Skip to main content

Full text of "The American journal of science."

See other formats 


. oe : es oid & y 
Oe a THE ns 4a 
os Wy: ; AL ¢ 

: OF 

= : SCLENCE AND ARTS. 

€ ioe 
as BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. 
. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. oa ao Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com. ; and For. Mem. ee 
Soc., London; Mem. I. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dreedon ; Looe Hist. 
“, Halle; Imp. » Mosc: Hon. M iy PR ig; * 


Agr mae Moscow ; m. Mem. Lin. Soc.. 
een —s : Phil and Lit. Soce., Bristol, Eng. mere Mem. i 3 Sussex 
t., Brig i yec; Mem. of 


arious Lit. and Scien. Soc. in nam erica. 


: AIDED BY 

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jn., A.B. 

_ Assistant i in the ey of Chem Mineralogy and Geology in sige | eo of the 
Yale Nat. 


t. Soc., Mem. of the Conn. Acad. of Arts and rr es Mem. 0 
Lyce um of Natural History, New York, 


: G.« 
VOL. XXXV.—JANUARY, 1839. 


é N EW HAVEN: 


‘Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES —Philadelphia, CAREY & 
HART and J. S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—WNew York, 
4G. & Sasabneem oe pion abate: and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 44 
William St.— oe oe Co ES wee peed JAMES 8. Para re 
‘abillo: as 


< 
Zz 
= 
1 0 
\z 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV. 


insti iia 1. 


Art. I. Memoir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- 


ditch, LL. D., F. R. S.; by Rev. ALEXANDER Youne, 
II. Cursory Remarks upon East Florida, in 1838; iy Maj 
Henry Wuaitine, . 
IIl.. Geology of St..Croix; by Prof. Ss. oan - - 
4 Geology of Antigua; by Prof. S. Hovey, 
. Remarks on the Geology and Topography of Woctal 
New York; by Grorce E. Hayes 
VI. On Electro-Magnetism, as a Moring Powers by Ftd 
G. Pacs, M. D...: - - 
VII. Magnetic Electrepeter and Wecoeterr to be “5 with 
flat spirals; by Cuarxes G. Pace, M. D. - - 
VIII. Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and No- 
tice of a monstrous flower of Orchis epogan ts _ 
a plate;) by Prof. J, W. Baitey, - - 
IX. On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-Earth, at West 
Point, N. Y., with some notices of American Liner 
(with a plate 3). by Prof. J. W.. Al 


| iain Insects ¢ appear- 
ed; by ANDREW Crosser, —— a roomfal, Eng. ; 
(from the Trans. of Lond. Elec. Soc.) - . 
XI. Notice of Danburite, a New Mineral Spee by Prof. 
Cuan.es Uruam SREPARD, - 


nexion with the en of s ‘snow ; a” B. F. ios. 


In, M. D. 2-5 é * 


Page. 


106 


113 


145 


ok Letters on Atlantic Sicam evigsdon; by j uNIvus Smiru, 160 


iv CONTENTS. 


MISCELLANIES. 


Page 

1. Report on the sees Stars of the 9th and 10th of Bee 

1838, - - 167 

2. Observations ris at Yale College on the Solar = of 
Sept. 18, 1838, - - 

3. Supposed New Mineral « at Bolion, ‘Mion 178 

4, 5. New Locality of eer = came Chabiisie > a ‘ities 
minerals at Stonington, Ct. 

6, 7. Crichtonite in R. 1.—Notice of the stew Flora of North 
America now publishing by John Torrey and Asa Gray, 180 

8. Redfield’s Law of Storms mae of Lieut. Col. Reid's 


179 


work on hurricanes, - 182 
9. Notice of Lea’s Observations on ii genus ie Unio, ke. - 184 
10. Notice of Holbrook’s North American Herpetology, Vols. 
1&2, ier - : - + . - - 186 


11, 12. Announcement of Second Part to Shepard’s Deseriptive 
Mineralogy—Blowpipe mouth for oxygenand hydrogen, 187 
13. Salisbury’s Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon, N. ¥Y. 188 
14. Notice of Feuchtwanger’s Treatise on Gems, - 
15. Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md. in July, 1838, 
16. Evidences of diluvial curr —n 
17. Notice of the American Almanac for 1839, - - - 49% 
18, 19, 20. Green Feldspar and Galena—Fossil fishes in the red 
sandstone of New Jersey—U. S. South Sea sprite 
_ and Exploring Expedition, - 192 
$ A als of Natural Bey: or a of Zoology, Botany, 
and Geology, - 194 
22. Analysis of Gmelinite or Hydrolite, - ay 
23. Prof. Owen on the Fossil Animals collected by Mr. Charles 
Darwi 
2A, 25. ieee - the Wollaston Medal—On the Rapidity. 
of Motion in Railway Cars which is stent with safety, 197 
oe On the Gases contained in the Blood, and on Respiration, 198 
ae om of the British Association for the Advance- 


195 


CONTENTS. 7 
NUMBER II. Fad: 
Arr. L. On the Courses of Hurricanes ; with notices of the Ty- 

foons : “8 China Sea, and other Storms ; y W.C. 
ReEpDrFIi 
II. On the 7 ae of May 18th, 1838, ait on Shooting 
Stars in general; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, - 
Ill. Account of a Storm in New Hampshire, in a letter ti 
dressed to Prof. O. P. Hubbard of Dartmouth me a ; 
by Rev. Joun Woops, - 2 
_ IV. Notes on American Geology ; oe T. A. as - 237 
V. Magneto-Blectric and Eleciro-Magnetic Apparatus and 
Experiments ; by Cuartes G. Pace, M.D.,  - 252 
Vi. Soap ais of some new Shells; by BrensamMin Tar- 
PAN - = 268 
Vil. On st ee of Uvularia poriifities as a rem- 
| edy for Poisoned Wounds ; by Bensamin Horner 
| Coates, M. D., - 
VIII. An Account of the Syosbidhigs of the Fighth Meeting 
of the ames Association for the Advancement of 
= BGen - . - - - 275 
1X. On Cupellation, an easy, an accurate ene new method ; 
by W. W. Maruer, 
X. Meteoric Observations te at Cambridge, Wak - ty 
Prof. J. Loverine 
XI. Notice from Prof. Rowaics Hats, svibditing the Fu 
sion of Platina, also respecting a new Ether, and a 
Series of Gaseous bose cme formed with rp Ele= 
ments of Water, — - - +e | 
XII. Letters on Steam Navigation: by yikes ki: Esq. 
—with a Letter to the Editors, from Mr. Henry Smitu, 332 
XU. On a New and Effectual Method of Preserving Speci- 
mens of Organic Nature, and of Obviating the Blanch- 
; ing influences of Light, and the Depredations of Insects ; 

j —most Advantageously Applicable to the Formation 
and Unlimited Preservation of a Hortus Siccus, or Mu- 
seum of Dried ets anh Professor Joun L, raga 


MD. =e 338 
XIV. Blectro-Magnetic Engi gine, ‘constructed wa ih faic A. W. 

CAMPBELL, - = 343 
XV. Mistelisticons Notices i in Opstovses, Auakapas, ae $ 

by Prof. W. M. Ca - 5 


vl _ CONTENTS. 


Page. 
XVI. On the Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid ; 
by J. K. Mircuerrt, M.D.,_ - - my fe 
XVIL. On a general Hysctro-Magnelie and ‘Magueto- Electric 


Formula, - 
XVIII. Fossil Encrinite ; by Sins G. ee : 
XIX. Report on the Shooting Stars of Dec. 7, 1838, with re- 
— on eens Stars in ag al E. C, Her- 
enuf aE - 361 
XX. on Fs iecuierie Shower of November, 1838 ; by Prof. 
Denison OLMSTED, - - - 


XXI, Communication respecting Fossil oad Recent, nfaace 
ria made to the British Association at Newcastle ; by 


Prof. EHRENBERG, - — - -_-. - 371 
MISCELLANIES. 
1. Dr. Poltri Experiments on the Condensation of Carbonic, 
Sulphurous, and Chloro-chromic Acid Gases, - - - 


2. Critical Interpretation of bara and asah, in a letter from Dr. 
Noau Werster to the Rev. WiLL1AmM stag Cslore 
England, - - 

3. pen of the Height of Beicivier! in » North Carolina, ~ 

4, 5. Fossil Shells and Bones—Auroral Arch i in Vermont 

6, 2. Geological Specimens from the EastIndiemArehipe re 
Resemblance toan Aurora, - - - - : - 381 

8. Meteorological Register for 1837, - - A eo 

9, 10. Geological Surveys—Dr. Mantell’s Wonders of Geology, 384 

11, 12, 13. Mr. Bakewell’s Geology—Elements of leila 
Lewis C. Beck’s Manval of Chemistry, - 

14, 15. Notice of a Manual of Conchology aN to the ays- 
tem laid down by Lamarck, with the late improvements 
by De Je 1c on the late Dr. Nathaniel 
Bowditch, - " 

16, 17. The Science of Geslead ‘oe the Chores Tidélises, 
with additions—Dr. Charles T. so Reports on the 
Geology of Maine, = - ae oe 

18, 19. Ceilintie or Indian Pipe aa A s Comet, - 

20. Greve of Godfrey, the inventor of the Quadrant, and of 

omson, - ee 


21. Marble and Serpentine in Vermont, 


oT 


ERRATA. 


P. 200, 5th line fr. bot. after presiding, read over the Math. and Phys. Section.— 
P. 207, 4th line fr. top, for 1837, read 1835.—P. 216, 4th line from bot. for Para- 
cels, read Pratas.—P. 325, last lime; for commenced, read enumerated.—P. 374, 6th 
line from bot. for It it, read It is—P. 400, 13th ae from bot. for Moranies, nied 

ines. 


* 


_ Fossils of the Medial Tertiary of the United States, by Mr. T. A. Conrad.— 
of Iphia, in a letter dated Dec. 31, 1838, (received after our wiadien 
number was printed,) announces that he has published. the first part of this new 
work of Mr. Conrad. It will be completed in about 15 months, in 3 parts. The 
first No. contains 17 plates, and 47 species. He will again visit the Tertiary re- 
gion, and give a detailed description s the various localities in a future number. 
The price of the whole, will be $ 4 


2 
4 


Pee ete ay ee eee 


Cre | THE Tt : | 
AMERICAN JOURNAL 


OF 


~ 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


CONDUCTED, BY oe ee 
‘BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL D. 


Brvl. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll, ;*Cor. Mem. Soc. Aris, Man. and Com. ; and For. Mem. Geol. 
oc., Lendon ; Mem, Geol, Soc., P ris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Drenigh; Nat. Hist, Soc., 


Latte ; mp. Ag <., Moscow; Hon. Me , Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc., 
t, fre.; Phil. and Lit. Soc., Bristol, Eng.; Hon. =. Ro 


Brighton, Eng.; Lit. and Hist. Soc., Qu capi ec; 
arious Lit. and Scien. Soc. im A 


“. AIDED BY 


| BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Tey A a: = 


Assi oe : ~ departeint < of Chemistry. 1 Mine Be og and Seslony in bie ‘ate; Bec. of tlie 
: t. Hist t. Boe. - Saga of the Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sci. ; Mem 
ceum of Natural iis: New York, &c. 


“YOL. XXXV.—No. 1—OCTOBER, 1838. 


* YOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1838. 


oi 
ee 


NEW HAVEN: 


id. by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES o:Philadedghin: CAREY &_ 
d 5.5: JATTELL. Aa ens Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, - 

N way, ‘aad GS. S. SILLIMAN, No. 45 
-—London, JAMES 8, H zone 
EPERRGN, Rue Mabill “ 


CONTENTS. 


aH BBB+ 


, Page 
“Arr. I. Memoir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- 


ditch, LL. D., F. R. S.; by Rev. ALExaNpER Youne, 1 
IL. Cursory Remarks upon East ee in 1838 ; » ae 
-- Henry Wuitine, - 47 
III. Geology of St. Croix; by Prof Ss. Hover, ae ae 
IV. Geology of Antigua; by Prof. S. Hovey, ~ - 
V. Remarks on the Geology and ik et of Westar 
New York; by Grorce E. Hayezs, 
VI. On 7 Sao a asa Moving Power; by aii 
G. Pacer, M. D. » 1 
VII. Magnetic Electtdpeish and Hleetrctoms; to » te aed with 
flat spirals ; by Cuaries G. Pace, M. D. =. tte 
VII. Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and No- 


s “Sai ' tice of a monstrous flower of Orchis i sete Sea 


“t°~a plate ;) by Prof. J. Ww. Barry, - 
IX. On Fossil Infusoria, sred in Peat-Earth at West 
Point, N: Y., with some foticed of eas er cn Disiomsy ~ 
(with a plate ;) by Prof. J. W. Barry, 118 
X. Description of experiments with the Voltaic Bitiery, i in 
the course of which, certain Insects constantly ¢ appear- 
ed; by ANpRew Crosse, ei en 


(from the Trans. of Lond. Elec. "o 1%8. 
XE. Notice of Danburite, a New 
Cuarves Urnam Saep 1 
XII. On Certain Cavities in 139 


Nn, M.D. .- 5 we eRe a: AMG 
XIV. Letters on Atlantic Steam Navigation; by Junius Suite, 160 
MISCELLANIES. 


he Report on he Shoring Sat of the Hh and 16th of seein 
167 


2. oliarsien jatsig at Yale College on the Solar clipe of ig 
Sept. 18, 1838, - 174, 


i 


ii CONTENTS. 
3. Sasponei New Mineral at Bolton, Mass. 
4, 5. New Locality of Crichtonite—Stilbite, Chabasie, ae villas 
minerals at Stonington, Ct. - 179 
6, 7. G Bchtonite in R. I1—Notice of the New Flora of North 
Arica now publishing by John Torrey and Asa Gray, 180 
8. Reif d’s Law of Storms Zovas of Lieut. Col. Reid’s 
work on hurricanes, - at +1 
9. Notice of Lea’s Observations on the genus Unie &e. - 184 
10. Notice of Holbrook’s North American HIREOIETs Vols. 
- - 186 
11, 12, Announcement of Second Part t to Shatants Descriptivs 
Mineralogy—Blowpipe mouth for oxygenand hydrogen, 187 
13. Salisbury’s Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon, N. ¥. 188 


14. Notice of Feuchtwanger’s Treatise on Gems, - 189 
15. Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md. in July, ie wg -;; 190 
16. Evidences of diluvial currents, &c. . ae... 191 
1. Notice of the American Almanac for 1839, | - Se) | 


19, 20. Green Feldspar and Galena—Fossil falta) in the red 
sandstone of New Jersey—U. S. South Sea PaNSeaey 

Se Exploring Expedition, - 

21. Annals of Natural ragga he or Sons of Zoology, og 


and Geology,  - £ Aa 


22.  Airsly ers of shat or Hy droite - —, ” 195 
4 ess ss Ov a pend ossil™ VILE : mii re. X ar. es 
Darwii, 196 


24, 25. Prowiitadol of the Wollaston Medal—On the Rapidity 
of Motion in Railway Cars which is consistent with safety, 197 
26. On the Gases contained in the Blood, and on Respiration, 198 
27. Eighth Meeting of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, - = ge - * - 


: NOTICES. : 

Any subscriber or agent who will send us either number of volume 
XII of this Journal, shall be paid for the same one dollar, provided it is 
sent without expense.—Eds. 


Acknowledgments to Correspondents will be published in the mext 


i 


e. galt of Massachusetts, on the 26th day of March, 1 


that he and his mother had li 


THE yee ‘ 
AMERICAN /¢* 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Art. L—Menwir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- 
ditch, LL. D., FR. S.; by Rev. Atexanper Youna. 


NATHANIEL Bowprrcu was born at Salem, in the Com ' 


fourth child of Habakkuk and Mary 
His ancestors, for three generations, had 
his father, on retiring from that p a é i 
carried on the trade of a cooper, by which he ee a seanty and 
precarious subsistence for a family of seven children. — 

I had a curiosity to trace up the life of this wonderful man, if P 
possible, to his childhood, to ascertain his early character and pow- 
ers, and the influences under which his heart and mind had been ; 
formed. Accordingly, on a recent visit to Salem, I took a walk, 
of some two or three miles, to see sores 


1 
iv’ use 


ant me on pe oe are 
the plain two-story house,* with but two small rooms in it, where 
he dwelt with his mother; and I saw the chamber-window where 
he said she used to sit and show him “the new moon with the 
old moon i in her arm,” and, with the poetical superstition of a 
— Jingle the silver in her Bacespiot:« that her husband 


rs 


ae 


af, A 

* This house is in Wire ers, near the junction of several roads, this side of the 

Derby farm. See wood cut, next page. fe 
iL 


Vou. XXXV.—No. 


her whether she had ever heard what became of him. 


2 sve and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. q 
might have ocd luck, and she good tidings from him, far off upon 3 
the sea. [entered that house and two others in the vicinity, — 
and found three ancient women who knew her well, and remem- — 
bered her wonderful boy. I sat down by their firesides and lis- 1 
tened with greedy ear to the story, which they gladly told me, of } 
that remarkable child, remarkable for his early goodness as well — 
as for his early greatness. Their words, uttered in the plain, 
hearty English of the yeomanry of New England, I took down — 
from their lips, and now give them without any alteration or im- — 
provement whatever. ) 


used to say that he would make something or nothing.” 
isa 


she replied, “he became a great man, and went to Boston, @ 
had a mighty deal of learning.” “ What kind of learning ?” 
asked. “Why,” she answered, “I believe he was a pilot, @ 
knew how to steer all the vessels.” This evidently was her! 
ple and confused idea of “'The Practical Navigator.” 

Phan second old lady stated that “ Nat. went to school to. : 


, when he was about three Bm old, and that she fo 
ightily to him, and that he 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 3 


He learnt amazing fast, for his mind was fully given to it. He ~ 
did not seem like other ‘childrens he a better. His mother 
was a beautiful, nice woman.” 

The third old lady said that “ Nat. was a little, still creature ; 
and his mother a mighty free, good-natured woman. She used 
to say, ‘ Who should n’t be cheerly if a Christian should n’t?’? Her 
children took after her, and she had a particular way of guarding 
them against evil.” 

These I testify to be their very words, as I pencilled them 
down’ at the time. And they show, I think, very clearly, the in- 
fluence of the mother’s mind and heart upon the character of her 
son. Of that mother, in after life, and to its close, he often spoke 
in terms of the highest admiration and the strongest affection, and 
in his earnest manner would say—“ My mother loved me—idol- 
ized me—worshipped me.” 

After leaving the dame’s school, the only other instruction. he 
ever received was obtained at the schools of his . 
which were wholly inadequate to furnish even th 


likewise been told by one who lived in Salem at the Pane, that the 
master of this school, a person of violent temper, gave young Bow- 
ditch, when he was shout five or six years old, a very difficult sum 
in arithmetic to perform. His scholar went to his desk, and soon 
afterwards brought up his slate with the question Uolvea: The 
master, surprised at the suddenness of his return, asked him whe 


had been n doing the sum for him ; and on answeri wering ‘“ Nobo 


qance’ Kee 50 > difficult aquestion. - 3 
But the advantages of school, such as hays were, We reapeblled 

to forego at the early age of ten years, “his poverty and not his 

will consenting,” that he might go into-his father’s shop and help 


: a the eatity He was soon, however, transferred as an 
oa ee ee - ee : ft We -d 


became a clerk in a 


and: 

ge ae ot r; 

large € xt Of the same kind,” “where he continued until 
he went to sea. It was whilst he was an apprentice in the ship- 
chandler’ s shop that he first — that strong bent, or what 


4 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


is commonly called an original genius, for mathematical pursuits. : 


Every moment that he could snatch from the counter, was given 


to the slate. An old gentleman, who used frequently to visit the — 


shop, said to his wife, one day, on returning home, “1 never go 
into that shop but I see that boy ciphering and figuring away on 


his slate, as if his very life depended upon it; and if he goes on | 
at this rate, as he has begun, I should not at all wonder if, at last, 


in the course of time, he should get to be an almanac-maker !”"— 

this being, in his view, the summit of mathematical attainment. 
The expectation was stiendily fulfilled, for in the year 1788, when 
he was only fifteen years old, he actually made an almanac for the 


g 


ae 


year 1790, containing all the usual tables, calculations of the — 


eclipses and other phenomena, and even the customary predic- 
tions of the weather. The original manuscript is still in the — 


possession of his family. 


From his earliest years, he seems to have had an ardent love of — 
reading, and he has been heard to say that, ever when quite — 


, he read through the whole of Chambers? s Cyclopedia, in 
-. iwe tree folio volumes, without omitting a single article. 
He sailed on his first voyage, on the 11th of January, 1795, at 


iS the age of twenty-two, in the capacity of captain’s clerk on — 
Y> pec 0 owned by Elias Haske Derby, _ 


board the ship Henr 


to yn 
whom young Bow: 


mand of the ship, and had invited his friend to accompany him 


as clerk. He consented; but in consequence of some misuty 
course his agreement with his friend was atan end. Mr. Derby, 
’ however, on the appointment of Captain Prince, said to, him, 


derstanding subsequently. springing up between the owner of the 
ship and Captain Gibaut, he relinquished the command, and of 


“Do you know young Bowditch?” “Yes, very well.” “How 
should you like to have him go in the ship with you?” th 
should like it above all things,” said the captain. He acetane 
ly went on board as clerk, although his name was entered on the 


| His second voyage was made as supercargo, on a the s 
‘Salem, be id com: 


a PCapeaitr John Gibaut, with ; 
ch n engaged the year before in talt- 
ing a survey of Salem, ha previously been appointed to the com> 


shipping-papers as seen’ mate, The ship sailed for the Isle © 


urbon, and returned home after an absence of exactly one 1 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch, 5 


by the same captain. The vessel sailed in March, 1796, to Lis- 
bon, touched at Madeira, and then proceeded to Manilla, ; aes 
rived at Salem in May, 1797, after an absence of fourteen months. 
At Madeira, the captain and supercargo were very politely re- 
ceived by Mr. Pintard, the American consul there, to whose house * 
the ship was consigned, and were frequently invited to dine with 
his family. Mrs. Pintard had heard from another American ship- 
master that the young supercargo-was “a great calculator,” and 
she felt a curiosity to test his capacities. Accordingly, she said to 
him one day at dinner, “ Mr. Bowditch, I have a question which I 
should like to have you answer. Some years since,” naming the 
time, “I received a legacy in Ireland. The money was there in- 
vested, and remained some time on interest ; the amount was sub- 
sequently remitted to England, where the interest likewise accu- 
mulated ;-and lately. the whole amount has been remitted to me 
here. What sum ought I to receive?’ Sheof course mentioned 
the precise dates of the several remittances, as she went along. 
Mr. Bowditch laid down his knife and fork, said it was a little. 
difficult, on account of the difference of caRTEnOY and the num- 


ber of the remittances; but squeezing the tips of his fingers, ho & 
said, in about two minutes, “The sum. hould receive is 
£843 15s. 64d.” “ Well, Mr. Cle ntard to the 

head clerk of the house, an’ elderly person, , who was esteemeda 


very skilful accountant, “ you hav been figuring it out for me on 
paper ; has he got itright:” “ Yes, 1 madam,” said the clerk, tak- 
ing his long calculation out.of his pocket, ‘he has got it exactly. 
And I venture to say, that there is not another man on the island 
that can do it in two hours.” _ 

In August, 1798, he sailed in the same ship with oa Prince, 
on his third iezess. to ae shenes othe Mesiterrancatts loaded 


at aA a 
On the foyage T eae Cadiz to Alicant, ey were neinsed by 
a French privateer, and having a strong armament of nineteen 
guns, they prepared for action. The post assigned to Bowditch 
cabin, and his duty was to hand the powder upon deck. 
In the midst a the preparations for the engagement, Captain 
Prince had a curiosity to Iook into the cabin, and see whether all 
things were going on right there ; and, to his astonishment, he 
found Bowditch calmly sitting at the table, with his slate and 
pencil, and figuring away, as usual. abe thing was so ludicrous, 
‘ e 


: 
a 
: 
; 
4 


6 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


that Captain Prince burst out a laughing, and said, ‘ Well, Mr. 
Bowditch, can you be. Waking your will now?” “ Yes,” was 
his good-natured reply. “After this affair, (the French privateer 


having hauled off without molesting them,) the supercargo re- 


_ quested to be stationed at one of the guns, and his request was 
granted. Captain Prince*testifies, that in all cases of waareadte * pe 
manifested great firmness and presence of mind. 

The fourth and last voyage which they made together, was in 
the same ship from Boston to Batavia and Manilla. They sailed 
in August, 1799, and returned home in September, 1800. 

On their arrival at Manilla, a Scotchman, by the name of Mur- 
ray, asked Captain Prince how he contrived to find the way there, 


through such a long, perplexing, and dangerous navigation, and — 


in the face of the northeast monsoon, by mere dead reckoning, 
without the use of lunars,—it being a common notion at that 
time, that the Americans knew nothing about working lunar ob- 
servations. Captain Prince told him that he had a crew of twelve 
men, every one of whom could take and work a lunar observa- 
tion as well, for all practical purposes, as Sir Isaac Newton him- 
self, were he alive. Murray was-perfectly astounded at this, and 
actually went down to the landing-place, one pares: nore 
see this knowing crew come meets 


= Mr. Bowditch was) 


vessels that ever floated in Manilla Bay.” 


~ The knowledge which these common sailors had aon iies of 2@ 
navigation, had been imparted to them by the kindness of Mr — 
Bowditch. Captain Prince relates that one day the supercargo — 
said to him, “ Come, Captain, let us go forward and see what the — 


sailors are talking about, under the lee of the long-boat.” They 


eee 


a 


versationy-and-as Captain 

Prince ae sat ‘as miodeat™ as a maid said ‘not a word, but — 

held his slate-pencil in his mouth. Another person on the island, 
a broker, by the name of Kean, who was present, said to Murray, 
“If you knew as much as I do about that ship Astrea, you — 
wouldn’t talk quite so glib.” “ Why not? what do you know — 
about her?” “ Why, sir, I know that there is more knowledge ~ 
of navigation on board that ship, than there ever-was‘in all the : 


went forward, accordingly, and the Captain was surprised to find — 
he sailors ‘rated of sparuing their long yarns, earnestly engaged 2 
neil, and discussing the high matters of 5 

s, dip, and re i s 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 7 


in particular, were very zealously disputing, one of them calling 
out to the other, “‘ Well, Jack, what have you got?” “ I’ve got 
the sine,” was the answer. “ But thatus’t right,” said the other. 
“ TI say it is the cosine.” 

Captain Prince says, that although Mr. Bowditch had such a 
thorough knowledge of navigation, he knew but little about what 
is technically called seamanship. He also mentions the fact, 
which he had often heard him repeat, that although, in his youth, 
he had long lived in the vicinity of the ship-yards, he had never 
seen a launch ; and rather scouted the idea that such a sight, or 
any thing like it, should be able to draw him away from his 
books. Captain Prince likewise testifies that during the whole 
course of these four voyages, he does not recollect the slightest 
interruption of harmony and good feeling between them. 

am happy to be able to corroborate the statements of Captain 
Prince, by the testimony of an officer in-our navy, who sailed in 
the Astraea the two last voyages to Alicant and Batavia. Ina let- 
ter recently written, after speaking in terms of the warmest grati- 
tude of the kindness and attention with which Mr. Bowditch 
treated him, when a poor sea-sick oes and ee 


self in all the sailors on board, ne ‘to ta x pains to instruct all 


who could read and write, in the principles of navigation. The 

consequence of this was, that every one of a crew of twelve men, 

who could read and. write, subsequently rose to the rank of cap- 

tain or chief mate of a ship. Indeed, at Salem, it was consid- 

ered the highest recommendation of a seaman, that he had sailed 

in the same 2 with Mr. Bowditch, and this circumstance alone 
ient t for flice 


same ship on the previous voyage. ~ He also Percaks of Mr. Bow- 


" ditch’s urbane and gentlemanly deportment to every one on board, 


and says that he never appeared so happy as when he could in- 
spire the sailor with a proper sense of his individual importance, 


and of the talents he possessed, and might call into action. 


Some idea of the extent to which ee of navigation 


8 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


anecdote which is contained in the fourth volume of Baron von — 
Zach’s “ Correspondance Astronomique,”’ page 62. The Baron — 
is relating the sensation caused at Genoa, by the arrival there, in 
1817, of that splendid packet, the “Cleopatra’s Barge,” owned — 
by George Crowninshield, Esq. of Salem. He says that he went — 
on board with all the world, “and it happened,” to use his own — 


words, “ that in inquiring after my friends and correspondents at — 
Philadelphia and Boston, I mentioned, among others, the name of 


Mr. Bowditch. ‘He isa friend of our family and our neighbor 


at Salem,’ replied the captain, a smart, little eld man, ‘and that — 


young man whom you see there, my son, was his pupil; in fact, 
it is he, and not myself, who navigates the ship. Question him 


a little, and see if he has learnt any thing.’ Our dialogue was as 


follow —‘ You have had an excellent teacher of navigation, 
young man; and you could not well help being a good scholar. 


In making ae Straits of Gibraltar, what was the error in your 


reckoning ? ” The young man replied, ‘Six miles.’~ ‘ You must 


then have got your longitude very accurately ; how did you get 


2-5 First by our chronometers, and afterwards by lunar distan- 
ces.’ ‘What! do you know how to take and calculate the lon- 
gitude by lunar distances?? The young captain seemed some- 
what nettled at my nee and nahi me wis a mine 


smile— J 


can do that? Sabor = coer cane owner of the ship te 


the old captain assured tnethat the cook.on board could calculate 


the longitude very well, that he hada taste and passion for it, and 
did it every day. ‘There he is,’ said the young man, pointing 
with his finger to a negro at the stern of the ship, with a white 


apron before him, and holding achicken in one hand anda butch- _ 


er’s knife in the other. ‘Come forward, Jack,’ said the eaptain 
to him ; ‘the gentleman is surprised that you ean calculate the 
longitude; answer his questions.’ . I asked him, ‘ What method 
do you use to calculate the longitude ‘by lunar sincatioan? ? His 
answer was, ‘ It’s < one to me: I use the methods of Maskelyne, 
Lyons, Witchel Bowditch; but, upon the whole, I prefer 


mt 


I could ica mcepeces my surprise at hearing this black face talk in 
» with his excess chicken and knife in his hand. ‘Go,’ 
S| sod him, ‘ om — oes ons a 


used to it, and can work with it quicker.’ 


| * 
Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 9 


culations.’ The cook soon returned with his books under his 
arm. He had Bowditch’s Practical Navigator, the Requisite Ta- 
bles, Hutton’s Tables of Logarithms, and the Nautical Almanac. 
I saw all this negro’s calculations of the latitude, the longitude, 
and the true time, which he had worked out on the passage. He 
answered all my questions with wonderful accuracy, not in the 
Latin of the caboose, but in the good set terms of navigation.” 

Capt. Prince relates a little incident that occurred under his ob- 
servation, that is worth preserving. »In the year 1796, there was 
an Paglishinarl% in Boston, who called himself a professor of math- 
ematics. He boasted a great deal about his mathematical know- 
ledge, and said that he had not found any body in this country 
who knew any thing about the science. “I have a question,” 
said he, “ which I have proposed to several persons here who are 
reputed the most knowing, and they cannot solve it.” This Eng- 
lishman was a friend of E. H. Derby, Jr. of Salem, to whom Capt. 
Prince had some time previously said that he thought Mr. Bow- 
ditch “the greatest calculator in America.” Mr. Derby and the 
Englishman being one evening at the theatre, and the latter re- 
peating the remark about his question, “ Well,” says Mr. Derby, 
‘there is a young man sitting opposite: “oe peared ‘who, I think, 
will do it for you... You had Lccord- 

ingly, after the play was over, the problem was brought to the 
house where Capt. Prince and Mr. Bowditch boarded, by a man 
named Hughes, who asked him whether he thought he could 
solve it. “Yes,” was his instantaneous reply. The next morn- 
ing Hughes called and asked him how he was getting along with 
the question. “I’ve done it,” says Mr. Bowditch, “and I wish 
you would tell the Englishman that the answer is the logarithm 
of such a number,” naming it. In addition to this, I have mee 
* that the 2 th ematician said, “Tell your friend that 

have got a question which puzzled me once a good while <a 
I could make it out, and 1 Should like to have him try his hand 
upon it.” He gave him the question, and it was handed over to 
the Englishman; but nothing more was heard of it. For once, 
he had probably got enough be mathematics. s. 

- Capt. Prince states some facts in relation to the origin of one of 
Mr. Bowditch’s principal works, which will be interesting to all, 
particularly to all seafaring men. Every thing relating to “ The 
Sailor’s Own Book,” must be moe to them. He states, 

Vou. XXXYV. _-Digh i 2 


a 


10 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


that on the day previous to their sailing on their fourth and leat 4 
voyage together, Mr. Edmund M. Blunt, a noted publisher of 4 i 
charts and nautical books, then residing at Newburyport, came to 
Boston, where the ship lay, on purpose to see Mr. Bowditch. In 
the course-of the conversation between them, which Capt. Prince — 
overheard, Mr. Blunt said, “If you had not corrected the declin- . 
ation, I should-have lost the whole of the last edition ;”’ meaning 
the last edition of John Hamilton Moore’s book on Navigation, — 
then in common use on board our vessels. ‘“ Why,” continued — 
he, “can’t you be good enough to look over Hamilton Moore 
again, more carefully? . Take a copy of it with you, and mark 
whatever you may find ;-and when you get home, I will give” 
you a new one.” ‘“* Well, ” replied Mr. Bowditch, “I will.” On 
the home passage Capt. Prince says that Mr. Bowditch remarked — 
to him, “ Now I am going to assist Blunt, and begin with Ham- 
_ jlton Moore.” When he had been engaged upon it several days, — 
- Gapt. Prince passed by him in the cabin, and said, ‘‘ Well, sit, 
you seem to put a great many black marks on Johnny Moore:” 
“Yes,” replied Mr. Bowditch, “and well I may, for he deserves 
it; his book is nothing but a tissue of errors from beginning to 
ha: ” ~ After he had been hard at work for some time, Capt. Primee — 
said to him, “If I were you, I would sooner make a new book 
than undertake to mend that old thing.” Mr. Bowditch smiled — 
and said, “1 find so many errors that I intend to take out the 
’ work inmy own name.” Capt. Prince closed the conversation by 
adding, “I think you ought to do so, for the work will be new, | 
and the fruit of your own labor, and will be the best work on 
navigation ever published ;” .a prediction that was wonderfully — 
fulfilled to the letter. : 
As an illustration of the deexjerons blunders of Moore’s work, — 
I will mention a fact related to me by John Waters, Esq. of Bos- 


Sun’s Declination for the years a 7, 3 


[80 which he had appended the remar : 
ing leap year.” In consequence of thus erroneously ie : 
18002 leap year, he March © 


: declination on the - 
to the Nautical Almanac 


co 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. iL 


year, it will be found to be 7° 33’, making a difference of twenty- 
three miles. Mr. Waters fortunately had a Nautical Almanac on 
board, and likewise a copy of Pike’s Arithmetic, which explained 
the reason why the year 1800 was noéleap year. In consequence 
of this he escaped the dangers to which other vessels in the 
same latitude were subjected; for he afterwards read in the 
newspapers of several ships that were wrecked solely by reason 
of that blunder. It was, indeed, quite time for Hamilton Moore 
to be laid up, high and dry, on the shelf. 

Before publishing his own work, Mr. Bowditch had prepared 
for Mr. Blunt two corrected editions of: Moore’s book, in which 
he had actually discovered and corrected eight thousand errors in 
the nautical tables, as he himself testifies in the preface to the 
last stereotype edition. 

Such was the germ of “ The New American Practical Naviga- 
tor,” the first edition of which he issued in the year 1800, at the 


age of twenty-seven ; a work abounding with the actual results of 


his own experience, and containing simpler and more expeditious 
formulas for working the nautical problems. This work has been 
of immense service to the nautical and commercial interests of 
this country. Had Dr. see. never done any thing else, he 
would still, by this single act, have conferred a lasting obligation 
upon his native land; and the ort legislature might well 
acknowledge it by prceiien a monument to his memory. Just 
consider the simple fact, that every vessel that sails from the 
ports of the United States, from Eastport to New Orleans, is nav- 
igated by the rules and tables of his book. And this has been 
the case nearly ever since its publication, sags fit years ago. 


‘ és 
- each ace x shall keep a journal 


very thing remarkable 


md Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


that has occurred, and that he has observed, during his voyage. — 
On his return his journal is examined by a special committee, — 
who extract whatever they think valuable, and copy it into large — 
volumes, kept for that purpose. Dr. Bowditch was accustomed — 
to say, that these volumes contained a mass of nautical informa- 
ion that could be found no where else in the world. 4 
_. The quiet and leisure of the long East India voyages, when { 
the ship was lazily sweeping along under the steady impulse ‘of — 
the trade-winds, afforded him fine opportunities for pursuing his’ 
mathematical studies, as well as for indulging his taste for gene- 
ral Jiterature. It was at these times that he learnt the French 
and Spanish languages, without any instructor. Subsequently 
in life he acquired the German and the Italian. 

I have heard it stated, that, on the voyage to Manilla, the ship | 
sprung a leak, and was obliged to put into the Isle of France to — 
refit. Young Bowditch was the only one on board who knew | 
any thing about French, having learnt it from his-grammar on 
the voyage; and this eibatid knowledge thus proved of essential 4 
service to the interests of the owners, as well as to the crew of — 
the en i He used to say, that nothing that he: a ever came . 
amiss. i 

-He had 5 auveieiely commenced the study of Latin at the age som 
of seventeen. The first Latin book that he undertook to read — 
was a copy of Euclid’s Geometry, which had formerly belonged _ 
to the Rev. Dr. Byles, of Boston, and having been purchased at — 
the sale of his books, was presented to the young mathematician — 
by his brother-in-law, David Martin, of Salem. The following — 
words I copy from the blank leaf in the beginning of the book, 
“Began to study Latin Jan. 4, 1790.” He afterwards read and — 
translated Newton’s “ Principiteé” a copy of which book, rare, — 
doubtless, at that time in this country, had come into his posses . 

through the kindness of the learned and reverend Dr. Bent 
le} Salem. Dr. Bentley told him: that he could not give I him 
the book, as it had been presented to him by a friend, but dhe | 
would loan it to. Jum, _ that he a _ it till 


among his books. © : 
hott he « once leaned he ever afterwards re 


Life and Character of Nathaniel 


of Ferdinand and Isabella,* the last book he ay Saaneagh and 
ee . which he expressed the highest admiration, he remarked 
many of the incidents in it were quite familiar to him, he 
having once read the great work of Mariana on the History of 
Spain, in the original language, in the course of one of his voya-— 
ges. The ‘French mathematician, Lacroix, acknowledged to 
ican, that he was indebted to Mr. Bowditch for com- 
ting many errors in his aecaes which he had discovered — 
in these same Tong Tn ndia voy: 
extraordin Sitcoms) iinet of tos young 
sailor soon became known, and secured to him the notice.of our. 
most distinguished men,—among others that of the late Chief 
Justice Parsons, himself an eminent mathematician,—and_ like- 
wise the deserved, yet wholly unexpected, honors of the first lit- 
erary institutiomin the land. In the summer of 1802, at the age 
of twenty-nine, his ship lying wind-bound in Boston harbor, he 
went out'to Cambridge to attend the exercises of Commence- 
ment Day; and whilst standing in one of the aisles of the 
church, as the President was announcing the honorary degrees 
‘that day, his attention was aroused by hearing his own 
name calle out as a Master of Arts.» The annunciation came 
upon him like a peak of thunder; it took him wholly by sur- 
prise. He has been heard to say that that was the proudest day 
of his life ; and that of all the distinctions which he subsequently 
received from numerous learned and scientific bodies, at home 
and ener (among which may be mentioned his election, in 


* By Wittiam H. Prescorr, Esq. of Boston. This noble contributioa” to the. 
youthful literature of our country is, at the same time, one of the most remarkable 
instances, in literary history, of the triumph of sali over difficulties and dis- 
couragements. Je sperenebatat increditile,. that so extensive a work, 


€ _ of so many authorities, could 
have been composed without atthe fall and free use of theeyes. And yet it es 
ough he wrote the book through with his 
ng them. His work is a noble evi- 
nee as well as of his rection andhgood taste, and refleets 
well as upon his country 


s elected a Fellow of the ‘Acaectiandiiedan y of Arts <a 


onnecticut Acad y of 4 s and Sciences; of the Literary 
eileces of New ra + Conesponding member of the Royal 


= 
14 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


1818, as a Fellow of the Royal Soci 
which few Americans have were a on 
afforded him half the pleasure, or which prize 
highly, as this degree from Harvard. It was, indeed, 
honor, his earliest distinction ; it was not only kindly me: 
timely done ; and it no doubt stimulated him to perseverance in 
his scientific pursuits, as well as created that interest which he 
always took in the prosperity of that institution.* 4 
_ Mr. Bowditch’s fifth and last voyage was made in the ship 
Putnam, of which he was part owner, and in which he sailed in 
the combined capacities of master and supercargo. He sailed for — 
Sumatra in November, 1802, and returned in December, 1803. 
His habits of life and study, when on shipboard, are thus related 
by one who accompanied him in his two last voyages in the ca- 
pacity of a seaman and mate. 

“ His practice was, to rise at a very early hour in the morning, — 
and pursue his studies till breakfast ; immediately after which, he 
took a rapid walk for an hour, and then went below to his studies 
till half past eleven o’clock, when he returned and walked till 
twelve o’clock, the hour at which he commenced his meridian 
observations. 'Then came dinner, after which he was engaged — 
in his studies till five o’clock; then he walked till tea time, and, — 
after tea, was at his studies till nine o’clock in the evening. From 
this hour till half past ten o’clock, he appeared to have banished 
all thoughts of study, and, while walking, he would converse in _ 
the most lively manner, giving us useful information, intermix-) _ 
ed with amusing anecdotes and hearty laughs, making the time 
delightful to the officers who walked with him, and who had to 
quicken their pace to accompany him. Whenever the heavenly — 
bodies were in distance to get the longitude, night or day, he — 
was sure to make his observations once, and frequently twice, in : 
every twenty-four hours, always preferring to make them by the — 
moon and stars on account of his eyes. He was often seen on i 
deck at other times, walking rapidly, and apparently in deep : 
thought, when it was well understood, by all on board, that he — 

- ‘Was not to be disturbed, as we supposed he was ety Mig: some 2 
sta problem, and when he darted below, the conclusion Wi ; 


1s h was a Fellow of the Corporation. of Harvard fre 
death. Hasweaitea the degree of LL. D. from the oon Uae 


“dh * 


a is atl 


15 
were in the fore part of the ship, 
P he would actually run to the cabin, 
4 ” give the a coat be had 


g the sea, in 1803, he was appointed President of 
jssex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem, the 
duties of which he continued to discharge till the year 1823. 
During this time he was frequently solicited to accept posts of 
honor and-emolument in various literary institutions, in different 
parts of the country.. Though his salary as President of the In- 
surance Company was small, being only twelve hundred dollars, 
yet the larger offers from a distance could not induce him to 
leave his blessed New England home. ‘Thus in 1806, he was 
chosen to fill the Hollis Professorship of Mathematics at Harvard 
University. In 1818, he received a letter from Mr. Jefferson, 
requesting him to accept the Professorship of Mathematics in the 
new University at Charlottesville, in Virginia. Mr. Jefferson said 
in his letter, “ We are satisfied we can get from no country a 
Professor of higher qualifications than yourself for our mathemat- 
ical department.” And in 1820, on the death of Mr. Ellicott, 
Professor of Mathematics at the United States’ Military Academy 
at West Point, he received a letter from: Mr. Calhoun, then Secre- 
tary of War, desiring him to permit his name to be presented to 
the President to fill the vacant chair. Mr. Calhoun in that letter 
said, ‘“I am anxious to avail myself of the first mathematical 
talents and_acquirements to fill the vacancy.” : 
In the year 1806, Mr. Bowditch published his accurate and 
beautiful chart of the harbors of Salem, Beverly, . Marblehead, and 
Manchester, the survey of which had occupied him durieg the 
summers of the three preceding years. So minutely accurate 
was this chart, that the old pilots said he had found out all ‘their 
professorial secrets, and had put on paper points and bearings 
which they thought were known only to themselves. They 
began | L to fear that their services would no longer be needed, and 
nat their occupation and their bread were gone. 


} On n the establishment of “The Massachusetts Hospital Life 
b Insurance seers in 1823, he was elected to the office of 
Actuary, ybeing considered the person best qualified for this 
| highly : a 10 nsible station, from his habits of accurate calculation 
> and rigid method, and his inflexible integrity. Immediately on 
E 


ee 


16 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


accepting the office he removed to Boston, at the age of fi 
and there spent the last fifteen years of his life. On his leavi 
Salem, a public dinner was given him by his fellow citizens 
a testimony of their respect. No man ever left that place m 
regretted. 

It scarcely aide to te stated at he discharged the duties of : 
his high trust with the greatest fidelity and skill, and. to the em-— ; 
tire satisfaction of the Company. The capital was five hundred 
thousand dollars. But, at his suggestion, the Company applied — 
to the Legislature for additional power to hold in. trust and loan — 
out the property of individuals. This power was granted; and . 
upwards of five millions of dollars, nine tenths of which belong — 
to females and orphans, have been thus received and invested. 
The institution has, in this way, been of incalculable service, it 
being in fact nothing more nor less than a Savings Bank on @_ 
large scale. ‘ Providence’”—I use his own language, in his part-_ 
ing letter to the Directors—* has ‘seen fit to bless our efforts to . 
make it an institution deserving of public regard.” It deserves 
to be mentioned, that Dr. Bovriliteh was never willing to receive — 
and tie up any investment, without himself seeing or hearing in — 
writing from the person in whose behalf the investment was: to 
be made, and ascertaining that it- was done with his.or her full 
and free consent, and that the individual. perfectly understood the — 
mode and conditions of the investment, — it was = ‘intl 3 
the dead hand of the institution. | 

I may here also notice the fact, that i dming the late unexame 
pled commercial embarrassments and financial difficulties, when — 
almost all our moneyed institutions have sustained heavy losses 
from the bankruptcies of their debtors, “and,” to use his own — 
words in the same letter, ‘by having dealt with corporations, i 
whose affairs have been managed with a recklessness which has — 
never before been witnessed in this country,” yet so carefully ‘ 
and skillfully have the affairs of The Life Office been» managéed, — 
that, although the largest moneyed institution in New England, ; 
waving a capital equal to ten common banks, and with a loamout : 


of six millions, its loss has not been greater than that sustained 5 
ay some of the smallest banks. 
vil was a hard. struggle for Dr. Bowditch to break away from 
the ple ‘Scenes and associations of his native ie There — 
_were his arliest friends, and there g But he felt 


Sa ie. s 


oe 


» 
Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 17 


that he owed it to his family to make the sacrifice of personal at- 
tachments and preferences ; and for some time he and his amiable 
consort fondly cherished the hope of returning and apendling: their 
last days in the City of Peace. 

In March, 1798, just before sailing on his third voyage, he matr- 
ried his first wife, Elizabeth Boardman, who died during his ab- 
sence at the age of eighteen. In October, 1800, he was married 
to his cousin, Mary Ingersoll, a lady of singular sweetness of dis- 
position and cheerful piety, who, by her entire sympathy with 
him in all his studies and pursuits, lightened and cheered his la- 
bors, and by relieving him from all domestic_eares, enabled him 
to go on, with undivided mind and undistracted attention, in the 
execution of the great work, on which his fame, as a man of sci- 
ence, rests. He has been beni to say, that he never should have 
accomplished the task, and published the book in its present ex- 
tended form, had he not been stimulated and encouraged by her. 
When the serious question was under consideration as to the ex- 
pediency of his publishing it at his own cost, at the estimated ex- 
pense of ten thousand dollars, (which it actually exceeded,) with 
the noble spirit of her sex, she conjured and urged him to go on 
and do it, saying that she would find the means, and gladly make 
any sacrifice and submit to any self-denial that might be involved 
in it. In grateful acknowledgment of her sympathy and aid, he 
proposed, in the concluding volume, to dedicate the work to her 
memory—a design than which nothing could be more beautiful 
or touching. Let it still be fulfilled.* 

It is hardly necessary for me to say that this was a Trattalationy 
and Commentary on the great work of the French astronomer, 
La Place, entitled “ Mécanique Céleste,” in which that illustrious 
man undertakes to explain the whole mechanism of our solar sys- 
tem, to account on mathematical p principles for all its phenomena, _ 
and to reduce all the anomalies in the apparent motions and fig- 
ures of the planetary bodies, to certain definite laws. 

La Place himself, in his Preface, states the object of his work 
as follows. “'Towards the end:of the seventeenth century, New- 
aes his discovery of universal gravitation. Mathema- 


* This ca euies and excellent woma n, , whose entiting Gicertalsoes and 
vivacity rendered her many Bini in be to be the wife of such a man, died in Bos- 
~*~ on the 17th of April, ‘ in the 53d year of her age. 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 3 


‘. ‘ =” 


18 Lifeand Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


ticians have since that-epoch, succeeded in reducing to this great | 
law of nature all the known phenomena of the system of the : 
world, and have thus given to the theories of the heavenly bod-_ 
ies and to astronomical tables, an unexpected degree of precision. — 
My object is to present a connected view of these theories, which — 
are now scattered in a great number of works. The whole of the — 
results of gravitation, upon the equilibrium and motions of the 
fluid and solid bodies, which compose the solar system, and the — 
similar serra existing in the immensity of space, constitute the — 
felestial Mechanics, or the application of the. principles — 
a s to the motions and figures of the heavenly bodies. — 
rca ceod: in the most general manner, is a great prob- | 
lem of mechanics, in which the elements of the motions are the 
arbitrary constant quantities. The solution of this problem. de- — 
at the same time, upon the accuracy of the observations, 
and upon the perfection of the analysis. It is very important to 
_ reject every empirical process, and to complete the analysis, s0 
that it shall not be necessary to derive from observations any but — 
indispensable data. The intention of this work is to obtain; a8 
much as may be in my power, this interesting result.” a2 
» It isa work of great.genius and immense depth, and exceed- 
ingly difficult to be comprehended. | This arises not merely from 
the intrinsic difficulty of the subject, and the medium of proof _ 
being the higher branches of the mathematies,—but 
chiefly from the circumstance that the author, taking it for granted _ 
that the subject would be.as plain and easy to others as to himself, — 
very often omits the intermediate steps and connecting links im~ 
his demonstrations. He jumps over the interval, and grasps the 
conclusion’as by intuition. Dr. Bowditch-used to say, “I never 
eome across one of La Place’s ‘ Thus it plainly appears,’ without — 
feeling sure that I have got hours of hard study before me io fill 
up the chasm, and find out and show how it plainly appears.” | 
Dr. Bowditch says, in his Introduction to the first volume, “ The 4 
object of the author, in composing this work, as stated by him in ‘ 
his Preface, was to reduce all the known phenomena of the sy _ 
tem of the world to the law of gravity, by strict mathematical — 
principles; and to complete the investigations of the motions of 
the planets, satellites, and comets, begun by Newton in his Pris — 
cipia.. - This he has Ne PS in a manner deserving the | ; 
highest praise, for its symmetry and completeness; but from the : 


x 
ef 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 19 


abridged manner, in which the analytical calculations have been 
made, it has been found difficult to be understood by many per-, 
sons, who have a strong and decided taste for mathematical stud- 
ies, on account ‘of the time and labor required to insert the inter- 
mediate steps of the demonstrations, necessary to enable them. 
easily to follow the author in his reasoning. ‘'T’o remedy in some. 
measure, this defect, has been the chief object of the translator 
in the Notes.” 

It was in the year 1815, at Salem, that he began th thie is herouienn 

and finished it in two years. The Com mmer hiche 
ceeds the original in extent, kept pace with the Tr: 
whilst the oublicating was in hand, his alteration 
Were so numerous that it might almost be consider 
of the work. 

Let it not be said, in ae a of the labors of Dr. Bow- 
ditch, that this was not an original work, but merely a translation. 
Suppose that it had been so. Whatthen? Was it not still a ben- 
efaction to this country and to Great Britain, thus to bring it with- 
in the reach and compass of the American and English mind * 
It is truly said by an old writer, “So well is he worthy” of per- 
petual fame that bringeth a good work to light, as is he that first 
did make it, and ought always to be reckoned the. second father 
thereof.” But the fact is, it is more than half an original com- 
meutary and exposition, simplifying and elucidating what was be- 
fore complex and obscure, supplying omissions and deficiencies, 
fortifying the positions with new proofs and giving additional 


* The only attempts that wri been made in England to grapple with the great 
work of La Place are, 1. “ An Elementary Treatise upon Analytical Mechanics, 
being the First Book of the Mécanique Céleste of La Place; translated and eluci- 
dated with Explanatory Notes, by the Rev. John Toplis, B. D., London. 181 
8v0.—2. Hlustrations estial Mechanics of La 


chanics, by P. s. La Place ; translated from the French, and elucidated with Ex- 
planatory Notes, by Rev. Haney H. Harte, Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Part 
First, Book First, 1822. Book Second, 1827. Dublin.” 4to. 

highly honorable to the sex, that the best, may I not say the sady Exposition 
of La Place’s work that has appeared in England, is from the pen of a female, the 
accomplished Many Somrrvitix, wife of Dr. Somerville, of Chelsea Hoapitit, 
The Edinburgh Review said of her work, entitled “The Mechanism of the Heavy. 
ens,” eeeniaomne aie apne of the most remarkable works that female in- 
tellect ever produced, in any age or country; and with respect to the present day, 
we hazard little in saying Mrs. Somerville is the only individual of her sex ix 
the world who could have written it.” 


20 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


weight and efficiency to the old ones; and above all, recording and 
digesting the subsequent discoveries, and bringing down the sei- 
ence to’ the present time. I have heard it said that La Place, to 

whom Dr. Bowditch sent a list of errors, (which however he nev- 
er had the grace to acknowledge in any way,)* onee remarked, 


“Tam sure that Mr. Bowditch comprehends my work, for he has — 
not only detected my errors, but he has also shown me howl — 


came to fall into them.” 
The manner in which he published this work affords a ntti 
illustration of the spirit of independence, which was a prominent 


ee 
ON 


feature in his character. He had been frequently solicited’ and 


urged by his numerous wealthy friends, and by eminent scientific 
men, and formally requested by the American Académy of Arts 
and Sciences, to permit them to print it at their expense, for the 
honor of the country, and for the cause of science. He was well 
aware, however, ihat there was not sufficient taste in the commu- 


nity for such studies to justify an enterprise which would involve — 


a great outlay, and, as he thought, would bring him under pecu- 
niary obligations to others. 1 recollect conversing with him once 
on this ‘subject, when he said to me, in his usual ardent way, 
“Sir, I did not choose to give an opportunity to such a man 


(mentioning his name) to point up to his book-case and say, ‘ I 


Mr.. Bowditch. by subscribing for his get work,’ 


patronized 
—not a word of which which he could understand. I preferred © 


to wait till I could afford ‘to publish it at my own Perec That 


time at last arrived ; and if, instead of setting up my coach, as f 


' might have done, I see fit to spend my money in this way, who — 


has any right to Gorn plain? My children I know will not.” 


On the publication of the first volume, the London Quarterly — 
wc expressed the por aby high opinion of its merits. “ The — 


* This, possibly, may have been an inadvertence, or the letter of acknowledi C 


mient may have miscarried on the way. It is certain that his widow received the 

son of the American mathematician with great kindness and consideration, whet 

in the year 1833, he went to Paris to pursue his medical studies, earrying out with 

bim the « second a oe his’ nner : work. He was immediately invited to ® 
loon, filled with the savans of F 


Se wesistnapectodly greeted by seeing on the centre table-—the only thing on ( 


y identical volume which he had brought over with him—a delicate eompli- 
ment, which none but a graceful French woman would have thought of wee 
ane ° La Rlace subsequently sent sent to Dr. horn a = gee bust of 


oO 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 21 


idea of undertaking a translation of the whole ‘Mécanique Cé- 
leste,’ accompanied throughout with a copious running commen- 
tary, is one which savors, at first sight, of the gigantesque, and 
is certainly one which, from what we have hitherto had reason to 
conceive of the popularity and diffusion of mathematical knowl- 
edge on the opposite shores of the Atlantic, we should never have 
expected to have found originated—or, at least, carried into exe- 
cution; in that quarter. ‘The first volume only has as yet reached 
us; anid when we consider the great difficulty of printing works 
of this nature, to say nothing of the heavy and ly unre- 
munerated ‘expense, we are not surprised at the del: the sec- 
ond. Meanwhile the part actually completed (which contains 
the first two books of La Place’s work) is, with few and slight 
exceptions, just what we could have wished to see—an exact and 
careful translation into very good English—exceedingly well 
printed, and accompanied with notes appended to each page, 
which leave no step in the text of moment unsupplied, and hardly 
ahy material difficulty either of conception or reasoning uneluci- 
dated. To the student of ‘Celestial Mechanism,’ such a work 
must be invaluable, and we sincerely hope that the success of this 
volume, which seems thrown out to try the feeling of the public, 
both American and British, will be such as to induce the speedy 
appearance of the sequel. Should this unfortunately not be the 
case, we shall deeply lament that the liberal offer of the Ameri- 
can Academy of Arts and Sciences, to print the whole at their 
expense, was not accepted. Be that as it may, it is impossible to 
regard the appearance of such a work, even in its present incom- 
plete state, asotherwise than highly creditable to American sci- 
ence, and as the harbinger of —_ sabe nenese in the loftiest 
fields of intellectual prowess.” 

“i, The first volume of the Reba wong hes pom 1829, 
the second in 1832, and the third in 1834, each volume contain- 
ing about a thousand quarto pages. © The fourth volume was near- 
ly completed at the time of his decease. He persevered to the 
last in his labors upon it, preparing the copy and reading the proof- 
sheets in the intervals when he was free from pain. The last 
time I saw “him, a few days. previous to his death, a proof-sheet 
was lying on his — which he said he hoped to be able to read 
over and correct. 


22 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


The publication of the book proved, as he anticipated, and as I~ 
have already mentioned, a very expensive undertaking, it being — 
one of the largest works and most difficult of execution ever 
printed in this country, and at the same time one of the most 
beautiful specimens of typography. ; 

Though it met with more purchasers than the athe ever €X> 
pected, still the cost was a heavy draught upon his income, and — 
an encroachment on his little property. Yet it was cheerfully — 
paid ; and besides that, he gladly devoted his time, his talents, — 
and may I not add, his health and his life, to the cause of science — 
and the honor of his native land. That work is his monument. 
Si. monumentum queris, aspice librum.* He needs no other 
monument ; and at the same time it is the most precious and hon- 
orable egaay that he could bequeath to his children. 

Among the numerous services which Dr. Bowditch rendered — 
to the cause of good learning and the diffusion of useful knowl 
edge, after he came to Boston, was the deep and active interest — 
which he took in the Boston Atheneum. When, in 1826, the 
Perkins family, in that liberal spirit which has ever characterized — 
them, gave to the Athenzeum sixteen thousand dollars, on condi- — 
tion that an equal sum should be raised from other sources, Dr. — 
Bowditch exerted himself to the utmost to accomplish the object. _ 
Many of the best friends of the institution thought the enterprise — 
a hopeless one, and were indisposed even to make an attempt to 
raise the amount. But Dr. Bowditch said, “It is a good thing, — 
let us try it; if we fail, we fail in a good cause.” He called per- 
sonally on many individuals to solicit subscriptions, and chiefly 
in consequence of his exertions, the additional sum of twenty- 
seven thousand dollars was raised. 

The permitting the books to be taken out of the library was — 
another measure proposed and effected by him. Strenuous oppo — 
sition was made to it ; but he believed and said that the circular’ 
tion of the books wonbd make the library ten times more useful; — 
and he persevered till he accomplished the measure. It was — 
always a favorite object with Dr. Bowditch to render books easily — 
accessible to those who wanted them, and could make a good us? — 
of them. He doubtless remembered the difficulties under which 
usiiecatia 


Ce alter a little and apply to Dr. Bowditch, the well- vi 
— on Sir Sir Christopher Wren, beneath the dome o f St. Paul's Cat 
—H hh woxonesrow: QUARIS, CIRCUMSPICE.” ~ 


~ 


Meat 
ey ety 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 23 


he labored in early life for want of books, and was dis 
obtain for others the acvabiagen which had been extended to rte 
self. 


Immediately after his election as Trustee of the ‘heii i in 
1826, Dr. Bowditch, perceiving the paucity and poverty of the sci- 
entific department of the library, which might all be put into one 
small compartment,—“ dim tota domus rheda componitur una,”— 
declared that “it was too bad, and a disgrace to the institution 
and to Boston.” He ancobiliindy set about supplying the de- 
ficiency, by collecting subscriptions for this express purpose. Col. 
T. H. Perkins gave $500, his brother James the same amount, 
Dr. Bowditch himself $250, and other gentlemen $100 apiece. 
With this sum were purchased the Transactions of the Royal 
Societies of London, Dublin, and ~Edinburgh, of the French 
Academies and Iselin, of the Academies.of Berlin, Gottingen, 
St. Petersburg, Turin, Lisbon, Madrid, Stockholm, and Copen- 
hagen; forming, as Dr. Bowditch once told the librarian, “ the 
most extensive and-complete collection of philosophical and sci- 
entific works on this continent.” 

‘Dr. Bowditch also took a deep interest-in the «< Boston Me- 
chanics’ Institution,” which was established in 1826, and of 
which he was elected the first President, January 12, 1827. In 
1828, more than a thousand dollars: was subscribed for the par- 
. chase of philosophical. apparatus, chiefly through his influence 
with his friends, and he headed the list with the sum of one hun- 
dred dollars. On resigning the Presidency, in 1829, he was 
elected first honorary member of the institution. 

Dr. Bowditch was likewise an honorary member of the Mas- 
sachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association. On the 3d of April 
a Eulogy on their departed associate was pronounced before that 
body by the author of this Memoir, on which day the flags of all 
the shipping in the port were hauled to half-mast by direction of 
the Boston Marine Society, of which he was likewise a member. 
His sense of the honor thus conferred on him by these elections, 
and his affectionate regard for these Societies, and for the city of 
his eter, will be best seen by the kllerane extract {fom his 

8 And, i in aeank to ee the sand of A adoption, where, 
as a stranger, 1 met with welcome, “and where I have ever con- 
tinued to receive constantly increasing proofs of kindness and re- 


24 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


gard, I should have been most happy to have made a similar 
acknowledgment of my gratitude, by legacies to those literary 
and charitable institutions for which that city has always been so ~ 
preéminently distinguished. And, in: particular, it would have — 
given me pleasure to have noticed the Boston Marine Society, of 3 
which I am a member, and the Boston Charitable Mechanic As: _ 
sociation, which has placed my name on its small and select list _ : 
of honorary members; since these institutions are of a similar — 
character to the Marnie Societies in Salem, and have, for one of : 
their important objects, that of affording valuable aid to the des: — 
titute families of deceased members. But the pecuniary nea 
stances of my estate do not permit it.” : oat | 


-» In delineating | the character of Dr. Bowditch, it deserves to be q 
mentioned, first‘of all, that he was eminently a self-taught and — 
selfmade man. He was the instructor,of hisown mind, and 

_ the builder up of his own fame and fortunes. Whatever know- _ 

ledge he possessed,—and we have seen that it was ‘very great,— ( 

was of his own acquiring, the fruit of his solitary studies, with — 

‘but little, if any, assistance from abroad. Whatever eminence’ 

he reached, in science or in life, was the product of his untiring — 

application and unremitting toil. From his youth up, he was a 

pattern of industry, enterprise, and perseverance, = no —_ : 

culties to discourage, no disappointments to dishearten . 

_ Within a few years, a very interesting work has been abled : 
in England, under the patronage of the Society for the Diffusion — 
of Useful Knowledge, entitled “The Pursuit of Knowledge un ~ 
der Difficulties.” Dr. Bowditch deserves a place in that work, if — 
any man does, and had he died before its appearance, he would, _ 
unquestionably, like our countryman Franklin, have occupied @ — 
prominent chapter. We sometimes hear persons say, how much — 
they would do, if they only had the means and the opportunities ; 
But almost any body ean work with means and opportunities: — 
It is the: privilege and characteristic of genius to work without — 
means, > great in spite of them, to accomplish its on in ‘ 
the face stacles and difficulties. by 
It would be interesting and instructive, had we space tos it, to 

-a parallel and contrast between the Hives, characters and sci- — 
of atablin and Bowditch; eg IE the : 


e i Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 25 
Both rose from obscure situations in humble life, and from the 
straits of poverty. Both left school at the age of ten years, to 
assist their fathers in their shops. Both had an early and passion- 
ate love of reading, and the vigils of both often~“ prevented the 
morning.” Both had the same habits of industry, perseverance — 
and temperance. The contrast between their characters would 
be still more striking than the resemblance. 

It was my good fortune, some years since, in one of those fa- 
miliar interviews with him in his own house with which I was 
favored,—and which those who have once enjoyed them will 
never forget,—to hear him narrate, in detail, a history of his early 
life. From that day to this, I have never ceased to regret that, 
on my return home, I did not instantly put it down upon paper, 
for the refreshment of my own memory, and for the benefit of - 
others. At this distance of time, I can recollect but a few, the — 
most striking, particulars; the rest have faded away and are lost. 

I remember, however, very distinctly; his relating the circum- 
stance which led him to take an interest in the higher branches of 
mathematical science. He told me that, in the year 1787, when 
he was fourteen years old, an elder brother of his, who followed 
the sea, and was attending an evening school, for the purpose of 
learning navigation, on returning home one evening, informed 
him that the master had got a new way of doing sums and work- 
ing questions ; for, instead of the numerical figures commonly 
used: in arithmetic, he employed the letters of the alphabet. This 
novelty excited his curiosity, and he questioned his brother very 
~ closely about the matter; who, however, did not seem to under- 
_ Stand much about the process, and could not tell how the thing was 
ses But the master, he said, had a book, which told all about 
‘This served to inflame his curiosity ; and he asked his brother 
eaten aaa the book of the master, and bring 
it home, so that he might get a sight at it. (It should be remem- 
bered that, at this time, mathematical books of all sorts were 
scarce in this country. In the present multitude of elementary 
works on this subject, we can hardly conceive of 
then prevailed.) ‘The book was obtained. It was 1 
that he had ever had.at algebra. “ And that night,” 
did not close my eyes.” He read it, and read it again, and ‘mas- 
tered its contents, and copied it out from: beginning to end. Sub- 
oon: he got hold of a volume of the Falleenhige Trans- 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 1 4 


26 Life and | th -of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


actions of the Royal Sides of London, which he treated pretty 
much in the same summary way, making a very full and minute 
abstract of all the mathematical papers contained in it; and this 
course he pursued with the whole of that voluminous work. He 
was too poor at this time to purchase books, and this was the only _ 
mode of getting at their results, and having them constantly at — 
hand for consultation. These manuscripts, written in his small, — 
close, neat hand, and filling several folio volumes, are now in his 
library, and, in my opinion, are the most.curious and previods 
part of that large and valuable collection. 
T have more than once heard him speak in the most grateful 
manner,—and he repeated it the last time that I saw him, 
_ the kindness of those friends in Salem who aided him in his early. 
by the loan of their books. He named particularly the — 
1e0 ‘Dr. Prince,* the pastor of the First Church, who gave . 
e access to his library ; and he likewise mentioned.a soci- _ 
ty of gentlemen who had a private collection of their own. The 
manner i in which these latter books came into the country, is 30 
remarkable, that I am happy to be able-to relate it in Dr. Bow: 
ditch’s own words, as contained in his last Will. The extract im 
as follows :— 
-“Ttem. It is well known, that the ai scientific library 
of the celebrated Dr. Richens Kirwan} was, during the revolue” 
war, captured in the British Channel, on its way to Ireland, 
ps a Bexaahy privateer ; and that, by the liberal and enlightened 
views of the owners of the vessel, the library thus captured was 
sold at a very low rate; and in this manner was laid the founda 
tion upon which have since been successively established, The 
Philosophical Library, so called, and the present Salem Athe-— 
neum. ‘Thus, in early life, I fohind near me a better collection 
of philosophical and scientific works than could be found in any 
other part of the United States nearer than Philadelphia. And : 
by the kindness of its proprietors I was permitted freely to take — 
oe 


_* It is gratifying to. find the clergy, the acistidin Dr. Prince, and the learned Dt- 4 
rliest encouragers of. the. precocious powers of the American y mathe | 4 


out Snag ed a Ho died is 160 


Life ant Character of Nathaniel Bai 27 


books from that library and to consult ikagioty them at pleasure. 
This inestimable advantage has made me deeply a debtor to the 
Salem Athenzeum; and I do therefore give to that Institution the 
sum of one thousand dollars, the income thereof to be for ever 
applied to thé promotion of its objects and the extension of its 
usefulness.” 

_ [have two remarks to make on this singularly interesting ex- 
tract. In the first place, it seems to me there was something like 
a special providence in the capture of that library, consisting: of 
such a peculiar class of books, by a Beverly vessel, and its 
brought into the port of Salem rather than any other port in fhe 
United States. Here was apparent design, the fitting of means 
to ends. The books came exactly to the place where they were 
wanted ; to the only place, probably, in the country where 
were wanted. They came, too, at the right time, just in 
to be used by. the person who could make the best possible us 
them, and to whom they were, above all computation, valuz 
and necessary. If this be not | an act = mp rape: L hardly 
know what is. = 

The good Dr. Kirwan eemeened; no doubt, over the loss of his 
books, and not least of all that they had become ‘so utterly mis- 
placed and. useless. . He probably thought that the vessel which 
contained them might as well have been wrecked on the coast of 
Africa, and the leaves of his philosophical works employed to 
adorn the heads and persons of the Caffres and Hottentots, a use 
to which we are told “The Practical Navigator’ was once put 
by the inhabitants of one of the South Sea islands.* But had 
the learned philosopher known that his lost library had Pr 
the intellectual food for the growth of one of the greatest scien- 
tific men-of his ee) he =e eer ae heteee 
to his loss. - win ate tyl gant Hee 


* «Tt happened that sinéag the few > aoticka saved from the hip, [the eprstag] 
Mentor, of New Be dford,] was a copy of ‘ Bowditch’s Navigator ;’ 
as little use as we can conceive any one thing to have been at that er, Ss “a 
ingenuity of the females, who also have their passion for ornaments, tore out the 
leaves of the book, and making them into little rolls of the size” ‘of one’s finger, 
wore them in their ears, instead of the tufis of ch they usually Pi 

to give additional attractions to their native ee ace erican Quarterl y Review 
of Holden’s Narrative, Vol. XX, p. %. 

t Since the above was written, I have "éernt that the F tieatbs into whose 
hands Dr, Kirwan’s library fell, offered to remunerate him for the loss which he 
had sustained. He however  dockubd receiving any compensation, and expressed 
himself gratified that his books had fallen into te good hands. 


poe 


28 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


My other remark is, that this item in his Will is an indication — 
of a very prominent feature in his character, namely, his grateful : 
and generous spirit. Dr. Bowditch never forgot a favor; length 
of time did not obliterate it from his memory. ‘The kindness | 
shown him when a poor boy he remembers and repays by a lib- : 
eral legacy. The Salem Marine Society, a mutual charitable in- ; 
stitution, which had aided his father in his straits by the small an-_ 
nual stipend of fifteen dollars, he repays, and wipes off the obli- 
gation, though not his sense of the benefit, by a similar bequest 
of a thousand dollars. And the East India Marine Society, whose — 
peculiar and splendid collection of curiosities is so well-known, — 
receives a legacy of the same amount. And let it be remembered 
that these were not the donations of a rich man. ' He was fat 
_ from being one. These three legacies constituted one tenth patt 

of, his whole personal property. Others sometimes give to such 
institutions from their abundance—he from his comparative pen 
ury. Let the deed be an example and.an incitement to our ven 
thy men! 
‘Dr. Bowditch combined, in a very remarkable degree, qualitiell 
-and habits of mind which are usually considered incompatible 
and hostile. He was a contemplative, recluse student, and at the’ 
same time, an active, public man. He lived habitually among_ 
the stars, and yet, I doubt not, he seemed to many never to raise 
his eyes from the earth. He was a profound philosopher, and at 
the same time, a shrewd, practical man, and one of the most ski 
ful of financiers. Judging from his published works, you would 
suppose that he could have no taste nor time for business or the 
world; and judging from the large concerns which he managed, — 
and the a“ funds af whieh 2 _— the supervision,—involving the 
most t minute details,—you would 
say that he could have no taste nor time for study. His exam 
ple is a conclusive proof and striking illustration of the fact, that 
there is no inherent, essential, necessary incompatibility betwee® 
speculation and practice—that there need be no divorce betweel 
philosophy and business. The man most deeply engaged in al 
fairs need not be cut off from the higher pursuits of intellectual 
culture ; and the scholar need not be incapacitated by his studies 
from understanding and engaging in the practical details of come | 
mon life. _ To fact, “eng should be blended in order to make UP- 
the full, complete man. Contemplation should be always united 
= 


Lifé and: Character of Nathanial Bowdith. = 


with action. ‘This was the doctrine and the practice of the great 

father of inductive philosophy, as well as of this his illustrious 

pupil. “That,” says Lord Bacon, “ will indeed dignify and ex- 

alt knowledge, if contemplation and action may be more nearly 

and strongly conjoined and united together than they have been, 

—a conjunction like unto that of the two highest planets, Sat- 

urn, the planet of rest and contemplation, and Jupiter, the planet 

_of civil society and action.” And speaking of himself in ano- 

ther place, he says, “ We judge also that mankind may conceive 

some hopes from our example; which we offer not by way of 
ostentation, but be®ause it may be useful. If any one therefore 

should despair, let him consider aman a8 much émployed in civil 

affairs as any other of his age,—a man of no great share of healthy 
who must therefore have lost much time,—and yet, in this under-- 
taking, he is the first who leads the way, unassisted by any mor- — 
tal, and steadfastly entering the true path, that was absolutely 
untrod before, and submitting his mind to things, may somewhat 
have piltranseil the design.” 

In the management of all his affairs and transactions, Dr. Bow- 
ditch was a man of great order and system, and he required it 
of all with whom he had to do, or over whom he exercised any 
control. He considered that there was.a sort of moral virtue in 
this, and he could not tolerate any thing like negligence or irreg- 
ularity. He doubtless had himself acquired this habit from the 
nature of his favorite study, which demands the undivided atten- 
tion of the mind, and is peculiarly suited to form habits of exact- 
ness and precision. He felt, too, that it was by a strict and 
undeviating adherence to order and system, that he had been 
enabled to accomplish so much in life, to unite the scholar with 
the financier, the speculative with the practical man. It may 
have been thought by some, that he carried this love of order 
to an extreme, and sometimes visited too harshly the deviations 
from the straight line of his directions. But he felt assured 
that it was the way to effect the most work and do the greatest 
good; he knew that the habit could be easily formed in a short 
time, and that it would then approve and recommend itself; and 
therefore he would admit of no apology for infractions of his rules, 

In the common sense of the word, Dr. Bowditch would not be 
called a public man, although I have ventured to call him so; 
for though he twice held a seat in-the Executive Council of 


30 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


Massachusetts, under the administrations of Governors Strong and 


Brooks, yet he had no taste for public life, no ambition for po- 


litical honors. He could not be drawn from “ the still air of de- 
lightful studies,” to mingle in the turmoil and strife of politics. 
And yet he was a true-hearted and sound patriot, and not a whit 
the less so for not being a noisy one. He loved his country, and 
prized her peculiar institutions. He felt a deep interest. in the 


welfare and honor of his native State, and would do any thing 


tain the supremacy of the ini, and preserve the peace 


ior mind, good sense being one of its most prominent qualities. 
Accordingly, he could have no sympathy with those visionary 
reformers who would jumble society into its original elements, 


and bring. back. ancient chaos again, in order to get a chance to 


-at making the very best. possible commonwealth 
of the fragments. No. “He valued the lessons of experience, 
and prized the gathered wisdom of ages. He had faith in other 
men’s intelligence, as well as his own, and trusted in the light 
that had been reflected from a yonsand brilliant minds who had 
pored and pondered over the great questions of government and 
civil polity, and given us their results in laws and institutions. 

Dr. Bowditch thought, with Governor Winthrop, in his noble 
apesey for himself, that “‘ there is a great mistake in the country 
about liberty. ' is a two-fold liberty ; natural, and civil or 


Mh apo is common to man with beasts and other crea- 
tures. ee chin, man, as he stands in relation to man simply, hath 
liberty to do what he lists; it is a liberty to evil as well as to 
good. This liberty is incompetibte and~inconsistent with au-. 

thority, and cannot endure the least restraint of the most just 

authority. The exercise and maintaining of this liberty makes 
men grow more evil, and, in time, to be worse than brute beasts: 
‘omnes sumus licentia deteriores.’ This is that great enemy of 
truth and peace, that wild beast, which all the ordinances of God 
are bent against, to restrain and subdue it. The other kind I 
call civil, or federal; it may.also be termed moral, in reference to 
the covenant lesensn: God and man, in the moral law, and the 
politic covenants and constitutions, amongst. men themselves, 
iberty is the proper end and object of authority, and can- 
t without it; and it is a liberty to that which is good, 
Libeetax you are to stand for, with the haZ- 


; Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 31 


ard not only of your goods, but of your lives, if need be. What-* 
soever crosses this, is not authority, but a distemper thereof. This 

liberty is maintained and leis ina ii: amnion: to au- 

thority.’’* 

The lawless and flagrant dscantta upon robiecky aa life which 
have -occurred in this country within a few years past, casting 
upon its fair name a stain of dishonor, grieved him to the heart, 
and stirred his spirit within him. Conversing with him about 
one of the earliest and most wanton and unprovoked of Sieoiopt- 
rages,—I mean the conflagration of a religious house in the 
cinity of Boston, inhabited solely by women and ch ild ren, b ya 5 
ferocious mob at midnight,—he told me that had he been sum- ; 
moned, or had an opportunity, he would readily have shouldered 
his musket, and marched to the spot, and stood in defence of that 
edifice to the last drop of his blood. There was nothing, indeed, 
that stirred his indignation like oppression.+ 
| ‘Immediately after this outrage, he called on the Catholic bishop 
5 in Boston, and put into-his hands a sum of money, to buy clothes 
| for the women and children, who had lost every thing in the 


EE a 


ee eT ee ee. | 


flames. It is an agreeable circumstance, well worth recording, 
that as soon as the bishop heard of Dr. Bowditch’s illness, he sent 
and informed the family, that, to prevent his being disturbed, the 
bell of the cathedral, which is in the vicinity of his house, should 
not be rung during his illness, although it was the season of Lent, 
and. religious services were going on almost every day. It is 
pleasant to see kindness thus reciprocated, between divergent 
sects, and the middle wall of separation broken down by the hu- 
mane-and grateful feelings of a common nature. 
Pe Why is it, that all the youthful talent of this. country is ruins. 
madly into political life?. To how many of these aspirants may 
we apply, with literal truth, the remark of Lord Bacon, in ee 
. ence to himself, that “ they were born andintended for literature, 
rather than any thing else, and, by a sort of fatality, have been 
drawn, contrary to the bent of their own genius, into the walks © 
of gubee life.”"{ Is it nota great mistake, on ther Saiss to sup- 


ek ee 
a of New England, HH. 909. con alae sot 
t “ The Ursuline Convent,” on Mount Benedict, in Charlestown, about two 
miles from Boston, was burnt on the night of the Hth of August, 1834. 
. literas potius quam ad aliud quicquam natus, et ad res ae, nescio quo 
3 ’ contra genium suum abreptus.—De Aug. Sci. Lib. 8. Cap. 3. 


& 


32 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


‘pose that politics is the only or the principal avenue to endu- 
ring fame? Is the science of government the only one worth 
studying, or are civil honors the only ones worth aspiring to? 
It seems to me that the young men of competent abilities among 
us, who aim at distinction, those certainly who have leisure 
and property, might quite as securely seek it in the retired and 
quiet walks of science and literature, as in the bustling and 
dusty paths of political life. Are the names of Newton and Mil- 
ton less eminent .than those of Chatham ‘and: Fox? -Do they 
not stir the spirit as soon? ay, even as soon as those of Maribo- 
rough and Wellington? Are Cuvier and La Place ‘names less 
likely to live than those of the statesmen and marshals of France? 
Which are the two greatest names in our own annals, the best 
known and the most honored the world over?» First, Washing- 
ton; then Franklin; and the latter chiefly as a philosopher, from 
——— and ‘diianiedieds in science. 

‘The example and success of Dr. Bowditch are full of incite- 
ment and encouragement to our young men in this particular, and 
should especially stimulate those who have leisure and fortune, to 
do something to enable our country to take a respectable clacess in 
science and letters among the other nations of the earth; so that 
the stigma shall not adhere to us of being a race of unlettered 
republicans. Let them look, too, at more than one recent and 

uccessful attempt among us in the department of history.* How 
sine may they not accomplish? And into what pleasant fields 
will they not be led? Into the various departments of natural 
history, the different walks of exact science, the rich and instruc- 
tive annals of our own country, and the delightful province of 
general literature and philosophy. Let them labor in this field, 
which will reward all their efforts, instead of delving in a stony 
and sterile soil. . 

I have no fear that the path of politics will be deserted, or that 
the republic will suffer detriment from the absence of candidates 
for its offices and emoluments. Alas! these will always be too 
attractive ; and what we chiefly need is some counteracting influ- 
ence, some striking example, like that of Dr. Bowditch, to con- 


aes Prescott's 8 ae of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Cath,” 
already and Mr. George Bancroft’s “ History of the United 


eos 


t and honorable contributions to the growing literature oof 
a ew ees a Oe Re SC of New-England . ; 


qd 


gent Ye Ee oe, Se ee he ge ee 


EN SUS LS a era er ne. 2, ee a, Sue ee 


ete | 


eee 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 33 


vince our young men that political life is not the only road to 
eminence, nor the only adequate and honorable sphere for the 
exercise and display of their talents. For affording us this evi- 
dence, his memory deserves to be honored, and his tiie dp. be 
held in everlasting remembrance. Agee! 
wditch was a remarkably domestic man. Bis affections 
clustered around his own fireside, ¢ ne 


? 
last moments. His attachn cde to home, and to its calm and 
simple pleasures was, ireleidy one of the most beautiful traits in 
his character, and one which his children and friends will look 
back upon with the greatest satisfaction. As Sir Thomas More 


says of himself, “he devoted the little time which he could 


spare from his avocations abroad, to his family, and spent it in lit- 
tle innocent and endearing conversations with his wife and chil- 
dren; which, though some might think them trifling amusements, 
he-placed among the necessary duties and business of life ; it being 
incumbent on every one to make himself as agreeable as possible 
to those whom nature ‘has made, or he nat has singled out 
for, his companions in life.”*— 

His time was divided. between bis olfiee and his shisase : and 


- that must have been a strong*attraction, indeed, that could aie 


him into company. When at home, his time was spent in his 
library, which he loved to have considered as the family parlor. 
By very early rising, in winter two hours before the light, “long 
ere the sound of any bell awoke men to labor or to devotion,” 
and ‘in summer,” like Milton, “as oft with the bird that first 
rises or not much tardier,” he was enabled to accomplish much 
before others were Stirring. iTS these morning — he used 
ears “Lam ir € bte d for ailmyn 


42 : mS Ste z ey 


a «Dum foris totum fariad dien alta impertior, <ciapiee mis, relinquo wibi, ee 
est literis, nihil. Nempe, reverso domum, cum-uxore fabulandum est, garriendum 
cum liberis, colloguendum cum ministris. Que ego omnia inter negotia numero, 
quando fieri necesse est, (necesse est autem nisi — esse dori tue potegeinaa) et 
danda omnino opera est, ut quos vite tue co mites 
aut ipse delegisti, his ut te quam jucundissimum compares.” "—Preface to Utopia. 

+ He ney literally apply to himself the apology of the great Roman orator, 
¥ Quare quis andem > me repr ndat, aut quis mihi jure succenseat, si quantum 
obeundas, quantum d festos dies ludorum celebrandos, quantum 
ad alias voluptates, et ad ¢ ag i et corporis conceditur temporis ; 
quantum alii tribuunt tempestivis conviviis ; ; quantum ae alex, quantum pee 
tantum mihi egomet ad hee studia recolenda sumpsero 


Vou. XX XV.—No. 1. 


34 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


his evening walk he was again always to be found in the library, 
pursuing the same attractive studies, but ready and glad, at the 
entrance of any visitor, to throw aside his book, unbend his 
mind, and meee in all the so OE of his light-hearted conver- 
sation. 

- There was nothing that he seemed to enjoy more peek this free 
inecelainsa of thought on bjects of common interest. At 
such times the mathematician, the astronomer, the man of sci- 
ence, disappeared, and he presented himself as the frank, easy, 

familiar friend. One could hardly believe that this agreeable, fas- 
cinating companion, who talked so affably and pleasantly on all 
the topics of the day, and joined so heartily in the quiet mirth 
and the loud laugh, could really be the great mathematician who 
had expounded. the mechanism of the heavens, and taken’ his 
place with Newton, and Leibnitz, and La Place, among the great 
ci in exact science. 'To hear him.talk, you would never 
have suspected that he knew any thing aboct science, or cared 
any thing about it.. In this respect he resembled his.great Scot- 
tish contemporary, who has delighted the whole world by his 
writings. You might have visited him in that library from one 
year’s end to another, and yet, if you or some other visitor did 
not introduce the subject, I venture to say, that not one word on .- 
_mathematics would cross his lips. He had no pedantry of any 
kind. Never did I meet with a scientific or literary man so en- 
tirely devoid of all cant and pretension. In conversation he had 
the simplicity and playfulness. and unaffected manners of a child. 
His own remarks “seemed rather to escape from his mind. than 
to be produced. by it.” -He laughed heartily, and rubbed his 
hands, and jumped up, when an observation was made that great-: 
ly pleased him, because it was natural for him so to do, and -he 
had never been schooled into the conventional proprieties of arti- 
ficial life, nor been accustomed to conceal or stifle any of the in- 
nocent impulses of his nature. ae 
Who that once enjoyed the privilege of Yisiting isin 3 in sits li- 
brary, can ever forget the scene? Methinks I see him now, in 


my mind’s eye, the venerable man, sitting there close by his old- 


fashioned blazing wood fire, bending over his favorite little desk, 
3 like one of the old philosophers, with his silvery hair, and 

at heh e, and pene countenance ; whilst 
' : ar 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 35 


- science of departed sages and philosophers, who seem to look 
down upon him benignantly from their quiet places, and sponta- 
neously and silently to give forth to him their instructions. On 
entering this, the noblest repository of scientific works in the coun- 
try, E almost fancy I hear him saying with Heinsius, the keeper 
of the library at Leyden, ‘ “T ho sooner come into my library, 

umbition, avarice, and all 
such vices; and, in the very ‘laps ernity, amidst so many di- 
vine souls, . 7 take my seat with so. lofty a spirit and such sweet 
content, that I pity mt the great and rich who know not this sat 
piness.” 

It may be here remarked, that althoujti“a mathematics was his 
chief and favorite pursuit, Dr. Bowditch still had a taste and love 
for general literature. He was fond of Shakspeare and Milton, 
and remembered and could repeat whole passages from their 
works. - He loved, too, the poetry of Burns and our own Bryant 
and Sprague. Many of his favorite pieces he not only had by 
heart, but also.had them written down, for convenience’ sake, on 
the covers of his mathematical common-place book. L recollect, 
among others, thus copied off, “ The Cotter’s Saturday Night,” 
a selection which evinced at the same time his good feeling and 
his good taste. Talso recollect observing on the covers and blank 
-Jeaves of his copy of Newton’s Principia many commendatory 
verses on Newton, selected from Voltaire and other French poets. 

But I must hasten on to speak, as briefly and comprehensively 
as I can, of what is the most important part of every man—name- 
ly, his moral and religious character—the qualities of his heart, 
and his principles of action. 

_ Dr. Bowditch was a man of unsullied jnisisy, af rigid scan 
and uncompromising ‘principle. - Through life, truth seems to 


principle of action. “ForLow Trorn,”’ might have been the 
motto on his escutcheon. “Truth!-Truth! Truth!” were among 
his last words to one whom he dearly loved. He was himself 
perfectly transparent. A child could see through him: ‘There 
Was, no_opaqueness in his heart, any more than in his intellect. 

It was as clear as crystal, and the rays of moral truth were trans- 
mitted through it without being refracted or tinged. In all his 
intercourse and transactions he was remarkably frank and candid. 

He revealed himself entirely. He had no secrets. He kept noth- 


a. 


36. ae Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


ing back, for he had nothing to conceal. He lived openly, and 
talked freely, of himself, and of his doings, and of every thing 
that was uppermost in his mind. He never hesitated to speak 
out what he thought on all subjects, public and private, and he 
avowed his opinions of men and things with the utmost freedom 


and: unconcern. It seemed to me that he never had the fear of © 


man before his eyes, and that it never checked, in the least, the 
free and full utterance of his sentiments. 

Dr. Bowditch was perfectly fair and just in the estimate which 
he formed of his own capacities and gifts.. He did not, on the 
one-hand, overrate his talents; nor, on the other hand, did he, as 
some do, with a sort of hackshanded humility, purposely under- 
value his powers, in order to enjoy the pleasure of being contra- 
dicted by those about him and-told that he was really a much 

greater man than he seemed willing to admit. Asan illustration 
of this, let me mention a little conversation of his. “People,” 
said he, “are very kind and polite, in mentioning me in the same 


breath with La Place, and blending my name with his. But 


they mistake both me and him; we are very different men. I 

trust I understand his works, and can supply his deficiencies, and 
correct his errors, and render his book more intelligible, and re- 
cord the successive advanceraents of the science, and perhaps ap- 
pend some improvements. But La Place was a genius, a discov- 
erer,an inventor. And yet Thope I know as sauch about panthers 
matics as Playfair! ae 

I have been informed by a pontlanss of Susien, that soon ates 
his return from Europe a few years since, he happoted, in a con- 
versation with Dr. Bowditch, to mention to him incidentally, the 
high estimation in which he and his labors were held by men of 
science abroad, and told him that he had often heard his name 
spoken of in terms of the strongest commendation by persons in 
the most elevated walks of society in England. * Dr. Bowditch,” 
says my informant, “seemed to be sensi 
ment, so much so that I saw the tears g) isten in his eyes. But 
he immediately remarked that however flattering such testimo- 


-nials might be, yet the most grateful tribute of commendation he 


had ever received was contained ina letter from a backwoodsman 
of the een who wrote to him to point out an error in his Trans- 
2 a Céleste. ‘It was an actual error,’ said 


the ime ‘which which had escaped my own observation, The : 


. 


Life-andCharaetet of Nathaniel Bowdite © $F 


simple fact that my work had reached the hands of one on the 
outer verge of civilization, who could understand and estimate it, 
was more gratifying to my feelings than the eulogies of men of 
science and the commendatory votes of Academies,’ ” 

-He was a singularly modest man. He made no. | pretensions 
himself and there was nothing that he so much despised in others. 
He was remarkably simple in all shis manners and intercourse 

with the world. He put on no airs and assumed no superiority 
on the ground of his intellectual attainments, but placed himself 
on a level with every one with whom he had _any concern. He 
reverenced integrity and truth wherever he found them, in what-- 
ever condition in life. He felt and showed no respect for mere 
wealth or rank. He fearlessly rebuked, to his face, the mean and 
purse-proud nabob, and “ sen doupenieal to men of low estate.” 

- Dr. Bowditch used to relate a little anecdote concerning himself, 
which strongly and beautifully ncumiaes the eee simplicity 
and naturalness of his character. 

In the year 1824, when General . Leabagrsge, in. his progress 
through the country, among-other places, visited Boston, the may- 
oralty of the city was filled by the Honorable Josiah Quiney. 
Dr. Bowditch, in-common with all the world, had a curiosity to 
behold the entrance of the nation’s guest into the city; and ac- 
cordingly accepted an invitation from a friend, whose house was 
in Colonnade Row, to take a station on his balcony. But finding 
that the chariot single tarried, and the General delayed his com= 
ing, he thought that he should have time to go down to his office 
to transact a little business, and return in season for the spectacle. 
But, in the mean time, the procession had arrived and passed on, 
and was fast advancing to State street. He concluded, therefore, 
to wait where he was, and, in order to get a nearer and better 
view, took his. stand" on the steps of the United States’ Bank. 
On the SppeNenees of the barouche in which Lafayette was seated, 
Dr. Bowditch remarked, that he was glad to see Mr. Quincy at 
his side; he was the proper aman. for that place, being the son of 
one of ip earliest and best of the patriots of the Miwichesbicat: 

_ “As the shout of the multitude rose unto heaven,” he said, “T 
know not how it happened, but I could not keep my place; my 
hat would not stay on my head, nor could I hold my tongue. 
And to my astonishment, I found myself, all at once, in the midst 
of the crowd by the side of the chariot, and shouting with the 


38 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


rest at the top of my voice.” The President of Harvard Univer- 
sity recollects distinctly seeing him in the position and attitude 


thus described. e 


At first sight there may seem something ludicrous and carci 
in this grave philosopher and calculator, this votary of abstract 
science, huzzaing in a mixed crowd on a city’s holiday. But to 
me it seems a most natural and beautiful expression of his simpli- 
city, his self-forgetfulness, his utter unconsciousness of greatness, 
his generous sympathy with the people, and his grateful and. ar- 
dent patriotism. This little incident cannot fail to raise in 
the estimation of every right-minded and single-hearted man. 

Dr. Bowditch was a truly conscientious man. He was swings 
true to his moral as well as intellectual convictions, and followed 
them whithersoever they led. He had great faith in the rectitude 
of his moral perceptions, and in the primary decision of his own 
judgment and moral sense ; and he carried them forth and acted 
them out instantly. The word followed the thought, and the 
‘deed the feeling, with the rapidity of lightning. This straight- 


forwardness and frankness were among the secret causes of the 


remarkable influence: which he confessedly exercised over the 
minds and judgments of others.. By his honesty, as well as by 
his resoluteness and decision, he was the main-spring of évery 
tite which he Mes Songer By his moral influence he 
and swayed men with whom he was associated. 
As As Be Jonson —_ tod Bacon, “he commanded where he 
spo. e 7 

Dr. Bowditch was a man of sett natintal ‘fooling, and of an 
impetuous temperament. A venerable lady, after her first inter- 
view with him, said, “I like that man, for he is a dive man.” 


He was strong in his attachment to men and to opinions, and was. 


not easily turned from-any course of speculation or action, which 
he had once satisfied himself was right, wise and good. At the 
same time, he always kept his mind open to evidence ; and if you 
brought before him new facts and arguments, he would reconsider 


the subject—deliberately, not hastily—and the next day, perhaps, 


would tell you that you were in the right, and that he had altered 
his mind: He was sometimes quick, warm, and vehement in ex- 
pressing his disapprobation of the character or conduct of an in- 
dividual, Lesa if he thought that the person had practiced 
"any thing like se duplicity or frand. In such cases, his indignation 


Se | ee EE =e 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 39 


was absolutely scorching and withering. “But he never cherished 
any personal resentments in his bosom. He did not let the sun 
go down upon his wrath. His anger was like a cloud, which 
passes over the disk.of the moon, and leaves it as mild and clear 
as before ; or, as the judicious Hooker’s was represented to be, 
“like a vial of clear water, which, when shook, beads at the top, 
but instantly parrine: without any soil or sediment of seeseee? 
tableness.”’ 

Let me relate an socideit itinereivé of this remarkable trait in 
his character. Dr. Bowditch had been preparing a plan of Salem, 
which he intended soon to publish. It had been the fruit of much 
labor and care. By some means or other, an individual in the 
town had surreptitiously got possession of it, and had the’ anda- 
city to issue proposals to publish it as his own. This was too 
much for Dr. Bowditch to bear. He instantly went to the per- 
son, and burst out in the following strain: “ You villain! how 
dare you do this? What do you mean by it? If you presume. 
to proceed any farther in this business, I will prosecute you to the 


utmost extent of the law.” The poor fellow cowered before the 


storm of his indignation, and was silent ; for his wrath was ter- 
rible. Dr. Bowditch went home, and slept on it; and the next 
day, hearing from some authentic source, that the man was ex- 
tremely poor, and had probably been driven by the necessities of 
his family: to commit this audacious plagiarism, his feelings were 
touched, his heart relented, his anger melted away like wax. He 
Went to him again, and said, “Sir, you did very wrong, and you 
know it, to appropriate to your own use and benefit the fruit of 
my labors. But I understand you are poor, and have a family to 
support. I feel for you, and will help you. hat plan is unfin- 
ished, and contains errors that would have disgraced you | 


you and me, | 
had it been paniahed | in the state in which you found it. [ll tell 


you what Twill do. I will finish the plan; I will correct the er- 
rors; and then you shall publish it for your own benefit, and i 
will head the subscription ist with my name.” 

What a sublime, noble, christian spirit was there manifested ! 
This was really overcoming evil with good, and pouring coals of 
fire upon the poor man’s head. The natural feeling of resent- 
ment, which God has implanted within all bosoms for our protec- 
tion against sudden assault and injury, was ovérruled and -con- 
quered by the higher, the sovereign principle of conscience. 


AO Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


Dr. Bowditch was, in all his habits of life, a very regular and 
temperate man. He never tasted any wine till the age of thirty- 
five. He approved the remarkable changes which have been ef- 
fected in the customs of society, within’ a few years, by “ the 
temperance reform,” and he heartily rejoiced in the success of 
that good cause. God bless it and speed it! 

In his religious views, Dr. Bowditch was, from examination 
and Sonvicilitr a firm and decided Unitarian. His parents were 
Episcopalians, and he himself had been educated in the tenets of , _ 
that church. But he had no taste for the polemics or peculiarities 
of any sect, and did not love to dwell on the distinctive and di- 
viding points of christian doctrine. . His religion was rather an 
inward sentiment, flowing out into the life, and revealing itself in 
his character and actions. It was at all times, and at all periods 
of his life, a controlling and sustaining principle. He confided in 
the providence and benignity. of his Heavenly Father, as revealed 
by his blessed Son, our Lord, and had the most unshaken confi- 
dence in the wisdom and rectitude of all the divine appointments. 
He looked forward with saiee faith to an immortality in the spirits 
ual world. 

He said to one, in his last illness, “From my boyhood my 
mind has been religiously impressed. I never did or could ques- 
‘tion the existence of a Superintending Being, and that he took an 
interest in the affairs of men. I have always endeavored to regu- 
late my life in subjection to his will, and studied to bring my inind . 
to an acquiescence in his dispensations ; and now, at its close, I al 
look back with gratitude for the manner in which he has distin- ; 
guished me, and for the many blessings of my lot. I can only 
say, that I am content, that I go willingly, resigned, and satis- 
fied.” To another he said, “I cannot remember when I had not 
a deep feeling of religious truth and accountableness, and when I 
did not act from it, or endeavor to. In my boyish days, when 
some of my companions who had become infected with 'Tom 
Paine’s infidelity, broached his. notions'in conversation with me, I 
battled it with them stoutly, not exactly with the logic you would 
get from Locke, but with the logic I found here, (pointing to his 
breast, ) and here it has always been, my guide and support ; it 4 
pc as still. . My whole life, fein been crowned with bles- 

beyc lL my deserts. I-am still surrounded with blessings 
nannaibeies “Why should TL distrust the goodness of God? 


a 
Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. ~ At 
Why should I not still be lasiaicis? and happy, and confide in his 


goodness?” 

Dr. Bowditch was very familiar with the Scriptures, both of 
the Old and New Testaments, more so than some professed theo- 
logians who make it their special study. He had read the Bible 
in his childhood, under the eye of a pious mother, and he loved 
bag quote and repeat the sublime and touching ace 3 of Holy 


Such had been the life, and such the character of this distin- 
guished man; and such was he to the last, through all the ago- 
nies of a most distressing illness. In the midst of health and 
usefulness, in the full discharge of the duties of life, and in the 
full enjoyment of its satisfactions, the summons suddenly comes 
to him to leave it. And he meets the summons with the utmost 
equanimity and composure, with the submission of a philosopher 
and with the resignation of a Christian. He certainly had much 
to live for—few have more—but he gave up all without repining 
or complaint. He said he should have liked to live a little longer, 
to complete his great work, and see his younger children grown 
up and settled in life. - “But I am perfectly happy,” he added, 
“and ready to go, and entirely resigned to the will of Provi- 
dence.” He arranged all his affairs, gave his directions with mi- 
nuteness, and dictated and signed his last will and testament. 
While his strength permitted, he continued to attend to the ne- 
cessary affairs of his office, and on the day previous to his death, 
put his name to an important instrument. In the intervals of 
pain, he prepared, as I have already remarked, the remaining 
copy, and corrected the proof-sheets, of the fourth volume of his 
great work, the printing of which was nearly finished. at the 
time of his death. _ It is a little remarkable that the last page that 


he read was the one thousandth: It was gratifying to him to 


find that his mind was unenfeebled by disease and pain; and one 
day, after solving one of the hardest problems in the book, he ex- 
claimed, in his ‘exuluumnetic way, “I feel that I am Nathaniel 
Bowditch still—only a little weaker.” 

He continued, indeed, in all respects, the same man to the last. 
He did not think that this was the time to put on a new face or 
assume’a new character. His feelings were unaffected, his man- 
ners unchanged, by the prospect before him. He seemed to 
those about him only to be going on a long journey. ‘To the 

Vout. XXXV.—No. 1 6 


42 Lifeand Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


end, he manifested the same cheerfulness, nay pleasantry, which 
he had when in health, without, however, the least admixture of 
levity. In his great kindness, he exerted himself to see many 
friends, every one of whom, I believe, will bear testimony to his 
calm, serene state of mind. 'The words which he spoke in those 
precious interviews, they will gather up and treasure in their 
memory, <i will never forget them so long as they live. She 
will not, to whom, when on her taking leave of him 
~“ Good night,” he nepiied, “No, my dear, say not 
* Good night, ’ but ‘Good morning,’ for the next time we meet 
will be on the morning of the resurrection.” 

One day, toward the close of his lingering illness, after he had 
himself given up all hope of recovery, he asked one who stood by 
him, what were the two Greek words which signify ‘“ easy 
death.” The word not immediately suggesting itself to the per- 
son, and he having mentioned over several phrases and combina- 
tions of words, Dr. Bowditch said, ‘“ No, yow have not got the 
right word; but you will find it in Pose! s Correspondence.” 
The person Ton the letter, which was the last that Dr. Arbuth- 
not* wrote to his friend. The conclusion of it is as follows: 
“ A-recovery, in my case, and at my age, is impossible. The 
kindest wish of my friends is euthanasia.” On hearing this read, 
Dr. Bowditch said, ‘Yes, that is the word, euthanasia. That 
letter I read forty years ago, and I have not seen it since. It 
made an impression on my mind which is still fresh. It struck 
me, at the time I read it, that the good physician who wrote it 
would certainly have an easy death. It could not be otherwise. 
t be happy in their d YP; He 
afterwards frequently reeurred to this subject, and the day previ- 
ous to his departure, he said, “'This is, indeed, euthanasia.” — 

Through the whole of his illness he manifested the same happy ; 
and delightful frame of mind. His room did not appear like the 
chamber of sickness and dissolution, 'The light of his serene 


* Dr. Arbuthnot was an eminent physician and brilliant wit in the time of Queen 
Anne, the contemporary and friend of Swift and Pope. He. died in 1735. Dr 
Johnson; in his Life of Pope, says of him, “ Arbuthnot was a man of great com- 
preliension, skillful in his practice, versed in the sciences, acquainted with ancient 
literature, and able to animate his mass of knowledge by a bright and active ima- 
gination ; 32 scholar, with great brilliance of wit; 4 wit, who, in the crowd of life, 

ered a noble ardor of religious zeal; a man estimable for his 
a a piety.” 


Hing 
Life ani Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 43 
and placid countenance dispelled all gloom, and his cheerful com- 
posure robbed death of all its bitterness and anguish. He exem- 
plified in his own case the sentiment so ae cle “ 
the Persian poet, which he loved to repeat :— ) 
* On parent knees, a naked, new-born child, 
_ Weeping thou sat’st, whilst all around thee smiled ae 
’ Bo live, that, sistking in thy last, long sleep, $e 
Calm ou may’st smile, when all around th 


fie did ck Bh EBA BSE ak gloomy. 
On one occasion he said, “I feel no gloom within me; why 
should you wear it on your faces?’ And then he called for Bry- 
ant’s Poems, and desired them to read his favorite piece, “The 
Old Man’s Funeral.” | 


“Why weep ye then for him, who, having won 

The bound of man’s appointed years, at last, 

Life’s blessings all enjoyed, life’s ae 8 done, 
Serenely to his final rest has passe 


And then he went on and commented on the remaining lines of 
the poem , pointing out those which he thought were descriptive 
of himself and modestly disclaiming others that were commend- 
atory, as not belonging to him; but which all impartial persons 
would unite in saying were singularly applicable to his character. 

On the morning of his death, when his sight was very dim, 
and his voice was almost gone, he called his children around his 
bedside, and arranging them in the order of age, pointed to and 
addressed each by name, and aaa You see I can distinguish 


his I t words. After 

wa Sas tenn to Seliisper, in a ‘scarcely audible tone, the words 
“ pretty, pleasant, beautiful.” ‘But it cannot be known, whether 
he was thinking of his own situation as pleasant, in being thus 
surrounded ‘at such a time by those he loved, or whether he 
“snatched a fearful joy” in a glimpse of the spiritual world. 
Soon after this, he quietly breathed away his soul, and departed. 
“ And the end of that man was peace.” Such a death alone 
was to complete such a life, and crown and seal such a 
character. He died on Friday, the 16th day of March, having 
nearly completed his 65th year. 


44 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


The disease of which Dr. Bowditch died was found, by a post 
mortem examination, to be a schirrus in the stomach, a disease 
_ of the same type with that which caused the death of Napoleon 
Buonaparte. For four weeks previous to his death, he could take 
no solid food, and hardly swallowed any liquid. He suffered, 
however, but little from hunger, but constantly from thirst ; and 
the only relief or refreshment he could find, was in frequen 
moistening his lips and mouth with cold water. His frame was 
consequently exceedingly attenuated, and his flesh wasted away. 


At intervals his sufferings were so intense, that, as he said, the | 


body at times triumphed over the spirit; but it was only for a 
moment; and the spirit resumed La orc = retained its natural 
and. lsgilivmnte sovereignty. 

He was buried, as he had lived, privately: and without parade 
or show, on the quiet morning of the Lord’s day.* His funeral 
was Sitended only by his family and two others; yet, in the per- 
son of the Chief Magistrate, I fancied I saw the Spirit of the 
Commonwealth doing homage to the talents and virtues of her 
illustrious son. As the hearse passed along through the silent 
streets, bearing that precious dust to its last resting-place, the 
snow-flakes fell upon it, the fit emblems of his purity and worth. 
And many a wet eye, in the city of his adoption, and in the place 
of his. nativity, and Ree wept for him, and many a heart 
blessed his memory, and mourned that a friend, and a benefac- 
tor, and a good man, had departed. 

He has built his own monument, more enduring than marble ; 
and in his splendid scientific name, and in his noble character, 


has bequeathed to his country the richest legacy. The sailor’ 


traverses the sea more safely by means of his labors, and the wid- 
ow’s and the orphan’s treasure is more securely guarded, in con- 
sequence of his care. He was the Great Pilot who steered all 
our ships over the ocean; and, though dead, he yet liveth, -and 
speaketh, and acteth, in the recorded wisdom of his invaluable 
book. The world has been the wiser and the happier that he 
has lived in it. 

- He has left an example full of instruction and encouragement 
to the young, and especially to those among them who are strug- 
ee -saiad and difficulties. He has shown them that that 


‘anus sine imaginibus et pom, por lade ae memoriam viru eu 
lebre fait" Pacibas, Ann. Lib. TL. 73. _- 


a a ee 


ee a a ee ee ee ee 


Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. A5 


poverty is no dishonor, and need be no hiudeence; that the great- 
est obstacles may be surmounted by persevering ‘asdnatey and an 
indomitable will. He has shown them to what heights of great- 
ness and glory they may ascend, by truth, temperance, and toil. 

He has proved to them that fai need not be sought for solely 
in political life ; although that is a worthy field, and the country 
must be served,—and served, too, not by the worst but by the 
best of men,—not by the factious, the ignorant, the scheming, 
but by the wisest, the most enlightened, the best accomplished, 

that we have among us; by men who dare to tell the people of 
their duties as well as of thete rights ; and who, instead of meanly 
flattering them for their votes, will boldly speak to them the words 
of truth and soberness, and point out to them their errors and 
faults. 

Above all, Dr. Bowditch has left us a most glorious and pre- 
cious legacy in his example of integrity, love of truth, moral 
courage, and independence. He has taught the young men here, 
and the world over, that there is nothing so grand and beautiful 
as moral principle, nothing so sublime as adherence to truth, and 
right, and duty, through good 1 -and through evil report. He 
has, indeed, blessed the world greatly by his science and his prac- 
tical wisdom ; but quite as much, nay, far more, I think, by his 
upright and npaily character. He has taught mankind that rev- 
erence for duty, and trust in Providence, and submission to His 
will, and faith in the rectitude of all His appointments, and a fil- 
ial reliance upon His love, are its not unworthy nor unbe- 
coming the greatest philosopher: For this we honor and eulogize 
him ; not for wealth, title, fortune, hose mi 


trappings of humanity, but for she dea aliti 


which still live, and will live hnoeer:: Hid stindied the stars on 
the earth—may he not now be tracking their courses through the 
heavens? Long ere this, perhaps, he knows all the beauties and 
the mysteries of their tangled mazes—has examined the rings of 
Saturn and the belts of Jupiter, traversed the milky way, and 
chased the comet through infinity. Methinks I hear his depart- 
ing and ascending spirit exclaiming, as it wings its flight upwards, 
in the language of the beautiful hymn :— 
“Ye golden lamps of heaven! farewell, 
With all your feeble light : 
Farewell, thou ever-changing moon, 
Pale empress of the night! 


AG Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 


And thou, refulgent orb of al 
In brighter flames arrayed 

My soul, which springs beyond thy sphere, 
No more demands thine ai f 


Ye stars are but the shining dust 
Of my divine abode, : 
The pavement of those heavenly courts, , 

- Where I shall reign with God. 


The Father of eternal light 
Shall there his beams display ; 
- Nor shall one moment’s darkness mix 
With that unvaried day.” 


, 
iv 


DR. BOWDITCH’S SCTENTIFIC PAPRID. oe 

The following is a list of the — éontributed by Dr. Bowditch to the Me- 
of Arts and Sciences. It will serve to show the 

extent of his observations and the variety of his inquiries, 


VOLSIbGs, 


r 


“Observations on the Total Ratings of the mn , June 16, 1806, made at Biter 
Addition to the sectans on the Solar Ecli se.of . June 16, 1806. 

; rs Rule for solving sone of rightangled spherie trigo- 
10n ry tos Sees cases of oblique-angled spheric trigonometry. 

mate 0 height. , direction, yee and Tagtitide of the Meteor that 
ined over Weitss; ta Oon , Dec. 14,1807. 

On the Eclipse of the Sun of Sept. 17, 1811, with the Jongitudes of several pla 
ces in this country, deduced from all the observations of the eclipses of the Sun, 
and transits of Mercury and Venus, that have been published in the Transac- 
tions of the Royal Societies of Paris and London, the Philosophical Society held 
at Philadelphia, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. == 

Elements of the orbit of the Comet of 1811. - — 

An estimate of the height of the bk Hills in New Hampshire. 

On the variation of the Magnetic Nee 

On the motion of a pendalum ieee from two — 

nstration of the rule for finding the ble a Meteor, in the gcor 
problem, page 218 of this volume. 


VOL, IV. 
‘Oma mistake which exists in the solar tables of Mayer, La Lande, na Zach. 
‘On the calculation of the oblateness of the earth, by means of the observed 
— of a pendulum in different latitudes, atvarding to the method given by La 
in the second volume of his “Mécanique Céleste,’ with remarks on other 
: Sta relating to the figure of the earth. 
ide soereatelginant <f ie Moon from the iemanieaaa 


eebiataeaeslile 


* 91, 1819. 


Remarks upon East Florida. Av 


method of computing the Dip s the Magnetic Needle in different lati- 
tudes, ee to the theory of M. Bio 
emarks on the methods of correcting ‘elerienits of the orbit of a comet in 
Newton’s “ Principia,” and in La Place’s ** Mécanique Céleste 
Remarks on the usual Demonstration of the permanency of the 
with roepact to the Fecpntictis and Inclinations of the orbits of the Planets. 
arks on Dr. Stewart’s formula, for computing the motion of the Moon’s 
Apia as given in thet Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica. 
e Meteor which passed over Wilmington in the Gente of Delaware, Nov. 


_ Occultation of Spica by the Moon, ares at Salem. 

‘On a mistake which exists in the cal culation of M. Poisson Satie to the dis- 
tribution of the electrical matter upon the surfaces of two globes, in-vol. 12 of the 
«‘ Mémoires de ta alate ‘des sciences mathématiques et nitsiliaa de |’ Institut Im- 
perial de France 

Elements of the Comet of 1819. 


Dr. Bowditeh was also the author of _ a on Modern Astronomy, in the 
North American Review, Vol. XX. pp. 309—366. In the Monthly Anthology, 
Vol. IV. p. 653, there is ee! account 7 fs Comet of 1806, drawn up by him 
at the request of the Edito 


— attention has most rts been turned towards Flo- 


- vida for the last two orthree years. 'That peninsula has been the 
‘scene of a contest of remarkable character, awakening a curiosity 


respecting its topography, resources, &c. which has found but 
scanty means of gratification. Although the first portion of the 
United States to be a ee (St. Augustine having 
en nt ‘and * é : 
both pero and natural, has been es imperfectly understood 
by us. The Spaniards no doubt had a tolerably accurate know- 
ledge of the interior, which was formerly somewhat extensively 
occupied by them. Their settlements, however, were much 
broken up during the insurrectionary movements which immedi- 
ately preceded the transfer of jurisdiction to the United States, 
and the majority-of them, when that transfer took place, were 
abandoned, under the influence of strong national prejudices, 
which led to a distrust or dislike of a new and dissimilar gov- 


48 


ernment. Much Loi information was thus withdrawn. St.. 
Augustine in the east and Pensacola i in the west, with some few 
subsidiary plantations, were all the settlements that came into our 
possession. ‘The rest was nearly an unoccupied waste. Evena 
knowledge of the St. John’s, the grand artery of the country, 
had nearly passed away ; so much so, that at the commencement 
of the present campaign (1837-8) the form, extent, and depth of 
its upper waters were unascertained. 

The war which has lately been carried on Br the Florida 
Indians has opened the country generally to observation, and its 
character will hereafter be better, if not well understood. Our 
troops have traversed it in almost every direction ; nearly all parts 
have been explored, excepting the interior of the lower parts of the 
peninsula south of the Okachobee Lake. From the 26th degree 
of latitude northward, the geography may be laid down with gen- 
eral accuracy. Indeed, United States maps of this character are 
already in the hands of some of our officers, which will no doubt 
soon be lithographed. 

The river St. John’s was early entered into both by the French 
and the Spaniards, the rise and fall of whose establishments there 
form an interesting and sanguinary portion of history. At the 
present time (1838) there is scarcely a dwelling occupied on either 
of its banks fifty miles above its mouth, though many evidences 
of former occupancy, such as falling buildings, or fields bearing 
the marks of having been cultivated, are seen some hundred miles 
higher up. Many of these farms or plantations were abandoned 
by the Spaniards at the change of jurisdiction; others were the 
work of Americans at alater date. But all had shared a common 
fate at the opening of the present contest. The Indians burnt 
all the buildings and plundered and massacred all the inhabitants 
that were not defended by a garrison, and desolation is now seen, 
where, a few months since, were sugar fields, cotton fields, orange: 
groves, and many other proofs of a thriving population. 

This river (St. John’s) is in most respects of a remarkable char- 
acter. It is unlike most if not all-of the rivers in North America, 
having little current at any point of its course, and passing through 
a country, from its very source, so level in its surface, as scarcely: 
to warrant the expectation of any stream at all. At low. stages 
of the water there is no visible current even in the upper parts 
of the river, though at high stages it is visible, having perhaps @ 


pon East Florida. 


Remarks upon E 


49 


movement of. one mile an hour. . E low | 4 ke George, which is 
more than two hundred: miles outh, the tides have a 
slight effect, and vary the current accordingly, modified, how- 
ever, by strong winds. Still, the waters have not any where a 
stagnant appearance, and if unpalatable, they are so from causes 
independent of their want of proper agitation, They are uni- 
formly of a dark color, like that of tolerably strong coflee, the 
bottom scarcely being. discoverable even in the shoal parts. 'The 
origin of this tint may be various ; decomposition of vegetable 
matter, can contribute but little to affect a body of water so large, 
particularly when a considerable portion of the banks are either 
savannas or pine bluffs, neither likely to have much 

this way. Lake Monroe may furnish a chalybeate tincture, as its 
shores abound in chalybeate earths. The lakes above may bear 
the same character. The waters do not lose their color when 
suffered to stand in a vessel and to make deposit of such parti- 

cles as may be afloat in them. 

