon its head, and in each return stroke of the sliding
block this ratchet wheel meets a catch which turns it round
one or more teeth, according to the desired adjustment, and
thus advances the screw to raise the object the thickness of
the next cut. This can be adjusted so that the thickness of
each section is uniformly 01‘ 2oWh inch, or other¬
wise as may be desired. The driving wheel is either turned by
hand, or it can be driven by power by means of a band round
the circumference of the wheel. It is readily driven by hand
at the rate of 100 sections cut per minute, and can be driven
by power at a higher rate without difficulty, and the quick
motion is advantageous to the perfect condition of the sections.
For the mounting of the sections, the glass slide is first
covered with a thin film of collodion, mixed with an equal
quantity of oil of cloves, which is dropped on the slide and
levelled by a needle held fiat across the slide, and stroked
down its whole length. The ribbon of sections is cut into
lengths to suit the slide, and the pieces dropped on to the
slide, guided by a needle, in two or three rows, according to
the width of the sections, and they adhere firmly upon the
collodion film. The slide is then exposed to a uniform heat
of 180° to 140° Falir. for half a day to soften the paraffin and
make it readily soluble in turpentine, and the whole slide is
then dipped endways into a bottle of turpentine, by which the
paraffin is all dissolved oft’ at once, if properly softened. The
slide is then mounted direct in balsam, by dropping on some
balsam diluted with turpentine, and applying either a single
cover glass of the whole length, or two or more square cover
glasses to make up the required length. The sections remain
quite fixed on the slide in the positions they were originally
placed upon the collodion film, and there is no danger of any
displacement or injury in the subsequent processes of the
mounting.
194
PRE- CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
THE PRE-CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE
MIDLANDS.
BiT W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S.
( Continued from page 167.)
The Bunter Conglomerate. — This great accumulation of
more or less rounded blocks of rock can be traced across the
North Midlands from Worcester, by Bridgnorth, Stourbridge,
Cannock Chase, Sutton Park, and Lichfield, to near Aslibourn
and Derby. In a north-easterly direction it becomes a pebbly
sandstone at Nottingham and in Sherwood Forest ; but
further north, near Selby, the pebbles disappear altogether,
and in the borings through the Trias at Scarle, and near
Middlesbro’, none were met with. The same change takes
place in the west, for the pebbles in the Bunter round Liver¬
pool are small and few, while in the Carlisle district the lower
Trias is not represented at all. In any case its only possible
representative— the Kirklinton sandstone * — is quite devoid
of pebbles.
The base of the Bunter Conglomerate is a breccia, sixty
feet thick near Kidderminster, and well exposed at Bridg¬
north and Kinver Edge. It consists of more or less angular
fragments of grits, quartz, quartzite, sandstone, slate, and
limestone. Above this we find from 100 to 300 feet of
well-rounded pebbles, principally quartzites, although speci¬
mens of vein -quartz, chert, hard sandstones, mountain
limestone, and traps and ashes, are present. Owing to the
earth-movements in which the bed, as a whole, has taken
part, the pebbles have been crushed against one another, so
that they bear indentations which appear as white spots upon
their surfaces. By the action of surface agents — principally
ice during the last glacial period — immense numbers of the
Bunter pebbles have been carried southward from the outcrop,
and can be traced as far as the brow of the Thames vallev.
The Trias has generally been regarded as an uninteresting
set of rocks, owing to the almost total absence of fossils in its
red marls and sandstones. This paucity of traces of life is
usually assigned to the mode of its formation — deposited in a
salt lake or lakes comparable with the Dead Sea or Lake
Utah at the present day. But the pebbles of the Bunter
contain numerous fossils, and if we are ever to know much
of the source and mode of formation of this very remarkable
and interesting conglomerate it must be by a close study of
* See T. Y. Holmes, Q.J.G.S., Yol. XXXVII., p. 286.
PRE- CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS. 195
these fossils, aided by a careful examination of the rock
fragments which contain and accompany them. Such a
study has only recently been possible, so that but scanty
results have as yet been obtained.
Fossils in Bunter Pebbles. — The lowest horizon to which
any of the fossils as yet discovered in the Bunter belong is
(according to Mr. Thos. Davidson, to whom I am much
indebted for his identification of the species) the equivalent of
the Arenig Beds, which form the quartzite of the Stiper Stones
west of the Longmynd, and are present in Brittany as a very
similar rock — the Gres Armoricain. This Lower Silurian form¬
ation has yielded numerous pebbles of quartzite and indurated
sandstone to the Midland Bunter, which can be identified
by the presence of the fine bracliiopod Lingula Lesueuri *
and such lamellibranclis as Modiolopsis* , Palcearca (which is
found in situ in the Arenigs near Norbury), and Lyrodesma.
Next in order of time we find representatives of the
Caradoc and Bala Beds, including Orthis B-udleighensis *
which occurs more frequently than any other species ; 0.
Pulpy ana, 0 . e-legantula , (K unguis, O.biforata, 0. calligraminap'
and Leptcena sericea. Shells of the genera Pterinea* Cteno-
donta, and Cleidophorus may also be referred to this period,
and remains of a crinoid — probably Glyptocrinus b a sal is A
From the Upper Llandovery Beds we get sandstone pebbles
(identical in character with the rock which fringes the eastern
side of the Lickey) containing internal casts of Stricklandinia
lirata* and the coral Petraia binaA
Although no Devonian strata crop out in the Midlands,
yet we find quartzose sandstones of this age — proved to be
Devonian by the fossils they contain — in the Bunter.
The commonest Devonian fossil is Spiv if era Yerneuilii, with
which we get Rhynchonella daleidensis, H. Valpyana, B. elliptical
B. Thebaulti, Orthis laticosta, 0. Monnieri, Strophomena
Fdgelliana, and Streptorhynchus crenistria.* Worm-burrows,
belonging to Trachyderma serrataf &c., are very common
in the quartzite pebbles, but I have never found any other
fossil in the same pebble. Fragmentary remains of other
fossils, as a Theca, the trilobites Phacops * and Homalonotus,
and fucoids, are not rare, but they are usually too imperfect
for specific determination.
Of the above fossils 1 have found those marked with an
asterisk both in the drift-gravels round Birmingham and in
the Bunter Beds of Sutton Park. That the entire suite is to
be found in the Bunter I have no doubt, but I have not had
a good opportunity of collecting from that deposit, while the
quartzite pebbles of the gravels are largely excavated and
19G
PRE-OARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
broken up for road-mending near my liouse. Several of the
species named above have also been collected by Prof. Bonney
from the Bunter of Cannock Chase, by the Rev. P. B. Brodie
from the Drift at Rowington, by Messrs. Jennings and
Shipman from the Bunter of Nottingham, by Mr. A. H.
Atkins from the pebble-beds of Ivinver Edge, and by Mr.
F. T. S. Hongliton from the Drift near Moseley. Many
years ago Mr. S. Gr. Perceval collected diligently from the
drift at Harborne and at Moseley, suburbs of Birmingham.
Mr. W. Molyneux has obtained from the Bunter of
Cannock twenty species of fossils belonging to the May Hill
Sandstone, and twenty-two species in pebbles of Mountain
Limestone. A more exhaustive examination of the Bunter
pebble-beds along their course from west to east is much to
be desired, and is a work well worthy of the best energies of
those who live near places where this formation is wTell
exposed. The conditions of search will be most favourable
in pits where the pebbles are broken up for road-metal, and
the services of the workmen should be enlisted in the search.
Not only should the fossiliferous pebbles be collected, but as
complete a set as possible of the rock-varieties represented
slioukl be secured.
The Kenner Pebble Bed. — In the Midlands, there is an
unconformity between the Bunter and the Keuper, and the
latter formation is ushered in — locally — by a breccia which
resembles that found at the base of the Bunter. It contains
numerous angular quartzite pebbles, and its extreme thickness
is forty feet. In the Alton and Peckforton Hills this Keuper
breccia is repeated by strike-faults, and so forms tw7o or three
ridges parallel to one another. No thorough examination of
the pebbles has yet been made, a task which local geologists
might well undertake.
The Pebble Bed of Budleitjh Salterton. — In looking else¬
where for an analogy to the Bunter Conglomerate of the
Midlands our attention is at once arrested by the remarkable
accumulation of quartzite pebbles which form a bed eighty
feet thick in the Tnassic cliffs at Budleigh Salterton, near
Exmouth, in Devonshire. In a beautiful monograph on the
fossil brachiopods obtained from this locality, Mr. Davidson
has described * twelve species from the Arenigs ; eight from
the Caradoc ; and thirt3r-tliree from the Lower Devonian
formation ; about thirty other species of fossils belonging to
these formations have been found at Budleigh, by Messrs.
Wyatt-Edgell, W. Linford, W. Vicary, and others.
* Volume of tlie Faloeontographical Society for 1881.
PEE- CARBONIFEROUS FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
107
It will be seen that in lithological character and palaeon¬
tological contents the resemblance to the Midland Bnnter is
very close. Of the nineteen species of bracliiopods found
near Birmingham, eight are known from Budleigh Salterton ;
and the accompanying fossils are also very similar. From
general considerations the Devonshire geologists have been
led to assign the rocks from which the Budleigh pebbles were
derived to a position somewhere in the English Channel, but
it seems to me quite possible that they may have come from
the north-east ; the ancient Midland land barrier — isthmus
like — yielding a supply of rock-fragments (though not
necessarily contemporaneously), both to the north and to the
south.
At a later period — early in Tertiary times — the Oldhaven
Beds of Kent and Surrey show a mass of flint pebbles
(derived from the chalk) with which, in a sandy matrix,
are many contemporaneous marine fossils.
At the present day the famous Cliesil Beach of Dorset,
the Caliore Beach near Wexford, and the similar beaches
which fringe Lake Superior afford instances of vast accumu¬
lations of well-rolled pebbles produced by the action of
currents and tides, aided by the configuration of the land.
Underground Extension of the Pre- Carboniferous Rocks. —
It goes without saying that the isolated outcrops of Lauren -
tian, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks, which we have described
as occurring between Chain wood and the Mai veins, must
be connected underground by a continuation of the strata.
Of the presence and position of these pre- carboniferous rocks
we have had evidence afforded by several borings. In the
first place it seems pretty clear that these three great
geological formations were once continuous over the Midland
area, and that where the Cambrians are absent, and we come
upon Silurian, or where both Cambrian and Silurian strata
are wanting, and the borehole enters the Arcliaeans, it is
because one or both of the newer formations has been
removed by denudation in post- Silurian times. Secondly,
there is an absence of rocks of tlie type of the Old Bed
Sandstone. Strata belonging to the coeval Devonians have,
however, been reached in the borings at Turnford, and
in London, and it is probable that these include a band of
quartzite, from which the fossiliferous pebbles that occur in
the Midland Bunter, with such Devonian species as Sp infer a
Verneuihi, have been derived. Thus the first appearance of
the Midland Axis, or land barrier, was probably during
Devonian times, and this land had its southern margin
somewhere along the Charnwood-Malvern line.
198
PRE-CARB0N1FER0US FLOOR OF THE MIDLANDS.
During the Carboniferous era the existence of land in
Mid-England is demonstrated by the absence of the mountain
limestone and millstone grit. The northern margin of the
axis probably consisted of Silurian shales.
In Permian and Triassic times bolder cliffs and hills
furnished the breccias and pebble-beds of the Permian and
Bunter ; while the continued existence of the ridge during
the Jurassic epoch is shown by the manner in which the
Liassic and Oolitic strata thin as they approach it, and by
the pebbles contained in the Lower Greensand, &c. Finally,
the old land disappeared beneath the waters of the cretaceous
ocean.
Keeping these facts in mind we can apply them to discover
the probable nature of the rocks to be found beneath the
Mesozoic strata of the Midlands. Borings through these
Mesozoic rocks are likely to be undertaken for two objects
only
(a) In search of Water.
(b) In search of Coal.
The Bunter sands and pebble-beds form the main source
of underground water supply of the Midlands, and the towns
of Leicester, Northampton, &c., have hoped to derive from
them a supply comparable with that obtained at Birmingham,
Stourbridge, &c. But as we go south and south-east we
approach the ancient land barrier, and the Lower Trias thins
away and disappears ; so that the Bunter is all but absent in
Leicestershire, amLentirely absent in Northamptonshire.
As respects the probable occurrence of seams of coal, a
similar change must be taken into account. The present
southern boundary of the coal fields of Warwickshire,
Leicestershire, and Staffordshire nearly represents the
ancient termination of the swamps on which the coal
plants grew ; and the region between the Hartsh ill- Malvern
line on the north, and the Thames Valley on the south,
includes an area in which buried coal fields are not likely
to be found.
The Bittern in Sutton Park. — It is perhaps scarcely necessary to
warn the naturalists of the Midlands against believing in the occur¬
rence of the Bittern in Sutton Park without further evidence than
that afforded by Mr. Bath (p. 107). Mr. Bath will now, I think, allow
that his statements were founded upon a regrettable mistake. The
so-called Black Tern (p. 108) also may have been another bird, and the
mistake in the identification of the animal called a Pine Marten (p. 109)
is so obvious as to need only to be pointed out. — W. B. Grove, B.A.
THE EAR AND HEARING.
199
THE EAR AND HEARING.
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
( Continued from 169,)
The walls of the tympanic cavity are bony, lined with
mucous membrane, and ciliated. The inner wall contains two
orifices leading into the internal ear, and closed by a membrane
somewhat similar to the tympanic. The larger of these open¬
ings (the fenestra oralis) is oval, the smaller (the fenestra
rotunda) is round. We may, perhaps, explain the use of these
openings by noting that in passing from air to water directly,
sonorous vibrations are greatly weakened, but that the interpo¬
sition of a tense membrane between the two media greatly
intensifies the vibrations. Crossing the tympanum is a chain
of very small bones — the Malleus is attached by its slender
end, or handle, to the tympanic membrane, — the Incus — a
bicuspid tooth-shaped bone, rests by its body on the head of
the malleus, whilst the longer of its two fang-like processes is
articulated by a round tubercle, by some called the orbicular
bone , with the Stapes which covers with its base the fenestra
ovalis. These beautiful little bones have synovial membranes
and capsular ligaments at their articulations, as in the case of
the other perfect joints of the body, and are covered by
mucous membrane reflected from the tympanic walls. Any
vibration which, passing up the outer canal, affects the tym¬
panic membrane, is conveyed with great intensity through
these bones to the fenestra ovalis, the membrane of which is
thus strongly agitated. The movements of the tympanic
membrane cause the long processes of the malleus and incus
to swing like a pendulum upon the axis furnished by the short
processes of these two bones.
Two distinct theories are offered as to the route
which the sonorous vibrations follow — 1. That they pass
through the ossicles merely, causing both molar and
molecular vibration ; and 2, That the air in the drum is set
vibrating by the outer membrane. The considerations guiding
our preference are (a) the drum is not a perfectly closed cham¬
ber, and any vibrations excited in its contained air would be
liable to escape by the eustacliian tube ; (b) its internal sur¬
face is constantly moist, but moisture tends to deaden vibra¬
tion ; (c) the bones form a complete link across the drum,
and it is well known that solids conduct vibrations more
rapidly and forcibly than fluids ; (d) they are covered with a
200
THE EAR AND HEARING.
moist membrane which, by being a bad conductor of vibra¬
tions, tends to prevent the vibrations passing through them
being weakened by diffusion, and (e) in the internal ear there
are six separate canals, with five of which the fenestra ovalis
communicates, and, being covered by the stapes, air vibrations
would be obstructed in their passage to the labyrinth through
it, whilst the fenestra rotunda, which is exposed, communicates
only with one of the internal canals. Hence the vibrations
would seem to be transmitted through the bones, partly by
their molecular, but chiefly by their absolute movement. The
theory of mixed transmission through the co-operation of air
and bones seems untenable, inasmuch as vibrations travel
through them with different velocities. Edouard Weber
thought the fenestra rotunda, by means of its elastic covering,
acts as an adjunct to the fenestra ovalis, facilitating the
approximation and removal of the stapes from the labyrinth,
by its alternate compensating movements towards and from
the tympanic cavity.
The Labyrinth (the essential part of the organ of hearing)
consists of a small bony chamber, called the vestibule, three
semicircular canals (two vertical and one horizontal), and a
structure called, from its resemblance to a small shell, the
cochlea, all hollowed out of the hardest (petrous) part of the
temporal bone.
The Vestibule is a small irregular chamber about the size
of a grain of barley. Leading from it are the five openings of
the three semicircular canals (three in the posterior and
lower, and two in the superior horn) — several openings in
its inner wall for the entrance of the auditory nerve filaments,
— the fenestra ovalis in its outer wall, — the opening leading to
the cochlea in its inferior and anterior wall — and in its posterior
wall an opening called the aqueductus vestibuli, with uncertain
contents and office. The vestibule contains two distinct
membranous bags — the larger, oval in shape, called the common
utricle , from which spring the three membranous canals lining
the bony semicircular canals ; the smaller bag somewhat
globular (hence called the sacculus hemisphericus). — It com¬
municates with the middle chamber of the cochlea (the
Scala Media). The membranous labyrinth contains a watery
fluid called endolymph, whilst it is separated from the bony
labyrinth by a similar fluid called the perilymph. These
fluids contain small particles, composed of carbonate and
phosphate of lime, to which their discoverer, Brescliet, gave
the name of otoconia (ear-dust). Branches of the auditory
nerve enter the utricle and semicircular canals and are thus
affected by any vibrations which occur in the contained fluids,
THE EAR AND HEARING.
201
the effect being intensified by tlie bombardment of tlie
otoconia, found chiefly in the vestibule, and by the peculiar
arrangement found at the orifices of tlie semicircular canals,
which have a diameter of about jjfc inch. Where these join
the vestibule they dilate into three ampullae. On the inner
walls of these ampullae are found a number of minute hair-like
filaments, which, being connected at their bases with auditory
nerve filaments, are very sensitive to impressions of
sonorous undulations. The function of the semicircular
canals has been thought to be the collection in their fluid
contents of the sonorous undulations communicated through
the cranial bones, and the magnification of the vibrations
excited, in the ampullae and utriculus, in which they are assisted
by the crystalline pulverulent ear stones, which, as aibove noted,
tend to reinforce sonorous vibrations both by their resonance
and by their bombardment of the epithelial cells of the
vestibule.
The Cochlea is situated in front of the vestibule on the
inner side of the internal meatus of the ear. It is a very
complicated structure, somewhat resembling a snail shell,
having two turns and a half in its spiral. We may, perhaps,
best represent it by a tube about half an inch long, having a
diameter of one-tenth of an inch at its base and one-twentietli
of an inch at its termination, divided longitudinally into
three unequal compartments, and coiled two and a-lialf times
round a central conical pillar (the modiolus). The base of
the modiolus is pierced by canals for branches of the auditory
nerve (entering through the internal meatus), and blood¬
vessels. The largest of these canals is called the central
canal of the modiolus. The middle and smallest of the
chambers of the cochlea is called the Scala Media ( or canal is
cochleans). It is a continuation of the membranous laby¬
rinth, and completes the division between the other two
chambers. It is closed towards the top of the cochlea and
opens below by a small neck into the Sacculus of the vestibule.
The other two chambers are named from their connections.
The Scala Vestibuli opens into the bony vestibule, and is thus
open only to the action of the perilymph ; the Scala Tympani
communicates with the tympanum and the fenestra rotunda.
At the top of the cochlea the scalae tympani and vestibuli
communicate by a small aperture called the Helicotrema, left
between the top of the modiolus and the Hamulus, or small
hooked termination of the Lamina Spiralis which is the
partition, partly bony and partly membranous, separating
the two larger scal?e.
(To be continued.)
202
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
BY HERBERT SPENCER.
Exposition of Chapter XI. — On “Classification.”
[Abstract.]
BY PROF. W. HILLHOUSE, M.A., F.L.S.
, Classification lias a two-fold purpose ; to render identi¬
fication more easy, and to organise knowledge. When a
librarian arranges his books according to their authors’
names he renders the identification, i.e., the discovery of
any particular one, easy, and he renders it easy likewise
to insert in its proper position any work subsequently written.
But this arrangement has one systematic weakness ; the
practical impossibility of finding a work of which you know
everything excepting the smallest part — its author’s name.
Or the books may be arranged according to subject, in which
case grouping and sub-grouping to several degrees will, in a
large library, have to be resorted to. Further, this involves
some knowledge of the contents of the books, and, to be
philosophical, a conception, to some degree definite, of not
merely the present but the proximate, not to say ultimate,
extent of knowledge. This latter method would of necessity
come late in the history of books.
Each of these methods is, but in varying degree, a
classification by the attributes or properties of the books ;
in the former case but one attribute, the author’s name, is
used. Any other single attribute could equally be used,
knowledge of the attribute being then alone required for
identification ; the books can then be placed in definite order
or series. In the other case several attributes may be in use,
and variously in use, for each volume ; here, therefore, true
linear arrangement becomes impossible, for there is no reason,
other than empyrical, for giving priority to any group of
books or to any book in a group ; all that you can do is to
constitute groups, of which you can indicate the relationship.
The growth of such a method must be slow.
Other things being equal, the relations amongst pheno¬
mena are recognisable in the order of their conspicuousness
and simplicity. C (Eteris paribus, a child will more readily
first recognise the male by a beard. Then all bearded males
become “ papas.” With advancing perceptive powers differ¬
entiation comes into play, and with it a tendency to more
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
208
accurate grouping. In the history of the knowledge-relations
of a race, the same principles are involved, and classificatory
notions would go through a cycle of phases, at first exceed¬
ingly simple, gradually increasing in complexity and accuracy
of differentiation ; individual qualities or attributes would be
replaced by groups of qualities or attributes ; objects posses¬
sing some of one and some of another group would have
their attributes analysed, and comparative values would thus
be given to each individual quality. The ultimate classifica¬
tion would therefore imply not merely knowledge of many
attributes of the object in question, but the relative import¬
ance of these in some, at first no doubt empyrical, scale, and
the mere position given to an object would give us the largest
possible amount of information about it and its attributes.
An illustration of the growth of the classificatory idea is
afforded by the common dictionary or encyclopaedia. Itself
the proof of great advance, in it, nevertheless, but one pro¬
perty, and that artificial in the extreme, viz., the order of the
letters, is the key to the whole system, and “ Babj,” with its
appendages, is found next door to “Babylon,” “Dog” to
“Dogma,” “Hosier” to “Hospice” and “Hospital.” A
step in advance is shown by a recently published Anglo-
French Dictionary, where all the words of common root
origin are kept together, and apart from all the words of
other root origin. The highest stage of verbal classification
is shown, perhaps, by such a work as the “ Thesaurus of
English Words and Phrases ” of Dr. Boget, in which the
words are systematically arranged according to their actual
value and relations, whether abstract, or in space, matter, &c.,
and quite independently of root oiigin. But the inapplica¬
bility of such classifications to finite beings, in a subject in
such general- use as language, is shown by the provision of
an alphabetical glossary as a key to the whole. iSuch highly
developed forms of classification emanate from, and appeal
only to, the specialist.
Natural objects of course come upon a different footing to
words ; but here, too, probably the most perfect classification
for specialists will be that which, based as far as may be on,
to borrow our above phrase, common root origin, is leavened
with a full share of present physiological and morphological
meaning.
These phases of classification are well illustrated by the
biological sciences. The use of simple and conspicuous
characters led to the classification of plants into trees, shrubs,
and herbs, an arrangement still popularly clung to. Caesal-
pinus (1588) slightly amplified this into trees, undershrubs,
204
THE PKINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
and lierbs, and flower and seedless plants. So in the world
of animals, the beasts, birds, fishes, and creeping things of
the Mosaic philosophy, groups which differ from one another
in conspicuous features of appearance and mode of life, these
are the first formed divisions, and to this day the vast
proportion of humanity to whom it is known would regard
the whale as a fish because its habit of life appears to
resemble that of fishes.
Coming to distinct attempts at classification, we find the
“one attribute” principle, or, at the most, simple departures
therefrom, first in use. This is peculiarly the case with the
vegetable kingdom. The corolla, the fruit, the calyx and
corolla, and the stamens and pistil have provided by their
modifications the principles for classification. The last of
these, in the well-known Linnsean system, is still in wide
popular use. But of these early attempts at classification
many of the secondary groupings are much more philosophical,
as for example is that of Ray. In classification, the old battle
of the Aristotelian versus the Baconian philosophy has had
to be fought out. The earlier systems were all Aristotelian
in principle ; some are more or less so still, while the
ultimate classification must be on Baconian lines ; the units
must be studied before the groups, the groups before the
classes. Accurate classification works upwards. For long the
ultimate form of vegetable classification given by Spencer
has been superseded, and for the last score of years or more
English botanists at any rate have abandoned attempts to
make systems, and have devoted their attention to the
practical application of the law italicised above, by the study
of the units of the vegetable kingdom, and attempting then
to define the limits of genera.
In all modern systems of classification, the linear arrange¬
ment has disappeared, and instead of it appear groups and
sub-groups whose relations with one another are very various,
and dependent on internal as well as external organisation,
on organs as well as on members. And the marked tendency
of modern classifications is to base the widest groupings on
points of physiological, the narrower of morphological
importance. Internal organisation is of higher classificatory
importance than external form. The newest tendency
throws things still further back. Believing that the early
history of an individual shadows the past history of its
race, the modern systematist becomes more and more embryo-
logical, and here the Baconian philosophy must of needs have
fullest play. One thing is clear. Linear arrangements are
tilings of the past.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES - REVIEWS.
205
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— May, 1885.
Atmospheric pressure was unsteady throughout the month, though
the range was not large. The barometer attained its highest point,
30*207 inches, on the 12th. The past month was remarkable for its
low mean temperature — above 4 degrees lower than the average.
The minimum was below 40 degrees on sixteen nights, as against ten
in 1883 and 1884; while the maximum reached 60 degrees on only
seven days, as compared with seventeen in 1883 and nineteen in 1884.
The highest readings were registered on the 28tli, and were 71*2° at
Loughborough, 70*8° at Hodsock, 69*9° at Strelley, OS’S0 at Coston
Rectory, and 68° at Henley-in-Arden. In the rays of the sun, 130T°
at Loughborough, 126*2° at Hodsock, and 125*6° at Strelley, also on
the 28tli. The lowest readings were 27*9° at Hodsock, 28*5° at Coston
Rectory, and 29° at Henley-in-Arden, on the 12tli ; 30° at Strelley, on
the 7th and 8tli ; and 30*9° at Loughborough, on the 7tli. On the
grass, 19*1° at Hodsock, on the 7th; 24*2° at Strelley, on the 8th ; and
25° at Loughborough, on the 12th. Rainfall generally was below the
average, excepting at Henley-in-Arden, where the observer reports it
to have been 1*16 inches in excess of the mean of fifteen years. The
amount at that station was 3*59 inches; at Strelley, 1*97 inches;
Loughborough. 1*87 inches; Coston Rectory, 1*83 inches; Hodsock,
1*73 inches. The number of “rainy days ” varied from twenty to
twenty-one : the heaviest falls from 0*64 to 0*30. Snow fell at Henley-
in-Arden on the 5tli and 7th. Lightning and thunder were observed
at Loughborough on the 17th and 21st. Sunshine was deficient.
Wm. Berridge, F.R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
Ordnance Atlas of the British Isles, with Plans of Towns. Price 35/-
Published by C. W. Bacon, 127, Strand, London.
This magnificent atlas is, beyond all question, the best of its kind with
which we are acquainted. It includes index maps of England, Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland; forty-nine maps of the English counties (double
maps being devoted to the large counties) ; large-scale maps of Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland — each in four sections ; an excellent (double)
geological map of England ; twenty-three large-scale plans of towns ;
eight maps of environs of towns ; and, finally, five maps of the Isle of
Man, Isle of Wight, Channel Isles, Orkneys and Shetlands, and the
Lakes of Killarney. The extensive alphabetical indices contain more
than 50,000 names ; the introduction includes fifty-four pages of
valuable letterpress.
The great merit of the work, of course, lies in its being an accurate
reproduction of the Ordnance Survey. The large scale of the maps —
which are about 16in. by 12in. — permits of every detail being shown,
and for clearness of roads and railways this atlas is unsurpassed. The
plans of the towns are from the Government Surveys, which have only
just been completed ; and the idea of issuing maps of the environs of
the large towns, showing the country for twenty or thirty miles round,
is a very happy one. All the maps are beautifully printed in colours
on thin tough paper on guards, while the binding is excellent.
Altogether this is a book which we can strongly recommend.
206
REVIEWS - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Photo-micrography. By A. C. Malley, B.A., F.R.M.S. Second edition.
Sm. 8vo., 166 pp., 3 plates, 28 woodcuts. Price 7/6. Published by
H. K. Lewis, Gower Street, London.
This very useful book is the only one published — in England at all
events — upon the subject, and the fact that it has so soon reached a
second edition proves its usefulness. It includes a description of the
apparatus required, suitable methods of mounting, the wet collodion
and gelatine dry-plate processes, with an account— well illustrated — of
the arrangement of the apparatus for photo-micrography, and a disser¬
tation on the faults most commonly met with, and tlieir remedies.
The plates include photo-micrographs of various diatoms — enlarged
from 1,000 to 1,500 diameters — physiological slides, butterfly scales, Ac.
Altogether the book is a suggestive and a useful one, and we commend
it to the rapidly increasing class of our readers who have taken up the
study of photography.
Leafing of Oak and Ash. — -During the month of May last the
foliation of many hundreds of these trees was observed in Bedfordshire
and Hertfordshire. It was not till the third week that the oak trees
were well expanded, and the ashes as a whole were several days later.
Some of the latter were not in full leaf till quite the end of the
month. There were a few instances, possibly five per cent., in which
the ash trees, in similar circumstances with oak trees, were equally
advanced with them. These were, probably, especialty vigorous trees.
This is now the sixth consecutive season in which the leafing of these
trees has been relatively the same. J. Saunders.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Geological Section, May 26th. — Mr. Beale, of Rowley
Regis, exhibited various specimens from calciferous sandstone, carbon¬
iferous limestone, Yoredale rock, coal measures (low7er) not local ;
coal measures, local. Plants: mollusca, crustaceans, and icthyolites of
unknown or little-known species. Also, spotted coal. Mr. A. H. Atkins,
Silurian specimens from Purlieu Lane, Malvern, which in the space
of less than a mile shows sections of all the Upper Silurian Beds.
Fossils : Pentamerus oblongus, Stricklandinia lirata, Ortliis Innata,
EhynchoneUa nucula , Lingula Lewisii, Avicula Danbergii , and Phacops
caudatus. — June 2nd. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited young lampreys just
hatched from the eggs ; also Notommata brachionus from King's Norton.
Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., then read an interesting paper on “ A
Botanical Tour on a Laburnum Leaf,” which he illustrated by coloured
diagrams and mounted sections under the microscopes. He also
exhibited the microscopic plants themselves, viz. : Leptosplueria Lucina
(new to Great Britain) ; also Glceosporium cytisi, Phyllosticta cytisi,
Alter naria brassicoc, Cladosporium fascicularc , Epicoccuin neglectum,
and Fusarium roseum, all on laburnum leaves from Bradnock’s Marsh,
Hampton-in-Arden. The paper also offered evidence in favour of the
modern tendency to found the species of parasitic Fungi on a narrow
biological basis, even where no difference of form existed.- — Biological
Section, June 9th. — Mr. Charles Pumplirey exhibited a beautiful
selection of Swiss alpine plants, cultivated in his garden from roots
gathered in Switzerland; Mr. T. Bolton, F-R.M.S., a gelatinous ring
of green ova, probably of a water beetle, and Leptodora hyalina ; Mr.
W. B. Grove, B.A., Fungi, Agaricus sphagnorum, A. elections (rare),
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
207
Peziza Curreiana , from Sutton Park ; Mr. J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S.,
Medicago viaculata, M. denticulata, Pyrus Aria (all' rare), and a moss,
Fontinalis antipyretica (in fruit), first time observed in fruit in War¬
wickshire. all from Weddington ; and for Rev. D. C. 0. Adams, The
Morrell, Morchella semilibera, from near Coventry, with microscopical
preparations to show asci and spores. — At the Sociological Section’s
meeting on the 4th instant, Miss Naden read chapter vi. of Mr.
Herbert Spencer’s “ Study of Sociology ” on “ Subjective difficulties —
Intellectual,” followed by discussion and elucidations joined in by Mr.
W. R. Hughes, F.L.S. (Chairman of the Section), Dr. Carter, Mr. C.
H. Allison, and others.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — June 1st. Mr. Beale exhibited some of the rarer fossils
of the Wenlock limestone of Dudley, including specimens of
Eichwalildia capeivelli, Avicula viira , Cyrtia, Ac. Mr. Deakin, a
collection of fossils from Cheltenham. Mr. Madison, the black slug,
Avion ater, var. abalateralis. Under the microscope, Mr. Tylar showed
a palate of Trochus zizypliinus stained in two colours. — June 8th.
Mr. Rodgers showed a collection of minerals from the Rowley Regis
quarries. Mr. Delicate, a photograph of a fault in the quartzite at
Rubery. Mr. Madison, specimens of Helix revelata from Jersey, and
some large specimens of Ancylus Jluviatilis from Yardley Wood.
Mr. J. Betteridge, a collection of birds’ nests and eggs, including two
of the chaffinch ; the eggs in one were of the normal colour, while in
the other they were pale blue without spots. A nest of the dormouse
was also shown. — June 15tli. Mr. Madison exhibited a case of Helix
aspersa, showing numerous variations in colour and size. Mr. Hawkes,
Aicidium trayopogonis and Until ago recepitaculomm, both on the goat’s
beard. Mr. Tylar, an early work on the microscope, by Henry Baker,
quaintly illustrated, and dated 1769. Under the microscopes, Mr.
Moore showed jaws of helices ; Mr. J. W. Neville, wing of butterfly,
Morplio cypris. A paper was then read by Mr. H. Insley on “ The
extraction and mounting of molluscan palates,” which described the
anatomy of the garden snail, whelk, Ac., the best means of extracting
the palates, and the most suitable media for mounting, glycerine being
generally preferable for those not requiring polarised light. The
process of dissection was shown.
CARADOC FIELD CLUB. — The first excursion of the season
was made to the Titterstone Clee Hill, near Ludlow, on the 19tli ult.
The party assembled at Ludlow and proceeded by carriages through
some of the most beautiful scenery of South Shropshire to the village
of Bitterley, situated at the foot of the hill to be ascended. Here t lie
church, with its fine Norman font, its ancient oak chest, its carved oak
pulpit of Jacobean date, and its many interesting monuments, was
inspected, under the guidance of the venerable Rector, assisted by
Sir Charles Rouse Boughton, Bart. In the churchyard stands a
remarkably fine cross, attributed by some authorities to the year 1500,
by others to the time of Richard III. The party was then invited to
inspect the garden and house of the Rector, who exhibited a most
interesting collection of ancient deeds, books, pictures, Ac., the accu¬
mulation of many centuries by the members of this ancient Shropshire
family. After partaking of the hospitality of their kind host, the party
proceeded to the proper work of the day, viz., to investigate the natural
features and productions of the hill, which rises boldly to the height of
1,754 feet, the summit being crowned by an ancient encampment,
208
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
whence may be seen a magnificent panorama embracing parts of
Herefordshire, Radnorshire, Montgomeryshire, and Worcestershire.
At this point the President, the Rev. J. D. La Touche, delivered an
able address on the geology of the hill, which we hope to give in extenso,
illustrating its formation by that of Graham’s Island in the Mediter¬
ranean, which was thrown up by volcanic agency in modern times.
After inspecting the exposure of columnar basaltic rock, visiting one
of the coal pits, and collecting abundant fossils, the party returned to
Ludlow, highly satisfied with the day’s excursion.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
Monthly Meeting, Wednesday, June 17tli. The Chairman reported
that on the field day on the previous Wednesday ten members went
to Broughton Station, walked four miles by Cosby, and returned from
Countesthorpe Station. A few of the less common plants were found,
but nothing remarkable. Search was made, but in vain, for the true
Cerastium semidecandrum. The chairman also reported that he had
been invited to visit the Osier Grounds belonging to Messrs. Ellmore
and Son, the well-known Leicester basket manufacturers, in order to
give an opinion as to the cause of a serious blight which had destroyed
£400 of young trees. He found about sixty acres planted with willow
stools, of about forty different varieties— a most interesting and
remarkable collection. Many had been imported from various
countries, and each was considered to have its own particular value
for certain kinds of work. The blight appeared to have been caused
by myriads of black aphides, which covered the young shoots last
summer, leaving a black stain on the bark of the withered and
exhausted twigs. The stools being mostly only two years old, were
unable to bear the drain of sap extracted by the aphides, and either
died during the autumn or failed to put out fresh shoots after the
rods were cut in the winter. He had advised the proprietors to
employ a man at once to go through the whole nursery with a basket,
cutting off every twig on which an aphis could be found, before they
should have time to multiply again to any formidable extent. The
following objects were exhibited : — By Miss Adderlv, a living speci¬
men of Sedum rhodiola, in flower, from the Isle of Skye ; by Mr.
E. F. Cooper, F.L.S., a living specimen, in flower, of Orchis ustulatu,
from Beachy Head, and a fine truss of the very elegant flowers of
Kalmia la ti folia, showing the curious manner in which the elastic
stamens are held back until ripe in pockets of the corolla ; by Dr.
Cooper, a specimen of Hippocrepis comosa, from Eastbourne ; by the
chairman, a mass of algse from one of the waterworks reservoirs,
which Mr. F. Bates stated, after examination, consisted chiefly of
Spiroggra long at a, Weberia tenuissima, and Calospora, with various
desmids, diatoms, and bacteria. Miss Ions, of Craven House, Princes
Road, was elected a member of the section.— The Chairman read a
paper on “ The Campanulas of Leicestershire,” illustrated by dried
specimens of all the British campanulas, and drawings of the repro¬
ductive organs of C. glomerata, showing the peculiar manner in which
the anthers deposit their pollen on the hairy style. He also reported
that the Council of the Society had passed a resolution inviting the
sections to send in papers for publication in the Society’s transactions
in extenso , instead of in brief abstract as before. This was an
important change, and would place the Society on a footing which it
had never hitherto held, as one of those which publish “ Transactions”
in the technical sense.
209
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.G.S., F.C.S.
Part I.
( Continued from page 188.)
Some Sections Illustrating the Development of the
“ Margaritatus ” Zone in Northamptonshire.
The number of sections in which the “Margaritatus”
Zone can be studied is not large, but the beds of which the
zone is made up are as interesting, paleontologically, as any
in the Middle Lias. The section given below cannot now be
seen ; it was worked a short time for stone, and then covered
up again. The situation is on the side of a steep hill over¬
looking Banbury, about a mile or more from Chalcomb, and
quite away from any road.
Section near to Gibbard’s Farm, Chalcomb.
’ Feet. In
1. — Soil and light-coloured clay ... ... 8 0
2. — Sandy clay or shale, light brown colour,
micaceous and ferruginous, joints red ... 2 3
3. — Band of ironstone concretions, with some
small pebbles, containing : — Modiola,
Astarte striato-sulcata, Ar corny a hispida,
Pecten cequivalvis , Avicula incequivalvis,
Small ammonites ( probably A. maryari-
tatus) ... ... ... ... ... 0 9
4. — Sandy clay or shale, light brown colour,
highly micaceous, joints and surfaces
reddish. No effervescence with acids: —
Ammonites margaritatus (small specimens ),
Avicula incequivalvis, Pecten cequivalvis ,
Pecten liasinus, Modiola, Protocardium
truncatum, &c. ... ... ... ... 2 7
5. — Hard calcareous rock, mottled in places,
and containing much crystallised car¬
bonate of lime. Highly fossiliferous,
but the fossils difficult to extract or
identify in the stone : — Ammonites sp ?
Ostrea, Limeci acuticosta ...
Good spring of water.
The hard bed, No. 5 (“L” of typical section), contained
some very pretty pieces of stone, pieces full of little cavities
partially filled with crystallised carbonate of lime (congealed
210
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
water as tlie people there told us), the remainder of the
stone being a bright orange or red colour. Our attention
was directed to this quarry by noticing the pieces of varie¬
gated stone preserved as ornaments at the village inn. It
was not possible to measure the bed No. 5, but I should
scarcely think it is more than two feet in thickness, because
a good spring issues from the side of the hill very little
below the level of the exposed part of the bed. There are
several good springs around at about the same level, and
evidently coming from the same bed.
I know of no other sections in the neighbourhood of
Clialcomb in which the beds described above can be now
seen, but they have been exposed at Middleton Cheney, and
the lower one was worked for road metal some years ago at
Warkworth and Overthorpe.
The beds 2, 8, and 4 I have classed together as “ K the
band of ironstone nodules has been found nowhere else.
All the Middle Lias sections I have been able to discover
between Clialcomb and Byfield exposed the “Spinatus” Zone
only, and so for the present I pass them by. At Byfield,
however, there is a very complete development of the Middle
Lias beds we are considering. On the East and West Junc¬
tion Bailway, extending from near Aston-le-Wall to Byfield,
are several sections of the Middle and Upper Lias. The
whole of the beds from the “ Communis ” Zone of the Upper
Lias to the base of the “ Margaritatus ” Zone of the Middle
Lias have been exposed, though only the hard beds above
“ I ” can now be seen. The complete section will appear
later on, but I may say that the bottom hard bed “ L ” was
found, and that there are some springs in the neighbour¬
hood much below the level of the rock-bed, which in all
probability issue from the base of this bed “ L.”
Along the valley between Hellidon and Catesby there
are some exposures of the lower beds of the Middle Lias by
the side of the brook. In the part of the valley near to
Hellidon, where a little fall of water occurs, the side of the
brook is composed of a blue micaceous clay containing a few
fossils (only Limea acuti costa identified), and in the bank,
some fifteen to twenty feet above, a very light brown rock
may be seen, but no fossils could be detected on the
occasion of my visit. A little further along the brook, and
at about the same level as the micaceous clay above noticed,
are some very large pieces of rock very much like the rock-
bed of this neighbourhood. The former beds must be near
the base of the “ Margaritatus ” Zone, and I expected to find
that these large blocks of stone were the bottom bed, but
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
211
there were no fossils to be seen, and moreover the stone
could only be found at this one place. They are probably
pieces of the rock-bed that have got there by accident. The
bed “L” is apparently absent for a considerable distance
along this valley, for a few months ago I found a heap of
material that had been recently thrown out in deepening the
brook for a sheep wash, and there was no trace of a hard bed.
There are two other sections, nearer Day Ian owl, where a
light grey clay is succeeded abruptly by a dark blue clay or
shale, and these are commonly supposed to show the junction
of the Middle and Lower Lias (Survey division).
Between Catesby and Staverton there are no sections to
be seen in the valley, but the base of the beds I am here
describing can be traced by the numerous springs which issue
from the side of the escarpment. On the west of Staverton
there is a rather steep lane, and at the bottom of it a good
section, exposing the lower beds of the “ Margaritatus ” Zone.
Section at Staverton. „ ,
Feet. In.
G. 1. — Soil and light-coloured sandy bed, not so
micaceous or fossiliferous as the soft beds
below. Not well exposed ... ... ... 8 0
H 2. — Soft, porous sandstone or limestone, very ferru¬
ginous, containing many fossils : — Protocardium
truncation (abundant), Avicula incequivalvis ,
Pleuromya costata, Plioladomya ambigua, Penta-
crinite stems, dc _ ... ... ... ... 2 9
I. 3. — Sandy micaceous clay, ferruginous in places,
containing : — Pecten liasinus, Limea acuticosta ,
Protocardium truncatum, dec. ... ... .. 4 0
J. 4. — Calcareous and ferruginous sandstone, interior
of bluish or slaty colour, containing : — Proto¬
cardium truncatum, Limea acuticosta, Pleuromya
costata, Pentacrinite stems, Fucoicls (abundant) 2 0
K. 5. — Sandy clay, light coloured, micaceous and ferru¬
ginous, containing a fair number of fossils, but
these mostly casts .. ... ... ... 5 9
At this point a strong spring issues from
the rock, and has cut deeply into the next bed.
L. G. — Hard fossiliferous limestone, ferruginous, in
places made up of fossils, in others cellular,
the cavities being lined with crystals of calc
spar. Some parts of the face covered with
deposited carbonate of lime, making it almost
like a stalactite in appearance. Containing : —
Belemnites, Pecten cequivalvis, Pecten Rasmus,
lAinea acuticosta, Protocardium truncatum,
Astarte striato-sulcata, dc.
1 4
212
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
7.— Hard blue clay — depth unknown.
The section is probably twelve feet or more deeper, but so
covered up that nothing more could be made out.
In a lane to the north of Newniiam one of the soft beds of
the “ Margaritatus ” Zone may be seen. Judging by the
condition of the bed, and the fossils found in it, I consider it
to be either “ I ” or “ Ii” of the typical section. It is light
coloured, micaceous and ferruginous, and contains : —
Ammonites margaritatus, Pholcidomya ambigua , Limea acuticosta,
Pentacrintes, and Fucoids , dec.
There is a small stone pit on the road leading from
Daventry to Braunston, about a mile-and-a-half from Daventry,
which presents some features I have not noticed elsewhere.
Below is the section.
Section near to Daventry.
Feet. In.
1. — Soil containing many pebbles from the drift ... 1 6
2. — Irregular sandy bed, containing many pieces of
fossiliferous stone, fragmentary and waterworn.
The fragments seem to contain fossils from at
least three of the higher beds, but particularly
from “ F ” and “ H.” Fossils : • — Ammonites
spinatus, Terebratula punctata, Terehratula Walfordi
(a single specimen of each), Belemnites, Turbo,
Avicula sp.? ( very abundant) , Avicula incequivalvis,
Limea acuticosta, Pecten liasinus, Protocardimn
truncatum, Modiola, Ostreci cymbium, dc. ... 1 6
8. — Hard compact rock, like that found at the base of the
“ Margaritatus” Zone atChalcomb and Staverton.
Very many fossils, but the stone so hard that few
could be got out: — Belemnites (very abundant),
Pecten cequivalvis (large), Pecten liasinus (large ),
Ostrea, Pleuromya, Protocardium truncatum, Limea
acuticosta, dc. No Bhynchonellce or Terebratulce.
Thickness, one foot three inches...
4. — Hardened, sandy, micaceous bed, could detect
no fossils. Thickness, two feet six inches ... 3 9
Beds 3 and 4 in the above section can only be separated
by a close examination ; at a very slight distance away they
appear like one block of stone only. I believe bed No. 3 is
“ Ii ” of the typical section, but have never seen a bed like
No. 4 underlying it elsewhere.
A little way out of Daventry, on the Welton Road, two or
three of the lower beds of the “ Margaritatus" Zone may be
seen. About a quarter-of-a-mile along this road the banks
are very steep and rather high, and near the top is a
THE EAR AND HEARING.
213
moderately hard, slialy, highly micaceous bed, which is easily
identified as “ J ” of the typical section ; it contains :
Protocardium truncation , Pleuroimja costata , Limea acuticosta,
and Fucoids (abundant. ) Below this is a reddish, micaceous,
sandy bed, like bed “ K,” everywhere in the district. A little
further from Daventry, just over the ridge of the hill, another
hard bed is found in the bank ; it is slialy, weathers rather
white, contains very little mica, and much more resembles
“ F ” than “ H.” No fossils were obtained, although parts
of it seemed to be made up of comminuted shell. Apparently
bed “ H ” ceases to exist as a distinct hard bed in this
neighbourhood, for I have not found it in anv section further
north.
Several Middle Lias beds may be seen on the railway near
to Watford Lodge, a description of which will appear
later on.
I believe the junction of the Middle and Lower Lias may
be seen in a brook near to Elkington, but if so the bottom
bed is absent. This is not surprising, because the whole of
the Middle Lias is very much attenuated here, the rock-bed
itself being very indifferently represented.
'o be continued.)
THE EAB AND HEARING.
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
( Continued from page 201.)
Upon the surface of the scala media lie several
important structures. — 1. On the side towards the tympanic
scala is the very elastic Basilar Membrane upon which
stand about 3,000 club-shaped fibres arranged in pairs form¬
ing arches. These fibres are called the Rods of Corti, and
are thought to contain at least oue nerve filament each. — 2.
