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THE 


AMERICAN oe A 


Bester | 
OF J iY) / 


Vi 2% 
SCIENCE AND ARTS. 2) 


* CONDUCTED BY 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. 


Prof. Chem., Min n., &. in Yale Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, ee and Com., C r. Mem - Met. Soc., 
. Geo 


L n 
various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in the v. 


AIDED BY 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. 
Assistant in the d i t of ee: Mineralogy and Geology in Yale oe Cor. Mem, 
of the Meteoro rological 80€. don; Sec. of the Yale Nat. H e Conn. 


d. of Arts and Sci. ; ‘Cor! re ne of the Lyceum of Natural History, ‘New ag &o. 


VOL. XXXVI—JULY, 1839. 


NEW HAVEN: 


Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & 
HART and J. 8S. LITTELL. —Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, 
G. & C. CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 44 
William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—London, JAMES S. HODSON, 
No. 112 Fleet St., and WILEY & PUTNAM, 35 Paternoster Row. ~-Perti, 
CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon. 


PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. 


“OQ BOT. GA RDEN 
1910 


Art. I. 


te 
_— 
— 


af  VHE 


B 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI. 


NUMBER I. 


Citations from, and abstract of, the Geological Reports 
on the State of New York, for 1837-8, communica- 
ted by Gov. W. L. Marcy, to the As «pgs at Al- 
bany, Feb. 20, 1838, - 


. Some account of Violent cada Whirlwinds, which 


appear to have resulted from the action of large Cir- 
cular Fires; with remarks on the same; by W. C. 
REDFIELD, - 


. Additional facts Getnting: to the Raleigh's Tyfoon of 


of August 5th and 6th, 1835, in the China ep by 
. C. Reprietp, - - - 
Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous a propo- 
sed as the line of reference, for State Geologists of 
New York and Pennsylvania; by Prof. A. Eaton, 


. Account of the Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of 


April, 1838; by Mr. J. FLoyp, - 


. On the destructive distillation of the Sulphate of eho 


ine or heavy Oil of Wine; by Cuark Hare, - 


. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1838, 


kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprertun, - 
On Meteorie Iron from Ashville, Buncombe county, 
N. €.; by Prof. Coar.tes Upuam Surparp, M. D., 


. Analysis of Warwickite; by Prof. Cuartes Upnam 


Sueparp, M. D., “ 


. Notice of the Thermal Rigid of North haps _ 


ing an extract from an unpublished Memoir on 
the Geology of North America ; sf Dr. Cuaries 
DaUBENY, - 


. Experiments on two varieties of iron, shcettened 


from the Magnetic Ores at the Adirondack iron 
works, Essex Co., N. Y.; by Water R. Jounson, 


. Description of a New Fossil; by Joun G, AntHony, 


59 


106 


lv CONTENTS. 


Pa 
XIII. Notices of the Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and 


other Minerals found in the vicinity of New Bruns- 
wick, N. J.; by Prof. Lewis C. Beck, 
XIV. Note on the Now Brunswick Tornado, or Water Spout 
of 1835; by Prof. Lewis C. Beck, = - 
XY. Account of the Bituminization of Wood in the ivan 


; by Prof. Wm. Caprenter, - - 
m V1. The (Se of Galvanic bas + Sus B. 
ZAaBRISKIE, M. D., - * pa m 


XVII. Electro-Magnetic Rotations ; by Joun B. Zapris- 
, e 

- XVIII. Steam Ships isd Steam Nevigniiowt a tees Sani, 
XIX. Galvanic Batteries.—On the benefit of Fresh Immer- 
sion; by Cuartes G. Pace, M. D.,_ - - - 

Xx. Application of the Galvanoscope to detect the Failure 
of Water in Steam Boilers; by Caas. G. Pace, M.D., 

XXI. Dr. Jacxson’s Reports on the Geology of the State 
of Maine, and on the public lands belonging to 

Maine and Massachusetts, - - - . 

XXIL. Obituary notice of the Hon. Sreruen Van coup 
SELAER, - - - = ve 

XXIII. Some notice of the Kilee or Boomerang, a weapon 
used by the natives of Australia; by Cuar.es Fox, 

XXIV. Meteorological Table and Register; by Prof. Loomis, 


MISCELLANIES. 


1. Echoes, - . % - a 
2, 3. Analysis of Marl haste Fatebaghow Cen: —Tabular view 
of the price of labor and subsistence in certain parts of 


Continental Europe, - - ‘ 
4. Rain from a clear sky, - = 
5. European obaprvations on the iia Pianta of Sepemi 
ber, 1 ‘ 5 ‘ bs e i 


6. Musedechogical Raaisles for 1838, - - 2 
7. Chromate of potassa—a reagent for tistingushing so een 
the salts of baryta and strontia, = - - - 

8. Frozen Wells, - - ° 
9, 10. Ice formed at the festa of a sien Fall fishes of the 
red sandstone, - - av .* - 


CONTENTS. 


11, 12. Volborthite, a new mineral—Reclamation of M. A. 
Warder, - ° ‘. : 
13. Quantity of Salt in sea water, - - . - - - 


14. Head of the Mastodon giganteum, - - 
15. Notice of the use of the fumes of Nitrie Acid i in Pramegied 

diseases, - - - - - - = . - 
16. Greece.—Revival of toon, - - - 


17. Tongueless Dog retaining the power of nt - - 
18, 19, 20, 21. Officers of the New York Lyceum of Natural 
History, elected February 25th, 1839—Royal Society of 
London; honor to an eminent scientific artist—Progress 
of the U.S. Exploring Expedition—Prof. J. W. Webster’s 
Manual of Chemistry, new edition, - - 
22. Notice of a new mode of preparing Fish Skins for 2: Geese 


23. An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy, - - - - 
24, 25. Postcript to p. 71—The Mammoth, - - 
26, 27. Discovery of Mummies at — Nude Fees 

of the star 61 Cygni,_ - - 


28, 29. Ornithology of the United States—Third salle 

from the fifth English edition of Bakewell’s ae - 

39. Chemistry of Organic Bodies and Vegetables, - . 

31, 32. Olmsted’s Introduction to Astronomy —Temperature 

of the Earth, . 

Subterranean Retisdheate, - - 

. Extract of aletter from M. aitstnisty jun., to »M. Arago, _ 
the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia, - 

. Analogy between the organic structure and red color ~ eee 
globules in the blood of animals, and of those red — 
ble globules named Protoevecus kermesinus, - 

. Cause of the Red Color of Agates, - - - - - 

. Phosphorescence of the Ocean, . - - 

- On the Composition of a new indelible Ink, - - - 

Depth of the Frozen Ground in Siberia, - - - 

40. Notice of a Chemical Examination of a Specimen of Native 

Iron, from the east bank of the Great Fish River, in South 


£8 


R 


j Africa, - - - - m . 
| 41. Dr. Bowditch, - - - - . rs o 
To our Subscribers and Readers, - - - “ x ‘ 


ae eee eee 


yi CONTENTS. 


- 


NUMBER II. 


Art. I. Some notice of British Naturalists; by Cuartes Fox, 

. On the Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes; 
by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Prof. Chem. Univ. of Bonn. 
Communicated by the Author, - - - - 

Descriptive Catalogue of the North American Insects 
belonging to the Linnzan Genus Sphinx in the Cabinet 


ee 
pm 


Til. 


. 


of TuHapprevus WILLIAM sees ee M. D., Librarian of 


Harvard University, 

On American Amphibia ; by Anm. —— M. D., - 

. Translations relative to Bowlders and Cobalt Ores, from 

the Néues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geolo- 
gie und Petrefaktenkunde, herausgegeben von Dr. Lr- 
ONHARD und Dr. Bronn. a: 1838. Rey. W. 
A. LARNED, ~ - 

VI. A New Method of Making eel “Artificial Mastets 
by Galvanism ; by J. Lawrence Smirn, Student of the 
Medical College of South Carolina, 

VII. Remarks on the “Natural History of the Fishes of Mas- 
sachusetts, embracing a Practical Essay on Angling; 


os 
<= 


by Jerome V.C. — - _ mA D. abietibes se 2 oe 


Storer, M. D., 
VIII. Electro Magnetism ; oy Cansei G. faa M. D., 
IX. Observations on Electricity ; by Cuas. G. Pacer, M. D., 
X. Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December 
6 and 7, 1838; communicated by Epwarp C, Herrick, 
XI. On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an ac- 
count of Observations made on and about the 20th 
April, 1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - 
. Notice of a Report on a re-examination of the Reonosif 
cal Geology of Massachusetts; by Prof. Epwarp Hircu- 
cock. Communicated by Prof. C. U.Surrarp, = - 


x 


-—, 
aon 


MISCELLANIES. 


1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His- 
ry ee tte ne eR dy en gees 

2, 3, 4. African Meteorite—New Species of Argulus ; notice 
from Dr. 'T, W. Harris—Cabinet of Minerals for sale, 


Page. : 
QT a 


230 


320 = 


* 


7 
350 
353 


355 


370 7 


CONTENTS. vii 


3 Page. 
5, 6. Correction—Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirothe- 
rium, and of various = er in comeing - ~ 


7. New Works received, - _* - - - 399 


Specimens in Geology are wanted for a public institution. 
Those of organic remains and of the junctions of rocks are most 
desired. They must be excellent in their kind, of considerable 
size, say from 4 to 8 inches square, fresh, and not rubbed, soiled 
or bruised, extremely well characterized and labelled with care, 
particularly as to locality and geological association. None must 
be sent without previous notice. For such specimens a reasona- 
ble, but not an extravagant, price will be paid. Superior speci- 
mens in mineralogy are included. Letters may be addressed to 
Prof. Silliman at New Hpvet, 


ae 
e 2 
e. 
ae 


NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS AND AGENTS. 


The Editors will pay $1 00 in cash per No. for the following num-_ 
bers of the American Journal of Science. Or if preferred, they will 
credit them to the account of any subscriber at the rate at which re=¥; 
cent numbers are charged. Or they will exchange for them such — 
other numbers as may be desired of which they have a supply. The — 
Nos. wanted are shown below in a tabular form. If any No. is sent 
by mail, the word rerurNeD must be put on the envelope. 
es Ae ae 7a XIV. XVI. XVII XXII. _XXVI, 
pe 8 Ry a a ee oes 1, 2. 1,29 
Entire No.12. 24. 97, 28. 29,30. 33,34. 35,36. 45,46. 55, 56. 


ERRATA. 


P. 63, line ra for gerboniferone, & read appa Sona Ee 64, 1. 6, for that, read 
ret 27, for marble, read rubbl » 65, 4.12; "for _— read ‘alus—p. 69, 

1. 19, for ere read thin—1|. 29, for é Oar, read Plea —p. 70, 1. 8, for Boel, read 

Beer ecraft— 1.16, for lydian, read Lydian ;—1. 17, for bluffs, read bluff ;— 

equivalent, rea ad pitaas nts—p. 83, 1.11 from bottom, for cholorate, read ae 

fr 1. 20 from, poem, & for fotos ii ‘ex — Barre i jl. 13 from bottom, 
in aa, re 


od 
p- 325, title, for Dr. Brown, read Dr. Brony. 
Cov 


ad 
Correction.—Since the communication o r was struck off, he has 
served that the description Pe the Sala aaa sit Sad reviously been published 
under another name. In escriptions of agi nfl fo rmule on p. a 
reader will substitute the apoisha name erythronota rm aan, and rubra ? for — 
ronota. 


eee re 


a 


aR ry 


XII. 


XIV. 


CONTENTS. 


. Meteorological Observations during a Residence in Co- 


lombia, between the Years 1820 and 1830; by Col. 
Richard Wright, 


- Remarks on the Trilobite; by Prof, tt M. D. 9 
. Description of a New Trilobite ; by Prof. Jacob pe 


. On the Natural History of Voleanos and Barinquakes; 


by Prof. Gustav Bischof, 
Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof, Bischof *s jection 
to the Chemical Theories of Volcanos, . 


. Mountains in New York; by E. F. Johnson, 
. Account of a Tornado; by Willis Gaylord, 


- On Meteoric Stones—From the Annual Account of the 
Progress of Physics and Chemistry ; by Berzelius, 


- Terrestrial Magnetism; by J. Hamilton, ‘. : 
. Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen, with hesarks on 


Hemming’s Safety Tube; by Prof. J. W. Webster, 


. On the Greek Conjugations ; by Prof. J. W. Gibbs, 
- Notice of Prof. Ehrenberg’s Discoveries in relation to 


Fossil Animalcules ; also Notices of Deceased Mem- 

bers of the Geological Society of London, being ex- 

tracts from the Address of Rev. William Whewell, 
S., 

Account of a Meteor seen in Commertinel Sentiiheas 
14, 1837; with some considerations on the Meieo- 
rite which exploded near Weston, Dec. 14, 1807; 
By Edward C. Herrick, 

Some Notice of British Naturalists ; by Rev. Charles 
Fox, 


MISCELLANIES. 


1. Pictorial delineations by light; solar, lunar, stellar, and arti- 
ficial, called Photogenic and the art Photography, . 
2. Correction of an Error—Cinnabar not found in Michigan, 


112 


136 


185 


li CONTENTS. 


3, 4. An Essay on the Development and Modifications of the 
external Organs of Plants—Journal of the Essex ee, 
(Mass.) Natural History Society, 

5. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, : 

6, 7. Notice of the Journal of the Statistical Society of London. 
—Progress of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition, 


8, 9. Cold Bokkeveld Meteorites—Meteoric Iron from Potosi, ¢ 


10, 11. Encke’s Comet—Remains of the Mastodon in Missouri, 

12. Latanium, a New Metal, 

13. Biography of Scientific Men, 

14, 15, 16. Note by Mr. E. F. Johnson, Civil Racine Nor- 
thern Lynx taken in Connecticut—Preservation of animal 
Fat for Soap Making, 

17. Notice of Vespertilio Pruinosus pe fotars Phasiteus, 

18. Malaria, . 

19. Electrical Wesitebvent in Leshike by Biietion, 

20, 21. Great Scheme for Magnetical Disacraieiic Anion of 
Spungy Platina, 

22. Formation of Metallic tins bye aE Ageney 

To our Subscribers and Readers, 


Page. 


194 
195 
196 
197 


199 
200 


age : 5 
Sie alee Se od, 


a. ae et 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS 
AND STRANGERS. 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- 
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where 
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it 
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph- 
lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- 
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often 
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or 
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, 
would usually find both acceptance and insertion. 

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns ; to 
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading 
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our 
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, 
with which they presume us to be acquainted. 

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may 
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- 
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It 
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an 
answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made 
in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective-— 
Eds. 

SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. 

Important facts embracing many results in Chemistry, by Thomas 
Exley, A. M. London, 1837. From the Author 

Lethea Geognostica, by Prof. H. G. Bronn, the last Livraisons, 
with the index and table of contents. Author 

Observations on some new Organic feanieies in Flint of Chalk, 
by Rev. J. B. Read, M. A., F. R. S. London, 1838. From G. 
Mantell, Esq. 

Works of Confucius i in Chinese, from the Rev. Mr. elie ge. 

merican missionary, for the Library of Yale College 

as sea of the Indian » H, 

Moor. Singapore, 1837, Vol. I, Quarto, for the rp ic f Yale 
College, from Rev. J. F. Dickinson, Singapore. 


2 


Chart, exhibiting the plan proposed by Lieut. John Fayer, R. N. 
Commander of the steamship Liverpool, for extinguishing by steam, 
fires arising from spontaneous combustion of coals in other parts of 
a vessel. January, 1838. From Messrs. Abraham Bell & Co., con- 
signees of the Liverpool steamship, New York. 

British Annual and Epitome of the Progress of Science, for 1839. 
Edited by Robert D. Thomson, M.D. London. Hippolyte Ba- 
illiere, 1888. From the Author. 

Consistency of the Discoveries of Modern Geology with the Sa- 
cred History of the Creation and the Deluge, by Prof. Silliman of 
Yale College. Reprint by J. S. Hodson, 112 Fleet st. London, — 
1837. Mr. Hodson. 

The Seventh Report of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Vol. VI. From the Association. London. John 
Murray, 1838. 

Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Man- 
ufactures and Commerce, Vol. LI, Part II, and Vol. LU, Part I. 
From the Society through A. Akin, Esq. London, 1838. 

Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings and Ses- 
sions 1838 and 1839, pp. 52 and 26. London, 1838, 1839. From 
the Institute of Civil Engineers. 

Palmer’s New Catalogue of Chemical and Philosophical appara- 
tus. Several copies. London, 1838. From Mr. Palmer. 

A Catalogue of Ancient and Modérn Botanical Books, offered for 
sale by O. Rich. From O. Rich. 

Henry Coxhead’s Catalogues of New Scientific Books. 

The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches, in the 
Counties of Salop, Hereford, &c., with descriptions of the Coalfields 
and overlying formations, by Roderick Impey Murchison, F. R. 5. 
F.L.S., in two parts, 4to., including an atlas of drawings and large 
separate maps. From the author. London, John Murray, Alber- 
marl st. 1839. <A magnificent work. 

Part of the Poissons Fossiles of Prof. Louis Agassiz. From the 
author. Neuchatel, Suisse, 1839. : 

Monographies D’ Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles, par L. Agassi _ 
1 Livraison Contenant les Salenes. Neuchatel, 1838. From the 


author. 

Bulletin de Soc. Geologique de France. Tome ix, pp. 145 
508. From the Society. 

On the Geological Relations of the South of Ireland, by Thomas 
Weaver, Esq., F.G.S., R.S., &c. From the author, 4to. (from 
the Trans. Geol. Soc., London, Vol. V, new series, pp. 68.) 

Dr. Mantell’s Wonders of Geology. 2d London edition, 2 Vols. 
large paper. From the author. | 

Railway Mag. and'‘Steam Nav. Journal, No. 29, for July, 1839) 
to No. 40, June, 1839, inclusive, From the Editor, John Here — 
path, Esq. 


3 
SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC. 


Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism, by Joseph Henry, 
Prof. of Nat. ag in the Coll. of N. Jersey. Philadelphia, 1839. 
From the aut 

Catalogue of Picea Shells in the Cabinet of John C. Jay, M. D. 
of N. Y. 4to. with 10 plates of new and rare Shells; two copies, one 
for the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc. From the Author 

Transactions of the American Be arin Society, ‘Soe 
Vol. VI, Part Il. Key & Biddle. 1839. From the Soc 

Boston Journal of Natural History ; containing papers stl 6 com- 
munications read before the Boston Society of Natural History, 
Part I, No. 3, and Vol. II, No. 1. Boston, 1836 and 1839. From 
the Society. 

e Alabama State Almanac for the year 1839. ‘Tuscaloosa, 
Alabama. From Prof. Barnard. 
An Essay on the Development and Modification of the External 
Organs of Plants; compiled chiefly from the writings of J. Wolfgang 
von Goethe. By Wm. Darlington, M.D. West Chester Point, 2 

copies. From the Author—one for Yale Nat. Hist. Society. 

Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland. 1838. From the 
Geologist, Dr. Ducatel. 

First and Second Reports of the Progress of the Geological Sur- 
vey of ae State of Virginia, for the year 1836 and 1837; by and 
from Wm. B. Rogers, Prof. Nat. Phil. in the University of Va. 

Hepan of the Progress of the Geological Survey of the State of 
Va. for the year 1838; by Prof. Wm. B. Rogers. From the Author. 

A Chart of Cape May Roads, idaae Crow Shoal. From 
Major J. D. Graham, U.S. Army, for Y. C. Libra ary. 

Chart of the Entrance into Sandusky Bay; by and from Maj. 
Graham, U.S. Army, for Y. C. Library. 

A Map of the Extremity of Cape Cod, including the townships of 
Provincetown and Truro, with a Chart of their Sea “Coasts and Cape 

d Harbor, executed under the direction of Maj. - Graham, U. 

. Top. Engs. in 1833, 4 & 5, (in 4 large sheets) from Maj. Gra- 
ham, for Y. L. Lib. The same to Prof Silliman, from Maj. Graham. 
hart of the Mouth of Connecticut River. From Capt. Swift. 

Letters to the Sec. of the Treasury, on the History and Causes of 
Steamboat Explosions, and the Manner of Prevention; by W. C. 

edfield. Revised edition. N. York, 1839. From the Author. 

Essay on Meteorological Observations; by J. N. Nicollet, Esq. 
Printed by order of the War ot seigiace May, 1839. From Col. 
J.J. Abert, U. S. Engineer. Two copies 

New York Journal =f eeticine and Surgery, July 1839. No.1, 
Vol. I. From the Edito 
pe Annual Ae of the Geology of Maine. From Dr. C. 

ackson 


4 


Address delivered on laying the Corner Stone of the ge of 
Sciences eens May 25, 1839. From W. R. Johnson, 
Esq., Aut 

Four Med of Dr. S. fates s Crania Americana : Viz. 17, 28, 
37 and 62. From the Aut 

Account of a Romito i in Rhode Island; by R. Hare, M. D. 
From the Author 

Report of the Progress of the Geological Survey of New York, 
for 1839. One from Prof. Emmons, one from James Hall, and one 
from an unknown frien ‘a 

Second Annual Report on a Geological Survey of Ohio; by W. 
W. Mather. From Mr. Mather. Columbus, 1839. 

Third Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. 
From Hon. Judge D. Daggett ; also one from N. Ellmaker 

Journal of the Essex County Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 1, No. Il, 
1839. From the Society. 

Treatise on the Eye. By and from Dr. W. C. Wallace, oculist 
of New York. 


MISCELLANEOUS,.——FOREIGN. 


Scotch Life Assurance. From Mr. Fox of Durham, England. 

Synopsis = a TN of “hea ee by the University 
of Kings Col Frederic New Brunswick, 1 

Views of Chesham Connie Eng. From Dr. Gideon Mantell. 

View of the present state of Thames Tunnel. og bo same. 

Report on the Indians of Upper Canada. London 

Reports and Proceedings of the British and ‘Fore “aborigines 
ies Four pamphlets from the Society. 


MISCELLANEOUS.—-DOMESTIC. 


Catalogue of Bowdoin College, New Brunswick, Me. From 
Prof. Cleavelan 
as Prospectus of the New York Quarterly Journal of Medicine and 

urge 
Circniae of Irwinton Literary Institute. Irwinton, Alabama, 1839. 
rom ammon 
Annual Announcement of the Medical Department of Transylva- 
nia University, Lexington, K 

eed 2 Rutger’s Female Institute, New York. From Mr 
=k. W 


‘New York Literary Gazette, No. 64, containing Retzsch’s Game 
of Life. 
Barber’s Historical Collections. Massachusetts. From the Av 
thor. S8vo, 1839. New Haven 
A Review of the Rev. Horace Bushnell’s Discourse on the 5! 
very ia ; by Francis Gillett. Hartford, 1839. From the 
Author 


ee ee a 


Oe ee ee ee 


5 


Introductory Lecture to a Course of pes. delivered in 
Washington College, Lexington, Va. Feb. 21, 1838; b 
Armstrong, A. M., Richmond, 1838. Pro Ae Author. . 

History of the Old South Church in Boston; by Rev. B. B. 
Winslow, former Pastor of the Church. From Rev. J. W. Blagden, 
present Pastor 

Catalogue of a Collection of Rare, Curious and Valuable Books 
on Divinity, Classics, &c. e be sold 23d and 24th May at auction, 
by Bangs, Richards & Plat 

Speech of the Hon. Pannen Morris of Ohio, in Senate of U. 
February 6th, 1839, in reply to Henry Clay. New York. Fro 
the Author. 

D. Davis’ Descriptive Catalogue of Apparatus oe Experiments 
Tllustrative of Galvanism, Electro-Magnetism, Magneto-Electricity. 

oston. Several copies from . 

United States Naval Lyceum pi on the State of the Institu- 
tion for 1839. From the Lyceu 

Constitution and as rome of che’ N. Y. Historical Society, 1839. 
From G. Gibbs 

A Catalogue of] Miacellagodus Books for sale by Little & Brown, 
Boston, 1839. From the Publishers 

nnual Catalogue of the New England Agricultural Warehouse. 
Boston, 1839. From Joseph Breck & Co. 
The School Advertizer. Several Nos. from Marsh, Capen, & 
yon. Boston, 1839. 

Dr. Noah Webster’s Address to the friends of Literature. From 
the Author. . 

Minutes of the Medical Society of cme Held in Nashville, 
May, 1839. Columbia. From the Socie | 

Mitchell’s School Geography (with an “em 12mo. Philadel- 
phia, 1839. From Mr. Mitchell. 

A. Manual of Useful Studies for the Instruction of Young Persons. 
By and from Noah Webster, LL. D. New Haven, 1839. 

Address at the opening of the Rutger’s Female Institute, by Dr. 
Isaac Ferris. From the Author, and 1 from C. E. West to B. S., Jr. 

Burmese Tract, called the Ship of Grace. 

Twenty Third Report of the Directors of the American Asylum 
at Hartford for the Deafand Dumb. Hartford, 1839. From Mr. 


eld. 
First Annual Report of the Commissioners of Common Schools 
in Connecticut. Hartford, 1839. From H. Beardsley, Esq., Sec- 
retary. 

Catalogue ~ ee Antiquarian, and Scientific Books, sold in 
N. York, Jun From the Auctioneers 

Catalogue area an extensive eee of Old English Books sold 
in New York, June 20 and 21, 1839. 
ees ysis of Sounds, and Sixes of Stenography, by C. P. 


6 

Report of Edwin F. Johnson, Civil Engineer, in relation to the 
the Survey of the Ogdensburg and Champlain Rail Road. From 
the Author. 

Jubilee of the Constitution, by J. Q. Adams. From George 
Gibbs, Esq. 

Second Report of the Foreign rious Association. New 
York, 1839. From Rev. Mr. Bai 

Valedictory Oration before the Sai of Brothers in Unity, by 
C. J. Stille. From W. E. Robin 

Proceedings of the President a Rallows of the Conn. Medical 
Society. Hartford, 1839. 

Catalogue of Paintings, &c., at the Apollo Gallery, 410 Broad- 
way, N. York. 

List No. I, of English Books, by Wiley & Putnam. 

Hartford Young Men’s Society, Charter and By-Laws. From 
H. Barnard, Esq. 

The Statutes of Emory gt jt we the By-Laws of the Faculty. 
Oxford, Ga. From Prof. A. Mea 

Annual Report of the Regents of 1 a University to on Legislature 
of the State of New York. 1839. From the Regen 

Annual Report of the A. B. C. F. M. for 1839. eat the Board. 

Proceedings of the American Philosophy Society. Philadelphia. 
Vol. 1. Nos. 4,5 and 6. From the Society. 

Second Annual Report of the Geology of Ohio. From C. B. 
aed Esq. Also one to Yale Nat. Hist. Soc. From W. W. 

h 

13th Report of the Home Missionary Society, 1839. 


NEWSPAPERS.-—FOREIGN. 


The Atheneum Journal, Nos. 584, 585, 596, and 601. From 
Charles Fox, Esq 


NEWSPAPERS.——-DOMESTIC. 


The Boston Atlas. Tuesday, fats 16, with notice of sales of 
the late Dr. King’s Electrical Apparat 

New Era. Monday, March 25, 1839, From E. Williams. With 
a — of Dr. H. H. Sherwood’s memorial to Congress on Mag- 
ne 

The Miner’s Journal. Pottsville. March a 1839. Witha 
notice of the coal mines of the region. Mr. Wm. W. Selfridge. 

N.Y. Daily Whig. Friday, ‘April 12th. 

East Tennessean. Rogersville. Tuesday, April 2d, 60h 
No. 1. With a notice of the Marbles of Tennesse, by Dr. "T'ro0s 

New Orleans Commercial Bulletin. March 28, 1839. With ; 
notice of J.S. Buckingham’s Lectures. 


7 


Feliciana Republican and Louisana Literary Messenger. Sat- 
urday, April 6, 1839. Containing Prof. Cabis’ Temperance Speech. 
From Prof. W. . Carpenter 

The Colored Rariti c Saturday, Jan. 29, 1839. 

Report of the Public proceedings in New Orleans to establish a 
a Sailor’s Home. N. O. Com. Bulletin of April 18th, 1839. 

Boston Cultivator. May 11, 1839. From Hovey & Co. With 
a catalogue of new Dahlias, for 1839. 

The Sun (of N. Y.) Ju uly 29. From Dr. Peck. Containing an 
account and drawing of the santa British Queen, and of Fitch’s 
Steamboat of 1786, on the Delaw 

The Rockton Enterprise. Saver Nos. From E. Griffing, 
Editor, Little Falls, (Rockton.) 

The Cultivator for 1838-9. From Judge J. Buel. Albany. 

The Weekly True American. N. Orleans. No. 59. Jan. 9, 1889. 
. Proceedings of the Broadway an aes Lewis Tappan. 

Philadelphia North American. May 21 839. 

Friend of Man. July 3d, 1839. 

N. ¥. American. May 28th. With a notice of this Journal. 
From G. S. Silliman, Esq. 

Family Schoolmaster. Richmond, Indiana, Jan 26t 

The Virginia Herald. Fredericksburg, Jan. 26th, 1839. With 
an account of the Russian mode of extracting gold. From James 
Williams, Esq. 

Republican Farmer, Wilkesbarre,Pa. Jan. 26th,1839. From 
E. urner 


Norwalk Gazette,Conn. July 17. Containing remarks of Rev. 
John Noyes, on 4th July, 1839. 

Commercial Advertizer. June 7th, 1839. With a notice 

of Mr. wealiistir ees? s Inauguration as Chancellor of the University. 


SPECIMENS——FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 


Grifter Quartz Crystals from Little Falls, N. ¥. From E. M. 
riffi 

Two caskets of dried plants from Indiana, for the Yale Natural 
History Society. From Mrs. L. W. Sa 

Sulphate of Strontia from Sicily. Miss Pratt, Summer st., Boston. 

Section of an Elephant’s tooth. From Mr. J. E. Pratt, ’ Boston. 

A box of impressions of fossil plants from Alabama. From Prof 
F. A. P. Barnard, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 

A box of Encrinites from the transition near New Echota, Ga. 
From W. J. Parvin, Esq., 

A suite of Geological Specimens from S. Africa, near Capetown. 
From Rev. George Champion. The box also contained a 
other articles of interest in Botany and other parts of Nat. 

Beautiful Beryls from Haddam, Ct. From Prof. J. ikak 
Wesleyan ee 


8 


A box of Chinese curiosities. From Rev. Dr. Parker, Canton, 
China. This box was detained in N. ¥Y. Custom House, six mo’s. 
or it would have been sooner noticed. 

An Alligator in aleohol, from S. Carolina. W. T. Hatch, Esq. 

Several rare Cape Bulbs Gladiolus Ixia Sparaxis, and also seeds 
and flowers of several species of Zeranthemum Ammobum, &c. 
From Rev. George Champion, through Mrs. J. a Boston. 

A box of Fossils from Niagara. From Mr. 

Box of Bituminized Wood from me banks of i Mississippi. 
From Prof. Carpenter, Jackson College, La. 

Box of Fossils from Alabama. From Miss Shedden to Yale Nat. 
History Society. 


NEW EDITION OF DR. MANTELL’S WONDERS OF 
GEOLOGY. 


A full notice was given of this work in our Vol, xxxrv, p. 387, 
and we announced in Vol. xxxv, p. 384 that arrangements had been 
made with the author and his publishers, by which Mr. A. H. Maltby 
of New Haven would publish the new edition in this country as soon 
as it could cross the ocean, and that by the author’s approbation it 
would appear under the direction of Prof. Silliman, with introductory 
remarks by him; the proper type and illustrations to be identical 


pee ee 


with those of the London edition. "This work is now received in an — 
enlarged and improved edition: it has 10 plates and sections, of 


which six are colored, and nearly 100 additional engravings. While 
it is full and exact in science, it is without doubt the most attractive 
and interesting work on Geology which has ever been published. +t 
does not interfere with the excellent treatises of Bakewell, Lyell, 


Murchison, De la Beche, Daubeny and other eminent geologists; 


it occupies a peculiar niche of its own, and reflects both the image 


of geological nature and of the author’s own elegant and accom- — 


plished mind. Without any other than a friendly interest in these 
volumes, we cordially recommend them, as being equally instructiv? 
and delightful.— Eds. 


ie sfidtickegrsscet ede 


. 
- 


, 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. — 


Art. 1.—Meteorolozical Observations during a Residence in 


Colombia, between the Years 1820 and 1830.* By Colonel © 
Ricuarp Wricut, Governor of the Province of Loxa, and 


Confidential som of the Republic of the Equator, &c. &e. 


§ the materials of science could be g 


labor; but it frequently happens that, in distrnit countries, the 
opportunity of observing natural phenomena falls to the lot of 
those very ill fitted in most respects to profit by it. The genius 
of Humboldt, like an incantation of science, descends upon. the 


New World but once in a series of ages. ‘The most that canbe 


done by an ordinary observer, is to offer his mite,—a single stone 
towards the pyramid of knowledge,—in the hope that he may 
casually prove useful; and with such humble pretensions can 
scarcely be deemed mnportinmte: Should even this apology 
barely extenuate the sterility of a ten years’ residence in a coun- 
try so admirably varied and rich in natural phenomena as Colom- 
bia, something farther may be urged in excuse of the military 
traveller, obliged frequently to hurry through the most interesting 
parts, aud to vegetate whole years in others of minor importance ; 
without books, without instruments, without resources ; fettered 
too often by the chain of his own daily wants and sufferings ; and 


* From the London and Re Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Sci- ‘ 


ence, Vol. 14, No. 85, Janua 
Vol. xxxvu, No. i. Faroe. roy I 


ered only by the sci- — 
s useless 


r 


2 Meteorological Observations made in 


_~ fallen on a time when every species of local and traditional in-— 
formation, every glimmering of philosophic research had been — 
buried and obliterated amid the storms and struggles of the rev- 
olution. 

The geographical features of Colombia have been one 
by Humboldt with an accuracy which renders further description 
superfluous. It is, however, impossible to traverse this extensive 
territory, without being struck by the physical phenomena ofa 
country where height produces the effect of latitude, and where 
the changes of climate, with all the consequent revolutions of an- 
imal and vegetable life, are brought about by localities to which 
we find little analogy in Europe. The equatorial seasons, as Is 
well known, are merely the wet and dry; and though the Span- 
jards, Fafinenced by European recollections, have given the former 
the name of winter invierno, it is during this period that na- 
ture revives from the vegetative torpor which the scorching 
‘tropical heats produce in the lowlands in almost an equal degree 
with the frosts of northern climates. In the vast plains which 
extend to the south and east of the great chain of the Andes, the 
rainy season observes an invariable order. The Orinoco begins , 
to rise in April, and attains its maximum of increase in July and — 

_ August, when the immense savannas which extend to the base 
of the Andes are converted into the appearance of an inland 
ocean. It decreases from this period, and the summer is reckon- 
ed from October to April. In the mountains, on the contrary, — 
the rains commence about the former month, and predominate, 
With intervals of fair weather, till May or June. The winter of 
the low lands, to the west and north of the Cordillera, both 
on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, is governed by that of the — 
mountains, but with several curious localities. Thus, the rainy 
season of Guayaquil is nearly as regular as that of the plains, be- 
ing reckoned from the middle of December to the middle of May; 
while the thick forests, which further to the north cover the 
provinces of Esmeraldas, Barbacoas, and Choco, produce, by theif 
coustant evaporation, an almost perpetual deluge. Wherever, on 
the contrary, the Cordillera recedes to some distance from the coast — 
as is the case with parts of the Venezuelan chain, the intermediaté 
country is parched often by a drought of sisvtel years. Mara 
eaybo, and a considerable part of the province of Coro, are ine 
stances where sandy plains, scantily shaded by Mimosas + 


| 
| 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 3 


thick plants, afford shelter and subsistance only to flocks of goats 
and asses. The coast of Rio Hacha is equally dry and sterile, 
till it approaches the foot of the isolated ridge of Santa Marta; 
while the Goagira territory, situated betwixt Rio Hacha and Mar- 
acaybo, is regularly inundated every year, and consequently, 
though destitute of streams, maintains considerable herds of cat- 
tle and horses; a cirewmstance to be ascribed to the vicinity of 
the Ocaiia branch of the Andes, which extends, with its clouds 
and thick forests, almost to the confines of this province. The 
whole Peruvian coast from Payta to Lima, is an additional in- 
stance of the same fact, where the recession of the Andes from 
the coast is marked by sandy deserts, which the industry of the 
Incas had rendered productive by artificial irrigation. In the val- 
leys and on the table lands of the mountains themselves, the cul- 
minating summits produce great variations in the distribution of 
moisture. The city of Caraccas, situated at the foot of the Silla, 
has the benefit of a regular though mild rainy season, while 
within a league there are spots which suffer several years of 
drought. Popayan, placed at the head of a sultry valley of the 
Cauca, and surrounded by lofty paramos, has nine months of 
continued rains and tempests, attributable to the clouds which 
are driven in opposite directions from the mountains till they 
encounter the hot ascending air of the valley. In the ancient 
kingdom of Quito, now called the Republic of the Equator, the 
mass of Chimborazo interrupts the passage of the clouds from 
south to north; so that, while the western slopes are deluged with 
rain, the elevated plains of Riobamba to the east recall to the 
imagination of the traveller the deserts of Arabia Petrea. Fol- 
lowing the same mountain chain towards the city of Quito, we 
observe the storms arrested between Cotopaxi and Pichinca, over 
the valley of Chillo; while two leagues farther to the north, the 
climate of the village of Pomasqui is so dry as to have given it 
the name of Piurita (little Piura. ) 

The manner in which rain is formed and precipitated at vari- 
ous elevations, seems to illustrate and confirm the theory of Leslie. 
In the region of paramos, i. e. from 12,000 feet upwards, the en- 
countering aérial currents, unless in the case of some strong agi- 
tation of the mass of surrounding atmosphere, are of low and 
nearly equal temperature. The rains in consequence assume the 
form of thick drizzling mists, known by the name of paramitos, 


A _ Meteorological Observations made in 


On the elevated plains we find the showers more or less sudden z 
and violent, according to localities which give rise to a mixture — 
of currents more or less variably heated. Quito, for example, is 
situated on what may be called a ledge of the lofty mountain of 
Pichincha, aud overlooks the valley of Chillo of Guaillapamba, 
furrowing the adjacent table land, on which the thermometer of 
ten rises to 8U° in the shade. The encounter of portions of the 
atmosphere, thus variously heated, produces showers as sudden 
aud heavy as those which geuerally distinguish tropical climates. 
On the slopes of the Cordillera the rains are generally violent for 
the same reason. Looking to the hygrometrical state of the at- 
mosphere, as it results from observations made on the table lands 
of the equator and the coast of the Pacific, we find it to vary 
from 0° in the damp forests of Esmeraldas to 97°-1 on the ele- 
vated plain of Cayambe; the experiments in both places being 
made during June and July, the summer months both of the 
coast and mountains. The average medium for the low lands is 
23°°85 ; for the Cordillera 44°-36 of the hygrometer constructed 
upon ee s principle; but we are in want of sufficient data for 
those elevations which approach to the limit of perpetual snow. 
To judge, however, from a small number of observations made 
on the mountain of Cayambe at 12,705 and 14,217 feet of eleva 
tion, and at the hut of Antisana at 14,520 feet, where the hygro 
meter was found to give 169-5, 13°-9, and 30.°3, it would not — 
seem that the dryness of the atmosphere increases in ratio of the 
elevation ; at least, in the neighborhood of snowy mountains, 
where a continual moisture is exhaled, and heavy mists sweep 
over the soil towards evenings even of the fairest days. 