The St. John’s is a large river for 8 some hundred and fifty miles 
from its mouth, being from three r miles to a mile wide nearly as 
high as Lake George. Thus far it has the appearance of an arm 
of the sea, and in fact’ feels the influence of the tides. From 
Lake George upwards it is comparatively narrow, excepting where 
it dilates into lakes, and very winding, running perhaps several. 
miles in one mile of a straight line. Lake George has been long 
known, and Lake Monroe, about sixty miles above, was occupied 
by our troops the first campaign of the present war. ‘Thence 
upwards the river was to be explored at the commencement of 
the present campaign. It was soon penetrated through Lake 
Jesup to Lake Harvey, nar aier wards J to Lake potas about a 
handset raguag | 


Sav | with army sup- 
i witede difficulty, at the iy stage of the- waters, to Lake 
Harvey, which supplies were sent thence by row-barges to Lake 
Poinsett, where the river ceased to be subservient to the purposes 
of transportation. This high stage was in the fall ; as the winter 
months set in, the larger boats could ascend no higher than Lake 
Monroe, until spring rains again raised the level of the waters. 
The banks of the river as high as Pilatka, or more than one 
hundred miles from its mouth, are generally elevated several feet 
above the water. From that point to Lake George they are com- 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 7 


5G Remarks upon East Florida. 


paratively low, and are a mostly submerged at high ste 
of the water. Between Lake George and Lake Monroe the banks 
are generally high enovigh to be dry, excepting where savannas 


prevail. Wherever the pine-barrens strike upon the river, the 


banks are eight or ten feet high, with a substratum of shelly soil 


or rock. ‘To Lake Monroe they are for the most part clothed 


with a growth of wood—chiefly live oak, pines, and cypress, as 


_ high as Lake George ; the palmetto or cabbage tree, being largely 
intermixed thence upwards. 
The grey moss clothes nearly all the trees upon the river, ex- 


cepting the pine and palmetto. ‘These are respected or avoided 
by this general associate of the trees, from some want of affinity 
which may not be understood. This moss is a most. singular 


production, having a rank luxuriance little according with its 
kindred 


species. It hangs from every bough many yards in 
length, and wears the appearance at a distance of dingy muslin 
thrown with a careless grace over every part of the tree, waving 
to and fro in the breeze and forming a most striking embellish- 
ment of the scene; and the effect is not diminished by the pres- 
ence of the tall and symmetrical palmetto, which rises up some 
forty or fifty feet perpendicular, like a perfectly wrought column, 


surmounted by a capital of most appropriate beauty. 'The moss 


never throws its foldings. over this handsome tree ; as 

before remarked, the pine is equally avoided by it. ‘This capri- 
cious forbearance with respect to these two kinds of trees, introdu- 
cesa beautiful variety into the river scene. Where the banks are 


high and sandy, the pine prevails; where they are low and wet, 


the cypress“ the melancholy cypress.” The live oak, and other 
miscellaneous trees, prefer the banks of an intermédiate character, 


_ as also the palmetto. The cypress seems to exclude all associa- 


tions ; no other trees mingle with it, or if they happen to start 
up along side they are soon overshadowed above by the spread- 
ing tops, or crowded out by the cone-like bases below, which last 
leave Only room for the thousand “ knees,” or sharp excrescences, 
from one to several feet high, which shoot up like so many wast 
piinacles. — 

Ascending the river, which is constantly winding and shifting 
the p of view, wherever the cypress permits, there the moss 
is ‘seen in all its sweeping luxuriance. As these trees spring from 
nearly a-water level, and grow to about an equal height, their flat 


» 


Remarks upon East Florida. 51 


and spreading tops present nearly a horizontal line, where the 
green appears in all its depth and freshness. Thence, however, 
to within a few yards of the ground, the folds of moss, like am- 
ple curtains, conceal nearly all from view, leaving the trunks 
exposed below, which are covered with a whitish bark. “This 
aspect may prevail for half a mile, when the banks may rise and 
become covered with the live oak, whose angular and scraggy 
arms give a new appearance to the moss, which. is still as luxu- 
riant as on the cypress. But the outline above is far different 
here. Palmettos perhaps raise their graceful heads above the 
oaks in striking contrast with their associates ; or perhaps the pine 
may show in the barren beyond ; while over ‘all is the clear azure 
of the sky, always in Florida : 


' “So purely dark, and darkly pure.” 


‘These changeful beauties, combined with the occasional sight of 
a wild orange-grove, with its golden fruit bespangling the foliage, 
altogether render a ? up the St. John’s ee ina high de- 
gree. 

The ash, eden swamp oak, des tile ae the banks of a 
part of the upper St. John’s, drop their leaves during the winter. 
months, unlike all the other trees to which we have been alluding. 
But these trees. would seem to be deciduous, to exhibit more plainly 
the verdant parasite which attaches itself to most of their branches. 
In passing up the river for the first time, the uninstructed gazer 
is surprised and puzzled to see on all these trees a tuft of ever- 
green, while the branches in general are stripped of their foliage, 
until informed that it is the mistletoe, which, having attached 
itself thus to a- foreign stock, continues to smile in verdure, while 
its supporter is standing in gloomy nakedness. The mistletoe — 
bough is always of a-rounded form, varying in size from a few — 
inches to thirty or more in diameter. 'The seeds, which are said — 
to be winged, have a gluten surrounding them, which enable them. 
to attach themselves where they alight and at once to draw forth 
nourishment as if fixed to a parent stem. The nudllius filius of 
the forest, it is adopted by the first tree to which it flies for pro- 
tection and sustenance. : 

Sulphur springs are very abundant on the upper parts of the 
St. John’s. They bubble up like jets deau. In passing up to 

“Lake Monroe, there is one a few miles below, which attracted, 


$ 


52 Remarks upon East Florida. 


among others, the notice of Bartram. An inlet on the right bank 


is seen, nearly of the width of the river, which at once attracts 
the eye, by the contrast between the color of its waters and that 
of theriver. T'wo pieces of lumber, placed at right angles with 
each other, one of mahogany and the other of yellow pine, could 
not be more dissimilar. And the liquid line of separation is al- 
most as distinct as it would be in the supposed case. .The St. 
_ John’s has here, as elsewhere, its coffee-like hue, while the waters 
of. the sulphureous inlet are as transparent as the air, the fishes 
swimming in them being nearly as discernible as the birds flying 
over their surface. The alligators, diving, as usual, at the approach 
of a boat, when they happen to take refuge in this limpid inlet, 
continue to struggle downwards in apprehension; as if they felt 
- that it did not afford the usual refuge. 

Ascending this inlet several hundred yards, it is found to ter- 
minate in a well head or basin, of some thirty feet diameter, 
with high banks, in the centre of which there is a prominent tur- 
moil of the waters, as if a fountain below threw up its contents 
with much force. ° Rowing the boat upon this agitated spot, it 
was with difficulty kept there in its position, against the efforts of 
the ebullition to throw it off. A strong odor of sulphur fills the 
air around, and the taste of the watersis equally sulphureous. 

Above aah Monroe, wide-spread savannas become prevalent: 
They form the main body of the section of country through 
which the St. John’s flows, and are so slightly inclined, that its 
course is extremely tortuous, the bends having more the shape of 
as horse shoe, than of a segment of a circle. ‘The immediate 

_ banks in these savannas are somewhat elevated above the level 
sth of the waters, as the growth of a wild cane indicates, but the 


greater portion of them bear’a tall, rank grass, which shows that ~ 


S t s often inundated, and that the soil is constantly saturated with 
-Mnois Lakes George, Monroe, Jesup, Harvey and Poinsett, 
are fine sheets of clear water, of no great depths, but generally 

free from “aquatic oases They all abound in fish and wild 
fowl. 


8 


Fort. Taylor, (amere stockade, like all the otlien forts in Florida 
a recent origin, ) which was built a few miles above Lake Poin- 
sett, ve and fifty miles or more from the mouth of the 
St. Joh the highest point to which the army boats ascended. 
Above teat oa the river narrowed and’shoaled, so as to become 


Remarks upon East Florida. 53 


useless for all purposes of transportation. 'The army there took 
its course southwardly, reaching the head waters of the St. John’s, 
some seventy or eighty miles S. 8. E. The source of this river 
has been in question. up to this time, having been supposed’to be 
connected either with the everglades or the sea. Both of these sup- 
positions are now at anend. The strip of land between the coast 
and the St. John’s, as far south as Cape Florida, has been suffi- 
ciently explored, to determine the fact, that it has no channel 
connection with the sea in that quarter; and it has been equally 
ascertained, by various army movements, that it is also without a 
like connection with the everglades or thé lakes, to the west and 
south-west. In rainy seasons, when the water overspreads nearly 
the whole country, the St. John’s may be connected in a diffused 
way with both sides. Fall and spring rains, when they come, ele- 
vate the river sometimes many feet, as would appear by marks on 
the banks. The last two or three seasons, the difference has been 
from two to three feet. The low stages are, at mid-summer and 
mid-winter, and when the periodical rains happen to fall, or are 
only moderate, the subsidence must be very great. It has. been 
remarked by the Indians, that all the waters occasionally drain 

out. This may be an exaggeration; but such a result, nearly to 
the extent expressed by it, might easily be supposed to follow a 
year of drought, the St. John’s being evidently dependent for its 
supply on the tides below and the rains above. 

The interior of Florida, south of Lake Monroe, was iam 
weet ‘until the present war. It was assigned by conjecture 
and common: report, to the “ everglades,” an indefinite and com- 
prehensive term, which means neither land nor water, but a mix- 
ture of bathe: eas ‘supposed e everglades, have been much ci 

They have lost, at least, one 
or two degrees ae latitude. -Okachobee. Lake, a body of - ate 
of some forty miles in diameter, and of a decided lake character 
and the lands east and west of it, can no longer be thus classe 
The lake south of this, reported to be still larger than Okachobee, 
called by the Indians, Pai-hai-pbos; or grassy lake, may prove, on 
examination, the true everglades. But it is now about as proba- 
ble, that even this, their last hold, will be found to partake of the 
general character of that part of the peninsula, and that land and 
water will then have its usual divisions, so far as a sandy country 
of unusual flatness permits. ‘The name which the Indians have 


54 Remarks upon East Florida. 


given the lake, shows that it must be generally so shallow as to 
allow grass to predominate ; rendering it probable, that it has a 
less decided lake character than the lakes above. 

It was until lately taken for granted, that the interior of Flor 
ida was without any eminent parts, but the army movements 
have opened to observation, some sandy ridges or hills of consid- 
erable elevation. ‘These are not far from that central region 
where the waters diverge to different sides of the peninsula. The 
course of the various streams which take their rise ‘within these 
central parts, marks out the character of the slope, running north- 
west, south-west, south-easterly.and northwardly. The Onith- 
lacoochee, Pease Creek, Kissimmer, St. John’s, and the waters 
emptying into the Indian River lagoons, all iSlasteate: this gene 
olfer nti and general inclination towards the coast. 

Qne of the striking features of the coast of Florida, is the la- 
goons, as they are termed, or long and narrow bodies of water; 

separated from the sea by a strip of sand, generally not more than 
-amile or two wide. They are connected with the sea here and 
there by inlets, which are made and kept open by the out-rush- 
ing or in-rushing tides, as they happen to prevail... The outward 
current is that which chiefly prevails, from the most natural causes. ' 
_Accumulations from rains, must give a great preponderance to — 
the inner waters, which, however, may, in the course of a dry 
season, drain out to a level with the outer waters, when the drift 

- of. wstorm-blocks up, at least fora time, the usual passage, andso 
it remains until the balance of force is turned by new rains. 

This alternate operation of counter. causes, -explains the fact 
well known by those who frequent this. coast, that these inlets 
are at one time very accessible, and at othent nearly or quite 
losed up. These lagoons extend from above St. Augustine to, 

Storie: inlet, a stretch of three or more hundred miles, with but 4 

a few miles interruption by land. Their common depth is several - e 

feet, though they all are traversed by shoals or bars, which reduce 

their navigable facility to about three feet. ‘These shoals, how- 

ever, could easily be made passable for uséful purposes. It has - 
proposed to connect the river St. John’s by a canal with the 

Matanzas river, separated by about ten or fifteen miles; the Ma- 

tanzas with the Halifax, twice that distance, perhaps, apart. 

‘aters of which the Musguito inlet is the embouch- 

use, and those of the Indian River, there is only a narrow neck 


ee ee 


” ” 


Remarks upon East Florida. ‘6B 


Mit 


of about half a mile. Such a project would open an interior 
navigation from Charleston to Jupiter inlet ; and below Cape Flor- 
ida it is well known that a practicable and sheltered channel runs 
around the peninsula, within the “keys.” ; Rey 

The mangrove tree. is a conspicuous embellishment of the In- 
dian River lagoon. Being of an aquatic character, these trees, 
by a happy provision of nature, are radicated to suit their thrifty 
habits, not unlike the long-legged species of birds which are fit- 
ted for the water ; they stand with their trunks lifted several feet 
in the air, seriding out roots from that elevated point, like so many 
bow-legs, to seize the earth or water below, with a base often as 
wide-spread as the branching head above. ‘Then, again, as if 
these roots could not drink moisture enough to satisfy their crav- 
ings, each branch sends down many a slender tube perpendicularly 
to the water, like somany syphons to draw it up. . The foliage is 
of the brightest green. ~Altogether,a mangrove thicket is a most 
attractive object to the eye. These thickets sometimes shoot out 
aspur into the lagoon, resembling just above the water a fish- 
erman’s weir-net, but surmounted by a most sochenelit Slee, 
and almost closing up the channel. 

The bars at the mouths of the lagoons are an sieeroation to 


_ aaa facilities of Florida. The entrance to St. Augus- 


harbor is perhaps the best on the coast, and, with proper at- 
tention to the tides and winds, is safely practicable for vessels of 
light draft. The drift of the ocean, which in this quarter is 
strongly charged with alluvion, heaps up the sands along the 
coast, constantly changing their position, with, probably, a-grad- 
ual augmentation. The inlets would share the common fate, ¢ 
be closed up, if it were not for the'outsetting currents, arising , 
waters within. - 1 

causes, with partial exceptions, keep open a chinaiel but cannot 
preserve it in one place. The bar off St. Augustine has widelfe 
shifted, being now nearly one half the points of the compass to 
the north of its position, within the memory of living pilots. 
Those of the more southern inlets are_less practicable, excep- 
ting that of the Musquito. -The channels are known only to 
those who are habitually upon them. A fearful looking surf 
is always coursing over them, when°a wind is blowing with 
freshness, which renders them formidable to strangers, while those 
who are accustomed to them, pass through it with little real haz- 


Remarks upon East Florida. 


“he en however, is argrest one, and seperenily irmemnee 


ct rers + Florida, though of no great ‘ate are, generally, 
of a - most convenient depth. The banks are bold and firm. 
Those which empty into the lower part of the. St. John’s, are fit- 
ted for any craft that comes into the main river, or have no im- 
pediments in the way, excepting what arise from fallen trees. 
‘There is no current to wee their character, which belongs toa 
level country. 

The botany of Florida was early examined by a Bartrams, 
and Audubon was some time among its -birds, which are rich in 
number and variety. Many anecdotes are told of the latter, 4 
showing the patience with which he kept his station in swamps : 
and marshes, in order to ascertain the habits of the feathered 
creatures there, in spite of musquitoes, reptiles, and other intol- _ 
erable annoyances. -Doct. Leitner, who was killed in a skirmish 
with the Indians, this campaign, (1838,) is said to have been a 
skilful botanist, and an ardent votary of science. Accompanying 
a portion of the active force, he would haye had uncommon op- 
portunities for observing the plants of the southern interior, 
probably, came little within the scope of the Bartrams, whee aoat” 
vestigations were. mostly, if not altogether, on the river St. Je 1 


The orange tree oan enicnatvaly precise in Fiorida, since 
its first occupation. “ The Seville or sour, and: bitter-sweet erange, 
are apparently indigenous to the country, as many groves of both 

_ are now found flourishing, where no labor-of man would seem to 
"have placed them. ‘The China, or sweet orange, is probably an 
exotic. These were found, not only around nearly every house 
in the country, but occupying a part of nearly every garden in the 
towns. - They were an important article of commerce. ‘The or- 
anges of Florida excelled all others in the northern markets. More 
- than two millions, were annually shipped from. St. Augustine 
“alone. One tree there is said to have produced: six thousand in 
ene year. But this staple of the country was cut down in one 
night, im 1835. A severe frost occurred in the time of Bartram; 
{1765,) which killed the lemon, aad and ether tender mee 


= Teele aay  Saees 


- 


Remarks upon East Florida. 


but only partially injured the orange. There were trees st 
in 1835, more than a century old. ty 

This calamitous event, besides destroying one of | 1e prir 
sources of revenue of St. Augustine, divested the place 
chief ornament. Each lot became, as it were, denuded of 
drapery, which had been thrown over every building, high and 
low, giving them all a borrowed beauty. A person who was ab- 
sent at the time of the frost, in revisiting the place, could scarcely 
recognize the most familiar scenes, their aspect was so entirely 
changed. It takes about seven years to renew the orange tree 
toa bearing State. 

Cotton and sugar grow well in Florida, but silk will probably 
be the staple of yet country after a few years. - The mulberry 
tree, multicaulis, &c., grow there with a vigor and luxuriance 
that have no parallel in the United States. More than eight 
months in the year afford a fullness of food for the worms. 

_ The soil of Florida wears a forbidding aspect. Sandy barrens 
form the principal part of the surface. Hammock land, that 
which bears the oak, maple, and other “ hard woods,” and which 
e richer and more productive parts, constitutes but a small 
‘ion. But the sands of Florida are but in part siliceous. 
They are probably for the most part comminuted shells or lime- 
stone. Hence they have a degree of fertility which often sur- 
ises those who undertake their cultivation. The surface, 
ver, is so level, that it is liable to the extremes of drought 
a iramedeitionic In riding from the St. John’s to St. Augustine, 
a ditties of eighteen miles, the road will be found, after a mod- 
erate rain, one half or two thirds under water, which is carried 
- off more by evaporation than by subsidence 5 and this is a mangle 
of the country in. general. — i 
_ The yellow pine, Pinus palisttis, is a conspicuous tree in Flor 
ida, both on account of its lofty symmetry, and its adaptation to 
many useful purposes. It affords tar and turpentine in inexhaust- 
ible abundance, and is an equally inexhaustible material for lum- 
ber. Whether it be the only growth the soil can yield, or merely 
a pre-occupant, as in many other parts of the country, giving 
place, when removed, to a species of hard wood, is, perhaps, not , 
yet ascertained. It is probable, however, that when this tr 
shall be cut down, and fires, scorching the whole face of there 
country, shali cease, the growth of the forest lands will assume 
Vor. XXXV.—No. 1. 8 


Bo » Remarks upon Fast Florida. 


a a better aspect, and that the soil ith 3 improve in a corresponding — 
degree. It is the fallen tree of this pine, which furnishes the In- 
dian with his “light-wood ;” a source of comfort and conveni- 
ence that strongly attaches him to the soil which produces it. 
The fuel formed from these prostrate trunks, is at hand on every 
spot, and is easily ignited, making, in all weathers, a bright and 
durable fire. .The nights of Florida are almost invariably cool, 
and the facility with which the Florida Indian can temper their 
chilliness, by means of this ready and combustible wood, is a 
conspicuous item in the privileges of his life, the gréat design of 
which is to attain desirable objects with the least effort. Our 
troops, in the late campaigns, have been equally indebted to it | 
for many a comfortable encampment, as, even in the midst of | 
heavy rains, a brilliant fire might be kindled, which, with due 
cate, no rains could extinguish. 
The hammocks at present are generally secure from eneroach- 
ment from the barrens, being mostly covered with a dense growth 
of trees, which preserves them from change. But, whenever the 
time arrives in which they shall be cleared up, and become ex- f 
posed to external influences, it is not unlikely that the surround=_ 
ing barrens, clothed in a soil of such levity as to be acted. cs 
by winds and rains, will gradually overspread these comparativ 
small spots on the surface of the country, and reduce nearly the 
whole to one general character. % 
- The waters of Pionda abocadin feb. Even the upper parts. 
of the St. John’s afford a large supply of very tolerable qualita“ 
But the lagoons of the coast have not only an abundance of the 
finest fish, but also of the finest oysters. The oysters of Indian 
river are surpassed by none, in size or quality, on the Atlantic 
coast. Want could never approach the inhabitants of that region. 
The present war, during which the Indians have been too much 
harassed to attend to seed-time or harvest, has turned attention to 
the class of indigenous esculent.vegetables, which, by their sponta- 
neous abundance, have, through the extremities of this period, af- 
forded them ample means of subsistence. ‘The most conspicu- 
us among these are the red and white coonta roots. The first is 
China-briar, or Smilax china, a vine of great thriftiness, spread~ 
etimes over the space of more than a hundred feet, with 
ce a large, es and irregular potatoe. The white coonta 
Lamia i » which: has a full tap-root, rounded wee, 


; 
] 
; 
: 
; 
: 


Remarks upon East Florida. ~~ 59 


the symmetry of a boy’s top. The leaves are large and fern-like, © 
forming, when the seed-bud is in its fullness, a handsome plant. 

Both of these roots are grated or bruised by the Indians, and 
the starch separated, by frequent changes of water, from the 
fibrous or woody parts, as also, in the white coonta, from a poison- 
ous quality which is-combined with it in its natural state. The 
flour of the latter has the look and feel of arrow-root, and is 
equally nutritious and well suited to weak stomachs. The flour 
of the China-briar is of a reddish hue, and more easily obtained 
than the white coonta. 

These two important articles of food are found in abundance, 
the one or the other, in most parts of southern Florida; the 
China-briar in nearly all the hammocks, and the Zamia in most 
of the barrens along the coast lagoons. 'Thousands could subsist 
upon them, with only the labor necessary to gather the roots and 
prepare the flour. Previous to the war, one or two persons 
were established near Cape Florida, who manufactured the white 
coonta in large quantities for shipment. Medical men ae pre- 
fer it, for hospital purposes, to the arrow-root. 

The palmetto is often called the’ cabbage-tree, from i its contain- 

_ ing anil substance within its top, which somewhat resembles 
bage—more in look, however, than in taste, which is not 
e that of araw chestnut. Where the fan-shaped leaves of 
us. beautiful tree put out at the top, is found infolded a pith, 
ing about one third the diameter of the trunk, and about 
or fifteen inches long, which is of an eatable quality, par- 
pres when boiled, or preserved as a pickle. It is true, a 
tree some half-century old might be sacrificed to the attainment 
of a single meal; but these trees are abundant, and no doubt 
have often afforded one to a roving dnliony: who sat down hungry 

beneath their shade. 


But the- necessities of the war now going on, ave opetied a 
new resource to the Indians, or which, at least, does not appear 
to have been used by them in more sbrissiceest times. This is 
found in the root of the saw-palmetto, a singular species of most 
common vegetation in Florida, which overspreads nearly every 
pine-barren, covering it like a vast reticulated carpet. In passin 
over these barrens, the palmetto leaf is seen shooting up from. 
ground in great luxuriance, forming, as is found on close inspec- 
tion, the termination of a recumbent cabbage-tree, several feet 


60 ~ Remarks upon East Florida. 


long, and probably half buried. beneath the surface, or deciduous 
vegetation. Suying constantly on the ground, it never acquires 
the bony hardness of the exterior coat of the upright cabbage 
tree, but is covered with a fibrous hairiness, which gives it al- 
most the softness of silken plush, prevailing through every fold, 
to» the very heart, excepting within a few inches of the end, 
where is found a nutritious pith, smaller than, but not unlike, that 
of the cabbage tree. This is bruised into meal, and made sub- 
servient to the purposes of food. ‘These roots spread, as we have 
before remarked, over nearly every barren; and, since a portion 
of them is convertible into food, there can be no limit to the spon- 
taneous subsistence of those who frequent them. The leaves or 
foldings of this root are thin and pliable, several inches long, and 
three or four wide, -~ are worked into — moneeciirs orna- 
ment and use, 

There is also found in Florida a wild potatoe, of iietable qual- 
ity, and much wild fruit. Game of all kinds is abundant, and 
wild fowls are numerous on every stream and lake. 'The Indi- 
ans, in Spanish times, were accustomed to herd cattle largely, 
and at the commencement of the present war, they are said to 
have had thousands. 


From this enumeration of the articles of food which prese : Z 


themselves spontaneously to the wants of the Indian, it will ] 
seen tha 


that. they are aisfle: “ on \ care, Sead or labor, for 
subsistence. 


The imiverdidey f- Florida is scanty. The rocks found in > 


situ are all calcareous, though siliceous boulders, of a small size, 
are occasionally seen, and nodules of hornstone are here and there 
mingled with the limestone, which elicit sparks, and are some- 
times used by the Indians for flints. 

The geology of Florida presents many interesting fatuied 7 
but it has as yet been examined with little attention, warranting 
few definite conclusions. 'The coast, as far as Cape Florida, is 
alluvial, a seeming mass of comminuted shells, resting on a rocky 
formation, composed also of shells, more or less broken and abra- 

ded: From Cape Florida, the formation is mostly coralline, the 
a ‘eys being of that character. The shells around. the Keys are 
found in nearly a perfect state. Take up a handful at random, 
and it will exhibit little else than fragments of coral and uni- 
bia of a small size, and diminishing almost to a point. 


Rm Js SUC 15 Rha SERGE 
a ey 


Remarks upon East Florida. 61 


As high as Indian River Inlet, the beach is still formed of shells, 
though less distinct and perfect in their form, mingled with some 
sand; while about Cape Carnaverel the sand predominates, until 
shelly fragments almost disappear to.the naked eye, Still, it 
seems probable that the whole beach is of a calcareous character, 

The coquina rock (as the Spaniards called it) is a formation 
found in the spits of sandy land which separate the lagoons near 
- the coast from the sea. It has been quarried in Anastasia island, 
for more than a century, affording a material for structures of all 
kinds in St. Augustine, worked with uncommon facility, and of 
a durable character. A large fort, of Spanish construction, at 
that place, is of coquina. In latitudes where there is little or no 
frost, it is, perhaps, the best material that can be used in fortifica- 
tions ; being firm enough to sustain the form: of any work, and 
receiving a shot like a plastic mass, exhibiting no fracture, and 
throwing off no splinters. 

The quarries near St. Augustine are generally about ten feet 
deep. The profile of the strata, as presented to the eye there, 
exhibits, first, a superficial covering of vegetable mould; next, 
a \ stratum of shelly fragments, quite small, and without any dis- 
tinctness of character, with no cohesion. This stratum varies 
much in thickness, according to the undulations of the surface, 
being generally from two to three feet. The next in the descend- 
ing series is a stratum of several inches thickness, composed of 
similar shelly fragments, but united in a mass by some cement. 
Then intervenes a stratum of sand, an inch or two in thickness. 
Immediately below this sand is a stratum of shelly rock, between 
two and three feet in thickness. This stratum is formed of shells 
in various states, the upper several inches being much like the 
stratum above, that is, of small and indistinct fragments, when, 


shells being perfect in their outlines, and only much abraded, and 
most of them of a size to give some clueto their species. The 
interstices in this portion of the mass are large in proportion to 
the size of the shells, and the cement which holds them together 
is hardly visible. Bivalves, cockles, of the cardium species, pre- 
dominate, while here and there is found a conch of large size, as 
also oyster fragments. Some of these conchs are several inches — 
in length, though much worn. ‘This coarse and comparatively 
unbroken deposit has a substratum, with which it is equally 


62 Remarks upon East Florida. 


closely joined, like that superimposed. A thin stratum of sand 


next succeeds; and then a third stratum of shelly rock, about 
two feet and a half thick, the component parts of which are ina 
state rather more comminuted than any lying above. ‘This stra- 
tum is likewise of a more solid and uniform character than its as- 
sociates, and gives the largest blocks for building purposes. A 
sandy stratum is found below this, and, so far as an examination 
has penetrated, the coquina formation descends no lower. 

_ All these strata are firm concretions, their component parts being 
obviously conglutinated by a caleareous substance, which holds 
them well together. This foreign substance, or cement, is quite 
visible in the finer formations, though little seen in the coarser 
Taking up a piece of the latter, the cause of cohesion is appa- 
rently so slight, that one is eapeiene that the mass does not crum- 
ble at a touch. 

It is a common conjecture that the coquina is of recent forma- 
tion, and that causes are still operating to produce it. This 
conjecture has some apparent and plausible grounds. It wants, 
however, the support of deeper investigation into the character 
and force of these causes. Fragments have been constantly 
heaping up on the coast, portions of which have been long lying 
in a quiescent state, without exhibiting any evidences of a change, 
or a \ tendency to.one, particularly of a change from a loose toa 

state. The upper stratum of the quarries we have been 
desc would be likely to assume the character of the strata 
below, if such a change were in progress. But the century du- 
ring which it has been subject to observation, has witnessed no 
alteration. 'The fragments all lie in.a ee state, without 
showing any signs of cohesion. 

t has been surmised, that the animal matter of the shells 
might have furnished the element of cohesion. But this surmise 
would seem to be at once disproved by the condition in which the 
shells were found, when the concretion took place. It is evident 
that they must have been subjected to a long and severe process 
of attrition and contusion; previous to that event; such a process 
as must have widely separated all animal matter, from its former 
3 covering. Besides, there is no reason for supposing, that this an- 

matter, even if it had existed in connection with the shells at 
inane the ae | formation pocurred, could have ome the 


* 


Remarks upon East Florida. 63 


. Amore probable conjecture is, that the shells themselves, by 
some chemical exertions or agency, which operated in connection 
with their partial dissolution, furnished the bond of union among 
the fragments, though not in a way that leaves the same agency 
still in operation. 'These different strata are evidently so many 
distinct deposits, probably at different and distant periods; bro- 
ken shells thrown up or spread over a certain space, and no doubt 
converted at equally different and distant periods into solid masses, 
either by sudden or gradually operating causes, ceasing with their 
effect. Such a hypothesis is in harmony with our notions of 
other formations of rock. ~ 

There are appearances of shelly formations on the St. John’s, 
particularly the upper parts of it, but the shells are of a different 
character. Scarcely a bivalve is seen on or near that river, either 
loose, or in rocky connection. The prevailing shell there, is the 
Helix, while univalves are as rare in the formations on the coast. 
The soil at Volusia and Fort Mellon consists of half shells, which 
are generally perfect in their shape, the defects evidently a 
rather from decay than abrasion or contusion. | 

- 'The limestone does not show itself on the coast, nor on the St. 
John’s until you reach Lake Monroe, where it is intermixed spar- 
ingly with shells. On Black creek, west of the St. John’s, a 


porous, rotten limestone appears, and this is said to be the charac- 


ter of the rock formations throughout the western part of the 
peninsula. Hence the many “surth-holes,” deep and (some of 
them) unfathomable orifices in the earth, which appear in these 
regions, and the disappearance of streams for many miles beneath 
the surface of the earth, while others come forth in all their full- 
hess at once, 

_ The climate of Florida, during the six or seven enptiths from 
€ ly delicious. The frosts are generally few and 
slight, feaving vegetation its. verdure, and flowers their bloom, 
throughout the year. Such frosts as kill the tender trees or shrubs 
are of rare occurrence. Rains occasionally prevail during the 
winter months, but more commonly during the latter part of sum- 
mer. Our troops have now been operating during three winters. 
Two of them have been decidedly dry. The first was rainy. 

_ By a loose diary, kept in Florida, since the last October (1837) 
and continued through two hundred and fourteen days, more than 
one hundred and fifty of them, were decidedly clear and pleas- 


; ; * 
64 Geology of St. Croix. 


ant days; about forty somewhat cloudy or foggy; and about | 
twenty rainy, but of these nearly one half were single rainy or 
-showery days, leaving only about ten which were of .a rain- 
storm character. Musquitoes have bitten, and frogs have peeped 
throughout the whole time, though not always in the same num- 
bers or with the same spirit. 

It-is perhaps a common impression, that there are some formic 
dable animals and many venomous reptiles in Florida. The alli- 
gator is ‘a clumsy, timid animal, never, it is believed, the assailant, 
unless it mistake a swimming boy, for its common prey. Score 
pions, snakes, lizards, &c., are common upon the barrens, and our 
soldiers, in sleeping on the ground, often came in contact with all 
of them, and were often stung by the former, gene with un- 
pleasant, but never with fatal consequences. 

Invalids have long looked to Florida as a refuge ice the north- 

em winter; and during the disturbances of the last few years, St. 

Augustine has necessarily been the only place of resort. . But 

- when peace shall be established, and the St. John’s re-occupied, 

that river will present many places of great attraction to the in- 
firm and pulmonic. 


Arr, Wh— Geology of St. Croix ; by Prof. S. Hovey, late of the 
Faculty of Yale College, Ct., and Amherst College, Mass. 


Durine two winters which I passed at St. trois for the recov- 
ery of my health, I found great relief from ennui, the well-known 
natural enemy éf invalids in such circumstances, in examining the 
physical features of the island; and, had my observations been 
more complete, the record of them might have been a valuable 
contribution to science. Limited, however, and imperfect as they 
were, I am unwilling entirely to suppress them ; especially, as 
they relat to a quarter of the world highly ernare cet and but 
little known. Should they be productive of no other benefit, I 
hope they may lead some more competent individual, who may, 
_ perhaps, be driven, as I was, to seek refuge from the rigors of a 
New England winter, in the balmy climate of the tropics, to con- 
tinue the examination, and to present to the public the more am- 
ple re sults of his investigations. My object in this article is te 
give a brief outline of the ‘geology of St. Croix. Should time 


= 


ela te BR ety pz. 


Pet Ff 
tigi 


so SS ees aa sere oe . 
a " 


ee ee ot ee ee Se oe ae nie Seen 
rree 


Geology of St. Croiz. 


and health permit, I may, perhaps, on a future occasion, extend 
my remarks to one or two other sega and touch. on some other 
topics. 

I am not aware that more than two or three of the West India 
islands have attracted the attention of any geological observer. 
Indeed, the tropical countries in both hemispheres must yet be re- 
garded, so far as geology is concerned, as nearly a terra incognita. 
Sull, they will no doubt furnish highly important results in this 


Interesting science. Here some of its most specious theories will 


be tested ; and here, too, will be found entombed new races of or- 
ganized beings, brought into existence and advanced to maturity, 
and finally destroyed, in circumstances differing from any present 
or past in other parts of the globe. - If the axis of the earth has 
been changed, as some philosophers maintain, here we shall find 
the evidence of it, in a change of organic remains, corresponding 
with that in the northern regions, but in a reverse order. On the 
other hand, if the extraordinary size and character of fossil relics, 
in the high latitudes, are owing to a secular refrigeration of the 
earth, it will be interesting to know what were the types of ani- 
mal and vegetable life, during the same geological periods, in the 
equatorial regions. If past periods in the tropics were as much 
more favorable than the present to the gigantic development of 
organic existencés, as they certainly were in ours, the imagina- 
tion can scarcely paint the monsters, which careful research may 
bring to light. I must confess, however, I saw nothing in the 
West Indies to countenance such suppositions. No animals or 
saurians, to my knowledge, contemporaneous with those im- 
bedded in the secondary and tertiary formations of Europe and 
America, have ae been detected ; nor, if we except the island of 
T 


‘inked ie v of any indications of the existence of ex- 


. erranean its of vegetable matter. The pitch- 
ie or that island, and the. petroleum which oozes from the 
rocks on the coast, are- probably due to a vegetable origin; but if 
similar indications of carbon in a fossil state exist in other ‘init 
they are yet to be discovered. 

Most of the islands in the West Indies, as is well known, ex- 
hibit marks of volcanic action. Though not lying ieithin the 
range of that great line of volcanoes which extends along the 
western coast of South America, and reaches to Mexico, they 


_ have often been _— to destructive earthquakes ; and two of 
9 


Vou. AXXV.—No. 1. 


= 


66 Geology of St. Croiz. 


them, St. Vincent’s and Guadaloupe, are at present the seats of 
active voleanoes. By inspecting a map of the West Indies, it 
will be seen, that St: Croix is near the northern termination of 
the crescent of islands, which, commencing with Trinidad on the 
south, and ending with St. Thomas on the north, constitutes the 
eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. These islands extend 
through more than eight degrees of latitude; and yet, it is im- 
possible to look at their relative position, without suspecting that 
they were-elevated by a common force, and have been subject to 
similar geological revolutions. This, so far as my own observa- 
tion and the information otherwise obtained extend, I believe to 
be true. Many of the islands contain several formations, dis- 
similar in age and geological constitution ; but they all bear, if I 
may use the expression, a striking family likeness. The prevail- 
ing formations in the West Indies are, in the first place, recent 
igneous rocks, comprising the products of active volcanoes and 
different varieties of trap; in the second, tertiary groups, consist- 
ing of marl, calcareous sandstone, and shell limestone ; and in the 
third, a stratified deposit, which, without at present intending to 
intimate its place in the geological series of rocks, I shall call in- 
durated clay. As 1 have already suggested, some of the islands 
present all these formations, indications of which are seen upon 
as first approach to them. St: Croix contains only the two latter, 
which divide the superficial area of the island about equally. 

This island isin north lat. 17° 45’ 28”, and west long. 67° 12’ 
40”. It is about 26 miles in length, and, on an average, not more 
than four or five in breadth. Its shape is irregular. The north- 
ern and southeastern parts comprise the clay formation, and the 
central and southern are caleareous.. There is a striking contrast 
in the elevation of the two portions of the island. The clay 
formation is a pile of mountains, separated, however, by gorges 
and valleys, which run in every direction, and give to it a beauti- 
fully diversified aspect. The highest point is Mount Eagle, which 
is estimated to be about 1200 feet above the level of the sea. The 
calcareous formation is much lower and less broken, but undula- 
ting. The greatest elevation in this part of the island, is about 
600 feet. It is that on which stands Bulow’s Mindo, the elegant 
eountry-seat of the governor, so named in memory of his friend, 


Shag OS he 7 


Geology of St. Croiz. 67 


The most striking feature of the mountains of the clay forma- 
tion, is their high state of cultivation, even when they are. so 
steep that they cannot be ascended except in mule paths, which 
wind up their sides in zigzag lines. All bear the marks of great 
violence in their elevation. The strata were much broken by the 
unequal application of the uplifting forces, and formed into many 
distinct and grotesque summits; some of which, however, have 
since been rounded by the hand of time. Nothing can exceed 
the beauty of these mountains and the intervening valleys, when 
covered by a luxuriant growth of the stigar-cane, interspersed 
with plantations and orange groves, and seen from a summit, 
which, at the same time, commands a view of several vistas to 
the ocean. Some of the mountains, however, are too precipitous 
for cultivation, and the rocks are too hard to be readily broken 
down into an arable soil. Such is most of the eastern section of 
the group on the north, and the extreme portion of the south- 
eastern range. Jn favorable seasons, the cultivated tracts yield 
good crops of cane, but they are peoudianly. susceptible to the 
drought. 

As a mass, this formation is ditinaily stratified. The strata 
vary in thickness from six inches to three feet; and, in many pla- — 
ces, are exceedingly regular and well defined. A good section of 
this description may be seen on the coast, below the Mount Wash- 
ington estate. In others, they are schistose, and much contorted, 
as near Punch, in ascending from Little La Grange, and at a 
quarry contiguous to Jolly Hill garden. In some cases, no strati- 
fication is visible—the whole mass breaking up into small angu- 
lar fragments, or being consolidated into columnar blocks, with a 
structure and cleavage resembling trap. Localities, however, of 


‘The strata are highly imeaiade: The lowest angle I Season] 
was hear Capt. Sempill’s house, at Butler’s Bay, which was about 
45°. The inclination varies in different places, from this to 90°. 
It is generally from 70° to 80°. The direction of the: dip is 
pretty uniform, and is nearly north. The composition and gene- 
ral aspect of the strata in different localities, and even in juxta- 
position, are often various. In some cases, they are decidedly 
aluminous; in others, silex predominates. ‘They also vary much 
in hardness, the more aluminous being generally soft and inclined 


68 Geology of St. Croix. 


to crumble, and the silicious requiring a smart blow of the ham- 
mer to break them. The grain is uniformly fine. I did not see, 
in this mass of rock, any thing like a pudding-stone. 'The form- 
ation seems to have been deposited in quiet waters, though there 
are frequent contortions in the strata, which may be due in part 
to the troubled state of the element from which they were depos- 
ited ; but probably more to the force by which they were uplifted. 
There are beds in the ravine near Mount Victory, as we ascend 
on the road from Sprat Hall, which strongly resemble argillaceous 
slate. ‘The color of the strata, in other places, passes through all 
the varieties of brown to that of clay. “They are frequently col- 
ored red by the oxide of iron. 

This is particularly true in the region of Annesley. In such 
cases, however, the oxide does not appear to have penetrated the 
substance of the rock, but to have been infiltrated through the 
seams sand crevices. The soil is also impregnated with this sub- 


“Thin Sivers of sroiert “from one fourth to half an inci in thiek- 
ness, are often interstratified with’ this rock, and sometimes cut 
the regular strata, and also each other, diagonally. Mingled with 
schistose formations, I often found small beds of marl and calca- 
reous spar. In some instances, the marl had been introduced 
from above,-in the form of a deposit ; in others, it was obviously 
interstratified with the rocks when they wete formed. The 
streams, also, which ran down from the mountains over the hard- 
est rocks, were more or less impregnated with lime. ‘ 

I have already intimated, that, the strata are often intersected 
by diagonal cleavage planes. 'This appeared to me.a striking pe- 
culiarity of the formation. ‘These planes were from one to three 
inches apart, sometimes parallel, but generally more or less in- 


clined to each other. They were often crossed by others; so — a 


that the rocks naturally broke into angular, columnar, or rhom- 
boidal fragments. It was often difficult to distinguish these cleav- 
age planes from the true lines of stratification. In this respect, I 
was much struck with the similarity between these rocks and the 
greywacke formation of Wales, as described by Mr. Murchison. 

The valleys and ravines of this formation, as I have already 
said, run in all directions, but more generally in that of the anti- 
clinal lines of the strata. Such, for example, are those which 
extend from the coast road, at the west end of the island, towards 
Jolly Hill, Mount Victory, and New ‘Caledonia, 


TR Fee tay on ee ee ae a eae LO ERE 2) PS le ae ee oe ie EM OO Coren ee 
a a = 


Sgr 


Geology of St. Croix. 69 


Sometimes these valleys and the impending mountains are 
wild and picturesque in the extreme; in other cases, they are 
highly cultivated. The contrast is owing principally to the = 
ferent degrees of hardness in the rocks. 

One is at first surprised, that any portion of soil can be rekon 

on the cultivated parts of the mountains, as they are so steep that, 
in ordinary cases, it would all be washed away. It would be in 
this, but for the fact, that the cane is planted in deep trenches, 
dug horizontally along the sides of the mountains, which prevent 
in a great measure the flowing of water ; and also, that the rocks 
are continually decomposing and forming a new soil. Indeed 
this process of decomposition may every where be seen at present 
going on, in sections of roads cut through the rocks, where the 
passage from the solid, unchanged strata beneath, to the cultivated 
soil on the surface, is so gradual, that no distinct line of separa- 
tion can be Sea : 
_ A similar explanation is applicable to the different states in 
which the talus is found at the foot of the mountains. In some 
places, it is many feet deep, but thoroughly pulverized ; in others, 
it remains in the state of broken fragments, covered with so little 
soil, as not- to be susceptible of cultivation. This is strikingly 
seen at Ham’s. Bluff, which presents a stratum of ‘undecomposed 
detritus twenty-five or thirty feet in depth. » 

The thickness of this formation is at least several hundred feet. 
On the west coast, north of Sprat Hall, the strata are seen stand- 
ing side by side, in uninterrupted succession, for several rods; 
and, were it not for the gorges which break, occasionally, cbt 
continuity, the thickness might appear much greater. 

As to its age, I am not prepared to express a decided opinion. 
On the one hand, it cannot: be so low down as the older slates or 
the metamorphic rocks of Lyell; and; on the other, its composi- 
tion, structure, and high inclination, bear a striking resemblance 
to those of greywacke. I did not observe it associated with 
older rocks, except in one place, near South Gate, where a bed of 
sienite occurs, thirty or forty rods in extent. As to organic re- 
mains, though I-made diligent search, I found none ; from which 
it must at as be inferred, that, if they exist at all, they are very 
uncommon. I ought, however, to mention, that, on the road 
from Little La Grange to Punch, I discovered in this formation, 


from two to three hundred feet above the level of the sea, a bed 


70 Geology of St. Croix. : 


of limestone, in which were imbedded the leaves and trunks of 
dicotyledonous plants. ‘They were both converted into the sub- 
stance of the rock, but were well preserved. ‘The largest speci- 
mens of wood I obtained were about four inches in diameter; 
though, if I am not mistaken, I saw the impressions of those 
much larger. 'The cortical layers were very distinct, and, through 
_the smaller pieces, were holes, which the pith of the plant once 
obviously occupied. The bed which contains them is of limited 
extent. It was clearly raised with the formation in which it is 
implicated ; and, if they are both contemporaneous, the clay form- 
ation is obviously of recent origin. I am in doubt, however, 
whether this bed is not the remnant of a calcareous stratum, 
‘which may have covered the whole of this formation when it 
was raised, but has since been removed by meteoric agents. If 
this supposition is true, other beds will probably be found, from 
which farther light may be obtained. I may also add, that just 
before leaving the island, I received some specimens of | ne, 
containing casts of corals and marine shells,- taken from 
which was said to be found in this formation near Judith’s Paneg 
I would especially recommend this locality to the attention of any 
one who may hereafter have an opportunity to examine the geol- 
osy of the island. 

It may not be improper to remark, that this Sumnasians is exceed- 
ingly well-developed at St. Thomas, an island about forty miles 
north, which bears a strong resemblance in its geological .char- 
acter to that part of Santa Cruz which I have just described. 
The columnar and trappean forms of the rock, imperceptibly 
graduating into regular schistose strata, are, perhaps, more com- 
mon. ‘This island, also, contains extensive localities of trap and 
porphyry. On the west side of the harbor, they are seen 
truded among and overlying stratified and altered rocks, where 
the peculiar globular concretions of the trap are very apparent in 
the decomposing surfaces of large insulated masses. The clay 
and the trap are the only two formations of this island. Of the 
corresponding groups of Antigua, [ intend to speak at another 
time. I will only add here, that indurated clay constitutes a dis- 
trict of enedemnble extent on the island of Barbadoes. I saw it 
= ieione aay College, where it is not fully developed, and 

sfore speak of it with confidence. Here it was more 
cacane: semhandanred than the rocks of which I have 


. Geology of St. Croix. . 71 


been speaking” in St. Croix and St. Thomas. Indeed, at this 
place, the consolidated rocks were nearly covered by thick strata 
of clay mingled with sand, some of which were partially har- 
dened into stone and dipped with the others at an angle of about 
ten degrees under the calcareous and tertiary formations, which 
constitute so striking and interesting a feature of that island. The 
greater portion of this district, consisting of strata highly inclined, _ 
is, I was informed, exceedingly wild, broken, and mountainous, 
Upon the whole, the entire class of rocks which I have been de- 
scribing, though they may not be of precisely the same age, ap- 
pear to me to have been formed in similar circumstances, and to 
owe their varieties principally to the different degrees of heat to 
which they have been subjected. 

The general aspect of the. calcareous part of the island, as I 
have before said, is undulating. . With the exception of some 
estates on the south and southwest coasts, where the limestone 
risaaaea the surface of the ground, the soil is easily tilled and very 
ferti] 


‘The : strata incline at different angles and in different directions. 
Their prevailing position at the east. end of the island, is a dip 
towards the west at an angle of about 10°.. They crop out to- 
wards the east at Constitution Hill, and at King’s Hill; but at an 
eminence near La Reine, towards the west, I saw them inclining 
in other directions, and, also, nearly horizontal, as at a quarry 
south of Mount Pleasant. 

This formation presents considerable diversity also in compo- 
sition. Perhaps it can best be described under three general di- 
Visions—the section which is now forming on the northwest 
coast—the marl and the calcareous sandstone, which occupy the 
conte pein ee the limestone and coral crag, the former in 

on and together A acai 
side of the island. 

The first of these divisions § is of limited extent. It isa narrow 
belt, from two to six rods wide, extending along the west, with 
few interruptions, from the bluff to Fredoricksted: It consists 
of corals, shells, and comminuted detritus, thrown up by the 
Waves upon the coast and agglutinated by a calcareous cement. 
Most of the shells are broken; the stronger ones, however, such 
as Strombus gigas, Turbo pica, Tellina remies, Arca Noe, are 
found entire, and even retain their natural colors. I observed a 


72 : Geology of St Crorw. ei . 


few more delicate shells of the genera Serpula, Lucina, Voluta; 
Bulla, &e.; all these species still inhabit the surrounding seas. 
In addition to this fact, there are other circumstances which show 
the recent origin of this deposit. This part of the coast is liable 
to a strong surf, which is constantly drifting shells and other sub- 
“stances upon the shore, and dashing ever them spray charged 
— vith calcareous matter. These generally unite and harden, espe- 
~~ eially near the surface, and form into a tolerably compact mass. 

“as found imbedded in these rocks, iron utensils, which had 
been employed at no very remote period, in quarrying them. It 
contains many fragments and rounded pebbles of indurated clay, 
which as a general thing unfit it for the kiln. 

Though it is obvious these rocks are still in the process of for- 
mation, they have been much abraded and broken by the surf. — 
I doubted, indeed, for some time, whether they could have been 
formed in the face of such powerfully abrading agents 5 but the ; 
fact, that the windward coasts of coral islands are generally d 
tinguished by the greatest accumulations of matter, rer 
difficulty. I saw in one place a mass of rock containing abe 
hundred cubic feet, which had been detached from its bed, 
several feet, and thrown back upon the shore. This deposit every 
where rests upon the tilted strata of the indurated clay, which 

often form a precipitous bank, and generally rise within a short 

into high mountains. The shore is lined with tropical 
shrubs and trees, such as ‘Hippomane mancinella, Guilandina 
bonducella, Coccoloba uvifera, Lantana involucrata, Turnara ul- 
mifolia, Mimosa spinosa, &c. 

The marl varies in composition, and hardens even ‘wiibin mod- 
rate distances. It often comprises extensive beds of lime nearly 
pure, and so soft that it may be dug with a hoe ; in other places, 
it is mingled with sand, becomes harder, and forms a good build- 
ing stone. In such cases, it is easily broken at first, but hardens 
by exposure to the atmosphere. In structure and general aspect 
1 saw quarries much resembling those of the Paris basin, from 
which such ample materials for building are derived. 

-It is impossible to draw a dividing line between these beds and 
the purer lime deposits on the south and west. Both. are no 
doubt contemporaneous, and owe their difference to peculiar cil 
Pg their deposition. The limestone sometimes occurs 
in a compac 3 but.the structure is generally loose and fnia- 


“ 


<i Geology of St. Croix. 73 


ble; especially at a little distance below the surface. It is often 
dug up for the purpose of deepening the soil, and left to decom- 
pose upon the surface. T'he lower beds, which rarely appear on 
the surface, are seen to good advantage along the southern coast, 
and consist principally of coral and shells converted into a ae 
mass of nearly pure lime. ‘The name coral crag, which f 
applied to them, well describes their general appearance. . 
superficial beds, which are very imperfectly stratified, and have 
the appearance’of a chemical deposit, vary in thickness on the 
coast front two to ten feet. The coral crag isnot peculiar to St. 
Croix. Isaw extensive beds of it in Barbadoes and Jamaica, 
where it often rises to the surface of the ground. 

‘The whole calcareous group, which I have now described, ob- 
viously belongs to the tertiary formation. 'The first and most 
recent Yass may be classed with the formation of Guadaloupe, 


rr ink do not extend back beyond the newer Pliocene 
do not speak with entire confidence, because nearly 


h itis often difficult to decipher the genera and species. 

Fossil coral, unaccompanied by marine shells, also occurs in 
many places; sometimes beautifully colored, and incrusted with 
calcareous depositions. Whatever may be the age of this forma- 
tion, it is no doubt more recent than the indurated clay ; for, in 
addition to other facts already suggested, we find imbedded in it 
great quantities of angular fragments and even large masses of, 
rocks from that group. This circumstance may be explained on 
the supposition that the island has been elevated at two different 
periods ; indications of which, if I mistake not, are found at 
several places, and especially at Jolly Hill, a distance of about a 
mile from the-west coast, and near a hundred feet above its level. 
They consist of a calcareous deposit by the side of the road, near 
the mill, upon the uplifted strata of the indurated clay. resembling 
those which I have already described; and stratified banks of 
gravel contiguous to the garden, in which: marine and lagoon 
— are es ieenceiies imbedded. On tte lower grounds be- 


< 


* The two best localities for + shells are a quarry near Dr. Stedman’s at the west 
end of the island, and one at the east end, from which building stone was obtained 
for the new prison. 


Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 10 


74 Geology of St. Croiz. 7” 


, 


tween this and the sea, there are at present two lagoons, and 
also extensive beds of unstratified gravel, which have obviously 
been washed down from the mountains, and contain large quan- 
tities of shells belonging to the genera Helix, Caracolla, Bulimus, 
and Pupa, which are now extinct upon this island, but are found 
upon others in the neighborhood. I might adduce other evidence 
bearing on the same point, but the limits of this article will not 
allow 
The beds of the ocean are lined with coral on every side of 
the island, and, in many places, the reefs rise near the surface of 
the water. This is particularly true on the south coast, and at 
the harbor of Christianstad ; which is, indeed, with the excep- 
tion of a narrow break that affords a passage for vessels, com- 
- pletely enclosed by a coralline bank. 
- St. Croix contains but few minerals. Calcareous spar mae arra- 
gonite are the only two varieties which I saw. 'The latter occurs 
in the form of small, parallel, combined columns, and of six: . 


prisms with re-entering angles on the sides. ‘Both kinds are well — 
developed. ed 


Though the soil of the island was originally very Bae PT 
it has been much impoverished by a long course of unvaried cul- 
tivation. The elements however of an admirable soil still remain ; 
and al} that is necessary is to bring them info a suitable combi- 
nation. Many parts of the island might be exceedingly i improved 
by an artificial admixture of the marl and elay; and all need a 
fresh supply of the nutritive principle of a vegetable compost. 
The island of Barbadoes, which much resembles St. Croix, both 
in the geological formations and in the worn state of the at has 
been wonderfully revived by improved agricultural processes, and 
especially by compost manures and a more frequent alternation of 
crops. I donot doubt that the productive powers of St. Croix 
might be doubled in a few years by similar methods ; an object 
certainly deserving the attention of the landed proprietors. 


ita a IN ager area hires Spenernentlnlagadpimstisp ssh iuseoe te 


Geology of oe 75 


Arr. IV. a Cimliaas of ‘guibais by Prof. 8. Hovey, late of Yale 
College, Ct., and Amherst College, Mass. 


AsI pieted but two or three weeks at Antigua, sad as ‘fimo 
were principally devoted to a public object, I should not feel pre- 
pared to give even an outline of the geology of the island, with- 
out aid from foreign:sources. ‘This I fortunately have, in an in- 
teresting article, prepared by Dr. Thomas Nugent, and published 
in the fifth volume of the Transactions of the London Geological 
Society ; and in another brief notice, written for the Antigua.Al- 
‘manac and Register by Dr. Thomas Nicholson. I had the hap- 
piness to become acquainted with both of these distinguished 
gentlemen, and to visit in company with them several of the most 
interesting localities of the island. Were the articles, to which I 


have referred, before the American public, I should. not attempt 


add any thing more; but as they are nearly or quite inaccessi- 


ble to most of the ree of the Journal of Science, a brief sketch 


the Beclogy: of the sai will not, I wath; be an unacceptable 


offering: 


- Perhaps there i is no > island i in the West Indies, whose potheahs is 
so rich in variety and interest. It contains all the three forma- 
tions, viz. indurated clay, recent’ calcareous deposits, and trap, 
which I mentioned in a preceding article as constituting the West 
India islands. They are all distinctly developed also within a 
territory of moderate extent, and yet are separated by broad lines 
of demarcation. But what constitutes the peculiar charm of the 
geology of Antigua, are the uncommonly beautiful and variega- 
ted silicious fossils with which it abounds. In this respect, I 
am not aware of the existence of any deposit in the world, which 

can be compared with it. I should confine my remarks to these 
"outtactdiniry relics; were I not persuaded, that a knowledge of 
them must create a desire to learn something of their geological 
relations. For the purpose of best accomplishing the object which 
I have in view, I shall not follow a strictly geological arrangement 
in my observations, but having noticed the trap formation, 1 shall 
describe the two others in the order of their contiguity, and then 
give some account of the silicious minerals and fossils which are 
more or less common to all the formations. 


76 Geology of Antigua. 


Antigua is a little north of the centre of the circular segment 
of islands, which bound the West India Archipelago on the east. 
It is in north lat. 17°, and west long. 62°, and coniprises an area 
of one hundred and eight square miles. 

‘The trap formation commences on the southeast corner, and in-. 
cludes nearly one quarter of the island. The district is broken. 
and mountainous, rising occasionally into summits of eight hun-. 
dred or one thousand feet in height, some of which are bold and 
precipitous, and others more gentle and rounded, affording a luxu- 
riant soil for cultivation. It is also divided. by valleys, which in- 
tersect each other in different directions, and are beautifully man- 
tled by a rich and ever-blooming vegetation. The rocks are con- 
siderably diversified. Basalt, in extremely distinet globular con- — 
cretions, is not uncommon. Indeed, I saw concretions so perfect, 
that ps might justly be compared to piles of cannon balls from. 

three to six inches in diameter. In some instances, the. interior 

was decomposed, and the concretions were presented in the form 
of well defined and regularly arranged cups imbedded in the sut-_ 
face of the rocks. Breecias and porphyry are very common. 7 
The latter is often of a comparatively light porous character} 
and, at a little distance, might easily be mistaken for red sand- - 
stone. ‘The matrix has a red earthy appearance, and the imbed- : 
ded feldspar and scoriz are soft and easily decomposed. -Drew’s — 
Hill is.composed principally of a rock of this description. Brec- 
cias, of an exceedingly hard and compact character, are not un- . 
frequent. . L often saw them in the form of boulders, at consid- 
erable distances from their beds. Genuine greenstone, of a nearly 
homogeneous aspect, also occurs, and is sometimes employed for 
macadamizing the streets of St. John’s, These roeks overlie, 
and are protruded among the stratified rocks of the contiguous 
formation in every possible manner. Not unfrequently one is 
enveloped in the other ; and both are so blended and changed by 
having been suddenly brought in contact in opposite states of 
heat, that the line of separation can scarcely be perceived with- 
out examining their composition. At Drew’s Hill, a vein of la- 
mellar sulphate of barytes occurs in this formation; but of how 
great extent it is not easy to decide from the excavations which 
have yet been made. : 

This group i is separated from the clay Seameabicia on the north- ‘4 
east, by what are called the Body Ponds, and by a small stream 


Geology of Antigua. 77 


which issues from them and runs toward the northeast. The 
superficial area of this deposit is not great. -It is an irregular 
belt, extending from Five Island Division and Dickinson’s Bay 
on the northwest, through the island to English Harbor and 
Willoughby Bay on the southeast, and separating the calcareous 
formation on the northeast frou the trap on the southwest. 
This district is much less mountainous than the one which I 
have just described. The greatest elevation is Monk’s Hill, 
near English Harbor, which I should judge not to exceed five or 
six hundred feet. The whole formation is distinctly stratified, 
the strata inclining nearly north at an angle of 15° or 20° 
They often crop out on the south in bold and prolonged escarp- 
ments ; on the north the slopes are more gradual. 

The mineralogical character of this formation, as well as that 
of the trap, varies exceedingly. As I have already remarked, the 
rocks contiguous to the trap have been much modified by heat, 
frequently losing not only their color but even their stratification. — 
The most- marked rock in the group is the one, which the trav- 
eller first strikes in leaving English Harbor on the road to St. 
John’s. It constitutes Monk’s Hill. It is of a green aspect; 
and, as it is broken up on the roads, very much resembles greeh 
earth. When minutely examined, it is found to consist of feld- 
spar imbedded in green clay. -In some places the clay greatly 
predominates, and gives the rock a homogeneous aspect; in 
others, not only feldspar but fragments of different minerals are 
cemented by the clayey basis, and the rock assumes the charac- 
ter of a. conglomerate. Extensive beds are found in this forma- 
tion, composed of yellow earth instead of green, and containing 
a foreign substance of a brown color.” The coloring matter in 
both cases is probably iron or manganese. In the vicinity of St. 
John’s, the rocks are more hard and silicious. Near Scot’s Hill 
there is a quarry of a dull, homogeneous aspect, which much re- 
sembles a yellow free-stone. -I. also observed, about’two miles 
southeast of St. John’s, superficial strata of red sandstone im- 
perfectly hardened, in which, however, clay much predominates 
over silex. Indeed, throughout this formation, clay, with few 
exceptions, is the prevailing constituent. Compared with corres- 
ponding formations of St. Croix and St. Thomas, these rocks 
contain much more. feldspar—an~ ingredient, which, indeed, 
scarcely exists at all at those places ; they have also more of the 


78 Geology of Antigua. 


character of a conglomerate, but are much less inclined, and 
have been less subjected to heat. 

_ The remaining formation is the calcareous. It is far the most 
extensive of the three, and comprises the north and northeast 
parts of the island. “It is no where very elevated—the highest 
hills not rising more than 300 or 400 feet above the level of the 
ocean. The surface of the ground is generally undulating } 
sometimes the hills are abrupt and broken, having summits cov- 
ered with a light soil and overgrown with tropical shrubs, partie- 
ularly Lantana involucrata, Pisonia subcordata, and Croton bal- 
samiferum. ‘The slopes of the hills and the lower grounds are 
highly cultivated; and, in an agricultural point of view, consti- 
tute the best portion of the island. This formation is separated 
from the preceding by a low tract, extending from Dickinson’s 
Bay to Willoughby Bay, which Dr. Nicholson thinks was, at no 
very remote period, submerged, and divided the island into two 
nearly equal parts. - 

The composition of this formation, like that of the correspond- 
ing one in St. Croix, is by no means uniform. In many places, 
it consists of marl, which may be easily quarried with a heavy 
hoe’; in others, it isa tolerably compact limestone which can be 
broken only with a hammer. I did not observe any specimens 
of what I called “coral erag” in the geology of St. Croix, though 
further observation might have brought them to light. Dr. Nu- 
gent describes strata running through the marl, which TI had not 
an opportunity to see, “ consisting of a grit stone, divisible into 
thin layers,” and appearing under a magnifying glass to be “ madé 
up of very minute fragments of quartz, hornblende, jasper, horn- 
stone, and green earth, held together by an argillaceous cement.” 
It also contains localities of a yellow calcareous sandstone, break- 
ing with an earthy, conchoidal fracture, and employed extensively 
in architecture. Asa group, this formation is stratified; but, in 
‘many places, the planes disappear, and the mass bears the aspect 
of a precipitate from water. Though it obviously rests upon the 
clay, the strata of the two formations are not conformable ; those 
of the marl being sometimes horizontal, and at others inclined in 

different directions. 

: _ This formation contains a great variety of fossils. “ Of these 
we many “soem says Dr. Nugent, “as most frequently pre 
enting themselve aces “species of madrepore, echinus, se!- 


6 | 


Hie ets ia oe 
SETS Sy vidos is See i a 


Geology of Antigua. 79 


pula, pecten, cardium, strombus, cerithium, ostrea, trochus, cy- 
prea, turritella, venus, lucina,” &c. ese are sometimes found 
entire, but they generally occur in the form of casts, either calea- 
reous or silicious. Dr. Nugent also mentions several species of 
land and fluviatile shells, belonging principally to the genus He- 
lix, which he has observed associated in the same locality with 
marine genera, as murex, arca, nerita, purpura, chama, trochus, 

c. The most of these fossils have ving exemplars in the sur- 
rounding seas. From the specimens which came in my way, 
(for I did not see a complete collection, ) I think I should be safe 
in estimating the proportion of such as high as 70 per cent. 
If this estimate be taken as an approximation to the truth, the 
formation must belong to the latest tertiary or newer Pliocene pe- 
riod of Lyell. No relics. of mammalia have yet been discovered 
in this group, nor indeed in any upon the island.* 

As to the age of the clay formation, I have not sufficient data 
to form an opinion. With the exception of some petrified leaves 
found near its junction with trap at Drew’s Hill, I could not as- 
certain that any organic remains had been discovered in it. 
These leaves belong to trees of the dicotyledonous class. Dr. 
Nicholson thinks he recognizes among them those of the Ficus 
pertusa, and a species of Melastoma. The mineralogical charac- 
ter of these rocks certainly does not indicate great age ; still, 
neither this nor any thing in their relations to other rocks, points 
out their absolute place in the series of geological formations. 
We must wait, therefore, for farther light on this point, till their 
organic contents are better investigated. 

Intimately connected with the clay. fortnation, if not constitu- 
ting.a part of it, is another class of rocks of a most interesting 
character. . I ‘cabs ‘to the extensive beds of chert and the silici- 
ous petrifactions with which this. part of the island abounds. 

Dr. Nugent describes these beds as a distinct deposit, lying above 
the clay and below the marl.. His opinion is probably well found- 
ed ; but they are so intimately associated with the clay formation, 
that I prefer to class them with that group. Their comparative 
extent is not great. They are found principally in the neighbor- 


_ Of the age of the corresponding formation in Barbadoes I can speak with 
greater- certainty. Of forty one species of conchifera and mollusca, which I ob- 
tained during ten days’ residence upon the island, there were only three which are 
not found at present in a living state in the West Indies, 


80 Geology of Antigua. 


hood of Si. John’s and of Constitution hill. Near St. John’s they 
have been disturbed by uplifting forces, and constitute two or 
three summits of moderate eran on one of which stands the 
cathedral. 

At this place, tH chert i is strangely intetmirigled with lime! 
stone, and it is not very obvious which occupies the lowest posi- 
tion. At an eminence a little south of this, it is broken up into 
immense masses, which appear like outliers or ledges on the 
sides of the hill. In the region of Constitution hill, and farther 
south on the road to English Harbor, it appears in the form of 
square and angular blocks, from a few inches to two feet in diam- 
eter, strewed in great quantities over the surface of the country. 
I saw only one or two beds which had not been disturbed. "They 
were distinctly stratified, and lay in a position, so far as I could 
judge, conformable with the strata of the clay formation: I saw 

‘no place, however, where one distinctly graduated anne the other, 
or where they came directly in contact. 

The aspect of this rock is various ; generally, fowaren highly 
vitreous. It sometimes approaches to jaspet, both in constitution 
and color; at others it is a pale hornstone ; and it is often seen of 
a still coarser structure. The fracture is werbstiniis even, often 
conchoidal, and not’ unfrequently splintery. The structure of 
the masses of which I spoke on the eminence south of the 
church, differs from any which I saw elsewhere. It was more 

giving to the rocks an appearance not unlike a silicious 
tufa, which had been impregnated with iron and hardened by 
heat. This family of rocks is altogether of an interesting char- 
acter, entirely unlike any thing which I have seen in other parts 
of the West Indies or of the world. Their geological interest is 
greatly increased by the immense quantities of shells which they 
contain, supposed by Dr. Nicholson to be Melanie.* These shells 
are ibways silicified ; sometimes standing out from the rock in 
beautiful relief; at others entirely imbedded, and, with the ex- 


ception of the coloring matter, converted into its substance. I - 


Saw specimens of this description most elegantly polished.. Ac- 
cording to the best information which I could obtain, these shells 


4 De Nugent calls these shells cerithium. I am not satisfied that either of the 
‘Thames is correct; nor have I been able to consult any conchologist i in re- 
opinion | can rely. _ 


gerd to'thaen, noes 


| 
| 
| 


BF 


Geology of Antigua. SL 


are found only in rocks of the chert family, which is a very im- 
portant circumstance in ascertaining the origin of the beds. 

As I have already intimated, the two preceding formations 
abound in the silicious fossils of an exceedi ly interesting and 
important character. For variety of structtire, for fineness and 
beauty of material, and for richness of color, I know of none in 
any part of the world in comparison with which they would 


suffer. They are found in the form of jasper, cornelian, agate, 


chalcedony—sometimes existing separately, at others all beauti- 
fully blended in the same specimen. The coloring matter also 
Varies in intensity, presenting every tint and shade which are pe- 
culiar to those minerals. But the most. striking feature of all, 
is the perfect preservation of the form and structure of the petri- 


' fied substances, even of such as in a living state are most delicate. 


For example, the opening leaves of the banana, than which no 
vegetable fibre can be more tender, have been converted into 
silex and perfectly preserved. I saw myself the petrified pod of 
a tamarind, so entire in its anape and all its parts, that no one 
could mistake it... 

These fossils may conveniently be divided ‘into two classes— 
aa marine and the land fossils. 'The former consist of corals, 
shells, &c., which are found principally in the calcareous iain 
tion, and are particularly abundant and beautiful in Belfast Divis-. 
ion. ‘They frequently appear on the surface, but are often found — 
at considerable depths. 'The corals are Srecuacinthy very striking ; 
they are converted into chalcedony both pure and colored, but 
still retaining their pattern so perfectly, that the genus may be 
recognized when they are set ina breastpin. All the fossils in 
the calcareous formation are,by no means of this’ character. 
Many | of. them are cealeareous. The silicious prevail only in 


But ine. most rere ee ee, fossils is the Blintted wood— 
the ordinary trees and shrubs of the climate still retaining their 
individual structures, but converted into the choicest mineral sub- 
stances. Fossils of this class are confined to the chert and clay 
formations, 'They are generally found intermingled with the 
chert in broken fragments, and scattered over the surface of the 

earth. Sometimes i in low districts, they constitute immense beds, 
and give one the idea of a thick forest, which has been prostra- 
ted by some mighty owe Pare into silex, and buried be- 

Vout. XX XV.—No. 


*82 Geology of Antigua. 


neath the ground. The fragments are not usually more than ten 


or twelve inches long, and are frequently split in the direction of 


the fibres. The most perfect specimen which has been found, is~ 


described by Dr. Nugent, as being the “trunk of a tree about 
twelve feet in tengtfffand as many inches in diameter, rent cross- 
wise asunder, but all the parts lying contiguous to one another.” 
The largest section which I saw, was eighteen or twenty inches 
in diameter, and about two feet in length. 


- Though these fossils are all silicious, they vary exceedingly in 


the perfection of the material and in the beauty of their colors. 
Sometimes they present a dull, compact, earthy aspect—some- 
times the grain is coarse and the fibres are indistinct; but when 
a combination of fine grain, variety and beauty of colors, and 
distinctnegs of structure, is found, the specimens are exceedingly 
elegant. Among these may be particularly specified, dendritic 

Moss agates, and the petrifactions of the loblolly (Pisonia 
subcordata. ) The cocoanut, also, is often very beautiful, espe- 
cially its involved fibrous roots. A person who has seen the tree 


in its natural state, would instantly recognize its petrifactions, 


The same may be said of many other specimens. Indeed, they 
are generally as distinct from each other, as the living fibre of one 
tree is from that of another. The most of these fossils, I do not 
doubt, are relics of shrubs and trees identical with those now 
growing upon: the island, though some of them are probably ex- 


either pure or mingled with: chalcedony, are abundant. “They 
often occur in veins of trap, and abound most in, the neighbor- 
hood of that formation. Fortification agates are also found in 
the form of nodules, both upon and» below the surface of the 
earth. 

The preceding details open to the geologist a most interesting 
field of speculation. The extent to which silex, in its purest and 
most interesting forms, here presents itself, is, I believe, within 
the same compass of country, without a parallel. It has converted 
into its own substance organized bodies of the most opposite char- 
acters, and in every variety of circumstances. It presents them. 
under all forms and of every degree of color and perfection. It re- 
s one of Midas’s touch, which changed every thing into gold. 
— ardly be expected that phenomena, so =i and compli- 

e referred to to a common oie | it is obvious, 


Geology of Antigua. 83 


from the partial examinations already made, that they are due, 

not to a single cause, but to a combination or rather a diversity of 
causes. For example, some of the finest specimens of jasper are 
found in trap veins, and in the oie trap rocks. _ There 
can be no doubt, therefore, that these are to be ascribed to igne- 
ous agency, converting an aqueous rock into this beautiful sub- 
stance.’ Lyell, De La Béche, and other authors, have detailed 
similar facts occurring in other parts of the world. But in regard 
to the chert deposits, and the immense quantities of petrified 
wood connected with them, I think we must look for the agency 
of some other cause. The circumstance that those beds contain 
shells, either marine or fresh water, or both, is indubitable evi-. 
dence, that they are an aqueous deposit. But whether they were 

originally deposited in their present form, or whether they are al- 

tered rocks, is a question about which there may perhaps be some 
difference of opiriion. It is perfectly obvious, that since their 
formation, they have been subjected to the action of an internal 
force, which has thrown them up and broken them in pieces, and 
perhaps in some degree changed their constitution. The island, 

also, in the trap formation and in the contiguous altered rocks. 

affords the most ample evidence of comparatively recent igneous 


1 


- action on a broad scale. The position of the strata, also, being 


conformable with those’of the clay formation and not separated 
by any definite lines, might be considered as favoring the suppo- 
sition, that they both belonged originally to the same class of 
rocks. ‘Though I know of no example on so large a scale, where 
rocks of this description can clearly be traced to such-an origin, 
yet cases of a more moderate extent are not unfrequent. And if 
we admit, with Lyell, that all the earlier slates aré merely meta- 
morphic _ rocks, oteeae from. one and other fragmentary 
their it semi-crystalline forms by internal heat, 

we seem to have an  atktiowledged eause adequate to the effect. 

But, however sublime and interesting such a conception’ may be, 
we are not perhaps yet prepared to admit it among the sober 
truths of geology. But independently of this objection, there are 
pecs circurnastaaces, which seem to refer the beds in question 
have already remarked that the shells im- 
edited in them show w, that they were originally deposited from 
water; and the fact that these shells are peculiar to the chert— 


that is, are not found in strata of the clay formation—seems to be 


* 


84 Geology of Antigua. 


conclusive evidence, that the two classes of rocks were formed . 
under different circumstances. All the chert beds do not, indeed, 
contain shells; but as they are not found in any of the strata of 
the other formation, they seem to indicate a palpable line of dis- 
tinction between the two. 

If then we refer the chert and the petrifactions connected with 
it to a silicious solution, we may still inquire from what source 
‘such a solution could have been derived. It is well known, that 

pure silicious deposits from hot springs are not uncommon, an 
that such springs abound in volcanic countries. . The Geysers of 
Iceland are striking.examples of this kind. And though Antigua 
is not at present a volcanic island, it presents the most manifest 
exhibitions of igneous agency at no very remote period. “These 
silicious deposits and immense fossil transformations may have 
taken place at that time, either from subaqueous springs charged 
with silex, or large bodies of water thrown up from the bowels of 
the earth, and spread otit on the surface in the form of basins. 
The low position of the part of the island where these beds 
abound, would perhaps favor this supposition. I am, indeed, ~ 
aware that the subject of silicious solutions is yet involved in 
great mystery—the process by which nature dissolves_silica 
having yet ina great measure evaded the scrutinizing eye of sci- 
ence—but the fact is among the best ascertained phenomena of 
- geology, and may therefore be.employed in the explanation of 
those deposits, which other circumstances would sptepMy refer 
to such an origin. - 

I cannot. but regard the fact, that minute fibres of the roots of 
trees, and tender leaves and fruits, which must certainly have 
been destroyed by the least degree of violence, are found among 
the fossils, as furnishing additional evidence, that the lapidifying 
process took place in a silicious solution. It does not appear pos- 
sible, that any great degree of heat should have existed in the su- 
perficial strata of the earth, without having destroyed every thing 
_ on the surface in the form of woody fibre. 

But there is another class of silicious fossils, found in the eal- 
careous formation, at a distance of several miles from the chert 
ts, which cannot be explained upon any of the preceding 

eS They are the silicified shells and corallines, which 
me 


Ss 


ae 


~ 


< 


Geology of Antigua. 85 


fectly agatized, that they are cut by lapidaries for jewelry and 
other ornamental purposes. In addition to these, nodules of chert 
are found in the clay formation, detached from the beds of chert ; 
and also agate nodules, of which I have before spoken. I do not 
see how either of these classes of fossils and minerals can be re- 
ferred to silicious springs; for there is no evidence that such 
springs have existed where they are found, or that they could, 
under any circumstances, have been produced by them. I am 
tia that Lyell and some other geologists have ascribed analo- 
ous phenomena fo heated vapors and aqueous solutions charged 
vith silex, and forced up through the superficial strata from the 
interior of the earth. To say nothing of the adequacy or inade- 
guacy of such a cause to produce the phenomena in question, I 
think a person who has well considered the concretions with 


which many clay beds abound—the nodules of flint in chalk— 


the segregation of mineral matter from the mass with which it 
must have been originally blended, and its aggregation into dis- 
tinct crystalline forms—and, also, the contents of metalliferous 
veins and fossil fissures of rocks, must have recognized an agency 
better adapted to the present case, than any sublimation from the 
interior of the earth. Mr. Bird’s suggestion, at the last meeting 
of the British. Association for the Advancement of Science, that 
wood is silicified by electrical influence, is certainly countenanced 


. by many facts; and it is to be hoped, that the experiments which 


he has commenced on the subject, together with those on the 
formation of minerals, will do something towards defining an- 
other boundary of the immense but mysterious domain of elec- 
trical agency. — It is possible that all the petrifactions of which I 
have-spoken in Antigua, mays at length be referred to this source. I 
see nothing in their chi which forbids such 


a supposition ; but, in the. present state of our knowledge, I think 
the explanation which I have given is the most probable. I am 
aware, however, that these fossils and the whole geology of the 
island need a much more minute examination than they have yet 
received, in order to draw any theoretical conclusions, in which 

entire confidence can be placed. I know of no field which would 


“more amply repay the geologist for such an examination ; and 


should the imperfect sketch which I have given, have no othe? 
effect than to direct the attention of some one to this island, J 
Song not consider myself to have hi in vain. 2 


3 


» 


86 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


Arr. V.—Remarks on the Geology seri Toposraphy ~ Western 
New York; by Groree E. erg of Buffalo 


Iw a former papesilllasetted? in this Journal,* I etidpavoreld to 
show, that the rock formations in the western part of this state 
belong to the transition series.+ I now propose to offer some gb- 
servations on the causes which produced the disintegration and 
removal of extensive strata of these rocks from their ancient beds 
of deposit, and gave rise to the existing topographical phenomena. 

The “ saliferous rock” of Prof. Eaton, which I there designated 
as the old red sandstone, forms the southern shore of Lake On- 
tario. It has an average breadth of about six miles, nearly a level 
surface, and is little elevated above the lake. Its southern boun- 
> eee J — ert limestone terrace, under pees it 


ee 


Oeittying this old red weck.ins, isa group of calcareous rocks—_ 


the “ geodiferous” and “cornitiferous” of Prof. Katon—with their 
accompanying shales ; which are evidently equivalent to the moun- 
tain limestone of Birpes This formation terminates on the 
north, in a line nearly parallel to the lake shore, by an abrupt pre- 
cipice, which forms what is here called the “mountain, ridge.” 
The limestone district forms a kind of terrace, bounded. on the 
north by this precipitous escarpment, and on the south. by the 
mountainous region which occupies the south tier of counties. 
Superimposed on the mountain limestone, we have a series of 
shales and slaty sandstones of great aggregate thickness, dipping, 
as do the formations already noticed, in a southerly direction, but 
"Jess able to resist the powerful, degrading action to which all have 


* Vol. xxx1. p. 241. 
+ As early as 1824, Dr. Bigsby suggested that the horizontal limestone of 
Western New York, as well as that of the Canadas, was “the representative of 
the mountain or Carboniferous limestone of England.”’ See American Journal,, 
Vol. vin. p. 76 and onward. 
Again, in 1829, ie Vanuxem stated his conviction that they were transition 
a Ibid. Vol. xv 
: cape Dapamell's Geolog, scpond American edition, p. 369, the same opinion nig. 
epeated : notwithstanding which, from the confisien produced by the introdue- 
¥ names, ‘and an apparent disposition to adhere to the classification of 
= say call been sid regarded as  belongin, 


~ 


ake Leaes 


Geology and Topography of Western New York. 87 


evidently been exposed. The deep valleys, which penetrate this 
formation in a southerly direction from the great limestone terrace; 
the dividing ridges, also, which have their northern terminations 
on the same terrace, becoming more rugged and mountainous as 
they approach the Pennsylvania state line, with their sides deeply 
furrowed by precipitous gullies and ravines, are sufficient proofs 
that other ‘causes of denudation than the insignificant streams 
which traverse these valleys, have been in operation. 

One peculiar feature, which adds greatly to the picturesque 
scenery of Western New York, arises from the fact that many of 
these valleys have. been excavated to a level below the general 
escarpment of the limestone terrace,* which consequently forms 
a barrier at their mouths, and gives rise to most of those beautiful 


_ sheets of water so justly admired by the lovers of fine scenery. 


This feature will again be alluded to further on. 

The aggregate thickness of the rock strata, from Lake Ontario 
to the northern outcrop of the coal in Pennsylvania, is estimated 
by Mr. James Hall at six thousand and fifty one feet.t| How far 
they extended to the north, and whether the primitive regions on 
either or both sides of the St. Lawrence, were originally overlaid 
by them, are questions difficult to solve; and which require se 


minute and careful examination of the geologist. There 


some circumstances, however, which seem to favor this fonts 
sion. It is stated by Dr. Bigsby,t when speaking of the hori- 
zontal limestone of the Canadas, that “this limestone forms a 
horizontal~girdle around the trap mountain of Montreal, from 
which, as from a centre, large veins or dykes radiate into the ad- 
joining limestone to the distance of two miles in some cases to 
my own knowledge, and even to La Chine, according to informa- 
tion received from M. Burnett, chief engineer to the La Chine 

es The limestone in its upper strata, is brown and crystal- 


‘line, but black, compact, and slaty below. It contains in immense 


quantities the organic remains peculiar to the mountain limestone 
of oe api and Ireland.” It is also stated’ — Prof. ibis S$ 


.* Since writing the above, my attention has been called to the fact that Mr. 
David Thomas commu niet s phenomenon to Prof. Eaton in 1830: See Amer- 
ican Journal, Vol. xviii. p.: 

t New York “Goolodical Report; 1838. -See Atlas. 
» American Journal 


te > Vole Wa. pe vd. 
»~ § New York Geological Report, 1838, p. 255. 


88 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


that extensive uplifts have been produced on the northern slope of 
the valley of the Mohawk, “which have deranged the surface, 
and destroyed the continuity of strata and rock, and created to the 
casual observer, where the uplift exists, the greatest apparent con- 
fusion as to their superposition or order of arrangement.” This 
being the case on the flank of this primitive range, where the sedi- 
mentary rocks come in contact with it, is conclusive evidence that 
they were deposited before the uplifts took place, and may there- 
fore have been spread out, and occupied the whole district. 

» Whether this were so or not, there can be no doubt that the 


rock strata in the western part of New York, have been disinte- 
grated and removed, from extensive tracts north of their present. 


limits. It would be absurd to suppose -they were deposited in 
such ridges, with steep escarpments, as we now find them. Na- 
ture does her work less artificially. The outcropping edges of 
these strata; the waterworn and somewhat polished surface of 
the limestone rocks; the deep valleys which penetrate the shale}; 
and the precipitous escarprnents of the more enduring strata, bear 
the unequivocal impress of secondary causes. All must admit, 
that the present surface has been shaped by the process of remo- 
val, long since that of deposition was completed. 


That these rocks were deposited at the bottom of an ocean, is” 


evinced by their fossil contents ; that they have been elevated from 
its watery bed, requires no sabdiadiaad evidence other. than their 


present altitude above its permanent level. If we seek for the 


cause of this gigantie phenomenon, and trace the ascending strata 
in a direction opposite to their dip, we invariably come to primi- 
tive rocks, or other proofs, equally unequivocal, of voleanic agency. 
If, then, as is now very generally admitted, these primitive dis- 
tricts were the original centres of elevation ; if the process was 
gradual and continued for an indefinite period ; or was intermit= 
tent, being active at one point while dormant at others; these 
vast changes, as well as those of a like character in other parts of 
the world, may be explained on rational principles. We ne 
no longer be driven to the poor necessity of supposing a train of 
causes which may never have existed, and which if admitted_,to 


have operated, would probably have produced results far different 


from those usually attributed to them. Why not then lay aside 


the fashion of tad to explain such phenomena by ne 
the Noachian Deluge, or of : 


the assistance of 


* 


ie 


Ee ne gee it 
7 Sy eS eee = Salt 


Tie | SGT" aos eae eee: ee 


SoS toes Se Se Se ob ee ee 


ere: 


iar 


7 
: 


Geology and Topography of Western New York. 89 


tions, sweeping over the tops of the highest mountains, produced 
“by the flux and reflux of mighty deluges, caused by the sud- 
den elevation of mountain chains in various parts of the globe ?”’* 
Sound philosophy forbids these violent presumptions, particularly 
when the facts admit of explanations. more consonant with the 
natural order of events. 

he condition of a continent, gradually elevated from the 
ocean, whether by volcanic action, or by the expansive force of 
crystallization, or by any other cause whatever, would be such 
as to account for all the geological phenomena hitherto attributed 
to the mechanical action of water. Every portion of a continent 
thus reclaimed, must, in succession, have been the bed, and then 
the beach of an ocean. Every portion must have been subjected 
to the action. of the waves and the tides, when lashed into fury 
by the raging storm; and for a period of time only limited by 
the greater or less rapidity of the elevatory process. 

When any considerable portion had become permanently ele- 
vated above tide water, it would form a water shed, collecting 
the rain into rivulets, which, finding their way-to the ocean, 
would cut out narrow channels for their beds. But the effect of 
these streams in the formation of valleys, by denuding and tear- 
ing. up the ‘rocky strata, would be insignificant in comparison 
with the action of the surge at those points where their waters 
were disembogued. As each portion of such channels would 
successively be exposed to their combined action, and must suc- 
eessively form the bed of an estuary at the valley’s mouth, we 
can readily account for their excavation, to a greater or less extent, 


in proportion to the hardness of the rocky bed, to the violence of 


the waves and tides, and the duration of their action. In these 
estuaries; the comminuted materials would assume nearly a hori- 
tion, and when left dry, would resemble the alluvial 


zontal 
plains or “ “ bottoms,” which border most of our rivers. Should 


a sudden rise of a few feet take place, the water would at first 


* Nearly every geological writer; excepting Lyell, whike works have fallen un- 
der my observation, even without including those who have evidently been influ- 
enced more by theological, than scientific views, has drawn largely on these won- 
derful deluges ; and the means by which they ate supposed to-have been produced, 
are equally fanciful with the n itself. The a from which the 
above quotation js taken, (see Hitchcock’ ’s Geol ogy of Mass:, p. 242.) is perhaps 
not avery extravagant specimen of this kind of iypaihetical oS See also 


L. XXXV.—No. 1. — 12 


90 Geology.and Topography of Western New York. 


recede; but by the action of the waves and tides on this alluvial 
mud, they would soon regain possession of that part of their for- 
mer bed, bor ring the stream to a greater or less extent. The. 
centre of the valley would thereby be lowered; and this pro- 
cess being | repeated, a series of terraces, or steps, would re- 
sult, precisely similar to those in the valley of the Connecticut 

river, which Prof. Hitchcock attributes to the fluviatile action of 
existing streams.* Valleys could thus be formed where streams 
of no great magnitude ever flowed, and where currents, “except 
the ordinary ones of the ocean, never existed. 

_ The formation of sand hanks and of gravel beds, the rounding 
and transportation of boulders, the formation. and distribution of 
what we call diluvium, all admit the same. simple explanation. 
Truth is said to be more. wonderful than fiction ; however this 

may be, it usually proves more simple than hy potheuss We 
ought not, therefore, to, be surprised, if the phenomena which 
have led to the crude notion of a deluge, or a succession of deluges, 
_have been produced by an agent no less active now than at any 
former time ; an agent, as much more powerful in its action, as 
it is permanent in its duration. -._ : 

Could the Atlantic be drained of its.waters, we should find 
great diversity of surface ; and that portion oceupied by the Gulf 
stream, would unquestionably present a succession of beds of 
sand, gravel, clay, &c., with boulders, more or less profusely. 
distributed, in proportion to their proximity to beds of rock, or 
cliffs, which have been successively undermined by the contin- 
ued action of the surge. In other words, we should find. the 
~ surface covered with diluvium, and arranged, perhaps, very much 
after the fashion of that in Massachusetts, described by Prof. 
Hitchcock, as exhibiting “‘concavities and convexities resem- 
bling very much the sandy or gravelly bottom of existing 
streams, where the current has been very rapid.” 

Assuming, then, that the. transition rocks of western New 
York. extended far to the north, probably or possibly covering 
that portion of this State, and of Canada, which now constitute 
the primitive districts, and which seem to have been the nearest 
points of disturbance, it must follow as a consequence, that they 
were the first peh into. contact wish the waves by the process 
_ 


“IB, p. 144. 


Geology and Topography of Westen New York. 91 


of elevation. As few points could then have been permanently 
raised above the ocean, east of the Rocky Mout tains, the action 


tion, made equal progress. When, however, the Mtinitive nu- 
cletis was laid bare, and Mount Marcy had attained an elevation 
above the: level of the ocean, and bid defiance to its waves and 
the thunders of its storms, then, and not till then; New York ob- 
tained her first “foothold on terra firma.” This “war of the 
elements,” however, must have been of long continuance before 


any portion of the sedimentary rocks were rescued from the do- 


minion of the ocean. Mount Marcy has an elevation of 5467 
‘feet ;* while Roundtop, of the Catskill, composed ‘of sedimen- 
tary pace is but 3804 feet ;+ and from the best data in my pos- 
session,{ the highest peaks of the dividing ridge which separates 
the streams flowing south from those which take a northern 
course to the St. Lawrence, do not probably exceed 2000 feet 
above tide water. The elevation of this part of the continent, 
therefore, must have been exceedingly gradual, to give time for 
= degradation and removal of such an immense amount of mat- 
ter; and it would seem probable, that it was not till the shoals 
had become so extensive as to obstruct the further action of the 
waves and arrest the removal of the detrital matter, that this 
ridge attained a permanent elevation above tide water. 
_ Whether it prove true or not, that these rocks have been re- 
moved to so great an extent as the foregoing train of reasoning 
presupposes, is of little consequence to the main question under 


consideration. The broadest ground has been asstmed, in order 


to show that the causes assigned for the topographical phenom- 
ena of this part of the state, are abundantly sufficient, not only 
to account for what we actually witness, but also for any extent 
of ‘change which facts may hereafter demonstrate. 

Supposing even, that no very great extent of strata have boda 
removed, that these ancient deposits thinned out rapidly on the 
north, and that the surface has only received such modifications 
as hike? B Beg ftw from the remaining strata; is there 


* Prof, age ea, 1838, p- 244. 
t Prof. Emmons, New York Geological Report, 1837, p. 100. 
t See Am. Journal of Science, Vol. xxxim. p. 122. 


te 


92 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


any power in nature with which we are acquainted, other than 
the one suggested, capable of effecting the change with so muc 

regularity and order? Every inch of surface has been subjected 
to the denuding agent; the _tops of the highest hills, no less 
than the limestone platform, ar the scars and scratches of 
the contending elements. yce, except on the steep es- 
carpments, is every where everest with a thick coat of dilavium, 
composed of water-worn pebbles, boulders, sand, &c. The val- 
leys are often deeply filled with these materials, more or less 
comminuted ; and sometimes they contain large quantities of 


a gee 


detrital matter, little worn, evidently deawed from strata similar 


to those of the adjoining hills. 

The condition of an ancient inland lake which has burst its. 
barriers and disappeared, could not account for these things; nor 
could its drainage from a higher to a lower plain, as snggestéd by 
Prof. Rogers,} excavate the deep and long ravine through which 
the Niagara now flows. It is equally idle to suppose, that the ex- 
istiig streams have excavated the valleys through which they 
flow ; much less could they have effected the comminution and 
uniform distribution of the coat of diluvium. And as for a sud- 
' den inundation, deluge, or any succession of them, (aside;from 
the improbability of nature stepping so-far out of her ordinary 


track, ) had they been sufficiently powerful to tear up the strata, | 


and lay bare so large a district of the limestone: rocks, we should 
hardly expect to find the work so systematically accomplished. 
A great deluge, it is true, may account for the uncovering of the 
limestone ; and by sweeping heavy boulders over its surface, 
might have produced the “ diluvial scratches.” But portions of 
this rock are highly polished, and indicate a much longer con- 
tinuance of the watery friction than is consistent with the notion 
of adeluge. The systematic and parallel arrangement of the 
long sloping ridges, composed of shale and sandstone, no better 
adapted t to resist a sudden and Sprceines inundation than 


“ The numerous proofs that this whole region was once submerged, ads led to 
‘the Ge theory of an ancient lake, far more extensive than any or all of the existing 
- together. Had the pass through the Highlands been elosed - and a 

seohe of sufficient height existed across the valley of the St Lawrence, such @ 
lake must have been the result. But these have not been rendered woke by 
any indications hitherto discove peat = toe tee i Sn el presuming that 
t See Awaitas aay. Vol SXxviT, p- 329. ~ 


j 


ee ee ee. ee Ue TU 


Stetina nes 


Geology and Topography of Western New York. 93 


those portions which have been removed from the intermediate 
valleys, could hardly have resulted from any sudden irruption of 
water. ‘The strata would have been indiscriminately torn up; 
and the ruins, instead of being finely pulverized, and —. 
distributed over the surface, to hide the “ nakedness of the la 

and prepare it for cultivation, w have been thrown together 
by the eddies of the currents} nsightly heaps ; and this fair 
region, instead of being the “ garden of the West,” would have 
presented to view the uncouth surface of barren rocks, and would 
have offered, comparatively, few inducements for se anor 
enterprise of the agriculturist. 

But to return.—Suppose this dividing ridge to pee attained 
an elevation above tide water. The southern slope would pre- 
sent to the waves the smooth surface of the strata; whereas their 
basseting edges would be exposed on the icetinown declivity. 
Deep notches would soon be worn into it from both sides, which 
would occasionally interlock, and sometimes meet ; thereby cut- 
ting the ridge into a series of islands, with transverse passes be- 
tween them. These islands now form the highest peaks of the 
range; and the passes correspond to the elevated valleys, in 
which the prin¢ipal-streams take their rise. 

When a considerable elevation had been attained, small stream- 
lets would collect ; and at the places where they entered the sea, 
the waves and the tides would be more powerful in tearing up 
and removing the shaly rocks, than at any other points; and 
thereby a system of valleys of denudation, precisely similar to 
those we here witness, would be commence On the southern — 
slope, where the streams flowed over the intlindd planes of the 
strata, in the direction of their dip, they would meet few ob- 

would seldom be formed. Not so ou the 
There, where the streams flowed over the 
dges of the ‘strata in an opposite direction; each harder layer, 
being fonger able to resist the denuding process, would, for a cer- 
tain distance, form the bed of the stream; and the dip, being in 
irection opposite to the current, a succession of pools of 
vould result... These phenomena may frequently be 
: the small streams on the northern slope of a hill, 
where some of the strata are composed of hard, chose giained 
se ggancete: Ry those on the southern deulivity of the same 


a 


94 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


The same thing occurs in many of the valleys, but on a vastly 
larger scale ; the shale and sandstone being cut through and te- 
moved dows to the surface of the mountain limestone, as before 
stated. In cases like this, the latter rock, at its northern outcrop, 
forms a barrier across the mouths of such valleys. . The streams 
which flow into them, are obstructed at these points; and lakes: 
of greater or less magnitude result. All of those whose outlets 
are situated on the line of bearing of the limestone strata, which 
extends from the Niagara to the Hudson rivers,* as Canandaigua, 


‘Seneca, Cayuga, Skaneateles, and some of the smaller lakes, 


doubtless owe their origin to this peculiar feature in the dip and. 
arrangement of the strata. Other valleys, also, in this range, 
were probably once occupied by lakes. In that of Bristol, the 
depth of the alluvium is unknown. In sinking wells, trunks of . ° 
trees are met with at considerable depths; and in one instance, a 
frog is said to have been dug up, which, on being exposed to the 
vivifying influence of the sun, took advantage of his newly ae- 
‘ged freedom, and hopped off, with much apparent satisfaction. 
_ Lake Erie is somewhat similarly situated, in as much as the 

oor of its basin, and the barrier at its cette are formed by the 
mountain limgatone, But, instead of lying at right a 3 to” 
bearing of the strata, it occupies a basin at the” junction ‘of the 
shale_and limestone, formed by the removal of the outcropping 
edges of the former. Its longitudinal direction, therefore, has a. 
general coincidence with the line of bearing of the strata; and 
its northwestern shore, consequently, is formed by the mouintaiti 
limestone, which, in that direction, attains an elevation above 
the surface of the lake, and underlies the peninsula in Upper 
Canada, included between Lakes Erie, Ontario, Simcoe and . 
Huron. 

Before this limestone terrace had become sufficiently eleveiial 
to shut out the sea from the basins now occupied by these lakes, 
their shores were swept by its waves, and they differed in no 
material features, from the estuaries of rivers, or the bays which 
indent our sea coasts at the present day. It is highly probable, 
also, that a strong current set in through the Gulf of St. Law~ 
see. and found its exit seboge the valet of the Mohawk 


a A 38, 
1 Dr. Bigsby, American Journal, Vol. vis. PTB a 


Geology and Topography of Western New York. 95 


Hudson ; forming for itself a channel through the Highlands, if 
that pede. did not previously exist. 

The large quantity of primitive boulders seatterdd over the sur- 
face, and distributed promiscuously through the diluvium, would 
seem to indicate some such movement. ‘That they came from 
the north, has ‘often been suggested ; and the fact, that the near- 
est primitive rocks, in place, occur in that direction, renders the 
assumption highly probable. I have noticed one within the 
boundaries of this city, containing the Labradorite: It is doubt- 
less identical with the Hypersthene rock in Essex county,* or 
with a similar rock described by Dr. Bigsby, as occurring on the 
northeast coast of Lake Huron,+ and probably ‘came from one of 
those locations. 'That loose masses of rock have been frozen into 
cakes of ice, and widely distributed over the surface of the earth, 
seems to admit of no doubt, as-the same phenomenon may be 
witnessed in all currents of the ocean which flow from = lati- 
tudes towards the equator. 

But by whatever agent these boulders have been transported, 
whether by the buoyancy of congealed water, and dropped in a 
more southern latitude, when disencumbered of their icy bark, or, 
swept along by the unaided force-of currents, tides and waves, 
they have left their. “ marks” engraven on the surface of the 
limestone rocks, in characters which bid fair to prove indelible, 
and by which we may obtain a clew to their early history. 

‘The Niagara river takes a course at right angles to the general 
direction of Lake Erie, and, in its descent to Lake Ontario, cuts 


directly across the limestone terrace, which, at this point, exceeds - 
thirty miles in breadth. The upper strata of this lime-rock, con~ 


tain layers and strings of chert, which form a kind of net-work, 


and render them almost incapable of disintegration from ordinary 


causes. These strata form both the barrier at the outlet of Lake 
Erie, and the rapids, between Buffalo and Black Rock. Below 


the northern outcrop of these cherty layers,.which may be re-. 


garded as forming a kindof step‘on the terrace, and upon those 
strata which terminate at the mountain ridge, lie the shallow val- 
leys of the -Tonnewanda and Chippewa creeks, one of which 
flows to the west,-and the other to the east; both pacing the 
— between Black Rock and the Falls. 
Borner 

“a Reports, tg and 1838. 
pience, Vol. vii. p. 69. 


* ~-# See New York Geol 
+ American Journal ot 


96 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


— The northern boundary of the terrace, as before stated, termi- 
nates by an abrupt precipice, rendered more rugged and forbidding 
in appearance, by the disintegration of the shale on which it rests ; 
causing the harder strata to project from the bank, and when su 
‘* _, ficiently undermined, to be precipitated to the plain below. ’ This 
~ action goes on, till the talus covers the face of the shaly strata, 
and protects them from further disintegration. The mural preci- 
_ pice above might apparently remain for ages, without suffering 
material change. 'This escarpment is indented by: numerous Fra- 
vines which penetrate the bank to a greater or less distance. The 
streams which now occupy these indents, are mostly insignificant 
in size ; while many, some of which extend. farthest back from 
the oalarhvoat drain but a few hundred acres, and are only oc- 
cupied by the water which oozes from their banks, except during 
heavy rains, and the thawing of the snow at the end of winter. | 
When viewing this escarpment, it is difficult to resist the conclu- | 
sion, that the terrace once extended much farther north, and has i 
been undermined and broken down by the action of the surge. _ 
Not unfrequently,. persons who visit the falls of Niagara, and 
superficially examine the topography of the’ surrounding region, 
conclude, that the cataract was once located at Lewiston, _ seven 
miles below its present location. Full of this grand eonc eption, 
and without taking. into the account the causes which gave rise | 
to these general topographical features, they first attempt to ascer- 
tain its perpendicular height at that time. Having settled this to 
their satisfaction, they often launch forth into a train of caleula- 
tions, alike unprofitable and éxtravagant ; first to determine their 
age, and then, the number of years they will occupy, in their 
backward course, before they will invade the rocky ramparts of 
Lake Erie.* But, as in the onset, the origin of the cataract, one 
of the most important terms of the problem, is entirely omitted, 
their conclusions are wholly erroneous, and are entitled to as 
little consideration, as the ‘baseless fabrie of a dream.” | 


) 


. 


‘ * After all, parkas those So ieae t who Suis view the falls in theory, are the 
most prolific in drawing such conclusions. A series of lakés, situated like this 


DP hg, Aen ih TRS EE Cot Aten, BES a OR te ap ee LONE Pie Le, eae are 


the ear this hypothetical deluge, which is to Sa the fair valley 2 
oe Lawes 909 Gah hence, is cited to ustrate 


Geology and Topography of Western New York. 97 
In order to understand the origin, and to account rationally for 
the present location of this cataract, let us go back to the time 


when the process of elevation was going on, and the highest parts 
of this limestone ridge had just, appeared above the saetere at low 


a tremity (now Lake Brie) and the northeastern section. Across 
the lowest points of the reef, a strong current would be thereby 
produced, alternately flowing in opposite directions, during the 
ebb and flow of the tide.. As the reef became more elevated, the 
currents would gradually become more and mor re confined to those 
passes where the fewest obstructions existed. In process of time, 
some one of these gaining the ascendency, the whole force of the 
conflicting currents would be concentrated at one point. The 
power of the waves and influx of the tide, operating from below, 
would be-applied to the best possible advantage, in tearing up 
those strata which most impeded their course ; while the cur.ent, 
combined with the receding tide, would carry off the fragments. 
In this manner the valley of the Niagara was doubtless formed ; 
and circumstances, which will be detailed further on, render: it 
highly probable, that the ledges above the cataract, which form 
the rapids, had the same origin. - 

That such a strait did exist, aftet Lake frie became fresh, ‘sist 
before the deep gorge below the falls was excavated, is certain. 
The ancient banks may be traced on both sides of the gorge; 
and that portion of the ancient bed, from the brink of the preci- 
pice up to the level of the river above the rapids, contains a fresh 
water deposit, embracing shells of species identical with those 
now inhabiting the waters of Lake Erie.* 'This deposit consists 
principally of gravel, containing fragments and boulders of primi- 
‘tive rocks, but chiefly made up of water-worn fragments of 
the limestone itself. At some — at the depth of from two 


* The Unios appear to be a thick-shelled species, and consist of water-worn 
fragments. I have not met with a-single whole valve, although recently I had a 


caved off. They are exceedingly friable, and will scarcely bear handling. Some 
of the small univalves, however, as Melania, Planorbis, Paludina, &c., and one 
minute bivalve, which I take to be a Cyclas, are not only abundant, but well pre- 
served, and probably inhabited the locality. The Unios may have been brought 
down by the river current. — 


Vou. XXXV.—No. 2 13 


98 Geology and Topography of Western New _— = 


‘to four or six feet, it is underlaid by a very fine zee of olf 
‘horizontally stratified, containing fragments of limestone similar 
to the rock beneath. It appears to belong to the extensive clayey 
2 “deposit, which covers large tracts on the limestone range, and in 

-- which I have never met with any fossil remains ; ae oe! 

may, and probably will hereafter, be detecte 

The extent and power of these counter leasballi which! exca- 
vated the valley of the Niagara, and assisted in cutting down the 
ravine below the falls, remain to be determined, when the laws 
which govern the ebb and flow of tides shall be fully developed, 

- and when the shape of this ancient gulf, at this stage of eleva- 
tion, shall be approximately ascertained. It is well known, that 
the height and violence of tides are materially modified by the 
direction of prevailing winds, by oceanic currents, and by the 
shape of coasts and estuaries. At some places on the coast of 
England, as in the Bristol channel, the tide rises forty-two feet,* 
and in the Bay of Fundy, to the enormous height of from sixty 
to one hundred feet.t As ‘no land which is now less than 575 
feet above tide water, had then emerged from the ocean—uniless 
its rise was less rapid than this region, and the reverse is probably 
tre of the primitive districts—this arm of the sea had ample 
communication with the Atlantic, through the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and the valley of the Hudson. At this stage, the primitive 
range in the north of this State, and those in the New England , 
States, were but islands; and it is not improbable, when the rel- ua 
ative levels shall be alegrieioctle that other passes will be found, 
at a less elevation above tide water than Lake Erie. Receiving 
the tidal wave, therefore, through these different channels, which > 
would meet in the vicinity of Lake Ontario, an additional im- 
pulse would be communicated to it, and a tide would probably 
result, little inferior to that at either‘of the places above cited. 

There is another phenomenon connected with tides, which 
ought not to be forgotten. If, as suggested, this strait received a 
powerful tide, it might, when vushing upthe narrow gorge above 
| Lewiston, have produced that kind of tidal wave, called the 
Bore,” which, says Lyell,t “is sometimes produced in a river, 
where a large body of water is made to rise pain in coma 

ee 


ae eficnlegs, Vol. 1, p. 228. 

re 's Birds of America, Vol. 11, p. 448. Also, Ameriean Journal, Vol 

: v, p- 132. Also, Rees's and the American Encyclopedias. : 
* * Lyel's Geology, Vol. 1, p. 274. ana 


: 


a i 
ad Geology and Topngraphy of Wester New York: 99 


a quence of the contraction-of | “the channel. This wave terminates 
abruptly on the inland side, because the quantity of water con- 
tained in it is so great, and its motion so rapid, that time hed 
allowed for the surface of the river to be immediately raise 2 
means of transmitted pressure. A tide-wave thus rendered a s: 
rupt, has a close analogy, observes Mr. Whewell, to the waves _ 
which curl over and break on a shelving shore.” ‘This phenom- 
enon takes place in the river Severn, which enters the Bristol 
channel, where the Bore, during spring tide, is sometimes nine 
feet high, and rushes up the channel with extraordinary rapidity.* 
It also occurs in the Ganges, the Burrampoote id the Hoogly 
rivers ; sweeping off herds of cattle, or what - else may be 
caextabaint in its course, and occasions more or less i ciiiaaal to 
the safe navigation of all these streams. 

At any rate, the tide in the vicinity of the Niagara must hace 
been very considerable ;, and its power, combined with the dash- 
ing of the waves, seems to be the only rational cause which can 

x be assigned for the excavation of the numerous ravines already 
noticed.. In a paper by Mr. James Geddes, read before the Al- 
bany Institute,{ the fact, that they owe their: origin to other than 

existing causes; is Slnealet established. 

' When. the elevation had so far advanced a as to ahen the. 
current exclusively to the valley of the Niagara, and the chan- 
nel below the present falls sufficiently deepened to receive and 
confine the tidal wave within its rocky walls, a power was 
brought into active operation which it is difficult fully to con- 
ceive without witnessing its effects on some of the iron-bound. 
coasts of this continent. The basin of Mines, and its. vicinity, 
at the head of the Bay of Fundy, would probably be a fit Bere 

- to study the effect of causes which were once active here.:. 
When we contemplate these powerful agents, which, in every 
country, have had so much to do in shaping. the surface of the 
earth, and consider, that in the natural order of events they must 
have been active here; when we find the proofs of their visitan, 
tion. engraven in shaescian as enduring as the continent itself, 
we ean hardly doubt that they played an important part.in exca- — 
vating abe deep channel below. the falls. And when we contem- 


a 


" * Lyell’s cee Vol. 1, p. 274. 
t Rennell, see Philosophical ‘Transactions of the Royal Society, 178I. 
¢ See American ere Vol. 11, p. 213. 


4 
100 §=Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


plate them acting in concert with the river current, we cease to 
wonder that the chasm should have attained its present length 
and depth, and that the cataract should occupy a place at the dis- 
tance of seven miles above its apparent natural position. 

How much is due to each agent separately, can hardly be de-. 
termined. We must bear in mind, however, that the fall was 
nothing ‘at first ; that as the elevation advanced, the river became 
‘more rapid; that finally, when the limestone was cut through 
and somewhat undermined by the disintegration of the shale be- 
low, and not tillthen, a distinct cataract could have been produ- 
ced. Until then, the tides and dashing of the surf were probably: 
most efficient in ing up the strata from their rocky beds, and 
comminuting the fragments; while the river would guide the 

oul vit "Op rations, and: remove the detrital matter from 
its bed. ae é 

“What distance the cataract has receded since that time, is a 
problem equally difficult to solve; but there are some indications 
which will enable us to applosiniate to the truth.. The rapids 
above the cataract, and the whirlpool below, are points where 
phenomena exist incompatible with the common theory. If it 
should be established, that the conformation of the whirlpool is 
such, that it could not have resulted on the theory of recession, 
this “endless saw” must relinquish its claim to four long miles of 
excavation for which it has received ecredit.. And if the rapids 
above the cataract existed prior to its.present location, we may 
presume that they are but the upper extremity of an ancient in- 
clined plane, or rather, succession of oe which existed before 
the limestone strata were cut through. . 

Goat Island is situated on the brink of the precipice, and di- 
vides the water into two unequal sheets. It is based on the lime- 
stone ledges which form the rapids, and the highest part of its~ 
surface is on a level with the river above their commencement. 
Near the upper extremity of the island, the rocky bed rises just 

sufficiently above the surface of the river to divide the stream, 
- and deflect the branches somewhat from the original course’ 
nt. It is to this eireumstance alone that the island owes 
istence ; for its lower extremity is covered with a tertiary 
sit of gravel and clay, which can offer no adequate _resist- 
the boisterous current, which seems anxious and ready 
cep the whole island into the gulf, below. 


#3 


ing above the soil, afford conclusive proof, tha 


: es 

Geology and Topography of Western New York. 101 

- Wherever the strata come in sight on the island, they conform 
to those in the bed of the rapids, and are equally water-worn and 
denuded. A portion of rock, recently uncovered by the en- 
croachment of the rapids upon the west bank of the island, pre- 
sents the same features, and can only be distinguished from those 
which have buffeted the fury of the torrent from time immemo- 
rial, simply by the knowledge of the naked fact of their recent 
exposure. One of the principal ledges, also, which extends en-— 
tirely across from the Canada shore, may be. encod some distance 


of the bed of the rapids, and the surface 
derlies the tertiary on the island, was effecte the same agent 
and at the same time. ren 

No rapids could then have existed at this sists, for the island 
has since received a tertiary deposit of clay, horizontally strati- 
fied, which is overlaid by one of gravel containing fresh water 
shells. These two deposits, at the lower end of the island, be- 
tween the cataracts, measure thirty three feet in thickness. I 
have already mentioned, that this clay resembles the numerous 
beds in this vicinity ; they all probably belong to the same gene- 
ral deposit. Mr. Rogers thinks this deposit took place from the 
waters of a tranquil lake.* The fact, however, of its contain-. 
ing gravel stones and water-worn fragments of the rock on which 
it rests, (as do all of these beds,) would seem to indicate a dif- 
ferent origin. -I suspect this clayey deposit may have been 
brought on by the overflowing of tides, after the rocky bed had 
become so much elevated as to be protected from the violence of 
the surge. The surface, where large tracts are overlaid by it, is 
marked by meandering-‘swales, which strike the observer as fit 
channels 


s to conduct the water back to its proper level at ebb | 
tide, after having parted with a portion of its sedimentary matter. 


No proof surely could be more conclusive than these tertiary beds 


on Goat Island, that the rapids have not — Biases — 
_ patt 2s, 


be the fact in coped to the cataract itself. 
From ‘the Falls to the Whirlpool, a distance of about © 


miles, I have observed no indications which have a direct bear- 


ing on the. question of recession; but»at this latter place, phe-. “3 
at ; 


oe ie’ 


= American Journal, Vol. XXVII, p. 330. 


aa 


win 
. 
uel 
- 
es 
a Wd 
ie 


| 
” 


102  Geologyand Topography of Western New York. 


nomena are presented perfectly incompatible with that theory. 
To enable.the reader more clearly to comprehend the features of 
this singular spot, and also of the Devil’s Hole, one mile further 
down the river, the following wood cut is introduced.* - 


wdtciont. Banke, 0 or r Terrace 


= scabian a seatiem particularly, to the = ravine which 
aate Whirlpool from the northwest. It has a gradual as~ 
cent from the bed of the river to the level of the sur ig 
country, and disappears east of the road from the Falls to Queens- 
town. It is similar, in all respects, to those which indent the 
general line of the escarpments from Hamilton, U.C., to Lock 
port, N. Y.,;-and was evidently produced by the same means. 
Had this ravine been excavated by a branch of the river, which 
discharged. its waters into the basin of the whirlpool, we could 
surely trace its bed a greater distance than one mile ; and instead. 
of a gradual ascent, we ought to find the nas ledge pro- 
jecting over the whirlpool, as it does over the basin, into which 
the river now tumbles. It will also be observed, that the direetion 
of this ravine is a continuation of the course of the river where it 
enters the whirlpool. It is manifestly impossible, therefore, by 
any position of the cataract, to bring the action of the river to, 
upon its upper extremity, where it is wholly within the — 
limestone ledge. If the cataract was. placed across the river 
from A to C; the current would be drawn in that direction; if 


_ from A to B, it might undermine the bank where the ravine is 


£ 


2 ‘situated, but the more violent its action, the steeper would hat 


«lia Sih 


— 


_.*Paken, ‘(but somewhat corrected,) from a map is a contemplated uaa 
~ arou d the Falls of Niagara, by Lieuts. T. F. Drayton and J. G. Reed] vU. ri ‘aco 
tA Journal, Vol. xt. See wood cut, p. 215. Also Vol. “x1v. See ma’ 

of Welland canal district, by William Hamilton Merrit. 


r Geology and Topography of Western New York. 108 


been the escarpment. In either case, the ravine could not have 
been formed. 

~ Bat let the reader Sunes , os river flo Wisi nearly on a level 
with its banks; the high prominences, A, B, ©, directing the 
course.of its current, and the less elevated bank, near the ravine, 
flooded at high tide. Let him imagine such a tidal wave as the 
Bore, or even an ordinary flow of a few feet rise, meeting t 
current of the river at this place, and he will readily perceive, ” 
that both currents would be deflected towards the ravine, which, 
as the elevation advanced, would be left dry at its upper extrem- 
ity, and new portions of its rocky bed « exposed to ple watery 


below the limestone strata, we may suppose the. inclined plane, 

to which I have alluded, and of which the present rapids formed 
the upper extremity, had attained its greatest extent. The more 
~ rapid disintegration of the shale would then undermine these 

harder strata, and the work of recession commence ; but whether 
at, or above the whirlpool, I have no data on which to form an 
pe certainly not below, however. 
re are other indications, further down the river, which 

strongly corroborate these views. The indent on the American 
side, called the Devil’s Hole, is a notch, embracing about two 
acres ; and to those who have not seen the place, its name, per- 
haps, may convey some idea of its gloomy and forbidding aspect. 
It is difficult to account for the excavation of this notch on any 
supposition but that of a force applied in the direction of the 
river from below. By inspecting the wood cut, -it will be per- 
ceived, that it is but the continuation of the gorge ; and this 
strikes the beholder with peculiar force when standing on the 
point E, and looking down the river. The high bank, also, on 
: ite shore, marked D, occupies a position well calculated 
to deflect the tidal wave directly into this notch. Bloody Run, 
which is laid down as entering the river through this chasm, 
drains but a few hundred acres, and is so situated, that a branch 
of the river could never have flowed through its channel ; were 
it not so, the thick bed of clay and gravel, which occupies the sur- 
face to within a few feet of the precipice, would be equally con- 
clusive’against the stipposition. Its bed is ‘perfectly dry, except 
during wet seasons of the year ; and it cannot be supposed to have 
done much towards this gigantic work of excavation. The name 


= 


Bi 


Me 


ee 


104 Geology and Topography of Western New York. 


of this stream seems to be in very good keeping with that of the 
gorge, through which it enters the river, and was given in com- 
memoration of a tragic scene once enacted at this. place.* 
When the passes by which this inland sea communicated with 
the Atlantic, became contracted and shoaled; by the progressive 


elevation of the continent, it approximated to the condition ofa 


lake. . The same process which took place when this limestone 
reef emerged, was repeated, but in a new place. The. tides and 
waves began to spend their force on obstructions at a lower level; 
and when the plain, on which Lewiston is situated, emerged, ‘it 


is probable the change was nearly effected. 