Over these rods is the Membrane of Corti containing numerous
cells of various shapes, and 3. On the partition separating
the scala media from the scala vestibuli is the membrane of
Reissner. Wandt believes that different tones affect different
parts of the nerve of hearing thus disposed, and that, as
elastic bodies respond each to some particular tone, and
remain quiescent when other tones are sounded, so the
elastic tootli-sliaped pairs of rods of Corti, together with
the superposed laminae, are divided into groups responsive only
to the stimuli of given notes, so that every fraction of a
tone which a well-trained ear is capable of recognising is
214
THE EAR AND HEARING.
represented by its separate nerve fibre. Tims it is thought
the fibres of Corti are like timing forks, set vibrating each
by a particular sound wave, and that each affects a particular
fibre of the cochlea nerve only. It must be understood,
however, that this explanation is only hypothetical, and
still awaits definite proof.
It will be seen that two of the cochlear scalse receive
vibrations directly from the vestibule, viz. : the scala vestibuli
from the perilymph, and the scala media from the endolymph.
The scala tympani has been supposed by some to receive
vibrations through the fenestra rotunda directly from the
tympanum ; whilst by others it is thought more likely that
vibrations descend it after having passed the scala vestibuli.
I should conclude that it is affected in both these modes,
though but slightly by the first.
The auditory nerve, called from its softness the portio
mollis of the seventh pair, is marked by the fineness of its
component fibres. It enters the labyrinth by the internal
meatus, where it subdivides into two branches, one supplying
the vestibule, and the other forming the cochlear nerve. The
ultimate terminations of the nerve-fibres in the cochlea have
not yet, I think, been definitely traced, though it is almost
certain that some of them end in the organ of Corti.
Having now sketched the anatomy of the organ of
hearing, it remains for us to consider a little more in detail
some parts of the physiology of hearing not noted in connec¬
tion with the foregoing anatomical considerations. According
to popular conception the pulsations of air upon the tympanic
membrane are the necessary antecedents of sensations of
sound ; but this appears to be disproved by the following : —
A drum is silent if the skin be burst, because the skin is its
only effective vibrating surface ; but the tympanum is not
properly a drum, inasmuch as its membrane may, according
to Cheselden, be burst, not only without destroying hearing,
but even in some cases with a terrible increase in susceptibilty
to sounds. Cheselden destroyed the membranes in dogs, and
found that they were terrified at all loud sounds ; and there
is a case on record of a man with a hole in his tympanum, to
whom the whistling of another man in an adjoining room
was intolerable (G. H. Lewes).
Still it is clear that the vibrations of the tympanic
membrane are of great assistance in hearing, as it is found
that a thickening, or stiffening of it, or even unusual dryness,
will render hearing dull. Many a temporary deafness has
been removed by well syringing the ear with warm soap and
water (although in such cases the removal of indurated wax,
THE EAR AND HEARING.
215
which had occluded the external canal, may often count for
more than the lavement of the membrane), or by removing
the obstruction caused at the pharyngeal end of the eusta-
chian tube by the congestion of the surrounding tissue, the
accumulation of mucus, &c., and thereby facilitating the
vibration of the membrane.
Against this statement that the tympanum is not really a
drum Dr. Edward Clarke (quoted by Brown Sequard, “ Journal
de la Pliys.,” i., 644) adduces his observations of seventy-five
cases of perforated membranes, with the following results : —
Tick of watch not beard in . 5 cases') Normal limit
Only heard when close to ear . . . . 11 ,, [ of hearing
Only within distance of 6 to 12 inches, 16 ,, j about 14 ft.
Only within 4 feet . 43 ,, J (Clarke.)
There is, however, a source of fallacy in these valuable
observations— It seems to have been forgotten that only one
tympanum was perforated in his subjects, and therefore, if
there were no other aural defects, they ought to have been
able to recognise the tick of a watch with the sound ear any¬
where within 14ft. If they could not, their defective hearing
might reasonably be attributed to causes other than a per¬
forated tympanum. [The watch used in the experiment
must have been one of the portly forms worn by our great
grandfathers.]
The modus overcindi of hearing may be summarised some¬
what as follows. The aerial waves proceeding from the
vibrating body are collected by the pinna of the ear, focussed
by the concha, and conducted into the external meatus, where
they strike upon the tympanic membrane, producing
vibrations in it. The vibration of this membrane causes the
process of the malleus attached to it to swing at the same
rate ; the head of the malleus consequently turns through
a small arc on its pivot (the processus gracilis). But the
turning of the head of the malleus involves that of the head
of the incus upon its pivot (the short process). Hence the
long process of the incus swings through an arc estimated as
about two-thirds that described by the handle of the malleus,
the decrease in the extent of the push being compensated for
by a proportional increase in force, which is an advantageous
change in so confined a space as the tympanum. The long
process of the incus being articulated with the stapes,
involves this bone in its movements, pulling it out of and
pushing it into the fenestra ovalis with equal rate and force.
But every pull and push of the stapes imparts a correspond¬
ing set of shakes to the perilymph, which fills the bony
labyrinth and cochlea external to the membranous labyrinth
216
THE EAR AND HEARING.
and scala media. These shakes are transmitted to the endo-
lympli through the membranous envelope, and by the aid of
the otoconia (or otolithes) and fibres of Corti are finally
converted into impulses, which act as irritants of the ends of
the vestibular and cochlear terminations of the auditorv
IS
nerve.
The labyrinthine fluids are, it would seem, also in a
measure agitated by sound waves travelling through all parts
of the skull (though most of these are, doubtless, so dissipated
as to produce no appreciable effect). As examples of sounds
transmitted through the skull we may quote the well-known
case of applying the stem of a vibrating tuning fork to the
teeth, &c., and the production of “ big bells” by the kitchen
poker, suspended from a string, held at each end by the index
finger closing the entrance to either ear. An eminent
London Aurist also quotes, as an illustration, the opening of
the mouth in cases of rapt attention to a discourse, music,
&c. He considers that in this state hearing is assisted by
sound waves being able to reach the tympanic cavity through
the eustachian tube, and thus compares it to the cetacean
“backward” hearing, noted above. I should also consider
this as an example in point, although, in common with the
relaxation of other members in states of rapt attention, &c.,
it may also be explained by reference to the effects of
absorbing object regards, and is noticed in cases of concen¬
trated attention generallv, — but, as the pharyugeal end of
the Eustachian tube is almost closed by its projecting lips,
except during swallowing, and the soft palate offers an
obstacle to the passage of sound waves. I should be more
inclined to attribute any improvement in hearing in this case
to the transmission of saund vibrations through the teeth.
The character of sound sensations of course depends
greatly upon the nature of the originating vibrations,
whether rapid or slow, intense or delicate.
The three physical peculiarities of sonorous impressions
are : —
I. Intensity and Quantity — loudness or feebleness, and
volume of sound.
II. Pitch — or note sounded.
III. Quality , timbre, or klany — the difference between
sounds of the same pitch proceeding from dif¬
ferent sources.
I. Intensity, supposed to be discriminated by the parts of
the labyrinth other than the rods of Corti, depends directly
upon the degree of stimulation. Above a given point the
effect becomes pungent, like the action of ammonia on the
CAPSELLA BURSA-PASTORIS.
217
nose, and may, to fresli and vigorous nerves, give pleasurable
excitement for a time ; but when long continued, or rising still
higher, the sensation becomes painful, e.g., the screeching in
a parrot house, the shrill barking of small dogs, the whistling
of boys in the street, the sharpening of a saw, &c. In most
of these cases, however, the element of dissonance unites
with the smarting of the sound.
(To be continued.)
THE LEICESTERSHIRE FORMS OF CAPSELLA
BURSA-PASTORIS *
BY F. T. MOTT, F.R.G.S.
Capsella Bursa- Pastor is is one of the com¬
monest weeds in all parts of Europe, and has
spread itself over at least one-tliird of the
habitable globe. Being an annual, very hardy,
flowering at nearly all seasons of the year, and
ripening its seeds abundantly, it has every
chance of perpetual hybridization, and its
“forms” are as numerous as those of Cratcegus
oxijacantha. Some of these forms will probably in the course
of future ages become isolated under special conditions,
will diverge further from the type, and will ultimately settle
down into distinct species. At present, I do not think that any
of the European forms can be regarded as more than varieties.
A few of them may be fairly distinguished by certain extreme
characters, but they are all linked together by innumerable
intermediates, and probably no one of them would come true
from seed sown under varying conditions. Koch, in 1843,
made four varieties from the shape of the root-leaves.
Jordan, in 1864, described six forms which he considered to
be good species, distinguished partly by the leaves and partly
by the flowers and capsules. Crepin distinguished three
varieties by the capsules alone ; and lastly, Mr. C. P. Hob-
kirk, now of Dewsbury, a well-known and very acute botanist,
published in 1869 a memoir upon the genus Capsella, in
which he admits six sub-species founded on the flowers and
capsules only. Mr. Hobkirk has generously placed in my
hands a copy of his memoir, from which I have derived
* Transactions of Section D of the Leicester Literary and Philo¬
sophical Society. Read October 15, 1884.
218
CAPSELLA BURSA- PASTORIS.
much information, and a fasciculus of specimens, and tells
me he now thinks that some regard should perhaps
have been paid to the variations of the root-leaves. Mr.
Hobkirk’s descriptions are full and clear, but as he remarks
that he does not find his specimens to agree precisely with
the diagnoses of M. Jordan, so I find that my Leicestershire
specimens do not quite tally with the descriptions in Mr.
Hobkirk’s memoir. This seems to be a further indication that
these “forms ” are of a temporary and uncertain character,
much influenced by local conditions.
Taking into account both the leaves and capsules, I find
among a considerable number of specimens collected in this
county the following extreme forms sufficiently distinguish¬
able, while the rest run in between them with a complexity
of cross characters forming a confused network which defies
classification.
Section A. — Radical Leaves mostly Lyrate or
PlNNATIFID.
Var. 1. — Gracilis. Radical leaves rather thin, toothed, lyrate
or pinnatifid, capsule small, obovate, notch none.
Var. 2. — DensifoLia. Radical leaves firm, short, closely pin¬
natifid in a dense rosette, capsule forming nearly
an equilateral triangle, notch shallow, lateral
margins convex. On walls and in dry places.
Var. 8. — Steyiocarpa lyrata. Radical leaves thin, toothed or
lyrate, capsule long, narrow, obovate, notch
moderate, lateral margins convex, lobes not diver¬
gent.
Var. 4. — Stenocarpa cor onopif alia. Radical leaves thin, pinna¬
tifid, pinnas acute with the front margins toothed,
capsule long, narrow, obovate, notch moderate,
lateral margins convex, lobes not divergent.
Var. 5. — Brachycarpa. Radical leaves rather firm, toothed
lyrate or pinnatifid, capsule forming an equilateral
triangle, notch shallow, lateral margins straight.
This may perhaps be the typical form.
Section B. — Radical Leaves mostly Entire or Toothed,
rarely Pinnatifid.
Var. 6. — Rubella formis. Radical leaves rather firm, entire or
toothed, capsule forming an isosceles triangle,
notch moderate, lateral margins concave, giving to
the lobes a slightly recurved appearance. In the
true rubella the recurved character of the lobes is
more distinctlv marked.
CAPSELLA BURSA- PASTORIS.
219
Var. 7. — Macrophylla. Radical leaves thin, pale green, 3in.
to 6in. long, Jin. to lin. broad, lanceolate or
ob-lanceolate, entire or toothed, capsule forming an
isosceles triangle, large, notch deep, lateral margins
slightly convex, lobes not very divergent.
Var. 8. — Bifida. Radical leaves thin, scarcely so large as in
the last, almost entire, capsule large, forming an
isosceles triangle, notch deep, lateral margins
straight, lobes widely divergent.
The annexed cut shows the seven forms of the capsule.
/ 2. d * ^
W
6 7 8
For some of the above forms I have adopted names which
have been already used to represent the same leading
characters. The names of densifolici , lyrata, hr achy car pa,
and rub ell af or mis have not been hitherto in use in this genus,
but they express to some extent the principal features of
certain extreme forms in my collection.
In admitting so many as eight distinct forms I have
simply followed Nature as she appears in the examples before
me. After sorting these out repeatedly, I find these eight
extreme types clearly distinguishable, while in the rest the
various characters seem to be promiscuously combined.
I think the characters I have given are sufficiently obvious
to make it easy for other botanists to correlate their speci¬
mens, and it would be very instructive to know how the forms
which may be common in other counties tally with those of
Leicestershire. One remarkable character seems to be
deducible from a study of these forms, viz. : that in this
genus there is some connection between the notching of the
capsule and the toothing of the leaves. Where the leaves
are deeply cut the notch of the capsule is comparatively
shallow, and where the leaves are entire the notch is deep.
220
STRUCTURE OF THE TITTERSTONE CLEE HILL.
The notch depends upon the elongation of the upper extremi¬
ties of the two valves of the capsule, which elongation takes
place mostly after the fading of the flower. In the young
capsules the notch is always less marked. Now an entire
leaf generally indicates greater vegetative energy than a
divided one, the divisions being probably caused by a defici¬
ency of material. A vigorous form, therefore, will have a
tendency to entire leaves and ample growth of capsule, the
lobes elongating freely and producing a deep notch.
The length of the style, and the minute variations of the
calyx, which are used by some writers in characterising the
varieties of Capsella, do not seem to me of much practical
value.
That the variations are not mostly due to varieties of
soil is evident from the fact that of these eight forms, all but
1 and 2 may be found growing intermixed in my own
kitchen garden. Densifolia may be a stunted form peculiar
to dry situations, and gracilis is supposed by Jordan to be a
barren hybrid, its small undeveloped capsules being generally
sterile.
THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OE THE
TITTERSTONE CLEE HILL.*
BY THE REV. J. D. LA TOUCHE.
It is hardly necessary for me to remark, for it is fully
admitted by all who have studied the subject, that the rocks
which lie scattered around us here, and of which this hill is
chiefly composed, are of igneous origin — that they have been
at one time in a state of fusion. In fact it is possible to
re-melt them, which cannot be done with sedimentary rocks,
and some years ago it was attempted to mould this basalt
into ornamental form for architectural purposes ; but as it
was found that the surface soon weathered into an unsightly
rusty brown, the project was given up.
It may perhaps be of interest to describe the principal
features of these igneous rocks. They are by Sir C. Lyell
divided into two chief classes : 1st, those which have been
poured out over the surface of existing land, or intruded
between strata at no great distance from the surface, or
* An address delivered to the Caradoc Field Club on the occasion
of their visit to the Hill, May 19tli, 1885.
STRUCTURE OF THE TITTERSTONE CLEE HILL.
221
deposited under water — these lie terms Volcanic ; and 2ndly,
those which have been formed at immense depths below the
surface, which he names Platonic.
We have before us an example of the first. Of the
volcanic class of rocks there are again two main divisions,
the basaltic and the trachytic ; the first of these are dis¬
tinguished by the comparative smoothness of their texture
and their breaking with a conclioidal fracture, while the
trachytic are rough to the touch owing to the quantity of
granular felspar which usually enters into their composition.
There is, besides, an important difference in the constituents
of them, since, while basalt contains silica or quartz in but
small quantity, i.e., something under 50 per cent., trachyte is
much more rich in that mineral ranging up to 60 and 70 per
cent. And here I may observe that a corresponding difference
exists in the two classes of plutonic rocks which correspond
to those of the volcanic. Syenite bears much the same
relation to basalt which granite does to trachyte. The
former is often entirely deficient in silica, whereas in
granite its presence is conspicuous. While, however, these
distinctions hold as a general rule, a transition from one
class to another may often be observed.
The term trap is derived from a Swedish word, trappa,
which means a flight of steps ; and has been applied to this
form of igneous rock from the fact that it frequently occurs
in successive terraces, rising above each other in the form of
steps. Some seven minerals enter into its composition, viz.,
silica, alumina, iron, magnesia, lime, potash, and soda. The
proportion of these vary considerably, as they do in modern
lavas, even in those which have been ejected from the same
crater. To account for this fact it has been suggested that
when a volcano is in action the lighter portions of the molten
rocks, the felspatliic trachytes, are first ejected ; while the
tcasor, or the basalt, is the last to make its appearance,
issuing in streams pushed through the superincumbent strata,
as here.
In many places basalt is seen to assume a distinctly
columnar form. This may be observed in those parts of the
Clee Hills which are quarried, as well as in the shapes of the
numerous blocks which lie around. The number of angles of
these prisms varies from three to twelve, but is commonly
from five to seven. The dimensions of these columns are
very variable. Sometimes they attain a length of 400 feet,
sometimes of only an inch or two ; their diameter also vary¬
ing from 9 feet to an inch. It is a remarkable fact that their
axis is always perpendicular to the surface on which the lava
222
STRUCTURE OF THE TITTERSTONE CLEE HILL.
stream lias been deposited, so that — as is well seen in a
section of a valley near Ontraigne, in the department of
Ardeche, the columnar structure, which is vertical at the
bottom of the valley becomes nearly horizontal along its
sides. The columnar is not, however, the only form in which
this rock is found. In many instances it assumes the appear¬
ance of spherical masses resembling cannon balls. I have
observed this structure on a very large scale in Natal, where
basalt exists through vast tracts of country. An example of
the same may also be seen near the Breidden, where also you
will find abundant specimens of porous cellular lava, which,
when the almond-shaped cavities with which it abounds have
been filled by the infiltration of some other material, is called
amygdaloid.
You have within the limits of Shropshire good opportu¬
nities of studying ancient volcanic phenomena. Corndon is
an example of an extinct submarine volcano. All round that
hill you find ridges of felspathic ash alternating with shale,
telling us of a time when, just as in the present day, showers
of stones and ashes are projected from a crater and spread
out at the bottom of the sea. A period of rest then takes
place, during which the shale (often fossiliferous) is deposited.
The Breidden and the Clee Hills, on the other hand, are
instance of intrusion ; and at Lincoln Hill, near Wellington,
you may observe a fine example of a basalt dyke, a mass of
molten rock having insinuated itself between the joints of
the already deposited strata.
And now a word as to the age and conditions of this
outburst of volcanic matter. We are now looking westward
across an undulating plain ; those successive ridges of hills
which you see below us represent the various members of the
Silurian formation, and bounding our view to the N.W. you
see the Longmynd Hills, the representative of a still earlier
epoch, viz., the Cambrian. All these were deposited many
ages before the Devonian or Old Red which occupies the
nearer ridges, and lastly, the Carboniferous, of which these
hills are composed. Finding, then, as we do, that the basalt
on which we now stand has spread out over the last-named
stratum, the inference is inevitable that its age is subsequent
to that of the coal period. That these hills, however, were,
as has been, I believe, supposed by some, the site of an
extinct volcano is very doubtful ; and I quite agree with Mr.
Yates, who has studied the subject from a practical point of
view, that the evidence is rather in favour of an intrusion of
molten matter between the strata, and that the more recent
rocks which once overlaid the coal measures have been sub-
STRUCTURE OF THE TITTERSTONE CLEE HILL.
223
sequently removed by denudation. There is every reason to
believe that the two Clee hills have been at one time
continuous, and that the valley between them has been
caused by denudation.
It is not easy to form a very clear idea of the vast
natural operations of which I speak, and to some I fear my
words may seem to partake of romance and imagination.
Yet, you must remember what may possibly be going on at
this very moment, unknown to us, in some quarter of our
own globe. Sitting, as you are now, among these rocks,
amid this peaceful scene, it is not easy to realise the fact
that there are spots on the surface of the earth which are
the scene of the most violent convulsion ; that there are at
this moment, in Hawaii, lakes of molten lava some twelve
miles long, in a state of fusion, and that, without any
perceptible disturbance whatever to this quarter of the earth,
only a year or two ago a mountain in Java, some 2,000ft.
high, was projected twelve miles into the sea. Again, so
lately as the year 1783, a stream of lava issued from Skaptur
Jokul, a mountain in Iceland, which, separating into two
portions, extended altogether to a distance of ninety-eight
miles, filling valleys varying in breadth from a narrow gorge
to fifteen miles, and in depth from 100ft. to 600ft. Cast your
eyes over the valley which lies beneath us, and fancy a
stream of molten matter not only filling it but extending
two-tliirds as far as London is from here, and thus you may
obtain a practical idea of the vast operations which are going
on even in the present day.
The question is often asked, what underlies — what are the
foundations of all the rocks which compose the earth’s crust ?
and it was long supposed that they must be of igneous origin.
Later discoveries have, however, tended to modify this
opinion. That our globe has been the gradual condensation
of nebulous matter in a state of intense heat, and that
immense volumes of molten matter exist within the bowels
of the earth there is every reason to believe. Yet we are
unable to say of any mass of granite or basalt that in it we
behold the primordial floor on which all subsequent forma¬
tions have been laid down ; since sedimentary strata of every
age are found penetrated by these volcanic rocks, which have,
therefore, been obviously formed subsequently to the depo¬
sition of the others. All we can say is that so far as we can
judge there are evidences of a series of operations extending
to a distance in past time which is practically infinite, and in
which the deposition of rocks from water, their denudation
by atmospheric agencies, and outbursts of volcanic matter,
have gone on concurrently from time to time.
224
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING, BIRMINGHAM, 1885.
The Eighth Annual Meeting of the Union was held at Birmingham
on the 16th and 17tli June. Unfortunately the attendance from other
towns was but small, although the local Societies had made excellent
arrangements for Meetings, Conversazione, and Excursions.
The Council Meeting, held in the Council Chamber of the Birming¬
ham Corporation, by kind permission of the Mayor (Aid. T. Martineau),
was attended by fifteen delegates. Reports were read from the
Secretaries, Management Committee, and Treasurer. It was resolved
that in order to open the way for the admission of such Scientific
Societies as are not strictly Natural History Societies, the name of
the Union be altered to “ The Midland Union of Natural History and
Scientific Societies.”
After the Meeting of the Council, the President of the Union
(R. W. Chase, Esq.) entertained the delegates and a number of other
gentlemen at luncheon at the Grand Hotel.
O
The Annual General Meeting was held (by the kind permission of
the Bailiff and Council) in the Examination Hall of the Mason
College. In addition to the delegates, there were a number of members
and friends present — among them the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Messrs.
W. H. France, Robt. Chase, Miss Taunton, Miss Jermyn, Mrs. Potts,
Birmingham ; Herbert G. Young, of London ; H. Pearce, Stourbridge ;
E. George, Northampton; H. E. Forrest, Shrewsbury; Rev. W. H.
Painter, and others.
The President of the Union, R. W. Chase, Esq., was in the chair,
and read a very interesting Address on the work of Natural History
Societies, and on some special points in the science of ornithology, of
which he is a most assiduous and successful follower. The thanks of
the meeting were heartily voted to him for the Address, and he was
requested to allow it to be published in the “ Midland Naturalist.”
The Annual Report was then read and adopted, and ordered to be
printed in the “ Naturalist.” Mr. A. W. Wills then moved, Mr. W. R.
Hughes seconded, and it was resolved, that Messrs. A. W. Wills,
E. W. Badger, and Professor W. Hillhouse be requested to take steps
to circulate the appeal on the subject of the preservation of rare plants
which is embodied in the Annual Report.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Societies in the Union.
During the past year the composition of the Union has undergone
but little change. The Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History
Society and the Oxfordshire Natural History Society have withdrawn
from the Union, but the Council is gratified to announce that the Rugby
School Natural History Society, which for a short time belonged to
the Union and then seceded, has decided to re-enter it, so that the
list of the component Societies will now stand as follows : —
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
225
Bedfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.
Birmingham Microscopists’ and Naturalists’ Union.
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society.
Birmingham School Natural History Society.
Caradoc Field Club.
Dudley and Midland Geological and Scientific Society and Field
Club.
Evesham Field Naturalists’ Club.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Northamptonshire Natural History Society.
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society.
Nottingham Working Men’s Naturalists’ Society.
Oswestry and Welshpool Naturalists’ Field Club.
Peterborough Natural History and Scientinc Society.
Rugby School Natural History Society.
Severn Valley Naturalists’ Field Club.
Tam worth Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society.
Work of the Year.
Of the Work of the Societies during the year there is little of
general interest to report. Most of the Societies publish separate
transactions, but we think there is an increasing disposition to use the
“Midland Naturalist” for the purpose of publishing observations and
suggestions.
The Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, Section D.
(Zoology and Botany), and the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society are
especially to be congratulated upon the praiseworthy attempt they
are making to enable the “Midland Naturalist” to better fulfil one
of the purposes for which it was established, namely, to be a
means of making more widely known what is being done by the
various Societies in the Union.
Midland Naturalist.
The numbers of this periodical which have appeared since the
last report have, we consider, fully sustained or more properly
enhanced its reputation, and the editors — Messrs. W. J. Harrison
and E. W. Badger — deserve the thanks of all our members for their
energy and activity in the office they hold. It is, however, obvious
that a still larger number of Societies might, with advantage,
contribute to its pages, the amount of matter on hand being still but
seldom equal to the monthly demand.
The Council also take this opportunity of thanking those persons,
especially the Committee of the Birmingham Natural History and
Microscopical Society, to whose kindness they owe the illustrations
with which the “ Midland Naturalist ” has been recently enriched.
The principal articles published in this Journal since the last report
are as follows : —
The Preservation of Native Plants, by A. W. Wills ; Botanical
Notes in connection with the Peterborough Meeting, by Rev. M. J.
Berkeley and G. C. Druce ; Address of the President, Rev. J. J. S.
Perowne, on the Repairs to Peterborough Cathedral; Study of a Lichen
from Oban, by W. H. Wilkinson ; Lunularia vulgaris , by Rev. H. P.
Reader ; On the Mammals of Leicestershire, by F. T. Mott ; On the
Zygnemaceae : a Chapter in the History of Fresh Water Algae, by
F. Bates; A Fungus Foray in the Middleton District, by J. E.
Baguall ; Penmaenmawr, by T. H. Waller; Report on Marine
226
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
Sponges Dredged at Oban, by H. J. Carter ; On the Structure of
Mosses, by F. T. Mott ; Breaking of the Meres, simulated by an ex¬
cessive development of Uroglena Volvox, by Wm, Southall ; Floscularia
mutabilis, by Dr. C. T. Hudson ; On the Best Methods of Studying
Botany for Beginners, by F. T. Mott ; On the Pre-carboniferous Floor
of the Midlands, by W. J. Harrison ; On the Development of a Fern
from its Spore, by G. C. Turner ; Koch’s Comma Bacillus, by W. B.
Grove ; The Lias Marlstone of Leicestershire as a Source of Iron, by
E. Wilson ; On the Nervous System of Vegetables: Do Plants Feel?
by F. T. Mott ; The Life-history of a Filiform Alga, by Dr. M. C.
Cooke ; The Physiology of the Medicinal Leech, by Prof. J. B. Haycraft ;
Notes on Two Rare Annelids, by T. Bolton ; The Ear and Hearing, by
W. J. Abel ; The Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, by B. Thompson ;
On the Intercellular Relations of Protoplasts, by Prof. W, Hillhouse ;
Notes on the Mymaridse, by F. Enock ; Roraima Mountain, by W. P.
Marshall. The Flora of Warwickshire, by J. E. Bagnall ; The Pilobo-
lidse, by W. B. Grove ; and the Exposition of the Principles of
Biology, by various members of the Sociological Section of the Bir¬
mingham Natural History Society, have also been continued. The
Council are pleased to observe that while most of the old contributors
maintain their ground, the names of several new and energetic
workers are added to the list.
Daewin Medal.
The subject for the Darwin Prize for this year, 1885, is Geology,
and the Management Committee requested the services as adjudi¬
cators of the following gentlemen, who all courteously consented to
examine and report upon the papers which were eligible for the
competition, viz. : — Professor A. H. Green, of Leeds ; Professor J. W.
Judd, of London ; Professor T. G. Bonney, of Oxford ; Professor
C. Lapworth, and Dr. H. W. Crosskey, of Birmingham.
Mr. C. J. Watson was requested to act as Secretary to the adjudi¬
cators. On his report to the Council of the opinions given by the
adjudicators it was decided that a medal be awarded to our late
Honorary Secretary, Mr. W. J. Harrison.
Peizes foe Photogeaphy.
The subject of offering prizes for Scientific Photography has been
under the consideration of the Committee, but they report that they
have decided that the state of the funds of the Union will not permit
of such a step being taken at present. The Council, nevertheless, wish
to direct the attention of the members to this important branch of
scientific work. Although very frequently something more of the
nature of a diagram is required for the illustration of a paper, yet
they are sure that a good photograph would in many cases prove
preferable to any engraving for the “ Midland Naturalist.”
Some of the Societies of the Union have already derived benefit
from the much more popular form of photography available at the
present day ; and have had the opportunity of seeing photographs
taken by members of the Societies during visits to America on the
occasion of the meeting of the British Association in Montreal. The
tourist who can bring back, impressed on his dry plates, pictures of
the natural wonders of Niagara, or of the Yellowstone Park, from the
points of view which have specially captivated his own eye, has laid
up for himself and his friends a pleasure which published photographs
rarely give, while the simplicity and ease of performance of the
requisite processes permit him to photograph scenes which, without
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
227
any such interest as would attract a professional artist, yet by tlieir
personal associations, or from temporary causes, have become interest¬
ing to himself.
Preservation of Native Plants.
The lamentable results of the unchecked eagerness for collecting
rare or specially beautiful plants have already been brought to the
notice of the members of the Union by the paper on the subject by
Mr. A. W. Wills, in the “Midland Naturalist” for August, 1884. The
subject has been under the consideration of the Management Com¬
mittee at each of its meetings, and as the result the Council recom¬
mend that the following appeal be adopted by the Annual Meeting,
and that Messrs. A. W. Wills, E. W. Badger, and Prof. W. Hillhouse
be requested to take the necessary steps to bring it under the notice
of the Natural History Societies of the country and of the public
generally.
Appeal.
it is a fact only too evident to the most superficial observer that
many of our rarest and most beautiful native plants have already
been or are being rapidly exterminated ; and it may be assumed that
this extermination will be viewed with regret — even with indignation
— alike by the student and by the ordinary lover of natural beauty,
and that both will be willing to assist, by all available means, in any
measures which may afford the prospect of arresting its course.
The Council of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies
asks serious attention to the following brief statement of the causes
of the rapid destruction of British plants, and of what it ventures
to suggest as the best means of mitigating the evil.
These causes appear to be mainly as follows : —
First. — The ravages of professional plant-hunters, who offer to the
tourist or to the general public, by advertisement, plants attractive by
reason of their beauty or of their comparative or absolute rarity.
The large dimensions which this traffic has assumed are indicated
by the number of such advertisements which appear in some of the
gardening periodicals, offering ferns from Devonshire, Cornwall,
Somerset, the Wye Valley, &c., at from 4s. to 7s. 6d. per 100, in
named varieties; Hymenophyllum tunbridyense and II. unilaterale at 2s.
per square foot ; various species of Orchis, Saxifrage, &c., at from 2s.
to 5s. per 100; Bog Asphodel at 2s. per doz. ; or inviting tenders for
Primroses and Daffodils at so much per 100,000.
Second. — The operations of Exchange Clubs, the members of which
are often asked to supply large numbers of the rare plants of their own
districts in exchange for corresponding quantities of those of other
neighbourhoods.
Third.— The indiscriminate or careless gathering of plants, often
taken with their roots or in seed, by Botanists and their students
in the course of botanical excursions.
Fourth. — The reckless gathering of large numbers of specimens by
individual botanists.
Recognising that restrictive legislation or police interference are
neither applicable nor desirable, the Council believes that it is by the
indirect influence of example and the promotion of healthy public
opinion that the evil in question can alone be combated.
They therefore earnestly urge the following considerations upon
botanists, members of Field Clubs, Natural History and other Scientific
Societies, upon all lovers of Nature and upon the public generally : —
228
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
First.— That they should rigidly abstain from encouraging or
countenancing the purchase from professional plant-liunters of any
native plants, for the sake either of their rarity or of their decorative
value.
Second. — That botanists should resort to the assistance of Exchange
Clubs, if at all, only for the purpose of obtaining single specimens
necessary to fill up blanks in their herbaria, using such assistance
with discrimination, and excluding from their operations plants of
great rarity.
Third. — That all teachers should inculcate upon their pupils, by
precept and example, the lamentable consequences of the wholesale or
indiscriminate gathering of plants, especially with their roots or when
in seed.
Fourth. — That individual botanists should seriously reflect on these
consequences, and abstain from taking more than the smallest number
of specimens iudispensible for the purposes of genuine study, and even
from taking any where the extermination of a particular species from
a restricted habitat is threatened.
Fifth. — That tourists and amateurs should be urged to refrain from
collecting plants of any degree of scarcity, especially when in flower
or seed, it being impossible that ten per cent, of those gathered under
such conditions can possibly live after removal.
Finally, the Council earnestly appeals to the editors of all journals
devoted to Science and Art as well as to Horticulture and Floriculture
and to those of the leading London and provincial papers to assist it in
creating a healthy public opinion on this subject by the expression of
their sympathy with the effort which the Council is making, and by
refusing insertion to advertisements from professional plant hunters.
The Committee hearing that a Society has been formed in Geneva
for the preservation of Alpine plants, adopted the following resolution,
which was sent to the Secretary, from whom a number of the publica¬
tions of the Society has been received.
Resolution — “The Committee of the Midland Union of Natural
History Societies, deeply regretting the extermination of many of the
native plants of Switzerland, desires to express its sympathy with the
Soeiete pour la Protection des Plantes, and to pledge the members of
its own societies to contribute by all means in their power to the
cause of the preservation of the native flora of that glorious land
which has been the resort and the delight of so many of themselves
and of their countrymen.”
Review of Progress.
In conclusion the Council wish to thank the Birmingham Societies
for the excellent arrangements which they have made for the com¬
fortable holding of the meeting of the Union ; and feel that the
second meeting in Birmingham affords an opportunity for looking
back to the former meeting there in 1878, and for considering how
far each of the component societies has grown since then, and how
far they are now fulfilling the objects for which they then entered
into association. While regretting that the apathy of the members,
to which attention was directed in the last report still exists, the
Council think they can see signs of a little improvement, and hope
that all who are interested will try to do their utmost to further the
progress of the Union. The need of the Union will mainly be felt
by active workers — those who are trying to engage in some scientific
investigation, in which they feel the necessity of the help and
approval of their fellow- workers. To these, when they belong to
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
229
societies not publishing separate transactions of their own, the
“Midland Naturalist” offers a ready means of communication with
others, and it would be instructive to have the testimony of those
whom the papers and notes in this journal have put en rapport with
those at a distance who take an interest in the same pursuits. The
Council are confident that the number of members who could thus
testify to the usefulness of the Union would be no small one. They
would invite any, who complain that their wishes are not met by
wThat the Union has hitherto done, to make suggestions and propose
improvements ; but, at the same time, they would repeat that what
is especially wanted, is a more extended and genuine interest in real
scientific work, and the attention of the Societies in the Union should
be directed to the spreading of this feeling among their members.
If this were successfully done, there would at once result a larger
attendance at the Annual Meetings, and more valuable contributions
to the “ Midland Naturalist,” and the Union would be able to take
the position which was intended by its projectors, as a real Midland
Association for the Advancement of Science.
In the discussion on the adoption of the Report and on Mr. Wills’s
motion several members took part. A suggestion was made that the
Union should be made the medium for more intercommunication of
lectures and papers among the various Societies composing it. No
formal vote was taken on this particular point, but there seemed an
agreement that such an arrangement was desirable, and as the pro¬
grammes for the Autumn Meetings will probably be soon in process of
compilation, the Hon. Secretary will be glad to receive the names of
gentlemen willing to visit Societies for the purpose of delivering
lectures or reading papers if desired. Between Tamworth, Burton, and
Birmingham there has already been such interchange to a small
extent. In the list of papers read to the Tamworth Society are two
by Birmingham gentlemen and one by a representative of the Burton
Society, while the Birmingham Natural History Society has had the
benefit of a paper from a visitor from Tamworth.
The Honorary Treasurer, Mr. E. de Hamel, then read his report,
which showed, with some small arrears yet due, a balance in hand of
£3 2s. lid.
Votes of thanks were then passed to the Officers of the Union, and
to the Officers and Members of the Birmingham Societies.
Mr. E. de Hamel was elected Honorary Treasurer, and Mr. T. H.
Waller Honorary Secretary for the coming year.
The meeting closed with votes of thanks to the Bailiff and Council
of the Mason College for the use of the Examination Hall, and to the
Chairman.
THE CONVERSAZIONE.
This, which was also made the Annual Conversazione of the
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, was held in
the Town Hall, on Tuesday evening, July 16tli.
Undoubtedly the most important part of the display was the large and
beautiful collection of British Birds exhibited in the Great Gallery by
Mr. R.W. Chase, President of the Society, and also of the Midland Union.
230
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES
Many of these birds were very rare, including Rose-coloured Pastor,
Pastor roseus ; Snowy Owl, Nyctea scandiaca , from Caithness ; Buffon’s
Skua, Stercorarius parasiticus , from Sealiam Harbour ; and Greenland
Falcon, Hierofalco candicans, male and female, from Caithness. The
most unique exhibits were a splendidly mounted pair of Golden Eagles,
Aqaila clirysaetus , male and female, from Uig, and a pair of White¬
tailed Eagles, Haliaetus albicilla, from Lewis. Another noteworthy
specimen was a male King Eider Duck, Somateria spectabilis , from the
Fame Islands, shot this year, and very rare. Among other rare
specimens were also a Dartford Warbler, Melizophilus undatus , from
Kent; an Osprey, Pandion haliaetus; two Goshawks, male and female,
Astur palumbarius ; Sabine’s Gull, Xevia Sabinii (shot in Warwickshire) ;
a Little Gull, Larus minutus, from Shoreliam ; Motacilla flava, and M.
alba , Blue-headed, Yellow, and White Wagtails, from Brighton ; Sterna
Dougalli , Roseate Tern, from the Fame Islands ; and Hydrochelidon
leucoptera, Wliite-winged Black Tern, from Norfolk. These cases
were remarkable also for the fidelity with which they represented the
details of the locality in which the birds were obtained. Mr. Chase
also exhibited a lai'ge number of Eggs and Nests of British Birds,
and over forty well-mounted pairs of Horns and Antlers from various
parts of the world ; also Nests of the Wood or Bush Wasp, and of the
Hornet.
The floor of the hall was occupied by a display of about seventy
microscopes, under which were exhibited many interesting objects,
too numerous, however, to mention. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited an
interesting collection of preserved specimens from Naples, illustrating
Marine Zoology, and an example of Fisli-hatcliing apparatus ;
Mr. G. St. John, an Observatory Hive, in which the Bees were seen
at work ; also Diagrams of the Anatomy of Bees, and their relations
to flowering plants.
We can only make a selection from the exhibits in the side galleries.
Mr. C. Beale, of Rowley Regis, showed a large number of Palaeolithic
and Neolithic Implements, including some rare ones in Jasper and
Chalcedony, from Torontola, at the base of the Apennines ; also some
remarkable ancient Pottery, obtained from the old open coal workings
at Tipton, Amblecote, and Wednesbury, attributed by the miners to
the fairies. Mr. Beale also showed a large number of rare Fossils,
from the Carboniferous and Silurian formations, many of them species
not yet named. Mr. Horace Pearce, of Stourbridge, Crystals of
Copper ; Ammonites from the Lias, Whitby ; Glacial Clay and Striated
Stones ; and specimens of erratic Boulders, etc. Mr. S. Price, a
number of specimens of India-rubber from India, Java, Africa, &c.,
in various states of preparation ; and foreign Butterflies, Moths,
&c. Mr. H. L. Earl, M.A., of Sheffield, two Cases of Butter¬
flies. Prof. T. W. Bridge, preserved specimens of Fishes, from
the Mason College Museum. Mr. W. R. Hughes, a small
collection of British and Foreign Corals, Euplectella Aspergillum
(a beautiful sponge from the Philippine Islands), and Spongia
oculifera (an allied fossil form). Mr. W. J. Harrison, Models used for
teaching Physiology ; also a number of Slides prepared for the Oxy-
hydrogen Lantern to illustrate lectures ; some Apparatus for teaching
Electricity and Magnetism, devised by himself ; and a simple arrange¬
ment for Photo-micrography ; also Rocks and Fossils from the Coal
Measures and Welsh Mountains. Mr. J. E. Mapplebeck, a large and
well-arranged collection of living British Ferns, including many rare
and novel varieties such as Lastrea pseudo-mas Mapplebeckii , and
Athyrium jilix-fcemina minutissimum, both found wild. Mr. W. H.
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
231
Wilkinson, set of Lichens from the district and from Scotland, many
of which were beautifully in fruit. Mr. W. B. Grove, a small
collection of Fungi growing on trees ; also some comic sketches of
Fungus forays and Portraits. Mr. S. Walliker, living Mosses, Lichens,
and Ferns, from Devonshire, and mounted Sea-weeds. Miss France,
a plant of Edelweiss, in bloom. Messrs. C. and A. Pumphrey, a very
large number of Photographic Slides, prepared for the Oxy -hydrogen
Lantern, including instantaneous Landscape Views and Microscopical
Objects. Messrs. Alderman White, J. H. Stone, C. R. Robinson, and
C. J. Watson, a large number of Landscape and Geological Photographs.
Mr. T. J. Baker, four Calorimeters, demonstrating the following
thermal facts : — (a) Atomic weights of different metals at the same
temperature contain equal quantities of heat ; (b) Equal weights of
different metals at the same temperature contain unequal amounts
of heat ; (c) The relative amounts of heat absorbed by dissolving
equal weights of different salts in water. Professor J. H. Poynting,
Interference of Light by the Biprism. Mr. A. W. Haines, a small
Dynamo-electric Machine, with Model Pump attached. Mr. Thomas
Clarke, War Medals, obtained in the campaigns in China, Africa,
New Zealand, Afghanistan, The Peninsula, Ac.
Around the floor was arranged a collection of Diagrams for teaching
Physiological Botany, lent by Prof. Hillhouse.
In a separate room Mr. C. Pumphrey exhibited by the Oxy-hydrogen
Lantern, at 8 p.m., a series of Photographs of the Yellowstone Park
and Niagara taken by himself during his visit to Canada and the
United States in 1884 ; and at 9 p.m., a number of Photo-Micrographs.
The Hall was illuminated by the electric light, and there was a
fairly good attendance of visitors and members of the Midland Union,
chiefly, however, those residing near Birmingham.
TEACHERS’ CONVERSAZIONE.
On' Thursday evening, June 18th, the Town Hall was crowded in
every corner by the Elementary School Teachers of Birmingham and
the immediate neighbourhood, who appeared to derive great pleasure
from an inspection of the numerous and attractive exhibits. It was a
happy thought on the part of the Birmingham Natural History and
Microscopical Society to invite those who are engaged in the work of
education in the town to examine the extensive display of natural
history specimens, microscopes, Ac., which had been got together as
part of the eighth annual meeting of the Midland Union of Scientific
Societies. About 1,500 invitations were issued, and from the throngs
of visitors who filled the building as soon as the doors were opened
it would appear that few, if any, of those invited were absent. Mr.
Pumplirey’s capital lantern lectures on America and on Photo¬
micrography were listened to with marked attention, and Mr. Chase’s
magnificent collection of British birds attracted general admiration.
Every visitor appeared anxious to make the complete round of the
grand exhibition of animate and inanimate objects displayed under
the microscopes, and the exclamations of astonishment at the wonders
revealed were neither few nor faint. From the general and obvious
interest excited it cannot be doubted but that a most pleasant evening
was spent by the teachers, and that they would carry away a better
knowledge of the attractiveness of scientific pursuits than m ny of
them previously possessed. As one connected with the teaching
profession of this town, the writer desires, on behalf of his fellow
teachers and at the request of many of them, to tender to the Natural
History Society their earnest thanks. It crossed the minds of some
232
MIDLAND UNION OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.
how great a pleasure it would give to the elder children of our public
schools if they, too, could have an opportunity of seeing some of the
secrets of Nature, so well revealed ! If the Society could see their
way to do any such work — and they might well ask the town to help
them — it would be sowing seed whose produce could hardly be over¬
estimated.
EXCURSION TO THE LICKEY HILLS.
The members who had chosen the excursion to the Lickey Hills
left Snow Hill Station by the 10 a.m. train, and were joined at Old
Hill by a contingent from Stourbridge. Mr. W. J. Harrison, F.G.S.,
acted as leader, and the party included the Rev. A. Watson,
J. Grayston, F.G.S. (Tamworth), J. W. Bodger (Peterborough), Rev.
G. St. Clair (Birmingham), Messrs. Marten, Worthington, Madeley,
Perry, &c. (Stourbridge), Rev. J. H. Thompson (Cradley), being
altogether about twenty in number. On getting out at Rubery Station,
the fine section of quartzite, crossed by a well-marked fault, which is
exposed in the railway cutting, was first examined. Walking south¬
wards, the junction of the Llandovery sandstone with the quartzite
(which is of either Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian age) in the road-cutting
nearly opposite the asylum gates was next studied. The sandstone is
crowded with casts of Pentamerus, &c., but the quartzite is quite
unfossiliferous. The brook section in the asylum grounds came next,
where the Silurian shales and limestones — resting on the Llandovery —
are fairly well exposed. From this point the walk extended along the
ridge to Rednal, many fine sections being seen on the way ; south of
Rednal the quartzite is fairly contorted, being here close to the line of
fault which runs along the eastern side of the ridge. At Kendal End
the patch of Silurian limestone — long since noted by Murchison — was
found, and in the hollow where it lies some good plants delighted the
botanists. Nearer to Barnt Green the party walked through the
beautiful grounds of Barnt Green House (by kind permission of
W. A. Thompson, Esq.), and found the Pre-Cambrian strata (volcanic
rocks which underlie the quartzite) exposed along the brook course.
At this point the party divided, some returning to Stourbridge, while
the emainder took the Midland train from Barnt Green to
Birmingham. The weather was excellent for walking — fine, but not
sunny — and the day proved a very enjoyable one.
EXCURSION TO COVENTRY AND KENILWORTH.
An agreeable party of thirty-four, under the guidance of Mr. J.
Levick, travelled in a carriage reserved for them by the L. & N.-W.
Rv. Co., from New Street to Coventry, reaching the latter place soon
after ten o’clock. Here they were met by Mr. W. G. Fretton, F.S.A.,
who conducted the party over this interesting city, and whose life-long
study of the Archaeology of England rendered him eminently qualified
for this position. The party visited the site of the Cheylesmore
Manor House ; Grey Friars Spire, now attached to Christ Church, all
that remains of the Franciscan Monastery; Ford’s Hospital, the
magnificent timber work of which was much admired ; St. Michael’s
Church, with its lofty and graceful steeple, built of red sandstone,
and upon which the touches of “ Old Father Time ” are only too
clearly seen in the crumbling of the outer casing of this graceful
fabric. St. Mary’s Hall was a place of much interest to the party,
with its tapestry, pictures, armour, and collection of ancient MSS.
They then visited Holy Trinity Church, remains of the Benedictine
SCENES ON THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA.
283
Priory and Cathedral, remains of city walls and gates, St. John’s
Hospital, now the Free Grammar School, where the boys (who were
enjoying their luncheon) were evidently as much amused at the
curiosity of the party as the party was in viewing v their ancient
buildings. They next passed Batlake Hospital, and having inspected
St. John’s Church, they reached the Craven Arms Hotel, where a
good luncheon was provided. At one o’clock the party left this
historic city with feelings of increased veneration after the interesting
survey they had made of its many remains of ancient times. They
proceeded by coach and wagonettes along the Warwick Road, with its
graceful avenues of oak, to Stoneleigh, where they alighted to view
the ancient church. Driving past the Abbey, the magnificent seat
of Lord Leigh, they proceeded through the Deer Park and Thick-
tliorne Woods to Kenilworth. Here the services of Mr. Fretton were
again most welcome, as he pointed out the various spots of special
interest in those picturesque old ruins, recalling the eventful incidents
connected with them. After viewing the remains of the Priory and
the Parish Church, they reached the station, having spent a very
interesting and enjoyable day.
EXCURSION TO CANNOCK CHASE.