To estimate the general distribution of temperatures through 
the vast territory of Colombia, we may conveniently consider it 
as divided into five zones. Ist. That of the level, or nearly 8% 
of the ocean. 2nd. That of the small elevations, from 5U0 to 
1,500 feet. 3rd. That of the slopes of the Cordillera, from 2,000 — 
to 7,000 feet. 4th. That of the elevated plains, or table lands, 
from 8,000 to 10,000 feet; and 5th, That of the paramos, from 
11,000 feet to the limit of perpetual snow. 

1. The degree of heat at or near the level of the ocean is mod- 
ified by a variety of local circumstances, which may be ranged 
under the following heads: proximity of the sea; of great rivets 
and lakes ; of lofty ridges of mountains ; of entenbive forests; of 


er en ee 


EE 


Fad 


ELT ee 


cies iain 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 5 


contiguous elevations which impede the circulation of air, and 
produce reflected heat. The various combinations of these cir- 
cumstances may be considered as affording a rule of the increase 
or diminution of temperature. Thus, La Guayra, situated ona 
sandy beach backed by a perpendicular wall of rocks, has no 
counterpoise to the excess of heat but the sea breeze, and the re- 
mote influence of the ridge of the Silla, which no where reaches 
the limit of perpetual snow. Humboldt considers it in conse- 
quence as the hottest place on the shores of the New World, 
(Personal Narrative, vol. iii, p. 386,) the mean annual tempera- 
ture being 82°-6; yet the observations I made during some 
months’ residence in Maracaybo give an annual mean of 84°63. 
Nor is this surprising, when we consider the localities of both 
places. In Maracaybo the sun’s rays are reflected from a barren 
sandy soil, scantily sprinkled with Mimosas and prickly plants. 
The mountain chains are too remote to have any influence on the 
atmosphere, so that several years frequently pass without any 
regular fall of rain. The vicinity of the lake, no doubt, acts 
slightly as a refrigerant; but the city is built on the border of 
its outlet to the sea, where it is both narrowest and shallowest, 
and is consequently heated nearly to the temperature of the in- 
cumbent atmosphere. Add to this, the small sandy elevations to 
the north, which intercept the partial effect of the sea-breezes, so 
that they are scarcely felt, except in the months of December and 
January, when the thermometer sometimes sinks to 73°; yet the 
medium even of these two months is not less than 81°; while 
that of La Guayra from November to December at noon, is, ac- 
cording to Humboldt, 75°-8, and at night 70°-9. (Personal Nar- 
rative, vol. iii, p. 387.) Rio Hacha is situated on a sandy beach; 
the sea-breeze blows with such violence that boats can scarcely 
land between ten in the morning and four in the afternoon, 
These winds, however, sweeping over the hot plains of Coro and 
Maracaybo, have but a partial effect in lowering the temperature, 
the annual mean of which is 19-98 less than that of Maracaybo. 
I never saw the thermometer lower than 75°, nor above 89°, 
In Santa Marta the average of the coolest months is 829-25. The 
thermometer, however, never rose during my residence there 
above 87°. The soil is sandy, and the city is surrounded by 
bare rocky heights to the north and south, which counterpoise 
the cooling influence of the Sierra nevada, (snowy mountains, } 


6 Meteorological Observations made in 


from which it is but a few leagues distant. 'The temperature of — 
Barranquilla, a village situated on the river Magdalena, about — 
eighteen miles from its mouth, is nearly the same with that of 
Santa Marta; for if, on the one hand, the air is refreshed by the 
evaporation from a damp soil covered with luxuriant forests and 
the vicinity of a large river, on the other, it is beyond the reach 
of the sea-breeze, and the influence of the mountains which ope- 
rate in Santa Marta. The annual mean is 82°20. That of Cu-_ 
mana is, according to Humboldt, 81°. The breezes which sweep — 
from the gulf of Paria over the wooded Brigantine chain, proba- 
bly contribute to lower the temperature. 

e have thus, on a calculation of six points on the Atlantic 
coast of Colombia, a mean annual temperature of 82°-56.* The 
shores of the Pacific, as far as the latitude of Payta, are subjected 
to other influences, being almost entirely covered by damp, lux-— 
urient forests; while the ocean itself is cooled, as Humboldt ob- 
serves, by the winds which blow continually from the south. 
This, however, is more perceptibly the case from latitude 8° to 
to 13°, where the air is cooled to an average of 719-8 (Hum- 
boldt De Distributione Geog. Pl. p. 92.) Betwixt 9° N. Jat. 
and 3° S. lat. if we may frust to observations made at the five 
points of Panama, Esmeraldas, El Morro, the island of Puna; and 
Guayaquil, the annual mean is 80°-11, being 2°-45 less than the 
mean of the Atlantic coast. A notable difference also arises from 
the superior elevation of the Pacific chain of the Andes, and its 
more immediate vicinity to the coast, while the Venezuelan 
branch, with the exception of the Santa Marta ridge, is both low 
er and more inland. A curious exception to the general temper 
ature of the Pacific coast, may be found on passing Punta Galera 
and Cabo San Francisco (lat. 50’ N.)to the south. The sky is here 
almost perpetually clouded, and a drizzling rain falls through the 
greater part of the year. During a week I passed there I never sa¥ 
the sun ; and the average temperature was only 749-14. This was 
the more striking, as along the coast, immediately to the north 
of Punta Galera, the weather was constantly dry and the sky 
clear. The miry state of the road across the point of the Cape 

a ae 


* T have not included Cartagena, because the number of observations is perhaps 
too limited to draw a conclusion as to the yearly temperature. If we take them 
into the calculation, the annual mean would be 82°-86, which is probably too high- 


ae a oe 


SS ee” Ae 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 7 


San Francisco indicates the line of separation betwixt two dis- 
tinct climates. It will be seen by the map, that from P. Galera 
the coast, after running nearly due west, turns abruptly to the 
south. 

2. On"penetrating into the interior of the country, and exam- 
ining the temperature of small elevations, we may take, as form- 
ing an aggregate specimen of the whole country: 1. The damp 
wooded valleys of the Orinoco and Magdalena; 2. The forests 
which border on the Pacific ; and 3. The immense plains of Ven- 
ezuela, alternately flooded and parched with excessive heat. 
Humboldt assigns to the valley of the Orinoco a mean tempera- 
ture of 78°-2.. The small number of observations I have made 
on that of the Magdalena, would give a mean of nearly 83°, 
which I should scarcely think too high, considering the localities 
of the river, which, flowing from south to north, affords no chan- 
nel to the sea-breezes. Its mass of water is also much less con- 
siderable than that of the Orinoco; while its numerous sinuosities, 
and the low ridges which border it in the upper part of its course, 
contribute to render the air stagnant and suffocating. The tem- 
perature of Honda, at 1,200 feet of elevation, is as high as that of 
any part of the coast except Maracaybo. 'The unbroken forests 
which extend from the roots of the Quitenian Andes to the shores 
of the Pacific have a much lower temperature, caused by the 
proximity of the snow-capped Cordillera, and the humidity which 
prevails throughout the year. Accurate observations give an 
annual mean of 76°:78, or 1°-42 lower than the valley of the 
Orinoco, and 6°-22 lower than that of the Magdalena. The 
mean temperature of the plains of Venezuela is reckoned by 
Humboldt at 88-4, (De Distributione Geog. Plant. p. 92. ;) yet 
several reasons may induce the belief that this calculation is ex- 
cessive. This illustrious traveller performed his journey during 
the summer season, when the atmosphere is heated by the rever- 
berations from a parched and naked soil. Persons who have re- 
sided near the Apure, state the climate in rainy weather to be — 
cool, and refreshed by a constant breeze. It is only on the coast 
of the Pacific that the rainy season is the period of the greatest 
heat, when the air is still, and undisturbed by those electric ex- 
plosions so common on the mountains and in the interior. The 
observations I made at Varinas and San Carlos, towards the be- 
- ain of the winter season, give a mean of 81°; and averaging 


8 Meteorological Observations made in 


the dry season at 88°-4, we have a yearly mean of 849-7, which 
is probably the extreme, or something beyond it. There is no 
doubt it is in the plains of the interior we find the greatest heat. 
during the dry season. In the level country, called the valley of 
Upar, betwixt the mountain ridges of Santa Marta and Ocana, I 
found the thermometer in the shade several times above 100°, and 
once as high as 108°. The average of nineteen observations 
made at different points of this district is 89°-9; but we must 
allow a considerable decrease during the months when the soil is 
covered with thick vegetation, and dienched by continual rains. 
As a general mean of the interior, at small elevations, we may 
take 80°°67, or nearly that of Cumana. 

3. The temperate mountain region lies nearly betwixt the ele- 
vations of 3,000 and 7,000 feet. Below this may be considered 
as a hot climate, such, for instance, as Valencia and the valleys of 
Aragua in Venezuela, the height of which is from 1,500 to 2,000 
feet, and its mean temperature 78°, or 0°-24 above that of Guay- 
aquil on the Pacific ; but the soil, stripped by cultivation of its 
ancient forests, imbibes freely the solar rays, which are besides 
reflected from the rocky elevations which every where surround 
the cultivated districts. The temperature of Caraccas (elevation 
2904 feet) was fixed by Humboldt in his Essay De Distributioné 
Geographica Plantarum, p. 98, at 69°-6; but in his Personal 
Narrative, b. iv, c. xii, p. 460, he considers 17°-2 of Reaumur = 
70°.40 of Fahrenheit, nearly as the true yearly mean. My owa 
observations during~a residence of some months give 71°40: 
The preference would be certainly due to Humboldt’s calcula 
tion, but for some collateral circumstances deserving attention 
I heard it generally remarked in the city, that the seasons bh 
grown hotter since the earthquake of 1812. It would be difficult 
to explain how the temporary evolution of volcanic gases, SUP 
posing such to have taken place, could operate any perm 
change on the surrounding atmosphere; yet other causes may 
have produced an effect falsely ascribed to the phenomenon most 
impressed on the imagination of the inhabitants. On looking 
over Hamboldt’s collection of observations for December até 
January, 1799, we find the thermometer seldom rise to 75°, and 
often sink to 59°; so that the mean of these months is about 68° 
During the same months in 1821, the daily range was from 
to 76°. I never observed it lower than 619-5, and on one 0ce® 


Sid aad 


3 
E 
‘ 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 9 


sion, at 5a. m., it stood at 619-0. The mean of these two 
months is 70°-21, or 2° 21 higher than the estimate of Humboldt. 
The clearness and beauty of the sky, during almost the whole 
period of my residence, is also a circumstance opposed to Hum- 
boldt’s “celum sepe nubibus grave que post solis occasum terre 
appropinquant.” De Distributione Geog. Plant. p. 98. I remera- 
ber but once to have seen a fog in the streets of the city. Fu- 
ture observations will show whether any change of climate has 
really taken place, or whether the differences observed be only 
such variations as may be frequently remarked in the same place 
betwixt one year and another. ‘The mean of the whole temperate 
mountain region may be reckoned at 67°-80; that is, if we limit 
ourselves to the districts partially cultivated sod inhabited. The 
declivities of the Andes, still covered with vast and humid forests, 
have probably their temperature proportionably lowered. "Thus 
the village of Mindo, on the western declivity of Pinchinca, gm- 
bosomed in humid forests, at 3,932 feet of elevation has a medium 
temperature of 65°-5, the same with that of Popayan. 

4. The elevated plains of the Andes, betwixt 8,000 and 11,000 
feet, on which were anciently united the most powerful and civ- 
ilized indigenous nations beneath the dominion of the Zipas of 
Tunja and Bogota and the Incas of Quito, and where the gregt 
mass of Indian population is still to be found, have a general me- 
dium temperature of 59°°37, modified however by local circum- 
stances, and particularly by the proximity of the Nevados. Thus 
the village of Guaranda, placed at the base of Chimborazo, though 
nearly 500 feet less elevated, is at least one degree colder than 
the city of Quito, sheltered on all sides by the ramifications of 
Pichincha. 'The city again is above one degree. warmer than its 
suburbs on the plains of Anaguito and. Turupamba to the north 
and south. Riobamba is about two hundred feet below Quito; 
yet its situation on an open plain, bordered by the snowy moun- 
tains of Chimborazo, Tunguragua, and La Candelaria, renders 
the climate colder and more variable ; while the town of Hamba- 
to, only 300 feet lower than Quito, but built in a nook of the 
river which runs near it, and shut in by dry, sandy elevations, 
has a climate about 2°-0 warmer; so that sugar-cane is cultiva- 
ted in its immediate vicinity. The general uniformity of tem- 
perature, which spreads a certain monotony over tropical regions, 
is joined, at great elevations, to a = variability which must 

Vol. xxxvir, No. 1.—July-Oct. 1839. 


10 Meteorological Observations erie in : 
exercise a considerable influence both on vegetable = animal 
life. "The thermometer, which often sinks at night to 44°, rises” 
in the sun wherever there is a reflected heat, frequently to 120°, 
being equal to the heat of Jamaica; while in the shade, it seldom 
exceeds 65°; so that, on passing fain shade to sunshine, one is 
immediately exposed to a difference of above 5U°, and, in the 
course of twenty-four hours, to nearly 80°. The shade, in con- 
‘sequence, even on the hottest days, imparts a feeling of chilliness; 
while the solar rays seem to scorch like the vapor of a heat 
oven. ‘The same difference is perceptible on the paramos. At 
the foot of the Nevado of Santa Marta I observed the thermome- 
ter at 5a. m. sink to 22°; at 9a. m. it rose to 73° in the sun. 
On the height of Pichan, betwixt Quito and Esmeraldas, eleva- 
tion 12,986 feet, the thermometer stood at 53° in the shade, and 
83° in the sun. On Antisana, the difference was 22° at the same 
time, but 34° betwixt 6a.m.and3 p.m. When the atmosphere 
is calm it is much more considerable. 

5. Although at great elevations, i. e. from 12,000 to 16,000 
feet, it is difficult to form a series of meteorological observations, 
such is the yearly equality of the temperature, that a single day 
may be safely taken as a sample of the whole year; nay, more, 
acollection of observations made at similar heights, though im 
different places, will give a similar result to a series taken on the 
same spot. Thus in the following table there is little difference 
betwixt the result of eight observations made on seven different 
mountains, and the six made on that of Antisana : 


4. {]° Par ae a Santa Marta 15,000 A, .|~ 22° 5h a. mw. 

2. of Cayambe 12,705 on bs * : 

ag Prem of El Altar 12,986 ae-S + 

4. of Condorasto 14.496 45°-0 12 

B.1 Va was of Pichincha 15,705 46°°0 J p.1 

6. | Mountain of Atacaso 820 4I--Ga +t 

7.| Nevado of Cayambe — 14,217 A3°4).. be 4 : 

8. | Paramo of Antisana 14,520 woo GO oe a 
eneral mean 39° 


~ Although it scarcely falls v within t the limits of a mere @ meteote 
logical journal to expatiate on the wide field of inference which 
opens to our view, when we reflect on the influence of temper 
ture, not merely on animal but on social life, yet the operation of 
local circumstances has been so striking, and wil probably play 
so important a part in the future destinies of the South Americal 
continent, that it is difficult to forbear some remarks on so ine 
esting a subject. 


a 
= 
x 


Be 8 Ce eal esr a2: 


Colombia: detincen tha Years 1820-and 1830. il 


Climate is one of the first agents which operates upon the pro- 
pagation of the human race over the face of the globe, presenting 
itself sometimes as a benignant conductor, at other times raising a 
hostile barrier which science and industry slowly overcome. The 
Spaniards who people that part of South America now under con- 
sideration, as soon as they had formed on the coast the establish- 
ments necessary to preserve their connection with the mother 
country, seem to have traversed hastily the fertile but insalubri- 
ous lowlands to meet on the Cordillera a temperature adapted to 
their habits and constitutions. The dominion of the Incas had, 
upon similar principles, extended itself along the immense ridge; 
and the descendants of the conquerors and conquered are, to this 
day, found united on the same elevations, from whence the popu- 
lation has descended gradually into the plains; and would have 
done so much more slowly, but for the importation of the African 
race, who find on the sandy coast and sultry savanna a climate 
congenial to their constitution. It may be a matter of curiosity 
to inquire, why that portion of the bronzed race which constitu- 
ted the empire of the Incas and of the Lipas has constantly exhi- 
bited a constitutional type so different from the tribes of the same — 
race now thinly scattered through the plains and valleys. The 
dominion of the Incas could scarcely be said to have established 
itself in the lowlands. With the exception of the dry narrow 
track of the Peruvian coast, their empire was exclusively of the 
mountains ; and Indians who speak the Quichua, or general lan- 
guage of the Incas, still manifest the same preference for cold and 
elevated situations ; sleeping in the open air rather than under a 
roof, and exhibideis an insurmountable repugnance to descend 
into the hot country, where they fall victims more rapidly than 
even the Europeans. The latter, although commercial interests 
have led them to form establishments on the coasts, and more par- 
tially on the great rivers, may be said to live in a state of perpet- 
ual hostility with the climate. ‘Their- complexions become sal- 
low, their frames feeble ; and although, where heat is uncombined 
with great moisture, as in Cumana, Coro and Maracaybo, they 
are subject to few diseases of a violent character, the strength is 
gradually undermined, and the species may be rather said to veg- 
etate than to increase. The individuals of African race, who 
complain of cold when the yearly mean is 75°, alone develope all 
the physical strength and energy- of their character in the hot 


12 Meteorological Observations made in 
lowlands of the coast and interior. The mixed race, or people of © 
color, unite to bodily hardihood intrepidity, ambition, and a dead- 
ly feeling of those prejudices which, in spite of laws, continue to — 
separate them from the white descendants of the Spaniards, who - 
thus encounter, both in the high and lowland, two races in whom 
the seeds of hostility have been sown by injustice, and fostered 
by mistaken feelings of iuterest and vanity.* It is on the moun- 
tain slopes of from 3,000 to 7,000 feet that we encounter climates 
most analagous to our ideas both of health and pleasure. Raised 
above the noxious miasmata of the coast, we dwell in perpetual 
summer amid the richest vegetable productions of nature, amid 4 
continued succession of fruits and flowers. This picture, how- 

ever, must not be considered as universally exact. In those Un- 
broken forests where pdpulation has made little progress, the sky 
is often clouded, and the soil deluged with continual rains. 
western declivities of the Andes, which front the Pacific, are par; 
ticularly exposed to this inconvenience. 