We there find indications of an ancient shore, Saoxpoued of 
‘rounded beach gravel, elevated a few feet above the general level 
of the surrounding surface, and having a direction parallel to the 
present shore-of Lake Ontario. It is generally supposed—and the 

geologist assigned to this district, in the survey now going on; 
— the ee — afield once had a —— eleva- 


“¢s 


The following brief account of that bloody eect as related by Farmer’s- 
Brother, a celebrate’ Seneca Chief, who himself headed ‘the attacking ait is 
extracted from Thatcher’s. Indian Biography: ‘and may oe interesting to some of 
the readers of this journal who have not seen that work. These party 
of Indians, he lay in ambush, patiently awaiting ae glee -ef a guard that 
nied the English teams employed between the Falls of Niagara and the 

‘ort Niagara,) “ which 


looking den. A large ravin e, occasioned by the falling in of the perpendicolar 
bank, made dark by the spreading branches of the birch and cedar, which had ta- 
ken root below, and the low murmurings of the rapids in the chasm, added to ‘the 
solemn dhonder of the cataract itself, conspire to render the scene truly awful. 


The English party were not aware of the dreadful fate that awaited them. “Tn- : 


a. 


conscious of danger, the drivérs were gaily whistling to their dull ox-teams. 


mer’s-Brother and his band, on their arrival at sin, spot, rushed from the thicket, 


t had concealed them, and commenced a horrid butchery. So unexpected. was 
such an event, and so completely were the English disarmed of their presence of 
mind, that but a feeble resistance was made. ‘The guard, the teamsters, the oxem 
and the waggons, were precipitated into the gulf. But two of them escaped ; 4 
Mr. Stedman, who lived at Schlosser, above the falls, being mounted. on a fleet 
horse, made good his retreat; and one of the soldiers, who was caught on a pro- 
jecting root of a cedar, which sustained him until oe by the distant yell of 
the savages, that they had quitted thé ground. It-is the rivulet, pouring itself 
is precipice, whose name is the only monument ? ate records the massacre, 
It is said to | have been literally colored with the blood of the vanquished. 
t Mr. Sam es Hall : se6 New York Geological Report, 1838, p. 310; and onward.” 


Geology and Top ra hy of Western New York. 105 


tion than at present, and shandneeade Prive with this ancient beach, 
and that, from some ause, it has to its pres- 
ent level and dimensions.. 

I have long suspected some fallacy i in this theory, and have 
anxiously awaited the result of accurate levelings. It may be 
deemed equally probable, and more consonant with the views, 
here suggested, to suppose, that, after the principal tides were shut 
out from this-inland sea, and: the water had become nearly or 
quite fresh, but while it was on a level, or nearly so, with the 
Atlantic, the uplifting process became stationary, for an indefinite 
period ; during which season of quiescence, this beach was thrown 
up. Atsome subsequent time, the disturbing force again became 
active, raising the basin of Lake Ontario, above the further influ- 
ence of the ocean; and fixing the present levels and boundaries 
of this part of the continent. Should the statement of Mr. James 
Hall prove well founded, and actual admeasurement confirm the 
estimates of his assistant, Dr. George W. Boyd, this view of the 
subject will be clearly established ; although these gentlemen do 
not seem to have drawn such an inference. Mr. Hall states the 
elevation of the ridge in Niagara county, at about 160 feet; and 
admits variations in its level, of a few feet.* Dr. Boyd estimates 
its elevation in Wayne county at more than 200 feet.+ If this 
diversity of level actually exists—as I have long suspected would 
prove to be the case—it fixes the elevation at a period subsequent 
- to the formation of this beach. Its increased elevation, in ap- 
proaching the primitive district, is what should be inferred, on 
the theory, that those districts were the original centers of ele- 
vation. And the variation of forty feet in about one hundred 
miles, is quite as much as ought to be expected from an elevation 
, of but. four hundred feet, which is the height of this mage, 0 
ancient ities in Niagara coUnEYs above tide water. 


* Second New York Geological Report, p. 310. - 4 Ibid. p. 312. 


Vor. XXXV.—No. 1. ul 


att 


ee 
= 


of this object, of which we e have any record, was made by Mr. 


_ try who produced a rotary electro-magnetic machine. Since the 


106 ~—— Ellectro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. 


ees 
Arr. VL—On- Ele ct eed netism, as a Moving Pusal 3 by 
Cuartes G. Pace, M. D., Washington City, D 


Arter the first successful magnetization of soft iron by the we 
«vanic current, and more especially on the announcement of Prof. 
Henry’s signal experiment, the suggestion naturally occurred to 
every enquiring mind, cannot this immense attractive power, 80 
easily developed and ps ie be rendered available as a me- 
chanical agent?» The first successful step towards the attainment 


William Sturgeon, a distinguished philosopher of E gland. 
next original invention by which an independent motion was ob- 
tained from electro-magnets, was the oscillating apparatus of Prof. 
Henry, described in a previous No. of this Journal. The next 
invention of any note, was that of Dr. Ritchie, now very well 
known as Ritchie’s revolving magnet. "This ingenious and sim- 
ple contrivance, will always be regarded as a superb philosophical 
apparatus. It does not exhibit that lishing rapidity of rota- 
tion, as if its poles were changed by the use of solid conductors, 
but as an instrument is more pleasing, as it shows at the same 
time the magnetic rotation, the vivid sparks, and in the dark a 
beautiful optical illusion. Some time after the announcement of 
this instrament in this country, Mr. Davenport of Vermont pub- 
lished in this Journal a partial description of an electro-magnetic — 
engine of considerable power. It appeared that Mr. Davenport 
had for a long time been occupied in the subject, an * 


‘Sa ORES Nesiieaie ae 


time prior also to this period, some interesting experi 
described in this Journal, by Dr. Edmondson of Baltimo 
indeed, this gentleman appears to have been the first in this coum= 


announcement of Mr. Davenport’s invention, the innumerable ex- — 
periments which have been performed in this country, in Eng- 


land, on the continent of Europe, and even in the East Indies, é 
have all contributed to prove that the smallest engines which a 
have been made, have had by far the greatest proportionate power. # 


Since I first gave the subject any attention, I have had sixteen 
different models constructed, — involving distinct principles. 
From all these experiments the inference is still the same, viZ- 


the fewer the magnets and the s 
limits,) the greater the ratio of mecha 
experience as this appears dianoiirtegill 
cient to prove the experiment infeasible. 
are such as have been incident to the prosecution of all inventions 
in-their early stages. It is much to be regretted, that in our coun+ 
try the invention should be a subject of mercenary-speculation, 
when in reality it has no value exce tas an experiment, and that 
the public have been so far mislec withdraw that counte- 
er ! periment really merits. 
We can not but deplore, that such an teresting branch of science 
should > epee and that the very name of electro-maghet- | 
ism should be coupled with empiricism. 

There can be no doubt in the mind of any one who may have 
seen an electro-magnetic engine, that-it furnishes a mechanical 
power already eagurornee and. useful to a certain extent, provided 
: er be not expensive and difficult. 

r cannot be expensive, if the mechan- 


} a7 cob Pistso 6 of the aggregate attractive force ; that 
this a does not hold in any of the plans of which, hitherto, we 
have had any description, I shall prove, when the cause comes to 
be considered. Yet in certain arrangements this law must ob- 
tain, and although the necessary construction be at present some- 
what complicated, yet ultimately it doubtless will be simplified. 
“At ga we have no means of computing the extent of mag- 


at 
: care, I have succeeded in producing an attractive force 
€ 0) pounds, by a galvanic pair having only ten square 

es of zinc exposed ; whereas with the usual arrangements, it 
required two or three square feet to produce the same power. 
This power, though so great for the means used, yet probably 
was not near the maximum procurable from the same zinc sur- 
face. It would seem, then, that if the above mentioned ratio ex- 
ists in attainable forms of machines, the application of the power 
cannot be otherwise than cheap. The difficulty of maintaining 
a uniform power is by no@neans insurmountable. The faults 
hitherto have been, the wearing and alloying of the pole-changer 


ee 


108 Hlectro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. 


and springs, and subsidence of battery action, which are easily 
demonstrated to be remediable. It is not to be presumed that in 
the present age, or perhaps ever, we shall arrive at a power from 
electro-magnetism, which shall supplant the steam-engine, in its 
grander operations. Indeed, it is not essential that this should be 
the case, to render the invention even invaluable. Incalculable 
benefit would be conferred upon society, if a new and simple me- 
chanical power could be procured, available from that of a single 
man to one or two horses. A multitude of mechanical operations 
are now carried on by animal or water power, for which-a low steam 
power cannot well be used, from the fact that steam-engines below 


one horse power, are hardly worth the making, and are troublesome 


and expensive. A very natural question here arises ; if one horse 
power can be obtained by electro-magneétism, wary cannot two 
horse, or any extent of power, be made? Theoretically consid- 
ered, it can be; and electro-magnetic powers can only be limited 
by the means used. But practically we have already been taught, 

that (unlike other powers, where the largest engines are the most 
simple and least expensive ) electro-magnetic engines above a cer- 
tain limit, increase in complication and expense in a much greater 
ratio than the power obtained. ‘To ascertain this limit, the pre- 
cise point where economy ceases, is now the great, and mee to 
be the only object of research. 

‘There seems to be little doubt, from the data we already pos- 
sess, that a power equivalent to.one horse may be obtained with 
economy. Before proceeding to point out the obstacles in the 
way of the application of this power, the following general rules 
are offered as deduced from actual experiment. 

First.—Whatever be the rate of passage of the galvanic cur- 
rent, the full magnetization of a bar of iron requires time in pro- 


portion to its hardness and size. Mr. Wheatstone has calculated 
the rate of electro-motion, in good conductors, to be 188,000 miles - 


asecond. Admitting that electricity, even in its lowest state of 
tension, passed at this rate, still the time required in giving a very 
e magnet its maximum charge, would be a perceptible item- 
Therefore a single impulse or discharge, as from a common electri¢ 
battery, (be the quantity ever so great,) scarcely magnetizes. » The 
necessary consequences of this law are, first, small magnets an- 
swer better than large ; second, change of siti to produce mo- 
tion, must be dispensed with, if the introduction of repulsive 


Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. , Se 


powers be not more than sufficient to compensate for the loss ; 
third, the power of a machine does not in ith its velocity. 

The second general rule is, that integrity of the conducting 
and magnetizing wires, is of the utmost consequence. By integ- - 

rity, I mean not only entire absence of flaws, fractures, and im- 
perfectly soldered joints, but a perfect molecular arrangement. 
Bending or twisting a wire, impairs its conducting power ; and a 
wire which has once anon wound upon a magnet, is not fit for 
- same purpose agai 
 Fhird.—Iit is well jai that the fepulsive power i is not equal 
to the attractive, of the same magnet, be it even of the hardest 
steel. The difference between the two forces is still greater in 
electro-magnets, and for the same reason. ‘There is also another 
cause which operates to diminish the repulsive forces of electro- 
magnets, which will be considered when treating of the influence 
of secondary currents. 

_ Fourth.—T wo SETS aK unequally charged, attract each 
other, even when similar are presented. The same is true 
of the steel magnets, but not to so great an extent. 

Fifth.—Change of poles‘cannot be introduced in a machine, 
for the following reasons: 1. It requires time; and during this 

time, the magnets which change poles, are ditiacsod and re- 

tained somewhat by those which do not change. 2. Similar 
poles will attract and produce back action ; for, unless the mag- 

nets which change poles be favored by excess of battery, or 
superior conductors, they cannot receive near the same charge, as 
those which do not change: for, first, there is magnetism of an 
opposite character to be overcome ; and secondly, two breaks in 
or circuit are necessary to produce change of poles. 

"Pwo magnets which have a statical repelling power, that is, 

yer which will merely keep them asunder when the machine 
is at rest, will attract each other when the machine is in motion. 
This singular fact is a consequence of secondary currents, shortly 
to be described. 

The next law to be observed is, that the sum of the forces of 
any number of magnets charged by one battery, is in a diminish- 
ing ratio to the forces of one magnet charged by the same bat- 
tery, provided the battery be not in excess. Hence there must 
bea Breat loss of power, when a number of magnets are ee 


110 | Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. 


by the same battery. The secondary current has also an impor- 
tant bearing upon this case. | 
One of the greatest obstacles we have yet to encounter, in the 
prosecution of this subject, is the influence of secondary currents 
to diminish the power of a machine, just in proportion to the use 
_ of those which at present we consider the most obvious means of 
increasing the power. By secondary currents are here meant, 
those currents which flow in the conducting wires, either with : 
or against the battery current, and are consequences of the devel- 
opment or cessation of magnetism, or of the approximation 
cession of two charged magnets, These currents are | 
obey the following laws. 


— one coil oe eco wound upon a magnet, the addition it 
a second coil increases the power of the secondary current in a 
greater ratio than the power of the magnet. Hence, as it has 
been found, some machines have had greater power with two 
coils of wire on the magnets than with four or five; although 
actual experiment proves, that the real or statical power of the 
magnets is considerably greater when a large number of coils is 
used. According to Faraday’s interesting Sem tists when mag- 
netism is developed in a bar of iron inclosed within a helix, a 
secondary current flows in the helix contrary to the Tccory cur- 
rent. When the magnetism ceases, the secondary flows in the 
same direction as the battery current. The development of mag- 
netism is equivalent to the determination or movement of mag- | 
netic forces towards the poles. The cessation of magnetic power 
is equivalent to the retreating of those forces. Now the ap- 
proximation of two electro-magnets attracting each other, occa- 
sions au additional movement or accumulation towards the poles, 
and consequently develops a secondary current flowing against 
the battery current. The power of this current is in proportion 
to the velocity with which the magnets approach each other. 
When two such magnets in proximity or contact are separated 
by mechanical force, a recession of accumulated forces takes place, 
and consequently a secondary is developed, flowing in the same 
as the at current. Therefore, an independent mo- 
c ine di the influence of 


* 


Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. Beal 


the battery current in proportion to its velocity ; whereas the ap- 
plication of mechanical force to drive the machine against its 
own motion, contributes to the magnetizing power of the bat- 
tery. ‘The same rule applies to the motion of repelling poles. 
When two repelling electro-magnets are made to approach each 
other, a recession of the magnetic forces takes place, and conse- 
quently a secondary current is developed flowing in the direction 
of the battery current. While the forces are thus kept in re- 
tirement, if _ two magnets be made to recede, they will again 
rmine wards the poles, and tian the secon- 


s Seti, ) in which, the secondary current may be so ap- 
s to diminish or accelerate the velocity of the revolving 


par. 
~ It will now be readily seen, that two electro-magnets, with a sta- 
tical repelling power sufficient to keep them asunder, would cease 
to repel when the machine is in motion. The attractive forces 
constitute the paramount motive power, and when the velocity 
of the machine exceeds that which the repulsive powers alone 
would give it, they ate of no value whatever, unless they ope- 
rate in conjunction with attractive forces; but even where this is 
the case, the secondary current arising from the velocity of the 
machine, must occasion so great a disparity between the similar 
poles of the magnets which change and those which do not 
change, that attraction, in lieu of repulsion, must take place. 

I have thus endeavored to point out the most important of 
those difficulties in the way of the application of this power, 
which necessarily arise from the connexion of galvanism and 
magnetism. There are many other hindrances entirely of a me- 
— nature, which perseverance will doubtless overcome, 


Magnetic Electrepeter and Electrotome. 


T. y I.—Magnetic Electrepeter and Electrotome, to be used 2 


sr a — Pgs ; by Cuartes G. Bam M. D., ‘Weshingaa a 


City, D 


THE figure represents a serie instrument, ‘designed chiefly. to 
aid the operator in exhibiting the magneto-electric properties of 
flat spirals. Though the flat spiral as a magnetic electrical in- 
strument is inferior to the compound electro-magnet, described in 
the last number of this Journal, yet the phenomena are more in- 


teresting, as they are strictly magneto-electric, produced without 


the presence or coéperation of ferruginous bodies. The object 
of the instrument, as its name (electrotome) implies, is to bre 
the cireuit ; and as it accomplishes. this by changing the ¢ 


- tion of the galvanic current, it is also a selbanine clectaepaer : 


~~ 


A rotating electro-magnet would effect the same object ; but the 
introduction of an electro-magnet or a coiled wire, in any part of 
the circuit, would detract from the value of the spiral. (g) isa 
thin base board of mahogany, which, when the instrument is in 
_use, is to rest upon the spiral coil or the box containing it. At 
the centre of the base (g’) is a pivot sustaining the magriétic bar 
of steel (c) and its axis, the extremity of which plays freely in 
the centre of the cross piece (h.) Between the upright pillars 
are secured two circular pieces of mahogany (a b) (p m) to serve 


a8 supports for the sie cells (dande.) The circular box (@). 


contains two concentric mercury cells, iasaleted from each other, 


Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 113 


and connécted with the poles of a battery by the separate 
and cups (pm.) The centre of this box is open to adm 
shaft of the magnet, as is also the centre of the box (e.) 
box is made of two glass cylindrical sections, cemented int 
groove of a turned cup or base of wood. It contains two ‘dis 
for mercury nearly semicircular, and insulated from each other 
precisely as the cells for the Ritchie magnet. ‘These cells are 
connected with the extremities of the spiral by the separate wires 
and cups (a b.) ‘Fhe two wires (i7) are well insulated by a 
winding of varnished silk, and secured in their positions on the 
shaft by silk thread. 'The upper extremities of these wires dip 

_into the concentric cells of (d,)-and the lower into the cells 

of box (e.) The base board is made thin, and the pivot (g) 
short, to allow the magnet to come as near as possible to the 
spiral. Place the instrument upon the spiral, make the connex- 
ions as above directed, and the magnet immediately commences 
a rapid rotation by the influence of the spiral. ‘The instrument 
should always be placed without the centre of the spiral, and in 
such a manner, that the insulating pieces between the cells of 
(e) should be in the direction of a radius of the spiral. 


Art. VIII.— Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and 
Notice of a monstrous flower of Orchis spectabilis ; by J. W. 
Battery, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, at 
the U. S. Military Academy, West Point. 


= . I. On the Vascular System of Ferns. 


) Tri isa Lcpalniens of much interest in vegetable anatomy, sister 
p vessels exist in ferns; for if they do, ferns present a remark- 
=, able deviation from the usual structure of flowerless plants. It 
4 ‘ is well known, that the presence or absence of these vessels has 


been considered so invariably connected with the presence or ab- 

sence of flowers, as to have given rise to the division of the vege- 

table kingdom into_the two great classes Vasculares or Flower- 
! ing, and Cellulares or F'lowerless Plants. Ferns are by all writers 
| placed in the last class, but it will be seen by the following quo- 
| tations, that there exists much uncertainty with regard to their 

having spiral vessels. 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 15 


114 Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 


k, (Elemens de Botanique, T’. I, p. 132,)as quoted by Hugo 
ais in his elaborate treatise ‘De Structura Caudicis Filicum 
Arborearum,’* states the wood to be “almost wholly made up 
of large spiral vessels.” Decandolle, (Organographie, T. I, p. 
232,) as quoted by Mohl, mentions that they contain many an- 
nular ducts (vasa éesigbigownia) without alluding to spiral vessels. 

Lindley, (Int. to Bot., 1st edit., p. 22,) speaking of spiral ves- 
sels, says, that “in io ivebioss plhinrty they are for the most part 
altogether absent ; the only exceptions being in Ferns and Lyco- 
podiacee,” and adds, “in these they no doubt exist ;, Mr. Griffiths 
has succeeded in unrolling them in Lycopodium denticulatum.” 

Mohl, in the treatise above referred to, in which he describes 
and figures the vasa scalariformia, ‘says, (p. 48,) “ Num in juni- 
oribus plantis et in junioribus partibus adultarum harum planta- 
rum vera vasa spiralia occurrant exponére nequeo, quum has partes 
inquirendi occasio —— 7” and again, in a note on page 51 of 
the same treatise, he sa 


-’ “Schultzius quidem ( Plora, 1828, Tom. I, p. 154) commemo- 


rat propria vasa inesse, ceterum accuratiori eorum descriptione 
omissa ; equidem vero in — earum formationem inveni pro- 
priis vasis adnumerandum 

- When distinguished observers disagree so much in their state- 
ments, it often happens that their accounts can be reconciled by 
the. discovery. of some fact not observed by either, - which will 
explain the apparent contradictions. I hope that the wledge 
of the point of structure. which Lam about to describe, will have 
this bearing upon the present question; for it shows, that those 
who maintain the existence of spiral vessels in ferns, may actu- 
ally have obtained, what, when not carefully examined, might 
easily be mistaken for spiral vessels; while those who deny. the 
existence of spiral vessels, may have observed the same organs 
without attempting to uncoil them, or if they attempted they 


may have failed, owing to the age of the Sant or some memes 


cause. 

The fact to which I seetdd invite the attention of sana is 
this, viz. The ducts of ferns (Annular ducts of Lindley, Vasa 
Fasciitis of Decandolle and Mohl) can be wneoiled in 


“> Published i in the splendid work, ied Plantarum Cryptogamicarum, quas 
itinere annis 1 20 pe r Breziliam collegit et wera Carol. Friderie. Pip 
de Martius. Mo finch 1828—34. : 


® ° are = s 
Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 115 


with wrth ease when the plant is young, but with more difficulty 
in the adult plant. The uncoiled- duct, when examined by 
magnifying power, has. all the appearance of a common 
vessel; but when highly magnified, it shows. the real structure 
to be as represented in Fig. 4, Plate I. It will be seen, that this 
differs ° very much from the structure of a true spiral vessel, which, 
shows merely one or more continuous, slender, round fibres, en- 
tirely destitute of any marks; while the uncoiled ducts of ferns 
show, as in the figure, a flat ribbon marked with peeie rows of 
Short ae 

To oben these = separate from each other, go. as to allow 
the state in which they exist in the plants to be seen, 1 macera- 
ted in water for several weeks the bundles of weasels from the 
petioles of young and tender, though large fronds of Onoclea 
sensibilis, Osmunda cinnamomea, &c. until by the decay of the 
connecting parts, the vessels could be easily separated from each 
other by placing a portion on glass, in a drop of water, and fore- 
ing them apart with the points of fine needles. ~The vessels, as 
prepared in this manner, present the appearance of long cylindri- 
cal (Fig. 2, Plate I,) or prismatic (Fig. 3, Plate I,) tubes, termi- 
nating at each end in very elongated cones. These tubes vary 
much in length and diameter, some being several inches long and 
as much as one twenty-fifth to one twentieth of a line in diam- 
eter, while others are very minute and short. The sides of these 
tubes are marked with a great number of short parallel bars, 
_ placed in rows one above another, and the length of the bars in 
_ the same vertical row is often seen gradually to diminish, (Fig. 
2,) so that the bars are finally reduced to mere. points. 

‘These bars are so placed as to incline slightly, often almost 
imperceptibly, upwards from left to right in all the ferns I have 
examined. The end of one bar is placed close to the end of one 
in the next row, so that the bars form broken spiral lines around 
the cylinder, and as the membrane of the vessel appears to be 
thinnest between the bars, it follows, that when a force is applied 
to tear this membrane, the laceration takes place ina spiral direc- 
tion, and the vessel when thus torn, appears as in Fig. 4, Plate I. 
Vessels torn and uncoiled in this manner have, I presume, been 
mistaken by Link and others for true spiral vessels. This lace- 
_ ration and uncoiling can be effected with so much ease in ten- 
der shoots of Onoclea sensibilis, Adiantum pedatum, Polypodium 


116 Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 


connectile, and particularly in Osmunda cinnamomea, that if the 
petiole of the frond be snapped across and gently separated, hun- 
dreds of uncoiled ducts will be seen to connect the two fragments, 
as in Fig. 5, Plate I. These may often be drawn out to the 
length of two or three inches-without breaking. When broken, 
they exhibit the curious peristaltic motion which has been: noti- 
ced by Malpighi and others in true spiral vessels. This is evi- 
dently a mechanical effect, caused by the elongated and untwist- 
ed coil resuming its twisted state. 

I have found the vessels above described, and have unbédlels 
them, in every species of fern which I have examined, among 
which are Aspidiwm marginale, A. acrostichoides, Asplenium 
ebeneum, Onoclea sensibilis, Adiantum pedatum, Pteris aqut- 
lina, Osmunda cinnamomea, O. regalis, Polypodium connectile, 
P. vulgare, Botrychiwn virginicum, and others. From the draw- 
ings given by Mohl, (Table xxx, Fig. 1 to 3, m m, Table xxxv, 
Fig. 1,) it is evident, that the structure of the vessels in the ar- 
borescent ferns is similar, although it does not appear that a 
attempts have been made to uncoil them. 

In all the ferns which I have examined, I have sought in vain 
for any thing approaching more nearly to true spiral vessels than 
the lacerated ducts above described. 

As these ducts have precisely the structure which would re- 
sult from a compound spiral vessel, in which the spiral threads 
should be broken into short bars, I have carefully examined many 
young ferns, to determine if in the young state the bars may not 
be continuous, and thus form a true spiral vessel. But Ihave — 
found little to support this view, except the appearance of very 
small ducts when so torn as to iackade only a single spiral line 
of bars, in which case it is often impossible to see whether the 
bars are connected or not. 

I hence infer, that spiral vessels do not exist in ferns, and that 
the ducts when torn spirally have been mistaken for them. 

In connection with the above observations, I examined the 
young stem of E’'quisetum sylvaticum, in which I distinctly and 
repeatedly found small vessels which could be uncoiled spirally, 
and which presented no appearance of the bars seen in ferns, but 
which certainly appeared to be true spiral vessels. I did not de- 
a ‘si in EB. Lage or in £. palustre. 

yet examine Lycopodiacez in a young state. 


Notice of a Monstrous Flower of Orchis spectabilis. 117 


Il. Notice of a Monstrous Flower of Orchis spectabilis. 


Although no doubt is at present felt with regard to the normal 
structure of the Orchidez, yet the instances in which this struc- 
ture is reverted to in monstrous flowers, are interesting and wor- 
thy, I think, of being recorded. An instance of this kind in 
Orchis latifolia. ' is désctibed by M. Achille Richard, in the “ Me- 
moires de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat.,” of Paris, in which the flowers 
were perfectly triandrous, with no no trace of irregularity in any 


part of the floral envelopes. 


I myself found a fine example in the case of a monstrous 
flower of our beautiful Orchis spectabilis. The plant on which 
it occurred was a very luxuriant one from the Crow’s Nest, West 
Point, supporting six or seven flowers, of which all but one had 
the ordinary structure. That one, however, had three stamens 
perfectly formed, and each presenting precisely the same appear- 
ance as the one usually developed. All the other parts of the 
flower were perfectly regular, and the ovarium had the three or- 
cney placente. For a sketch of this weeds see Fig. 6, Plate I. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


Fig. A. a terminations of ducts in ene. The ducts terminate at rr end 
in such co 

Fig. 2. Cylindrical portion of a duct, showing the bars gradually diminishing to 
points 

Fig 3. Prismatic sg of a duet. This form is probably caused by the pres- 
sure of cyerem oms rts. 

Fig. 4. A duct of ferns torn in a spiral direction between the bars = uncoiled. 
In te tates ducts have probably been mistaken for spiral vessels 

Fig. 5. Two portions of the bepaie of fibres in ferns, broken po pet ody 
separated, showing several torn ducts spirally twisted, still connecting the parts 
~ Fig. 6. A sus flower of Orckis spectabilis, showing a return to the normal 
seeetare of Orchidex, having three perfect anthers, and the rest of the flower in 

ordi state. a, a, a, three anthers not differing in any ect from the one 

usually developed, and having a very dilated stigma in front of them. 6,5, b, Se- 
pals. c,c,d, Petals and lip. e, Spur. f, Ovarium 


118 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, 


Arr. TX.—On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, at 
West Point, N.Y., with some notices of American species of 
Diatome ; by J. Ww. Baiwey, Prof.-Chem., Mineral. and Geol. 

“at es U.S. Mul. Acad., West Point. 


Dee the kindness of my 1y distinguished friend Dr. Torrey, 
I received some months since a portion of the fossil Infusoria, of 
the tribe Bacillarie, recently discovered by Ehrenberg, constitu-. 
ting whole: strata in Germany, &c. The specimen I received, 
came originally from Ehrenberg himself, and was a to this 
country by Prof. Daubeny of Oxford. 

Having by means of this specimen become acquainted 7 with 
the form of these singular creatures, I was led to search for the 
living species of this family in various situations in this vicinity. 
I soon found that they. were exceedingly abundant, occurring not 
only in small streams and stagnant poolk, but also netting in 
the wet moss on moist rocks. 

The situation, however, in which I found them to be most 
abundant was in the bunches of Conferva, Zygnema, and Ba- 
trachospermum which constitute the-green slimy matter known 
vulgarly by the name of F'rog-spittle, so abundant in bogs and 
slow eerie. brooks. They were accompanied by great num- 
bers of the’ Diatomea, particularly Diatoma fl m and 
Fragillaria pectinalis. By burning off. the vegetable matter 
from a bunch of the Conferva and examining the ashes with a 
good microscope, I found them chiefly composed of the siliceous 
‘shells of various loricated Infusoria, and what was to me before 
unknown, I found that the Diatome were also unchanged by. 
fire or acids, and consequently like the Bacillarie composed of 
silica.* 
_ The imperishable nature of the Bacillarie and Diatome, led 
me to suppose that large numbers must be buried in the mud at 
the bottoms of the bogs, streams, é&c., where the living specimens 
oceur, but I was not prepared for the discovery which I shortly 
made of a deposit eight or ten inches thick ~ oie: several 


* Since making this observation I find that the same > dhnouwine had been pre- 
aaa De oo: 3; see extract from Meyen’s Report given at the end of 


with some Notices of American Diatome. — 119 


hundred square yards in extent, which is wholly era up eo the 
siliceous shells of the Bacillaria, §c. in a fossil sta 

This deposit is about a foot below the surface “ys a small j 
bog, immediately at the’ foot of the southern escarpment of the 
hill on which the celebrated Fort Putnam stands. In draining 
this bog, a large ditch was dug, and among the matter thrown 
out, my attention was attracted by a very light, white or clay 
colored substance, which when examined closely in the sun-shine, 
showed BP glimmering linear ‘particles. On submitting it 

ion, by means of a good microscope, I found it to be 
almost aad? composed of fossil: Infusoria, with occasionally: a a 
few fragments of a Diatoma or Fragillaria. 

I have since examined many specimens, taken from different 

and distant parts of the same bog, and have invariably found 
the same siliceous bodies, and in-the same abundance. 
» ‘There can be no doubt that in this place there are several tons 
of the shells of beings so. minute as to be barely visible as brilliant 
specks, when carefully observed in astrong light by the naked 
eye. Hundreds of years must have elapsed before such an accu- 
mulation could have. been-made. 

’ The forms most abundant in this peciouths are vopiesdanted on 
Plate2. Fig. 1, represents one of the Bacillariz, which is appar-. 
ently identical with fossil specimens from Ehrenberg. Fig. 2, 
represents a boat-shaped shell, which like the preceding is marked 
with parallel lines of almost inconceivable fineness. Fig. 3, shows 
a smooth siliceous body whose nature is to me unknown. Fig. 
4, is arough siliceous. body of whose nature I am also ignorant, 
With these occur great quantities- of exceedingly _ 3 ings, 
discs, and smberee see Fig. 11, Plate2.. 

All forms together compose a white or clay colored mass, 
which when dry feels very light, does not effervesce or dissolve 
in acids, and is not Hee by the blow-pipe. I have no doubt 
that this substance will be found abundantly in many peat-bogs, 
and I hope in the next number of this Journal to see the announce- 
ment of its discovery in many ee. From its white color, 


Snes writing the above, I received from my sciontilic friend, O. Mason, Esq., 
President of the Providence page Soviet, a letter from vehncl I take the liberty 
to extract the following. He sa yo fth white sub- 
stance oceasionally esas at hs Sion cof p pr boge have afforded a gorda and 
very curious p which has often occupied my mind. I eould 


120 = On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, 


it may in some cases have been confounded with marl, from 
which its action with acids would distinguish it. To examine for 
the Infusoria, diffuse a small portion in a drop of water, and exam- 
ine with a microscope of high power. ‘The very convenient 
Raspail Microscope is well suited for the purpose, but to see the 
fine lines on these shells most distinctly, a small glass sphere made 
according to the method of Torre of Naples, should be used with 
the Raspail fixtures.* 

As I have not had the good fortune to obtain Ehrenberg’s 
papers on Recent and Fossil Infusoria, I am unable to give the 
names of the species occuring at West Point. I have, however, 
made sketches of the principal forms occuring in the peat-earth, 
which I hope will serve to make these singular beings more gen- 
erally known and perhaps also enable those who have Ehrenberg’s 
papers, to identify our species. All the Infusoria figured on 

2, occur abundantly in company with the Closteria, and 
poveral other forms, in a living state, in the waters near the deposit 
of fossils. Fig. 5, represents the species which appears most 
abundant as a recent species, and Jeast abundant as a fossil. 

As the species of Algee known as the Diatome, have also a si- 
liceous shell and occur abundantly in our ditches, &c. ina recent 
state, and occasionally in the peat-earth in a Sonail state, and as 
ee obscure but beautiful tribe appears to have been wholly neg- 


not even menses. the origin of this. ‘sedimentary accu accumulation, w Pano Prenils 

occurs under circumstances which afford no clew to its source. I have 

forgotten all the localities whence the specimens were obtained, which were oad 
_ into'my hand by various individuals some years since, some of whoin supposed it to 
be magnesia and others porcelain earth.” 

_ *I make these spheres by drawing into a thread a portion of green glass (flint glass 

will not answer, as the lead reduces,) and then snapping off a portion, about half a 

line or a line in length, I lay it upon a fragment of charcoal and very carefully 


that the bit of glass has assumed the spherical form, (otherwise ashes adhere, and 
the glass becomes full of flaws.) The spheres are then easily set in lead, thus: 
Make a conical depression in a piece of sheet lead and perforate the apex of the 
cone with a hole somewhat less in diameter than the glass to be set. The glass 
is then to be forced into the hole so as to project through slightly. I have fre- 
quently made, and set in five minutes, spheres in this manner, which would 
agnify from one hundred, to four or five hundred times the diameter of the object. 
Such glasses are much superior to any usually kept for sale in this country. 
sume that these glasses would have been more used, had they been tried with the 
proper aiieencaee for light. With the beautiful fixtures of the Raspail Micro- 
a Be es Sed little to be wished for, eat with regard to — or 


eer “4 cea? 


*. 


with some Notices of Amerian Diatoma. —- ‘21 


lected by American botanists, (but one species, D. floeculosum, 
being credited to our Flora, ) I have made sketches of 7 spe- 
cies, which occur abundantly about West Point. 

T have found abundantly in this vicinity, Diatoma jacentensii 
Fig. 12, Plate 2, ‘another species, D. tenue, having the articu- 
lations six to eight times as long as the diameter, Fig. 13, Plate 2, 
Diatoma crystallinum? Fig. 14, Plate 2; Fragillaria pectinalis, 
Fig. 15, Plate 2, and Merilion vernale? ‘of Agardh, Fig. 16, 


Plate 2. My specimens of the latter, found in Washington’s valley, 


agree precisely with specimens sent to Dr. Torrey, by Dr. Binders, 
and tTharked M. vernale, Agardh, but Agardh’s description, does 
not suit them well. Perhaps this may be the M. circulare of 
Agardh. 

I have also fone: adhering to specimens of Abies collecéd 
near Providence, by my friend D. C. Cushing, a great quantity 
of Meloseira nummuloides, Azardh. This is another species of 
the tribe Diatome. It appears then, that this tribe is quite abun- 
dant in this country, and a monograph of the phonies occurring | in 
the United States, ismuch to be desired. 

-In* connection with the above, the following éxtiarte a 
Meyen’s Report of the Progress of Vegetable Physiology,* during 
the year 1836, will prove interesting. I met with it several weeks 
after I made the observations above noticed.. 


* Mohl confesses, that after many years’ observation he- still remains 
quite in doubt as to the place which the Bacillaria should occupy ;. thi 
however their i increasing by separation, oe: not justify us in -cle 
them as animals. & 

“T may also mention that Link. Briger = Morren, have of lat 
——- that these doubtful. creatures which are kncwh abd nee 

@, ought to be arranged | with vegetables ; according to this, 

ace Would remain no other botanist, with the exception of Corda, that 
had paid any considerable attention to vegetable EET who did not 
consider the Bacillaria to be’plants. 

“From this we may judge of the contradictions on this wabject which 
are found in the reports edited by Wiegmann and myself, on the progress 
of mology 2 aed pasnclogiee botany for he yeah, 1835,7—as these crea- 


* Wiegmann ’s Archiv o far Naburgeschichte, 4837, _— iii. © Translated in Lond. 
381. 


Wo. XXXV No. 1 °° “16 


122 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-carth, 


tures are at times mentioned as plants, at times as animals, and fnbal 
under quite different denominations. 

“ Morren, in the highly important memoir on the Closterie,t has very 
fully treated the question, whether they should be arranged with animals 
or vegetables; he succeeded by employing very high magnifying powers, © 
in showing that those red and very movable little points discovered by. 
Ehrenberg at the ends of. these beings, were nothing else than minute 
- vesicles which afterwards change into new individuals. It was these 
eo BS and as it were, oscillating points, which were considered as or- 

s of motion, and appeared to justify the placing of the Closteri@ 
among animals, which, however, at present, after Morren’s discovery, falls 
to the ground. Besides the occurrence of these self-moving propagula in 
the interior of the Closterie, Morrem has observed a formation of fruit by 
conjugation, quite similar to the mode of formation of the fruit in the 
Conjugate,j and besides this there also net place an increase of the 
Closteria by separation. 

“The siliceous envelop which surrounds the Closteria, ‘as seal as all 
other Bacillaria, is regarded by Morren as a formation analogous to the so 
called cuticula at plants, a fact which is capable of confirmation only in 
certain relations ; for in the perfect plants this fine plate of silica lies in 
the substance of the cuticula, and is yonly separated from this by the de- 
Struction’of the organic parts. Besides this siliceous envelop, Morren 
supposes the existence of two other distinct membranes, which 
cuticles of the Closteriz, and inclose the green substance ; he however 


velop which is found in the members of Conferve when their spores are 
ripened, or they begin to increase in any other manner, as for instance, 
by excrescence and separation. © "Morten thinks it possible to explain the 
motion of the Closterie by the action of opposite electricities. The av- 
thor also gives a very complete description, accompanied by drawings, of 
the very manifold forms which the Closteria exhibit at different periods ; 
and by this he shows, how at least six of the new species of the genus 
Closterium, described by Ehrenberg, belong to one and the same species. 

: Brébisson§ also made observations on the enigmatical Diatome, 
in order to aeeidp the question, whether they should be ‘classed with ani- 


* Tam sorry to say, that these contradictions must abso eset? in this year’s report, 
as I do not think Ehrenberg’s view as to the animal nature of the Bacillarie weak- 
ened by the reasons here stated.—Wiegm 

_ + Sur les Clostéries, Ann. des Scienc. “Nat. "Vo 1. 3, p. 274. 

't The same observation bed been si by Conde —Also ay Ehrenbors in 
1834.— Wiegmann. 

§ Observations sur Ss Dianoashed: AJpetient de 1836, p. . 373. Ann. des Scien®- 
Nat., 1836, LU, p. 248. 


with some Notices of American Diatome. — 123 


mals or vegetables. © On burning a great ae of Fragillaria pecti- 
nalis, an animal smell. was noticed. Such a smell would, however, be a 
very indefinite character, for various other Algw produce a similar odor 
on their being burnt to acoal. After the burning of the Fr pec- 
tinalis, and various other beings of the same kind, Brébisson found sili- 
ceous envelope surrounding . them. in a very perfect state, and precisely 
similar to those exhibited by the fossil Diatome, discovered by C. Fis- 
cher in the peat-bog near Franzensbad, and hick led to those beautiful 
observations that priate f= made, known o on n this se eeae in the course of 


discovered, only those beings are to be-understood, whid 1 cae as has 
been previously shown, receive as plants. The occurrence in a fossil 
slate of these minute microscopical plants, is caused by the hard siliceous 
envelop, which resists all destroying influences. Kiitzing’s discovery, that 
the envelop of the Bacillarie consists of silica, which was mentioned in 
our first year’ ’s report, has, by this circumstance, been rendered more im- 
portant. If we observe the same minute plants in the living state, it often 
happens, that amongst them some dead ones occur, which exhibit that 
perfectly transparent and colorless siliceous envelop ; it is therefore proved, 
that a great mass of such siliceous envelops might also be produced by 
the decomposition of the plants, or in the moist way, and also that the 
mountain masses, which consist more or less of such siliceous envelops, 
might not always be regarded as being produced by the action of heat at 
the bottom of the sea.t Brébisson tries to bring the Diatome into two 
divisions, viz. the proper Diatome, which exhibit a siliceous envelop, 
and the Desmidie, which are without a siliceous coating, and en ntirely 
reducible to carbon. In the more perfect plants, the epidermis of which 
is penetrated by a siliceous envelop, it would at least be Heroes to 
make such divisions; in this Gase , however, they may be of some 

“In a recent memoir, Mohl Sus again declared himself against ia ani- 
mal hature of the Bacillaria.. *T admit, says he, ‘that the doubt which 
was raised respecting their. vegetable nature is not yet removed ; their 
animal ‘nature, however , has been as little proved, and we find evident 
transitions from them pa vegetables.’ ”—lLond. and a Phil. Mag., Oct. 

o—390. 


1837, p. 38 


* Vide on Fossil Infusoria, Wicgmaae’ s Archiv, 1836, p. 333. A translation of 
Ehrenberg’ s two papers on this subject is given entire and with engravings in the 
Scientific Memoirs, Vol. 1, p. 400—W, F. 3 have not had an npaetipgd to see . 
either of these work . W. B. / 

t Ehrenberg’s opinion is, that these masses owe their origin to the ie of vol- 
canic heat on the bottom of the sea. Vide Scientific Memoirs, Vol. I, p. 4 


we 


4 


124 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, &§c. 


With regard to ‘the quextiont concerning the animal or vege- 
table nature of the Bacillaria, I can add nothing new to the 
testimony of those who support their animal nature. I have often 
witnessed the motions of several species of Bacillarix, and would 
no more think of referring them to the action of electricity, than 
I would the more active, but apparently not more voluntary 
movements. of Vibrio, or Rotatoria. Ihave seen them advance, 
and recede, vibrate to the right and left, push against obstacles, 


and i in case they could not pass them, retreat and go round. them. 


It must be a very. curious electric arrangementy: that: ‘can pensiee 
such actions as these. 

ore.—lI have taken considerable pains to distribute ‘specimens 
of the Fossil Infusoria, &c., above referred to, but those who have 
not received specimens, =? are interested in these matters, may 
obtain them from Prof. Silliman, to whom I have sent a large 
supply, from Dr. J. R. Chilton, New York, from O. Mason, Blet 
Providence, R. 1., and from aye at West Point, N. Y. 


at Van RSTO OF PLATE If. 
Fig. 1. One of the fossil Infusoria found at West Point, which appears identical 
with specimens from Ehrenberg. 
Fig, 2. Another species, whieh i is also very abundant in the peat-earth.—N. B. 
The fine parallel transverse lines are marks upon the shell, which are easily seen 
ashes = ris The. figures aes thése aoe as ape: 


oat 4. Around soli ico ay, hain wero apron Less abundant 
than the preceding. i : 
Fig. 5. Sili 


we 
ll of a com 


mon species of Infusoria 
Figs. 7,8, and 9. Siliceous shells of small Infusoria. The motions of the living 
species of Figs. 7 and 8, are more active than those of i any of this tribe that,I have 
witnessed. The motions of the species represented by Fig. 5, are also very evident, 
Fig. 10. A portion of peat-earth diffused in a drop of-water, and “moderately 
magnified (about fifty times.) This shows imperfectly, the immense number, and 
Variety of forms, which exist in the peat-earth. 
Fig. 12. Diatoma flocculosum. Very common in Saseke: &c. , among Conferve- 
Fig. 12a. .an articulation of the same more highly magnifie 
Fig. 13. Diatoma tenue? Found with the preceding species. 
Fig. 13 a. An articulation of the same more highly magnified. 
Fig. 14. Diatoma erystallinum ? Straight, smooth, ‘siliceous tabes, occurring in 


‘great quantities in Ci ee near West Point closely rvonnalitinng foreign speci 


mens of D. crystalli 
Fig. 15. Snpileria: péctinalie. a, b, specimens diltéting in the width of | the 
articulations. ¢, articulations highly magnified. 
Fig. 16. Meridion vernale? from W: Washington's valley, near West Point: jit 
ticulations highly magnified. ‘ 


igri 


Ra oe 


SE ek i Sh fies Sales pete h FD Sew Bs ee Se 


MS re eae a ee et aie a 


ton, for the purpose of producing Crystals ; nt een ae 

which Experiments certain Insects constantly appeared ~ Com- 
nuvinicated ina letter dated Dec. 27, 1837, addressed to the Sec- 

retary of the London Electrical Society. Read. Jan. 20, 1838, 


From, the Treiiesctione of the Electrical Society of London. 


Magalies Birenk trust that the gentlemen who compose ‘hie 
“Electrical Society” will not imagine that bec -have so long ~ 
delayed answering their request, to furnish the Society, through 
you, as its organ, with a full account of my electrical experiments, 
in which a certain insect made its unexpected appearance, that 
such delay has been occasioned by any. desire of withholding 
what I have to state, from the Society in particular, or the public 


at large. I am delighted to find that at last, late, though not the 


less called for, a body of scientific gentlemen dive linked them- 


selves together for the sake of exploring and making public those 
- mysteries, which hitherto, under a variety of names, and ascribed 


to all-causes but the true one, have eluded the grasp of men of 
research, and served to perplex, perhaps, rather than to afford suf- 
ficient data to theorize upon. It is true that much has been done 
in the course of a few years, and that which has been done only 
affords the strongest reason for believing that vastly more remains 
to be done. It would be presumptuous in me to enumerate the 
services of a Davy, a Faraday, and many other great men at home, 
or a Volta anc an Ampere, with a host-of others abroad. ‘These 
paneer men have laid the foundations, on which their sue- 
cessors ought to endeavor to erect a building worthy of the scale 
in which it has been’ commenced. — Electricity is nolonger the 
paltry confined science which ‘it was once fancied to be, making 
its appearance only from the friction of glass or wax, employed in 
childish purposes, serving as a trick for the school-boy, or a nos- 
trum for the quack. But it is, even now, though in its infancy, 
proved to be most intimately connected with all operations in 
chemistry, with magnetism, with light and caloric ; apparently a 
‘property belonging to all matter, perhaps ranging throagh all space, 


: from sun to sun, from planet to planet, and not improbably the 


cause of every change in the animal, mineral, vegetable, 


126 Crosse’s E'xperiments with the Voltaie Battery. 


and gaseous systems. It is to determine whether this be or not 
the case, as far as human faculties can determine, to ascertain 
what rapk in-the tree of science electricity is to hold; to en- 
_ deavor to find out to what useful purposes it might be. spplieg, 
that I conceive is the object of your Society, and I shall at all 
times be ready and willing, as a member, to contribute my quota 


of information to its support, knowing well, that however little it 


might | be, it will be as kindly received as it is humbly offered. 
- It is most unpleasing to my feelings to glance at myself as an in- 


dividual, but I have met with so much virulence and abuse, sq % 


_much calumny and misrepresentation, in consequence of the ex- 
periments which I am about to detail, and which it seems in this 
nineteenth century a crime to have made, that I must state, not 
for the sake of myself (for I utterly scorn all such misrepresenta- 
tions, ) but for the sake of truth and the science which I follow, 
that I am neither an “ Atheist,” nor a “ Materialist,” nor a. “ self 


imagined creator,” but a humble and lowly reverencer of that. 


Great Being, whose laws my accusers seem wholly to have lost 
sight of. More than this, it is my conviction, that science is only 


valuable as amean to a greater end. I can assure you, sir, that I 


attach no particular value’ to any experiment that I have made, 


and that my feelings and habits are much more of a retiring than 


an obtruding character; and I care not if what I have done be 
entirely overthrown, if truth he elicited. The folowing 2 isa plain 
and correct account of t the experiments alluded to 

the course of my endeavors to form artificial shinerals by a 


long continued electric action on fluids holding i in solution such. 


substances as were necessary to my purpose, I had recourse. to 
every variety ef contrivance which I could think of, so that, on 
the one hand, I might be enabled to keep up a never-failing elec- 
trical current of greater or less intensity or quantity, or both, as 
the case seemed to require; and on the other hand, that the solu- 
tions made use of should be exposed to the electric action in the 
manner best calculated to effect the object in view. Amongst 
other contrivances, I constructed a wooden frame, of about two 
feet in height, consisting of four legs proceeding from a shelf at 
the bottom, supporting another at the top, and containing a third 
in the middle. Each of these shelves was about seven inches 
square. The upper one was pierced with an aperture, in which 
was fixed a funnel of W Wedgwood ware, within which rested. 


powder while still warm, nie b 


‘ 

Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 127 

quart: basin on a circular piece. of mahogany placed within the 
faivtell When this basin was filled with a fluid, a strip of flannel 
wetted with the same, was suspended over the edge of the basin 
and inside the funnel which, acting as a syphon, conveyed the 
fluid out of the. basin, through the-funnel, in successive drops. 
The middle shelf of the frame was ihewies pierced with an aper- 
ture, in which was fixed a smaller funnel of glass, which sup- 
ported a piece of somewhat porous red oxide of iron from: Vesuvi- 


_ us, immediately under the dropping of the upper funnel. ‘The 
stone was kept constantly electrified by means of two. platina 


wires 6n either side of it, connected with the poles of a Voltaic - 
battery of nineteen pairs of five-inch zinc and copper single plates, 
in two porcelain troughs, the cells of which were filled at first 
with water and =}, of hydrochloric acid, but afterwards with wa- 
ter alone. _ I may here state, that in all my subsequent experi- 
ments relative to these insects, I filled the cells of the batteries 
employed with nothing but common water. 'The lower shelf” 
merely supported a wide-mouthed bottle, to receive the drops as 


they fell from the second funnel. When the basin was nearly 


emptied, the fluid was poured back again from the bottle below 
into the basin above, without disturbing the position of the stone. 
It was by mere chance that I selected this volcanic substance, 
choosing it from its partial porosity; nor do I believe. that it had 
the slightest effect in the production of the insects to be described. 
The fluid with which I filled the basin was made as follows. 

‘I reduced a piece of black flint to powder, having first exposed 


_ it to a red heat and quenched it in water to make it friable. Of 


this powder I took two ounces, and mixed them intensely with 
six ounces of carbonate of potassa, exposed them to a strong heat 
for fifteen minutes in a black lead ¢ epewie a an air furnace, and 
on an iron plate, reduced it to 

oiling water ‘on it, and kept it 

boiling for some minutes ina sand bath. 'The greater part of the 
soluble glass thus fused, was taken up by the water, together 
with a portion of alumina from the crucible. . I should have used 
one of silver, but had none sufficiently large. To a portion of 


- the silicate of potassa thus fused, I added some boiling water to 


dilute it, and then slowly added hydrochloric e acid to supersatu- 
ration. “A strange remark-was made on this part of the experi- 
Ze at the meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, it 


a 


128 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 


being then gravely stated, that it was impossible to add an acid 


‘to a silicate of potassa without precipitating the silica! This, of 


course, must be the case, unless the solution be diluted with wa- 
ter. My object in subjecting this fluid to a long-continued elec- 
tric action, through the intervention of a porous stone; ‘was to 
form, if possible, crystals of silica at one of the poles of the bat- 


“tery, but I failed in accomplishing this by those means. On the 


fourteenth* day from the commencement of the experiment, I 
observed, through a lens, a few small whitish excrescences or 
nipples projecting from about the middle of the electrified stone, 


and nearly under the’ dropping: of the fluid above. On. the 
_eighteenth* day, these projections enlarged, and seven or eight 


filaments, each of them longer than the-excrescence from which 


it grew, made their appearance on each of the nipples. On the 


‘twenty second* day, these appearances. were more elevated and 
distinct, and on the twenty sixth* day, each figure assumed the 
‘form of a perfect insect, standing erect on a féw bristles which 
formed its tail. ‘Till this period I had no notion that these ap- 
pearances were any other than an incipient mineral formation; 
but it was not until the twenty eighth day, when I plainly per- 
ceived these little creatures move their legs, that I felt anysur- 
prise, and I must own that when this took place, I was not a little 
astonished. - 1 endeavored to detach, with the point of a needle, 
one or two of themfrom its position on.the stone, but they im- 
mediately died, and I was obliged to wait patiently for a few days 


_ longer, when*they separated themselves from the stone, and 


moved about at pleasure, although they had been for some time 
after their birth apparently averse to motion. In the course of a 
few weeks, about a hundred of them made their appearanee on 
the stone. I observed that at first each of them fixed itself for 
a considerable time in one spot, appearing, as far as I could judge, 
to feed by suction ; but when a ray of light from the sun was 
directed upon it, it seemed disturbed, and removed itself to the 
shaded part of the stone. Out of about a’ hundred insects, not 


"above five or six were born on the south side of the stone. “1 


examined some * ooncpeg the microscope, and‘ observed that 
t have only six legs, but. the larger 
rfl jpastdrnpt a ae of 


e 22, and 26 Paar pe ~ ae 


Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 129 
these little mites, when so excellent a one has been transmitted 
from Paris. It seems that they are of the genus Acarus, but of 
a species not hitherto observed. . I have had three separate forma- 
tions of similar insects at different times, from fresh portions of 
nee e fluid, with the same apparatus. As I considered the 

of this experiment rather extraordinary, I made some of 
os friends acquainted with it, amongst whom were some highly 
scientific gentlemen, and ee plainly perceived the insect in va- 
rious states. I likewise transmitted some of them to one of our 
most distinguished physiologists in London, and the opinion of 
this gentleman, as well as of other eminent persons to whom he 
showed them, coincided with that of the gentlemen of the Acade- 
mie des Sciences, as to their genus and species. J have never 
ventured an opinion as to the cause of their lirth, and for a very 
good reason—I was unable to form one. The most simple solu- 
tion of the problem which occurred to me, was, that they arose 
from ovadepesited. by insects floating in the atmosphere, and that 
they might possibly be hatched by the electric action. Still, I 
could not imagine that an ovum could shoot out filaments, 
that those filaments would become bristles ; and moreover, I 
could not detect, on the closest examination, any remains of a 
shell. Again, we have no right to assume that electric action is 
necessary to vitality, until such fact shall have been most dis- 
tinctly proved. I next imagined, as others have done, that they 
might have originated from the water, and consequently made a 
close examination of several hundred vessels, filled with the same ~ 
water as. that which held in solution the silicate of potassa, in 
_the same room, which vessels constituted the celle of a large Viale 
taic battery, used without acid. In none of vessels. 
I perceive the trace of an insect of that des . likewise 
closely 


examined the crevices and most. aepegidiiet the room 
with no better success. In the course of some months, indeed, 
these insects so increased, that when they were strong enough to 
leave their moistened birth-place, they issued out in different di- 
rections, I suppose, in quest of food ; but they generally huddled 
together under a card or piece of paper in a, as 


130 = Crosse’s E'xperiments with the Voltaic Battery. 


domestic purposes, and consisting mostly of silica. ‘Two wires = 
of platina connected either end of the brick with the poles of a : 
Voltaic battery of sixty three pairs of plates, each about two 
inches square. After many months’ action, silica in a — 
state formed in some quantity round the bottom of the brick, and 
as the solution evaporated, I replaced it by fresh additions, so 
that the outside of the glass basin, being constantly wet by re- 
peated overflowings, was, of course, constantly electrified. On 
this outside, as well as on the edge of the fluid within, I one day 
perceived the well known whitish excrescence, with its project 
ing filaments. In the course of time, they increased in number, 
and as they successively burst into life, the whole table on which 
bse apparatus stood, at last was covered with similar insects, 
hich hid themselves wherever they could find a shelter. Some 
be them were of different sizes, there being a considerable differ- 
~ence in this respect between the larger and the smaller ; and they 
were plainly perceptible to the naked eye, as they nimbly crawled 
from one spot to another. I closely examined the table with a 
lens, but could perceive no such excrescence as that which marks 
their incipient state, on any part of it. While these effects were 
taking place in my electrical room, similar formations were 
making their appearance in another room, distant from the for- 
mer. I had here placed on a table three Voltaic batteries, uncon- | 
nected with each other. The first consisted of twenty pairs of | 
two-inch plates, between the poles of which I placed a glass cyl- | 
- inder, filled with a concentrated solution of silicate of potassa, | 
in which was suspended a piece of clay slate by two platina 
wires connected with either pole of the battery. A piece of pa- 
per was placed on the top of the cylinder, to keep out the dust. | 
After many months’ action, gelatinous silica in various forms was | 
electrically attracted to the slate, which it coated in rather a sin- 
gular manner, unnecessary here to describe. In the eourse of 
time, I observed similar.insects, in their incipient state, forming 
around the edge of the fluid within the jar, which, when perfect, - 
crawled about the inner surface of the paper with great activity. 
The second battery consisted of twenty pairs of cylinders, each 
equal to a four inch plate. Between the poles of this, I interposed 
a series of seven glass cylinders, filled with the following concen- 
of copper: 2. Sub-carbonate of po- 
: 4. Green sulphate of iron: 5. 


TT ee i 


Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 131 


Sulphate of zinc: 6. Water acidified with a minute portion of 


hydrochloric acid: 7. Water poured on powdered metallic arse- 

nic, resting on a copper cup, connected with the positive pole of 

the battery. All these cylinders were electrically united to- 

pethes by "ares of sheet copper, so that the same electric current 
through the whole of them. 

‘many months’ action, and consequent formation of certain 
exghtaltina matters, which it is not my object here to notice, I ob- 
served similar excrescences with those before described at the 
edge of the fluid in every one of the cylinders, excepting the 
two which contained the carbonate of potassa, and the metallic 
arsenic ; and in due time a host of insects made their appearance 
It was curious to observe the crystallized nitrate and. sulphate of 
copper, which formed by slow evaporation at the edge of the re- 
spective solutions, dotted here and there with these hairy excres- 
cences. At the foot of each of the cylinders, I had placed a paper 
ticket upon the table, and on lifting them up, I found a little 
colony of inseets under each, but no appearance whatever of their 
having been born under their respective papers, or on any part of 
the table. The third battery consisted of twenty pairs of cylin- 
ders, each equal to a three inch plate. Between the poles of this 
I interposed likewise a series of six glass cylinders, filled with 
various solutions, in only one of which I obtained the insect. 
This contained a concentrated solution of silicate of potassa. 
A bent iron wire} one fifth of an inch in diameter, in the form of 
an inverted syphon, was plunged some inches into this solution, 
and connected it with the positive pole, whilst a small coil of fine 
silver wire joined it with the negative. © 

After some months’ electrical action, gulstindagjeitiba enraged 
both wires, but in much greater quantity at the positive pole; “aud 
in about eight months from the 
on exainining these two wires very minutely, by means ofa lens, 
having removed them from the’solution for that purpose, I plainly 
perceived one of these incipient insects upon the gelatinous silica 


on the silver wire, and about half an inch below the surface of the 


fluid, when replaced in its original position. In the course of time, 
more insects made their appearance, till, at last, I counted at once 
three on the negative and twelve on the positive 
them were formed on the naked -of the wires, that is, on that 
part which was partially bare of gelatitifns silica: but they. were 


132 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 


mostly imbedded more or less in the silica, with eight or ten fila- 
ments projecting from each beyond the silica. It was perfectly 
impossible to mistake them, after having made one’s self master of 
their different appearances ; and an occasional motion in the fila- 
ments of those that had been the longest formed was very percept- 
ible, and observed by many of my visitors, without my having 
previously noticed the fact to them. Most of these productions 
took place from half to three quarters of an inch under the surface 
of the fluid, which, as it evaporated very slowly, I kept to the 
_ same level by adding fresh portions. As some of these insects 
- were formed on the inverted part of the syphon-shaped wire, I 
cannot imagine how they contrived to arrive at the surface, and 
to extricite themselves from the fluid: yet this they,did repeat- 
edly ; their old places were vacated, and others were born in new 
ones. Whether they were in an imperfect state (except just at 
the commencement of their formation), or in a perfect one, they 
had all the distinguishing characteristic of bristles projecting from 
their bodies, which occasioned the French savans to remark that 


they resembled a microscopic porcupine. I must not omit to state, 


that the room in which these three batteries were acting was kept 


almost constantly darkened. It was not my intention to make. 


known these observations until I myself should be better informed 
int the matter. Chance led to the publication of an erroneous 


of them, which I was under the necessity of explaining. - 


Iti is so difficult to arrive at the truth, that mankind would do bet- 
ter to lend their assistance to explore what may be worth investi- 
gating, than to endeavor to crush in its bud that which might 
otherwise expand into a flower. In giving this account, I have 
merely stated those circumstances regarding the appearance of 
insects, which I have noticed during my investigations into the 
formation of mineral matters; I have never studied physiology, 
and am not aware under what circumstances the birth of this class 
of insects is usually developed. In my first experiment I had 


made use of flannel, wood, and a volcanic stone ; in the last, none — 


of these substances were present. I never, for a moment, enter- 
tained the idea that the electric fluid had animated: the organi¢ 
remains of insects, or fossil eggs, previously existing in the stone 
or the silica ; and have formed no visionary theory which I would 


travel out -- my way to support. I have since. repeated these 


latter experiments in a third room, in which there are now two 


Crosse’s. Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 133 


batteries at work. One consisting of eleven pairs of cylinders, 
made of four inch plates, between the poles of which is placed a 
glass cylinder, filled with silicate of potassa, in which is suspended 
a piece of slate between two wires of platina, as before, and cov- 
ered loosely with paper. Here, again, is another crop of insects 
formed. The other battery consists of twenty pairs of cylinders, 
the electric current of which is passed through six different solu- 
tions in glass cylinders, in three of which only is the insect form- 
ed, viz. Ist, in nitrate of copper; 2d, in sulphate of copper, in 
each of which the insect is only peodatied at the edge of the fluid, 
as far as I can make out; and 3d, by the old apparatus of coiled 
silver and iron wire in sllielte of potassa, as before. There are 
now forming on the bottom of this positively electrified wire sim- 
ilar insects, at the distance of fully two inches below the surface 
of the fluid. On examining these, I have lately noticed a peculiar 
quality they possess whilst in an incipient state. After being kept 
some minutes out of the solution, they contract their filaments, so 
as, in some cases, wholly, and in others partially, to diiappou 
Tat first thought they were destroyed; but, on examining the 

same spots, on the next day, they were as perceptible as before. 
In this respect, they seem not unlike the zoophytes, which adhere 
to the rocks on the sea-shore, and which contract on the approach 


- of a finger. I may likewise remark, ‘that I-have not been able 


to detect ‘their eyes, even when viewed under a powerful micro- 
scope, although I once fancied I perceived them. The extreme 
heat of summer and cold of winter do not appear favorable to their 
production, which succeeds best, I think, in spring and autumn. 
As in the above account I have occasionally made use of the word 
“ formation,” I beg that it might be understood that I do not mean 
creation, or any thing approaching to it. [am not aware that I 
have any thing more to add, except the few —_— I shall con= 
clude with. - 

1st. I have not observed-a formation. of the insect, except on a 
moist and electrified surface, or under an electrified fluid. By 
this J do not mean to assert that electricity has any thing to do 
with their birth, as I have not made a sufficient number of exper- 
iments to prove or disprove it; and besides, I have not taken 
those necessary precautions which present themselves even to an 
unscientific view. These precautions are not so easy to observe 
as may at first sight appear. It is, however, my intention to repeat 


wae 
4 


134 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 

these experiments, by passing a stream of electricity through eyl- 
inders filled with various fluids under a glass receiver inverted 
over mercury, the greatest possible care being taken to shut out 
extraneous matter. Should there’be those who blame me for not 
having done this before, to such I answer that, independent of a 
host of other hindrances, which it is not in my power to set aside, 
I have been closely pursuing a long train of experiments on the 
formation of crystalline matters by the electric agency, and now 
different modifications of the Voltaic battery; in which I am so 


interested, that none but the ardent can conceive what is not in 


my power to describe. 

2dly. These insects do not appear to have sidesinaneil from oth- 
ers similar to themselves, as they are formed in all cases with ac- 
cess of moisture, and in some cases two inches below the surface 
of the fluid in which they are born; and if a full grown and per- 


font: insect be let fall into any fluid, ‘it is infallibly drowned. 


-Bdly. I believe they live for many weeks: occasionally I have 
found them dead in groups, apparently from want of food. za 

Athly. It has been frequently suggested to me to repeat thiese 
experiments without using the electric agency; but this would 
be by no means satisfactory, let the event be what it would. It 


is well known that saline matters are easily crystallized without — 


subjecting them to the electric action; but it by no means fol- 
lows that, because artificial electricity i a not applied, such erystals 
are formed without the electric influence. I have made so many 

ical erystallization, that I am firmly convin- 
ced in my own mind, that electric attraction is the cause of the 
formation of every crystal; whether artificial electricity be applied 


-or not. Iam, however, well aware of the difficulty of getting 


__ at the truth in these matters, and of separating cause from ‘effect. 


~ It has often occurred to me, how it is that such numbers of ani- 


malcules are produced in flour and water, in pepper and water? 
also, the insects which infest fruit trees after a blight? | Does not 
a chemical change take place in the water, and: likewise in the 
sap of the tree previous to the appearance of these insects, and 1s 
or is not every chemical change produced by electric agency ? 


In making these observations I seek to mislead no one. The 


book of nature is opened wide to our view by the Almighty 


power, and we must endeavor, as far as our feeble faculties will 


poneeipaaenNaNN, Sonik stent; always reme membering, that 


Crosse’s Hxperimen the Voltaic Battery. 135 


however the timid may shrink from investigation, the more com- 
pletely the secrets of nature are laid bare, the more effectually 
will the power of that Great Being be ee who seems to 
have ordained, that 


*¢ Order is Heaven’s first law.” 


I beg to remain, in the mean time, my dear Sir, 
ect “very sincerely, 


Ayprew CROSSE. 
Broomfield, Dec. 27, 1837. : 


Pp. s- Since weititittr the ovis account, I hive obtained the in- 


sects on a bare platina wire plunged into fluo-silicic acid, one inch 
below the surface of the fluid at the negative pole of a small bat- 
tery of two inch plates in cells filled with water. This is a some- 
what singular fluid for these insects to breed in, who seem to have 
a flinty taste, although they are by no means coulda to siliceous 
fluids. This fluo-silicic acid was procured from London some 
time since, and consequently made of London water ; so that the 
idea-of ‘their being natives of the Broomfield water is quite set 
aside by this result. The apparatus was arranged as follows: 

Fig. 7, a glass basin (a pint one) partly filled with fluo-silicic acid 
to the level 1. 2, a small porous pan, made of the same materi- 
als as a garden pot, partly filled with the same acid to the level 2, 

with an earthen cover, 3, placed upon it, to keep out the light, 
dust, &c. 4, a platina wire connected with the positive pole of 
the battery, with the other end plunged into the acid in the pan, 
and twisted round a piece of common quartz; on which quartz, 
after many months’ action, are forming singularly beautiful and 
perfectly formed crystals of a transparent substance, not yet ana- 


platina wire passes under the cover of the pan. 5, a platina wire 
connected with the negative pole of the same battery, with the 
other end dipping into the basin, an inch or two below the fluid ; 
and, as well as the other, twisted round a. piece of quartz. By 
this arrangement it is evident that the electric fluid enters the po- 
rous pan by the wire 4, percolates the pan, and passes out by the 
wire 5. It is mow upwards of six or eight months (I cannot at 
this moment put my hand on the memorandum of the date) since 
this apparatus has been in action, and though I have occasionally 


lyzed, as they are still growing. These crystals are of the modi- — 
fication of the cube, and are of twelve or fourteen sides. — ‘The - 


we 


136  Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 


lifted out the wires to examine them by a lens, yet it was not till 
the other day that I perceived any insect, and there are now three 
of the same insects, in their incipient state, appearing on the na- 
ked platina wire at the bottom of the quartz in the glass basin at 
the negative pole. "These insects are very perceptible and may 
be represented thus (magnified): fig. 8, 1 the platina wire, 2 the 
quartz, 3 the incipient insects. It should be observed that the 
. glass basin, fig. 7, has always been loosely covered with paper. 
The appearance of the insect has already been deseri- 

d. The filaments which project are in course of time seen to 
_ move, hefore the perfect. insect detaches itself from its birth, 


gs 


Fig. 5, front view of the filtering apparatus, ns the use of which; the insect de- 
scribed made its first appearance.- (A, B,) two of the four uprights or legs issuing 
from the base (c,) supporting a movable shelf (p;) which shelf is kept in its place 
by four pins (£) passing through the four uprights, and may be raised or lowered 
at pleasure. (F,) the top shelf, which has an aperture cut in it to receive the 
Wedgwood ware funnel (¢.) (H,) a- quart basin standing on an unseen 
within the funnel (¢,) which support is a circular piece-of wood with holes eut in 
it to allow the free passage of the fluid between the basin and funnel. This basin 
is filled with the fluid required, which is conveyed out of it by the strip of flannel 
(1,) hanging over the outside of the basin, and inside the funnel, and which, con- 

e falls in successive drops through the funnel (¢) upon the rh 4 
which is supported by the glass funnel (1,) kept constantly electrified by th 

_ wires Se N,) resting on the opposite sides of it, and connected with ee Ze 

ite poles of voltaic battery. (o,) a wide mouthed bollle standing on the base 

(c,) to reccive the uid as it falls from thes second funnel (x.) From this bottle, 


(oS EA TES a ee oe ee 


ne 
x 


4 


Ses 
. ro ; 
Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species, 137 
when required, it is poured back again into the basin () without disturbing the 
K.) 


Fig. 6, (a,) a glass oylttiieteal vessel, containing about a "quarter 7 a pint, filled 
with a concentrated solution of silicate of potash. (,) a fine silve formed 
into a coil, which is immersed into the fluid in the cylinder, the sala end being 
connected with the negative pole of the battery, (c,) an iron wire about one fifth 
of an inch in diameter, bent somewhat in the form of an inverted syphon, immer- 
sed in the same vessel, and connected with the positive pole of the battery. (p, D) 
insects in their incipient state making their appearance, some on the gelatinous 
silica which partially-covers the wire, and some on the naked wire itself. These 

insects appear magnified. eee £7 


Art. XL—Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species ; by 
Cuartes Upuam Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in 
the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 


- Tue enitierel here described, I found upwards of two years 
ago, while engaged in the geblogical survey of Connecticut. It 
was collected’ in the town of Danbury near the manufactory o: 
Col. Wurre, and occurred in small masses of a delicate bluish 
white and highly erystalline feldspar, found among fragments of 
dolomite, coming from a bed in place near the mills. ‘The feld- 
spar is extremely fetid, when rubbed or broken: in which respect 
it resembles the same mineral found in thin veins of dolomite 
at a locality a few miles distant, in bie town of Brookfield,—a 
circumstance which leaves little r o doubt that the specimens 
at Danbury, ica fee detached, were nevertheless derived 
from the dolomi 

ae ines alia as aie observed aiiocinbinvediie 
small. quantity through the feldspar (with which is likewise asso- 
ciated a small quantity of quartz) in fissures and eavities ties havi 
the shape apparently of oblique prisms. Owing to the partial de- 
composition of the mineral (a change to which it appears ‘to be 
particularly liable) these cavities are sometimes entirely empty. 
The longest of them noticed was above an inch in one direction, 
by one fifth of an inch in another. © 

Whether the mineral will be found in any Peonltigaine quantity, 
Tam unable to say. ‘The specimens collected, have been barely 
sufficient to afford the following notice. 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 


138 Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species. 


Mineralogical Description. 


Primary form: _ Oblique rhombic prism. 

Cleavage parallel with P indicated obscurely by fissures. - 

Lustre vitreous, in a high degree. Color shades of honey yel- 
low. Streak white; transparent. (The decomposing variety is 
nearly white, translucent and very fissile.) 

Hardness = 7.5. Sp. Gr.=2.83. 


~ Chemical Description. 


When heated alone before the blow-pipe, it phosphoresces and 
fuses slowly without intuméscence into a white blebby, transpa- 
rent glass. . With borax, it melts with effervescence into a trans 
parent globule. When heated in a glass tube, it emits moisture. 
In the condition of an- impalpable powder, it is taken up by by- 
‘dro-chloric acid after long digestion. 

By the requisite trials, it was found to contain neither fuciic, 
boric, nor phosphoric acid. By heating, it lost 8 p. c. in weight. 
By ignition with twice its weight of anhydrous carbonate of 
soda, it fused into a white mass, which formed a colorless solu- 
tion with dilute hydro-chloric acid. After the separation of the 
silica, which weighed 56 p.c., the solution was precipitated by 
‘ammonia, and the precipitate treated with carbonate of ammonia 
solution in large eXCess, which after-frequent agitation and some 


time standing was partially evaporated ; a pale: yellow pellicle in- ° 


vested the sides of the capsule, which after drying weighed 0.85 
p-c. It was treated with hydro-chloric acid, and the solution 
obtained afforded when tasted no impression of sweetness. Its 
yellowish color and easy solubility after ignition in hydro-chlori¢ 
acid proved it not to be zirconia ; while the absence of sweetness 
showed that it was not glucina, It seems most probable: there- 
fore, that it is yttria. 

~The portion of the precipitate by ammonia. not taken up. by 
the carbonate of ammonia, was treated with a solution of potassa. 
It was instantly dissolved, and on being precipitated with hydro- 
chlorate of ammonia, washed and ignited, it amounted to 1.7 p. ¢ 
_ The clear hydro-chloric solution from which the alumina and 
yttria? had been separated was precipitated by oxalate of ammo- 
nia, ome noe pein 5 was washed and ignited. bigaed residuum 


2s " 
ny 


OS a aera gd Neaaememcaee = cate I> 


pes eae 


= 


On Certain Cavities in Quartz, §. 139 

The solution from which the oxalate of lime had been thrown 
down was treated with ammonia and phosphate of soda, without 
having its transparency effected, whereby the absence of magne~- 
sia and lithia in the mineral was apparent. After several hours 
standing, chloride of platina was added, which immediately gave 
rise to the fine granular precipitate of the double salt of platino- 
chloride of potassium 

_ Whether the waa: contains eile as well as biden Iam not 
at present able to say. st 

The following tenefast isa sameey 6 what I have been 
able to infer respecting the chemical mamma of the mineral 
under consideration : : 


Silica, wines ey - - 56.00 

Lime, - - - °° 1» 2B88 

Alumina, - : hos - ‘L70 

Yttria?. : oe cng OSS 

Potassa <iiieks with so) oa ie. 5.12 

Water, — 8.00 
: 100. 


The above result favors the ida of the following atomic ar- 
rangement : viz. 


10 Ga see GS Al +5 ly iat 


Arr. XII.—On Certain Cavities in Quartz, &c., in a letter to 
the Editor, Foem d oe Wanaraton.t L. oe aa Bec Lancaster, 
- Penn., Dee. 9, 183 pa: 
_. Dear Sha = ERAS our —— and its vicinity I have — 
several anomalous specimens of quartz, 
of the different faces and. angles of crystals, that aia be- 
came detached. _ In most of these specimens these impressions 
are deep, giving a cellular aspect to the whole mass. In some, 
they are tabular and evidently rhombic, or portions of rhombs, 
having their various angles and. inclined faces accurately defined. 
In others, the indentations are principally pyramidal and cuneiform, 
with here and there a tabular rhombic impression. In one large 
and beautiful specimen, the cells are much larger, and more uni- 


eee ed ig 


ae 


140. | “On Certain Cavities in Quartz, §c. - 


formly rhombic, than in any other that I have seen. 'The gene- —— 


ral figure of, this specimen is oblong. It is compressed upon two 
opposite surfaces, and possesses additional interest by having two 
translucent crystallized surfaces capping the one end. ‘These 
faces incline at an angle of about 120°, are 8 inches long, and 
32 wide, having a ragged periphery, as if broken, and constituting 
two of the planes of an hexagonal prism. pee smaller speci- 
men has two sides of the prism and two sides of the - -pyramid 
extending across the centre of the mass; while a third is com- 
pletely surrounded by innumerable cells, with acicular ee of 
actynolite pervading one end. 

In order to ascertain the particular cd of sleien cavition 
several casts were made for me by my friend Dr. E. Parry. 'Tak- 


ing these as correct models of the crystals that preoccupied these 


cavities, it will be easy to ascertain their exact figure. The fol- 
lowing diagrams will represent the angles of several of the casts, 


ar 


These angular and tabular impressions vary in size from the 


smallest pyramidal point and rhombic table, to rhombic cavities 
of three inches parallel diameter, and two inches in depth. And. 


you will perceive that the above diagrams are all portions of 
rhombic figures. 

A geological inquiry naturally arises as to the cause sof the pe- 
culiar cellular structure of these specimens. Before inquiring 
into the particular agents -which prepared the quartz to receive 
these impressions, and caused the dispersion of the crystals that 
produced them, it will be necessary to examine into the character 
of the solids, which, at one time, were encased by these peculiar 
cavities. “Your attention has been called above to the rhombic 
form of the casts. Now there are no mineralogical specimens, of 
ee ed saosin in our vicinity, that so exactly 


ns Ee 3 : 
On Certain Cavities in que. Src. 141 


' not only proved «by gohiometrical measurement, but also by 


placing a crystal of this spar into one of these depressions ; the 
faces and angles of both come into exact apposition, 'This will 
be apparent to you by making ‘ a sawing of a few ore indis- 
apemee. taken up, viz. 


“This form of carbonate of lime is of very frequent occurrence 
in our neighborhood, and crystals, varying in size, are aggregated 
together in masses corresponding to the cellular character of these 
specimens. Still, in no specimen, have f been able to trace within 
these cavities any of the remains of carbonate of lime. In other 

ens of cellular quartz, occurring in our vicinity, where the 
cavities are formed by the disintegration of cubic and amorphous 
pyrites, the remains of the sulphuret are quite evident. Would 
it not, however, be fair to infer, from the exact correspondence of 
the former with the latter, even though no portion of the former 
remained, that the crystals of calcareous spar caused these cavi- 
ties? Assuming this inference as correct, we can now pursue 
the inquiry further. 

In investigating the cause of this phenomenon, there are two 
agents, water and heat, to which I shall confine my remarks ; 
and as fluidity must ee been essential to formations of souls? 
peculiar character, it’ will be necessary first to ascertain what | 
natural operation could have contributed-to it. We have only 
to notice the frequent occurrence of siliceous stalactites, the 
large beds of porcelain clay formed by the disintegration and 
decomposition of granite, animal-and vegetable petrifactions, the 
formation of agates and other minerals in the cavities of basaltic 
and trappean rocks, the constitution of sandstone, and many other 
instances, to be convinced of the fact that water frequently holds 
silex in solution or suspension, and conducts it, by percolation, to 
faults, dislocations, or crevices, where, becoming again precipi- 
tated, it gradually consolidates into some regular mineralogical 


form, or moulds itself to the particular contour and around the 


¥ 


142 On Certain Cavities in Quartz, &. 


projecting points of the cavity. ‘The action of water, papers 


is capable of reducing-quartz to a fluid and plastic state. 

The occurrence of calcareous spar is most frequent in veins, 
cavities, or fissures, associated with quartz and other minerals. 
Its Seventies is likewise dependent upon the filtration of water, 
holding carbonate of lime in solution, which assumes its crystal- 
line character from the slow ‘percolation or evaporation of the 


water. Water, therefore, saturated with siliceous particles, in its — 


progress through the earth, will get access to cavities lined with 
calcareous spar, and here gradually precipitate them. These par- 
ticles will regularly accumulate, and as the water which conveyed 
. them there filters out, they will condense more and more, and ulti- 
sooty consolidate Ground the projections and within the angular 

sinuosities of the uneven surface of this mass of aggregated crys- 
tals: -'The quartz, thus becoming plastic, will mould itself to the 
spar, and this afterwards becoming dissipated by agents incapable 
of acting on the quartz, will leave its impressions accurately de- 
fined, and communicate to these specimens their peculiar char- 
acter. 

The question seisaiinie the separation of the carbonate of lime 
from the quartz next arises ; and the agent most likely to accom- 
plish this without impairing the integrity of the quartz or forming 
anew and insoluble compound in the cavities, I conceive is water. 
Although water itself is not a-good solvent of carbonate of lime, 
yet, when charged with carbonic acid, its power is much increased. 
Now, it is well known that there are many local sources of ‘ear- 


bonic acid gas, and even in. our own county, it is frequently 4 


found collected in large quantities in the bottoms of wells. - 
this gas, always generating by some subterranean process, com- 


bines readily with water in its vicinity, is evidenced by the fre-_ 


quent occurrence of carbonated springs: and as the absorbent 
power of the water is increased in a direct ratio with the pressure, 
so is its solvent power augmented in proportion to the aecumula- 
tion of carbonic. acid. Carbonic acid gas; therefore, confined 
within cavities beneath the surface of the earth, must necessarily 
be exposed to considerable pressure, and under these circumstances 
will be copiously absorbed by water in contact with it. Water; 
thus impregnated, being conveyed to the mass of crystals im- 
bedded within the quartz, will effectually dissolve it and wash it 
out from the cavities it formed, without in the least affecting the _ 
conformation of the quartz. 


e 


| 

y 

| 
a 
| 
24 


% 
On Certain Cavities in Quartz, §c. 143 


It is in this way that I conceive the production of these cellular 
specimens may depend upon the agency of water; but, as their 
formation may be attributed, perhaps with equal peopieiedyi to the 
action of heat, I am disposed to carry the oe a little 
further. ~ 

Nearly all modern geologists and chemists Keve given their 
consent to the existence of central heat, as indicated by the in- 
crease of temperature as we descend into the earth, by the heat 
of the water of the Artesian wells, by the occurrence of thermal 
springs, the existence of active volcanoes, and other familiar facts. 
That this central heat is very intense, may be inferred from the 
fused condition of volcanic productions, and yet it is questionable 
whether these productions are exposed to the maximum of heat. 
The volume and chemical character of lava would indicate vol- 
canic heat to be equally as great, if not much greater than that 
of the compound blowpipe, and yet we have seen, from the ex- 
periménts of yourself and Dr. Hare, that the power of the latter 
will fuse silex with ease and rapidity, and Lavoisier effected this 
with oxygen gas on burning charcoal. Now, as veins or beds of 
quartz are usually situated in primitive rocks, it must necessarily 
have been exposed to the most powerful action of central heat in 
order to occupy its present situation.* If, therefore, the cavities 
of these veins and fissures were pre-occupied and lined by crystals 
of calcareous spar, we can easily conceive how the injection of 
this siliceous fluid would cover and fill the angular points and de- 
pressions of the rhombic crystals, and by subsequent and gradual 
refrigeration the consolidation of the quartz would be effected, 
and one as it were be dove-tailed into the other. The heat, also, 
necessary to the fluidity of the quartz, would be more than suffi- 
cient to expel the carbonic acid from the spar, and as-this would 
not affect its crystalline conformation before the quartz would 
solidify, the cellular peculiarity of the latter would not of course 
in any wise be modified. - After these parts had sufficiently cooled, 
water gaining access to them, and coming in contact with the 
decarbonated lime, would cause it to slacken, thus producing per- 
fect disintegration ; and by the continuation of the supply of 
water, the hydrate of lime thus formed would be washed out of 
the cavities in the quartz. So that the same heat which rendered 
the quartz plastic enough to assume this form, prepared the cal 


* The igneous origin of these veins may, perhaps, be too positively ; inferred, as 
it is — that they could be effected by infiltration. 


= 


144 On Certain Cavities in Quartz, Se. 


careous spar for its disintegration by reducing it to quicklime, 
between which and water a. new chemical combination oceurs, 
which effects its final dissipation, and leaves the specimen as we 
find it, free from any traces of carbonate of lime, except the mere 
correspondence of the iden of the latter Sith the cavities of 
the former. 

The crystallized hexagonal ied of two of the specimens 
can be explained by either the agency of heat or water, as erys- 
tallization from solution can be artificially effected by evaporation, 
and afterwards can be again liquefied by heat, and re-crystallized 
by gradual cooling. — Yet the specimen rages leader 
would indicate an igneous origin. 

_ Whether the formation of these specimens can be attributed to 
cither of the above causes, or to both, or to neither of them, and 
at what particular geological period. they may have occurred my 
knowledge i is too limited positively to determine. Their conside- 
ration, too, may be more curious than useful, yet as they have not 
received any attention from the authors in my possession, I have 
taken it for granted that the specimens are rare, and that their 
history might be a slight contribution to science. "These motives 
have induced me to forward you an account of them, with my 
hasty views of their production, believing, too, that if they pos- 
real interest. my communication would not be pnwelcong 
and that if they do not, no harm could result. 
- P. 8. There is a communication on Spontaneous | ‘Combustion 
in Vol. xxxmrof your Journal, by Dr, James Mease,-and amang 
other instances is one taken from Hazard’s Register of Pennsyl- 
vania, of a piece of wood taking fire in the store of Mr. Adam 
Reigart of our city.. This statement differs from that made-to me 
by Mr. Reigart and his clerk, Mr. G: H. Whitaker, The wood 
was chestnut, quite solid, about eight inches long, and three or four 
wide, and cut smooth with a penknife. Two days before the 
burned wood was observed, they had washed the shelf and han- 
dled the wood with wet hands. When first noticed i¢was mot 
then on fire, but the most of it had been reduced to ashes. The : 
unconsumed portion was ragged and perforated,* and what is 
remarkable, not in the least charred, while the paint on the shelf | 
‘on which it lay was destroyed as by fire.. Mr. Whitaker still ba 
a portion of | of the wood and ashes, which he poninkeee a 
* __” Probably the combustion only took place at the points which had previously = 


been wet. 


* 


~ 


. Meteorological f and Essa 


Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §. « 145 


Anr. XIU.—On the-Atmospheric Origin-of the Aurora and its 


- Connexion with the Crystallization of Snow ; by B.-F. Josua,. 
_M. D., of the city of New York, and late Professor of Natural 
Philosophy, & é&c. in oe College, Schenectady. 


New York, 122 Bleecker street, Aug. 17th, 1838. 
TO PROF. SILLIMAN. 


Views Sir,"There appears to be i increasing evidence of an in- 
timate connexion between the aurora and atmospheric vapor, a 
connexion which has not been wholly overlooked by recent ob- 
servers. Recent epochs may have been more favorable to its ex- 
hibition in the middle latitudes. In the two brief notices of the 
aurora in the Transactions of the British Association, which met. 
in August, 1837, this is the most prominent eae. In one, 
Dr. Traill describes the contemporane dts exhibition of station- 
ary cirri and auroral streamers, aid, in’ the other, Mr. Herapath 
attempts to refer the aurora to the precipitation, of | aqueous vapor. 
Still earlier, in your own respectable Journal, in a notice of my 
theory, published in 1836, there was an implied acknowledgment 
of the existence of some. kind of auroral vapor, and even of its 
magnetic properties. 


In March, 1836, there were published Observations on fifty six 


Auroras, seen by me at Schenectady, N. Y., within the five pre- 


ceding years, and some hew views as to the connexion Lee 
this meteor and clouds, rain and snow. 
The author desires to avail himself of the Sides circulation of 


the Journal of Science to communicate to the public some of the 


4 sults, to add others in confirmation of the same views, 


and ‘to correct r rrect a misapprehension which may prevail in relation to 


the elevation which he assigns to this meteor.t ~The small ele- 
vation which he is supposed to have assigned it is the only objec- 
tion which he has seen made to his views. 


* Vide —_— No. .2, to the Repott of in Regents of the University of the 
State of New -York, and the same in a ae phlet of sixty nine Pages, entitled 


or the sake of convenience, the ae meteor will be used in its more com- 
prehensive sense. 


a No. 1. 19 


146 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 


Below is a passage from the paper above referred to, and relates 
to its different classes of facts, propositions and speculations. It 
may show that the author haa not confounded their different de- 
grees of evidence. 

‘The present article not Leica: been saateinierd nih vie 
ence to any comprehensive theory, presents some miscellaneous 
facts, which are, thrown into the common stock for the use of 


others. Even among the relevant facts, there are, undoubtedly, - 


interesting relations yet to be traced. 2d. The article contains 
some generalizations, whose results, whilst they may suggest to 
others a more correct theory, cannot be thereby invalidated. 3d. * 


There are inferences of another class which may be modified, — 


but probably not overthrown by the progress ‘of discovery. For 
example, that the aurora is an electrical phenomenon ; that itis 
intimately connected with the elements of clouds, and with these 
elements only when they are generated in air intensely cold as 
well as nearly saturated ; and that cirrus clouds of a certain class 
are intimately connected with auroral action, and that both these 
phenomena, and also coronze, do, for some reason or other, require 
a cold adequate to the shyetallization of aqueous vapor, are propo- 
sitions which will not lose all their interest nor any of their truth, 
even if the discovery should be made that the elements of clouds 
= Bocceeme sal globular or vesicular, and that the vapor is not yet 

stallized at the time of the phenomenon. It may be neces- 
= to. remark, that-we have not intimated that all snow is no 

tallized. On this-subject crude notions have prevailed. 4 

is to the views which belong to a more hypothetical class, t 
author will cheerfully renounce them when a more plausible he 
ory shall appear, as they are designed to facilitate, not to limit, 
investigation. ‘This theory may contain much that is novel, valu- 
able and true, without being in the highest sense ¢he truth.’ 


ip 
¥ 


The individual facts on which the generalizations are founded, 


cannot be here repeated. Of the second class, or the generaliza- 
tions, are the ee 
lf cores gian : 


Which may be regarded as approvimately aaa generally true, 
in relation to mean results, though not universally, or in relation. 
to each = instance. 


~ 


bid 


a ee 5.0? Seas eel ‘ 


Proposition Ist, in relation to the relative time of greatest de- 
pression of temperature before different meteors. Ry 

The greatest daily depression or decrement of. temperature takes 
place between one and two days previous to the aurora borealis, 
auroral clouds and halos.* 

Proposition 2d. Relative order of the thermometric sie baro- 
metric changes before different meteors. 

Previous to the clouds and halos, the temperature changes cither 
_ earlier than the pressure or nearly at the same time ; previous to 
the aurora, ca pentose Aenea lite day Shee 
fore the tem 

Proposition 3d. Length of time before the storm when its in- 
dications appear in case of different meteors. 

When the snow or rain is preceded by an aurora aecedan or by 
luminous columns, the thermometer begins to fall and the ba- 
rometer to rise between three and five days before the storm; and 
when the storm is preceded by auroral clouds or halos the same 
indications are ete! between three and three and a half doyn 
before ite 

- Proposition 4th. Teunittien of pressure before rain or anew hot 
preceded by these meteors. 

Previous to a thunder shower, or arain or snow not iaesecded 
by an aurora borealis, a halo, or auroral clouds or luminous col- 
- umns, the increase of atmospheric pressure for several successive 
days i is less general, but when it does occur, it commences either 


* = or later than when the storm is reeaded by either of those 
t 


eors ; more generally between fixe and a half and six nc 
before au shower or storm. > 
Proposition 5th. Time from iifferent shiteors:taxmematreain: 
The snow or rain descends sooner after a halo than after an 
auroral cirrus cloud, earlier after this than after a vertical lunar 
column, and earlier’ after a lunar column than after an aurora bo- 
realis. 


Proposition 6th. Theoretical inference in relation to the nature 
o these meteors. 


one These pre itions now stand nearly as they were corrected’ in the list of 
errata in many Nos. 

t L use the term storm from the want of a better one equally brief, to “signify 
the descent of rain, snow, OF 


(148 Atmospheric Origin e the Aurora, §c. 


As they are all preceded by a depression of atmospheric tem- 
peraturé’ b w the mean, and by an augmentation of pressure 
greater than that which ninasion the fall of snow or rain at times 


when none of these meteors have recently appeared, there is ne 


. ditional evidence of the similarity of their origin. 
— 7th. | Theoretical inference in relation Ses 0 their alli- 


me may infer from ihe last two propositions that a emis : 


cirrous cloud is higher than a halo, but lower than a junar ee 
and the latter lower than the aurora borealis. 

Proposition 8th. Practical inference with regard to the prog: 
nostication of storms. 


The foregoing propositions which relate to pressure and tempe-. 


rature may suggest a rule for predicting storms much earlier than 
by-other methods; inasmuch as these changes, and especially 
that of the barornster, take place even more generally than those 
opposite changes which often occur within the twenty four hours 
immediately preceding the storm, and which have been observ 
by others, and generally regarded as among the surest indications.’ 
The above propositions are deduced from tables here omitted, 
and are founded upon the. observation of forty auroras, twenty 
two auroral clouds, seen in the day time, seventeen halos, and 


four luminous columns. The propositions in relation to the last 
and more rare phenomenon, the author considered as entitled, ed 
bserved. t 


toa mater oF fidrizontal, specularly-reflecting, crystalline oink 
with masses which are more amorphous and which produce @ 
' reflection virtually radiant, he considers as complete and satisfac- 
tory, and corroborated by his observations on the crystals which 
subsequently descended. T’he author has observed the aurora if 
connexion with the above and other meteorological phenomena 
of the same, the preceding and the succeeding days, and endeav- 
ored to trace their respective and relative changes, and as far as 
the subject admitted, by the statistical and numerical method. 
This is a fertile field, and comparatively unoccupied. 

In the 3d, or class of inferences, he has endeavored to show 4 
connexion between the aurora borealis and the et of 
snow. 


' 


ay 
i 


~ 


Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §*c. 149 


The following is a summary. .- 

‘That crystals of snow more minute and a 
which occasion halos, and usually too minute to produce sensible 
opacity, are always present in the atmosphere, above the region - 
of ordinary clouds, during the time of this meteor, we are indu- 
ced to believe from a comparison of the results of the foregoing 
observations. Several of these results are believed to be. new. 
The following are some of the circumstances which have a bear- 
ing upon this question. 

“Ist. Those seasons of the year and -those hours of the yight 
when it most frequently occurs, are favorable both to the iin 
and congelation of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. — - 

2d. The clearness of the sky, which at such times is usually 
either general or total. 

3d. The usual northerly breeze at the earth’s surface, and the 
northeasterly breeze in the high region of the meteor. 

Ath. The usual depression of the temperature, at those heights 
at which thermometrical observations are made. 

5th. The clouds which usually succeed the meteor immediately 
or on the same evening, and which often present the appearance 
of being continuous and identical with the auroral matter. 

6th. The snow that in-weather sufficiently cold, almost uni- 
versally follows the meteor, after such an interval as the sim- 


ple -erystals might be expected to require for aggregation in more 


plicated groups and descent to the earth’s surface. 
th. The rain that almost universally succeeds it, after about 
= same interval, whenever the temperature of the lower atmos- 


slecic strata is motlicieas to melt falling snow. 


8th. The co-existence of halos with regular crystals, the con-_ 
nexion between halos and auroral clouds, and between auroral 
clouds and vertical lunar columns, sag the anslosy between au- 
roral clouds and the aurora borealis. 

9th. The pinnate appearance of composite auroral clouds, — 
appear (so to speak) like large crystals.’ 

From this point, the author, not finding any former theory : 
the aurora not liable to great. objections, has ventured into the 
— of speculation, and in relation to the intimate nature of 

the phenomenon, and under the 4th head, of views-of a more 
hypothetic class, has ventured to inquire whether atmospheric 
erystallizations may not occasion the development of auroral 


Fy. 


— 150 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 


light, and the crystals be, under some circumstances, magnetic; _ 
and in relation to the 9th remark, has inquired, ‘ May not this 
expression be used as, something more than a figure of speech? 
What is so likely to produce this structure, so regular, and yet so 

complicated, as the. polarity of component crystals, whether this 
polarity is or is not magnetic? May not the ponderable material. 

of the colonnade of an aurora borealis consist of similar groups of 
erystals, formed either from the vapor of water, or from some 
lighter, less condensible and more magnetizable vapor in -the 
upper regions, which crystallizes at the same time, and under 
similar meteorological influences with the former?’ Has not 
the crystalline character of the higher clouds, if it exists, been 
generally overlooked by meteorologists; and when they have 
represented all clouds as being masses of condensed vapor, and 
snow as resulting from its subsequent congelation, have they not 
overlooked the, universally crystalline character of snow, forgot- 

_ ten the small height which is necessary for crystallization, and — 
‘suffered their imaginations to be influenced by their own tempe 
rate climes and moderate elevations ? 

In advancing a step farther in the attempt at an explanagill of , 
the intimate nature of the. phenomenon, and especially as-con- 
nected with aqueous crystals, the author has ventured with diffi- 
dence upon a topic still more recondite.and obscure, but has found 
Some support in analogies drawn from the phictiies! light seen 

‘during the crystallization of water, from the induction of crystals, 
ped by changes of temperature in many 
 erystalline substances ordinarily unmagnetic. That iron, proba 
bly from its magnetic properties, has a peculiar relation to the 
crystals of hoar frost, he has been led to suspect, from their tel 
dency to assume a saaiilies at right angles to the edges of a mag- 
net and of a tinned vessel, at temperatures between zero and — 12° 

‘In experiments with the solar microscope; I have been struck 
with the analogy between the polarity of erystals and that of 
magnets, a polarity evinced by the rotation of the smaller groups; 
in their approach to the larger and more complicated ones. ‘The 
extent of rotation produced in one group by another never &X- 
ceeded 180°. I have also detected a still more interesting anal 
_ Ogy in the influence which a large group exerts upon the forma 
tion of smaller ones at a considerable distance. There was a real 
‘induction. This was evident from the fact that a large nucleus 


> | a 

Aimospheric Origin“of the Aurora, §c. 151 
spread more rapidly than a small one, advancing like a wave, 
overtaking and absorbing those waves which had begun to spread. 
from a@ smaller nucleus. This induction, or the influence of a 
crystalline mass, in disposing particles and small crystals which 
are in its vicinity, but at'some visible distance from it, to unite 
with each other, was still more evident from observing on the 
screen the existence and motions of scattered clusters composing 
a. darkly dotted border or penumbra, skirting the darker image of 
the general crystalline mass already formed, and regularly advan- 
cing before it across the screen. Perhaps we should hardly be 
justified in calling such phenomena magnetic; yet it would be 
easy to show that these and manyother phenomena exhibited by 
microscopic crystals, are regulated by laws strikingly anelogous 
to those of magnetic induction.’ 

The above phenomena may be shown with great distinetnbas 
in tincture of camphor, sufficiently diluted to make the process 
slow. 

If the electricity of. scant water is ever sietieniail with 
magnetism, it must be during the perfect crystallization in 
elevated regions of auroral action, where the circumstances are 
favorable to the perfection both of the process and the products. 
The rarity of the vapor there is favorable to a regular aggregation 
of the molecules, and the cold is intense. During crystallization, 
the temperature of the crystal might rise to 32°, by the evolution 
of latent heat, and soon afterwards sinking perhaps 100°, to the 
“ original temperature of the vapor. For such immense and instan= 
taneous changes, a less elevation in the air is requisite in the 
higher latitudes ; and there, it appears from observation, that the 
aurora iapifiie teas elevated. It is unnecessary to cite the numer-— 
ous authorities which exist, to prove the occasional lowness of the 
aurora in high latitudes. Mr. Trevelyan observed, that in Faroe 
and the Shetland islands, it was often seen not more than forty 
or fifty feet above the sea, and learned, that in both countries it 
is frequently heard. One person had perceived in it, when red, 
an electrical smell.* 

In our latitude, the aurora is seician at great heights. On this 
subject the anthor’s views seem to have been misapprehended. 
Some of the intimate connections which he has proved to exist, 


* Edinb. Philos. Jour. vii, 182. 


152 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §¥c. 


-as well as others which he has believed to exist, between the au 
rora and a certain class of clouds seen in the day time, do not im- 
ply an usual identity of location. He had stated, that the aurora 
is usually higher than clouds, even than cirrous clouds, which are 
often many miles above other clouds, and many miles above the : 
highest mountains. It by no means follows, that its origin is 
above crystals of the invisible kind. That the latter may be form- 
ing and descending for many hours, and in some instances a day, 
before they attain such a number, magnitude and complexity, as 
to form visible haze, is evident from the phenomena of halos and 
vertical solar and lunar columns in a clear sky.. But these crys- 
tals, in their nascent state, must have had a still earlier and higher 

existence. Should it then be thought surprising, that minute 
crystals, in a region far above halos, should require a day longer 

for their aggregation and descent? =~ 
_ It is not my present purpose to discuss at length the question 
as to the intimate nature of the aurora; but I am of opinion that 
in some region, usually high, a crystallization takes place on the 
evening of an aurora, and that the latter originates in the atmos- 
phere. . In the publication above referred to, I have ventured to 
speak of such a thing as “ sence maghetisiies, and to re- 
gard it as the direct cause of the needle’s and as loca: 
ted in a kind of auroral vapor; although it was the prevalent 
pinion of i eb that the aurora, so far as it was magnetic, - 

“was connected with changes in tellurian magnetism alone, that 
is, the magnetism of the solid earth. The variations of the nee- 
dle were thought to afford evidence of variations in the latter; 
and this view was thought to be corroborated by some simulta- 
neous disturbances of the needle in distant parts of the globe. 
Numerous facts might be cited, in corroboration of the atmosphe- 
ric location. Let one at present suffice. During the brilliant and | 


extensive red aurora of Jan. 25, 1837, I observed at Schenectady, 
N. Y., a variation-of the needle of 14° in eighteen minutes,” a 
24° in two hours, and 23° during the night. “At New Haven, the 
variations Were, at one hour, still more rapid, that is, 45’ in two | 
- minutes; but the whole extent observed was only 1°. About 
thirty miles north of New Haven, no change whatever could be 
eted ; whilst at Annapolis, the needle varied to the astonish- 
in ent of 10° during the night.* Are not these facts wholly 


_ * See this Journal, Vol. xxxir, p. 180. 
ae 


Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §e. 153 


irreconcilable with the idea, that the needle was disturbed by a 
general change in the magnetism of the earth? | According to 
Capt. Back, auroral beams sometimes seem to attract. ar 
Does not this.seenr like atmospheric magnetism? » 

- There appears to be no reason to believe that the aurora is. at 
an invariable elevation. Calculations founded on observed -alti- 
tudes, have given results vatying from a few miles to several hun- 
dred... This discrepancy-may be explained, partly by an actual 
difference of height,-and partly by mistakes as to the identity of 
arches when several have been presented to different observers. 
In the latter case, a mistake will usually lead to an exaggeration, 
rather than to an underrating‘of the elevation. Suppose two ob- 
servers, near the same meridian, but in different latitudes, to take 
the altitudes of two arches dina’ north of their respective ob- 
servers, and at so small an elevation, that the southern arch is be- 
low the horizon of the northern observer, and the northern arch 


below the horizon of the southern observer. Only one being seen 


by each, they are liable to be presumed identical; and the great. 
altitude of the northern. as. compared with the’ southern arch, 


would lead the mathematician to refer the imaginary arch—con- 


sidered as one—to an- elevation greater than the actual elevation 
of cither of the real arches.. There is evidence that the above 
case is more than a supposable one, and that similar mistakes have 
actually occurred. - The opposite error, an exaggeration of the 
parallax, would, from the nature of the case, more rarely occur. 
{have stated the first in a plain way, that those who are little 
conversant with the subject may not be deterred from examining 
the physical evidence of a theory of the aurora, by a caveat - 
posed to have- been entered. by the exact sciences. 
facts quite as conclusive as a great parallax : such as pag a 
ous instances where individuals at moderate distances cannot 
recognize the same phases, and some of them not even the’ exist- 
encé of the aurora seen by the others. . In such cases, it may fail 
to be meastired, simply because it is too low. 

_ ‘The views which I have taken of the aurora, whilst they do 
not require us to discredit those numerous proofs, both physical 
and mathematical, of its occasional situation in the inferior atmos- 
pheric strata, at the same time, allow, or even require us to refer 


- it in most instances to elevations above (and in the lower lati- 


tudes far above) the regions of the highest proper clouds, and 
Von. XXXV.—No. 1. 20 


* 
154 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §e. 


many times as high as ordinary clouds. Physical considerations 
have induced me to refer its origin’ to the earth’s atmosphere. 
The height of this is well known never to have been determined, 
so far as —~ evens rarer portions which — no > senile 
light. 

“Those oaks eeldct that there is a depression of obvi 1° for 
every 300 feet of ‘elevation, will find little difficulty in. adraitting 
the existence of crystals of snow above us in summer.’ The fol- 
lowing facts have a bearing on this, as well as on the connection 
between the aurora, snow, and magnetism. “On the 16th of Au- 
gust, 1836, I observed, at Schenectady, an aurora, at 10 P. M., 
chiefly obscured by clouds, and a faint aurora with three or four 
short streamers extending to the height of 7 Urse Majoris, at 2h. 
10m. next morning. The sky was clear, and remarkably so du- 
ring the forenoon, At 7 A. M., the magnetic intensity was high 
and remarkably variable ; the time required for 100 oscillations of 
a suspended needle being: 270 seconds at 7 o’elock,. and 280 ten 
minutes later.. Rain commenced at 9 P. M.-of the 18th, about 
two days after the first appearance. Quantity during the night, 
.32 inch. On this day, the 18th, an aéronaut, Mr. Lauriat, who 
ascended, from New York over Long Island, encountered what 
was called by the papers “a pretty severe snow storm in the upper 
regions ; and when he touched terra firma, his clothes were frozen 
stif’* "The crystals may have been minute. The following 


cended about five miles, and proceeded over a hundred miles. 
He passed through clouds of sleet, which covered his balloon 
with icy particles. But what was more interesting, he discovered. 
that when he was at the greatest altitude, the needle of a com- 
pass which he had with him did not have the least tendency to 
exhibit polar attraction, but wavered about at all points of the 
compass.” May we not conclude, that the atmospheric magnets 
at the height of five milés acted more powerfully than the earth ? 
Even at the surface, I have inferred, from many hundred observa- 
Sais: be the magnetic intensity: is more affected by the forma- 


is ork Commer. Adver: achaiie 19, 1836. « 
Er Fies Prestof Moy. %, =) ning te Boo ltt mt 


Aimospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 155 


tion of the higher clouds, and other obvious sepenalanations; than 
by any periodical diurnal changes. 

The following facts have also an sabeendiing bearing on the an, 
ory. At Fort Enterprise, where Lieut. Hood found the aurora in 
one instance to be only 24 miles high, he was, in two instances, 
surprised to see a discharge of snow, in small flakes, from a clear 
sky, at times when the aurora was active near the zenith.* 
These facts, with existing theories, were then extremely puz- 
zling ; but they are in exact accordance with the above theory. 
The short interval before the snow, and the diminutive flakes, are 
what might be expected in case of an extremely low aurora. 
Lieut. Hood’s measurements and observations will not be dis- 
puted. 

As early as 1820, (April 3,) my interest in the subject of the 
connection between the aurora and apparent clouds, was excited 
by a beautiful white arch, like a roll of wool, which on that eve- 
ning was seen. to detach Hie from the summit of an aurora of 
the ordinary character, and in the rapidity of its motion toward 
the zenith, in. the distinctness of its texture as it approached it, in 
the resemblance of this texture to that of a fleecy cloud, and in 
other circumstances, seems to have been unlike any arch in an 


‘elevated region. 


Subsequently, an iortarvating class-of lgeiis ote a more. _ detie 
dedly nepheological character, but still intermediate between the 
aurora borealis and ordinary clouds, has presented itself in_polar- 
ized, linear cirri, or magnetic or auroral clouds. The linear cirri, 
when of great extent, and in other respects of a regular character, 
have generally been either in or near the magnetic meridian, or 
nearly at right angles to it. In hundreds of instances, these po- 
sitions are within a degree or two of them. These can hardly 
have been been accidental coincidences, and they have had. no constant 
relation with wind. In epochs marked by auroras, these have 
been more marked. 'They are occasionally composite, consisting 
of an arch with rays, like streamers. Whence the polarity of 
these clouds? They open an interesting field, and establish a 
curious analogy between the aurora and the phenomena of the 
lower regions. Although the N. and S., delicate lines corres- 
pond with ae streamers, in their ae with the meri- 


~* See appendix to. Franklin’s Journey to the Polar Seas, 


156 Aimospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 


dian, yet the author has not confounded them, but has shown 
that the former differ from the latter in the absence of the dip. 

- But the analogy is not restricted to position. . It was soon de- 
tected in the concomitant phenomena. I have shown, by tabular 
views, that the thermometer usually begins to fall, and the baro- 
meter to rise, ‘several days before each, and rain’ or snow to de- 
scend within one, two; or three days after them. In the cases 
subsequently presented, in which the number of hours between 
the aurora and storm has been carefully noted, I have usually 
found that the time has been about thirty six hours, and that 
there is a curious exception inthe case of two auroras on two or 
three consecutive nights, in which ease, the rain or snow is less 
likely to descend, or is deferred till nearly the usual time after 
the last. The same is true of the polarized. clouds, and of halos; 
in bothr of which, vapor, which had unquestionably been precipi- 

is redissolved, or otherwise disposed of, during the time 
and under the influence of the ci prepuriyor y to or at- 
tendant on the second exhibition. 

This interference of one aurora with the results af ¢ its mnie 
cessor, opens @ curious field of investigation, discloses a new anal- 
ogy between this and meteors of a confessedly aqueous origin, 
— refers to a general law the observed exceptions to the descent 

of precipitated vapor ° which so generally takes place after an au- 
rora. In almost every instance-in which this has been deferred, 
there have been traces of auroral action on the succeeding night, 
though sometimes masked by the moon. The following rule has 
had few exceptions, viz. If the evening of the day after an au- 
rora is totally clear, rio storm follows on the second day ; and 
conversely, if no storm is to follow, this evening is totally or 
nearly clear. This general clearness is itself one of the: ustial 
attendants of auroral action ; and I have for many years observed, 
that the morning following an aurora is, in this respect, remarka= 
ble; as compared. with other mornings. In this fact, and in the © 
unusual clearness of the night of the meteor—with the exception 

_ of some peculiar, transient clouds—we have proof of the: influ- 

; ence of an aurora, or the circumstances which precede and attend 
aS in eioeting the vesolntiont or ee of visible rages or 


is eni es us to explain or sininhiedint the fact of the non- 
‘ance of the storm, of which the first of two consecutive 


ey 
¥m 


Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, Sf. 157 


auroras Would -have been the precursor. As tending to eluci- 
date this new and interesting field of inquiry, I will state the re- 
sults of observations on thirty two auroras observed at Schenec- 
tady, N. Y., between Oct: 5, 1830, and Nov. 3, 1833—the tables 
being prepared for these alone, although the results of subsequent 
observations are, I am persuaded, not less striking. My observa- 
tions are made at 9 A.M. and 9 P.M. The proportions of sky 
clear at the times of observation, are set down in tenths, About 
one day before an aurora, the sky usually begins to increase in 
clearness.. In the following results, reference was had only to 
clearness as compared with the corresponding hour of the prece- 
ding day, and only to mean results. During the 24 hours prece- 
ding the morning of the day on the evening of which the aurora 
occurred, the sum of the increments of clearness was to that of 
the decrements as two to one.* During the 24 hours immedi- 
ately preceding the aurora, the increments are to the decrements 
as six toone. Similar results would be obtained by taking the 
number of instances in which the clearness increased or dimin- 
ished in case of different auroras, instead of the amount of tenths, 
as above. Within the) two days preceding an aurora, and on 
some part of the night-of it, we observe all the circumstances 
preparatory to and connected . with crystallizations in the high 
regions, developing themselves; such as increasing atmospheric 
pressure, increase of cold, and the disappearance of clouds. On 
the other hand, during the day or two succeeding it, are devel- 
oped all. those circumstances which attend a more advanced stage 
and lower descent of the products, whether crystalline or melted ; 
such as a diminution of atmospheric pressure and clearhess, and 
an elevation of the temperature and dew point. The latter 
changes, oceupying less time, are more rapid than the former, and 
appear more striking. For example, during the 24 hours 
‘succeeding an aurora, the decrements of clearness are to the in- 
crements as 37.to 1. But this high ratio requires in reality to be 
further increased, in conformity with the principles above estab- 
lished. fot, the mee increase of Caney which occurred, 


- * The sum of the tenths ‘which. saan express ss the amount by chad 

sky became clearer on the respective days immediately preceding the atin. au- 

Toras, is : called, in, expressing the mean results, the sum of the increments during 
a hours iminediately aie the aurora. A similar Soeaeareye is used 1 

Other epochs and for the decrements. - 


158 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 


was in a single instance, and that on the occasion of two con-_ 
secutive auroras, the latter tending to prolong and increase the 
clearness. This instance being omitted—as it should be—the 
decrements of clearness during the 24 hours succeeding the au- 
rora are to the increments, as 112 to 1, the increment having 
been in one instance one tenth; and the whole decrement in 
thirty instances, 112 tenths. On none of the eight instances in 
which there were auroras on two consecutive nights, had the 
cloudiness increased on the evening of the second, as compared 
with that of the first. The mean decrement of clearness for the 
remaining 24 instances, was .46. Hence, to give a popular state- 
ment, approximately true—the. evening of an aurora is, on an 
average, twice as Clear as the succeeding evening, unless another 
aurora occurs on the latter; in which case, the sky continues 
equally clear. As the forenoon succeeding an aurora is in.gene- 
ral unusually clear, this great decrement of clearness usually takes 
place‘in' a ad hours, whilst ths: increments had required. several 


YS... 
he following table,. (abotranted from those on which the nine 
propositions are Faia ,) shows the mean temperatures at 9 P. M. 
of the days of the different meteors, and on the evenings one and 
two days previous ; also the mean number of days previous, when 
———— - — oes en PRE commenced.* 


= aae ~~ ag ag] «es 
= eee 38 : a : oa 7 ~s Sy oea 
Names of as meteors 2a S ee ie # Ee 23 ges 
ae , cal ee oo FS ee ee Se° | 333 

Bes | &F eS e2° | 2e¢ | age 

Sil a E a” | gee Lee 
Aurora Boreaus, | 40 | 44.9° | 44.19 | 42.5° | 2.16 1.95 
Polarized clouds; 22° |°40.5° | 37.2° | 36.2° | 1.90 | 2.92, 
Halos 17 | 33.8° | 29.6° | 28.9° | 2.09 | 2.30 
Vertical beams, » 4°>' 235° | 16.72 14.59 3.00_ 1.87 


“The nasi of vertical beams is so small, as to forbid wont 
dence in mean results as to elapsed time. In the case of the 
other meteors, we see a pretty near correspondence as to the 
times when the eemnnrannic and barometric iets weet 


ert as which, Speke inadvertence of an ‘inne: had crept into 


Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 159 
ced before them all; and find, in the relative temperatvres re- 
quired for them, a rogpoboration of the conclusion. drawn from 
the time of the mancooding storm in relation to their — 
heights in the air. 

The absolute temperature is, for the seasons of their occur- 
rence, low for all, and of itself affords evidence of the existence 
of crystals. Frota semi-monthly observations for five years, on 
two springs at Schenectady, I have inferred, that the mean tem- 
perature of the earth there is 48.8°; and this accords nearly with 
the mean temperature of the air in’ that vicinity for the last ten 
years. Should we make allowance for the daily mean, and for 
the mean seasons of the year in which the aurora occurs, we 
should have a still more just and striking view of the cold usu- 
ally required for its production. The barometer rises and. the. 
thermometer falls before an aurora, and the mean length of time 
is about two days; and consequently these changes commence 
about four days before the storm, or about. three and a baal days 
when there are not two auroras in succession. : 

-'This affords one of. the earliest and surest’ prognostics of the 
storm, and is-more to be relied on than even the subsequent de- 
pression of the barometer, which, in modern times at least, seems 
solely to have attracted attention. It would be curious, (though 
it is perhaps improbable, and I have not seen the original,) if this 
early ascent of the barometer were that alluded to in the long 
since banished rule of Pascal. Though this patriarch of, this 
branch of science may, as is alledged, have fallen into a grave 
error in regard to this, yet there will be revived a certain modifi- 
cation of his rule, that the batomefer rises" before a storm; and 
perhaps he may be aig zesceghe? the citron and aise nt be the ori 
ginal discoverer 

That the changés of pressure and temperature ‘Giiaiinee he 
fore the’aurora, accords with the above theory. They are to be’ 
regarded as among the causes rather than the effects of the au- 

rora, Yet that they continue a little beyond the time of it, I 

have long since observed, and expressed it by the rule, that the | 

barometer is usually es ‘and the nacemoncgg! falling, on the 
evening of ai aurora. - 

Within a few years, an interesting Retnsas of the above 

theory; so far, at least, as to the fact of a connexion between at- 
mospheric arial and magnetism, has been presented in many in- a 


160 Atlantic Steam Navigation. 


stances, at different times, in a peculiar deep blue, but not linear, 
cloud, resting on the horizori in the north, in the day time ; its 
center of gravity being exactly, or almost exactly, in the ‘mage 
netic meridian, Whenever the cloud was of this deep blue color, 
its direction was taken by the compass; and to avoid any bias 
from preconceived : theory, a point judged to be the centre of | 
gravity was selected, previous to the use of the needle. The 
variation from the meridian rarely. exceeded ‘a fraction of a de- 
gree; the correspondence in direction being more exact than that 
of the position of most polarized clouds. Had the writer been 
influenced by love of theory, he might have wished the latter 
and more explicable phenomenon to-be the more regular of the 
two. He would’invite the attention of more northern observers 
to this somewhat. mysterious phenomenon, should the return of 
auroral epochs reproduce it. To those less favorably age 
_ he may appear to have drawh upon his imagination. Did ti 
“and space permit, he might give more particulars. He Lope oc- 
easionally to resume this and kindred subjects, so far as his pres- 
ent residence in a latitude less favored by auroral exhibitions, and 
_his more exclusive devotion to professional duties will allow. 