This was attended by about sixteen persons, under the guidance of
Messrs. J. Brown and W. B. Grove. On descending from the train,
which, by the kindness of thb L. and N.-W. Ry., was stopped at
Anglesea siding for the purpose, the party was conveyed by the
Cannock Chase Company’s engine to No. 4 Colliery, which most of
them descended. On reascending, Mr. W. H. Duignan led them
through Court Bank Cover, where they saw the slag of the old iron
workings and the oaks which were lopped for fuel. They then walked
through Beaudesert Park to Castle Rings, a British fort on Cannock
Chase, and saw the foundations of (probably) a Norman castle, which
was, at any rate, partly built within the enclosure. After lunch at
Hednesford, they returned to Birmingham by 6 15.
SCENES ON THE NOETH COAST OF AFEICA.
BY CLEMENT L. WRAGGE, F.R.G.S., F.R. MET. SOC.
I am now collating the notes and observations of my last
voyage to Australia ; and some account of the North African
coast line may interest my friends in the Midlands.
As the “ Maranoa” headed in for the Strait of Gibraltar,
I obtained several sketches of Cape Spartel, and of the
imposing mountainous ridge at the north-west extremity of
the great African continent. Deeply did I admire the
grandeur of these noble bluffs. Alternately, however, the
coast is bold, low, and undulating ; and here the wind action
of sub-aerial denudation appears to have been in play. The
sun’s fierce heat also takes a part and is a substitute for
frost in higher latitudes in weathering the rocks — wasted
through long ages ; and the undulations seem to be debris of
a once higher range. After leaving Gibraltar a course was
234
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
shaped direct for Cape Tennez, Algiers, and Cape Bon ; and
after passing the former point until we reached the Bight of
Tunis, I obtained an almost uninterrupted view of the North
African shore. I was charmed beyond measure with the
wild, rugged grandeur of this coast line. East from Algiers
the picture is unique and of one type. In front are the
placid waters of the blue Mediterranean, dotted here and
there with rude Arab boats, whose latteen sails bend grace¬
fully to the balmy breeze. Then come shelving hills and
undulations reaching up from the coast line, and clad with a
scrubby vegetation, while volumes of smoke from charcoal
fires may be seen wreathing slowly upwards here and there.
Surveying this vista from the distant background towers a
noble stretch of weird and grotesque mountain heights, with
peaklets, knolls, and tops in almost every conceivable variety
of shape and form, indicating a theatre of vast physical
changes. A greenish haze hung on this occasion as a filmy
veil about the lower parts of the range, while fleecy cloudlets
of cumulus floated over the knolls as I had lately beheld
them at Ben Nevis. Here again had weathering agencies
carved a mountain chain unlike anything I had seen before,
and I gazed at its rugged pinnacles with deep fascination.
THE FLOE A OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
( Continued from page 83.)
GRAMINA. — Continued.
BROMUS.
B, asper, Murr. Rough Brome Grass.
Native : On hedge banks and in bushy places. Common. July,
August. Area general.
B. erectus, Huds. Upright perennial Drome-Grass.
Native : On roadsides and field borders in calcareous soils. Locally
abundant. July.
II. Chesterton Hill ! Y. and B.; canal bank, Newbold-on-Avon, R.S.R.,
1878 ; Tredington ; Honington, Newh. ; near Edge Hills ;
Compton Verney ; Kineton ; near Binton ; Wixford ; Exball ;
Oversley, near the mill ; Redhill ; bridle Road, Billesley to
Wilmcote ; Drayton Rough Moors ; Great Alne ; Rowington ;
canal bank, near Napton-on-tbe-Hill.
h. villosus. Rare.
II. Near Chesterton Wood ! H.B. ; near Chadshunt ; near Birdingbury
Wharf.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
235
B. sterilis, Linn. Barren Brome Grass.
Native : On banks, roadsides, and in pastures. Rather common.
June, July.
I. Sutton Park ; Erdington ; Middleton ; Kingsbury ; near Colesliill ;
lanes about Shustoke ; near Arley Wood ; near Knowle ;
Cornel’s End, &c.
II. Warwick ; Milverton ; Kenilworth, H.B. ; Honington ; Tredington ;
Lambcote, Neivb. ; near Bidford ; Oversley ; Stratford-on-Avon ;
Lapwortli ; Leamington ; Southam ; Rugby ; Newbold-on-Avon.
B. secalinus, Linn. Rye Brome Grass.
Colonist or casual: In cultivated fields, by roadsides, and on
railway banks. Local, but widely spread. July to September.
I. On Dost Hill, near Tamworth, Ray. Cat.; near Over Wliitacre ;
Colesliill Heath ; Bassett’s Green, near Berkswell.
II. Beauchamp’s Court, Cougliton, Purt., iii. , 10 ; Moreton Morrell,
r. and B. ; Beavington Waste, near Salford Priors ; Oversley,
near the wood ; Binton ; near Stratford-on-Avon ; rick yard,
Kenilworth ; pasture by Newbold-on-Avon.
b. velutinus, Sm. Rare.
II. Near Halford, Neivb. ; in a quarry near Binton Bridges.
B. racemosus, Linn. Racemose Brome Grass.
Native : In meadows and pastures, rarely by roadsides. Local,
but widely spread. June, July.
I. Pasture, near Sheldon Church ; Marston Green, in a sandy piece ;
meadow, near Elmdon ; meadow, near Baulk Lane, Berkswell ;
Holdifast Grange Farm, Erdington.
II. Honington; Tredington, Neivb.; on the new embankment near
Brown’s Over, Blox., N. B. G. S. ; lane near Exhall; Salford
Priors ; Beavington Waste, near Salford Priors ; Binton ;
Redhill ; pastures, near Farnborougli ; Wawen’s Moor, near
Wootton Wawen.
B. commutatus, clirad. Confused Brome Grass.
Native : In pastures, meadows, and by roadsides. Local. June,
July.
I. Meadows by Blythe Bridge, Solihull ; Earlswood Reservoir.
II. Honington Park; Tredington, Newb. ; Radway, near Edge Hills;
Asliorne, path to Oakley Wood ; Binton Bridges ; Redhill ;
Billesley ; near Studley Railway Station ; roadsides between
Brandon and Brinklow.
b. pubescens. Very rare.
II. Roadsides near Redhill.
The three foregoing grasses are often difficult to discriminate ; all
my specimens, however, have been carefully compared with typical
specimens given to me by the late Hewett C. Wratson.
Var. multi florus , Parnell.
II. On roadsides and in cultivated fields. Abundant in 1879.
This is a marked variety, midway between B. commutatus and
B. mollis. Prof. Babington considers it to be var. multijiorus, of
Parnell.
B. mollis, Linn. Soft Brome Grass.
Native : On banks, roadsides, pastures, and meadows. Very common.
June to August. Area general.
The variety b. glabrescens occurs frequently with the type, more
especially on sandy banks, railway banks, and sandy roadsides.
[ Geratochloa unioloides, DC. Mr. Bromwich finds this occasionally
near the skin yards at Kenilworth, probably introduced with
foreign skins.]
(To be continued.)
236
BOTANICAL NOTES FROM SOUTH BEDS.
BOTANICAL NOTES FROM SOUTH BEDS,
WITH VOUCHER SPECIMENS.
Name.
Date
1885.
Date
1884.
As¬
pect.
1885.
Soil, Situation, Ac.
1885.
Corylus Avellana
Feb. 1
Jan. 13
Open
Hedge. Both male
and female flowers.
Tussilago Farfara
8
„ 12
S.
Railway bank, same
station both years.
Helleborus viridis
„ 15
—
Open
Meadow. Inflores¬
cence & foliage only.
Draba verna
„ 21
Feb. 17
Garden path.
Salix capraea
Mar. 8
—
S.E.
Coppice. Female
flowers.
Ranunculus Ficaria
„ 8
Mar. 6
Open
Coppice.
Primula veris
„ 15
„ 9
? 5
Anemone nemorosa
,, 15
„ 16
Potentilla Fragariastrum
„ 15
5 *
Helleborus viridis
» 22
n
Meadow. Expanded
flowers, vide supra
Adoxa lVloschatellina . .
„ 22
—
s.
Bank.
Cardamine hirsuta
„ 27
Mar. 6
West
Side of a stream. In
fruit.
Caltha palustris
» 27
29
Open
Moist meadow. Same
station both vears.
Viola Riviniana..
» 29
—
N. E.
Hedge bank.
Nepeta Glechoma
Apr. 3
Mar. 29
S.
Bank.
Petasites vulgaris
„ 3
—
Open
Moist meadow.
Viola liirta
» 11
—
W.
Hedge bank.
Viola Reichenbachiana..
„ 11
? J
Anemone Pulsatilla
„ 12
—
S.E.
Chalk hills. Mr. J.
Catt.
Prunus spinosa . .
„ 12
Mar. 16
S.
Warm hedge bank.
Only a few blossoms
Cardamine pratensis . .
„ 21
Apr. 5
Open
Meadow.
Luzula campestris
„ 23
Mar. 30
S.
Luton Hoo Park.
Scilla nutans
,, 25
Apr. 6
s. w.
Coppice.
Ranunculus bulbosus . .
» 25
—
! J
Railway bank.
Stellaria Holostea
„ 26
Mar. 23
S.E.
Warm bank. Com¬
paratively late.
Ranunculus auricomus. .
„ 28
Apr. 10
—
Luton Hoo Park. Mr.
J. Catt.
Orchis mascula . .
May 5
May 4
Open
Coppice.
Sisymbrium Alliaria
» 16
Apr. 19
> J
Side of a stream.
Pyrus acerba
„ 17
—
5 J
Hedge row.
Crataegus monogyna
.. 17
May 11
S.
Geranium Robertianum
„ 28
Apr. 10
s.w.
Hedge bank. Com¬
paratively late.
Staminate Flowers of Mercurialis perennis were gathered as early
as the last week of 1884.
J. Saunders, Luton.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. - NATURAL HISTORY NOTE
287
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— June, 1885.
Atmospheric pressure was unsteady, but not generally low, the
mean being 30-050 inches. The highest reading was on the 11th,
30- 402 inches ; the lowest on the 20tli, 29-449 inches. The mean
temperature, 58-5°, was slightly below the average. There were some
warm days at the beginning and middle of the month. The highest
maxima occurred on the 4tli, when 83-8° was registered at Lough¬
borough, 82-5° at Strelley, 81-3° at Coston Rectory, 80-9° at Hodsock,
and 805° at Henley-in-Arden. In the rays of the sun, 134-2° at
Loughborough on the 4tli, 132-1° at Strelley on the 28th, and 129-3° at
Hodsock on the loth. The lowest minima were 33-5° at Hodsock on
the 27tli, 34-0° at Coston Rectory, and 37-4° at Loughborough on the
11th, 38-0° at Henley-in-Arden on the 11th and 27tli, and 38-5° at
Strelley on the 27th. On the grass, 29-2° at Hodsock on the 10th,
31- 4° at Strelley on the 27tli, and 34-2° at Loughborough on the lltli.
The rainfall was above the average, but varied considerably over
different districts. At Hodsock the total value was 3-65 inches, at
Loughborough and Strelley 3-00 inches, at Henley-in-Arden 2 -72
inches, and at Coston Rectory 1-85 inches. The latter station is about
twenty miles east from Loughborough, and the difference in the
amounts is rather remarkable. The heaviest falls were on the 6th,
7th, and 8th, which contributed above 2 inches of the total. The
entire absence of thunder storms is a feature of the month. Sunshine
was above the average. Solar halos were observed at Loughborough
on the 10tli and 11th.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
torn Itotc.
An Interesting Section, which ought perhaps to be noted, is
exposed in a road cutting, over which is carried the Charnwood Forest
Railway, at Hugglescote, and near to Bardon Hill. This section — in
obtaining which I had the kind assistance of Mr. E. F. Hates — is
about 350 feet in length, and is as follows: — Northern drift, rising
from 4 feet to 10 feet, containing large blocks of banded slate and
volcanic ash, Ac., derived from rocks in the immediate vicinity, of
various sizes, varying from 29 inches by 18 inches downwards. This
rests on, in a conformable manner — so far as exposed, but is very
probably Thicker — about 5 feet of conglomerate, containing well-
rounded and subangular pebbles of banded slate, volcanic ash,
quartz and quartzite, millstone grit, carboniferous limestone, fibrous
gypsum, chalk and flint, hasmatite ironstone nodules, worn speci¬
mens of Grypliea arcnata, and small pockets of soft sand. The
matrix is a carbonate of lime, which is soon decomposed by weather¬
ing, leaving the pebbles rather loose on the surface. This conglomerate
is very probably the representative of the gravels of glacial age
(Eastern Drift) exposed in other parts of the county, and has been
cemented together by the decomposition of the chalk and limestone
pebbles it once contained. — H. E. Quilter, Leicester.
238
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Reports of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Geological Section, June 30tli. — T. H. Waller, Esq.,
in the chair. The Chairman of the Section accepted, with thanks,
on behalf of the society, from Dr. Callaway, D.Sc., E.R.S., two
pamphlets, 1. On Comparative Lithology ; 2. On the Granite and
Schistose Rocks of Northern Donegal. Exhibits : — 1. A fine specimen
of fossil wood from the Isle of Portland ; 2. By Mr. Robinson, a tiger
lily, in which several stems had grown together into one flat stem ; 3.
By Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, a very interesting specimen of an abnormal
development of the White Foxglove ( Digitalis purpurea v. alba), in
which the terminal flower was formed by the union of 3^ ordinary
blossoms united together, forming a large lily-like bloom of 3in.
diameter and 2^in. deep, from a garden at Acocks Green ; 4. By Miss
Taunton, Asarum Europceum, from Ludlow (originally from woods
in Herefordshire) ; 5. By Mr. Bolton, Argulus coregoni, found in the
canal, near Birmingham (it is a European species, and was found in
1883, in the Royal Aquarium, at Westminster, but its source was
not known) ; 6. By Mr. Udall, Rock specimens from Malvern and
Foxyards. Sociological Section, June 25th. — Mr. W. R. Hughes,
F.L.S., Chairman, in the chair. Mr. C. H. Allison read and
expounded the last two chapters, 13 and 14, of the first volume of
Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Principles of Biology,” viz., “ The Co¬
operation of the Factors” and “ The Convergence of the Evidences,”
and concluded with a paper on the “Appendix.” A discussion followed,
joined in by the President, Dr. Hiepe, Mr. F. H. Collins, Miss Naden,
and others. — General Meeting, July 7tli. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson
exhibited Orchis maculata , 0. latifolia, O. pyramidalis, and the cut¬
leaved mignonette, Reseda lutea , from Broadway, Worcestershire. —
Biological Section, July 14th. The following were exhibited : By Mr.
W. H. Wilkinson, a fine collection of plants from Scotland, including
Stellaria nemorosa , Cerastium arvense, Myrrhis odorata , and Equisetum
sylvaticum ; by Mr. Thomas Clarke, marine alga, Callithamnion plumula,
showing fructification; Mr. Thomas Bolton, F.R.M.S., Lacinularia
socialis , from Warwick ; Euglena, from Harborne, possibly distinct
variety ; Mr. J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S., Scapania irrigua, from Baddesley
Ensor, new to the district ; Anisothecium crispum, var. datum , new
record for Warwickshire, from Sutton ; for Mr. Fred. Encck, Pyrola
minor ; for Mr. John Humphreys, Acorus Calamus , Sweet Flag, in fine
fruit, from Hewell Grange ; for Miss Taunton, Asarum europceum, from
Herefordshire ; for Mr. R. M. Serjeantson, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum,
A. Trichomaues , Carduus pratensis, and other plants, from Bampton,
North Devon. — Sociological Section, July 2nd. Chapter Seven of
Mr. Herbert Spencer’s Study of Sociology on “ Subjective Difficulties
— Emotional,” was read by the lion, sec., Mr. A. Browett. On Satur¬
day, the 4tli instant, the fifth excursion of the Section was made to
the “ Country of William Shenstone,” under the leadership of Mr. W.
Showell Rogers, M.A., LL.M. The party left Mason College at two
o’clock, in a four-horse break, and drove first to the Leasowes, the
birth-place and almost life-long residence of Shenstone, and where he
died. After inspecting the interesting old place and wandering
through its shady groves, they proceeded to St. Kenelm’s Chapel at
the foot of Clent Hills, where Mr. Rogers delivered a short address.
They then returned to Belie Yue, Halesowen, at the invitation of E.
Gem, Esq., J.P., where they were most hospitably and sumptuously
entertained by him. Mr. Rogers then read an able and eloquent paper
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES
239
on “ Slienstone’s Life and Works.” After the customary votes of
thanks, and a pleasant stroll in Mr. Gem’s grounds, the party returned
to Birmingham, bringing to a close, by about nine o’clock, a most
successful and agreeable excursion. General Meeting, July 21st. —
Mr. J. Pumphrey exhibited the Lancashire asphodel (Narthecium
ossifragum), from the English Lakes ; also abnormal specimens of the
Canterbury bells (Campanula Medium), a purple flower with three
perfect corollas one inside the other, and a cluster of white blossoms
on a much fasciated stem, the corollas variously united, the numbers
of the petals varying from 5 to 17 in each altered flower. Mr. A. W.
Haines exhibited a proliferous rose. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited
Potcntilla argentea, from Hagley, rare. Mr. W. P. Marshall (who
was heartily welcomed back after his tour in America) gave some
interesting accounts of his Natural History researches while in that
country, and amongst the many interesting specimens he exhibited
were the following : — Stem of verillia, 6£ feet long, from Puget
Sound, California, presented by the Californian Academy of Science,
as also a copy of their “ Proceedings ” ; Specimen of water, from the
Great Salt Lake, Utah; an entomostracon (Artemisia salina), from
the Great Salt Lake; blind cray fish, from the Mammoth Cave,
Kentucky ; also a blind insect, allied to the grasshoppers, but not
yet known to have been described ; swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio
rutulus), from Yosemite Valiev, and from Sierra Madre, California;
also a butterfly from Niagara ; dragon flies, from the Yosemite and
Chicago ; and three grasshoppers, from the Great Salt Lake. Also
the following plants: — Plantago officinalis (?), plantain grass, 3 feet
high ; JJrtica dioccca (?), stinging nettle, 8 feet high, stem fin. diameter ;
Sequoia gigantea, Californian Big Trees ; wood and bark, Mariposa ;
snow flower, Yosemite Valley Hoad ; cypress, from Montereyl,
California; original American cypress; oak galls, &c., with larvae
suspended by threads radially inside gall ; Chlorea vulupina, lichen,
from Big Trees in Mariposa Grove. The whole of his explanations
and descriptions were listened to with great attention, and the various
specimens were much admired. Mr. Marshall promised to exhibit
the remainder of his specimens, including geological ones, at the
meeting next Tuesday.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — June 22nd. The President, Mr. C. Beale, in the chair.
Mr. J. W. Neville exhibited specimens of copper and silver ores from
Caldera, South America ; Mr. Hawkes, the following fungi : — Puccinia
syngenesiarum, P. malvacearum, Urocystis pompliolygodes, and Uredo
miniata, the latter an early stage of the Burnet Brand; Mr. Madison,
specimen of travertine from the oolite of the Cotswold Hills. Under
the microscope, Mr. Tylar showed a section of reconsolidated
basalt from the Cakemore Brickworks, Rowley, also teeth of eel.
Mr. Hawkes then read a paper on “ The Flora of a Country Lane,” in
which he pointed out the fortunate situation of our great town in a
rich and beautiful country, where botanists need never despair of
finding abundant fields of labour. The lane selected leads from
Min worth Green to Water Orton. The paper, which only dealt with
the flowering plants, described the district as one yielding both heath
and marsh plants, the latter mostly predominating owing to the
lacustrine origin of the district. Lists were given of the more
striking botanical features, and the paper concluded by regretting the
necessity for the encroachments of the sewage farm. The paper
was illustrated by freshly gathered and mounted specimens. — June
240
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
29th. Mr. Deakin exhibited the nest and eggs of the golden-crested
wren, Regulus cristatus, taken near Kingswood ; Mr. Madison, speci¬
mens of Paludina vivipara and its variety unicolor ; Mr. Hawkes, the
following fungi : — Trichobasis cichoracearum, T. rubipo-vera , and Ustilago
antlierarum, the latter on the anthers of Lychnis vespertina. Under the
microscope, Mr. Hawkes showed a section of coltsfoot leaf through
cluster-cups and spermogones ; Mr. J. W. Neville, palate of octopus.
—July 6th. Mr. Madison exhibited specimens of Helix arbustorum,
from near Cheltenham, showing interesting variations ; Mr. Hawkes,
JPcidium epilobii and Trichobasis caricina ; Mr. Sanderson, a collection
of plants from Chapel-le-Dale, including Primula farinosa, Gymnadenia
conopsea , the fragrant orchis, Paris quadrifolia, and wood betony
infested with Puccinia betonicce. Under the microscope, Mr. Tylar
showed a section of iron furnace slag ; Mr. Hawkes, a section of leaf
of burnet, showing brand in situ on uredo spores. Mr. J. W. Neville
read a paper on practical microscopy — “Insects’ Mouths: how to
Dissect and Mount them,” which described the various types of
insects’ mouths and the best manner of dissecting them to show their
peculiar features, and the difficulty of dissecting some on account of
their smallness. Several objects were dissected, and the process of
manipulation shown, through carbolic acid into balsam, and after¬
wards exhibited. — July 13tli. Mr. Hawkes exhibited specimens of the
following fungi: — Uromyces intrusa and Aregma obtusatum ; Mr. Insley,
specimens of the fossil fruit of a coal plant, and some of the rarer
marine shells of the coal period in this district, comprising specimens
of lingula, productus, euomphalus, and ortlioceras; Mr. Madison, large
specimens of Limncea auricularia, from Earls wood. Under the micro¬
scope, Mr. Dunn showed a social rotifer, Lacinularia socialis; Mr.
Hawkes, a section of strawberry leaf through its rust and brand.
Mr. Betteridge presented to the Society a second instalment of birds
prepared for the cabinet in further illustration of his series of papers
on “The Birds of the District;” it consisted of sixteen specimens,
mostly summer visitors, and included the wood warbler, Sylvia sibila-
trix ; nightingale, Philomela luscinia ; and grasshopper warbler, Sali-
caria locustella.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G-.S.
— Monthly Meeting, Wednesday,. July 15th. Attendance, seven (three
ladies). The Chairman reported that at the field day on the previous
Wednesday, five members went to Narborougli Station, walked along
an interesting lane to Enderby, visited the old granite quarry, and
returned to Narborougli. Search was made at the quarry for several
rare plants reported to have been found there in past times, but with¬
out success. They are probably extinct. The following objects were
exhibited: — By Dr. Cooper, specimens of the grasses Festuca gigantea ,
elatior and loliacea ; by Mr. E. F. Cooper, F.L.S., a growing specimen
of Aspidium lonchitis , from Scotland, and dried specimens of Lepidium
campestre and Smithii , showing the small differences by which they are
distinguished ; by the Chairman, a specimen of the Common Bat,
Vespertilio pipistrellus, and several unusual garden flowers. Mr. W. W.
Vincent, of Houghton House, Stonygate, was elected a member of the
Section. The Chairman apologised for not being prepared to read the
paper announced, on “ Mr. John Plant’s Catalogue of Leicestershire
Mollusca.” It required more time than he had expected to put the
catalogue into modern form, but he hoped to have it ready for the
next meeting.
NIAGARA.
241
N I A G A B A
AND ITS PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS.*
BY W. P. MARSHALL, M.I.C.E.
The great Niagara Falls are the most remarkable in the
world on account of their enormous volume of water ; they
are exceeded in height two, three, and more times by other
great falls, but far exceed them in the mass of water flowing
over the falls. Niagara is the sole outlet of four out of the
five great lakes or inland seas that divide the United States
from Canada, and form the drainage of the enormous extent
of country surrounding them ; the largest of these lakes is
more than 400 miles in length and 100 miles in width, and
the whole together are as large in area as Great Britain.
The Niagara Falls have been known for two centuries,
having been first described by a traveller, Father Hennepin,
in 1678, who has fortunately left an effective sketch of the
appearance of the Falls at that time ; and a comparison of this
sketch with the present condition of the Falls gives very
interesting information about important changes that have
taken place during the last two centuries. The Niagara
Biver, in the middle of which the Falls are situated, forms
the connection between Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the
entire discharge from the four upper lakes, Erie, Huron,
Michigan, and Superior, passes through the Niagara Biver
into Lake Ontario, and thence by the Biver St. Lawrence
into the Atlantic Ocean below Quebec. The Niagara Biver
is about thirty miles in length, and falls 830 feet in its whole
course, one half of the total fall or 160 feet being in the
great Niagara Falls.
The first portion of the river from Lake Erie is divided
into two channels, which unite above the Falls in a quiet
stream nearly two miles wide ; this becomes contracted
to three-quarters of a mile in width at the Horse-shoe
Bapids immediately above the Falls, where the stream rushes
down a steep rocky descent, and falls as much as fifty feet in
the length of a mile, before reaching the precipice of 160 feet
in height that forms the great cataract of Niagara. The
water is very deep at the foot of the cataract, and 180 feet
in depth at three quarters of a mile distance ; and the force
of the falling water is so much absorbed in that great depth
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society. Read February 24tli, 1885.
242
NIAGARA.
of water into which it falls, and the velocity of the current is
so much reduced, that the disturbance of the surface is but
little felt at three-quarters of a mile distance from the foot of
the fall, and a small ferry boat is able to cross safely at that
point from bank to bank. When in the middle of the stream
this ferry boat affords the opportunity of a remarkably grand
and comprehensive view of the entire cataract.
The entire width of the water in the cataract is about
three-quarters of a mile, but the stream below rapidly narrows
to less then a quarter of a mile, and then enters a steep
contracted descent, where it falls 100 feet in a distance of
seven miles. The greater portion of this fall is in the first
two miles, where the stream is narrowed to only 220 feet
width, forming the Whirlpool Rapids ; the violent rush of
the enormous mass of water through this contracted gorge,
which is only one- fifteenth of the original width at the edge of
the cataract, causes great surface- waves that dash together and
throw up spray to a height of twenty and thirty feet. The
direction of the stream is then suddenly turned nearly at a
right angle, forming a great eddy at the bend, which is the
celebrated Whirlpool. During the whole of this seven miles
course below the cataract, the stream is confined between
steep lofty cliffs 200 feet in height above the water ; but
these cease suddenly at Queenston, and the remainder of
the course is a quiet open stream on to Lake Ontario.
The cataract is divided into two unequal portions
by a large island, Goat Island, of about a quarter of a
mile in width, and three-quarters of a mile in length,
standing between them ; the larger cataract is the Horse¬
shoe or Canadian Fall, which is nearly half a mile width
along the curved edge of the fall, and the American Fall on
the other side of Goat Island is nearly a quarter of a mile in
width. In addition, there is the small Centre Fall, about
70 feet in width, separated by a small rocky island, Luna
Island, from the American Fall. The greatest depth of water
in the falling stream is in the centre of the great Horse-shoe
Fall, and the thickness of the stream at the edge is as much
as twenty feet at that part ; in the other falls the thickness
of the sheet of water is probably from two-thirds to one-third
of that amount. A trial of the depth of water over the
Horse-shoe Fall was once made by allowing an old ship to be
carried over it, which drew eighteen feet of water (the
“ Michigan ” in 1827), and was found to pass over clear.
In these Falls there is an open space forming a cave
excavated behind the cataract and extending, probably,
the entire length of each fall. This arises from the
NIAGARA.
243
circumstance that although the upper half of the face of the
precipice over which the water falls is composed of hard lime¬
stone rock, the lower half is soft shale, which is being
continually eaten into and crumbled away by the action of
the spray from the cataract; this causes a cave to be excavated
that extends to forty feet depth, and gradually undermines the
upper rock, which breaks away when unsupported. The cave
can be entered at each extremity of the great falls, by passing
behind the sheet of falling water ; but this can only be done
fora short distance on account of the extreme violence of the
gusts of wind and spray. In the small centre fall, however,
there is the means of passing completely through the cave
behind the fall, which is called the “ Caveof the Winds,” and the
visitor, after getting through, returns outside in front of the
fall over an accumulation of fallen rocks that have broken
away at former times from the face of the rock above. Access
is obtained by means of spiral stairs down the face of the
rock on Goat Island, and the visitor has to prepare for the
purpose by a complete change of clothing to a thick woollen
bathing dress with an oilskin overcoat and hood. Goat Island
is reached from the shore by a bridge over the stream of the
American Fall, crossing a small island that stands in the
middle of the stream. On the opposite side of Goat Island
there is also a bridge reaching on to the Terrapin Rock, which
is in the Horse-shoe Fall, standing on the edge of the fall, and
which affords a grand view of the great cataract. At the upper
end of Goat Island there are three small islands, “The Three
Sisters,” connected by bridges, and reaching out one beyond
another into the Upper Rapids, of which a striking view is
obtained from these islands.
An effective practical illustration of the mass of water in
the Niagara Falls may be obtained from the dimensions of the
Birmingham Town Hall. Imagine a sheet of water descending
in front of the organ and extending in width all across from
wall to wall, with a thickness of stream as much as the
projection of the side galleries, but the height of the fall
nearly three times as great as the height of the hall
from floor to ceiling. This will represent the small centre
fall, behind which the visitor passes through the “Cave of the
Winds,” returning in front over the rocks at the foot of the
fall, and standing there looking up at the mighty mass of
water rushing headlong down close in front. Then imagine
tin’s great sheet of falling water extended to a continuous
width of nearly half a mile, and increased in thickness to
twenty feet, and that will represent the great Horse-shoe
Fall.
244
NIAGARA.
On tlie American shore the Cataract House Hotel stands
on the edge overlooking the Upper Rapids, and the most
satisfactory course for seeing the Niagara Falls is to commence
from that point, going direct on to Goat Island and to the
Terrapin Rock for a close sight of the Horse- shoe Fall, and on
to Luna Island for the American Fall, and to the “ Three
Sisters Islands ” for the Horse-shoe Rapids ; then descend the
stairs to go through the “ Cave of the Winds.” Next see the
other side of the American Fall from the shore, descend to
see the fall from the rocks at the bottom, and cross over by
the ferry, getting the view of both falls from the middle of the
river; then see the Horse-shoe Fall from the Canadian side,
and the view of the whole from the Suspension Bridge which
crosses the river at a quarter- of- a-mile below the American
Fall. The general views of the whole Falls are better
appreciated after having had the opportunity of seeing the
cataract from a close point of view, both at the top and from
below, in order to realise the enormous magnitude of the mass
of falling water ; the sense of which is dwarfed in effect when
seen first as a whole from a distance, on account of the very
great width (nearly three-quarters of a mile) over which the
F alls extend. The enormous mass of spray that is thrown up by
the cataract forms a remarkably striking feature, floating in
front of the Falls like a gauze veil that is continually changing
in form and position ; and in the case of the great Horse-slioe
Fall this cloud of spray rises up in the air sometimes to three
times the height of the Falls. The rainbows that are so
numerous and brilliant in the spray make a lovely picture.
In consequence of the continued wearing away of the shale
strata behind the cataract, and the breaking down of the
overhanging limestone rock, the whole face line of the Falls
is subjected to a gradual displacement, shifting it backwards
up the stream with a certain, though very slow, movement ;
and the result has been a definite change in the position of
the cataract during the time it has been known, and even
within the memory of present visitors (in 1850) a large mass
of rock at the outer extremity of the Horse-slioe Fall has
broken away and fallen to the bottom of the cliff. This mass,
called the “ Table Rock,” was completely undermined, and
projecting over the stream below the Falls, standing out in
front of the cataract and affording a very fine point of view ;
it fell suddenly, without previous warning, and a man upon
it at the moment had only just time to escape. It appears
from Hennepin’s sketch, made two centuries ago, that at that
time this Table Rock formed an island at the edge of the
cataract, like the Terrapin Rock at the present time at the
NIAGARA.
245
other extremity of the same fall, and a portion of the stream
passed behind the island and formed a separate small fall at
right angles to the main Falls. It is known also that at the
present time the centre portion of the Horse-slioe Fall has
become more deeply indented than formerly, modifying the
previous liorse-shoe form that originated the name of the
fall.
On considering the whole circumstances, the conclusion
seems irresistible that the Horse- shoe Fall has gradually cut
its way all across the front of Goat Island from the end of the
American Fall to its present position, and that the American
Fall has not materially changed during that time, except in
getting partially indented in the centre and somewhat horse¬
shoe in form, from the same cause that has given its form to
the Horse-slioe Fall, namely the greater depth and force of
current in the middle of the stream than at the sides.
Further, the conclusion seems irresistible that the same
cutting away action had previously carried the Horse-slioe
Fall all across the face of the present American Fall, forming
in its course the precipice over which that now falls ; and
that in still earlier times the Horse-slioe Fall had similarly
cut its way all through the seven miles of the present gorge
from the face of the cliffs at Queenston, where the
cataract must have commenced. The progress during
the last two centuries is estimated at about a foot per
year ; but as regards the future progress of Niagara, it
lias to be noticed that when the Falls have receded another
mile, they will have reached the open space behind Goat
Island, and at a second mile distance the river is nearly two
miles wide, so that the fall will be then three times the total
width of the present Falls, and the thickness of the sheet of
w7ater proportionately less. The consequence of this will be
a proportionate reduction in the wearing action of the
water, and in the rate of the receding of the fall.
This rate will be also further reduced by the circumstance
that as the chief breaking down force in action in cutting
back the present Falls arises from the perishing of the
supporting shale under the top limestone rock, causing this
rock to be undermined and break off in masses, and these
strata are not horizontal but dip backwards, at an inclination
of about twenty-five feet per mile, when a distance of about
three miles back has been reached, this cause will have ceased
from the cropping out of the strata.
Some other circumstances will thus intervene to affect
the result, complicating the question and making it a very
interesting one for consideration. The height of fall of the
246
NIAGARA.
cataract will be increased by the addition of the fifty feet
that the stream now falls in passing the upper rapids. The
excavation of the new receding channel may not extend
across the entire two miles width of the river, and may
probably be limited to a central portion of greatest depth and
force of current ; in that case the American Fall on the
opposite side of >at Island from the new excavated channel
may be expected to be run dry, and to show only a bare
precipice in place of the present cataract, and the “ Cave
of the Winds,” though still a cave, would lose both its water
and winds. When the cataract recedes still further to the
point where the stream divides into two channels it will
depend upon the force of current and the nature of the
bottom in each whether the cataract recedes along both
streams equally or not.
The volume of water that is constantly rushing over the
Niagara Falls has been estimated at about a million cubic feet
per second, or about six million gallons per second. An idea of
this quantity of water can be formed from the size of the Bir¬
mingham Town Hall ; imagine the interior of the hall entirely
cleared from galleries and orchestra, leaving the bare external
walls, then this quantity of water would fill it from floor to
ceiling twice over every second. Some idea of the probable
correctness of the estimated discharge of a million cubic feet per
second may be readily formed from the following general dimen¬
sions : — 2100 feet width for the Horse-shoe Fall, 1100 feet width
for the American ball, and 70 feet for the Centre Fall; and
then taking twenty feet for the thickness of the stream of
water at the Horse-slioe Fall, and assuming two-thirds that
depth at the American Fall, and one-third at the Centre
Fall, a total sectional area of about 60,000 square feet is
obtained for the stream of water at the edge of the Falls ;
then this area of stream with a velocity taken at twelve
miles an hour, or eighteen feet per second, gives a discharge
of about a million cubic feet per second. At the ferry below
the foot of the Falls, where the depth of water is 180 feet,
and the width about a quarter of a mile, the same quantity
of water per second gives a current running at only about two
and a half miles an hour, and slow enough to allow of being
crossed by a small rowing boat.
In an interesting paper on Niagara Falls which was given
at the recent Montreal Meeting of the British Association, it
was pointed out that the peculiar conditions that are present
there, namely a hard stratum forming the upper part of the
precipice over which the cataract falls, with a soft stratum
forming the lower portion that is continually being caved out,
THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF THE CHOLERA BACILLUS. 247
leaving the projecting hard rock at the top, is really the
essential condition requisite for the formation of all cataracts ;
and when the face of the precipice is uniform in hardness
from top to bottom the inevitable result of wear is a gradual
uniform slope forming a rapid and not a cataract. The
hard rock stratum of Niagara Falls crops out upon the face
of the Queenston Cliff, where it is twenty dive feet in thick¬
ness and 250 feet in height from the water ; and it follows
that in the origin of these Falls they were nearly 100 feet
greater in total height than at the present time, and had
the same cataract form in the upper portion, but probably
the form of a rapid in the lower portion on account of the
soft stratum not extending completely to the bottom ; also
that in the future of these Falls the present cataract character
will ultimately become lost, and the whole be reduced to a
rapid.
THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF THE CHOLERA
BACILLUS *
BY FRANCIS FOWKE, F.R.M.S.
During the outbreak of cholera, in 1849, a sub-committee
of the Bristol Medico-Cliirurgical Society was appointed to
investigate the nature of cholera by means of microscopical
observations. Two of the sub-committee, Drs. Brittan and
Swayne, each separately examined the rice water evacuations,
which had been obtained from two patients in the cholera
hospital, with microscopical objectives of 1/8th and 1/nth, by
Powell and Lealand, and Ross, respectively, and they describe
as follows, the cells, annular bodies, or corpuscles, which they
observed: — “They vary very much in size and apparent
structure during the different stages of their development.
The smallest are of the same size as, or even much less than,
blood-globules, so that to show them properly an object-glass
of high magnifying power, such as one-eightli, one-twelftli, or
one-sixteenth of an inch is required ; their walls refract light
powerfully ; fragments of them present the appearance of
small segments of circles .” The italics are mine. Dr. Budd
found identical bodies in drinking water, obtained from cholera
districts, and Dr. Brittan also from the air of infected places.
* Abstract of paper read before the Birmingham Natural History
and Microscopical Society, May 19th, 1885,
248 THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF THE CHOLERA BACILLUS.
Dr. Kocli thus describes the cholera bacillus in his reports
on the cause of the cholera-epidemic, presented to the German
Government, as the result of investigations on the excreta,
and on the dead bodies themselves, of cholera patients in
Egypt and in India. The internal organs, lungs, liver, spleen,
kidneys, etc., as well as the ejecta, were found to swarm with
microbia of a great variety of kinds ; in all cases was found
one definite kind of bacillus. This was found in largest
quantities in the tubular glands of the intestines, especially
between the epithelium and the membrane of the gland.
This particular form was also never found in the intestines or
in the ejecta of those not suffering from cholera.
The cholera bacillus is not quite straight, but is somewhat
curved, in the manner of a comma, or even nearly semi¬
circular. In cultivation, there often arise S-shaped figures,
and shorter or longer slightly wavy lines.
As to the question whether their presence is simply due to
the presence of the choleraic disease, which promotes their
growth and development, or whether they are themselves the
cause of cholera, Dr. Koch is very strongly of opinion
that the latter is the true explanation, since they are never
found either in the organs or the ejecta except in the case of
patients who have died of, or are suffering from, cholera.
They are also found in that organ which is the seat of the
disease, namely, the intestines; in the first feculent ejecta,
the bacilli occur only in small quantities, while in the liquid
odourless ejecta they occur in enormous quantities, all other
kinds of bacteria being almost entirely absent ; they diminish
in number as the excreta become more feculent, and have en¬
tirely disappeared when the patient is completely restored to
health.
If this description is compared with that of Drs. Brittan
and S wayne, who examined upwards of sixty cases, there is
a remarkable resemblance. Dr. Brittan found some peculiar
corpuscles to be constant in the intestinal discharges of cholera
patients ; and similar bodies, but smaller, though well
defined, were discovered by him in the matters vomited; they
appeared larger and more compound in the dejections ; de¬
creased as the disease progressed favourably ; and vanished
with the disappearance of the symptoms. Dr. Brittan after¬
wards examined, under the microscope, specimens of healthy
fecal matter, and the fluid stools of typhus, typhoid, and
other diseases ; but failed to detect anything corresponding
with the peculiar corpuscles belonging to cholera dejections,
though he discovered these bodies in cases of severe choleraic
THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF THE CHOLERA BACILLUS. 249
diarrhoea. From these observations, he inferred that the
bodies in question were peculiar to cholera, and bore some
essential relation to the disease.
For comparison are appended some of the figures by Drs.
Brit tan and S wayne, and others which have been very kindly
lent me by Dr. Klein, which illustrate the chapters on cholera
in the new edition of his work on “ Micro-organisms.” It is
Dr. Klein’s * view that the bacillus forms rings and splits off,
forming the cholera bacillus of Koch, which is also known as
the “ Comma Bacillus,” and is a segment of a circle, as des¬
cribed by Drs. Brittan and Swayne. After carefully com¬
paring the evidence of the description and the woodcuts, I
venture to claim for Drs. Brittan and Swayne the priority of
the discovery of the cholera bacillus. Then, as now, the dis¬
covery received great opposition, a sub-committee of the
College of Physicians was appointed, who reported against it,
but with insufficient evidence to overthrow the demonstrations.
My reasons for 'bringing forward this page of forgotten
history in the study of the disease of cholera, is not only the
interest attached to the way in which the question of the
fungoid character of the disease was medically and publicly
discussed in 1849, but principally to show, as far as can be
now ascertained from the above report, that the comma-
bacillus was known and recognised so far back as thirty-five
years since, the discovery being made by two Englishmen,
Drs. Brittan and 8 wayne.
n
O
Cholera-cells in vomited matter,
from Case 5 (first series), a, Cholera-
cells; b, Squamous and columnar
epithelium ; c, ltound, clear, oily glob¬
ules ; d, Starch-grain. Magnified 420
diameters. Dr. Swayne.
Drs. Brittan and Swayne’s illustra¬
tions of cholera bodies from vomited
matter, showing rings. Magnification
not stated, but drawn under Powell
and Lealand, 1/12th objective.
* See also Dr. Watson Clieyne, Brit. Med. Journal , No. 1270, May
2nd, 1885, page 878, fig. 6.
250
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
Dr. Klein’s illustration,
showing rings. Magnified
about 700 diameters.
Dr. Klein.
Dr. Swayne.
For further details see British Medical Journal of March
21st, page 589.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.G.S., F.C.S.
PART I.
( Continued from page 213.)
Description of Beds in the “ Spinatus” Zone.
I have found it more difficult to correlate the beds of the
“ Spinatus ” Zone than those of the “ MargaritatusJ because
there are very few sections in which the beds just below the
rock-bed can be seen, and these few are long distances apart.
It is possible that the rock-bed (“ B ”) is the sole representative
of the “ Spinatus" Zone in one or two places.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
251
Bed “ E.”
This bed lias been placed as the lowest of tlie “ Spinatus”
Zone, not so much for the fossils it contains as for those it
does not. It appears to be a marly, micaceous clay, very
sandy in some places, and containing concretionary ferru¬
ginous nodules, which latter, like the bed itself, are rather
unfossiliferous. The thickness at Byfield is 2ft. 7in. ; but
what I regard as the same bed is about 7ft. or more at Badby,
and more than 13ft. at Watford. Exposures of the bed are
uncommon, and fossils seem rare, so that I can give no
useful list. j3ED << j) >>
This is a ferruginous, sandy limestone, very shaly at
Byfield and Watford, more compact at Badby and near
Northampton, but in all these places abounding in fossils.
It is only 4m. thick at Byfield, but is 2ft. 3in. at Watford,
and 3ft. to 4ft. at Badby. I believe this bed in several places
immediately underlies the rock-bed, forming with it only one
mass of stone, the usual intervening bed of clay being absent.
Fossils :
Ammonites margaritatus
(rare) . Watford, Milton.
Belemnites paxillosus . Watford.
Belemnites . . Watford, Badby, Milton.
Cryptamia consobrina . Badby.
Pleurotomaria heliciformis Watford.
Ostrea cymbium (abun¬
dant) . Badby, Watford, Byfield.
Ostrea sportella . Watford.
Pecten liasinus (abundant) Byfield, Badby, Watford, Milton.
Pecten textorius . Badby.
Pecten cequivalvis . Watford, Badby.
Limea acuticosta . Byfield, Watford, Milton.
Leila ( [sp . ?) . Milton.
Astarte stria to -sulcata . Badby.
Protocarclium truncatum
(abundant) . Byfield, Badby, Watford, Milton.
Cartlinia antigua . Badby, Watford, Milton.
Tancredia (sp. ?) . Watford.
Pholadomya ambigua . Badby.
Pleuromya costata . Badby.
Terebratula punctata . Badby, Milton.
Rhynchonella tetrahedra. . . Badby.
Pentacrinus (sp. ?) . Badby.
Cidaris (spine) . Milton.
Serpula . Watford.
252
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
Bed “C.”
It is even more uncommon to find this bed exposed than
“ E,” and I cannot point to a single place in the county where
it can be now seen. There was a pretty good section of it near
to Byfield, when the East and West Junction Kailway was
being made, and Mr. E. A. Walford, F.Gf.S., has described
it* as a marly clay, containing concretionary ferruginous
nodules, having a thickness of 1ft. Gin. No doubt this and
two or three of the lower beds are what can be seen at
Market Harboro’, near to the railway station.
Bed “ B.”
The Rock-Bed.
This is undoubtedly the most important bed of the
Middle Lias. Its usual character is that of a hard, calcareous,
and ferruginous rock, varying in colour from a bluish green
to a reddish brown, according to the amount of weathering it
has experienced. The change in colour is due to a change in
the condition of the iron present in it. The rock is often
sufficiently hard and compact to form a good building stone,
and many villages have been built of it, but of late it has
been almost entirely superseded by bricks for such purposes ;
in like manner it has been replaced by slag and Hartshill
stone for public road-making, though it is still used at times
for private roads and sometimes of course for building.
The rock is also at times sufficiently ferruginous to be
worked as an ironstone, the calcareous matter present being
considered an advantage by acting as a flux.
It is sometimes so sandy that it can scarcely be dis¬
tinguished from the Northampton sand by its mineralogical
characters only ; this is the case around Byfield. Fossils
are exceedingly abundant, and it is common to find bands
made up almost entirely of ossicles and fragments of shells , or
of shells of R hynchonella, or less commonly of Terebratula.
Usually the fossils contain beautifully crystallized calcspar,
though where the bed is very sandy the fossils are only casts.
Large Belemnites are common, and serve to distinguish it
from the Northampton sand, in which few are found.
In the lower part of the bed flattened nodules or concre¬
tions of argillaceous limestone are at times met with ; they
are rather abundant at Bugbrook.
* “ On some Middle and Upper Lias Beds in the Neighbourhood of
Banbury,” by Edwin A. Walford.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
253
The rock-bed is the great water-bearing bed of the county
to the West and South-west of Northampton, and there are
probably some hundreds of springs and wells in it used for
domestic purposes. The making of wells has facilitated the
examination of the rock in districts where it does not come to
the surface. As I propose to devote a section entirely to the
consideration of the water-bearing capabilities of this bed, it
is not necessary for me to do more here than call attention to
the remarkable uniformity of this characteristic of it.
The thickness of the rock-bed varies very little, com¬
paratively, in the west and south-western parts of the county ;
in most cases it is between 5 and 6 feet, but near Byfield
about 11 feet. In the northern parts of the county it gets
very thin, and may be absent altogether in some places.
Sections of the rock-bed are numerous, so I have omitted
giving the localities of the fossils. A more complete list of
the fossils, too, will appear in the section dealing with the
Palaeontology of the Middle Lias.
Fossils.
Ammonites spinatus.
Ammonites Holandrei.
Belemnites paxillosus , and others.
Cryptcdma consobrina .
Eucyclus concinnus.
Pleurotomaria sp. (?)
Actcconina Ibninsterensis.
Ostrea submar garitacea .
Ostrea sportella.
Ostrea cymbium.
Plica tula spinosa.
Pecten ceq uiva l vis.
Pecten liasinus.
Pecten dentatus.
Pecten textorius.
Rhinites Dared.
Bed
Lima punctata.
Lima H ermanni.
Macrodon liasinus.
Astarte striato-sulcata.
Ca rdinia concinna .
Spiriferina oxygona.
1 'e i 'ebra tu l a pun eta ta .
Terebratula Edwardsi.
Wald heimia indentcita .
W a Idheimia resupina ta .
Rhynchonella tetrahedra.
Rhynchonella tetrahedra , var.
Northamptonensis.
Aerpulm.
Pentacrinus.
“ A.”
The Transition Bed.
This bed in Northamptonshire is usually a rather thin
band of gray, friable, sandy marl, passing upwards into a red
sandy clay. The lower part only is fossiliferous, but that
extremely so, though most of the fossils are small. The
marl appears to be made up chiefly of rounded calcareous
grains ; it effervesces considerably with acids, and weathers
254
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
reddish-brown on exposure. This lower portion sometimes
passes into a hard and compact limestone, but even then,
apart from the fossils it contains, it is easily identified.