It might be expected that with regard to human life and vigor; 
the elevated plains of the Andes would correspond to the northern 
countries of Europe. This, however, as far‘as regards the inhab- 
itants of the European race, does not seem exactly to take place 
It is true they escape the billious and intermittent fevers so prev 
alent in the lowlands ; but they are generally subject to typhus, 
dropsy, goitre, and such complaints as indicate constitutional de- 
bility. Nordo we find among them either the muscular strength 
or longevity of the Indians or Africans ; and still less of the nations 
of northern Europe. Are the diurnal changes of temperature [0 
which they are exposed, less favorable to health than the alterna 
tion of European seasons which expose the frame to change 
equally great but less rapid? Or must we rather look for thé 
cause in their domestic habits, which exhibit a strange mixture of 
effeminacy and discomfort ? - 

When we examine the social or political effects of climate 
and localities, we are struck with their powerful effects on the 
past struggles and present state of the country. The cities of the 
coast must be considered as the inlets both of European products 
and European ideas. Liberal opinions have extended themselves 


Sl oe : 


7 ite the people of color, or mixture of Africans with Whites and Indians, who 
on the plains form the most hardy and warlike part of the population of Colo 


i 
a 
4 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 13 


towards the interior in proportion to local obstacles, i. e. to the 
greater or less facility of communication. It is this circumstance 
which marks the difference betwixt Venezuela and the south and 
the centre of Colombia, indicating a distinct and more rapid ca- 
reer of civilization and prosperity. The branch of the Andes 
which traverses Venezuela is much inferior in elevation to the 
ridges of Quito and New Grenada.. The whole of the inhabited 
part of it belongs to the hot country or temperate mountain zone. 
The following are the heights of the principal towns through its 
whole extent: 


Caraccas , : . 2903 ft. Mean temp. 71° 
Valencia . ; ‘ 1495 78 
Barquisimeto ‘ . ASE £—— 78 
Tocuyo . ; ; 2058 —— 75 
Truxillo - 2684 ———_——_ 75 
Merida. , 5280 —_——— _ 66 
Cucuta F ‘ shai 400 ———_ 83 


The differences of climate and productions betwixt the differ- 
ent parts of the country are consequently trifling, and form no bar 
to general communication betwixt the coast and interior. There 
is therefore an amalgamation of ideas, an homogeneity, if we may 
use the term, in the mass of feelings and opinions on political 
subjects. The population is not only more enlightened, but, 
what is of more importance, more equally so. A different state of 
things presents itself, when we examine the centre and south. 
The main ridge of the Andes ascends rapidly from the frontier of 
Venezuela, and, by its direction from north to south, places the 
population at a continually increasing distance from the sea-ports 
of the Atlantic ; while its superior elevation producing a different 
climate and temperature, gives birth to new habits and a distinct 
nationality. To descend to the coast from these altitudes, is a 
matter both of risk and difficulty. The line betwixt the Liane- 
ros and Serranos is strongly drawn, and a separation of character 
evident. The country from Cucuta to Bogota through Pamplona 
and Tunja has a mean elevation of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, and 
a temperature of about 59° Fahr. It is tru@ that Bogota com- 
municates with Europe by the valley of the Magdalena; but the 
length and inconvenience of this channel of intercourse render it 
accessible but to few. Hence the struggle of opinions in New 
Grenada, where the civilization of the superior class is out of pro- 
portion to that of the bulk of the people. 


4 Meteorological Observations made in 


The Quitean Andes afford us another powerful illustration of 
this view of the subject. The following is the line of elevatiol 
between Quito and Chimborazo : 


va 
se 
2h 
Fe: 
ae 
Eh 


Quito. : ‘ . 9,537 feet 59° Fahr. 
Llactacunga : - -» 10,285 57° © 
Hambato ‘ : 61° 
Riobamba é : 9,377 57° 
Guaranda:s6-8 > V9,076 58° j 


The roads which descend to the coast of the Pacific are few 
almost impassible, and lead to no seaport of importance except 
Guayaquil. Journeys thither are undertaken with fear and hes 
tation; and the character of the Serranos is marked «with all the 
traits of isolation resulting from the geography of the country. 

Next to the direct influence exercised by climate on the frame 
of man, we may consider it relatively to the facility it affords of 
nourishing him, and advancing his progress in civilization. The 
most important presents made by the Old to the New World ae 
cattle and cerealia. The only domesticated quadruped known 
to the Indians was the llama, which furnished, like the sheep, with 
thick wool, unwillingly descends or is propagated in the sultty 
lowlands. ‘The horned cattle of Europe, on the contrary, have 
multiplied almost equally on the plains as on the paramos. Of 
the farm of Antisana, for instance, at an elevation of from 12,000 
to 16,000 feet, there is no less than 4,000 head. The herds rai 
ed on the plains of Venezuela, as on the Pampas of Buen 
Ayres, are, or were previous to the revolution, almost countless 
Two immense magazines of animal food are thus placed at the 
two extremes of temperature, in situations uninterfered with by 
agricultural labor. 'The horse has been destined to figure in the 
political changes of the New World. The fear and respect with | 
which he inspired the natives at the period of the Conquest is 
well known. ~ Horses have since multiplied prodigiously in ® 
parts of the country, but more especially in the plains of Veneat 
ela. There, during the war of independence, Paez, and othet | 
guerilla chiefs, at the head of an irregular cavalry, and maintained 
by the cattle, defied the efforts of the Spanish infantry, and kept 
alive the embers of the revolution. y 

The best kinds of horses are those that are bred in the lowlands, 
and brought to the mountains at about four years old, where the” 
acquire hardihood by the influence of a colder climate, and theit 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 15 


heck scone only to soft pastures, are hardened 9 on a pony. 
soil. 

The breed of sheep, like that of llamas, is limited to ‘the loftier 
regions of the Cordillera; while goats multiply more readily, on. 
such parts of the low country as are both hot and bargems4 a = ge: 
the province of Coro, where they form the chief we — 
habitants. ‘ ees sh 

But while nature facilitates the dispersion over “the | globe of 
certain species of animals, she seems to limit others by an impas-_ 
sible barrier. The dog undergoes the fate of his European mas- 

er; his sagacity and strength decay in a hot climate, and the 
breed dwindles rapidly into an animal totally inferior in habits 
and organization. The foresters accordingly, and the Indians of 
the lowlands, who are accustomed to the chase of the wild hog, 
bring dogs for the purpose from the mountains, where, though 
the Spaniards are by no means curious in this particular, a strong 
species of greyhound, more or less degenerated, is to be met with, 
and is used in the highlands for stag-hunting. 

The influence of temperature, and consequently of local eleva- 
tion, on vegetable life, was first examined in Colombia by a na- 
tive of Bogota, the unfortunate and illustrious D. José Caldas, 
who fell a victim to the barbarity of Murillo in 1811, in conse- 
quence of which his numerous researches in natural history were 
almost entirely lost, with the exception of some papers published 
in the Seminario de Bogota in 1808, and fragmeuts still existing 
in MS. or casually preserved and printed in Europe, to one of 
which I shall presently have occasion to refer. Humboldt trav- 
elled through South America about the same time that Caldas was 
directing the attention of his countrymen to physical science, and 
his investigations have fortunately been subjected to a less rigor- 
ous destiny. - His admirable treatise, “‘ De distributione Planta- 
rum geogzraphica,’ has left for future observers little but to 
corroborate the accuracy of his views and multiply facts in illus- 
tration of his theories. 

When we begin our observations from the level of the sea, 
we find certain families of plants which scarcely ever rise to 
above 300 or 400 feet: the “Sandalo,” producing the balsam of 
Tolu, the Lecythis, the Coccoloba, the Bombax, the Rhizophora 
Mangle, the Manchineel. A second and more numerous class 
push on to about 2,000 feet of elevation ; such are the Plinia, 


16 Meteorological Observations made in 


the “ Copal,” the “ Anime,” the “ Dragon’s blood,” the mahoga- 

ny tree, the “ Guayacan.” Among plants, the Casalpenia Tpo- 
mea quamoclet, most of the Bignonias, Portlandias, the Van- 
Boakigssia alata and riparia, the Pontaderia, which forms the 


Bate 5 Cace0 and indigo are most limited as to elevation, nel 
ther of. which is cultivated with success at above 2,000 fee 
An attempt to raise indigo at Mindo (3,960 feet) completely failed. 
It would seem that a dry climate is most favorable to indigo, suc 
as is found in the valleys of Aragua near Valencia; while 

and moisture, as Humboldt observes, are peifticcalenia naam i 
cacao. Yet cacao cultivated on lands which are flooded 
the year, as is the case with the greater part raised in Gael 
is of inferior quality, scarcely producing in the market a dollat 
per ewt. That of Esmeraldas, on the contrary, where notwith- 
standing the moisture of the climate, the waters never settle on 
the sik is of equal or superior quality to that of the valley of 
Tuy. uear Caraccas. In Canigue, at an elevation of about 1,000 
feet, the trees are loaded with fruit in less than two years from 
the time of sowing the seed; while generally three years is the 
period at which they are sschawel to commence bearing. 

Coffee is abundantly raised from the level of the sea to elev® 
tions of 5,000 or 6,000 feet, or even higher in favorable situations 
There are Ee near the valley of Banos in Quito at ahem 
4s | 

Sante requires, according to Humboldt, a mean temperature 
of not less than 64°—60°, which would bring it to the elevatiol 
of Loxa. 

The sugar cane is cultivated in Colombia from the level of the 
sea to an elevation, which may appear extraordinary, of 7,865 feet 
in the valley of Banos at the foot of Tunguragua, of 8,500 in the 
valley of Chillo below Quito, and of nearly 9,000 feet near the 
town of Hambato. It must be observed, however, with res 
to the latter, that the vegas or nooks formed by the nae 
the river, where alone it is raised, are so sheltered as to produce — 
almost an. artificial temperature. A palm tree brought young 
from Guayaquil flourishes there, and “ Aguacates,” (the fruit 
Laurus persea) ripen perfectly, with oranges, limes, and othet 


i 
a 
eo 
4) 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 17 


fruits which in general are not cultivated at above 6,000 feet. In 
proportion, however, to the elevation is the time required for 
ripening the sugar-cane, varying from nine months at the eleva- 
tion of 1,000 feet, to three years at the elevation above cited. 

Plantains and maize are the principal articles of food in the 
lowlands or hot country, “ tierra caliente,” to use the expression 
of the natives. The larger variety of plantain, “ Plantano har- 
ton,’ cannot be cultivated at elevations above 3,000 feet, while 
the smaller variety “ Camburi,” will ascend to 6,000 feet, maize 
is perhaps the plant which, of all others, embraces the greatest 
variety of temperature and elevation. It is cultivated with equal 
advantage from the level of the ocean to the flanks of the Andes, 
0 to 11,000 feet ; temperature 80°—59°. It is true, that in the 
lowlands it ripens in three months, whereas on the table lands of 
the Andes, it requires ten; but the grain is larger, and the ear 
fuller in the cold than in the hot country. 

The central or temperate zone of the Andes is distinguished by 
the Cinchonas, the arborescent ferns which precede and accom- 
pany the palms nearly, and in the moist forests of the Pacific, en- 
tirely to the levelof the sea.* At the back of the Pichincha they 
first appear about 8,500 feet. The Alsiremerias and Calceola- 
rias, peculiar to the New World, belong to this zone, though 
the former ascend to 11,000 feet and the latter to 15,000. 

The Cerealia, with almost all the varieties of European vege- 
tables, belong to this region. Humboldt observes a peculiarity 
that wheat is grown near Vittoria at the elevation of 1,700 feet, 
and in Cuba near the level of the sea; (Geo. Pl., p. 161) but it 
is probable that the reason why the cerealia are cultivated only at 
elevations where the Muse disappear, may be the natural inclin- 
ation of the inhabitants of the warm country to prefer the cultiva- 
tion of a plant which yields an equal abundance of food with 
infinitely less labor, not only in the mere cultivation, but in the 
subsequent preparation. ‘The three great wheat districts in Co- 
lombia are the mountain chain of Merida, the elevation of which 
rarely reaches 5,000 feet ; with a general temperature of 72°; the’ 
plain of Pamplona, Tunja, and Bogota, elevation 8,000 to 10,000 
feet ; temperature 58°; and the Quitenian Andes of the same 
height and temperature. Humboldt has accurately observed, 


* Humboldt, who had not visited these forests, confines them to betwixt-800-and 
260 hexap. De Geo. Pl., p. 185. 
Vol. xxxvi1, No, 1.—July—Oct., 1839. 3 


18 Meteorological Observations made in 


(Geo. Pl., p. 152) that a comparison betwixt annual mean tem- 
peratures of Europe and the elevated tropical regions would by 
no means give a correct state of the climate. Thus, though the 
mean temperature of the south of France and of Quito be the 
same, (about 59°) such fruits as peaches, apricots, pears, figs and 
grapes, which ripen in perfection in the former, although abun- 
dantly produced in the latter, never attain their proper size or 


flavor. The reason is, that the temperature is equal throughout — 


the year. There is consequently no period, as in Europe, of 
summer heat sufficient to ripen fruit requiring at this season a 
mean temperature of 65° or 70°. As far, however, as the height 
of 7,000 feet all kinds of fruit are cultivated with success; and 
the markets of the colder country are thus constantly supplied 
from the neighboring valleys or “ calientes.” Humboldt is mis- 
taken in supposing the olive always barren (semper sterilis manet, 
p. 154.) On the Quitenian Andes near Hambato, it produces 
abundantly, though little attention is paid to its cultivation. 

hen we ascend above the extreme limit of cultivation, 
which may be placed at 11,500 feet, and pass the region of the 
Barnadesia, Hyperica, Thibaudia, Gaultheriea, Buddleia, and 
other coriaceous leaved shrubs which, at this elevation, form thick- 
ets of perpetual bloom and verdure, we enter the region of Par- 
amos (13,000 to 15,000 feet) properly so called, which present to 
the eye unvaried deserts clothed with long grass, constituting the 
pasture grounds of the Andes. Humboldt is inclined to fix below 
this region the limit of forest trees; (G'eo. Pl., p. 148) and in 
fact very few are generally met with near this elevation on those 
flanks of the Cordillera which join the inhabited table lands. 
But I have observed on crossing the side of Pichincha, towards 
the uninhabited forests of Esmeraldas, that the forests oceur nearly 
through the whole space which, on the eastern slope, is a naked 
paramo. Is this owing to a difference of climate? Or has the 
practice of burning the paramos, universal in the Andes, together 
with the demand for fire-wood in the vicinity of large towns, con- 
tributed to give this region the bare aspect it has at present? 
Further observations on the mountain slopes towards Maynas ant 
Macas are necessary to throw light on this point. It is certain 
from the present aspect of the inhabited plain of Quito, where 
we meet with a few scattered trees of Arayan (Myrtus) and at- 
tificial plantations of Capuli, (Prunus salicifolia) we should con- 


OO LL ee eee se eel ees 


edie aie 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 19 


clude that the region of forests had scarcely ascended to the 
height of 8,000 feet, yet some of the houses of Quito are still 
standing, built with timber cut on the spot. 

A circumstance which cannot have escaped the notice of those 
who have ascended towards the limit of perpetual snow, is the 
variety and luxuriance of the Flora at the very point where the 
powers of vegetation are on the brink of total suspension. At 
above 15,000 feet the ground is covered with Gentianas, purple, 
azure and scarlet ; the Drabas, the Alchemillas ; the Culatium 
rufescens with its woolly hood; the rich Ranunculas Gusmanni ; 
the Lupinus nanus with its cones of blue flowers enveloped in 
white down; the Sida Pichinchensis spotting the ground with 
purple ; the Chuqueraga insignis ; all limited within a zone of 
about 500 feet, from whence they seem scarcely to be separated 
by any effort at artificial cultivation. Several attempts I have 
made to raise the Gentians, Sida, and other plants of the summits 
of the Andes, at the height of Quito, have been invariably unsuc- 
cessful. The attempts indeed to domesticate plants in a situation 
less elevated, is attended with greater difficulties than the trans- 
port of- plants from one climate to another. Besides the differ- 
ence of atmospheric pressure, as Humboldt has observed, plants 
transferred from one elevation to another never meet, for a single 
day, with the mean temperature to which they have been accus- 
tomed; whereas, transferred from one latitude to another, the 
difference is rather in its duration than in its intensity. It is 
easier to'accustom a plant of the lowlands to this elevation, than 
to bring down those of the paramos. 'Thus the orange and lem- 
On trees, Aguacates (Laurus persea) Ricinus communis, Datura 
arborea, all natives of the hot lowlands, grow and flourish, more 
or less at an elevation of 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, - 


On the Method of Measuring Heights by Boiling Water. 