= 


ie 


Ax. . XIV. —Letters on Atlantic Steam Navig zation. 
: ak Jonws Suirn.. 


<Any 2: ES rey gars “LETTER 1. | sae iT 
: * - London, 30th July, 1838. 
TO BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, ESQ. 
Dear Sir—Perceiving from your daily and periodical j ‘ournals, 
‘that Atlantic steam navigation is attracting public attention in the 
United States, and having been in some measure, instrumental in 
forming and maturing the plan here, perhaps the following te- 
marks may not be altogether uninteresting at the present moment. 
I do not mean to advocate the abandonment of the use of sails, 
whilst I shall endeavor to show that it is not a philosophical 
‘method of propelling a ship. It will be sufficient if I show that 
the application of stearn power is both safer and more phi losoph: 
cal than the power of wind in navigation. 
_ If you direct your attention toa sailing ship, you will find that 
she has three masts ; that eee levers ; and.of 


Atlantic Steam Navigation. 161 


consequence, the direct tendency of these levers, when the power 
of wind is applied to their sails, is to upset, instead of to propel 
the ship. Hence we find, practically, that when the wind in- 
_ ereases at sea, the shipmaster’s first care is to take in the top- 
sails, which is nothing more than shortening the levers upon 
which the power of wind acts. A ship going by the wind is 
capsized when the — meine Spon the’ levers is greater than 
the resistance. 

When a ship with her ail set is taken aback, she i is hurried 
stern first into the depths of the ocean from the same cause, and 
not much time given to think about it, unless the levers are short- 
ened in time, by taking in the sails, as a change in the position 
of the ship sufficiently quick, brings the acting power to bear in 
a different. direction. 

~ If the resisting power of the ship is sufficient to sustain her po- 
sition on the water, and the levers are forced beyond their strength, 
then the ship is dismasted, and left, a helpless thing, to the mercy 
of the storm.. The power ahiays acts upon vertical levers, and 
daily practice, in sailing ships, shows the danger. Ina steam 
ship, as such, the power is applied to a combination of short 
levers, acting horizontally upon the body of the ship, and in a 
direction the reverse of the power of wind upon sails, always pro- 
pelling-the ship forward, and never losing power by a collateral 
motion. 

The paddle-wheels of the British Queen are 30 feet in diam- 
eter, of course about 93 feet in circumference. The floats are 
about three feet-asunder, which will give thirty one sets of floats 
to each wheel. There are three Sened’ in a cycloidal position in 
each set, nine and a half feet in the clear in length from one side 
of the wheel to the other, and -one foot in breadth. Hence you 
will perceive that each set of floats has a superficial area of twenty 
eight and a half square feet, equal to 873 square feet for each 
wheel, and 1746 for both. The midship section of the British 
Queen presents a resistance of 550 square feet to be overcome by 

1746 feet of the floats. 

The mean speed of the wheels may be taken at sixteen revo- 
lutions per minute, and at that rate would run 29,760 yards per 
hour, equal ‘to seventeen miles. If we deduct one fifth, the usual 
Sicieaiee, from the velocity of the periphery, to reduce it to the 
mean velocity of the wheel, we then have thirteen and a_ half 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 21 


162 Atlantic Steam Navigation. 


miles per hour for the true speed of the ship by steam cy 
The distance from Portsmouth to New York is 3000 miles; # 
supposing the ship to run thirteen miles an hour, she would make 
the passage from port to port in nine and three quarters days. But 
we must not overlook the fact that the resistance of the water 
will increase as the square of the velocity of the ship; and there- 
fore it may happen that the same-power acting against an in- 
creased resistance, will not be found adequate to maintain the full 
speed which the calculation indicates. But I apprehend it cannot 
fall much short in velocity, and therefore cannot much. exceae in 
the time required to perform the voyage. 

Each set of floats is sustained by three radii, fifteen feet in 
length from the centre of the wheel to the periphery. But if we 
count these three radii as one lever of fifteen feet in length, then 
we have, by the combination of thirty one sets of levers, two 
equal to 2324 feet in length, acting horizontally upon the body 
of the ship, without the slightest tendency to throw her from an 
even keel. The danger of the ship’s capsizing, of being taken 
aback, or of being dismasted, is entirely obviated, and the vio- 
lence of the winds can have little other effect than that of om 
turbing the surface upon which she floats. 

P.S. The President, of the same tonnage as the British Queen, 
is now building for the New York line, and will be followed by 
= —— Britain and the United icons 


LETTER I. 
ondon, Sept. 5, 1838. - 

Having shown, in my letter of 31st July, iiint the navigation 
of a ship by steam power is more philosophical than by sails, be- 
cause the power is applied to short levers, acting in a direction op- 
posite to that of the power of wind upon sails, and always in a 
line horizontal to the body of the ship, and that therefore the 
. danger of the ship’s being capsized, or taken aback, or stran 
or dismasted, or strained by perpendicular levers, is entifely obvi- 
ated ; I proveed to suggest a few things relative to the practical 
vents of sailing ships and steam ships. 
_ Notwithstanding all that has been said and written upon the 
impracticability of navigating the Atlantic by steam ships, recent 
experiments have confounded the theoretically Wise, and placed 
the mereneinite which r no assent can shake. Driven 


tag Atlantic Steam Navigation. 163 


cad first position, these scientific champions have encamped 
n another, confident that their position is impregnable. They 
‘ Ae admit, because they cannot now deny, that it is practica- 

ble to navigate the Atlantic by steam ships; but they contend 

that the ships will not pay a profit to the proprietors. This is a 
question worthy of a minute and careful investigation. A fair 
and impartial inquiry may place the matter in so clear a point of 
view, that the plainest understanding will comprehend it. No 
doubt those who possess the most practical information on the 
subject, have nursed it for their own benefit, whilst those w 
not confined to narrow thought and selfish views, and who would 
give some light to the understanding of others, have it not them- 
selves to give. 

_ Whatever article of produce or manufacture can be ehelll 
or imported in a sailing ship, at a remunerating freight, can be 
exported or imported in a steam ship at a greater or equal profit, 
independently of passengers. To elucidate this proposition, which 
I am aware the public mind is scarcely prepared to credit, it is 
necessary to a into some ie datuils of the some. poms of steam 
and sailing shi 

-It will be Seine’ in mina, Rare in constructing a steam ship for 

commercial purposes, . indepanidenthy of passengers, the expense 

will be much less, and the capacity for stowage much greater, 
than when both objects are combined. 

If we build a steam ship of 2500 tons measurement, her capa~ 
city for stowing, exclusive of engines and fuel, will not be less 
than 1600 tons register;* equal to 2400 tons of measurement 
goods, of 40 cubie feet to the ton. A sailing ship of 400 tons 
register, upon the same scale of capacity, would take 600 tons of 
Measurement 


For the sake of calculation, I -ii take the oie of New Orleans 
and Liverpool for the points of the ship’s destination. I do not 
specify New Orleans as a more desirable port than any other in 
the United States for steam navigation, although I believe the 
commerce between that port and Europe may be carried on with 
singular facility and profit, especially as the Western Islands, Ber- 
muda and Jamaica, offer natural stations for depéts of coal, and 
its vicinity to the Mexican territories opens a wide field for the 
 seaaantesd of South American commerce with that of the Uni-— 


* By a recent act of Parliament, the engine and coal, rooms are deducted from 
the —_ measurement, and the remaizider i is the legal register tonnage. 


164 _ Atlantic Steam Navigation. 
ted States and Great Britain; but by taking the extreme point of 


the United States, for the purpose of showing the advantages of — 


steam navigation over sailing ships, it follows that all intermediate 
ports from New Orleans to-Quebec, present at least equal rele 
advantages. 

The following i founded a as far as practicable upon 
acknowledged data, will lead to a general result substantially cor- 
rect, at all events. sufficiently so to show the relative working 
power of steam and sailing ships. 

A steam ship of 2500 tons, as mentioned above, ducting her 
engine and coal rooms, .will leave her register tonnage 1600, and 
supposing her capacity for stowing to equal that of a sailing ship, 
she will carry 2400 tons of measurement goods. 

A bale of New Orleans compressed cotton averages 20 cubic 
feet measurement, and 400 pounds weight; consequently, the 
ship would take two. bales to a ton, equal to 4800 bales, for her 
entire cargo. If we assume one penny per pound freight, with 
- five per cent. primage, it would be thirty five shillings.a bale, or 
£8400 gross freight. Allowing the ship 73 days out and home, 
she would complete five voyages per annum, and bring home 
24,000 bales of cotton, making a homeward freight of £42,000. 
If we suppose the ship to make only one quarter. of a freight out, 
and I see no reason why she should not make a whole freight, 
that would give £2100 out, equal to £10,500 per annum, gross- 
ing, out and home, £52,500. - 

_ Let us examine, upon the same data, the working power of a 
sailing ship of 400 tons register, and see how many it will re- 
quire to perform the same labor, and earn the same freight. 

- She will carry 600 tons of measurement goods, or 1200 bales 
of cotton, allowing her the same capacity for stowing as the 
steamer, and allowing her to complete two and a half voyages a 
year, which is as much as she can do, she will then bring home 
3000 bales of cotton. It would therefore require eight ships, of 
400 tons each, to carry the same quantity of cotton in twelve 


months as one steam ship, and to make the same freight out and 


home of £52,500. The relative power being the same, it makes 
no difference in the result, whether the ships carry more or less. 


Seeing the work that one steam ship will perform, and having 


ascertained the number of sailing ships of equal tonnage capacity 
combined, required to perform the same, the only remaining ma- 
terial point now to consider, is = relative expense of navigation. 


_ Atlantic: Steam seins: 3 165 


If it should appear that the expense of oavigating one steam ship 
of 2500 tons is less than the expense of navigating eight sailing 
ships of 400 tons each, then I apprehend the proposition may be 
considered as proved ; and it follows that it is more profitable to 
the ship owner to employ steam than sailing ships, aero" 
of passengers. 


Norre.—New Orleans will probably cease to be a port of export and import of 


will be carried on a steam ships, and aa bce as Well go up the river for their 
freights, as ts come-down the riv 

oi x 4 S 23 igen 
EXPENSE OF NAVIGATION. a 
Eight Sailing Ships of 400 Tons each. | One Steam Ship, of 1600 Tons ‘Riguar. 


One Sailing Ship 12 Months. One Steam Ship 12 Months. : 
aie. ea re 
1 master at 201. per mo. 240 0 0 
pee... Bee ee 0 0) imate,’ = “10 © 190 0-0 
I2ddo. = 4 & 48 0 0 a eae 0.9 
steward, “ 3 1 oe 0 90 
ees Se Or ee a 7502.0 a 
1 carpenter, és 0.0 sngeg, S = hy 0 4 
. 
M4 men, 30 * @ 06) too ee a 
: ge a 4) iene, ~~ 2. © a 8 . 
ag bomalip 2p» ef 62... 0 £ 1 ok uae 940 OH -B98 OO 
Ips steward, oe - 36.0 0 
160 sag ‘wages, for 8 Foon wast BP eZ heigaea a 
ship £6096 0 OF} BS 
Vietaling 160 m at. : Vien in Nahr, pst -_ 00 
s. each per week is ‘ea. per week, pev anna, Re 0 0 
per a sep ae 1200 tons of coal each voy- ‘a 
Pees aeapiaad itataateh e—5 vapigel per an- 
Pilotage out and in, £20 0 0 | num, at12s. per ton at 
Light & dock dues, 35 00 : Liverpool, me 30s. af N. ; 
eans—6000 tons coal, 
For one ship, - £5500 sit es ae De ton, 6300 0 0 
a for 8 ships, £440, which 
for two. and a half voya- bb: Pilot £2200 
ges perannum, ie - £1100 0 0) oy bere 14000 
Port Charges at Orleans. - Rees nae 
ty ceases out, $100. : 
Levee fee ‘ 50 - For one voyage, or aA 
‘Towage “p the river, 300 ° ‘ for five voyages, - £810 0 0° 
do. ~ 125 Port Charges at N. Orleans. 
a P Pilotage outand eae 0.0 4 
$575 Levee fees, 1200 
Or £129 7s.Gd. for one ship, + (No towage r eq'd.) 
and for 3 ships is £1035, 
which for two and a half For one voyage, or for five 
voyages per annum, is £2587 10 0| voyages, ~- es Ser 
Total for 8 — £13,943 10 0. £10,797 0 0 
. Gross charges upon eight sailing ‘lech £13,943 10 0 
Gross chase es upon one steam s 10,797 0 0 


Dillareace, £3,146 10 0 


166 Atlantic Steam Navigation. 


Thus it appears that one steam ship of 1600 tons register will 
perform the work of eight sailing ships of 400 tons each register 
in the freight of goods only between New Orleans and Liverpool, 
at less expense by £3146 10s..per annum. ‘The petty expenses, 
such as reporting the ship at the custom-house, advertising, and - 
the like, will always be in favor of the steam ships; but in show- 
ing the relative working power of the two classes of ships, it is 
not necessary to enumerate trifles. It will however be apparent 
to every candid inquirer, that if a steam ship can not only be 
supported by carrying goods at. the same rate of freight as a 
sailing ship, but make a larger profit; that when the collateral ad- 
vantages of passengers, speed, and certainty of time, are taken 
into consideration, the ee in mist of the steam is stri- 
kingly obvious. 

_ Mercantile men will see, that ‘as the time occupied by a steam 
ship in performing a voyage is not half that of a sailing ship, the 
sea risk is diminished in the same proportion, and consequently 
the premium of insurance will not be more than half the amount 
charged upon sailing ships. 

The sooner the shipper can get his goods to market, the better 
for him ; and if he can do it in half the time by a steam ship, that 
would be required by a sailing ship, it follows, as an inevitable 
consequence, that one half the capital would carry on the same 
amount of business in-a steam ship, as would be required in sail- 
ing ships ; because, he could make two shipments or two importa- 
tions, or both, in a steam ship, when he could make but one ina 
sailing ship. ‘The whole commercial capital employed in foreign 
trade, upon the general introduction of ‘steam navigation, will be 
doubled in its powers of carrying on commerce, and twice the 
amount of business done upon the present capital, or the a 
business upon half the capital. 

If Thave succeeded in establishing the proposition with which 
I commenced, then we may give rein, and allow the imagination 
to reach forward afew years, when sailing ships will become as 
rare as steam ships are now, and when the ocean will be covered 
with paddle-wheels instead of canvass. 

Astronomers make the circumference of this earth 24, 000 miles: 
steam navigators make it only 12,000. .And although the breasts 
of men will still rage, and the sources of war remain, yet the na 
tions of a earth, will peewee, and a more subdued state of 


ae 


Miscellanies. - 167 


society lessen the calamities of war, and throw around its horrors 
something of humanity. ; 

Civilization and: intercourse go hand in ‘wand The light of 
science and the revelations of truth, blending their rays, and 
beaming upon barbarism, will scien down its charaeter, and 
hasten the advent of more glorious times. 


6 " MISCELLANTIES. Lt a 


1. Rajore on the aartng Stars of the 9th and 10th of Lat 1893; | 
by Epwarp C. Herri 

_ It was expected ce an unusual display of shooting stars would be — 
witnessed on or about the night of the 9th of August, 1838.* The arrival 
of this period was awaited with no ordinary interest, inasmuch as there 
was reason to hope that observations might then be made, which would 
remove some of the uncertainties which had hitherto rested upon the ori- 
gin of this ‘beautiful phenomenon. — In this part of the country, observers 
were unfortunately deprived, by see weather, of any satisfactory 
view of the heavens during the se of the expected visitation. The 
accounts of observations which T ha have hitherto received from distant 
places, where the sky was clear, although not in every particular so com- 
plete as could be wished, are yet amply sufficient to show that the mete- 
oric shower of August did not disappoint’ the expectations of those who 
looked for its recurrence during the present year. 


I. Ciksorvadidac made at New Haven. 


In order to obtain a thorough knowledge of the phases of this mete- 
oric shower, it seemed necessary to observe on the nights of the 8th and 


‘11th, as well as on those of the ia aid Vouk: Accordingly, on the eve- 


ning of the 8th, I kept a look out, and saw in half an hour; ending at 9h. 
15m. five meteors, one of them more brilliant than Venus, with a splendid 
train. This number is not much above the average. At later periods of 
the night, the view was so much interrupted by clouds, that no regular 
observation was kept up. During the night of the 9th, the sky was en- 
tirely overcast. On the evening of the 10th, at the end of twilight, the 
sky was clear. Being myself occupied at that hour, Mr. M. D. Bagg 
kindly offered his assistance. Taking his station at 9h. and directing his 
attention towards the S. at an elevation of 80°, he saw in an hour 28 me- 
tears « a iad, sarees by, counted, during the same period, in the North, 


See this Journal, Vol. 33, p. 402. 


. oe Miscellanies. 


26. The moon rose at 9h. 42m. and, consequently, had thus far inter- 
fered very little: Between 10h. and 11h. Mr. B. counted in the same. 
region, 20 meteors, which, considering the presence of the moon, is evi- — 
dently an increase on the hour previous, Soon after 11h., as we were 
ieee for the night, clouds rapidly overspread the hanveak, and frus- 
fart her observations. The entire night of the 11th. was over-_ 

The evening of the 12th was beautifully clear, and 

even at. this late date, it was evident, from a quarter of an hour’s observa- 
tion, that shooting stars were much more numerous than common. _ I re- 
gret that I could not conveniently watch throughout that night. Mr. E. 

_Fitch informed me that in one hour, somewhere between Qh. and 11h. of 
=~ evening, he counted about 25 of these meteors... 


Il. Observations made at other places. 

1. At Middletown, Ct. watch was kept by Prof. A. W. Smith, and 
Messrs. Knox and Rice, of the Wesleyan University. During the whole 
night of the 9th, clouds covered the sky. On the night of the 10th, the | 
sky was still cloudy, and afforded no opportunity for regular observation, 
but the observers were convinced that the meteors were more numerous 
than usual. No observations were attempted on the night of the L1th or 
12th. 

2. From Geneva, N. Y. Mr. Azariah Smith, Jr. writes, that on the 


evening of the 9th, about 9 P. M. the sky was partially clear in the North, 


and that on going abroad to observe, he “saw half a dozen meteors shoot 
across the open space in about the same number of minutes; after which, — 
through the night, clouds covered the heavens. _ Of these meteors, all but 
one passed from the East to the West, and that one came from the zenith. 
Two were peculiarly bright and left te trains in their rear.” No ob 
servations on the nights of 10th or Ith. 

3. At Buffalo, N. Y. observations were made by Mr. R. W. Haskins 
and Dr. C. H. Raymond. On the morning of the 8th, from Ih. to 3h. 
30m. they saw fifteen meteors, which is, of course, nothing unusual. 
“The morning of the 9th was densely clouded, with rain falling copious- 
ly.” On the morning of the 10th, observations were commenced at Ih. 
‘A.M. “ The state of the heavens was unfavorable. ‘The moon, ap 
proaching the meridian, was so luminous as to-obscure every star in her 
vicinity, save those of the first magnitude ; the whole South, from this 

y to the horizon, covered with clouds, which were rapidly extending 
themselves ov er the other portions of the sky. At 2h. 30m. there was RO 
clear sky to be seen. _ During this hour’ and a half, and under many dis- 
advantages, forty meteors were counted” by the two observers. Mr. 
Haskins continues, “The appearances this morning, when taken in con- 
nection with all the. ae circumstances under which they were vieW- 
ed, I am inclined to think were somewhat peculiar. Had there beem 


a ; > 
clear sky, absence of moon, and observers locate Scanned 
part of the heavens, it seems probable that meteors i in ‘considerable profit- 
sion might have been counted. Of those seen, the greater part left visi- 
ble trains behind them, and many of them were seen through a haze 
which obscured all the smaller stars. As to a point of radiation: there 
are some facts connected with these observations that may indicate such 
a point; but they may, just as well, in our present state of Lnowledgelbe 
wholly disconnected with the phenomenon, and certainly can not now be 
offered as proof on this point. The lines of flight of most of these mete- 
ors, if extended back, would cross near the tail of Camelopardalis, and 
this ie the poing: ‘(55° R. A. 60° ND.) which Mr. Schaeffer points out as 
the centre of radiation of the August shower of 1837. As a coincidence, 
this is perhaps worth mentioning, but certainly as nothing more at pres- 
ent.” No observations on the night of the 10th or 11th. - 

4. At Hudson, Ohio, very good arrangements for observation were in- 
stituted by Professor Loomis, but they were almost entirely defeated by 
clouds. The report which he has published in the Cleveland Observer of 

‘Aug. 16, 1838, concludes thus :—“ On the whole, then, although the 
total number of meteors seen here was small, on account of the very unfa- 
vorable state of the weather, the oheervietisee: lend some support to the 
theory that meteors are unusually numerous about the 9th or 10th of 
August.” No observations on the night of 10th or 11th. | 

5. At Barren Hill, about 12 miles N. of Philadelphia, Pa. observa- 
ee were made on the night of the 8th by Mr. Gee. C. Schaeffer, who 
reports as follows: ‘‘ Thé house from which I observed was in a valley, 
over which the smoke from the fire in New Jersey spread a mist like a 
curtain, which, illuminated by a full moon, formed a very unfavorable 
medium through which to observe. My view was limited to a small por- 
tion of the heavens, so that I could not have seen more than one fifth or 
sixth of the entire number visible in a clear and moonless night. Between 
1th. 30m. and 12h. 30m. I saw about 20. From various estimates, I 
think they appeared [to a single observer] at the rate of 15 or 20an hour. 
I watched very closely for the radiant point, and found it near where I 
placed it in August last, [see this Journal, Vol. 33, = 134,] but, to my 
very great surprise, there was a constant aud regular of this 
point. In this I am not mistaken, as I devoted my calicke attention to 
determine it. Between 11 and 12, it was about 12° from ¢ Cassiopeie, 
in a line from it to the North Polar Star ; it a near the star first 
named, inclining downwards, and at 3h. it was 13° or 2° on the other 
side of it.” No observations on the night of 9th, L0th, or 11th. 

6. At Norfolk, Va. observations were made on the evening of the 10th, 

by Messrs. J. D. Dana, H. Eid, Sr. and J. W.E. Reid. Mr. D. writes: 
* Between 8h. 55m. and 10h. P. M. we observed thirty siz, which obvi- 
ously far exceeds the usual number at that hour. They appeared to 

Vout. XXXV.—No. 1. 22 


170. Miscellanies. . 


radiate from Cassiopeia, .but it was not very easy to determine satisfacto- 
rily, the radiant point. The sky, within 25° of the horizon, was obscured 
by a thick haze, which prevented our seeing any meteors below that 
altitude.” At a later hour, the clouds and the moon rendered it unadvi- 
sable to resume the watch. No observations on the night of 9th or 11th. . 
7. At Society Hill, S.C. Mr. William A. Sparks watched, at inter- 
vals, on the night of the 9th and morning of the 10th. On the 9th, at 
evening, the sky was clear, and the number of meteors appeared some- 
what unusual. “ About 3h. A. M.” (10th) writes Mr. S. “ I was awaked 
by my servant, who informed me that ‘ he had seen five stars fall since 
he first got up.’ I rose immediately and went out, and although the 
moon was shining with brilliancy, in mid-heaven, I saw at intervals of 
from two to five minutes, quite a number shooting in all directions. At 
3h. 35m. one remarkably bright, which I noticed more’particularly, took 
its origin in the vicinity of the belt of Orion, shot about 50° toward the 
N. nearly parallel to ‘the horizon, and almost eclipsed the splendor of 
Venus, which was just then emerging from the East. At 3h. 45m. the 
sky became entirely overcast with cumulo-stratus clouds, which prevent- 
ed further observation. On this occasion, I counted’ twenty four mete- 
ors.” Mr. S. states,’ that on the nights of the 8th and 10th the displays 
wore much inferior to that of the night of the 9th. 
. At Wilmington Island, near Savannah, Ga. Mr. Thomas R. Dut- 
ton tae observations, which are far more extensive and satisfa than 


any which have hitherto reached me. The biastale: 2 table contains a. 


aap of the results. 


: 3 i a 5 het oe 
‘Date. | Sine of Observation. 8 5 Remarks. 
‘ i 
1638. | he im: +h. m.~ eae Moon rises at 9h. 
Aug. 9. 9 30. m. to 11 30. m. 119) 9.5 5 
nad oe | past fall. 
‘ dl 30 p.m. to 0 25. m. (10th) 13.14.18 ; 
10. 0 254.m.to 1 2a.m (14,14, 
“ ")410a.m.to 4 204. m. 954. 
ee te ‘9 30 P.M. Ky wit ison idaous Sale 
p. M. to 10 45 p. m. ee | Viveda ays past | 


Vb 20 p.7to -0.20 a.m, (Hae) aa 
.| 0 304. M. to 1 304. mM. Ba 
“ate Ac Mt to 4 “a.m. 55155, 
The following extracts are taken from the remarks which Mr. Dutton 
joins. “‘ You will, I think, agree with me, that the present year pre- 
sents, at this place, a recurrence of the meteoric shower of August last. 
In re to number, two'circumstances are to be considered: Ist, that 
agen teres: and 2d, that the moon was more ies 


7 
cal 
“ 
ae 
me 


ac a lS ma 


" 
ie 


Mivcllanies im 


full: It is generally admitted, that it requires, at least, three observers to 
note all, and that the full moon obscures two thirds or three fourths of 
those which would be visible in its absence. In the present case, we ‘may 
safely say, that one half were rendered invisible by the light of the moon. 
On the night of the 10th, one observer saw 140, in 5h. 15m. [and 122 of 
them in 4h. 15m.] Three observers would hive seen’ 420 during the 
same time, [and in the absence of the moon, 840.] On'‘the night of 
Nov. 12, 1837, four observers saw at New Saven, 223 in five hours ; the 
moon at that time obscuing; goby eb one “fourth more _ in the 
present case 

“On the night of the 9th, the contre’ of. radiation appeared to be near 
a point in R. A. 35° N. D. 69°. 'The~more extended | of 
the following night led me to a it somewhere between this’ point and 
€ Cassiopeia. I have more confidence in this conclusion, as on the night 
of the 10th, the meteors were more abundant, and several | 1es Started 
from near the radiating point. Ican say with certainty ‘that this point 
lay somewhere within the triangle formed by the three stars ©, 4, and y 


 Cassiopei#.- From this point radiated at least three fourths of all the 


meteors seen on the nights of the 9th and 10th. Of the meteors thus 
a two thirds had trains. It was remarkable that of all those which 
had , there was but one which did not move from the radiating point. 

was during most of the time of observation somewhere be- 
and 60° above the horizon, and as the meteors generally made 
their appearance at more than 30° from this point, we should conclade 
. that es few would be observed to fall directly towards the horizon. ‘This 
was the case during the two nights. About fifteen were seen to descend 
towards the north; the remainder either rose, passing near the zenith, or 
moved towards the south in lines nearly rataltl to the horizon. The 


northwestern part of the heavens, including on the right the constellation 

10° or 15° south of the zenith. — From 3h. to 
4h. on'the morning of the 11th, = 5 hardly noticed one which did not come 
from the radiating point. Nori of the meteors seen on previous nights 
July 28th and August 6th inclasive) seemed to haye a common 
centre of radiation. As to magnitudes, it may be observed that the me 
teors were of two very distinct classes ; ;—onle composed of such meteors 
as are visible upon every clear night, This class contained one fourth of 
the whole number scen, and were distinguished by their small size, (not 
exceéding stars of the third magnitude, ) by their unconformable Shee: 
tions, and their greater velocity. ‘The other class, containing the remain- 
ing three fourths, were all as large as stars of the second magnitude, and 
half them were equal f in size to Venus as she now appears as the morning 
star. Of this class, but ome had a direction which could be called un- 
conformable, and at least two thirds of them had trains. Most of the 


172 Misceilanies. 


trains Vanished as‘soon as the meteors which they followed, but in some 
cases they remained for one or two seconds, and were occasionally 15° 
or 20° long. The velocity of those meteors which were conformable was 
much less than that of those meteors which were unconformable, and 
much. less also than that of those which are commonly seen. hose. 
whose course was longest were visible from one and a half to two seconds. 
The color of these meteors was remarkably uniform, and was a reddish 
yellow, or flame color. In some cases the train was of a deeper ool 
than its attendant meteor.” 

No facts concerning the appearance of this meteoric shower have yet 
been received from abroad. If the weather was favorable, observations 
were doubtless made in many parts of Europe. Especially may we expect 
a full report from M. Quetelet, of Brussels, who has done. more than any 


one in Europe towards directing public attention to the eps of the 


occurrence of ‘a meteoric shower in August. 


= Remarks on the neues: statements. 


Before we can determine whether the exhibition of lat files ; 


unusual, it is necessary to know the average number of shoc 
visible at other times. Numerous observations made in conjunc 
my fellow-laborer, Mr. A. B. Haile, and occasionally with ot 
furnish some materials for the detenninstin of this qui 
were made chiefly in the fall, winter and spring months, b 
beg probably apply without sauch error to the summer season. — ord- 
to these observations, if the light of the sun and moon be absent, the 
eas. number of meteors visible at the most abundant season of the 
night, viz. from 3 to 6 A. M., is about fifty per hour; and from 6 to 10 
P.M. about twenty five ‘per: hour. Of these a single observer would 
probably detect one fourth or one fifth part. Much difference however 
exists in the fertility of the different quarters of the sky at different hours, 


ing stars 
with 


and many more observations must be made, before exact data on this part 


of the subject can be obtained. In the present state of our knowledge 
it seems not improper to multiply by four, the number seen by an indi- 
vidual, in order to obtain the whole number visible at the place during 
the period-of his observation. What proportion of these meteors is con- 
cealed by the light of the, moon at its different stages, cannot be fixed with 
minute accuracy. If we assume, that in the present instance one half 
were rendered invisible by the moonlight, it will doubtless be considered 
a liberal allowance. Looking at the foregoing accounts with these pril- 
ciples in view, it is evident that the number of meteors seen in this country 
about the 108 of August, 1838, was from three to eight times beyond the 

r To specify a single instance ;—Mr. T. R. Dutton, near Sa- 

between 3h. and and 4h. A. M. of the 11th, fifty five meteors. 


Miscellanies. 173 


Multiplying this number by four, and the resulting quantity by two, we 
obtain for the entire number which might have been at that place, 
had-the moon been absent, 440, or about nine times the average. It is 
unnecessary here to reduce the other reports in this way, as any one who 
chooses can do it for. himself. 

The observations on the position of the radiant point of this shower 
are not altogether satisfactory, and it will probably be advisable to wait 
for the better opportunity of determining this point which the meteoric 
shower of August 1839 will present, rather than to attempt to reconcile 
the accounts which have been already made public. Enough is known 
to prove that this radiant (as seen in this latitude) lies fifty degrees north 
of the point towards which the earth is at the time tending. This fact 
may perhaps intimate that the meteoric zone does not lie in the plane of 
the ecliptic. 

Neither‘can we yet decide on what day between the 8th and 12th of 
August the shower arrives at its maximum. The determination of this 
and other important features of the phenomenon must be italia to the 
coming year. 

robably still unacquainted with all those periods of the year at 
_stars occur in unusual numbers. It cannot be concealed, 
tof the sixth of December, 1798, Brandes alone saw these 
rate of 100 an hour for four hours. This display must 
ly. or quite equal to any August or November shower 
2n witnessed since 1833. It isa highly interestmg question, 
whether shooting stars do not now oceur im unusual numbers on or about 
this day of the year, and it is earnestly to be hoped that none of our ob- 
servers will suffer this period of the present year to pass without the most 
attentive inspection of the heavens. 


To the facts heretofore adduced in this Journal (Vol. xxxm1, p: 176— 
180 ; 354—364; 401, and Vol. xxx1v, p. 180—182) in proof of the oc- 
currence of «meteori shower in August, I add the testimony, 

h although not of the most satisfactory character, seems to merit 


per 
1. In Miss Harriet Martineau’s Retrospect of Western Travel, “yee 
ed. 2 vols. 12mo. N. Y. 1838,) Vol. 2, p..87, is the annexed account, 
pertaining to the evening of August 8, 1835 :—“ While the bright glow 
was still lingering in the valley, and the sky was beginning to melt from 
crimson to the pale seagreen of evening, I saw something sailing in the 
air like a glistening golden balloon. * * * It burst in a broad flash and 
shower of green fire. It was the most splendid meteor I ever saw. * * 

I saw an unusual number of falling-stars before we reached home.” 
2% in Capt. J. E. Alexander’s Transatlantic Sketches, (Amer. ed. 8vo. 
1833,) p. 102, in an account of the tremendous hurricane which 


i 


174 = Miscellanies. 


visited the West Indies on the night of Wednesday, August 10, 1881, 
occurs the following. “ .* * Those who were driven into the fields, so 
far from being able to stand on their legs, could not even sit up, the wind 
was so violent as to throw them on their faces. The lightning flashed 
tremendously in their eyes and-appeared to strike the ground only a few 
yards from them; but such was the roar of the wind, that the thunder 
could naling een Fesanes Ghd heen were seen to fall — the 
clouds.” 

2% The ¢ account wi this hurricane cle is copied Sent a Bridgetown 


(Barbadoes) paper into Lieut. Col. Reid’s “ Attempt to develop the Law 


of Storms, Sc.” 8vo. London, 1838, gives the following additional partic- 
ulars. “ About.3-A. M. (Aug. 11) the wind occasionally abated. * ** 
The lightning also having ceased for a few moments only at a time, the 


blackness in which the town was enveloped) was inexpressibly awful. 


Fiery meteors were presentlyseen falling from the heavens ; one in pat- 


_ ticular, of a globular form and a deep red hue, was observed by the writer 


to descend perpendicularly from a vast height. It evidently fell by its 
specific gravity, and was not shot or propelled by an extraneous force. On 


: ‘approaching the earth with accelerated motion ‘it assumed a dazzling 


whiteness and an elongated form, and dashing to the ground in Beckwith 
Square, pesone the stores of Messrs. Hi. D. Grierson & Co. ta 


iancy and the spattering of its particles cpdaicallig sei _ gave it the 
resemblance of a body of me of — bulk.” © 
ee September, cag 


2. Oiserdiitions eats at Yale College on the Sekt of the Sun of 
September 18, 1838.—Communicated by Professor Ormsren. 

‘I was prevented, by peculiar circumstances, from making any prepara- 
tions for viewing the interesting eclipse of September 18th, having re 
turned home from a journey onlyon the day of its occurrence. I found, 
however, that there was less reason for regret, as two young gentlemen of 
our senior class, H. LL. Smith and E. P. Mason, had been very assiduous 
in making preparations for viewing the eclipse, having the necessary i- 
struments all in readiness, and the time well regulated. Indeed, each of 
them was furnished with a good telescope of his own making, the former 
a Gregorian of three feet focus,* the latter a Newtonian of seven feet. 


yal 


A. L. Smith and F. Bradley have recently compinicted a large tele- 
hich they have furnished me the following memorandum : The reflee- 
about fourteen feet and is one foot if diameter, of the 
stand and adjustments are not yet completed, nor 


h accompanied me in the College. rst mm whilerk teadamenef 


our large Achromatic of ten feet focus. 

The weather was remarkably fine. For some time previous, the atmos 
phere was cloudy, with some rain, and the prospects were very discourag- 
ing ; yet only an hour or two before the eclipse came on, the clouds broke 
away, and presented a sky as clear and serene as could possibly be de- 
sired. Indeed, we were great gainers by the previous state of the atmos- 
phere, the-sky being washed clean of all, vapors, while yet the sun had 
not shone.long enough to disturb the tranquillity of iha:eedinm, by as- 
cending and descending currents. Hence, there was a r_shatp- 

hess in the line presented by the solar disk. _ ae 

~ Each of the three observers kept separate ictea, but the observations 

of the commencement of the eclipse differed scarcely at all from each 

other, and none of them from the mean of the whole more than one fifth 

of asecond. The average of the three gave the following results, ex- 
pressed in mean time : 

s Badioning of the eclipse, et gtd 3h. 21m. 14.47s.* 
.. . Sh, 52m.. Fis, . 

The viele of the moon projected on the sun’s disk, as seen through 
the age Refractor LCs: Telescope). with a power of 180, pre é 

e! e aontiin nm particular, Pecan ae 


iS to make any of the stars visible ‘% the 
naked eye ; but a solemn, bronzy veil was — over the face of nature. 
The changes in the Barometer and Hyg ter, were inconsiderable; and 
the Thermometer suffered less aearh ‘ta it probably would have done 
had not the sun a short time previous emerged from a cloudy atmosphere. 
No change worthy of note was.observed in the magnetic intensity. 

Mr. Mason had attached to his telescope a divided object-glass micro- 


meter, by means of which he made multiplied observations onthe solar 
= an account at whieh . am happy to subjoin ‘in — stbieteite rds, 


is the telescope in an wives ntageous position tion for making | delicate _ observations. 
ube is a twelve-sided prism, strengthened internally by iron 
following objects have already been seen, and the results will afford Se of 
its power. The nebula in Hercules between 4 and ¢ resolved into.an immense 
numberof sfnall stars :—the annular nebula in Lyra very bright and distinet :— 
Debilissima inter 4 et 5 < Lyre, easily seen by direct vision :—sma all star near @ 
Lyre very bright and distinct :—¢ Bootis, 4 and 5 & Lyre of course easily sepa- 
ted :o Coronz Borealis, # Aquile, and the star south following # Bootis very 
distinctly double :—{ Orionis triple *—companion of ee very beh oe 
~ the stars of the belt had disappeared i in the morning lig bere 
ps "Tt will be seen that this is 42.47 seconds later "ha the time re 
‘ican Alman E 


176 Miscellanies. 
deeming it unnecessary to add any remarks of my own, farther than to 
express my entire confidence in the accuracy of his determinations. 


Micrometric Measurements taken by E. P. Mason, 


During the progress of the eclipse, frequent measures were taken of 
the distances of the cusps, and the corresponding instants of observation 
were accurately noted. The instrument with which these were obtained 
was an achromatic object-glass micrometer, of Dollond’s construction, 
“attached to a7 ft. Reflector, the value of whose scale had been determined 
by frequent comparisons with an accurate sextant in terrestrial measures, 


and by observations on — of the Ast. Soc. Peet The following 
are the distances obtained : 
Time f Observ ition. ; Distance of Cusps. * ‘Time of Observation. ‘usps. 
iii eae age © “ : hi Wek i N 
26 68 | 10. 23.43 4 14 15.0> 28 33.16 
+ 2 Oh ese *“ 15 129 | 28 4439 
mR 61.2 | 4337.14 © 216.2, 87.7.1 23< 55Re 
“ 30 58.0 | 14. 2811 17 ~ 365 1-99-. 6H 
~- O. 429") 38-57-48 “« 31 363. | 29. &68 
eee 43.7 ° 115” 8592 nearest approach’ 19 13.59 
Pee BE 17 = S18 ‘st 419° | 299 1649 
«38 39.2) 18 936.72 “-53 188 | 29-cfao 
4 42... 22. |. 30 .. 23.52- “ 55 442 | 29 23.38 
Ss 42 185 | 20. 5758 “58 395 | 29 13.26 
eek. 069 | 21. 20-87 5 0. 49.7 | 29 488 
eee" Fae +82 96.54 > ee ee Oe 
SESS BS.7 |} 22 GA: “9 98.0) 28 53.51 
«60 = 379 23° 32:79 “29-764 | 2. 498 
“62. 446 | 24 12.57 *.- 4. 108 | 28 41.66 
ne 54° 168 | 24 38.56. a ok noe |. Se ae 
55. 62.' 24 52.99 8 943 | 99. aam 
“te 481° 1°35 26 = 9 96.0 | 27 Bae 
"68.  83.6°)-25 46.78 “<Tt 243 | 27 ae 
* 59. 180°! 25- 59.69 “ 12 18.7 |:2725e 
“. 59 529. |. 6448 “ 13 404 | 26 56.76 
4 1 550 | 26 27.62 “ 14. $93 | 26 S60 
a 6.0 | 27 46.16 ~~ Si ae 96 16.15 
ae 930°) a ere “. 18. 188° | 2 eeee 
oe 907. | ee “ 19 - 56.1 | 25 37.30 
“, 2 213 | 28 22.52 - a 


A mean of 4 measures, in a direction about 15° or 20° shélinid to the 
horizon, and 20m. previous to the instant of first contact, gave for the 
sun’s diameter 31’ 53.7”. . These were, however, taken amidst the hurry 
of preparation for the eclipse, and were too few in number to be a 
ard for the subsequent measures.. The following horizontal diameters 
may be considered more. determinate, and will serve to show the confi- 
dence which may be placed in the measures of the cusps: 


i 


* 


a asd 


ED ES Sree eS SSE FS BL ae eee 


Sh. 15m : é : - > 31°84.08" 
Sir NEP atin aet AE RM 

ce “ce ig Es . x “ 55.64" 

sewer : - - oe 55007 

aoe - - - b «- 54.89" 

“2% * 54.95" 


M8 tones ; 

the mean of which is 31’ 54. 81". It abiiald a be remarked, that 
a more perfect judgment can be formed of the exactness of contact of 
sharply termmated points, such as were the cusps during the eclipse, than. 
can be the case with edges or limbs, as tremulous as that of the sun, 
where an alternate overlapping and recession leaves something to estima- 
tion. On this account, an attempt to obtain several measures of greatest 
distance of limbs was relinquished, both because greater inaccuracy was 
apprehended from the above source; and the measures of the cusps af- 
forded a more advantageous method of arriving at the same results. 

The maximum distance of the cusps, which may be obtained by inter- 
polation from those nearest in point of time, will give the observed diame- _ 
ter of the moon, free, it is believed, from the effects of irradiation. The 
minimum  distanice will be a greatly magnified measure of the error of 
the moon’s assumed latitude, the ratio of increase of the distance of the 
cusps at that pont to the corresponding difference of the latitude being 
about as 25.7 : 

“At 5h. 20m. the measures of distance were relinquished, as the sun’s 
proximity to the horizon would soon render = further. observation of 
this kind of little value. 

At the end of the eclipse, the sun was scarcely 3 degrees above the 
horizon, and the extreme undulation of his limb rendered much accuracy 
in the time of the observation impossible; and being, therefore, deemed 
phen se “it was not carefully noted, and may possibly be in 


“The sidereal. ack Shi which the abdve determinations of time were 
taken and reduced, had been compared frequently during the months of 
August and September with transits of stars, and the deviations of the 
transit instrument, the value of the divisions of its level, and the irregu- 

of the clock’s rate, carefully registered and applied. ~ From a 
comparison of these observations, it appears, that the error of or 


-* The moon's latitude, as assumed for the calculation of the eclipse in the 
Alm 


American , is by the observation of the nearest approach of cusps, 10.05’ 

too large; a determination which, if the calculated semidiameters of the sun and 
moon correct, is-in error by only one hineteenth part of the error of obser- 
vation. 


Vou. XXXV_No. 1 23 


* 


178 Miscellanies. 


in the transit of a single wire is seldom over .3 of a second; and the 
mean of the 5 wires of the instrument would, therefore, render the proba- 
ble error certainly Jess than .1 of a second. The error arising from it- 
regularity of the clock’s rate is rendered of comparatively little mbment 
by the fortunate coincidence, nearly, of the transit of Antares with the 
middle of the eclipse. -The only remaining error of importance, that of 
the imperfection of vision, in noticing the first moment of ingress, may 
be presumed to be very small, from the.circumstance that the observa- 
tions were entirely independent, at two different clocks, in separate 
apartments, and the coincidence of results was not mutually known till 
some minutes afterwards, thereby preventing the otherwise natural result 
of catching the first glimpse by contagion. “The agreement of the times 
of commencement to less than .2 of a second, under such circumstances, 
goes far to prove their accuracy. The clocks were compared by coinci- 
dent beats immediately before and after the ingress. 

The distances of the cusps are uncorrected for difference of refraction, 
which, in the last measures, is of considerable amount. If any of them 
should be found discordant with the others, from error in counting from 
the clock, or in registering, they will easily be discovered in the calcula- 
tion, and corrected, if the mistake is evident, or otherwise entirely re- 
jected. 


3. Supposed new mineral at Bolton, Mass —The following angles were 
obtained with the reflective goniometer, from a small er fa gr 
inert sparingly disseminated in massive Scapolite, at the Bolton lime 

at occurs in small isolated prismatic individuals, imperfectly 

, or in divergent groups of slender flattened prisms, more or 

less perfect. The mineral has been considered Gadolinite, and by Prof 

Surrarp, who early observed it at the above locality, as Allanite, to which 
it is closely allied, if not identical with it. 

The primary is an oblique rhomboidal prism, M : T = 113° a5 and 
66° 15’, M: é (replacement of obtuse lateral edge) = 149°, T : é = 144° 
45',M:€ (vepliiocanent of acute }ateral edge) = 128° 45’, T : é== 117° 
30’, €: € = 97° 45’ and 82° 15’. The crystals are flattened parallel 
with €, and slightly sieaaihla some varieties of green hornblende. M is 
bright, T much less so ; € is deeply channeled. No cleavage a 
H. = 575. G. as fund by Prof. S. 3—3.25, the former obtained wit 
fragment weighing 1.2 grains ; the latter, with 2 céntigrammes, OF a 
one third of a grain. Lustre, resinous; streak, greyish or greenish white. 
Color, grass green—blackish green ; raindacts t—subtranslucent ; brittle. 

A black variety occurs in the Petalite of the samme quarry, which, in 
lutre and and colar, much resembles Allanite. The above angles and other 

ts seem, however, to indicate that this mineral is a distinct 
apc If it should prove, ~_—— on further ee. identical 


Ss Sa 


i 
bas 


ee ee ee eee a ee 
biolicatl , 


Miscellanies. 179 


with Aiaiien: the above angles, as they were taken with the reflective 
goniometer, should be. substituted - those usually given, which were 
obtained with the common goniometer. 

I have not observed any terminal planes, but infer the probable obli- 
quity of the primary, from the direction of a seam of carbonate of lime, 
which intersected the crystal. If we can place any a ‘on this 
kind of evidence, the crystal is oblique from an obtuse edge. 

The scapolite in which the mineral is found, contains, also, ex ceeding- 
ly minute zircons, scarcely ;'; inch long, and also_very small prisms of 
rutile. The zircons are square prisms, having the lateral edges trunca- 
ted, and pyramidally terminated at each extremity ; a narrow intermedi- 
ary plane replaces the edge between a pyramidal plane, and one trunca- 
ting a lateral edge. They are described in Naumann’s System of Crys- 
tallographic Notation, as follows: ©Pw.aP.P.2P2. J. D. Dana. 

July, 1838. : . 


4. New locality of Crichtonite—This mineral is found in the north 
part of Litchfield, Ct. about two miles from the village. The locality is 
upon the east side of the road, leading from the Wolcottville turnpike to 
ule Bis on the land of Mr. John A. Woodruff. _ It occurs erystalli- 

short hexagonal prisms, with the alternate angles replaced by 
— planes, inclining upon the base, at an angle of 121°, and upon the 
lateral planes, at an angle of 134°. The largest of the crystals are 
about three quarters ofan inch in length, and two and one quarter inches 
in diameter. It is found imbedded in fragments of rock composed of 
quartz and mica slate. The prevailing rock is mica-slate, from which 
these probably have been detached. 

The mica slate also contains an abundance of staurotide. A common 
form of the crystals is that of the primary form, with the obtuse angles 
replaced. Some of them are four inphas in Jength 

SS : T.S.Goun, A. Be 

i Stilbite, Chabasie, ‘igh dN eke Pal: ‘wmiatigtas: Ct. Stilbite 
has been found within cavities in gneiss on the Stonington rail road, two 
miles and a quarter from that village. It is imperfectly crystallized, being 
composed chiefly of implanted globules, with occasional botryoidal mass~ 
es, which, when broken, present the stellated structure common in this 
species. Tti is of a wax-yellow color, and subresinous lustre. Some specie 
mens are of a light yellow color. 

Chabasie-—In connection with the above, were found very minute 
crystals of Chabasie, ‘of a light red color. But in a ledge on the rail 
road, a quarter of a mile further from its termination at Stonington, were 
found in rather more abundance, aggregated crystals of a deep carnation 


= tedeelor-- The crystals are very obtuse rhombohedra, from one fifth to - 


186 | Miscellanies. 


one tenth of an inch in diameter. Owing to the brittleness of these min- 
erals and the great hardness of the rocks in which they are imbedded, 
none but small ones can be obtained, cmd expensive excavations 
are made. 

Associated ithe’ the above seaitionad mes are also found small 
traces of the following : 

1. Zeolite, in small masses, whose fracture presents stellated radiations 
ofa po color. ‘Their size varies from one fifth to half an inch in sie 
eter. 


2. Calcareous Spar, (with the last mentioned Chabasie) in hexagalald 
prisms ; and at the other ledge, in compact masses. 

3. Scapolite, of an imperfectly semaine structure, and light green 
color, partly decomposed. 

4. Sphene, in two or three minute black crystals. 

5. Apatite, in small crystals of a bluish green color. 

6. Magnetic Iron, in small masses, 

In a ledge on the ‘rail road, three miles and dived quarters from the vil- 
lage of Stonington, are several veins of quartz, partly compact and in part 

-of interlocking crystals.- In two of these, which were from 

half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness, was found a layer of 
Fluor. It is generally about one fifth of an inch in thickness, varying, 
however, from one third to one tenth of an inch. The colors are light 
green and dark purple. 

_ Traces of the same mineral were found in other veins at the same elie 


At this place were also found thin veins of calcareous spar, dolomite, 


and serpentine oo W. W. aaa A. B.. 
ag Ss 


in R. rane is found in thos town « of a R. I. in 


pity of gneiss, which has been quarried for building stone, on land — 


owned by Mr. Nathan F. Dixon. It is situated one fourth of a mile north 
of the 6th mile stone, on the Stonington rail road. The mineral, im im- 
perfect crystals, is dhiseminaied through a mass of semi-crystallized 
quartz, which is two or three feet in length, and about one foot in width 
and breadth. Ww. W.R 


Bi 

7. A Flora of North America: containing abridged descriptions of all 
the known indigenous and naturalized plants, growing north of Mexico ; 
arranged according to the Natural System: By Joun Torrey and Asa 
Gray. Vol. I, Pt.1, pp. 184 8vo. G. & C. Carvill & Co. N. York, 1838. 

Here is the first number, and the earnest of a work 
long and anxiously desired by the botanists of the United States; and 
which will, doubtless, be cordially greeted by the cultivators of botanical 
science, throughout the world. The plants of North America ae 


which has been, 


Es z r 


ay 
= 


- Opportunities or discoveries 


Miscellanies. 181 


always been regarded with a lively interest. They have, at various times, 
attracted hither a number of botanists from the old world, who have 
reaped a rich harvest of discovery. in our forests, on our mountains and 
prairies, and along the margins of our almost interminable rivers. A few 
of our own countrymen have also rendered important aid in making 
known the character and extent of our vegetable treasures. Their 
labors, however, have been, for the most part, restricted to the production 
of partial or local Floras, highly peace indeed, so far as they ex- 
tended, and furnishing valuable materials for a more comprehensive 
work ; but still, they were severally limited i in their scope, and, of neces- 
sity, incomplete in their contents. The materials thus existing in de- 
tached masses, and scattered through numerous volumes, eigictt the 
plastic operation of some master hand, to reduce them into one 
body, and give to all the parts their appropriate “ form and oem? 
It was exceedingly important, that whoever might undertake to prepare a 
North American Flora, should be thoroughly acquainted with the labors 
of preceding botanists; and, by consulting their collections, as far as 
practicable, be competent to detect their errors, adjust their discrep- 
ancies, and determine their various synonyms. We consider it, there- 
fore, asubject of felicitation, that: the work -has fallen. into the present 
hauda as being confessedly those among the best qualified for the task, 
in our country ; and we rely with confidence upon their receiving the 
ous cooperation and encouragement of every lover of the Science of 
Plants. We cannot for a moment doubt, that every American botanist 
will eagerly avail himself of the occasion to possess a complete Flora of 
our widely extended continent ; and we should fondly hope, that every 
liberal cultivator of science in our land, would be happy in the opportuni- 
ty to patronize so commendable an effort to enhance the national repu- 
tation. 


‘The authors of this Flora have, of course, adopted the natural system, 
tific arrangement of 


Gece inthe 


present state of the science. _ 
- By issuing the work in parts, or siusibend some ad vantages will I 


cured, which would otherwise be unattainable. The natural fe 


being complete, even in those detached numbers, the botanists in various 
parts of our country will have leisure to examine and verify the particu- 
lars of each, Gonna. the course of the publication; and thus may suggest, 
in due time for a iz, (which must ever accompany works on a 
progressive scien ch h corrections, modifications, or additions, as their 
é shall enable them to make. In this way, 
much valuable aid may be furnished to the authors, and the Flora render- 
ed more perfect and comprehensive, without occasioning any material 


o delay in its final completion. 


(182 Miscellanies. 


The characters of the orders, tribes and genera, are well defined ; 


and the specific descriptions, though abridged, are sufficiently full to be — 


clear and satisfactory. ‘They are, moreover, frequently accompanied with 
notes and detailed remarks, (especially the less known, or newly discov- 
ered species,) which seem to supply all the information that can reason- 
ably be desired, in the Flora of so extensive a region 


The additions derived from the recent discovéries of Mr. Nosvatale 


during his journey to thé western coast of this continent, are highly im- 
t; and are here published, for the first time, from the original 
manuscript, furnished by that distinguished and indefsijgable naturalist. 
It appears, by a notice affixed to the number just published, that the 
work will be issued in nine parts, three parts to make a volume, and the 
whole forming three closely printed octavos, of about 550 pages each. 
The succeeding numbers will appear with as much ws ike as is Con- 
sistent with their faithful execution. 
Such being the character and plan of the forthcoming Flora of North 
America, we conclude our brief and hasty notice with a reiterated eX- 


pression of the hope, that the worthy and accomplished authors may be. 


adequately encouraged to persevere in their most laudable undertaking, 
and thereby be enabled to bring i it to a successful and speedy ge ae 
August 16, 1838. 


8. Redfield’s Law of Storins : esi of Col. 1 Reid's Work on Hibes 
ricanes.—It. is well known to the readers of this Journal, that our valued 


friend and correspondent, Mr. William C. Redfield, now of New York, 


has for a Jong course of years zealously prosecuted the study of various 
topics of 


» and especially. that of the phenomena of the storms — 


of the Malinlac-conat To the latter subject his attention was directed as 
early as 1821, by the memorable hurricane which passed over our State 
with destracsiye violence, in September of that year. _ An investigation of 
its phases at different places, brought him to the highly interesting con- 
clusion, that this storm was a progressive whirlwind, whose path could be 
traced from the West Indies to the spain dour: of New Brunswick. Ia 


sation,” katt this Jdvenal for July, 1835 ,) and ‘die labors were reward- 
ed with the very important discovery, that the violent storms of the North- 
ern hemisphere are whirlwinds on agrand scale, each revolving or gyrating 
Srom right to left, originating within the tropics, advancing Westerly at 
Jirst, in a line curving to the North, turning near the latitude of 30° 


and thence pursuing a Northeasterly course. This view of the matter, — 


although often advanced previously by Mr. R. among his acquaintances, 


(as many, of us can testify,) was not made wie until-1831, when it ape 


eter, ae he ee 


Miscellanies. 183 
— ‘in-a paper received in 1830, and published i in the 20th Vol. of this 
Journ 


~eig numerous. investigations of the phenomena of hurricanes, as ob- 
served at different points of their path, which Mr. R. has since made, 
have only added new confirmation of his early opinions. Several of his 
papers, embracing some of the results of these labors, have at various 
times appeared in this Journal, and in other periodical works. That’ 
which was published in 1835, was accompanied with a chart, showing the 
tracks of eleven different gales or storms. His explanation of the baro- 
metric indications observed during the access, progress, and seers of 
these storms, appears to us original, ingenious, and true ; and his direc- 
tions to navigators, concerning the measures which they should adopt, to 
extricate themselves from their destructive grasp, are surely of the highest 
practical importance. In an article published in this Journal in 1833 
Mr. R. announced the conclusion, from data whieh he had collected, that 
the storms of the Southern’ hemisphere pursue a counter direction, and 
gyrate in-the contrary way from those of the Northern : a difference 
which he considers due to their dependence on the earth’s rotation. 
~ These doctrines, (of which ,the foregoing is but an imperfect statement,) 
being so unlike those which had, for a long time held-universal sway, 
were received by most, with great hesitation, and by some, with deter- 
mined opposition. There were, however, those among us, who had 
watched the movements of the barometer, and the changes of the wind, 
during these storms, and were satisfied of the truth of the new system. 
Within a year or two, the attention of philosophers in’ foreign countries 
has been turned to this subject, and recent occurrences indicate that the 
laws of storms, which Mr. Redfield has unfolded, will soon be universally 
acknowledged. The preceding remarks are elicited by the perusal of an 
elaborate work, published the present your in London, by Lieut. Col. W. 
Reid, of the Bows Engineers, entitled “ An attempt to develop the Law 
of Storms, by means of facts arranged according to place and time, and 
hence to point out a cause for the variable winds, with the view to practical 
use in Navigation, illustrated by [9] charts and wood cuts,” pp. 436, B 
8vo. The author states, that his attention was first drawn to the si 
by the Barbadoes hurricane of August, 1831, when he was ind 
search every where, in the hope of learning the causes and mode of action 
sé these storms. “ The first paper, ” says Col. R. “I met with, which 
to convey any just opinion on the nature of hurricanes, was one 
Published i in the American Journal of Science, by Mr. W. C. Redfield, of 


New York.” Embracing with ready zeal, the views advanced in that 
paper, Col. Reid has prosecuted the study of his subject, with good judg- 
_ Inent and praiseworthy industry. In the volume before us, he has pre- 


sented the most convincing demonstration of the truth of Mr. Redfield’s 


‘doctrines, and by the aid of numerous and excellent charts and diagrams, 


184 Miscellanies. 


he has set forth the subject with great clearness and beauty. His exhibie 
tion of the storms of the Southern hemisphere is full and satisfactory, and 
entirely accordant with Mr. R.’s published statements. As Americans, 
we can not but feel much gratified with the frankness with which he 


attributes to our countryman the credit of establishing the true system, on 


a subject of such interest and magnitude. The skill and research with 


which the work is executed, and the candor with which he ascribes honor _ 


where honor is due, are creditable alike to the head and heart of its author. 
The volume deserves attentive study; as the matters of which it treats, 
and the results which it presents, are not only interesting to the theoreti- 
cal philosopher, but also of immense importance to all who expose their 
lives or their fortunes to the perils of the ocean. 


<9. Observations on “thé. genus Unio, together with descriptions of new 


genera and species in the families Naiades, Colimacea, Lymneana, Me 
laniana, and Peristomiana, with numerous colored plates: by Isaac La, 
Member Amer. Philos. Soc. etc, Vol. II, quarto, pp. 152. Philadelphia— 
(constituting Trans. of Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol. VI, Part 1.) 

The present volume consists of several papers read before the Ameri- 
can Philosophical Society, from Dec. 19, 1834, to July 21, 1887; and 
embracing descriptions of the following — new species of shells, to the 
names of which we annex their habitats : E 
One arctior, Ohio river. —  ~ time Jgunus, S. Car. 

: ee 


lugubris, 
“ folliculatus, “ 
= “cc te 7 <3 
con > a 
“*  spinosus, re 
a . 
interruptus, : “splendidus, “ 
“ Cumberlandicus,. “ “ dolabreformis, “‘ 
“*  simus, : Jayensis, Florida. 
“  notatus, > “  Claibornensis, Ala. 
“ec : 
— Barneiionus, * “ turgidus, Louisiana. 
= Zeighriauus, ve “  Hydianus, 
“  creperus, i os Fisheritonns, Maryland. 
“*  glaber, at rm Noui-Eboraci, New York. 
ce “ 
2 gibber, Bg “  Tappanianus, Penn. ¢ 
Vanuxemensis, ‘ ~ “ Tampicoensis, Mexico. 
ce 7 i . 
a Muhifeldianus, “ **  carbonarius, ‘ 
“  Menkianus, - “<  pliciferus, ¥ 


venustus, Potosi, Mo. _. © Medellinus, : 
Vaughanianus, §. Car. we Brownianus, Ameen, river. 


- 


Miscellanies. 185 


Unio Bengalensis, Bengal. Unio dss, India. 
“ Tamellatus, =“ » * , Unknown. 
Margaritana Holstonia, Tenn. - Mergaritaia fabula, Tenn. 
O° ° RR 2 P52 arcula, Georgia. 
Anodonta ovata, Ohio. Anodonta Newtoniensis, Penn 
on sae OO be subcylindracea, N York. 
“y Wardiana, ripe eg ee SC cylindracea, Mexico. 
sap Buchanensis, “ be oe Senna Ma of Rock. Mts. 
 * Geterd, ESS, eee 
ee ‘pavonia, . > ce yes é % cs Nuttitients  € 
~ _ Pepini Me c- ioe pe Wah itensi: a ee 
: gigantea, Fort Gibson. “- exilis, Unknown. 
Iridina celestis, Africa. ae 
Helix mM thaliana, Oho. 
Wardia 
_  * © Vancouverensis, W. Rocky Mite. : 
Pig Garis “i? Nuttalliana 
; oe Valenibidiit: ROS HES =. 
Pe: Sele ee lana, Bae eas age € 
>» Oregonen ee eeeEe Se 
: eae “Californiensis, Upper Cilitorsita, a et See 
; ne eae / eS Nicklé iniana, * es : 
my “"~ magnifica, New Gran ; 
t =. ~~ Carocolla Hydiana, Porto Cal, 8. A. 
cS nak Sea ‘Polygyra sg conser ge 
os stiana, 
eae Bulimus lacteus, Colombia, S. A. 
 Pealianus, . 
a Colombianus, iy as ne: 
. . corneus, a eae ase. : e: : 
: ae lant Ghat New ans ee. 
Boe cei ee “ parvus, “Garhagens, ee ee 
idee “ virgo, Sagi Be Sti 
| i Succinea aperta, W. of Rocky | Raieietie = ee te 
t Megaspira* Ruschenbergiana, Brazil... oe sii : 
| Cyclostoma maculata, Manilla. ‘ 
Re: As “ Popayana, New Granada. ” 
ia Planorbis lens, Ohio. 
- -Physa aurea, Virginia : 
$ ' Lymmnea s a, W. of the ie Back Mis. 
= : apicina, 
= Pte new genus allied to Bulimus, Pupa, and -Quricula. The name alludes to 
» and g7elge “a = : 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 24 


186 Miscellantes. 


eyes Melanta inflata, Virginia. © 
eS plicata, Bengal? < oon 
‘“  plicifera, W. of the Rocky Mts. 
“ — Troostiana, toh ° 
Paludina pallida,.O * oie -" 
Wetnonn Virginia. ’ i 
. sthistrosa, East Indies. 
* - nuclea, W. of the ssa Mes. : 
Ne ropa : 
mpu ee Peatiana, Colombia, 8. A 

“The volume includes, likewise, a series of very interesting “cheervaiioli 
upon the anatomical structure of the Naiades, illustrated by’ plates ; from 
which we perceive that Mr. Lea, is conv inced that these animals are not 
androgynous, as ‘has heretofore been believed in Europe, but, on the con- 
irary, have the Sexes in different.individuals. He notices, under these 
remarks, with “suitable commendation, the ingenious memoir of Dr. 
Kirtanp, of Ohio, on the same subject." The work is concluded bya 
very valuable synopsis of Naiades, in ‘which the embarrassing synonymy 
of this family is cleared up with the author’s usual address. It contains, 
according to this review, 323 recent species, as admitted, (rank and file,) 
29 unknown to the author or doubtful, ( missing, ) and 22 fossil, (dead.) 
Of the subgenus Unio, there are 235 species in a recent state, and 20 


_ which he has as not been able to admit as certain. Of fossil species 21. 


OF the subgenus Margaritana, there are 20 admitted species and 2 un- 

‘known. — Of the subgenus Dipsas, 2 recent species. Of Anodonta, 58 
ttec ,7 unknown, and 1 fossil, which is doubtful. Of Iridina, 2 re- 

pen geest Spatha, 6 recent species. US. 


10. North lduricon Hagel: or a Description of the — 
inhabiting the United States; by Joun Evwarvs Hotzroox, M.D., Pro- 
fessor of Anatomy in the Medical College of the State of South Carolina, 
Member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Vol. I, 
quarto. Philad. 1836. pp. 120; and Vol. IT. 1838. pp. 125. With 
colored engravings. 

This is a second great work on natural history from the Philadelphia 
press, concerning which we have long. owed a notice to the scientific 


- public. Its merits are, however, of so high an order, as to ‘stand in very 


little need of commendation, and the volumes before us give the best as- 


- surance that the remaining ones will be executed with equal ability. To 
the 


distant subscribers, it may be of some consequence to be informed of. 
es ehith. Dr.  Housroox. has made in - undertaking —a task, to 


* See this Journal, ea =r > 


Miscellanies. — _ 187 


the undertaking of which, it is well known that he was-encouraged by 
the late Baron Cuvier, an individual who well knew i into what ele 
to direct the attention of his friends and pupils. — 

The author remarks in the preface of his first volume, “In no ee 
ment of American Zoology is there so much confusion as in Herpetology. 
This is to be traced partly to the earlier naturalists, partly to the practice 
of describing from specimens preserved i in alcohol, or from prepared skins. 
I have endeavored to avoid error in this respect, by describing, in every 
instance from the os animal, and often after a comparison of. mes 
individuals.” a 

The first volume contains an exttenlly tee essiay ¢ on n theo: 01 
of Reptiles, and descriptions of the following species: Testudo Pol, 
mus, Emys hieroglyphica, E.. megacephala, E. Troostit, E. Muhlenbergit, 
ehiina sex-lineata, Anolius Carolinensis, Scincus lateralis, Bufo Ameri- 
canus, B. clamosus, Engystoma Carolinense, Scaphiopus solitarius, Rana 
halecina, R. palustris, R. sylvatica, R. ornata, Hyla versicolor, H. squi- 

ella, Coluber flagelliformis, C. meer noe C. a €. 
eryt mmus, C. abacurus. 

“The second volume contains the following species : Bays redonk! 
ensis, BE. terrapin, E. picta, E. guttata, E. serrata, E. rubriventris, E: 
reticulata, E. floridana, E. mobilensis, Salamandra dorsalis, 8. sytamet> 
rica, S. gutto-lineata, Trigonocephalus piscivorus, T. contortrix, Crota- 
lus delice: C. adamanteus, C. durissus, Elaps fulvus, Coluber erythro- 
gaster, C. fasciatus, ‘Heterodon platirhinos, Scincus erythrocephalus, 
Heterodon niger, Coluber getearyis, e. tarispiltus, C. punctatus, Cc. 
a@stivus, C. elapsoides. 

‘We regret to learn that the first volume is nearly or quite out of print. 
It is to be hoped, however, that a second impression will soon be supplied. 
From the preface of the secodbd volume we perceive, that drawings are 
ready for the third volume,-which will er meninees sigh two vee 
béfore the — will be exhausted. d 


> Second Part to aes s Desstigites Measvabitd is now seein 

for the press, and will shortly be published by Wiley. & Putnam, of 

New York, and Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia. Tt is intended to em-— 

brace a view of the progress of the science since 1835, the year | in which 
the first part of the work-was printed. 


Rp. Bitipipe mouth for Oxygen and H; ydrogen. ite the late edition 

of Dr. Turner’s Chemistry, much credit is given to Prof. Daniell, of 
London, for the invention of a new jet to the compound blowpipe, which 
is calculated greatly to. increase the safety of that-apparatus. Mr. Daniell 
as also given an engraving and description of the same, in the Philoso- 

- phical. Magazine, Vol. Il, p. 57, 3d series. The jet, about 5 inches in 
length, is composed of two concentric tubes, each terminated by plati- 


# 


188 Miscellanies. 


num; the gases pass through, one within the inner tube, and the other 
along the space between the two ; so that no mixture or communication 
can take place until they arrive at the outlet. There is another advan- 
tage attending this arrangement, viz. that-either of the gases can be made 
to surround the other, at pleasure; and.any quantity of the gases can be 
employed, and large masses of platinum can be melted. This jet was 
contrived by Professor Webster, of Cambridge, Mass. in 1824, who sent a 
drawing and model of it to Mr. Newman, the well known maker of philo- 
sophical instruments, in London, by whom a jet was’made and sent over, 
which Dr. W. has continued to use in his lectures and on all occasions, 
ever since, with perfect safety. A jet, on the same principle, was previ- 
ously devised by-Dr. W. and figured in his Manual of Chemistry, edit. 1 
and 2, “This-was wholly of brass, and made by Dwelle, of Boston. Al 
improvement was made by introducing one of the gases into the end of 
the central tube, instead of the side. 


13. Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon. By Samuel Salisbury, 
Jr. M. D. 1838.—The sulphureous waters of Avon, Livingston County, 
N.Y. have long been known and were used even by the aborigines, in ¢u- 
taneous disorders. Of late, they have been much frequented by the pont, 
of valetudinarians, who resort to similar places for health and p 
and in many diseases they have proved to be of the most decided ater 


_ Dr. Salisbury, who is a resident physician at Avon, has devoted him- 
= self to studying the chemical, constitution and medicin: qualities of these 


He finds their temperature not above 45° to Be which is about 


the usual temperature of wells and springs in that climate. The chemical 


tion eee “Tower spring,” as it is called, from its position, “ is by 
n 8000 pa phurie acid, 493, carbonic acid, 


1.36; ; nitrogen and | oxygen, . 272; chlorine, ae; sulphuric acid, 10.116; 
carbonate of lime, 4.08’; lime, 3.86 ; soda, 84; magnesia, 2.31 ; spe- 


cific gravity, 10.018. 
Arranged so as to form the compounds existing in this bi se and cal- 
culated for 10,000 parts by weight, are— —_. 
Carbonate of lime, 
united to carbonic acid, —- 


Chloride of calcium, —__- » 
Bist of lime, - a 
magnesia, - 
* soda, - dit ih 


Ina volume of 10,000 parts, are— 
ASE acids «. c's; 


| re ois 


Note—The chlorine is assigned to calcium, as th 
oftener found in those waters which contain but little saline matter. There 
remains .006 sulphuric acid, apparently in excess, which is accounted for 
by the difficulty of separating, accurately, magnesia from the other earthy 
salts. The quantity of carbonate of lime considerably exceeds the equiv- 
alent quantity of carbonic acid, necessary to render it soluble in pure 


water, and this fact affords a probable explanation of the character this ” 


water exhibits, when tested by colored papers.” _ 

The “ upper spring” seems not to differ essentially from the. lower. 
In sensible properties, it bears a close resemblance to it : but there is a 
peculiar sweetness of taste, which distinguishes it. The deposit around 
it is mostly of a dark blue color, while that of the lower spring is hase 
It rises about sixty rods east of the other, aid is at an elevation considera- 
__ bly above it. The bed of sand, eagle which this water oozes, is about 

twenty feet, and the rock about thirty feet below the surface of the ground. 
One gallon from this spring, according to Prof. Hadley, of the institution 
of Fairfield, Herkimer County, New York, was found to contain the fol- 
sanida substances, and peers in the ein proportions, viz. 


- Carbonic acid, - exi0g GBs subio jechen 
Hydreabiphesie acid, - osteo; gs piss teas 8 
eeinte of lime, - 2 «woe B& grt, “5 ett: 
i “apagenaia, Lgitel ye! rete t EDs or: SS “ 
ac soda, m te 16. “ 
Carbonate of Littioy il ee netgeealpets 
Chloride of sodium, -  - 18.4... 


: And a small quantity of other matter. 

There are other springs in the neighborhood, but their qualities are 
essentially the same as those quoted. The geology of the vicinity is said 
__to be bituminous shale, upon transition limestone. Iodine and bromine 

. have not yet been detected in the constitution of these waters; but it is 


factory evidence of their containing iodine. re ne oe Rn ee 


14. A “Treatise on Gems, in reference to their pete od scientific 
value. A useful guide for the Jeweller, Lapidary, Artist, Amateur, 
Mineralogist, and Chemist ; accompanied by a description of the most 
interesting American gems, and ornamental and architectural materials 
By Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger. New York, 1838.—The title of this work 
embraces a very correct idea of its contents. Dr. Feuchtwanger has col- 
lected-a great amount of information, drawn from many sources, in addi- 
tion to his own experience, both in regard to the scientific character, com- 
mercial value, history, and antiquity, not only of the gems, properly Se) 


2 oes 


al 


190 Miscellanies. 


called, but of all substances, natural or artificial, which it has pleased the 


* 


fancy of mankind to esteem as-objects of personal ornament, and which 
are usually known by the name of precious stones. He gives a minute 
account of the preparation of pastes, or imitations of real gems, of the 
method of cutting and polishing all gems, and of the forms most suitable 
to enhance their natural beauty. The history of the diamond, the prince 
of gems, and by many esteemed a better standard of value than silver or 
gold, is drawn with much care, and is particularly wae viewed 
either as a scientific or practical account. 


. This book, taken in connection with that of Prof, N..F. Moore, of Co-— 


fein College, viz. “ Ancient Mineralogy, or an Inquiry concerning the 
Mineral substances mentioned by the Ancients, &c.” and noticed in this 
Journal, (Vol. 28, p. 188,) affords a very complete view of the history 
and antiquity i those gems and minerals er were known in the early 
periods of societ 

~ Dr. F. has sidesivoved to TAduedideniner his. “$b, by giving an ac- 
count of all the principal American localities of precious stones, and 
ornamental: and architectural materials; with the hope of calling more 
attention to our internal resources of this nature. At the conclusion of 
the present treatise, it is announced that Dr. F. is to publish a “ Mrner- 


ALOGICAL Text Boos; for the use of schools, seminaries, and private stu- 


dai. This latter work is intended. not to be strictly philosophical, as it is 
the younger student, who wishes to be informed of 
dow t to collect, and to See 


~ 


"ROP. S eciavshe afternoon of shanti 
propre thermometer i in Faint’. toi, in Cum 
berland, Md.,* about two o’clock, was at 102° of Fahr: ; it gradually. rosé 


to 104°; from about 3 to 4 o’clock it fluctuated from 102° to 106° y—and : 


at about 4 o'clock it rose to 107°, and then to 108°, where it remained 
at 5 o'clock. One of the gentlemen then removed it from its 
against one of the pillars of the piazza in the shade, to one in the direct 
rays of the sun,—it almost immediately rose to 126°, the highest gradu- 
ation of the tube, filled it entirely, and the ball was soon after burst. At 
Hancock, about 30 miles below, on the Potomac, at the same hour, the 
thermometer varied from 107° to 109°. You are yourself familiar with 
the Sarees at Black’s 8; it looks, I think, nearly north. » 

With ee — your. friend and servant, 
B. B. sows” 


SRG SEL SO at, POPS. Long. 77° SW — 


| 
| 
| 
: 
i} 


Bg eee or — 
“ae, eo, sen bois 
. “SR i ee Ph, 
= ih a 
at* 


Miscellanies. 191 


16. Evidences of diluvial-currents—petrifactions—metallic models of 


shells, To Prof. Suoman & Son: Gent.,—Herewith I send you speci- 
mens of the surface rock in this vicinity. The Jarge slab, containing 
chert, was taken from the village of Black Rock, about four miles north 
of this city. -The grooves at this locality, as determined by Mr. agen 
and myself, range, allowing for-variation, N. 28° 12 E 


You will perceive, that wherever a nodule of chert projects above a - 


surface, a ridge of the softer limestone has been protected, in some 
measure, from friction, which invariably, at this locality, as well as at the 
Black Rock quarry, one and a half miles distant, point in a southerly di- 
rection. Some parts of the surface rock, where this slab was ‘procured, 
present this phenomenon much more perfectly; the nodules of chert 
often having a semi-circular depression worn into the rock on their north- 
ern sides, opposite to the projecting ridge. I regret that such a specimen 
could not be procured, as the strata on which ey occur are from one foot 


- to one and a half feet in thickness. 


Can proof be more conclusive, that these siatie and eietithiens were 
produced by gravel stones and boulders, swept over the surface of the 
Tocks by currents, tides, or waves, which flowed from the north? 

- I also send a smaller slab, somewhat polished. It one about 
half a mile further north, but as no marks appear : 
could not determine precisely the course from which the water flowed. | 

At Black Rock quarry, where a large surface has been uncovered for 
the purpose of procuring materials to construct the breakwater, outside of 
Buffalo harbor, the grooves range N. 15° 32’ E. The friction there has 
been equally powerful; but as the rock consists almost entirely ge chert, 
ise —— pointing towards the south are less prominent. 

Talso put into the box a piece of weathered chert, from which short car- 
scant of lime has been decomposed. The workmen here sometimes 
call this “chawed stone.” I add also some madr , and metallic 
casts of two mesa enaperen te — ere: ‘able en 


A 


— single specimens. 


Hoping that the box and its contents will 7 2 acceptable, I yestiaies, 
yours truly, &e. : Geo. E. Haves. 


The box was highly aicepiniie, cone as the proofs of powerful 
and lasting diluvial action are decisive on the slab of limestone, as well 
as on the pieces which we have recently seen at Buffalo, in the poegneson 
of Mr. Haskins and Dr. Hayes. —Eprrors. 


17. The American Almanac, and Rapesiloty Ff Useful): Knowledge, 
for the year 1839. Boston, Chas. Bowen. Vol. 10.—This valuable work, 
for the ensuing year, has been forwarded to us by its Editor, Mr. J. E 
Worcester. ‘To it is appended a general index of the last ten volumes, 


192 Miscellanies. : 


which will render the valuable statistical information contained in them, 
very available. The astronomical department is still under the conduct 
of Mr. Paine, and is, as usual, able and accurate. 


18. Green Feldspar and | Galena—The green feldspar of Beta, 
mentioned in our last, was discovered by Prof. Webster, not by Dr. 
- Cornelius, as stated, together with zircon, and described in the Boston 
Jour. of Philos. Vol. Ist. A vein of Galena*has just been discovered at 
— Mass; : 


19. Fossil Fishes in the red sandstone of New Jersey. — Professor Gale, 
of the New York University, has found fossil fishes in the sandstone of 
New Jersey, near its western margin in Morris County. The existence 
of these fossils seems to have been long k 
the vicinity. The principal specimen obtain 


be a species of the Palaoniscus, of Agas nd 
_ with one of the Palaonisci, found at Middletown, in the state of cach : 
ety 

20. United States 5 South Sea Sueigitan and Exploring Expedition.— 

The squadron entrusted with the execution of this important national 
enterprise, sailed from Hampton Roads, Norfolk, Va. on the evening of 
Saturday, August 185: 1838... _ The results of this noble undertaking will, 
we doubt not, prove of the greatest value to the cause of science and to 
the nautical and commercial interests of the nation, and highly creditable 
both to the members of the expedition, and to the government, which 
sends it forth. ‘The officers of the various vessels, and the members of 
the s corps which — apanies them, are gentlemen of ample 
quiliioaiiona’ om ‘the arduous and honorable duties assigned to them; and 
the auspices under which the expedition is finally dispatched, are highly 
propitious. ‘The enterprise has excited a deep interest in the mind of 
the nation, and all embarked in it depart with the kindest wishes of theif 
countrymen, for their prosperity, and for their safe return, in due time, 10 
their kindred and their homes. 

We annex an account of the vessels comstihisting the squadron, with a 
list of the officers and of the gentlemen of the scientific corps. 

The Vincennes, is a first-class sloop of war, -of 650 tons, commanded 
by Charles Wilkes, Esq. Commander in Chief ofthe Expedition. A light 
spar deck has been put on this ship, which gives her the appearance and 
some of the conveniences of a small frigate. Her battery is reduced to 8 
guns, and she carries about 150 men. The Peacock, commanded by 
William L. Hudson, Esq. is a second-class sloop of war, of 600 tons, and 
of the same construction. She carries 130 men and 8 guns. The store- 
ship Relief, peacearmingot K. Long, Esq. is of 450 tons burthen, 


‘and carries 75 men and 6 guns. ‘The brig Porpoise, commanded by 


Lieut. Cadwallader Ringgold, is of 200 tons burthen, and carries 65 men 
and 4 guns. ‘The schooner Sea Gull, commanded by passed midship- 
man J. W. E. Reid, is of 110 tons, and carries 15 men. The schooner 
Flying Fish, commanded by passed ppidalpinns Samuel R. Knox, is of 
90 tons, and carries 12 men. 

The Slowing i is a list of the officers, &c. 

- VINCENNEs. —Charlés Wilkes, Esq. Commander in Chief; Thomas 
T. Craven, Ist Lieutenant ; Overton Carr, Flag do.; Robert E. Johnson, 
2d do. ; James Alden, 3d do. ; William Lewis Mukéry, 4th do. ; James 
H: North, Master ; Edward Gileheiet: Fleet Surgeon ; R. R. Waldron, 
Parser and Special Agent; J. L. Elliot, Chaplain ; John L. Fox, and 
John T. Whittier, Assistant si = cpanl George M. Totten, William Rey- 
nolds, William May, and Jose . Sanford, Passed Midshipmen ; George 
W. Clark, Midshipman ; § el Elliott, Acting Midshipman ; William 
Smith, Boaunvein: W.G. Bright, Gunner ; William M. Laighton, Car- 
penter ; S. V. Hawkins; Sail ‘Maker ; ; Benjamin Vanderford, Pilot; R. 
P. Robinson, Purser’s Clerk. 

- Scientific Corps.—Charles Pickering and J. P. Couthouy, ET He 
Joseph Drayton, Artist ;.J. Bracken nridge, - Assistant Eosmnints J. é 
Brown, Repairer of Instruments. 3 

Pzacock.—William L. Hudson, Commanding ; Sante: P. Lee, Ist 
Lieut. ; William M. Walker, 2d do. ; Geo. F..Emmons, 3d do. ; Oliver 
H.. Ber, Ath do.; Thomas A. Budd, Master ; J. Frederick Sickels, 

Surgeon ; William Speiden, Purser ; -Sidas Holmes, Assistant Surgeon ; 
James B. Lewis, Passed Midshipman; Hunn Gansevoort, do. ; Henry Eld, 
Jr. do. ; George W. Harrison; do.; Wilkes Henry, Midshipman ; Wm. 
Hq. Hadzon, do. ; Thomas G. Bell, Acting Boatswain ; John D. Ander- 
a 


son, Acting Genter ; ; James Dibble, Acting Carpenter ; 
Sail Maker ; William H. Insley, Purser’s ‘Clerk. ~ 

Scientific Corps.—James D. Dana, Mineralogist and Getiogist Titian 
R. Peale, Naturalist ; Horatio E. Hale, Philologie Francis L. Daven- 
port, Interpreter. 

Revier.—A. K. Long, Counnilinn . Robert F. Rinciets hice’: ‘ 
A. L. Case, do. ; Joseph H. Underwood, back ; James C. Palmer, Acting 
Surgeon ; George T. Sinclair, Acting Master ; Alonzo B. Davis, Passed 
Midshipman ; Thomas W. Cummings, do.; James 'L. Blair, Midshipman ; 
James B. Harrison, Captain’s Clerk. 

Scientific Corps—William Rich, Botanist ; Alfred T. Agate, Artist. 

Porroiss.—Cadwallader i Commanding; M. G. L. Clai- 
borne, Ist Lieut.; H. J. Hartsein, 2d do. ; John B. Dale, 3d do. ; 
Charles T. B. Guillon; Assistant Surgeon ; Augustus S. Baldwin, Acting 
Master ; Simon F. Blunt, Passed Midshipman; George Colvooureesi, 
do. ; aT. W. eae =" Oliver Nelson, Acting Boatswain ; Amos 

For. XXXV.—No. 1. 25 


194 Miscellanies. 


Chick, Acting Carpenter ; John Jones, Acting Sail Maker; William H. 
Morse, Purser’s Clerk. 

Scuooner Friyine Fisu. Kelton R. ee a Passed Midshireaseas ; 
George W. Hammersley, do. ; Richard Ellis, Acting Master’s Mate. 
_ Scnooner Sra Gown secgeeks W. E. Reid, Passed ae F, 
A. Bacon, Passed Midshipman ; Isaac Percival, Pilot. 


21. Annals of Natural History, or Magazine of Zoology,. Botany, a 
Geology. Conducted by Sir William Jardine, Bart., P. J. Selby, Esq., Dr. 
Johnston, Sir W. J. Hooker, Regius Prof. of Botmy, Glasgow, and Rich- 
ard Taylor, Ff. L. Si—In Vol. 32 of this Journal we noticed, among other 
new Journals, the Magazine of Zoology, Botany, and Geology, conducted 
by the three fin names in the above list; and our readers have since then 
n often reminded of it, by our frequent quotations from its pages. 
The companion to the Botanical Magazine e has also become somewhat 
familiar to us, on this side the Atlantic, while the name of its conductor 
is here, as in the whole scientific world, inseparably associated with mod- 
ern botanical science. It was with regret that we learnt, that neither of 
these valuable Journals could be sustained singly, from the want of suffi- 
cient encouragement to meet the expenses of publication. It is, there- 
fore, we presume, with a view to mutual support, as well as concentration 
of talent and effort, that their editors have seen fit to unite them under @ 
new name, and to alter the time of publication from six to twelve times 4 
year. They have, likewise, associated with themselves Richard Taylor, 
Esq. under secretary of the Linnean Society. We have not yet seen this 
new form of our former acquaintances, but there can be no doubt that it 
will sustain the same high position in its own departments, as each of the 
Journals of which it is composed did, previous to their union ; and it 
would seem strange if it should not rise above it. 

Presuming that oir readers would be glad of early information.on this 
point, we copy the contents of the first number, which was issued in 
March, from an adv ew which has reached us before the work 
itself, The price is 2s. 6d. per number. 

Contents.—I. On a new Oscillatoria, the coloring substance of Glas- 
lough Lake, Ireland... By James L. Decmmonp, M. D.—II. On the get- 
mination of Limnanthemum lacunosum. By Dr. GriseBacu. —Iil. 
Contributions to the Natural History of Ireland. By Wra11am Taome- 
son, Esq.—IV. On some new species of Quadrupeds, and Shells. By 
J. E. Gray, Esq—vV. On the Echinodermata. By L’Acasstz.—VI. 
On the Scottish Mollusca Nudibranchia. By Grorer Jonnston, M. D. 
—VII. Letters from Botanical Travellers: Mr. Cuming, Manilla; Dr- 

Schomburgh, Berbice ; Gardner, Brazil—Bibliographical notices -— 
Agassiz, Poissons @Eau douce d’Europe ; Plantes Cryptogames de France, 
‘par. Deron: = der Pilze von L. Nees von Esen- 


Miscellanies: 195 
beck und A. Henry.—Societies :—Proceedings of the Linnean Society ; 


Royal Society of Edinburgh; Entomological Society ; Botanical aes $ 
Zoological Society.—Mi: pciileaiaict: oe ‘ 


22. Analysis of Gielinite or Hydrolite ; by A. ConneELL, Esq., F R. 
S. E., &c. (Jameson’s Journal, No. 48, p. 360.)—Mr. Connell finds that 
17.67 grs. of this mineral from the County of Antrim, in Ireland, are 
composed exclusive of water of : 

ili 


Silica, - - - _ 8581 
Alumina, - Sua = 3.19 
Lime, - - = 1.084 
a, ~ . . .682 
Potash, - - - 069 a 
Oxide of iron, - - 02 
13.626 


To determine the qunatity of water, a portion of the crystals was igni- 
ted in a platinum crucible, and Shurcoal fire, when the loss of weight 
amounted to 21.66 per cent. We have thus, in 100 parts of the mineral, 


: Oxygen contained. 
Silica, = - 48.56 : Ss . 
Alumina, -— - ~ 18.05 8.430 3 
Lime, ae 6.13 1.721 
Soda, - - 3.85 984 | 
. otash, : ‘ 39 = 06 
Oxide of i iron, . mS 
—, Water, - ~ « 21.66 19.253 7 
98.75 


Tt safiictently appears, both from the satelyile of Vauquelin* and from 
that here detailed, that this mineral is nearly allied to chabasite, in a 
- chemical point of view,°as according to Mr. Haidinger,? it is crystallo- 
Braphically ; and it is not impossible that if analysis applicable to differ- 


mula for chabasite might be found to embrace gmelinite. It does not, 
however, apply to the nie —- and still less to — Vauquelin. 


¢ 

eh: Four peace, a — Montecchio Maggiore. Castel. 
Silica, - . : 50.00 ~  §0.00 

Alumina, - - 20.00-" 20.00 

Lime, - - - 4.50 4.25 

Soda, . pect GO 4.25 

Water, - - - . 21.00 21.00 

100.00 98.50 


+ Mohs’s Mineralony. fig, 195. 


present day is exclusively 


196 Miscellanies. 
The formula indicated by the above result i is, (CNK)S 3-+-3Al1S? oe ; 


view, 
than ‘Pathabeaite * and that in gmelinite, bisilicate of alumina is a 
with tersilicate of lime and alkalies; in chabasite with bisilicat 
and in levyne with silicate of these bases, as appears from the formule : 
(CNK)S3+43Al S?+7Aq. Gmelinite. 
(CNK)S?2+3Al S?-+6Aq. Chabasite. ~ 
(CNK)S +3Al S*+5Aq. Levyne. » 
Mr. Connell continues to remark, I have much less expectation that 


“the chabasite formula will ever be found to embrace levyne, because the 
proportion 


of silica and that of alumina, actually found in the latter min- 

eral, differs in a marked manner, and in opposite directions from those 

in chabasite ; while in gmelinite, the difference is much less ae 
still excluding the chabasite formula. 


23, Prof. Owen on the Fossil Animals collected by Mr. ¢ Cassius Dar: 
win, (from the Zoology of the voyage of H. M. 8. Beagle during the 
years 1832 to 1836. Part first. Fossil Mammalia.) —“ It is remarkable 
that all the fossils collected by Mr. Darwin belong to herbivorous species 
of mammalia, generally of a large size: The greater part are referable 
to the order which Cuvier has called Edentata, and belong to that subdi- 
vision of the order (Dasypodide) which is terized by having perfect 
and sometimes complex molar teeth, and an external osseous and tessu- 
_ lated coat of mail. The megatherium i is the giant of this tribe, which at the 
tec ei — American species, the lar- 
; Gigas, Cuv;) not not ex size of a hog. -'The hiatus 
between the living species and the smeganereme is filled up by a series-of 
armadillo-like animals, indicated more or less satisfactorily by Mr. Dar- 
win’s fossils, some of which species were as large as an ox, others about 
the size of the American Tapir. The rest of the coligction belongs, 
with the exception of some small Rodents, to the extensive and h 
neous order Pachydermata; it includes the remains of a mastodon, of a 
horse, and of two large and singular aberrant forms, one of which con- 
nects the Pachydermatous with the Ruminant order; the other; wit 
which the descriptions in - ee pages commence, manifests a close 
affinity to the Rodent ord 

The first fossil animal aa by Prolessar Owen is named Toz0- 
an Platensis, which he describes as a gigantic extinct mammiferous — 
animal, referable to the order Pachydermata, but with affinities to the 


* Lond. and Edinb. Phil. pee SE 


ee | 


Miscellanies. 197 
Rodentia, Edentata, and herbivorous comer. From the dimensions of 


scribed is named. Macrauchenia Pal Ww 
quadruped, referable to the order Pashyéerioste ‘but with affinities to the 


_Ruminantia, and especially to the Camelidew. This is a very beautiful 


piece of investigation, and proves the singular address and skill of our 


author »—for, furnished only with a few bones of the trunk and extremi- 


ties, without a fragment of tooth or of gy ter to serve as a guide to the 
animal’s position in the zoological scale, he has been able to refer it to 
its place in the system — Edinb. New Phil. Jour. for April, sarees 


24. Povemtation of. the Wollaston Medal.—TheWollaston M a a? 
the last year has been presented to Prof. Richard Owen by the Geolo- 
gical Society of London, on which occasion the President, Me. Whewell, 
expresed watt in the following terms : 

“Mr. Owen,—I have peculiar pleasure in presenting you with this 


medal, Sreuied to you by this Society, for your services to fossil zoology 


ie. general, and in particular for the description of the fossil a 
collected by Mr. Darwin. I trust it will bea 

his our testimony of the success .with which you have Wetted cs re 
great science of comparative ‘zoology, to which you have devoted your 
powers. I trust it will add to your satisfaction, to consider, that the sub- 
ject. which we more peculiarly wish to mark on this occasion,—the study 
of fossil zoology, is one to which the resources of your science were ap- 
plied, while the subject was yet new, by that great man, John Hunter, 
whose museum and whose reputation are so worthily assigned to your 
care, I trust also that this medal, thus awarded to you, at the outset, if 
I may so say, of an enlarged series of investigations, will convey to you 
the assurance, that in your progress in such researches, you carry with 
you our strong interest in your endeavors, and our high esteem of your 
powers and your objects; and will convince you, that in all your suc- 
cesses, you may reckon upon our most cordial sympathy in the pleasure 
Which your discoveries ae "Ed. New Phil. Jour. April, 1838. 


25. On the opi of Motion in 1 Railway Cars which is consistent 
with safety —Mr. Sang, F. R. 8. E. &c. &c. of Edinburgh, in a late 
number of Jameson’s Journal gives as the results of his observations on 
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, that a speed much greater than 
the present twenty five miles per hour, may be used with safety. The. 
question is, whether with a velocity of three or four times the usual rates, 
the engineer can preserve perfect command of the powerful Iscomhotives 

. Mr. Sang remarks, that “with the velocity of twenty five 
miles an hour, even when exposed to the current of air, there was not 


198 Miscellanies. 


the slightest approach to any feeling that would lead me to suppose that 
four or five times the _ Velocity would disable the engineer from direc 

and managing the train. Such was the result of my own observations, 

and it was — borne = by the experience of the men. I may cite two 

instances o! urrence. When the train arrives at the foot of 

; of one of | 6 inc inclines, the banking engine follows to assist it up. Now 

_ one would be apt to imagine, that for the purpose of attaching the new 


engine, the train would stop, or that if it did not, there would be a con+ € 


cussion when the banking engine comes in contact. So completely how- 
ever are these powerful engines under the control of their directors, and 
so well are they managed, that a passenger in the train who is not aware 
of what is going on from ocular perception, is altogether unconscious of 
any change. I frequently watched this operation, but on no occasion 
could T perceive the slightest shock, even when situated only one or two 
es from the end of the train 
Jn one occasion the banking engine had got before us on the incline ; 
0k king of it on in such a situation was a much severer't test we ae 


we : o fally | twenty five smile an hour. The banking engine 

aioe ekched its rate and allowed the train to gain upon it, until 
it could be hooked on,—that done, more steam was given and we pro- 
ceeded d with its assistance, yet not the slightest shock was felt in the train. 


Twenty fi five miles an hour is 
ry 1 rand again I saw bees not merely keep pace with 
7 d across the coach, and that not by help of any current 
air which Sr might be supposed generated, but : at several feet distance from 

the train. ~ imens of la grandis kept up with 
us over half a mile; while ‘the smaller birds, such as the linnet, were una- 
ble to cope with the steam. One I almost caught, which while flying 

with all its might, remained opposite to the window for a few seconds. If 

a rail road be regarded only as a means of communication between two 
distant towns, I should have no hesitation in saying that a rate even of 

_ one hundred miles per hour could be maintained with perfect safety to 
the passengers ; but it is different if passengers have to be let out at sta- 
tions along the line, for then the trouble and expense of stopping the trains. 
comes to be considered, An average of about three minutes is consumed 
by hyd de including the gaboning and regaining of spect before and 


the power of managing the apparatus is 
= made a :. ha g 


"WR. Ou the Gases contained. in the Blood, etd on. Respiration; = 


My G. Macnvs.—M, sed ne remarks —_ t remains a question whether oA 


of a part of the 


ye. | 


* 


Miscellanies. 


carboti in the blood by the action of the it oF ates 6 venous blood, 
when it reaches the organs of respiration, cor carbonic —-= ready 


prive the gas of any carbonic acid which it bi dight contsinl when it 
gave no precipitate with lime water he passed it into the blood ofa Ayer 
man ; the gas afterwards made to go through lime water gave a plentiful 
» precipitate of carbonate of lime. Azotic gas similarly employed produced 
_ alike effect; and M. Magnus concludes, from these experiments, that 
carbonic acid exists ready formed in the blood, and consequently that it 
is not formed in the lungs. Carbonic acid was also separated from blood 
¥ by means of the air-pump. 
| By using Liebig’s apparatus M. Magnus found that blood coutainel 
about one fifth of its volume of carbonic acid gas, and when it had been 
kept twenty four hours, without emitting any bad smell, the quantity was 
larger. The results were confirmed ca employing atmospheric air wa 
_ stead of hydrogen gas. me. a 
M. Magnus then ascertained nas nature and proportions of all ‘the 
gaseous contents of the blood. He found = one | d volumes. 
the arterial blood of a horse yielded 


eas eee 


= Pa 


Carbonic acid gas, - ~ . 
Oxygen, ise se 
Azote, Be 1 - . ox ete 


= Total, 7.84 7.84 vols, 
The venous blood of the same horse, drawn four. Mays afterwards, gave 
Carbonic acid gas, - 4.29. 7. iat 
» >) .q, Oxygen, - - . : ome 
Azote, 


is 
why 


* animals, amount (0. about one eighth or one tenth of the quantity em- F 
- ployed. He admits however that the experiments are not absolutely pre- 
2 cise, because they were not all continued the same length of time, &c. 
But he observes, that as the proportions between the oxygen and carbonic 
acid are invariably the same, these results may be regarded as satisfactory. 
~~ With regard to the theory of respiration, all experimentalists agree as 
the carbonic acid expired and of 


_ 


” Miscellanies. 

devine, merely in the formation of carbonic acid in the win there 

are chemists whose results show that more oxygen is inspired than car- 

bonic acid expired.’ Messrs. Allen and Pepys observed that. this was 

constantly the case when the same air was repeatedly respired. 

Magnus adds, that this fact, so inexplicable by other theories, | i ul 
e conseq uence of the hypothesis founded on the law, that 


plicable as the preceding, namely, that by the respiration of oxygen, or 
by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, azotic gas is constantly expired, 
the volume of which is proportional to the bulk te gree seep 
that it cannot at all be attributed to the air. 

It now remains to be shown that the carbonic acid exinitie® from the 
blood is in sufficient quantity to account for the whole of that which the 
lungs expire. The results obtained on this subject are discordant ; those 
of Messrs. Allen and Pepys evidently exceed what they should be ; for 
Berzelius has shown, that if correct, it would require six pounds and a 
quarter of solid <ditiaheneit in twenty four hours to produce the quantity 
of ce consumed. 

Taking, then the results obtained by Davy as a mean of those of La- 
voisier, while en and Pepys, although perhaps a little too high, we shall 
have thirteen cubic inches as the quantity of carbonic acid gas expired 
we a man, If it be further admitted, that at each pulsation of the heart 

an ounce of blood arrives at the Ings, seventy five pulsations in a minute 
— convey five pounds of blood in the same time. This is the min- 
“ ‘which can be admitted; for it is very probable that five 
oss of blood pass through these organs every minute: these five 
unds produce dhiiticn cubic-imches.~ It has-been already mentioned 

sat the blood contains at least one fifth of its volume of carbonic acid ; 
and as a pound is equal to twenty five cubic inches, each pound of blood 
would contain at least five cubic inches of carbonic acid. It will be ob- 
served that no circumstance opposes the proposed theory, henc ex- 
periments prove, that the quantity of carbonic acid contained 
blood, is more than sufficient to furtrish the quantity — 
: Fea , Nov. we —Lond. anc 


ole saison parts — it conses in Cont aot 
othe gas. : ee 
‘Angie's circumstance adie by Moons Alin and Pepysis as inex” 


Hy 


fw 


Kol Genival lemmabions 
fiat ta end 
od it 7. $ tsrmudes duel’ 


ohiyb Asnons 
yO Urehis i cei t 
fofeet arellns 


Tie 


a em ¢. ed. Gelaly “44 A Lip 
he Fars and uneoiled ere 
“ ‘ Ps a — ret the # rari 
§ , S Bcd of wease ecmnecled | 
free ducl, * 
he j “Whe 


Ayn, , Gocenee, : 
ae Make %, 


essil sh nificsoria Ve, frond ot” West Gord HY. | 
) ik 3 


not fr SE tts te 


| 1 222 (225618 9th de 3 
Yo in Otel sash ot Vat Bot : 
ia ea sBeccews body, un crys Callaniasmn : 


Te vf er gees : 


“ad - 


THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c.—AGENTS. 
3 jROCHESTER, Hoyt, —— & Co. * 


mane i iis See _0.G . Stee e & Co. 
Colman, _ Hien, & Co.) PENNSYLV Sete 
HONT. iPITTSBURGH, John J. Kay & Co 
Go G. H. Peck. 2 igen ah sie 
Ea oven, § PE, Olver P ie: DISTRI CT OF COLUMBIA. 
“Dart. Coll Haxoves, } Ha NOR] bg # Att: 
; 2 NORTH CA 
N. eee Chatee Whipnl le. ‘CuapeL-Hits, Prof. F. Mitchell. 
eNaxrvexer, ‘Dr. Nels Isham | SOUTH CAROLINA. 
ie or Whipple. ‘Co.uusia, B. D. Plan 
i aw ? Paspos, Wiad C. Taber. CHARLESTON, RINE oe 
Sprinerietp, G. & C. Merriam. VIR 


Picumeney, R. 1. Smith & Ca. 


NorTHAMPTO ee ae & — ns. [WueeLre, y tetas 5x) Soe 


AMHERST, 


ORFOLE, Richard Wor thington. 
 WORCEGENEs {ee eo a LLINO 
. i Lowstt, < D: Bixb —- }Pgorza, Sil*s W. Robbins. 
. | D JSLAND_ ee foie wee 
i Te ranges CorumsEus, IN. Whiting. 
‘ce, B. acoso & oe GEORGIA. 
nae CONNECTICU SAVANNAH, Wm. T. Williams. 
} Hae —— - Canfield & ‘Robins !AueusTA, Phe f Wrav. 
| Norw Thomas Robins i\CoLUMBUs, J. C. Plant & Co 
if Munbrstows, Lake . Lyman | ENNESSEE 
NEW YORK, al ULE; Wim. A. Eichbaum 
Re, A. T. Goodrich | MempuHrs, Fowlkes & Pugh. 
West Point, John DeWitt. i ALABAMA, — 
Newstrex, H.-P. Benham \Wunwrsvinxie, Irby & Sm i 
4 Ww Little. || Monrux, Woodruff, oe "& MeGuire: : 
4% Elias Gaies i MISSISSI = 
Ix D. D. Spe iGraxp GuLrF, Wnt : Smyth. 
Cananpateva, Morse & Harvey. CANADA. 
AUBURN. L. Briggs. Samuel Neilson. 


= / NQuepec 
LirrLe e Paxus, edward M. oe Mowrnzan, _ Armour & ee 


cs nonmmcecgeanmaesapiesttih SNSiseeet Ace P ACC: mee ein roe 


TERMS. 
Eda — per annum; published in four Guarterty pee making two vile 

mes a year, of from eight to nine hundred pages for both —— which are fully 
tihestrater a plates : 

i >Terms of credit to Saat —* , Six months from ee publication of No. 1, of 
each tolume, 

The Editor will draw on the aeesh: semi-annually, i. e. on the publication of 
WVo. 2 of each Vol., payable, April 1, and October 1, in al cases, where payment | 
is not otherwise provided ed: 

Co a _ now 33 vols., are furnished at a suitable diseoun 
Phe expense of this Journal being greater, and the patronage set than tha of the 
ial jonas the price is necessarily one dollar more per annum. : 


eons Semeenaneer oo 


—Q—— . 
S 06 CORRESPON DENTS. 

“This work is most safely and expeditiously transmitted to distant subscribers by. 
‘mail. This oe contains 12 sheets; postage, under 100 gel IS cents, over 100 | 
i miles, 30 cen se 
ech = sf euadadicdiece and of their anthers, te be fall y give : S 
copies are desired, the notice should be — at bes hid of the < MS 

be sent of discontinuance, removals and ths of subseribers.. 
inscribed with any a ioe corrections. 
are necessarily defe ferred. 


ce f e a2: 
sass ee 


ia ab i ag A NO "ae ama aiden ao tne ari Bunce ie 
‘ . 
€ 
ven 


Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. 
HART and J 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


sore welts reins 
ete ae pees et teat 


CONDUCTED BY 
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. 


. Soc. See, Man, and Com. ; and F or. now Geol 


Prof. guess Min,, &c. in Yale © ante ope Mer 


AIDED BY 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. 


Assistant in end department of Chemistry, Minera logy and Geology in Vale College; Sec. of the 
t. Hist. Soc., Mem. of the Conn. Acad. of Arts an Cor. Mem. of the 
Lye eum of Nites History, New Xa dec. 


VOL. XXXV.—No. 2.—JANUARY, 1839. 
FOR OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, AND DECEMBER, 1538- 
PUBLISHED AT NEW HAVEN ON 12th rhe 1239. 


NEW HAVEN: 


ge ener CAREY & 
KMAN. 


LYFTELL.— Baltimore, Md., 
oadway, aia . : SILLIMAN, No. 44 


G. & C. can & No. —_ y 
ee — Boston, C _ LITTLE I , SAME! Rae s.. 


ol 2 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS 
AND STRANGERS. 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- 
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where 
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it 
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books and 

hich are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- 
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often 
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or 
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, 
would usually find both acceptance and insertion. 

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns ; to 
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading 
the unintermitting pressure of labor,.and the numerous calls of our 
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, 
with which they presume us to be acquainted. 

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may 
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- 
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It 
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an 
answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made 
dn these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.— 
Eds. 


SCIENCE. 
Foreign. 


Ue on the Mineralogy and Geology of Nova Scotia, by 
Abraham Gesner, Surgeon, Halifax, 1836. From Neville Parker, 
Esq. 


Prancastort of the Literary sy Historical Society of Quebec, 
Vol. ILI, Part IV. From the Society. 

Address of the Duke of Sctssex, before the Royal ae Lon- 
don, Noy. 30, 1837. From Wm. Vaughan, Esq., London 

Researches on Heat, by Prof. J. D. Forbes, Edinburth. Third 
ean — the Author. Forwarded by the kindness of Mr. 


The seth Bridgewater Treatise, by Chas. Babbage, Esq. Sec- 
ond edition. London, J. Murray, Albermarle st., 1838. From the 
Author ’ 


1 


2 


Icones Plantarum: figures and descriptions of new or rare plants, 
by Sir William Jackson Hooker, K.H. London, 1838. From the 
Author. Part IV. 

- Kongl. Regen 5 eg. Saki Handlingar For a 1836. Stock- 
holm, 1838. From Jac. Berzeli us, K. V. A. Secr 

Arsberattelse om “po aes i Fysik och Kemi, Mar. 1836, af 
Jac" hee Stockholm, 1836. From the Auth 

m.Technologien, 1836, af G. E. Pasch.. Stockholm, 
1836. From Prof. Berzelius 
m Zoologiska Arbeten, 31 Mart. 1835 och 1836, af B. 
Fr. Fries. Sob EnOIEE: 1837. Prof. Berzelius. 
—— om Botaniska Arbeten och upptackter. For Ar 1835, 
af Joh. Em, Wikstrém. Stockholm, 1837. Prof. Berzelius. 
— om Hydraulikens, af P. Lagerhjelm. Stockholm, 1837. 
Prof. Wherceli ius. 
Arsberittelse i Astronomien af S. A. Constrand. Den 31 Mart. 


Elements of Geology, by =— Lyell, Esq., F. R.S. Lon- | 


don, 1888. From the Aut 
The Fifth rishi — of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic So- 
ciety, 1837. Falmouth. From the Society. 
The Logs of the first voyage of the ery behing Steam Ship. 
Bristol, 1838. Two copies. From 
Phillips’ Introduction to Mineralogy, ne Bobert Alla Fourth 
ition. London, 1837. 


Domestic. 

Holbrook’s North American Herpetology. Two vols. quarto— 

lates. Dohven, Philadelphia, 

__ Treatise on Gems, by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger. New York, 
1338. Fics the Author. 

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. VI, 

new series. Phila. 1838. Kay & Brother. From the Society. 

he same, from Isaac Lea, Esq., containing his observations on 
the Genus Unio, = descriptions of new genera and species in the 
family Naiades, 

Report on the Gebnna s Creek Coal and Iron Company’s lands, 
with a description and eee of part of the Cumberland Coal 
Basin, 1836. From the Author 

Olmsted’s Natural Philosophy, Qd err enlarged. 2- vols. 
8vo., New Haven, 1888. From the Author 

American ae Vol. X, Boston, 1939. From J. E. Worces- 
ter, Esq., E 

Analysis = “~ Mineral Waters of Avon, N. Y., 1838, several 
copies. From Dr. Sal lisbury. 

On the influence of Caloric on the living Animal Body, by Robert 
Peter, M.D. From the Author. 


3 


Report of the Chisistiet on Nava] Affairs, on the Project of Dr. 
H. H. Sherwood, for determining Latitude and Longitude by the 
Me ea and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. From Hon. N. P. 

allmadge—another from Hon. J. Davis. 

The Cultivator, for i888. From Hon. Judge Buel, Editor. 

The Annual Report of the Water Commissioners, New York, 
1838. From Mr. Redfield, 

Catalogue of Plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukie, Wiscon- 
sin. From J. A. Lapham, Author 

Faith ets life of Science—an Address before the ®. B. K. of Un- 
ion College, by Taylor Lewis, Albany. From the Society. © 

ransactions of the American Philosophical Society, Phila. His- 
torical and Literary, Vol. VII, Du Ponceau on Chinese Writing. 
From the Author. 

Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid, by and from J. 
K. Mitchell, } 

Report of Prof. Shepard on the Missouri Iron Mountains. Au- 


hor 

First and Second Reports of the progress of the Geological Sur- 
vey of the State of Virginia for the years 1836-7, by Prof. Wm. B. 

ogers. From the Author. 

Report on the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, 
second edition, by Pro f. Henry D. Rogers. From the Author. 
Philad. 1836. 

Catalogue of Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus for sale by 
Joseph Wightman, 33 Cornhill, Boston. From Mr. J. Wightman. 

Mr. Pickering’ s Eulogy on Dr. Bowditch. Two 3d one for 
the Seo Academy. From Mr. Pickering. Boston, 1838. 

lorida. From Col. Whiting, Detroit. 

bach aitions on the Le Motte Mines and Domaine in Missouri. 
Melos es 1838. From Forrest Shepherd. 

al of Conchology, by Thos. Wyatt, M. A.—Many plates. 
Philad. “1838. From the Author. 
eo aoerty of the ans Unionidae, or Naiades of Lamarck, by 
N 0, 11, two copies in exchange. From Mr, 
Dobe meeetater 

. The Science of Geology, from the Glasgow Treatises, with addi- 
‘sone First American edition. New Haven, 1838. B.& W. 
Noyes. 3 copies, (two from the publishers, one from W. C. R.) 

Prof, Shepard’s Address before the Horticultural Society in New 
Haven. From the Author. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
Foreign. 


Annual Report of a eae Education Society, Canton, China, 
1838. From Dr. Par 


A 


Seventh Quarterly Report of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, 
by Rev. P. Parker, M. D. From the Author 
Medical Missionar ‘Society i in ae From Dr. Parker 
Labora Sree London From William Vaughan, Esq. 
stituti nd By Laws aft i dwich Island Institute, 1838. 


Re rt of the Canada Sunday School Union. 


Domestic. 


- Catalogue of Oficets and Students of Wabash College. 
Harvard Univer., 1838-9. 
S:F. Plimpt 


Clislosve “of the Collegiate Department of the University of 
Pennsylvania, Philad. Prof. Parkes 

Catalogue of Columbia College, New York, from 1758 to 1836. 
Prof. Renwick 


Catalogue of Dartmouth College for 1888-9. Hanover, N. H. 


r. Lord. 
Catalogue of New Hampshire Medical Institution, Dart. Coll., for 
838. Prof. Hu 


Catalogue of the heological Depriment 3 in Yale College, 1838. 
44 — Reserve College for 1838-9. From 


ae a TGicites of the Medical College of Louisiana of 183 


Annua SS sn hae of Jefferson Medical College, Philadel 
oS “9. » Fee 


Home Mission Society. Toth Annual Report. From the Soc. 
_ American Bible Society. 22d Annual Report. 
Letter to the Willard Rpocation of Tagg N. ¥Y., by and from 

Mrs. Willard. 

Report of the Executive Committee of the American Tempe- 
rance Union, 1838, Philad. From Rev. J. Marsh. 

Refutation’of Charges made by Dr. Caldwell against Prof. J. C. 

ross. From the Author. 

Twenty second Report of the Directors of the Deaf and Dumb 
Asylum at Hartford, Conn. 1838. me 


=. 


A ee 


© ese 


5 


Message from the Governor to the General a of —* 
vania. Harrisburg, en From Gov. Rita : 

Sachem’s Wood, a poem, by JA A. Hillbouse. Author. 

Thos. Williams’ ‘Contehiadl Sermon, preached 1836. From Mr. 
Williams. 

Christian Examiner and General Review, No. 87, Saly, 1838, 
containing a notice of Geological Surveys. 

Medical Education, and Address before the Medical Society of 
Tennessee, by Dr. Yandell. From the Author. 

Report of the First American Fair at Cincitnstl Ohio, with an 
Address by E. D. Mansfield. From Mr. Mansfield. 

Internal Improvements in the State of N. York, by H. O'Reilly. 

An Address before the Cuverian Society of Wesleyan University, 
aldol Conn., by Prof. William H. Allen. From the Author. 

Report of F. R. Ha ssler, Superintendent of the fabrication of 
Seantara: Weights and Measures. Senate, No. 500. Two copies, 
aaa Mr. Hassler. 

ort of F. R. Hassler, oe crintendent poo Sova Coast —s 

Sahat NO. 79. — Mr. "2 copies. we 


SPECIMENS. 


A box of Peat Earth. From Rev Linsle), Seratford 
eo small box of African Shells. hom Dr. Bienges 0 of ‘Middle: 


wk box of eae casts of Ornithichnites, and Peat. From Prolef 
Hitchcock, Amherst, Mass. 
A mass ‘of Mineral Tar, from the bitumen sigs Trinidad, From 
Dr. Van Buren, Trinidad, by the hands of os 
Botanical and other ht illustrative of the Natural et 
of Florida. From Col. Whiti a ty ae 
A box of fresh water Shells, for the Yale Natu: ' 
From Mrs. L. W New York. ve : 


WiWetivins. 
Domestic. 


Daily Buffalo oe No. 770. Contains Mr. J. S. Bucking- 


ham’s verses on Niag 
ew k Sad Tuy 13th, 1838. “ Antiquities unearthed.” 
C. J. Lynde. 
“The Country Advertiser. Petersburg, Va. Several Nos. 
Elizabethtown Republican. Jan. 2 : 
Connecticut Common School Rcdiat Nos. 1 to 6. H. Bar- 
rd. 


nard, Esq. 


6 
Louisville Gazette. Eight Nos.; containing geological notices 
by J. W. 


New York Common School Annual. 

Daily Chronicle. Augusta, Ga. No. 170. J. H. Plant. 

- New York Transcript. Vol. 7. No. 111. Mr. Holebrook’s sys- 
tem of education. 

Several papers on the affairs of the New York University. From 
G. S. Silliman, Esq. 

Albany Daily Advertiser. July 4th, 1838. Lines on 4thof July. 
From J. S. Buckingham, Esq. Eng 

Boston Patriot. August 25th, 1898. Eclipse of the sun. 

Troy Daily Morning Mail. 319. 

Genesee Farmer. Rochester, N. Y. No. 41, Vol. 8. W.- 


ne es Mercantile Journal. Vol. 6, No. 28. N. Capen 

Buffalo Conimercial Advertiser. Aug. Ist. 1831. Contains @ 
notice of this Journa].—Also Daily Journal, with notice of aurora 
of 13th of Sept. and following nights. 