The thickness of the bed seldom exceeds six inches, but
near to Northampton it reaches fourteen inches.
Considering the thinness of the bed, the number of
distinct genera and species of fossils is very large. The
characteristic ammonite, A. acntus (Tate), is nearly every¬
where abundant, and yasteropods must have swarmed in the
shallow sea in which it was deposited. Most of the fossils of
the “ Spinatus ” Zone are found in this bed, hence it is usually
included in the Middle Lias. Rhynchonellce , Ammonites , and
Belernnites are common, but they are all small, as though the
conditions were unsuitable to their proper development.
Serpuke are rather abundant, and of large size.
The list of fossils given below is by no means a complete
one, but only a list of such as can be found in most places,
where the bed is developed, and since these places are rather
numerous I have omitted giving the localities from which the
fossils have been obtained, as in the case of the rock-bed.
Fossils : —
Pecten textorius.
Pecten ccquiralvis .
Pecten liasinus.
Cucullcea Mimster i.
Astarte Voltzii.
Astarte stria to -silica ta .
Cardinia p kite a.
Ceromya (Venus) bombax.
Pihyn chonella tetrahedra .
Rhynchonella tetrahedra , var.
Northamptonensis.
Ditrypa etalensis.
Ditrypa circinata.
A ctceonina 1 Iminsterensis .
Ammonites acutus.
A mmo nites Hoi an drei.
Belernnites.
Cerith ium ferreum.
Cerithium liassicum.
Chemnitzia foveolata.
Chemnitzia semitecta .
Fluey elm Gaudryanus .
Phasianella turbinata .
Turbo linctus.
Trochus lineatus.
Cryptcenia consobrina.
Cryptamia expansa.
Conditions of Deposit of the Middle Lias.
That the various members of the Lias — Lower, Middle,
and Upper — are conformable one with the other is generally
admitted ; there is no great break in the succession of life at
any part of the series, although considerable changes occur
in the nature of the sediment.
From the lithological characters of the part of the Lias
we have been considering (ferruyinous limestones and sandy
clays containiny concretionary ferruyinous nodules) as well as
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
255
from the fossil contents of the upper beds, I think there
was a shallowing of the seas taking place in this district
from actual elevation of the sea-bed. The sandy nature of
the beds, the large amount of iron often found in the rock-
bed, and the common occurrence of wood in the same, may,
I think, be taken as indications of nearer, and, therefore,
recently formed land. This gradual elevation continued
probably till some part of the rock-bed protruded from the
water, and suffered the erosion which it exhibits in a few
places ; other portions meanwhile remained still under
water, and received the shallow water deposits which we have
called the Transition Bed.
Professor Judd (“ Geology of Rutland,” p. 65) observes
that “ When the junction of the Upper Lias with the
Marlstone Rock-bed is seen, the latter often presents the
appearance of having suffered erosion before the deposition
of the latter and also “ Taking into account all the
characters presented by the Marlstone Rock-bed, and
remembering the evidence of shallow water conditions which
the beds immediately lying upon it exhibit, it seems probable
that an interval occurred between the deposition of the
Marlstone and the Upper Lias ; but when we remember the
fact of the passage of certain species from one to the other,
especially of' the Planulate Ammonites, it is clear this interval
was not one of long duration.”
Mr. E. A. Walford, E.G.S. (“ On some Middle and Upper
Lias Beds in the neighbourhood of Banbury”) says : — “ The
shelly band at the top of the rock-bed, at Aston-le-Wall
in particular, is made up chiefly of broken and rolled
Belemnites, separated valves of Rhynchonellas, and detached
Pentacrinite joints, suggesting an interval of cessation
in deposition of sedimentary matter prior to the formation of
the next layer. One fragment I have of the rock-bed shows
an eroded surface in the hollows of which are numbers of
valves of Astarte striato-sulcata (Romer), for the most part in
an upright position, and so packed as to suggest the necessity
of a strong current to place them so. The Transition Bed
generally at Aston presents evidences of littoral conditions
in the worn and fragmentary character of many of the shells.”
It is probable that the shallow sea in which the Transition
Bed was deposited was not entirely cut off from the deeper sea
in which the Upper Lias was developing, because distinctly
Upper Lias fossils are found mixed with Middle Lias ones in
this bed, though there is a great preponderance of the latter.
( To be continued. )
256
ON STARCH.
ON STARCH.*
BY EDWARD FRANCIS, F.C.S.
The substance of plants is not homogeneous, but is com¬
posed of small structures termed cells. Each cell is a whole
complete in itself, at least for a time, and is composed of
solid, soft, and fluid layers. The formative material which
closely lines the walls of the cells, and which is soft and
inelastic, was termed by Mold, in 1846, protoplasm. It is
an albuminous matter, and consists of protein compounds,
fat, mineral salts, and water. It dissolves in dilute caustic
potash, from which solution casein may be separated by
acetic acid. This substance is analogous to the fibrin of
animals and the gluten of vegetables. The cell wall con¬
sists of cellulose, one of the many liydro-carbons. The
protoplasm encloses cavities which are filled with a watery
fluid termed cell-sap. In all the cells of the higher plants
the protoplasm encloses a rounded body, the substance of
which is similar to that of the protoplasm itself. This body
is the nucleus. By the formation of grains of chlorophyll
the protoplasm becomes differentiated into a colourless,
homogeneous part, and into smaller distinct green portions
imbedded in the former, the grains of chlorophyll. This
differentiation may take place in the dark, when yellow grains
only are produced; but, on the contrary, the chemical process
by which the green colour is produced has a complicated
dependence on light. The yellow and orange rays cause the
greatest amount of assimilation, and the violet and indigo
least.
The assimilation of plants depends upon the decomposition
of carbon di- oxide by the chlorophyll of the cells, which
process is rendered perceptible by the exhalation of oxygen in
volume nearly equal to that of the carbon di- oxide absorbed.
The yellow chlorophyll grains formed in the dark are small,
but become considerably longer and green on exposure to
light. It is only after they have assumed this green colour
and under the continued action of light that they form starch,
which becomes imbedded in the chlorophyll grains. This
change may be represented by the equation —
6C02 -f- 5H20 = C6H10O6 -f- 602.
From which it is seen that twelve] volumes of carbon dioxide
produce twelve of free oxygen gas. When cells whose
* Read before the Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, February 3rd,
1885.
ON STARCH.
257
chlorophyll has produced starch under the influence of light
are again placed in the dark, the starch is absorbed and
disappears completely from the chlorophyll grains. From
these facts it appears that the formation of starch is a
function of chlorophyll exposed to light, and its disap¬
pearance a function of chlorophyll not exposed to light.
Kraus found that in plants of Spirogyra which had lost
starch after exposure to dark, the formation of that sub¬
stance in the chlorophyll grains recommenced in five minutes
in direct sunlight, and in two hours in diffused daylight.
Starch alwa}rs appears in an organised form as solid
grains having a concentrically stratified structure, which
arise at first as minute masses in the protoplasm, and con¬
tinue to grow while lying on it ; their growth stops when
they cease to be in contact with the protoplasm and when
they have reached the cell-sap. Every grain of starch
consists of a hydro-carbon, water, and a small quantity of
mineral matter (ash). The hydro-carbon has the same per¬
centage composition as cellulose, to which it bears a
strong resemblance. The starch, however, occurs in two
forms in each grain : one easily soluble, which yields a fine
blue with free iodine in solution (granulose), and the other,
which in its composition resembles the cell wall substance
(starch-cellulose). These occur together at every point of
the grain ; if the granulose is extracted the cellulose remains
as a skeleton, which shows the structure of the grain, its
total weight being only two to six per cent of the whole.
Since granulose preponderates, iodine solution colours the
whole blue. Starch grains have always more or less rounded
forms, and their internal organisation has reference to a
centre of formation lying within themselves. The young
grains appear to be always spherical, but since their growth
is scarcely ever regular, their form changes to ovoid, ovate,
rounded polyhedral, &c. Careful microscopical examination
shows that each grain has water distributed throughout its
organisation ; every point contains water as well as cellulose
and granulose. Usually the amount of water increases from
without inwardly, and attains a maximum at a fixed point.
The cohesion and density decrease with the increase of
water, as also the index of refraction, on which partly
depends the power of perceiving these properties. The outer¬
most and least watery layer is succeeded by a sharply defined
watery layer, and so on until the nucleus is reached, which
is a very watery part surrounded by a less watery one.
Although every layer is disposed around this centre, yet they
are not continuously developed around the whole nucleus.
258
ON STARCH.
In small spherical grains this is the case, but when the
number of layers increases with growth, they increase in
width more rapidly in the direction of the axis of the grain.
The growth of starch grains is accomplished exclusively by
intussusception, new particles being thrust in between the
layers already existing both radially and tangentially, the
proportion of water at the particular places being at the same
time changed.
Classification of Starches.
The examination of starches by the microscope requires
practical study ; drawings and descriptions must be used as
guides merely. It is not easy to preserve starches mounted
as microscopical objects. Glycerine is the best medium.
A high magnifying power is not generally required, except
for such as rice and pepper. The best powers are J, and
with micrometer eye-piece. The value of the micrometer
scale must be of course ascertained by comparing the
divisions with those of a stage micrometer graduated in
hundredths and thousandths of an inch. In illuminating
the object oblique light is best, when the rings are best seen.
The polariscope is very useful, as many starches yield black
crosses, which are characteristic, e.g ., potato. Dr. Muter
has arranged the starches in five classes, according to the
following characters : —
Class I. — The liilum and concentric rings clearly visible ;
all the starches oval or ovate. This group includes tons les
mois, potato, arrowroot, calumba, orris, galangal, and tur¬
meric.
(1.) Tous les mois or Canna arrowroot. The granules
vary from *0037 to *00185 inch. In shape they
are ovoid when small. The largest are oval, with
pointed ends. Hilum annular eccentric ; rings
incomplete, very fine, narrow ; with polarised light
the cross is more regular than that of potato starch.
(2.) Arrowroot (Jamaica) from Maranta arundinacea gran¬
ules ovoid, flattened, tending to triangular form
in larger and round in smaller, rings visible and
numerous, not very marked ; size, *00138 inch.
(3.) Potato ( Solanum tuberosum ). Granules vary in
shape and size, some small and circular, others
large, ovate, and oyster shaped. Hilum annular,
and rings incomplete. In large grains, rings
numerous and distinct. Size, *0027 to *00148 inch.
Eccentricity averages
ON STARCH.
259
Class II. — The concentric rings all but invisible ; liilum
more or less stellate. To this group belong the starches of
bean, pea, maize, lentil, clari, and nutmeg. The nucleus of
the Leguminos® is seen usually as along, more or less stellate,
air-filled black hollow. The rings are rendered visible by
treatment with chromic acid. The starches from bean, pea,
and lentil are in shape oval, oblong, and almost identical ;
but pea and bean have stellate liilum, whilst lentil has a long
depression. The size of bean starch is *00135 inch, of pea
•00111 to ’00007 inch, and lentil *00111 inch.
The starch of maize varies in form, round to polyhedral,
and the size is -00074 inch.
Class III. — Starches having both the concentric rings and
liilum invisible in most granules. This important class
includes wheat, barley, rye, chestnut, acorn, and a variety
derived from medicinal plants, jalap, rhubarb, senega, &c.
Wheat starch is extremely variable in size, having from
•00185 to *00009 inch. The granules are circular, or nearly
so, and flattened. Polarised light shows a cross but not well
with water as a medium.
Barley granules are fairly uniform in size, *00073 in., and
in form are slightly angular circles. Acorn granules
•00074 in. diameter, and almost round ; eccentricity
The others call for no special remark, and are distinguished
chiefly by measurement.
Class IV. — All the granules truncated at one end. This
class includes sago, tapioca, and arum, besides several drugs,
viz. : — belladonna, colchicum, scammony, podophyllum, can-
ella, aconite, cassia. Sago starch is found in oval ovate
granules, and *0026 to *00111 in. in size. There is a curved
liilum at the convex end and rings are faint. Tapioca being
prepared on hot plates has the starch grains altered from
their original shape. They appear in groups of two to eight
granules each, showing a little circle with a broad flat zone
around it. In form they vary from that of a kettle-drum to a
sugar loaf, a conical hollow appearing in the nucleus. Size,
*00074 to *00055 in. Each granule is truncated in one facet.
Arum starch has two facets. The starches from the medicinal
plants are similar, but are best distinguished by their
measurements.
Class V. — In this class all the granules are angular in
form. It includes oats, tacca, rice, and pepper, as well as
ipecacuanha. Oat starch is mostly polyhedral, being irregu¬
larly three to six-sided and *00037 in. in size. Bice starch
has a starred liilum, visible under a power of £ to
260
ON STARCH.
objective. Measurements, *0008 to *0002 inch. Pepper starch
is only distinguished from that of rice by its smaller size and
uniformity of granule.
Chemistry of Starch.
Starch, chemically speaking, belongs to the carbo-hydrates,
sub-class amyloses, and contains carbon, combined with H and
O, in the proportion to form water. The carbo-hydrates are
divided into three classes —
Glucoses.
Saccharoses. Amyloses.
Composition C6 H12 06
or Cia (Ha 0)i2
Grape Sugar
(dextrose)
Fruit Sugar
cl2 H
22 On
Oia (H2 0)n
Cane Sugar
(saccharose)
Milk Sugar
(lactose)
C<5 Hl0 Og
Oia (Ha 0)10
Starch
Dextrin
Inulin
Cellulose
Gum.
The close connection between starch and the sugars is seen
from the above table, and will readily explain how starch is
converted by absorption of one molecule of water to form
cane sugar and two molecules to form glucose in plants.
Glucose readily loses water to re-form starch, which becomes
stored up in the plant as reserve material ; when starch is
acted upon by dilute mineral acids, chloride of zinc, and by
certain ferments, diastase, saliva, yeast, &c., it is changed
into sugar. In these reactions starch takes up the elements
of water, and is resolved into glucose and dextrin.
H20 -f- 8 C6 Hi0 Og — C6 Hi2 06 2 C6 Hi0 Og
Glucose. Dextrin.
Hence, glucose, when required in considerable quantity, is
always prepared from starch. When starch is heated with
water near to boiling point, the granules burst and disappear,
producing a thick gelatinous mass, slightly opalescent from
the shreds of fine membrane — the starch cellulose of the
granules. By the addition of large quantities of water the
solution may be made to pass through filter paper. It is
doubtful whether the starch is really soluble — it is more
likely to be merely suspended in a swollen, transparent,
insoluble jelly. Again, when gelatinous starch is boiled with
a small quantity of hydrochloric, sulphuric, or indeed any
acid, it speedily loses its consistency and becomes thin and
limpid from having suffered conversion into a soluble gum¬
like substance called dextrin, having the same percentage
composition as starch. If the boiling is carried on for some
time a further change is noticed, and dextro-glucose is
produced. One of the most interesting changes of starch
into glucose is produced by diastase, a peculiar nitrogenised
principle found in malt. The gelatinous starch is warmed to
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG. 261
71°C., and a small portion of malt in tepid water is added;
in a few minutes the starch becomes limpid and clear, and
glucose may he tested for by Feliling’s copper solution.
3C6Hl0O6 + H20 = C6Hl206 + 2C6Hl0O6
Glucose. Dextrin.
Starch is insoluble in cold water and alcohol. Lime forms a
weak compound with it, and free iodine and bromine com¬
bine with it to form coloured compounds. The iodine reaction
is always used to show the presence of starch in vegetable
tissue, and further it is used very extensively by chemists as
an indication of the termination of certain reactions in the
quantitative estimation of substances where potassic iodide is
reduced.
DEEP BORING NEAR BIRMINGHAM.
A boring which is being executed at King’s Heath by
Messrs. Le Grand and Sutcliff, of 100, Bunliill Row, London,
is of considerable interest as affording a good section of the
division of the Triassic strata.
Drift ------ 62 feet.
Red marls ----- 160 ,,
Ditto, with gypsum - - 123 ,,
Red and blue marls, with gypsum - 97 ,,
Thus the total depth now reached is 442 feet. In the letter
from the firm by whom the boring is being executed (and to
whom I am much indebted for the particulars), it is pointed
out that the range of the gypsum bands, over a thickness of
220 feet (or rather less when the dip of the strata is taken
into account), is somewhat unusual. I shall hope to be able
to give particulars of the completion of this boring in another
number.
W. J. H.
SOME RECENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE
STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG.*
BY T. H. WALLER, B.A., B.SC. LOND.
The microscopical structure of the great mass of basic
igneous rock which we locally call Rowley Rag was described
by Mr. Allport in the “ Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society” for 1874, p. 548, so that on the general subject I
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society, read before the Meeting March 24th, 1885.
262 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG.
have no need to say more than that the constituent minerals
are augite, a triclinic felspar, olivine and its decomposition
products, with apatite, magnetite, and ilmenite subordinate
in quantity but almost never failing in any part of the mass.
In a number of thin sections which I have from time to
time prepared, I have, however, happened upon a few points
of rather special interest relating to the structure of the
mass in different parts ; points, too, which have been attract¬
ing a good share of attention during the last few months as
throwing some light on the causes which have brought about
the curious changes in mineral character among the products
of volcanic action in many districts when this is continued
over long periods of time.
In one or two of my specimens there is a distinctly
microporphyritic structure to be observed ; large felspar
crystals are scattered through a ground composed of very
small crystals of felspar and augite, with a very large quantity
of magnetite disseminated through the mass. This large
quantity of magnetite is also found in a specimen from
Tansley Hill, near Dudley, where the minute felspar crystals
in a few places show most characteristic signs of the mass
having been in motion after they were formed. * They lie in
streams, their lengths being to a good extent parallel to each
other, while the grains of augite are of very small dimen¬
sions indeed.
There are very curious differences hi the texture and
composition of portions of the mass even close to each other.
In the space of a circle of one inch in diameter, sudden
changes from very coarse grain to quite fine may be observed.
In some sections there is no trace of olivine, in others it
forms a very important part ; apatite is usually much more
abundant in the coarse-grained parts than anywhere else ;
augite sometimes occurs in well-defined crystals showing
eight-sided sections ; sometimes it only fills up the spaces
between the long blades of felspar.
I have examined the felspar by Szabo’s flame reactions
and find that the specimens tried were labradorite, but, of
course, this does not exclude the possibility of the presence
of other varieties.
Mr. Allport, in the paper mentioned above, describes
certain red veins or masses, “ evidently contemporaneous,”
as occurring in the midst of the black stone, and it is to
these and certain grey veins which prove to be closely related
to the red ones that I particularly wish to call your attention
this evening. In a recent visit to the Hailstone Hill quarry
I was fortunate enough to obtain specimens of one of these
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG. 263
grey veins in such a good state of preservation that by both
chemical analysis and microscopical examination it was
possible to determine with facility and comparative certainty
the relation which the veins bear to the mass of the rock.
The particular vein which has furnished my specimens was
about half an inch thick ; it traversed a great detached block of
stone, so that the extent of it could not be determined. When a
thin slice is examined microscopically it is seen to consist of
a network of beautifully clear, apparently quite fresh and
unaltered crystals of felspar of much larger size than those
which occur in the part of the rock in the immediate
neighbourhood of the vein. The angular spaces among
these are filled up with a clear colourless substance, which in
many parts swarms with brownish dust (as seen with a low
power), and is not altogether free from it in any instance.
A few crystals of green augite, contrasted with the much
browner augite of the normal rock, will also be observed, and
a very small quantity of green and brownish fibrous materials,
evidently the products of decomposition.
When polarized light is employed the felspar is found to
be exclusively in either simple or only singly twinned crystals;
the multiple twinning so characteristic of the triclinic
felspars is, so far as I have observed, totally wanting. This,
however, is not a positive proof as to the nature of the
mineral, but the presence of ortlioclase is proved by the fact
that many crystals will be found on careful search which
“ extinguish ” when their length is parallel to the principal
planes of the Nicol prisms, and many of the twinned sections
become dark in both halves together when in this position.
As to sections which do not fulfil either of these conditions,
they may be ortlioclase or they may be triclinic. The
chemical analysis of the vein also shows such a percentage
of potash that from this alone we might have inferred the
presence of ortlioclase.
The felspar also occurs in the form of extremely slender
crystals embedded in the dusty material previously mentioned,
and these very fine blades are often slightly curved.
Still using polarized light, we shall find that most of the
spaces between the felspars remain quite dark between
crossed prisms in all positions ; that, therefore, we have to do
with a glassy residuary base. In a few places, however, this
has a stringy, uneven look, coming near, I presume, to
Eosenbuscli’s microfelsite, and in some others there is a very
faint and vague polarization, evidently due in some cases to
very fine films of felspar, but in others with a quite decided
cryptocrystalline character.
264 OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG.
It is important to notice the difference between this
transparent perfectly colourless glass and the dark, almost
opaque, glass which has resulted from the rapid cooling of
masses of similar composition, and which goes by the name
of Tachylyte. For purposes of comparison I have a slide cut
from the artificial tachylyte which Messrs. Chance, of Old¬
bury, produced many years ago by melting and casting in
moulds the rock under discussion. The difference is evidently
owing to the fact that the oxides of iron to which the colour
is due had, when these residual glassy patches solidified, been
almost all removed by the previous separation in a crystalline
state of magnetite and augite, so that the remainder is quite
colourless.
When the dust mentioned above is examined with a high
power it is seen that many of the individual specks are very
irregularly shaped masses of some brown substance, and in a
very few cases I believe there are circular clear bubbles in the
inclusion, but the bubbles are immovable. In the description
of a “Trachyte Pitchstone” from Cantal, in Central France,
quoted from Von Lasaulx in RosenbusclTs “ Mikroskopische
Physiographie der massigen Gesteine,” p. 162, the occurrence
of patches of brown glass with bubbles in the midst of the
colourless glass of the rock is mentioned as an unusual
circumstance.
In the red veins the structure is exactly the same, but the
glassy base is replaced by a fibrous radiating mineral, though
whether it is an original product of the consolidation of the
vein or a result of subsequent alteration of the glass it is not
easy to decide.
There are a few brownish grains, of which I do not know
the nature. They are slightly dichroic, have bright colours
in polarized light even in very thin section, and stand out
with the peculiar bold relief which shows a high refractive
index. One of them shows one line, apparently a cleavage
line, parallel to the sides of the section, and this one
extinguishes parallel to the line. In another case the substance
fills the angle between two felspar crystals ; in another, a minute
grain is shut into an augite crystal. The dichroism is not
strong enough for mica, nor does the structure seem fibrous
enough.
The colourless glass is by no means only found in the
veins of which I have been speaking. Some of the slides
which are exhibited show considerable quantities among the
other constituents of the rock, especially in the parts where
the crystals are large, and it appears always to be filled with
a fine dust similar to that in the grey veins.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF ROWLEY RAG. 265
The analysis of the vein gives very curious and interesting
results, which are tabulated below :
■
I.
II.
Sp. Gr
. 2-70
Sp. Gr. 2-58
Silica .
48-8
. 58-3
Alumina .
18-1
. 17-9
Ferrous oxide ...
7-2
. 3-0
Ferric oxide
8-5
. 2-5
Lime .
8-4
. 2*1
Magnesia .
4*9
. 1-9
Potash .
1-9
. 5-9
Soda .
3-7
. 5-2
Loss at red heat
3-6
. 2-7
100-1
99*5
It should be mentioned that in
these analyses the titanic
acid is not determined ; the silica and the alumina are there¬
fore slightly too high, as the rock contains about two per cent,
of titanic acid.
I. Gives the percentage composition of an ordinary speci¬
men of the unaltered “ Blue ” stone close to the vein.
II. That of the vein in question.
We see, then, that the portions of the melted mass which
consolidated last contain nine per cent, more silica, and a
very much increased amount and different proportion of alkalis,
with, as was to be expected, a lower Sp. Gr.
In a paper read to the Section in October last, and
published in the “ Naturalist ” for January, 1885, 1 mentioned
very similar relations as to composition between the main
mass of the rock of Pemnaenmawr, in North Wales, and
certain grey or white veins, evidently contemporaneous,
which occur in it ; and the same has been described in the
case of the great Cockfield Dyke of the North of England,
with regard to the glassy residual base (see Mr. Teall’s paper
in the “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society ” for
May, 1884). In the number of the “ Geological Magazine”
for March of this year Mr. Teall again shows that the glassy
base of the hypersthene andesites of the Cheviots has the
chemical composition of a quartz felsite, and contains five per
cent, more silica than the general average of the rock.
He also throws out the suggestion that the quartz felsites
of the district may possibly be the more acid parts left after
the separation of a certain amount of crystals from the
andesite magma, the separation having been effected either by
the subsidence of the crystals or by the still fluid residuum being
squeezed out from among them “as water from a sponge.”
266
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
It is at any rate pretty well established that a molten sili¬
ceous magma from which crystals are separated in the process of
cooling will become progressively richer in silica and alkalis
and richer in potash relatively to the soda.
It is quite possible that we have in this phenomenon a
hint as to the reason of rocks of progressively more acid
character being formed in a given volcanic district, as is so
frequently the observed fact. If a lava of medium acidity is
being erupted it is conceivable that if the heat by which it
has been kept fluid in the interior of the earth is so far
reduced as to permit of crystallization taking place, any
further eruption may only be able to bring to the surface the
more acid, still fluid, residue, and by this means the character
of the resulting rock masses would be gradually changed.
The succession andesite, trachyte, rhyolite with increasing
degrees of acidity is frequent in volcanic regions. In the
foregoing remarks I have made use of the paper by Mr. Teall,
in the “ Geological Magazine ” for March, which I have
previously quoted, as the question is one of much interest, and
I think our Rowley veins have a definite bearing on the
subject as showing to what a great extent the differentiation
of a cooling magma may proceed.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
(Continued from page 235.)
GRAMINA. — Continued.
BRACHYPODIUM.
B. sylvaticum, 11. and S. False Wood Drome Grass.
Native : On hedge banks and in woods. Common. July, August.
Area general.
B. pinnatum, Beauv. Barren False Brome Grass.
Native: On hanks, roadsides, and field borders in calcareous soils.
Local and rare. July, August.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
267
II. ( Festuca pinnata.) Grafton ! Great Alne ! Burt ., i., 83 ; near
Chesterton! Binton! Y. and B. Honington, near Wayland
Coppice ; Lambcote, Newb.; Napton-on-the-Hill ; near Birding-
bury ; Kineton ; Compton Verney ; near Alveston Pastures ;
Binton ; Temple Grafton ; Wixford ; Exball ; Bed Hill ;
Drayton; Billesley ; lane to Snitterfield from Wilmcote ;
Morton Bagot.
b. pubescens. Rare.
II. Roadsides near Kineton ; Steeple Hill and Marl Cliff, near
Bidford.
AGROPYRUM.
A. caninum, Huds. (Triticum). Wood Couch Grass.
Native : On hedge banks and in bushy places. Local. July.
I. Wylde Green, near Sutton ; Waterworks grounds, Witton Lane ;
coppice, near Plant’s Brook ; lane by Chelmsley Wood ; canal
bank, Olton ; Elmdon ; banks by Meriden Marsh; Shelly Lane,
near Shirlev.
II. Myton, Y. and B.; Honington Park! Newb.; Barby Road, near
Rugby, R. S. R., 1870 ; lane from Edge Hills to Radway ; Marl
Cliff, near Bidford ; Chesterton Wood ; road from Rugby Mill
to Newbold-on-Avon.
A. repens, /.inn. (Triticum.) Common Couch Grass.
Native : On hedge banks, by roadsides, and in bushy places.
Common. July, August. Area general.
LOLITJM.
L. perenne, Linn. Common or Perennial Rye Grass.
Native : In meadows, pastures, on banks, and by roadsides.
Common. June, July. Area general.
[L. italicum, Braun. Italian Rye Grass.
Alien : By roadsides, and on railway banks and sidings. Rather
common. July to September.
I. Railway sidings between Castle Bromwich and Sutton ; Gravelly
Hill ; roadsides near Shustoke ; quarries, Hartshill ; lanes near
Solihull ; &c.
II. Honington and Tredington (escape), Neivb. ; plentiful between
Stratford-on-Avon and Shipton ; Alveston Heath ; railway
cutting, Alcester and Salford Priors ; Ac.]
Apparently well established in many of the districts, but probably
always a mere straggler from cultivation.
L. temulentum, Linn. Darnel.
Casual : In rick yards, and on waste places. Very rare. July.
II. Waste places near Kenilworth, II. B.; rick yard at Kenilworth,
abundant.
b. ai-vense. Very rare.
II. Waste places near Kenilworth ! H.B. Rick yard at Kenilworth
with the type.
Neither of these varieties is truly wild in this county.
268
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
HORDETJM.
H. pratense, Huds. Meadow Barley.
Native: In pastures and grassy roadsides. Rare and local. July,
August.
I. Pastures near Curdworth ; pastures near Stonebridge ; meadows
near Blythe Bridge, Solihull ; Braduock’s Marsh.
II. Bishop’s Itcliington, Y. and B. ; Honington ; Tredington, Newb. ;
Holbrook Park, R.S.R., 1877 ; pastures near Kineton ; Moreton
Morrell ; Alveston ; Stratford-on-Avon ; Binton ; Exliall ;
Oversley ; Billesley ; Great Alne ; Wilmcote ; Henley-in-
Arden ; Combe Fields, near Rugby ; Birdingbury ; Shuck-
burgh ; Willoughby.
H. murinum, Linn. Wall Barley.
Native : On dry banks, by roadsides, more especially by towns and
villages. Locally common. June to August.
I. Sutton Coldfield ; Minworth ; Curdworth ; Olton canal bank ;
II. Warwick! Myton ! Kenilworth! Emscote, IT. B.; Honington!
Tredington ! Newb. ; Alveston Heath ; Stratford-on-Avon ;
Binton ; Wixford ; Salford Priors ; Oversley ; Drayton ;
Wootton Wawen ; Lillington ; Rugby; Radford Semele ;
Long Itchington.
Very local and sparse in district I.
NARDUS.
N. stricta, Linn. Mat Grass.
Native : On damp heaths, and heathy roadsides. Rare. May to
July.
I. Sutton Coldfield ! Ick. Anal., 1837 ; Coleshill Heath ! Perry FI. ;
Middleton Heath ; Coleshill Pool ; pasture, Blythe Bridge ;
pasture by Olton Pool ; Marston Green ; Baddesley Common ;
abundant, Forsliaw Heath, near Tan worth.
II. Studley Common, Part., i., 66; Haseley Common, Y. and B.;
Kenilworth Heath ! II. B.; Yarningal Common.
(To be continued.)
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— July, 1885.
The barometer was generally high during the month, the mean,
30T81 inches, being higher than that of July in any of the last six
years, and the highest since January, 1882. The greatest pi-essure was
on the 22nd, 30-453 inches ; the least, on the 19th, 29’786 inches.
Temperature was about 1 degree above the average, but the maxima
were unusually high. The highest readings were on the 25tli, when
90-0° was recorded at Henley-in-Arden, 89-2° at Loughborough, 87'2°
at Strelley, 86-0° at Hodsock, and 85-0° at Coston Rectory. 89 ‘7° was
registered at Loughborough on the 5th of July, 1881. In the rays of
the sun, 141-2° at Loughborough on the 26th, 135-2° at Strelley on the
19th, and 133-7° at Hodsock on the 26tli. The lowest minimum
readings were 38-0° at Coston Rectory on the 2nd, and at Henley-in-
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
2G9
Arden on the 9th, 40-0° at Hodsock on the 29th, 42-1 at Strelley on the
1st, and 43-7° at Loughborough on the 2nd. On the grass, 32 *7° at
Hodsock on the 29th, 37‘8° at Strelley, and 40-0° at Loughborough on
the 1st. The past month is most remarkable for the unusually small
amount of rainfall, the total values being, at Coston Rectory 0T1 of
an inch, at Loughborough 0T4, at Hodsock 0-32, at Strelley 037, at
Henley-in-Arden 0 55. The number of “ rainy days ” varied from 2 to
G. An exceptional fall, 0-40 of an inch, took place at Henley-in-Arden
on the 21st. The absence of thunder storms is noticeable. Sunshine
was above the average.
Wm. Berridge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
flitted J§ is torn 'dotes.
New British Fungi. — I was surprised to-day, on examining some
fungi, collected at Sutton last March, to find that one of them was a
species of Helmintliosporium, new to Great Britain. It resembles II.
Hinido , Sacc. (Fung. Ital. 54), but differs in being nearly twice as
large ; the spores are about 400 p long, very dark, with about 60 septa.
I propose to name it var. Anglicum. I have also to record the following
fungi, not hitherto, I think, detected in Great Britain : rhoma ilicicola,
P. lineolata, P. hysterella, and Septoria Teucrii, all from near Hampton-
in-Arden. — W. B. Grove, B.A., July 28tli.
Death’s Head Hawk Moth.— Two broods of caterpillars of the
death’s head hawk moth (acheroritia atropos) have occurred here, the
first I have met with during a residence of five-and-twenty years.
One of these specimens was brought in by the vicar of Kingsbury,
found by a labourer at the edge of a field of potatoes. The other
three were taken feeding in a potato garden, close by the Tamwortli
railway stations. I attribute this appearance to the unusually dry
summer we have experienced. — Egbert de Hamel, Bole Hall,
Tamwortli, August 15th, 1885.
deports of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — Geological Section, July 28tli. — Exhibits Mr. W. P.
Marshall, M.I.C.E., geological specimens from America. Silicified
wood, from Calistoga Petrified Forest, California, special piece showing
fine concentric layers when magnified ; Sulphur deposits, Ac., from Hot
Springs, Cloverdale, California, where sulphur vapour and steam issue
from cracks in ground ; weathered granite, from Yosemite Valley,
California, spherical layers from domes, flat layers from vertical faces;
granite sand, from Yosemite Valley, California, dust lying thick upon
roads below granite cliffs ; weathered sandstone, from Garden of the
Gods, Colorado, red portion a little harder than white, forms flat caps;
granite, Ac., from Rocky Maintains, Pike’s Peak, Colorado, partially
disintegrated, and some deep red coloured granite, Ac., from Rocky
Mountains, Toltee Gorge, Colorado ; striped sandstone from rocks,
Kentucky ; sundry specimens from rocks at Great Salt Lake, Utah ;
270
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
sundry specimens from rocks above Santa Fe, New Mexico ; Lime¬
stone, from Manitou Cavern, Colorado, cave in limestone rock, similar
to Mammoth Cave, Kentucky ; ironstone from rocks above Las Vegas,
New Mexico ; copper ore, from Rocky Mountains Slope, Arizona, too
great distance and not rich enough to pay carriage ; limestone and
shales, from rocks forming Niagara Falls — the shale perishes below the
limestone, causing the limestones to break down. By Mr. Clarke, a
slide of pond life, from King’s Norton excursion, July ‘25th, containing
Bosmina longirostris , Diaptamas Castor , Volvox Globator, Spirogyra
veglecta in conjugation, Auurcea stipitata. By Mr. Bolton, Plumatella,
from King’s Norton. By Mr. Udall, a trilobite ( Calymene Blumenbachii ),
from Dudley. — General Meeting, August 4tli. Mr. J. Morley exhibited
a fasciated stem of vine, showing its gradual division into the normal
condition ; also a sprig of maple (Acer campestre), in which the leaves
were covered with the bright red galls of an insect f Cynips). Mr. T.
Bolton exhibited Lemanea Jiuviatilis and Batrachospermum moniliforme ,
var. pulcherrimum, freshwater algae, from near Llangollen ; also Daplinia
reticulata , from Sutton. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited the following
plants from North Wales: — Cotyledon umbilicus (2 feet high), Orobanche
hedene, Saxifraga stellar is , Sedum Telephium , Sedum anglicum, Drosera
rotundifolia, Verbena officinalis , Orchis maculata, Nartheciurn ossifragum ,
Wahlenbergia hederacea , Sambucus E Indus, Myrica Gale , Blechnum
sp leant, Aspleniuni Adiantum nigrum, Asp. Trichomanes, Lastrea montana,
Polypodium Phegopteris, Lycopodium clavatum , Lyc. Selaginoides, Hygro-
phorus conicus, Boletus luteus, Helotium (cniginosurn (oak impregnated
with mycelium), and Cantharellus cibarius. — Biological Section, August
11th. — Mr. R. W. Chase in the chair. Mr. T. Bolton, F.R.M.S., exhibited
Pteronais parasita, vulgarly known as the Polite Worm, in allusion to
its habit of nodding its head and flapping its apparent wings; and
Alcyonella fungosa, both from Alvechurch. Mr. J. F. Bagnall, A.L.S.,
two mosses, Arnblystegium serpens and Bryum ccespiticium, curious from
growing at a rolling mill, Buckingham Street, amid the splash of a mixture
of vitriol, oil, and water ; also a number of mosses from Cumberland
and some flowering plants from the Anker district. Mr. J. Levick,
Zoothamnium arbuscula ; Lacunularia socialis ; Cristatella mucedo ; from
Alvechurch. Mr. Browett, large female adder, Pelias Berus , measuring
fully two feet long, together with eight young adders, measuring six
inches long, taken from the inside of the mother after being killed, in
the usual membrane, forming a complete egg. — General Meeting,
August 18th. — Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Verbascum Lychnitis, the white
mullein (rare), from Whittington, Kinver, and Sabella penicillus , a
marine tube-dwelling worm, from Sheerness. Mr. J. F. Greenway
exhibited Lacinularia socialis and Stephanoceros Eichhornii , from near
Alvechurch. Three new members were elected.— Geological Section,
August 25th. — Mr. Pumphrey exhibited a Potentilla, in which, instead
of a solitary flower, two grew back to back with complete calyx and
corolla. Mr. Bolton on behalf of Mr. Morley, from Llandudno, a
dog-fish egg, Botryllus, and young crabs. Mr. W. B. Grove, Lentinus
lepideus, an agaric which usually grows upon imported fir timber, but
is found annually at Selly Oak, on the beams of the roof of a half
buried cellar. Mr. Udall, several corals from neighbourhood of
Bristol ; specimen of coal from Swansea ; specimen of granite from
Sliap.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — July 20tli. Mr. Hawkes showed specimens of meadow
sweet attacked with Uromyces ulmarice and Triphragmiurn ulmaricc. Mr.
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
271
Madison, specimens of henbane, Hyoscyamus niger , from Solihull ; also
specimens of Vertigo pygmaa from Knowle. Under the microscopes
Mr. Tylar showed a section of the ovary of snapdragon ; Mr. Hawkes,
Triphragmium ulmarice. A paper was then read by Mr. J. A. Grew on
“ An Insect,” in which he described the vague and indefinite notions
many persons had upon this subject, notions that were shared by
many writers of only a few years ago. He defined the position and
distinguishing features of the section Insecta of the animal world.
The remaining part of the paper was taken up with a description of
the peculiarities of their structure, and concluded by remarking that
much yet remained to be done in working out the uses of some of the
organs. The paper was illustrated by diagrams. — July 27th. The
following exhibits were made by Mr. Madison : Specimens of Ancylus
fluviatilis , var. compressa, from Weatlieroak Hill; also a case of
specimens of Gryphea incurva from various localities. Mr. Evans,
a fossil shell (Modiolopsis) in a pebble from the Moseley drift. Mr.
Sanderson, a series of photographic views of the Yorkshire dales,
etc. Under the microscopes Mr. Tylar showed a zoophyte, Obelia
dichotomy, with polypes in situ. Mr. J. W. Neville, ruby sand with fluid
cavities, from New Zealand. — August 10th. Mr. Moore exhibited six
well-marked varieties of Avion ater from the Isle of Man. Mr.
Hopkins, specimens of Valvata cristata and Helix sericea. Mr.
Hawkes, leaves of violet infested with Trichobasis, and leaves of
Tragopogon pratevsis attacked by iEcidium and Ustilago. Mr.
Madison, a number of shells collected at Dovedale, including speci¬
mens of Helix arbustorum, var. cincta , also var. flavescens ; H.
ericetorum , var. minor ; Ancylus fluviatilis , var. alba; etc., etc. Then
followed a paper, “ Notes on the Green Woodpecker,” by Mr. P. T.
Deakin. The writer described the habits of the bird, and the order to
which it belonged. The peculiarity of the legs and claws was pointed
out as adapted to the habit of climbing and supporting the bird while
it obtains its food, which is procured by tearing off the bark of trees,
and consists of the larvae of wood-boring beetles, etc. The habits of
nesting, colour of eggs, plumage of young, etc., was dwelt upon, and
the whole illustrated by wall pictures and stuffed specimens of the
green woodpecker and its allies. — August 17th. The President in the
chair. Mr. Deakin exhibited a collection of shells from the King’s
Norton district. Messrs. Madison and Hopkins, specimens of Helix
rotundata, var. alba, and Clausilia rugosa , var. albida, the latter new
to the district. Mr. Tylar, a zoophyte in spirit, Aglaosphenia myrio-
phyllum. Mr. Delicate, two plants, one a native rose from Manitoba.
Under the microscopes Mr. Moore showed palates of Zonites cellarius
and Neritina fluviatilis. Mr. J. W. Neville, the brittle starfish,
Ophiocoma neglecta. Mr. Hawkes, a type slide of five micro-fungi,
showing degrees of complexity of spores from Puccinia to Xenodochus.
Specimens of the infested plants were also exhibited.
CARADOC FIELD CLUB. — On Wednesday, June 17th, this club
made the second excursion of the season to Bishop’s Castle by railway,
thence proceeding by carriages to the Bishop’s Moat, an extensive
earthwork on the extreme border of the county, consisting of a lofty
mound raised for a point of observation and signalling, surrounded by
a ditch, and protected by a camp, which it joins, also surrounded by a
ditch. The Bishops of Hereford, somewhere about the eighth century,
had a large estate granted to them of 18,000 acres by Egwin Shakehead,
which being in near proximity to Wales, they had to defend, for which
272
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
purpose they utilised this, probably already existing, earthwork, hence
the name Bishop’s Moat. Near here were found growing Narcissus
poeticus , Viola lutea, Orchis morio , Heracleum spliondylium , form angusti-
foliuin , Sm., and Primus padus , the fruit of which was strangely
deformed by a fungus — Ascomyces Pruni ('Pul), not hitherto (we think)
recorded for Britain. The fruit was elongated so as to resemble the
pod of a Genista. The party then visited another ancient encampment,
Coer-din, commanding a magnificent view of Corndon mountain and
stiperstones. Mr. R. Parry gave an interesting address on the geological
features of the surrounding district, in the course of which he pointed
out the changes it had undergone since Corndon was an active volcano.
The President, the Rev J. D. La Touche, supplemented these remarks
by a highly interesting address, confirming Mr. Parry’s views. Offa’s
Dyke was the next object of interest, which is in wonderful preserva¬
tion here, and impressed all minds with the magnitude of this Saxon
boundary. The Hon. Secretary, the Rev. T. Auden, read an excellent
paper on its construction, extent and object, and the traditions
pertaining to it. The third excursion was to Dolgelly, July 28th to
31st, when Cader Idris was ascended, where many botanical treasures
were seen, but treated with due forbearance. It was gratifying to see
that many rare plants still hold their own in the wilder parts of this
noble mountain, in spite of the rapacity of some calling themselves
botanists. Cymmer Abbey, the Yale of Ganllwyd, Pistyll-y-Cain
waterfall, and other picturesque localities were visited on the second
day, and altogether the members of the club had a most enjoyable
time.
DUDLEY AND MIDLAND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.— A large
party of the members of this Society and their friends visited
Buildwas and Wenlock Abbeys on Tuesday, the 18th of August.
After seeing the ruins of Buildwas, the members were permitted by
the kindness of Mrs. Moseley, who lives in the Abbot’s house, to go
into her hall, which is paved with ancient tiles found in the Abbey
ruins. These are very curious, several having the pattern traced upon
them with a style before being baked. Between Buildwas and Wen-
lock, the Bradelev Limestone Quarries were visited, where a number of
characteristic Wenlock fossils were found, including Euomphalus
discors , Favosites Gothlandicus, and F. Forbesi, Heliolites megastoma, and
H. interstinctus, Atrypa reticularis, Orthis, Cyathophyllum, Stromatopora,
&c. At Wenlock, after examining the ruins of this once famous and
extensive Abbey, by the permission of C. M. Gaskell, Esq., the
members went over the Prior’s House, now Mr. Gaskell’s residence.
The house contains a great deal of original old furniture and wood¬
carving, formerly belonging to the Abbey. In the course of the day
the botanists found the following plants: — Chelidonium viajus, Gheiran-
thus cheiri, Hypericum hirsutum, Agrimonia eupatona, Poterium
sanguisorba, Anthyllis vulneraria. Genista tinctoria, Pimpinella saxifraga,
Ononis aivensis, Sedum reflexum, Dipsacus pilosus, Arctium mgjus, Picris
hieracioides, Artemisia absinthium, Lactuca muralis, Erigeron acris, Inula
conyza , Clilora perfoliata, Senecio erucifolius , Sclerochloa rigida. The
Rev. J. H. Thompson exhibited Lysimachia vulgaris, from Moccas Park,
Herefordshire, and a plant he believed to be Sparganium neglectum, lately
described in the “Journal of Botany” as new to the British Flora, from
Hurcott, Kidderminster. Mr. Horace Pearce exhibited Silene maritima ,
in flower, from Pwllheli ; Verbascum Lychnitis, Potentilla argentea, and
Plantago Coronopus, from Whittington, near Kinver; Erodium maritimum,
from Habberley Valley, Kidderminster.
Plate VI .
■
HERALD PRESS. IMP
Dicentra cucullaria
PI ale VII
HERALD PRESS. IMP, /-r-\ r
1 RILLIUM GRANDIFLORUM .
W.H W
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
273
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA,*
MADE DURING A TOUR IN THE NORTH-EASTERN STATES
IN APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1882.
BY W. H. WILKINSON,
HON. SEC. BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
On landing in New York City in the middle of April, we
were surprised at the beautiful weather, for the sky was
almost without a cloud, and the deep blue contrasted with
the red brick buildings most vividly ; the clearness of the
atmosphere was perhaps partly due to climatic causes and partly
to the use of anthracite coal, which makes no smoke ; the result
being very favourable to the cleanliness of the buildings and
to the purity of the atmosphere.
New York is built on a tongue of land some eleven miles
long, the southern portion of which is covered to a con¬
siderable depth with sand, thus causing much trouble and
expense in getting good foundations for their buildings ; and
also is not favourable for the growth of the ornamental trees
and flowers in the southern and busiest portion of this great
city, but as you advance further north the schistose rock can
be seen cropping up, so that in Central Park there is a fine
state of cultivation attained and many rare plants and trees
are grown ; the Park is laid out with great skill, some parts
being depressed and filled with ornamental lakes, and others
raised and embellished with statuary and rockeries, the
National museums being situated in isolated blocks within
the park enclosure.
Our first introduction to the flowers of America was in
one of their most appropriate places, viz., in the adornment
of the ladies’ dresses, it being the fashion in New York City
to wear eight to ten full-blown roses grouped on the front or
side of the dress, as they walked “ on Broadway” or Fifth
Avenue. It must have been a costly luxury then, as there
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Plate YI. — Bicentra cucullaria (White Ear-drop). Flowers white,
with velvety maroon tips. A beautiful and delicate woodland plant,
growing on islands, Niagara Falls, (a), Plant, half natural size;
(b), section of Rower with six stamens ; (c), scale-stem.
Plate YII. — Trillium grandijlorum. Flowers usually white, some¬
times pink. Frequent in shady woods, Niagara Falls, &c. (a), Centre
of flower; (b), stamens, tripartite stigma; (c), part of leaf, showing
the palmi-net-veined structure.
* Transactions of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro¬
scopical Society. Read March 31st, 1885.
274
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA
was no sign of growth amongst the flower gardens of the
district ; all were grown under glass, and realised from Is. to
2s. each blossom in the shops.
Our first impression of the American landscape was its
similarity to our English scenery, being composed of trees,
shrubs, flowers, and grass, most of which from a distance
looked about the proportion, size, and colour of those at
home ; but on closer examination every one seemed a little
different in some detail or other, the trees differed in species,
the flowers in form and colour, and even the grasses, which
were mostly coarser than ours. Perhaps a few illustrations
from some of our commonest and best known flowers will
best enable us to realise this difference.