Ir will be observed in the following Journal, that the indication 
of heights is, in most cases, joined with that of boiling water. 
The former is in fact a deduction from the latter; I had but a 
confused idea of this method, till, upon my arrival at Quito, I 
met with a pamphlet of the late D. Francisco José Caldas, (one 
of the most eminent victims sacrificed by the barbarity of Mu- 
Tillo on taking possession of Bogota in 1816,) published in 1819 
at Bourdeaux, in which he details the steps by which he arrived 


20 Meteorological Observations made in 


at a knowledge of this principle, and the experiments by which 
he confirmed it. In the year 1801, during a scientific excursion 
in the neighborhood of Popayan, he happened to break his ther- 
mometer ; and in attempting to mend it he was led to observe 
the variability of the extremity of the scale corresponding to the 
heat of boiling water. His reflections on this subject led him, 
after various experiments, to the following conclusions: “ The 
heat of boiling water is in proportion to the atmospherical pres- 
sure: the atmospherical pressure is in proportion to the height 
above the level of the sea; the atmospherical pressure follows 
the same law as the risings of the barometer, or, properly speak- 
ing, the barometer shows nothing more than the atmospherical 
pressure. Boiling water therefore shows it in the same manner 
as the barometer. It can consequently show the elevation of 
places in the same manner, and as exactly as this instrument.” 
Ensayo de una memoria sobre un nuevo metodo de medir las 
_ montanas, etc. p. 10. His first experiment in Popayan gave b. 
w. 75°.7 of Reaumur, the height of the barometer being 22 in. 
111. To find then the variation corresponding to one inch of 
the barometer : 

28in, —22in, 111, =5°,1 or 61 lines. 

80° —75°.7==4°.3. "Then 

4°.3 x12 
61). ; 4°.3::12. 3 —gp = 
Then reversing the process 

j e) 

02.8 : 121::40.3:— or 6455 54d 
Difference betwixt this result and that of the barometer 34 lines. 
Satisfied with this commencement, or dawning of a new theory, 
he began a series of experiments in the mountains near Popayan, 
taking this city as the centre of his labors, and fixing the eleva- 
tion of the barometer at 22i, 11!. 2, and boiling water at 75°.65 
of Reaumur. 

At a spot named Las Juntas I made my first observation. The 
barometer stood at 21i 9!, or 14! lower than at Popayan; the heat 
of boiling water was 74°.5 Reaumur. Then 

Height of the barometer in Popayan 22: 11.2 B. W. 759.65 

at Las Juntas 21 9 74°.50 


0°.8. 


1 2.2 hs 


ennai tcc erate erie nite eatin 


! 
: 
3 


Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830, 21 


° 
1 2.2=141.2 ; 19.15::12! “ss a mg = 0°.971 of Reaumur for 
12!. of the barometer. 
I ascended to Paisbamba, a small farm iad leagues south of 
Popayan. Barometer 20: 91.1. B. W. 73°. 
Barometer in Popayan 22 111.2 ie W. 75°.65 
in Paisbamba 20 9.1 B. W. 73 .50 


Differences 2 2.1 2° 16 
12 x2.15 
221=26)1 ; 2°.15::1 a=, 988 of Reaumur, for 12 
lines of the barometer. 
I ascended a hill E. of Paisbamba called Sombreros. Barom- 
eter 19i, 61.5. B. W. 72°.4. 
Barometer in Popayan 22i 111.20. B. W. 75°.65 
on Sombreros 19 9.05. B. W. 72 .40 


Differences * 6-46. 3 .25 
A115 ; 39.25: se =0.947 for 12 lines barometer. 
I ascended the hill of Tambores: barometer 18: 11.6. B. W. 
71°.75, 


Barometer in Popayan 22: 111.2. B. W. 75°.65 
on Tambores 18 11.6. B. W. 71 .75 


Differences 3 11 .6. 3 .90 
12 x3.9 
47.6 3 3°.9::12 47-6 = 0-983 for 12! barometer. 


g° 
Proof that above io of Reaumur is the true exponent of one 
inch of the barometer. 
I then proceeded to take the observations of Las Juntas and 
Sombteros, and calculating the exponent anew. 
Phroihdter'i in Las Juntas 21 9 B. W. 74.60 
in Sombreros 19 6.05 72.40 


Differences 2 2.95 2.2 


12 X2.2 Ries 
26.95 ; 2°.2°+19 96.95 = 0°:979 Reaumur for 12 lines of the 
barometer, 


22 Meteorological Observations made in 
Barometer in Paisbamba 20 9.1. B. W. 73°.50 


in Tambores 18 11.6. 176 
Differences 1 9.5 1°.75 


19.5=2115 : 19.75::12 ~*~ 790.976 of Reaumur for 12 
lines of barometer. 

The mean of the six quotients is 0.974, which may be assumed 
as the exact exponent of 12 lines of the barometer. 

Given then the heat of boiling water in any place to find the 
corresponding elevation of the barometer, and consequently tts 
height above the sea. 

As 0°.974: 12 lines, so is the difference of the heat of B. W. 
To ascertain at Popayan the number of inches, lines, &c. of the 
barometer. Ex. in Tambores, B. W. 719.15, to find the corres- 
ponding height of the barometer. 

B. W. in Popayan 75°.65 
in Tambores 71 .75 


3.90 
3, 
0.974 1 12:70 7 AS!.05 = 4.0.05. 


As Tambores is above Popayan, deduct this quantity from the 
height of the barometer in that city. 
Barometer in Popayan 22 11.20 
Deduct A 00.05 


Remain 18 11.15 - of bar. in TTambores. 
Barometrical height observed 18 11.6 
Do. by calculation of B.W. 18 11. « 


Difference 45 
a result as exact as can be desired. 


Upon this principle I calculated the elevation of the falowitie | 


eleven places : 


Popayan, Poblason, 
Juntas, Buenavista, 
Paisbamba, Hevradura, 
Sombreros, Pasto, 
Tambores, i 


Quito. 
Kstrellas, Memoria, §c. p. 13. et seq. 


/ 
‘| 
| 
| 
| 


Ee Sree eee 


a any) ME 


Oe ee ee a ee ee 


NE ae ee Se ae a 


ee a ee aR Tee ET ae ee ee 


Colombia between the years 1820 and 1830. 23 


Working upon the foregoing principle, Caldas adapted to his 
thermometer a barometrical scale. The product of 0°.974 of 
Reaumur by 19 is 18.506, or, in round numbers 18.5, i. e. 18°.5 
of Reaumur corresponds to 19 inches of the barometer. Then 
measuring 18.5 from the summit, or 80° of Reaumur’s scale, he 
transferred it to the opposite side of the thermometer, dividing it 
into 19 equal parts, or inches of the barometer, subdividing 
these by a nonius into 24 each = half a line of the barometer. 
In this manner the elevation of the thermometer by boiling 
water indicates the corresponding elevation of the barometer 
under the same atmospheric pressure. Caldas observes that 
Humboldt, to whom he had communicated these ideas, when 
they met in Popayan, objected the variability of the heat of 
boiling water under the same atmospherical pressure ; to which 
he replies: “ Long practice has taught me its invariability in 
this respect, using the requisite precautions in making the ex- 
periment: otherwise, how could there be equal thermometers? 
Is not the invariability of the heat of boiling water under the 
pressure of twenty-eight inches, the foundation of the superior 
term of all thermometrical scales? It is true that boiling water 
does not immediately acquire its extreme heat, but pushing the 
Operation to its maximum its heat is always the same.” p. 24 

Caldas did not consider an invariable exponent possible, on ac- 
count of the variability of atmospheric pressure. ‘The want, 
however, of a barometer induced me to make some experiments 
to this effect, by way of rendering this method of measuring el- 
€vations still more simple, and of more general use. Is the va- 
niability of atmospheric pressure such as to make any important 
difference in these calculations? Does not water boil constantly 
at 212° at the level of the sea? At Quito I found the same re- 
sult as Caldas had several years before; and several times the 


‘Same result in this and other parts of the Andes. The difference 


then, is scarcely perceptible in the thermometer, and consequently 
unimportant in the results of a calculation founded on the heat of 
boiling water. The thermometer besides, immersed in boiling 
water, is less liable to a variety of atmospheric influences to 
which the mercury of the barometer is necessarily subject. 
Hence the great differences in different barometrical measure- 
ments of the same elevations, and the differences observed be- 
twixt different thermometers exposed to the air in the same place, 


24 Meteorological Observations made in, §c. 


which I have observed on comparing three together to amount 
often to 14°, and never to less than 4°. 

I took the following method to obtain an exponent of the 
value in feet of each degree of the diminished temperature of 
boiling water. ! 

The elevation of Quito is, according to Boussingault, 9524; 
and water boils at 196°.25; 2t2°—196°.25=15°.5.9524— 
15.75=604 ft. 6. in. nearly. Neglecting the fraction as unim- 
portant, I assumed 604 for the value of the degree, and began my 
observation on the conical hill of Javirac, which backs the city, 
and is calculated at 729 feetin height. Water boiled here by two 
thermometers at 195°. Then 196°.25 —195=1.25, difference 
of boiling water between the hill and the city ; and 1.25 x604= 
755 feet; difference 26 feet. I next ascended the volcano of 
Pichincha, and found at the foot of the crater B. W. 186°.212° — 
186° =26° x 604 = 15,730 feet ; and adding 246 feet, the differ- 
ence between this point and the summit, reckoned at 15,976. 
There could be little error in the calculation. I next applied this 
formula to the heights of several places calculated by Humboldt, 
and where the heat of boiling water had been ascertained by 
Caldas. 


Thus Bogota, height according to Humboldt - 8694 ft. 

B. W. according to Caldas 197°.6 - - 8712 
Difference - - - 18 

Popayan, according to Humboldt - - - 5823 

B. W. 2029.21 - - - - - - 5922 
Difference - - - 99 

Pasto, according to Humboldt _- - - 857 

B. W. 197°.6 - - - - - 8712 
Difference - - - 140 ft. 


The differences here are in four points 27 feet, 18, 99, 140. 
With respect to the hill of Javirac, commonly called EL] Pane 
cillo, I suppose the measurement to have been made by the Ac- 
ademicians. But their calculations generally differ from those of 
Humboldt, as in the case of Quito; the former giving 9371 feet, 
the latter 9537 ; Pichincha 15,606 feet, Humboldt 15, 976; Chim- 
borazo 20,583, Humboldt 21,414. But even a difference of sites 


] 
: 


| 
| 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 25 


is sufficient to account for the 27 feet on ground so unequal as 
that of Quito. The 18 feet in the height of Bogota is so trifling 
a difference, that it rather proves the exactness of my calculation. 
In Popayan we have 99 feet ; yet the different barometrical meas- 
urements of that city differ still more widely. Caldas observes, 
p. 31, “'The Baron de Humboldt’s barometer stood in Popayan 
at 233.4, mine at 2211.2, and Bouguer’s at 2210.7.” The 
most accurate measurements of the peak of Teneriffe, selecting 
4 out of 14, leaves a difference of 71 French toises, or rejecting 
the barometric measurements of Borda, of 18 toises.—Hu ‘ 
Pers. Nar. v. 1, p. 160, 170. Saussure is said to have found 
water boil at 187° on the summit of Mont Blanc, being, accord- 
ing to Humboldt, 15,660 ft. It is 90 ft. only below the point on 
Pichincha, where 1 found it to boil at 186°. The elevations 
nearly equal the difference cannot amount to a degree; and I 
consider the error less likely to be on my side, because I was 
aware of the probable cause of error, and had to deduce the 
height from the accuracy of the observation. Humboldt in the 
same manner suspects the accuracy of Lamouroux’s observation 
on the peak of Teneriffe-—P. Nar. vol. i. p. 159. 
_ [To be continued.] 


Arr. Il.— Remarks on the Trilobite; by Jacos Green, M. D., 
Professor of Chemistry in the Jefferson Medical College, Phila- 
delphia. 


Remarks.—We are informed by the author that the present 
communication was written originally for this Journal ; but some 
peculiar cireumstances induced him to publish it (March 16, 1839) 
in the Friend, a weekly Journal of Philadelphia. By the author’s 
request it is now republished with additions.—Eds. 


Tue anatomical structure and physiological history of the 
Whole family of the trilobites are not only involved in great ob- 
scurity, but we can scarcely hope that the most persevering 
efforts of the naturalist will ever be able to penetrate the darkness, 
or unravel the mysteries, which involve the subject. No depart- 
ment in the science of organic remains has been pursued of late 
With more zeal and curiosity than this. The trilobite furnishes 

Vol. xxxvi1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 4 


26 - Remarks on the Trilobite. 


the earliest example of an articulated animal found among the 
ancient inhabitants of our globe, and although in some few existing 


genera we find certain points of analogy in their organization, the 


whole race probably became extinct after the subsidence of the 
great coal formation. Dr. Buckland remarks, “ No trilobites have 
yet been found in any strata more recent than the carboniferous 
series; and no other crustaceans, except three forms which are 
also entomostracous, have been noticed in strata coeval with any 
of those that contain the remains of trilobites; so that during the 
long periods that intervened between the deposition of the earliest 
fossilliferous strata and the termination of the coal formation, the 
trilobites appear to have been the chief representatives of a class 
which was largely multiplied into other orders and families after 
these earliest forms became extinct.” 

From the multitude of trilobites and fragments of trilobites 
which have been discovered in different parts of the world, most 
of which present nothing but portions of the upper shell of the 
fossil, the discovery of the figure of the under side of the animal, 
and of the form and arrangement of the organs of locomotion, 


seems almost hopeless. As the solid parts of the animal strue- 


ture alone are for the most part susceptible of petrifaction, it is 
not to be expected the softer portions would leave any traces 
whatever in the rocks which have entombed and so perfectly 
preserved these ancient inhabitants of our planet; for these rea- 
sons, and some others which we shall presently mention, the legs 
of the trilobite have been supposed to be soft and very perishable 
paddles. 

Although much controversy formerly existed as to the true na- 
ture of the trilobite, it is now admitted by all naturalists to occupy 
a place among crustaceous animals. The existing genera t0 
which they are most analogous in their general structure are the 
serolis, the limulus, and the branchipus. In our monograph we 
announced the discovery of a recent trilobite in the southern 
seas, near the Falkland islands: this proves to be a species of the 
genus serolis established by Dr. Leach. In the configuration of 
its upper shell it approaches exceedingly near to that of some of 
the trilobites; the chief difference between the recent and fossil 
animal consists in the crustaceous legs and antenne of the serolis. 
The analogies existing between the limulus and our fossil, as We 
mentioned in another place, have been shown by Dr. Dekay 
others. 


<p SrMRENpTDeE 


soy 


mae 


aa 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 27 


In further illustration of this subject, we here add, with some 
slight alterations, from Dr. Buckland’s admirable Bridgewater 
~ treatise, a considerable part of his section on the trilobites, which. 
exhibits in a very condensed form the facts and opinions which 
have any bearing on this inquiry. I have greater satisfaction and 
more confidence in referring to his remarks, than in attempting 
to offer any thing of a similar nature drawn up by myself. After 
mentioning that the serolis is the nearest approach among living 
animals to the external form of trilobites, he adds, the next “ap- 
proximation to the character of trilobites occurs in the limulus or 
king crab,* a genus now most abundant in the seas of warm cli- 
mates, chiefly in those of India, and of the coasts of America. 
The history of this genus is important, on account of its relation 
both to the existing and extinct forms of crustaceans ; in it there 
are but slight traces of antenne, and the shield which covers the 
anterior portion of the body, is expanded entirely over a series of 
crustaceous legs. Beneath the second, or abdominal portion of 
the shell, is placed a series of thin, horny, transverse plates, sup- 
porting the fibres of the branchi, and at the same time acting as 
paddles for swimming. The same disposition of laminated bran- 
chie is found also in the serolis. Thus while the serolis presents 
a union of antenne and crustaceous legs, with soft es bear- 
ing the branchise, we have in the limulus a similar disposition of 
legs and paddles, and only slight traces of antenne ; in the bran- 
chipus we find antennz, but no crustaceous legs ; while the tri- 
lobite being without antenne and having all its legs represented 
by soft paddles, is by the latter condition placed near branchipus 


*In my boyhood I was very familiar with the habits of this crustacean, called in 
the northern States, horse fish—or horse shoe fish, from its form. 


8teat, since a large individual female, (the horizontal diameter of whose shell 
might have been nine or ten inches,) afforded several gills of spawn. The habit 
of these animals is t come in with the rising tide, and to walk on the bottom, as- 


seizing the spike or tail, their motion being too slow to admit of their escape. 
Hundreds of them might have been caught at a single tide, of every size from 
nearly a foot in diameter to an inch or less—these infants having also the power of 
travelling on the bottom.—Sin. Ep. ye 


28 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


among the entomostracous crustaceans, in the order of branchio- 
pods, whose feet are represented by ciliated paddles, combining 
the functions of respiration and natation. 

‘“‘TIn the comparison here made between four different families 
of crustaceans, for the purpose of illustrating the history of the 
long extinct trilobites, by the analogies we find in the serolis, lim- 
ulus, and branchipus; we have a beautiful example, taken from 
the extreme points of time of which geology takes cognizance, of 
that systematic and uniform arrangement of the animal kingdom, 
under which every family is nearly connected with adjacent and 
cognate families. Three of the families under consideration are 
among the present inhabitants of the water, while the fourth has 
been long extinct, and occurs only in a fossil state. When we 
see the most ancient trilobites thus placed in immediate contact 
with our living crustaceans, we cannot but recognise them as 
forming part and parcel of one great system of creation, connected 
through its whole extent by perfect unity of design, and sustained 
in its minutest parts by uninterrupted harmonies of organization. 

‘‘ We have in the trilobites an example of that peculiar, and, as 
it is sometimes called, rudimentary development of the organs of 
locomotion in the class crustaceans, whereby the legs are made 
subservient to the double functions of paddles and lungs. The 
advocate for the theory of the derivation of existing more perfect 
species, by successive changes from more simple ancient forms, 
might imagine that he sees in the trilobite the extinct parent 

‘stock, from which, by a series of developments, consecutive forms 
of more perfect crustaceans may, during the lapse of ages, have 
been derived; but according to this hypothesis, we ought no 
longer to find the same simple condition as that of the trilobite 
still retained in the living branchipus, nor should the primev 
form of limulus have possessed such an intermediate charaeter, oF 
have remained unadvanced in the scale of organization, from its 
first appearance in the carboniferous series, through the midway 
periods of the secondary formations, unto the present hour. 

“« Besides the above analogies between the trilobites and certain 
forms of living crustaceans, there remains a still more important 
point of resemblance in the structure of their eyes. This point 
deserves peculiar consideration, as it affords the most ancient, and 
almost the only example yet found in the fossil world, of the pre- 
servation of parts so delicate as the visual organs of animals that 


i 


é 
e 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 29 


ceased to live many thousands, and perhaps millions of years ago. 
We must regard these organs with feelings of no ordinary kind, 
“when we recollect that we have before us the identical instru- 
ments of vision, through which the light of heaven was admitted 
to the sensorium of some of the first created inhabitants of our 
planets. 

“The discovery of such instruments in so perfect a state of 
preservation, after having been buried for incalculable ages in the 
early strata of the transition formation, is one of the most marvel- 
lous facts yet disclosed by geological researches ; and the struc- 
ture of these eyes supplies an argument, of high importance in 
connecting together the extreme points of the animal creation. 
An identity of mechanical arrangements, adapted to the construc- 
tion of an optical instrument, precisely similar to that which 
forms the eyes of existing insects and crustaceans, affords an ex- 
ample of agreement that seems utterly inexplicable without refer- 
ence to the exercise > of one and the same Intelligent Creative 
Power. 