Buffalo Patriot and Commercial Acer ache Nov. 28, 1838. 
With notice of a. Journal. Vol. 35, 

Do. do. ‘din Dec. 15. With a notice 
of diJuvial strsichok 

e same, of Dec. 24th. With extracts of proceeding of the 
French Academ 

The same, of whe. 27th. With do. do. The above 
five all from Mr. R. W. Haskins. 

Harrisburg Chronicle, of Dec. 5th, 1838. No. 55. Do. No. 
59. The Keystone, of Dec. ee Pennsylvania Telegraph, pxiry 
Dec. 6: all from Mr. N. Ellmaker ; containing accounts of the re 

eedings at Harrisburg, with the proclamation of the gover- 
nor of Pennsylvania. 
e Temperance Herald. Providence. Dec. 6th, 1838. 

Mississippi Free Trader, of Nov. 22d, 1838. Containing a let- 
ter on the Sada of Jussieua grandiflora, by and from Dr. Cart- 
wright of Natc 

Phil. Metnhex — Ris, ak 1 Notice of working 

_ jron by anthracite coal. From J. W. Robin 
“i salle Register, with Dr. “Amsvonss 5 Agricultural Address. 
Christian Statesman. Washi ington. I 
of the American Colonization Society. From R. Gurley 
Daily Courant. Hartford. Dec. 18th, 1838. Modes of Mr. J 
A. A. Hlhowse lecture. From Mr. H. Barnard. f 
Boston Independent Chronicle and Patriot. Jan. 5th, 1839. 


wo height of barometer. 31,'; inches on Tuesday, Jan. 
st, 


Ist, 1838. Meeting 


7 


Foreign. 


London Atheneum. Nos. 565-6-7-8. British Association of 
ie 1838. Received from Rev. Samuel Wood, Canterbury. 
ngland. 


Montreal Morning Courier. Nov. 6th, 1838. 


ada. 
London Morning Advertiser. Oct. 3d, 1838. 
Mr. Richardson’s geological lectures at Brighton. 


ardson 


The Ta Circular. Nos. 26 and 27. 


Wiley & Put 
New oe: ri sale by Wiley & Putnam. 


Account of Lord 


With a notice of 
From Mr. Rich- 


London. From 


AMERICAN INSTITUTION FOR THE CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE. 


The following Circular was received too late for insertion in the body of our 
nt number,—we accordingly, that no time may be lost, take this method of 
placing it before our readers : 


Boston, Novemser 1, 1838. - 


In consequence of communications between members of the AmErtcan Puiro- 
sopHicaL Society, in Philadelphia, and gentlemen in Boston, a meeting was held 
in the latter place, of gentlemen belonging to Boston, Salem, and the University 
at Cambridge, at which the proceedings were as follows : 

His excellency, Governor Everett, was requested to take the chair. 

Hon. Francis C. Gray was chosen coe, : 

The Chairman stated the objects of the meeting. 

Dr. W: offered and explained the ‘hiss following resolutions, which were 
_ eloquently supported by the Hon. Judge Story and other gentlemen, and unani- 

mously adopted. 

‘1. Resolved, That it is expedient to form an Institution to be called the AmErR- 


ee Ma other scientific Beceem and to advance the: sbfeet of this meet- 
ing mire means in their power. 


Committee. 
Dr. Warren, Hon. F.C. G 
Gov. Everetrr DaniEL Shanasics Esq., 
Hon. JupeeE Story, Dr. Hae 


Joun Pickerine, Esa. 


An account of the proceedings at this ‘meeting is transmitted to you, eo = 

‘e = obtaining y , that of seg scientific friends, and 
lee neesoiatious with which you & are connected, i 

By order of the Contaniéel 

JOHN 


- this Shject 


‘ARREN, haiens 


a. 
wai a AMERICAN as 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE » &e, 


ee pe = eg See ret - os ieee Se es ee " 
ite —i_lh a e ae i ane at Sag Piet 


i {~* mee : "a 3 ane 

Arr. 1—On the Courses of Hurricanes ; with notices of the 

 Tyfoons of the China Sea, and other Storms ; by W.-C. 

’  Reprieip, Memb. of Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Corr. 
‘Memb. of U. S. Naval Lyceum, the Albany Institute, &c. 

i Seti for the London Nautical Magazine. ] : ; 

re a corm neeeaee published in‘ the. ape Magazine for 
April, 1836, I attempted to correct some errers which had 

obtained currency in nautical books, solitini to the supposed 

erratic character and progress of the hurricanes of the Atlantic. 

corrections Were* accompanied by a summary statement of 

the results which my inquiries 0 on this subject had aipeared to es- 


operation of a general law, controlling the action and ieee ok 
these violent storms. . The incipient essay now referred to, was 
illustrated by a chart containing delineations of the routes of two 
of these storms. = To my communication i in the a ata aoe: 


1s 191—193; Blunt’s Am t, 12th eiitbn, July, 333, p- 62 529 
man’s Journal, Vol. XXV, p- cris, Vol. XXVIII, p. 310—318, XX XI 
130; ora 50—65 & 261--265; Jour. Franklin Inst. Vol. XIX 


Pp. 3; Am. Posat Pilot 13th edit. ; Jameson’s Edinb. Jour. Feb —Apri 1838, © 
The» writer had never contemplated the —— of any. of the observa- 
tions which = he puree meaity been led to make upon storms, till within a 
few ee of th h earliest of the Se i apers was sent to the press; 
Eocene? by the suggestions of .. friend Prof f. Olmsted, to attempt a 
Vou. XXXV.- —No. 2. * 


202 On. the Courses of Hurricanes. 


which had been remarkable for their violence, and which were 
selected as illustrations of the general course and whirlwind char- 


acter of many other storms, ae to which — information — 


had-been obtained. 

The favorable attention with which fies’ statements have gen- 
erally been received, together with the spirit and professional zeal 
with which the subject has been discussed in the pages of the 

autical Magazine, have seemed to invite a more detailed exhibi- 


tion of the numerous facts which have claimed attention in the. 


progress of my inquiries. Being informed, however, that Lieut. 
Col. Reid, of the Royal Engineers, had engaged in the investiga- 
tion, with the design of publishing a more full exhibition of the 
facts than had yet been offered, I most willingly awaited the 


issue ; being fully persuaded, that whatever doubts or difficul- - 


ties Adiehit. remain with those who had not thoroughly exam- 
ined the subject, would not fail to be dispelled by his enterprising 
and- judicious labors. The highly valuable work of Col. Reid, 
on the law of storms, is now before me; and I cannot-but express 
my commendation of the talent and research by which he has so 
ably and satisfactorily exhibited the true natural system of humi- 
‘canes, and my acknowledgments, also; for the honorable and very 


: saeSoting manner in which he has noticed my previous labors-’ — 


The mass of evidence and the numerous illustrations exhibited 
by Col. Reid, have happily left but little for me to attempt on the 
0c 


few of the topicswhich your anonymous corres 


your pages’: and whom, as the subject has now become more gen- 
erally interesting, your readers will hope to meet under his © own 
proper signature. e 
This writer appears, at an earlier period, to icon assumed the 
hypothesis. that the hurricanes of the inter-tropical latitudes origi- 
nate in the variables or calm latitudes, which border upon the 
exterior limit of the trade winds. But in the reports of Lieut. 
of H. M. Steam Packet Spey, and in other aca ge 


ent of his observations ; and it is owing chiefly; perhaps, to this cause, that 
several redundanci ies, and some suggestions on collateral points, require to be ex- 


2 
3 
aa | 
8 
= 
e 
S 
it 
-8 
a) 
5 
7 < 
tt 
mn 
& 
on 
5 


1831, but seed not be a applies to the conclusions or opinions which have 


: vaneed in he subsequent papers 


casion; and I proceed, Mr. Editor, to notice in a brief — 


signature of “Stormy Jack,” -has discussed in. 


= 
wh 


On the Courses of Hurricanes. 203 


he thinks he finds evidence of a northerly or variable course, in 
the Barbadoes hurricane of 26th July, 1837; and also of a varia- 
ble or northeastern course, in-the Antigua hurriganoiof August 2d, 
1837 ; or at least of a lateral movement or oscillation,.in the course 
ofchess hurricanes.* He also suggests that hurricanes may alter- 
nately dilate-and contract during their course 

The inquiries of Col. Reid, aided by his excellent charts and 
delineations; appear to have done much towards settling these 
questions, so far at Jeast as rélates to the particular storms referred 
to by your correspondent ; and it may be observed, that iri tracing 
the course or track of a storm, we must be governed by its regular 
geographical. developments or progress, rather than by any induc- 
tions from the directions and changes of the wind at a given place, 
grounded on the known whirlwind character of these storms. It 
is true that these imductions, if carefully made, will commonly 


harmonize, with wonderftil accuracy, with the actual course or 


path of the stornt ; but there are various sources of error, which 
may at times prihedil. us in our deductions, when made ftom a lim- 


- ited number of observations ; some of which eo be curso- 


rily noticed, - 

A. The reported Ghger tations are not always correct as to the 
point of compass from which the wind blows, and the changes ) 
which it exhibits, during the storm. This is not unfrequently the 
case with the reports of unpractised observers; or with observa- 
tions made in-the gloom of night; or in the tumultuous crisis of 
the hurricane, when the whole energies of the seaman are directed 
to-his more inimediate duties, and the preservation of his ship; 
and when in the darkness. and kotenpil of the storm, the swinging 


of the ship thav. sameti ken and reported for the irreg- 


ular veering of the wind. © Verbal or typographical errors, will also 
in the reports which are under conside- 
ition * and in some localities, an important difference between 
the magnetic and the true eo of direction, is ‘frequently con- 
founded, or unnoticed. 
~2. The inductions in andetinit are isttlly made on the theory 
of an ‘exact circle in the course of the winds, which: in large 
storms, and for practical purposes, is, in most cases, sufficiently 
accurate. But it sometimes frais that the higher portions of 
_ the storm, overrun be inferior rseak ‘and reach the surface in 


** See Nautical Magazine for cig. 1838, pp. 35—40. 


204 On the Courses of Hurricanes. 


advance of the main storm ; ro presenting the wind, for a few 
hours, in a direction not nomiacheia’ with that exhibited by the 
main body of the storm. It may also be added, that in. the 
most violent of these storms, it is at least probable, if not cer- 
tain, that the course of the surface wind is. spirally inward, ap- 
proximating gradually towards the center of the storm. ~ - 

3. At stations within the tropics, the changes of wind. during 
the passage of the hurricane, are sometimes known to exceed 
those which pertain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind; 
these changes sometimes running through the entire circuit of 
the compass, and even more. . Again, they have been known 
to shift back and forward, in alternate and fitful changes, when 
near the crisis of the storm. These phenomena, so far from dis- 
proving the rotative character of these gales, only prove some- 
thing more, and afford at least probable evidence, in support of 
one or both of the following positions, viz. 1. That, high land, 
and other obstructions, often produce sudden and fitful gusts and 
changes in these violent winds. 2. That, in accordance with 
our observations of minor vortices, the axis of rotation is often 
impelled, excentrically, around a smaller circuit, in the interior 
of the advancing storm. 

A. In the northern intertropical latitudes, the recession orde- 
parture of the southeastern limb of the storm, appears to be. fol- 


- lowed, not unfrequently, by strong squalls or gusts from south: — 


east, this being the true course of the general trade wind that 
nines the track of the storm. .'These gusts or squalls,.if 
taken for the regular action of the hurricane, may occasion erro- 
neous deductions in regard to the course of the storm. 
5. In the latitudes near the exterior limits of the trade winds, 
the.change which here occurs in the course of the storm,: pro 
gees apparent irregularities or anomalies in the series of changes 


| extent in my estimate of the path of the first August hurri- 
ane of 1830, as delineated on my first published chart, with an 
irregular deflection of the curve on the coast of South Carolina, 
which was predicated, in part, on the wind setting in at northeast 
at Charleston, and veering to.southeast as the storm became more 
severe. 

6. At stations * lee within the regular track of the storm, 


'. there will sometimes be an absence of violent wind ; or, tbe. S| 


“ 


nted by the wind. Owing to this cause I was misled to some: 


- 


On the Courses of Hurricanes. = 205 


lence will pertain to only one of the-phases which the storm 
presents, in its regular course over suchlocality. This may usu* 
ally be accounted for, by the interposition of land within the 
course of. the immediate cireuit which the wind is found to’ pur- 
sue ; and this result i is. perhaps most obviously exhibited in the 
South Atlantic or in the Southern Ocean, near the Cape of Good 
Hope, where the. barometric column, not unfrequently, subsides 
and commences rising, before the full violence of the gale takes 
effect. — _ The barometer, however, appears always to indicate the 
true extent and path of these whirlwind storms ; and I have 
found no good grounds to infer, that a hurricane contracts in the 
width of its path, while sweeping upon the surface of an open sea, 
_ 7. Another source of apparent irregularity in the changes of 
wind in these storms, arises from the interposition of one storm 
upon the path of another, in their passage through the temperate 
latitudes. . Col. Reid has shown something like shia in the hurri- 
cane which overtook the. Castries , August 24th, 1837, which was 


evidently impinging upon the 7 path of the great hurricane which 


had previously swept along the American coast. "That of the 
Castries appears to have pursued a course similar to the- hurricane 
of October Ist, 1830, as delineated on my first published chart ; 

thus advancing; by a shorter course, into the path of the larger. 
hurricane, and-probably with a greater progressive velocity. Col. 

Reid justly urges the -influence of, these causes in producing the 
irregular winds of the higher latitudes. Of the influence of such 
interposition i in apparently arresting or modifying the regular de- 
velopment of a storm while in progress, I have for many years 
been convinced ; but it is due to Mr. Espy, of Philadelphia, to 
mention,. wats so far 7. ote _ was the first to serene the 
——— 


racing cout ‘the path of iurrtaon we justly disc 
cory; and as the i tioh obtained of ‘their course a 
tent is. s cteteieae limited, and is acquired at different and 
tain periods, our delineations are, therefore, necessarily subject to 
minor errors and to subsequent corrections. Such corrections, I 


have ever found to be in favor of the uniform rotation and reg- 


ular course of progression, which have formerly been described. 
sr is probable, therefore, that the narrowed track, and somewhat 


oo: Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. xviu, a 1836, p. 239. 


~ 


206 = Hurricanes of 1838.—New Jersey Tornado of 1835. 


deflected courses, near the windward islands, of the Barbadoes 


hurricane of July 26,-and of the Antigua hurricane of August 
2d, 1837, as laid down by Col. Reid, will ultimately prove to 
have been more symmetrical ;* and that the westerly recurvation 
of the track of the latter storm, across the shores of Georgia and 
Florida, to meet-the case of the gale at Pensacola, will give place 
to a regular continuation of the track in a northeasterly direction. 
Was the gale at Pensacola, on the 7th or 8th of August, an 


offset from the Antigua hurricane? or’ will it not prove to have — 


been another storm ? 

Although I deem it probable; Mr. Baitor, that: “your correspond 
ent will find oceasion to abaridon his former views of the sup- 
posed lateral motion of the main body of the hurricane, as well 
as its alternate contraction and dilatation, yet these views appear 
to be sometimes applicable, or, at least, partially so, to the avis or 
nucleus of the great whirling stratum which constitutes the hur- 
ricane. In the columnar whirlwinds, or water-spouts, also, these 


contractionsand dilatations of the diminished portion which sweeps _ 


upon the earth’s surface, are often made sufficiently evident. The 
suggestions of your correspondent, therefore, are very far‘from be- 
ing unsuited to the inquiry, and it is hoped that he will continue 


to-bestow his attention on such faets relating to these storms, aS 


may aid us in gaining further light upon the subject. For his 

commendations of my imperfect labors, he is desired to: accept 

my acknowledgments. In the further progress of the investiga- 

Soetes believed that he will find reason-to abandon all reliancé 

‘Upon ‘ s’ or ‘local disruptions,’ in the great aerial 

page, as causes of the origin or eo rg of these ea peso 
Hurricanes of 1838. 

Two hurricanes of the present season, (1838,) appear to 5 init 
ow our investigation j;—that of the middle of June, in the North At- 
antic, and also that which swept the American coast, from Flor- 

a to Newfoundland, in the early part “of September. 


as and instructive.. 


New Jersey Tornado of 1835. 


At the late meeting of the British Association, when Col. Reid’s 


paper on storms was under discussion, Prof. Bache of Philadel- 


* Reid on the Law of Storms, Charts V. and VI. 


Those 
who have zeal for the padesabing; will find the jnaiy both in- 


¥ 


Mr. Espy’s Theory of Storms. 207 


phia, very properly referred to the opposing theory of Mr. apy; 
of that city, and stated, also, that in his own survey of the track 
of the water-spout, or tornado, which passed across the State of 
New Jersey in June, 1837, he had made. observations which ap- 
peared to accord with Mr. Espy’s theory of storms; and that he 
had found no evidence of a whirling motion at the surface of the 
ground, such as Col. Reid had ascribed to water-spouts and hur- 
ricanes. This view of the case Prof. Bache had also supported 
in an able paper on the phenomena of that tornado. I deem it 
proper ‘to state here, that having also examined the track of the 
New Jersey ‘tornade: within a few days of its occurrence, and 
having twice repeated the examination, at later periods, I have 
observed on each occasion, numerous facts which ¢ appear to de- 
monstrate the whirling character of this tornado, as well as the 
inward tendency of the vortex at the surface of the ground ; and 
further, that the direction of this rotation was towar ds the left, as 
in the North Atlantic hurricanes}—a result which I had not pre- 


; viously expected, as it appeared probable that the direction of ro- 


tation, in these small whirlwinds, must be entirely accidental. 
This lends me to notice the only point, perhaps, on which my 
inquiries have led to a result differing from that obtained. by Col. 
Reid ; for in many cases of this sort} since examined, Ihave found 
the eotitse of rotation to be uniformly towards the left. 

Perhaps T should add farther, that having also examined with 


Some care, the reports of the meteorological committees at Phila- 


delphia, made through Mr. Espy, their chairman, and also the 
Meteorological essays of this gentleman, I have not been able to 
find evidence which disproved ‘the rotation of a violent storm, 
or that established-a course of wind from all sides of a storm: di- 
rectly towards its centre, im accordance with his eB but, on 
the’ contrary, an analysis of the evidence which Mr. E. has 
duced pattie with the additional facts which I have ea able. 


to sbiein,; has appeared to contravene his conclusions. “A val 
statement of facts relating to the snow storm which visited Péin- 


sylvania and other states on the 17th and 18th of March last, 
drawn up by Mr. Espy, has recently been published ‘by the Phila- 
delphia committees.* Should the facts contained in this. paper be 


— in favor of Mr. Espy’s theory, I would only say, that in 


* See Journal of the Franklin fiiitate, Vol. xx11, 1838, pp. 161-175. 


208 Test of Mr. E'spy’s Theory. 

this, as in some of the former cases, the field of action of the whirl- 
wind storm will have-been in part mistaken. I would also re- 
mark, that the points at issue, do not relate to the common and 
often irregular winds, which, in different localities, accompany a 


general fall of rain or snow; or which sometimes attend the pro- 


— ot a whirlwind — exterior to si a 
ms Test of Mr. Flan: pocnel 


~ 


The truth or error of Mr. Espy’ S theory may be. acetate i 
avery simple test. The hurricanes in the West Indies are known 


to move towards the, W. N. W. , nearly. Now, if this theory be : 


true, at those islands which are in’ the centre af the storm’ s path, 
and where the gale i is of the greatest duration, the wind will set in 
at about W.N. W., or exactly opposite to the course of the storm, 


and when its centre has passed over, will shift suddenly. to E. 8. 


E., and continue violent in this quarter till the storm is over. But 
if :* gale be a whirlwind, as the facts seem to show, the wind 
at such places will set in at about N. N. E., and in the middle. of 
the gale will shift nearly to 8. S. W. the wind varying from 
these points, and veering moré gradually, on either side, in propor- 
tion to the distance from the centre of the. storm’s track. “That 
this corresponds, mainly, to the facts of the case, will hardly be 
doubted by those who fretiends the i inquiry. - 

- The same test: ‘may also, be applied to ges storms as they move 
ina N. E. direction along the shores of the-United States ; ea 


according » to “Mr. ‘Espy’ S$ views, the gale, on the centre of its patl 


should blow, for the first part of its duration, from about N. E.; 

and in the second half, from nearly S. W.* But all our-inquiries 
serve to show, that the gale is violent at N. E. only on the northern 
portion of the track of the tempest, and that the usual changes 
from this direction, are not sudden, and to- an opposite point of 
the compass ; but, instead thereof, we observe a gradual veering, 
by the north, to the northwest. 


~" 


? a 


* Some storms, as Mr. Espy hae also bape = are peti in their de- 
velopment by the near approach of anot her storm. Care must be taken, therefore, 


not to mistake the N. E: wind of a storm whose northwest m oe is thus inter- 
* bordering storm, and which hence is sometimes followed by the natural 


current of air from the S. W. quarter, for the —— that pertain to the centre 
of the gale. } error is easily avoided by extending the field of er and 
by a due attention to ty the tadieasiode-af tha bacimater. 


‘, 


Ei seh maa 
co? 


On the Courses of Hurricanes. 209 


eo of the China Sea. 


It can hardly be doubted that the general course which is pur- 
sued by hurricanes, is the same as that of the general mass of at- 
mosphere or winds by which they are surrounded, and of which 
they form an integral portion. It becomes, therefore, a point of 
some importance in meteorology, to ascertain the true course of 
the hurricanes or tyfoons of the Asiatic seas. Should this course 
prove to be in conformity with the existing monsoons, this would 
be in accordance, it is believed, with the analogies in the tropical 
latitudes of the Atlantic ; at least, if we have regard to the entire 
stratum: of winds whieh lies below the common height of the 
clouds. But if the general course pursued by these storms, be the 
very same with those of the corresponding latitudes of the Atlan- 
tic, in which there are no monsoons, it may serve to show that 
‘the westerly monsoons, which are opposed to the course of the 
regular trade winds, consist only of a misplaced or minor stratum 
of” current, which forms a thin layer of surface wind, less general 
- than that of the regtilar trades, and which is therefore inefficient 
in opposing the progress of a great hurricane ;—the latter. being 
impelled by the stronger and more general curfent of the regular 
trade wind; which is supposed to overlie, at all times, the stra~ 
tum of Piiaplaned current which forms the westerly monsoon. 

These remarks will apply equally to the monsoons of both - 
north and south latitude. Col. Reid has been fortunate in ob- 
taining full evidence of the opposite recurvation of a hurricane in 
South latitude, in open sea, and during the prevalence of the north- 
West monsoon ; a result whieh can hardly be too highly valued. 
This storm, however, (Culloden’s hurricane, of March, 1809,) was 
encountered to the: southward: of the limits of the northwest 
monsoon in the Indian ocean ; but ‘the hurricane of the. 
noticed by Col. Reid, was exposed to the full influence of this 
monsoon. It becomes important, therefore, to ascertain its pa 
in order that the influence of the monsoon upon its course rnaey 
be duly appreciated ; and we hope that its path may yet be 
ascertained. 


In regard to the northern hemisphere, Col. Reid has given us 
notices of several hurricanes or tyfoons in the Asiatic seas, with 


_ ho indications of a course different from those in the North At- 
_ lantic. The following generalization, grounded on independent 
27 


Vo AV .—No. 2. 


210 , Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 


evidence, was published by the writer in 1833.* ‘“ The tyfoons 
and storms of the China sea and eastern coast of Asia, appear to 
be similar in character to the hurricanes of the West Indies and 
the storms of this coast, [United States,}] when prevailing in the 
same latitudes.”. This remark was-made with special reference 
to both the rotative and progressive directions of these storms. 
One of the tyfoons noticed by Col. Reid, that of the Raleigh, 
which visited Canton, on the 5th and 6th of August, 1835, has 
been adduced, however, by the correspondent of the Nautical 
Magazine, as holding its course towards the southwest.} As this 
tyfoon had previously attracted my — it will now be made 
the subject of our examination. 


Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 


The facts which have been chiefly relied on for establishing a 
- southwestern course for this gale, are contained in the report of 
H. M. S. Raleigh, which was overset and disabled in this gale, 
in the China Sea, when under bare poles: which report I have as 
follows: 

MB rig Raleigh. jue. 1,1 1835.—Working qutc of Macao Roads. 
—At noon, an Read of Grand Ladrone, E. 3 8.—Au , at noon, S. E. 
_end of Formosa N, 85 E., 340 miles ? fino weather all day —Aug. 34, 


at noon, S. end of. Formosa N. RE 1, 252 m ile es. Fine: weather all day. 
—Aug. "4th, 10h. 20m.a.m tone] D 


p.m m.—barometer fell from noon ve :-took in a na foresail ; -—at 
1h. 30m. got all snug 5 ; vessel going ” through the water between 3 and 4 
knots ; barometer , falling ;—at 7h wind veered to N 


sat 8 p.m. barometer 29.36, falling ;—8: om 


E.N: of ith 
veering to with a heav sea ;—at midnigh creasing ; 
barom, 29.04, falling. : —- mee eee 
* Aug. 5th—3 a. m: tyfoon veering round to E. S. E., still increasing 
in — —s 30m. barometer 28.25 ;—8 a. m. tyfoon increasing ;— 
9h , if possible blowing heavier, ship went over :—In this aw- 
ful esate pete lay for about 20 minutes ;—9h. 50m- lower masts went 
oy the board and ship righted with seven feet water in her hold; barom- 
eter did not fall lower ;—at noon tyfoon moderated a little ;—at 6 p. ™. 
ty more moderate, with a heavy sea ;—midnight, strong gusts of wind 
Tie sea from south. ”°— Abridged from Canton Register of March 
__ See also the log of the Raleigh, as it appears in Col. Reid’s work, 
which contains a sketch, showing the position of the Raleigh, as 
Se eee ee oe 


-. * American Coast Pilot, 12th edition, p. 629. 
t See Nautical Magazine for May, 1837, pp.303--306.. | 


Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 2 


given in the log, and illustrating the direction of the wind. Col. 
Reid has also given the position of a schooner, which encoun- 
tered the tyfoon in lat. 18° 2’ N., lon. 115° 50’ E., of which I had 

. previously received no account. I will now submit such evi- 
dence as I possess, in addition to the account furnished by the 
Raleigh ; adding, also, a sketch and figure illustrating the course 
and - progress of the tyfoon ; and which was prepared and stereo- 
typed some months since, in reference to furnishing an account 
of this hurricane. 

At Macao, where the tyfooh was experienced on the 5th and 
6th, many houses were greatly damaged ; also, many lives were 
Most i in the inner harbor, and some vessels driven on shore. The 
direction and changes of the wind at Macao are not stated ; but 
we are favored with the following valuable table of the state of 
the barometer during the period of the storm. 


 * August Sth. Holy ames Barom. | h. m. Barom. 
bs maansy Barom, | Q@ 45 a. m.— 6 45 a, m. 29.12 
1 00 a.m. 29.47 | 1.20...“ (lowest) 28.05 | 7 45 “ 29.20 
230p.m. 2928/1 25 * 23.08) 815 “ 29.21 
ao ”6—6UlU PlUh OO i 28.20; 845 “ 29.23 
ae.‘ 20:12 | 1 85° -* - 23.30; 930 “ 29.27 
9:00. 29.08 | 2.00 “ - 28,37 110 25. “ 29.30 
10 20 “ 28.95 ;225 “© _ 2356/1100 “ . 29.34 
10 45“ 28.90;245 “ 28.68 | 2 00 p. m. 29.42, 
— 28.85 |310 “ 28.75 |and continued rising to 
11 36. * 28.76 | 3 40 “ 28.83 | 29.65, ‘at which point it 
lb 28651410 “ 90 | us ally Bevan: during 
August 6th. 445 “ 28.97 |fine ather.”*—Can 
Sisim” 25015 15 ™ 29.02 ton Rariter, Aug. 15. 
030 “ 28.40 | 600 “ 29.08 | 


This table affords in itself good evidence of the passage of the 
Centre of the vortex near to Macao. 

At Canton, (60 miles north of Macao,) the tyfoon began on 
the evening of the 5th, after three or four days of very hot 
weather, with. northerly” winds, and continued throughout the 
night and the next day. Its violence was greatest about two 
o'clock on thé morning of the sixth.. The following is an ac- 


ee of the state of the barometer and winds at t Canton : : 


* This relates to “fine bea of rthe s. w. monsoon ; ng: mean of the barom- 
eter for July and August lms at Canton, 0.40 in. lower than for December and 
Janvary, i in the N. E. mo n. This barometer at Macao shitente to siand about 
0.15 or 0.20 inch lower in ‘ths 5 Sidjoatnioat than that used at Canton for the reports 
in the Canton Register, the mean of which for five years is 30.027. Many, if not 
‘Most of. the common ship barometers, stand too low in their adjustment. 


212 Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 


_ August 4th. 
9 a.m. barom. 29. _ Wind N. W. ‘Fine wea eatin 
4 p.m. 29.70 N. by W. Moderate breeze. 
August 5th. 
9.8; m...t.*" 29.62 Wind N. and N. W. Fair Weather. 
eS ee ** unsettled—Rain and fresh breeze. _ 
i p.m. > 29.37 aE 5S og | hard and in heavy gusts. 
August 6th. P 
2 lag 29. 34 Wind N. E. blowing hard with heavy rain. 
am =~ 9.51 ; 
Hava. = 09.58: S.E. blowing hard ;—moderating. 
& poem =a: 2990-5 & Be 
iho.m.:. was ." 8. E. , oe 
Aue cust 7th. 
8a “29.94 Wind S. E. Cloudy. a ae From the Can- 
ton Bie 
On Wednesday the 5th inst. a Tyfoon swept over the city of Canton. 


It began in the evening and continued throughout the night and the next 
day, blowing its best about 2 o’clock in the morning. The damage done 

by the Tyfoon at Canton is small, but not so at Kumsingmoon, : ‘Macao, 
and elsewhere on the coast. —Canton Paper. 


The American ship Levant, Capt. Dumaresq, which arrived on. 
the 7th of August, the day after the gale, came in with royals set, 
from Gaspar Island, in fourteen days, having had light winds all 
the way up the China sea, and did not feel the tyfoon. This im- 
portant fact is stated in the Canton Register of August 11th. 


Extract from a private letter from on board the ship Lady Hayes, 
which left Mac ao Roads a day or two before the sto torm, and returned to 
the 


“Early on ‘the morning oF the 5th, Soflseried indications of bad 
weather. At 10.a. m. the wind “Sealey a a from thes same quarter 
it had been for the last twenty four hours, viz. north; e thought it 
best to turn her head back again to look for 4 ves t 
ad about thirty five miles off the land. We carried a press of sail until 

n, when we found we had too great a distance to run before we could 


north, we were desirou of ntti as far off the lan as possible, expect- 
ing the wind round to the eastward, there being a ee tremendous swell 
from that quarter. At 4 p.m. it was blowing in sereue gusts, and we 


Sh. 30m. the wind began to veer to the west, but continued to blow 
as hard as ever, till midnight, when it drew round to south, and moderated 
a ee It continued to blow hard from that quarter until noon of the 
6th, when it moderated fast, and we e began bending other sails in room of 
those that were split. When the gale commenced, which we consider » 


ye 


baci I ee 3 


Raleigh’s Tyfoon of 1835. 213 


it did at 1 p. m. on the 5th, we were ace twenty miles east of the Lema; 
where we were when it ended, it is hard to say, as we saw nothing till 


south; but with us it veered to the westward round to the south. It was 
fortunate for us that it veered to the westward; for had it ae oo wae 
ward, we should most likely have been driver on shore am 

ands, as we could not have been more than fifty miles off the land al at 
‘ ae, on the 6th. cceaeidged Srom the Canton Register of August 


_ On the reduced chart which is given herewith, the tracks of the 

Lady Hayes and the Levant are laid down by estimate, from the 
printed accounts. The small dotted circle B, surrounded by the 
storm arrows, is supposed to indicate the position of the centre of 
the storm at the time the Raleigh was overset ; and the position 
of the latter should be marked somewhat nearer this circle, ac- 
cording to the lat. and long. of the Raleigh on the 5th, which 
Col. Reid has given in her log. The course of the storm appears to 
have been N. 72° W., and its centre is supposed to have been op- 
posite the Raleigh, about 8h. 20m. a. m. on the 5th; but this cannot 
be ascertained with precision, as the indications of the barometer 
do not appear to have been closely watched and recorded _— 
this terrific period of the storm. 
_ Having shown the rotatory character of these tempests, I con- 
sider the depression of the barometer which attends them, as be- 
ing due to the rotative action ; and the point of greatest depression, 
as indicating the true centre or axis of the storm. 

Seay the evidence now before us, we arrive at the following 


am "That the Raleigh met a gale which set in with the wind at 
N. eee peed ae the Bi. to S. B. and 
2. That at the harbors and roads “ inside,” irae Kumsing- 


‘moon; &c.) aswell as at Canton, the gale occurred at a later pe- 


riod ; and the wind also set in at North, and veered to B. and S. 
E., in a manner similar to that reported by the Raleigh. 

3. That with the ship Lady Hayes, off the islands near Macao, 
the wind also set in at North; but the ship steering S. E. by E. 
under a press of sail, (and doubtless falling off with the heavy sea 
from eastward, ) the wind, towards the middle of the gale, began 
to veer towards the West; whence tt drew round to east to- 
wards the close of the gale. ‘ , 


214 Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 


~ 


4. That the violence of the wind was apperenily greater with 
the Raleigh, than with the ea. Hayes. 


nt’ 


T 
aged track of Leva 


mass ls * 
a5 | is 
3 . cd 
- Supp 
5h ae Ua cede natehet 
‘6th 


4th |Aug. 


i 
— 


S aia ee oe : 

5 "Phat the gale was Serine ee an English schooner, 
Aug. 5th, in lat. 18° 2’ N. lon. 115° 50’ E.; but the Levant, arri- 
ving on the 7th, in her course through the ‘Chines sea, did not eu- 
counter the gale. 

6. That the fall and rise of the habbit at Macao, and with 
the Raleigh, and the strength and changes of wind with the latter, 
were such as are often exhibited near the centre of a hurricane ; 
and that the minimum depression of the barometer occurred about 
seventeen hours later at Macao, than with the Raleigh. 

These facts seem to establish the following conclusions: 

1. ‘That the Tyfoon advanced in a westerly direction. 

2. Negatively ;—that it did not pass through the China sea, from 
_N. E. to 8. W., nor on the opposite of this course. 


Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. “$e 


3. That it was a progressive whirlwind storm ; = to the 
left, around its axis of rotation 
4, That its centre of rotation passed to the obtiliniersh of the 


Lady Hayes ; and to the soutinward of the Raleigh and of Canton, 


and the anchorages near Macao ; and aceon on the line A, é £; 
as marked on our chart. 
_ §. That the rate of its progréss was abort seventeen india 


_ailes per hour. 


6. That the extent or diameter: of the violent part of the gale, 
as deduced from its duration and rate of progress, was about four 
hundred nautical miles, or equal to six or seven degrees of latitude. 

7. That the latter induction agrees with the geographical evi- 
dence which has been obtained of the visitation of the storm. 

The progress of the tyfoon being taken at 17 miles per hour, 


_ it follows that the excess of velocity of the wind at E. with the 


Raleigh, over that of the wind at W. with the Lady Hayes, sup- 

the rotation to have been in a circle, would be more than 
thirty miles an hour ;-allowing nothing, however, for difference 
of retardation of the setae wind, and not taking into the account 
#h@-additional-retardation which the west wind of the Lady Hayes 
must have been subject to, in its recurving course over the land. 
If a circle be drawn on the chart around each of the points. B and 
C, with.a radius equal to 3 or 34 degrees of latitude, these circles 
will comprise, somewhat nearly, the field of action of ‘the storm, 
at the two periods of 9a. m. of the 5th, and 2 a. m. on the 6th of 
August. 

The progressive velocity-and course of this tyfoon, is neatly 
the same as that of the Trinidad hurricane of June, 1831; and 
the rate of progression also corresponds nearly to that of the An- 
tigua hurricane of August 12th, 1835. See tracks Nos. I, and V, 
Spires chet 3 Shoconrees of mepioenl, in the April No. of the 
Nautical Magazine, 1836.* 

This examination of thé case befige us, appears to show that 
the direction of rotation, and the course of progression of ‘this ty- 
foon, while crossing the China sea, agree with those of the hurri- 


~ canes of the West Indies; and that cts course was not controlled, 


or eg Remienee, by the existing pees monsoon. 


*For this Soi ig see alls Silliman’ s Journal, Vol. XXXI, or Reid on the Law 
eos Chart I q 


216 ' Raleigh’s Tyfoon of 1835. 


: - Methods jor Escaping its 5 


The professional readers of the Nautical Magazine will naturally 
inquire for the best method by which the Raleigh might have 
_ayoided the heart of the tyfoon, had its true character, and proba- 
ble course, been known. 'T’o this I answer, that the Raleigh being 
bound to the Bashee islands, and having sea room, and the gale 
having set in from N. or N. N. E., which showed that the ship 
was_then not far from the edperang its path, its greatest severity 
could have been avoided by either of the following methods : : 
rst, by tacking to the N. W., upon the wind, and, as the lat- 
ter veered eastward, hauling up for Formosa and the Bashee isl- 
ands, so far and as fast as the veering of the gale 1 in this direction 
might allow. 

Second, by standing away to W. 8. W. with a view of saving 
time as well-as distance, in the escape, and keepitig off more to 
the southward, as the wind should veer to the westward ; and 
when the barometer began to rise, by bearing away, unde the 
heel of the storm, for her point of destination. — 

The advantage of the first method would consist in wine to 
run a shorter-distance off her course, in order to avoid the centre 
of the gale. Its disadvantages consist in being too much headed 
off at the ‘outset, and perhaps, in getting. too far northward to 
make the best of the S. W. monsoon, after the gale should have 
terminated. The advantages of the second method would con- 
sist, Jin running off 5 more: rapidly, with a fair wind and sea; in get 

ing under t t of the gale, where, owing to 
the. course of the wind being counter to the progress of the storm, 
it becomes less violent ; in having almost throughout, a- fair, in- 
stead of a head wind;-and, finally, in being left by the storm to 
the windward of the point of destination, as regards the existing 
monsoon. ‘The disadvantage, if any, of this method would con-, 
sist in the greater extent of the rout; but as this would be accom- 
plished under far more favorable circumstances, and probably in 
much less time than the northern, it can hardly be counted as an 
objection. It would, however, have been sspanonid to ii the — 
Paracels, in shaping the southern course. 
The second method for avoiding the heart of this storm, there- 
fore, would appear to have been. preferable. But had the ship 
® alien under the more northern portion of the gale, toward the dot- 


od 


~~ 


Canton Tyfoon of Aug. 8d, 1832. 217 


ted line which crosses Formosa, thus taking the wind first at N. E., 
or E. N. E., she should have kept to'the wind, with her head to the 
northward. But if her position had been nearer the dotted 
line which crosses Luconia, taking the wind first at N. W., she 
should first have brought the wind on her starboard cauinter: and 
subsequently have bore away, as the wind veered by the west. 

Some further notices of tyfoons may now be added, to show 
that the results just noticed, are not peculiar to this storm alone, 
and that other tyfoons of the China sea pursue a acalar oes, 
and exhibit the same rotative action. 

Canton Tyfoon of Aug. 3d, 1832. 
At Macao the wind set in Re the north, and reached its greatest 


: height about I p. m. ; continuing with the same Eo eve till 5 p. m., when 


it veered suddenly to ‘the pins A but with diminished strength. ‘When 
the fury of the gale was exhausted, the quicksilver rose at ‘the rate of 
three tenths per half vis ur. Baromet ter Aug. a. mM. p.m. 
29. ug. —5 p. m. 27. 88, Other land barome- 
ters. differently ative’: “fal to 27. 96 and 28 
At Cap-shu e gan at N. and N. W., ‘between which 
= it blew las tremendous violence ; shifting, towards the co nclusion, 
. whence it blew more moderately. The barometer, nm the early 


pat | fell to 28. 20. 
18 


e American ship Don Quixote left on the day before the tyfoon ; ; 
and returned on the 5th with loss of mainmast. 

Since the tyfoon, the British brig John Biggar, from Manilla, has come 
in dismasted. The Sp anish brig Veloz, also from Manilla, has arrived 
with loss of mainma 

A letter from the etdinidier of the Dutch ship Fair Armenian, which 
‘foundered about thirty ary westward of the Grand Ladrone, says :— 

“On the evening of the inst. we made the Grand Ladrone, and on 
the morning of the 3 it came on a tyfoon blowing off the land ; this 


ped and broke our rudder, and carried away a great part of the bulwarks. 
The gale was at its height about 4 or 5 p. m., and after dark gates 
moderated.” 
The Edmonston, Caledonia, ee and. ialy have come in with- 
‘aledonia.on the paca ° W., lon. 113° 50’ 
E. experie need a strong ga le from ag W. and S., with a 
heavy and confused sea. | The aati ts Fell | . 28, 50. The Edmonston, 
on the same day, when within seventy miles of the land, felt the same 
weather, which brought her under bare poles for four hours 
occa cig the weight of the tyfoon, which in Canton and Wham- 
pao ranged from N. to N. E., was felt about 4 or 5 p. m.; the barome- 
ter standing at Canis About 6 p. m. the ped ak rose and the e gale 
= to abate. 


Vou. XXxvV.— 


218 Canton Tyfoons of Aug. 3d, 1832, and Sept. 23d, 1831. 


. Extract from the journal of an American pare bound to 


Can- 
ton.“ Aug . 2d, 1832, (nautical time,) lat. 18° 34’ W., lon. 114° E.; 
and 


barom. 29.56. First part light and baffling vikas from E. to 
NN. and hazy :—middle part the same —At4a m. calm, barom. 29,59 :— 
At 4.30 a. m. a breeze es. up from W. N, W. :—made all sail by the 
wind. Latter art and end, s W. N. W. wind and rough head sea. 
Took in the cle flying jib, and fore and mizen top gallant sails. Ba- 
rometer at no AQ. The weather, however, looks very fine, and the 
breeze is ead at W.N. W. ‘lat . 19° 54" WN., lon. 113° 50'E. 

Aug. commences with a strong steady breeze at W. N. W. and 
hazy weather, barometer falling fast. At 2 p. m. down to 28.98, but not 


the least unfavorable appearance in the clouds, sea, or weather. [The - « 


ei was at this time running into the path of the gale, from its ree 
side.]_ I must acknowledge that the rapid fall of the mercury, within the 
last ten hours, has alarmed me n me ee e, and we are now preparing for 
the worst of weather. oe p.m. m. 29.25 the wind freshening ; 
single reefed topsails. The old far pi eoions seen sail carried on this 


the N. E. at the rate of twenty knots, and the rhc shooting up from 
m. bar 1 


every point of the compass. At 8 om. 29. Took in all at 


but the close reefed fore and main peanils and fore-topmast staysail ; the 
wind still steady at W. N. W. Sounded in- 45 fathoms, the Grand La- 


drone bearing W. N. W.38 miles. At10 p.m. the wind suddenly shifted 


to W. N. W.[N. N. W.?] in @ squall—Heavy rain and distant thunder 
until 5 a. m. :—Had continued shifts of wind all round the compass. At7 
a. m. a steady gale very severe, from about N. W. and este rain :—hove 
to under the reefed main topsail -—At 8 a. m. barom. 29.!!—Latter 
part and end, the real , genuine, unadulterated Chinese 7’ ‘yfiiondl a steady 
roar pang constant r or took in the main topsail. 

g. 4th. (P. M. of 3d.) "The first quarter of this day extremely se- 
vere Mt and thick weather. —At 2.30 p. m. barom. 28.88 ; shortly after 
which it began to rise :—at 6 p. m. 29.05 ;—at 8 S, m. 29.08, and mode- 
rating. —During = night hard yal trom W. to W. S. W. and torrents 
of rain.—At 4 a. nd S S. W. to S.S. W. and hazy :—made sail an 
by 6 a. m. had rvs ‘and ‘addin sails set. During the day passed a 
number of wrecks, and when we arrived, (5th,) found that the hurricane 
had been very severe and caused immense destruction. New Yor: 
Journal of Commerce. 


Canton Tyfoon of Sept. 23d, 1831. 


The American ship Galen, from the Sandwich Islands, bound to Can- 
ton, encountered bad weather off the Bashee Islands on the 2lst of Sep- 
__ tember, and on the 23d near the Lema Islands, lost her mizen mast, f 
_ and main topmasts, &c. 


: 


rf 


ae) By Atanas 


ish 


Bie ay 


eS 


le sof 


| Tyfoons of the China Sea and North Pacific. eg 


past, one t 
along the coast. The gale was far more severely felt at Macao and-Kum- 
sing-moon, where it is described as having been truly dreadful Canton 


_ paper 


The narrative of Capt. Lynn, of H. C. S. Duke of Buccleugh, 
appended to his Star tables for 1822, contains accounts of four 
several tyfoons which were encountered by the convoy under H. 
M. 8. Swift, Capt. Hayward, which left Macao Roads on the 15th 
of June, 1797, bound homeward by the eastern passage. The 
first of these storms occurred on the 19th June, in lat. 22° 97 N.; 
lon. 117° 3’ E. The wind set in at N., and veered to N. E. by 
N.; but owing, probably, to the course of the ship, veered back to 
N.. een subsequently by N. W. and W. to S. Barometer, 29. 

The second was met on the 2d July, in lat. 19° 4” N., lon. 124° 
1y E., and ended on the 3d. The wind set in at N. E., and 
veered by N. and W., as on the 19th of June; the ship having 
been kept before the wind, probably as before. Barom. 28.77. 
The Swift is supposed to have foundered in this storm. 

The third tyfoon was encountered on the 8th July, in lat. 16° 
54’ N., lon. 126° 9 E. Barometer, at. lowest, 28.40. This gale 
commenced at N. N. E.; but the ship running to the southward, 
as before, the wind — veered to N. and N, N. W..,. and ence 
shifting, after a lull, to S. S. W. 

A fourth tyfoon was enieotiriterod on the 17th July, lat. 16° 54’ 
N., long. 126° 9 E., in which the wind set in at the same point 
as before, and veoted also in the same manner. Barometer, 28.55 

These and other facts had been the basis of my inductions, in 
relation to the tyfoons of China and the storms of the North Pa- 
cific ; and the voyages of Cook and others upon the coasts of Ja- 
pan and China, and the journals of whale ships in the Northern 
Pacific, had afforded good evidence that the same system of 
storms eagle in the North Pacific as in the North Atlantic 


ge Hurricanes of the Asiatic Seas. ¢ : 
From a comparison of the foregoing accounts, it appears that 
those ships suffered most severely, which fell under the northern 
semi-circle of the storm. ~ This result, probably, would not follow 
in the higher latitudes, where the storm has recurved to the north- 
ward and commenced its easterly course. 


pee at Oe ee 


Hurricanes of the Asiatic Seas. 
It is generally believed that the hurricanes of the Indian seas 
occur only or chiefly at the change of the monsoons ; but this 
opinion appears to be of doubtful accuracy. 
From the valuable meteorological journal which appears monthly 
in the Canton Register, I have compiled the following statement 
: of the periods of change in the N. E. and 8. W. monsoons at 


that place : 
Vernal change from Nn. &. to ; w. Autumnal change, from s. w. to N. E. 
1830. From 20th to 28th of April. .-| From 5th to 12th of October. 
gat. th to 17th : “Ist to 14th 
1832. “ Ath to 7th ry on 25th September. 
1833. “ 9th to 14th * 9th to 30th 
1834. “ 3d of April to 8th of May. * 19th to 30th = 
pes “ 8th to 2st of April. “10thto24th  “* : 


e American ship Parachute, at Boston from Calcutta, experienced 


ee 25th of August, 1831. Spoke the Nandi from 
Bon to pomeel dismasted in the gale-—London shipping lists. 
th, 1837. gs of the severest gales that has occurred 


trees, six feet in diameter and poets | feet. in pein were torn up by 
the roots, and many houses completely unroofed. é 

‘The accounts of hurricanes in ie Asiatic seas, sven us by 
Col. Reid, are also more common to the regular monsoons than 
to the periods of change. 


Tyfoon at Manilla and Hurricane at Balasore, Oct. 1831. 
The following account of a tyfoon in the China sea in 1831, 
is interesting insomuch as it affords probable grounds for connect 
ing the hurricane at Manilla, Oct. 23-24, with that of Oct. 31, 
_at Balasore, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. : 


Extract from the private journal of Wm. F. agg: os ., Master 
of the s ship Panama, on a voyage to Canton, October, 1 


es * From these and like statements of the changes of the monsoons at other points, 
some e useful inductions might be obtained. _ : <r 


s 


- 


Hurricane of Manilla and Balasore in 1831. i 


October 23d, (Nautical time ) Jat. 9°17’ N., lon. 117° 16’ E. Wind. 
came out at southward and continued until 10 p. m., then died away and 
commenced from the sonia: with a heavy head sea.—Forenoon breeze 
from N. W. and clear weather. Lat. 9° 45) N., lon. 117° 25’ E. 
_ Oct. 24th.—Pleasant breezes from N. W. and hazy, steady weather. A- 
sea rolling from the northward. I suppose there has been a eo in the 
China sea which has not yet reached us.—Evening wind rapidly increas- 
ing and barometer —e from 29.75 “ 29,40. Midnight reefed topsails. 
—9. a. m. double reefed do.—barometer 29,20. Ends with Pere 
gale rs the éacuaed and heavy monchereene ter 29.10. Lat. 11° 51 
NV. lon. 118° 20’ 


Oct. 25th. —Heavy gale from W. 8S. W. pnbarvineler 29.05. Gale haul- 
ing to the southward. Evening — mE eH Made a ae — Wind 
at 7. p.m. from southwestward ; 1 p.m. from sou n us 
morning at 5 o’clock the wind came on at S. E. (ba api = it 29, 10) and 
. a perfect mre love t to under mizen staysail ;—barometer 

05— m. —7 a.m. 29. 8 a.m. 29.20. belt 
this fal of the an to be, in this latitude, very remarkable. 

This gale was on the 24th and 25th October, civil time, and 
from its peculiar features and double fall of the barometer, there 
appears something like the falling in of two hurricanes on the 
same track. It was, doubtless, in whole or in part, the same hur- 
ricane that visited Manilla on the night of the 23d of October, — 
and which is noticed by Col. Reid. The irregularities of the 
storm may have been caused by its passage over the Philippine 
Islands, the Panama being then off the Strait of Mindora, and 
about 210 miles from Manilla. I have deemed it not improbable, 
that this storm was the same that visited the Bay of Bengal on 
the 31st of the same month, and was so destructive at Balasore, 
and on the neighboring coast. The course from the Panama’s 
position.to Balasore is about N. 73° W.., and the distance, say 1920 
miles, which would give a rate of progression of 113 nautical 
miles per hour; which coincides with other storms which have 
pe been “eaaanified! It is important to ascertain if this 

torm crossed the Burman Empire, immediately previous to its 
: Freresten in the Bay of Bengal. , 
Panama’s Hurricane in Indian Ocean, January, 1832. 


In order to add to the stock of available facts for tracing the 
storms of South Latitude, I add the following account of a hur- 
ricane in the Indian Ocean, on the 25th of January, 1832. 

“ January 25th, (nautical time,) Lat. 20° 14’ 8. Lon. 80° 36° E. 


Strong baa and squally, with every appearance of a gale; barometer _ 
at noon 29.57, having fallen from 29.80, At 1 p. m. barom. 29.50;— 


(222 Panama’s Hurricane.—Natural System of Winds, Se. 


at 4 p. m. 29.45 ;—at 8 p. m. 29.50 ;—at midnight 29.30: reefed, &c. 
and brought the ship to. During the night, heavy and increasing gale 
from E At4 00; ;—at 6 a. m. ;—at 
8 a. m. 28.80 ;—at 10 a. m. 28.70 ;—at noon 28.60.—Tremendous gale 
and dangerous sea. Lat. 20° 14’ S., Lon. 76° 47’ E. 

“ Jan. 26. Blowing a tremendous hurricane. Lost the fore-topsail and 
foresail and scud under the fore-topmast 0 ae which split, and the ship 
broached to, lying on her beam-ends in the trough of the sea. Night 
came on gloomy and dark, the hurricane increasing. At 10 p. m. the 


with apa weather. Barometer at 1 p. m.28.55;—at 2 p. m. 28.50;— 
at 4 p. m. 28.45, (lowest) ;—at 8 p. m. 28.50 ;—at 9 p. m. 28.60 ;—at 
10 p. m. 50 mat lH p.m. 23.80;—at midnight 28.90 ;—at 1 a.m. 
29.00 ;—at 2 a. m. 29.10;—at 3 a. m. 29.20; —at 4 a.m. 20.30:—at 6 
a.m. 29. 40 ;—at 8 a. m. 29.50;—at 10 a. m. 29.55 ;—at noon 29.60: 
Lat. 21° 46 S., lon. 75° 59’ E.”—Journal of Wm. Frederick Griswold, 
Esq., Master of Ship Panama, from Canton, bound to New York. 

As no change of wind is specified at the commencement of this 
storm, it would appear to have begun in the direction of the south- 
east trade, the latter being a fair wind for the ship, which appears 
to have been under the southern semi-circle of the storm; and 
the progress of the storm towards the southwest, nearly i in ne 
course of the ship, doubtless protracted its divaidoin: The 
tion and veering of the wind in this storm, is in perfect part 
ance with the facts and inductions adduced by Col. Reid, relating 
to the Culloden’s storm of March, 1809; the direction of rotation 
being towards the right, as in other storms in south latitude. This 
hurricane of the Panama, is one of the storms on which my own 
inductions for southern latitudes had been founded. 


Natural System of Winds and Storms. 

It will be found difficult to reconcile with the received theory 
of winds, the facts which have claimed our attention while pursu- 
ing this inquiry. 'T'o me it appears, that the courses of the great 
storms may be considered to indicate with entire certainty, the great 
law of ciréulation in our atmosphere ; and that the long cherished 
theory which is founded upon calorific rarefaction, must. give 
place to a more natural system of winds and storms; founded, 
mainly, upon the more simple conditions of the great law of -grav- 
itation. 

Storms of Europe. 

The courses and developments of the storms which pass over 
the island of Great Britain, are believed to be more complex than 
on the shores of the United States. It is not improbable, that the 


On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, §c. 223. 


course of many European storms is in a southeastern direction. 
A comparison of marine reports has shown me, that while a 
storm was blowing at W., or W. 8. W., in the English channel, 
it was blowing S. E. at Ssaicur-- at N. E. on the east coast of 
Scotland ; and at N. and N. W. in the Irish channel; thus exhibi- 
ting, plainly, a rotation to the left. The great storm of Nov. 29, 
1836, appeared in the. north of Germany after it left the shores of 
England, and other British storms have also exhibited an easterly 
progress. But it is on careful investigations, hereafter to be made, 
that we must rely for a proper development of the system of Eu- 
ropean storms. 
_ New York, October 20, 1838. 


“Arr. I1.—On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, and on Shooting 
Stars in general; by Ex1as Loomis, Professor of Mathematics 
and Natural Philosophy in Weotern Reserve Solas Ohio. 


On the evening a May 18th, 1838, a a very remarkable méteor 
was seen throughout most of the northern part of the United 
States, and a considerable district of Upper Canada. It attracted 
general attention from its size, brilliancy, train, length of path, 
_.and slowness of apparent motion. Observers, almost without 
exception, pronounced it the most remarkable meteor they ever 
saw. Having obtained observations at four or five different 
places, and learned the general phenomena of the meteor, I in- 
serted a brief notice of it in the Cleveland papers, and concluded 
with requesting information from any one who observed it. Above 
twenty letters were received in answer to this invitation ; and as 
considerable information has been obtained through webiie chan- 
nels, the observations are as numerous as could be desired. Their 

accuracy will be considered hereafter. The result i is, that the 
~ meteor was noticed throughout all the north of Ohio; at Detroit 
and Ann Arbor, in Michigan; at various places in the State of 
New York; at two stations in New Hampshire ; and in various 
parts of Canada. The evidence that all saw the same meteor is 
as follows: 1. All saw a meteor at the same instant. Through- 
out Ohio, the time was that of early candle-lighting. The 
brightest stars were just becoming visible. In New Ham 
the time was. Bue after ght o’clock. The shenceninant as 


224 On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, 


near as can be ascertained, appeared every where at the same ab- 
solute instant. 2..The meteor was every where seen in the same 
place. Not in the same direction as referred to the points of the 
compass, but occupying the same absolute position as referred to 
the earth’s surface. That is, the appearances are perfectly ex- 
plained by supposing a single meteor of great size, elevated about 
thirty miles above the earth’s surface, to have described a nearly 
horizontal path of more than two hundred miles. Such a sup- 
position will satisfy all the observations within the limits of the 
unavoidable errors of observation. 3. The meteor was every 
where of remarkable size. It was of such splendor as is very 
seldom seen. 4. It exhibited a train, besides several’ peculiarities 
so extraordinary, as to identify it without danger of mistake. It 


broke into several fragments which fell behind the main body 


and followed at some interval. This will be considered more 


- fully hereafter.. These four facts combined, prove conclusively 


that it was indeed the same meteor seen by the different ob- 
servers. -'The evidence is the same in kind, and well nigh the 


same in degree, ‘as that which assures us that it is one moon 


which i is seen in the northern and southern hemispheres. As- 
, then, that all the observations were made upon a single 
object, I proceed to determine as accurately as possible the height 
and course of the meteor. At Hanover, N. H., the meteor was 
observed by Professor Hubbard. When first woticed, it bore S. 


80° W. elevated above the horizon 9° 38’; it disappeared N. 69° 


W. at : an elevation of 3° 24’. These numbers were obtained by 
from the remembered position of the meteor, and 
were communicated to me by Professor Young. At Clinton, in 
New York, the meteor was observed by Professor Catlin, of Ham- 
ilton College. It first appeared S. 13° 25’ W., elevated 4° 30’; it 
disappeared N. 67° W.; elevated 8°. At an intcrmiedidte ie it 
bore N. 87° 30’ W., idconeed 12° 36’.. At Buffalo, N. Y., 
meteor was phwerted by Mr. R. W. Haskins. He first saw i a 
little south of east, and it disappeared a little east of north. Its 
greatest altitude was er it Hudson, Ohio, the meteor was ob- 
served by Professor Barrows. It was first seen N. 83° E., eleva- 
ted..7°; and disappeared N. 35° ‘E., elevated 6°. In Aurora, 4 
town adjoining Hudson, the iuetiod was observed by Mr. 
Brown. He first saw it shi east, elevated about 8°; and it ai 


: ents N. 30 E., elevated 8°. At Ann Arbor, Michigan, the 


7 noe 


a 
¥ 


and ont Shooting Stars in general. — 225 


meteor was seen by Messrs J. and L. Chandler, to move nearly 
parallel with the horizon, at an elevation of three degrees, accord- 
ing to one, and of four degrees, according to the other. It was 
seen in the N. E. quartet, but the precise direction could not be 
given, as the estimate was made when they had no opportunity 
of returning to the spot of observation. 'The preceding obser- 
vations are the most precise of any I have been able to obtain. 
hey were all made by the aid of instruments, and the chief 
error. therefore to be apprehended, is that arising from the diffi- 
culty of exactly remembering the apparent position of the me- 
teor. Itis believed, however, that in the above observations, this 
error is small, In this first comparison, I neglect entirely such 
observations as give mere estimates of elevation by the eye; for 
it is a remarkable fact, that almost every one over-estimates an- 
gular elevation near the horizon. Ihave made the computation 
from the above data, and find the perpendicular elevation of be- 
ginning 28.5 miles. The place where it then stood in the ze- 
nith was in Lycoming. county, Penn., Lat. 41° 16’, Long. 1° 
west from Washington. At its explosion, its height was 32.1 
miles, and the place where it then stood in the- zenith was in 
Upper Canada, Lat. 44° 7’, Long. 2° west. At an intermediate 
point, its height was 34.8 miles, and it was then vertical over 
Monroe county, N. Y., Lat. 43° 0’, Long. 0° 46’ west 
length of path then was 218 miles, and its mean course N. 133° 
W., passing vertically over Rochester in the State of New York. 
In this computation I have aimed to make the positive equal to 
the negative errors, and the sum of the errors, ae their 
signs, aminimum. The beginning, as I have here assigned it, 
rests upon the observations at Clinton, . Hudson, rat Aurora. © It 
appears not to have been seen so early in its course either at 
Hanover, Buffalo, or Ann Arbor. - The middle point of its path, 
near Rochester, appears to have been observed at all the stations. 
The observations at Hudson and Aurora having been made near 
each ‘other, I consider as one observation, and take their mean. 
It is impossible perfectly to satisfy the observations. —'The result 
Thave above given, makes the errors of the observations as fol- 
lows: Hanover + 3° 45’; Clinton — 2° 54’; Buffalo—2’; Hud- 
son — 5’; Ann Arbor— aw. The positive ae equal to the nega- 
tive errors, and I am unable to assign the meteor a position which 
shall Guiniets the sum of the errors. The errors at Buffalo, Hud- 
Vor. XXXV.—No. 2. 2 


226 On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, 


son, and Ann Arbor, are quite within the limits of the unavoidable 
errors of such observations. Those at/Hanover and Clinton seem 
somewhat large, yet when it is remembered, that these measure- 
ments were not taken till more than a month after the meteor 
appeared, I think we must admit the possibility of errors of this 
magnitude. The assigned termination of the meteor’s flight, 
rests upon the observations of Hanover, Clinton, Hudson, and 
Ann Arbor.. The errors of the observations appear to be,. Han- 
over+27’; Clinton+2/; Hudson+54’; Ann Arbor —1° 24’; all 
of which are quite admissible. 

The observations at Clinton make the meteor’s first appearance 
8. 13° 25’ W. I think it probable there is some mistake here, or 
if not, we must suppose the meteor to have been seen at Clinton 
much earlier than at any other station. At all, events, it is im- 
possible with this single observation to trace the meteor with 
confidence farther south than I have done. 

It will be observed, that the three points in the meteor’s path 
which T have above given, do not lie ina straight line. The 
middle point is more distant from the surface of the earth than 
either of the extremes by 2.7 miles, and allowing for the convex- 
ity of the earth, the total curvature in a vertical plane is about 
six miles. But the projection of the meteor’s path upon a hori- 
zontal plane, deviates still more from a straight line. The cur- 
vature here amounts to forty one miles, the convexity being 
turned-towards the east. We'may suppose a part of this irregu- 
larity to arise from the errors of the observations, yet I think it 
well nigh certain, that the path was actually crooked. 

Having thus deduced the meteor’s path from the best observa- 
tions, I proceed to inquire how these results accord with the re- 
maining observations. A meteor was seen at Raymond, in the — 
eastern part of New Hampshire, a little past 8 o’clock, on the 
evening of the 18th. It bore nearly west, at an elevation of 
from 5 to 10°, moved north westerly, descending rapidly towards 
the horizon. This description accords as nearly as could be ex- 
pected With the position I have assigned the meteor. At Mount 
Upton, Chenango county, N. Y., “soon after sunset, on the eve- 
ning of the 18th, a very brilliant meteor started from that part of 
the heavens which declines a little to the west or southwest from 

the point over head, and pursued its. course about due N. W., dis- 
appearing behind the hills in that direction.”” According to my 
results, the meteor could not have been elevated much above fif- 


and on Shooting Stars in general. 227 


teen degrees at this place, and if this observation were to be im- 
plicitly relied upon, we must infer that the meteor was higher 
than I have supposed, or that its path was farther to the east than 
I have assigned it. The language of the observation, however, 
is very vague, and I think it highly probable, that the observer 
never saw the meteor so high as his language would naturally 
imply, but inferred from its final direction that it must have’ ori- 
ginated in that.quarter. At Carroll, Chautauque county, N. Y., 

a meteor was seen about dusk on the evening of the 18th. it 
appeared first in the east, elevated 25 or 30 degrees above the 
horizon, and disappeared in the north perhaps about 5° above the 
Boris, All this accords sufficiently well with my results. In 
one of the Canadian papers, the meteor is noticed as having been 
Seen-in various places, but the observations are too vague to be 
of the least value. I have received a vast number of observa- 
tions from the counties of Ashtabula, Trumbull, Geauga, Por- 
tage, Cuyahoga, and Huron, all in the northeastern part of Ohio. 

The observations agree about as well as could be expected, if 
they had all been made from precisely the same station, with the 
exception that the most eastern observations assign the meteor 
somewhat the greatest altitude. The altitudes are almost with- 
out exception given too great, and commonly twice too great. 

The great variety of observations made in the vicinity of Hud- 
son, although somewhat loose, must satisfy any one that the me- 
teor was very distant and at a considerable elevation. No one 
can believe that a hundred different meteors, all of them of the 
most extraordinary kind, and characterized by the very same pe- 
culiarities, should appear at the same absolute instant, within a 
limited district, and all. moving in such directions, and echbiag 
such appearances as would be presented by one large, remote, 

and elevated meteor, while only a single meteor appeared to any 
one of the numerous observers. The case seems too plain for 
further argument. 

I have now, as appears to me, assigned ees a position to the 
meteor as reconciles all the observations within the limits of una- 
voidable error. ‘This determination is liable to some uncertainty ; 

yet I believe the uncertainty is not so great as materially to affect 
any theoretical conclusions to be deduced. 

Let us now inquire for the velocity of the meteor, as referred 

to the earth’s surface. The length of path seen at Hanover was 

201 miles. The time of observation was estimated at eleven 


hie 


and of very feeble cohesion. During nearly its entire route, ne¢W 
_ portions of matter were continually detaching themselves. from 


228 On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, « = 


seconds. This estimate is probably too great, yet it gives the 


velocity of the meteor 18 miles per second. ~At Clinton, the path 
observed was at least 218 miles, and the time was estimated at 
five seconds, making a velocity of 43 miles per second. The 
path observed at Buffalo was. probably 112 miles, and the time 
was estimated from 4 to 5 seconds, which gives a velocity of 25 
miles per second. At Hudson and Aurora, the path seen was 
about 218 miles, and the time estimated from 6 to 7-seconds, giv- 
ing a velocity of 33 miles per second. These are the observa- 
tions I think most to be relied upon; and the areray velocity 
resulting from them, is 30 miles per second. 

‘Let us now form some estimate of the magnitude of the me- 
teor. Its diameter at Hanover was estiraated at one fourth that 
of the moon, and its least distance was 281 miles. Its absolute 
diameter then was .65 mile. At Clinton, the. meteor. appeared 
very much elongated in the horizontal direction, and was follow- 
ed by two smaller portions at intervals of less than a degree each. 
The breadth of the head was estimated at eight minutes, and its 
distance was 118 miles, which makes the absohate breadth .27 


mile. ‘The length of the principal portion was about one de-- 


gree, that is, nearly two miles.. The two smaller portions which 
followed. in the rear, were about a tenth of a mile in diameter. 


At Buffalo, also, the meteor appeared elongated, its horizontal di- 
ameter being four or five times the vertical. Its least diameter 


‘was estimated at half that of the moon, and its distance being 
about 66 miles, its absolute breadth must have been .29 mile. 
Its -was four or five times this amount. At Hudson, its 
diameter was estimated at one third that of the moon, and being 


distant 226 miles, its absolute diameter was .66 mile. ‘The ob-: 


servations made in other places. agree substantially with the 
above, and from them we may infer, that the absolute diameter 
of the meteor was about three quarters of a mile. At the more 
Satqnt stations, the meteor appeared nearly circular, but from 
nearest points of observation, it appeared decidedly elongated. 
Almost all the observers noticed a falling off of various portions 
from the main body, which, lagging behind, formed a species of 
train. Several of these shialler portions formed a considerable 
fraction, perhaps one tenth part, of the main body itself. 
This meteor must have consisted of matter exceedingly rare, 


eS ez 
x 


- the main body, and this finally divided into a large number. of 
estimate of its density, yet it is doubtful whether it exceeded that 


combustion. The meteor, by rapid motion through the upper 
regions of the air, generated heat sufficient to set itself on fire, 
and it was probably entirely consumed in the space of ten seconds. 
Nothing is learned to have fallen to the earth from the meteor, 
as would probably have been the case if its density had not been 

exceedingly feeble. Moreover, .the appearances were those of a 
tly entirely consumed by combustion. But a body, three quar- 
ters of a mile in diameter, entirely consumed in ten seconds, 
must be supposed exceedingly combustible and of very feeble 
density. 


my communication through | the Cleveland papers, was, whether 
any noise attended the meteor. ‘To this question most observers 
replied decidedly in the negative. ‘Two persons only represent 
that they heard a noise. One observer in Ohio, states that his 
attention was attracted by the light, and a whizzing noise resemb- 
the burning of a slow match af powder ; and an observer in 

the State of New York,. states the same fact. Now it would be 
altogether superfluous to give reasons for doubting the fact as thus 
stated, yet it is demonstrable that if such a noise was heard, it did 
not proceed from the meteor. At its nearest approach, the meteor 
was one hundred and sixty two miles distant from the first observer, 
and seventy six miles from the second. At the latter place, then, 
supposing, for simplicity, sound to travel at the same rate in rare 
as in deve air, the sound, if any, should have been heard about 
six minutes after the disappearance of the meteor, and at the for- 
mer place more than twelve minutes. There was little i 
therefore for one’s attention to be attracted to the meteor bya 

whizzing noise proceeding from it. The noise alledged existed 
doubtless solely in the imagination. I by no means pronounce it 
impossible that sound may have come from the meteor; but if 
a report did follow, it would come after so long an interval, that 
few would think.of attributing it to the meteor. 

Let us-*now compare the direction of the meteor’s path with 


the earth is moving i is of course in the ecliptic, and nearly 90° 
west of the ‘sun. At the time in question, it was about eight 


. * 
a \ “a on Shooting Stars in general. “opi 


fragments. We have, perhaps, no means of forming any precise 


of atmospheric air. 'The light was, without doubt, produced by _ 


One of the points respecting which I solicited sa deieaadicteai in 


that of the earth in its orbit. The point in space towards which 


~~ 


and parallel with the horizon. Its velocity was thirty miles — 


230 On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, 


o’clock in the evening where the meteor was vertical. The point 


then towards which the earth’s motion was directed, ‘had: passed 


_ by nearly two hours the inferior meridian. 'The line of direction 


was inclined to the horizon about 52°, and its azimuth was 
somewhat east of north. ‘The meteor’s course was nearly north 


per second; that of the earth 19 miles. The directions of the 
earth and meteor were inclined to each other about 64°, and the 
meteor’s velocity of thirty miles was its velocity relatively to the 
earth. It is then simply a mathematical question to determine 
what must have been the absolute direction and velocity of the 
meteor’s motion, in order that, combined with the earth’s motion, 
it may give the above Seealtant, The velocity I find to be about 
forty miles per : second. A part of this velocity, less however than 
seven miles, was due to the earth’s attraction. We must then 
admit that a small collection of exceedingly rare matter, revolv- 
ing about the sun in an orbit which at one point coincided nearly 


with that of the earth, but moving with about double the velocity, 


plunged into the earth’s atmosphere, took fire, and exhibited the 
splendid phenomenon of May 18. hat no portion of this body 
escaped from the earth’s atmosphere and continued its solitary 
route, we cannot positively affirm ; although the appearances seem 
to favor the supposition that the body was quite consumed in our 
atmosphere. 

For the curvature of the meteor’s path we can perhaps give 
only a hypothetical explanation. When a ball is moving with 
great velocity through the air, if one side be of such a form as to 
experience greater resistance than the opposite, it will be rela- 
tively retarded, and the path of the body will deviate towards 


that side.. Now as it is highly improbable that the opposite sides — 
of the meteor should be perfectly symmetrical, it might be eX-~ 


pected to deviate more or less from a straight line. Moreover, 
the progress of the meteor was marked by combustion, which 
may be supposed to have been attended by a copious evolution of 
gas. Now if this gas should be evolved upon one side of the me- 
teor more abundantly thar on the other, it would become a moving 
force, which by reaction would cause the meteor to deviate to the 
— side. As these two causes appear to me highly probable, 
and adeg ite to account for the phenomenon, I think it superflu- 

earch for others. The earth’s attraction would hardly 
th-part of the deviation from a — line 


| 
| 


and on Shooting Stars in general. 231 


observed in a vertical plane, and no part of that observed in a hor- 
izontal plane. 


iyze, although certainly very remarkable, was not. unlike some 
others on record. In the London Philosophical. Transactions for 
1759, is an account of a meteor which appeared in Great Britain, 
Nov. 26, 1758. It moved in a direction N. W. by N., describing. 
a path of about 400 miles. It shot obliquely daemounin being 
from 90 to 100 miles high at its origin, and from 26 to 32 at its 
termination. Its velocity was computed at 30 miles per second. 
Its diameter was estimated at certainly not less than half a mile, 
and probably greater. Its path deviated sensibly from a straight 
line, and a report, like a clap of thunder, was heard from it several 
minutes after the meteor disappeared. in the Philosophical 'Trans- 
actions for 1784, are several notices of a meteor seen in England, 
August 18, 1783. Its direction was nearly S.S.E. Its path was 
computed to have been at least 1000 miles in length, sensibly 
crooked, though nearly parallel with the surface of the earth, and 
elevated more than 50 miles. Its diameter was about half a mile, 
and velocity not less than twenty miles per second. A number of 
minutes after the meteor’s disappearance, there was heard a rum- 
bling noise like that of distant thunder. Both of these meteors 
broke into several fragments, which falling behind, formed a pe- 
culiar train. They appear to have been quite similar to the me- 
teor of May 18th, and as the fact of a rumbling noise succeeding 
their appearance seems to be well attested in both cases, it is a 
little remarkable that nothing of the kind was noticed in the late 
meteor. It is doubtful, however, whether any observer watched 
long enough to be able to. decide that no such report succeeded. ~ 
It may be useful to give here a summary of our knowledge re- 
specting common shooting stars, that we may decide whether all 
these meteors are. to be ranked in the same class. In the year 
1798, Benzenberg and Brandes undertook in concert a series of ob- 
3 servations on shooting stars near Gottingen, in Germany: They 


= at which they observed simultaneously several nights. After 
three nights’ watching, finding their stations too near each other, 
they removed one of them to the distance of nine and a third 
English miles. On comparing their observations, they found 


: of which they were able to compute the height for at least a part 


The meteor whose phenomena I have thus attempted to ana- 


first took stations five and a half English miles from each other, _ 


twenty-two which had probably been seen at both stations, and 


ae : 
: : 


# 


— 232 On the Meteor of May 18th, 1838, &c. 


of the course. The sum of the heights of 17 meteors at their 
disappearance was 973 English miles. The sum of the heights 
of 4 meteors at their origin was 199 miles; sum of the lengths of 
their paths, 162 miles. In 1823, Brandes, being then Professor 
at Breslau, resumed his observations in concert with a number of 
others, about twenty in all. A-summary of their observations is 
given in Vol. xxvm of this Journal. The sum of the heights 
of 54 meteors at their disappearance was, according to these ob- 
servations, 2761 miles. Sum of the heights of 45 meteors at ori- 
gin, 2998 miles. Sum of 37 paths was 1619 miles. 

‘In December, 1834; Mr. A. C. Twining and myself undertook 
a similar series of observations. We were not so successful as we 
expected to be; yet among the meteors observed, there were four 
whose paths we were able to compute. The sum of their heights 
at origin was 296 miles; at termination, 216 miles, and the sum 
-of their paths, 142 miles. Finally, in Vol.-xxv1 of this Journal, 
‘Mr. Twining has given for one meteor the height of origin 73 
‘miles, of termination 29.5 miles, length of path 55 miles. We have 
then, as the result of all these observations, the sum of the heights 
of 76 meteors at termination, 3975 miles, being an average height 
_ of 52 English miles. The sum of the heights of 54 meteors at 
origin is 3566 miles, giving an average of 66 miles. ‘The sum 
of the paths of 46 meteors is 1977 miles, being an average of 43 
miles. 'The average velocity of 13 meteors whose duration was 
estimated with some care, is 22 miles per second, and the veloci- 
ties range from 11 miles to 36 miles per second. The size of 

ooting stars is very various, yet it appears that not unfrequently 
pers fis a diameter of a hundred feet. : 

From the preceding statements I think it will appear that the 
meteor of May 18th did not differ essentially from the ordinary 
shooting stars, with the exception of its magnitude. It appeared 
at about the same height, moved with a velocity no greater than 
is known sometimes to belong to common shooting stars, and ex- 
hibited the usual phenomena of combustion. 1 see then no rea- 
son for separating this meteor from the class of ordinary shooting 
stars, any more than’a large hail-stone should be considered a phe- 
nomenon of a different kind from a small one. Shooting stars are 
well known to be celestial bodies, that is, to have an origin for- 


eign from the earth ; and it is no more strange that they should 


- sometimes have a dintiictes of one mile, than that they should 
—— ‘witha diameter of a hundred feet, or even of a single foot. 


* ‘a = = m < 5 : 3 
Account of a Storm in New Hampshire. ‘, 333 ae 


< \ i 3 


Arr. IIL.—Account of a Storm in New Hampshire, in a letter 
‘addressed to Prof. O..P. Hubbard, of Dartmouth College, 
- and dated, Newport, Aug. 20th, 1838; by Rev. Joun Woops. 


Dear Sir,—In yours of the 6th inst., you request me to for- 
ward you an account of a powerful torhado which occurred in 
Warner, some years since. The record which I made of it at 
the time, is not in a condition to be sent abroad ; but by a aid 
of it, the newspaper accounts of the day, which Ihave prese 
and my own recollection, I can furnish a pretty ‘correct aris 
which it will not be necessary you should return, | 

The event occurred about half past five o’clock, Shtondag eve- 
_hing, September 9th, 1821. The wind, I suppose, was a proper 
whirlwind, aaiiaalbe: such as occasion water-spouts at sea, A 
very intelligent woman in Warner,. who, at the distance of two 
or three miles, observed its progress, compared its appearance to 
a tin trumpet, the small end downward, also to a great elephant’s 
trunk let down out of heaven, and moving majestically along. 

She remarked, that its appearance and motion gave her a strong 
impression of life. When it had reached the easterly part of the 
town, she said the lower end appeared to be taken up from the 
earth, and to bend around in a serpentine form, until it - 
behind a black cloud and disappeared. Its course was south- 
easterly. It was attended with but little rain in some parts of 
_its course, more in others. The rain, or what appeared like it, 
was in my opinion taken from bodies of water which it passed - 
over. It was said, that it lowered the water in a small pond in 
Warner, about three feet. 'To people near Sunapee lake, in New 
was told, it appeared. as if the lake was rushing up to- 
wards, heaven, The appearance of the cloud to beholders at a 
little distance, was awfully terrific. It commenced its desolating 
progress east of Grantham mountain, in Croydon. In Wardell, 
_ beside other buildings, it demolished a dwelling house, and car- 
ried a child who was asleep upon a bed, into Sunapee lake.* In 
New London and Sutton it did a damage, but met 
with few dwelling houses and destroyed no lives. From —_ 


_* Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, editor of the Lady’s Book, a native of this town, (New- 
port,) and then a resident here, I believe, has published a little ye on this fact, 
which I think you may be able to find among some of her wri 

Vor. XXXV.—No, 2 3 


234 Account of a Storm in New Hampshire. 
ton it passed over the southwest branch or spur of Kearsarge 
- mountain, with a gore of land belonging to Warner, called Kear- 
sarge gore. At the foot of this mountain, it entirely demolished 
five barns, unroofed another, and utterly destroyed two dwelling 
houses and-so rent another as to render it irrepairable. 


The houses wholly destroyed belonged to two brothers, Robert 


and Daniel Savary. They contained fourteen persons. In the 
house of the latter were three aged parents, seventy years old, I 
should think, or upwards. The old gentleman, as he saw the 
cloud commis went into a chamber to close a window, and was 
there when the wind struck the house. He was carried four or 
five rods, dashed upon the rock, and instantly killed. A part of 
his brain was left upon the ok where he fell. His wife was 
very badly wounded, and it was thought would not recover. 
A child of Daniel Savary, in the same house, was also killed. In 
the house of Robert Savary, several were much wounded and 
bruised, but no lives lost. The houses and barns and other 
buildings at this place were not only levelled with the founda- 
tion, but the materials and contents were dashed in ten thou 
pieces, and scattered in every direction. Carts, wagons, sleighs, 
ploughs, and sleds which were new and strong, (one ox-sled, I 
recollect, was entirely new,) were carried to a considerable dis- 
tance—from twenty to sixty.rods—and so broken and shattered 
as to be fit only for fuel. Stone walls were levelled, and rocks 
weighing two, three, or four hundred pounds, were turned out of 
their beds, apparently by the bare force of the wind. Large logs, 
also, two feet or more in diameter, which were bedded into the 
ground, and were fifty or sixty feet long, were not sufficiently 
weighty to retain their location. In one instance I recollect to 
have seen one large log lying upon another in such a condition, 
that it was thought by good judges, that ten yoke of oxen could 
not have moved the lower one from its bed; but both were re- 
moved by the wind several feet. An elm pas near where old 
Mr. Savary fell, which was one foot at least in diameter, and too 
strongly rooted to yield, was twisted like a withe to the ground, 
and lay prostrate across the path like a wilted weed. Not an 
apple or forest tree was left standing. One barn was seen to be 
taken up whole, with its contents of hay, grain, &c. After being 
carried several rods, it came to pieces, and flew like feathers in 
every direction. : 


a 
| 
ie 
sad 
oy | 
‘ 


$ ° x 2 
“* - Account of a Store in New Hampehirt.” é 235 
‘From the ncighUechodd of the Bavseve, it passed over another 
spur of the mountain, and fell with great violence on the build- 
ings of Peter Flanders and Joseph True. Their houses, which 
were but a few rods distant, one in Warner, the other in Salis- 
bury, were utterly demolished. In Mr. F.’s house were nine per- 
sons, two of whom were instantly killed. Mr. F. and wife were | 
very badly wounded, but at length recovered. In Mr. 'T.’s house 
were seven, all of whom were most wonderfully preserved, ex- 
cept that two children, ten or twelve years old, were badly burnt 
by hot bricks, the oven having been heated and the bread then 
in it; one of whom lingered several weeks in extreme suffering 
and then died.’ The father and mother of Mrs. T., who lived 
about half a mile distant, were visiting there. They had just 
left the tea table. Mr. T.. and his father-in-law went out at the 
door and saw the cloud, but thought at first they were so under 
the hill it would pass harmless over them. But they were soon 
convinced that its track was marked with desolation. Mr. T. 
just gave an alarm to his family, then ran under the end of his 
shop which happened to stand beyond the violence of the wind 
so as not to be demolished. His father-in-law, (Jones, ) stood his 
ground until the wind struck the barn, a few rods to the north- 
west of him, and he saw the fragments of it flying thick in the 
air over his head. He then threw himself flat upon the ground 
by aheavy pile of wood. Instantly a rafter fell endwise close by 
him, entering the ground a foot or two in depth, and immediately 
a beam grazed down upon the rafter and lay at its feet. He and 
Mrs. 'T. were entirely unharmed. In a moment they saw, in- 
stead of a new and strong and very comfortable dwelling house, a 
perfect desolation. Not even a sill remained upon its foundation. 
Even the cellar stairs, and the hearths, which were of tile or 
brick eight inches square, were taken up and removed. The 
‘pricks of the chimney lay scattered along, partly covering Mrs. 
T’., and covering to a considerable depth two of the children. 
Mrs. T. was soon taken up with but little injury. The shrieks 
and.cries of the two children, under a weight of hot bricks, next 
pierced the heart of their father. In removing them, he burnt 
his hands to the bone. ‘They were at length taken out alive, but 
—inastate of great suffering, one of whom, as I have mentioned, 
after a few weeks, died. All were now found but the babe, 
about one year old. Supposing it to be under the bricks, Mr, 


ga6 Account of a Storm in New Hampshire. 


T. renewed his labor ; but soon it was heard to cry in the direc- 
_ tion of the wind. Such as could run, ran in search of it, and 
soon found it lying safe upon the ground beneatha sleigh bottom, 
ten or fifteen rods from where the house had stood. The news- 
paper says one hundred rods, but this is incorrect. When the 
wind came, the sleigh was in the barn, six or eight rods north 
or northwesterly from the house. The two last mentioned 
houses were one story, well built, and well furnished dwellings. 
Their materials were not merely separated, but broken, splinter- 
ed, reduced to kindling wood, and scattered like the chaff of the 
summer thrashing floors. It was the same with furniture, beds, 
bedding, bureaus, chairs, tables, and the like. A loom was, to 
a EE carried whole about forty rods, and then dashed in 
: The width of the desolation here was about twenty or 
paenky five rods. On the higher grounds over which it passed 
it was forty, fifty, or sixty rods: The deeper the valley, the nar- 
rower and, more violent was the current. From the last men- 
tioned neighborhood it passed on to the east part of Warner, but 
met with no other dwelling houses, and did but little damage, 
except to fences and forests. 'The appearance of the ground 
where it passed, was as if a mighty torrent had swept over it, up 
hill as well as down. Near the boundary, between Warner aul 
Boscawen, the desolation ceased. It was taken up from the 
earth, but spruce floor boards, which were taken from New Lon- 
don, were borne upon its bosom and dropped in the Shaker vil- 
lage i in Canterbury, a distance of about thirty miles. In follow- 
ing its track in Kearsarge gore, I came to a considerable stream 
of water, across which had been a bridge, covered with large 
oak logs, splitin the middle, mstead of planks. These half logs 
were scattered in every direction, some carried, I should think, 
ten rods in the direction from which the wind came,—others 
sixty rods in the direction it went, and others were dropped near 
the margin at the right and left. You will see by this, they 
were carried along by the whirl-of the wind until jn reached 
the circumference, and then fell to the ground. 

Hundreds: of people came from a distance of ten or twenty 
miles to view the scene of desolation. There-were men of sound 
judgment from Concord, who gave it as ‘their opinion, that it 
would have thrown down the massy walls of the State prison. 


= 


Notes on American Geology. eae 

One remarkable fact is, that the same day, and about the same 
time in the day, two other similar whirlwinds were experienced, 
which moved in nearly parallel lines, one passing through War- 
wick, Massachusetts, and the other about the same distance to 
the northeast. 'They were both less violent; but one of them 
at least, the one through Warwick, did considerable damage. 
The — of the other I never had. 


Art. IV.—Notes on American Greology ; by T. A. Conran. 


Observations on characteristic Fossils, and upon a fall g, Tem- 
perature in different geological epochs. 


Ir has sometimes been objected, that the value of organic re- _ 
mains, as a basis on which to build the superstructure of geologi- 
cal science, is lessened by the fact that certain species range 
throughout different formations; but these are far from being so 
numerous as is sehatrully: suigkscuod. An instance never occurs in 
this country, where the species of one formation are continued 
into an upper one in such numbers as to cause the least perplex- 
ity or dispute regarding its. geological age. - All the various eras 
are admirably recorded, each by its peculiar group of animal or 
vegetable remains ; and to him who has carefully studied them, 
they are quite as intelligible as if the hand of nature had arranged 
them in a cabinet for his use. The few species of a lower, dis- 
covered among those of an upper group, are not always to be re- 
garded as contemporary with the latter, as some of them are clearly 
accidental. Every sedimentary stratum must have been derived 
from a rock previously formed, and of the first sedimentary — 
originating in the destruction of primary masses, we, of course, 
‘take it for granted that such forms of animal and vegetable life 
originated in the ocean in which those sedimentary | strata were 
deposited. But when these, disintegrated in their turn, have 
been, at a more recent period, swept by currents into other seas, 
we may expect to find occasionally, some few of the species 
which originally existed, carried with the debris, and thus min- 
gled with a group very different from that with which they origi- 

nated. It is true, that in the present state of our knowledge of 


238 Notes on American Geology. 


' paleontology, we cannot say with absolute certainty, in every in- 
stance, which species originated with any given stratum above 
the first sedimentary rock ; but generally, shells, corals and plants, 
which have been soliticmalt from one epoch to ‘nother, were di- 
minished greatly in numbers, as if the diminished temperature 
been unsuited to their organization. Ido not conceive it ne- 
cessary, as M. Agassiz supposes, to infer that in every grand geo- 
logical epoch, the fall of temperature was so great as to destroy 
every species existing at the time, but that some were, like the 
_ human frame, more capable of resisting the influence of cold than 
others. Among living testacea we find some species of a particu- 
lar genus confined to the tropical seas, whilst others range from 
the tropics to the 42° of north latitude. The Lucina divaricata 
is a remarkable instance of this ability to endure great changes of 
temperature: originating, as it did, in the Eocene period, it lived 
in both those of the older and newer Pliocene, and now exists on 
the coasts of Europe and America, and inhabits the seas of the 
West Indies, and has been found as far north as Rhode Island. 
We consider those fossils which most abound, when neither 
broken nor water-worn, to characterize the formation in which 
they occur, and such as are very rare, to be non-characteristic, or 
accidental, as they may have been introduced with the debris of 
rocks of an earlier date. Thus we find fragments of Isotelus gi- 
gas and Calymene Blumenbachii in the limestone shale at Roch- 
ester, N. Y., which rock has evidently been derived from the 
: of the Trenton limestone formation, and thus fragments 
of the trilobites of the latter period were swept into the sea, 
where the shales at Rochester were in process of deposition ; and 


it is worthy of notice, that the current must have been very geD- ’ 


tle, judging not only from the fine materials of the shale, but be- 
cause it has carried only the lightest animal remains, as the thin 
crusts of trilobites, and rarely any of the ‘small shells which 
abound in the rienteii shales. Another formation illustrates this 
fact in a still more satisfactory manner. At Upper Marlborough 
and Piscataway, in Maryland, a deposit of the Eocene period 
occurs, composed of the detritus of green sand, a material origina- 
ting in the cretaceous epoch. One fossil of the latter formation, 

( Gryphaa vomer,*) is not uncommon among the Eocene fossils. 


- * Ostrea ey Wilson. te 


- Notes on American Geology. 939 


This is at the same time the lightest and most indestructible of 


the cretaceous shells, and therefore the one most likely to be car- 
_ ried unbroken with the detritus of the green sand, 

‘Tt is very evident that a change of the mean temperature of the 
crust of the globe has exerted a marked agency in the destruction 
of one group of animal life and the creation of another; and it 
may be owing to this cause, that the higher the organization, 


the more limited in the geological series are the fossil remains. 


Thus the polyparia | have a higher range than the testacea, and 
the latter than the trilobites, whilst the Enurypterus is still more 


_ limited. The polyp, Cyathophyllum ceratites dates its existence — 


with the lower portion of the Trenton series, or lower transition, 
and extends throughout all the calcareous formations above, even 
imto the mountain or carboniferous limestone ; but the Eurypterus 
is limited to a very insignificant portion of a single formation. 
The fall of temperature has not, as some geologists supposed, 


taken place gradually since the creation of the globe; but every - 


phenomenon in paleontology goes to prove the existence of a cer- 
tain mean temperature during a long period, and a sudden dimi- 

nution of heat at particular epochs.* The change of groups of 
marine animals was not produced or accompanied by any convul- 
sion, powerful enough to cause a violent rush of the oceanic wa- 
ters, as the fossils of one period rest upon and even intermingle 
with those of an earlier date, as if both had lived and died on or 
near the spots where they are now found. The theory of period- 
ical refrigeration alone can explain the sudden extinction of whole 
taces of animals and vegetables. On the supposition that such 
change had resulted from uplifts, which to be reconciled with the 
facts, would necessarily have been sudden, a violent movement of 
the waters would have torn, up the surface after such uplift, which 
_ has not been the case ;- besides, the uplifts would have been each 
extensive as the globe itself; an hypothesis at variance with all 
the phenomena which paleontology and the relative position of 
strata present to our daily observation. Uplifts in great numbers 
have taken place, and many of them were no doubt gradual, as 
must necessarily have been the case where they resulted from 
crystallization of the earth’s crust: others have been sudden, pro- 
duced by volcanic. agency, Sone: rise to debacles, of which we 


* Agassiz, Edinburgh New Philosophical Sourael, April, 1838. 


! 


240 - Notes on American Geology. 


find ample record in breccias, conglomerates, and coarse sand- 
stones. But these formations record only the oscillations of the 
crust at particular periods, not marking the limits of any grand 
geological era, in which we recognize the fossilized remains of 
a peculiar group of marine plants and animals; and it is only by 


the study of such groups, that we are enabled to form a system 


of classification in strata, applicable to every region of the globe. 
The student of geology who has mastered all the rocks and fos- 
sils of England and Wales, limited as the sphere of observation 


may seem, will seldom be at a loss to recognize a fossiliferous: 


formation as an old aerenniaeh whether he may travel in China 
or Peru. 
__ The fall of teaxperitare (so Jeg illustrated by the genius 
of Agassiz) which occurred at the commencement of the “ Di- 
luvial epoch” is so well supported by all the known facts, that 
we feel no hesitation in applying the theory to all the inferior 
grand formations ; indeed it gives us a clew to their obscure histo- 
ry, without which we should study them, hopeless of penetrating 
their mysteries, and believing their origin inaccessible to human 
investigation. The phenomena of the “diluvial epoch” have long 
attracted. peculiar attention, from the many curious and highly 
interesting facts which they embrace, and the great difficulty of 
reconciling them with existing Sep pethencs Enormous angular 
masses, transported perhaps a hundred miles from the parent 
rock, and reposing on sand or-grave] which even a mill stream 
would have swept away; -bid defiance tothe mighty currents 
which so long fl hed.in the imaginations of certain geologists. 


Whence came these floods, and whither did they go? Such . 


gigantic movements would soon have restored the equilibrium 
of the waters; and truly they should have been busy during 
their short reign on earth, to grind down mountains into sand, 
roll into smoothness myriads of siliceous pebbles, plough deep 
trenches in the solid rocks, and polish their surfaces with sand. _ 

The boulders rest usually on sand, gravel, or the natural soil, 
which would necessarily have been swept away, had currents 


transported these huge fragments, leaving them in every instance. 


reposing on indurated strata. ‘The hypothesis of ice-floes bring- 
ing them from the north, floating on the waters of an ocean, am 


depositing them where they are now found, has been supported 


by some of the geologists of the present day ; but this was in 


Notes on American Geology. = 241 


rect opposition to another theory of these same geologists, that a 
higher mean temperature prevailed over the northern regions at 
that period, than now reigns in temperate climes. This would 
not have been the case, all other things being equal, if the north- 
ern half of the continent had been nearly all formed by the ocean, 
notwithstanding the rnean temperature is greatly. modified in the 
same parallel af: latitude; by the } presence or absence of large bod- 
ies of water, rising with the former and falling with the latter 
physical condition of the globe. Whence ‘then this immense 
body of ice, which has scattered boulders over ‘so vast a tract of 
country, appearing too at an epoch subsequent to the extinction 
~ of the mastodon and other mammalia, which evidently lived in 
this region and enjoyed. an equatorial climate anterior to the icy 
. period? Nothing can reconcile this apparent contradiction, but 
: the admission of a fall of temperature far below that which pre- 
vails in our day, freezing the enormous lakes of that period, and 
: converting them into immense glaciers, which probably con 
tinued undiminished during a long series of years. At the same 
_ time, elevations and. depressions of the earth’s surface were in 


f progress, giving various degrees of inclination to the frozen sur- 
| faces of the lakes, down which boulders, sand and gravel would 
; be impelled to great distances from the points of their origin. 

© 'Phis in some cases might result from gravity alone; but in oth- 


ers, during the close of the epoch, when the temperature had 
risen, and avalanches began to descend from the mountain tops, 
and Score numerous less elevated places, there occurred, on a vast 
Scale, the same phenomena which now are familiar to the trav- 
eller among the Alps. Land slides, like that of one of the hills 
bordering the Saco river in. New Hampshire, and avalanches of 
mud, filled with detritus of all sizes, some angular, -as torn from _ 
the surface ‘of the rocks, others-having been rolled in the beds of © 
torrents, would be propelled for many miles over the frozen lakes ; 
and when the ice disappeared, sand, gravel, pebbles and boulders 
would lie promiscuously together. ‘That a considerable elevation 
of land has occurred in some regions subsequent to one of the 
- hewest tertiary _ depositions, is certain, from the occurrence of. 
shells of recent species two hundred feet above the level of the 
S€a., 
. M. Agassiz attributes the polished surfaces of the rocks in Swit- 
zerland to the agency of i ice, a a “ diluvial scratches,” as they 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2 


242 Notes on American Geology. 


have been termed, to sand and pebbles which moving bodies of 
ice carried in their resistless course. In the same manner I would 
account for the polished surface of the rocks in Western New 
York. Running water, carrying sand, gravel, pebbles and boul- 
ders, to which cause this smooth appearance has been generally 
attributed, would not be likely to polish the surfaces of rocks; 
and moreover, where are those circular. cavities, hollowed out by 
whirlpools, the invariable record of bodies of water moving with 
_ the velocity attributed to diluvial floods? - 1 doubt whether any 
can be found on the polished surfaces of the rocks of the Alpine 
regions, or on the vast horizontal floors of Western New York. 
I never observed them in any place where evidence of ancient 
water-falls or rapids was not perfectly conclusive ; and they are 
confined to valleys and the banks of existing ‘anaaros: The 
scratches and grooves, Mr. Hall informs us,-on the rocks border- 
ing the Genesee river, have a direction N. N. E. and 8. 8. W., 
and they therefore probably follow the dip of the stratum, down 
which the ice moved. Nothing is more certain, than that the 
surface of the earth has risen unequally, or that two distant points 
have been uplifted at the same period, one rising to a greater 
height than: the other, while the intermediate space was either 
stationary or depressed. . If a glacier had previously. occupied this 
area, the uplifts would have produced a synclinal line in the ice, 
and pebbles and boulders thus brought from opposite directions. 
Mr. Hall has noticed this phenomenon, but attributes it to the 
agency of opposing currents. He- observes, ‘the presence, in 
locality, of boulders from the north with those from the 
south, proves that opposite forces have eae either at. the 
same or at different periods.’’* 

While granite boulders have-been removed to ‘surprising dis 
tances from the rocks in situ, those of transition limestone and 
sandstone seem never to iad been far removed from the parent 
mass, a fact which harmonizes with the theory of refrigeration. 
The vast thickness of granite, and its corresponding uplift from 
the force of crystallization, has protruded ‘its naked summits 
through the overlying strata, and from these peaks, rising to 
great altitude, replete with parallel fissures, and split and rent by 
the upheaving power, large masses would necessarily fall, © 


= * Geolggical Reports, 1838, p. 308. 


aa 
¥ * 


+ 


- * 
Notes on American Geology. 243. 
when coming in contact with the surface of a glacier; however — 
slightly inclined from the horizon, many of the boulders might 
of course traverse the extreme’ limit of the slope, and without 
losing their angular form ; but the limestone fragments being 
imbedded in.the bottom of the glacier would be only affected in 
position by contraction and expansion of the ice, and the more 
extensive movements caused by its breaking up in melting, 


which would have ample power to wear down the angles d 


these fragmentary rocks. 

Occasionally T have seen the upper rioters rot \inebaaeaa and 
sandstones-broken up, a distance of several feet from the surface, 
but the fragments remain in situ. Now who can imagine such 
an appeararice to result from a current of water? Floods, how- 
ever violent, do not tear up the solid rocks in this manner, and if 
they did, how could these fragments have withstood their force 


and remained unmoved from their original position? Indeed, I 


think it impossible to account for this breaking up of the rocks 


- to a distanee of many feet below ‘the surface, except by the 


agency of intense cold, freezing the water which filled the fis- 
sures, and thus forcing the rocks into tabular fragments, and dis- 
turbing their bosties by the lateral and upward pressure. 


Remarks on_ the Transition or Silurian System. 


_- "The rocks constituting the Transition or Silurian system, have 
been much neglected by geologists, and yet in consequence of 
their embracing the’ remains of the first created beings, and af- 
fording us an insight into the earliest physical condition of the _ 
globe, they have peculiar attractions both for the reason and ima- 
gination : indeed, the facts are colored to the eye of i inexperience 
with all the exaggeration of romance. If we only content our- 
selves patiently to investigate the organic remains, the more they 
are carefully studied do they gain in interest, and prove to be as 
readily classified as any of the later formations, notwithstanding 
their inclined position and disturbed stratification. Without such 
knowledge, every step will be embarrassed, and- years of labor 
may be unprofitably devoted to the subject. An instance of 
error on the large scale may be observed in the second annual. 
report of the geological exploration of Pennsylvania; where the 
hocosian of the Hudson river is confounded with a rock, some-_ 
similar, it is true, in mineral character, which abounds in 


244 Notes oni. American Geology. 


Oswego county and forms the banks of Salmon river. Nota 
ry species of shells or plants is common to’both. The former 
is highly inclined, and on its edges rests unconformably the ¢eal- 
eiferous sandrock of Baton, then follows the sparry limerock of 
~ the same author, with some fossils peculiar to it ; above that the 
limestones and shales of the Trenton series, several hundred feet 
thick, and then the Salmon river sandstone follows in the as- 
cending order. This shows the great danger of error in endeav- 
oring to identify strata over large areas, if we neglect to appeal 
to the evidence afforded by paleontology, and rely too exclu- 
sively upon the ever varying mineral composition of rocks, which 
it is obvious may present similar features in Geape: of widely 
different age. 

The present grand undulations or ‘aclined planes of the sur- 
face of the United States, considered in reference to their broader 
outlines, are owing to the position which the transition have been 
compelled to assume, by the unequal rise of primary chains. This 
has arisen from its vast aggregate thickness and enormous unin- 
terrupted extent. Beginning, as it does, on the border of the. 
"Arctic sea, it extends, in some parts of its range, unbroken by 
"granite peaks, quite to the center of Alabama, while it extends 

east and west, from the Appalachian chain to Engineer canton- 
ment on the Miskouni river. It, therefore, on a rough estimate, 
will be two thousand four hundred miles north and south = one 
thousand four hundred in extent east.and west. 
_ The upheaving force, acting over so vast an area, has only 
‘next the mountain chains greatly disturbed and inclined the strata, 
rere the mass nearly horizontal to the eye, but rising and fall- 
ing in enormously extended, slightly inclined planes and undula- 
tions. It is to the re-entering angles or syuclinat lines of the 
planes that we owe the course of many of our large rivers. East 
of Little Falls on the Mohawk, that river rans many miles in @ 
depression caused by the gentle dip of the strata on the nort 
bank, and their gentle rise on the south. The St. Lawrence 
flows in a profound synclinal line, as may be seen by reference 
to Mr. Emmons’ section in the New York geological reports for 
this year. Dr. Hildreth informs us, that the formations in Ohio 
dip towards the center of the valley of the Ohio river, and as 
they reappear at higher levels in Kentucky, there can be no doubt 
_ a synclinal line has determined the original course of. that river. 


Notes on American Geology. - 245 


These same formations extend through Indiana and Illinois to the 
Mississippi river, with a gentle southwest inclination ; but as we 
ascend the Missouri, we find the strata rise with the ication of 
the land, or slightly dipping to the east. Thus the Mississippi 
flows in a grand depression formed by the rise of the Appalachian 
chain on the east, and-the Rocky Mountains on the west, a syn- 
clinal line, that for the enormous tract of country it occupies, and 
the vast extent of the two inclined planes of which it is the point 
of greatest depression, has no equal on the globe. To this fortu- 
nate geological feature of the country, we owe the gigantic scale 
of the rivers, sweeping thousands of miles through level and fer- 
tile regions, and offering to industry and enterprise sources of 
national wealth and prosperity, far surpassing wal in the records 
of history. 

The immense tract of country which lies between the Missis- 
sippi and the Rocky Mountains, owes its eastward inclination to 
the uplift of that chain, which has risen in the ‘secondary and ter- 
tiary eras to a much greater elevation than the Appalachian range, 


and consequently raising the cretaceous formations, which abound 


high up the Missouri, to a much higher level than they attain on 
the Atlantic coast. 'This was caused solely by the rise of the 
Rocky Mountains, and not assisted by a depression along the 
eastern coast, as Elie de Beaumont supposes, because the occur- 
rence of three tertiary deposits along that line proves, that so far 
from a depression having there taken place, the land has actually 
been upheaved, at the same time that the tertiary rose on the 
shore of the Pacific. This proves that the Appalachian and 
Rocky Mountain chains rose simultaneously to a certain degree 
in the upper tertiary era, and therefore it is not toa see-saw mo- 
tion of the earth’s crust that I would attribute the greater eleva- 
tion of the cretaceous strata towards the Rocky Mountains, but 
to a more rapid uplift of that chain than has taken place in the 
Appalachian range. The greatest elevation of the latter during 
the upper tertiary period seems to have been between two hun- 
dred and three hundred feet, and this only in the northern part 
of the United States, as in the middle and southern States, this 
newest tertiary, which gives the maximum of elevation we have 
stated, does not attain more than ten or fifteen feet above the 
level of the sea. On the coast of California, Mr. Nuttall found 
shells of recent species two hundred feet above the sea. These 


246° Notes on American Geology. 


are so much more remote-from the axis of elevation than the ter- 
tiary shells of New York, that the uplift of the Rocky Mountains - 
must have been far greater a the upper tertiary period than 
was any part of the Atlantic c 
I know not what reason can’ = given for considering the wisoh 
of the transition as one group, as Mr. Rogers has done, when 
with very few exceptions the inhabitants of the seas have been 
destroyed and new creatures succeeded at five distinct epochs, 
and one of these groups is no more to be compared with another, 
than’is the oolite with the green ‘sand formation’; yet each of 
these belongs to a different group in all the systems of geology 
hitherto published. The term, lower secondary, applied by the 
same geologist to the transition system, is equally iAgeeitionstle, 
as it has scarcely a single feature in common with what has . 
erto been termed secondary by all other geologists, and rabies 
an order, not a single series of strata linked together by palzon- 
tological affinities. The term, lower secondary, would be far 
‘More appropriately given to. the strata comprising the magnesian 
limestone, lias, oolite, &c..as upper secondary has. been Acosieg 
used. to designate the cretaceous group. 
Organic Remains of the Transition. - 
No remains of reptiles, nor any impressions of the feet of birds 
or of reptiles, have been found in any of the trilobite rocks of the 
United States ; but fucoids or marine plants abound in the sand- 
stones, many aE which. have a digitate or trilobed form, and by 
the aid of the imagination. could ‘be readily converted into ornt- 
thichnites, or reptile trails. I am far from an intention to discredit 
the science established by Professor Hitchcock, as. his descrip- 
tions apply to more recent strata than the transition, and which I 
have never studied, and his arguments are too ingenious for me. 
to doubt ; but I must be permitted to challenge his ornithichnite, _ 
of which even he is doubtful, in the graywacke of the Hudson 
river,* one of the oldest transition rocks in New York, deposited 
at a period so early that scarcely any small islands dotted the 
boundless waste of waters, and they consisted of naked primary Z 
rocks, bearing neither herb nor animal life. 


* Mr. —— has iden maintained the existence of am ornithichnite in 
_ the graywacke of Hudson valley; he found an impression there, having some 
sigh pare OES the footmarks of the Connecticut valley, and he called this 
ichnite oe . time strong doubts whether it were a real 
footmark.—Epirors 


Notes on American: Geology. 247 


Remains of fish and their coprolites are occasionally found in 
the middle and upper portions of the transition, but the most dis- 
tinguishing feature in the paleontology of the system, are the 
trilobites in nearly all the strata; the vast proportion of Brachi- 
opods among the testacea, consisting chiefly of the genera Orthis, 
Detthyris, and Strophomena or. Lerrana, in the limestones; gi- 
gantic quadrangular fucoids in the sandstones, and small Linsias 
leaf-like fucoids in the slates. These latter first appeared in the 
lower slates, where other organic remains are very rare, but occa- 
sionally trilobites and shells of the genus Strophomena have been 
found, a fact. which induces-me to believe that these two orders 
were twin-born of the primeval seas, and that they were prece- 
ded by vegetable life. Mr. Phillips, in his investigation of the 
English equivalents, has been led to a different conclusion ; but 
England is a limited theatre for the display of the order of suc-— 
cession, which sinks into insignificance. in comparison with the 
colossal development of the transition in North America.. Mr.’ 

’ Phillips observes, “the classes of mollusca are more ancient than 
those of zoophyta, if we trust our present-knowledge, and both 
older than marine or land plants.”* We have, it is true, as yet 
no knowledge of zoophyta in the lower slates, and therefore the 
testacea may be more ancient than they, but marine plants are 
older than either. 

Among the brachiopodous bivalves, the genus Stuphomena of 
Rafinesque is the most characteristic of the trilobite system. Pro- 
ducta has as yet been found only in the upper term, or pyritifer- 

ous rocks of Eaton, where the species are very few and rare. In 
the mountain en above, Strophomena is hardly known, 
but it is crowded with Producta of many species. The latter 
genus, therefore, eminently characterizes thé carboniferous sys- 
tem, with which it ceased to exist. Not a single species of Te 
rebratula occurs in the Silurian system of this country, nor have. 
Iseen one from the carboniferous ; the shells hitherto classed in 

that genus being referrible to Orthis. 

_ Throughout. the transition, we very rarely find any ‘exidenoe 

of fresh-water streams or lakes; which is doubtless owing to the 

Very small proportion of dry land in those periods. The first 
trace of shew in New York is in the red sandstone at Medina, 


¥ 


* Treatise on Geology, p- 289. 


248 Notes on American Gieology. 


in Orleans county. They seem to have existed in a small lake, 


in a basin of some primary island, which was finally drained off | 


by no violent current into the sea. This lake probably occurred 
in Canada, since Mr. Hall has clearly proved that the current 
came from the north, bringing with it fine sand, and running 
over a bed of marine shells, (Lingula cuneata,) which were 
moored by their long peduncles in the sand, and therefore all 
range in one direction, nearly north and south, reminding one ses 
boats riding at anchor in a strong tide. 

I am unacquainted with any other trace of ancient fresh-water 
shells in the transition, except in the carboniferous system, where 
Unios are not uncommon ; but it is remarkable that we do not 
find any which existed étear this period, when there was so great 
an extent of dry land, especially in the tertiary epochs, except 
those which Dr. Hildreth discovered in Ohio. ‘These consist of 
ferruginous casts of Unios, approximating in their forms to exist- 
ing species of that region, and have every appearance of being of 
no older date than the upper tertiary ; but it would be wrong to 
give a decided opinion of their age without further investigation 
of their relative position and analogy to existing types. F'resh- 
water shells, found in the calcareous deposits of modern lakes, 
and even where the water has disappeared, and the basins filled 
up with sand, covered by the soil and original forests of the coun- 
try, all correspond with recent species living in the waters of the 
vicinity ; and these marls, and even the monuments of filled up 
lakes, are common throughout the state-of New York. 

‘One of the most interesting features of the transition is derived 
from the ripple marks, which are generally most conspicuous on. 
the sandstones, but occur also on the slates ; one of the most 
beautiful examples of this action of the waters in shoal places 
upon the unconsolidated materials of rocks, may be~seen at the 
slate quarry on the Delaware river above Easton. The stratum 
dips at a considerable angle. Such appearances are common in 
Europe, and have been noticed in New York, Pennsylvania, Vir- 
ginia, and Ohio.. They are records of the ancient condition of 
the globe, not easily misinterpreted. If there was scarcely any 
dry land at that period, it follows that the univérsal ocean was 
very shallow, its bed even, and the currents, except during the 
oscillations of the crust, by no means violent ; hence, in their 


course over incoherent sand, they left their impress upon it so dis- — 


fo« 


7; 


Notes on American Geology. _ 249 
tinctly, that it is very easy to estimate the comparative force of — 
currents on different strata by the larger or smaller undulations 


they have left behind. One can form an idea of the extent of 


one of these aricient floors of the ocean, when he sees the tipple 
marks, the same rock in mineral composition, and the same or- 
ganic remains in Germany or Wales that he finds in New York ; 
and can imagine how mighty a revolution the crust of the globe 
must have undergone to gain the vast depth of the Atlnatie and 
the elevation of the Andes. ~ 

While on the subject of ‘the transition; it may be nseful to in- 
quire into the relative position of a eabdotone which seems at 
present little understood. It appears on the Hudson, near New- 
burg, and passes under the Palisadoes, reappears in New Jersey 
and Pennsylvania, following the course of the Delaware a dis- 
tance of many miles, and disappears near Trenton; in New Jer- 
sey, where it rests unconformably-upon gneiss. The color of 
this rock i is generallyred, very often with pale waved and con- ~ 
centric stripes ; organic remains are very rare, one or two species’ 
of fucoids being all that I could find, and>they differ from those — 
of any other formation. 'This sandstone has sometimes been con- 


- founded with that of Western New York,-a gross error, arising 


from its general resemblance to'the latter. _Mr. M’Clure regards 
it as a distinct formation, but. terms it old red sandstone. It ap- 
pears to me to be. intimately connected “with the Hudson’ river 
slaty graywacke, probably one passing into the other ; but at all 
events it alternates with Eaton’s calciferons sandrock near Easton, 
a character which identifies it at once with the Potsdam and Es- 


Sex sandstone, described by Professor Emmons as occurring in 


the northeastern séction of New York. - In all cases it rests upon 
primary rocks cand is. the oldest of the fossilliferous formations, 
being under the calciferous sandrock,. and occupying - the same 
position in the geological series as the Cambrian system of Wales, 
described by Mr. Sedgwick. The copper mines of Flemington, 

in New Jersey, belong to this formation. ‘The harder layers 
make excellent building stone, and of this rock the Penitentiary 
near Trenton is constructed. In New York it is one of the most 
common materials for door steps and “basements, .and it is occa- 


_ sionally used as a building material in ringers where iti is 


brought down the Schuylkill river. 
Vou. XXXV.—No..2. 32 


250 Notes on. American Geology. 


wanerte by the Editors: 


Th eelinigih to the difference of opinion between Mr. Conrad and 
Prof. Henry D. Rogers, we take leave to state, that having been 
occasionally in communication on geological subjects with the 
last named gentleman, and knowing his opinions in the present 
case, we presume our much respected correspondent, Mr. Conrad, 
(with whose able. communications this Journal has been, from 
time to time, enriched, ) will be gratified to know the grounds, on 
which Professor Rogers differs from him. Should that gentleman 
choose to give his own explanations, this Journal is, of course, 
open to his communications, and should Mr. Conrad wish it, to 
his rejoinder; but in the mean time, the publie confidence in 
both gentlemen will be increased by being informed, that the pe- 
culiar opinions of each are sustained by appropriate and important 
reasons ; and it is, moreover, very-desirable, that our Baie ee 
should deedeistated each other. 

We proceed then to state, that Professor Rogers, as we have un- 
derstood from himself, has examined, with considerable care, the 
localities designated by Professor Eaton,- where the “ graywacke 
of the Hudson” is said to be highly insdlined, and to have the 


“ caleiferous sandrock” resting unconformably on its edges; and - 


that he has left these places fully satisfied, that the strata, sup- 
posed to belong to two formations of distinct epochs, are, in 
reality, but adjacent beds of one great formation, differing in 
mineral character, and seeming, at first glance, to meet. uncon- 
formably, in consequence of the numerous local ‘irregularities of 
dip, so common to this rock on the Hudson. In other words, he 
regards the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, (the first formation’of 
his report,) as every where lower in geological order, than this 
so called graywacke, which has been traced uninterrupted from 
the Hudson, through New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,, and 
the States Gaadser South as far as Tennessee, every where occu- 
pying the ¢hird place in the ascending series. » 

He supposes he has evidence to show, that a goologiei sec- 
tion, corresponding with a line drawn from the mouth of the 
Susquehanna river, a little east of north, through Pennsylvania: 


and New York, to the country of primary rocks, north of Utica, 


would represent ihe entire series of thirteen formations, described 


7 


_ Notes on American Geology. 251 


- inhis report as occurring in exactly the same order, whether they 


are traced from the uppermost, (the anthracite coal formation,) 


- southward, towards tide water, or northward, to the end of the 


section in New York; and in no instance, in either half of the 
line, was evidence obearyed of any want of conformity between 
adjacent strata. Such a section, where it crossed the Kittatinny 
Valley, would display the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, under- 
lying conformably the metalliferous limerock of the same author, 
and this in turn underlying conformably the graywacke of the 
Hudson, while near its northern. extremity it would exhibit the 
calciferous sandrock.in conformable position below the limestone 
of Trenton Falls, and this again in similar relation, passing under 


‘the foundation of the Salmon river. That such is the state of 


things, Professor Rogers appears to feel satisfied from a careful 
study of the country around both the southern and northern ends 
of this supposed section. He therefore regards the so named 
graywacke of the Hudson as the same with the gray sandstone 
formation of Oswego county. . He considers the argument based 
on the want of identity in the fossils as inconclusive, until it 
shall appear that a large number of species from each formation 
have been compared, and this because he places more confi- 
dence in conclusions drawn from following the rocks themselves 
over wide areas of country, (the only mode by which their true 
order of superposition can be first established, ) than in inferences 
based upon the organic remains, the true significance of which 
can never be known until large groups of species are studied, 
and until the order of superposition“of the strata, the very mat- 
ter under discussion, shall have been previously settled a By inde- 
eee ze 


252 Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experimenis. 