The nurserymen seem to grow most of our greenhouse
flowers, and to about the same state of perfection ; but the
private conservatories appear to be much neglected ; the
“ mighty dollar” evidently engrosses the attention of “ pater¬
familias.” But the alteration of climate makes a great
change in out-door flowers; they have a far greater amount of
heat in the summer and a much more intense frost in the
winter than we ever get. Hence a number of plants which
do well with us die directly with them ; for instance, we
consider the ivy a common hardy plant, but it dies if exposed
to their winter frosts, and they cultivate it in pots to
ornament their houses and train round the inside of their
windows. Again, the most common — and by the children the
most prized — of flowers is the English daisy, Beilis perennis.
But although I looked carefully, I never saw one in America ;
I suppose the winter kills them, and even if they survive the
frost, the drought of August would kill them. Once I thought I
had found one, but on gathering it it was quite a different
plant ( Aster spectabilis ), but 1 have laid it before you to-night
that you may see how very much the blossom resembles our
pretty English daisy.
Now, on the other hand, the garlic is not very common
with us, while it has been taken over from Europe to New
York, and has now spread for 200 miles inland and grows as
common there as grass. The hawthorn was also absent, their
hedges being made of other shrubs near the towns, but in the
country either by trees cut from the forests forming a “ snake”
fence or by galvanised wire, certainly not very picturesque,
however economical it may prove to the farmer. The golden
buttercups were scarce but I gathered four different kinds, but
none grew in the rich profusion of our field buttercup.
I was much charmed with the beauty of the peach
blossoms ; near Baltimore large tracts of land are given up
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
275
to their cultivation ; the deep pink blossoms coming out
before the leaf. The finest growers only crop their trees for
three years, then replace them, but the amount of fruit
grown is enormous, as you may judge when I tell you that
the carriage of peaches in two months pays the dividend on
a branch line for the whole twelve months. At Baltimore
10,000 persons are employed to “can” the peaches and
oysters, which are brought up Chesapeake Bay, and are then
sent out all over the civilised world.
In some places the dandelion [Taraxacum, dem-leonis ) was
growing in great abundance ; for instance, it gave quite a
gay effect to the greensward of the public park at Pittsburg;
and perhaps some of our friends who are not epicures will be
surprised to hear that dandelion salad is quite a recherche
dish. The Yankees are great upon oysters ; immense quan¬
tities are eaten in the large cities, and you will often find
them cooked in four or five different ways ; and as if not
satisfied with Father Neptune's supplies they grow oyster
plants, but I did not appreciate them, the flavour reminded
me so much of parsnips.
The size of their country, stretching far into the tropics,
and their vast railway systems, afford to New York a supply of
fruits and fisli that perhaps no other city has ever dreamed of.
In London, I know, you can buy simply anything, but you
must pay for it ; but here in New York the quantity is equal
to the demand, and hence is obtainable by all.
At Philadelphia, near to Independence Hall, where the
Declaration of Independence and many relics of the Rebel¬
lion of 1776 are most carefully preserved, is Washington
Square, which is said to contain a specimen of each of the
trees which grow in the States ; but if ever such a collection
was planted there a vast number must have perished, as
there is little left to make it attractive now. But just outside
the city is Fairmount Park, which extends along both banks
of the Schuylkill River, is seven miles long, and is said to be
the finest park in the world.
In Washington the streets are wide and flat and paved
with asplialte, and are mostly planted with two rows of
trees ; some of the avenues are lined with the White Poplar
( Populus alba), the cottony seeds of which were blowing
about and piled into heaps like snow in a snowstorm. At
Washington we visited the far-famed Smithsonian Institute,
with its fine collection of specimens, the conservatory of
which contains, besides a fine group of Australian ferns, 110
species of palm trees and the finest collection of insectivorous
plants I have met with.
276
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
I might mention here a curious incident. For the
previous month we had been travelling northwards at about
the same rate that the spring advanced ; for instance, on
May 3rd, in Washington, we saw the lilac and chestnut trees
in bud, just ready to burst out ; and in every town we visited
we found them in just a similar state, even to Montreal on
June 3rd, but during the week of our stay here, summer
broke upon us in all its glory and beauty, so we were at once
plunged from early spring right into the heat of midsummer ;
and from this point during the whole of June, as we pursued
our course southward through the valley of the Adirondack,
crossing Lake George and along the valley of the Hudson
River to New York, we were delighted in the extreme with the
abundance, the luxuriance, and the freshness of Flora’s gems.
During the earlier part of our tour there were but few
flowers in blossom, but by the time we reached Niagara Falls
the spring had advanced considerably, so that I was able to
obtain from there many very beautiful flowers, mostly new to
me. I worked carefully up the Canadian shore of the Falls
for some miles, and also the charming groups of the Cedar
and Clarke Hill Islands as far as the Burning Spring.
Another charming spot was the St. Helen’s Island, in the St.
Lawrence River, and Mount Royal at Montreal ; and a third
delightful and successful locality was the Lake George
district, near the Adirondack Mountains, including the Au
Sable Chasm, a perfect paradise to the botanist, and indeed
to anyone else with a love of Nature.
(To be continued.)
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.G.S., F.C.S.
PART I.
( Continued from page 255.)
Some Sections Illustrating the Development of the
“ Spinatus” Zone and Transition Bed.
Sections in the “ Spinatus ” Zone are much more numerous
than in the Margaritatus , but they seldom show anything
below the rock-bed. This is chiefly due to the fact that the
rock-bed is the only portion of the Upper Middle Lias that
is now used in the district. It may be well, perhaps, to state
here that by some geologists the rock-bed is regarded as
itself constituting the “Spinatus” Zone.
On looking at a geological map of Northamptonshire it
will be noticed that the Middle Lias outcrop takes a direction
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
277
approximately from north-east to south-west, but that there
is a considerable easterly extension of it fairly parallel with
and on both sides of the River Neil, to within about two miles
of Northampton. Over very much of the area which is
shown as Marlstone in the maps of the Geological Survey
there is a thin capping of Upper Lias* which, although
ignored, is rather important as affecting the quality of the
rock below, and the amount of water received by it.
Beginning at the extreme south-western portion of the
county, we find a most interesting exposure of the rock-bed
at King’s Sutton. The rock here is rather rich in iron, and
was for some time worked as an ironstone. This quarry has
yielded more rare and interesting fossils than any other in
the county ; they include Ammonites spinatus (certainly rare
in Northamptonshire), a large P l eurotom aria , Trigonia Lingo-
nmsis, Crania Grijfini, Spirifera oxggona, S pi riferina Walcottii ,
Spiriferina rostrata, three species of coral , and a dichotomous
Ceriopora. Most of the commoner fossils are also found, and
some in abundance.
The King’s Sutton section and many others in the neigh¬
bourhood of Banbury have been described by Mr. T. Beesley,
F.C.S.,f and Mr. E. A. Walford, F.G.S.,J and I gladly ackow-
ledge the assistance I have received from their pamphlets,
particularly Mr. Walford’s, as treating of sections chiefly in
Northamptonshire.
The King’s Sutton quarry has been so long disused that
comparatively little can be got there now. A somewhat
similar section may, however, be examined on the other side
of the valley, at Adderbury.
There are three or four sections near to Thenford, and
one rather a good one, although on first visiting the neigh¬
bourhood I was assured by an inhabitant that there were no
stone pits about. The section is as follows : —
Section of Quarry South of ’Thenford.
1 . S o i 1 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Feet In.
1 0
“ Communis" Beds —
2. — Light-coloured marly clay, with many small
Ammonites and Belemnites ... ... ... 2 6
* See sections to follow.
f “ A Sketch of the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Banbury,”
by Mr. Tlios. Beesley, F.C.S.
f “On Some Middle and Upper Lias Beds in the Neighbourhood
of Banbury,” by Edwin A. Walford.
Both published by the Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archaeolo¬
gists’ Field Club.
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
278
“ Serpentinus ” Beds —
8. — Lower Cephalopoda Bed ; a white limestone
with reddish exterior, containing many
Ammonites of the falcifer group) ... ... 0 6
4. — Liglit-grey clay or shale with red streaks in it ... 0 10
Fish and Insect Beds —
5. — Grey shale ... ... ... ... ... If in.
6. — Red sandy shale ... ... ... ... 2Jin.
- 0 4
7. — Fish-Bed, very soft, only a little hard piece in the
middle, sometimes nodular, slialy, not per¬
sistent, containing fish scales, &c. ... ... 0 2
8.
9.
10.-
0 7
G 0
T i 'a ns it ion B eds .
Red sandy clay, slialy at top
Transition-Bed, not distinctly separable from x
the bed below ...
“ Spinatus ” Zone of Middle Lias.
-Rock-Bed, a ha.rd ferruginous rock, much
of it of a bluish green colour, fossils very
abundant, Belemnites paxillosus, Rhynchonella
tetrahedra, Terebratiila punctata , Waldheimia
resupinata , Ostrea sportella, &c _
The beds 5 and G, and the upper part of 8, I believe to
represent the paper shales of Gloucestershire, for fish remains
seemed about as common in bed No. 5 as in the fish bed
itself, though they were not abundant in either. In the
rock-bed there are two or three layers composed almost
entirely of Rhynchonella tetrahedra. These layers are called
“Jacks" by the quarrymen in Rutland, and the term is now
frequently used by geologists.
About two hundred yards west of the section above
described is another, which is about as follows : —
Feet In.
1. — Soil and rubbly stone — disturbed rock ... ... 2 9
2. — Rock-bed, not very ferruginous, very rubbly, near
the top two irregular bands of ossicles and broken
shells. Most of the fossils casts. Pectens, Rhyn-
chonella tetrahedra , Terebratiila punctata, &c. No
“ Jacks.” .. ... ... ... ... ... 8 G
3. — Red sand, which is either the base of the rock-bed
or a sandy layer in it. The best specimens of
Terebratiila and Rliynchonella were got from
this ... ... ... ... ... ... shown 1 0
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
279
The badly preserved nature of the fossils at this quarry is
no doubt due to the absence of a clay capping.
When the first of the two quarries just described was
being worked some twenty years ago a small fault was
noticeable; and a figure of it occurs in the “ Memoirs of the
Geological Survey,” description of sheet 45 of the maps. In
this diagram the Upper Lias, with two of the lime¬
stone bands near its base, are shown abutting against
the Middle Lias rock-bed at an angle of about 30°. The
faulting was thought to be very slight, and the geo¬
logical maps show only a very small patch of Upper Lias
let in. The construction of a well some fifty yards north¬
east of the quarry has, however, shown that the fault is
much more extensive than had been anticipated, for the well
being commenced about thirty feet above the level of the
brook, passed through sixty-five feet of blue clay before water
was obtained. The blue clay was very unfossiliferous ; but
Mr. Beesley, who was consulted in the matter, before water
was obtained, identified it as Upper Lias by the foraminifera it
contained ; this was afterwards confirmed by other fossils
from the lower part. Mr. Beesley says, in a paper he read
before the Banbury Natural History Society, that not far
from this spot a well w7as sunk fifty feet in vain, and water
only obtained by boring, when it rushed in with great
violence ; also, that some wells at Lower Middleton Cheney
are eighty feet deep, thus pointing to a probable extension of
the fault in that direction.
The Marlstone rock-bed is again met with in its normal
position in Thenford, about a quarter of a mile north of the
quarry ; indeed, the main street has been partly cut through
it, and it forms the foundation of walls of houses both here
and at Middleton Cheney.
About a quarter of a mile west of Thenford there is
another Marlstone quarry (Boucher’s Pit), long disused,
however. A distinct band of ossicles occurs about two feet
from the top, the thickness of the entire bed being about five
feet. It is capped by the Serpentinus and Fish and Insect
beds, as in the quarry south of Thenford ; the Fish bed is,
however, much better preserved.
Still another quarry is to be seen a little way out of
Thenford towards Middleton Cheney, but from long disuse
very little besides the Communis beds of the Upper Lias can
be now examined.
Near to Middleton Cheney we again find Marlstone
quarries, though few of them show signs of having been
280
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
worked recently. To the north-east of the village there is a
small quarry, called the Rectory Pit, presenting the following
section : —
Rectory Pit, Middleton Cheney. Feet in.
1 . Soil ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 0
Upper Lias .
2. — Marly clay, light coloured, with pieces of white
limestone in it — the remains of the Upper
Cephalopoda Bed ; small Ammonites of the
planulate group abundant ... ... ... 2 0
3. — White limestone, containing many Belevmites and
Ammonites , the latter chiefly of the falcifer
group ; also Nautili, &c. (The Lower Cepha-
lopoda-Bed) ... ... ... ... ... 0 G
4. — Shale or clay containing a few Belemnites... ... 0 1
5. — Sandy limestone — (Fish-Bed) ... ... ... 0 4
Middle Lias .
6. — Grey marl, containing Ammonites acutus , A.
Holandrei , &c. ... ... ... ... ... 0 2
7. — Marlstone Rock- Bed, with the usual fossils : —
Bands of Rhynclionella tetrahedra , Waldheimia
resupinata , Ossicles, &c.
In an adjacent field is another Marlstone pit, which,
having been more recently worked, presented a better section
of the rock-bed. The section was as below : —
1. — Soil, with fragments of the Lower Cephalopoda- Bed
containing the usual fossils, and also the rarer ones
lihynchbnella jurensis ? and Dentalium liassicum.
2. — Red clay ; true transition-bed indifferently shown.
3. — Rock-Bed, rubbly, weathered surfaces rather red, most
of the fossils particularly large. Belemnites, Pecten
eequivalvis, P. liasinus, Hinnites, Plicatula spinosa,
Pihynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula punctata, Bands of
Ossicles, Pebbles, dc.
Near the above, and beside the road leading across the hill
to Chalcomb is another small pit showing only the rock-bed,
and that not very well. The following fossils were noticed —
Pecten eequivalvis, Plicatula spinosa, Terebratula Kduardsi,
Pihynchonella fodinalis, Pi. tetrahedra, Ossicles, Pebbles, dc. We
were informed that the Wesleyan chapel at Chalcomb was
built with stone obtained here.
On the top of the hill, towards Chalcomb, the rock-bed
forms the subsoil, and pieces of the rock are plentifully
THE EAR AND HEARING.
281
strewn on the ground ; also a small quarry may be seen,
exposing a section of three or four feet ; it is very similar to
that at the base of the hill. Here, and at other places around
Chalcomb, the Middle Lias rock-bed seems to follow the
undulations of the ground, and is met at such different levels
as to suggest that the hills are due to elevation and not to
denudation as in most other places in the county.
In and around Chalcomb there are several sections of the
Marl stone; one by the side of the Thorpe Mandeville road
shows a small fault ; the light-coloured clay of the lower
part of the Upper Lias being brought, for a short distance,
side by side with the rock-bed. Another section in the village
exposes about five feet of a rather soft rubbly stone, contain¬
ing many fossils of the common kind, also calcspar. On a
hill to the south-east of Chalcomb there are two or three
small quarries, and a year or two ago one in the middle of a
cornfield was being worked for road metal. In the district
around Chalcomb there is no clay capping to the rock-bed,
hence the stone is very much fissured and broken, and fit for
little besides road mending ; it has, however, furnished a
rich red soil, very well suited to wet seasons because of the
very good natural drainage it allows. On making enquiries
I was informed that this district suffered very little from the
heavy unseasonable rains of a few years back.
I believe there are no exposed sections of the Marl stone
north of Chalcomb until we reach Edgcott, a distance of
about 2b miles. Near to Edgcott Church we find a small
quarry that is occasionally worked for road material. The
soil above it contains broken pieces of limestone, with
Ammonites serymtinus , A. communis, dec., which are evidently
the remains of the Lower Cephalopoda bed. Some very
fine specimens of RhynchoneUa tetrahedra were obtained from
the heaps of stone near at hand.
(To be continued.)
THE EAR AND HEARING
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
( Continued from 217.)
It. Pitch, supposed to be discriminated by the responsive
vibration of the rods of Corti, signifies the acuteness or
graveness of the sound as determined by the ear ; and is
resolvable into the rate of vibration of the sounding body.
282
THE EAR AND HEARING.
Dr. Wollaston considers that the degree of tension of the
tympanic membrane affects our sensibility to pitch, and he
thus explains the functions of the tympanic muscles. The
Tensor tympani , which is inserted in the upper part of the
handle of the malleus, by its contraction tightens the
membrane ; the Laxator tympani, inserted in the processus
gracilis of the malleus, is supposed by some to assist in
relaxing the membrane upon the remission of the action of
the tensor ; and the Stapedius, attached to a loop in the neck
of the stapes, is supposed to govern the contact of this bone
with the membrane of the oval foramen, — the tensor tympani
concurring with it to tighten the membrane. From his experi¬
ments upon the effects of tension of the tympanic mem¬
brane, Dr. Wollaston concludes that a tense state of the
membrane deadens its susceptibility to the effect of intense
and grave sounds, as the firing of cannon, the rumbling of
carriages over a bridge, &c., whilst it increases susceptibility
to shrill sounds. The action of the muscles would seem to
be in a measure voluntary, coming into play in the acts of
listening and of preparing the ear to resist loud sounds, — in
which condition I fancy I can myself detect a feeling of
tension in my ear — though they must be largely reflex, called
into action by the intensity of the sound itself.
One may render tense his own tympanic membrane by a
strong continued effort of expiration or inspiration, keeping
the mouth and nostrils closed — in the one case forcing air
into the tympanum, tending to make the membrane convex
towards the external meatus, and in the other case extracting
air and making it convex towards the interior— in either case
producing temporary dulness of hearing.
The gravest sound audible to the human ear is (according to
Helmholtz) produced by 1G vibrations a second, the highest
audible sound corresponding to 88,000, or, according to some,
50,000 vibrations a second — one of the deepest tones in
use on orchestra instruments is the E of the double bass,
giving 41J vibrations a second, and the highest, the D of the
piccolo flute, is 4,752. The practical range is thus about seven
octaves ; at the upper limit of hearing persons differ as much
as two octaves ; the squeak of a bat and the sound of a cricket
are unheard by some ears.
A sound of uniform pitch is a musical note, the fact of
uniform continuance inducing a pleasure of the nature of
harmony.
The pleasurable and other effects of music open out a
field much too wide for our present consideration. Spencer
holds that the characteristic depth and vagueness of the
THE EAR AND HEARING.
283
sentiments awakened by musical tones are due to myriads of
associations with the voice, vocal cries having been the
commonest mode of expressing emotion through the various
stages of animal development ; whilst Darwin referred this
phenomenon more especially to associations of vocal sound
and deep sexual emotion built up during the courtships of
unnumbered species ; but we must leave this interesting
subject for treatment by others.
Irregular vibrations produce simply noises, the perception
of which some consider to be mainly due to the irregular
irritation of the nerves by the otoliths. Although in music
less intervals than a semitone are not admitted, the ear can
distinguish still smaller differences. A quarter tone makes a
marked difference to an ordinary ear, whilst a good musician
can distinguish two tones whose vibrations are as 1,149 to
1,145, sounded after each other, and even a smaller difference
if they are sounded together. Two pitchforks, whose number
of vibrations per second are 1,209 and 1,210, sounded simul¬
taneously can be distinguished by a first-rate ear.
The concurrence of two or more sounds may be pleasing
or displeasing, irrespective of their individual character. The
pleasurable concurrence is called harmony. It is dependent
upon the numerical vibrations of the two sounds. Simple
ratios as 1 to 2 (octave), 2 to 8 (fifth), 3 to-4 (fourth), 4 to 5
(major third), 5 to 6 (minor third), are harmonious in the
order stated. All these are admissible in musical compo¬
sition, and are termed chords. The combination 8 to 9 (a
single tone) is a dissonant combination ; 15 to 16 (a semi¬
tone! is a yratiny discord. In the lowest audible notes, as in
a very deep crgan note, the auditory sensation tends to lose
itself in the tactual and organic sensations due to the vibration
of the air, floor, &c. The duration of an impression of sound
would appear, from the experiments of Savart, to be less than
one-tentli of a second, since a series of beats begins to be felt
as continuous when it numbers ten to twelve per second.
III. — Quality , timbre, or Jdany, is explained by Helmholtz
by the presence of auxiliary upper tones, e.y., it is found that a
note sung by the human voice, or struck on a violin, is much
fuller and finer in quality than one uttered by a flute, and
this difference exactly corresponds to the variation in the
number of the upper tones present. When the note is nearly
destitute of upper tones, as in the case of a stopped organ
pipe, it is thin and poor, and does not minister to the proper
enjoyment of klang. lie also states that the difference in the
vowel sounds is due to the nature of the upper tones associated
with the ground tones, e.y. —
THE EAR AND HEARING.
ff84
In u (full) the ground tone is heard alone ;
,, o (oh) the next octave is audibly combined with the
ground tone ;
,, e (get) the ground tone is strongly mingled with the
second octave above ;
,, i (bit) the ground tone is weaker, and the second and
fourth octaves above strong ;
,, a (oh) the ground tone is modified by the marked
presence of the fifth, sixth, and seventh octaves
above.
He applies a similar principle to explain differences in the
consonant sounds ; but in these the distinctions are
generally so palpable that the different shocks they cause to
the nerve of hearing seem generally a sufficient explanation.
The theory of Helmholtz may be summarised thus : —
I. — That what appears to us to be a simple sensation of
tone is a composite mass of sensations resulting from a fusion
of a ground tone and several feebler upper tones, each of
these elements being transmitted by a distinct nerve fibre,
and that each individual tone is itself the produce of hundreds
or even thousands of vibrations, each probably causing some
physical change in the nerve of hearing, though not suffi¬
ciently intense to rise into consciousness.
II. — The harmony of tv^o tones is referred to the purely
negative condition of non-disturbance between the prominent
upper tones of the two notes — or that harmony arises from
the union of two masses of tone, each of which affects a
plurality of nerve fibres, and the elements of which are in no
case so near to one another as to produce intermittent shocks
of tone. That is to say, that just as a single musical clang
is demonstrated to be an enormously complex product, so
harmony is proved to be a more complex product of this
product ; and finally, that the pure pleasure of melody arises
from the presence in sequent clangs of some common tonic
element which serves to bind them together by a simple bond
of sensuous resemblance.
Auditory spectra or subjective sounds such as singing,
buzzing, ticking, snapping, humming, &c., accompanying
overwork and disease, the noise persisting after reviews,
railway, coach, or steamship travelling, &c., arise from
disease of the brain or nerve, pressure of congested blood
vessels upon the auditory nerve, over-stimulation of the
nerve, inducing a temporary morbid condition, obstructions
in the tympanum, Eustachian tube, &c., and seem to prove
conclusively that sound (like other sensations) is essentially a
state of a special nerve (here the auditory) excited externally
A FUNGUS PHANTASY.
285
or otherwise. The interference with hearing caused by bodily
affections, as diseases of the abdominal viscera, and febrile
affections, may be largely caused by the sympathetic affection
of the auditory nerve, though they frequently depend upon
partial or complete occlusion of the Eustachian tube and
external meatus by the congestion of their walls or
surroundings.
(To be continued.)
A FUNGUS PHANTASY.
Vertumnus speaks : —
This is the fated day when toadstools grim,
And harmless mushrooms, in sad livery dim,
Meet on October's brown and sodden banks,
Exchange their confidences and re-tell,
In murmurs husky, what to each befell,
Since last the Woolhope thinned their gathering ranks.
“Oh ! a merry, merry crew are we,
What pranks on the men we play !
Bacillus the slim, Bacterium stout,
Staid Coccus, and Vibrio gay.
In France and in Spain we have been,
And revelled ’neath Italy’s skies ;
We compass the world with our terrible band,
And hide in most varied disguise.”
“ Wilt list to the lay of a Myxomycete ?
A fungus primordial I ;
Of race undefined, half-animal still,
To class me in vain you may try.
Not even a Zopf the enigma can read,
Nor De Bary my lineage tell ;
So gruff Rostafinski the riddle has shirked,
And Sachs has been puzzled as well.”
“Petted and cultured, a glorious fate,
Ours is a destiny certainly great.
Specialist, amateur, all hold us dear,
Only the farmer and gardener fear.
Neatest of all, on leaves living we riot,
Not, as the mob, confined to one diet ;
We travel in state, and enjoyment derive,
Though our hosts be reluctant, we fatten and thrive.”
286
ANTHROPOLOGY.
“All ! behold ns, slighted beings ;
Moulds both blue and green and red,
White and olive, brown and golden,
Scarcely dare to raise the head.”
“ We come, the elite, the creme de la creme,
For the lords of the Fungi make way !
The tough Hallimasch, Lamb’s Kidney, Eartli-star,
Coprinus that fades in a day,
The Fairy Champignon, in fable renowned,
The Oyster, the meek Chantarelle,
The nutty Boletus, the juicy Beef-steak,
Bare Truffle, and fragrant Morell.
Then bring Witches’ butter, and Cyatlius’ eggs;
We’ll cooke you an omelet dainty and nice —
So dainty, no fillips your appetite needs,
’Twill ploio right to the core of your heart in a trice.
Peziza herself shall the goblets provide,
Tlielephora cover the board,
The Royal Agaric preside at the feast,
And on ketchup get drunk as a lord.”
Talk ended, “ Let’s finish our pleasant seance
With a grand pyrotechnic display,”
Said young Gunpowder Sphaeria, proud of his name,
And the Puff-ball inclined the same way.
Then faint phosphorescing, from mouldering trees,
Rliizomorpha illumines the gloom ;
The balloons of Sphasrobolus rise in the air,
And the guns of Pilobolus boom.
Hush ! silence descends ; the pale yellow moon
Peeps peacefully over the hill.
No more Peronospora waves in the breeze,
And the quaking Tremella is still.
October 1st.
Gamma.
ANTHROPOLOGY, ITS MEANING AND AIM.*
BY JOSEPH SMITH, JUN., M.A.I.
The progress which has within the last fifty years been
made in the investigation of those matters which trench
on the borders of recognised science, or form great factors
in the establishing of presumed science on a firm basis, is
one which must prove of the utmost importance to those
interested in the advance and development of science and
scientific undertakings.
* Read at a. meeting of the Warrington Field Club, Feb. 6, 1885.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
287
In the earlier days those interested in many— more
correctly speaking — in most of these scientific experiments
did not, however, meet with the encouragement their labours
demanded nor receive the honour merited. Geology only
comparatively late has become recognised as a science, and
as such established ; while Mesmerism or Animal Psychology
only within recent years begins to receive the attention a
new science ought to demand. The supporters of every
branch of scientific study have had to encounter these
difficulties, brought about by opposing and contending
principles. Astronomy even, by whose laws the heavenly
bodies are traced in their courses, each one separate, yet
all performing a part in one harmonious whole, had its
advance staggered, checked, and opposed by the introduction
of theories propounded for the purpose of proving such
laws untenable. So also the science of Anthropology has
only recently been put forward to its place in the scientific cycle.
Anthropology, the study of man, derived from the Greek
words avdpcoTTos, “man,” and \070s, “ discourse,” signifying a
discourse on man, may be more correctly defined as “a
promotion of the study of the science of mankind, by an
accumulation of observations bearing on man’s past history,
and Ins present state in all parts of the globe.” One of the
greatest difficulties indeed is the multifarious features that the
study embraces, and that range themselves under this branch
of knowledge. One of the chief factors of Anthropology is
Ethnology. This may be taken as the earlier title of the
study under consideration. It had, however, a far more
limited and definite line of research, yet it was regarded as
a whole, complete in itself, and so far as it went, embraced
all that was then required ; for the knowledge of the bearings
of Anthropology was then limited, but under the develop¬
ment of this science we find it falling into a place, and
assuming a very important factor in the study of man.
Ethnology, likewise derived from the Greek words edvos, “ a
nation,” and X070S, “discourse,” embraces the study of the
various peoples or races which form the population of
the globe, with their physical and moral development,
languages, social customs, opinions, beliefs, origin, history,
migrations, present geographical distribution, and relative
position to each other. The study of Ethnology is two-fold.
Firstly, by considering the laws which have determined
and regulated these characteristic features, which is therefore
called “ general Ethnology ;” and secondly “ by a study, com¬
parison, and description of the races themselves as dis¬
tinguished from each other by the special manifestations
288
ANTHROPOLOGY.
of these characters in them,” which is embraced by the
term “special Ethnology or Ethnography.” Such is the
definition of this interesting branch of the science as
submitted by one of the leading anthropologists of the
day. As now understood, however, Anthropology treats
of man as a whole, and in doing so draws for assistance on
the allied sciences — zoology, comparative anatomy, physiology
— in order to demonstrate more concisely the development
of the masterpiece of the Creator’s handiwork. His origin
also comes in for an amount of investigation. This enquiry
immediately suggests to the student the great questions —
whether man is a new-comer on the earth or an old
inhabitant, — what his relation to the rest of the universe, —
whether all races are different and have appeared as we now
find them, or have assumed their present state and form
through a long series of ages.
Now, in examining questions so intricate and important,
the wider the range of knowledge which can be brought to
bear on the matter, and the greater the comparison offered,
the less risk there is of error in distinguishing, and assign¬
ing to man, his correct position amongst his zoological
allies. Moreover, the position and place held by man in the
zoological cycle is not the only point which has to be estab¬
lished, but also the development of his moral and intellectual
faculties ; and Psychology, which is now demanding from
scientists so much attention and investigation, must be
embraced as another important factor in a complete system
of Anthropology. Again, Geology has to be called in to
render its quantum of light, and enables the enquirer to fix
the age of the strata in which man’s remains have been found,
and the position he held in those early times, and conse¬
quently provides some chronological data as to the age
of man ; but in tracing the origin and progress of man from
his primitive condition the characteristic resemblance to the
lower animals is quickly left behind, and, says Professor
Flower, “ It is on evidence of a kind peculiar to the human
species, by which man is pre-eminently distinguished from all
living beings, that our conclusions exist.” The knowledge
we gain of man in the earlier period of his existence by the
assistance of prehistoric archaeology, helps us in the investi¬
gation of all human culture, and assists us in tracing back to
their origin, the arts, customs, and manners of man. Yet
in following an argument on these lines, the difficulty crops
up as to what must be included, and what must be excluded,
as though the term prehistoric marks the boundary between
the historian and anthropologist, yet it. is perfectly evident
that the one unconsciously lapses into the other.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
289
The foregoing, if I may be allowed the term, may be
taken as an epitome or definition of the science of Anthro¬
pology, and will serve as a fitting introduction to a few
remarks on that subject, to the study of which in all its
features Anthropology devotes itself, viz., man. At the very
outset it will be asked “ What is man ? Define this being or
animal called Man.” He has been styled “ An Intelligence
assisted by organs.” Such was the definition of a very pro¬
found thinker, Cardinal de Bonald, and this would be a very
exact definition could it be exclusively applied to man,
since it reflects his great characteristic feature, intelligence ;
but animals may be regarded as “ Intelligences assisted by
oryans ,” — they, too, possess an intelligence which prompts
them in their necessities, but although man is an animal
covered by an envelope which is common to all mammalia,
yet he is superior to, and far surpasses, the lower creatures in
intelligence and perfection of bodily formation. Figuier,
a naturalist of the French school, defines man as “An
organised intelligent being endowed with the faculty of
abstraction” (“Human Race,” p. 1); and another writer*
styles him the noblest of all earthly creatures, standing
related on the one hand through his body to the world
of matter, on the other through his mind to the world of
spirit, or nether world ; at the verge of the animal
kingdom most remote from its point of contact with
the kingdom of organic (?) life, yet an inhabitant of such
other kingdom of pure intelligence. The above may be
accepted as the most perfect definition of man, but as such
are merely expressions of theory, and on that account liable
to rejection, a perfectly accurate definition cannot be given,
since that would presuppose a perfect knowledge, of which
our understanding on this question of man is incapable.
The origin of man, or the genesis of species, so far as it
relates to man, becomes then one of the most interesting
points which can entertain our powers of observation and
investigation. Opposing scientific views and religious beliefs,
and the conceptions of opposite philosophers, by a continual
and increasing conflict, tend to evolve a comprehensive view
of the origin of species, which will eventually harmonise
them with one another ; and when this comes to be finally
established it will be one of the greatest benefits which can
possibly be bestowed, as diverting the energy so often
expended in useless controversy into a profitable and reci¬
procal channel, of mutual beuefit to all. In the theory of the
* “Man,” in Encyclopaedia Brit.
290
ANTHROPOLOGY
“ Evolution of Man,” as set forth by the author of the
“Origin of Species,” although it may have points of question
at the present moment trenchant thereon, there is nothing
which can eventually make it antagonistic to sound Christian
theology. The evolution theory has during these later times
been making a steady progress and gaining ground. Within
the next few years, there is not the slightest doubt, the
facts touching on this august question will be greatly
augmented. The points at issue will be reconciled, and
those now deemed untenable will not improbably find further
evidence to support them, the results of which will be to
firmly fix this theory, as I have previously noted, on a
basis at once compatible with scientific belief and sound
Christian theology.
Amongst the principles of evolution we find one enunci¬
ating that every individual has to undergo a severe struggle
for existence, owing to the tendency to a geometrical rate of
increase of all kinds of animals and plants, the consequence of
which is that every variation of a kind tending to save the life
of the individual possessing it, or enabling it more surely
to propagate its kind, will eventually be preserved, and will
transmit its peculiarity to the offspring ; which peculiarity
will, in its transmission, become more intensified until it
arrives at the maximum degree of utility. (See Mivart’s
“ Genesis of Species,” pp. 5-fi.)
In this proposition we have a line to follow in our
search for the “ Origin of man,” and there does not
appear any great difficulty in arriving at the conclusion of
the evolving of man from an inferior creature. The writer
of the “ Origin of Species” speaks of “ life with its several
powers having been originally breathed by the Creator into a
few forms or ova,”* and it must be conceded that Creation is
not what many who are ignorant of the effect of natural
laws regard it, a series of cataclysms and miraculous inter¬
ferences with the laws of Nature, during which some new
form of life is belched into existence, but the very institution
and working of those laws ; for law and regularity, not
arbitrary intervention, was the true patristic ideal of Nature.
Hence, as Creation is the progress and fulfilment of the
laws of Nature in the course laid down by the Creator, and
the law of evolution leads to the existence of the fittest,
it may be assumed that the Creator having the great object
— the creation of man — in view from the beginning, ordains
that these laws of Nature, so set in motion by His omnipotent
* “ Origin of Species,” Fifth Edition, 1869, p. 579.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
291
power and omniscient will, shall act in such manner as to
evolve and perfect from the lower creations a being whose
progression to perfection shall be in such a delicate gradient,
that it shall be impossible for the human understanding to
point out where the animal ceases and man begins.
(To be continued.)
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
( Continued from page 268.)
CRYPTOGAMIA.
ACOTYLEDONS.
FILICES.
PTERIS.
P. aquilina, Linn. Brake or Bracken.
Native: On lieatlis, hedge hanks, and woods. Very common.
June, July. Area general.
LOMARIA.
L. spicant, Desv. Hard Fern.
Native : In woods and on damp hanks. Local.
I. In lanes about Aston Park, With., Ed. iv., 750 (extinct) ; Coleshill
Bog! Ick. Anal., 1837; Sutton Park; Trickley Coppice; New
Park and other ^Middleton woods ; Bentley Park ; Hartshill
Hayes; Coleshill Heath ; Marston Green ; woods near Solihull;
Olton Reservoir ; Monk’s Path, near Shirley ; Windmill Naps,
Little Ladbrook.
II. Heathy places on Honiley Common! Baynes ; Haseley Common,
Perry, Phyt. i., 510; Stoke Heath Woods, T. K., Vhyt. ii. , 810;
Fern Hill ! Y. and B.; near Wolston Heath, H. W. T., R.. S'. R.,
1874 ; very fine and abundant in Haywoods.
ASPLENITJM.
A. Ruta-muraria, Linn. Rue-leaved Spleenwort.
Native : On old walls and ruins. Local. June to October.
I. Aston Park Wall! Ick. Anal., 1837 ; Bickenliill Church ! Maxtoke
Castle ! IF. T. Bree, Phyt. i., 511 ; ruins of Nuneaton Abbey !
T. K., Phyt. ii., 810; old walls about Dostliill ; old walls,
Ansley ; near Curdworth Bridge ; Water Orton Bridge; bridge
near Castle Bromwich ; bridge at Elmdon ; old walls, Mancetter
abundant ; old walls, Wilnecote, near Tamwortli.
292
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE
II. Church porch at Great Alue ; Walcot; Wixford, Purt. ii., 513 ;
Tachbrook and Kenilworth Churches, Perry FI. 84 ; Alleslev ;
Stoneleigh, W. T.Bree; Soutliam Church ! IF. W. Baynes; St.
Mary’s Church-yard Wall, Warwick, IF. G. Perry ; Tachbrook
Church; Mnrcott; Vicarage and Priory Walls, Warwick;
Coventry Town Wall, J. S. Paly, Phyt. i., oil ; on wall of park
at Watford, L.C., R.S.R., 1874; walls, Wootton Wawen,
abundant ; bridge near Slirewley Canal Tunnel ; bridge,
Atherstone-on-Stour.
A. Trichomanes, Linn. Common Spleemcort.
Native : On old walls and ruins. Hare. June to October.
I. Elmdon Hall, near Hockley, JJr. Southall, Pliyt. ii., 511; Maxtoke
Priory ; Coleshill; bridge over the River Cole, near Colesliill ;
near Knowle ; railway bridge near Solihull ; old bridge, near
Mance liter.
II. On Cougliton Church ; Walcot, Purt. ii., 514 ; walls at Kenilworth
Castle, Perry FI., 84 ; Allesley ; Stoneleigh, IF. T.Bree; church
porch, Stratford-on-Avon, IV. G. Jerry; Newbold, R.S.E., 1880;
bridge over the Avon, Stratford-on-Abon, J. Humphreys.
A. Adiantum-nigrum, Linn. Black Spleemcort.
Native : On old walls and dry shady banks. Rare. April to
October.
I. Maxtoke Priory, J. S. Baly, Phyt., ii., 511 ; Meriden, Balsall, Bree,
Phyt., i., 511 ; in a lane near Berkswell ; lane between Meriden
and Hollyberry End, Kirk, Phyt., ii., 810; marly banks, near
Knowle ; Damson Lane, Solihull.
II. Sambourne ; Middletown ; Overslev, Purt., ii., 512 ; walls at
Kenilworth Castle; stone quarry, Coton End, Warwick; on
Emscote Bridge, Perry FI., 84 ; common in the parish of
Corley; Allesley, TF. T. Bree; rocky bank below Milverton,
Baynes; between Hampton-on-the-Hill and Norton Lindsay ;
Fen End, Perry ; on a bank near Henley ; on the church at
Henley, Murcott ; Norton Hill, Baly, Phyt., ii., 511 ; on a bridge
at Binley, Kirk, Phyt., ii., 809 ; in a ditch near the Blue Boar ;
on old walls near Little Lawford Mill, E. S. E.. 1874 ; old walls
in the village of Haslor ; on old bridge near Ilenley-in-Arden.
ATHYRIUM.
A. Filix-faemina, Bernh. Lady Fern.
Native : Near streams, ditches, and in damp woods, copses and
other damp places. Locally abundant. June to September.
I. Coleshill, Bree, Purt., iii., 79 ; Bannersley Common and Wood !
moist bank near to Stonebridge ! Murcott; in a lane near
Sutton Park, Cameron, Phyt., i., 511 ; Sutton Park; Middleton
Heath ; Trickley Coppice ; New Park and Middleton Park ;
Marston Geeen ; near Knowle and Solihull ; Bentley Park ;
Poors Wood and Blackliill Wood, Honiley.
II. Allesley, Bree, Purt., iii., 79 ; between Leamington and Kenil¬
worth ! Baynes; on the porch of the church, Stratford-on-
Avon, Perry, Phyt., i.. 511 ; Oversley Wood ; Haywoods, Ac.
Var. rlueticum, Roth.
I. Sutton Park ; near Aslifurlong House ; Trickley Coppice ; New
Park ; Marston Green ; Meriden Shafts ; Hartsliill Hayes ;
Bentley Park ; Blackliill W ood, Honiley.
II. Boggy places, near Binley; Stoke Heath ; Deer Park, Arbury, T.
Kirk, Phyt., ii., 809 ; Fern Hill ! Y. and B. ; Haywoods.
Var. molle, Roth.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
298
II. Arbury Deer Park, T. Kirk , Phyt ., ii., 809 ; Havwoods, 1871.
The varieties of this species have not been sufficiently noticed to
allow me to assign each variety to its particular locality. I have only
localised the varieties where special notice of them has been recorded
by other observers, or where special notice of them occurs in my own
notebook.
Var. incisum. Crackley Wood, Y. and B.
CETERACH.
C. officinarum, Willd. Scaly Spleemcort.
Alien : On old walls near gardens. Very rare. May.
I. On old walls, near Atherstone, G. T. Harris !
II. Walcot, in Haslor parish, Part., ii., 517 ; on a brick wall at the
back of the mansion house, Tachbrook, Perry , Phyt., i., 511 ;
Wall of Lancastrian Yard, Coventry, Kirk, Phyt., ii., 809 ; old
wall, near Birdingbury Hall, H.ll.
SCOLOPENDRIUM.
S. vulgare, Syme. Hart's Tongue .
Native: On damp shady and marly banks and old walls. Bare.
June to August.
I. Knowle! TV. Southall; damp shady places near Elmdon, D. Cameron;
boggy ground near Solihull, Mr. Ick, Phyt. i., 511 ; damp banks,
Marston Green ; near Hampton-in-Arden ; on an old bridge near
Knowle.
II. In a ditch by the side of the footpath from Warwick to Hampton-
on-the-Hill, Perry FI. 85 ; plentiful at Hatton Bock, near
Stratford ; Kenilworth, near the ruins ; bank of a pool at the
Woodloes ', roadside between Budbrook and Hampton-on-the-
Hill, Murcott ; Tachbrook, Baly, Phyt. i. , 511 ; in Princethorpe
village, Blox. 31. S. note ; Liglithorn village, 11. B^ on marly and
damp banks near Claverdon ; and near Holywell.
Formerly abundant in many of these localities, but now eradicated
in most of them.
CYSTOPTERIS.
C. fragilis, Bernh. Brittle Bladder Fern.
Alien : On old walls. Very rare. June to August.
II. Near Arbury Hall, T. Kirk, Phyt. ii., 972 ; Guy’s Cliff, near Warwick !
T. F. Foster, jun., Plerb. Brit. Mus., 1849 ; near Guy’s Cave, Guy’s
Cliff, 1877, an escape probably; Compton Verney, I). Cameron ,
Phyt. i., 510.
ASPIDIUM.
A. aculeatum, Sic. Common Prickly Shield Fern.
Native : on hedge banks. Local. June to September.
I. In a ditch near Elmdon, With., ed. 4, 761. Abundant near New
Park, Middleton; Middleton Heath; banks, near Nether
Wliitacre, Shustoke, and Maxtoke ; Islington, near Kingsbury ;
banks near Hartshill and Arley ; banks near Fillongley and
Meriden Shafts ; banks near Knowle and Solihull ; lanes near
Baddesley Ensor.
294
THli FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
II. Pinley ! Rowington ! Y. and B. ; near Barby ; Blue Boar Lane ;
roadside between Long Lawford and Little Lawford Mill !
11. S. B. 1877 ; Dilke’s Lane, near Kingswood ; Lapworth, Holy-
well, Claverdon, &c.
b. lobatum.
I. Saltley, Ick, Anal., 1837 ; near Packington, Smith, Perry FI., 83 ;
Elmdon ! and near Castle Bromwich, Cameron: near Maxtoke!
Luxford, Phyt., i., 510; Four Oaks, near Sutton; Middleton
Heath ; lane near Islington and Baddesley Ensor ; lanes near
Arley ; lanes near Sliustoke.
II. In a wTet lane at Studley ; Sambourne ; Oversley! Purt., ii., 509.
About Warwick, Perry FI., 83; thicket between Huningliam
and Offchurcli ; on the road from Warwick to Henley, Murcott ;
Allesley ! Baly, Phyt., i., 510 ; Pinley! Y.andB.; Hampton-
on-the-Hill, H. B.; Stoneleigh ; Hollyberry End! Wyken
Lane ! T. Kirk, Phyt., ii., 809 ; near Kingswood.
c. loiichitidioides.
II. Near Stoneleigh ; Meriden, Kirk, Phyt., ii., 809 : near Hatton !
H. B. Merely an abnormal growth.
A. angulare. Willd. Angular -lobed Shield Fern.
Native : On hedge banks. Local. June to September.
I. Elmdon! and near Castle Bromwich, Cameron, Phyt. i., 510;
Middleton Heath ; near Fillongley and Maxtoke ; near Meriden
Shafts ; Bentley Heath, near Solihull.
II. Bare near Warwick, Perry ; Radford; ditch at the top of Emscote
Hill, opposite the turn to Milverton, Baly, Phyt. i., 510 ; near
Stoneleigh ; near Berkswell ! Hollyberry End ! Stivicliall ;
Whitmore Park ; Hearsal Common, Kirk Phyt. ii., 809 ; near
Hawkes End, Allesley.
NEPHR0LIUM.
N. Filix-mas, Rich. Male Fern.
Native : On hedge banks, in woods, and bushy places. Common as
an aggregate species. June to August. Area general.
b. affine, Fisch. Local.
I. Trickley Coppice ; New Park ; Middleton Heath ; Austrey, near
Tamworth ; Shustoke ; Hill Bickenhill ; lane near Meriden
Shafts ; Hazel Hill Wood, Honiley ; &c.
II. Bearley and Snitterfield Bushes ; Austey Wood ; Wootton Wawen ;
Oversley Wood ; Old Park Wood, Ragley, Ac.
c. Borreri, Newm. Local.
I. Middleton Heath ; Trickley Coppice ; New Park; Hill Bickenhill ;
Great Packington ; lane near Fillongley and Maxtoke ; Black
Hill Wood, Honiley.
II. All Oaks Wood, Catlnron Lane, Brinklow.
d. abbreviatum, DC. Very rare’.
II. Oversley Wood.
N. spinulosum, Desv. Narrow Prickly -toothed Fern.
Native : On damp banks and in damp or marshy woods and copses.
Local. June to August.
I. Coleshill Heath ! Frogmore Coppice, near Temple Balsall, Murcott,
Phyt.. i., 510; Sutton Park; Trickley Coppice and New Park,
Middleton ; Kingsbury Wood ; Bentley Park ; Hartshill Hayes ;
Arley Wood ; Bannersley Rough ; marsh near Packington ;
copses in Wheyporridge Lane, Solihull ; Shelly Coppice ; woods
near Sliarman’s Cross; Blackhill Wood, Honiley; Windmill
Naps, Little Ladbrook.
REVIEW.
295
II. Allesley, Bree , Part., iii., 81 ; Chesterton Wood, Berry ; Waverley
Wood, near Weston, Murcott, Phyt ., i., 510; Haywood!
Y. and B. In boggy places near Binley ; North Wood, Arbury
Hall ! Kirk , Phyt., ii. , 807 ; near Rugby, A. Blox., Herb. Brit.
il his. Oversley Wood ; Newlands Wood, Hatton; Plants Hill
Wood, near Tile Hill ; Austey Wood, near Henley-in-Arden ;
Bearley, and Snitterfield Bushes.
N. dilatatum, Desv. Broad Prickly -toothed Pern.
Native: In woods and copses, and on banks. Locally common .
June to August.
I. Sutton Park ; Middleton Heath ; Trickley Coppice ; New Park ;
Bentley Park ; Hartshill Hayes ; Bannersley Pool and Rough ;
woods about Solihull; banks near Knowle and Hockley; Hazel
Hill Wood, Honiley ; Windmill Naps, Little Ladbrook.
II. Cougliton Lane and Spernall, Purl. ; Allesley, Bree, Part, iii., 80 ;
Oakley Wood; rocks below Milverton, by the Avon, Bay nes ;
Woodloes, Perry ; Foleshill, Baly, Phyt. i., 510; Stoke Heath,
sparingly ! Stivichall, Whitly Common ; plentiful and very fine
North and other woods in Arbury Park ! Kirk , Phyt. ii., 809 ;
Lower Hillmorton Road, Blue Boar Lane! lane near Bilton,
11. S. 11., 1877 ; Honiley ; Fernhill ! Y. and B. ; Oversley Wood ;
Bearley Bushes ; Haywoods ; woods near Tile Hill ; Combe
Woods.