“ Professor Miller and Mr. Straus have ably and amply illus- 
trated the arrangements, by which the eyes of insects and crusta- 
ceans are adapted to produce distinct vision, through the medium 
of a number of minute facets, or lenses, placed at the extremity 
of an equal number of conical tubes, or microscopes; these 
amount sometimes, as in the butterfly, to the number of 35,000 
facets in the two eyes, and in the dragon-fly to 14,000. 

“It appears that in eyes constructed on this principle, the image 
will be more distinet in proportion as the cones in a given portion 
of the eye are more numerous and long; that, as compound eyes 
see only those objects which present themselves in the axes of the 
individual cones, the limit of their field of vision is greater or 
smaller as the exterior of the eye is more or less hemispherical. 

“If we examine the eyes of trilobites with a view to their prin- 
ciples of construction, we find both in their form, and in the dis- 
position of the facets, obvious examples of optical adaptation, 

“In the asaphus caudatus each eye contains at least 400 nearly 
spherical lenses fixed in separate compartments on the surface of 
the cornea. The form of the general cornea is peculiarly adapted 
to the uses of an animal destined to live at the bottom of the wa- 
ter: to look downwards was as much impossible as it was unne- 
Cessary to a creature living at the bottom ; but for horizontal vis- 


30 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


ion in every direction the contrivance is complete. The form of 
each eye is nearly that of the frustrum of a cone, incomplete on 
that side only which is directly opposite to the corresponding side 
of the other eye, and in which, if facets were present, their chief 
range would be towards each other across the head, where no vis- 
ion was required. The exterior of each eye, like a circular bas- 
tion, ranges nearly round three fourths of a circle, each command- 
ing so much of the horizon, that where the dintings vision of one 
eye ceases, that of the other eye begins, so that in the horizontal 
direction the combined range of both eyes was panoramic. 

“If we compare this disposition of the eyes with that in the 
three cognate crustaceans,* by which we have been illustrating 
the general structure of the trilobites, we shall find the same 
mechanism pervading them all, modified by peculiar adaptations 
to the state and habits of each; thus in the branchipus, which 
moves with rapidity in all directions through the water, and re- 
quires universal vision, each eye is nearly hemispherical, and 
placed on a peduncle, by which it is projected to the distance re- 
quisite to effect this pur 

“Tn the serolis, the disposition of the eye, and its range of vis- 
ion, are similar to those in the trilobite, but the summit of the eye~ 
is less elevated ; as the flat back of this animal presents little ob- 
struction to the rays of light from surrounding objects. 

“In the limulus, where the side eyes are sessile, and do not 
command the space immediately before the head, two other sim- 
ple eyes are fixed in front, compensating for the want of range in 
the compound eyes over objects in that direction. 

“In the above comparison of the eyes of trilobites, with those 
of the limulus, serolis, and branchipus, we have placed side by 
side, examples of the construction of that most delicate and com- 
plex organ, the eye, selected from each extreme, and from a mid- 
way place in the progressive series of animal creations. We 
find in trilobites of the transition rocks, which were among the 
most ancient forms of animal life, the same modifications of this 
organ which are at the present time adapted to similar functions 
in the living serolis. ‘The same kind of instrument was also 
employed in those middle periods of geological chronology, when 
the secondary strata were deposited at the bottom of a warm sea, 

5 coil aa all 


exed the plates of Dr. Buckland, which being eeertant to the just 
comprehension of the subject, we have caused to be copied.—Eps 


ii 


a ais a 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 31 


inhabited by limuli, in the regions of Europe, which now form 
the elevated plains of central Germany. . 

“The results arising from these facts, are not confined to ani- 
mal physiology ; they give information also regarding the condi- 
tion of the ancient sea and ancient atmosphere, and the relations 
of both these media to light, at that remote period when the ear- 
liest marine animals were furnished with instruments of vision, 
in which the minute optical adaptations were the same that im- 
part the perception of light to crustaceans now living at the bot- 
tom of the sea. 

“With respect to the waters wherein the trilobites maintained 
their existence throughout the entire period of the transition for- 
mation, we conclude that they could not have been that imagin- 
ary turbid and compound chaotic fluid, from the precipitates of 
which some geologists have supposed that the materials of the 
surface of the earth to be derived; because the structure of the 
eyes of these animals is such, that any kind of fluid in which 
they could have been efficient at the bottom, must have been pure 
and transparent enough to allow the passage of light to organs of 
Vision, the nature of which is so fully disclosed by the state of 
perfection in which they are preserved. : 

“With regard to the atmosphere also we infer, that had it dif- 
fered materially from its actual condition, it might have so far 
affected the rays of light, that a corresponding difference from 
the eyes of existing crustaceans would have been found in the 
organs on which the impressions of such rays were then re- 
ceived 
“ Regarding light itself also, we learn from the resemblance of 
these most ancient organizations to existing eyes, that the mutual 
relations of light to the eye, and of the eye to light, were the 
Same at the time when crustaceans endowed with the faculty of 
Vision were first placed at the bottom of the primeval seas, as at 
the present moment. 

“Thus we find among the earliest organic remains, an optical 
instrument of most curious construction, adapted to produce vis- 
ion of a peculiar kind, in the then existing representatives of one 
Sreat class in the articulated division of the animal kingdom. 
We do not find this instrument passing onwards, as it were, 
through a series of experimental changes, from more simple into 
More complex forms ; it was created at the very first, in the full- 


32 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


ness of perfect adaptation to the uses and condition of the class 
of creatures, to which this kind of eye has ever been, and is still 
appropriate. 7 

“If we should discover a microscope, or telescope, in the hand 
of an Egyptian mummy, or beneath the ruins of Herculaneum, it 
would be impossible to deny that a knowledge of the principles 
of optics existed in the mind by which such an instrument. has 
been contrived. The same inference follows, but with cumula- 
tive force, when we see nearly four hundred microscopic lenses 
set side by side, in the compound eye of a fossil trilobite; and 
the weight of the argument is multiplied a thousand fold, when 
we look to the infinite variety of adaptations by which similar 
instruments have been modified, through endless genera and spe- 
cies, from the long lost trilobites, of the transition strata, through 
the extinct crustaceans of the secondary and tertiary formations, 
and thence onward throughout existing crustaceans, and the 
countless hosts of living insects. 

“Tt appears impossible to resist the emolaniatee as to unity of 

ign ina common Author, which are thus attested by such cu- 
mulative evidences of Creative Intelligence and Power ; both, as 
infinitely surpassing the most exalted faculties of the human 
mind, as the mechanisms of the natural world, when magnified 
by the highest microscopes, are found to transcend the most per- 
fect productions of human art.” 

We now proceed to the more immediate object of this commu- 
nication, which is to describe a portion of the under side of the 
fossil animal, which we have named in our monograph calymene 

ufo. 

Some time since, my attention was directed by Dr. J. J. Cohen, 


of Baltimore, to a number of fragments of the heads of this spe- 
cies, obtained from the vicinity of Berkley, Va., and which are- 


still preserved in his cabinet. Three or four of these fragments 
seemed to disclose the configuration of the whole lower surface 
of the buckler, in a more or less perfect state. Within a few 
months, another friend brought for my examination, a fine large 
head of the same species, from the same locality, and which ex- 
hibited the under side or thorax, in quite a perfect state of pre- 
servation. All the fragments have precisely the same structure, 80 
that there can be no doubt, we have now the external configura- 
tion of the entire head or buckler of the calymene bufo. 


F 
f 
f 
i 


ALS 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 33 


_ The anterior edge of the buckler of this species, as has been 
often observed, is marked by a deep groove or furrow, produced 
apparently by the junction of the upper and the under shell at 
this place, and which at first sight looks like the mouth of the 
animal ; indeed, Professor Brongniart calls the elevated ridges on 
each side of this groove the lips. The mouth was, however, placed 
no doubt much farther beneath. These Zips, perhaps, indicate the 
separation of the shell, through which the trilobite crept out, and 
~ left his cast-off covering in the same manner as recent crustace- 
ans leave their exuvie. We know that the Limulus polyphemus 
creeps through a somewhat similar opening, made along the 
whole anterior edge of his buckler.* In all our fragments, which 
exhibit the under surface of the buckler, the lower Jip is reflected 
beneath, so as to form a kind of scroll or rolled edge, extending 
from one side or angle of the head to the other. Beneath this, 
and passing backwards towards the tail, the surface of the shell 
is not flat and horizontal as in the isotelus and Limulus ; but it 
swells up on each side, below the oculiferous prominences, into a 
kind of oval pouch, diminishing in breadth as it recedes, and at 
last terminates in a rounded point, below the second articulation 
of the vertebral column. This is the position of the gullar po c 
or plate, when the animal assumes a cree ping or swimming atti- 
tude ; but when rolled up in the form of a ball, for the purpose 
of defence, then the gullar plate being composed of a single 
Piece, and therefore not contractile, reached below the fourth ar- 
ticulation of the back. Some of our specimens illustrate this 
conformation in a very satisfactory manner. None of our frag- 
ments exhibit fairly the small surface on each side of the gullar 
plate, and the edge of the buckler beneath the eyes. This space 
Was probably slightly concave, and occupied with the mandibles 
and their palpi, as in the genus serolis—the mouth being no 
doubt placed near the rounded termination of the gullar pouch. 
Thus we have at last discovered nearly the whole inferior sur- 
face of the buckler of the genus calymene, a portion which in- 
cludes about one third of the animal. Not the slightest impres- 
sion or other vestige of antenne can be perceived, and we may 
therefore pretty confidently conclude, that this genus of trilobites 
Were destitute of those organs. Professor Demarest, in his his- 


* See Dr. Dekay. Annals of Natural History, vol. 1. 
Vol. xxxvuit, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. 


* 


34 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


tory of fossil crustacea, seems to have ascertained by his useful 
and ingenious researches, that the irregularities of the external 
shells in the living species of crustaceans have a constant relation 
to distinct compartments in their internal organization, and by 
the application of these distinctions to fossil species, he has been 
enabled to draw some highly curions, novel, and important con- 
clusions respecting their internal and general structure. From 
my limited knowledge of the anatomy and the habits of our 
living crabs, I would merely suggest, that the peculiar organ in 
the animal economy of the trilobite, which the gullar plate above 
described, was intended to model and protect, was perhaps the 
stomach, and that the spaces on each side covered the anterior 
portions of the liver. 

he upper shell of the genus calymene, like that of the iso- 
telus and depleuva, naturally and obviously divides itself into 
three parts, the buckler or shield—the abdomen and the caudal 
end. This last portion in the calymene is not covered with a 
thick epidermis, as in the two genera above mentioned, the ar- 
ticulations being all visible and somewhat difficult, in some spe- 
cies, to distinguish from those of the abdomen. These articula- 
tions, which are generally ten in number, are composed of a 
variety of immovable plates as in the other genera. The infe- 
rior surface of the caudal. end of the trilobite had never been 
observed by any naturalist, till my friend Dr. Cohen, obtained 
some fragments of the genus calymene from the neighborhood of 
Berkley Springs, in Virginia, in some of which that structure 
was developed. These were kindly sent to me for examination, 
along with those of the buckler just described. 

From our researches we have ascertained, that the inflexible 
margin which surrounds the caudal end or tail of the calymene 
bufo, is not reflected beneath the body of the animal, as might 
be expected, but that there is joined to it by a structure a slightly 
concave horizontal surface. This surface is lunate, being broader 
below the articulations of the vertebral column, gradually dimin- 
ishing on each side towards the horns of the crescent, which 
terminates just below the last articulations of the abdomen. This 
lunate surface is composed of a thick crustaceous plate or piece. 
Beyond this crescent shaped piece, directly below the vertebral 
column, there is a deep cavity in the under shell of the animal, 


which corresponds in figure and dimensions with the gullar pouch 


if 
- 
i 
FE 


oe 


= 4 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 35 


or under surface of the buckler. By this peculiar mechanism, 
whenever the animal rolled itself into a ball, to give protection 
to the soft parts of the abdomen, the protuberance under the 
shield would be introduced into the cavity below the tail, and 
thus retain the whole shell in a fixed position. In this position, 
with the tail closed upon the buckler, the calymene is often 
found. 

Professor Wahlenberg considers those trilobites only as perfect 
animals, which are found rolled, the others being merely exuded 
or cast-off shells, and in such alone, he remarks, can we expect 
to discover the organization of the inferior surface. Most of the 
fragments from Berkley Springs, which have occasioned my pre- 
sent remarks, are found rolled up or partially coiled animals. All 
trilobites have not, however, this power ; indeed, it seems to be 
principally confined to those only whose extremities are rounded 
and nearly equal in size. The rolled position would afford to the 
paradoxides and to many of the asaphs, but little security against 
the attacks of their enemies, and we rarely if ever find them in 
this attitude. The remark of Professor Wahlenberg above cited, 
though illustrated by the specimens now under consideration, we 
think of far too general a nature. 

The deep cavity beneath the tail in the fragments which we 
are describing, reaches forward towards the head as far as the 
ninth articulation of the back ; in other words, a portion of it lies 
beneath the three last abdominal divisions. It will be recollected 
that the gullar pouch reaches below the fourth articulation of the 
back, and that the whole number of divisions in the vertebral 
column in the genus calymene, is twelve; we have therefore 
discovered in these fragments almost the whole of the inferior 
surface, except the portion which lies below the five articulations 
of the back commencing with the fifth from the buckler or shield ; 
What we shall offer in regard to this portion of the animal must 
be merely hypothetical, or founded on certain analogies of struc- 
ture which probably existed between living crustaceous animals 
and the fossil remains of such as inhabited the most ancient seas. 

Some of our fragments, we think, exhibit a transverse section 
of our trilobite, showing the position and figure of the abdominal 
Cavity which once contained a portion of the viscera of the ani- 
mal. One of the sections is through and parallel with the sixth 
articulation of the back: by this means we have discovered that 


36 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


some of the viscera were placed in a cylindrical cavity running 
beneath the vertebral column, and that the side lobes were only a 
covering and protection to the soft paddles or feet placed below, 
as may be seen in a similar structure in the serolis. Each of the 
five articulations of the abdomen, the under side of which we 
have not yet discovered, was probably furnished below, on each 
side of the abdominal cavity, with organs, which performed the 
double office of feet and lungs. Now, as our fragments develope 
all the inferior surface except the portion beneath these five ar- 
ticulations of the abdomen, it is probable that our trilobite was a 
decapodous animal. Professor Brongniart long ago imagined, 
that the reason why no traces of these organs have yet been dis- 
covered, is that the trilobites held that place among crustaceous 
animals in which the antennz disappear, and the legs become 
transformed into soft paddles incapable of preservation. If this 
supposition be true, we shall in vain look for any further discove- 
ries below the upper shell of the trilobite. What affords, we 
think, increasing probability to the opinion we have just advanced 
with regard to the situation of the abdominal cavity, and the or- 
gans of locomotion below the five abdominal arches above men- 
tioned, is, that when the animal rolled itself up for protection, 
this portion of the body would still retain nearly a rectilinear 
position ; thus no interference would occur in the ordinary fune- 
tions of the animal economy when the body was contracted. 

Besides the organs of locomotion and respiration beneath the 
abdominal arches of the genus calymene, it is probable that on 
each side of the deep cavity under the caudal end there was 
placed a series of thin transverse plates, which also performed 
the combined functions of breathing and swimming: a similar 
disposition of laminated branchiw may be observed also in the 
limulus and in the serolis. Beneath this deep cavity the heart of 
the animal was also probably placed. 

What we have said with regard to the inferior mechanism of 
the trilobite, applies exclusively to the genus calymene. It is 
probable that this structure differs essentially in all the genera of 
this remarkable family. Dr. Dekay has described and figured in 
the first volume of the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural His- 
tory of New York, the under side of the buckler of the isotelus, 
which is very peculiar in its configuration ; he describes this in- 
ferior surface as being formed by the anterior part of the buckler 


a Seiad as 


vs —— 


i i aii 


aa a 


er Sere 


a 
E 
E 
4 
| 


Remarks on the Trilobite. 37 


being reflected beneath the animal so as to form a flat horizontal 
plane, which terminates in a kind of lunate spine, the horns of 
the crescent being curved towards each other. These horus are 
six lines in length, and their points are sharp and translucent. 
We have received from Dr. Warder a specimen of this singular 
structure, which was found, with other fragments of the isotelus, 
near Springfield in Ohio. Although it lies on the rock, unaccom- 
panied by any other fragment of the animal, its exact resemblance 
to the figure given by Dr. Dekay leaves no doubt that it once 
belonged to an isotelus. Among other conjectures respecting the 
uses of this crescent-shaped structure, it is observed that when 
the animal was attacked “it may roll itself up into a ball, as 
indeed it is often found, and by some mechanism these processes 
may be inserted into the corresponding cavities in the tail, and 
thus retain permanently a rolled position, presenting nothing but 
its calcareous covering to the enemy; or they may supply the 
place of antenne, for which their form and contiguity to the 
mouth and brain would seem to render them peculiarly applica- 
ble.” The first conjecture above noticed was ingenious, and will 
no doubt be confirmed when the lower surface of the tail is dis- 
covered. The inferior organization of the calymene bufo has at 
any rate given great plausibility to this opinion. 

We have also carefully examined another fragment represent- 
ing a similar structure. The original fossil was found in Ohio, 
and is now in the possession of W. Wagner, Esq. of Philadel- 
phia. The rock on which it oceurs is a gray limestone full of 
other petrifactions. This lunate structure differs essentially from 
the one noticed by Dr. Dekay; the points of the crescent are 
rounded and do not curve towards each other ; the terminations 
are not raised and translucent, but the whole surface is nearly 
flat.. It however formed, undoubtedly, a portion of the under 
Surface of some trilobite, whether that of an asaphus, an isotelus, 
ora dipleura, we are unable now to determine. In the Geol. 
Trans., No. 8, Vol. I, pl. 27, there isa figure by Mr. Stokes of 
What is said to be the under surface of the anterior portion of the 
Shield of an asaphus platycephalus from Lake Huron. Dr. Buck- 
land, whose copy of the figure we have only seen, observes con- 
Cerhing it, that the entrance to the stomach of the animal was 
between these lunate processes “analogous to that in recent 
crabs.” The A. phatycephalus is synonymous with I. gigas of 


38 Remarks on the Trilobite. 


Dr. Dekay ; and if Mr. Stokes’s drawing and Dr. Dekay’s figure 
be accurate representations of nature, we think they must be 
drawn from analogous fragments belonging to animals at least 
specifically distinct. 