Arr. V.—Magneto-E lectric and Electro-Magnetic Apparatus 
and Eegieat bys Cuares G. Pace, M. D., Weshingtan 
City. 


es Sbtataed from magnetic electrical instruments where the 
galvanic battery i is used as a source of the magnetic power, the 
hope has been entertained by many, that such instruments, would 
prove valuable in a high degree as sources of electrolytic power. 
The present infantile state of the science, shows clearly the fu- 
tility of such a hope, and points directly to an arrangement which 
will place in the hands of the operator an instrument surpassing 
“ entirely the great galvanic. battery i in value and power. ‘Such an 
instrument is the magneto-electric machine. The instrument 


described in the last April* number of this Journal demonstrates, ~ 


by cateful experiment with Faraday’s volta-electrometer, that 
the. electrolytic power of the current from the combined arma- 
tures is just double that of one. The avenue, then, to an jnde- 
finite power, is too obvious to escape notice. Increase the num- 
ber of pairs of magnets, extend the series of armatures upon the 
same shaft, or in any way in which they. may be brought to bear 
on the same terminal pole, and I hazard nothing i in the assertion, 
that for the same prime cord, and contained. in the same space, a 
magneto-electric instrument can be made of equal, power to a 
galvanic battery of one thousand pairs of plates. It is evident, 
that there will not ‘be that rapid. diminution with the extension 
of the series which obtains in the _ galvanic arrangement, for in 
the magneto-electric machine the whole route of the current is 
through solid conductors, and in the galvanic battery, through a 
great extent of liquid and numerous soldered and imperfect joints. 
Nothing but the want of means has restrained me from erecting 
a magneto-electric machine, which J feel confident would rival 
the largest galvanic battery in existence. The arch of light 
would be obtained by disposing one set of armatures at right 
angles to the other, so that while one gavea diminishing cur- 
rent, the other would afford a current. increasing in the same 
ee while one set was in the neutral _ the other would 

be at the point of strongest action. 


“ 


* Vol. xxx1v, p. 163. 


a or the sparks, and the extreme intensity ie 


Binsreégnitc:depmeasis wit Bipwinatia, 8Y 


Having asserted thus much of the magneto-electric ‘machine, 
it will be necessary to allude briefly to the objections to machines 
for saan ate na where the galvanic battery i is the primum 
mobile. 


First. _The opposing currents produced € at and break~ 
ing the battery circuit cannot be separated, or rather cannot be 
united to form one current. In the magneto-electric machine, 
the alternating currents are made. ta flow. in the” same direction 
by the pole changer, or more. ! nection, the wni- 
trep. Asit is desirable that every distinct and useful apparatus 
should have an appropriate name, f have ‘selected the term Uni- 
trep, as short, and descriptive of the use of this part of the mag- 
—heto-electric machine. This important addition to the machine. 
appears to be beyond: simplification, consisting merely of two 
nearly half cylindrical pieces of metal, rivetted or secured in any 
manner to the circumference of a small disc of wood or ivory, 
and insulated from each other. Itsuse, as the name Unitrep 
implies, is to convert, or turn contrary currents. into one com- 
mon channel. 

Secondly.—In the galvanic an machines, a 2 
tro-chemical effects can be obtained (to any considerable degree) 
only by distinct impulses, occurring at each rupture of the cir- 

cuit. 'These- impulses or secondary currents closely resemble a 
common electrical discharge, and are of too short duration to 
allow the particles of the substances to be decomposed to assume 
definite polar arrangement. Nor-can the circuit be broken rap- 
idly to any advantage ; for in the first place, the full magnetiza- 
tion of the iron requires appreciable time, and, secondly, the. 
flowing of the secondary through a completed circuit, weakens _ 
itself by re-magnetizing the bar: (this will be spoken of-in fu- 
ture.) In the pwre magneto-electric machine, water is decompo- 
sed far more rapidly by the continuous current than by breaking 

‘the circuit, by the primitive than the secondary current. The 

secondary furnishes the most powerful shocks, but the primitive 
possesses the greatest decomposing power. 


_ Compound E lectro- Magnet and Electrotome for Shocks, 
Sparks, Se. 
In the late numbers of Sturgeon’s Annals, I iin that Mr. 
Bachoffner has introduced the bundle of wires as superior to the 


254  Ellectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 


solid bar for reaction upon the coil wires. Mr. Bachoffner proba- 

used this compound arrangement before myself, as I made 
the discovery February 14th, 1838. Mr. Bachoffner remarks, © 
“that it is necessary to iicealete the wires of the bundle, and that 
it is difficult to understand their action, as the magnetic power is 
not so great as that of a solid bar.” In every experiment hith- 
-erto tried, I have invariably found the magnetic power to be 
greater than that of a solid bar of the same weight. I have 
never found it necessary to insulate the wires to insure their ope- 
ration, although I would not say that a very careful insulation 
might not improve their operation. For I apprehend that in the 
development and return of magnetic forces; electrical currents are 
excited in the body of the magnet at ri right angles to its axis, aS 
well as in the wires surrounding the magnet. In this case the 
exterior portion of the — would act asa closed circuit upon 
the interior. . - 

By a closed circuit is meant a FLOWING socuchlan’ current, 
which has the effect to re-magnetize the bar after the primitive 
battery current has ceased to act. That the operation of these 
secondary closed. circuits has never yet been considered in the 
construction’of machines, will appear from the agg facts 
and practical observations. . 

First.—Enclosing a compound* slonevacegent in .a tube of 
metal, almost entirely prevents the formation of secondary cur- 
rents in the exterior wires, although by this arrangement the 

tic power is not perceptibly affected, with the exception, 
that its development requires more time.t .'The short and com- 
plete right angle currents in the metallic casing have a greater 
magnetizing power than the secondary of an extended and © 
lique coil of wire. Hence, after the battery current ceases, the 
chief portion of the secondary will flow in this short’circuit, and 
the magnetism of the bar be prolonged to a perceptible degree, 
and if it were possible to break this. closed circuit immediately 
after the battery circuit, a secondary and tertiary current would 
be observed from the coil of wire. This ¢ertiary circuit I have 
perceived 3 in another way. 


* Or a common single ~— 
t The increase of ti e- nocewazy to effect the full development of magnetism, 
is due to the femclian of the initial secondary flo owing against the battery current. 


Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 255 


Secondly.—Insulate the metallic casing from the magnet, and 


divide it throughout its length, so that the secondaries cannot 


pass, and the coil wire will now exhibit the full power of - 
seconda 

Thirdly,  Sanoutid an Sidiacotangues writt an entire metallic 
casing, exterior to the coil wires, and the secondary of the wires 
will be depreciated as before.. Split the casing as s before, and 
the secondary will again have full power. —- 

Fourthly. —Brass rings or straps surrounding the aoa of mag- 
nets or armatures for magneto-electric experiments, detract from 
their value by the action of closed circuits. 

Fifthly.—T he brass cheeks which are frequently used upon the 
armatures of magneto-electric machines for supporting the coil 
Wires, materially impair the power of such machines. These 
cheeks should in all cases be candle of wood, ivory, or some non- 
conducting substance. 

Sixthly—A metallic casing which entirely envelops: a U 

magnet or armature, cannot convey closed circuits, as each 
of the casing would transmit currents in opposite directions. Con- 
sequently, (as I have proved by repeated experiments, ) the secon- 
dary of the coiled wire is not in the least impaired by this ar- 
rangement. 
i The following scpelheats were tried with a view to ascertain 
if electrical currents were excited in the body of the magnet it- 

self. A hollow magnet was wound and tried ; the secondary 
current was not so great as that frem a solid bar ‘of the same di- 
ameter. Singular as it might at first sight appear, the insertion 
or filling. up of this hollow magnet with a rod of soft iron or a 
bundle of iron wires, did not in the least exalt the force of the 
secondary. This result accords exactly with that of a similar 
experiment by Mr. Bachoffner. I then rolled upon a cylinder of 
wood a piece of sheet iron, not permitting its edges to meet. It 
was then surrounded with three layers of coiled wire and tried, 
and the augmentation of the secondary was greater than that 
produced by the entire hollow magnet, which was of much 
thicker metal. But when the cylinder of wood was withdrawn, 
and its place supplied with a bundle of fine iron wires, the sec- 
ondary was increased to a very great degree, and the whole ap- 
peared to be equally powerful with a compound magnet of the 
same size.- It should be observed particularly, that when the 


256 Hlectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 


hollow magnet was entire, the insertion of an iron rod or bundle 
of wires produced no effect. From these experiments I think. 
the existence of secondary currents flowing in the body of the 
magnet may be very plausibly inferred. If actually determined, 

the fact would prove important, and is well worth pursuing. I 
soldered two wires to the edges of the enclosed sheet of iron, 
atid connected them with a galvanoscope, but could not perceive 
any effect upon the needle. But as the instrument was by no 
means delicate, the experiment may be regarded as valueless. 

Having no opportunities at present of pursuing the investigation, 

I hope that the subject may receive dus attention from these 
who may be interested. 

The following striking experiments afford still further illustra- 
tion of the action of closed secondary circuits. 

Experiment 1st.—Place a straight electro-magnet upon a large 
flat spiral of copper, in the direction of a radius of the spiral. 
When the spiral is connected with the battery, the magnet be- 
comes charged, and a secondary current in its wires is the conse- 
quence. Break the battery: connexion with the spiral, and ex- 
amine by the common tests the power of the secondary from the 
magnet. Again, break the circuit from mercury covered with oil, 
and the secondary from the magnet will now be found stronger 
than in the first case. When the circuit is broken over clean 
mercury, the secondary flowing through the heated vapor and air, 
acts asa closed circuit to prolong the magnetism of the spiral, 
and thus prevent a sudden and entire thfinence upon the magnet. 
When the mercury is covered with oil the secondary is arrested, 
and the magnetism suddenly ceasing, exerts its whole influence 
upon the magnet, or rather the magnetism of the bar ceases’ with 
that of the spiral. The same phenomenon is well illustrated by 
the electro-magnet alone, where the fine wire is a of 
the large. 

Experiment 2d.—The reciprocal action of the sieeid snout of 
the magnet itself upon the secondary of the spiral is more re- 
markable. Break the battery connexion with the spiral over 
clean mercury, when the ends of the wire’on the magnet are 
disjoined, and observe the spark ; join now the ends of the mag- 
net wire, and on breaking the battery circuit the spark from the _ 
spiral will be diminished... The manner in which the closed cir- 
cuit operates here, will be more sae understood from, 


Eilectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Eoperiments. 257 


Experiment 3d.—Bring one extremity of-the magnet used in 
the foregoing experiment in contact with one pole of the magnet 
of a common magneto-electric machine. As this disguises a por- 
tion of the magnetism, the amount of electricity developed by 
the revolution of the armature will of course be diminished. 
While working the machine the magnetic state of the electro- 
magnet will vary with the approximation and recession of the 
armature, and a current of electricity in its wires will be the con- 
sequence. When the current from the armature is broken or not 


- suffered to flow at all, the current from the electro-magnet will be 


much. stronger than when the circuit from the armature is con- 
stantly complete. When the armature is leaving the magnet, 
the flowing current or elosed circuit magnetizes the armature and 
consequently disguises more of the power of the inducing mag- 
net, than when the armature leaves without the closing of the 
circuit. . The consequence is a detraction of magnetic power 
from the electro-magnet. Also, breaking the circuit from the 
armature under oil, increases the current from the electro-mag- 


- het. 


_ Experiment Ath. me the ends of the wire coiled on one leg 
of the curved armature of a common magneto-electric machine, 
and allow the coil fromi the other leg to be connected with the 
break piece, as usual. As long as the circuit of the first coil is 
closed, the second coil will furnish scarcely.any electricity ; but 
when the circuit of the first coil is opened, the second furnishes 
nearly as much electricity as the combined current from both 
coils. This singular fact first called my attention to the great 
advantage of short,, straight armatures, for the magneto-electric 
machine. Obviously, the best arrangement for straight arma- 
tures, would be that wherein they revolved between the. ends of 
the magnetic poles, the axis or shaft being parallel to the legs of | 
the magnets. ‘The points gained by this plan would be, a more 


‘uniform and powerful current, and an exact division by the Uni- 


trep of the semicircular: routes through which the alternating 
currents are developed. In the machine described in Vol. 

xxxiy, p. 164, of this Journal, and in all others where the axis of 
motion is perpendicular to the plane of the magnet, if the two 
routes in which, the opposite currents are developed be represented 
by two ares of a circle drawn through the two neutral points, 
that are towards the bend of the magnet will be much the longer, 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. : 


258 Ellectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 


and represents a feebler current than the shorter arc. ‘The only 
objection to this arrangement is the extra room it requires.~ 


Figure 1. 


Figure 1, represents a. new form of apparatus, consisting of a 
compound cleetro-magnet and . electrotome ; completed April, 
1838. a, isan ivory cheek or head, through the center of which 
appear the extremities of the wires composing the magnet. 4, 0’, 
two brass straps confining the magnet to the base board. ¢, ¢; 
the battery connexion for the large wires, which are terminally 
soldered to the cups with the binding screws, the soldered con- 
nexion being underneath the base board. d, d, are the fine wire 
terminations, the solderings being out of sight, underneath: the — 
base board. The movable part of the apparatits, e, f, 2, fh, &; is 
the electrotome. e, is a stout copper wire, passing through the 
shaft k. One satiny of this wire dips into the mercury CUP, 
oe the top of which is of glass for exhibiting the spark ; the 

base of brass is soldered to the brass strap b’, At the other ex- 
tremity of e, isa small ball of iron, (g,) which, being attracted 
by the magnet, gives motion to the eleetrotome. © It is proper to 
remark here, that the sphere of iron, g, is not attracted by the 
magnet with the same force as would be a piece of iron of ovoid 
form, or what would prove still better, a cylindrical piece, the 
length of. whose axis was considerably greater than its diameter. 


Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 259 


h, is a short piece of copper wire epldensd to e, and distending 
into the mercury cup n, which is soldered to the brass strap 6. 

The brass ball J, is movable on the projecting screw 0, and serves 
as a regulator to the vibrations of the electrotome. The circuit 
traversed by the galvanic current is as follows. From the peg e, 

by the dotted line to the brass strap ’, thence through m, e, h, n, 

b, to one of the large wire terminations. The other termination 
of: the large wires surrounding the magnet, is soldeted to a cup: 
connected with & When the galvanic circuit is ‘completed, the 
magnet attracts the ball ¢, and raises e from m, producing a bright 
spark at m, and a powerful shock from d, d ; e, then falls by its own 
weight, re-establishes the connexion, and thus the vibration con- 
tinues. On the side of the ball 2, towards the pole of the mag- 
net, is fastened a piece of brass, or other non-magnetic substance, 

to prevent the adhesion of the ball to the magnet. The tips of 
the wires h, m, should ‘be tinned before use. In all cases, tin- 
ning, or covering - with soft solder the extremities of wires for 
connexions, and dipping them into mercury, will be found ‘a 
much more preferable mode of amalgamating, than the usual 
practice of dipping them into nitrate of mercury, as they pre- 
serve their brightness. a greater aa of time. 


- Circular Galvariometers. 


Figures 2and 3, represent two new forms of galvanometers, 
which are found to possess some advantages over other forms in 
common use. The whole appearance of this instrument, (though 
a trivial consideration ,) is somewhat in its favor for purposes of 
general exhibition toa class. a, fig. 2, is the magnetic needle © 
suspended by its centre on a fine point. The needle is made of - 
Watch spring, and bent into a form coneentrie with the coil ¢. 


7 


The distance between the poles of the needle is about one six- 


teenth of an inch more than the width of the coil. The coil ¢, 
of insulated copper wire, is fastened by strong cement to the pil- 
lard. p,m, are the terminations of the coil passing into the mer- 
“eury cups on the stand. _'The coil is made of a number of strands 
of wire in lieu of a continuous wire. Galvanometer coils are 
ustially made of too fine wire, and of a single wire of too great 


~a length. M. Pouillet, in his late investigation of the general 


law of the intensity of currents, has shown that derivation made 
upon a. _— current from an elementary battery, strengthens 


260° = Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 


_ Figures 2-and 3. 


Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. - 261 


that primitive current. By derivation is meant, the addition of 
another wire to any portion of the primitive circuit, The simple 
solution of the fact is, that derivation, or the addition of another 
wire, increases the conducting power of the circuit. Professor J. 
Henry’ s discovery of the method of increasing the power of the 
electro-magnet by winding upon it several short coils of wire, is 
a most striking practical illustration of this law. M. Pouillet has 
also arrived at the conclusion, that the” intensity of the current 
produced by a single element, is in an inverse proportion to. the 
real length of the circuit, The adoption of the several strands 
in the galvanometer seems therefore to be plainly indicated, and . 
experiment fully warrants it. 5, fig. 2, isa graduated circle of 
ivory for marking the deviations of the needle. _ Since the con- 
struction of the instrument, fig. 2, I have adopted the plan rep- 
resented in fig. 3, which is much to be preferred on account of 
its simplicity of construction, and the perfect | steadiness of the 
needle. ¢, is the coil cemented upon the stand d; b,a graduated 
- gone surrounding the coil. p and-», the wire terminations. a, 
the circular needle of watch spring, with a very delicate upper 
bearing at c, and a slender pivot at a, resting upon an agate centre 
cemented to the coil. As this needle is not liable to any mechan- 
~ ical displacement, it may come very near the coile. The por- 
tion of the circle between the two lines. at a, which bears the 
ret, is of brass. a 


Double Ae Sor Inducing Magnetism. 


Figure 4, represents an apparatus contrived January Lith, 1838, 
for exhibiting the magnetic forces of the centre of the helix. a, a, 
are the two helices of five layers of wire, protected by brass ca- 
sings, (split on the under side,) and by ivory heads, ¢,¢,¢,¢. b, b, 
are two curved bars of soft iron which slide readily into the he- 
lices. 0,0, the handles for pulling, furnished with ball and socket 
joints at 0, 0, to prevent the magnets being twisted or wrenched. 
The wire terminations of the helices pass through the openings 
in the brass casings, underneath the base board, and are soldered 
‘to the serew cups p, 7, for battery connexions. The attractive 
force manifested by this arrangement in the centre of the helices, 
is much greater than when an armature is applied at the extrem- 
ities. A small apparatus of this kind will resist the ‘Strength of 
two stout men pulling by the handles. This makes a very pretty 


262 Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments, 


arrangement for a reciprocating electro-magnetic engine, there 
being no change of poles, as the motion is effected by an ar- 
rangement shown in the two next figures. This form of en- 
gine will be described in a future article. 


oe Revolving Armature. 
_ Figure 5, represents an instrument invented in February, 1838, 
for exhibiting motion by magnetism without change of poles. 


Figure 5. 


nN 


IEEE 


y/ nee 
ALLTEL ATTT 


(aa 
Wi 


This instrument was the foundation of a series of experiments, 
made with reference to the mechanical application of magnetism, 
which will be published with drawings in a future communica- 


Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments, 263 


tion. m, is the electro-magnet. a, the armature of soft iron. 


is an.upright stem of brass, to receive and make the bourition of : 


the shaft of the armature. , is a disc of wood-or ivory to brace 
the upright ‘stem e. -¢, is oné termination-of the magnet. coil,- 
Serving as‘a conducting spring. d, is the other conducting spring 
passing through. the fia b, into the cup 2, for battery connexion. 

The other termination of the magnet wires passes into the cup p. 

At c, d, firmly fixed to the shaft, is a cylindrical piece of silver, 
which may: be. technically called the cut-off, or electrotome. 

The spring c, plays upon the whole portion of the cut-off. “The 
spring d, plays upon the dissected part, whose metallic ibislone 
are so arranged that they shall come into contact with the spring 
d, when the armature is a little inclined from right angles to the 
plane of the magnet, and leave spring.d, before the armature ar- 
rives at equilibrium. This armature revolves much faster than 


would a magnet changing its poles. “Besides the advantage of 


greater simplicity, the revolving armature. possesses advantages 
which cannot be gained by change of poles, or by revolving 
magnets, where the power is only cut off without a change of 
poles. Suppose another electro-magnet to be placed at right an- 
gles to the magnet m, in the figure, and the cut-off so arranged 
that the two magnets shall be charged in succession by the revo- 
lution of the armature. The velocity of the armature will thus 
be nearly doubled without the addition of more battery, for the 
points of action are doubled, and’ only one magnet charged at a 


time. _ This same plan admits of enlargement‘on any scale, only 


with the alteration of the mode of revolution. If electro-mag- 
netism should ever be introduced for smatl powers, such as turn- 
ing lathes, &e. it probably will be effected by — the See 
or vibrating armature machines. 

si ‘Reciprocating Armature Engine. 

Figure 6, represents an electro-magnetic engine with vibrating 
or reciprocating armatures. a, a, are the electro-magnets, firmly 
secured to the base board and the wooden table ¢. 5, b, are the 
armatures of soft iron connected with the shaft (¢) by stout brass 
arms. The balance beam, connecting rods, and balance wheel, 
represented in the figure, require no particular description. The 
cut-off by which the magnets are alternately charged, is on the 
shaft of the balance wheel at m. It is simple in construction, 


264 Hlectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 


made of silver, and similar to the one described for the revolving 
armature. ‘There are three conducting: springs tipped with sil- 
ver, one playing upon the whole portion, and two upon the dis- 
sected portion of the cut-of.. 'The connexions of the magnet 


Figure 6. 


(= 
550 
p , 


CCT 
68 
2a 
ICC 


| 


Cenc 
\ A 


ee aa 


wires with the springs and cups p, n, for battery connexion, are 
made .under the base boards, and are marked by the dotted lines. 
Several of these engines have been made by Mr. Daniel Davis, 
Jr., philosophical instrument maker, of Boston; and are beautiful 
working models. Asa proof that electro-magnetism is suscep- 
tible of useful application where only a small power is wanted, 
a’small engine was made by Mr. Davis in the month of July last, 
by the aid of which, an individual gains fifteen dollars: per day 
by the simple operation of drilling the steel plates for gas burn 
ers. I think this may be considered the first instance in which 


i ae 
rf 
| a 


Llectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 265 


the mechanical. application of electro-magnetism has been turned 
to profitable account. This engine is to undergo considerable 
alteration and improvement, when a eens and eating of 
it will be published. 

That much remains yet to be atetaion! concerning the most 
ddveditayinad form and size of magnets and armatures, will appear 
from the following observations made during last October, while 
on a visit in Boston. 

First: it is possible to present a piece of soft iron to the most 
powerful magnet in such a manner that it will not be attracted 


in the least by the magnet. re 


Ei xperiment.—Drill a hole in the center of the pole of an elec- 
tro or permanent magnet, to admit a small sliding rod of brass. 
To one end of this sliding rod, fasten a small disc of soft iron. 
The diameter of the disc must be less than that of the pole of 
the magnet, and the thickness or axis of the disc, must be con- 
siderably less than its own diameter. Put the sliding rod in its 
place, and if the disc of soft iron be exactly parallel to the face 


- of the magnetic pole, if will not be attracted by it, be the magnet 


never so strong. If the disc isin ‘the least’ inclined from paral- 
lelism, it will be attracted by the magnet. The experiment will 
appear more satisfactory if varied in the followmg manner. Place 
the disc of soft iron, with its’sliding rod, in a frame, and place 
the magnet on a rest, so that its position can be varied; the same 
results will follow as before. Again: put the disc, without its 
silding rod, on the center of a large magnetic pole, and it will 


_ slip down to the edge of the pole, and there adhere. Again: 


sprinkle iron filings on a piece of paper laid over the end of a 
bar magnet ; the filings will cluster over the pole around a va- 
cant space at its center. Again: drill out the disc of iron so as 


to make a ring, whose width is greater than its thickness, and 


present it to the magnet in the same manner as the disc, and the 
ring will be attracted by the magnet. It appears from this, that 
the disc, though magnetized by induction is polarized in a radial 
direction, and the forces counteract, or disguise each other’s in- 
fluence upon the magnetic pole. When the diameter of the disc 
is greater than that of the magnetic pole, there cannot be this 
counterpoise of forces. When the disc is inclined to the face of 
the magnetic pole, it becomes polarized in the direction of an 
oblique line, joining that part of the disc in contact with the 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 34 | 


266 laaa aan Apparatus and. E'xperiments. 


magnet, anit that point most remote from the’ point of ‘contact. — 
These experiments throw some light upon a fact which, though 
Jong since known, does not seem to have been understood ; viz. 
an armature which entirely subtends the poles of a U magnet, will 
hot sustain so great a weight as one which covers only about one 
third of each pole. If the surface of the armature be flat, it will 
not be held so firmly as if spherical, presenting much fewer 
points. If the armature be flat and broad, that portion over .the 
pole may be considered inthe light of the soft iron disc. Nu- 
merous holes in an armature do not sensibly interfere with its 
adhesion. A piece of soft iron was first suspended from a single 
pole, with just'as much weight as it would hold. It then had 
several large holes drilled through it, taking away a large portion 
of its substance, and was again tried; the induced magnetic 
power appeared to be.as great as thenagh the entire piece. ‘This 
doubtless would not be true to any extent, although the proper- 
ties of the armature are not perceptibly affected by a hole through 
its center, yet if a steel, or soft iron rod, be passed through. this 
hole, its inductibility will be greatly impaired. This fact should 
be particularly observed in the construction of magneto-electric, 
and electro-magnetic. machines, where a steel, or iron shaft, is 
often allowed to pass through an armature or magnet. If, while 
the armature is suspended by one end to a single pole, a piece of 
soft steel is drawn through the hole in its center, the steel be- 
comes properly and permanently polarized ; but if, while the ar- 
mature is thus in contact with the magnet, the steel rod be passed 
half its length through the hole, and Seiaraiued j in that situation, 
both its extremities will be found to be similar poles. 

In the management of electro-magnetic engines, it is worth 
observing here, that a greater power is always obtained by using 
a compound, instead of a Single battery, provided the series does 
not exceed.‘two. As the elementary battery has always been 
considered as possessing the greatest dynamic, ot magnetic power; 
this species of battery has been preferred for application to elec- 
tro-magnetic machines. I-have invariably found that two pairs 
of plates, arranged as a compound series, connected with an elec- 
__ tro-magnetic engine, or any apparatus for electro-magnetic rota- 
tions, produce a velocity nearly double that given by the same 

surface used as an elementary battery. If the series extend be- 
yond two, the magnetizing pare diminishes, although the a 


Eilectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 267 


at the break pieces are brighter. Tn all cases where motion is 
duced by the galvanic ¢ it, it must meet with considerable re- 
sistance, either from secondary “ currents or from the breaks in the 
circuit. ‘The compound current probably has a greater velocity 
than an elementary current, and meets with less resistance from 
opposing secondaries and passing breaks. 

Vibrating Armature. 


Figure 7, represents a vibrating armature, to be used as an 
electrotome, in connexion with an apparatus: affording sparks ¢ or 
shocks. 6, is a small electro-magnet, (of the actual size given in 


Figure 7. 


ANG, 


a 


the figure,) and covered with only a single coil of wire, so as not 
to detract much from the power of. the instrument with which it 
ds used. a, aslender iron wire for an armature, suspended on a 
delicate shaft. 0, is a connecting wire of eopper fixed to one end 
of the armature, joining the mercury in the two cups d and e. 

and n, are the terminal cups for connexions. The connexions 
‘between the cups and the ends of the magnet wire, are made 
under the base board, and marked by the dotted lines. The cup 
€, is of glass, or very thin ivory, to exhibit the illumination from 


268 Description of some new Shells. 


the spark. When the battery circuit is complete through the in- 
strument, the end 0, of the armature is raised by the magnet, the 
connexion is broken at ¢, and the end 9, falls by its weight, again 
rises, thus giving a rapid succession of sparks at c.. The extrem- 
ities-of the armature are wound with a little sewing silk, or thread, 
to prevent their retention by the magnet. 

Washington, November 13th, 1838. 


Arr. VI.—Description of some new Shells ; by SERIA Tappan, 
Steubenville, Ohio. 


Pror. Keccining —I send for publication in the Journal of Sci- 
ence the following descriptions of some shells found in Ohio, 
which are believed to be new. 


“Unio Sayn, ‘Ward. Plate IIL. Fig. " 


Shell - sub-rhomboidal, inequilateral, transverse, compressed ; 
valves thin, beaks slightly prominent and divergingly wrinkled ; 
cardinal teeth oblique, single in the right and double in _ left 
valve ; lateral teeth slightly curved ; nacre ‘white. 

Hab. Walnut creek and Ohio patie, near Circleville. W. H. 
Price. My cabinet ; cabinets of Dr. Kirtland, R. Buchannan, 
Esq., B. Tappan, A. Binney, Esq. Dr. Gould, Dr. Jay, Col. Tot- 
ten, d&oc., &c. 

Diam. 1. Length 1.60. Breadth 2.80. =f 

Shell inequilateral, transverse, sub-rhomboidal, compressed ; 
posterior and superior margins wectilinees). basal margin curved, 
anterior margin regularly rounded. Valves thin, translucent. 
Beaks slightly prominent, incurved and divergingly wrinkled, 
placed near the anterior margin., Umbonal slope sub-carinate, 
carina somewhat elevated. Ligament long, narrow, nearly straight 
and partially concealed. Epidermis-pale yellow, inclining to cu- 
preous on the umbos; glabrous, with indistinct capillary rays of 
a lighter color extending over the whole disk ; lines of growth 
black, and very distinct ; two faintly imapeniene lines diverging 
from under the points of ie beaks and extending to the posterior 
Basal margin. Cardinal teeth very oblique, not prominent, single 
in the right and double in the left valve, slightly crenate ; lateral 
teeth lamellar, one curved. Anterior cicatrices distinct, poste- 


Description of some new Shells. —— 


rior tipmSinent: dorsal situated horizontally across the cavity of the 
beaks and distinct; cavity of the beaks shallow and rounded ; 
nacre white, siptily iridescent over the entire surface of the 
valve, with faintly impressed strie or rays diverging from the 
cavity of the beaks, and eeraing to the basal margin. Inhab- 
itant unknown.” 

The above eas: is s by Doct, Charles J. Ward, of Roscoe, 
Ohio. 


“ PaLupina “METEROSTROPHA, Kirtland. Plate Il. Fig. 2. 


PSinietral, aperture more than half the length of the shell. 

Shell sub-globose, ovate ; spire depressed, apex generally trun- 
eate ; whorls five; aperture ovate, with its superior extremity 
eurved towards the body whorl, within bluish white ; epidermis 
greenish horn color, usually coated with ferruginous day, Length 
three quarters of an inc 

This shell fagiangheo oecurs in Mill and Yellow creeks, tribu- 
taries of the Mahoning river. 1 formerly considered it a mere 
variety of the P. decisa of Say; but on further examination find 
it to be specifically distinct. It never attains more than half the 
length of that species; its spire Is never Se ang it is al- 
ways heterostrophal.” 

» I am indebted to Doct. J. P. Kirtland be the foregoing de- 
scription. 
- Puysa ‘Sinn, nobis. Plate III. Fig. 3. 


Shell sinistral, ovate; color brownish yellow, or chestnut ; 
whorls five; the first large, the others small, terminating in on 
acute dark besgen apex; aperture large, four fifths of the length 
of the shell ; translucent ; length one inch, breadth seven tenths 

_of an inch. 

I first found this shell, May, 1837, ina small lake called Lake © 
Pipin, which is situated about fifty rods from the Cuyahoga river, 
in Franklin township, Portage county, Ohio, (the same locality 
where was found the Anodonta Pipiniana of Lea.) All the shells 
of this species hitherto found were dead, although much time was 
spent in examining for live ones in May, 1837, and in June, 1838. 
A few only were found, and are in the cabinets of Mrs. Say, 
Ue Kirtland, Doct. Ward, and myself, 


270 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 


- The shell- here published as the Unio Sayii, in honor of the 
ist American conchologist, has been supposed by Mr. Lea to be 
“a middle aged camptodon of Say,” and by Mr. Conrad and 
some others, to be the declivis of Say. Without entering into a 
minute comparison here, let those who have the Unios campto- 
don and declivis of Say and this shell, compare them with each 
other, and they will be compelled to agree that they are three dis- 
tinct and well marked species. Those who have not the shells 
to compare, will arrive at the same conclusion, by a careful com- 
parison of the drawings of the declivis, plate 35, of the American 
Conchology ; of the camptodon, plate 42, of the same work ; and 
the drawing, No. 1; herewith given: all by the same accurate 


~ and skillful hand. ° In general, the western conchologists adopt 


t 


Mr. Lea’s classification and nomenclature of the Naiades, with 
perhaps but one exception, the mytiloides, which they are not 
able to find in Rafinesque’s © Monocrapu. But in dissenting 
from his opinion in this instance, and calling the Unio Sayii a 
new and undescribed ‘shell, the opinion of Dr. Ward is supported 
by all those conchologists; nor does it seem probable to them that 
Mr. Lea would have called it a camptodon, or Mr. Conrad and 
ie a declivis, if they had carefully examined many a 


Arr. VIL—On. the employment of Uvularia perfoliata as 4 
remedy for Poisoned Wounds ; by Bensamin Horner CoaTEs, 
ied D., — peysiciat to the Pennsylvania Hospital. = 


Read béford the Paes rae par heig of Natural Sciences, Aug. 14, 1838, as a 


ommur ication, not intended for their Journal. 


Wane at Pottsville, in July, 1838, I was called ‘upon to visit 
a girl about five years of age, alleged to have been bitten by a rat- 
tlesnake, but as it afterwards appeared, probably bya copper-head, 
(Trigonocephalus contortrix.) When Isaw the patient, three hours 
had elapsed ; but the parent, an intelligent man, stated that the 
pain produced by the bite had greatly abated dindet the applica- 
tion of a plant obtained from the forest, and applied bruised and 
moistened with salted vinegar. Although crushed, the plant ap- 
peared on inspection, to be the Uvularia perfoliata ; and its identity 
was afterwards verified by fresh specimens obtained for me by 4 


Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 271 


gentleman attached to the Delaware coal company, but who has 
forbidden me.to use his name. No other remedy of a nature cal- 
culated to diminish pain appeared to have been employed, unless 
a tight and hard ligature above the knee be considered such. 
This, however, appeared to me rather to increase than diminish 
the sufferings of the wounded individual. I apprehend, further, 
that the pain produced by. the bite of a copper-head does not.in 
general, terminate in so-short a period as three hours, and that 
the amount of pain relieved exceeded that usually experienced 
from the application of cold and wet substances, as mud, &c. to 
| envenomed stings. Under these circumstances, the case seemed 
p to possess a certain weight in favor of the real usefulness of this 
antidote.- The details of the narrative will be appehded to the 
present notice. 

. The gentleman already alluded to, had known it to be previ- 
ork employed in two cases with apparent success; in the first 
of which, it was applied by an old’ Indian to the bite of a rattle- 
snake near the shoulder of a boy. ~ 

I observe in the Medical Flora of Prof. Roknesine that the 
different species of Uvularia, particularly the perfoliata and grandi- 
flora, are set down as “said to be equal to Hieracium nervosum 
Frénesam] in bites of rattlesnakes ;” and to the Hieracium he 
3 elsewhere (p. 228) gives a high character. I am ignorant from 

what sources Mr. Rafinesque derives his information relative to 
. the powers of the Uvularia, unless it is from the following passa- 
ges in Schepf, p. 40: “vis,—maturans, aperiens: usws,—radix 
aqua contusa ad-vulnera Caudison, aliaque vulnera et ulcera. 
Herbee decoctum ad inflammationem oris, laryngis, tonsillarum.” 
T From its affinities, it may be reasonably supposed to possess active 
properties ; Dr. Lindley placing it with Veratrum, Helonias and 
, and Dr. Torrey, near Medeola and Trillium. When 
chewed, it afforded but little saaslag, with a bitterish taste, and 
produced a strong sialagogue effect, pn a scarcely perceptible 
nausea. 

Upon summing up this evidence fam me aad: to believe, that a 
certain degree of probability attaches to the ascription of remedial 
virtues to this plant in cases of envenomed wounds. If we add 
together the observations at Pottsville, the statements of Professor 
_ Rafinesque, and the botanical analogies, I can hardly feel willing 
to pass them by as unworthy of attention. We may further sug- 


pene aes 


272 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 


gest the expediency of making trials of analogous plants so widely 
diffused among us, and so easy to obtain in larger quantities, as 
Veratrum viride, and Helonias lutea and dioica. ‘es 

Case.—Mount Carbon, July 22: 2, P.M. Called to visit s. 
B., five years old, said to have been bitten by a rattlesnake. Dr. 
Wetherill politely accompanied me. According to her father, she 
was walking with him three hours previously, picking whortle- 
berries, when the father trod on a snake, which immediately bit 
the child. On being questioned, the persons present acknowl- 
edged that the serpent in question was less than three feet long, 
that they had not heard it rattle, and that they had not killed it, 
and therefore had no opportunity of examining its ap 
As the-effects of the bite were violent, it was presumed that it 
was inflicted by a copper-head, iP aeonaneihalia contortrix, of 
Dr. Holbrook, ) which was.the only snake known in the vicinity 
likely to combine the above conditions. 

-A company who walked to the spot two days after, found the 
body of a copper-head in a state of decay, which might easily be 
attained in such an interval. It had. been, notwithstanding the 
above statements, killed by a blow across the back, and was fur- 
. nishing a repast to a number of large black: baesien, observed to 
gnaw the bodies of snakes. 

-A strip of white ash bark was Bound finaly" SBodd the limb 
above the knee; and at some subsequent: period, a quantity of 
Uvularia pestelata: bruised with vinegar and salt, was applied 
_ round the vicinity of the bite. - Under this treatment the wound, 

cat first intensely’ painful, became ie free from ‘pain unless 
touched. It continued to feel numb. 

The limb was enormously distended with an cedematous swell 
ling, extending as’ high as the ligature; masses of effused blood 
were visible, deeply seated in the top of the foot and in several 
parts of the leg, particularly at the middle of the fore part. The 
skin was white, shining, and cold. One puncture only was visi- 
ble, situated about two inches above the instep, and surrounded 
by a dark red circle. I could only explain the appearance of a sin- 
gle puncture by supposing, that the snake struck the child while 

isordered in its movements by the pressure of the parent’s foot. 

A cup was sent for, but when obtained proved too large to ad- 
here to the limb. Suction was made forcibly by the bowl of a 
enero tie for half an hour ; at the end of which time, several 


Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 273 


drops of blood had issued from the puncture, a little diluted with 
a serous fluid ; and other blood had. been effused from the inden- 
tation produced by the pipe, which was marked by a circular ec- 
chymosis. We then discontinued the suction, fearing to disor- 
ganize the skin by itslonger employment. ‘Three doses of a 
strong and caustic aqua ammonize, amounting in all to about 
twenty drops, were given to the child, with milk; a paste of the 
same liquid with wheat flour, was applied over and around the. 
wound, to the extent of about one and a quarter inches square. 
The ligature and Uvularia were continued. 

At 4, P. M., the swelling was a‘ little increased. No pais; 
Ivo wever, was ptperiGndedd when the part was not touched. The 
numbness was considerably increased, and the color much yel- 
lower. A slight increase of the frequency and volume of the 
pulse had taken place. 

Continued applications. Gave five drops more of aqua am- 
moniz f sis zy 
6, P. M. Dr. Halberstadt met me at the house. Numbness 
and soreness abated. Color much more yellow; less redness; 
skin more opaque ; swelling slightly increased. Coldness nearly 
as great. Omit ligature. Purge in the evening with salts. 

9, P. M. Parents.had continued the ligature sign terror. 
Swelling, distress and restlessness increased. 

- Apprehended mortification. Ligature to be removed peep; 

torily. 

23d. Laiuatirg had been removed last evening. Patient had 
rested well. Cathartic had operated. Swelling diminished be- 
low the knee, but extended much nearer the body, beyond the 
mark of the ligature, to the terror of the parents. No fever. Am- 
moniacal ‘paste had blistered smartly. _ Considered better, | Poul- 
tice the blister with bread and milk. Continue Uvularia to un- 
covered parts. Sweat limb with hot vinegar steam. 

_ Evening. Dr. Halberstadt informs me that the swelling did 
not visibly diminish, till the child was freely purged. 

Wednesday, 25th: 5, A. M.. Child runs about freely. No pain. 
— inconvenience. _ Swelling greatly abated. Yellow color 


inten 
29th, Sie Dr. Halberstadt in Philadelphia. Child well. 
With regard to the mortality of the bite of our venomous ser- 
pents, and the at of recovery from them by the unassisted 
Vos EXxV.— 35 


274 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 


powers of nature, the facts which have occurred or been commu- 
nicated to me, tend strongly to prove the correctness of the posi- 
tion, that death rarely, if ever, takes place from the direst effects 
of the bite in human adults. Thus, that which is ascertained by 
Fontana with so much labor in regard to the viper, and rendered 
so probable by Russell, as to the cobra de capello and other cele- 
brated Indian serpents, seems likely. to be also established in re- 
gard to our rattlesnakes. 'This would hardly have been expected 
from a comparison made by the last named author, who states 
that a rattlesnake in London killed a dog in two minutes; while 
the shortest period of time in which Dr. R. was able to produce 
that effect by his strongest cobras, was-thirteen minutes, or a pe- 
riod six and a half times as long. Of our ten or twelve venomous 
serpents, it seems generally conceded, that the most powerful are 
the different species of Crotalus. Of these, Dr. M’Connell, of 
Mauch Chunk, communicated to me eleven years since, that he 
had then attended no less than seventeen bites ; not one of which 
had proved fatal. Since that period, the Crotali have become less 
_ humerous in the vicinity, from the increase of population. Dr. 
M’C.-has however, within his momentary recollection, seen three 
or four more, and has never seen a death. Similar results were 
met with at Pottsville, by Dr. Halberstadt; and the popular re- 
collections I heard came to the same account, with the exception 
of one statement, of which I did not learn the details, that a man 
had some time previously died in two minutes, of a bite. Most 
probably, in this last case, the poison was instilled into a vein. I 
observe, that Mr. Daudin alledges that this venom is extremely for- 
midable in the south, but that its terrors are singularly exaggera- 
ted in the north. -That the exaggeration may also be found in 
another latitude, may be alledged upon the authority of our dis- 
tinguished countryman, Dr. Holbrook; as whose opinion T am 
authorized to state, that the poison of the rattlesnake is mortal to 
animals of the size of its prey; but very rarely, if ever, to man. 
by observations so extensive as those of the gentlemen I have 
named, the addition of two more cases could only be worth ma- 
king, from a desire to enlarge as far as possible the number of 
cases from which inferences are to be drawn. I have seen two 
such out of Philadelphia,* and both recovered. 


- 


* After the above had been read to the Academy, William Hembel, Esq., fa- 
vored me ‘iret he oe be = Pad ; ee st, that, : g t% 2A fam two 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 275 


_ From these facts, it will be easy to explain the-doubtful — 
tion of various remedies for the bites of our venomous se . 
Those enumerated by Daudin, seem to have been nearly all pa 
sight of by medical men and naturalists, with the exception of the 
Hieracium venosum. Perhaps most of our “snake roots,” the Aris- 
tolochia serpentaria, Polygala senega, Cimicifuga racemosa, owe 
their cognomen to a similar source. Still, it was thought a duty 
to medical science to preserve and compare the apparent fact of 
the agency of a medicinal plant, to extend science and facilitate 
future inquiries. -'The appropriate method of treatment would 
seem to be nearly that pointed out by Fontana; viz. a moderately 
tight ligature, and suction, with some force and for a prolonged 
period. It must be conceded that the venom, unless removed by 
suction, is gradually absorbed into the general system; and that 
the real object of the ligature is not the impracticable purpose of 
preventing this, but that of allowing time enough for the gradual 
introduction of the poison by the capillaries, and its progressive 
removal by the emunctories. Finally, as two hours were found 
by Fontana to be sufficient with the viper, conjecture or analogy 
would probably allow us to consider our precautions against the 
rattlesnake as sufficient in six or seven hours. It will probably 
be still right for us to make further trial of antidotes; nor can 
any circumstance render useless, such varying treatment as the 
incidents of the case may call for in the mind of a 
ne 


Arr. VIIL—An Account of the Proceedings of the Highth Meet- 
ing of the Firsts Association fr the Advancement of Science: 


‘Tue eig th meeting of this noble institution was held at New 
castle, nie the week from the 20th to the 26th of August, 
1838. The attendance was unusually large, and the interest ex- 
cited was in no degree inferior to that exhibited on former ocea- 
sions. 


such high authorities, it appeared to form too valuable an addition to the state- 
ments in the text to justify omission. Mr. Hembel and the late Professor Benja- 
min Smith Barton, made inquiries of a considerable number of Indian chiefs of 


_ The reply was uniform, “that “it was never mortal, because they had antidotes.” 


‘The comments already made are Falaabs sufficient. 


976 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


The London Atheneum, (Nos. 565—568, ) contains a copious 
and excellent Report of the doings of the meeting. It is impos- 
sible, in the limits within which other claims upon our pages 
compel us to bring this article, to give-more than a condensed 
summary of that Report. We shall of course be obliged to pass 
with a bare mention, many of the papers, and to abridge others 
more than we could wish. We shall endeavor to lay before our 
readers those topics which fall more particularly within the prov- 
ince of this Journal. / 

The financial concerns of the Association are highly pa age 
On the 31st of July, 1838, its property amounted to £6812 | 
ld., viz. in books, £1000 7s. 6d., and in stocks and cash on aie 
£5812 10s. 7d. During the year: £932 2s. 2d. were eee 
for the prosecution of various scientific investigations. 

As heretofore, the meeting was distributed into independent 
sections, holding distinct daily sessions. 

The next meeting of the Association - will be — at as 
ham, during the month of August, 1839. 


Section A. \ Mathematical and Physical Science. 


_It was reported to the section, 

1. That the Committee appointed to. represent to the Govern- 
ment the importance of reducing the Greenwich Observations on 
the Moon, had waited on the Chancellor of the Exchequer, _ and 
that the sum of £2000 had been appropriated for that purpose, 
which was placed at the disposal of the Astronomer Royal, who 
had-undertaken to superintend the reductions. 

2. That the reduction of the. Stars, intended to ae the en- 
larged Catalogue of the Royal Astronomical Society, was in pro- 
gress ;—and (3) also the sedation of thé Stars in the Histoire 
Celéste. _ 

A. That arrangements had Saoeei piictacacth aecowal for the 
establishment of -an- Observatory at Liverpool, and would be car- 
ried into effect as soon as the eer power could be obtained 
from Parliament. 


Lieut. Col. Reid on Redjiclats Law sof Sirens. 


Tiéut Col. Reid, R. E. then read * A Report explaining the 
em made towards selene: the Law of Storms, ane a 


British Association for the Adeancement of Science. ort | 


Statement of what seems agri should be farther done to “8 
vance our knowledge of the subje 

Col. Reid commenced by sisting that he had lohg Bie con- 
vinced that the operations of the Deity in the workings of his 
providential care over his creatures, were governed by fixed laws, 
designed by incomprehensible wisdom, arranged by supreme 
power, and tending to the most benevolént ends. However irreg- 
ular the tempest or the tornado might appear to the inobservant, 
yet our own day had seen some of the phenomena reduced to 
rule ; and he doubted not soon to convince the Section that we 
were on the eve of advancing some steps farther towards this 
most desirable end. His attention had been first’ directed to the 
subject in 1831. He arrived on military service, at Barbadoes, 
just after the desolating hurricane of that year, which, in the 
‘Short space of seven hours, destroyed 1477 persons on that island 
alone. He had been for two years and a half daily employed as 
an engineer officer amidst the ruined buildings, and was thus nat- 
urally led to the consideration of the phenomena of. hurricanes. 
The first explanation which to him seemed reasonable, he found 
in a pamphlet by William C. Redfield, of New York, extracted 
from the American Journal of Science; a work much less known 
in this country than its value and great merits deserved. The 
northeast storms on the coast of America had attracted the atten- 
_tion of Franklin. He had been prevented, by one of these 
storms, from observing an eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, 
which he was soon after astonished to find had been seen in 
Boston, although that town lay to the northeast of Philadelphia. 
This ‘was a circumstance not to be lost on such an ‘inquiring | 
mind as Franklin’s: he ascertained, upon inquiry, that the same 
northeast storm had not reached Boston for some hours after it 
had blown at Philadelphia; and that, although the wind blew 
from the northeast, yet the progress of the entire storm was from 
the southwest. He died, however, before he had made any fur- 
ther progress in this investigation.* Col. Capper, of the Hast 
India Company’s service, after having studied meteorological sub- 
jects for twenty years, in the Madras territory, published a work, 
in 1801, upon winds and monsoons, giving brief statements of 
eer fatal effects, from Orme’s History of Hindustan. In this 


* Pranklin-died in 1790, forty six years after he sous discovery —Eps. 


278 _British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


work he states his belief that hurricanes will be found to be great 
whirlwinds; and says, “it would not perhaps be a matter of 
great difficulty to ascertain the situation of a ship in a whirl- 
wind, by observing the strength and changes of the wind. If 
the changes are swdden, and the wind violent, in all probability 
the ship must be near the center of the vortex of the whirlwind; 
whereas, if the wind blows a great length of time from the same 
point, and the changes are gradual, it may reasonably be suppo- 
sed that the ship is near the extremity of it.” In this conjecture 
respecting the nature of hurricanes, Col. Reid conceived Col. 
Capper to be decidedly right, and the conclusion he drew from it 
has stood the test of close examination. Mr. Redfield, following 
up the observation of Franklin, and though probably unac- 
quainted- with the views or opinions of Capper, ascertained that 
while the northeast storms were blowing on the shores of Amer- 
ica, the wind was with equal violence blowing a southwest storm 
in the Atlantic. Tracking Franklin’s storms from the southward, 
he found, throughout their course, that the wind on opposite 
sides of the shore over which the storm prevailed, blew in oppo- 
site directions, and that in fact, the entire storm was a progres- 
sive whirlwind, and that all these whirlwinds revolved constantly 
in the same direction. Ina No. of the American Journal of Sci- 
ence, (for 1831,) Col. Reid found collected together many records 
of the same storms, and a chart on a very small scale, showing 
the progress of one. Strongly impressed with the conviction 
that Mr. Redfield’s views were correct, he determined. to verify 
them by making charts on a large scale, and laying down on 
them the different reports of the directions of the wind at points 
given in the American Journal of Science : and the-more exactly 
this was done, the nearer was the approximation to the tracks of 
a progressive whirlwind.* He then exhibited to the Section @ 
volume,t containing eight charts on a large scale, of which the 


rs if 5 : ———— 
7 ona 


: , in consequence of our frequent intercourse with Mr. Redfield, been 
acquainted with the pro ess of his inquiries and discoveries, we may here state 
that the course adopted by Col. Reid, of plotting-on a large chart, the various Te- 
ports.of a storm, had been employed many years pearionss by Mr. R., and indeed 
led him to his most important con conclusions. We also mention that we are 
sure that Mr. R. has not to this day, seen Col. Capper s book, and that he was not 
-aware of its —— until just before the reception of Col. Reid’s work.—EDSs. 

t See a notice of — 183 of this volume.—Epns. | 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 279 


. first and second chart contained the result of this part of the ex- 
amination; and he explained how the arrows showing the direc- 
tion of the wind at the several stations were all on the right 
hand side of the several circles flying from the south, while at 
the stations at the left hand, or towards the east of the chart, 
they were all coming from the north. After tracing a variety of 
storms in north latitudes, and being impressed with the regularity 
with which they appear to pass to the North Pole, and always 
revolved in the same direction, viz. opposite to the hands of a 
watch, or from the east roond by the north, west, south and 
east,—he was led to conclude, that in accordance with the order 
of nature, storms in south satitadies would be found to revolve in 
a contrary direction to that which they take in the northern hem- 
isphere. He earnestly sought for facts, to ascertain if this were 
the case, and had obtained much information confirmatory of the 
truth of the conjecture, before he was aware that Mr. Redfield 
had formed the same opinion. The general phenomena of these 
_ storms will be understood, if the storm, as a great whirlwind, be 
represented by a circle, whose center is made to progress along a 
curve, which generally approaches the parabolic, the circles ex- 
panding as they advance from the point at which the storm be- 
gins to be felt. He pointed out how his views were illustrated 
by the disastrous storm of 1809, experienced by the East India 
fleet, under the convoy of the Culloden line-of-battle ship, and 
the Terpsichore frigate, and four British men-of-war, which left 
the.Cape of Good Hope, about the same time, intending to cruise 
about the Mauritius. Some of these vessels scudded and ran “in 
the storm for days; some by lying-to, got almost immediately out 
of it, while others, by taking a wrong direction went into the 
heart of it, foundered, and were never heard of more ; others, by 
sailing across the calm space, met the same storm ‘o-different 
parts of its progress and the wind blowing in opposite directions, 
and considered and spoke of it as two storms, which they encoun- 
tered; while others, by cruising about within the bend of the 
curve, but, beyond the eircle of the great whirl, escaped the 
storm altogether, which had been for days raging on all sides of 
them. This led him to draw. the very important practical con- 
clusion as to how a ship should act when she encountered a gale, 
SO as to escape from it. By watching the mode of veering 
of the wind, the portion of a storm into which a ship is fall- 


280 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


ing, may be ascertained ; if the 
ship be then so manceuvred as 
that the wind shall veer aft in- 
stead of ahead, and the vessel is 
made to come up, instead of be- 
ing allowed to break off, she will 
run out of the storm altogether ; 
but, if the contrary course be 
taken, either through chance or 
ignorance, she goes right into 
the whirl, and runs a great risk of being suddenly taken aback, 
but most assuredly will meet the opposite wind in passing out 
through the whirl. To accomplish her object, he showed, by 
a diagram,* (as is above represented,) that it was necessary 
the ship should be “laid on opposite tacks, on opposite sides of 
a storm, as may be understood by drawing a number of con- 
centric circles to represent the whirl of the hurricane, and then 
different lines across these, to represent the course of ships enter- 
ing into, or going through the storm ; but to attempt the full ex- 
planation of even this, would execitd much beyond our limits. 
‘The apparent pects of the force of storms with the law 
of magnetic intensity, as exhibited by Major Sabine’s report, is 
remarkable. It had beat frequently remarked that no storms 
occur at St. Helena. He had therefore felt. much curiosity to 
know the degree of. oes intensity there, and was not a little 
‘Struck at finding it the est yet ascertained on the globe. 
Major Sabine’s Isodynamic lines, to express less than unity, are 
only marked there, ‘and they appear as it were to mark the true 
Pacific Ocean of the world. The lines of greatest intensity, on 
the contrary, seem to correspond with the localities of typhoons 
and hurricanes ; for we find the meridian of the American mag- 
netic pole paibeinig not far from the Caribbean st and that of the 
Siberian pole through the China sea. — - 
_ Prof. A. D. Bache, of Philadelphia, stated that he rose to than 
Col. Reid, for the very handsome marmer in which: he had 
brought forward the cui of his countryman, Mr. Redfield. 


ee 


. A Bape similar = ; 
with a discussion of the methods of escaping a storm, Was res by Mr. 
Vol. xxxt, p. 117, of this Journal—Eps. 


is, wee in some respects more full ‘od explicit, together 
Redfield i 


AO ae 


| British Association for the Advancement of Science. 281 


Having done this justice to one of his countrymen, Prof. B. re- 


marked, that he was sure Col. Reid would follow it up by an 
examination of a rival theory of storms, by Mr. James P. Espy 
of Philadelphia. In this theory, the wind was supposed to blow 
in all directions towards the center of the storm; and a large col- 
lection of observations had been brought by Mr. Espy to form 
this point, especially those at his command from various quarters 
of the United States, as Chairman of the Committee of Meteo- 
rology of the American Philosophical Society,-and the Franklin 
Institute. This theory, Prof. B. further remarked, was ‘entirely 
in accordance with observations which he had made upon the 
track of a storm, popularly. called a tornado, which passed over a 
portion of the State of New Jersey, in June, 1835. He had sur- 
veyed, by compass, different parts of this sini and found the 
objects thrown down by the storm directed towards a center. 
He had found no evidence of a mailing motion at the surface of 
the ground. =~ 

Sir Ie FW. Herschel, (the President of the. Section, ) sities 
resigned the chair to Mr. Baily, addressed the audience, and hailed 
this communication of Col. Reid, as one of happy omen for the 
progress of science in this important branch; and congratulated 
the meeting that the subject had fallen into the hands of those 
who had already made such progress in its elucidation, and from 
whom it was likely to receive so complete a sifting. . He did not 
rise at present to add any thing to the stock of information 
already given, but, as having received from Mr. Redfield his pa- 
pers on this subject, he could not neglect the opportunity of pub- 
licly expressing his thanks, and of stating the great pleasure he 
had derived from their perusal. And here he found an anecdote 
of Franklin frequently pressed on his recollection. A_blunt sea- 
faring demanded from Franklin; or in his presence, what 
had been done for the advantage: or security of sailors by any 
landsman. At least, replied Franklin, you must admit that a 


_landsman had discovered the most useful art of navigation. It 


was not only at sea that the practical value of this splendid dis- 

covery respecting hurricanes would develop itself in enabling the 

sailor to escape its violence, instead of running ignorantly into 

the very jaws of destruction, by attempting torun away; but 

even on land, it would suggest invaluable hints for the secur- 

ing of life and property. One or two circumstances connected 
Vou. XXXY. —No. 2. 


282 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


with Col. Reid’s charts, particularly impressed him: the first was 
the curious parabolic shape of the courses denoting the progress 
of these storms, so well calculated to give unfailing directions as _ 
to the nature and course of a storm, when accidentally encoun- _ 
tered at sea ; as the sailor had only to consider the parts of these 
curves in which he was placed, and the veering of the wind, and 
he had almost placed before him a chart of the hurricane. He 
next threw out the suggestion for Col. Reid’s consideration, 
whether the Gulf-Stream would not perhaps give a cliie to the 
direction of these curves, as so large a body. of comparatively 
warm water must most materially tend to heat the air above it, 
and thus occasion disturbances of atmospheric equilibrium. Col. 
Reid had stated. that he had no theory: in this no doubt he was 
judicious as an observer ; but yet, in the present assembly, a the- 
ory, if it served no better purpose, helped memory, suggested 
views, and was even useful by affording matter for controversy, 
which might produce brilliant results, by the very collision of in- 
tellect. In the second place, he remarked, that in the southern 
hemisphere, the oscillations of the barometer, which were in an 
opposite direction to those of the northern, afforded a strong con- 
firmation of the correctness of Col. Reid’s views. ‘These revolv- 
ing hurricanes reminded him, that on discharging a great gun 
unshotted, the mouth of which had been previously greased, a 
beautiful ring of smoke is formed, which passes to a considerable 
distance with much permanence, but constantly enlarging in di- 
ameter: upon attending closely to this, every part of the ring will 
_ be found to be in rapid revolving motion, thus exhibiting to the 
eye a hurricane in miniature, performing its evolutions. As to 
Mr. Espy’s theory, though he considered it ingenious, yet he did 
not see how it was tenable against the indications of the barom- 
eter ; for, unquestionably, if a large body of air were to set on 
every side inwards, towards a central ascending column, the ne- 
cessary effect would be an increase of weight of the entire baro- 
metric column: but there was even stronger-evidence against it ; 

r if the air acquired any thing of a gyratory motion, on the 
principle of the vis viva, the rapidity of gyrations should increase 
enormously as we approach the center of the column ; just as we 
see the opera dancers, in the pirouette, increase the rapidity of the 
evolution as they diminish the circuit; and so we find in the in- 
dications of the facts detailed by Col. Reid, regarding the hurri- 


British Association for the Advancement of Science, 283 


cane,—as the cireles of its gyrations open and extenes the storm 
is progressing towards spending its fury, and disappearing. Al- 
though it did not bear directly on the question now under discus- 


_ sion, yet he could not help saying, that there are circumstances 


connected with the spots on the sun, which forcibly impressed 
his mind with the idea of tornadoes in the solar atmosphere, 
which, by scattering and opening out the luminous superficial 
matters, laid bare the opake and dark mass beneath. It had at 
all times been a question. with astronomers, how the spots were 
formed, supposing the luminous matter of the sun to be a merely 
superficial and uniformly spread stratum ; but something like vio- 
lent hurricanes being supposed to take plana in the solar atmos- 
phere, the difficulty is much diminished, if it did not entirely 
disappear ; and in truth the appearance of the spots within the 
last year or two, was such as farther to induce the supposition of 
something in the solar atmosphere very like our trade-winds, for 
whereas, most usually, the spots have been scattered not very 
regularly over each hemisphere, they have latterly’ appeared 
more in lines following each other in succession, and having ap- 
parently an inclination towards the sun’s equator on each side. 
If decided indications of any thing like trade-winds should, by 
this or other circumstances connected with the spots, be detected, 
the other conclusions. would be much strengthened. 

_ Herschel’s Astronomical Observations at the Cape of Good 
Hope. These were reported under the following heads. 1. Re- 
duced Observations of 1232 Nebule and clusters of Stars, made 
in the years 1834, 5, 6, 7,8, at the Cape of Good Hope with the 
20-feet Reflector. 2.. Fadticed Observations of 1192 Double Stars 
of the Southern Hemisphere, made.as above. 'The observations 
in these two papers form parts of two catalogues of southern neb- 
ule and double stars respectively, which comprise the chief re- 
sults of his astronomical observations at the Cape. They are 
complete only as far as the first nine hours of R: A. In the other 
hours, only a few of the objects which occur are added, being 
the results of a partial and very incomplete reduction of the ob- 
servations in those hours. Sir. J. thought that when all the ob- 
servations are reduced for the catalogues, the number of objects 
contained in them will be nearly doubled. The first catalogue 
contains all the numerous nebule and clusters comprised in the 
two Magellanic clouds. Each reduced observation expresses the 


284 British Association for the Advancement of Science. | 


mean R. A. and North Polar distance of the object for the begin- 
ning of 1830, together with a description, in abbreviated language, 
of its appearance and physical peculiarities, as to size, brightness, 
condensation, é&c. The observations of double stars in the pneasy 
catalogue, express the mean place for the epoch above named,— 
the angle of position of thestars with the meridian, as micromet- 
rically measured. at the time of observation,—the estimated dis- 
tance, and the magnitude assigned to each star, with a column 
of remarks, in which are noted peculiarities of color, &c. 3. Mi- 
crometrical Measures of 407 principal Double Stars of the South- 
ern Hemisphere, made at the Cape of Good Hope. with a 7- ~feet 
Achromatic Equatorial Telescope. 'These measures were taken 
with the same achromatic and micrometer, and are arranged in pre- 
cisely the same’ manner as the former similar observations made 
by Sir J., and printed in the Trans. of Royal Astron. Society. 
_ Among the principal double stars in this paper occur, « Centauri, 
« Crucis, 7 Centauri, 7 Lupi, « Lupi, « Lupi, ¢ Hydre, « Chamele- 
ontis, 7 Piscis volantis, 7 Corone Australis, ‘&c. These measures 
afford unequivocal evidence of. rotation in.some of these double 
stars, particularly in « Centauri, @ Hydre, y Corone, and 7 Lupi. 
In « Centauri, the decrease of distance, even within the short pe- 
riod of observation, is remarkable ; and Sir J. remarked, that on 
examining the eatalogues of the Astron. Soec., and that of Capt. 
Johnston, and the Paramatta Catalogue, in all which, the places 
of the two stars are given separately, he finds this diminution of 
distance fully borne out and regularly progressive; from which 
he concludes that in 15 or 20 years from this time, the stars may 
be expected to appear in contact, or to be actually occulted one 
by the other, as has recently been observed to happen toy Vir- 
ginis. 4. A list of the Approximate Places of 15 Planetary and 
Annular Nebule of the Southern Hemisphere, discovered with 
the 20-feet Reflector ; with Drawings illustrative of the Appear- 
ance and structure of 3 principal Nebule in the Southern Hem- 
isphere. These are-arranged in order of R.A.-and numbered. 
Among these, several are somewhat elongated, and offer the ap- 
pearance of being double. No. 7 is of a fine blue color, and 
_ being particularly well-defined, has exactly the aspect of a blue 
planet. No. 4 is a very bright and considerably large elliptic 
dise of uniform light, on which, but excentric, is placed a — 
large star. Several are very small; No. 15 is not more than 3” — 


“3 ageeee 


a 


British Association for the Advancement of Setence. 285 
or 4” in diameter. Many of them occur in crowded parts of the 


milky way, with not fewer than 80 or 100 stars in the field of 
view at once. 'The drawings are copies of much more elaborate 


originals, and merely selected from a greater collection, illustra- 


ting three of the most singularly constituted nebule in the S. 
Hemisphere, viz. 9 Orionis, 4 Argis and 30 Doradis. Sir J. ex- 
plained. how, by means of a small achromatic collimator placed 
inside his great sweeping telescope, he was able to obtain nearly 
the same precision ‘as was to be had in fixed observations; al- 
though from the ropes and wooden frame with which ics was 
mounted, it was ‘subjected to great hygrometric and pyrometric 
changes of form and position. These changes, by affecting alike 
the cross of the collimator, and the object, were readily detected 
and corrected.—Dr. Robinson, spoke in praise of the accuracy of 
the positions given in ‘Sir J. Herschel’s catalogues; and in favor 
of the application of reflecting telescopes to divided instruments. 
Notwithstanding the great increase in late years, of the size of 
achromatics, it seemed improbable that they would ever reach a 
magnitude which could not be easily overmatched by reflection. 
Something to this effect had been done in Ireland. In his. own 
observatory was a reflector of 15 inches aperture, applied to an 
equatorial of cast iron, which gave polar distances with a proba- 
ble error of about 6 seconds, and right. ascensions to the ultimate 
reading of the hour circle verniers. The artist who executed this, 
had since made a reflecting transit of six inches aperture, which 


_ performed well, and its collimator was not affected by reversion. 


Sir J. Herschel remarked that :the only change in a nebula, 
which he had-yet noticed, was in that of Orion. A small trans- 
verse strip, which, when he first figured. that nebula, was straight, 
had become parved, and showed a knotty” appearance, which cer- 
tainly it-did not possess before.” ~ 

Remarkable Phenomena if Halley s Comet.—Sir J. Herschel 
related the following. One of the most interesting series of ob- 
servations, I had to make at the Cape of Good Hope, was that of 
Halley’s Comet. This comet is the great glory of modern calcu- 
lation. ‘Fo see the predicted return of such a body now verified 
for the second time, true to a single day,—nay, to ‘a few hours— 
of his appointed time, after an absence of 75 or 76 years, during 


_ which it has been subjected to the unceasing perturbations of all 


the planets, and especially persecuted by Jupiter and Saturn, 


286 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


those great stumbling blocks of comets, is really superb. How- 
ever, what I have now to relate, refers to a very singular and in- 
structive fact in its physical history. I saw the comet for the 
first time after its perihelion passage, on the night of January 25. 
Mr. Maclear saw it on the 24th. From this time we of course 
observed it regularly. Its appearance at first, was that of a round, 
well-defined disc, having near its center, a very small bright ob- 
ject exactly like a small comet, and surrounded by a faint nebula. 
This nebula, in two or three more nights, was absorbed into the 
disc, and disappeared entirely. Meanwhile the disc itself dilated 
with: extraordinary rapidity, and by measuring its diameter at 
every favorable opportunity, and laying down the measures by 
a projected curve, I found the curve to be very nearly a straight 
line, indicating a uniform rate of incréase ; and by tracing back 
this line to its intersection with its axis, I was led, at the time, to 
this very singular conclusion,—viz. that on the 21st of January, 
at 2 h. p.m. the disc must have been a point,—or ought to have 
no magnitude at all! In other words, at that precise epoch some 
very remarkable change in the physical condition of the comet, 
inost:iays ‘cdmnieticed Well !-all this was speculation. But 
here comes the matter of fact I refer to, and which, observe, 
was communicated to me no longer ago than last month by 
the venerable Olbers, whom I visited in my passage through 
Bremen, and who was so good as to show me a letter he had just 
received from M. Boguslawski, Professor of Astronomy at Bres- 
lau, in which he states, that he had actually procured an observa- 
tion of that comet on the night of the 2Ist of January. Well 
then, how did it appear?—why, as a star of the sixth magni- 
tude,—a bright concentrated point, which showed no disc, with 
a magnifying power of 140! And that it actually was the comet, 
and no star, he satisfied himself, by turning his telescope on that 
point where he’had seen it. It was gone! Moreover, he had 
taken care to secure, by actual observation, the place of the star 
he observed ; that place agreed to exact precision with his com- 
putation ; in short, that star was the comet. Now, I think this 
observation every way remarkable. First, it is rernarkable, for 
the fact, that M. Boguslawski was able to observe it at all on the 
21st. This could not have been done, had he not been able to 
direct his telescope poifit-blank on the spot, by calculation, since 
it would have been impossible in any other way to have known 


2 Be 


ae 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 287 


it from a star. And, in fact, it was this very thing which caused 
Maclear and myself to miss procuring earlier observations. Iam 
sure that I must often have swept, with a night-glass, over the 
very spot where it stood in the mornings before. sunrise. And ~ 
hever was astonishment greater than mine, at seeing it riding 
high in the sky, broadly visible to the naked eye, when pointed 
out to me by Mr. Maclear, who saw it with no less amazement 
on the 24th.. The next remarkable feature, is the enormously 
rapid ‘rate of dilatation of the disc, and the absorption into it of 
all trace of the surrounding nebula. Another, is the interior co- 
metic nucleus. All these phenomena, while they contradict 
every other hypothesis that has ever been advanced, so far as I 
can see, are quite in accordance with a theory on the subject, 
which I suggested on the occasion of some observations on Biela’s 
comet,—a-theory which sets out from the analogy of the precipi- 
tation of mists and dews from a state of transparent vapor on the 
abstraction of. heat. It appears to me, that the nucleus and 
grosser parts of the comet, must’ have been entirely evaporated 
during its perihelion, and re-precipitated during its recess from 
the sun, as it came into acolder region; and that the first mo- 
ment of this precipitation was precisely that I have pointed out 
as the limit of the existence of the disc,—viz. on the 21st of Jan- 
uary, 1836, at 2 p. m., or perhaps an hour or two later. 

Rev. W. Whewell’s Account of a Level line measured from the 
Bristol Channel to the English Channel, during the years 
1837-8, by Mr: Bunt, under the direction of a Committee of the 
British Association, was read, the result of which is, that in July, 
1838, the sea level at Portishead, (near Bristol,) was found to be 
ten inches higher than that at_Axmouth ; according to which, 
the mean . ake at Wick Rocks is 3. 8 sipelin ies than at Bor. 
tishead. — 

Prof. A. D. Bache, of Philadelphia, ten cprritnnndented « « Note 
on the effect of Deflected Currents of Air on the quantity of Rain 
collected by a Rain-gauge,” the more remarkable phenomena no- 
ticed in it being represented by diagrams. Prof. Phillips’s first 
Report on the quantity of rain collected at different heights, in- 
duced Prof. B. to begin a series of observations near the end of 
1833. Philadelphia, from the extent of the plain on which it 
stands, was thought a good locality for this purpose. At first, 


_ gauges were placed at three different heights. One station was 


288 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


the top of a shot:tower 162 feet high; another was near the 

ground within the enclosure about the tower; and the interme- 

diate one was the roof of the University. His attention was. 
however ultimately fixed upon the fact that the effect of eddy ‘ 
winds upon the observed phenomena, was by no means a secon- 

dary one in amount, and that no law could be deduced, until this 
disturbing action was prevented. Prof. B. proceeded to make 
experiments on the effects upon the rain-gauges of the currents 

of air deflected by the tower, placing gauges at each angle. The 

results are given in a table, from which it appears that—l. The 
‘quantities of rain collected at the different angles of the tower. 

were very different.. In one>extreme case the quantity collected 

at the S. E. angle was 24 times that at the N. W. angle. -2. In 
general, the gauges to leeward received more rain than those to 
windward. Prof. Stevelly considered. the fact that less rain was 

caught in elevated gauges than in those near the earth, to be due 

to the greater perpendicularity with which the rain falls near the | 
ground, and not to a continued enlargement of the drops, during : 
their descent, by new accessions of condensed moisture. 

Dr. Bantieny read a paper.on the Climate of North America. 
He began by observing, that although the general fact was ad- 
mitted that the E. portions of the New World had a lower tem- 
perature than the W. portions of the Old, yet much remains to 
be done before the relative climate of these two portions of the 
globe can be regarded as in any degree determined. Most of the 

h American observations were not sufliciently accurate. In 
Mr. McCord’s observations at Montreal were the best; 
and in the U. S., those made in N. Y., and published by the Re- 
gents of the University of that State. These results are how- 
ever defective, in not giving the intensity of solar radiation, 
which probably affects the distribution of plants and animals m 
a-manner quite distinct from its accompanying temperature. 
Hence, though many plants which grow in this country are 
killed by the winters of comparatively southern latitudes in 
America ; yet others, which require the warmth of a wall or of 
a southern aspect here, are found in comparatively high latitudes 
in the New World. Sir D. Brewster called attention to the im- 
portant fact, clearly established by the observations recorded in 
the neighborhood of New York, and those of Hansteen and Er- 
man in Siberia, that two points of maximum cold existed in these — 
; ‘ ; : 


a 


— 


British Association for the Advancement. of Science. 289 


regions, very generally agreeing in. position with ‘the. centers of | 
maximum magnetic intensities; and like. them, too, the maxi- 
mum of North America indicated a decidedly higher degree of 
cold than that which charaeterized the Siberian pole. «Also, that 
the lines of equal mean.temperature, as they surrounded these ~ 
poles, had-such a relation to the lines of equal magnetic intensity, 
as to point out clearly: some yet unknown connexion between 


~ these two classes of phenomena. Prof. Bache, of Philadelphia, 


made some remarks on the importance of connecting the obser- 
vations making in the U. 8. with any which the Association 
might institute in the British Colonies in North America. Con- 
siderable progress had, within a few years, been made in-Amer- 
ica in the science of Meteorology. The abstracts of the reports 

of. Meteorological observations from the academies of the State. 
of New York, and the deductions made from them by Sir D: 

Brewster, had been a great stimulus: to-increased activity in that 
department. The recommendations of Sir John Herschel, had 
not only been adopted by individuals, but had led to the forma- 
tion of societies for the cultivation of meteorology. He hazarded 
nothing in-promising the hearty concurrence of meteorologists in 
the United. States in any extensive plan which the British Asso- 
ciation should sanction. . 

A paper from Prof. Powell followed, On some points connected 
with the Theory of Light. 

Mr. Dent then read a paper On the Construction of. opertable 
Mercurial Pendulum, accompanied by Experiments.. The cis- 
tern is made entirely of cast-iron :.the adoption of which metal 
permitted the cistern to be turned perfectly cylindrical within and 
Without, and of thus simplifying the elements of calculation for 
the height of a perfect cylindér of mercury requisite for eompen- 

sating the effects of variable temperature on the rod, an advan- 
taze which glass did not allow. - The homogeneity of the ma- 
terial also facilitates the reductions for temperature, by equalizing 
this throughout, and also permits the bearings to be diminished 
in number, and simplified in construction, when compared with 
the usual mereurial pendulum’ having glass cisterns.. The sus- 
pending rod passes through a hollow screw, and is secured by a 


- pin going through both.» The hollow screw passes through the 


axis of the cistern, and the cistern is constructed to move round 
this screw, which admits of shortening or lengthening the pen- 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 37 


290 British Association for the. Advancement of Science. 


dulum for alteration in time. The edge of the cap belonging to 

the cistern is graduated, which subdivides the threads of the 
screw on the cistern, it being turned round for alteration in time. 

There is an aperture on the top of. the jar, which allows of mer- 

cury being added or removed without unscrewing the cap of the 

cistern. This aperture is closed by a screw, which, as well as 

~that on the c aay has a ravens cater, to render the joints poriay 

air-tight. 

Prof. Whewell made af impor on. the Discussions of ‘Tides, 
performed under his direction, by means of the grant of money 
made for the purpose by the shiniOciddicink? 4 Prof. W. remarked, 
that he had adopted the method of curves, first systematically 
employed by Sir J. Herschel, which consists in laying down a 
number of points expressing the results of individual observa- 
tions, and then getting rid-of the irregularities which these in- 
volve, by drawing, not a line joining the points, which would be 

* a broken line, but by striking with a bold but firm hand; a line 
among the points, so as to come as near as possible to the whole 
assemblage of them. In this manner the heights and-lunitidal 
intervals were laid down as ordinates, and curves were drawn. 
This method of curves depends upon the fact, that the eye gene- 
ralizes the relations of space more rapidly.and surely than the in- 
tellect can generalize phenomena in any other way. 

Mr. Russell, of Edinburgh, brought up the “ Report of the 
Committee (cousisting. of Sir John Robison and himself) on 
_ Waves.” This report was a-continuation of that of last year, 
recently published. These researches are of great value and in- 
terest, but it is scarcely possible to condense the account. We 
give merely some remarks on the best forms for ships. One part 
of his subject was the relation which, the translation-wave bore 
to the phenomena of resistance of fluids. He had previously as- 
certained that the displacement of a fluid by a vessel took place, 
not in the body of the current; but solely by the generation 
of waves. Now, the manner in which they were generated ap- 
peared to throw light: upon the subject of the resistance of fluids ; 
because they wished to have. exactly the same. transference for 
particles of matter which was required for transference of waves. 
‘They: wished to remove-the particles of fluid from a state of rest, 
and admit the vessel to pass through, and then allow them to-re- 
turn to their former places, hens the wave the pee 


a" 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 291 


first elevated above the surface, and then permitted to subside. 
Now they found. that whenever the displacement took place, as 
in the wave, they had the phenomena of least resistance. “So 
that in forming a floating vessel with this wave-line disposed on 
alternate sides of the keel, so as to give such motion to the parti- 
cles as to displace nothing more than was necessary, nor.for a 
greater distance than was necessary to allow the vessel to. pass, 
they obtained the solid of least resistance. Since that time, a 
variety of experiments on large vessels had been performed ; 
essels were now constructing on this form; and it was a 
remarkable fact, that the fastest vessel on the Thaines was one 
to which this juli had been given. It was scarcely credible, 
that a vessel should move at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, 


and not raise a spray,—not raise anything like that high mass of 


water which was always found at the bows of vessels going at 
speed, but enter the water perfectly smooth, and leave it smooth, 
and as much at rest in the direction of the displacement as it was 
before: the floating solid ‘passed... This phenomenon had i invari- 
ably accompanied all the vessels formed on this line. .- 

On some Preparations of the Eye, by-Dr. W. Clay Wallace. 
Sir D. Brewster exhibited a series of beautiful preparations of the 
eye, made by Dr. W. Clay Wallace, an able oculist in New York, 
calculated to establish some important points in the theory of 
vision. As no paper accompanied these preparations, Sir D. Brew- 
ster explained to the meeting their general nature and importance. 
Dr. Wallace, he stated, considers that he has discovered the appa- 


Yatus by which the eye is adjusted to different distances. "This 


adjustment is, he- conceives, effected in.two ways,—in eyes, 
which have spherical lenses, it is produced by a falciform, or — 
hook-shaped muscle attached only to one side of the lens, which 
by its constriction brings the crystalline lens nearer the retina. 
In this case, it is obvious that the lens will have a slight motion 


of yotation, and that the diameter, which was in the axis of vision 


previous to the contraction of the muscle, will be moved out of 
that axis after the adjustment, so that at different distances of the 
lens from the retina, different diameters of it will be placed in © 
the axis of vision. As the diameters of a sphere are all equal 
and similar, Dr. Wallace considered that vision would be equally 
perfect-along the different diameters of thelens, brought by ro- 
lation into the axis of vision. Sir D. however, remarked, that 


292 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


he had never found among his numerous examinations of the 
lenses of fishes, any which are perfectly spherical, as they were 
all.either oblate or prolate spheroids, so that along the different 
diameters of the solid lens, the vision would not be similarly per- 
formed. But, independent ofthis circumstance, he stated that 
‘in every solid lens there was only one line or axis in which vision 
could be perfectly distinct, namely; the axis of the optical figure, 
_ or series of positive and negative luminous sectors, which are 
seen by the analysis of polarized light. Along every other diam- 
eter, the optical action of the lens ig not symmetrical. When the 
lens is not spherical but lenticular, as in the ‘human eye and in 
the-eyes of most quadrupeds, Dr. W. considers that the apparatus 
for adjustment is the ciliary processes, to which this office had 
viously ascribed, though not on the sami scientific 
grounds as those by him discovered. One of the most impor- 
tant results of Dr. W.’s dissections, is the discovery of fibres in 
the retina. 'These fibres may be rendered distinctly visible. 
They diverge from the base of the optic nerve, and’ surround the 
foramen ovale of Sémmering at the extremity of theveye. Sit 
J. Herschel had’ supposed such fibres to be requisite’ in the ex- 
planation of the theory of vision, and it is therefore doubly in- 
teresting to find that they have been actually discovered. Sir 
D. concluded by expressing a hope that British anatomists = 
turn their attention to this subject.. 

Sir D. Brewster then éommunicated his researches on “A N ew 
Kind of Polarity i in Homogeneous Light.” - At the last meeting, 
said he, I gave an account of a new property of light, which did 
not adniit of any explanation. Since that time, I have had oc- 
casion to repeat and vary the experiments; and having found the 
same property exhibited in a series of analogous though different 
phenomena, I have no hesitation in considering this property of 

‘light as indicating a new species of polarity in the simple ele- 
ments of light; whether polarized or unpolarized. ~After detail- 
‘ing the experiments, he says, hence I conclude that the different 
sides of the rays of homogeneous light have different. properties 
when they are separated by prismatic refraction or by the dif 
fraction of grooved surfaces or gratings ;—that is, these rays have 
polarity. When light is rendered as homogeneous as possible by ~ 
absorption, or hint it is emitted in the most homogeneous state 
by certain col — it exhibits none of the indications of 


} 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 293 


polarity above mentioned. The reason of this is, that the more 
or less refrangible sides of the rays lie in every direction; but as © 


‘soon as these sides are arranged in-the same direction by pris- 


matic refraction or by. diffraction, the light displays- the same 
properties as if it had originally formed part of a spectrum. 
Some discussion among” the wee on points connected —_ 
this subject, ensue 


_~ Sir Wm. R: Hiunfiton then made a Per cg respecting 


the propagation of light in vacuo; and subsequently, on the 
propagation of lizht in crystals. The object of these papers 
was to advance the state of our knowledge respecting ‘the law 
which regulates the attractions or repulsions of the particles of 


~ the ether on each other. 


Sir J. Herschel offered a Note on the Structure of the Vitreous 
Humor of the Eye of a Shark. . The-result is, that the vitreous 
humor, (so called,) of this fish is no jelly, but simply a clear li- 
quid; inclosed in some close’ cellular structure of transparent 
membranous bags, which, by their obstruction to the free move- 


ments of the contained liquid, imitate the gelatinous state. 


Mr. Ball, of C. C. Cambridge, read a paper “ On the meaning 
of the Arithmetical Symbols for Zero and Unity, when used in 


: atcagend Symbolical Algebra.” . 


- A communication was read from Prof. Wolisih, “On Sibdeien: 


~nean Temperature ; and notice of a Brine Spring emitting Car-— 


bonic Acid Gas.” Observations had been made and were now 


~ in progress, on the temperature of the earth at various distances 


beneath the surface, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, the results of 
which he intended to lay before the next meeting of the Associ- 
ation. ‘The brine spring is about a mile from Kissingen, Bava- 
tia. It has 3 per cent of salt, and rises in a bore 325 Bavarian 


_ feet deep in red sandstone; but it is understood that the water 


flows at about 200 feet in deyeh: Its temperature is never less 
than 65°,—the mean temperature of springs.near, being only 50° 
to 62°.- It discharges carbonic acid gas in volumes almost unex- 
ampled, keeping the water,—in a shaft of eight feet diameter,—in 
a state resembling. turbulent ebullition. 'The enormons supply of 


gas has led to its use in gas. baths, for which purpose it i8 carried 


off by a tube connected with a huge inverted funnel, which rests 
upon the water. It contains scarcely a trace of nitrogen. It is 
conducted into chambers properly prepared and thence into baths, 


294 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


in which it lies by its weight, and is used as water would be. 
But the most remarkable feature still remains. About five or six 
times a day the discharge of gas suddenly stops; ina few sec- 
_onds the surface of the well is calm. The flow of water, amount- 
-ing to 40 cubic feet per minute, also stops, or rather, becomes neg- 
ative, for the water recedes in the shaft even when the pumps, 
commonly used to extract the brine, do not work, and the -water 
subsides during 15 or 20 minutes. . It then flows again, the water 
appearing first and suddenly, the gas gradually increasing in quan- 
tity, till, after three quarters of an hour, the shaft is full as-at first. 
The state of greatest discharge continues with little variation 
since. the bore was made in 1822. Within a short distance isa 
bore 554 Bavarian feet deep, which exhibits somewhat similar 
phenomena. Altogether, Prof. F’. considers. that the: salt spring 
at Kissingen is the most singular phenomenon of its kind in En- 
rope except the Geysers. - 

Mr. Russell gave a description of 3 ag! Substitute ‘for the ot 
tain Barometer in Measuring Heights,’ by Sir John Robison. 
Mr. R. said, that all ‘persons who had.used the mountain. barom- 
eter, when measuring heights, would admit that it was a very 
cumbersome instrument, put out of order by very slight accidents, 
and only to be ‘used by persons well skilled in observing. ‘The 
principle of ‘Sir J. Robison’s contrivance is simple, and such that 
the most ignorant person might be intrusted with the preparatory 
manipulation of it, and might be sent up mountains when the 
philosopher could -not leave*his study, and bring-back the air to. 
be experimented upon ; and, since he could not go to the air with 
his barometer, to cause it to come to him. It consisted-of a wood- - 
en box, containing simply a thermometer and a number of tubes, 
of a bore something wider than those of self-registering thermom- 
eters, open at one end, and blown into bulbs at the other; also a 
small vessel of quicksilver.. All that the person who went up the 
mountain had to do, was to note the thermometer, and immerse. 
the open end of one of the tubes. into the mercury at each sta- 
tion, and then bring down the whole. "The examiner then places 
each bulbed tube, mto the stem of which a considerable quantity 
of mereury will, of course, be found to have entered, under the 
receiver of an-air pump, either along with a barometer, or with 
a well-made gauge; and on pushing the exhaustion until the 
mercury stood within the bulbed tube as it did upon the mouu- 


a 
i il 


1 


i] 


British Association for the Advancement of Science, 295 


tain, making certain simple allowances for temperature, the height 
at which the barometer would have stood at the-station on the 
hill can be deduced ; and. thence, by the usual calculation, the 
height of the station. . The stem of the instrument is previously 
graduated, so that bare inspection shows the es of es air at 
the elevated station. - 

Sir D. Brewster communicated the following papers: “Ona 
new phenomenon of Color in certain specimens of Fluor-Spar.”— 

“On an Ocular Parallax in Vision, and on the law of visible di- 
rection.”—‘ An account of certain new na of Diffrac-. 
tion.” ——“ An account of an analogous series of new phenomena 


-of Diffraction when produced by a transparent diffracting body.” 


—‘ On the combined action of grooved metallic and transparent 
surfaces upon Light.” These valuable papers called forth from 
Sir J. Herschel the highest praise. “There is extreme difficulty,” 
said he, “in following with sufficient rapidity for discussion, such 
an. absolute torrent of new matter. Indeed, the discoveries of 
Sir D. Brewster, whether viewed in relation to the intervals at 


which they succeed each other, or. the instruction they ost veys 


equally fill us with delight and astonishment.” 
A paper on the Helnv Wind of Crossfell, was read by Rev. J. 
Watson. 

»Dr. Smith vend J a paper on the Varkitions. in the yaicnndity of 
Rain which falls in different parts of the Earth. The causes 
of these variations are, the author imagines, to be ascribed to the 
physical differences of the vicinity of each place, and in the track 
of the most rainy winds; and he found this opinion confirmed by 
a long average of Westerly and Easterly winds at London, com- 
pared with six other places. — . 

Prof. I esntitons- staal paihe-ai Bitlet Finisjtnioorite 
, an instrument for tllustrating its phenomena. The 


Stereoscope 
instrument is so named, from its property-of presenting to the 


mind the perfect resemblances of solid objects. A short explan- 
ation of the principles of the instrument was offered by Prof. 

W. Sir D. Brewster feared that the members could scarcely 
judge from.the very brief and modest account given by Prof. W. 

of the principle and-of the-instrument devised for illustrating it, 
of its extreme beauty and generality. He considered it one of 
the most valuable optical papers which had been presented to the 
' -He observed,.that when taken in conjunction with the 


296. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


law of visible direction in monocular vision, it explains all those 
phenomena of vision by which philosophers had been so long per- 
plexed; and that vision in three dimensions received the most. 
complete explanation from Prof. W.’s researches. Sir J. Herschel 
characterized Prof-W.’s discovery-as one of the most curious and 
beautiful for its simplicity, in the entire range of ae 
optics. 

Rev. Charles Graves read a paper on, a General Catena 
Method. 
Sir T. M. Brisbane reported. the result of .an cxpheinnalld to de- 
termine the difference of longitude between London .and Edin- 
burgh. Having observed the surprising accuracy with which 
the difference of longitude of London and Paris had been ob- 
tained by Mr. Dent’s chronometers, he applied to him, and he 
very liberally placed at his disposal twelve of his valuable chro- 
nometers. With these, the differences of longitude of London, 
Edinburgh and’ Makerstouin, were taken ;.and by 4 mean of all 
the observations taken in going to the latter station and in return- 
ing, they were doen: to differ only by five one-hundredths of a 
secon 
A letter: from. the Astronomer Royal, G. B. shiny, was Ewell on 
ithe means of correcting the local magnetic action of the Compass 
‘in iron Steam-Ships. By an apparatus of his: invention, the 
local deviations were almost wholly cabrseted. © The description 
will probably be given hereafter. 

Prof. Lloyd read a paper entitled, “ iistinslasion i the obser- 
vations of the Magnetic Dip and Intensity in Treland, with ad- 
ditional elements.” It i is found that the annual decrease of the’ 
dip at Dublin is 2/38. The recent and more complete observa- 
tions of Sabine at London, make the annual decrease there 2/.40. _ 
Major Sabine spoke in reference to the Report on the Variations 
in the Magnetic Intensity, printed in the last volume. He ad- 
verted to the observations of Profs. Bache and Courtenay, made 
in New York and the adjoining States, and which Prof. B. is now 
engaged in connecting with Europe.. Until this comparison is 
complete, these observations determine the value of the magnetic © 
force at the stations at which they are made, relatively to each 
other, but not relatively to other parts of the globe. - It was for 
this reason that they were not available for Sabine’s Report, 
= ee the, general distribution of the magnetic — 


is . 


LS 


British hiepibiins eb the Adéancomentof Science. 297 


force over te earth’s. eusoee. The American observations. were 
made with needles inelosed.i in a vacuum apparatus, which Prof. 
B. had devised, with the. view of avoiding some of the anomalies 
occasionally experienced by other. observers. .They were made 
with extreme care, and were remarkable for minute attention to. 
all those SRS OMSIAD CAR which eopdnee, to the accuracy of the 
results. 

The oasnaiaey ae Mr. Snow -Hatris’s Report 1 of Meteorole- 
gical Observations made at Plymouth. Mr. E. Hodgkinson 
gave several’ observations made the last year on temperature in 
deep mines. in Cheshire and Lancashire, a full report of which 
he hoped to offer at the next meeting. Mr. Russell described an 


- apparatus for showing the connexion of magnetism with the wind, 


invented by Mr. Watt. 
Section B. Chemistry and. sinieeiiaets : 
Dr. Thomas Thomson on Native Diarseniate of Bead: Die 
ring the meeting of the. Association at Liverpool, a collection of 
minerals from Alston Moor was exposed for sale. Among them 
was one labelled, “ Vanadiate of lead from Caldbeck Fell.” It was 
in botryoidal concretions on quartz. Several-of these nodules, 
had, under thé microscope; the aspect of cylinders. Color, honey- 
yellow, like that of arseniate of lead, but lighter ‘and much less 
translucent. Lustre, resinous, and, more brilliant than that -of 
vanadiate of lead. Does not scratch’ calcareous spar, but scratches 
gypsum with great ease. Gravity, 7.272: that of vanadiate of 
lead is only 6.663. Before the blowpipe on platinum foil, it melts 
into a transparent globule, which on cooling, assumes nearly its 
original appearance. On charcoal, it gives out abundant arsenical 
fumes, and leaves globules a —_ see Two analyses by 


- 


lating, 68S apie gOS SORES 28 gage 
Lead FE Se are ne een 
Atsenic acid,’ > SP ste 18.20 
Protoxide of lead, - -- ~ - = - 70.14 
Peroxide of iron, - .- = te WA... 
Volatile matter, - 7< a ears 1.00" 

3 100.10 


Mr. Séanian cortirunicated observations: on the Constitution 
of the Commercial Carbonate of Ammonia. ~The results.of his 
Vou. SAV No. 2. 38 


~ 


298 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


investigations: are, that this substance is not a homogeneous salt, a 
true sesquicarbonate, as Mr. Phillips considered it, but a mechan- 
ical mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate. Mr. S. also read a 


paper on the blackening of Nitrate of Silver by Light. Esxperi- 
ments which he has made result in the conclusion previously as- 


serted by Dr. J. Davy and by-Mr. Fergusson, (although contra- 
_dictory to the statements of most books of chemistry, ) that pure 
nitrate of silver, is not blackened by continued exposure to sun- 
light, unless organic matter is present. 

Mr. Thomas Richardson ‘presented an examination of two spe- 
-cimens of Sphene, one from. 2 niagara in 2p and the other 
from an unknown locality. 

Mr. Thomas Exley read a paper on the apsnifc gravities of Ni- 
trogen, Oxygen and Chlorine, and of the Vapors of. Carbon, 
Sulphur, Arsenic and Phosphorus. By experiment and calcula- 
tion, he finds the following to be the true gravities of these sub- 
stances, viz. N.=.9722, O.=1.1111, H.=.0694, Chl. =2.5, C.= 

.8333, S. = 2.2222, ee ‘= 5.2777, Ph. 2.2222, Mr. E. conelu- 
ded by suggesting an opinion that there is another elementary 


_. body, yet undiscovered, having both an exceedingly small sphere 


of repulsion, and an exceedingly small atomic weight, or abso- 


lute force. This substance, he conceives, gives rise to the mi- 


asmata ‘of marshes, to infectious effluvia and other. concomitant 
exhalations ; chlorine, acids and other substances, owe their dis- 
infecting qualities to their power of absorbing this substance into 
their atmospheres. If its existence should be ascertained, Mi- 
crogen might be deemed an appropriate name. 

Dr. T. Thomson read a paper on Diabetic Sugar. This sugar 
has been commonly considered as isomeric with starch sugar. 
Taste, sweet ; color, snow-white ; gravity, after fusion 1.56 at 
65°: melts at 2399 100 parts of water dissolve 108 parts of it. 
Boiling water Lannion: any quantity. Soluble in alcohol. -It 
crystallizes, but so irregularly that the shape of the crystals has 
not been ascertained. After being dried in vacuo over sulphuric 
acid, it loses an additional atom of water if it be exposed to a 
heat of 212°, without losing weight» Analysis of it gave, 

_ Carbon, 37.23, or 12 atoms = 9.. se 38.09; 
Hydrogen, 7.07, or 13 “, = 1.625 = 6.88 
Oxygen, 55.70, or 13 is eee bBo + = BROS - 


100.00 - ~~ 93.695 100.00 


British Association for the-Adiancement of Science: 209 


By Dr. Prout’s analysis, starch sugar is CleH 0 +, or it con- 
tains an atom of water more than diabetic sugar. 

Mr. Robert Mallet read a communication on @ new case of the 
decoloration of recent solutions of Caustic Potassa of commerce, 
and on the nature of the coloring matter. The author stated, 
that the caustic potassa of commerce, was well known to be a 
very impure compound, containing besides potassa, sulphate of 
' potassa, chlorides -of potassium and i iron, peroxide. and carbonate 
of iron, silex, charcoal, and generally line, ‘He had also in one 
case found a trace of cobalt, and in several protoxide of lead, 
probably from the vessels usell in its preparation. The color of 
recent solutions of this potassa in water freed from air by boiling, 
is apple-green, and occasionally, purplish-green, which, whether 
exposed to air or not, or in dark or light, gradually disappears, 
leaving the solution ition A red precipitate of peroxide and 
carbonate of iron is produced on solution; but, after a time, the 

een solution in losing color, deposits. second in very small 
aoe: which Mr. M. has found, by analyte to consist of, 

Sesquichloride of iron, - . Ab Fu tees 

Sesquioxide of iron, ~ -. = ~ - ~Bh 2 

The decoloration of the solutions of common caustic potassa — 
was effected by violet-colored light in 30 hours, and by red in 
200 hours. z 

Mr. H. Pattinson gave an account of a new process, by him 
discovered, for the extraction of Silver from Lead. By this pro- 
cess, the details of which -are too extensive for insertion here, a 
large atnount of both lead and silver wasted by the methods now 
employed, would be. saved. 

. Dr. Golding Bird communicated “ Observations on some e of the 
Prodeaate of the action of nitric acid on .”. Numerous ex- 
periments are related in this paper, and - tlle are some of 
~ the author’s conelusions: 1..During the action of nitric acid on 
alcohol, no oxalic acid is formed as long as nitrous ether alone 
distils over. 2. Aldehyd is not produced, in any appreciable 
quantity, until oxalic acid appears in the retort, and the produc- 
tion of nitrous ether nearly ceases. - 3. During the preparation of 
nitrous ether in the eold, acetic acid is abundantly produced, and 
appears. to replace the oxalhydric. acid formed when heat i is em- 


Hoged. 


300 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


Dr. B. also Gunibdhiented a paper “ On the possibility of obtain- 
ing by Voltaic action, crystalline metals, intermediate between 
the Poles or Electrodes,” and exhibited a mass of plaster of Paris 
(upon which he had operated ) containing little veins of copper 
disseminated through it in ‘every direction, which presented a 
marked ee to those met aatthe on the large — in na- 
ture. 

~ Prof. Johinistot desdribad a Ninspouied of siudphaite of lime; de- 
posited from a high-pressure. boiler, containing half an atom of 
water, and in this Y scteteu ee from any Other As 
of the kind. 

‘Mr. Phillips stated that the B Iue Pigment.submitted last year 
by Dr. Trail, was ‘Prussian blue hues es diluted, ei rendered 
pale by ferrocyanide of antimony. 

Prof: Graham read a Note on the Constitution of Salts. He 
wished to draw attention toa distinction in saline combinations 
which is*too often overlooked, and confusion thereby occasioned. 
The orders of monobasic, bibasic, and tribasic salts, of which the 
phosphates proved types, have lately been greatly enlarged by the 
discoveries of Liebig and Dumas respecting vegetable acids, and 
the distinctive characters of thése-orders are well understood. 
The best proof that an acid is bibasic or tribasic is its combining 
at once with two bases which are isomorphous, or belong to the 
same natural family,—as: ‘phosphoric acid does with soda and 
ammonia in microcosmic salt, and tartaric acid with potassa and 
soda in Rochelle.salt. Water and magnesia; water and barytes, 
water and oxide of lead, are also constantly associated as bases 
in bibasic and tribasic salts, but never in true double salts, or com- 


binations of two or more salts with each other, with which salts 


of the preceding orders are often confounded. But it is too gen- 
erally supposed that a metallic oxide cannot exist in a saline com- 


bination, except in the capacity of base, although in most of those ~ 


bodies whiek are at present termed swb-salts, the whole or a por- 

tion of the metallic oxide is*certainly not basic, but is attached to 

a really neutral salt; in a capacity similar to that of constitutional 
water, or water of crystallization. 'The test of the  non-basic 

character of water or a metallic oxide in a compound, is the ab- 

sence of a mong irene mes containing an oxide of the ates 
class. 


British Asso ati ; for the A " * | , . t of Si 24 . ne 301 


A paper by Dr. Andrews, was read, on the influence of Voltaic 
combination on Chemical action, He endeavored to show that 
the proper tendency of a voltaic circle is to diminish the chemical 
action of the solution on the’electro-positive metal, from the con- 

‘sideration, that in-ordinary solution, the dvolticities thus devel- 
oped have only an indefinitely small portion of liquid to traverse ; 
while in voltaic solution their reuhion ¢an be éffected, only by 
passing across a column of variable extent, = pe cm of an 
imperfectly conducting substance. 

_ Mr. Robert Mallet read his report of the experiments ftiétitated 
at the command and with the funds of the Association, “ On the 
action of Sea and River Water, whether clear or foul, and at va- 
rious temperatures, wpon Iron, both cast and wrought,” and made 
by himself and Prof E. Davy, of Dublin. The report is compris- 

-ed under four principal sections, viz. . 1. A brief summary of the 

actual state-of our chemical knowedge of the reactions of air and 

water on iron.’ 2. A statement of the nature and extent of the 

experiments on the action of water on iron, which have been. 
made on the great scale for the use of the engineer as well as 

chemist. 3. A refutation of the method proposed by J. B. Hart- 

ley, of preserving iron by brass. 4. A new method, founded on 

electro-chemieal agencies, for the protection of wrought and cast 

iron ; with a statement of various desiderata upon the subject. 

A paper was ‘presented, by Mr. Robert Addams, On the con- 
struction of Apparatus for solidifying Carbonic Acid Gias in con- 
tact with the liquid form of the Acid, at different temperatures. 

Mr. A. adverted to the original production of liquid carbonic acid 
by Dr. Faraday, in 1823, and also to the solidification of the acid 
-by Mr. Thilorier, and then exhibited three kinds of instruments 
which he (Mr. A.) had employed for the reduction of the gas into 
the liquid and solid forms. “The first mode was mechanical, in 
which powerful hydratlic pumps were used to force gas from one 
vessel into a second, by filling the ‘first with water, saline solu- 
tions, -oihor mercury ;- and in this apparatus a gauge of observation 
is attached, in order to see when the vessel is filled. The second 
kind of apparatus is a modification of that invented and used by 
“'Thilorier. ‘The third includes the mechanical and the chemical 
“methods, by which is saved muclr of the-acid formed in the gene- 
‘rator; whereas by the arrangement of Thilorier’s plan, two parts 
in thrée tush into the atmosphere and are lost. With this set of 


302 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


instruments are used two gauges of observation,—one to show 
when the generator is filled with water by the pumps, and con- 
_ sequently all the free carbonic acid forced into the receiver ; and 
the other to determine the quantity of liquid acid in the receiver. 
A table of the elastic force or tension of the gas, over the liquid 
carbonic acid was shown for each ten degrees of the thermometer, 
from 0° to 150°. The following are some of the results :. 


Degrees. ~ Ibe per square inch. * ~ Atmospheres of 15 Ibs. each. 
ay oe. ne RIND este eta Sh A POR et 
46 2 sgiess - 300 that - 20 
20 deitietsneeh ace oRMBD aly Hier Reus hr B6.64 
BR, Kerk xe mtis ANS Agee nh. ho 27.06, 
si BBO osc en ueer 620.05. yee «2 > BLOT 
AON sere er ot MRER ec = t+ | 62.32 
150 snes >= 0-7 1406.65 - + - = 99:71 


Mr. 7.4 Cinedtdi to examine the pressure at higher temperatures, 
up to that of boiling water and above; and he ‘assorted his belief 
that it may be profitably employed as an agent of motion,;—a sub- 
stitute for steam,—not directly, as had been already tried by Mr. 
Brunel,—but indirectly, and as a means to cireulate or recipro- 
eate other fluids. ©The solidification of the acid was shown, and 
the freezing of pounds of mercury in a few minutes, by the cool- 
ing influence which the solid acid exercises in passing again to 
the gaseous state. 

. T. Thomson communicated ‘a a paper on the foreign sub- 


stances contained in Irom. erage dictate ppees mic 7 


phosphorus in very minute quantities. - 

Prof. Johnston read a paper on some iteniions to the law of 
Isomorphism, showing that substances crystallizing in the same. 
form were not always composed of the same formule. 

Dr. R. 


D. Thomson and Mr. T. Richardson presented a com- 


munication on the decomposition net by the action of E'mul- 
sin on Amygdalin. — 

A paper was offered by Mr. Exley, on Chemical combinations 
produced in virtue of the presence of bodies which remain to con- 
tinue the process. It has been observed, said Mr. E., that in ma- 
ny instances, powerful chemical affinities have been brought into 
activity by the presence of certain bodies which remain insulated. 
This Berzelius attributes to a peculiar force, which he calls cata- 
lytic force. Several reasons are adduced to show that this force is 


~ 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 303 
but.one species of the general effects which usually occur in chem- 
_leal actions, all of which are modifications . universal etic 
arising from circumstances. 

Mr.. William Herapath gave a paper. on a new process. for tae 
ning. He assumed that the great cause of obstruction to rapid 
tanning, is, that the weakened ooze is retained by the capillary 
attraction of the. fibres and blood-vessels so long, that when it 
shall. have passed out by exosmosis, it will have produced the 
same effect upon the soluble gelatin as is produced by maceration. 
Hydraulic pressure was too expensive, and he accordingly thought 
of employing pressure by the roller. . 

On the application of gas obtained by Water to the cantonal: 
ture of Iron, by Mr. J. S. Dawes. The mode is as follows. Jets 
of steam are made to pass through red hot cast-iron pipes, filled 
‘with small coke or charcoal; decomposition immediately takes 
place; the base of the. carbon of the coke combines with the ox- 
ygen base of the steam, forming, at first, carbonic acid, but by 
passing this over.a further portion of red. hot carbon, it is con- 
verted into carbonic oxide, sensible heat at the same time becom- 
ing latent on combining with the hydrogen base, producing hy- 
drogen gas, which, together with the oxide -before mentioned, is 
applied to the furnace by means of a-jet inserted within the blast- 
“pipe tuyere, the prenenne of the gas, of course, being oan to that 
upon the blast. . - 

A description,. by Prof. Miller, was next prec of an improve- 
ment in the construction of the rails Gontometer, by salvinh 
it is rendered more portable. 

, Drv: Thomson gave an aapgtink of Galoctin, a substance 
which constitutes, the principal ingredient in the sap of the Cow 
tree, or Galactodendron utile of South America. ~The. sap, on 
standing, throws up.a white matter, soluble in boiling alcohol, 
but deposited as that liquid-cools. . When well washed and dud 
in vacuo, over sulphuric acid, it constitutes galactin. It is yel- 
low, translucent, and brittle, has a resinous aspect and is tasteless, 
It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Gravity, 
0.969... It dissolves readily in oil of turpentine and. olive oil. It 
is composed of 6 atoms carbon, 4.5+6 atoms hydrogen, .75+41 

atom oxygen, 1, = 6.25, being isomeric with Brazil wax. r 
The secretary, Prof. Miller, read a paper on Lieut. Morrison’s 
instrument for measuring the electricity.of the atmosphere, and 


304 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


also a paper by Mr. J. C. Blackwell on the formation of crystals 
of silver by the contact of brass with nitrate of silver.—Prof. 
Johnston read a paper on the Resin of Gamboge and.its salts. 
He also produced some specimens of resinous. substances found 
in coal mines, and expressed his belief that this resin was an ex- 
udation from the trees of which the coal is composed. —Dr. Bird 


stated that he had formed chloride of copper by the voltaic ac- 


tion.—Mr. Maugham read a paper on a new Compound of Car-. 
bon and Hydrogen. -When the electrodes of a voltaic battery 

are armed with charcoal points, by means of platinum wires, and 

then brought under water, so as to produce the spark in the ordi- 

nary way, neither hydrogen nor oxygen gases are. evolved, but 

carbonic, oxide passes off, and a compound, not previously noti- 

ced, remains in the water, consisting of carbon and hydrogen.— 
A letter from Prof. Hare, of Philadelphia, was read, on his mode 

of fusing large masses of Platinum. Mr. Maugham claimed 
this as his own discovery.* __ i 


Section C. - Geology and Geography. sae 


~Mr. ay: presented a Description of a Bone Cavern in the 
Mendip Hills.. The cavern is on the summit of one of the Men- 
dip Hills, in a limestone rock. It. was discovered in pursuing a 
fox, which fled there for shelter. It is entered by a perpendic- 
ular fissure, 30 feet deep. From a large chamber at the bottom 
‘of this Sinwiates an. arched’ way leads into another chamber, from 
which a passage leads up towards the surface, and this latter 


seems to have been the original entrance. - The bones are gene- 


rally found’ imbedded in soft mud, in hollows in the bottom of 


_ the cavern, but sometimes also in stalactite. The greater part of 


the putida labo those of the ox, horse, deer, fox, boar, &c. But 
the most interesting cintemnstenice connected with. this deposit 1s, 
the .existence of human bones, which are found beneath the 
‘others. Nine skulls were also obtained. Many of the bones are 
in so decayed a state, that they crumbled to dust on being han- 
dled. It is worthy. of remark that none of the bones belong to 
extinct species. Prof. Sedgwick observed; that no human bones — 
had yet been found in any of the old’ caverns, unless under cir 
cumstances which clearly showed theit recent introduction ; and 


|" °* See Dr. are’s paper in the present No—Evs. 
ut ~ r ¥ 


d oe 


British Association: for the Advancement of Science. 305 
this cavern did not militate against | the received theory of the for- 


-_mation of osseous breccias. It may have been a. place of ancient 


sepulture, the bodies: pi let down cane a stratum of wed z 
‘and gravel. — 

The next communication was on the Nifoeatile, nie field, by 
Mr. John Buddle. This coal field occupies a tract in the coun- 
ties of Northumberland and Durham of about 700 square miles. 
Mr. B.’s very valuable essay was fully illustrated by a profusion 
of accurate and highly-finished drawings, plans and sections. | 

A paper was received from Prof. Von Baer, of St. Petersburgh, 
entitled “ Recent Intelligence respecting the frozen ground in 
Siberia.” Additional experiments on the temperatures during: 
the year at different depths have recently been commenced at 
Yakutsk; details of which we shall have hereafter. 

' Mr. Lyell, the President of the Section, read a paper on verti- 
cal lines.of tie smragneng horizontal strata ia Chalk, near 
Norwich. 


Mr. Webb ea a short notice of Lunar Voleanoes. ‘He had 
for some time examined the moon with an excellent five-feet 
achromatic, and had found that several volcanic vents existed not 
laid down in Schréter’s lunar map ; and also, that several vents, 
which had been so laid down, were now much enlarged in di- 
‘mensions. On the whole, iowever, he considered that the moon 
and the earth were. dentin in this respect, viz. that volcanic ac- 
tion was now less violent than it had been in by. gone periods.’ 

The secretary réad-a brief account of a Mandingo, native of 
Nyani-mari, on the River Gambia, by Capt. Washington, R. N. 
This man, after many adventures, is now in England. As al- 
ready observed by Goldberry and Laing, of the Mandingos gene~— 
rally, he resembles-in his features the Hindoos more than the 
blacks of Africa in general. His features are régular and. open, 
his person well-formed, full six feet in height, his nose Roman, 
with the nostrils rather flattened, not thick lips, beautiful teeth, 
hair woolly, color a good clear black, not jet. With the aid at 
Mr. Renouard, a vocabulary of about 2000 words and. phrases in 
the Mandingo language had been gathered from this native, be- 
sides itineraries in various parts of his country ; and when ‘we 
consider how extensively. spread is this language, perhaps the 


- Most so of any of the 36 families of languages into which au- 


thors’ have divided the 115 languages of Africa; and that hith- 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 39 


* 


806 British Association for the Advancement of Science. ; 


erto a vocabulary of about 400 words is all that we possessed of 
it, it will be admitted that this. native of Gambia has not been _ 
an unprofitable subject of geographical inquiry. 

Next was read a Sketch of the recent Russian Bapatitons to to 
Novaia Semlia, by Prof. Von Baer. | 

Lieut. Col. Don J. Velasquez de Leon gave a short account of 
a map of Mexico recently made by order of the Government. 

Capt. Washington, R. N. communicated an account of. in 
cent Expeditions to the Antarctic seas.. This paper was illustra- 
ted by a South circumpolar chart ona Jarge scale, showing the 


tracks of all former navigators to these seas, from Dirk Gherritz 


in 1599, to M. d’Urville in 1838; including those of ‘Tasman in 
1642, Cook in 1773, Bellingshausen in 1820, Weddell in 1822, 
Biseoe in 1831, and exhibiting a vast basin, nearly equal in ex- 
tent to the Atlantic ocean, unexplored ‘by any ship, British or 
foreign.. The writer pointed ‘out that the ice in these regions 
was far from stationary ; that Bellingshausen had sailed through 
a large space. within the parallel of 60°, where Biscoe found ice 
that he could not penetrate :-—that have d’Urville had lately 
found barriers of field-ice, Weddell, in 1822, had, advanced. with- 
out difficulty to the lat. “ef 744°, or within 16° of the pole ; and 
that it was evident from the accounts of all.former navigators, 
that there was no physical obstacle to reaching a high southern 
latitude, or, at any rate, to examining those spots which theory 
pointed out as the positions where ‘the southern magnetic poles 
will probably be found, The paper also mentioned the expedi- 


tion to the South Seas, which has just left this country fitted 


out by several merchants, but chiefly under the direction of that 
spirited individual, Mr. Enderby, whose orders were to proceed 
in search of anethehns land, and to attain as high a south latitude: 
as possible. 

Mr. Murchison gave an account of a Geologic map and sec- 
tions of the border counties of Eingland and Wales. 
_ Mr. Griffith gave an account of his Geological map of Ireland, 
and of two remarkable sections in the south of that country. - 

A paper on the siratfontion of rocks, by Mr. A jethessy, of New- 
castle, was next read. 

A short paper by Mr. Trimmer was read: on the occurrence of 
marine shells over the remains of Terrestrial Mammalia in Cefn 
Cave, in Denbighshire. The cave is in carboniferous limestone ; 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 307 


the bones of the rhinoceros, hyena, &c. are ¢ontained in marl 
beds and stalactite ; and over these the fragments of marine tes- 
tacea, showing the irruption into this cave of a diluvial current. 

Dr. Daubeny read a paper on the Geology and Thermal Springs 


of North America. 'The facts which he was about to detail, Dr. 


D. said he had become possessed of, partly. from his own researches 
during alate visit, and partly through thé kindness of the Messrs. 


Rogers, to whose labors in American geology he paid a just tribute 


of approbation. He then gave’a short sketch of the different 
chains of mountains in the United States. He stated briefty, as 
the result of his examination of various thermal springs in the 
U.S., that they gush out in all instances along lines of fracture of 
the Seater: a result similar to that which he had already estab- 
_ lished respecting the thermal waters of Europe. Dr. Buckland 
communicated the contents of a letter from Mr. Lea, stating that 
the quantity of coal in the valley of the Se was vastly 
greater than has hitherto been suppo 

The next paper was on the sruchire of Fossil Teeth, “by Mr. 
Gwen. The internal organization of the teeth in the higher 
mammalia, as shown by magnified transverse sections, was first 
described. The curious modifications which this structure un- 
dergoes in the Megatherium, the Ichthyosaurus, and: fossil fishes, 
were pointed out in detail, and illustrated by numerous magnified 
drawings. It is impossible here to give the details, but the gen- 
eral result of the investigations is a most important one to geolo- 


gists, viz. that the different genera may be distinguished by the - 


internal structure of their teeth alone ; and therefore, when other 
characters fail, or a complete tooth is unattainable, generic, nay, 
perhaps even specific identity, may be established by merely ob- 
taining a thin’ slice of one of these fossil teeth. Prof. O. read 
before the Medical Section, the day previous, a paper on the struc- 
ture of teeth and the resemblance of ivory to bone, as illustrated 
by microscopical examination of the teeth of man, and of various 
existing and extinct animals. 'This paper Soin the results of 
extensive investigations, conducted with Prof. O.’s usual skill and 
thoroughness, on the internal ae of the teeth of various or- 

rs of animals. 

- Dr. Buckland communicated an Account of Footsteps on Sand- 
stone near Liverpool. This interesting discovery was made in a 
quarry on the summit of the peninsula between the Dee and Mer- 


308° =©British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


sey, ata considerable depth from. the surface, by two intelligent 

rsons, Forrester and Horne, connected with the quarry, and an 
account of the circumstances was drawn up on the spot by Messrs. 
Cunningham and Dwyer. The specimens found were casts of 
the impression of the foot, and nothing could be more perfect and 
characteristic. There are two sets of footsteps; one set being 
those of an animal of. which traces have been before observed, 
and which has been called Chetrotherium, from its hand-like 
foot: the other, those of smaller animals, which seem. to have 
been land tortoises, similar to those which have been long known 
in the Dumfries quarries, and which are fully described in Dr. 
B.’s Bridgewater Treatise... A space of between 20 and 30 feet 


‘ horizontal, is exposed in the quarry, on which these footsteps are 


distinctly seen, and where the animals do not. appear to have 
been walking in the ordinary way, but to have been performing 
gambols. ‘He stated also that from the appearance of the surface 
of the sandstone, covered with minute spherical elevations quite 
different from any ripple mark, it was manifest that a shower of 
rain had fallen, and its traces Hind. been <Presernagy ‘upon this pri- 
meval surface! | 

Rev. Gs Young presented a a paper on the antiquity of organic 


remains, to which Prof. Sedgwick replied. . 