N. Thelypteris, Desv.
Native : In marshes and bogs. Very rare. July, August.
I. Sutton Park.
II. In a boggy pit, Allesley, Bree. Mag. Nat. Ilist. iii., 166 ; in a pit near
Rounsell Lane, Kenilworth, H.B.; I believe exterminated in
both localities now.
N. Oreopteris, Desv. Siceet Mountain Fern.
Native : In woods, copses, on banks, and near streams. Rare.
June to September.
I. Colesliill Heath, plentiful ! Bree. Phyt. i., 510, rare in this locality
now ; in a lane near the Bell Lane at Erdington, With., Fd. 7,
995; near Atherstone, abundant, G. J. Harris ; Sutton Park,
formerly abundant by many of the streams ; Middleton Heath ;
Trickley Coppice, Middleton ; Bannersley ; Marston Green ;
Windmill Naps, Little Ladbrook.
II. Corley, Bree. Purt. ii., 508 ; Dunsmore Heath, near Rugby, Doody
in B. S., Perry FI., 83 ; Haseley Common, Perry, Phyt. i., 510.
( To be continued.)
Spectrum Analysis. By Dr. II. Schellen ; translated by Jane and
Caroline Lassell; edited by Capt. Abney. Second edition, 8vo.,
626 pp., 14 plates, 291 woodcuts ; price 31s. 6d. Publishers,
Longman and Co.
All students of science will welcome this new edition of Dr. Scliellen’s
excellent book. It is divided into eight parts, treating respectively
of the artificial sources of high degrees of heat and light ; the
application of spectrum analysis to terrestrial substances ; to the
examination of the sun; of the moon and fixed stars; nebulae and
star-clusters ; comets and meteors ; the zodiacal light, aurora
borealis, and lightning. In the early chapters, the principles of light,
296 METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. - NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
the construction of tlio spectroscope, and the history of the discoveries
which have been made by its aid are dealt with in the fullest and
clearest manner. Throughout the book each chapter contains the latest
reliable information on the subject of which it treats, and this is so
put together, and the facts are so skilfully handled and massed, that
the book, as a whole, is far more easy to understand than many an
elementary text-book. The Misses Lassell have so translated the
book that we cannot detect that it is a translation, while Capt.
Abney’s own researches in this subject have enabled him to render
valuable aid as editor. The illustrations are extremely satisfactory,
such, alas, as we only find in scientific books of foreign origin. The
frontispiece, however, a Woodburytype reproduction of Mr. Common’s
magnificent photograph of the great nebula in Orion, we are proud to
claim as of English origin throughout. As the most complete and
exhaustive work on the subject, this book ought to be in every library.
It does great credit to all who have been engaged in its production.
W. J. H.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.— August, 1885.
Atmospheric pressure was unsteady during the month, the
barometer falling, with slight checks, to the 10th, when the reading
was 29*563 inches. A rapid rise followed to the 15tli, 30*350 inches,
and unimportant fluctuations continued till the end of the month.
Temperature was about four degrees below the average, lower in fact
than that of any of the previous nine years, the deficiency being more
especially noticeable in the maximum readings. The highest recorded
were 78*5° at Henley-in- Arden, on the 17th ; 76-0° at Loughborough, on
the 25th ; 71*8° at Hodsock, and 74*0° at Strelley, on the 16tli. In the
rays of the sun, 133*9° at Loughborough, on the 15tli ; 128*8° at
Hodsock, on the 6th ; and 125*0 at Strelley, on the 10th. The lowest
minima were 35*0° at Henley-in-Arden, on the 14th ; 36*3° at
Hodsock, 36*6° at Strelley, and 37*9° at Loughborough, on the 15th.
On the grass the mercury fell to 29*0° at Hodsock, 35*0° at Strelley,
and 35*4° at Loughborough, also on the 15th. Rainfall was somewhat
above the average, heavy showers being the principal factors in the
total. The largest amounts measured were 0*78 inches at Lough¬
borough, on the 21st ; 0*66 at Hodsock, on the 7tli ; 0*56 at Henley-in-
Arden, on the 12th, and 0*47 at Strelley, on the 6tli. The total
values were: — Henley-in-Arden, 2*90 inches; Loughborough, 2*83
inches ; Hodsock, 2*58 inches ; Strelley, 2*02 inches. The number of
“ rainy days ” varied from 13 to 10. Sunshine was much below the
average. Thunderstorms occurred at Loughborough on the 6th and
7tli. There was every prospect of an early harvest, but field operations
have been much retarded by the unsettled state of the weather.
Wm. Beuridge, F.R.Met.Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
Death’s Head Hawk Moth. — The larvae of Acherontia atiopos have
occurred here (North Leicestershire) in some numbers during the
last few weeks, the first seen for a number of years. The specimens
found were scattered through this district in localities many miles
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
297
apart. Nearly all were found feeding on tlie potato, but two were
sent me from Leicester, which had been found feeding on the plant
commonly called tea tree ; and on the 5tli September, I obtained one
of three which were feeding on the privet, a food-plant not hitherto
recorded, I believe, for the larva of atropos. Mr. J. B. Wieldt, F.Sc.S.,
informs me that till this year he has only seen one specimen here for
fifteen years. — Wilfred Moss, The White House, Loughborough.
The Weapons of Butterflies. — Having recently read a paper on
“ The Weapons of Animals,” I was much interested this morning to
observe how a butterfly is armed for the defence of his rights and the
robbing of his neighbours. On the disk of a sunflower there sat a
bumble bee, a hive bee, and two large flies (dijJtera apparently), all
regaling themselves in peace and amity. A fine red admiral hovering
by took a fancy to the same sunflower, and settled in the middle of it,
flapping vigorously his great handsome wings. The bees and the flies
edged away towards the margin, but he continued to flap till they
were fairly driven off and he had the field to himself. Then he
worked diligently over it, trying every floret with his long bent pro¬
boscis. The bees and the flies made several attempts to return, but as
soon as they came within sight or touch, flap went the great wings, and
away they flew as if they were frightened. The admiral kept the
place entirely free from intruders for nearly five minutes, when he
took himself off to “ pastures new.” F. T. Mott.
Aregma bulbosum. — It has occasionally been asked whether the
above fungus is as common as Dr. Cooke reports it to be, for it has
been carefully sought in this district for the last year or two with little
success. At the present time it may be found abundantly in the
neighbourhood of Bewdley, quite justifying Dr. Cooke’s observation of
“ very common.” I noticed that for the distance of perhaps a mile
nearly every bush was more or less attacked by it. For the microscope
this object mounts well in glycerine or balsam, and is very interesting.
If any reader would like a leaf I shall be pleased to forward one on
receipt of stamped envelope. — J. W. Neville, Wellington Boad,
Handsworth.
[It is quite true that Phragmidium bulbosum scarcely merits the
name of a “very common ” species in this neighbourhood, for it is
extremely local and irregular in its appearance, although where it does
occur it is often in great abundance. The same is equally true, how¬
ever, of most of the “ common” species of leaf-fungi, not only for this
neighbourhood, but, I believe, for many others. Xeuodochus carbonarius,
again, is a rare species, yet in the only locality near here where I have
seen it (Water Orton), it grows in such great profusion that, both in
1883 and 1884, I could, if required, have gathered several thousands
of affected plants. I have seen P. bulbosum in large quantities near
Solihull, and near Kenilworth, besides other places; at the former
place the bushes along the roadside for some distance appeared as if
sprinkled with red paint, owing to the conspicuous blotches upon the
leaves. This was in 1883. It is necessary, however, to state that the
Phragmidium bulbosum of Cooke’s works (Aregma bulbosum of the older
editions, a name now obsolete) includes two species : — P. violaceum and
P.Rubi , the distinguishing characters of which may be found in the
“ Midland Naturalist ” for 1883, p. 21. It is of the former that I
speak, P. Eubi being more rare here. I have seen no specimen of the
latter from this neighbourhood. Phragmidium obtusum is the most
common species, being always to be found by a little searching ; P.
mucronatum is more rare ; and the rarest of all the Pliragmidia of this
298
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
district, so far as I know, is P. gracile, on the wild raspberry.
On Saturday last (Sept. 19tli) I saw several bushes attacked by P.
violaccum , near Barnt Green Station. — W. B. Grove, B.A.]
Imports of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — General Meeting, September 1st, the President in the
chair, Mr. W. B. Grove exhibited the following fungi : — Uypocopra
microspora (new to England, previously recorded from Scotland, which
has been hitherto the only known locality), and Zignoella pulviscula,
from Edgbaston ; Leptosplueria Rusci (on Ruscus aculeatus and on R.
Hypoglossum) and Leptothyrium Frag aria, from Sutton ; Tremato-
spheeria pertusa , from Barnt Green Reservoir; Rhabdospora pleosporoides
(new to Great Britain) on stems of sorrel, taken from a nest of the
common tern, which had been received by the President, Mr. R. W.
Chase, from the West Wide Opens, one of the Fame Islands ; mounted
specimens of the spores of the Hypocopra and the Rhabdospora, for
the microscope ; also (on behalf of Mr. J. W. Oliver) a few plants sent
by an old member, Mr. J. W. Pickering, from Victoria, Australia —
two sundews, Drosera WhitacTceri, and 1). glandulifera, each about 1£
inch in total height, and the former bearing one or more scapes, each
with a single flower one inch across ; and two orchids, Caladenia
deformis and C. pulcherrima (spider plant). Mr. T. Bolton exhibited
Microcodon clavus, a rare rotifer, from Colesliill Pool. Mr. J. Levick
exhibited Cordiylopliora lacustris, from Hamstead Canal, and
Stephanoceros Eiclihornii, from Alvechurch. Miss Browett exhibited
Himanthalia lorea , from the Brig, Filey. Mr. G. M. Iliff exhibited
some excellent micro-photographs of Echinus spines. Biological
Section, September 8th. — Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., in the
chair. — Mr. \V. H. Wilkinson exhibited ripe fruit of the Lawton
blackberry, grown from plants received from America. A proliferous
state of the white clover, Tri folium repens ; a leaf 3ft. 6in. long of Dimor-
phanthus mandgliuricus, one of the ivy tribe. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S.,
Garduus eriophorus , woolly thistle ; Serratula tinctoria, saw-wort ;
Arctium tnajus, great burdock; Clematis Vitalba, virgin’s bower ; Ghlora
perfoliata, yellow centuary ; and other rare plants, and a fungus, Panas
torulosus, new to South Warwickshire, all from the Stratford-on-Avon
district. — General Meeting, September 15tli. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited
the sperm atophores of the cuttle-fish, from Cornwall. Mr. W. B. Grove
exhibited two eatable fungi : — (for Mr. C. E. Robinson) A garicus ostreatus,
the oyster mushroom, on a cherry log, from Legge Lane, Birmingham ;
and (for Mr. Edmonds) Coprinus comatus , from Hockley. Miss Taunton
exhibited Acanthus spinosus, from Dorset, a plant whose leaf suggested
the original idea of the Corinthian capital. Mr. W. R. Hughes
exhibited (for Mr. C. Parsons) a specimen of Sagartia which showed
the process known as spontaneous generation or “ fissiparity,” i.e., two
discs with mouths and tentacles appearing on a single column. —
Geological Section, September 22nd. Mr. T. H. Waller in the chair.
Mr. T. H. Waller exhibited sections of quartzite, from the Ercal Hill,
Wrekin ; basalt, from Shatterford, showing vein of orthoclase :
Whinsill, from Holwick Scar, Teesdale. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, Sparganium
neglectum, new to Warwickshire ; for Mr. W. B. Stone, Sedum album ,
showing a remarkable instance of vitality, the plant having been
gathered in leaf in April, at Lake Como, had been laid aside on study
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
299
table, and had flowered and fruited after being pressed ; Hypnum
scorpioides and other mosses, from Dartmoor ; for Mr. Hughes, Echinops
paniculata , with notes on its structure ; for Mr. Henry Groves,
Malaxis paludosa, from Norfolk. Mr. Grove, a flower of Stapelia, a
“ carrion plant,” so called on account of the carrion-like odour given
off by the flowers. Mr. Herbert G. Young, Colchicum autumnale , from
banks of River Tame, at Great Barr. Mr. James Simkins, Lias
limestone, found in tunnel of West Suburban Railway between Church
Road and New Street Station, containing Ostrea Liassica.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — August *24tli. — Mr. Moore exhibited specimens of Pupa
umbilicata var. alba , and Helix rupestris from the Isle of Man, also
diminutive specimens of Limncea stagnalis, three years old ; Mr.
Hawkes, the following fungi : — Melampsora treviulce on Populus
tremula, Puccinia violarum, and Aregma viucronatum; Mr. Dunn
exhibited on behalf of Mr. J. Baxter a series of objects illustrating
the life-history of the lady-bird, coccinella, comprising the egg, larva,
pupa, and imago; also a specimen of musk beetle, Aromia moschata. A
paper was then read by Mr. H. Insley on “ Bye-paths in Geology.”
The writer regretted the too frequent habit of students of Natural
History neglecting ordinary or commonplace facts, and proceeded to
show the great neglect of physical facts in geology by the majority of
students. The phenomena of unconform ability, dislocation, and
denudation were described, and their importance urged upon the
attention of those studying the subject. Local examples were given,
and their evidence regarding past conditions of the district dwelt
upon. August 31st. — Mr. Deakin, scattered cluster cups, JEcidium
depauperans on Viola cornuta ; Mr. Madison, a distorted specimen of
Planorbis nautileus (the whorls being divided) from Trimpley; Mr. J.
A. Grew, pupa of death’s head moth, Acherontia atropos ; Mr. Tylar,
an African water bottle made of a gourd ; Mr. Mulliss, silicified wood
from Australia. Under the microscope Mr. J. W. Neville showed
Aregma bulbomm; Mr. Mulliss, eggs of house fly. September 5th. —
An excursion was made to Rowley Regis at the invitation of the
president (Mr. C. Beale), to view his collection of objects relating to
pre-liistoric man, etc. The collection consisted of numerous speci¬
mens of Palaeolithic and Neolithic implements, comprising celts and
other implements in flint, basalt, and serpentine, from roughly
chipped to highly polished specimens, some with oblique and faceted
edges, from various parts of Europe, the grave mounds of America,
and South Sea Islands; also some exceedingly fine specimens of spear
and arrow heads in flint, jasper, and chalcedony, and obsidian, some
having serrated edges, from the base of the Apennines. Bronze
implements were represented by arrow heads, knives, etc., of the
Etruscan period. Mr. Beale described the objects in their proper
order, and through Etruscan pottery, Samian wai-e, and early English
pottery (of which specimens were shown), linked the remote past
with more recent times. A most instructive afternoon was spent.
September 7th. — Mr. J. Madison exhibited specimens of Gryphea
biloba from Cheltenham ; Mr. Hawkes, the following fungi : — Puccinia
striola, P. mentha , P. valantice , and Coleosporium campanula; Mr.
Rodgers, a small collection of butterflies and shells from Bournemouth.
Under the microscopes Mr. Moore showed palates of Ancylus Jluviatilis
and Zonites erg stall inus ; Mr. J. W. Neville, leaf of Pinguiciila vulgaris
with insects ; Mr. Hawkes, a species of Myxomycetes. September
14th. — Mr. C. P. Neville exhibited specimens of starfish from Wales;
300
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Mr. Madison specimens of Solen siliqun and S. ensis ; Mr. Hawkes,
Parncissia palustris ; Mr. Rodgers, an ichneumon fly, Ophion luteum.
A paper was then read by Mr. W. Dunn on “Rotifers: their habits
and habitats,” in which lie described a typical rotifer, and the views
of early microscopists respecting them ; the two kinds of rotifers —
free swimming and fixed — the attachment of their eggs, their great
fecundity, the general scarcity of males, and their modes of progres¬
sion were severally dealt with, and types of the various kinds
described. The paper, which was illustrated by diagrams, concluded
by giving a few plain directions to their habitats, and the best modes
of viewing them.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.—
Section D. — Zoology and Botany. — Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. —
Monthly meeting, Wednesday, September 16th. The Chairman
reported that at the Field Day, on the 19th August, six members went
to Brooksby Station, examined the River Wreake and the fields
adjoining, and visited the prettily situated village of Hoby. In the
river were found abundantly the water plants (Enanthe fluviatilis ,
Potamogeton pectinatus , P. Jlabellatus, P. lucens, P. perfoliatus , &c. ; in
the adjoining fields and on the river banks, Tanacetum vulgare and
several other plants not hitherto recorded for that district. Also
fifteen species of land and freshwater shells, including Anodonta
cygnea, A. anatina , Unio tumidus, XJnio pictorum, and Dreissena
polymorplia. These five, the only species of large -bivalves which
inhabit the waters of the Midlands, were all taken together within one
square yard. The Chairman proposed, as w’ork for the Section during
the autumn and winter, the preparation of a large number of drawings,
magnified from three to twelve times, of the floral organs ^f various
plants, both native and exotic. It would be a work of very considerable
value and one in which the ladies could render great assistance. He
presented a set of written instructions for the preparation of such
drawings. Miss Catherine Hewitt was elected a member of the Section.
Among the objects exhibited were some very fine specimens of
Anodonta and Unio, dredged from the lake at Wistow Hall, one example
of A. cygnea measuring six and a half inches in length ; also specimens
of the microscopic fungi, JEcidium compositarum and Coleosporium
tussilaginis, on the leaves of the common colt’s-foot, by Mr. Quilter.
Several numbers of Cole’s microscopic studies and slides, by Mr.
Grundy. Fronds of the fern Cystopteris bulbifera bearing an abundance
of its curious bulbils, by Mr. Thorp. Fruiting branch of Bubns
laciniatus, the cut-leaved bramble, a variety which lias been in cultiva¬
tion for many years, being figured and described by Loudon in 1829,
though rarely mentioned in more recent works, and which has lately
been sold as an “American blackberry,” by Miss Noble. A collection of
thirty-five rare species of plants from Ben Lawers, by Mr. Carter, who
promised a paper on the flora of that remarkable mountain. The
fifteen species of shells collected by members of the Section at the
last Field Day, cleaned and named; also a copy of Rimmer’s “Land
and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles,” illustrated by photography,
by the Chairman. The Chairman read a paper on “ The Wild
Geraniums of Leicestershire,” explaining the distinguishing characters
of the three genera, Pelargonium, Geranium, and Erodium ; stating that
out of about one hundred known species of Geranium , twelve were
British, and that eight of these were found in Leicestershire, six
being certainly indigenous. The paper was illustrated by dried speci¬
mens of all the British species.
SOME FACTS ABOUT ARUMS.
301
SOME FACTS ABOUT ARUMS.
We are all familiar with the fact that plants absorb and
decompose carbonic acid, and that while keeping the carbon
to build up their tissues, they restore nearly the whole of the
oxygen to the air for the benefit of the animal world.
All this is true, but it is not the whole truth. Some
plants — the whole race of fungi for instance — breathe as
animals do, and exhale carbonic acid ; and the tiny yeast
plant, as it multiplies in the wort, produces carbonic acid in
such quantities that the gas may be seen flowing over the
sides of the beer-vat. Nor is even this all. All plants take up
oxygen and give off carbonic acid, and that at all hours of
the day and night, but especially at night ; though the
quantity given off is so small compared with that which is
absorbed that it is apt to escape notice. Whether performed
on a large or small scale, however, this giving off of carbonic
acid is true breathing ; it means that carbon has been
oxidised or burnt, and therefore that more or less heat must
have been produced. Yet plants, like frogs, are, with certain
exceptions, always cooler than the surrounding air, owing to
the constant evaporation or perspiration going on through
the myriads of minute pores with which their leaves are
studded. There are 120,000 pores in a square inch of lilac
leaf ; some leaves have 800 to the square inch, others
170,000 ; and through these water is constantly being per¬
spired as invisible vapour. A single sunflower plant has been
known to perspire as much as twenty-two ounces of water in
the course of twenty-four hours ; and thus, although some
small amount of carbon is always being oxidised, the leaves
are kept cool. Plants are especially active in giving off
carbonic acid at certain times — namely, when they first begin
to sprout from seed and when they blossom ; and when a
number of seeds are all sprouting together, as in the prepara¬
tion of malt, the heat is quite sufficient to be noticeable.
If the bud of some large flower, such as a thistle or
cucumber, be isolated under a bell-glass, when just on the
point of expanding, it will be found that its temperature
rises from a half to a whole degree centigrade (l|-° F.) In
many blossoms the heat is much greater than this, and is
like that from a stove or a feverish hand. It is especially
noticeable in plants of the arum tribe. We all know the
common white arum, or “ arum lily” as some people call it,
with its large glossy leaves and snow-white sheath or
“ spathe” surrounding the golden sceptre-like column, which
botanists call the “ spadix.”
302
SOME FACTS ABOUT ARUMS.
The true flowers are set round the base of this central
column, what we call the blossom being in fact an assemblage
of many blossoms, some of which are barren and some fertile.
The fertile flowers bear pistils, and the barren stamens ; and
it is from the former, which are usually set lowest on the
spadix, that the clusters of fruit are formed.
If the green sheath of the wild spotted arum or cuckoo-
pint be wrapped in and filled with wadding to prevent the
escape of the heat, the mercury in a thermometer placed close
to the brown column will be found to rise several degrees.
The sudden increase of heat is more remarkable still in
the lieart-leaved arum of the Isle of Bourbon, whose temper¬
ature at blossoming time rises from twenty to twenty- four
degrees centigrade above that of the surrounding air ; and
even this is outdone by the common Italian arum, which
grows in the olive-yards, and is a familiar object to all who
have enjoyed a Roman spring or spent a winter in the
Riviera. This plant much resembles the cuckoo-pint, but
its glossy dark leaves are larger and veined with yellow.
The pale yellow sheath, which is stalkless, grows close to the
ground, unfolds in March and April between 4 and 6 p.m.,
and emits a fragrant odour like that of wine, the temperature
of the club-like column at the same time rising until it feels
quite hot to the touch.
Professor Kraus found four of these arums near Rome
one 28tli of March, the temperature of whose blossoms
varied from 40° C. to 43-7 °C., that of the surrounding air
being at the time 16QC. ; 20°C. (68°F.) is a good summer
heat, and 35°C. is blood heat, but these arum blossoms were
hotter than a hot bath. This state of things did not last
long, however, and by the following morning the sheaths had
grown pale and wrinkled, the blossoms had passed their
prime, and the heat had quite disappeared.
Interesting as these facts are in themselves, they become
still more so when we consider them a little further, and ask
what they mean. The older botanists, Humboldt included,
had noticed the extraordinary degree of heat generated by
some of the arum family, but there they stopped short, and
the Italian, Delpino, seems to have been the first to suggest
a reason for the phenomenon.
It is well known that in order to produce perfect seeds,
most plants require to be fertilised by pollen brought from
other plants of the same species. For this they are dependent
upon wind, rain, birds, insects, &c., the two last mentioned
being attracted to them by their bright colours or sweet
scents.
SOME FACTS ABOUT ABUMS.
303
Now tlie arum family are not deficient in these customary
attractions, but they seem to try and outbid their neighbours
by adding warmth to the list. Most arums, in the temperate
zones at least, blossom early in the year, when the nights are
still so chilly that a comfortable well- warmed bed is by no
means to be despised ; and accordingly the common Italian
arum is visited by all sorts of small flies, gnats, and midges,
bringing with them in payment for their night’s lodging a
tribute of pollen from their last quarters.
Many South European and foreign arums are flesh-
coloured or reddish brown, and emit such a carrion-like
odour that the flesh-flies are attracted and so far deceived
as to lay their eggs on them. In these species the lower part
of the sheath, which is enlarged like a bulb, is shut off from
the upper part hy a ring of longisli hairs which slope down¬
wards, and thus, while affording easy entrance to the warm
chamber below, make the leaving of it again an impossibility.
In return for bringing pollen to the pistil-flowers, the
flies are caught and kept prisoners ; but not for long — only, in
fact, until the anthers or pouches of the stamen-flowers above
have burst and scattered their pollen, part of which naturally
falls upon the captives, while part is brushed off* by them
when they are let out. For as soon as they have fulfilled
their object, the hairs at once wither away and the insects
come out to carry the pollen to other blossoms, quite
undeterred by the fact of their imprisonment, for the prison
is in truth a most luxurious one, well warmed and scented ;
besides, they have been fed with nectar from the faded pistil-
flowers. The hairy arum of the South is, however, said to
express her gratitude to her pollen-bringing visitors by
keeping and devouring the greater number, which are sucked
and digested by the acid juice exuding from the hairs with
which her sheath is lined.
But there are other guests for which a number of the
aroids seem especially to prepare their warm lodgings ; these
are the little marsh snails, which climb up the stalk and find
entrance into the enlarged part of the sheath by a narrow
aperture at its base, which closes later on. Aroids all like a
damp situation, and growing as they do in shady woods, on
river banks, and in marshes, no creatures could be better
adapted for rendering them the services they need than snails,
whose tastes in this respect are so very similar to their own.
Most of those observed by Delpino were visited by small
snails, and we may reasonably suppose that the foreign
varieties are equally attractive to the race in their own
lands.
304
SOME FACTS ABOUT ARUMS.
One of the greenhouse avoids, Philodendrum bipinnati-
ficlum , is a plant with handsome foliage, the leaves being
deeply and doubly cut. Its sheath, which is greenish without
and white within, swells into a cauldron- shape at the bottom,
and in this cauldron is contained the ring of female or
pistilliferous flowers, which, as in other species, are the first
to open. In a specimen carefully watched by Dr. F. Ludwig,
these flowers began to expand at noon, and at the same time
the temperature of the air within the sheath began to rise
and continued to do so until seven p.m. When the ther¬
mometer marked 38°C., and the heat was so great that
it could be distinctly felt by the hand even at some distance,
the temperature of the surrounding air was at this time
only 15°C. As the flowers burst open a strong, fragrant
scent, something between musk and cinnamon, filled the
whole house ; and this, in the plant’s own country, would no
doubt be well understood by the snails as a signal that their
bed-chamber was comfortably heated and ready for their
reception. By noon the following day both heat and
fragrance were much diminished, and the aperture at the
base of the sheath was entirely closed. When this closed,
and not till then, the anthers of the upper ring of blossoms
burst open and discharged their pollen, which hung about the
spadix in tassel-like threads an inch long, instead of separat¬
ing into dust in the more usual manner.
Now insects could not possibly carry these tassels, but
they would adhere readily to the moist bodies of snails, and
in contact with them would be broken up into single grains
and thus easily carried away. And the snails must crawl up
the sheath and come in contact with the pollen, because the
door by which they entered at the bottom is now closed. Go
they must, moreover, for their hostess has burnt carbon so
liberally through the night that the cauldron is filled with
carbonic acid, and they would be suffocated just as surely as
the glowing match which Dr. Ludwig introduced was
extinguished, if they stayed.
The plant has her own good reasons, moreover, for
wishing to get rid of her visitors. Not only are their
services required in carrying away the pollen, but if they
stayed longer they might be dangerous, for snails are greedy
creatures, and if not dismissed would begin to devour the
young fruit-germs and other fleshy parts of the plant.
Many aroids, indeed, allow their hungry guests to feed upon
the sheaths, which soon cease to be required for the protection
of the fruit ; but in the great majority of species all the green
portions are so viruleutly poisonous that not the smallest
ADDRESS BY W. R. HUGHES.
b05
bite can be taken with impunity. Were it otherwise, indeed,
the snail would naturally begin to devour the first leaf which
came in its way without taking the trouble to climb the long
stalk — an arduous journey for a small snail, which is only
tempted upwards, like the boy who climbs a greasy pole, by
the prospect of something very nice at the top. Having been
regaled, however, with a delicious drop of nectar and made
comfortable for the night, the snail at once departs, ciawls
up the sheath, brushing off pollen as it goes, then down the
stalk, and without delay begins to mount another, just as
other blossoms are announcing by their fragrance that they
are in want of its services.
“ And thus,” as Cams Sterne, to whom we are indebted
for most of the above facts, remarks, “ the flowers receive the
needful pollen by the fastest snail express.”
Selina Gaye.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICRO¬
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.
SOCIOLOGICAL SECTION.
At the opening meeting of the Sociological Section for
the current session, held at the Mason College, on Thursday,
15th October, 1885, Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., the President,
delivered a brief address, in which he alluded to the satis¬
factory progress of the Section, and to the number of
accomplished masters and students of the respective sciences
embraced in the “Synthetic Philosophy” who had kindly
rendered assistance to the Section. The Section had system¬
atically gone through Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Essays on
Education,” and it was now engaged in a critical examina¬
tion of “The Principles of Biology” and “The Study
of Sociology.” Mr. Hughes also alluded to the gratifying
fact that within the last few days Mr. Herbert Spencer
had completed and published a third edition of the
first volume of “ The Principles of Sociology.” The
volume was specially interesting to the Section, as
it contained a subject-index which had been prepared
— as a labour of love — by Mr. F. Howard Collins, F.L.S.,
one of the members, and which could not fail to be most
valuable to students. The volume had also a new appendix C,
and it contained about 2,500 references to 455 works quoted
therein. Mr. Hughes also announced that Part VI. of
“The Principles of Sociology — Ecclesiastical Institutions”
was in the press and would be published immediately,
306
ADDRESS BY W. R. HUGHES
and lie was quite sure that the members would all join
with him in heartily congratulating Mr. Herbert Spencer on
the steady progress of his great work, and hoping that he
may live to see its completion. Mr. Hughes then said :
I venture here to take the liberty of correcting a miscon¬
ception. I am quite sure that it is not necessary to do so to
the members of this section, but it will give them the oppor¬
tunity to make the correction in their circle, and my remarks
may perhaps be reported publicly. In an address delivered
by the retiring President of the Birmingham Philosophical
Society to the members on this day last week he chose for
his theme the extremely appropriate and well-timed subject,
“ The progress of the doctrine of Evolution.” No one in
Birmingham is in greater sympathy with this subject, and
no one is capable of handling it from certain aspects more
efficiently than my friend, Mr. Lawson Tait ; moreover, he
is not only an able but a generous-minded man, and a lover
of fair play. I own I must confess to a considerable amount
of surprise and regret at reading in the Birmingham Daily Post
of the 9tli instant a report of that address in these words,
which I cannot pass unnoticed: — “ His (Mr. Lawson Tait’s)
discourse consisted of an interesting review of the develop¬
ment of scientific knowledge during the last twenty-five years,
and more especially of the manner in which corroboration
had been furnished of the Darwinian theory of Evolution.”
It will be perceived that the above extract is in the third
person, and therefore I am unavoidably prevented from using
Mr. Lawson Tait’s exact words, but I am open to correction
if I have misread them, hut I do not think I have ; and
moreover the subsequent matter reported in the Daily Post
contains internal evidence that the above quotation from
Mr. Lawson Tait’s address is right in spirit if not in letter.
What I take serious exception to is the omission of the
mention of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s name in connection with
the doctrine of Evolution. His very existence is apparently
ignored, for his name does not appear once in the newspaper
report. I hope it may not be so when the address is published
in extenso. Every student of Evolution knows, or should know,
if he cares to have before him all the facts, that the
illustrious Charles Darwin applied to animals and plants the
hypothesis of the natural selection of favourable variations
as the main factor in the 'process of Organic Evolution.
On the other hand Mr. Herbert Spencer’s formula of
Evolution in general, expressed the transformation going on
everywhere throughout the Cosmos ; and he applied the
ultimate physical laws by which the transformation is caused,
ADDRESS BY W. R. HUGHES
307
to the interpretation of all progress — inorganic, organic, and
superorganic. For the fullest evidence of the truth of my
statement I turn to the twenty-ninth volume of the West¬
minster Review for the month of April, 1857, wherein appears
an essay from the pen of Mr. Herbert Spencer, entitled
“Progress: its Law and Cause,” and at page 465 of that
essay are these remarkable words: —
“We believe we have shown beyond question that that
which the German physiologists have found to be the law of
organic development is the law of all development. The
advance from the simple to the complex, though a process of
successive differentiations, is seen alike in the earliest
changes of the universe to which we can reason our way back,
and in the earliest changes which we can inductively
establish ; it is seen in the geologic and climatic evolution of
the earth, and of every single organism on its surface ; it is
seen in the evolution of humanity, whether contemplated in
the civilised individual or in the aggregation of races ; it is
seen in the evolution of society in respect both of its political
and economical organisation ; and it is seen in the evolution
of all those endless concrete and abstract products of human
activity which constitute the environment of our daily life.
From the remotest past which science can fathom down to
the novelties of yesterday, that in which progress essentially
consists, is the transformation of the homogeneous into the
heterogeneous.”
It is, I conceive, not too much to maintain that the pre¬
ceding words contain the whole “ promise and potency” of
the doctrine of Evolution. They are a multum in pernio ,
and an examination of this essay, which is reprinted (as
revised) in Volume I. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Essays,”
will convince the most wavering sceptic of the truth of my
assertion. Judge for yourselves, ladies and gentlemen, if
the titles to the headings of the pages of this wonderful
Essay, running from 445 to 485 inclusive, do not of them¬
selves indicate its full scope and bearing. They are : —
The Nebular Hypothesis.
Physical Development of the Earth.
The Theory of a Biological Progression.
Evolution of Society.
Industrial Organisation.
Spoken and Written Language.
Painting and Sculpture.
Poetry, Music, and Dancing.
Development of Music.
Probability of a Common Cause.
308
ADDRESS BY W. R. HUGHES
Exposition of the Cause.
The Cause Geologically Illustrated.
The Cause Illustrated in Physical Geography.
The Cause Illustrated in Chemistry.
The Cause Illustrated in Embryology.
The Cause Illustrated in Palaeontology.
The Cause Illustrated in Social Evolution.
The Cause Illustrated in Science.
Concluding Reflections.
Ladies and gentlemen, you know very well, and the
thousands of readers of Mr. Herbert Spencer both here and
in America know very well, that these are the cardinal truths
of the “ Synthetic Philosophy” which Mr. Herbert Spencer
has devoted his life-time to working out. One word more.
You will have perceived that the date of Mr. Herbert
Spencer’s Essay is 1857, whereas Darwin’s great work on the
“Origin of Species” appeared in the year 1859, so that we
are enabled with certainty to fix the date of the first pro¬
mulgation of the idea of a comprehensive theory of Evolution
at twenty-eight years ago, and not at twenty-five years ago
as stated by Mr. Lawson Tait. It should further be noted
that in the “ Principles of Psychology,” published so far
back as 1855, Mr. Herbert Spencer interpreted the pheno¬
mena of mind, alike in all lower creatures and in man, as
consequent upon processes of Evolution. Credit must, how¬
ever, be given to many other workers in the same field, and
the honoured names of Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, Goethe, Wolff, Von Baer, Henri Milne Edwardes,
Robert Chambers, Professors Huxley and Haeckel, Alfred
Russel Wallace, and others, must not be omitted as
having contributed largely to the Biological cause, and the
distinguished French philosopher, Auguste Comte, to the
Sociological cause. Nevertheless it must ever remain an
incontrovertible fact that Mr. Herbert Spencer was the first
exponent to broach the doctrine of Evolution ; and he is the
only Englishman who has formulated a complete system of
Synthetic philosophy showing its all-embracing scope.
Far be it from me to cast the faintest breath against the
merits of the illustrious Darwin, who himself constantly
quoted Mr. Herbert Spencer in support of his views, and
spoke of him as “ Our great philosopher.” I perfectly agree
with Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace that Darwin cannot be
over-rated, and I also perfectly agree with Mr. Wallace in
thinking that “ If other principles should hereafter be
discovered, or if it be proved that some of his subsidiary
theories are wholly or partially erroneous, this very discovery
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
809
can only be made by following in Darwin’s steps, by adopting
the method of research which he has taught us, and by
largely using the rich stores of material which he has
collected, but I am nevertheless a firm believer in the time-
honoured proverb “ Honour to whom honour is due/’ and I
think I have made it clear that the theory of Evolution which
Darwin applied to plants and animals Mr. Herbert Spencer
applied, and applied previously too, to everything here and
elsewhere. Listen to what Professor John Fiske, the eminent
American philosopher and Spencerian, in a charming little
book called “ The Destiny of Man,” published in 1884, says
of both Darwin and Spencer. Speaking of one of Darwin’s
laws, known as “ Natural Selection,” he says: “Reckless of
good and evil, it brings forth at once the mother’s tender love
for her infant and the horrible teeth of the ravening shark,
and to its creative indifference the one is as good as the
other.” Of Spencer he says : “The greatest philosopher of
modern times, the master and teacher of all who shall study
the process of Evolution for many a day to come, holds that
the conscious soul is not the product of a collocation of
material particles, but is in the deepest sense a divine
effluence. According to Mr. Herbert Spencer, the divine
energy which is manifested throughout the knowable universe
is the same energy that wells up in us as consciousness.”
^ ^ if '!*
“ Our wills are ours, we know not how ;
Our wills are ours, to make them thine.
Our little systems have their day ;
They have their day and cease to be ;
They are but broken lights of thee,
And thou, 0 Lord, art more than they.”
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
BY BEEBY THOMPSON, F.G.S., F.C.S.
PART I.
(Continued from page 281.)
Near to Chipping Warden there are two sections of the
Marlstone; the one nearest the village showing about five feet
of the rock-bed, with, at the top, some portions of the Tran¬
sition-bed containing many gasteropods. The best section,
however, in this neighbourhood is one situated about a mile
from Chipping Warden towards Byfield. The Transition-
bed here has yielded to the careful working of Mr. Walford a
810
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
very large number of interesting fossils, but there is com¬
paratively little to be done now. The list of fossils I give
includes only those that I and Mr. W. D. Crick (who worked
much of the district with me) have been able to procure.
Mr. Wilson’s Pit, Chipping Warden. Feet in.
1 . o ll ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 0
Upper Lias.
2. — Light-grey clay, containing small ammonites and
belemnites, also irregular blocks of white lime¬
stone in the upper part — the remains of the
Lower Cephalopoda-Bed ... ... ... 2 2
3. — Fish-Bed ; a limestone in two bands, some of it
violet coloured inside. Upper part in small
irregular pieces, easily broken ; lower part
larger blocks, harder, and looks water worn
in places ; containing Ammonites serpentmus ,
A. Holandrei , A. acutus, Euomphalus minutus ,
Fish remains , dc. ... ... ... ... 0
Middle Lias.
4. — Transition-Bed; clay, and grey friable sandy marl,
very red in places; the marl very fossiliferous,
containing Ammonites Holandrei , A. acutus , A.
communis, Belemnites — several species , Chemnitzia
foveolata , Cerithium ferreum, Alaria unispinosa ,
Eucychts G audrycinus , K. conspersus, Phasianella
morencyana (?) or Phasianella Buviynieri (?) Cryp-
tcenia consobrma, Actceonina Ilminsterensis , Ostrea
sportella, Pecten cequivalvis, Plicatula spinosa,
Gucullcea Miinsteri, Astarte subtetragona, Astarte
st riato -sulcata, Leda Galatea, Cardinia philea,
Bhynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula cornuta ?
Ditrypa etalensis, Diastopora liassica, (be. ... 0 6
Small ironstone concretions and crystallised carbonate
of lime in the lower part.
5. — Ferruginous limestone similar to rock-bed. Lower
part very fossiliferous — broken shells chiefly.
La rye belemnites , Pecten liasin us, Pccten cequiva Ivis,
Pentacrinus, Pihynchonella tetrahedra, var. No r th¬
ump ton eoisis ... ... ... ... ... 0 3
6. — Sandy marl, very much like the Transition-bed,
but the fossils larger ; the Pdiynchonell® mostly
as separated valves. Many crushed specimens
and broken shells, Gasteropods, Fncrinite stems,
Uhynchonellce, Bivalves ... ... ... ... 0 3
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
311
7. — Marlstone Rock-Bed, a ferruginous limestone,
very red exterior, usual fossils.
Tlie bed No. 5 is so nearly like the rock-bed that it is
pretty evident it is formed of material arising from the
denudation o± some portion of the rock-bed near at hand,
possibly no further away than Aston-le-Wall, because at
this latter place there is distinct evidence of erosion, (See
section below.)
2.-
3.-
4.—
Feet In.
1 7
5.-
6.-
Rectory Pit, Aston-le-Wall.
Soil ... ... ... ... ... 1ft. to 1 6
Upper Lias.
Greyish clay, with remains of Cephalopoda-bed .
Fish- Bed, a whitish limestone, violet interior,
containing a few Ammonites and Belemnites
Middle Lias.
Transition-Bed, a rather hard limestone passing
into No. 3, but easily recognised as the
Transition-bed, containing Ammonites acutus,
Chemnitzia foceolata, Actceoninci Ilminsterensis,
Trochus , Plicatula spinosa, Encrinite stems, Sc.
Clay or marl. In places this is absent, and its
place entirely taken up by hard stone of the
Transition-bed ...
Marlstone Rock-Bed, top part crowded with
broken and worn Uhynchonellce , Belemnites,
Ossicles, Sc. ... ... ... ... about
>06
0 1
6 0
The accumulation and packing together of broken shells
at the top of the rock-bed here shows that it was, for a time
at least, exposed to the action of moving water, either from
actual exposure to the atmosphere, or from being sufficiently
near the surface of the water to be affected by shallow
currents or wave action.
About a hundred yards from the Rectory Pit just
described, and nearly opposite the houses at Appletree, is a
small section almost identical with the last, the grey clay
No. 2 being a little thinner.
In the valley south of Byfield and near to Warden Grange
is a small marlstone quarry which has not been worked for a
long time. The section is as below.
Section near to Warden Grange. Feet in.
1. — Soil, with blocks of limestone ... ... ... 1 3
2. — Light grey' marly clay ... ... ... ... 2 9
3. — Hard white limestone, purple interior, Ammonites
rather abundant, Eucoid impressions, &c. ... 0 4
312
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
4. — Reddish sandy clay, passing downwards into a grey
marl — the usual form of the Transition-bed.
The upper part of the clay contained some
badly-preserved fossils of a similar hind to
those found in the marl ... ... ... 0 7
5. — Bock-bed.
I have already referred to the sections on the East and
West Junction Railway as being about the best in the county
for showing the sequence of beds from the lower part of the
Upper Lias to nearly the base of the “ Marr/aritatus ” Zone of
the Middle Lias. The several small cuttings extending from
Byfield Railway Station to near Aston-le-Wall show succes¬
sively lower beds, so that in order to verify the section given
below it would be necessary to walk some mile and a half
along the line.
Section on the East and West Junction Railway near to
Byfield. Feet iu.
1 . S o ll ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2. — Clay mixed with gravel, apparently unfossiliferous 3 0
“ Communis ” Beds —
3. — Upper Cephalopoda-Bed ; a flaggy limestone,
whitish surface, violet interior, containing
Ammonites bifrons, A. Holandrei , Belemnites,
Pectens , Astarte, dc. ... ... ... ... 0 6
4. — Clay-Marl, breaks into somewhat cubical blocks,
little white concretions very numerous, con¬
taining Ammonites communis (abundant), A.
bifrons , some synall “ falcifer ” ammonites , Belem¬
nites , Astarte , Pentacrinite joints ... ... 3 0
“ Serpentinus ” Beds —
5. — Lower Cephalopoda-Bed ; a yellowish, hard,
sandy limestone, dirty violet coloured interior,
not flaggy, many small white concretions,
containing Ammonites serpentinus , A. exaratus,
A. Holandrei , A. communis , A. Levisoni, Belem¬
nites , Fucoid impressions ... ... ... 0 9
G. — Light Coloured Marl, nearly white, not very
homogeneous in composition, breaks into
cubical masses, many white concretions,
fossils very scarce ... ... ... ... 3 0
“ Fish and Insect ” Beds —
7. — Shale, scarcely distinguishable from bed above in
the section, containing Flattened ammonites,
Belemnites, Fish Scales ... ... ... .. 0 1
THE MIDDLE LIAS OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE
313
8. — Fish-Bed, somewhat nodular, nearly white exte-
rior, dark purplish inside in places, not a
continuous bed, containing many “ PlanulateT
ammonites , a few “ Falcifer ” ones , Belemnites,
Euomplialus minatus , fragments, Wood, dec. 0 4
“ Transition ” LVd.
A. — Layer of dark blue and red sandy clay, very much
mixed up ; no fossils noticed ... ... ... 0 3
A yellowish sandy limestone, rather soft, the fossils
only casts, with here and there a harder piece
from which a few fossils could he obtained.
Ammonites acutus , Macrodon, G aster opods, dc. 0 4
“ Spina tus ” Zone.
B. — Rock-Bed, a sandy limestone, containing a good
deal of iron, layers of ossicles, “ Jacks,” several
irregular inconstant partings of red sand.
Fossils in sandy part only casts. Usual fossils,
Waldheimia resupinata rather abundant ... 6 0
C. — Marly Clay, containing concretionary ferruginous
nodules ... ... .. ... ... ... 1 6
D. — Shaly Ferruginous Limestone, rather sandy,
fossils fairly abundant. Ostrea cymbium, Pecten
liasinus, Limea acuticosta, Protocardium truncci-
tum, dc. ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 4
E. — Marly Clay, similar to “ C.” ... ... ... 2 7
“ Margaritatus" Zone.
F. — Sandy Ferruginous Limestone, rather soft and
shaly, containing Ammonites margaritatus in
abundance, Pleuromya costata (abundant),
Turbo aciculus, Ostrea cymbium var. obliquata,
Flicatula sfdnosa, In o ceram its substriatus, Modiola
numismalis, Cardita multicostata, dc. (seep. 188) 3 2
G. — Sandy Marl, containing Ammonites margaritatus, dc. 6 2
H. — Soft Sandy Limestone, containing Ammonites
margaritatus, Pholadomya ambigua in abundance,
Fucoui impressions, dc. (see p. 187) ... ... 3 3
Beds 1 to 8, as also A and B, may be best examined near
to Byfield, both along the line and in a small quarry on the
south side of the line ; D to H, best on the south side of the
line near to Byfield Pool, though since the line has been put
in working order again none of the beds below B can be well
seen. I may add that I have never myself seen the soft
beds C, E, and G, the description of them having been taken
from Mr. Walford’s pamphlet. Mr. Walford says that a hard
314
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
shelly limestone containing Cardita multicostata was met with
below, and this, I certainly think, would be “L” of the
typical section. On one occasion I found a single block
of stone on the line containing the following fossils : —
Cardita multicostata, Ostrea, Pecten ccquivalvis , Protocardium
truncation, Cardinia antiqua, Cardinia Iccvis, Astarte striato-
sulcata (abundant), Turbo (near to nudus ), Serpulce, dc., and
this I considered as being a part of the bed “ L.” There are
several small “ faults” in this neighbourhood ; one not far
from the station at By field can be traced n cross the line ;
also part of this, or another small one, may be seen in the
quarry near at hand. Another is to be found just by the
side of Prior’s Marston Boad Bridge, the line of dislocation
running N.E. by N. to S.W. by S. The beds of the Marl-
stone and Upper Lias here have a gentle dip westward, and
the “fault” has only had the effect of altering the dip and
position over a space of about twenty yards. Still another
“ fault ” is found a little beyond Byfield Pool.
(To be continued .)
NOTES ON THE FLOEA OF AMEEICA,
MADE DURING A TOUR IN THE NORTH-EASTERN STATES •
IN APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1882.
BY W. H. WILKINSON,
HON. SEC. BIRBIINGHABI NATURAL HISTORY AND B1ICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
(Continued from page 276.)
AMERICAN PLANTS
Collected in April, May, and June, 1882, by W. H. Wilkinson.
Named and classified from the “American Botanist” of
Alphonso Wood, A.M.
' \
Natural Order, 1. — Ranunculace^e.
Name. Place where found.
Anemone parviflora . Catskill Creek, Hudson River.
Hepatica trilobata . Au Sable Chasm and Saratoga.
Thalictrum dioicum . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal, Canada.
Ranunculus sceleratus . . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal, Canada.
,, recurvatus .. Mount Royal, Montreal, Canada.
,, tomentosus . . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
,, palmatus .... Central Park, Chicago.
Aquilegia Canadensis .... St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
,, formosa . Rocks, Niagara Falls.
Actaea spicata . Islands, Niagara Falls, and St. Helen’s
Island, Montreal.
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
815
Natural Order, 6. — Berberidaceje.
Podophyllum peltatum
(May apple) . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
Natural Order, 8. — Sarraceniace^e.