In Mr. Wagner’s cabinent there is another fragment of the un- 
der surface with lunate processes, somewhat resembling the one 
just described ; but instead of being composed of a flat plate or 
surface, it forms one that is convex, very much resembling the 
figure given by Dr. Buckland from Mr. Stokes. From this frag- 
ment it is perfectly evident, that this lunate structure is composed 
of an upper and under plate, the one convex and the other plain 
or flat, so as to form, when united, a plano-concave, hollow, lu- 
nate box or cavity. The physiological relations of this struc- 
ture [ am unable to suggest; but since the above remarks were 
penned, I have seen a copy of Murchison’s Silurian System, 
&c., from which the following extract is made, which may throw 
some light on this matter, and is otherwise interesting. “I have 


seen the work of Pander at too late a period to enable me to pro- 


fit much by his views concerning the original structure of the 
trilobite or the adaptations of the tegumentary skeleton of the an- 
imal to its habits, into the consideration of which he enters at 
length. He certainly throws some new light on the nature of 
these creatures by exposing the interior or under surface—partic- 


ularly that of their heads, in which he points out several divis- _ 


ions, and considers them to be the thoracic plate and jaws. The 
central portion, or that which was formerly described by Mr. 
Stokes from a North American specimen, he considers to have 
been connected with the head by cartalage only, and to have 
served as a thoracic plate to protect the stomach, the form of which 
varies in the different genera of trilobites found in Russia. On 
referring this subject to my friend Mr. W. Mc Lay, whose knowl- 
edge of invertebrated animals is so profound ; he assures me that 
this plate on the under side of the head, above alluded to, must be 
considered as the dabrum or upper lip. The trilobite is thus 
brought into close analogy with certain entomostracha such as 
the Apus Cancrirormis, &c.” 

We have called the fossil remain which has occasioned the 
present remarks respecting the organization of the under surface 
of the trilobite, calymene bufo, a name which we proposed some 
years since in our little work on these interesting reliques. Other 


—— 


Remarks on the Trilobites. — 39 


writers have applied to it the term calymene macrophthalma, first 
given by Professor Brongniart, not only to this fossil, but to an- 
other, which differs essentially from it. He has given in his 
admirable work on this subject good figures of both animals, but 
his specific description refers only to plate 1, figure 4, A. B. He 
observes, ‘that the species is remarkable by the prolongation of 
the anterior portion of the buckler in the form of a snout, and that 
its middle lobe, or front, is marked on its sides by three oblique 
plice. or wrinkles, like those on the C. tristani.” This descrip- 
tion applies very well to some reliques found in the Dudley rock, 

which we have examined, but it is perfectly obvious that the cal- 
ymene bufo, which has a rounded front, and is entirely destitute 
of plice or wrinkles, cannot be included in it. We therefore 
took the liberty in our little work of calling by the name of caly- 
mene bufo, the fossil represented on his first plate at figure 5, and 
which is so common in the United States; and of restricting the 
€. macrophthalma to the animals represented on the same plate at 
figure 4, which are specifically distinct, and if not so called, must 
still remain nameless. 

Norr.—Mr. Murchison in his magnificent work styled the Silurian System, has 
jmepenei the name of calymene Downingie for one of Professor Brongniart’s fos- 
sils, called C. Macrophthalma, and restricts the term Macrophthalma to the one 
which I have named Calymene Bufo. There are several objections to this no- 
menclature. Ist, The C. Macrophthalma, Brong. was long ago divided into two 
Species by me for the reason above stated. 2d, In M. Achille Comptes large pic- 
torial illustrations of the Regne Animal, the vs ’ Macrophthelma is represented by 
Brongniart's figure 4, A. B.; naturalists therefore already know it under that name. 
The following are Mr. Murchisott $ remarks on this subject: ‘I have separated 
the C, Macrophthalma, Brong. into two species, believing that his figure plate 1, 
figure 4, B, is our common large eyed species, and that his figure 4, A, of the 
sane plate, judging from the ovate, accuminate head and the tubercles on the fore- 

ad is our C. Downingie. The last mentioned species is infinitely rarer than 
that to which I would restrict the name of Macrophthalma. That species is at 
once recognized by its bald, plain, rounded head, as is well exposed in the draw- 
ings of Mr. Stokes. See Toctin plate 1, figure 5, A,B,C. I have named. this spe- 
cies after Mrs, Downing, to whom I am indebted for the loan of it 


40 Description of a New Trilobite. 


Art. IlI.—Description of a New Trilobite ; by Jacop Green, — 


M. D, Prof. of Chemistry in the Yeiérson Medical College, 
Philadelphia. 
Asaphus Diurus—GRreen. 

Girne? costis striatis, tubereulatis ; cauda bipartita; corpore 
depresso. 

The fragments of this Asaph which I have examined, consist 
of nineteen articulations of the abdomen and tail. The costal 
arches of the lateral lobes are very peculiar. 'They are marked 
by a shallow groove, or impressed: line on their upper surface, 
studded on each side with quite a regular row of bead-like granu- 
lations. On each division of the vertebral column, there is buta 
single row of pustulations. The lunate caudal end is more ex- 
panded than in the cognate species, the A. Selenurus, and the 
concave side of the cressent, is more regularly rounded; the 
whole animal is much more depressed, than that species, and 
the lateral lobes are much wider in proportion to the middle lobe 
of the back. 

There are two specimens of this fine species in the cabinet of 
William Wagner, Esq., of Philadelphia, both of which were found 
in Green County, Ohio, in the neighborhood of Xenia. The 
largest which measures two inches long and two and a half inches 
wide, is a plaster cast from a weather beaten natural mould; the 
other occurs in a grey, sparry, argillaceous limestone rock. It is. 
perhaps worthy of remark, that all the specimens of the Asaph, 
with a lunate tail which I have noticed, were natural moulds, 
made by the animal in the rock, the shell or body having disap- 
peared. 


I was informed some time since, by Mr. Abraham Sager, of 


New York, that he had discovered several fine specimens of a0 
Asaph with a lunate tail at the foot of the Helderberg mountains 
near the Caves, in which the horns of crescent which forms the 
caudal termination were remarkably elongated and perfect. AS 
the A, Selenurus is found at Glenn’s falls and at Becroft’s mout- 
tain near the city of Hudson, is quite a different rock from that 
which occurs at the Helderberg, and as this last formation seems 
analogous to the one in which the Asaphus Diurus is found, it is 
probable that Mr. Sager’s species may be the one now described: 

I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Wagner, for the opportu- 
nity of making out this species. 


—— 


a et 


eae oe SS 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. Al 


Arr. IV.—On the Natural History of Voleanos and Earth- 
quakes ;* by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Professor of Chemistry in 
the University of Bonn. Communicated by the Author. Con- 
cluded from Vol. xxxvi, No. 2, page 282. 


EARTH QUAKES. 


EartuQuakes, so closely connected with volcanic phenome- 
na, are undoubtedly owing to the same causes. That the pro- 
cesses by which they are produced must take place at a great 
depth, is evident from the simultaneous occurrence of earth- 
quakes at places far distant from one another. Some extraor- 
dinary examples in this respect are furnished by the memorable 
earthquake at Lisbon, on the Ist November 1755, which was 
not only felt over a great part of Europe, but extended to the 
northern coast of Africa and the Antilles ; and farther, by the si- 
multaneous shocks felt on the 16th November 1827, and Ochotsk 
and Bogota, which places are 1900 geographical miles distant 
from each other, and are separated both by land and sea.t 
Parrott has calculated that about 700,000 German miles, that 
is, nearly one-twelfth of the whole surface of the earth, was 
shaken by the earthquake at Lisbon. Stukeley$ calculated 
from the extent of country over which earthquakes have been 
felt, that the force must, in some instances, be 200 English miles 
beneath the surface. But Daubeny|| pointed out that we must 
not lay any stress on his remarks, because we have reason to be- 
lieve that the vibrations may be propagated latterly far beyond 
the immediate influence of the impelling force. In a former 


* From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour., Vol. XXvi, No. 52, April 1839. 

t Von Humboldt’s Reise, &c., vol. i, p. 497, and vol. iii, p. 23 and 27, Von 
Hoff, Verzeichniss Von Erdbeben, &c. in Poggendorff’s Ann. vol. xxi, p. 214. 

t Physik der Erde, p. 289. See also Berghaus’ Almanack, 1837, p. 106, on the 


|| Loco eit. p- 388. 
Vol. xxxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 6 


42 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


place, I have also shown, that the seat of volcanic action may be 
looked for at depths far less than Stukeley supposes. But there 
is no reason to believe that earthquakes could go on at greater 
depths than volcanic actions. Supposing that the interior of the 
earth is still fluid, and that rents conducting water, extend from 
the surface to the fluid nucleus, it is easy to conceive that the ac- 
tions of the steam may be felt at very remote distances. 

We have already pointed out the close connection which ex- 
ists between earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Von Hum- 
boldt, in his travels near the Equator, gives several examples of 
this. It may not be superfluous to refer here to what this illus- 
trious philosopher asserts generally with regard to these phenom- 
ena, at the end of the 4th chapter of the 2d volume of Part I, 
Book 2.* 

_ Every thing seems to show that earthquakes are caused by 
the effort of elastic fluids seeking an outlet. On the coasts of 
the South Sea their action is often communicated almost instan- 
taneously from Chili to the Gulf of Guayaquil, a distance of 
600 geographical miles; and, what is very extraordinary, the 
_ shocks seem to be so much the stronger, the greater the distance 
from the active voleanos. The granite mountains of Calabria, the 
limestone chain of the Apennines, the county of Pignerol, the 
coast of Portugal and Greece, Peru, and the continent of Amer- 
ica, furnish striking proofs, of this assertion. It might be sup- 
posed that the earth would be more violently shaken, the fewer 
the openings on the surface which communicate with the inte- 
rior. At Naples and at Messina, at the foot of Cotopaxi, aud 
the Tunguragua, earthquakes are dreaded only when vapors 
and flames do not issue from the mouth of the volcano. In the 
kingdom of Quito, the great catastrophe of Riobamba led many 
well informed persons to believe that this unfortunate country 
would be less often disturbed if the subterranean fire would 
succeed in destroying the dome of porphyry of Chimborazo, and 
if this colossal mountain should become an active volcano. 
At all times, analogous facts have given rise to similar hypoth- 
eses. The ancient Greeks, who, like us, attributed earthquakes 


* See also what Von Buch says on Vesuvius. Geognostische Beobacht. vol. ii, 


p- 129. 
t Fleuriau de Bellevue, Journ. de Physique, t. Ixii, p. 261. 


ad aie ae 


ae ears 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 43 


to the force of elastic fluids, brought forward, in support of their 
opinion, the total cessation of earthquakes in the island of Au- 
boa, after the opening of a chasm in the Lelantic fields.* 

The intimate connection of earthquakes with voleanos is not 
less clearly proved by the direction which the former take. With 
the assistance of a simple instrument (the sismograph) invented 
by Cacciatore, and erected at Palermo, it was found in twenty- 
Seven cases that the shock was propagated in a fixed linear di- 
rection, which coincided remarkably with the cardinal points. 

N nineteen cases the shocks were transmitted in a direction from 
east to west, corresponding with the situation of Mount Fina, 
the source of all these subterranean concussions, which lies di- 
rectly to the east of Palermo. In four cases it was from south 
to north; but, for want of corresponding observations, the seat of 
these shocks cannot be determined ; and it certainly does not 
seem to have been the effect of chance, that three shocks, which 
were felt on the 9th February, 30th June, and 2d July 1831, 
traveled from the south-west to the north-east: for it was pre- 
cisely in that direction, at a distance of about 70 Italian miles, 
that the small new volcano suddenly appeared in the sea, prob- 
ably on the 2d J uly. The two latter shocks were also the very 
Same that were felt with greater force at Sciacca, on the southern 
Coast, opposite to the new volcano. 

On the other hand, Boussingault{ asserts that the most mem- 
orable earthquakes in the New World, which ravaged the towns 
of Latacunga, Riobamba, Honda, Caraccas, Laguayra, Mer ’ 
Bar quisimeto, &c., do not coincide with any well established 
Voleanic eruption. 'The oscillation of the surface, owing to an 
eruption, is, as it were, local; whilst an earthquake, which is 
Not subject (at least apparently) to any volcanic eruption, extends 
to incredible distances, in which case it has also been remarked 
that the shocks most commonly follow the direction of chains 
of mountains, 

In favor of the hypothesis, that earthquakes are produced by 
aqueous vaporl| penetrating to great depths, the following circum- 
Siar BEEBE i 0 9 EE 


* Strabo, lib. i, ed. Oxon. 1807, t. i, p. 85- 

' F. Hoffman in Poggend. Ann. t. xxiv, p. 63. 

+ Annal. dé Chim. et de Phys. t. Iviii, p. 83. 

{| A remarkable case which has taken place at the iron-foundery at Sayn, proves, 
that shocks of the earth may be several times repeated by the effect of elastic flu- 


AA Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


stances may be adduced. Firstly, as aqueous vapor is supposed 


to produce volcanic action, it must’ be presumed to be also the 
cause of earthquakes. Secondly, some hours before the first 
shock of the tremendous earthquake at Algiers and the neigh- 


borhood, the 2d to 5th March 1825, which entirely destroyed the’ 


town of Blisa, all the springs and wells are reported to have been 
dried up.* Thirdly, earthquakes, though undoubtedly felt even 
the centre of large continents, seem to produce their most fright- 
ful effects in countries not very far removed from the ocean. But 
perhaps, earthquakes may also be produced by gaseous exhala- 
tions in the interior of the globe. At least in many accounts of 


earthquakes, mention is made of the exhalation of gases from 


rents, produced by them,t+ and the smell of sulphuric acid, and 
of sulphurous vapors, which indicate the presence of sulphuret- 


ids. A cylinder 14 feet in height, and 31,395 pounds in weight, was to be cast. 
The clay mould having been totally filled up by melted iron, the latter broke 
through the ground, and penetrated to the depth of 25 feet into the sandy soil, con- 
sequently 11 feet deeper than the lower part of the mould. Some time after an 


equally violent shock happened, and after more than 24 hours a third followed. 
The local circumstances of that iron-foundery lead to an explanation of these 
phenomena. There are at a depth of 23-24 feet under the ground of the said 
building, many inclined channels which communicate together, for the purpose of 
collecting the rain water. Immediately after shocks, watery vapors issued 
abundantly from the mouth of the tk "These vapors were evolved by 
the heat of the melted iron from the water, being in the ground about two feet 
below the bottom of the channels; and penetrated through “the joinings of their 
brick work. But these joinings being filled up with mud and sand, offered re- 
sistance, and consequently the vapors had to attain a certain wong before they 
were able to penetrate through them. It is, however, very probable that the va- 
pors, bearing mud and sand with them, again stopped up the opening, when their 
slanivity sarelasty again decreased. During the shocks, the steam attained its 
greatest elasticity, and thickened the earth which surrounded the heated mass of 
iron; and this circumstance may have impeded a new afflux of water. Therefore, 
after the first shock, half an hour elapsed ; and after the second, which still more 
obstructed the afflux of the water, even more than 24 hours etapa before the 
third and latest shock took place 
* Berzelius, epg ht, 1827, p- 310 
t Von Humbol , Reise, t. i, p. 499. Vou Hoff in Poggend, Ann. t. vii, p. 292, 
¢. 2, p.593, t. xxv; i 76. V. Humboldt believes indeed, that daring : most earth- 
quakes, nothing arises from the earth ; but there are on the contrary, proofs that 
s are ofien gradually evolved from the ground before and after the shocks. 
The uneasiness of small animals, or those whose organs of respiration are rather 
feeble, before and after earthquakes, leads us to infer this. Le Gentil (Nouveau 
Voyage autour du Monde, t. i, p. 172) has already observed, that animals living ™ 


ee ae 


i ina 


7 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 45 


Ay 

ted hydrogen.* These last may have occasioned also the de- 
struction of the fish in the sea, and in lakes, during earthquakes ; 
many instances of which are known. The bursting forth of 
flames from the earth and from the sea, which is so often men- 
tioued,t also indicates the presence of inflammable gases. How- 
ever, although this is corroborated by the fire-damp in mines, the 
isengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen while boring artesian 
wells, and the not uncommon exhalations of inflammable gas from 
the earth, yet it is difficult to account for their inflammation. This 
difficulty would disappear, if observation had found flames only 
to occur in really volcanic districts.t But at any rate, it is going 
rather too far to take the explosion of fire-damp for the cause of 
earthquakes, as Kries does.|| It is not impossible, that what has 
been taken for flames, if not altogether an illusion, was only an 
appearance of light, produced by the sudden expansion of highly 
compressed gases, exactly the same as is seen when an air-gun is 

discharged in the dark. 
he heating and boiling up of the water in the sea and in 
lakes, the spouting up of streams of water, as well as the ejection 
of various substances from fissures in the earth,$ which have oc- 


oe 


holes, as rats, mice, reptiles, d&c., commonly quit their abodes shortly before earth- 
quakes. Crocodiles quit their pools in the Llanos, and remove to the continent, 
Relat. Hist. t. v, p. 57. Von Humboldt moreover relates that dogs, goats, and 
particularly hogs, which have a keen smel), and turn up the ground, are suddenly 
affect » and a great number of these latter animals have been found suffocat 
during the earthquakes in Peru. i 

"Von Humboldt, ibid. t. i, p- 484, andt. ii, p. 73. Von Hoff, ibid, t. xii, p. 567, 
'. xviii, p. 46. See also Philos. Trans. t. xlix, p. 415. ie 

t Von Humboldt, ibid. Gehler’s Physikal. Worterbuch, new edit., t. iii, p- 
804. Also during the earthquake of Lisbon (Philos. Trans. ibid.) and on the isl- 
and of Matschian, (Hist. de la Conquéte des Molluques, t, iii, p. 318) the bursting 
forth of flames is reported to have taken place. 

¢ Von Humboldt mentions flames which rise from time to time out of two ex- 
tensive caverns inthe ravine of the Cuchivano. This phenomenon was accom- 
Panied, during the last great earthquake at Cumana, with a continued hollow 
subterranean noise. . The flames are more especially to be seen during the rainy 
Season, 
| In his prize essay on the causes of earthquakes. 
Von Hoff 1. ¢. t. xxv; pe 7 xix, p. 421. At the time of the earthquakes, 


: 73, tx . 
Which destroyed a part of Italy, (1702-1703,) many rents were formed in the 
: as thrown up higher than the trees in the neighborhood. Flames and a 
thick smoke rose from the neighboring hills, which continued three days with 
Some Mterruptions. Hist. de l’ Acad, an. 1704, p. 10. During the earthquake, 


46 . Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


casionally been witnessed, may be satisfactorily explained by the 
rising of steam and gases, which may have the effect either of 
heating the water, or of throwing out solid bodies.* The same 
may be said of the concussions of the earth which take place, 
sometimes in horizontal undulations, sometimes in vertical shocks, 
and sometimes with a vibratory motion, backwards and forwards. 
The latter of these convulsions, called by the Neapolitans, moto 
vorticoso, is most common during the greatest earthquakes. 