Dr. Buckland read a paper on the. application of small coal to 
economical purposes. Mr. Oram had succeeded in agglutinating 
the small particles of coal into a firm mass. by a process at once 
simple and cheap. ‘There would even be economy in using this 
coal for many purposes, as it occupied one third less space; whee 
packed, than coal in its ordinary state. 

A letter was read from Mr: Fox, of Cornwall, stating the im- 
portant fact, asa result of some new and most careful experi- 
ments, that he had at length obtained, by voltaic action upon 
mineral substances, a@ mineral vein, namely, carbonate of zine, 
in its natural position between two layers of. earthy matter. 

Mr. D. Milne read a paper on the Berwick and North Durhan’ 
Coal-field. It i isa basin, 15 miles in diameter, and has 15 seams 
of coal, of the average shiedicnope of 2-or3 feet. - 

Major Jervis gave an account of the progress and present state 
of the trigonometrical survey in British India. Capt’ Wasbing- 
ton then gave an account of the nereronty caer of Austr, 


Ragland, cars Saxony, Diesoan, 


yf * 


British Association for the Advancement of Science.’ 309 


Capt. W. Allen, R. N. read a paper on a new construction of a 
map of the western portion of Central Africa, showing the pos- 
sibility of the river Tehadda being the outlet of the lake Tchad. 

Capt. Beaufort, R. N. communicated a notice on the position eo . 
the city of Cuzco, in Peru, by J. B. Pentland,, Esq. 

‘Lieut. Col. Chesney, R. A. communicated a letter on the recent 
ascent of the river Euphrates, by Lieut. Lynch. 

Geological excursion. -Two steam boats were provided for an 
excursion to Tynemouth and Cullercoats.. At 7 a. m. of Friday, 
about 200 gentlemen left the quay. After breakfast, at Tyne- 
mouth, many gentlemen and ladies from the vicinity, joined the: 


'. party, which then proceeded under Tynemouth Castle rock along 


the shore to Cullercoats ; Mr. Hutton and Prof. Sedgwick acting 
as leaders, and explaining as they advanced, every object of in- 
terest which presented itself. -'The party halted repeatedly, while 
Prof. S. directed attention to some singular phenomena there ex- 
hibited. -A more picturesque scene can hardly be imagined than 
the Professor mounted on the beetling cliff, overhanging the vast 
ocean, with the listening hundreds assembled around him.~ After 
viewing the magnesian limestone, and associated red sandstones, 
the wonders of the 90-fathom dike, and the marl-Slate beds at 
Whitley quarries, with their fossil fish, which had been opened 
up for the occasion, the party teased: to Novrceatie; sivele in- 
structed and highly delighted. - 

‘On Saturday, the. time: was so limited, that instead of ss 
the remaining papers, their authors briefly stated the most _— 
tant topics which they contained. 

+g en D. Zoology and Botany. re 

The secretary-read a paper, on a-species of fish having four 
eyes, found on the coast of Surinam, by W. H. Clarke and John 
Mortimer. ‘There appeared to be some uncertainty as to the cor- 
rectness of the account, and it was 2 aia that the matter 
Should receive farther examination. 

Mr. Babington read a paper on the Botany of the Channel 
Islands. Mr. B. stated that 20 species of plants were found on 
these Islands not yet noticed in England. ~ 

Mr. J. E. Gray read’a short description of a British Shell, —- 


— see glenn 


~~ 


- 


310 British: Association for the Advancement of Science. 


Rev. Mr. Wailes exhibited a specimen of the rare insect Psali- 
dognathus Friendii, concerning which some discussion followed. 

Mr. Gray read a paper on the hie of angular lines on the 
shells of certain Mollusca. 

A paper was read on the wild Cattle of Chillingham Park, by: 


J. Hindmarsh. There are in this herd, 25 bulls, 40 cows, and 


15 steers of various ages. They are: beautifully shaped ; have 
short legs, straight backs, horns of a very fine texture, thin skin, 
so that some-of the bulls appear of a cream color. ‘They have a 
peculiar cry, more like that of a wild beast than that of ‘ordinary 
cattle. The eyes, eye-lashes, and tips of the horns alone are black, 
the muzzle is brown, and the inside of the ears red or brown, 
and.all the rest of the animal white. The author was inclined 
to consider these animals thé survivors of the Caledonian cattle, 
which undoubtedly extended through the northern provinces of 
England ; and that, under the protection of the owners at Chil- 
lingham, they had escaped the saipsiens dente ‘dependent on 
the advance of civilization. 

Next was read.a paper on ne production of Vanilla i in tig 


by Prof. Morren, of Liege. 


Dr. Parnell read a paper on some new. and rare’ spepiinens of 
British Fishes, viz. Gadus cimbrius, Pagellus acarine, Raia cha- 
grinea, R. intermedia, R.'clavata, Cottus scorpicus, Platessa li- 
mandoides, P. pala, Mugil chelo, Trigla gurnardus. 

_ The next Paper was by Mr. J. Hancock, on the Falco [sland- 

icus of | rs. Mr. H. stated that undér this name were con- 


: oad two distinct species. For the Iceland species he retained 


the name of F’. Fslandicus ; the other he named, from the coun- 
try in which it is most abundant, F. Grenlandicus. 

Col. Sykes read a paper on a rare animal from South America. 
It was described by Azara, and called Canis jubatus.. -It differed 
from the dog tribe in its nocturnal and solitary habits; its tail 
was thicker, more bushy, head flatter, eyes smaller, nose ‘sharper, 
and the whole animal more bulky than the dog tribe. If it dif- 
fered front the dog, it differed more from the fox. and wolf, and he 
proposed to refer it to the genus Hyzena. ° 

The next paper was on Vegetable Monstrosities, by 7 Rew W. 
Hincks. These he distributed into five classés, 1. Cases of co- 
herence and adherence of parts not usually united, or of separation 
of those which are ordinarily connected. 2. Anomalies depend- 


% 
Pee eee ee 


British Association for the Advancement of Stiencé. 311 


ing on the comparative development of parts of one circle. © 3. 
Anomalous transformations of organs.. 4. Monstrous. exuberances 
of growth, by which the number of parts is altered independently 
of transformation, the number of circles of parts is increased or 
the axis: ‘irregularly extended. 5. Anomalous abortions or mip 
pressions of parts usually.present in the species. 

Mr. T. P. Teale read a paper on the G'emmiferous bodies and 
Vermiform Filaments of Actinia. He stated that as great differ- _ 
ences of opinion existed among zoologists, as to the nattire of the 
gemmiform bodies and vermiform appendages of Actinie, he had 
undertaken their investigation. Some general remarks on’ the 
structure of the Actiniz were premised, the author pointing out, 
by means of a large diagram, the various directions of the muscu- 
lar septa, some lining the cavity and supporting the stomach of the 
animal, whilst others, more delicate, terminate in a mesentery, 
supporting the gemmiferous bodies (about 200 in number) or what 
has been erroneously called the ovary. The vermiform filaments 

-are attached by a delicate mesentery to the internal body of each 
gemmiferous body. Many more valuable and curious details are~ 
given, for which we have no room. 

__A paper was read by Capt. J. E. Cook, R. N,, on the genera 

. Pinus and Abies, not less than 70 apres of which had lately been 

introduced into England. 

‘Hope read a paper entitled 29 Remarks on the. modem 

‘ ddussification of Insects.” 

Mr. G. B. Sowerby laid before the Section specimens 3 af En- 
crinus moniliformis, displaying various monstrosities of form. 

__A paper was read by Mr. Arthur Strickland on the Ardea alba, — 

a bird which is unquestionably an oecasional visiter in ‘Eppland, 

Prof. Ehrenberg addressed the meeting in French, and exhib- 

ited the first volume of his great work on. microscopie forms of 

life. He submitted to the inspection of the members a bottle of © 
the material collected in quantity in the vicinity of lake Lett- 
nagesjon, in Sweden, which the inhabitants call Bergmehl, or 
mountain meal. ‘This earth, which resembles fine flour, has long 
been celebrated for its nutritious qualities, and was found to be 
entirely composed of the shells of microscopic animalcules. Prof. 

Jones engaged in an oral discussion with Prof. E. concerning the 

~ Structure of the polygastric infusoria. 


co 


312. British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


Rev, L. Jenyns exhibited a series of specimens of the square- 


tailed shrew, (Sorex tetragonurus, Herm.) and also a specimen _ 


of the chestnut shrew, (S. castaneus, Jen. a iaiom in his 


- opinion, a distinct species. 


Mr: Gray made some observations on the boring of Pholades. 
The action of these animals in boring rocks he was inclined to 
consider mechanical. 

Sir Wm. Jardine read the teport drawn up.at the ae of the 
Association on the present state of our noplaiye of the Salmo- 
nide of Scotland. 

Mr. Allis, of York, read a paper on the Toes of the African 
Ostrich, and the maiseslog of phalanges in the toes of other birds. 
Mr. A. had not been able to find the rudiments of a third toe, 
alleged t to exist in the Ostrich, He further stated, that Cuvier had 
erroneously given the number of phalanges of the toes of the fol- 
lowing birds. In the Cassowary, which had 3 toes oS beg num- 


bers are 3, 4, and 5. Inthe Ostrich 4and 5.’ he C Caprimulgus 


has the outer and middle toe, having 4 phalanges each. . 'The 
Swift has only 3-phalanges, except in the hallux. vane * “mi 
ming-bird has the full number of-phalanges in all its toes. 

Dr. Charlton showed a specimen of Tetrao Rakkelhan of Tem- 
ninck, and endeavored to substantiate the old theory, that this 
bird is nothing but a hybrid between the hen capercailzie and 
blackcock. 

Dr. Handyside, of { Edinburgh, presented a paper on the Stern- 


oplixinee, a family _ osseous. fishes, including a minute deserip- 


tion of a. new species, the Sternoptir telebes. 
The next paper was on the distribution of the serrégeriat Pul- 


_monifera in Europe, by Edward Forbes. 


A notice of the annual appearance of some of the Lestris tribe 
(Arctic Gulls) on the coast of Durham, was communicated by 


_ Edward Backhouse, Esq., of. Sunderland. 


Mr. Owen stated some of the results of his investigations made 
in procuring materials for his report on-the Marsupiata. The 
report was drawn up under three heads.- 1. The zoology of the 


Marsupiata. 2. Their relation to other Mammalia, and 3. ‘Fhe pe- . 


culiarities of their reproductive economy. He concluded with 
some geological account of the bones of these animals. © 

Mr. Yarrell gave a description of a new species of Smelt, caught 
7 bay of Rothsay, which he denominates Osmerus aa 


ENS SEERA TN epee = 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 313 

Rev. F. W. Hope read a paper on Noxious Insects occurring 
in 1838. These were a-beetle (Anthonomus pomonus) which 

attacked the blossoms of apple trees; an aphis, which has injured 
apple trees, hop plants, and wheat; and the Tipula Tritict (or 
rather Cecidomyia Tritici ),a small dickeroue insect, whose attacks: 
on wheat while. escent for: many years past, are hon comin 


= - Section E. Medical Science. 1 


A paper was -_ ‘by Mr. T. M. Greenhow, on the beneficial 
action of mercury rapidly introduced, in certain cases of Neuralgia. 
Mr. R. M. Glover read a paper on the functions of the rete mu- 
cosum and pigmentum nigrum in the dark races, and particularly 
in the Negro; with observations on a ~— on ae" same subject, 
by Sir Everard Home. 
ia the next paper, Dr: John Reid gave an account of an experi- 
l investigation L of the finite. of the ag 8 Pair of 


iad 
A paper, by J Mr. N. Par, on the law of recovery aha mortality 
in Cholera Spasmédica, was read by Dr. R. D. Thomson. - From 
the tables which Mr. F. has prepared, may be deduced the solu- 
tions of the following problems. 1. The mean duration of the 
disease: 2. The mean future duration of the disease at any pe- 
riod.. 3. The probability of dying at any period of the disease. 

Mr. James Blake then read a paper on the action of various 
substances on the animal economy, when injected into the Veins, 
in which were detailed experiments with various substances and 
their effect on the vascular system; measured by an ingenious in- 
Strument, which the author called a Heemadynamometer, an in- 
strument by which he was enabled to detect the pressure of the 
blood in the arterial system, by meaiis of a column of mercury, 
contained ina bent glass tube, which could be connected with 
the arteries, and which was attached to a graduated scale. 

Dr. Yelloly (the chairman) showed-a model of an improved 
acoustic instrument, to assist in cases of partial deafness. A re- 
port upon its value may be expected at the next meeting. 

Dr. Reid gave a brief notice of his abana on the quantity 
of air required for respiration. 

Dr. Inglis read a paper a phrenological remarks on the 
Skull of Eugene Aram. 

Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 40 


4 


314 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


Dr. Granville exhibited an improved Stethoscope, a ball-and- 
socket joint being attached to the ear-piece, which thus becomes 
movable with the cylinder at any angle which may be required. 

- Dr. Rees read a ss. tag on the chemical nature of the Liquor 
Amunii. 


‘Dr. R. D, Thomson read a paper on the ti ae operandi of | 


Nitrate of Silver as a caustic and therapeutic agent. 

Mr. Greenhow read a brief memoir on fractures, for the. pur- 
pose of introducing a model of a new sling fracture bed, applica- 
ble to every fracture in the lower extremity, but peculiarly iii 
to the treatment of compound fractures of the femur. 

Dr: Bowring communicated some observations on Plague and 
Quarantine made during his residence in the East. The re- 
sults of his observation had produced in his mind a. strong con- 
viction of the non-contagiousness of the plague. Ageriatine: re- 
-Strictions are consequently altogether useless vex: es 

Mr. Goodsir read a paper on the origin and s 
ment of the human teeth. 

A paper. by Dr. Spittal was ‘read, entitled  Hixperiments and 
Observations on the cause of the Sounds of Respiration.” _ 

Dr. A. T. Thomson read a paper on the medicinal and poison- 
ous properties of some of the Iodides. 'The principal preparation 
whose action was detailed, was the iodide of arsenic. The action 
of this medicine in very minute doses, from 4 to 4 of a grain, was 
peculiarly serviceable in Lepra vulgaris and chronic impetigo. A 
ease of m g carcinoma was found to yield 
to its continued ‘action, and it was found. equally successful ina 
‘more decided case ‘of i incipient carcinoma. — 


Section F, Statistics. 


“The first paper read was a Report from Mr. J., Stephens, super- 
intendent of police, On the State of Crime in Newcastle, during 
last ten months. This was simply such a returnas is usually 

_ made from police offices 
Mr. G. R. Porter teal: a statistical View of the recent ; progress 
and present amount of mining industry in France. ‘This is an 


elaborate Report, and comprises the mining operations in coal, — 


iron, lead, silver, antimony, copper, and manganese. 

Col. Sykes read a very minute and detailed account of the 
Statistics of Vitality in Cadiz. He submitted an immense mass 
of valuable tables and returns, which will probably be published. 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 315 


Afterwards were read Statistical Hustentions of the Principal 
Universities of Great Britain and Ireland, by Rev. H. L. Jones. 
The best authorities were. employed in the preparation of this 
document. The college, revenues were Koueatndsc: detailed, and 
the results may be thus stated :— 


Ape a RIOR 5 ena Dublin, 
Heads of houses A ae eee Res 
Income — £18,350 £12,650 £2,000. 
Fellows 6BZ.< - 5 9 Oat ee 
. Income £116,560 £90,330 £25,400 — 
“Senolarsinpa.-.« .  ..309  » .’ 9B 10 432) 
Income -. £6,030. £13,390. £2,100 ~ 
- College-officers 199 179 10 
£17,750 £20,000 
a ee 
280. 31 


College Revenues £152,670 £133,268 £31,500 

Other tables were constructed, giving the number of members, 
and their ranks, also the stimulating forces, that is, the amount of 
_ pecuniary advantage offered for exertion. 

Mr. W. Cargill offered a paper on the Educational, Criminal 
and other Statistics of Newcastle. 

Mr. L. Hindmarsh made a communication on the State of Agri- 
culture and Agricultural Laborers in the north division of the 
county of Northumberland. On the whole, the agricultural statis- 
tics of this district are of a gratifying character. They present a 
soil well cultivated, under the vicissitudes and difficulties of a very 
variable climate’; and a- peasantry who, in their general intelli- 
gence and moral habits, are a credit to themselves, an honor to 
the country, and an example -worthy of imitation. ; 

Dr. W. C. Taylor read an Account of the changes in the popu- 
lation of New Zealand, communicated by Saxe Bannister, Esq. 
late Attorney general for New South Wales. The New Zealand 
group consists of the N. and 8. islands, Stewart’s island, and some 
smaller isles; the extent of these is 95,000 square miles. . The 
population was classed.under the following heads,—natives, white 
residents, white visitors and mixed races. 'The probable number 
_ of natives is 130,000. The white residents are about 2,000. As 


316 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


many as 1000 British and American sailors have been seen at the 
Northern island at one time. There was no estimate of the mixed 
race, which is greatly on the increase; but the total population 
is decreasing, from a variety of causes, and chiefly from the in- 
troduction of European diseases.. The natives are a noble race 
of men, capable of attaining a high degree of civilization, but in 
Mr. B.’s opinion, wren was no — of their being addicted to 
cannibalism. 

Mr. Rawson reads a report on the Fires of London. 'The e total 
number of alarms of fire attended by the Lond. Fire Engine Es- 
tablishment during five years up to the end of 1837, was 3,359, 
or 672 on the yearly average: of these, 343, or 68 per annum, 
were false alarms, and 540, or 108 per annum, were fires in chim- 
neys. Thus, the number of alarms was 13 per week, and of 
actual fires, 4 in every three days. Some of the false alarms had 
arisen from displays of the Aurora Borealis. Of the 2,47 6 fires, 
the premises were wholly consumed in 145 cases ; séfiot 
aged in 632; slightly’ damaged in 1699. An analysis wa 
of the siidneisrscid causes of total destruction, and it was observed 
that the number of fatal fires had greatly increased. The winter 
months do not show so large a preponderance of fires as might be 
expected. December. presents the largest average, but the next 
in order is May. On comparing the number of fires occurring on 
each day of the week, it,appears that there is a slight excess, on 
Friday, and a decided falling off on Saturday. In relation to 
hours, the number of fires is atthe minimum, from 5 to 9 a. M., 
when it begins slightly to increase until 5 p. m., at which hour 
the rate of increase becomes considerable, and continues until 10 
or 11 Pp. m., when the number is at the maximum ; from this time 
it gradually declines until the dawn. The nuanibes of wilful fires 
in the five years, was 31, or 6 per annum, which is as 1 in 64 to 
the number of fires of which the causes were: discovered. i 

_ Rev. J. M’Alister gave a Statistical notice of the Asylum for 
the Blind, recently established at Newcastle.—Mr. Heywood, 
announced that he had received .the last Annual Reports of the 
Regents of the University of the State of New York, from the 
Rev. Dr. Potter, with an explanatory letter,—which was read.— 
Next was read Mr. Rawson’s abstract of the second Report of the 
Railway Commissioners for Ireland.—Statistical tables were 
exhibited of the nine principal: collieries in the county of Dur- 


British Association for the Advancement of Science. 317 


ham, prepared by Mr. W. L: Wharton. —Next was read Mr. Wil- 
son’s account of the Darton collieries “ Accident Club,”—a kind 
of mutual relief association.—Mr. Felkin, of Nottingham, read 
an abstract of the Annual Report of the overseers of the town- 
ship of Hyde, in Cheshire-—Mr. W. R. Charlton submitted Sta- 
tistical notices from the parish of Billingham.—Mr. Hare offered 
an Outline of subjects for statistical inquiries.—Mr. P. M’Dowall 
presented statistical: tables of Ramsbottom, near Bury in Lanca- 
shire.—Mr. Kingsley read a paper giving a tabulated view Lat the 
Onin 1 Statistics of Ireland. 


Baiton G. Mechanical Science. — 


A paper was read on a new Day and Night Telegraph, “ta 
Mr. Joseph Garnett ; and a paper on Lsometrical a by 
Mr. Thomas Sopwith. 


_ Mr. Sopwith also gave a description of an Satie method of 
const, ues ing large Secretaires and Writing Tables. 'The prin- 
ciple is, y opening a single ‘lock, all the drawers, closets and 


at by 
sarfitione are opened. These are so disposed, that a person may 
reach every thing contained in it, without stirring from his seat. 
‘The president, (Mr. Chas. Babbage, ) and many others, expressed 
their admiration of the arrangements, and of the convenience 
which such a table must be to every person ehgaged in an ex- 
tensive correspondence, or ane many sets of papers on various 
subjects. 

Mr: G. W. Hall on the power of economising and ranaieilices 
heat for domestic purposes.~—Mr. John S. Russell gave some fur- 
ther notices on the resistance of water—Mr. P. Nicholson com- 
municated an essay on the principles of oblique bridges. —Mr. 
W. Greener submitted remarks on the: material and mechanical 
construction ‘of steam boilers. He considered the accidents which 
happen to steam boilers to be mainly due to defect in the mate- 
rial; and he detailed several experiments made on slips of iron 
cut from plates of different quality. He found that slips cut lat- 
itudinally from a plate, bore less by 30 per cent. than.slips of the 
same dimensions cut longitudinally. 

Sir John Robinson spoke on the use of coal-gas for sabia 
Mr. Strutt, of Derby, stated some years since, that coal-gas would 
probably be found, by the lower classes, the cheapest fuel for 
cooking. The whole apparatus, (which might be considered the 


318 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


converse of .the — Safety Lamp,) consisted in fixing a piece 
of wire-gauze at the extremity of a gas-pipe of about 6 inches 
diameter. Bulk for bulk, gas costs more than coal, but. the for- 
mer was more economical and convenient for occasional use and 
the smaller operations in cooking.—Mr. Evans gave account of 
a new rotatory steam-engine, invented by S. Rowley.—Dr. Lard- 
_her stated the reasons which had. prevented the making of the 
" experiments for the Report on Railway constants.—Mr. J. Price 
communicated an improved method of constructing Railways. 
The method consists in fixing rails on a continuous stone base, 
a groove having been made in the stone to receive a flange or 
projection of the lower side of the rail. The stones and rails 
are to break joint with each other, and the chair by which the 
rails are to be secured, is to be made fast to the rail by a bolt not 
riveted, but slipped in. The chair is to be sunk until the top 


is level with the top of the stone, and fastened ‘to it by two - 


small wooden pins. Any sinking of the road is to be obviated 
by driving wedges of wood underneath the stone, until it is 
raised to the required height. _The chairs are to be fixed at 
about 4 feet apart, and to weigh, if of malleable iron, 14 pounds, 
but if of cast»iron, 20 pone; the rail. to weigh 50 pounds per 
yard... 
- Mr. 7. Motley oemniads a paper on the eonsiruciion of a railway 
‘with cast-iron. sleepers as a substitute for stone blocks, and with 
continuous timber bearing. The cast-iron sleepers, which are 
wedge-shaped and hollow, having all their sides inclined inwards 
towards the under side, are to be laid transversely, and. the timber 
is to pass longitudinally through the center, and to be secured by 
wedges of iron and wood. The sleepers are to. be six inches 
apart, and the timber of such a thickness as to prevent any per- 
ceptible deflexion between the rails. ‘The road is to be ballasted 
up to the top of ‘the sleeper, and the timber to stand out suffi- 
Be and to have any approved rail laid upon it. 

Mr. Hall described a machine for raising water by an hydrau- 
lic belt. Mr. Samuda gave an account of Clif’’s dry gas-meter. 
Mr. 'T. Sopwith described his method of constructing geological 
models. Mr. S. also described an improved levelling siave, for 
subterraneous as well as surface levelling. ‘The mode of reading 
the figures of the stave itself instead of the sliding vane, as adopt- 
ed by most engineers ee Mr. 8.’s improved 


5 


- 


British Association for the Advancement of Science, 319 


Staves; the figures being engraved on copper plate, on an en- 
larged scale. Mr. T. Motley gave an account of a suspension 
bridge over the Avon, Tiverton. The peculiar feature of this 
bridge is, that each chain is attached to the roadway, and the 
suspending bars are carried up through each chain above it. The 
length of the bridge is 230 feet, the breadth 141, and the cost, 
including the towers and land abutments, under 2,400 

Prof. Willis described his instrament ‘called the Cdeeieanhy 
designed for enabling workmen to find at once the centres from 
which the two portions of the tooth are to be.struck, so that the 
teeth may work truly together. 

Mr. Lang described some improvements in Ship Buélang, 
and exhibited models illustrating the Beary keel, which had been 
introduced with great success. 

Count Augustus Breunner communicated a paper on the use of 
wire ropes in deep mines. About seven years ago, ropes compo- 
sed of twisted iron-wire, ‘were introduced into the silver mines of 
_ the Hartz mountains, as a substitute for the flat ropes. previously 

in use. Since that time they have been adopted in most of the 
Mines of Hungary and Austria, to the almost total exclusion of 
flat and round ropes made of hemp. ‘These iron ropes are as 
strong as a hempen rope of four times the weight. One has been 
in use upwards of two years without any perceptible wear, 
whereas a flat rope performing similar work, would not have lasted 
more. than a single-year. ‘The diameter of the largest rope in 
common use in the deepest mines of Austria, is one inch and a 
half. This rope is composed of iron wires, each two lines in di- 
ameter ; five of these are braided together into strands, and three 
of these strands are twisted tightly into arope. . Great care is re- 
quisite in making the rope, that the ends of the wires be set deep 
in the interior of the rope, and that no two ends meet in the same 
part. The strength of these ropes islittle less than that-of a solid 
‘fron bar of the same diameter. The usual weight lifted is 1000 
‘pounds. ‘The rope on leaving the shaft, must be received ona 
cylinder of not less*than eight feet diameter, and be kept well 
coated with tar. ‘There is a saving of about oné third of the 
‘power in one case mentioned, for four horses with a wire rope, 
- are doing the same work as szz horses with a flat ro 

Mr. Babbage called attention to some specimens of a new 

Method of wood engraving, by-Mr. G. Woone. 


320 British Association for the Advancement of Science. 


Dr. Lardner addressed the meeting on Steam Navigation and 
on a self-recording Steam-Journal. Dr. L. said that it was a 
matter of no real importance how far any opinion which he might 
have formerly expressed on extended navigation was right or 
wrong, except so far as it had been made a personal question. He 
had, indeed, expressed a discouraging opinion as to the probability 
of ever maintaining an unbroken intercourse- by steam naviga- 
tion between Great. Britain and New York, but he had never de- 
clared that it was a physical impossibility. He confessed that 
the success of the Great Western had shaken his former opin- 
ions, and should the same success continue throughout the entire 
year, he would be the first-to come’ forward and acknowledge 
himself. completely i in error. He then gave an account of his in- 
strument, termed a steam-journal, by which he proposes to reg- 
ister every five minutes, the following varying phenomena, on 
which the efficiency and performance of steam engines depends: 
—the presstire of the steam between the slides and the steam 


valve—the pressure in the boiler—the vacuum and the quantity. 


of water in the boilers—the saltness of the water in the boilers,— 
the velocity of the paddle-wheels—the draft of the vessel—the 
trim of the vessel—the rate of the vessel,—the course of the ves- 


sel,—the apparent force and direction of the: wind. All these, — 


excepting the course of the vessel, it.is.intended to sia oor: by 
self-acting mechanism. 
_ Mr. J. 8. Russell followed with an essay on the same general 


subject, and insisted on the propriety of eee steamboats sharp. . 


Iron adie with copper tubes, appeared: to him the best. 

Mr. Fairbairne described machinery for cee boiler plates, 
by which the work is done. better and much more speedily than in 
the usual methods.—Mr. B. Green gave an account of the con- 
struction of timber viaducts.—Prof. Willis described a method re- 
cently introduced by Mr. Hawthorn, of working the valves of a 
locomotive without the usual eccentrics.—Mr. J. T. Hawkins 
described several methods of filtering water.—Several communi- 
cations were offered which could not be read for want of time, 


viz. Mr. Reed; on an improved safety hook and bow for coal-pits : ~ 


Mr. Glynn, on. the waterworks of Neweastle: Mr. Wake, on @ 
new paddle-wheel ; Sir C. Monteith, on a new tram-road ; on an 
improved kitchen grate: Mr. Fourness,.on coal mine ventilation : 

Mr. Dobson, on a method of making bricks of every required color. 


Bee) rosetta ar wn 


: aaa ip 


Reason. 


Various appropriations were voted for the erent of scien- 
tific investigation, viz. 


To the Physical Section, - “40s £263.10 - 
Chemical“ Se ice cee a bt 150.00 
Geologic : = 325.00 , 
Zoological and Botanical, - - 6.00 
Medical, - - 100.00 
Statistical, - - - - -— _ 300.00 
Mechanica mite hee 598.00 

£3742. 10 


The principal eee ci at not involving grants of money 
were—that Prof. A. D. Bache should be requested to report on 
the meteorology of the United States:—that Prof. Johnston 
should report on the connexion of Geology and Chemistry :—that 
the Council should prepare a general report on the progress of Ge- 
ology :—that J. E. Gray, Esq. should prepare a report on British 
molluscous animals” and their shells:—that P. J. Selby, Esq. 


should prepare a report on British Ornithology :—that Dr. Forbes 


should report on the Pulmoniferous mollusca of Great Britain ; 
and that Prof. Faraday, aided by a Committee, should report on 


-~ the specific gravity of steam. In addition to these, many resolu- 


tions were passed, involving applications to the government and 
other public bodies; and various scientific researches were also 
recommended. ; 


Aititiesiisaanatmiling 


Arr. [IX.—On Cupellation, an easy, an accurate, and new 
method ; hy W. W. Matin, Mining Epeinem, § and Geologist, 


id TO agate SILLIMAN. 


Dear Sir—My duties as mining engineer, metallurgist, and 
geologist, have frequently rendered it necessary to assay lead and 
other ores for silver and gold. As I could not procure a good 
cupelling furnace with mufiles, &c., and as it was frequently de- 
sirable to ascertain on the spot, whether certain ores contained 
the precious metals, I have thought of other means of cupellation, 
and have succeeded in one which can be -applied at any place 


Where a candle, a common mouth blowpipe, and a slip of mica 


can be procured. It is a method which I have employed for 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. Al 


322 On Cupellation. 


about two years with perfect success, and I have no hesitation in 
recommending it to the public. As it is a matter of public inter- 
est to simplify all such operations, I have thought it proper to send 
you a description of my method of cupellation. 

If the ore’to be examined for silver or gold, be a lead ore, it is 
to be reduced to the metallic state by the ordinary methods. A 
small piece of the lead, of the ‘size of a duck shot or larger, is to 
placed on a thin slip of mica, and then melted by the blowpipe 
flame of a candle or lamp. As the heat increases above the melt- 
ing temperature of the lead; the globule ‘will become perfectly 
brilliant, and finally a peculiar flickering, brilliant surface will 
shew itself, caused by the oxidation of the metal and the fusion 
of the oxide of lead. 'The oxide of lead melts at the temperature 
at which this appearance is developed, and spreads itself on the 
mica. It soon ceases to spread, and collects around the globule 
of melted lead, which is continually diminshing in magnitude, 
in consequence of the oxidation of the metal: in the oxidizing 
blowpipe flame. When the globule of melted lead is nearly bu- 
ried in the mass of the surrounding oxide, the slip of mica- should 
be permitted to cool. The globule. of lead should then be re- 
moved by forceps, or other means, to another place on the slip of 
mica, where the same oxidizing process is to be repeated succes~ 

ively. Finally, when the globule shall have been reduced to— 
the size of a small grain of sand, it should be placed on a fresh, 
clean slip of mica, and again heated in the same manner. If the 
‘lead contains the least trace of silver, it ‘is easily made manifest 
in this way, because, the silver when once free of lead, (which 
continues to oxidize to the last,) remains unchanged, as a brilliant 
white globule, which can be frequently seen distinctly with the 
naked eye, and when too small for this, by examination with the 
magnifier. If the oxidation of one globule of the lead does not 
give decisive indications of silver, a satisfactory conclusion as to 
the lead being argentiferous or not, may be obtained by oxidizing 
five to ten such globules down to a very small size, and then 
uniting these by fusion on a slip of mica, and continuing the ox- 
idation to its ultimate limit. A person accustomed to blowpipe 
manipulation, can determine in a few minutes, if silver be*present 
in any lead which may be suspected to contain it. With the ta- 
ble blowpipe, or the hydrostatic blowpipe, an ounce of lead may - 


__- be cuipelled ‘in a very short time, and the relative s apr of sil- 


_ Ver determined, if it be appreciable. 


Co 


Fe ee ae ee ee ae 
pape iat Hat = it is < 


digger 


‘* 


If the ore to be examined be not an ore of lead, some of the 
ore is to. be melted in a clean crucible which has never been 


used, and lead free of -silver-and gold added, and stirred. and 


mixed with the fused ore. The fusion of the ore should be so 

ety as to permit the lead to settle to the bottom of the melted 
The lead, in consequence of its affinity for the precious 

ssi unites with them if present, and forms an alloy. The 

lead, cupelled asabove, will show the silver or gold, or an alloy 

of them, if either, or both of them were present 

If the globule obtained by the cupelling aposabion, beg 
to-be an alloy of silver and: gold, it is examined in the usual way, 


_ and the metals separated qualitatively, | or quantitatively, as cir- 


cumstances may require. 
Albany, Oct. 2d, 1838, 


%. 


Arr. X. —Meteri Observations made at Cambridge, Mass. ; ; 
' by Prof. J. Loverme. 


: THE science of meteorology, although it has eoopived of has a 
large share of public attention, still remains in an unsettled and 
erude state. The rigorous demonstrations of mathematics, which 
have been called ‘in to elucidate and develope the other sciences, 
have failed in any important degree to reach and establish this, 
A disposition to speculate; a disinclination to keep up steady ob- 
servations, has been felt as a constant impediment to-the growth 
of this department of science. It is not till very- recently, that 
any regular and systematic plan of observations has been adopted : 
and yet we might have supposed that the mighty impulse given 


- to astronomy by the establishment of fixed observatories, would 


have suggested similar means for the advancement of other sci- 


- ences equally dependent upon constant observations. Instead of 


complaining, however, that we did not have them sooner, per- 
haps we ought rather to-rejoice that such means are now in ope- 
ration, and that a mass of observations is continually sent forth 
from these established retreats, which must soon give a more- fin- 
ished character to the complicated and difficult science of me- 
teorology. 

A good proportion of this attention has. been vues by that 
class of transient and luminous appearances, either in or very near 


324 Meteoric Observations. 


to our atmosphere, comprehended under the general term of me- 
teors. The appalling spectacle of falling stars, presented on the 
morning of the 13th November, 1833, has confirmed this awak- 
ening interest to the phenomena that are daily taking place in 
our atmosphere. ‘This shower, for such it literally was, seems to 
have been quite unparalleled, if we make allowance for the exag- 
gerated accounts which we read in the poets, of marvels and 
strange lights in the heavens. And what particularly needs no- 
tice, is the vast extent of country to which this sight was offered, 

suggesting the idea that the earth in its revolution, had encroached 
upon a nest of meteors. I have never been able to fall in with 
the opinion, that this shower has -been repeated on the same 
morning in succeeding’ years. . I do not think that the appearances 
noticed on those mornings were of an unusual ‘character, and far 
less that they'can claim any comparison with the exhibition of 
1833. The hypothesis more recently advanced, that there are 
two or three favored seasons of the year, although better supported 
by the facts than the other, Ido not think can yet be maintained. 

My own observations, and the facts mentioned by those who 
have arrived at a different opinion, have led me to the conclusion, 
that meteoric appearances are much more common every night 
than: has been imagined: that, independently of the clearness of 
the atmosphere, no season of the year is especially provided : that 
about the same average number can be. seen every fair night: 


_ that very few appear before midnight, and that much the largest 


a as a ee hours before sunrise. | 

the zeal of observers in different places, many 
more Shicevation are still needed, niade every night in the year, 
and from midnight till morning, befor any satisfactory result can 
be reached. The labor of such observations is painful, and must 
therefore be shared with many. I think, however, that a single 
night’s uninterrupted watch is worth far more than’the same eX- 
tent of observations distributed over several evenings, as it saves 
the necessity of taking an average, which must always be uncer- 
tain: for although, generally speaking, the meteors fall much 
more abundantly in the morning, from four till six, than at an 
earlier hour ; still, the relative proportions for each hour are not 
so accurately fixed, that we may conclude from a single hour's 
observation, the siemeibiy that has fallen during the night. With 


these —- —_ the result <4 ‘some observations that were 


ee 


made at Cambridge, on and near the 13th of November last. . 
BS Eight members of the senior class, Messrs. Hale, Hurd, Adams, 
: Longfellow, Chase, Channing, Morison, and Parker, undertook 
the labor of watching. Their stations were taken together out 
in an open field: the heavens were divided into quarters, and two 
observers stationed at each quarter. All of the observers were 
out the whole time, from midnight till morning. A condensed 
table of the: meteors seen ‘by them i is contained below. 


: See 
j Pena _ November 12th, 1838. =A 
. * Hours of observation. [Szaztert ss “.; ay eed 5 a at Sum. | 
| |From 12 till 1 A.M. 6 2 1 2 11 
he Es 4 | 4 10 Q7 | 
q fo B= 2. 18 10 8 11 AT 
= sire. 13 .|. 16 10 14 53. 
ae = Tae CT Ses mt ae ee a 
, Sg Se : re ne ses Me © 
‘ Total, 60 1..65 1, 317 51 +} 199 
: Nore. —After 50 ‘clock there were: only two ‘observers 
November 13th. 
4 - Hours of observation. _ 25 = = 9 a = re Sum. 
From 12 till 1 A. M. 6 y Ae ere x's 24 
Ss cigh ron apt = 12 : il cag ome. ore ee Brad 
a 2S (AR Sey "2 ae 
o- p—a tl 5 4 6 26 
3 LS, Soe ua, al 7° o 3 | ° 20 
: — Total, | ‘a, ot. ig | oa Pe 
: - November 14th. 
: esac observation. : er as a ——} Sumi 
From 1 till Te A. M 6 3 1 12 
: 16 22 13 15 66 
, e.3— us " ~). oe 21 25 11 80 
4 * 14 18 15 16 63 
: “6 — 5h. 20m.“ 3 8 0 1 12 
s “2 Total, 62 72 55 44 | 233 


An attempt was made to watch again on the morning of No- 
vember 23d, but the clouds partially prevented. The observa- 
tions this morning were not commenced till Ih. 20m. -At half 


— B26 - Meteoric Observations. 


past two it became — and at three the mabey was almost en- 
tirely obscured. 


Hours of observation. aa = = ae j ar Sum. 
‘rom T till 2. A.M. 5 8 5 | 20 
ee 10 | 6 5 4 | 25 
soe, etd CR So Oa Eg td a 

Total, 14 3 ile ie = ioe te. 


- It is now to be icine that the state of the atmosphere was 
not peculiarly favorable, on any one of the nights of: observation. 
It was occasionally hazy, and floating clouds were continually 
obscuring some part of the firmament. It was thought, however, 
that the morning of the 13th was as favorable in this respect as 
either of the other mornings, and yet it happened that a smaller 
number was seen then than before or after. It was particularly 
noticed that the meteors of the 13th were: inferior in splendor to 
some observed on the other mornings. For many of them had 
tails and trains, and shone with the brillianey of Sirius. — - 

Now it is clear that no conclusion is to be drawn from this or 
any other-single set of observations. They are only valuable in 
connexion with all others made at the same or any other time. 


We still want a continued series, extending through every day of - 


- the year, and reaching from midnight till sunrise. Withont-these 
data, we are not prepared for the question whether one period or 
any number of periods is particularly supplied with meteors ; nor 
are we competent to investigate the cause of these phenomena 

A longer series of observations has been made i in Germany. than 

elsewhere, and, as far as they go, they seem to indicate an equal 

and uniform distribution of meteors throughout the year. No 
hypothesis can be received which aims simply to account for 
what are considered by some periodic showers ; since no one can 
deny that meteors are seen every clear night-in wee abundane e ; 

and no theory is complete or exhausts the subject, which pales 

these unexplained. . 

. The members of the Senioe class whose names I have given 
above, and by whom the observations at Cambridge were made, 

uniting: an honorable mention for the zeal and fidelity with which 

they have discharged their trust. /The notes which I have before 
me permit me to see from what point of the heavens each meteor 

first became visible, and in what direction it afterwards moved. - I 
have carefully = eae’ to discover, if possible, some common 


+a 


as 


Se.  - 


ET 


< Meteoric Observations. = 327 


source or other circumstance which could lead to a generalization. 
The observations made at the same season of the year in other 


places: have ‘appeared to indicate a remote*connexion with the 


constellation Leo. I find on looking with this view at my obser- 
vations that a larger number of meteors emanated from this part 
of the heavens than any other, although the constellation Leo is 
so large that this fact will ‘hardly lead to any inference. But | 

what particularly struck me was the’ fact that so large a pro- 
portion of the meteors radiated to Leo. I find that the direc- 
tions of more than two thirds, if traced back, converge to this 
part of the ecliptic. It is but fair to remark, however, that the 

remainder are exceedingly anomalous and deviate widely from 
the mark. It is-a point to be carefully taken notice of by future 
observers, whether there be any general radiating point, whether it , 
is fixed if there be.one, in regard to the horizon, as it would be if 


a 


- connected with the feathis magnetic axis, or whether it partakes 


of the apparent diurnal motion of the stars: and especially whether 
it be the same at all seasons of the year. The connexion in so 
great a proportion of cases between the November meteors and 
the constellation Leo, has suggested the idea that the meteors 
have only an apparent motion; for the earth itself, at that time 
moving towards Leo,. would give every foreign body which it 
should meet the -appearance of coming from Leo. If a cloud 
of nebulous matter beset the. path of the earth so as to be trav- 
ersed by it, the denser parts might be condensed into different 
nuclei and the earth’s atmosphere grinding by them might possi- 
bly set them on fire. 'The appearances under such circumstances 
would resemble those actually witnessed in a great number of 
instances, and we should. also be able to account for the great 

ance of meteors seen two. hotirs-beforé sunrise ; as at that 
ime e Ives a are facing the point to which the einttir ¢ is mov- 
ing, and , must take directly into the atmosphere around us the 
encountered cloud. ‘Till midnight we should have the earth be- 
tween us and the vapor, and could only see the small quantity 
that escaped, being taken up in front and passed off at the sides 
of the earth. If every one of the observations made at Cambridge 
had indicated one radiating point without any exception, I should 
not consider them alone as sufficient foundation for any theory. 
As it is, what I have said will only bear to be thrown out.asa 
Suggestion, and will serve to fix attention more strongly on this 
part of the subject. It is desirable that observers at other seasons 


328 Notice from Dr. Robert Hare. 


of the year should notice whether the.radiating point shifts with 
the direction of the earth’s motion, as it will do if the motion of 


‘the meteors is only apparent and proceeds from our own motion 
in revolution. I have enlarged these remarks much beyond my. 


intention : my only object has been to do a part, however hum- 
ble, in settling one of the abi pegs involved in panes 
ae December 6, 1838. 


se = 


Arr. XI.—WNotice from Dr. Roserr Hare, Professor of Chem- 
istry, &c., respecting the fusion of platina, also respecting @ 
new E sinc and a series of eal — formed with the 
aplemenis ett water. Gnd 

: TO PROF. SILLIMAN. 
honing : Philadelphia, Dee. 15th, 1838. 

My Dear Friend ,—I send you for the Journal a brief notice 
of some results, observations, and inferences, which are nearly in 
the same language in which they were communicated to the 
Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science. 

I have by improvements in my process for fusing platina, suc- 
ceeded in reducing twenty five ounces* of ‘that metal to a state 
so liquid, that the containing cavity not being: sufficiently capa- 
cious, about two ounces overflowed it, leaving a mass of twenty 
three ounces, I repeat that I see no difficulty in extending the 
power of my apparatus to the fusion of much larger masses. 

When nitric acid or sulphuric acid with a nitrate is employed 
to generate ether, there must be an excess of two atoms of oxy- 
gen for each atom of the hyponitrous acid which enters into com- 
bination. This excess involves not only the consumption of a 
large proportion of alcohol, bit also gives rise to several acids and 
to some volatile and acrid liqnida. 

It occurred to me that for the production of pure hyponitrous 
ether a hyponitrite should be used. The’ ree bis a realized 
my expectations. 

By subjecting hyponitrite of pie or oda al 
luted ‘sulphuric acid, I have obtained a ‘species of ether which 


” 


:™ Troy a The actual ee wo 1 ars. 1 te i remaining 
weighed 10,937 ers. 


: a 


Seiten. Sake ag 


Notice from Dr. Robert Hare. — 329° 
differs from that usually known as nitrous or nitric ether in being’ 
Sweeter to the taste, more bland to the smell, and more volatile. 
It boils below 65° of F., and produces by its spontaneous evapora= 
tion a temperature of 0- 15° F. On contact with the finger or 
tongue it hisses as water does with red hot iron. After being made 
to boil, if-allowed to stand for some time ata temperature below its 
boiling point, ebullition may be renewed in it apparently at a tem- 
perature lower than that at which it had ceased. Possibly this ap- 
parent ebullition arises from the partial resolution of the liquid into 
an aeriform ethereal fluid; which escapes, both during the distilla- 
tion of the liquid ether eu after it has ceased, at a temperature be- 
low freezing. This aeriform product has been found partially con-- 
densible ae pressure, into a yellow liquid, the vapor of which, when 
allowed to enter the mouth or nose, produced an impression like 
that of the liquid ether. I conjecture that it consists of nitric ox- 
ide, so united to a portion of the ether as to prevent the wonted 
reaction of this gas with atmospheric oxygen. Hence it does: not 
produce red fumes on being mingled with air. *— 

Towards the end of the ordinary process for the “avalon of. 
the sweet spirits of nitre, a volatile acrid liquid-is created which 
affects the eyes and nose like mustard, or horse radish. 

When the new ether as it first condenses is distilled from quick- 
~ lime, this earth becomes imbued with an essential ‘oil which it 
yields to hydric ether. This oil maybe afterwards isolated by 
the spontaneous evaporation of its solvent. It has a mixed odor, 
partly agreeable, partly unpleasant. From the affinity of its odor 
and that of common nitrous ether, I infer that it is one of the 
impurities which exist in that apmnpeoind. 

The new ether is obtained in the highest ical of purity, 
though in) ‘less quantity, by introducing the materials into a strong 
well ground st bottle, refrigerated by snow and salt. After 
some time the ether will form a supernatant stratum, which may 
be separated by decomposition. Any acid, having a stronger af- 
finity for the alkaline base than the hyponitrous acid, will answer 
to generate this ether. Acetic acid not only extricates but ap- 
pears to combine with it, forming apparently a hyponitro-acetic 
ether. 

SE cheecyel some years ago that when olefiant gas is inflamed 
With an rl supply of oxygen, carbon is deposited, while 
he resulting 2g double the space of the mixture before 
Vou. XX XV. aun, 42 


330. Notice from Dr. Robert Hare. 


explosion. Of this I conceive I have discovered the explanation. 
By a great number of experiments, performed with the aid of my 
- barometer gauge Eudiometer, I have ascertained ‘that if during 


the explosion of the gaseous elements of water any gaseous or 


volatile inflammable matter be present, instead of condensing 
there will be a permanent gas formed by the union of the nas- 
cent water with the inflammable matter. Thus two volumes of 
oxygen, with four of hydrogen, and one of olefiant gas, give six 
volumes of permanent gas, which burns and smells like light 
carburetted hydrogen. ‘The same quantity of the pure hydrogen 
and oxygen with half a volume of hydric ether gives on the aver- 
age the same residue. One volume of the new hyponitrous ether 
under like circumstances produced-five volumes of gas. =~ 
An analogous product is obtained when the same aqueous ele- 
ments are inflamed in the presence of an essential oil. With oil of 
turpentine a gas was obtained. weighing per hundred cubic inches 
16,3, grs., which is nearly the gravity of light carburetted hydro- 
gen. ‘The gas obtained from olefiant gas, or from ether, weighed 
on the average, per the same bulk 13,%, grs. The olefiant gas 
which. I used weighed per hundred cubic inches only 30,5 grs. 
Of course if per se expanded into six volumes it could have 
weighed only one sixth of that weight, or little over five grains 
per hundred cubic inches. - There can therefore be no doubt that 
the gas obtained by the means in question, is chiefly constituted 
of water, or of its elements in the same proportion H?O0. 
_ With a volume of the new ether, six volumes of the mixture 
of hydr and oxygen give on the average about five residual 
volumes. The gas created in either of the modes above men- 
tioned does not contain carbonic acid, and when generated from 
olefiant gas appears by analysis to yield the same quantity of 
carbon and hydrogen as that gas affords before expansion. 

- These facts point-out a source of error in experiments, for ana- 
lyzing gaseous mixtures by ignition with oxygen or hydrogen, in 
which the consequent condensation is,appealed to as a basis for an 
estimate. It appears that the resulting water may form new pr0- 
ducts with certain volatilizable substances which may be i 


-— the account of the proceedings of the Section, ul lis het 
in the Atheneum, it appears, that after my letters in. which: 
facts above meted were stated, was read, a aug] 


{ 
; 


Notice from Dr. Robert Hare. 39] 


who is employed to-exhibit the Aydisdkpoen, microscope at the 
Adelaide Gallery, London, asserted that I had ‘accomplished the ee 
fusion, of which mention has been above made, by means of a 
blowpipe of his seu ait which I had purchased while in — 
London. 

The opinion which I am obliged to entertain of an individual 
capable of this groundless assertion, would cause me-to consider 
him unworthy of notice, had not his misstatement been made 
before an assemblage which I most highly esteem, and had he 
not been honored by a premium for his pretended invention by a 
respectable British Society. 

_ The blowpipe which is thus falsely alleged to have béen used 
by me, differs immaterially from one of which I published an 
engraving and description in the American Journal of Science for 
1820, vol. u, p. 298, being a modification of that. originally con- 
trived by. me and republished in Tilloch’s 8 Philosophical Magazine, 
vol. xiv, for 1802. 

Between the instruments described i in these cubleations or in 
the Franklin Journal, and that employed by Maugham, the only 
difference worthy of notice is, that the latter is near the apex bent 

- so as to form an acute angle, and is thus rendered suitable for 
directing the flame upon a revolving cylinder of lime. 

Although I purchased of Newman a blowpipe bent as described, 
with an apparatus attached for holding’ and turning a cylinder of 
lime, I have never made any use of it, having for the purpose of 
subjecting lime to the flame, found my modification above referred 
to as described in this Journal, preferable. It only required the 
jet pipe to be directed upwards in an angle of about forty five 
degrees with the axis of the lime cylinder. _ 

I do not consider the form of my blowpipe minployed by Mr. 
M. as qualified for the fusion of any metal. 

It is remarkable that an apparatus of eacmaoters employed by 
Maugham at the Adelaide Gallery for the supply of the gases for 
the blowpipe differs but little from the apparatus proposed for the 
same purpose in my communication above adverted to, and pub- 
lished nearly twenty years ago. 

However the process by which 1 have lately extended the power 
of the peeun-sxogen blowpipe may differ from those to which I 
had previously resorted, it differs still more from that modification 
tham has claimed as his own. 


eR == an oS 


332 Letters on Steam Navigation. 


XIL.—Letters on Steam Navigation ; by Junrus S»rrn, 
i—with a Letter to the Editors, from Mr. Henry si 


LETTER I. - 
TO MR. HENRY SMITH. x 


My Dior Sir—Since'I wrote to you respecting masts for steam 
ships, T have, on more mature deliberation, satisfied myself that 
they are better without any masts at all. It may be expedient in 
the present stage of Atlantic steam navigation, to construct what 
may be called a deck mast, that can be thrown up upon a hinge, 
or bolt axis, in case it should be wanted. Ido not doubt that 
more power is lost by the resistance of masts and rigging in steam 
ships, than is gained by the use of sails, I am aware that it will 
be said that-the sails relieve the engines; but upon the same prin- 


ciple, the resistance occasioned by the masts and rigging, distress — 


the engines in proportion to the degree of resistance and the time 
of its continuance. The truth is, as I apprehend it, the engines, 
if properly constructed, will Peiforin their duty just as well with- 


out the aid of sails as with it.. _ Every one at all ‘accustomed to 


the seas, must be aware that a steam ship running off at the rate 
of ten knots an hour, would ‘so far keep ahead of an ordinary 


‘breeze, that sails would have no effect in propelling, whilst the 


resistance of the masts and rigging would have a ideas anda 
: e effect in retarding her. 


Tn crossing the Atlantic one way ar: the other for twelve 
months, how few days out of the three hundred and sixty five 
would a ship have so strong a wind, and that a fair one, as to 
enable her to run ten knots an hour under eanvas? And if the 
wind is not strong enough and fair enough to do that, sails cat 
be of little or no use. If, as is contended, the use of sails does 
relieve the engines, all that can be meant by that is, that you call 


lessen your steam power and reduce the consumption of fuel. ._ 
But I think that advantage will be more than counterbalanced by 


the constantly increased resistance arising from the use of masts 
and rigging. Your’ == wert 
UNIUS Saini. 

London, Sept. 19, 1838. a s. 


~ > ‘ 


; 
f 
4 
{ 
' 


Letiers on Steam — 2 33 


_ LETTER il. 


Dear Bape my “Jest letter I took the liberty t to ihe 
‘ships generally, and thus to save the expense of masts, sails, rig= _ 
ging and top hamper in the first place, and in the second, the con- 

_ stant disbursements necessary to keep them in working condition. 
My main object, however, was to show that masts in steam ships 
are worse than useless, because the resistance being constant, and 
the advantage only occasional, the loss by resistance exc 
by such power. But I do not suppose the view I. novels 
of several particulars relating to Atlantic steam navigation, will re- 
ceive, at present, the countenance of the public ; because the errone- 
ous opinions generally entertained are both so deeply rooted and 
so agreeable to the minds of many, who fear their craft is in dan- 
ger that they do not choose to have them corrected, but rather feel 
a secret délight in. any thing which has the slightest tendency to 
strengthen and confirm them. 'The bursting of a boiler, an acci- 
dental fire, the wreck ofa . ship, or the loss of a crew, are events 
hailed with triumph by the class of persons of whom I am speaking. 
' But if the hints that I have thrown out lead the public mind 
from that general mode of thinking to which the novelty of At- 
lantic steam navigation has given birth, to-a more close investi- 
gation of the subject, we shall soon see our enemies disarmed and 
uniting with-us in carrying out a system of navigation which 
meets the wants and promotes the welfare of mankind. : 

It is with the view of showing the subject in its largest dimen- 
sions and most important results, that I venture a few remarks 
upon steam ships of war. 

It may seem premature, ate ifieioai to speak of the Séwor 
of the sword, to measute the force of nations, and to weigh in our 
hydrostatic scales the fortunes of-empires. But the thing throws 
itself upon us in such bold relief, that it seems impossible to con- 
ceal it. We are compelled, whether we will or not, to trace the 
outlines, to bring the subject under review, and to anticipate the 
mighty effects of steam power upon the destinies of nations. 

Whatever nation, England, France, or America—and I think 
that it will be one of the three—has the largest and greatest num- 
ber of steam ships of war, will comaneiiad the ocean. Nothing 
can prevent it. In estimating the relative force of antagonist 
- the inguiry will not i how many frigates, or how many 


4 


334 Letters on Steam Navigation. 


line of battle ships were engaged? but, how many steam ships? 


be felt at once that the power of the fleet depends upon 


l L remember that notwithstanding every effort was made 
and enormous incurred by the transport board to meet 
the urgent demands of the army, yet such were the delays arising 


from head winds, tempestuous weather, detentions in port, and 


long passages, that the sufferings of the army were aoa: 


appalling and its operations crippled. - 


_ In war, the facility of transportation is tantamount to victory. 
If a fleet of twenty steam ships can transport an army of twenty 
five thousand men to the American coast in fifteen days, and to 
the continental ports in-a time less in proportion to the distance, 
the army can land when and where it pleases. 'There is no de- 
tention in port, no delay in the passage, no hovering upon the 
coast, with light and baffling winds, and thus affording time for 
the.enemy to collect the means of defence; but the steamers 
push at once into port, and are in possession of their ia ue before 
the enemy can be aware of his danger. - 

_'The transportation of the munitions of war and the victualling 
stores is scarcely less important than that of the army itself. The 
great magazines will always be at home, whence daily supplies 
will be drawn with the same ease and regularity as if they were 
in the vicinity of the camp... The celerity of communication and 
its absolute certainty supersede the necessity of eens 
stores in a foreign country before they are wanted. 

But the greatest triumph of steam power will be seen in those 


tremendous naval engagements which hereafter will settle and 
establish the sovereignty of the seas. Such is the locomotive — 


power of a steam ship, that she can place herself in any position 
in reference to the enemy, can run down from the leeward or wind- 
ward upon the bows or stern of a sailing man of war, and with 
broadside after broadside, riddle- her fore and aft, annihilate the 
erew, and leave in her scattered wrecks an undeniable evidence 
of the irresistible power of a steam ship. 

I know it will be said that the paddle-wheels of a steam ship 
are liable to be shot away, and thus disabled, she may become 


herself a prey to the enemy. But is she as liable to be-disabled — 


as a sailing ship?- Suppose a shot were to pass through a paddle- 
wheel, it is not destroyed, and may not’ be materially —_— 


Those. who were spectators of the last continental 


ee 


pans eae 


a a 


ORR Bir < aetna “acest * 


oe | 


Letiers on Steam Navigation. 335. 
but if it were utterly destroyed, the ship is not disabled. She 


ean work with one wheel. You must therefore destroy both 


wheels before she is disabled. 


How is it witha sailing ship > Disenei her, end her ee = 
gone. She isa lost ship. The argument therefore regarding the 


danger of being disabled is vastly in favor of the steamer. She 
has no masts. And you must imagine her rash enough to expose 
herself unnecessarily to the enemy, and that too in such a man- 
ner as to give him an opportunity of carrying away both paddle- 
wheels, whilst his own masts are unscathed and entire, before she 
is disabled ;—not a very likely thing, when we consider that the 
steam ship, by virtue of her locomotive. power can always ap- 
proach the enemy or claw off, when a sailing ship cannot do ei- 
ther. The power of sails is perfectly useless, and the sailing 
ships go into battle like so many dismasted ships, the y ae me 
playthings of the lively steamer. ° 

If a steamer man of war has occasion to board her enemy, she 
manceuvres not, waits not the favor of a wind, but darts upon her 
prey at any point she pleases, and her combatants march over the 
bridge of her own deck into the camp of the enemy. 

‘The boilers‘of a steam ship of war ought to be below the 
loaded water line, and therefore perfectly secure from the effects 
of shot. .The resistance of the water would effectually prevent 
the shot from penetrating, whilst the even keel of - steamer 
would give her a point blank ‘shot at her enemy. 

Think for a moment of a sailing ship of war, no matter how 
many guns, chasing a‘steamer, no’ matter how few, the longer 
she chases the further she is off, until, if it were possible to sail 
on an uninterrupted circle, the steamer in the very act of running 
away would overtake her pursuer. Reverse this picture, and 
fancy you see the steamer bearing-down ‘upon the seventy four 
under full sail. Can the latter quicken her speed? Can she fly i in 
the eye of the wind? Can she escape before it? Has she the slight- 
est chance of evading the combat? Can there be a doubt as to the 
result? When we consider steam power in time of war carried 
out into all its multiform ramifications, what merchantman can 
€scape capture ?. What harbor afford shelter? What village resist 
plunder? What city destruction? ‘What country invasion? 
Steam power alone can cope with steam power, and therefore the 


- telative naval force of nations can be measured by no other scale. 


‘ 


25 ~ Letters on Steam Navigation. 


4 


Hence we see all the maritime nations upon earth reduced to the 


_ same level, and the work of destruction, upon a large scale, must — 


gin afresh. All the existing navies of the earth are not worth a 

pepper corn. ‘They will neither augment, nor diminish the power 
of a nation in any future maritime warfare. _We may just stand 
_ upon their ruins, and witness kingdoms, empires, and republics, 
all starting anew in the career of naval achievements, and pressing 
- forward towards those grand results which wait upon superiority. 

Nothing but.a steam power navy, in the present advanced state 
of steam navigation, can protect itself, much more a nation from 
insult. It would seem therefore preposterous and absurd, for any 
nation to exhaust its resources upon so useless and lumbering a 
thing as a sailing ship of war, The apathy with which this great 
_subject is regarded in high places, if indeed it be regarded at-all, 


is-quite surprising. But the time is hastening on when its power — 


will be felt. 

England, in all the ecices s of her vast empire, her — 
commerce, great in arms, great in peace ; England, first in moral 
excellence, in mechanics, in manufactures, in literature, in the 
arts, in. opulence, in every thing which exalts and adorns a na- 
tion, and Imay be permitted, after a residence of more than thirty 
years in her metropolis, to say, all this and a thousand times more. 
England, with all this radiance encircling her crown, is at this 
moment more exposed than any other nation to the ruthless hand 
of the invader. It is-not enough that she has strength to crush 
invasion, she wants the power to preven: it. That abe can never 
Rieakiaieics a steam war: 

ox “Your ob't serv't, 
Jontws pay 

London, Oct. 19th, 1838. 


Remarks by the Senior E'ditor.—It —_ obvious that certain 


objections to the views of Mr. Smith would present themselves to’ 


many readers, a letter, dated Dec. 3d, was addressed to his cor- 
— in oe York, to which the repre is an answer. 


t 


LETTER It. ie 
TO PROF. SILLIMAN. 


Dome Siecia reply to yous queries I try to answer each in ie 
order,’ commencing with ‘“ What for instance will the sparless, 


> 
a, 


1A tan ea er 


Letters. on Steam Navigation. 2 oe 
sailless ship do when in mid-ocean her machinery gives way, 
(perhaps the main axis of the wheels of motion,) or should se 
boilers burst, how will she get on then, and what will become of, — 
it may be, two hundred or three hundred people or more, rolling 
about ‘in the sea, when, their steam paddles being idle, they have 
consumed their provisions and do not speak any vessel ee 

Answer. I do not understand Mr. Smith as doing away. with 
the use of masts entirely, but only so arranging them upon a bolt 
axis or otherwise, that they can be unshipped or rigged at pleasure. 
The basis of his argument as I understand it is, that the great re- 
sistance which they meet in adverse winds, counterbalanices the 
use of them, and therefore in doing away with the top hamper, 
they could be easily rigged so_as to lie upon deck, to be used in 
case of need. If so rigged, the case you contemplate of “ break- 
ing the main axis of salute of motion, or bursting of boiler,’ must 
be provided for by resorting to the movable masts. Steamers 
might have two or more engines detached from each other, as is 
the case with the British Queen, so that in the event of the burst- 
ing of one boiler or injury to one engine, the other would remain 

in full operation, and a case would hardly occur when both en- 
gines would be disabled at the same time. 

The next question, ‘‘ How are the great warlike steam navies 
to be supplied with fuel? Even if the countries have wood, that 
will last but a little while, as coal cannot be obtained in every ma- 
ritime country, and~if it could, enough could not be carried for a 
long cruise ?” 

Answer. Here again I understand that the plan of Mr. Smith 
for steam ships of war, is more one of defense than of aggression, 
and his argument seems based upon this position. Ido not think 
he contemplated that steam ships of war would be sent on long 
cruises, but to be relied upon more as a means of defense. 

The British Queen is one of our line of ships, and we have 

some expectation that she will arrive in January, yet she may not 
be here before February. It would afford me great pleasure to 
introduce you to the ship whenever she does arrive, and I shall 
not fail to inform you of it. 
With much respect, dear sir, yours very truly, 
Henry Suiru. 


New York, Dec. 12th, 1838. 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 43 


t 


— 338 On Preserving Organic ——— 


Arr. XIII. —Ona New and Effectual Method of Pride 
% Specimens of Organic Nature, and of obviating the Blanch- 
ing Infiuences of Light, and the Depredations of Insects ;— 
most Advantageously Applicable to the Formation and Un- 

limited Preservation of a Hortus Siccus, or Museum of Dried 
_ Planis ; by Joun L. Rippety, M. D., Professor of Chemistry 
and Materia Medica, in the Medical College of Louisiana. 


- Corpora non agunt nisi i aint soluta.” 


Ir is conceded, I believe, that light exerts an influence in chem- 

ical changes, by modifying or exacting the inherent electrical en- 
_ ergies of material particles. This influence has been observed 
times innumerable by every one, in the blanching or fading of 
organic colors. © Few, I apprehend, could be found, who would 
be willing, upon the first proposal, to believe in the possibility of 
easily and completely averting this fading power of light, and of 
conferring immutability upon the organic tints which are con- 
sidered as most delicate and evanescent. 

The possibility of so doing may perhaps be made theoretically 
to appear, thus :—The particles of an absolutely solid body can 


suffer no change, because'they are inter se immovable. A with- 


ering leaf; exposed to air and light, fades and decays, because 
there is moisture present. Liquid water fills myriads of its in- 
mebaibie pores and intercellular spaces. The leaf may be dry ex- 
ee it may be apparently dry within ; yet-it is really 
bued with more or less of water. - “This water may give fluid- 
ity to the fading coloring matter, either by immediate solution, or 
by becoming impregnated with acid substances. But it is chiefly 
by absorbing, and thus giving liquidity to oxygen gas from com- 
mon air, that it contributes to change. © Besides, it is favorable to 
' chemical action, by standing ready to dissolve and remove some 
or all of the eliminated products. Water, moreover, may exert 
an indirect agency in hastening organic changes, by favoring the 
existence of insects and animalcules. Light renders the chem- 
_ ical affinities concerned more active, and thereby soon accom= 

_plishes changes which time and other circumstances would ac- 
complish without it. Those conditions only, on which the 
power of assuming -the liquid state me ngs are essential. Re- 
- move = and no or cali occur. 


On Preserving, Organte Pu 339 


My plan consists in wholly abstracting the moisture from the 
specimen to be preserved, having previously inclosed it in some 
material impervious to air or moisture, in order that the condition 
of absolute dryness may be perpetually maintained, The desic- 
cative substance which I make use of, is unslacked lime ; and. 
though other agents might be used, this seems to answer in all 
Cases so perfectly, well, as to leave nothing to be. desired, Pure 
quick lime, it is well known, will absorb near one third its weight 
of water in the process of slacking, Telsing a powder Per 
as free from moisture as at first. 

_ IL will first explain the manner in which botanical specimens are 
to be framed for constant ‘exposure on the walls of a museum or 
lecture room. 

Take a specimen, recently dried in the usual way, between 
folds of bibulous paper, in order that every shade of color may be. 
natural and fresh as. life ; procure - -a pane of glass of sufficient 
size, and a plate of tin, zine, copper, or sheet lead,* half an inch 
longer and half an inch broader than the pane of glass; bend 
_ this around the edges so that it will embrace the glass; remove 

the latter, and place in.the shallow cavity a thin layer of cotton 
batting ; upon this, sift a thin stratum of the powder of quick 
lime ; over this another: layer of batting; upon this a sheet of 
‘issue paper, and on the tissue paper, the specimen and label. 
Over all, place the clean pane of glass; press it gently down, 
and carefully turn over it the edges of the metallic plates. Se- 
cure the junction of the glass and metal with a ceroid or resi- 
hous cement, as bees’ wax, shellac, or sealing wax: or what is 
more convenient, and seems to answer well, fill the crevices with 
stiff glazier’s putty, and when that gets ary, pass over it with 
thick Japan varnish, of which two or three successive coats may 
be used. If the back be of sheet tin, zine, copper, or thick sheet 
lead, a ring may be soldered to one end, for the purpose of hang- 
ing up without further preparation. But if very thin sheet lead 
be used, it may require to be first protected by a back of binder’s 
board and some kind of frame. 
‘With a view of subjecting theory to the test of experiment, I 
enclosed in this manner a dried specimen of Lycopodium apodum, 
‘and also attached a part of the same specimen by means of stick- 


een 


The sheet lead which lines tea boxes answers very well. 


340 On Preserving Organic Specimens, 


ing wax to the outer surface of the glass. It was exposed to air 
and sunshine in’a high and sheltered situation. After the lapse 
of two or three days, the outer-specimen had obviously begun to 
lose its color, and was inclining to yellow, while the enclosed spe- 
cimen, equally exposed to light, still retained its vivid green and 
apparent freshness. The outer specimen continued to fade until 
it became nearly decolored ; but the enclosed one suffered not. the 
slightest change in appearance. 

It is not essential that the specimen 1 should be dried previously 
to being thus enclosed. By increasing the quantity of lime to 
three or four times the weight of the substance to be desiccated, 
aspecimen just plucked may be carefully arranged beneath the 
glass—it may be then. subjected for a couple of days to a few 
pounds of pressure, may bé sealed up and never afterwards re- 
moved. 'The degree of perfection with which the most delicate 
tints of flowers can thus be preserved, is incapable of being sur- 
passed. In the space of two or three days, the specimen generally 
becomes more thoroughly “% than it is a to render it 
by bibulous paper. 

Upon carefully surrounding fresh specimens of Asclepias Dra- 
keana* and Rosa Gallica, with fine powder of quick lime, in a 
close tin box, complete esiccation was accomplished in a single 
day ; and I was agreeably surprised in finding, that the lime had. 
not in the least modified any of the colors. The flowers were 
taken out of their natural shape and color, but stiff and brittle 

m dryness. It is sometimes rather difficult, however, to re- 
move all the lime from some. portions of the flowers. Probably it 
would be best to fill the interior of deep flowers ‘with fine clean 
sand, before burying them in the powder of lime. In this way, 


fruits, fungi, insects, small fish, and even reptiles, may be rar 5 


ally eanbalmed. 

In common herbals the flower is rudely crushed ; the ‘inte 
ant organs from which generic characters are drew: are deform- 
ed, displaced, and often incorporated into a seemingly homoge- 
neous mass; and the fine colors, if they do not become even com- 
pletely faded, are never preserved for any great length of time with- 
out Seterioration, Large specimens exhibiting the stem, branches, 
leaves, and mode of inflorescence, me well enough be — in 


“ Undescribed. Rowan alia ‘and crimson: <tescitigi 


On Preserving Organic Specimens. 341 


an herbal after the usual manner, with the precautions I shall 
soon point out; but for the preservation of most flowers and flo- 
ral organs, I would recommend a plan like the following:— 
Throw into a jar which can be closely covered, samples of dif- 
ferent flowers as they come to hand; immediately sift upon them 
finely pulverized quick lime, so as to bury them. Again and again 
throw in other flowers, covering them in the same way, until 
the jar is full. It may be well enough, for reasons already explain- 
ed, to fill the cup of the flowers with fine writing sand, before cov- 
ering them with lime. At any time the lime and flowers | may 
be gently poured out, and the flowers, now perfectly dry, care- 
fully picked up with little forceps. These flowers may be at- 
tached to twigs of trees or branches of sea fan or coral, and be en- 


closed with a few small lumps of quick lime in a sealed glass jar, 


in such a way that they can be conveniently inspected. Flint 
glass phials will answer very well for such as are small. A much 
neater method is to enclose them. in the same way in’a shallow 


“box lined with metal, and covered with plate glass. In none of 


these arrangements, if the sealing be perfect and the lime good, 
will the flowers be noticed to fade from the influence of light. 
The same principles may: be applied in defending a common 


_ herbal from the depredation “of insects and from. further change 


by fading. In order to explain a method of effecting these de- 
siderata, I will here introduce the plan which I am now about 
putting into practice myself. I procure those large tin boxes in 
which French silks are imported to this city. Any desirable num- 
ber of ‘them of similar size, can be bought here for a dollar a piece. 
They are near four feet long, by three feet broad and two feet 
high. A part of one side sist be handsomely cut out for a door. 
This door may be made ro of tin plate, or of a large pane of 
thick crown glass framed and sealed in metal. It- must be at- 
tached to the box by hinges; its inner surface neat the margin 


3 must present a continuous band of gum elastic ; around the mar- 


gin must be eight or ten fastenings, in order to elosa the opening 


- completely, by pressing the opposing surfaces of metal upon the 


gum elastic. The door place might be rendered more substan- 
tial, by soldering around it such brass strips as are used in fasten- ~ 
ing down stair carpets; and corresponding strips might also be 


~ soldered upon the door itself. ‘These boxes may be painted, and 


arranged on a series of handsome shelves. Besides containing 


342 On Preserving Organie Specimens. 


the folios of botanical specimens, they must each contain a vessel 
partly filled with unslacked lime, which will always maintain 
when the door is kept shut, an inclosed atmosphere of such ex- 


treme dryness that no ional thing 9 can exist there, and no chemi-_ 


cal change go on. 

_ Lam Of opinion, that as Saisuaté are in the habit of mutually 
3 interchanging specimens, . they would find it greatly to their ad- 
vantage ‘to adopt a somewhat similar mode of enveloping the 
packages to be sent. The length of the tin or zinc. boxes should 
be about twenty two inches, the breadth near thirteen, and the 
thickness from one to six inches. 'The opening for the cover 
may then be twenty one by twelve inches; and the cover, be- 
sides having six or eight nut and- screw factmici may be ce- 
mented on by bees’ Wax or. sealing wax., On each side the spe- 
cimens next the metal, may be placed thin, layers of powdered 
quick lime in cotton batting. In this way, no damage would be 
likely to occur to specimens. in transportation. ‘These boxes, 
having no other use, might be considered as belonging: to the 
fraternity of botanists, rather than to individuals. 

In conclusion, I cannot but anticipate that the mode of corns 
collections or museums of plants, by inclosing handsome speci- 
mens behind glass,-will hereafter contribute greatly to the diffu- 
sion. and improvement of botanical science, It is not my design, 
at this time, to set forth in detail the various excellences and 
advantages of such a method. To the reflecting reader they 


answering admirably i in. preserving collections of insects. Even 
miniatures, larger paintings, documents, in short, almost any sub- 
stance, whether of organic or inorganic: Bary may be. thus 
saved fom the merciless hand of time. 

_New Orleans, November 26, 1838, 


? a Pnifina 9 30, 3B 
Are. XIV. <i lectins Maphetie ee constructell by the late 


. W. Campsei, of New Orleans, —communicated by re 
Rippew. 


Tus engine, now in my. pomssseion; was the result of two or 
three years of study and numerous experimental trials. Mr. 
Campbell was a teacher by profession. His opportunities for ac- 
quiring a knowledge of natural science were very limited, but 
his zeal and singleness of purpose are seldom exceeded. He 
died in January, 1838, leaving his design not quite finished. 

His engine differs in some respects from those constructed by 
others. It consists essentially of two large and solid electro- 
magnets, of soft iron, in the form of the letter U, coated with 
coils of copper strips one inch broad by half a line in thickness. 
“These copper coils are insulated by being wound with strips of 
paper. The electro-magnets weigh, each, about one hundred 
pounds, and are arranged horizontally, the opposing poles being 
about eight inches apart. Between them plays the keeper of soft 


iron, K, after — manner. of a piston of a steam engine. ‘When 
the magnet, R, is ¢ ted with an active pair of galvanic plates, 

K is attracted by its poles. A reversed current of the galvanic 
fluid froma smaller pair of plates, is then sent around the mag- 
net, sufficient in quantity to destroy its magnetism the moment 
after the connection with the large galvanic pair is broken. At 
this instant the magnet Lis made to attract the keeper; the con- - 
nection is then broken, and the current reversed as before; and 
thus a-returning horizontal motion is given to the keeper and its 
appurtenances. ‘The connections are broken and reversed by the 
dipping of amalgamated slips of copper into mercury. 

_ New Orleans, November, 1838. 


* 


344 Miscellaneous Notices in Opelousas, Attakapas, §c. 


Arr. XY. ae Notices in Opelousas, Attakapas, ee; 
of. W. M. Carpenter. 
: Jackson, Lou., Nov. 8th, 1838. 


To PROF. SILLIMAN. 


aah Sir—I dna some time since, to give you some- 
thing on the prairie formation of the Opelousas and Attakapas 


‘country ; but after an examination during two summers, I have 


not been able to find much that is worth reporting. The 
formation on which the prairies rest, is nearly the same as 
that extending east of the Mississippi River, and across the 


‘southern states to the Carolinas and Georgia. ‘The age is evi- 


dently the same, and the only apparent difference is in the color 


of some of the layers, those on the east of the Mississippi being 


derived from the Alleghany Mountains, and all those west of the 
the river, having the deep ferruginous tinge peculiar to the sedi- 
ment brought down from the Rocky Mountains. 1 observed. lay- 
ers of this kind as far west as the borders of Texas, wherever 
wells were sunk to any depth. The superior layer, or that upon 
which the prairies immediately rest, is a whitish clay containing 
ferruginous gravel and rough walcayeous concretions ; it is per- 


fectly impermeable to water, and this may, in some degree, ac- 


count for the absence of permanent vegetation; the soil lying 
upon this, being very thin and holding all the water during wet 
spells, and on account of its small depth, drying very rapidly and 
thoroughly under the influence of the sun, at other times, _be- 
comes subject to great extremes of saturation and drought. This 
may be one reason why the vegetation of these prairies is almost 
entirely of a transient nature ; thus, in wet seasons,’ those plants 
are seen in abundance, which refer wet. localities, but these al- 
ways disappear at the approach of drought. No plants are per- 
manent except some hardy species of thorn trees, which bear 
these extremes, and even these are stinted. 'The drought is 
most injurious, for when a spot is shaded, trees grow to a large 
size. On all these prairies there are ponds, which, on account of 
the impervious nature of the clay, contain water at all seasons. 


They are often situated on the highest part of the prairie. "They 


are surrounded by the Zizania, Thalia dealbata, ‘Cyperus artict- 


latus, and many other marsh plants. These ponds seem to be 


f 


Miscellaneous Notices in. Opelousas, Attakapas, §c. 345 


gradually filling up with pagesaiie matter, and are no doubt rich 


in fossils of the mastodon, and perhaps other animals. During the 


last summer I visited three localities, at which remains of the 
mastodon have been found, and obtained some pieces. At one - 


place, a mile distant from the village of Opelousas, an entire skull 


was disinterred, but it crumbléd on exposure to the air, and noth- 
ing remained except the teeth; it must have been.very large. It. 


‘was discovered in excavating, in very dry weather, in order to 


deepen one of these marshy ponds for the use of stock. At about 
six feet from the surface, they came to the head and some of the 
vertebra, and then to a few ribs, all of which were in the natural 
position, indicating the erect posture. Unfortunately, rain drove 
them from the search, and on account of the increased depth of 
the pond it has never been dug since.* 

A few days since, I visited a somewhat curious deposit of bitu- 
minized wood in this parish, (East Feliciana ,) the bituminization 
being very perfect and very recent. It is at Port Hudson, on the 
Mississippi River. The following is a description of the place. 
The village is situated on a bluff, sixty or seventy feet high. 
This bluff reposes, as this whole country does, on a thick bed of 
blue aluminous clay, which forms the beds of most of our water 
courses, and wears very slowly by the action of water. At that 
place, the upper surface of the clay is considerably below high wa- _ 
ter. The bluff has been long falling in from being undermined 
by springs, which run out above the. ane clay, and by the action 
of the current of the Mississippi ; but the blue clay does not Wear 
away near as fast, and for this reason it extends some distance be- 
yond the base of the bluff. It seems that upon this shelf, the 
Mississippi has made a considerable deposit, of the common kind, 
containing a great many fragments, and sometimes entire logs ; 
after this deposit took place, a considerable mass of earth must 
have fallen, covering the former one. ‘The remarkably low wa- 
ter, together with the removal of the superincumbent earth to 
form a new landing place, has exposed the formation. The smaller 
logs are often entirely bituminized, and changed into a glossy 
black coal, in which no trace of fibre can be perceived ; still the 
formation must be very recent, for in the most perfectly bitumin- 


_ ized pieces there are frequent marks of the axe, looking as though 


* In the low lands os on the Calcasin River and Sabine, ng are nu- 
merous springs of petroleu 
Vou. XXXV. —_No. 2. 44 


346 = Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 


it was done but yesterday. The limbs are very much flattened, 
but otherwise, their external appearance is the same as usual in 
the species, which can easily be determined, being oak, walnut, 
hickory, &c. ~ The larger logs and fragments have undergone the 
transformation in various degrees, some being of a soft and spongy 
texture. Many aré in the state of perfect coal at one end, or on one 
side, ci have undergone no chan ge except SER: at the other. 


Art, XVI.—On the ES ahioion and Selidfoation of Carbonic 
Acid 5* by i. K. ‘Mircuet, M. D- 


In the year 1823, public: attention was eae drawn to the 
‘subject of the liquefaction by pressure of the, so called, perma- 
nent gases, by Mr., now Sir Michael Faraday. + Among the 
aerial fluids, garbonic acid was distinguished as requiring a force 
of 36 atmospheres at 32° F. to coerce it into the liquid state. 
His ingenious and hazardous experiments were conducted in 
_ glass tubes; and he depended on ee accumulation of newly 
generated ous for the necessary pressur 

_ Mr. Brunel,{ in a subsequent ack to apply compressed 
gases to mechanical purposes, produced a pint and a half of liquid 
carbonic acid, which, even at high op aaa he confined in 
a series of small brass tubes not above the ;!, of an inch in the 
thickness of their walls. 

‘This interesting subject was not again publicly agitated, until 

e in December, 1835, of a report on ‘the liquefac- 
tion of Sarbonis acid on a comparatively large scale. In the last 
number for. that year of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 
M. Thilorier described the properties of liquid carbonic acid in 


detail. According to him, this liquid demands for its existence 


as such at 32° F’., a pressure, as stated by Sir M. Faraday, of 36 
atmospheres. Its specific gravity is at the same temperature 
0.830, at —4° F.—0.900, and at 86°—0.600. It is therefore en- 
larged by heat 3.407 times as much as its own or any other gas, 


when carried from 32° to 86°. From —4° to 32°, its expansion 


is almost exactly equal to wees of the gases.$ _ 


* From the Journal of the Franklin Tustitate, 

t Philos. Trans. Lond, t Quart.Jou wc: Vol. 

§ See at page 301 of this number, a notice of Mr. om caged experiments 
on this subject, and that of Dr. Torrey, in our miscellany.— ‘ 


ee ee ae 


Liquefaction and. Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 347 


M. Thilorier found also that the expansive force is altered by © 
heat so as to amount at 86° to 73 atmospheres, and at —4° to 
26 atmospheres. The density of the gas when resting over the 
liquid at 86°, is stated at 130 times the density of that which is 
compressed by the force of one atmosphere. | Its pressure is there- 
fore at 86° not much more than one half of that which its den~ 
sity would indicate, | 

When liquid, the carbonic acid is, on the same ack oka im- 
miscible with water and the fat oils, but is readily united with 
ether, alcohol, naphtha, oil of turpentine and carburet of sulphur. 
Although potassium decomposes it, lead, iron, copper, and the 
other easily oxidized metals, do not act on it.* 

The thermometric temperature observed in the jet by Thilorier, 
appears to be erroneously stated; for, as the solid is, at its forma- 
tion, not below —90°, and as the act of pibidiiensign of any vapor 
or liquid keeps the temperature, for the time, at the highest point 
compatible with the existence of the particular solid under ob- 
servation, it follows that the jet of carbonic acid cannot fall 
below its freezing point. “Immediately after its production, - the 
carbonic snow begins to grow colder, and may be made to reach 
—109° in the air, —136° under an exhausted receiver. When 
moistened with ether, it can be depressed to —146°. Professor 
Hare’s ether acts much more effectually than sulphuric ether.t 

At the immediately subsequent sitting of the Academy of Sci- 
ences, Thilorier announced the important fact that he had solid- 
ified carbonic acid. his he effected by suffering the liquid to 
escape into a bottle, or box, where, by the sudden gasefaction of 
a part, the remainder was fromen by the extreme cold thus pro- 
duced. The solid is white, light, evaporable; and excessively 

cold. Because, surrounded by an atmosphere of gas which. is 
constantly escaping from it, a fragment of it touched lightly by 
the finger, glides rapidly as over a plane surface. 

Its evaporation is so complete as to leave no other trace of 
moisture than that which is caused by the coldness and conse- 
quent atmospheric humectation. 


* Amo ong the most remarkable of the phenomena observed by Thilorier, was 
the intense cold produced by the sudden liberation of the liquid and its conversion 
into gas. A jet of it depressed the thermometer to —130° F., and when sulphuric 
ether had been previously mixed with the liquefied gas, the refrigerating effects 
Were more marked both on mercury and the sensations 

t See Dr. Hare’s account of his Ether, at page 328, in this number.—Eps. 


348. Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 


- The force of its gasefaction is alleged to be — to, but not 
so sudden as, that of gunpowder. 

The temperature at which the solidification took silage was 

presumed to be about —148° F.; although the experiments be- 

fore the committee'of the Academy shewed —124°. 
' Such is, in substance, the account by M. Thilorier of his novel 
and curious discovery, reported i in the Annales de Chimie. No 
description of the method of procedure, or’of the apparatus used, 
is annexed ; and we are left: to conjecture, and to the imperfect 
description of travellers, for any farther knowledge of either. 

_ Having. repeated the experiments of 'Thilorier, I deem it not 
useless to subjoin a draught of the instrument with which, aided 
by the suggestions of an intelligent pupil in France, and the as- 
sistanee of friends here, I was enabled successfully to repeat most 
of the experiments of Thilorier, and to verify some, and correct 
other, of his results. 

The apparatus consists of a generator of cast iron, A, supported 
by a wooden stand,.B, a receiver, F', also of cast iron, connected 
to the generator by a brass tube, anal fastened firmly to it by the 
stirrup screw, K; H, I, J, are stop-cocks, G, the nozzle of a pipe, 
L, a glass level-gauge, and 8, M, R,a pressure-gauge. 

_ The generator is 20 inches long and 6 inches in diameter ex- 
teriorly. Its cavity is 16 inches deep, and 3 inches, nearly, in 
diameter, so that it will hold about 4 pints. The walls are, of 
course, about 1% inches in thickness. At the top, an aperture of 
two inches in diameter is closed by a strong wrought iron screw, 
_ the shotilder of which is let in about a quarter of an inch. The 
collar is of block tin, turned to the size ofthe shoulder of the 
screw. ‘There is a hote in the head of the screw ‘iE for the re- 
ception of a long, ote iron bar. 

The copper cup, N, 13 inches wide, and 9 inelies long,. holds 
about 12 fluid ati There is a little handle at the top, and a 
copper Wire at the bottom, which makes the whole length a little 
less than that of the cavity of the cenenader, This cup is used 
to introduce the sulphuric acid. 

The brass tube between the oeneranm and receiver is divided 
into two parts of equal length, which admit of being united by 


means of a conical juncture, kept tight by the stirrup and screw, © 


K, K. -Each of these portions of the tube may be closed or 
opened at pleasure by a stop cock. One is. placed at I, another 


ee 6S ee 


Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 349 


350 — Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 


at J; so that when the receiver is being separated from the gen- 
erator, the contents of both may be retained. The stop-cocks in 
common use are inadequate to resist the pressure, and therefore a 
‘screw stop-cock is indispensable. - It is made to close a small 
aperture by means of a conical point, and having a double cone, 
it closes an outlet also when the cock is completely open, so as 
to prevent the escape of gas by the sides of. the screw. 

The receiver, F, is of the capacity of about.a pint. The pipe, 
G, G, turned at a right angle at G, descends so as almost to touch 
the bottom of the cavity in F. The’ stop-cock H, G, is similar 
tolandJ. L isa glass tube connected at each end to a socket 
of brass, which communicates with the interior of F. It is the 
gauge for observing the level of the liquid in ¥. > 

The gauge for measuring the pressure is pec culiar.. Into a 
wrought iron box, S, are inserted, by screws, two soekett T and 


U. The former descends almost to the bottom of the box, which . 


is nearly filled with mercury. Through the axis of the screw, 


X, a small tube passes into the cavity of S, and is continued to 


the top of it, so as to risé above the mercury. ‘Two strong ba- 
ab s, R and M, are cemented* into U and W, and her- 

eal ed at the upper ends. These tubes are carefully 
In one of them, U, a-short cylinder of mercury is 
made to stand at Y at the commencement of the experiment. 
The other, socket and all, is full of air, as no mercury is intro- 
duced into it. A very fine screw at W, enables the operator to 


The tin cup, O, used to collet the solid acid, is covered by a 
lid, Z, perforated oF a pipe, P, whose top is full of small holes. 
The hearslle Q, is hollow, so as to fit the end of the pipe of the 
receiver at G. To secure the hand of the operator from the cold 
produced by the experiment, the handle is rae wrapped up 
in some kind of cloth. - 

The apparatus is _prepared for use -by removing ‘the screw E, 
and placing 8 Ibs. of bicarbonate of soda in the generator, A, 


* The cement used was made of shell lac 3 or 4 parts, white or crude pa a 
tine 1 part, melted at as low a temperature as possible, so as not to make bu 
in the mixture. This cement is very strong, but liable, without great care in the 
regulation of the heat, to have capillary tubes in it from the vaporization of the. 
niine. This defect may be completely = by cutting away, when 
cold, the external mass of cement, and putting on a little common cap cement, 
which melts at a much lower setintianess sad Deaae ¢ the tu 


_ Liquefaction and Soli dific ati ‘s Carbonic Acid. 351 
to which 24 fluid ounces of awitde rare to be added. After ma- 
king these into a thin paste: by sti irring; 9 fluid ounces of com- 
mon sulphuric acid are to be poured into ‘the copper cup, N, and 
that is to be let down by a ‘crook. of wire into the generator. 


' After the screw, E, has been firmly applied, and the stop-cock, 


J, closed, the contents of the generator are to be brought into ad- 
mixture by moving it round to a horizontal-position on the swivel 
D, which is supported ‘by the wooden frame, B, B. There i isa 
check bar atC.. This motion isto be repeated several times. In 
about ten minutes the whole of the carbonic acid is pcre 
and exists in.A, chiefly in a liquid state. 

The next step in the process is to attach, by means of the stir- 
rup and screw, K, K, the receiver, F', previously cooled by ice. 
The keys, Iand J ay then be panied slowly, and instantly the 
liquid carbonic acid is perceptible in the gauge, L. At the end 
of ten minutes, the communication with the generator may be 
cut off—when about -eight fluid o liquid acid at 32° F. 
will be found in the receiver. ; 

By letting this liquid into the box, 0, through the - pipe, G 
large part of it is instantly expanded: into gas, whieh « escapes 
through the tube, P.. The coldness consequent on the enormous 
expansion, freezes another part of the liquid, which falls to the 
bottom of O. About one drachm of solid matter is thus cases 
for each ounce of liquid. 

The porosity and volatile character of the solid Be its ‘spe- 
cific gravity of difficult ascertainment. When recently formed, it 
is about the weight of carbonate of magnesia, and when strongly 
compressed by the fingers, its density is nearly doubled. Solid 
carbonic acid is of a perfect whiteness, and of a soft and spongy 
textufe, very like slightly moistened and aggregated snow. It 
evaporates rapidly, becoming thereby colder and colder, but the 
coldness produced seems to steadily lessen the evaporation, ‘so 
that the mass may be kept for-some time. A quantity weighing 
346 grains lost from 3 to 4 grains per minute at first, but did not 
entirely disappear for three hours and a half. The nati tempe- 
rature was from 76° to 79°. ‘The solid is most easily kept when 
compressed and rolled up in cotton or wool. Its temperature 
when newly formed is not exactly ascertainable, because it is im- 
mediately lowered by evaporation. Thilorier seems to have en- 


pe 


“ nee 


tertained the opinion, that the greatest degree of cold was created 


352 = Liquefaction and Sol dif ication of Carbonic Acid. 


at the time of the formation of the solid. In my experiments, a 
constant decrease of temperature was observed, which was accel- 
erated by a current of air, or any other means of augmenting 
“evaporation. At its formation, the carbonic snow depresses the 
thermometer to about —85°. If it be confined in wool or raw 
cotton, its cooling influence is retarded ; if it be exposed to the 
air, especially when in motion, the theraganaier descends much 
more rapidly ; and under. the receiver of an air pump, the effect 
is at its maximum. The greatest cold produced by the solid car- 
bonic acid in the air was —109°, under. an exhausted receiver 
—136°, the natural temperature being at +86°. : 

The admixture of sulphuric ether so as to produce the appear- 
ance of wet snow, increased the coldness, for the temperature 
then fell, under-exhaustion, to —146° ;* a degree of cold which 
we were not able to exceed by means of any variation of the 
experiment. That result is most easily obtained by putting 
about two fluid drachms of ether into the iron‘receiver before 
charging it. A compound liquid may be thus formed which 
yields a snow in less quantity, but of a more facile refrigeration. 
Alcohol may replace ether in either mode, but with less decided 

“effect. In the air, the alcoholic mixture fell to —106°, and re- 
mained stationary. By blowing the breath on it, it fell to —110°. 
Left to itself, it rose slowly to —106°; but on being placed un- 
der an exhausted receiver fell to 1340. 

Every attempt to wet the carbonic solid with water, Siilede: so 
that no estimate of its relative effects could be made. 

_ The experiments resulting from the great coldness of the new 
solid, were very striking. Mercury placed in a cavity in it, and 
covered up with the same substance, was : frozen in a few scconds, 
But the solidification of the mercury was almost instantly pro- 
duced by pouring it into a paste made by the addition of a little 
ether. Frozen mercury is like lead, soft, and easily cut. It is 
ductile, malleable, and insonorous. Just. as it is-about to melt, - 
it becomes brittle or “short,” and breaks under the point of a 
‘knife. These facts may account ‘for the discrepancies of authors 
on this subject: Frozen mercury sinks readily in liquid mer- 
cury. 


-* "As —6432= 175, the cold is nearly as far below the eens —32 
=180 is above it 


Liquefaction and S 2 of Carbonic Acid. 353 


_ At about —110° liquid s s acid is frozen, and the ice 
sinks i in its own liquid, and at —130° alcohol of .798, assumes a 
viscid and oily appearance, which by increase of cold, is augmen- 
ted until at —1 46° it is ike melted wax. Alcohol of .820- froze 
readily. : 
~ At —146° sulphuric sihehi is not in the slightest degree altered, 

When a piece of solid carbonic acid is pressed against a living 
animal surface, it drives off the cireulating fluids and produces” 
a ghastly white spot. If held for 15 seconds it raises a blister, 
and if the application be continued for 2 minutes a deep white 


‘depression with an elevated margin is perceived ; the part is killed, 


and a slough is in time the consequence. I have thus produced 
both blisters and-sloughs, by means nearly as prompt as fire, but 
much less alarming to my patients. 

The specific gravity of liquid carbonic acid may be estimated 
either by weighing a given measure of it in a tube, and deduct- 
ing the weight of the tube, and of a superincumbent gas, or by 
means of very minute bulbs of glass as suggested by Sir M. Far- 
aday. By the latter means I obtained the setae. maeults, 


Which 2 are ya arp with those of Thilorier.. 


: Thilorier. 
’ Temp. Fahr. r Sp. Gr. 4 ee Fahr. Sp. Gr. 
BIO ere COM ge SBOP “pe! ye 
es MOOD ee a UNE 5 ty ee oe Be 
OO dae oo NOG Ba ee aces ey 
GA° 2. he 5 OBB, RE ae a A 
_ 6°... & - 86° - .60 


The specific gravity particularly at 32°, was examined repeat- 
edly, and with different bulbs, and always found to be at, or very 
near, to .93. The difference never amounted to .005. "The sp. 
gr. as given by Thilorier at 32° is 83. The anomalous expansion — 
of the liquid as indicated by both ‘sets of experiments is truly sur- 
ptising. By mine 73.85 parts raised from 32° to 74°, or 42°, -be- 
come 93 parts, and gain 19.15 parts, while the same bulk of the 
gases acquires in the same range of temperature only 6.46 parts, or 
the liquid is expanded very nearly three times as much as its own 
orany other gas. According to Thilorier, 60 parts gain 23 parts 
by an elevation of 54°, while the same bulk-of air would under 


_ like cireumstances be supuiontid only by 6.75 parts ; or the _ 


is nearly four tinies as expansive as the gases. 
POPE RER NR’: 45; 


oa 


“> 


354 Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. 


As below 32°, or at reduced pressures, the augmentation of 
temperature is productive of much less expansive influence, we 
may infer that under the weight of a few. atmospheres, as when 
near to its freezing point, liquid carbonic acid is. scarcely more 
dilateable by heat than water. Between —4° and +329, its 
expansion is 0.053 while that of air is 0.069. These facts suggest 
the inquiry how far water at very high temperature and ‘pressure 


may be obedient to the same expansive influence, and thus by 


% 


suddenly filling the whole ay ein of boiler, sometimes cause €X~ 
plosions. 

~The pressure of carbonic acid gas, when slhsata over its liquid; 
is given by Thilorier at 32° and 86°, as 36 and 73 atmospheres 
respectively. ar 2 means of the gauge S, M, R,—I found the 


— as follo ows es 
320 ees 36 tenis dake 
ee age SL a 
NN ee ee ee 
86° - - - 72 do. 


The principle of the gauge renders it capable of registering the 
pressure. with great accuracy ;—for as one tube, M, begins to mark 
the pressure from the commencement of an experiment, and the 
mercury in the-other, R, does not reach a visible point until the 
first has shown ‘a pressure of several atmospheres, the second tube 
is equivalent in effect to one of several times its length. The 
first determines the amount of pressure, at which the mercury 
reaches the initial point on the 2nd, and the 2nd, subsequently, 
exhibits the multiplicators of that sind quality. Thus, if when 
the mercury is at five atmospheres in M, it is at the unit mark 
in R, the value of that unit will be five, and the numbers repre- 
sentative of the pressure on R, must be multiplied by five; or R 
is equal in effect to a tube five timesits length. By these means 
very short tubes may be used to determine very high~ pressures. 
Inequalities in temperature, irregularities in the cement, an 
other causes; may vary the capacity of the socket T, W, but as 
M always signifies the unit for R, in each case, no error can arise 
from these causes. There must, of course, be a correction for 
the weight of the mercurial column in R, which is to be added 
to the product. Care must -be taken to kegp the temperature of 
the vessel which holds the liquid below that of the gauge and. 
tubes, otherwise the liquid will be formed by condensation in 


Ligite ofaction ot Solidification ’ B55 
the latter. This. actually et ‘in the attempt to ascertain 
the pressure at 86°, when the natural temperature was 75°. 
Bubbles of gas were seen ascending through a liquid in M, up to 
its surface at a few inches below the mercurial cylinder. This 
as far as relates to the tubes may be avoided by prolonging the 
socket of M, down into the mercury of the cup, so as to include 
a cylinder of common air between two cylinders of mercury, and 
prevent any carbonic gas from entering either the socket, or the 
glass tube. A correction for the weight of this PINE. must in 
‘such case be made. 

When a glass tube, hermetically sealed at one a and cemen- 
ted into a brass socket and screw at the other, is attached toa 
charged receiver and cooled by snow or pounded ice, liquid car- 
bonic acid may be collected in it: It is perfectly colorless and 
transparent, and the specific gravity bulbs, previously introduced, 
are seen to ascend or descend, as the temperature is altered. 
When the tube so charged is opened, the liquid becomes vio- 
lently agitated, escapes rapidly, grows colder and colder, and 
finally the remainder’is-convertéd into a solid, more dense than 
the snow already described, but nearly white, and very porous. 
If the tube be exposed to a paste of carbonic snow and ether, the 
liquid is solidified into amass which is not porous but which sinks 
in the liquid as the latter is formed again by the melting of the solid. 

The analogy between liquid carbonic acid and water, is thus 
completed for we have liquid, vapor, snow, and ice, exhibited by 
both. 

By the previous earn of water, ether, alcohol, metals, 
oxides, or oils, &c. into such tubes, and then filling shins with 
liquid earbonie acid, the~ resulting phenomena may be. easily 

observed. Water-being-heavier rests below the. new liquid, and ~ 
does not appear to mingle with it even at the surface of contact, 
for when the latter is let off no bubbles appear in the water, aia 
it is frozen at the top into solid ice. 

When alcohol or ether is introduced, the new liquid falls 
through it in streams, as water would do, but soon renders it 
milky by mixture. The removal of the pressure causes a violent 
effervescence, and immediately the clear, colorless ether, or al- 
cohol, is seen alone in the tube; no solid being formed. When 

alcohol holds shell-lac in solution, the acid causes its precipitation 
in light whitish flocculi, which are immediately re-dissolved 


356 © Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-Electric — 
when the acid is suffered to fly off. Nothing remains but the 
brown Jac-stained liquid. 

‘Liquid carbonic acid did not appear to act on any of the metals 
or ‘oxides, but the experiments on this point demand a. further 
examination. Its inaction is probably owing to the * want of the 
force of ‘ presence,’ or of ‘disposing affinity.’ 

“When the liqtiid has been frozen in a tube of lies the tube 
may be melted off by the blow. pipe, and hermetically sealed. 
Such a tube will always retain the liquid, or gas, the former, if 
in sufficient quantity, at all temperatures, if not, the latter alone 
will be found in it at high temperatures. I have one such tube, 
‘which begins to show moisture at 56°, and exhibits a constantly 
elongated cylinder of liquid, as the edldivens i is ie * At 32° 
the cylinder is about half an inch in length. 

Carbonic acid mechanically powerful as it is, is not applieab® 
perhaps, either to locomotion or projection ; but though the rea- 
sons for this are most of them obvious, the Franklin Institute has 
appointed a committee to investigate and report on the subject, 
that the exact truth may be known, and the ‘waste of. time and 
talent eapad otherwise to be —— be =“ to the country. 


Arr. XVI —On a coal Sn Sa and Megwit. 
Electric Formula. . 


Extracted from the Journal of Chemistry, by Erdmann and ee Seidel: and 
forwarded for meena in this Journal. 


Mr. Scuweiccrr repeated on the 26th of. July, 1834,. before 
the Society of Physiciens of Halle, several of the experiments 
which he had already performed in his public lectures in the 
University. He demonstrated by those experiments that a mag- 
net turning around its axis, produces a greater accumulation of 
electricity than a couple of small disks of zine and copper, of 
about the size of a half crown, (or half dollar,) and are wetted 
in a solution of muriate of soda. For whilst the current of this 
hydro-electric combination produced a constant deviation of the 
needle of 30° to 40°, they observed in turning the magnet, in-. 
stantaneous existionie of 160° to 170°, and the magnet being con- 

tinually Gs the needle finally. stopped between 60° and 70°. 


Oe ae = 


: 


£ etre Magnet ih: Magnelo-E lectric Formuta. sor" 


In those experiments Mr. S chi \weigger employed an electro-mag- 
netic multiplier, eC d of only six brass-wires, one twelfth of 
an inch in thickness, “which we shall designate by AH, A’E’, 
A’E”, &c., and of which each was folded, as shows in the fig. 1, 
the line ABCDE. By means of small grooves filled with mer- 
cury, the extremities of these wires can be placed in commu- 
nication in. two modes, and thus send-the current at will either 
from the first wire AE into the second AYE’; from this into 
the third A”, &c:; or in causing to communicate on one part 
all the extremities A, “AY, AY”, and on the other, the extremities 
E, EK’, E”, through the six wires at once. _In this last disposition, 
when the multiplier forms but one circuit, the current produced 
by the rotation of a magnet, and saitectel to the multiplier by 


‘conductors of a pretty large mass, (thick bands of copper, ) causes 


the needle to deviate instantaneously 80° to 90°, and if the needle 
continues to be turned, stops finally between 50° to 60°, If, the’ 
multiplier remaining the same, two disks of zinc. and. copper, 
wetted with a salirie solution, are used, the constant deviation of 
the needle is but 10° to 15°. 

Fig. 1. “al sy, Fig. 2. Fs ‘OL Pig. 3.2 


An olin multiplier, of which: Mr. ‘Faraday atid’ use, 


. corn poaed of numerous turns, and formed with a wire, thin, and 


very long, folded as shown by fig. 2, (that which, aboording to 
the Journal of Chemistry and Physics, by Mr. Schweigger, 1825, 
Vol. III, is the best form which can be given to it,) produces a 
deviation of only 10° to 15°, by the current of the same magnet 
turning round its axis. By a proper combination of several mag- 
ets turning around their axes, this same multiplier (fig. 2;) 
shows an increase of the electric force, whilst the multiplier, 


‘whieh we described in the ene of this noe, and is destined 


ber ee 2 


> 


* See J. S. C. Schweigger tber Mythologie. Tab. I. Fig. 1. 


358 Electro-Magnetic and. Magneto-E lectric Formula. 


to ‘measure the quantity of electricity and not its tension, indi- 
cates, on the contrary, a decrease of strength. 
Several variations of this experiment are easily deduced from 


_ — the figure given above, (fig. 3,) which may be considered a gen- 


eral magneto-electric and electro-magnetic formula. In order to 
justify the idea of using the figure of man, we will request our read- 
ers to peruse what Mr. Pouillet says on the subject of the elec- 
tro-magnetic figure of Mr. Ampere.* _ The two stars on the head 
of those two figures are the symbol of the two electricities at the 
moment they unite, and the position of the same figures indi- 
cates the. movement of the electric spark, as going from above 
downwards, and it is infact thus that lightning (foudre) or- 
dinarily moves. . They know that this movement, from above 
downwards, of the electric spark produces magnetization all 
around it and in a plane perpendicular to its direction, and the 
whole passes exactly in the same manner as if the magnet- 
ism were conveyed by an austral pole, (that is to say, the pole 
of a magnetized needle directed to the north,) which is con- 
ducted in the same plane on the left, (from the west south- 
ward, towards the east, éc.,) and by a northern. pole inseparable 
from it, which is conducted to the right, (from thé east south- 
ward, to the west, &c.) It is thus that the figure A turning to 
the left, is the symbol of the austral magnetism, and the figure B 
turning to the right, that of the northern magnetism. 

It is seen then that the direction of the spark or of the electric 
current, is indicated by the situation of these two figures, and that 
the movement of these same figures expresses the situation of the 
magnetic pole according to all the tangents, which, as indicated 
by this motion, are all comprehended in a plane perpendicular 
to the direction of the spark. All that is essential to electro- 
mgnetism being thus explained, our design is evidently a gen- 
eral symbol of the electro-magnetic phenomena,» or a general 
formula, the eireh tae of which to all particular cases is very 


But this design is— ale a sige magnefo-clectrie formula. 
If, for example, the south pole of a magnet enter into an 
helix of copper wire, it produces evidently a separation.of the 
riba fluid, since the northern a is attracted and 


. Ponillet, Elem. de Phys. exp. Paris. 1692 Tom. I. P. 2. p. 242. 
he ee ; ¢ f 5 = - 


FPossit Enerinite. ae 359 


the southern magnetism. repulsed. itt ‘adhe this movement of 
the northern and southern magnetism for the commencement of 
revolutions in opposite directions of the two figures, they can be 
put in the helix in a corresponding manner, the situation of the 
figures which result from it will account then for the direction = 
the electric current. 

If a southern. pole, for dnnighe, is turned to the left aati 
its axis, let us fancy the symbol of the southern magnetism in-- 
troduced into the interior of the “magnet in a situation corres- 
ponding to the direction of rotation: the electric current resulting 
from this, will be directed then from the head of the figure 
spoken of towards. the feet. - ‘It is evident that the wire com- 
municating to the southern pole, receives the northern magnet- 
ism at the place of contact, whether this contact is effected imme- 
diately or by the agency of the mercury. It will be seen that 
this wire will turn respectively to the right. if the southern pole 
turns to the left, conformably to our symbol... And in effect, és 
the essential point in this trial, and departing hence, we can 
easily obtain a long series of ‘varied and instructive experiments. 

It is necessary to warn all those who intend to repeat them, 
to take all precautions to avoid thermo-electric currents, the mul- 
tiplier described above being very subject to them. In effect, 
it can be easily - demonstrated in experimenting in the man- 
ner indicated above, that the thermo-electric current is greater 
than an hydro-electric current produced by a single pair of zinc 
and copper disks, which are about equal in size to a crown, (or 
half dollar,) and are wetted with a solution of muriate of soda. 


“Arr. XVII Fist Enerin inite ; by Joun G. ANTHONY. 
: “Cincinnati a ith, 1838. 


TO PROF, SILLIMAN. 


Dear Sir—Encuiosev I send you'a drawing of a speci- 
men in my collection, which I found near this place in March 
The first specimen of this fossil was discovered by myself 

a year since, and consisted merely of the reticulated part, with- 
out any stem, and but a ‘small portion of the: fimbriz. During 
the past winter more than seventy similar specimens were washed 
‘out by the rains from the rubbish of a quarry, and picked up,— 


« 


860 Fossil Enerinite, 


the present is decidedly the best specimen which has rewarded 
our search. 


gl” 


_ For want of. any systematic work. on ve fossils: ‘of.0 our strata, 
I cannot venture to say whether it is described or not. It is un- 
doubtedly one of the encrinite family, probably an apiocrinite, 
and the present drawing is forwarded for publication in your 
Journal, with a view to enable some one better nequalnias with 
the subject to determine its specific name. 
The letter accompanying the notice of Dr. Warden’s trilobite 
in your daly: number,* is calculated to convey an erroneous-impres- 
is. species is entitled to priority. ‘The statement made 
to me 5 by Dr. W. was, that his sister-received the specimen from 
some one, and had-put it away with many others, without being 
aware of its true character, and that. on his visit to Springfield 
out a month after he saw; my specimen, he. noticed this, and 
brought it away. with him to Cincinnati... That Dr. W, was not 
aware of its existence previously, is evident, for he drew up the 
report alluded to in his letter, and therein says, “it is undoubt- 
edly the shield of an undescribed trilobite furnished with feelers 
or tentacule ; this is a very important fact. to establish, as it will 
prove ebtitlusively; that the trilobite family are properly consid- 
ered analogous to the crabs,” é&c. &c.° Throughout the report he 
makes no allusion. to ‘any other specimen as bearing any analogy 
with it, or conflicting in any degree with its claim to priority. 
As this claim was set forth in my communication to the Acad- 
emy, and as he takes no notice of it in his report, it is evident, 
that at. the time, the-existence of his sisters specimen ve un- 
nang, to him. . nie. 


ese 


+. - * Vol. xxs1v, p. 379. 


ame Stars of December x 1838. ee 


dre XIX. —Report on ae sShabicie Stars oF Doctor : 1838, 
with remarks on Shooting Stars in general. By Epwarp C. . 
Herrick, Record. Sec. of the Conn. —_ of Arts and Sciences. 


_ Ar the. acini of the Report on the meteors of last August, 
(p. 173 of this vol.) it was stated that on the night of Dee. 6, 1798, 
Brandes witnessed a remarkably large number of shooting stars.* 


This fact was first communicated to me in April last, by ‘Professor 


Loomis, of Western Reserve College. Believing that phenomena 
of this nature result from celestial causes more or less permanent, 
I at once entertained strong hopes and considerable expectation 
that a return of this display would now be seen on or about the 
same period of the year. I well. knew that our knowledge of the 
true system of shooting stars was too imperfect to warrant the 
prediction, that a meteoric display which had been once observed, 
would ever after, in greater or less degree, be visible at the same 
season, in all parts of the earth, Yet the fact that since proper 
observations have been made, a season of meteoric abundance has 
been detected, about the 10th of August and the 13th of No- 


* The entire account of this display is given in the following extract, the original 
of which arrived to-day in a letter from Prof. Loomis: The work from which it is 
taken, is entitled, ““ Versuche die Entfernung, die Geschwindigheit und die — 
der Sternschnuppen zu bestimmen: von J. J. Benzenberg un W. B 
Hamburg, 1800. 8vo.”-—* It will be proper here briefly to relate an inten 


Gottingen to my native place. As I was travelling, on the evening of the 6th of 

December, 1798, from Harburg to Buxtehude in an open post-wagon, I had the 

gratification of dest a larger number of-shooting stars than I had ever before wit- 

meee B noticed yas soon after the close. of evening twilight, and baving 
Ike 


f the number PP 
of the Mince which I ae with conyenience survey from miy seat. For the 


- sake of greater accuracy, at the end of every hundred, I noted the time by my 


watch, which there was just light enough to enable me to do. They appeared in 


~ such numbers that for about four hours, I ¢ounted as waney: as 100an hour. Occasion- 


ally they came at a much more rapid rate ;—often 6 or 7 in a minute. Afier this, 
[about 10 P. M.] they were much less frequent, and during the whole night, I saw 
only 480, although T had counted in the four first-hours alone, over 400. In order 
to be certain that no one portion of the sky was richer than the rest, I looked ocea- 
Sionally at other parts of the heavens, but found no difference. I may, therefore, 
Safely say, that on this evening;. many-thousand shooting stars must have been vis- 

ible above m my horizon.’’—It does not appear that Brandes noticed at this time any 
point of radiation; or that he watched in subsequent years for a return of the dis- 


play. The idea of a periodical shower of meteors had then probably never been 
advanced. 


Von. XXXY. —No. 2. Ab6 


362 Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 


vember,* added strength to my hopes. On the other hand, my 
confidence in the return of the display was somewhat shaken by 
the apparent absence of any other records of unusual meteoric 
appearances at this season. A very extensive search will probably 
bring some such to light, but if it should not, it will at least prove 
anew, how easily a phenomenon of this kind, when not specially 
watched, may pass unnoticed. However, the chance of a re- 
discovery of this long-lost shower, induced me to request several 
friends in various places, who had previously obliged me in a simi- 
lar way, to keep up a vigilant watch at this season. Few returns 
have yet been received, and from some of the distant observers, 
they can not be expeeted under many months. The observations 
made in this city show conclusively that the number of meteors 
visible here about the 7th of December, 1838, was for sever 
hours, from‘six to eight times beyond the average. Those de- 
tailed in the following table, were made here by Messrs. C. P. 
Bush, A. B. Haile, J. D. Whitney, B. Silliman, Jr., and myself. 
They comprise, with one exception, every favorable evening 
from the 4th to the 15th, inclusive. 


L Observations on Shooting aes made at New Haven, Conn. 
ecember, 1838. 


; ; ‘Quarters of th e|No. of mete 
} coy Time of observation. “ ~ No. of ob- aaa ss Was seen 
\Dec. 6 | 8h. 8m. to 9h. 8m. P.m. =60min| 1 —~ Ez. 23 
« « 10h. 5m, to 11h. “5m. r.m. ==60 “« 2 - |s. BE. & N.N.W.| 328 12m 
tt 5 een th. Om.a.m. =45“% | 2 |s.8.n.8N.W & Lom 
Hote) ah... to 5h. a.m. =60 “ oO See 2im. 
ieee &. |S to 9h. P.M. =60 “ 2 E-8 W. 62« 31 
regis Seo Oh. p.m. =60 “ 2 E.& Ww. 43 « 28 
ee SET OR: ith. P.M. =60 N. E. 
% 8 | Th. Bony. (0 “Sk. p.m, ==45 gE 15 
; 8h. to Qh. P.M. 60 # E 3 
| “ « | 8h. 15m. to Qh, p.m, ==45 * w 19 
* 11 | 8h. 45m. to 10h Pom. =75 * EB... eae 
“ 32 | 6h. 7h P.M «“ OE 6 f 
fea | Bh. 9h P.M. ==60 “ a E 12: 
“ 13 | Oh, 45m. to Ih. 30m. a.m. —=45 “ hed ae 
&, 15: Gh, 7h. P.M. 60 * ] E. 2 
“1 6h. 25m. to 6h. 40m. ep. mw. —15 “ ] | w. g 0 
“ 6 | 8h. to 9h. 15m, p.m. —75 “ 2° 1 “naw. ft eee 


* The “ meteoric shower’’. of November, 1838,.came chiefly on the morning | of 
the I4th. According to observations made at Middlebury, Vt., a 
« The People’s Press,” by Prof. A. C. Twining, meteors. were visible that morn- 
ing from 4h. to Gh..in the whole heavens, at the rate of 105 per hour; and for a 
short time the next morning, they were wer as numerous. ‘ 


f 


Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 363 


During the above observations the sky was sufficiently clear. 
Where m. is annexed to the number seen, allowance must be 
made for the presence of the moon 53 or 64$*days past the full. 
This table shows, that a season of meteoric abundance extended 
from the 6th to the 11th (at least ,) and that'it came to its max- 
imum early on the evening of the. 7th. During the evenings of 
_ the 6th and 7th, shooting: stars were so frequent and brilliant, 
that they attracted the attention of persons abroad in different 
_ parts of the city. Being then ignorant as to the period of the 
night at which the display of Dec. 6, 1798, occurred, and having 
fallen in rather too hastily with the common conclusion, that me- 
teors are always most abundant between midnight and morning, 
my arrangements were made chiefly for a morning watch.- The 
appearances were consequently not so ‘well observed as they 
would have been, but for a reliance on this-premature general- 
ization.. On the evening of the 6th, meteors were not much less 
numerous than on the evening of the 7th, and they did not in- 
crease in number after midnight.* Professor Olmsted informs 
me that onthe evening of the 7th, from 64 to 8 p.m, he, with 
two of his sons, (F. A. Olmsted, and D. Olmsted, Jr.,) without 
very close attention, and in much less than the whole heavens, 
counted meteors at the rate of at least 100 an hour. He re- 
marked that at 8 they were becoming less frequent. From 8 to 
9, Mr. Haile and myself observed ninety three, and we probably 
saw not more than half the whole visible number ; ; for, although 
a single observer can. see large meteors throughout half the hemi- 
sphere, yet he can not detect all the smaller ones, (which are 
commonly the majority,) throughout more than.an eighth part of 
the hemisphere. ‘The meteors slightly diminished in number, as. 
the evening advanced; but much to our regret, we were pre- 
vented, after about 11 p. m., by an overclouded sky, from deter- 
_ mining the rate of dimindtion, or the general progress of the phe- 
nomenon. On the morning of the 8th, Mr. Haile watched from 
Ath. to 5th. (about a sixth of the hemisphere, in the N. W. being 

nearly clear,) and saw five meteors. 
‘The meteors of the 6th and 7th were not unlike those of ordi- 
hary times :—many of them were — and —_— fire-balls, 


<a 
* The Saincitetice in this respect between the meteors of Dec. 6, 1798, and 
those of of Dec. 6 and 7, 1838, is obvious. 


a 


364 Shooting Stare of December 7, 1838. 


and attended with trains. On both evenings, (before 11 p.m.) 
most of the meteors appeared, (as all the observers agreed,) to 
radiate from a spot not far from Cassiopeia; or perhaps, more 
nearly, from the vicinity of the cluster in the sword of Perseus. 
The radiant, however, could not well be fixed, within three or 
four degrees. So far as it could be determined, this spot was, up 
to midnight, either stationary among the stars, or moved west- 
ward almost as rapidly as they did. After midnight of the night 
of the 6th—7th, the meteors appeared not to Piacges aioe com- 
mon center of f radiation, 


II, Observations in , other places. | 


1. At Middletown, Ct., on the evening of the 7th, Prof. A. W. 
Smith, with Messrs. panes and Rice, saw-in the eastern sky, be- 
tween 10h. and 1th., seventy eight meteors: one of the observers 
being absent half an hour. They stood mostly on the east side 
of the University building, and but little more than half the sky 
was under review. Prof. S. saw 20 meteors between 8h. and 9h.. 
Most appeared to radiate “ from the zenith.” The sky was over- 
cast at 11h. 