Sarracenia Gronovii . Botanic Gardens, Washington.
Natural Order, 9. — Papaveraceas.
Sanguinaria Canadensis . . Island, Niagara Falls.
Natural Order, 10. — Fusiariace;e.
Dicentra cucullaria (White
Ear-drop) . Island, Niagara Falls.
Natural Order, 11. — Crucifers.
Arabis Canadensis . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Cardamine laciniata . Goat Island, Niagara Falls. Woods. Plentiful.
Sisymbrium canescens
(Tansy Mustard) .... Kingston, Canada.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris . . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
Lepidium ruderale . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
Luuaria rediviva . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Natural Order, 14. — Yiolace^e.
Viola pubescens . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
,, Canadensis . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
,, palustris . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal, and Clarke
Hill Islands, Niagara Falls.
,, blanda . Au Sable Chasm, Cedar Island, Niagara
Falls.
Natural Order, 17. — Droserace^e.
Dionsea muscipula . Botanic Gardens, Washington.
Natural Order, 19. — Caryophyllace^e.
Diantlius viscidus . Washington Heights, New York.
Stellaria longipes . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Arenaria Canadensis .... Catskill, Hudson Kiver.
,, rubra, var. Cana¬
densis.
,, serpyllifolia .... Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Moencliia quaternella
(Weed) . Botanic Gardens, Washington.
Natural Order, 20. — Portulacaceje.
Claytonia Yirginica . Island, Niagara Falls.
Natural Order, 30. — Geraniace.®.
Oxalis stricta . Saratoga, Lake George, Catskill, and
Washington.
Geranium Bobertianum . . Kingston, Lake Ontario, Canada.
,, maculatum _ Woodland Park, Saratoga.
Natural Order, 36. — Anacardiace/e.
RhusCotinus . Central Park, New York.
Natural Order, 37. — Sapindace^e.
Acer saccliarinum . Kingston, Ontario, and Washington.
Natural Ordkr, 41. — Vitace^e.
Yitis riparia . Cedar Island, Niagara Falls.
BIG
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
Natural Order, 42. — Polygalace.®.
Polygala Hookeri . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Natural Order, 43. — Leguminos^.
Melilotus officinalis . Boston and Baltimore.
Medicago lupulina . New York and Baltimore.
Trifolium agrarium . Catskill.
Natural Order, 44. — Bosaceae.
Biubus Canadensis . Kingston, Ontario, and Lake George.
,, liispidus (?) . Catskill, Hudson Biver.
,, trivialis . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
,, simplex (?) . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
,, flagellans . Clarke Hill Island, Niagara Falls.
,, triflorus . Caldwell, Lake George.
,, odoratus . Catskill, Hudson Biver.
Potentilla Canadensis .... Lake George, Niagara Falls, and Baltimore.
,, argentea . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Bosa rubiginosa . Kingston, Lake Ontario.
Amelancliier Canadensis. . Niagara Falls, Canada.
,, Botryopium.. St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
Ci’atsegus arborescens .... Central Park, Chicago.
Natural Order, 45. — Saxifragace®.
Mitella diphylla . Toronto, Canada.
Saxifraga Virginiensis. . . . Au Sable Chasm.
Deutzia gracilis . Park, New York.
Bibes floridum . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
,, gracile . Niagara Falls, Canada.
,, aureum . Bocks, Niagara Falls.
,, Cynosbate . Kingston, Ontario.
Natural Order, 46. — Crassulaceae.
Penthorum sedoides . Island, Niagara Falls.
Natural Order, 63. — Umbelliferas.
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Thaspium aureum . . . Au Sable Chasm.
Pimpinellaintegrifolia. . . . Catskill, Hudson Biver.
Chaeropliyllum procumbens Washington.
Daucus Carota . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
Natural Order, 66. — Caprifoliaceae.
Lonicera ciliata (Xylo-
steum ciliatum) . Niagara Falls.
Sambucus Canadensis ... Kingston, Lake Ontario.
Natural Order, 67. — Bubiaceae.
Houstonia serpyllifolia . . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Natural Order, 70. — Compositas.
Aster spectabilis . Catskill, Hudson Biver.
Diplopappus linariifolius. . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Gnaplialium uliginosum . . Niagara Falls, and Catskill, Hudson Biver.
Cacalia diversifolia (?).... Island, Niagara Falls.
Lappa officinalis . Chicago, Lake Michigan.
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
317
Natural Order, 72. — Campanulace.e .
Campanula aparinoides . . Taunton, Mass.
Natural Order, 73. — Ericaceae.
Vaccinium corymbosum . . Au Sable Chasm.
,, Pennsylvanicum Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Natural Order, 81. — Primulace.e.
Trientalis Americana .... Au Sable Chasm.
Lysimacliia thyrsiflora . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Natural Order, 82. — Plantaginace^e.
Plantago cordata . Catskill Creek, River Hudson.
Natural Order, 88. — Scrophulariace.e.
Verbascum Thapsus . Niagara Falls and New York.
Verbascum Blattaria .... Washington Heights, New York.
Pentstemon pubescens _ Catskill Creek, Hudson River.
Veronica arvensis . Botanic Gardens, Washington.
,, officinalis . Woodland Park, Saratoga.
,, serpyllifolia .... St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
Natural Order, 91. — Labiate.
Lamium amplexicaule. . . . Botanic Gardens, Washington.
Natural Order, 92. — Borraginace;e.
Echium vulgare . Catskill, Hudson River.
Cynoglossum officinalis . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Lithospermum linearifo-
lium . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Natural Order, 100. — AsclepiadacejE.
Asclepias quadrifolia . ... Catskill, Hudson River.
Natural Order, 104. — Polygonace^e.
Rumex Acetosella . Fort McHenry, Baltimore.
Natural Order, 113. — Euphorbiace^.
Euphorbia Helioscopia . . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Natural Order 122. — Cupulifer^e.
Quercus nigra (?) . La Fayette Park, Washington.
Fagus ferruginea . La Fayette Park, Washington.
Corylus Americana . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Natural Order 124. — Myricace^e.
Comptonia asplenifolia . . Au Sable Chasm and Fort William Henry.
Natural Order 127. — Conifers.
Juniperus communis .... Kingston, Lake Ontario.
Thuya occidentalis . Niagara Falls, Canada.
ENDOGENS.
Natural Order, 142. — Iridace^e.
Iris versicolor . . . . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Sisyrinchium Bermudiana St. Helen’s Island, Montreal, and Fort
William Henry, Lake George.
318
NOTES ON THE FLORA OF AMERICA.
Natural Order, 146. — Trilliace^e.
Trillium grandiflorum . . Goat Island, Niagara Falls.
,, erectum . The Rapids. Niagara Falls.
Natural Order, 147. — Liliaceas.
Allium sativum . Baltimore and New York.
Smilacina stellata . Goat Island, Niagara Falls.
,, ciliata . Kingston, Lake Ontario.
,, trifoliata . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
,, bifolia . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Myrsipliyllum asparagoides Conservatory, Washington.
Natural Order, 154. — Cyperaceae.
Scirpus palustris . . Niagara Falls, Canada.
Eriopliorum capitatum . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Carex flava . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Natural Order 155. — Grahineae.
Zea Mays . New York, Indian corn cobs.
Natural Order, 157. — Lycopodiace^e.
Lycopodium dendroideum Quebec, Canada.
Natural Order, 158. — Equisetacae.
Equisetum limosum .... Niagara Falls, Canada.
Natural Order, 159. — Filices.
Lastrea montana . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
,, Tlielypteris . St. Helen’s Island, Montreal.
Aspidium acrostichoides . . Au Sable Chasm, Lake George.
Polypodium vulgare . Cedar Island, Niagara Falls.
Asplenium Fabianum .... Greenhouse, Alleghany City.
Osmunda interrupta . Au Sable Chasm, Lake George.
Onoclea sensibilis . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Adiantum pedatum . Au Sable Chasm, Lake George.
MOSSES.
Bryum nutans . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
,, csespiticium . Baltimore and Lake George.
,, . Baltimore and Lake George.
Funaria liygrometrica . . . . Niagara Falls and Lake George.
Climacium Americanum. . Niagara Falls.
Mnium affine (?) . Niagara Falls.
,, undulatum . Niagara Falls.
Amblystegium irriguum . . Niagara Falls.
Polytriclium commune. . . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
Hypnum rutabulum . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
HEPATICiE.
Marchantia polymorplia. . Fort William Henry, Lake George.
LICHENS.
Cladonia furcata (?) ....
FUNGI.
iEcidium grossulariae ....
Schizophyllum commune On gatepost, Washington.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
319
ANTHROPOLOGY, ITS MEANING AND AIM.
BY JOSEPH SMITH, JUN., M.A.I.
( Continued from page 291.)
Up to the time of Buffon, although naturalists had
studied the various creatures of the animal and vegetable
worlds, it had not occurred to those entering into scientific
investigation to study man from the same point. He had been
regarded and studied as an individual ; and Anthropology
may be looked upon as having originated with the great
thought of Buffon, that man must be studied as a species.
Buffon was the first to investigate and regard man as a
species, and he devoted his attention to the examination of
his colour, physique, and external traits and characteristics.
He was succeeded by Camper, a Dutchman, who began the study
of skulls, showing that if we would understand the position of
man this comparison must be of great importance in any laws
of Anthropology. He compared the Negro skull with that of
the European and the Ourang-outang, pointing out the
facial angle, and drawing certain conclusions from it ; but
Blumenbacli, a doctor of the German school, who may
be regarded as the legitimate father of the science, pointed
out the unsatisfactory results of these facial angular
measurements, resulting from the union of two lines,
one of which touches the forehead, and the other, drawn
from the orifice of the ear, meets the former line at
the orifice of the front teeth ; and argued that the study of
skulls, to be of any scientific value, must not be made indi¬
vidually but in lots, and subject to recognised rules. It was
he who made the fundamental division of the human race
into five sections, viz. : —
The European, or white race ;
The Asiatic, or yellow race ;
The African, or black race ;
The American, coloured ; and
The Malay,
on which, up to recent times, anthropological investi¬
gations have been principally based. This division, how¬
ever, is far from perfect, and forms at the present time
one of the most obscure problems of scientific anthropology.
The great ideal of Blumenbacli was the Unity of mankind,
which, in his days, was not a generally accepted fact, and it was
in opposition to the assertions, grave descriptions, mythologi¬
cal ideas, and theories regarding this human unity, which had
320
ANTHROPOLOGY.
been put forward even as late as the time of Voltaire,* that lie
worked ; the happy results of liis labours eventually being
the establishment of this ideal. Anthropology like other
sciences had to be followed on fixed laws, or rules, and one of
the principal of these is to draw a distinction everywhere
between what belongs to the brute and what belongs to the
man ; then regard the position of man to animals. The
capacity of brain power must be noted as being of the utmost
consequence, and in his calculations Camper based his
conclusions on the assimilation of the facial angle in the
skull of the Negro to the angle derived from the cranium
of the ourang-outang, and calculated his conclusions rather
on this angle than on the cranial capacity. But although
the skull of the Negro may show a lesser angle than that
of the European, yet the capacity of the brain is, with a
slight variation, the same. A further principle to be
observed when investigating matters relating to man and his
position in creation, is to admit no fact which is not supported
by trustworthy documents, since, by strict adherence to this,
everything which is puerile or tending to exaggeration and
legend will be eliminated and excluded from science, while
one of the most important factors in this branch of knowledge
is to observe that all comparisons from extreme to extreme
be only made by means of all the intermediate terms and
shades possible. Comparison within recent years has been
only by extremes, but anthropologists have endorsed the
theory of Blumenbacli that it is only the extremes which
seem to separate the human species into specific and decided
races ; the gradual shades and continuous intermediate terms
marked in man making him form but one mankind.
Man must again be studied under three divisions, for on
such is the true study of man founded — Philology and History,
Relation of Paces to Climates, and Migrations and Intermixtures.
In the investigation of man under this last head Philology
comes into practical use, assisting and showing how to trace
to their origin the various migrations and different minglings
of race with race.
The science lost its progenitor in 1840. Amongst the
many rules this great anthropologist laid down was the great
and general classification based on the characters presented
by the configuration of the head, so different in the different
races as to the proportion of the skull to the face, and the
proportion of the encephalon to the organs of sense and jaw^s.
* The great naturalist Linnaeus eyen erred so far as to describe
man and arrange him in the same genus as the ourang-outang, the
Homo nocturnus, H. Troglodytes, and II. sylvestris of that naturalist
being no other than the ourang.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
321
The quintal arrangement of Blumenbacli is called in
question as either having too wide a scope or not being
sufficiently indicative of its meaning, and Waitz seems to
think that this arrangement was founded on the corresponding
geographical scheme of five parts of the globe.
According to this division the Ethiopian, or black, and
Mongolian were made to indicate the two extremes, the White
race taking its place as the centre of the division, the American
intervening between the White and Mongolian races, and the
Malay between the Ethiopian and the White race or
Caucasian ; thus —
Mongolian ;
American ;
White race, or Caucasian;
Malay ;
Ethiopian, or black ;
by which, assuming the unity of the human race, the
Caucasian is made the centre of the system, and consequently
must be regarded as the normal type of the human race.
This system has, however, been proved untenable so far as
the position of the various divisions one to the other is
regarded, for in taking into consideration not only the shape
of the skull but other anatomical differences and develop¬
ments, Waitz maintains that the White race and Negro, form
the two extremes in any scale of division, the latter on
account of his resemblance to the ape, the former because in
him this apish resemblance almost entirely disappears.
Notwithstanding the diversity of opinion which may have
greeted the enunciation of such an hypothesis, there is so
much in the crude theory of Blumenbacii that it formed the
basis of further investigation, which resulted in the tabular
arrangement I have previously given. Anthropologists even
at the present time are, from their investigations, inclined to
opinions which do not run in direct harmony with the tables
laid down either by Blumenbacli or Waitz. Lacepede and
Dumene were inclined to increase this quintal table by the
addition of a sixth division or variety, embracing the Hyper¬
borean race of the polar regions ; while Virez (“ Nat. Hist,
du Genre Hum.,” i., p. 318, 1834), points out as the sixth
variety the Hottentots and Papuans. Cuvier, the naturalist,
based his arguments on three varieties, viz., the Mongol,
Negro, and Caucasian, which may indeed be accepted as the
three pivots of the derivation of nations and races ; and while
Pritchard, Smith, and Latham are inclined to adopt the
division into five sections, Pickering assumes eleven, Bary
fifteen, Desmoulins sixteen, and Agassiz and Nott assume an
822
ANTHROPOLOGY.
indefinite number of species. So too, in speaking of the
inhabitants of Australia, who are regarded as belonging to
and springing from one family by all anthropologists, Hom-
bron (“ Zoology,” i., p. 312, in Urville, Voy. an Pole Slid)
speaks of them as being members of different varieties, and
considers the inhabitants of Van Dieman’s Land as belong¬
ing to a distinct species.
Waitz (“Anthropology,” vol. i., p. 234), commenting on
the division established by Cuvier, says: — “If the Malay
and the American be added to the three chief forms adopted
by Cuvier, we can scarcely avoid adding the Australians,
Austral Negroes (Negrillos), the Papuans, and the Hottentots.
Nor will this be sufficient ; all the intermediate tribes between
the Negroes and the White, namely the Kaffirs, Nubians,
Gallas, Abyssinians, and Berbers, have an equal claim to
consideration. This applies also to the Battas, the cranial
form of whom is intermediate between that of the Europeans
and Malays.” With the Mongolian type there is further
associated the so-called Hyperborean type, though the
assumption of a separate polar race presents many difficul¬
ties, and, as already shown by Vater in his “ Mitliridates”
(vol. iii. , p. 317), indicates a considerable deviation.
But least of all can the aboriginal Americans be compre¬
hended in the division, for whatever Morton and his school
may assert as to the similarity of the cranial type in all the
varieties of South and North America, it is shown by their
own researches that differences of shape are as considerable
there as in those parts in which they are considered funda¬
mentally different. Some are long-headed and some are
sliort-lieaded, others again are round-headed ; the present
Peruvians having small square skulls, with a compressed
occiput (“ Morton Oran. Am.,” pp. 65-115) ; and Tsclmdi has
pointed out three essential distinct cranial forms of the original
inhabitants of Peru.”
Retzius, however, was the first who reduced the study of
the cranium to a fixed basis, which may be regarded as correct
so far as it decides the shape and form of the skull. The
basis of his theory was on the principle that “ psychical
individuality of a people must be founded on, and expressed
by, the development of the brain, as indicated by the skull,”
and he established from his cranial observations two dis¬
tinguishing classes, the dolichocephalous, from the Greek
do\cxos, “long,” Ke(pa\r}, “head,” which term is applied to dis¬
tinguish a cranium elongated from front to rear, or, to express
this idea numerically, a cranium the longitudinal diameter of
which is to its transverse diameter as 100 is to 68 ; and the
ANTHROPOLOGY.
823
bracliyceplialous, derived from p paxvs, “ short,” secpaXp, “head,”
applied to those skulls where the relation of the longitudinal
to the transverse diameter is such as 100 is to 80. This
principle, although much in use amongst anthropologists,
has not that great merit of decision in disposing the crania
in their relative position regarding nationality, which its author
had anticipated ; for both classes of these skulls may be
found, and are, I may say, invariably found, amongst the
same people ; nor must it be supposed that the projection
backwards of the cranium is a sign of inferiority, for even
amongst our own race are found both long heads, or
dolichocephalic, and short heads, the brachycephalic. The
further observations of Retzius began to convince him that
the law he had laid down was less infallible than he had at
first considered it, and clearly showed that such characteristics
would not be regarded as a criterion of intellectual excellence ;
but he further added two other distinguishing classes, or
secondary classification, based on a point in the anatomical
structure of the face, which is of more importance in anthropo¬
logical calculation, Figuier asserts (“Human Race,” p. 25),
than any calculation made from the elongation of the cranium.
This is the projectiveness of the human face, and has its
description in the term prognathism from wpo, “forward,” and
yvados, “jaw,” applying itself to describe the jutting forward of
the teeth and jaws, and orthognathism , likewise derived from
the Greek opdos, “ straight, and y vados, “jaw,” descriptive of the
facial uprightness of the jaw. AVe now have the human crania
in the following sections : —
1. — Gentes dolichocephalic orthognatlne — or nations with
long-shaped heads and uprightness in the jaw ; or perhaps
better, Hat-faced.
2. — Gentes bracliyceplialie ortliognathie — nations with
short heads and flat faces.
8. — Gentes dolichocephalic prognathic — nations with long¬
shaped heads and protruding jaws.
4. — Gentes brachycephalae prognathae — short-headed
nations, with projecting jaws.
Such were the divisions of Retzius, of which all four
examples are met with in Asia in equal proportions ;
while the first and second, or examples of short-headed
flat-faced and long-headed flat-faced crania, are found in
Europe. The third and fourth division — the short-headed
projecting -jawed and the long-headed projecting- jawed
faces — predominate in the South Seas, not infrequently
examples of the bracliycephalie ortliognatlue being found,
824
ANTHROPOLOGY.
which may be explained by intermixture. Africa has a
predominant type in the dolicliocephake prognatlias, long
headed and projecting jaws ; and America gives us alternately
forms belonging to the third and fourth divisions, dolichoce-
phalae prognatliae and bracliyceplialae prognatliae, not excluding
examples of the second, bracliycephalic orthognathic type.
Thus we have in Europe (“Muller’s Arcliiv.,” p. 271, 1848)
examples of the brachycephalas ortliognatlue — short headed,
upright jaws or flat faces, in the Turks, Lapps, Slavs, Basques ;
Asia giving examples of these crania in the Samoiedes,
Burates, Afghans, and Persians. In the East Indies and
South Seas the Tahitians, Malays, and Papuans belong to the
bracliycephalic prognatlue, or short - headed long -jawed
examples ; the Negroes, Hottentots, and Kopts being
examples of the long-headed projecting-jawed races —
dolichocephalic prognathas. It will he noted from the
foregoing remarks how great the variety and mingling
of types is, and the questionable result of any attempt
at classification on cranial mensuration only, when they
transgress the distinguishing bond of the three chief
types as illustrated by the Negro, the Mongol, and the Euro¬
pean (Zeune in “ Ueber Scliadelbildung,” 1846) ; yet the
investigations of those who have done so much for Anthro¬
pology, although they may not quite harmonise with more
recent discoveries, must not be depreciated, since they
have aimed at elevating the study of man, and arriving
at some recognised classification of the various types
from the development of a cranial race theory. Never¬
theless it is highly probable that there does exist a
distinguishing type of national cranial form in every people,
which, if only this could be established, would prove one of
the greatest discoveries in the interests of Ethnography ;
but our knowledge of the variation of shape in individual
national types is yet too small to enable us, with that pre¬
cision so necessary to any science, to determine what ranges
itself within, and what classes itself without, any particular
type. The observations and studies of Hueck “Be Craniis
Estlionum,” Zeune, Tsclmdi (“Muller’s Arcliiv., p. 277,
1845), and Meyer (Ibid, p. 510, 1850), all illustrate the
difficulty of assuming the cranial form as an absolute mark
of race, but I am inclined to believe that this apparent
mingling of types can and will be eventually explained away
by a careful investigation, and an attentive application of the
rule set forth by Blumenbach, that any investigation must
not be based on extremes, but that such studies must be made
only by all the intermediate terms and shades possible, from
ANTHROPOLOGY.
825
extreme to extreme, since thereby the most minute variation
will be detected, and an average figure or scale struck for the
establishing of the normal type of a race cranium.
According to the measurements of Parchappe, “ Beclier-
clies sur l’encepliale,” races are placed in the following order
according to the volume of the head : — Caucasians, Negroes,
Mongols, Americans, and Malays. Lawrance differs from
Parchappe in the estimation of brain capacity, and places the
Malay between the Europeans and Mongols, while Tiedemann,
“ Per Hirn des Negers,” 1837, gives the following as the
mean capacity : —
European .
American .
Mongol .
Malay .
Adult Negro . .
Asiatics and Negroes of the white race
Cases.
Ounces.
135 ..
.... 401
31 ..
.... 401
43 ..
.... 39*
77 ..
.... 38i
48 ..
.... 37H
89 ..
.... 37f
Various other writers, who have made independent
measurements as to the mean average of the brain
power, arrive at different standards, each out of unison with
the other, so that no certainty can be drawn from such
calculations in favour of the doctrine that capacity of
cranium indicates the amount of mental endowment. In
the commencement of this paper it was stated, on the
authority of Camper, that the brain of the African (Negro)
was equal to that of the European, which statement will
require some modification if we look to the table of
Tiedemann ; but I argue that the brain of the African, if
developed in the same ratio to that of the higher developed
European, will be found to be equal, and moreover if the
negro brain be set in comparison against that of a European
subject of the same standard of intellectual endowment as the
African, the computation of Camper will be found favourable.
The variation which is found in skulls belonging to the same
country and same age may be attributed to climatical
influence, the method and habit of living, &c. Crantz
inclines to the idea that the inhabitants of the northern
parts have the body sinewy and square, those peoples
dwelling in the south being of a more soft and elegant habit.
This theory is endorsed by Leem, who treats on the Lapps
and Finns ; by Hogsliorn, on the Lules ; by Pallas, on the
Calmucks ; by Crantz, on the Greenlanders ; and by Parkin¬
son, on the New Zealanders and New Hollanders.
(To be continued.)
826
CANNOCK CHASE LEPIDOPTERA.
A WEEK’S WORK AMONG THE CANNOCK CHASE
LEPIDOPTERA.
BY THOMAS GIBBS, JUNR.
The following notes on a week’s stay at Colwich, working
the Lepidoptera of Cannock Chase, may be interesting to
your entomological readers.
My brother and myself arrived at Colwich on Monday
afternoon, the 29th June, and left the following Saturday, so
that we really had only five days’ collecting ; in that time,
however, we were favoured with fine weather, and by hard
work managed to come across several species that were
new to us, and also to fill up some of the blanks in our
collection.
The Butterflies were very poorly represented, the only
species occurring in any abundance being Ccenonympha pam-
philus , which swarmed all over the Chase.
Among the Bombyces we were more fortunate, taking
amongst others Hepialus velleda, abundant among the bracken
fern ; Lithosia mesomelia , a few specimens in marshy spots by
streams on the Chase ; Nemeophila russula and plantayinis, a
few specimens of these two species flying over the moor in
the sunshine ; Plati/pten/x falcataria and lacertmaria, one
specimen of each flying among birches by the ponds in
Oakedge Park. We also found three larvie of Bombijoo
quercus among the heather, and a batch of ova of B. rubi on
the W'olseley park fence.
Among the Noctiue we were very unsuccessful, owing
probably to the cold nights. We sugared on two occasions,
the only visitors being A crony eta rumicis, Busina tenebrosa,
A gratis striyula (porphyreaj, Triphcena, pronuba , Noctua plecta ,
Kuplexia lucipara , tiadena thalassina , and H. oleracea. II.
tenebrosa and A. striyula were the only species that came at all
freely. One day we saw Anarta myrtilli flying over the moor
in some abundance ; we managed to secure a few, but as all
entomologists are aware they are much more easily seen than
caught.
The Geometrse were more plentiful than any of the other
groups, our captures numbering twenty-three species, of which
the following were the best : — Asthena luteata, of this pretty
little wave we took five specimens, among alders between the
Oakedge ponds ; in the same spot we found Eupisteria oblite-
rata ( lieparata ), Melanippe sociata ( subtristata ), Coremia desiy-
nata ( propuynata ), and Larentia viridaria ( pectinitana ), all
rather common. Ematurga atomaria swarmed all over the
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
327
moor, and there we also found Aspilates strigillaria and
Eubolia plumbaru f, both common; one Panagra petraria and
two Scodiuna belgiaria ; Papalus piniaria abounded among the
Scotch firs ; and we found the following species settled on
palings — Melanthia ocellata, two specimens, and four species
of FAipithecia, viz., K. nanata, abundant ; E. castigata and
lariciata, both fairly common ; and two E. pulchellata.
Most of our time was spent on the Chase and in Oakedge
Park, but one day we walked to Chartley, and took Lyccena
icarns ( cilexis ) and Aspilates strigillaria on the railway bank
near Stowe station, and two specimens of Acidalia fiimatci
and one of Euclidea mi on the famous Chartley Moss.
The above list of captures is not very extensive, but may
serve to show how much can be done in a short time in one
of the best localities in the Midland Counties ; it includes
several species that have not to my knowledge been previously
recorded from the localities mentioned, notably Lithosia
mesomelia , Scodiona belgiaria , Platypteryx lacertinana and
Nemeophila plantaginis from Cannock Chase, and Aspilates
strigillaria and Acidalia fumata from Chartley.
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. — September, 1885.
The barometer was rather high at the commencement of the
month, but fell decidedly till the oth, when it rose, through a series
of fluctuations, to the 22nd, its highest point (30*302 inches). Thence
it fell till the end of the month, reaching 29*308 inches at 6 p.m. on
the 30th. Temperature was rather above the average till the 22nd,
when a “ cold speli” set in, which reduced the mean to 54*7°, or nearly
2 degrees below the average. The highest readings were on the 15th,
when 75*3° was registered at Loughborough, 73*5° at Henley-in- Arden,
73 0° at Hodsock and Coston Rectory, and 72*4° at Strelley. In the
rays of the sun, 127'6° at Strelley on the Oth, 126*4° at Loughborough
on the 3rd, 124*3° at Hodsock on the 5th. The minima were lower
than for some years past, the thermometer recording 28*0° at Coston
Rectory and 28-7° at Hodsock on the 26th, 30*0° at Henley-in-Arden
and 30*4° at Loughborough on the 28th, and 302° at Strelley on the
26tli; on the grass, 22*9° at Hodsock and 24*7° at Strelley on the 26tli,
and 28*7° at Loughborough on the 28tli. Rainfall was excessive in the
South Midlands, the total values being 3*44 inches at Loughborough,
3*37 inches at Henley-in-Arden, 3*11 inches at Strelley, and 2*89 inches
at Coston Rectory ; at Hodsock, in North Notts, the total was oidy
1*77 inches. Heavy falls occurred on the 10th ; 0*95 inches at Henley-
in-Ai’den, 0*94 inches at Loughborough, and 0*71 inches at Coston
Rectory. The number of “ rainy days” varied from 19 to 21. A slight
fall of snow occurred at Coston Rectory on the 25th. Sunshine was
decidedly above the average. Lightning and thunder were observed at
Loughborough on the 3rd and 6th, a solar halo on the 16th, and a lunar
halo on the 24th.
Wm. Beruidge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
828 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
ill |) is torn Holes.
The British Moss Flora, Part IX. — We are pleased to see this part
of Dr. Braithwaite’s great work. It will be greatly valued by British
bryologists. It contains four plates, with illustrations of twenty-five
species. In the text, descriptions are given of fourteen species of
Tortula, Pleurochcete squarrosa, and fifteen species of the comprehensive
genus Mollia.
Mr. Clement L. Wragge has been commissioned by the Queensland
Government to visit and report “as to the best means of establishing
Meteorological Stations in Queensland, including Cape York Peninsula
and Torres Straits.” Mr. Wragge, who lately returned from a scientific
expedition on his own account to North Queensland, commenced this
important work early last month, and expected to reach Normanton,
in the Gulf of Carpentaria, about the 15tli October.
New British Fungi. — Some time ago I mentioned the discovery
of the first species of Mortierella recorded as growing in Britain ; it was
allied to M. tuberosa, but I was unable to complete the identification
owing to the paucity of the material. I afterwards found a second
species, M. Candelabrum, in larger quantity, and have just now been
gratified to find another species of this beautiful and curious genus,
ill. polycephala, Coemans. This has occurred in great quantity on damp
Sphagnum and other mosses. I have also lately met with Helmin-
tliosporiuvi hormiscioides, and Fusidium lycotropum. — W. B. Grove, B.A.
Ejected Pellet of a Borin. — On the 4tli of October a cock robin
alighted upon the grass about three feet from my breakfast room
window. He stood there quite still for a minute or two, facing me as
I looked out. I noticed a convulsive movement in his throat, and
presently he opened his beak wide, as if gaping, shook his head
smartly, and there fell out of his mouth a worm about ljin. long, and
a black substance rather smaller than a horse-bean. The robin picked
up the worm again in his bill and flew away with it. I went out to
examine the black object which he had left behind, and found it to be
a pellet of hard fragments half-an-incli long and a quarter of an inch
thick. On macerating this pellet in water it was found to consist of
fragments of beetles and flies, the legs, broken elytra, wings, jaws,
heads, &c. ; also the skin of a caterpillar three-quarters of an inch
long, and small green particles of vegetable matter, some of which
were inside the skin of the caterpillar and may have formed the food
of that creature, and not of the robin. There were, however, frag¬
ments of grass a quarter of an inch long, not inside the caterpillar,
but these may have been taken up accidentally with worms.
F. T. Mott.
♦
BIBMIN GH AM NATUBAL HISTOBY AND MICBOSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — General Meeting, September 29th. Mr. T. Bolton
exhibited some galls on the petals of the leaves of the poplar from
Selly Oak, and Stemonitis fusca, one of the Myxomycetes ; and, on
behalf of Mr. Cecil Davies, some pupa cases from South America.
Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited the following fungi : — Pestalozzia
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
329
longiseta on Azalea leaves (new to Great Britain), found at Sutton
Coldfield ; also Agaricus jubatus and Phragmidium violaceum from Barnt
Green. Mr. A. Browett made some interesting remarks about the late
meeting of tlie British Association at Aberdeen. — General Meeting,
October 6th. The President made a few remarks upon the work done
by the Society during the past session, and he expressed a hope that
more of the members would attend the meetings in the future, and
suggested that the meetings might be made more attractive and
enjoyable to the ordinary student if the subjects were treated in a
more popular and less technical manner, at the same time not to
interfere with the specialist ; that an account be kept of the various
excursions, work done, specimens obtained and verified, and any other
information, such account to be entered in a book to be called the
log-book of the Society’s excursions, and that the record of each
excursion should be read at the next meeting following. He
thought this course, if adopted, would add materially to the interest
of the meetings and prove a valuable source of reference.
Mr. T. Bolton exhibited oak spangles (galls) made by the insect
Ci/nips longipennis ; Mr. Saunders, an eutomostracon ; Mr. J. Levick,
Zoothamnium arbuscula and Cordylopliora lacustris ; Mr. J. Morley,
the male Gall Fly ( Tnypeta cardui ) and the Horned Ichneumon Fly
( Eulophus nemata), both mounted without pressure. Mr. J. T. Blake-
more, live foraminifera from Aberystwith ; Mr. J. Edmonds, the bush
spider; Mr. W. P. Marshall, a flower of lobelia; Mr. C. Pumphrey,
beaded hairs in the flower of the pansy; Mr. Cecil T. Davies, skulls
of British birds ; Mr. A. Browett, Lycopodium clavatum, from Scotland;
Professor C. Lapworth, a number of geological charts and maps of the
Birmingham district, prepared by the students attending his lectures
at the Mason College. Mr. J. Rabone exhibited some objects, kindly
lent by Mr. W. Spencer, Regent’s Place ; the first in point of interest
was a part of a carbonised branch of a coniferous tree, found at a
depth of 195 feet below the surface in the Kimberley diamond mine
in South Africa. The branch had been converted into a brittle lignite,
and adhering to it was a portion of the rock in which it had been
embedded, and upon the surface was to be seen a small diamond in situ,
about as large as a grain of wheat. He also showed a number of
shells of the Avicula or pearl oyster, and portions of others which had
been cut by the button lathe. The origin of the pearl is due to the
presence of some foreign substance within the shell, which the oyster,
not having the means of extruding, covers over with nacre, of which
the pearl is composed ; specimens were shown which (the pearls being
split) exhibited the bodies of small crabs perfectly preserved ; a
portion of the case of Terebellci was seen to have been enclosed, and
other pearls had been formed over small stones. A number of small
pearls, of a dullish yellow appearance, taken from the common oyster,
and others of a darker hue from the common mussel, were also shown.
Mr. R. W. (Jliase exhibited the following birds : — Muscicapa atricapilla ,
Pied Flycatcher, male, female, and young, Ebchester; Locustella nccvia,
Grasshopper Warbler, young, in two stages, near Newcastle ; Serinus
hortulanus , Serin Finch, adult, Yarmouth, 14tli June, 1885 ; Lanius
pomeranus, Woodchat Shrike, adult male, Yarmouth, 16tli May, 1885 ;
(Egialitis cantiana, Kentish Plover, female, Breydon Flats, 8tli May,
1885 ; Fhalaropus hyperboreus, Red-necked Phalarope, male, and young
in down, Shetland, lltli July, 1882 ; Strepsilas interpres, Turnstone,
male, Breydon Flats, 14th May, 1884 ; Numenius phceopus, Whimbrel,
in the down, Hascosea, 3rd July, 1882; Stercorarius catarrhactes,
Common Skua, Shetland, 10th July, 1882 ; Stercorarius crepidatus,
330
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
Richardson’s Skua, adult female, showing light and dark forms.
— Biological Section, October 13tli. Mr. W. P. Marshall in the
chair. Mr. J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S., read a paper on the “Flora of
the Anker Basin,” in which he gave an account of the course and
drainage of the Anker, the physical features of the country, the
number of plants he had found, their classes of citizenship, geographical
distribution, and also compared the flora of the Anker with that of
the Blythe. The paper was illustrated by microscopical preparations
and numerous specimens, among which were Didymodon flexifolius, L>.
luridus, Sparganium neglectum, new to North Warwick, and other rare
specimens. He also handed in full lists of the flowering plants and
mosses of the Anker district. Mr. T. Bolton, F.R.M.S., exhibited for
Mr. Blakemore winged aphides, species not determined. Mr. W. Spinks,
of the Royal Nurseries, Edgbaston, exhibited a living specimen of a
large green grasshopper, which is supposed to be a South American
species, introduced with some bulbous plant. Mr. Bagnall, for Mr.
Henry Groves, Lipari s locselii, a very rare plant from Norfolk. Mr. W. B.
Grove, B.A., gave an account of his visit to the Woolhope Fungus Foray,
and exhibited a number of fungi from Hereford and the Sutton district,
among others Lactarius vellereus , L. torminosus, L. mitissimus, Ag.
Badhami , Ag. rliacodes, Ag. fusipes, Ag. nudus, Ag. gravimopodias, Ag.
pisciodorus, Ag. hcemorrhoidarius, G easier Bryantii , Bovista nigrescent.
B. plumbea , Lycoperdon gemmatum , Cortinarius ochroleucus, C. rnucijluus,
Gantharellus tubceformis , Hirneola auricul i-judce, Boletus laricinus, Poly-
porus annosus, all from Hereford ; Ag. pseudo-purus , Ag. butyraceus, Ag.
dryophilus, Ag. rubesceus (without scales), Ag. galopus var. candidus, Ag.
leucogalus, Ag. metachrosis, Ag. carcharias, Cortinarius tabularis , C.
saturnisms, Marasmius peronatus, Lactarius glyciosmus, Ag. asterosporus,
Russula ernetica, R. ochroleuca, B. citrina, all from Little Sutton and
Bradnock Hayes ; Ag. cirrhatus (with Stilbum vulgare , on decayed
Lactarius delic.iosus), Boletus jlavus, Ag. terreus, Ag. inamcenus, from
Sutton Park ; Niptera Riccia, new to Britain, Dendrodochium citrinum
(sp. nov.), and Actinonema Rosie (in good fruit), all from Sutton ; and
Diplodia hederce, new to Britain, from King’s Norton. Mr. W. H. France,
the cardoon, Cyncira cardunculus (?), a beautiful thistle, first noticed as a
cultivated plant by Parkinson, 1629 ; it is esculent, and has the power
of coagulating milk.- -Microscopical General Meeting, October 20th.
Dr. A. M. Marshall presented to the Society a copy of a new edition of
his work upon the frog. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., exhibited Helico-
sporium lumbricoides, Sacc. (new to Great Britain), Tetraploa aristata,
B. and Br. (very rare), Helotium scutula var. Lysimachice, Pliill., all from
near Sutton ; Coniothyrium concentricum, Coremium vulgare, and Tripo-
sporium elegans, from Hereford ; also, to illustrate Mr. Grattann’s
paper, the following sea-weeds : — Cladophora rectangularis and Polysi-
phonia elongata (in fruit). Mr. W. H. Grattann’s paper was then read
upon “ The irregularity of appearance of some species of marine algae.”
After the paper a discussion took place, in which several of the
members joined. — Sociological Section. At the ordinary meeting,
held on Thursday, 15th October, the President (Mr. W. R. Hughes,
F.L.S.), delivered a brief address, in which he alluded to the satis¬
factory progress of the Section and to several interesting matters
connected therewith. Mr. W. B. Grove, B.A., ably expounded Chapters
I., II., and III. of Part IY. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “Principles of
Biology,” Yol. 2, on “ The Problems of Morphology and on the Morpho¬
logical Composition of Plants.” The President was unanimously
requested to write a letter to Mr. Herbert Spencer, congratulating him
on the appearance of a third edition of Yol. I. of “ The Principles of
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
331
Sociology,” and on the completion of Part VI. of that work on
“ Ecclesiastical Institutions.” On Saturday, the 17th October, the
members of the Section and other friends, to the number of nearly
fifty, paid a second visit to George Eliot’s country, and were, by the
kindness of C, N. Newdegate, Esq., M.P. (who personally conducted
them over the building), allowed to see Arbury Hall, the Clieverel
Manor of Mr. Gilfil’s love story ; after which they drove to South
Farm (the Hall Farm of Adam Bede), and from thence to Coventry,
where a substantial tea was served at the King’s Head Hotel. After
tea, some opening remarks were made by the President (Mr. W. II.
Hughes) with reference to the early association of Mr. Herbert
Spencer with George Eliot, and the mutual influence for good each had
had on the other; after which Mr. W. Showell Rogers, M.A., LL.M.,
delivered a most interesting address on George Eliot’s works. Thanks
were voted to Mr. Showell Rogers for his address, and also to Mr. C. N.
Newdegate, M.P. ; and to Mr. Alfred Browett, lion. sec. of the Section,
for the able manner in which he had organised the excursion.
BIRMINGHAM MICROSCOPISTS’ AND NATURALISTS’
UNION. — September 19tli. A visit was made, by invitation, to
Warley, to inspect the geological collection of Mr. Holden. The
specimens were very numerous, and comprised fossils, &c., from'
nearly all formations. A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Holden for his
kindness brought a pleasant afternoon to a close. — September 21st.
Mr. H. Insley exhibited a polished slab of chain coral from the
Rushall Canal ; Mr. Hawkes, the following fungi : — Xenodochus carbon -
arms and Splicerotheca castagnei , both on Great Burnet ; TJromyces intrusa,
Gystopus candidus , P hr ay mi drum mucronatum , Puccinia lychnidearum and
TJromyces ulmarice , the latter on Iiosa canina; Mr. Moore, internal shells
of Limax fiavus ; Mr. J. A. Grew, a male specimen of convolvulus hawk
moth, Sphinx convolvuli; Mr. Evans, Aviculopecten papyraceus from the
Gannister beds, Staffordshire, and native copper from Lake Superior.
Under the microscopes, Mr. Tylar showed eggs of Scatophaga stercoraria ;
Mr. Hutchinson, Paludicella Ehrenbergii; Mr. J. W. Neville, head of
Plialangium ; Mr. Hawkes, conceptacles of hop mildew, Splicerotheca
castagnei. — September 28th. A discussion on “The Ice Age” was
opened by Mr. Rodgers reading a paper that explained the theory of
Lieut. -Col. Drayson that the earth’s axis moving in a circle round a
centre six degrees removed from the pole of the ecliptic brings about
a great change in the obliquity of the earth’s axis, and thereby brings
the poles more under solar influence in the summer, and, in the
winter, by bringing down the arctic circle to a low latitude, the result
is a hot summer and severe winter each year. This polar movement
is completed every 81,000 years. To the ice accumulated during the
winter and removed each summer for 16,000 years is attributed the
glaciation of Europe and elsewhere. The discussion was adjourned. — ■
October 5tli. Mr. Madison exhibited specimens of Helix pulcliella var.
costata from Minworth ; Mr. Hopkins, Helix aspersa var. albofasciata ;
Mr. C. F. Beale, a specimen of long-eared bat, Plecotus auritus, also a
series of photographs of microscopical objects ; Mr. Hawkes, the
following fungi : — Trichobasis oblongata, Puccinia Indiana, Spluerotheca
pannosa, and Uncinula bicornis, the latter under the microscope. The
discussion on “The Ice Age” was continued by Mr. H. Insley
explaining the well-known theory of Dr. Croll. — October 12th. Mr.
Hopkins exhibited specimens of Paludina contecta and Helix aspersa
var. unicolor; Mr. Madison, Helix pomatia and very young specimens
832
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
of the same ; Mr. Moore, Helix relevata and Achatina acicula. A paper
was then read by Mr. Evans on “ The Drift,” which described super¬
ficial layers and the extent to which they were formed of older rocks.
The Moseley drift was particularly dealt with, as being the chief field
of the writer’s labours. The paper enumerated the different rocks
found there, and also the fossils contained in them, comprising
specimens of Rhynchonella , Lingula , Orthis , Pentamerus, Meristella ,
Spirifer , Aviculopecten, crinoidal stems, worm tracks, fragments of
Trilobites and Lepidostrobus. The fossils bearing a strong resemblance
to those of the Bunter beds, the writer held that the drift was a
redistribution of those pebbles, and that they were originally derived
from an old land barrier running across central England, some outlines
of which were pointed out. The writer, in conclusion, hoped to be
able at a future time to give some results of work in the Bunter beds,
by which he hoped further light would be thrown upon this question.
The paper was rendered additionally interesting by an exhibition of
the fossils referred to.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D, Zoology and Botany. Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. —
Monthly meeting, Wednesday, October 21st. Attendance twelve (four
ladies). It was announced that the following three members of the
Society had joined this section, viz. : Dr. Tomkins, R. Overton, Esq.,
and A. G. Turner, Esq., B.A. Arrangements were made for a fungus
foray to Switliland Wood, &c., on Wednesday, the 28th October, at
which Dr. Cooke, of London, had promised to assist. A covered brake
to start from the Bell at 10 a.m. The following objects were exhibited
by various members, viz. : By Mr. Grundy, a set of microscopic slides
of entomological subjects, prepared by himself without pressure, the
cells being made of a ring of tin with several slight grooves filed across
to allow the escape of air bubbles ; by Miss Grundy, a box of very
small and delicate shells, chiefly Pecten, from the sea shore ; leaf and
abortive panicle of Plius cotinus, the wig tree ; leaf of the camphor
laurel, Lanrus camphora ; and a well-executed drawing of a longitudinal
section of the fruit of Rubus fruticosus var. laciniatus, x 4 ; by Mr. F.
Bates, a slide of the remarkable alga, Rulbochcete mirabilis , found on
submerged leaves of Ranunculus aquatilis , uear Narborough, and new
to the county ; also living clusters of desmids (Cosmarium) in water,
with prepared slides for the microscope ; by Mr. E. F. Cooper, a branch
of Rhamnus catharticus , with abundance of ripe fruit ; by Miss Noble,
a fruiting branch of an almond tree; by Miss Ions, leaves of the
Canadian scarlet oak in their autumnal colour ; by the Chairman,
specimens of the grass called “onion twitch,” Arrhenathemm avenaceum
var. bulbosum, showing the knobs at the base of the stem ; and a sun¬
flower, Helianthus animus , of unusual size, llin. across the disk, 16in.
across the ray, weighing 31bs. The plant from which it was cut was
Oft. 3in. high, with a stem ljin. diameter, and leaves 16in. broad. Mr.
Thomas Carter, LL.B., read a paper ou “ Some Alpine Plants of
Britain,” illustrated by mounted specimens of about forty species out
of the hundred which belong to the Arctic flora, and by a series of
maps showing the distribution of these species over the globe and in
the British Islands, and discussing the different theories which have
been suggested to account for their isolated occurrence on the summits
of various mountain ranges. Mr. F. Bates read a short description of
the fresh-water alga, Bulboclicete mirabilis.
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
333
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
BY HERBERT SPENCER.
Exposition of Chapter XII. — On “ Distribution.”
BY WILLIAM MATHEWS, M.A., F.G.S.
In studying the distribution, on the earth’s surface, of
any group of organisms, two facts, of widely different signi¬
ficance, are presented to our attention. First, the character
of the inhabitants of any given locality depends upon the
nature of the locality ; secondly, two localities approximately
similar in nature will, if sufficiently far apart, be tenanted by
different collections of organisms; the species inhabiting them
will, as a general rule, be representative and not identical.
In the remarks which I am about to offer on the subject
of distribution, I propose to examine briefly some of the
leading phenomena presented by the distribution in space of
flowering plants.
The habitats of such plants are characterised by one or
more of the following variations and conditions : —
(A.) — Differences of land and water —
Marine.
Fresh water.
Stagnant.
Running.
Marsh.
Land.
Littoral.
Inland.
(B.) — Differences of soil —
Calcareous.
Argillaceous.
Siliceous.
(C.) — Differences with respect to cultivation or otherwise —
Meadows, Pratal.
Pastures, Pascual.
Arable land, Agrestal.
Heaths, Ericetal.
Road sides, Viatical.
Hedges, Septal.
Woods, Sylvestral.
Rocks, Rupestral,
834
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
(D.) — Differences of climate —
Latitude.
Extreme temperatures in summer and winter.
Altitude.
Humidity.
(E.) — Differences arising from the presence or absence of
other plants.
(F.) — Differences arising from the presence or absence of
certain animals and especially of insects.
Influences of the above nature are called by Herbert
Spencer “ Negative.” What is meant is that the absence
of one or more of the above conditions will determine the
absence of any given plant, but the presence of those condi¬
tions will not necessarily determine the presence of such
plant. We are thus led to the consideration of the second
of the main facts of distribution, viz., that similarity of
conditions is frequently accompanied by great dissimilarity
of Fauna and Flora.
The explanation is that the Fauna and Flora of any area
on the earth’s surface is derived from that which immediately
preceded it in time, and that similar variations of condition
acting on dissimilar organic materials have produced dissimilar
results. The earth’s surface has been in a state of continuous
modification throughout past ages, and corresponding modi¬
fications have occurred in its organic inhabitants. The
present phenomena of distribution are the result, and their
study enables us to read more readily the past history of the
earth.