2. At Geneva, N. mx Mr. Azariah: Smith, J r. modes ob- 
servations in company with Mr. M.-M. Bagg. Being occupied 
in the evening, their ‘attention was directed chiefly to morning 
observations, but a clouded sky interfered on the mornings of 
both the 6th and 7th.. Early on the evening of the 6th, Mr. 8. 
in a short walk, noticed meteors at the rate of one per minute, 
but his engagements did not permit any observations until after . 
9, when the sky was partially cloudy, and not long after almost 
wholly overcast. From 9h. and 10h. he saw between and be- 
hind the floating clouds, only.3 or 4 meteors. Mr. S. remarks, 
“so far as can be determined by the few observations I made in 
these unfavorable circumstances, I should judge that the radiant 
point was near to, but 8. of, Cassiopeia, and perhaps a few-de- 
grees E. of that.—I cannot entertain. the least doubt: but that 
there was an unusual display about the 6th and 7th inst.; for on 
mornings and evenings previous, I saw nothing similar in kind 
or number to those of the evening of the 6th. _I learn from some 
friends of mine, who knew nothing of the anticipations with re- 
gard to this phenomenon, that on being out during the evening 
of the 6th, = saw so fnaaly falling stars that we concluded to 


~ 


Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 365 


Sit up all night and see if there would not. bea ihenitiil etc 
the unfavorable circumstances their hearts failed them.” 

3. At Hudson, Ohio, clouded skies prevented observation. 

A, From Suuannok, Ga., Mr. 'T. R. Dutton writes: “The en- 
tire night. of the 5th was rainy. On the night of the 6th I made 
occasional observations from my window, (without seeing more 
than 2 or 3 meteors,) between 11h. and 2h. 30m.. when I went 
into the open air.* From 2h. 30m. to 3; I saw 5 meteors, and 
from 3h. 15m. to 3h. 30m., none.. The sky was_ partly covered 
with - broken clouds,- yet not enough so to obscure more than a 
third of the meteors visible ;, but soon after it was entirely over- 
cast. On the evening of the 7th, I made occasional observa- 
tions as before, until 2h. 55m., when I went into the open air. 
During 45 minutes I saw 11 meteors, 4 or 5 of which had trains. 
The sky was partly covered with thin cirrous clouds,—the west- 
ern half, however, ‘afforded a clear field of view. On the night 
of the 8th, I ieee nie from 3h. 25m. to 3h. 55m. and saw _ 
meteors.” 

General Haake! 


From the observations made here; it may safely be concluded 
that for four or five hours, on the evening of the 7th of Decem- 
ber, 1838, shooting stars appeared at the rate of from 125 to 175 
per hour. If we compare this with the average which I had pre- 
viously fixed upon, for this season of the night, (viz. 25 per hour) 
it results, that-on this occasion meteors were about sez times as 
numerous as usual. If we adopt M. Quetelet’s general average, 
of 16 per hour, the number was about nine times the mean. 
More extensive observations will doubtless change both these 
averages. No one can, however doubt that the displays of the 
evenings of the 6th and 7th were quite ‘unusual. For several 
days after this period, meteors were rather more numerous than 
usual, but by the 15th, the meteoric season appeared to be alto- 
gether over. 

It is evident that the position of the radiant was at a great re- 
move from that point in the heavens, towards which the earth 
Was at the time tending; and it is worthy of notice, that in this 
respect, and partially in another, the December display resembles 
that ot August. Inthe November *¢ shower,” the radiant is very 


. : Shooting stars must always be watched in the open air: observ ations through 
a window ean not be trusted. 


366 Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 


nearly in the ecliptic. The grand display of April 20, 1803,* 
agreed with all the November displays, in this, that it appeared 
chiefly after ans but where the radiant thew was, no man 
can tell us. 

-. There are.other seasons in the year at whick meteors may possi- 
bly be f lly numerous: some of these are,—Oct. 15, 
pats 10—20, Jan. 2, “Feb. 15, July 28, Sept. 11, Nov. 8.. It is 
not worth while here to give the details of the various accounts 
from which these dates are taken. They are generally vague, 
and mostly reported by those who had no just ideas concerning 
the average number of meteors. Of this list, the two first appear 
the most worthy of attention. Observations should however be 
made at all these seasons, and indeed at all possible times ; for it 
is alike important that we should ascertain those seasons in which 
meteors are uncommonly rare, and those in which they are. un- 
commonly abundant.+ 

In order to obtain all the data necessary for the formation of a 
theory of shooting stars, we must have observations in various 
places and at various times, which will show us not only their 
numbers and their apparent motions, but also their érwe velocities, 
directions, and distances. This is a part of the subject which de- 
mands vastly more labor and skill, than the other. It is far from 
certain, that the results obtained by Benzenberg,{ Brandes, Que- 
_telet, arid their associates, will apply with general accuracy to 

parts of the year, or of the night, different from those in which they 
: oo and it is therefore much: to be desired, that similar 
° s sho uld be made i in all: regions of the om 


* This shower ought to be re-discovered, and there can be little doubt that if 
diligent observation should be made at this season of the year, in all quarters of 
the globe, some evidence of its return might be detected. 

i If any person who has the opportunity, will consult the Evhemondes Societatis 
Meteorologice Palatine, (5 tom. 4to. Manheim -, 1785 ?) and publish anew all the 
observations on luminous meteors contained in that valuable series, he will do 
a service to science. The work is inaccessible here, and seems to be neark y forgot- 
ten every w. 

- ¢ This genileman, a Professor at Dasseldorf on the Rhine, divides with Prof. 
Brandes of Leipsic, (who died in May, 1834,) the honor of having first - made a 
in Dec. 1798) definite observations on the distances, Mei. and pene 

ing stars. The Ist livr. of the 3d series of Quetelet’s Corresp. Math. ey Bea. 
Bruxelles, Aoit, 1837, (the only one I have seen,) ne Sap eiary interesting letter 
on ie subject from Benzenberg; and also a valuable paper by Quetelet, giving 

e details of the simultaneous observations made by himself and his associates, 
olive aa * between 9 and 12, P. M., in June and July, 1824, pe se 
three methods of calculation applicable to these observations. 


Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 367 


; both morning and-evening. It may be found, that a constant dif- 
| ference exists in the directions and velocities of the meteors which 
occur during, the August season, ahd of those of the displays which 
| oceur in November, December, and April. 

2 Enough appears to be already known to establish the proposi- 
tion, that shooting stars are small bodies of various sizes, materi- 
: als and densities, revolving around the sun, and luminous in con- 
| sequence of the heat excited by their casual passage through our 
atmosphere.* They have not inappropriately been termed. by 
M. Coquerel, microscopic planets. So far as we know, they-have 
the same astronomical relations as the larger luminous meteors call- 
ed fire-balis, bolides, meteorites, &c. They are encountered by the 
earth’s atmosphere probably every hour in the year, but in much 
greater numbers at certain parts of the earth’s orbit, than at others. 
.The distribution of these bodies throughout the solar system can 
not yet be determined.- -The majority of them probably move in 
groups, and may be supposed to. constitute one or more broad 
zones or rings, in some parts of which meteors are exceedingly 
numerous. When, at the return of certain periods,t the earth 
traverses these dense parts, great meteoric showers occur, like those 
of the years 686, 29, 25,-B. C., and those of A. D, 532, 558, 750, 
765, 901, 935; 1095, 1096, 1122, 1799, 1803, 1832, "1933. It 
mnay be supposed that in other years, the earth passes through a 
part where the meteors are less numerous, and then only a sprink- 
ling of meteors is seen. Whether there are more zones than one, 
and if so, how they are situated, are problems which will proba- 
bly long remain unsolved. Whether these meteors are the frag- 
‘ments of the supposed exploded planet, of which the four asteroids 
may have formed a Aske or whether they were originally indepen- 
Jent bodies, later day. These 


i 


* This opinion is far from being new. It is found in setekaticd in “Platareh’ s 
Life of Lysander, and although it has never been very generally received, yet it 
~ has always had some supporters. It was ably illustrated and defended by the cel- 
ebrated Chladni; and it is maintained by many at the present day. 
t The cycle of the November shower seems to be, es much doubt, 33 or 7 34 
“years: that of the April shower is perhaps about oy ye 
+ This hypothesis, advanced by Prof. Wildt, is tex with*a partial approval 
by the distinguished Olbers; in a valuable paper on shooting stars in Schumacher’s 
fir 1837. It is remarkable, that a very similar idea is found in De Mez- 
ay’ s Hist. - a (4to, Amst. 1755, tom. ii, p. 156,) in an account of the mete- 
oric shower f 1096; his words are, “ On vit durant plusieara nuits pleuvoir des 
ypar ssciitas: — si dru et menu, qu’on eit dit que c’ étoient des bluettes 


du débris des orbes celestes 


368 Meteoric Shower of November, 1838. 


little bodies doubtless reflect the sun’s light, but-in consequence 
of their minuteness, they are rarely, if ever, seen ‘in this way. 
There is however room-to hope, that they may be occasionally 
detected by powerful telescopes, while moving in their celestial 
paths, across the sun’s-disk. The discovery by Pastorff, in this 
mode (Bib. Univ. de Geneéve, 1835, t. 58, p. 434) of two or more 
new asteroids, and the previous observations of Gautier and Mess- 
ier, induce the belief, that similar investigations hereafter will re- 
veal oe results. 

I en conjectured, that shooting stars proceed from the 
aeaunan appearance, long known and little understood, called the 
Zodiacal Light. It may therefore not be irrelevant to advert to 
the fact, that the earth is in a situation more favorable for collis- 
ion with this beds early i in December, than in the middle of 
November. 

- An account of the progress of Shoot ery concerning the meteo- 
ric season of August, together with some additional observations 
on the meteors of scan 9—11, 1838, are ick for want of 


room. 
New Hever December 24, 1838. . 


pe XX.—On the. Siac Shower of November, 1838 ; by 
Denison Otmstep, Professor of sari ey ona ‘Astroiie 
a in Yale ee 


rn FI cm ts were made at Yale Dalleoo; by.anum- 
ber mo young peace of the senior class, in conjunction with 
myself, to-watch the heavens on the night of the 12th and 13th 
November, with the view of ascertaining whether the meteorie - 
shower which has oceurred, to a greater or less extent, at this 
date, for several years past, would be repeated the present year. 
The night. was unfavorable for observation; still, occasional. 
glimpses of clear sky, were seen at different Gust — the night, 
sufficient to have recognized the phenomenon, had it occurred in 
a manner corresponding to the exhibitions of former years. Al- 
though a few meteors were seen, yet we adopted the conclusion, 
that, at this place, there.was no extraordinary appearance of 
shooting stars on the morning of the 13th November. On the 
following morning, Nov. 14, shooting stars were more frequent; 
= we did not feel authori ized from our aseacraig to —— 


Meteoric Shower of November, 1838. 369 


that the exhibition was so remarkable as tobe properly denomi- 
nated a “meteoric shower.” I find, however, that some of my 
friends and correspondents abroad were more fortunate. The 
most decisive communications which I have seen on this subject, 
are from Professor A. C. Twining of Middlebury College, Ver- 
mont, and from Mr. E. Fitch, Professor of Mathematic$.in the 
United States moh who wus then on a cruise in the Gait of 
Mexico. 

According to the statements of a Twining;: published 
in a Middlebury paper, a vigilant watch was maintained by him- 
self and nine of his pupils, from the 10th to the 15th of Novem- 
ber. The results of their observations were as follows : 

Nov. 10.—From 3 to 6 A. M., the whole number of shooting stars 
observed was 70, of which 40 were from the constellation Leo, 
within the bend of the sickle. Hight were attended with trains. 
The observations on the two following mornings presented noth- 
ing differing much from those of the 10th. The night of the 
13th was cloudy, and no observations could be obtained. . : 

Nov. 14th.—The morning Was mostly clear from 4 to 6 ota. 
which was the period of observation. The phenomena differed 
remarkably from those of the preceding mornings, both as respects 
the number of falling stars, and their appearance. A large portion 
of the whole were attended by trains. ‘The number was more 
than three times as great as- on either of the previous mornings, 
being at the rate of 105 per hour. -One meteor of remarkable size 
and splendor, shot from the common radiant, to the Great Bear, 
where it exploded, leaving a bright streak about two degrees feng, 
which turned slowly to a-vertical position, then expanded into 
a cloud which continued visible nine minutes, and moved ina 
westerly and descending direction about seven degrees before it 


Pate invisible. 'The flash of this meteor was seen by observ- 


ers looking i in the opposite direction, to illuminate the earth’s sur- 
face like a faint flash of lightning. The spot where the explosion 
took place, was in Right Ascension 182°, and Declination 463°. 
Of all the meteors observed on this occasion, nine out of ten had 
their courses in a direction from a common radiant, situated i in the 
upper part of the bend of the sickle 'in Leo. - 

On the morning ofthe 15th, shooting stars were e very aineus 


: but. less so, on an average, ‘hina on the preceding morning, and 


far less regular with regard to a common rcs or radiant. 
Vou. et —No. 2. 


370 Meteoric Shower of November, 1838. 


By aletter from Professor Fitch, dated from the Gulf of Mexico, 
I learn that he watched for shooting stars on the morning of the 
13th November, but considered the number and size of such as 
- fell, as not above the average in that latitude. On the morning 
of the 14th, from 3 to 4, he counted 40 shooting stars ; and from 
4 to 5, he counted 45. .He thinks the number obscured by 
clouds: ‘probably one fourth of the whole. The point of radiation 

. E. of gamma Leonis. It will be seen that these state- 
ments agree remarkably well with those of Professor Twining, al- 
though probably the numbers reported by Mr. Fitch ought to be 
considerably increased, in eee of there being at that 
station but a single observer. 

The unusual frequency of the aeenns seen on this: occasion ; 
the | precision with which they conformed in their courses to what 

re been observed at the same date; the occasional 
brillianey-of 1 individual meteors ; the number and brightness of 
the attendant trains; and the ri of the morning when the 
display reached its maximum ; these circumstances afford, in con- 
nexion, conclusive evidence of the identity of this exhibition with 
those heretofore observed on this anniversary, although, according 
to anticipations expressed several times in this Journal, the phe- 
nomenon is repeated on a constantly diminishing scale, 

As several of the most eminent astronomers of Europe, are now 
occupying themselves with the “ ‘Theory of Shooting Stars,” 
(which some of our own astronomers have supposed beneath their 
sce we may hope that, before long, the difficulties which 

1 the e2 ion of the “origin of shooting stars” will be 
y removed, and we shall know whether to regard them 
as atmospheric concretions, or as visitants from another sphere. — 


P. S.— Extract of a Letter from Mr. Witxu1s-Gariorp, dated Otisco, New York 
Nov. 22, 1838.—A brilliant. flight of meteors was seen from this place on the 
morning of the 14th instant. The nights of the 12th and 13th were cloudy, ren- 


rence. Of meteors a few minutes before 6 o’clock; and from that time until the 
moon and the opening =a caused their disappearance, there was an almost contin- 
ued succession of them. I have never, at any time, seen so many, in so small a 
space of time, except in the great meteoric shower of November, a few years since. 
The point of radiation was a few degrees 8. E. of the zenith, and every meteor. 

the same direction, viz..southeast. The trains of some were eattaat but’in ger- 
sib her they’ disappeared quickly, though some — their flight across @ lactase 

e heay 


r 


2 
* 


_ Fossil and. Recent Infusoria. 371 


Art. XXI. 1 Nineties i respecting Fossil and Recent poe! 
soria made to the British Association at Netboustia:: By Prof. 
EBnrnsene.* 


‘To the Editors of the Apnais of Notieal | History. 


entlemen,—Y ou will much oblige me by. inserting ‘the sub- 
joined notice, which has been occasioned by the erroneous report 
in the Atheneum of the statement made by me at the late Meet- 
ing of the British Association in Neweastle, in the section of 
botany and zodlogy, which statements, So far as I can recollect, 
were to the following import : 

For the purpose of physiological inquiries I have occupied my- 
self with the investigation of microscopic organized beings, not 
only in. Europe, but also upon several voyages for several years 
in other quarters of the globe. he results of my _ observations 
had been hitherto scattered in” ‘single memoirs, published in the 
Acts of the Royal Academy of Berlin: Within these few weeks, 
however, my large work on this subject has been completed,t 
which consists of a thick folio volume of text and 64 folio copper 
plates, in which I have endeavored to bring together the whole 
of our present knowledge of microscopic beings, with their his- 

tory in as complete a state as possible, _ This book, which I had 
the pleasure of laying before the section, is not (a8 stated) the 
first volume of a work, but complete and entire in itself, and is 
now in the booksellers’ hands. It contains drawings of all the 
722 species observed by me up to 1835. It is however merely a 
first essay on this highly interesting and at present inexhaustible 

subject. I then in a few words directed the attention of the sec- 
tion to thé importance of the observation of microscopic beings, asa 
highly influential zodlogico-botanical subject, and exhibited earths 
which were entirely formed of the shields of some Infusoria. I 
mentioned the eatable infusorial earth from Lillhaggsjén in Swe- 
den, from Finland, and from Kliecken near Dessau, where they 
occur in great natural layers; I stated that thé greatest layer 


* From the Annals of Natural Hetery, No. 3, p. 121, Lon 
Uber Infusionsthierchen, mit einem Atlas von vier und oa Ku adie 
Von Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. 


372 Fossil and Recent Infusoria. 


hitherto discovered was above 28 feet in thickness, near Lune- 
bourg ; that however similar layers have already been found in 
Africa, Asia, and the South SeaTIslands. At the same: time I 
noticed that I had succeeded in artificially preparing from still 
existing Infusoria very considerable quantities of earth. I ex- 
hibited a large glass full of such artificial siliceous earth, in which 
the microscope, however, still evidently and distinctly discovers 
all the forms of the Infusoria constituting it, pounds and tons of 
which earth may easily be prepared. I mentioned in few words 
the still existing controversy between botanists and ‘zodlogists, 
both of whom would class in their catalogues these microscopic 
living forms; and I briefly noticed the reasons given in detail in 
my work for each opinion, deciding myself in favor of their being 

I also said a few words on the luminosity of the sea, which 
subject in part stands in immediate connection with these micro- 
scopic animals, it being regarded an act of animal life ; and I in- 
vited attention to the fact that the luminosity in intima and 
Annulata is an evident voluntary production of sparks, so that in 
the latter there originates a light apparently continuous and tran- 
guil to the naked eye, from numerous microscopic sparks follow- 
ing each other in quick succession. The analogy. with electrical 
phenomena is very close, and it is especially worthy of attention, 
that evidently the smallest animals give the largest sparks, in pro- 
portion to the size of their body, nt consequently very probably 
produce the greatest electrical tension. 

I then mentioned the curious formation a double gems in 
Closterium and ih the Conferve conjugate, which is figured in 
the plates of the family of the Closterine, and I concluded with 
a remark on the astonishing great-fertility or capacity of increase 
of microscopic animals, according to which an imperceptible cor- 
puscle can become in four days 170 billions, or as many single 
individual animalcules as contained in 2 cubic feet of the stone 
from the polishing slate of Bilin. This increase - takes place by 
voluntary division ; and this is the character which separates ani- 
mals from plants. It is true, that the gemmation in plants, 
especially in very simple cells, is at times very similar to the di- 
vision in animals, but this relates to the form, not the formation. 
A vegetable cell apparently capable of self division always became 


Fossil and Recent Infusoria. 373 


one, or contemporaneously many exterior warts (gems) without 
- any change in its interior.. An animal which is capable of divis- 
ion first doubles the inner organs, and subsequently decreases ex- 
teriorly in size. Self division proceeds from the interior towards 
the exterior, from the center to the periphery; gemmation, 
which also oceurs in animals; proceeds from the exterior towards 
the interior, and. forms first a wart, which then gradually becomes 
guasee: ! 
ce. discussion now arose between Prof, Rymer Jones and me. 
Prof. Jones observed, that although he had himself taken great 
pains, yet he had. never been able to see the structure described 
by me of the interior organization, viz. of the alimentary canal 
of the polygastric Infusoria, although he had found the external 
forms to be exactly the same. He had not been able to discover 
any trace of an alimentary canal, andin Paramecium Aurelia and 
other species he had observed a circular motion of the inner 
cells which could not agree with the formation I had described. 
I answered him, that such discussions then only could lead to-a 
result when they do not merge into general but enter into special 
cases. “Ihe mass of relations of organization, which after many 
years of observation have been gradually established, could not be 
_ brought into question by-a single doubtful fact. The perfect orgaie 
ization of the wheel animalcules had been established beyond 
question. With regard to Paramecium Aurelia, this is one of 
those forms unfavorable to suck observations ; and it had been ex- 
pressly observed by me that Imyself had not boon able to recognize 
the alimentary canal in all species of the various genera ; but on the 
other hand it was quite evident in a very cosisidesabla number of 
species and genera. I stated that in my present work this subject 
had been treated of in detail, and that those forms in which the 
relations are perfectly evident have been pu rposely enumerated, 
Some of these forms I then exhibited in the drawings, and con- 
cluded with the remark that the circular motion observed by Prof. 
Jones had already been treated of by others, (for instance, Dr. 
Foeke,) and had naturally been frequently observed by myself. 
The great contractibility of the body of the animalcule was, to 
less practiced observers, frequently a cause of enigmatical phenom- 
ena, of which continued patient observation of the object would 
gradually bring the explanation. ‘Thus, at times, the intestinal 


: - Canal of the animalcule extends at the expense of the ventral 


874 Miscellantes. 


sacs so far, that it occupies the whole space of the body, and then 
the devoured substances, very.similar to the ventral sacs, circulate 
inthe whole body. | Yours, &c. 


London, Sept. 15,1838. 
eos 


Ideal figures of Lorodes Bursaria in various states of the ex- 
-tension of the alimentary canal, and its inner circular motion, not 
of the ventral sacs, but of the contents of the sacs voided into the 
canal a the mouth, b the alimentary canal, ¢ ventral sacs, w canal 


' 
» = 


MISCELLANIES. 


“Wage 


an es Dr. - Tonane Experiments on the Condensation of Carbonic, Sul- 
s, and ¢ 


erous, and Ch, Acid Gases—We have’ been, from time to 
1e, informed b letters from Prof. John Torrey, of New York, of his 
progress in the condensation of gases, and we now take the liberty to 
give some few citations from his letters, although not intended for publi- 
cation, satisfied that Dr. Mitchell, who has given us such fine results, will 
be glad to see them, and trusting that Dr. Torrey will pardon the use 
made of his private communications. 

March 5, 1837—It it stated by Prof. T. that a few aaye before = had 
prepared several tubes of liquid carbonic acid at Princeton, New Jersey. 

April 1i—He writes again, that although he had been unable to get 4 
mechanic to construct an apparatus for condensing carbonic acid, he had 
made many experiments on the subject in tubes of glass, and with entire 
success. _ He says, that only a single accident occurred, which however 


- * See Dr. Mitchell’s sca p. 346. Ales st Y- 301, Mr. R. Addams's re- 
marks on the same subject.— 


Miscellanies, 7 


did no serious injury. Having a fine quantity of the condensed liquid in 
asealed tube, but wishing to aid the generation of carbonic. acid by heat, 
he plunged one end of the tube into hot water-in a tumbler, while the 
other end was enclosed in-a freezing mixture, when it burst, shattering the 
tumbler, &c., but the water greatly abated the force of the blow. The 
explosion ps caused by the formation of crystallized sulphate of ammo- 
nia, from the action of the sulphuric acid upon the carbonate of ammo- 
‘Nia, (the. materials used to afford the gas,) which sublimed and choked the 
tube, about half way up, so that the carbonic acid gas that was evolved 
had not the benefit of the refrigerating process~above, and its elasticity 
was at least doubled by the heat,. being equivalent to seventy six-atmos- — 
pheres (=1140 pounds on the square inch); the wonder is, therefore, 
that the courageous experimenter sustained no other inconvenience than. 
from a little acid thrown in his face. 

May 13, 1837—Dr. Torrey forwarded to me a strong tube containing a 
fine quantity of the liquid carbonic acid which spontaneously crystallizes 
in beautiful snowy ois during freezing cold weather, while a portion 
remains fluid, and thus I have the pleasure of ‘exhibiting to my chemical 
class the aeriform, the liquid, and the crystallized carbonic acid, alli in the 
same tube. ‘This day, Dec. 27, 1838, it is m that condition. 

Dr. Torrey was early successful in condensing the sulphurous acid md. 
the chloro-chromic acid. He mentions ina letter dated Nov. 9, 1835— 

“The freezing of water by the latter, is a beautiful class experiment. 
Some ice-cold water is placed in a large watch glass or bottom of a flask ; 
the tube containing the acid is cooled in a freezing mixture of snow sak 
salt, (the temperature of which should be full 0°F, )—then with a small 
fine file rub off the extremity of the tube, so as to make the finest possible 
orifice ;, next seize the flask with a pair of forceps and invert it, or hold 
it obliquely downward over the glass of water. <A fine stream of ‘the acid 
will rush out, and falling on the water will congeal it into a spongy icer 
{ti is. unnecessary to say, that the experiment should be conducted under a 

to carry off the offensive smell of the sulphurous acid.” 
_ With respect to chloro-chromic acid he confirms Dr. Thomson’s state- 
ment, that perfectly dry phosphorus is not inflamed by it> it may be even 
lied; in the liquid acid, but if moist in the slightest degree, it will burn . 
with a loud exploant, requiring particular precautions —Senior Ep. — 


2. Tay Interpretation of bara and asah, in a letter from Dr. Noau 
Wensrer to the Rev. Wilkiam Buckland, Oxford, England. 

Rev. Sir—I am reading your treatise on Geology with great pleasure, 
and, I hope, not without instruction. 

Th the second chapter of your treatise on Geology, a part of the Bridge- 
_ Water Collection, you have advanced the doctrine that the matter of this 

globe was created long before it was reduced to its present form or state, 


376 Miscellaniés. 


for the residence of the present race of men. This doctrine supposes 
that the first verse in Genesis refers to the first creation of the matter of 
the globe, and of the celestial orbs ; ; and that between that event and the 
creation of man, an indefinite period of long duration elapsed before the 
reduction of the earth to its present form. 

- Long before your treatise on Geology was written, and anterior to the 
modern discoveries of the-remains of animals and plants in the different 
formations of the crust of the earth, I had conceived the same opinion. 
I could hardly express my opinions better than Bishop Gleig has expressed 
them in a note in page 32 of your book, Philadelphia edition. 

My object now is merely to offer a few remarks on the Hebrew words 
bara and-asah, which are used to express creation and making. I sup- 
pose that lexicographers and commentators have mistaken the’ primary 
signification of bara. Gesenius supposes the primary sense to be to cut, 

_ cut out, to carve, or to form by cutting or carving, from the notion of 
ae cutting, or separating, inherent in the radical syllable 43. - 

© But this is probably a mistake, which shows how imperfectly the most 
eminent scholars understand the order in which the various uses of words 
are derived from a radical signification. If the primary sense were to 
cut, or carve, the sense of being born or producing young, could not be 
deduced from it. Yet Gesenius himself thus miereetee the word, in Ezek. 
21: 30, 28:13; Ps. 104: 30. 

The primary sense of the word is probably ta spate in some form or 
other, and cutting may be deduced from that sense. “But in éxpressing 
creation, ‘the sense isto produce, to drive out, or send forth. Creation 
was a producing to light or.to existence ° a visible form. Thus the 
apostle expresses the fact, = Macknight renders the original words, and 
as I should sea them: ‘so that the things which are seen were not 

of t vared ; ;” that is of things’ previously formed and 


appe 
visible. “Heb. 11: 23: Tein: the: since inclined t this opinion, because — 


I believe the word bara i is our English word bear, or of the same family, 
coinciding with the sense in which we use it for the nes of infants 
and of births. 

The word asah seems ethane to denote the act or process of shaping 
and fitting for use, by giving due form to a thing.’ And I would suggest 
it as worthy of consideration, whether the sense of the passdge, Gen. 
11: 3, in which both of thes words are used, is not this—Because that 
in it he had rested from all his works which God produced for formation ; 
created to be reduced to a form for use, or for its intended purposes. 

For the ‘great variety of uses or application of Lars Hebrew Jom see 
the Introduction to my Quarto Dictionary. 

‘suggestions are offered with some diffidence, iy = 
our obedient servant, N- WEBSTER. 
“New Haven, Camsistaiem, United States, hh 16, 1898. ne Te 


A 


Miscellanies. 377 
3. Notice of the Height of Mountains in North Carolina, from Prof. 


_E. Mrrcnext, of Chapel Hill University. (Taken from the os Re- 


gister of Nov. 3, 1835, and forwarded by Prof. M.) 

The younger. Michaux, on his way from the Valley of the Mississippi, 
in the fall of 1802, passed through the counties of Yancey and Burke, and 
in the small volume,. containing an account of his travels, that was pub- 
lished soon after his return to Paris, the opinion-is expressed, that in these 
counties, the Alleghany Mountains attain their greatest elevation. He 

mentions, in evidence that this belief is well- founded, that his father 
ree trees and plants it res them which he did not meet. with 
again before reaching Can 

The geology of these aide has some pesaliar featutes: “They were 
visited during the Jast summer, for the purpose of tracing the boundaries 
of their rock formations, and along with other collateral objects, provision 
was made for measuring the heights of their principal mountains, with 
their bearings and distances from each other. Prof. Mitchell in a letter 
to the editor, dated University of North Carolina, May 12, 1838, remarks 
that the results transmitted were obtained by fiiiustelf. He adds— 

“Tn their general accuracy I placed a-confidence at the time which 
has been increased by the publication of the Report of the Surveys made 
by the engineers employed by the Charleston and Louisville Rail Road 
Company. For the height of Mount Washington I trusted to Worcester 


as the ‘best authority within my reach. The difference in elevation be- 


tween the northern and southern mountains is probably not considerable ; 
in point of beauty there is in some instances a decided superiority on the 
side of the latter. Mount Washington, according to his measurement, is 
not so high as the highest peak of the Black Mountain.” 

One barometer he observes was stationed at Morganton, and a vacerd 
kept of its movements by Mr. Pearson of that place. This served asa 
standard. ‘The observations made at the same time (nearly,) upon the 


_ tops of the mountains and at Morganton, fornished the data for calculat- 


ing their elevations above that village, and the mean of ten observations, 
on successive days, gave what is probably a near approximation to the — 
height of Morganton above the level of the sea—nine hundred and sixty 
eight feet. Deducting from this the descent to the bed of the Catawba, 
there remains only about eight bance feet of fall between the ford lead- 
ing over Linville and the sea. 

North of the point where the James River leaves the mountains, the first 
high ridge of the Alleghanies is called the Blue Ridge. In North Caro- 
lina, this name is applied to the range that separates the eastern and 
Western ‘waters. This is commonly the first high mountain, but not 


: always. The Table Mountain, which forms'so fine and striking a fea- 


ture in the scenery about Morganton, is not a part of the Blue Ridge, but 


spur or outlier. It seems, when seen from Morganton, to be a round 
AS 


Vou. age —No. 2 


&. 


378 Misceilantes. 


tower; rising perpendicularly from the summit of the first range of the 
Alleghanies. _ It is, in fact, a narrow ridge, affording a very fine prospect 
of the fertile valley of the Catawba ‘and its tributaries on the southeast 
and east, and of nature in her wildest dress where the Linville pours over 
the rocks along a deep ravine, wholly untenanted and uncultivated, and 
of a vast extent of mountain peaks and ranges on the northeast. Its top 
is two thousand four hundred and fifty three feet above Morganton, and 
a little more than fifteen miles distant in a right line, 

The Grandfather, seventeen miles from the Table, and twenty eight 
from Morganton, has hitherto been generally ‘supposed the highest moun- 
tain in North Carolina. But this proves to be a mistake, as may be seen 
in the following table. .There is a mountain not far off called the Grand- 
mother ; from being crowned with the balsam of fir it is ie conjoutirad that 
the elevation may be twenty six hundred feet: 

The Roan Mountain is fifteen miles from the bieendinaines and thirty 
five northwest from Morganton, lying diréctly over or beyond the Hawks- 
bill. It touches thé Tennessee line, but the highest peaks are in North 
Carolina. This isthe easiest of access, the most beautiful, and will best 
repay the labor of ascending it of all our high mountains. With the ex- 
ception of a body of rocks looking like the ruins of an old castle, near its 
southwestern extremity, the top of the Roan may be’ described as a vast 
meadow, without a tree to obstruct the prospect; where a person may 
_ gallop his horse for a mile or two, with Carolina at his feet on one side, and 
Tennessee on the other, and a green ocean of mountains raised into tre- 
mendous billows immediately about him. .It is the elysium of a southern 
botanist, as a number of plants are found growing in this cold and humid 
atmosphere, which are not seen again till we have gone some hundreds of 
miles farther-north. It is the pasture ground for the young horses of the 
whole country about-it during the summer. We found the strawberry 
here in the greatest abundance and of the finest quality, in regard to both 
size and flavor, on, the 30th of July. : ; 

~ The Black Rania; is a long ridge,.at a medium distanee of about 
a miles from Morganton. It has some peaks of greater elevation 
than any point that has hitherto been measured in North America, east 
of the Rocky Mountains, -and is believed to be the highest mountain in 
the United States. This: Black Mountain. ccet nearly a week’s Jabor in 
fixing upon thé peak to be measured and the measurement. For the 
_ sake of comparison the following heights are given, The first five are 

copied from Worcester’s Gazetteer: - : 
Mount Washington in New Hampshire, hitherto accounted the: 
highest mountain in the United States—highest peak, 6,234 
- Mansfield Mountain, Vermont, a 4279 
_> Saddle Mountain, Massachusetts, .- + ~~ 2- ~~ 4,000 © 
~ . Round Top,-highest of the Catskills, ae : 3,804. 


a 


a 


Miscollaniés, | 379° 


; Peaks of Otter, Viral 3 ST te = SS 
Table “Mowatiia: Burke, Nortit Caroli, tse — Sat 
‘Grandfather, - po ae "SSS 
Yeates’ Knob, 2 eg. SieN, wel reg." BBS 

: ad at Thomas Young's e . vi ORs 
: SE aie eT OE 
Highest ees of the Black, : 6,476 


e There are other high mountains at no great_ dideses from those that 
were measured, as the Bald Mountain in the western part of Yancy, and 
the White Topi Virginia, which are nearly if not quite as higli as the ' 
Roan. In the southeastern part of Haywood county, near the South 
Carolina line, there is a tremendous pile, and between the counties of 
Haywood and Macon and the State of Tennessee, the Unikee Mountain 

_ swells to a great elevation. ‘But these appear to the eye to be lower than 
the Black. ; 

The Pilot Minsataits which has heretofore enjoyed great celebrity, is 

much lower than several others. The ascent of the Black Mountain is 
very difficult on account of the thick laurels which are so closely. set, and 
their strong branches so interwoven, that a path cannot be forced by push- 
ing them aside; and the hunters have no method’ of advancing, when 
they happen-to fall i in with the worst of them, but that of crawling along 
their tops. The bear, in passing up and down the mountain, finds it 
Wisest to keep the ridges, and trampling down the young laurels as they 
Spring up, breaking the limbs from the old ones and’ pushing them aside, 
he forms at last a sort of burrow above ground, through this bed of vege- 
tation, along which he passes without difficulty. This is a bear trail. 
The top is covered with the balsam fir, from the dark and sombre shade 
of whose foliage it doubtless received the name of the Black Mountain. 
The growth of the tree is such on these high summits, that it is easy to 
oe to the top and taking hold of the highest branch look. abroad upon 
ne Beet At the time of our visit, the smoumhaily was Seas in 


a return with the least ponte delay, and this when it was clear weather, 
at a small distance below the ridge and the thermometer at 80°. 

The temperature of a few wells and springs is subjoined. The finest 
iced water is a vapid drink,.in comparison with the pure element that 
gushes from the sides of these western mountains. 


Wells on Chapel Hill, Oct. aig e's i : 59° 
Well i in Lincolnton, July 16, : Pit eget Bye 
& Moanin, July 16, "=". i : - §8°° 
= Spring i in Keller’s Field, ee 
Daniel Moore’ s Globe Setlment, zs - B79 

oes _James Riddle’ 8, 54° 


380 Miscellanies. 


Spring » near the top of the Grandfather, . . 53°" 
“Ascent of the Roan, vit 52° 
“North side of the Black Mountain, tops 50° 
Another, same Mountain, aie tq ee 


4. Fossil Shells and Bones.—A Ye writes from Wilmington 
Island, near Savannah, July 16, 1838,—Wilmington island is situated 
in the Savannah fiver eharbt miles from the sea, and would : appear, though 
surrounded by salt water, to be a part of the delta of the river, were it 
not for the vast beds of shells (principally oysters) which are found. upon 
it. These beds extend through all the islands in this vicinity, and al- 
though attributed by sore to the aborigines, are evidently the deposits of 
the ocean, as they are found in layers of uniform thickness wherever they 
have not ‘bore disturbed. Under such circumstances they are found 
about three or four feet from the surface. You heard, I suppose, of the 
discovery ‘of fossik bones made inthis State last spring while digging the 
canal near Brunswick. TI endeavored to lay hands on some of them, but 
found that they were to be sent to the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Boston. They 
were the only bones~ever found in this State except those of the mega- 
therium. They were: at first supposed to belong to the mastodon. Dr. 
S., the gentleman with whom I reside, Bees in his possession some of the 
bones: of the eects : . oa es ae 

SION 5. oral. Arch in Vermont. —Eclipse. 
Burlington, Vermont, 20th November, 1838. 
cuz Eprrors. —Gentlemen—Again has the same region, described 


feces Vol., p. 21 , presented a similar phenomenon, and for the. 


reasons there given, and: with the view of obtaining a certain parallaxin 
order-to ascertain the mediante of these wonderful iphapaments, I shall = 
scribe this also to 

On the evening F the "Th of September I was called out by a friend 
to look at a remarkable light. It extended to within 10° or 15° of the 
horizon at each extremity, pote ae between Alpha and Zeta Pegasi, leav- 
ing both stars just clear of its penumbra, between Beta Cygni and Beta 
Lyre, enveloping both in its penumbra, and just N. of Arcturus. This 
was at 8h. 30m., and it continued nearly unchanged for five minutes. It 
then seemed disturbed on its N. edge, especially near Lyra, as if bya 
current moving westerly, and epatianally detaching ‘small fragments, 
which, on their separation, immediately disappeared. At the same time, 
the portion between Lyra and- Arcturus was greatly bent towards the 
south. In about 5m. more it entirely disappeared. If I can trust my 
recollection, it was brighter. than those I saw last year. There was a 
_very bright and active light in the north at the same time, and long after- 
wards, but exhibiting nothing else uncommon. 


a # 
~ 


« 


Me 
a 
en 
4 


An atiempt was made to obtain an observation of the late eclipse with 
the following result. Sun’s center on the meridian by chronometer 11h. 
53m. 53sec. Eclipse began by chronometer 3h. 12m. 50 sec. Chro- 
nometer gaining 3.87 sec. per day. The end was involved in thick clouds. 

ours with high respect, * James Dean. 

6. Geological Specimens. from the East Taian Fok pile from 
Jas. T. my Miss. of the A.B. C.F 

er. 20th March, 1838. 


To Pror. SILLIMAN. — Dear Sir—I send by a friend, Mr. Hope, a few 
geological specimens which I collected not long ‘since during a voyage 
among the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The specimens are very 
small for convenience of transportation, an ties value, if they have any, 
is derived only from the fact that they are from highly interesting islands, 
which, if I mistake not, are little known to geologists. 

The Ternati specimens are most of them from the top of the moun- 
tain, 5060 feet high, and exhibit the trap rock in all stages of fusion. 


_ The mountain is a volcano, the crater of which was emitting amoke, but 


no flame, at the time we visited it. 

The coal from Borneo was found in situ _— the hills, and may pro- 
bably be found in any quantity. . 

The rock of the island of Singapore is all red sanilapne, so far as I 
know. In some places the sandstone has fragments of quartz imbedded 
in it. 

_The mountains of the Malay peice are patil, and so also are 
those of Cochin China. The islands east and south of Borneo are trap, 
and abound in volcanoes. Beginning, then, at the north and west, we 
have granite—next, proceeding towards the south and east, we find sand 
stone—and next, trap. 

Remarx.—The specimens sent by Mr. D. fully sustain his opinions ; 
and there-are among them also very beautiful phelendomies and _agates 
wal ne anao.—Eps.- es 


¥ Keita to an Acre ert of a letter from Grorcr 


: Ginns, Esq., dated New York, Nov. 26, 1838.—A druggist’s store in 


Pearl street was burnt in the evening and while the air was filled with 
snow, (a slight fall took place during the night,) and a column of pale 
light shot up from the blaze as high as the zenith, (in appearance.) It 
was entirely distinct in color from the light of the fire or smoke, being 
stationary, higher, and slender like the mast of a vessel. It was to the 
south of where I stood and about a mile off, and was noticed by others at 
the time. I had no doubt of its being an artificial aurora. You will be 


- able “Gat to explain it if not. 


8 METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER FOR 1837, - 


nak at pce, Begs 8 Canada, in Lat. 45° 50! N. Long. 73° 22! W. by J. 8. M‘Cord, Corresponding Secretary of the Natural History 
iety, and Member of the me 8 and Historical Society, Quebec, and Albany Institute, State of New York. 


: is ND. PESTAES Ae: 
MONTHS. of days blowing. Number of Sear ae 8% g E} 
2 e ‘8 | Sw | we J rs | Cy. Rn |Shrs | Fog Snw, as wo 
January, ag Pe ecaarmmmarmmens 6.0) 1. 3.0 5.5] 14.5] 2.0) 13.0 | 12.0 | *.75[. | 1.25) 4.00" .. (21.55 
epreary ae : 6.0, 3. 6.5 6.0; 3.5} 3.0} 6:0 | 16.5.) (5 | .25|) 5 | 4.25) .. 118.50 
March Saat 8.0 0. 7.5 4.0; 6.5} 2.01105 | 165|3.5) ..| .. | 5 | 1.20) 4.15 
- April 3,0) 2. 3.0 2.5) 11.5) 6.5] 14.0 | 11.25) 3.25) . 2) .. | 1,50) 2.45) 4.25 
ay ; 3.0| I: 5.5 4.0| 7.5) 5.57 13.5 | 115/60) ..]°. »+ 1 2,95) 0.30 = 
Sane? > ; 8.5) 2. 8.0 6.5| 6.0} 1.0) 10.0 | 14.5 | 3.25295] ..| -- | 200) ..) S&S 
uly echt SD d 3.0 0. 1.5, 5.0} 5.5} 8:5) 12.5 |. 5.5 | 2.75) 2.70.|~ 50] . |} 2.00) .. KS 
August ; ‘ ‘ 7.0 0. 1.0.10.5} 11.0} 0.0) 15.75, 11.25) 2.00) 2.00) ..) . 66 =. 
September , j 2.0 1. 3.0) 5.0, 13.5, 3.0155 | 85/55/05 | . 3.0] ..| § 
October : j 4.0) I. 1.0| 4.0) 3515.0) 85 | 7.0) 3.75] 25] .4| 50) 265) 1.00] 3 
-} November . \ a 1.0, 0. 1.0] 3.0] 9.54 3sb.75) $60") 2751.50!) .4)° 0.0 2. 13.65 gS. 
“December + 5 6.0, 1.00.0) 1.5) 2.5) 4.0] 9.0] 1,0} 10.25 fae G25)... 2.25) .. 11.10) * 
ia 65 [1.0|38.5 6 38.5 5/34.95| 9.50 | 3.25\i3 oohiG.a 64.50 
J “HY . ‘ 
tk se sure of the Year, corrected and er to 32° Fahrenhei it live J Jes ‘ " ‘ « 29.823 
Mean Tem Pissh of the Year, mean of Maxi engi wi agli Regier Thermometers ee er” a TS ge ML 
Mininaen age nf the Barometer hewi. the e year 30.534 , (mean of yearly Maximum . —. 30.287) 
ole Me Bee oe Re “Minimum . +8, lamcte 
Rangé aa; a ae a ors ce gmat mi... ae " 
* Drifting. 1 20 days only observed, $16 days only observed. § 25 days only observed. || 24 days only observed. 
? 
aie ; Pe a at si 


é8E 


: * Warme st da ay : . ape ee os e-% nee SE 4 +909... 
: Coldest day Ce. Bit 52s 6 et ie OO 


Range of Thermometer. See oe : eee |) i 


Number of ar Clear“. ee EO a. Se, BODO 
Clo udy ‘ Sp ete Re TAR 

Lien re ee ee ee . 34.25 
te t Siew Se eel 0 kn, - 9.50 
ee ee ee 2.25 


tet, AES ee AES Snow Se ee 5 age : : 3 : 13.00 

~ Number of days pbarrSd sf er xe i ee 

Number of, age of A winds Sea Pea: 

ek Bmore _ aaeget ae se ° Se 

= “ 2 “ ' South “c eee = ee 
=e = - : 

Nenker of days See. ee I FE 

Mean Temperature, 1836 

ce “ 1837 


A 
+4 
ed 
Ra 


-MONTUS. |_ BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. 
: Min. "| Range. | Max. | Min. | Range. | 
nuary 30.212 | 28.776 | 1.436 ] + 34] —18 52. 
February 30: 322 |-1.062 | + 38 | —15 53 | 
March 30.4 9.268 | 1.216] + 49| —13 62 
Spell 30.112 | 29.040 | 1.072] + Go| +22 38 
|May . .. . |. 30.118 | 29.334 | .884] + 80/ +.20 60 
June. . 30.1 29.278 | .822].4+90| +49} 411: 
| Jul 30.159 | 29.501 | .658 | + 90 | .+52 38 | 
Au | 30. 29.431 | 816 }+ 80 |. +46. 34, 
September . | 30.332-| 29.455 | .877]+81/ +41| 40. 
Oe ae ; 30.370 | 29.450} .920}]+ 68] +30 38 
November . | 30.400 | 28.700 | 1.700] + 49| + 2) 47]. 
fincisies” = - 30.534 | 29.200 | 1.334] + 45| —14| 59 
Means, | 30.287 | 29.313 : 


a Ce s ~ Sr - 24 
urs. |Wind 8. and 8. W. 
a 4 aca 
lms ~ S's Ly 
Ww. : 
és W. ' "ej 


| ee of Well, Botanic Garden—31 feet deep. 
Sept. 1835, to August, 1836 46° Fahrenheit. 

sept 1836, to August, 1837 6.2 
% Storms, Phenomena, &e. 
_ Goben 18th. Wind and rain.—17th —Wind 8. —Shifted to 8. W. 

ee 18t enceenneaced to blow hard at 11 A. M. of the 18th. 
eae ter fell from 9 A. M. of 17th to2 P. M. of 18th, .884— 
“adele to 30. 168 at 9 A. M. of the 19th. ? 


> 


384 Miscellanies. 


October 0th. gags and rain.—9. P. M. of the 19th, wind N. E.—Barometer 
.028 blowing fresh—Thermometer 37, falling. At half past 3 
Po M. of 20th, wind shifted to S. E. ends storm began.—Between 
4 and 5 A.M. blew a gale, heavy rain in a rae 
falling rapidly —9 A. M. storm still raging—10, began to abate, 
and shortly after wind shifted to S. and gradually died away.- 
Fall of Barometer .540 in 12 hours—tain fallen half an inch. 
25th.—Snow storm—from N. by W.—began 4 A M,—snowed till 11 A. 
and then rained all day—heavy wind. 
-November 4th to Sth, Gale fi from N. W. with ssschionileii 8 AvM. of 4th 
4th. ae brilliant Aurora—commenced at 6 P. M.—at half oget 8 at- 
ined its greatest 5 sop crimson —s darting 
ove the zenith to we 
16th. es snow storm fom N. E, d-3 P. M. —lasted till 
7PM : 


ba | 


“19th —Steady 1 rain, set in at 10 P. M. id pantiudd without intermission 
_during the 20th, ist, to 9 P. M. 22d—at which proud stopped, 
wind N. E—blowing fresh—Barometer 28.87 
23d, 24th, 25th.—Heavy and continued gale from S. S. W.—Snow on 25th. 
November 30th to Decomber 13th.—Extraordinary mild season—warm rains—nav- 
igation open—steamers plyi ing to the 13th December inelusive. 
December 21st. —Caldent day—Thermometer varying from —14 to —18 according 
to situation. 
26th. -Ext linary rise and fall of Baroniever ee 
9 ALM. 26th, .°..29.516 | 
—- 9 A. M. 27th, . . 30.534 rise 1.018 
iS Bo 2 9 A. M. 28th, . . 29-964 fall 570 


9. Geslagicad Sievege —Meiy engagements. aid doties have caused 
us to fall in arrears in regard to several valuable Belogical reports, par- 
ticularly of New York, Maine, and Massachusetts ;* but without proffer- 
ae a pledge we may not have it in our eres to Raioecs. as soon as we 
could desire, we trust that we shall be able hereafter to gratify our own 
— doing justice to able and faithful — in — different 
and responsibl¢ fields of science and economics. 

10. Dr. Mantel?’s Wonders of Geology.—This fine work was men- 
tioned fully in our July number. Although it was ‘published in London 
only in March, the second thousand of copies was nearly sold in ka ot 
ber, and a new edition is expected early in the present year, 1 

Arrangements have been made with the author and publisher by which 
Mr. A. H. Maltby of New Haven will publish the new edition in this 
country as soon as it can cross the ocean, and by the author’s approba- 
tion it will appear under the direction of Prof. Silliman with introductory 
remarks by sl paper, type and ilastrations, identical with those of the 
London editi : 


se a ng a 
* We now add those of Virginia, BRR SRR Se 18 andy Pr W B.. 
1836.—Eps. 


_ Rogers, Phila. 1838, soho Tow leon, at 


a 


= 
. 


Miscellanies. 385 
IL. Mr. Bakewell's Geology.—Third American from the fifth English 
edition of 1838, revised and improved by the author: the American edi- 
tion, by B. & W. Noyes, of New Haven : with an Appendix by Professor _ 
Silliman: 8ro. pp. 600. 

Mr. Bakewell’s searliont treatise is well known in this: ‘country, in con- 
sequence of the two American editions that have been already published ; 
its plan therefore requires no explanation, and commendation would be 
quite superfluous in the case of a work already approved and extensively 
adopted at home and abroad.. Mr. Bakewell has added a new chapter 
on the general removal and disappearance of the coal Strata raised by 
faults above the surface. of the ground. The former editions were par- 
ticularly full and instructive on coal, and this chapter is a valuable addi- 
tion. 

The American ine, that of 1829, from the third English, and of 
1833, from the fourth, were edited by Professor Silliman, with the author’s 
privity and approbation, and by his request this third edition is passed 
: over to the American public through the same editorial supervision; with 
3 a view of: rendering the work more useful, an appendix will be added by 
| the editor, containing a condensed summary of the ground before occu- 
pied, with such corrections of fact and theory as appear necessary. 
reprint is executed in good style, and numerous — errors 
have been corrected. 


1 7 hagpeeies rn 


. 


12. Elements of Geology; by Cuartzs Lye., Esq., FE. R. S., d&e. 
&c., London, Aug. 1838, pp. 543, 1 Vol. large 12mo.—These elements 
are, as may be supposed, an abridgment of Mr. Lyell’s large and well 
cies sa ork, the Principles of Geology. This is a new work, and very 
= illustrated by figures, chiefly superior wood cuts, of great precision 

d beauty; there is one colored ideal section of part of the earth’s crust, 
sdawenid the theory of the four great classes of rocks. 

Those who are acquainted with the author’s previous works, will expect, 

__ What they will find, a lucid and eee! exposition of the science. This 
eet work might well be styled, Institutes of Geology.” 
Bs It presents the.elementary facts, perspicuously arranged and described, 
and the philosophy of the sctence is such as those familiar with its more. 
profound discussions will readily appreciate. We understand that this 
B work is in the press at Philadelphia, by Kay & Brother, and that it may 
e be expected to appear early in the spring of the present year, 1839. 


13. Dr. Lewis C. Bucx’s Manual of Chemistry ; 3d edition, with nu- 
merous wood cuts: New York—1838 : pp. 482, large 12mo.—The order 
of this work is—Definition, Attraction, Heat, Light, Electricity, Galvan- 

Magnetism and Electro-Magnetism, Elementary: Bodies, Supporters 
Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 49 


-_* 


386 Miscellanies. 


of Combustion or Electro-Negative Bodies, Non-Metallic Combustibles or 
Electro-Positive Bodies, Metals, Sinise Bodies, Vegetable and Animal, 
with an Appendix. 

This order is probably the most unexceptionable. There is no pete 
arrangement ; none that will avoid inconvenient anticipations, or that 
will bring i into one group all the members of the same subject. The best 
course is to anticipate as little as possible ; to explain the nature of the 
materials which we must employ so far as to render our processes intelli- 
gible, and to revert, as far as necessary, so that either sooner or later, every 
thing will be explained. This course Dr. Beck has judiciously pursued, 
and his work is a perspicuous and condensed abstract of the science, and 
is well adapted to the “— for which it was written. 


14. Notice of a Manual of Conchology siacecsiida to the system lad 
down by Lamarck, with the late improvements by De Buainvitie, for 
students; by "Trosas Wart rt, M. A.; in a letter to him from Isaac Tes, 
Esq., dated Philadelphia, December 19, 1838.— Dear Sir—I have ex- 
amined your ‘ Manual of Conchology,’ formed from the works of Lamarck 
and Blainville, and consider it well adapted to the introduction of the stu- 
dent into the science of conchology. The plates, which are from the ex- 
cellent work of Blainville, are generally very well done, and calculated to 
aid the tyro in obtaining a paras! of the genera of this interesting 
branch of natural history. 

~“T sincerely wish you success in this work, which must have cost you 
much labor. Should it pass to another edition, I would advise the inser- 
tion of a plate with the various parts of shells, with proper definitions 
in the peat The name of each shell should. also be upon the plates 
throu, 


%: 


~ Mr. - has, ilk good yeast, cbattctiled the plates of this work, 
and it is no small advantage that they are printed on excellent paper, 
which will bear using both by the quiet student and the traveller. Offi- 
cers of the navy and in the merchant service, will find this a very con- 
venient, and we doubt not, useful manual, by which to direct their obser- 
vations while collecting shells to enrich their own cabinet as well as those 
of yoni institutions and of preety individuals.—Epbs. 


15. Hideo ices on the late Dr. NaTHANIEL Saacura —The death of 
this distinguished man produced a strong impression on the public mind, 
and called forth many tributes of respect. ~Three eulogiums were pro- 
nounced, severally, by the Hon. Judge White, at Salem, and at Boston by 
Rey. Alexander Young, and by Hon. John Pickering, the latter before the 
American Academy, May 29, 1838. Mr. Young’s discourse was, by 
particular request, revised for this Journal, and appeared in the October 


Ae ne Se 


3 


Miscellanies. — sor 


number. This, therefore, has already spoken for itself in our pages, and 
has been received with warm interest and gratification by the public. 

The eulogium of Judge: White is a delightful composition, replete with 
eloquence and literary beauty, and warm with affectionate respect for 
the great philosopher whom it commemorates. Being the production of 
a townsman and cotemporary, like Mr. Young’ s, it presents graphic 
sketches of his life and character, both in the forming and mature 
stages, and does equal honor to the head and heart of the writer, and to 
his noble subject. 

The eulogium of Mr. Pickering is a obit, dual composition, alto- 

gether worthy of its author, (and this is no stinted praise. 
- In unity with the character of the learned body before which it was 
delivered, and of which Dr. Bowditch was president, it presents, as 
its peculiar characteristics, a masterly analysis of the scientific labors 
of this eminent man. Performed in the midst of arduous and respon- 
sible business, and of numerous social engagements and duties, which 
touched his warm heart as much as science filled his clear intellect, his 
philosophical labors were enough to hare absorbed a powerful mind,-un- 
shackled by common cares. It is remarkable, that the eulogist of this em- 
inent man, by the manner in which he has executed his delicate task, 
bringing literature and science into beautiful harmony, should have 
evinced that Dr. Bowditch was not alone in reconciling conflicting du- 
ties. Every wise and good American must feel proud that his country 
has produced a subject of such deserved eulogy, and gifted minds and. 
hearts to appreciate such talents, attainments, and virtues. 


16. The Science of Geology, from the Glasgow Treatises, with addi- 
tions; first American edition, Common School Treatises, No. 1—This 
little work of 72 pages, is neatly printed, with good illustrations on wood, 
and is issued at. New Haven by B. & W. Noyes. It is well adapted to be 
useful 1 in | the education of young people, being judicious in selection, and 

s and attractive in lie 


17. ‘Dr. Charles T. Sickie? $ ‘Reports on i: Geology of Maine.— 
It has been impossible for us to notice in the present number Dr. Jack- 
son’s very valuable reports, being the second on the geology of Maine, 
and the second also on the geology of the public lands of Maine and 
Massachusetts, 

These reports together occupy about 300 pages, with appropriate illus- 
trations. They correspond with what we might expect from Dr. Jackson, 
being able and perspicuous, and eminently adapted to do honor to the 
State, and to promote its vital interests. 

We trust that the good sense and patriotism of the government of Maine 

vill carry out this noble work until it is entirely finished under Dr. Jack- 


388 Miscellanies. 


son’s able and efficient management. No time for a full completion of 
this great labor can be so good as the present; an abandonment would 
be most unwise,—even a suspension highly injurious, and in point of 
eer? very improvident and wasteful. 


18. Catlinite* or Indian Pipe Aten: —Dr. Jackson, of Boston, has 
analyzed Mr. Catlin’s pipe stone from Coteau du Prairie, which is not 
steatite, but a new compound very similar to agelaniolite, it being com- 
posed of in 100 grains : 


‘Wateryc ecicous tats i Sa 38 OE Bre 
Silica, - i acne ‘ . sk 4 
Alumina, - - rss a a wine = 98.2 ‘és 
‘Magnesia, - i a - z 6.0 ‘s 
Panos: romp So ne cas see got BO 
Ox. manganese, : - a a3 n=, OG es 4 
arb. lime " epeeien < = ie x 26 See 
Loss, (probably ssligneais,) oe es a ee ee 


The carbonate of lime is not an essential ingredient, but is mixed in 
fine particles. 

The Catlinite évidenily’ exists in pseudo strata or tabular sheets, and 
overlaid by quartz rock, glazed, as if from the action of fire, while the 
surface is carved with bird tracks, called by the Indians the points or 
—S of the great <5 


19. Encke’s Comet. —The proximity of this bay to the earth, during 
its return in the latter part of the present year, has rendered it an object 
of peculiar interest to astronomers. It was seen in England as early as 
the 21st of September, but as yet no foreign observations upon it have 
reached us. Unfortunately, an ephemeris of this comet was not obtained 
in this country until the middle of November, at which time it had passed 
the circle of perpetual apparition, and was visible but for an hour or two 
in the evening after sunset. It was first seen in this country on the 17th 
of November, and at a number of places simultaneously ; at Yale Col- 
lege, New Haven, at the Wesleyan University of Middletown in this 

State, and at Philadelphia. It had then recently passed the point of its 
nearest approach to the earth, which was about 21 millions of miles, and 
was visible to the naked eye as a star of the 4.5 magnitude. 

We have, as-yet, heard of no regular series of observations upon the 
comet made in this country. But few days remained after its discovery 
before it morales disappear m the evening twilight, and its proximity to 


* After Mr. Catlin, the celebrated traveller in the West, and the successful 
painter of Indians, their costume, the scenery of their country, Se: His Indian 
museum is a most interesting and unique collection. 


A mR Se Si 


Miscellanies. 389 
the horizon promised little reward to any efforts that might be bestowed 
upon it. It was observed here -with the 14 feet reflector of Mr. Smith, 
described in the last number of this Journal, and with particular refer- - 
ence to its size and actual appearance. There was no decided or clearly 
defined nucleus, but its degree of ‘condensation towards the center, was 
about as much as in the kind of nebulx described by Sir J. Herschel as 
“ suddenly much brighter in the middle.” The nucleus was excentric, 
the coma being less extensive on the side opposite the sun than elsewhere. 
The greatest diameter of the coma was in this telescope fully 12’; its 
least not more than 2 as much, and in the direction of a line drawn to- 
wards the sun.. The expected occultation of the star 7 Herculis, which 
was not visible in Europe, was observed here. It did not occult it, but 
preceded it when nearest by about 10 or 15 seconds of time, A small star 
of the 9th or 10th magnitude about 5’ south preceding 7, was almost central- 
ly occulted, but before the nucleus had quite reached it, the comet was too 
_ low to be observed ; the nucleus had approached within 30” of the star, 
and in a few suingien would have either air it or passed very near it 
on the side next to 7 Rerouliee® ; 

The Bibliothéque Universelle of Getices gives an abstract of the Ephe- 
meris of this comet, as calculated by M. Bremiker, under the direction of 
M. Encke. Its present return is peculiarly interesting on account of its 
near approch to Mercury, from which its nearest distance is not two mil- 
lions of miles. The perturbations of the comet, arising from this so 
close proximity to the planet, will furnish data, from which the mass of 
Mercury, hitherto little: more than conjectural, may be known to a 
great degree of exactness. The full advantage of these data for the cal- 
culation of the mass and density of Mercury, will not, however, be real- 
ized, until future returns ap the comet have more completely fixed its 
loci: 

It is somewhat Sn A hat since the return of Halley’s comet, no 
other than this has been seen in se oes of the world. fp. P. M. 

Yale. Coltage, December 29, 1 


“20. Grave a Godfvey, ‘the ieee of the Quadrant, “and of ‘Charles 
Thomson.—It will be interesting to the friends of science to learn that 
the remains of Thomas Godfrey, the undoubted ‘inventor of the Quad- 
rant, have been rescued from oblivion and removed to the beautiful cem- 
etery of Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia. Mr. Godfrey had been interred 
on. the farm of his father, near Germantown; in the course of time, the 
family burial ground was crossed by a cart road, and the old soapstone 
monument of the father} bearing date 1705, was knocked regularly by a 
_ Cart wheel every time it passed, and was thus much defaced. This em- 

phatically exhibits the folly of interring on farms, which must pass, in this 
~ Country, after a few generations, into other families. 


= 


390 Miscellanies. 


Appreciating fully the discovery of Godfrey, and anxious to prevent a 
further desecration of the grave, the annalist of Philadelphia, John F. 
Watson, Esq., who resides in Germantown, has had the remains of God- 
frey, of it father and mother, and of a small child, all disinterred with 
suitable care, and we are happy to add, that the managers of the Laurel 
Hill cemetery have erected a suitable tomb over the remains, The friends 


of science, when viewing this already celebrated spot, will not forget to” 


visit the tombs of Godfrey, the inventor of the Quadrant, and of Charles 
Thonison, the first, and long the confidential Secretary of the Continen- 
tal Congress, also to be found appropriately ornamented in the same cem- 
etery. It is high time other attempts were made to perpetuate the mem- 
ory of the great and good men of the Revolution. —Cam. by Mr. Smith 
of - Phila. Library. — - 


21, Marble and Serpentine in Vermont. —We have | some beau- 
tifal marble tablets from Vermont through Mr. Tlock. Hills, agent of the 
Black River Marble and Manufacturing Company. 

The quantity is stated to be inexhaustible. 

The marble proper, is in the town of Plymouth, county of Windsor, 
twenty five miles west of Connecticut river. 

Some of the pieces sent to us have a white basis, with a faint blush of 


red, and varied by clouds - a light chocolate color ; the structure is sub- 


exvitaiiine, almost compact, and the same is true of other pieces whose 
basis is black, but beautifll pictured by white spots, tinted in some parts 

with gray. The white is often elongated into figures, having consider- 
able regularity; sometimes. almost cylindrical, and suggesting, at a tran- 
sient glance, the idea of imbedded encrinites, or other organic remains. 
It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this is not the fact; and, indeed, 
the geological character of the country 1 from which the marble comes, 1s 
primary, and destitute of organic bodies 

The serpentines and serpentine aac from the eee town 
of Cavendish. 

The color presents every shade of green, and becomes, by easy transi- 
tions, deep leek-green and almost black. A piece of the latter color, 12 
inches by 10, now lies before us, and is so highly polished as to bea good 
mirror; it is, indeed, very beautiful. The lighter colored pieces have 
considerable resemblance to the Verd Antique of Milford, Connecticut. 

We cannot doubt that these materials will prove important both to use- 
ful and ornamental architecture. ‘The pieces before us are all very ae 
and would indicate good quarries. 

The serpentine graduates, we are informed, into soapstone of an ex- 

cellent quality, and the distance of the quarries of serpentine and soap- 
stone from the river is less than that of the marble. We observe in these 
ns SR magnetic oxide of iron and chromate of iron, both so charac- 
teristic of serpentine formations. 


; 
3 
_ 

4 


tale See 


Ee a ee ee ee o 


Ca 


Miscellanies. ee 391 


ae 2. Ow from White Fish. 
Madison, September. 12, 1838. 

To Pror. Susamax. amie Sir—The question has often been 
proposed to me, whether by some chemical or natural process, the oil 
contained in our “white” fish might not be extracted without material 
detriment to them as a manure. You are probably aware that in our vi- 
ia we rely in a great. measure upon these fish as a manure for the 
“worn out lands.” For this purpose, at least one hundred and fifty of 
our most active men are in the season. engaged in taking he 
number taken yearly i is, upon average, ‘Alien millions. It has oan: as- 
certained by repeated experiment, that these fish contain half a gill of 
pure oil apiece. By those who made the experiment, (who at the time 
consulted you upon the subject, viz. 1814 or ’15,) the remnants, after the 
extraction, were applied, side by. side, with fish just taken, and no mate- 
rial difference noticed in the crops. They at that time extracted from 7000 
fish, value $7, a barrel of oil, value at that time $25 ; the process was very 
tedious and filthy, From these premises, sir, I wish to ask of you, whether. 
the oil contained in these fish can be purified from the other matters. Does 
the principle of manure consist in the solid material parts of the substances 
used, or in a gas arising from the decomposition of.such materials? Is 
the oil the principal source of manure, and if so, in what ratio? I have 
been induced to solicit your opinion in this matter from a conviction that 
a very large profit may be realized from a disposition of the fish in the 
manner suggested, provided any method can be devised for rope a 
separating the oil from the other parts. 

Yours with great respect, 
W. W. Witcox, A. M., 
Prec. Lee’s Rodauy” 


Being unable to caggeet any Ling satisfactory in reply to the letter of 
Mr. iia We give it publicity, in the hope that it may elicit informa- 


23. "Calm _We learn frodi Prof Robert Hare, that he has recently, 
by a new process, obtained calcium, the metal of lime, in considerable 
quantity. His process is new, and we will not presume on a private letter 
for any of the details of procedure, or of the Properties of the metal, of 
which, we trust, the public may, ¢ ere long, receive a notice from Dy. Hare 

: himsel f. 


~ 24. N. Dunn’s Chinese vellneesion at Philadelphia, enmvetiniiated. 
—It would be difficult to name a subject that has puzzled the learned 
world so much and so Jong, as the accurate delineation of the char- 
acter of that wonderful and unchanging people, the Chinese. The 


392 | Miscellanies. 
English embassies added something to our knowledge of the heretofore 
little explored interior of the country, and some light was diffused re- 
specting the condition of agriculture, the habits, and the manufactures 
of. the country. The works of the missionaries have also tended to 
make us more familiar with some of their peculiarities; the best book, 
however, which has ever been written respecting China, is the recent 
work of Mr. J. F. Davis, who had Jong been a resident in China, and 
who accompanied the embassy of Lord Amherst to the capital city of 
Pekin. Mr. Davis has concentrated much real information ina small 
space, and has, with singular ability, developed the characteristics 
of the three hundred millions of people of this region; his volumes 
have been republished in Harper’s Family Library, and it is to them, 
and to the recent Fan-Qui in China, in Waldie’s singly that we 
would direct the attention of the inquirer. - 

nother new effort to open a fruitful source of information to the 
student is about to be made public, and on this occasion it is our own 
country which is to be gratified by the industry; zeal, and discrimina- 
ting judgment, of one of her native merchants. Europeans have never 
succeeded in transporting a perfect’or even a very respectable collec- 
tion of Chinese curiosities. Those impressions which would be re- 
ceived by a resident who had enjoyed the rare privilege of unrestrained 
intercourse with the better classes.of Chinamen, have been denied to 
foreigners. It has been too much the custom of the natives and their 
visitors, mutually to despise each other, and for both to seek for little 
further communication than that which the nature of their commercial 
transactions demands. The consequence has been, that the articles 
exported have continued to be principally those only which European 
and American every-day life have required; while strangers have 
limited th eir purchases to to the common articles made to suit a foreign 
demand and taste, and their intercourse to the classes of natives who 
are appointed by government to serve or to watch over them. A few 
streets of the “ outside” city of Canton are generally visited, and the 
stores in the vicinity of “ Hog-lane,” a place frequented by foreign 
sailors, are ransacked for the well known manufactures of gew-gaws, 
successively carried off by every new comer, but possessing little no- 
velty i in any sea port. The interior of the city of Canton even is a 
sealed book ; how much more then the interior of China itself. This 
being the case, it became an interesting problem, as the Chinamen re- 
fuse to admit us in, how it would be possible to bring out what it was 
so difficult to get a sight of; in other words, as foreigners were not per- 
mitted to inspect the workshops, the houses, private apartments, and 
manufactories of the empire, what was the next best phing that could 


< # a 


— a ae 


Fi 
| 
| 


ie és 


MM: iscellanies. 393 


be done to enable those outside the walls,-and at home, to become 
acquainted with the domestic affairs and tastes of. these recluses. 
Certainly little could be expected from the natives, unless other meth- 
ods than those heretofore practiced could be adopte 

_ Nathan Dunn, Esq., of. Philadelphia, who had pear coudh upon 
this subject, and who, in the course of the very successful prosecution 
of his business at Canton,- had learned to respect the ingenuity, and 
when called forth, the intelligence of the numerous Chinese with whom 
he was daily in contact, happily conceived the idea of transporting to 
his native shores, every thing that was characteristic or rare, whether 
in the natural history, or the natural and artificial curiosities and man- 
ufactures, no matter how costly they might be. And now came effi- 
ciently to. his aid those requisites that had been but too frequently 
wanting in the officers of the East India Company, or their agents, 
who had made the attempt to procure such a collection but had failed. 
Mr. Dunn, who, it will be admitted by every one on the spot, had 
conducted himself toward all classes ina manner to win their esteem 
and confidence, and to whose house and table were introduced so 
many of the most distinguished officers of government, either tempo- 
rarily or permanently at Canton, soon discovered that it was in his 
power to obtain favors not usually granted to strangers. One after 
another he procured, either by purchase or as presents, those rare and 
costly articles constituting his collection: how many of these are per- 
fect novelties even to thousands who have visited China, let those de- 
cide who may soon havean opportunity of doing so; if indeed, that op- 
portunity is not already in their power, before this hasty notice passes 
through the press. For one, the writer is free to say that but for the 
insight thus obtained, he should have remained as ignorant of the 
subject as other travellers. It is with a view of honing a portion 
of this satisfaction, that he ventures to put them on paper, 

Without further preface, we shall proceed to notice very briefly 
some of. the peculiar features of this novel exhibition, enumerating a 
very small portion of the contents of the three hundred cases from 
which it has been now — the first time unpacked. | The following 
are the principal grou 

The entrance ih ey a China work, yee a voaiibulé. through 
the centre of which you enter the great saloon, one hundred and sixty 
feet in length, by sixty three in width, and twenty. four feet in height, 
with a double colonnade ; to the right and left of which are the nu- 
merous cases containing specimens of all that is rare, curious, or 
common, to, be procured in the celestial empire. This screen is such 


8s is common among the wealthy Chinese, in partitioning off a very 


Vou. XXXV.—N o. 2. 


394 Miscellanies. 


large saloon from the remainder of the great ground floor of their 
houses. It is richly gilt, and ornamented with Chinese paintings on 
silk, inserted in the pannels; and is mounted above with small square 
gilt apertures ; in these latter are inserted paintings of boats and gor- 
geous flowers. ‘Fhe screen forms a beautiful termination to this end 
of the room; _the full effect bursts upon the eye of the visitor after 
passing the folding door. Hours, nay, days and weeks, may be pro- 
fitably employed in examining the details within this magnificent sa- 
loon, which brings the most populous nation of Asia at once before 
the view of the spectator. 

'. Accurate likenesses in clay. —The visitor is first attracted byt the 
accurate and characteristic whole size Chinese figures of various 
rank, from the mandarins to the cooleys, from women of distine- 
tion, to those sculling their boats on the rivers. These are in num- 
ber seventy or eighty, and were made by a very experienced artist in 
this line, from living subjects. The material of the faces and hands 
is a prepared substance, so well adapted to the operation of moulding, 
as to take the impression perfectly and retain it permanently ; the 
faces are colored to nature, mounted with hair, &c., and each presents 
a speaking countenance in a style of art perfectly novel in this coun- 
try or Europe. These figures are neatly arranged in groups, arrayed 
in their appropriate costumes, some of them extremely rich, while 
others exhibit the working and every-day’ dress of the lower orders. 

The effect of this department is to exhibit to the spectator the in- 
habitants of China-as they really exist.. Great care was taken in pro- 
curing the likenesses, and about three years of the time of the propri- 
etor were oecupied in bringing them to perfection; his head carpen- 
ter, and other workmen about the factories, were pointed out to us, 
and many co conspicuous characters of China street, &c. will 3 itl 
nized at once by those ‘who have been: to Canton. Bearers of a se- 
dan chair, itself a perfect specimen in all its parts of ornament and 
utility, are in the act of carrying a a native gentleman, accompanied by 
his pipe-bearer and footman. 

Porcelain and earthen ware manufacture—In this department, 
endeavors have been successfully made to procure the best specimens 
of all the most expensive manufactures of the country, embracing sev- 
eral very ancient and highly esteemed articles. There are also those 
articles in common use for domestic purposes, to ornament grounds, 
fish-ponds, or used as flower stands, seats, &c. A very interesting 
fact will be developed by this section, showing that the art of porce- 
lain manufacture has been on the retrograde for the last century or 
two; it will also serve to show, ies many of the most ornamental 


~ 


#7 


Miscellanies. | B95' 
and beautiful specimens are rarely, if ever, exported. Formerly the 
emperors patronized the porcelain manufacture by very high premi- 
ums and extensive orders; the art has now dwindled to supplying 
commercial and domestic wants. There are here many hundred jars, 
vases, pipe-stands, and various services used by the Chinese, differing 
materially from those exported. The specimens of- ware cracked on 
the surface by age, are interesting and costly. There must be several 
thousand pieces of fine China, including the thin egg-shell cup with 
its lettered inscriptions, octagon a three or four feet in 
height, inscribed landmarks, tile work, screens, &c. &c., in very nu- 
merous patterns; affording us “ neha new ideas on the subject 
of their manufactures, and probably new patterns for our artists. 

Agricultural and other instruments.—We notice among the agri- 
cultural instruments the very crude plough, that is drawn by the buf- 
falo with his simple yoke and rope traces; the harrow, differing very 
materially from that of our country, is one of the accompaniments. 
There are forks, rakes, hoes, axes, shovels, spades of wood faced with 
iron for the sake of economy, &c.; a complete set of carpenter’s and 
joiner’s, or cabinet maker’s tools ; of the superiority of these over our 
own, we cannot say much. There is a native shoemaker’s shop com- 
plete ;, a blacksmith’s anvil, his curious bellows, &c., comprising the 
complete accoutrements of the travelling smith: the entire shop of 
the ambulatory barber, his clumsy, short razor, cases, &c..&c. e 
musica] instruments of the Chinese, also ‘figure i in full among the curi- 
osities. Castings of iron of very great beauty, consisting of pots, 
kettles, and other cooking utensils of universal use, and which, unlike 
our own of the same metal, may be mended at pleasure as ness as 
our own tin vessels, 


Here is a study of Chinese eaaibactares perfectly novel to an 


American, who will be surprised to find that the most simple opera- 
tion which he has been taught to believe can be performed only by 

a certain form, is equally well executed by another 
si a totally different figure ; the flat-iron, for instance, is more like 
our chafing-dish than what we employ for smoothing linen. We are 
amused to see the New England patent mouse-trap, that has. been 
used in China for ages. There are gongs, bells, metallic mirrors, 
and articles under this head. which nothing short of a most copious 


descriptive catalogue would embrace. 


Models of boats.—The ‘models of boats form a striking feature of 

the scene; first, we have the gorgeous flower boat with its numerous 

tions, various furnished apartments of comfort and luxury, and 
painted and adorned in the peculiar style of the Asiatics. 


396 : Miséellanies. 


Of the canal boat there are three models of different sizes of such 
as are used in conveying the articles of their produce, teas, salt, grain, 
and manufactured articles, to and from the distant points of the ex- 
tensive empire, and in loading and unloading foreign ships: They 
are remarkable for strength and durability. 

man-of-war boat.—These tidewaiters’ boats, ‘or cutters, are 
ene cruising about with the police officers, to keep order among 
the numerous residents on the water, and to enforce the revenue laws. 

The san-pans, or family boats, in which it is computed about 

,000 persons constantly reside on the waters before the city of Can- 
ton and its suburbs; they are kept as clean asa milk-pail, and contain 


entire families, who are born and live to the end of their days on the | 


river. This great city of boats presents a remarkable aspect ; through 
them it would be difficult to navigate, were it not that the fleet is 
arranged in streets, and at night lighted up. There are also other 
boats; each has been made by reducing the dimensions to the proper 
scale; in every particular, even to the employment of the same de- 
scriptions uf wood, the oars, sculls, rudders, setting poles, cordage, 
&c., are fac-similes of those in actual use. We are not sure that a 
Chinese canal boat, of a thousand years ago, might not be advanta- 
geously transferred to our own recently introduced water ways. 

Bridges.—There are four accurate mode]s of granite bridges, from 
one to four arches; the workmanship of the originals is of great 
beauty and durability, and really in them we discover the perfect 
arch, the most approved piers of the present day, and yet their bridges 
are so ancient, that the date of their erection is almost, if not entirely, 
lost. Having no carriages, they are imarely used for foot passengers, 
paren eoclers: and an occasional hy 2 > or bu 

s.—Four models of summe: Touses exhibit the pe- 

caller taste. af ‘the: Chinese; #6nie are" lain, and others very orna- 
mental, with their-scalloped roof, bells, gilding, painting, &c., and 
furnished with miniature chairs, tables, &c., models of real things, 
every part being complete for the luxuries of tea and the pipe. Tea 
is the universal beverage ; this is sold from eight cents the pound up 
to many dollars, and is an article on which some of their citizens ex- 
pend.a very large income. The working man carries it in his rude 
tea-pot to the fields, and drinks it cold to quench his thirst, while the 
more wealthy sip it on wey occasion of ceremony, ces or 
. familiar intercourse. 

Paintings.—The pictures ‘snilic paintings are very numerous, and 
probably occupy the greatest surface in the collection. Many of them 
_ were presented by aiviciguishen men of China, and many were painted 


ee 


* - - * Se 
inn ny AO TRS EE _mpeametmmmmt 


Miscellanies. . 397 


by the most celebrated artists of the principal inland cities, including 
the capital. They représent in the first place all those scenes which 
are characteristic of Chinese life in its detail, including a series show- 
ing every process of the tea manufacture, from the planting to the 
packing up. There are large and handsome views of Macao, Bocca 
Tigris, Whampoa, Canton, and Honan, with its remarkable temples, 
&c. The portraits will astonish those who have seen only the paltry 
daubs usually brought as specimens of the art in China. There is 
one of the high priest of the Honan temple, and others of distinguish- 
ed men well known in Canton, worked with the minuteness of minia- 
ture painting. This department comprises also a variety of paintings 
on glass, an art much practiced by the natives; pictures of all the 
boats peculiar to the country ; of rooms, their domestic arrangements; 
of all the costumes of people of rank; the furniture, lanterns, and, in 
short, of every variety of Chinese life, from the most degraded class 
to the emperor. The flowers embroidered on aims &c., will attract 
the eye of female visitors.» 

A Chinese room.—At the east end, faced by a ‘nivy superb: se6¥0 
brought from China, is aChinese room. The alcove itself consists of 
wooddeeply carved out of solid blocks; the carving represents figures 
of men, animals, birds, flowers, &c. The cutting penetrates through 
the whole of each piece, and forms a net work, the front being painted 
and gilt in the Asiatic taste, with the rich colors for which the nation 
is so celebrated. The screen is a fac-simile of those put up in the 
houses of the wealthy, to form an ante-room in their large establish- 
ments. This vestibule will be decorated with furniture, such as chairs, 
tables, stands, stools, vases, maxims, scrolls, &c., and in every re- 
spect will represent a room as actually occupied by the rich. This 
screen work extends over —— of the cases the entire length of the 
north side of the room, and its effect, as seen by the writer, is ex- 
tremelg ae sominding him of the representations made in old 

illumina scripts, before the invention of. printing in Europe. 
The colors, eRe blue, crimson, scarlet, &c., are those employed 
by the illuminators, and lead one to believe that stats imitated the 
Chinese. 

Furniture, books, &c. ties addition to the furniture contained in 
this beautiful pavilion, there will be also distributed in the saloon a 
variety of Chinese domestic articles and utensils. ‘Two dark colored 
and extremely rich bookcases, which might serve to ornament any 
library, will display copious specimens of the books of the Chinese, 
in their peculiar and .safe binding, so rarely seen in this country. 
Specimens of their blocks or stereotyped wood are also in the collec- 


398 Miscellanies. 


tion. The bookcases are made in excellent taste, of a dark wood 
susceptible of a beautiful polish, and in some respects they may be 
considered an improvement on our own. The chairs of different 
forms, large and capacious, made of wood resembling mahogany, 
with their appropriate cushions and footstools, are in a taste of re- 
finement and comfort, which would have been creditable to some of 
our forefathers of New England, into whose parlors they might have 
been introduced without differing much from the fashion of fifty years 
since. The stools without backs exhibit their adaptation to a south- 
ern climate, in being partly composed of China ware, marble, and 


There are also tables, such as ornament the rooms of the wealthy, 
gilt, and richly carved and painted ; stands, inlaid with marble or pre- 
cious wood, such as are placed between every two chairs to hold the 
tea apparatus, or those various little ornaments or flower pots, of 
which the Chinese it-will be seen, are so remarkably fond. There is 
also a common table, such as is in universal use, and has been for cen- 
turies, which will be recognized’ by our present generation as:a fac- 
simile of the favorite eight legged table of our great grandfathers, 
now thrust by modern fashion into the kitchen or garret. It folds up 
as those do, and the legs are turned in rings; this, like a thousand 
things in the saloon, proves that our common usages have been de- 
rived from China, where we are accustomed to believe they are cen- 
turies behind us. The vases and seats of porcelain are particularly 
rich and unique. 

Natural history.—The brevity we have been obliged to use in the 

oing enumeration, has prevented the mention of much that would 

have interested the readers of this Journal, and we have to regret 

anaes of natural-history must be also merely touched 

‘It evinces the comprehensiveness of Mr. Dunn’s plan to find, 

eee even in this particular, nothing has been omitied which time, 

trouble, and expense could accomplish, and as one evidence among 

many, of the laborious nature of the occupation of bringing these 

things together, we may mention the care bestowed upon the numer- 
ous objects of science here concentrated. 

A young gentleman of Philadelphia, well known there as an enthu- 
siastic naturalist, Mr. William W. Wood, son of Mr. William Wood, 
made his way to Canton in search of objects of interest, in the rea- 
sonable expectation of bettering his condition. Mr. Dunn at. once 
sought his aid to perfect his collection, and i his valuable 
time for a very considerable period. He had a carte blanche to pro- 
cure objects in natural history, yet some art — no Fab itle subterfuge 


Miscellanies. 399 


were necessary, to persuade the Chinamen to collect articles of a kind 
in which they take no interest; prejudice and national feelings were 
to be overcome before they could be induced to make the necessary 
excursions by land and water, to spots where no foreigner could pen- 
etrate.. By industry, money, flattery, and kindness, he succeeded, 
however, in amassing a great variety of birds, fishes, reptiles, shells, 
&c., and a few animals. Of these, all have arrived in good condition 
with the exception of the insects; the butterflies, moths, &c., which 
when last seen in Canton were particularly rich and curious, have suf- 
fered most by the delay in unpacking, and by natural causes, 

Mr. Wood was indefatigable for many months in completing the 
herpetology of China; the conchology is fully represented in many 
rich and rare specimens; and one of the rarest birds, the mandarin 
duck, with its very peculiar plumage, will be new to many: the China 
partridge and many beautiful song birds, add variety and interest to 
the whole. 

The. fishes were procured principally at the famous fishing stations 
at Macao, where Mr. Wood resided for several months for this ex- 
press purpose; the specimens are very numerous and rare. (There 
has also been procured a great number of very fine drawings of fish 
from life in the accurate style of the Chinese, and in fine colors. The 
stuffed specimens will be neatly and appropriately arranged to afford 
a study for the naturalist. 

In the department of botany, attention has been paid to procuring 
accurate drawings of many plants and flowers. These will be exhib-_ 
ited in frames. _ ee 

The mizerals in this collection are few in number, and together 
with the primitive rocks of China, embrace some remarkably fine car- 
bonates of copper, both nodular and radiated. 

The shells include the well known species of the China sea and the 
Canton iver ; ; the former, however, are of remarkable size and beauty, 

illustra ites all their varieties. - 
| of acquaintance with the science of 
mineralogy, which prevents his more than alluding to the specimens, 
said to be highly interesting. 

Miscellanies.—The jos-houses, pagodas, articles of virtu, of orna- 
ment, of stone, of jade, of ivory, bamboo, wood, metal, rice, &c., are 
so numerous that we can only allude to them. A case of shoes in all 
their clumsy or ornamental variety, exhibit the form of the compressed 
female feet,’and the clumsy shape of those of the male; another of caps 
fresh from their makers, with the button of. office, and the cheaper 


kinds of the poor; theatrical dresses, known to be those of the very 


400 Miscellanies. 


ancient Chinese, spectacles, opium and other pipes, fans the compass 
in great variety, models of fruits, coins, exquisite specimens of carving 
in ivory, metal, stone, and bamboo, very numerous and grotesque 
carvings from roots of trees, in which they exhibit a peculiar taste, 
singular brushes, combs, beautiful vessels of odoriferous wood for 
their altars and temples, of which latter there are models; very nu- 
‘merous ornamental stands carved with good taste; huge cameos in 
stone of great cost; fine specimens of their lacquered ware, as well 
as their common ware; a silk embroidered saddle; a water wheel 
worked like our modern tread-mill; a fan for cleaning rice resem- 
bling our own; lanterns of every possible shape, size, and ornament, 
will. be suspended from various points, with their rich and tasteful 
paintings; there is a model of their very singular coffin, which few 
would even guess was designed to. contain the last relics of humanity. 

_ Space is wanting to perfect this notice of a collection highly credit- 
able to the taste and liberality of the proprietor, and valuable to our 
country. No where else can we see so complete an exhibition of this 
interesting nation. 


ya and his works.—By a letter from this eminent wee dated 
Neuchatel Nov. 5, 1838, received Jan. 4, 1839, at the moment of closing the pre- 


# execution. The work on Tux FresnH-Warter Fisurs or Evrore,* with nu- 
merous plates, executed with all possible care, and that on the Ecuinopermata,” 
will lished in such time, that the first number of each may arrive in this 
country early in the present year, 1839. The fresh water-fishes will appear in livrai- 
sons, containing each about 20 aa The Echinodermata in livraisons, with 5 
plates each, containing also the explanatory text> 

It is known to the geological world, that Prof. Agassiz has recently ore 
some novel and interesting views respecting the movement of the Erratic Blocs o 
the Jam, and upon Glaciers Morapive. es and Evratic Blocs.t On this subject he re- 


etter : 

“ You will greatly oblige me if you will communicate to me such facts within 
your knowledge as have reference to the phenomena of the transport of erratic 
blocs, and especially with respect to polished surfaces in any regions in the vicinity 
Giew: York (or elsewhere 

“T have it in eontomplation to publish, in the. course of next year, the result of 
extensive researches into this subject, ees shall be very happy to add observations 
made in countries remote from ‘my own 

We have only room earnestly to fecoininsdnd the works and wishes of Professor 
Agassiz to our geologists, and his wishes especially to those charged with the geo- 
logical surveys. His address in this country is to M. August Mayor ; care of - 
rat Nagath, New York.—Eps. 


* For a notice of these works, see vol, 34, p. 212 of this J 
1 Jameson’s Journal, for Oct. 1837, and April, 1838, vol. a; pp. 176 and 364. 


i 


INDEX TO VOLUME XXXV. 


A. 


Actinie, gemmiferous bodies and ver- 
miform filaments of, 
Addams, Robt., on solid carbonic acid, 


sats. Prof., Sis new works noticed, 


a - correcting local magnetic 
pe 
Allis, Mn ; of York, on toes of Ostrich, 
Allen, Ww. SqgPt R, N., map of central 
Africa, 309. 
American Almanac, Vol. X, notice of, 
19}. 
ie Sp aa of commercial 
carbonate of, 297. 
Analysis of Gmelinit 9 Bae boone i 
ral waters of Avo 
Annals of Natoral History, sohicek 


Antarctic seas, account of expedition to, 
Anthon , J. G., describes fossil encri- 


ite, 
Anti ua, geology of, by Prof. Hovey, 75. 
App Hreas ation of small coal to economical 


St, engine, oe 263. 


ving. 


Vi ‘ire g, 267. 
Arsenic, ipecine’ gravity of, vapor of, 
298. 


Mle fe ‘he "blind d, 316. 
one “sy navigation, several letters 
162, 332, 333, 336. 
. Seetacke of Dr. Lardner 
ogni Ags W.L., on certain cavities in 
139. 


on spontaneous combustion, 144. 
Aurora, atmospheric origin of, 145. 
resemblance to, observed in New 
or! 
connection of, with crystallization 
of snow, 1 
Auroral arch i in Vermont, 380. 


B.. 
ae botany of Channel Islands, 


, mention of Mr. 


Bache, Prof. A. D. 
py’ of storms to British ta 


a or 
report on pistecrology of the 
U. 8. ‘0 the Brit. Ass $39, 321. 
i aoe collected by a guage 
as fates nts of ae 287. 


Backhouse, E. ,ont the , Leeattth tribe, org 
a Von, on frozen ground in 


on pag tea to Novata fe 


Bailey, Prof. 4: W.., on the vascular sys- 
— ferns, 113. Cage: 
onstrots flower of Orc. epee 
tabilis, 11 
foes ‘infusoria, . 
merican Diatom e, 121. 
Bakewell s Geology, 3d eiice of, an- 


ced, 
Barometer, substitute a in measuring 
heights, ze 
of Cuzco, 309. 
istry 385. 


Binoctilat vision, Prof. Wheststone on, 
295. 


Bituminized ig curious deposite of, 
in Lousiana, 34 


Bird, Dr. G., on the roducts of nitric 
acid and alcohol, 299. : 
Mr. James, on injecting veins, — 


Blake 
3 


ngs noe mouth for oxygen and hydro- 


gen, 187. ae 
Boilers for stea am, how rivetted, 320. — 

Bo avernin Men dip Hills, 304. ’ 
on as section of, in P British Associa- 


Bereich, ‘Nathaniel, memoirs of his 
li 
Eulogi 


ums on him noticed, 386. 
list oth res eee 6g 
‘trans 


fic papers,46, 
canique cule eg 
Brandes’s account of the meteors of Dec. 
mS 
Brewster, — David, on new a cme 


ena 0 n fluor spar 
Bridge apension, ao. 


von, mineral waters of, 188. 
Vo. XXXV.—No. 2. 


Ceney and mine 


402 INDEX. 


- Brewster, Sir David, on new kind of po- 
f. 


larity in homogeneous light, 
on Dr. Wallace’s preparations | 
1§ 


of the eye, 29 
Brisbane hah ss ence of longitude, 296. 
British ‘Alectintion for the advancement 
of science, abstract of, for 1 


hells, supposed ne 
Buckland, Rev. De Cakcount of ee 
sandstone near Liverpool, 307. 
asian of small coal to 
economic eee s, 308. 
letter to iA ton Dr. N. Web- 
ster, 375. 


Cc. 


Calcium obtained by Dr. Hare, 391. 
Cambridge, meteoric observations at, 


. 323. 
Come A. bal 4 electro-magnetic en- 


Carboni weit Soketotr and solidifi- 
cation a me 6, 374. 
mitted by a brine spring, 


293. 

Carbon, sca gues ¥t +5 vapor, 298. 
Carpenter, Prof. W. M., geological no- 
tices of Opelousas and. ‘Fitukinpas, 344. 
Catlinite, new mineral analyzed, 
Cattle of pot Park, 310 
Caustic potassa commerce—nature of 

= potassa ‘ matter, 299, 
Cavities j in qu ss artz, 139. 


combinations, 302. 

Chemistry, eatiract of of b. Dr. Beck, 385. 

mil Le before the 

h Association, 297. 
sae 


wet 


= Conrad, T. A. y Hotes on American ge-| 
. fy 287. 


Cook, Capt. J. We on the genus Pinus, 
Abies, &c., 311 

Courses of hurric , 201, 

Crichtonite, new locality of, 179, 180. 

Critical interpretation of bara and asah, 
375. 


, || Crosse’s oS with the voltaic 
1 


ba attery, 
Crystallization | od = as connected 
ith the au 
Cu palais, nis de f, 321. 
Cursory remarks on East Flocida, 47, 


Dana, J. D., on a supposed new mine- 
ral, 178. 

Dasari, anew ser species, 137. 
Darwin, Mr. mals rollected by 
him, remarked. ee tog rof. Owen, 195. 
aubeny, . Charles, on the climate of 
N. Am erica, 288. 
thermal springs of N. Amer- 


a, 307. 
Dawes, Mr. J. S., on manufacture of 


on, "303. 
eats Prof. J., auroral arch in Vermont, 
"380. 


and ecli ipse, 
Dent, portable mercurial pendulum, 289. 
Deflected currents bes air, their influence 
the rain gua 
Description of wo" new shells, 268. 
mires notice of some American spe- 


Diabeti ic sugar, analysis of, 298 

Dickinson, Rev. J. T., geological speci- 
mens from him notice 

paeaiet e of mosiiude between London 

d 

iuvial currents, evidences of by Dr. 
Hayes, 1 

ae helix for inducing magnetism, 

‘stars, micrometrical measures of, 


4 
Dunn's Chinese collection, 391. 


E. 
ars tani by Prof. L. Agassiz, 400. 
1 bap e of the sun observed at New Ha- 


ven, Pon ae 8th, 1838, 174. 
rved in Vt. by Prof. Dean, 


"|edit remarks by them on American 

ee by senior, on Mr. Junius Smith’s 
| Ehrenberg, Prof. C. G., on fossil infu- 
win as a moving power, 


apparatus and experi- 
| Se 
i a 


pein, sa 


4 


; 


Peruse and electrepeter described, 
Employment of Uvalaria rfoliata, 270. 
Encke’s comet obse 
Encrinite, fossil, by yt °C. Anthony, 359. 
Engine, e ectro-magnet ic, 343. 

with reciprocating ar- 


e, 263. 
Erdmann and Schweigger’s Journal, ex- 
om, 356. 

Esp ys ie theory of storms a 208. 

er, On a new one e, 329. 
eae ite geologica 
Exley, Mr. Thos., on ’ specific gravity of 

“ay 206 
che au ical combinations, 302. 

: magnetic electricity, 252 
Exploring expedition to the Sou 


Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md., 190. 
mid 


Falco nan ge 

Ferns, vascular ene of, by Prof. Bai- 
ea 

=. Feu an anger’ 2 beg” on gems, 189. 

Fish with four eyes, 309. 


rth America, 180. 

Florida, Geet notices of, 47. 

Fluor spar, new phenomenon of color in, 
295. 


Forbes, — of subterranean heat and 
of brine spring emitting carbonic 


Fossil animals collected by Mr. Darwin, 


Fossils, as characteristic of strata, 237 
Font fish in red sandstone of New Jer- 
sey, 192. 


2 ie 5 B09. 
Banca. 118, 311,301, 
shells and bones at "Savannah, 3380. 
teeth, by ] ape of. Owen 
Fox, a mineral v. n obtained by him by 


| Geography and geology of British Asso- , 
ciation, 304. 
| Geology, American, notes on by J ew. Ts 


Gonra ad, 23 
bea ‘At atigua, 
nts of, 


can edition sate 
edition oF Bakewell, 385. 
64. 


iby oh Aa 


of St een 

of Florida, 60. 

of North America, 307. 

of F prec ee = 

and to ‘a western New 
York, 86. = y 

Mantell, yonder of, 384. 

science m Glasgow trea- 


s, 387. 
as, Geological excursion, 309. 


surveys, 384, 
— sent from the In- 
dian Archipelago, 381. 
Gibbs, Geo., notice of false aurora, 381. 
Glover, on rete ei and pigmen- 
tum Sarum 


Go a, T-8 f eats aaiiiiil of Lricbhonties 
Godfrey, his grave discover: . 
old, e sy mode of sang , 327. 


Graves of Boe, and Chas. Thomson 
discovered, 389. 


Gray, Sex notice of Flora of North - 
America, 180. 
ray, J. E. ., angular lines on certain 
mollusea, 310. 
on the boring of the Phola- 
des, 312. 


on a British shell, 309 
Greenhow, on mercury in Seape 
313. 
Griffith, — of geological map of 
Trelan 
H. 


galvanism 308... 
Fresh-water fish of Europe, by ‘Agassiz, 
Frozen ground of Siberia, 305. 
G. 


Galactin, Dr. Thomson on, 303. 

Gale, Dr. L. D., on _— fish in red sand- 
stone of New Jers 

Galvanometers, pt ar, "9. 
mboge, resin of, 

Gases in the blood, experiments on by 

M. Magnus, 1 

compounds formed by the ele- 


os of water 
Gases condensed by Dr. Torrey, 374. 
Gaylord, Mr. Eo is = on the me- 
_ teori of Nov. 1838, 370 
“uae, tr on, 189. 


— s ee remarkable phenome- 


Handyiide, Dr., on Sternoptixinee, 312. 
Hancock, J., Falco Islandicus, 310. 
Hare, Dr. Robt., on a new ether and 
gaseous compounds formed with the 
elements of water, 
calcium obtained by him, 391. 
ne eRe - platina in mass, 328. 
refuta augham’s 
charge, 331. 
r. Snow, meteorological obser- 
vations pin at Plym 
yes, Sai 2 ,on di pial currents,191. 
the geology and t topogra- 
phy of western New , 86. 
Helix, double, for inducing magnetism, 
261. 


404 


np cet re Wm., on a new process || 
for-tanning, 303. 

Benjemplcgy of North America, by Hol- 
brook, 136. 


Herrick, E. C., on shooting stars of Au- 
- gust 9th, 1838, 167. 
on shooting stars of Dec. 
7th, 1838, 361. 
Herschel, Sir J., remarks on Mr. Red- 
field’s law =: storms, 281. 


omical observations 
at the Cape of Good H ope, 
phenomenon of Halley’ 8 
comet, 285. 
vitreous humor of shark’s 


eye, , 293. 

Hil th — his quarries of marble in 

t, t, 390 

Bow. w. -, on vegetable mon- 
stones 310. 

Hindmarsh, pe ;on the wild cattle of 


Hivebaoe eee E., note to Mr. Con- 
rad’s remarks, 
Holbrook, Dr. i Bs his American Her- 
prfic ation al insects, 311. 
oxious inse 
pees Prof, S., on daiebogs “of St. Croix, 


on geology of Antigua, 7 
Seats B. pnt heat 4 cases 


crs Pe storm in New Hampshire, 

Miriesses, with notices = the oe 

of the Chi ina sea, 201. 
206, 220. 21 


— a a oe 
uble theli for 


,, 269. 
Insects 2 cepa appeared in Mr. Crosse’s 
agnetic ag etn’ s, 125. 


d, 338. 

Interpretation | of bare and nthe by Dr. 
Noah Webster, 37 

— new pe manufacturing, 303. 

BS oes coun dense to law of, 302. 


ee 


a s report of geology of Maine, 


«his analysis of Indian pipe stone, 


1 Salmonide of Scotland, 312. 
S, ia) ay survey of British India, 


letter addressed || 


INDEX, 


a ton, Dr., on an — to the 
aw of Isomo hism, 302. 
resin gamboge, 30 
Jo an Prof. B. the 
nnected with xf dir eryeeallaeation of 
K. 
Kirwan, Dr. R., capture of his library ,26. 
L. 


Lagoons of ieiesgs PR 54. 
Lardner, Dr., on navigation ‘of the At- 
lantic by steam 

Lea, Isaac, observations on the genus 
Unio, 
otice of Wyatt’s manual of 
Sechoivey, 386. 
ead ores, e easy mode of cupelling, 321. 
Leithart, on the stratification of rocks, 


Lev el line aE cert 287. 

Levelling stave, new, described, 318. 

Life and character of Dr. Bo wditeh, I 
ight, 


obviated 
Laos, its power of shacchaine pete 
8, 338. 
Liquefac hii and solidification of car- 
bonic — » 81, 36, 374 
Lloyd, on magnetic dip and inten- 
sit 906.” 


> 

ong, dee hile, 308, of a bone cavern in 
Mendip hi 

sat a Prof. Elias, on meteor of May 
18th, 1838, 223 

Lunar voleanoes, ‘notice of, 305. 
Lye Chas., on vertical lines of flint, 


Elements of geology, no- 
ticed, 385. 
M. 
Magnetic action, (local,) mode of obvia- 
ting, ae 
and intensity in Ireland,296. 
iiectispatin and electrotome, 


Magnete-slecties) experiments, 252. 
M n gases in the blood, 198. 
eM gpa ; 


“0, Mr. Rs n commercial potass, 
Mandingo, account of a native, 305. 
Mantell’s Wonders of geology, 384 
boot in ‘ermont described, 390. 

tri 


Association, 
eee W. W., easy mode of cupella- 


; refuted, 


| Maualon, ofa i 


M‘Alister, asylum for the blind, 316, 
M‘Cord, his meteorological register for 


rs 
Mecanique Cileste, translated by Bow- 


ihiee science, 317. 
edical science, 313. 


m 
Mercurial pendulum, port 
Meteoric ee ns made at Cam- 
bridge, 3 
of Die, 7th, 1838, 361. 
ag = Nov. 1838, 368. 
Meteor o of Mac 


838, 
ee en kept at Montreal, 
C., for 1837, 382. 


Miller, Prof 4 portable goniometer, 303. 
ilne, D., on Berwick and North Dur- 
ham coal fields 
Mineral, new a at Bolton, 178. 
388. 


anburit, ISK. 
diarseniate of lea 


ec one “peter art of, 
announced We rof. Shepard, 187. 
cael notices in Opelousas, At- 
s 
Mitchell, Prof.’ E., notice of high moun- 
wae Carolina, ees 
rof. J n liquefaction and 
solidification of eavvonie c acid, 346. 
a ntains in North Carolina, height of, 
7. 


Moving power of electro-magnetism,106. 
Murchison’s 8 genes! ical map of England 
and Wales, 306. 


N. 


ses ee utd nd Atlantic by steam, 160. 
of Junius Smith on, 333. 
Navigator, geactical, by Bowditch, LL. 


New Jersey tornado , 206. 
New omnes species, eee of, by Prof. 
Shepard, 1 
sup osed at ee 178. 
Catlinite 
iarseniate ors , 297. 
New Zealand, changes of cnaiceianel in, 
5. 
—— of rime pure, not blackened by 
Nit ane if gee of, 
Nitrogen, s a c 
orth oo na, leans in, 


Ame aeee _ etology, 1 
November sh meteors, oleae 
tions on, 361. 


313. 


ore of the British acaciicaan 


Ghutbvaticus on shooting stars of bos 
7th, 1838, 361 

on meteors of Nov, 1838, 368. 

on vascular system of ferns, 


sew 
Odontograph, a new instrument, 319. 
Oil ex white fish, 391. 
Olmsted, Prof. D., observations on the 
e of the sun, Sept. 18th, 1838, 
: meteoric shower of November, 
1 
Opelousas and Attaka as, geological no- 
ice concernin 344. 
Orchis spectabilis, monstrous flower of, 
Ornithichnite, note on by Prof. Hitch- 


Osiricl s, 312. 
en, Prot, = the fossils collected by 
ee ‘Dar 196. 


pane ee of fossil teeth, 307. 
Wollaston: medal presented to, 


197. 
Oxygen, its specific gravity, 298. 
pe 
Peas, Chas. G.,on clectro-magnetism as 
moving oe 
electrepeter and electro- 
tome, 112. 
tne appara 


Palmetto used as food in n Florida, 59. 


Paludina heterostropha deseribed, 269. 
Parnell, Sag rare British fishes; 310. 
Pattinso Hi. new mode of extracting 


silver ia ‘lea d, 
Pendulum, portable mercurial, 289. 
Physa Sayii described, 269. 
nee specific gravity of its vapor, 
ae Hon. John, notice of life of 
Dr. Bowditch, sets 
Plants, hodt of — fi 338. 
Platina, fusion of, in quantity, 328. 
Poisoned wounds treated wit Uvularia, 
Proceedings of British Association in 
38, 275. 
Preparation of the eyes by Dr. Wal- 
e, 291. 
Piedets of nitric acid and alcohol, 
Prout’s analysis of starch sugar, 299. 
Q. . 


Quartz, cavities in, 139. 


r eppersias, aint exper elec- 


406 


R. 
matey cars, rapidity of motion in, 197. 


ways constructed with cast iron 
sleepers, 
n, on nr quantities collected, 
by the g 
quantity . different parts of the 
earth, : 
on, Mr., o 


Raws n fires in. —— 316. 
Raleigh’s ee of 1835, 210 


he 
ce dip and intensity in Ireland, 


armature engine, 263. 
. C., law of storms, 182, 


Reci rocatin 
Redfield, 
276. 
n the courses “ ee 


and t foons of China sea, 20 
—_— ol., on Mr. Rediield’s law of 
eg 


n storms noticed, 


s, 167, 223, 323. 


Respi ration, M. Sens on, 198. 
Riddell, Dr., new mode of sean: 
nts, 


pn 


on electro magnetic engine, 
343. 
Eatveon,. rein in transition, 248. 
i substitul by beromale r, 294. 
new Tovalitics of 


inion on age of gray- 


Paras 


mineral wat Avon, 188. 
ce Satetps on, ear Liverpool, 


of New Jersey containing fos- 
sil fish, 192. 
peculiar arene? of, 249. 
Sang, Mr., ote a dity of motion in rail- 
Seankaaten commercial carbonate of am- 
“nitrate ailver not blackened by 


“sun light, 298. 
Schweigger Seidel, his general electric 
‘formula, 356. 


ie in Vermo: 


s, new s] 


I 7 T 208. 


nt, 390. 
pecies a4 ‘described by 


» © o, notice of a new min- 
es , (danburite,) 137. 


INDEX. 


onepard) ten” -U., 2d part of lett by 


bie without masts, 332. 
>i stars, 167, 223, 323, 2% 368 
Siberia, frozen ground of, 


Silurian and transition system, 243. 
Smith, Henry, letter to Prof’ Silliman, 
336. 


Junius, letters on steam naviga- 

tion, % ee 
variation in quantity of 
rain in "different parts of the earth, 
295. 


H. L., account of his telescope, 
174, note. 
Sopwith’ s mode of constructing secre- 
taires, 
Sowerby, on Encrinus moniliformis, 


Specific avity of several elements 
298. 


echoes pater of wood, 144. 
itish Associ- 


— section of, in Bri 
Statistical tables, oro 

team vigation, letters on, 160, 161, 

332, 398 

boilers, new construction of, 318. 

Sica instrument for illustrating 

binocular vision, 295, 
ote on the law of, 1 

sidered before ie "British 
year 276. 

Col. W. Reid’s book on, 182. 
of, 222. 


natural ge 


Storms, 


of Euro 
Storm in New amps in 1821, 233 
evens . n Ardea alba, 311. 


ohn’s ieee, seo rks on, 
anes, ee analysis of, 298. 


0! , 298, 
|| Sulphur springs ‘in Florida, 51. 


ity of, 298. 
Surveying and “exploring expedition to 


uth 
Substitute for the mountain barometer, 
294. 


'F. 


Tanning, new process for, 303. 
ar, Judge, iacestian of new 


Taylor, W. Ww. c. , change of population in 
d, 315. 

Temperature o - the interior of the earth, 
of deep mines, 297. 
produced by ev 

solid carbonic onde 347, 

of wells and ' springs at - 

ca uname from earth’s surface 


in different eles By 


ion of 


: —_— 240. 


Teale, T. & , on vermiform filaments of 
actinie, 31 

ES Same 14 ft. reflector, 174. 

Theory of Mr. Espy on storms, 208, 281. 
,» analysis of diabetic 


of diarseniate of lead, 297. 
foreign substances in iron, 


on galactin, 303. 
Prof. R. D., of emulsin and 
wes eee ae 
Charles, his ithe found, 390. 
eet —— of, b hab well, 290. 
a Tornado in New Jerse 
By! Torrey.” Dr. John, notice of flora of N. 
: America by him and Dr. Gray, 1 
condensation of gases 


y, 374, 
Trovetion and silurian system of rocks, 
243. 
ganic remains of, 246. 
Treatise on res BS. 
be Somer, nee of marine shells in 


efn Cave, 
Tyfoons of the China sea, 209. 
, 220. 


nate 217, 218. 


Man a, 220. 
Raleigh's 210. 
ethod a escaping, 211. 


U. 


Unio, new observations on, 184. 
Sayii described, 268. 


wounds, 
Me 


Vanilla in Europe, 310. 
Vegetable monstrosities, 310. 
Vibrating armature, 

Vi or =A shark: s yes 293. 
or . oes in the ~ = 
°. ‘aic atte ond s ~~ rimen 

with, 195. ry; pe 


WwW. 


Wailes, Rev. , on rare insects, 310 
Washington, ak: account of a Man- 


INDEX. 


Uvularia perfoliata used in poisoned ||. 
270, 


407 


Washington, Capt., account of trigono- 
metrical Pogue 

Wallace, Dr. W. Clay, preparations of 
the eye, 291. 

Waves, report of the committee on, 


Web b, on lunar volcanoes, 305. 
—— ee Doo he of green feld- 
ar and gal “oa boty 
to ‘blowpipe mouth, 
180. 


. Noah, interpretation of 
ara 


bar 
wnat rN. Y., geology and topography 


Wheatstone on binocular vision, 295. 
Whewell, account of a level line, 
report of discussion of tides, 


Whiting, Major H., remarks on East 
Florida, 47. 

White, Judge, his eulogium on Dr. Bow- 
ditch, ced, 386. 


Ow 
Wonders of Geology, by Dr. Mantell, 


Wood, ——= s combustion of, 1d. 
usly flattened by pressure 
a iuminized, 335. 
v. John, on storm in. 
anh, re, 233. 
Wonenes: ‘E., notice of the Americ 
almanac conducted by him,191. 
‘ att, barn manual of conchology t 
1 


m notice 

2 

Yarrell, Mr., on Osmerus Hebridicus, 
_ 3l 

on an acoustic instrument, 313. 

Youn, Rev: Alex., memoir of Dr. Bow- 
ditch, 

gered ‘Rev, G., antiquity of organic re- 


Z. 


of recent = 
tions to Antarctic seas, 306. 


Zoology, section of, in British Associa- 
tion, 309. : 


x 


Wilco WW. letter from rompers 
Sits white fis ete i : 


No 1 Onio Savit Ward 


2 Heterostropha Kirtland 


a eae Sar, (Hab. Lake Pepi Fito) 


PP? Duval Leth Parhad* 


; —- > THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c.—AGENTS. 

i = MAINE. yBUFFALO, O. G. Steele & Co. 
Bacay = Rufus Nichol ft PENNSYLVANIA. 
: PorTLAND, Colman, Holden, & Co: Prrrssures, John J. ~ & Co. 
apse eth Peers 


Baarrirnono’, G.H (BALTIMORE, 
ae NEW HAMPSHIE RE. "2 DISTRICT OF ¢ CO UMBLA. 
Prof. Oliver Pi ASHINGTON,. Frank T 
Dart Col Hanover, | PME Shard: ; NORTH CAROLIN 
MASSACHUSETTS. Cuaret-Hitt, Prof. F. Mitebell 
a Mawctuescer. Charles Whipple. SOUTH rnin so TA 
NANTUCKET, peeps Isham. - ‘CouvusBia, - B.D. Plant 
SaLem, Henry Whipple. i(Caarueston, John P: Bolle, 
NEw Bane rorp, William C. Taber i VIRGINIA. 
“SPRINGFIELD, erriam: |'Ricumonp, R. : Per “ 
-Norraampron, §. “Butler & Sons. | WHEELING, J.F 
“Amnwest, — ae sin Adams. | Geshamtateeee Richar! Worthington. 
Dorr, owland, & Co. |! ILLINO 
Worcester, cia endon Harri ‘PEORIA, Sil-s W. Robbins. 


Lowenu,  =—=°>.D. Bixby. OHIO. 
: RHODE RS Ages EE. D. Bradford. 


Provipes s tt = Conv UMBUS, I. N. Whiting 
Sci gi 2 iN CUT. ae 
- Hanrrorp, Canfield & Robins. | SavaNNA, .T. Williams. 
NorwitH, ‘Tlomas Robinson. hAuGusTA, Tr I. Wray. 
Mingistown, Luke Cc. Lyman. [Commas J.C. Plant & Co, 
NEW YORK. TENNESSEEs# 
A. T. Goodrich. BN sacsaee. te, Wm. A. Eichbaum. 
John DeWitt. iM EMPHIS, Fowlkes & Pugh. 
H. P. Benham. | ALABAMA. 
W. C. Little. iHusrsvitie, Irby & Smith. 
Elias Gates. ; | Morrie, Woodruff, Fiske & McGuire. 


a ACA, . Spencer. = i M ek PPI. 
Caxasoarcua, Morse & Harvey. ‘iGRanp Guir, Wim. ae Smyth. 
BURN, ana DA 


@ Lirtce efits, Laan M. Cee Neearc. Samuel Nailson. 
focHESTER, Ho ast Porter Lathe Co. 'Monwtrean, Armour & Ramsay. 
inci: commie’ 
TERMS. 


Six llr per annam; ‘published in four Quarterly numbers, making two vol- 
nine hundred pages for bette volumes, which are fully 


ume ; ri fea 
astated by plates. 
Terms of cone to panera agents, six fects ese the publication af No. i, of | 
ck velume. 
esas e Editor will draw on the agents, s semi-annually, i, e. on ees publication of 
0. 2 of each Pol., payable Kees A 1, and See l,in all ¢ ymeret 
‘ b Or. 


twin idberenacsin fact inanailaninenans srceclgnssnesinbysonteen 
: ii 


The expense of this Journal being greater, and the pati _— 
ea — the ne is ees one dotlar more © pet annum. 


tiously 7 laiedtied | to distant subscribers by 
: ee sd miles, = cents, over