Before the distribution of plants can be used as a key to
that history, we must understand the various means by which
distribution is effected or we may fall into serious error.
1st. — A number of plants are distributed all over the
world by the agency of man. They are generally of intense
vitality, of very unprepossessing appearance, and not only of
no economic value but great hindrances to cultivation. Such
are the thistle, dock, and nettle, and other noxious weeds.
The way in which these plants colonise a foreign country may
be seen by a glance at the Flora of New Zealand. The
Canterbury Province in the Southern Island contains 750
native phanerogamous plants. Within the last twenty years
250 European species (one third in number of the indigenous
Flora) have been introduced. They are, many of them,
English weeds, and are increasing witli such rapidity as to
threaten the native plants with extirpation.
THE PKINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
335
2nd. — Another group, generally fresh-water species, are
widely dispersed by the agency of birds. For an illustration
of this phenomenon we may again refer to the New Zealand
Flora. Twenty-two of the native plants of the Canterbury
Province are common English species, and of these eighteen
are fresh-water and three littoral forms.
3rd. — Another group, chiefly littoral forms, are dispersed
by the agency of ocean currents.
4th. — Allowance having been made for the three pre¬
ceding modes of dispersion, there still remain a large
majority of which the only explanation that can be given is
that they have travelled over continuous land. It is to these
that we must look for information as to the former oscillations
of land and water.
Before leaving the New Zealand Flora it will be interest¬
ing to note some remarkable features which it presents and
which show the extreme differentiation of an insular Flora,
as distinguished from a continental one. Of the 750
flowering plants in the Canterbury Province, 538 are restricted
to New Zealand. The number of genera of flowering plants
and ferns is 275, and of these no fewer than 109 have only
one species each. Of 857 species of flowering plants and
ferns, 176 are Australian and 108 American, showing former
connection with these continents, but very long separation.
The history of the more recent geological changes in its
bearing upon the distribution of plants on the European
Continent is of the highest interest. We know, from the
evidence of their fossil remains, that in Miocene times a large
assemblage of plants of a tropical or sub-tropical character
covered the land of the northern hemisphere from the Tropic
of Cancer to within ten degrees of the Pole. Palms, figs,
and laurels grew on the site of the Lake of Geneva, and the
plane, tulip-tree, walnut and vine, together with the Sequoia
and Magnolia, flourished in Greenland. After Miocene
times there was a gradual decline of temperature, which
culminated in the refrigeration of the glacial epoch, and this
again has been succeeded by the climatic conditions of the
modern wTorld. Simultaneously with these variations of
temperature were oscillations in level of many thousand feet,
and corresponding changes in the boundary of sea and land.
Now consider wliat- must have taken place as the climate
gradually became colder. The plants in any given zone of
latitude would be sorted by the increasing cold. Those
unsuited to the colder climate would be driven to the zone
below, where they would find their proper temperature, but
836
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
be subjected to new conditions of various kinds. The hardier
species would remain behind, but their interactions would be
changed and they would be affected by migrations from the
zone above. The effect would be a migration southwards
of a vast numbers of species. When the European stream
reached the foot of the Alps it would divide into two branches,
the one travelling into France and Spain, the other into
Hungary, Turkey, and the Levant. At the same time with
these migrations the Alpine species would descend from the
mountains into the plains. As the climate grew warmer the
migrations would continue but their direction would be
reversed. The southern species would return northward, the
Alpine species would travel partly to the mountain summits,
partly to the Arctic zone. During the glacial epoch there
was a great submergence, by which many of the plants of
northern Europe must have been destroyed. These changes
must have produced large specific modifications in the
European Flora, and account for many of the singular
phenomena of distribution which it presents.
We observe, for instance, striking differences between
the Floras of the east and west end of the Alps, small groups
of remarkable species restricted to areas of very limited
dimensions, single species appearing in a few spots widely
distant from each other, such as the Welsh Poppy in Wales,
Central France and the Pyrenees, or restricted even to a
single locality, as Wulfenia carinthiaca to one mountain in
the eastern Alps. On the other hand, we find plants
restricted to a few localities, but very widely distributed,
strangely incapable of colonising the intervening spaces, even
when provided with the feathery pappus of composites, such
as Hypocliccris metadata, and some of the Hawkweeds. Finally
we have the Alpine Flora, characteristic of the higher
summits of the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Altai, and
Caucasus, and reappearing to a great extent both in the Old
and New World, within the Arctic zone.
The origin of this Flora and the nature of its connec¬
tion with that of the Arctic zone is a question of great
interest which has been discussed with signal ability by Mr.
John Ball.* Sir J. D. Hooker was of opinion that the Alps
had been colonised from the Arctic regions ; Mr. Ball, with
more justice, as it seems to me, holds the view that the Arctic
regions were colonised from the Alps.
The genus most characteristic both of the Alps and Arctic
regions is certainly the saxifrage. Its distribution in Europe
* Proceedings Royal Geog. Soc., New series, vol. 1, p. 564.
THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY.
337
is as follows: — The Scandinavian species are fourteen in
number. Of these all but two are in the Alps, all but four in
the Pyrenees, and almost all are North American. The Alpine
saxifrages number forty -four, of which twelve only are
Scandinavian, while twenty -five are Carpathian, twenty
Pyrenean, and eight Altaic.
Mr. Ball points out that of 1,157 species characteristic of
the Alpine Flora, two-thirds are found in the Carpathians,
one-lialf in the Pyrenees, and one-fourtli in the Altai.
When we pass to the south of the Mediterranean the
contrast is amazing, the entire Algerian Atlas yielding seven
species only of Alpine plants.
The Flora of our own country, although of comparatively
small interest, owing, as I believe, to the destruction of the
greater part of the indigenous plants at the time of the
submergence in the glacial age, presents, nevertheless, some
curious features.
The total number of species is 1,6G5 ; of these, 1,465 are
Germanic or Scandinavian, the majority of which are scattered
over the whole of northern temperate Europe and Asia.
They may be subdivided into plants widely spread in
Britain, Germanic plants confined to the eastern side of
England, mountain plants (Scandinavian or Alpine).
Deducting aliens and uncertain segregrates, we have left
119. Of these, 114 are species belonging to south-west Europe
and three are American. It is worthy of remark that there
does not exist throughout the whole extent of the British
Isles a single well-defined endemic species.
A few words upon one of the most curious points
connected with the distribution of plants, and these remarks
must be brought to a conclusion. I refer to the contrast
which different genera present in their capacity for receiving
specific modifications under the influence of varying external
forces. On the shores of the Mediterranean the bramble is
almost stable ; the only form that is met with, or nearly so,
is liubus discolor. In the northern part of temperate Europe
its variations are very numerous. On the other hand, the
genus Medicago is nearly stable in the zone of Rubus , and
highly plastic on the Mediterranean coasts. Astragalus pre¬
sents differences still more remarkable than those of Medicago.
In England there are only three species, in France twenty-
four, in Spain thirty-nine; while Boissier, in his “Flora
Orientalis,” including only the extra-tropical countries from
Greece to the borders of India, enumerates no fewer than 757
species.
338
ANTHROPOLOGY.
ANTHROPOLOGY, ITS MEANING AND AIM.
BY JOSEPH SMITH, JUN., M.A.I.
( Continued from page 325.)
The change of climate to mildness has a tendency to
reduce the size of the body, and it will be found on
comparison that the bones from the early sepulchres, when
a cold climate has been known to exist, are of greater
proportions than those of beings dwelling in the same place
during a warmer temperature.
The skull of an infant is soft, and is capable of being
moulded into any form before solidifying takes place. If
consideration is taken of the innumerable and adventitious
causes which come into operation, and influence the formation
of the skull, you will no longer be able to wonder at the
variety of form presented by the human cranium, even amongst
those belonging to our own nation. Sleeping on the back
gives a compressed occiput, and by lying on one side you
have an elongated skull. Hippocrates (“De aer., aqu., et
loc.,” 35,) states that after artificial shaping of the skull has
taken place for a very long period, a kind of natural degene¬
ration is observed, and the means previously adopted for
obtaining this form are no more a necessity, since the skulls
grow of their own accord to the form acquired.
Anthropologists have been labouring strongly to estab¬
lish some recognised method of measurement, the result of
which is that Retzius’s division has been further divided and
improved, the skull indices for the measurement of capacity
being as follows : —
Length and Breadth Index.
100 x breadth
length
Dolichocephalic (long skull) . below 75 ’0
Mesoceplialic . 75-1 to 79-9
Bracliyceplialic (short skull) . SOB ,, 85 *0
Hyperbrachyceplialic . 85*1 and over.
Length and Height Index.
100 x height
length
Cliameecephalic (flat skull) . 75*0 and under
Orthocephalic . 70H to 75*0
Hypsicephalic (high skull) . 75*1 and over.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
339
Profile Angle.
This, which is the inclination of the profile line to the
horizontal plane, is classed under the three following
divisions : —
1. — Prognathous . 82° and under
2. — Mesognathous, or Orthognathous . 83° to 90°
3. — Hyperortliognatlious . 91° and over.
Facial Index — ( Virchow).
100 x height
length
The breadth of the face considered as the linear distance
between the two jugo-maxillary sutures (as also the facial
index of Yon Holder).
Broad-faced skull . 90*0 and under
Narrow-faced skull . 90*1 and over.
Index of the Upper Face — (Virchow).
100 x upper facial height
facial breadth
Facial breadth considered as a linear distance between
the two jugo-maxillary sutures and the upper facial height.
Broad upper face . 50‘0 and under
Narrow upper face . 50-1 and over.
Zygomatic Facial Index — (Kollman).
100 x facial height
zygomatic breadth
The greatest distance between the zygomatic arches,
and the facial height, divided into two classes.
Low-faced chamaeprosopic skull, from -irpoauirov, meaning
“face” . 90-0 and under
High-faced leptoprosopic skull . 90’ 1 and over.
Zygomatic Upper Facial Index — (Kallmann),
100 x upper facial breadth
zygomatic breadth
Chanueprosopic upper face with an index of 50-0 and over.
Leptoprosopic upper face with an index of 50*1 and over.
The upper facial index acts as a control measurement to
the facial index. It is important to ascertain it in cases
where, through the absence of the lower jaw, the facial index
cannot be determined.
340
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Orbital Index.
100 x orbital height
orbital breadth
ChamEekonchous .
Mesokonclious .
Hypsikonclious .
Nasal Index.
100 X nasal breadth
nasal height
Leptorliine .
Mesorliine . .
Platyrlnne . . .
Hyperplatyrliine .
80*0 and under
80-1 to 85-0
85’ 1 and over.
47 ’0 and under
47*1 to 51*0
51-1 ,, 58-0
58*1 and over.
Palatal index of Yircliow only provisional, and as yet is
not adopted.*
Colour plays a great part in the natural history of man,
and although it is not a subject I am here going to enter on,
still a few words thereon may not be unacceptable. It is
well known that white men, when dwelling for a considerable
time in torrid zones, lose an amount of whiteness and
assume a brownish tinge, sensibly verging to black, with
much more facility ; and there is ample mention in the
observations of travellers that “ on the black attaining his
seventieth year ” there is a great tendency to a lighter
colour, for at that age the reticulum sensibly loses a portion
of its colour, causing the hair and beard to assume at first a
straw and then a white tinge ; and infants brought to a
colder climate while young lose a quantity of their black
colour, and assume a tinge more approaching brown.
Blumenbacli, in his memoirs, states that he himself knew a
mulatto woman, born of an African father and white mother,
who in her youth was sufficiently brown, but who by a resi¬
dence in a colder clime and through time, had so degenerated
in this respect that she retained only a cherry or tawny-
coloured skin ; and he also asserts that a colony of Portuguese
(“ Recli. sur les Americ,” i., p. 166,) who were carried to
Africa in the fifteenth century, have now assimilated the
native colour to such an extent as to be scarcely distinguishable
from the aborigines. Thus it will be seen that climate is
accountable to a great extent for the variation of colour tint
in the different nations. The varieties will be apparent in
* These measurements are extracted from the remarks of J. G.
Garson “ On the Frankfort Craniometric Agreement” in the “Journal
of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain,” vol. xiv., p. 66, &c.
ANTHROPOLOGY
341
the offspring of unions of different tints, and this principle
may he accepted, that in these cases the more opposite and
contrary colours so degenerate that white men may sensibly
pass into black men, and the reverse. Hybridity, if such
term may be applied to this feature of Anthropology, is, as
seen from the foregoing, a very important principle, as by
it such varieties of colour are attained ; and a feature
which must not be omitted is that the fecundity of the
descendants of the issue of these hybrid unions is superior to
that of men and women of the same colour, a circumstance
which, in the economy of Nature, will in a period of time
have much effect on the variety colour of a race. These
offsprings are distinguished by class names, arranged by
Blumenbacli as follows : —
The issue of a black man and white woman, or black
woman and white man, is called Mulatto, Molaka, and
Meletta ; in Italian, Bertin, Creole, and Criole ; in the Malabar
language, Mestico. The issue of an American man and
European woman is a Mameluke, or Metif ; from an Euro¬
pean male and a Mulatto female comes a Terceron, Cast^a.
The son of an European female by a Metif is a Quateroon ;
the issue of two Mulattos is a Casque ; and of Blacks and
Mulattos, Griffs. A Terqeron female and European produce
Quateroons, Postiqos ; and the American Quateroon (who is
equal to the Black Terqeron), produces from an European,
an Octavoon. The issue of a Quateroon male and a white
female is a Quinteroon ; and the child of an European
woman from an American Octavoon is, in Spanish,
Puchuela ; and so as these various grades marry and
intermix, the progress from lighter to darker, and vice versa,
can very easily explain away some of the difficulties regard¬
ing the variation of colour. Then there must be considered
those curiosities, if the term be allowed, which present them¬
selves in all anthropological investigations, but which do not
form any part of the present paper. I refer to spotted men,
wild men, Leucsetliiopians, Nyctalopes, &c. These offer
interesting investigations, but their study belongs rather to
the physiologist than to any other.
The preceding are some of the features or factors, which
enter into and form part of that study which has for its object
the investigation of the most perfect creature of the Creator.
From these it will be seen how grand and extensive is the
range of Anthropology, how broad is its meaning, and how
ennobling is the aim of the science.
O
842
THE LEICESTERSHIRE COAL FIELD.
SOME INACCURACIES UPON THE GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY MAPS AND SECTIONS OF THE
LEICESTERSHIRE COAL-FIELD.
Having' been in a position to verify portions of the one-
incli Geological Survey maps and some of the vertical and
horizontal sections of the coal district between Asliby-de-la-
Zoucli and Burton-on-Trent, I think the errors discovered in
them should be made known, so that those interested in the
geology of the locality may not be misled.
(a) Taking the one-inch nuip first, on quarter sheet
63, N.W.
i. — At one mile to the S.E. of Overseal village, where
the word “Derbyshire” occurs, there is an exposure
or out-crop of the Permian “ brecciated con¬
glomerate.”
ii. — The Fault marked as running for a distance of
nearly one mile from the E. end of the reservoir
on Ashby Woulds in a N.W. direction is entirely
wrong ; the white line should have gone in a
N.N.E. course from “ Hanging Hill,” near Moira,
towards “ Wooden Box ” (Woodville, as the place
is now usually called).
iii. — On quarter sheet No. 71, S.W., the Fault shown
as running N.W. and S.E. at about half a mile to
the E. of Swadlincote Railway Station is in reality
only about a quarter of a mile from that station.
Other minor errors might be mentioned as having been
made upon these two maps were it necessary to do so.
(b) Upon the Horizontal Sections, Sheets Nos. 49 and
52, I notice the following inaccuracies. Upon No. 52 in
Section 2, the fifth Fault from the commencement of the
Section in the W. is a downthrow to the W., and not to the
E. as marked. On sheet No. 49 in Section No. 2, the
Permian rocks shown about the middle of the Section near
“ Norris Hill ” have not been coloured as such.
(c) With regard to the Vertical Sections. — Taking sheet
No. 20 (Leicestershire Coal-field, Moira district).
No. 2 Section. — The water referred to as being large in
quantity in certain of the strata does not naturally exist in
the measures, but proceeds (or rather when the shafts of this
colliery were sunk, proceeded) from old drowned-out main-
coal workings situated to the S. or rise side of the “ Oakthorpe
New Colliery.”
MIDLAND UNION MEETING.
343
No. 3 Section. — For “ Hastings and Grey Shafts,” read
“ Newfield Shafts.” (See No. 4 Section.)
No. 5 Section. — The following beds of coal have been
omitted : —
At 23ft. 4in. from the surface a coal 2ft. 2in. thick.
At 78ft. 2in. ,, ,, 1ft. Sin. ,,
At 120ft. Oin. ,, ,, 1ft. lin.
At 125ft. 6in. ,, ,, ,, 5in.
At 167ft. Gin. ,, ,, ,, 5in.
> 5
5 5
5 y
As these five coal-beds were sunk through in the year 1821,
they must have been either overlooked or accidentally left
out when the Survey sheet was compiled.
No. 6 coal-seam of this (No. 5) Section is incorrectly given.
The two uppermost beds bracketted under “over” should have
been left out, the actual thickness of the seam of “main coal”
being 12ft. 3in., not 14ft. 2in. as given.*
Nos. 6, 8, and 13 Sections. — The coal-seams named “Slate,”
“ Woodfield,” “ Stockings,” and “ Eureka ” should have been
numbered 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively in descending order.
No. 9 Section. — For “ Mr. Healy,” read “ Mr. Eley.”
W. S. Gresley, F.G.S.
MIDLAND UNION OF MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETIES.
At a Meeting of the Management Committee of the Union,
held on Nov. lltli, it was resolved to accept the joint
invitation of the Caradoc Field Club, the Oswestry and
Welshpool Field Club, and the Shropshire Archaeological
Society, for ilie Meeting of the Union in Shrewsbury, in
1886. A central Executive Committee and Local Secretaries
(the Revds. 0. M. Fielden, of Oswestry, and T. Auden, of
Shrewsbury) have already been appointed, and the Meeting
in such an interesting town, with such a grand field for
excursions, can hardly fail to be specially enjoyable. The
exact date of the Meeting cannot be fixed at present.
It was also resolved that an attempt should be made so
to modify the arrangements for the necessary business of the
General Meeting as to make room for a few short papers on
* The above particulars in reference to No. 5 Section are from the
original account of the strata sunk through in the year 1821.
344
THE EAR AND HEARING.
any subjects which may appear desirable It was considered
that by this means more particularly matters of interest in
regard to the next day’s excursions might be of service.
The Committee also had under its consideration the
arrangements for the award of the Darwin Medal, which were
referred to it for amendment by the Council at the Meeting
last June. The paragraph which defines the papers eligible
for the prize will now stand : —
“ The Darwin prize is to be awarded to the paper, or set of
papers by the same author, of highest merit which has been
sent in since the expiration of the last term for which a prize
was awarded for that subject.”
Thus any paper, or set of papers in zoology, sent in
between March 31st, 1882, and March 31st, 1886, will be
eligible for the Darwin prize for 1886.
It will be seen that the alteration consists in inserting the
words “ or set of papers by the same author,” doubts having
arisen as to the powers of the adjudicators in this particular.
Another paragraph was adopted, viz. : — “ The Council
shall in any year withhold the Darwin Medal, in case the
majority of the adjudicators report that the papers submitted
to them are not of sufficient merit to deserve it.”
THE EAR AND HEARING.
BY W. J. ABEL, B.A., F.R.M.S.
( Continued from page 285.)
The estimation of distance and direction of sounding
bodies is a purely intellectual operation — the result of
inference from intensity of sensation, &c.
The perception of distance and direction is only acquired
by experience. Sensations of touch are localised only after
multiform experience of the difference in the degree of the
sensations excited in various spots. It is the same with
hearing ; we judge of the distance and direction of the
sound by the kind of impression produced. If a sound
is already known to us, as in the case of the human voice, we
judge its distance by the feebleness of its impression upon
the nerve of hearing. If the intensity at a given distance is
unknown, as for example, thunder, we suppose it nearer
according as it is louder. The rumbling of a waggon in the
street is thus often mistaken for distant thunder, and vice
THE EAR AND HEARING.
345
versa. We thus see how inferential processes control our
judgment of distance. If we are led to imagine a sound is
farther off than it really is we seem to hear it stronger than
it is. Awaking suddenly in the night we hear a faint noise
and suppose it much louder, through our temporary confused
notion of its real distance. Hence the slight creak of a part
of the bed or bed room furniture, the gnawing of a mouse or
beetle, &c., originates in timid and imaginative subjects ideas
of ghostly and burglarious sounds.
It being an effect of distance that sounds fade away into
a feeble hum, when we encounter a sound whose natural
quality is feeble, like the hum of a bee, we readily imagine it
more distant than it really is. Hence also the possibility of
ventriloquism. The ventriloquist modifies Ins voice to
imitate sounds proceeding from varying distances and places,
and also tends to impose upon our judgment, through the
effects of imagination, by directing his voice to various points,
pretending himself to hear the sounds proceeding from
thence. Must we then implicitly “ believe our own eyes and
ears ” ?
Our estimation of direction , according to our present
knowledge, appears to be owing to a process of reasoning
applied to the sensation. Thus we hear distinctly a sound
emanating from a given point, whatever position the head is
in ; but, the ear being able to judge of slight differences in
the intensity of sounds, we remark that in certain positions
of the head the sound seems strongest. We are hence led
to place our head in one fixed position as regards the
sounding body — that is, the one which shall bring the
external meatus as nearly as possible in a straight line
with the sounding body. Our sight tells us what is this
direction of most perfect hearing, and we then apply the
observation made upon bodies that we can see to those that
are not seen. The combined action of the tiro ears
also favours very materially the perception of direction
of sound — as our two eyes do visual perceptions. A person
deaf in one ear is usually unable to say whether a sound
proceeds from before or behind. According to Weber, in
determining the direction of sounds we employ the external
ear for those coming from above, below, behind, before ; and
the tympanum for those coming from left to right. He
inserted the head in water, the air passages being filled with
air so that the tympanum was free to vibrate, and found that
in that case the ear recognised sounds as external, but
could only distinguish them as proceeding from the right or
left. When, farther, the ear itself was filled with water, and
346
THE EAR AND HEARING.
the free action of the tympanum arrested, the sense of
externality was quite lost, and the feelings of sound regarded
as subjective.
The sense of direction is by no means very delicate,
even after being educated to the full. We can readily
recognise whether a voice at about the level of our ears is
before or behind, to the right or left, up or down ; but if we
were to stand opposite a row of persons at a distance of, say,
ten feet, we should not be able to say, unassisted by sight, &c.,
which one uttered a sound, as schoolmasters well know.
So it is almost impossible to find out a skylark in the air
from the sound of its song. A simple experiment illustrating
the uncertainty of our sense of direction of sounds may be
performed by blindfolding a person seated in a chair, and
clicking two coins opposite various parts of his body within
leach of his arms, requiring him to point to the exact locality
whence the sound proceeds. Some people will be found to
eer greatly in their estimates. In his opening address, at the
recent meeting of the British Association, Lord Bayleigh
remarked upon the imperfect state of our knowledge of the
means whereby we recognise the direction of sounds, and
stated that it has been proved that, when proper precautions
are taken, we are unable to distinguish whether a pure tone,
as from a vibrating tuning-fork held over a suitable resonator,
comes from before or behind, as might have been expected
from an a priori point of view, but, what would not have been
expected is, that with almost any other sort of sound, from a
clap of the hands to the clearest vowel sound, the discrimi¬
nation is not only possible, but easy and instinctive. In
these cases it does not appear how the possession of two ears
helps, though there is some evidence that it does ; and even
when the sound comes to us from the right or left the
explanation of the ready discrimination which is then
possible with pure tones is not so easy as it first seems.
We should be inclined to think that the sound is heard
much more loudly with the ear turned towards it than with
the ear turned from it, and that in this way direction is
recognised ; but if we try the experiment we find that, at any
rate with notes near the middle of the musical scale, the
difference of loudness is by no means so very great. The
wave-lengths of such notes are long enough in relation to
the dimensions of the head to forbid the formation of anything
like a shadow in which the averted ear may be sheltered.
In such cases I should myself be inclined to look for the
power of discrimination rather in slight qualitative differences
in the effect of given stimuli according as they affect more
METEOROLOGICAL NOTES.
847
directly tlie right or left branch of the auditory nerve, but
I am fully aware of the objections which may be urged to
this, and simply quote it as a surmise. The localising of the
sensation I think, with Bain, to be due to the distinct central
endings of the nerves from the two ears. In his words
“ Given the nerves distinct, sensations may be absolutely
identical as feelings and yet quite distinct for intellectual
purposes” [owing to their connection . with different brain
cells] .
The diffused bodily movements and sensations frequently
accompanying irritation or excitement of the auditory nerve,
e.g., the sudden start, winking, and general shock somewhat
like that produced by an electrical discharge, caused by an
intense and sudden noise, the thrilling grating sensation in
the teeth, and cold trickling feeling caused by such sounds as
those produced in saw sharpening, &c., may be adequately
explained by the results of antipathies, and the operation of
what Herbert Spencer calls the law of nervo-motor-action,
which states that every feeling (including sensation) has for
its primary concomitant a diffused nervous discharge which
tends with varying degrees of force to excite the muscles to
action, the degree and extent of energy in the resulting
bodily movements varying directly as the intensity of the
feeling, and affecting the muscles of the body in the inverse
order of their sizes and the weights of their attachments.
The pain caused by certain sounds seems again explicable, as
is that accompanying other sensations, by excessive nervous
stimulation, or wasting conflict between adverse nervous
currents.
METEOBOLOGICAL NOTES.— October, 1885.
Atmospheric pressure was very variable during the month, and the
changes numerous and rapid. The highest morning reading was on
the 17th, 30*189 inches; the lowest, on the 26tli, 29*027 inches. The
mean temperature was about four degrees below the average. The
highest maxima were 62*4° at Loughborough, on the 16th ; 6(H)0 at
Henley-in-Arden, on the 3rd, 8th, and 17th ; 59*0° at Coston Rectory, on
the 1st and 16th ; 57*9° at Hodsock, on the 2nd ; and 57*0° at Strelley,
on the 3rd. In the rays of the sun, 115T° at Hodsock, on the 5tli ;
113*8° at Loughborough, and 104*7° at Strelley, on the 3rd. The lowest
minima were 25*0° at Coston Rectory, on the 12th ; 27*3° at Hodsock,
29*3° at Loughborough, 30*5° at Strelley, on the 30tli ; and 31*0° at
Henley-in-Arden, on the 12th and 30th. On the grass, 20*2° at Hodsock,
21*8° at Strelley, and 26*4° at Loughborough, on the 30th. The rain¬
fall was unusually heavy, the totals being 6*34 inches at Coston Rectory ;
6*01 inches at Strelley ; 5*62 inches at Loughborough ; 5*32 inches at
Hodsock; and 4*51 inches at Henley-in-Arden. These values were
348
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
distributed over from 21 to 24 days. The amounts measured in 24
hours were exceptionally large, particularly on the 23rd, when 1-67
inches were registered at Hodsock; 156 inches at Strelley ; 1-54 inches
at Coston Rectory ; and P24 inches at Loughborough ; 0‘75 of an inch
at Henley-in Arden, on the 6th. Sunshine was about the average.
High winds prevailed generally through the month.
Wm. Beriudge, F. R. Met. Soc.
12, Victoria Street, Loughborough.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS
OF THE COUNTY OF WARWICK.
BY JAMES E. BAGNALL, A.L.S.
( Continued from page 295.)
CRYPTOGAMIA.
ACOTYLEDONS.
FILICES.
POLYPODIUM.
P. vulgare, Linn. Common Polypody.
Native : On mossy banks, on the branches of old trees, and rarely
on old walls. Locally common. June to October.
I. Sutton Park ; Colesliill Heath ; lanes about Maxtoke and Fil-
longley ; Marston Green, Olton Lane ; lanes about Knowle,
Solihull, Honiley, Shirley, and Hockley ; Forsliaw Heath.
II. On a bank near Meriden Church, Kirk, Phyt., ii.,809 ; near Norton
Lindsay, Perry, Pliyt., i., 510 ; lanes about Allesley ; Corley ;
Tile Hill ; lanes about Baddesley Clinton ; Rowington.
OSMUNDA.
0. regalis, Linn. Royal or Flowering Fern.
Native: In bogs and on river banks. Very rare. July.
I. Moist banks by the new park, Middleton, Ray, Gough's Carnb., ii.,
350; bog at Colesliill Pool, Bree, Part., ii., 518.* Found
formerly at Coleshill Heath and other places, but I cannot
find it now. Sutton Park, as I am informed, but very spar¬
ingly, Bree, Phyt., i., 511. Extirpated in Sutton Park many
years since. It has been recorded from near Marston Green
and by the Blythe, near Coleshill, but on uncertain authority.
* “ It must be near thirty years ago that I saw and gathered a
single specimen, and that a weak one, of Lycopodium selago, and also
of Osmunda regalis, in the bog below Coleshill Pool ; but repeated
search has never subsequently been rewarded by another specimen of
either plant in that situation.” — Bree, Mag. Nat. Hist., v. 199, 1832.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
349
OPHIOGLOSSUM.
O. vulgatum, Linn. Common Adder's Tongue.
Native: In pastures, meadows, and peaty heath lands. Local.
May, June.
I. Elmdon, Cameron ; Maxtoke, Brce ; meadows near the Rectory,
Sheldon, Jackson, Anal. vi. ; Middleton, near the Hall; heath
land near Bannersley Pool ; in several meadows and pastures
near Ivnowle ; meadows near Blythe Bridge, Solihull.
II. Meadows near Leamington ; plantations near Saltisford Common ;
field near Baly’s Locks, Perry , FI. 81 ; Allesley, Bree ; in fields
near Emscote Cotton Mills, Baynes ; meadow at Offchurcli ;
near Woodloes and Goodrest, Warwick Old Park ; Whitnash
Field, Murcott ; Eastern Green, Baly , I’hyt. i., 512; near
Harborough Magna, Bio. r. ; Harbury ; Kenilworth, Y. and B. ;
Honiley, H.B.; Cliadshunt ; Gaydon, Bolton King ; Honington
Bridge! F. Toionsend ; pasture by Exhall Hall, Coventry, Mrs.
Browett.
BOTRYCHIUM.
B. Lunaria, Sw. Moomcort.
Native: In old pastures and waste heaths. Very rare. May, June.
I. In a close at Sutton Coldfield Park, Bay , Cat., 199 ; on heathy
ground near the upper part of Coleshill Bog, Murcott, Phyt. i.,
511 ; near Knowle Railway Station ! JF. G. Blatch ; heathy
meadows near Middleton.
II. Old pasture on Oversley Hill, Bufford , Part., ii., 518 ; Liglithorne
(now extinct), Bolton King.
LYCOPODI ACEAE .
LYCOPODIUM.
L. clavatum, Linn. Common Club-Moss.
Native : On heaths. Very rare. July.
I. Coleshill Heath, Bree. Part, ii., 520; Coleshill Bog, IV. Southall ,
Phyt. i. 512; Sutton, Freeman, Pliyt. i. 202; Meriden Heath,
T. Kirli. ; Sutton Park, 1884, Miss Ethel Stone.
L. inundatum, Linn. Marsh Club-Moss.
Native (?) : On marshy heaths and near pools. Very rare. July.
I. Coleshill Heath formerly, Bree ; near the upper end of Coleshill
Pool in 1842, Murcott, Phyt. i. , 512.
L. selago, Linn. Fir Club-Moss.
Native (?) : In bogs. Very rare. April to October. Bog at Coles¬
hill Pool, Bree. Purt. ii., 522.*
MARSILEACEAE .
PILULARIA.
P. globulifera, Linn. Pill-wort.
Native : On the shores of pools. Very rare. June to August.
I. At Coleshill Pool, where I have found it covering the shore to a
great extent ! Purt. ii., 519 ; abundant near Bracebridge Pool
in two or three spots*, 1876-80 ; abundant at Coleshill Pool as
late as 1881.
* An interesting account of the Lycopods of Warwickshire is given
by the Rev. W. T. Bree, in Phyt. i., 61, from which it will be seen that
none had been seen by him for many years in the localities cited.
850
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
EQUISETACEvE.
EQTJISETUM.
E. arvense, Linn. Corn-field Horsetail.
Native : On damp lieatbs, heathy roadsides, hanks and fields.
Common. March, April. Area general.
E. maximum, Linn. Great Water Horsetail.
Native: Near rivers and in damp places and woods. Itare. May,
June.
I. In a marshy copse, Edgbaston, W. Southall ; Kingsbury Wood,
abundant ; Bentley Park, near Atherstone, abundant, 1883-84.
II. River Avon; Nicholas Meadow, Perry FI, 80. In a marshy
situation ; Arbury Hall ! Kirk Phyt. ii., 810 ; Wroxall, Y. and
B ; Pit near Lawford Road, Rugby, Blox. B.S.R., 1867 ;
abundant, canal siding near Ansty, 1884.
E. sylvaticum, Linn. Wood Horsetail .
Native : In woods and damp pastures. Rather rare. April, May.
I. About and in New Park ! Middleton, near Tamworth, Bay Cat.,
100; near Botanic Gardens, W. Southall, Phyt. i., 511; near
Elmdon, Cameron, Phyt. i., 555 ; Trickley Coppice, Middleton ;
Kingsbury Wood ; Bentley Park, near Atherstone ; Frogmore
Wood, near Temple Balsall; Earlswood Reservoir.
II. Boggy ground in Grafton Field, Purt. i., 501 ; on the borders of a
wood, and in a cornfield near Arbury Hall, T. Kirk, Phyt. i.,
972; near Norton Lindsay, II. Brovncich, Burton Green;
Kenilworth, Y. and B.
E. palustre, Linn. Marsh Horsetail.
Native: On damp heaths, in marshes and on other damp places.
Local. June to September.
I. Elmdon, Southall; Phyt., i., 512 ; Sutton Park ; near Bannersley
Pool ; Coleshill Pool ; near Solihull ; Earlswood.
II. Exhall, Purt. ii., 501 ; boggy field at Norbrooke, Perry FI., 80 ; near
Budbrook Field, Warwick, Ferry ; meadows at the Woodloes !
and Bubbenhall ; Stoke, Baly Phyt., i., 512 ; near Harborougli
Magna, Blox. M.S. ; old canal between Newbold and Little
Harborougli ! pond near Cawston, B.S.ll., 1877 ; Beausale !
Y. and B.
E. limosum, Linn. Smooth Naked-horsetail.
Native : In pools, marshes, rivers, and canals. Rather local. June
to September.
I. Coleshill Pool ! mill pool, Bristol Road, Cameron; Bannersley
Pool! Murcott Phyt., i., 512; Sutton Park! Middleton Pool,
near Tamworth ; Kingsbury ; Bentley Park, near Atherstone ;
Oldbury Reservoir ; Seas Pool, Arbury ; Olton Pool, near
Solihull ; Earlswood.
II. Studley, Purt., ii., 510 ; windmill field, near Haseley, Perry FI., 81;
St. Nicholas’ Meadow, Warwick ; Chesterton Mill Pool ! near
Oldham’s Mill, Leamington, Perry ; several pits in Warwick
Old Park, Murcott Phyt., i., 512 ; Wroxall, Y. and B.; Sowe
Waste Canal.
b. fiuviatile, Linn. Rather rare.
I. Copse, near Elmdon, Cameron Phyt. i., 555 ; Sutton Park; ditches,
Kingsbury ; near Bentley Park ; Oldbury Reservoir ; Seas
Pool, Arbury ; near Solihull ; near Shirley ; Earlswood Reser¬
voir ; pool, near Forshaw Park.
THE FLORA OF WARWICKSHIRE.
351
II. Old Park, Y. and B.; Sowe Waste Canal; pool, near Till Hill
Wood.
This does not seem to be more than a form or state of E. limosum.
E. hyemale, Linn. Rough Horsetail.
Native; In ditches. Very rare. 7,8.
I. In a moist ditch at Middleton, towards Drayton, Ray. Gough's
Cavib., 350.
I have examined all the ditches near and about Middleton, but
have not been able to find this plant.
CHARACE^E.
CHARA.
C. flexilis, Linn. (Nitella). Flexible Chara.
Native : In ponds and pools. Rather rare. June to September.
I. In the third stew, front of the house at Edgbaston, With., Ed. 3, 4 ;
abundant in a pool near Hartshill, 1884, Olton Pool ; 1881 in
company with Mr. James Groves, abundant in a pond near
Olton Pool ; Earlswood Reservoir ; abundant in a small pool
on Forshaw Heath.
II. Ditches about Drayton, Part. ii. , 435; in a pond near Warwick,
II . R. ; canal, near Ansty.
C. opaca, Ag. Syt. Alg. Opaque Chara.
Native : In ponds and pools. Rare. May to September.
I. Sutton Park, in Bracebridge Pool and Stews ; pool, by Honily
Poors Wood ; Dickens, near Earlswood ; 1883.
C. translucens, Ag. Syt. Alg. Great Translucent Chara.
Native : In ponds and ditches. Very rare. June.
II. In ponds and ditches, near Rowington, //. Bromwich.
I have not been able to find this plant in this district, or in any part
of the county. It is many years since it was found, and as these
plants were then little understood may be incorrectly named.
C. vulgaris, Linn. (Chara). Common Chara.
Native : In poolsv ponds, ditches, canals, &c. Local. May to
September.
Var. A. vulgaris. Apparently rare.
I. Bracebridge Pool, Sutton Park ; Kingsbury Wood.
II. Pond, near Ckadsliunt.
Var. B. lougibracteata, Kfitz. More frequent, but local.
I. Drains, Water Orton ; Earlswood Reservoir.
II. Corley Heath, Kirk. ; small pool, near Chadsliunt ; ditches, near
Harbury Railway Station ; small pool, near Drayton Bushes ;
pool, near Stratford-on-Avon ; canal, near Bishopton and
Wilmecote ; pool, near Napton-on-tlie-Hill ; Napton Reservoir ;
Flecknoe, near Shuckburgh ; old lime quarry, near Little
Lawford ; canal, near Newbold-on-Avon ; canal siding, Ansty.
Var. c. papillata, Wallr. Very rare.
II. Cattle pond, near Itchington Holt.
A form closely allied to this was abundant in a pit near Little
Lawford, almost choking up this pit with its growth ; two years later I
again visited the same pit, and found that although there was an
abundance of the var. lougibracteata , not a trace remained of the
papillata form. The plant from Itchington Hall disappeared entirely
after the first year, and was also replaced by the variety above cited.
E. crassicaulis, Kfitz. Very rare.
II. “Coventry Park, near Coventry, T. Kirk., Herb. Brit. Mus.” A
Review of British Characeae, H. and J. Groves, p. 13.
352 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. - REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
C. contraria, Kutz.
Native : In pools and canals. Very rare. July.
II. Canal and pool near canal, Sowe Waste.
C. fragilis, Desv. Brittle Cham.
Native : In pools and canals. Rare. May to September.
I. Earlswood Reservoir; 1883, Oldbury Reservoir, abundant; near
Bolehall, Tamworth, in streams, abundant.
Var. lledioigii , Ag. Rare.
I. Canal, near Knowle, 1870 ; Spring Pool, Kenwalsey, 1883.
II. Near Harborough Magna, Blox, M.S. ; canal near Shrewley tunnel
on the way for Rowing ton.
Yar. capillacece. Thuill. Rare.
I. In pools and marshes Sutton Park.
All the species and varieties of this group of plants collected by
myself have been submitted to our best authorities on the Characeae,
Messrs. H. and J. Groves, and I am greatly indebted to them for
kindly help.
Puccinia Sonchi, Desm. — I am glad to be able to state that Puccinia
Sonchi has again made its appearance at Hamstead, the only locality
as yet recorded for it in Britain, and where it was first found in the
autumn of 1884. It is still in the uredo stage, as described by Mr.
Grove in the “ Midland Naturalist ” and “ Science Gossip.” While it
is to be hoped that this fungus will establish itself as a permanent
addition to our flora, it should nevertheless be sought for in other
localities, as the sonchus upon which it occurs is being gradually
exterminated (probably by rabbit fanciers), few plants being now left
where they were once abundant. — H. Hawkes.
Guide to the Geology of London. — It is not usual to find a
Geological Survey Memoir running through as many editions as a
popular novel, but this appears to be the case with Mr. Whitaker’s
excellent work on the Geology of London, of which the fourth issue
has just reached us. Clearly written, carefully revised, and sold at
the low price of one shilling, it is a model for all similar works.
Deep Boring at King’s Heath, near Birmingham. — The depth of
this boring, now being executed by Messrs. Le Grand and Sutcliff, has
been increased to 561 feet, with the result that it continues in the
Triassic red marls. The gypsum is still present ; 350 feet of gypseous
beds having now been penetrated.
lUjm'ts of Societies.
BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY AND MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY. — General Meeting, November 3rd. Mr. J. E. Bagnall,
A. L.S., exhibited for Mr. J. B. Stone, J.P., the following mosses:
Amblystegium irriguum , Ilypnum crassinerviuni , II. falcatum , Ac. Mr.
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
353
W. H. Wilkinson exhibited Schcenus ferrugineus, one of the bog rushes,
a plant new to Great Britain, recently found by Mr. J. Brebner in
Scotland. Also from Dr. F. Buchanan White, F.L.S., Utricularia
vulgaris , U. intermedia, U. 'minor; the single-leaved strawberry, Fragaria
vesca v. unifolia; Polypodium alpestre v. flexile, Poly stichum Lone hit is ,
and Woodsia ilvensis ; also the blue daisy, a variety of Beilis sylvestris ,
from Mount Atlas, and other rare and interesting plants from
Scotland. Mr. A. W. Wills, J.P., read Mr. J. D. Siddall’s paper
on “ The American Water Weed, Anacliaris Alsinastrum, its structure
and habit ; with some notes ou its introduction into Great Britain,
and the causes affecting its rapid spread at first, and apparent present
diminution. The paper was illustrated by large coloured diagrams of
the plant, its flowers and seeds, with sections showing its structural
details ; besides which Mr. J. E. Bagnall, A.L.S., exhibited specimens of
the plant itself, and various sections under the microscopes. The paper
was listened to with great interest by the meeting and appreciation
expressed of the very able manner in which Mr. Wills had given it. —
Biological Section, November 10th. Professor Haycraft exhibited a
specimen of the oviduct and ovary of a fowl, and demonstrated by the
aid of a diagram the process by which an egg assumes its well-known
form. Leaving the ovary as a globular yellow mass (the yolk), it
receives a coating of glairy fluid (the white) during its passage through
the upper part of the oviduct, and then the calcareous matter (the
shell) is precipitated outside that during its progress through the lower
part of the oviduct. Mr. A. H. Atkins exhibited a pitcher of Nepenthes,
upon which Professor Hillhouse made some interesting observations.
Mr. J. Morley exhibited Asplenium microdon , a rare fern, which has
been found only in Guernsey, near Barnstaple, and near Penzance.
Mr. T. Bolton exhibited Lucernaria auricula , Podura aquatica, and
Asplauchna Brightwellii (male and female) ; the latter species is the
rotifer in which the male was first discovered. Mr. W. B. Grove
exhibited three fungi, new to Great Britain — Bamularia calcea, from
Hereford ; Cercospora ferruginea, from Bradnock's Marsh ; and Stachy-
lidium extorre , from Harborne. On the motion of Mr. Grove, seconded
by Mr. It. W. Chase, a vote of regret was passed by the meeting at the
untimely death of Dr. Bull, of Hereford, so soon after the completion
of his great work, “ The Herefordshire Pomona.” Mr. W. P. Marshall
exhibited and made a few remarks upon the large botanical collection
which he made during his last visit to the United States, from
Arizona, California, Virginia, Niagara Falls, and the Mammoth Cave,
Kentucky. The specimens were much admired. — General Meeting,
November 17th. At the meeting of the Microscopical General
Section, Mr. R. W. Chase read his paper on “ Ornithological Notes
from Norfolk,” giving details of the plumage and habits of some of the
rare birds he had observed, and pointing out the loss of some of the
rarer kinds of birds by the drainage and cultivation of the land. In
illustration of his paper he exhibited the following birds : — (Edicnemus
crepitans, Stone Curlew; Machetes pugnax , Ruff; Tringoides hypo-
leucus, Common Sandpiper ; Tringa alpina, Dunlin, all from
Norfolk. Mr. T. Bolton exhibited a marine polyzoon, growing on
the glass of his aquarium in Newhall Street, Bowerbanlda gracillima (?).
Mr. J. Morley exhibited the following ferns : — Lastrea Filix-mas ,
cristata . originally found near St. Austell, Cornwall ; Lastrea Filix-
mas, cristata angustata, raised from spores ; Lastrea rernota, found in
Westmoreland in 1859, by Mr. F. Clowes, of Windermere, the only
one found in Great Britain ; Lastrea Filix-mas, v. Pinderi , found near
Eller Water, in the Lake district ; Lastrea Filix-mas, v. Barnesii,
354
REPORTS OF SOCIETIES.
from the Lake district. He also made some interesting remarks
upon the origin of species in relation to plants. Mr. W. B. Grove,
B.A., exhibited Triposporium elegaus, on decaying wood, brought by
Mr. W. H. Wilkinson, from Perth. Mr. W. H. Wilkinson exhibited
the following lichens : — Parmelia caperata, P. Borreri, P. perlata, and
Cetraria sepincola , from U. S. America ; also Squamaria crassa,
from Nice, Pilophoron fibula, from Scotland, and Parmelia perforata;
also, the fruit of Pyrus Japonica, from Acocks Green. — Sociological
Section. At the intermediate meeting held on Thursday, November
5th, at the Mason College, Mr. W. R. Hughes, F.L.S., President, in
the chair, Mr. Alfred Browett, the Hon. Secretary, ably read Chapter
VIII. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Study of Sociology” on “ The Educa¬
tional Bias,” upon which an interesting discussion took place. At the
ordinary meeting held on Thursday, November 19th, Mr. C. H.
Allison in the chair, Mr. W. R. Hughes expounded Chapters IV. and
V. of the second volume of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s “ Principles of
Biology,” which treat of the “ Morphological Composition of Animals.”
In illustration of the subject, Mr. Hughes exhibited under the micro¬
scope, with the assistance of Mr. Thomas Bolton, F.R.M.S., a number
of beautiful living specimens, which included Amoeba, Dijfiugia, and
Foraminifera, as showing morphological units of the first order ;
Spongilla, Vorticclla, and Hydra, as showing aggregates of the second
order ; Lopliopus and Clueto g aster , as showing aggregates of the third
order. Preserved specimens of corals, including Tubipora and Mcidre-
poraria, exhibited aggregates of the third order ; and Chiton, Octopus,
and Amphioxus exhibited aggregates of the second order. Mr. W. B.
Grove, B.A., contributed a number of beautiful illustrations on the
black board, showing embryological phases and subsequent develop¬
ments. An interesting discussion followed the exposition.
LEICESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
— Section D, Zoology and Botany. Chairman, F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S. —
Monthly meeting, Wednesday, November 18tli. Attendance fourteen
(four ladies). The Chairman reported that the annual Fungus Foray
was held on the 28tli of October, when nine members of the Section,
accompanied by Dr. Cooke, of London, visited Swithland Wood and
Bradgate Park, collecting 118 species, of which 61 were hitherto
unrecorded for the county. The party returned to the Chairman’s
house, where three edible species were cooked and eaten. These were
Agaricus uudus, abundant at Hunt’s Hill Spinney, near Bradgate, and
of good flavour ; Hygrophorus pratensis , and H. coccineus. The two
latter species were not considered to be of much value. Agaricus
personatus, commonly called “ Blewitts,” has been sold this autumn in
some quantities, at the smaller greengrocers’ shops in Leicester. There
were no exhibits at this meeting. The Chairman read a short paper
on “ Mr. John Plant’s Catalogue of Leicestershire Mollusca,” which
was prepared in 1850 for Mr. Potter’s projected History of the
County, but remained still in MS. This list contained 82 species
distinctly indigenous, and four either imported or doubtfully named.
One half of the species recorded had been added to the county Fauna
by the researches of Mr. Plant himself. The Rev. J. Moden called
the attention of the Section to a paragraph in “ Science Gossip ”
respecting a proposed deep boring of a shaft 150 feet in diameter, which
was followed by an interesting discussion.
■
; m3
. ; 1
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11