Von Humboldt has proved, by abundant examples, that the 
propagation of earthquakes is not confined to any particular rock, 
but that the most varied formations are equally favorable to it. 
We infer, therefore, that the seat of earthquakes must be below 
all known rocks. Although all the rocks may be agitated, yet 
the manner of extension of the shocks in them is different, ac- 
cording to their particular quality. The earthquakes, which 


the 21st October 1766, which totally destroyed the city of Cumana, the earth 
opened at several places in the province, and vomited sulphureous water. These 
eruptions were particularly numerous in a plain, which extends towards Casanay 

o geographical miles eastward of Cariaco, and which is known by the name of 
the hollow land (tierra hueca) because it seems to be every where undermined by 


hot springs. Von picereaat il Reise, t. i, p. 482. During the violent ee 
which in one mi the city of Curaccas, on ‘the 26th March 1813, 
much water was thrown up through the cracks, that a new stream was fecabal 


At the same time the ground was also found covered with a fine ae earth, like 
volcanic ashes, which had been thrown up from fissures inthe neighborhood. The 


eruptions of volcanic masses were still more considerable during the earthquake 


consisting of volcanic matter, accumulated so as to form considerable hills, now 

alled moya. Wide rents were likewise opened es the violent earthquake in 
the north coasts of South America, last year, in order to give exit to streams of 
water which rose. It was often observed, that during the earthquakes, water 
with sand, mud, &c., was thrown up from wells, sometimes to a height of 30 ft. 
Von Humboldt relates, (Relat. Hist., t. ii, p.287,) that this phenomenon is gen- 
erally observed during the ution at Cumana. The same thing happened 
the Ist Nov. 1755 near Colares, (Philos. Trans. t. xlix, p. 416,) and also during 
the earthquake in Calabria. cn de Phys. Ixii, p. 263.) 

* Thus, during the above-mentioned ea rihangke on the north coast of South 
America oa; colu umns of smoke were seen rising out of the sea, a league from the 
shore, and in a depth of about 210 ft.; and in the night, flames were seen issuing 

m the same spot, which illuminated all the coasts of the island. After each 


shock, the sea retired, left the ships which were in the bay aground, and laid bare — 


the rocks to a great depth; the waves at the same time ran to a height of 16 ft. to 
20 ft. During the shocks the earth opened and closed again very rapidly. When 


1 


ee eee ee ee eee er he ee ee 


ey ee ee ee ae |e ht ey ee 


SS le 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. AT 


have at different periods ravaged Smyrna,* Messina,+ Kings- 
town in Jamaica 1792, the county of Pignerol 1808,f Cala- 
bria,|| Talcahuano in Chili,§ &c., have always had a greater 

effect on diluvium and alluvium, than on rocks. Houses, for in- 

stance, built on sandy ground, were demolished, while those 

which stood on rocks were but little damaged. The shocks 

therefore act less violently and destructively on solid and rocky 

ground than on loose soil, which is unable to resist, and propa- 

gates the shock irregularly. In Calabria, where the loose soil 

occurred lying on granite on the declivity of the hills, the latter 
threw off the former, which glided down. Lastly, there are also 

instances of shocks extending irregularly in rocks. 

Many instances present themselves of earthquakes, which in 
extending longitudinally, follow the direction of the rocks. This 
is the case, according to Palassou,** in the Pyrenees. _Remarka- 
ble instances are presented in the phenomena of the 28th Dec. 
1779; the 10th July 1784; the 8th July 1791; the 22d May 
18 ¢. The regions situated more to the south, are, how- 
ever, more affected than the chain itselft+ Earthquakes in” 
South America seem also to follow the direction of the mountains. 
Thus, that at Caraccas (1812) followed the direction of the lit- 
toral Cordilleras from E. N. E. to W. S. W.tt That of Cumana 

797, presented an instance of the same fact. The predominant 
direction of the frequent earthquakes on the coasts of Chih and 
Peru, is also that of the large chain of the Andes, which is par- 


allel to the coast.|||| \ All the older reports likewise state, that in 


these countries their direction is from S. to N., or vice versa ; and 
rs. Graham remarked, that she felt, during the violent earth- 
quake in Chili 1822, as if the whole ground from north to south 


potty bE 


tranquillity was restored, a whirlpool was observed in the sea, as if the waters 
Were being swallowed up in an immense gulf. The temperature of the sea in the 


* Hist. de I’ Acad. des Sciences, an. 1688. Buffon, Hist. Nat. t. i, p. 515. 

' Spallanzani, Voyage, t. iv, p. 138. + Journ. de Phys. t. Ixvii, p. 238. 

I Oryktologische Bemerkungen ber Calabrien &c., 17 

§ Nautical Magazine, Nos. 49 and 51, March and June 1836. 

T Berghaus’ Almanack ftir das Jahr 1837, p. 72. 

ém. pour servir 4 l’Hist. Nat. des Pyren., p. 260. 

1 Ibid p. 916, tt Von Humboldt, Rel. Hist. t. v. 

Ill That at Cumana followed the direction from N. to 8., which is extremely sin- 
gular, l. cit, t. iv, p. 16. 


48. ; Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


were suddenly raised, and then sunk again. Von Hoff* has 
also related the circumstance, that the shocks of earthquakes are 
most common in the same direction as that of the basaltic masses 
themselves, and around a certain distance on either side of the 
line in which they occur. 

On the other hand, there are many instances of the countries 
of Europe having been agitated in all directions, without having 
been influenced by the mountains. Thus, earthquakes have ex- 
tended from Upper Italy across the Alps to Switzerland. 'That 
at London (19th March 1750) followed the direction from W. to 
E., although the direction of the mountains in Hngland is from 
Ss. s W.to N.N. E. &c. Sometimes the earthquakes originate 
from a common centre in a radiating direction on all sides. ‘That 
of Lisbon, (1755,) that in Calabria (1783,) and that at Lima 
(1746,) &c., offer instances of this kind. : 

With deed to the earthquakes in South America, it has been | 
observed that they occur principally in the mountainous coun- © 
tries. 'The cause which produces them, seems, as Boussingaultt 
believes, to be so constantly in operation, that, if all the earth- 
quakes, which are felt in the inhabited countries of America, 
could be noted, the earth would be found to quake nearly with- 
out intermission. These frequent movements of the ground of 
the Andes, and the slight coincidence between these convulsions 
and the volcanic eruptions, induce us to adopt the opinion of 
Boussingault, that the former are, for the most part, independent of 
the latter. He ascribes the greatest number of the earthquakes in 
the Andes to the sinking of rocks in the interior, which is a con- 
sequence of the former elevations of these chains of mountains. 
In favor of these suppositions, he affirms that these gigantic rocks 
have been thrown up, not in a doughy, but in a solid and frag- 
mentary state, but that the consolidation of these fragments of 
crystalline rocks might not at first have been so firm, as not 
to admit of some sinking after the elevation. He refers to the 
Indian tradition which preserves the memory of the sinking of 
the celebrated mountain of Capac-Urcu, near Riobamba, the 
name of which signifies the chief, ¢. e. the highest, of all the 
mountains near the Equator. It is said that the top of this 


apr: 


tail 


* Geschichte der Verinderungen der Erdoberflache, t. il. 
t Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., t. lviii, p. 83. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 49 


mountain has sunk in consequence of a subterranean shock 


which took place before the discovery of America. At the pres- 
ent time Capac-Urcu is lower than Chimborazo. Boussingault 
alludes to many instances, in which it is asserted, that the Cor- 
dilleras have sunk. Without taking into consideration the infer- 
ences drawn from barometrical measurements, made by Bous- 
singault and his predecessors, which seem indeed to confirm that 
supposition, we will only mention the following circumstances. 
The French academicians, who, a century ago, were sent to 
Quito for the purpose of determining the form of the globe, were 
very much embarassed in their station on Guaguapichincha, by 
the snow surrounding their signals. Now, for many years, no 
snow has been found on the summit of this mountain. The in- 
habitants of Popayan have also remarked, that the inferior limit 
of the snow covering the Purace is gradually rising, whilst the 
Inean temperature has remained the same for the last thirty 
years, whence Boussingault infers, that the Purace is sinking 
down. 

That masses thrown up in a state of igneous fusion sink again 
by degrees, in consequence of their consolidation and contraction, 
cannot be doubted. But even if their elevation had taken place 
in a solid state, yet the immense masses of the Andes have risen 
from depths, where a pretty high temperature prevails. Suppos- 
ing the Andes to have risen 24,000 feet in height, that part of 
them which is now at the level of the sea, must have been be- 
fore the elevation so many thousand feet below it. This part 
brought, therefore, with itself from beneath, a temperature which 
Was ‘4°00 —470° F. higher than that which existed at the level 
of the sea before the elevation. ‘The same holds good of each 
Patt of the Andes, in any depths, so that every where in erupted 
Masses the temperature surpassed that of the adjacent rocks by 
470° F. Whilst now these masses gradually lost their surplus 
of heat, they were contracted. But this cooling of these masses 
©an, as far as they are within the earth, only be affected by con- 
duction, therefore a long period will elapse for that purpose. 
That part of the Andes, which is elevated above the surface of 
the earth, and is exposed to the atmosphere, will of course cool 
@ little more quickly. If the bases of the rocks thrown up be at 
# great depth below the surface, their contraction in consequence 
of their cooling may be very considerable, and as the elevation 

Vol. *xxvu, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 7 


Mo, BOT. GARDEN 
~~ 4910 : 


50 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


of the Andes is said to be one of the latest, this cooling and 


contraction may continue even at the present time in that part 
which is within the earth. It is therefore possible to conceive 
that these effects are the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the 
Andes. 

Besides, there is nothing opposed to the hypothesis, that the 
powers, whatever they may be, which produced so remarkable a 
phenomenon as these elevations, may not even now operate ina 
less degree, and occasion the earthquakes so frequent in the Andes. 
The later these elevations are supposed to have taken place, the 
more probable will such a hypothesis be. 

If further proofs are still necessary to show that the causes of 
earthquakes are only to be sought in the interior of the earth, we 
certainly find them in the fact, that these phenomena are totally 
independent of external circumstances. ‘They take place whether 
the sky be clouded or serene, in hot as well as in cold weather,* 
before or after rain, sometimes with rain, and sometimes without 
it. Even the strength and direction of the wind seem to have 
no kind of connection with them.t Nor do they seem to be 


* Many observers allude, indeed, to or of temperature of the atmos+ 


phere before and after aitthvihinn: but tk of Turin only have actu- . 


ally made observations on the temperature in the county of Pignerol. (Journ 

Phys. t. Ixvii, p. 292.) They found that their thermometer always descended as 
soon as shocks had been felt. Thus they felt a vehement shock in the morn- 
ing at sired ma ten, on the 10th of April, and their thermometer descended till 
noon from 26° to 22°. In fact itis to be desired, that farther observations should 
be made on wehas occasions, in order to confirm or refute the assertion of so re- 


+ The late F. Hoffman in vain endeavored to discover in the Meteorological 
Journal of the Observatory of P alermo, (which ineluded a series of years fro 


supposed to have been connected with the ele: SO The same result was ob- 
tained by Domenico Scina in his memoir on the numerous earthquakes, which, 10 
the years 1818 and 1819, caused so much apprehension i in the neighborhood of the 
Madonian hills —Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxiv, p. 50 and 60. ‘tn contradiction t0 
this are the traditions current in many countries. See among others, Berghau u's 
Almanack, 1837, p. 97, and following. There seems to be in fact, some truth im 
the opinion, that eurihiquated are most frequent and vehement at the beginning of 
rainy weather, and this phenomenon is even ascribed in Jamaica to a locking up of 
the pores in the erust of the earth by water, which impedes the rising of gases 
On the other hand, cases have occurred in which earthquakes, were preceded by 
a long continued drought.—Barham in the Philos. Trans. t. xxx, p. 837, y. 1718 

and t. xlix, p. 403; Relat. Hist. t. ii, pp. 273, 281, and t. v, p: 15, and 57; Hans 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 51 


confined to any particular season of the year, although it is cer- 
tainly remarkable, that of fifty-seven earthquakes, which were 
felt at Palermo during a period of forty years, almost a fourth 
part happened in the month of March.* Perhaps the best means 
of ascertaining whether any connection exists between earth- 
quakes and meteorological phenomena, is the observation of the 
barometer. But Hoffman was unable to discover anything pe- 
culiar or extraordinary, either in the relative height of the barom- 
eter, in the direction of its motion, or in the extent of the oscilla- 
tion, during the fifty-seven earthquakes above alluded to. The 
oscillations never went beyond their ordinary limits; indeed, in 
most cases they were very inconsiderable.t Von Humboldt also 
says that between the Tropics, on days when the earth is agitated 
by violent earthquakes, the regularity of the hourly variations of 
the barometer is not disturbed.t 

If aqueous vapors and compressed gases are the cause of earth- 
quakes, there can be no doubt that hot springs and exhalations of 


Sloane’s Letter with several accounts of the earthquake in Peru, October 20th, 

1687, at Jamaica, 10th February, 1688, 7th June, 1692; ibid, y. 1694, p.78; Hist. 

des Trembl. de Terre, t. ii, p. 442; Collect. of the Massachusetts Hist. Soc., t. v, 
. 223. 


* Hoffman, loco cit. p. 52. It is also well known that in other countries, es- 
pecially in Chili and the Moluccas, the periods of the equinox, for reasons of which 
We are ignorant, are considered as those most favorable to earthquakes. During 
the above named period of forty years, this law does not seem to have been appli- 
cable to the autumnal equinox in that part of Europe. 

t During the earthquakes the barometer stood decidedly oftener above the mean 
than under it. However, Hoffman remarks, p. 56, that during the only shock of 
importance which occurred in this period at Palermo, viz., in March, 1823, the bar- 
ometer remained the whole month constantly below the monthly mean. : 

+ Reise, t. i, p 487; also Relat. hist. t. iv, 19. Likewise Boussingault in Ann. 


J 
academy of Turin, during the earthquakes in the year 1808. state of the 
barometer was also inv ariable, whilst the shocks at Lisbon, the 9th December, 
1755, were very strongly felt at Turin Philos. Trans. ix. The observations 


made on the island of Meleda. near the coast of Dalmatia, from the 15th November, 
1824, to the 28th February, 1826, which likewise prove, that no connection exists 
between earthquakes and the pressure of the atmosphere, are very important, the 
shocks felt on this island having been the only ones of their kind as regards length 
of duration.—Die Detonations-Phinomene auf der Insel Meleda von P. Partsch, 
Wien, 1826, P- 204, 


f 


52 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


against them.* 

Indeed, the ancients endeavored to diminish the violence of 
subterranean explosions by means of wells and excavations. 
What Pliny, the great Roman naturalist says of the efficacy 
of these expedients, is repeated by the ignorant inhabitants of 
Quito, when they point out to the traveller the Guaicos, or clefts 
of the Pichincha.{ But this is by no means confirmed by ex- 
‘perience. 


Farther reasons in support of the hypothesis which attributed vol- 
canic phenomena to increased temperature of the interior. 


However distinct natural philosophers may consider the causes 
of volcanic action, and those of hot springs, yet the close connec- 
tion of these two classes of phenomena refers us to one and the 
same cause. In proportion as satisfactory grounds can be ad- 
duced in support of any hypothesis, which explains one class of 
phenomena, so much the more probable does the hypothesis ap- 
pear when applied to the other class. Though the seat of hot 
springs be concealed deep in the interior of the earth, and be 
as little accessible to immediate observation and investigation 
as volcanic action is; yet we may pursue and examine the phe- 


nomena of the former on the surface of the earth, and every point — 


of time selected by the observer for this purpose proves equally 
favorable. 


* Hoffman is inclined to ascribe the rarity and weakness of the earthquakes at 
Sciacca to the numerous exhalations of aqueous vapors, and to the eet number 
of hot sulphurous springs, which occur in that neighborhood, compar d with 
other parts of Sicily, that are so often and so terribly visited by these cate 

en 


{ Von Humboldt, Reise, t. i, p. 491.. In Peru, the earthquakes are less frequent 
than in Latacunga, w bah 3 is ascribed to the great number of deep hollows which 
intersect the ground in all directions in the neighborhood of the town. Leon- 
hard’s Taschenbuch, 1822, p. 917. Von Hoff ales many Soe sree which sev- 
eral wells in Rome, Naples, and Capua, are said to h or totally parali- 
zed the effects of earthquakes. But, in my opinion, an undue importance is 
ascribed to this effect of wells, for it is hardly to be conceived, that the effects 

a cause, existing so deep in the interior of the earth, should ~~ modified in any 
considerable degree, by an opening which penetrates the crust of the earth to 8? 
slight a depth. 


steam and gases, may act as vents, and thus serve as a protection 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 53 


Their wide distribution, the invariableness of their phenom- 
ena, the evolutions of gases from many of these, present to every 
attentive observer, matter of investigation and consideration on 
their origin, duration, and connection with other phenomena. _ If, 
then, we can succeed in proving that chemical processes can 
with much less probability be assigned as the cause of their be- 
ing heated, that on the other hand, the most convincing reason 
show that. their heat is acquired at the expense of the interior of 
the earth: then will the hypothesis, which endeavors to explain 
volcanic phenomena from the same causes, gain no little increased 
weight. And in fact if hot. springs be heated to such a degree 
as to attain the boiling point at a certain depth in the earth, we 
have but one step to make, by supposing this heat increased up to 
the fusing-point of volcanic stony masses, in order to attribute 
With equal probability, volcanic phenomena and hot springs to the 
central part of our earth. 

I must observe, in the first place, as was formerly remarked, 
that, by thermal springs, I understand nothing more than springs 
Whose average temperature exceeds that of the soil at the level at 
Which they rise. It is therefore indifferent whether this excess 
consists in 1° or less, or in 50° or more. I can form no other 
idea of the meaning of the word thermal springs; at least, I do 
not know what degree of temperature can be laid down as the 
boundary between cold and thermal springs, unless the distinction 
Were tobe perfectly arbitrary. Thermal springs (taken in this 
Sense, ) are very widely distributed over the globe, as I think I 
have formerly shown. Na , | am convinced that, if we take 
any district of nearly equal height above the level of the sea, 
Several of the springs will be found to exceed in average temper- 
ature that of the soil. An exception to this rule will certainly 
be found only in those situations where springs arise at the foot 
of hills more or less high and which have acquired a cooler tem- 
perature from the higher regions. 

» like~Professor Daubeny,* we regard chemical processes 
oing on in the earth as the cause of thermal springs, then must 
these processes be as universally distributed as the thermal springs. 

Ose who entertain these views, however, do not surely con- 


* Report on the present state of our knowledege with respect to mineral and 
thermal waters. London, 1837. 


54 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


¥ 


tend, that these processes take place near to the surface, else how 
could we explain the fact, that, in boring Artesian wells, the 
greater the depth, from which the water rises, the higher is its 
temperature. As little explanation could be given of the circum- 
stance, that springs rising in a small district near one another, 
often present no inconsiderable difference in their average tem- 
perature. In proof of the former assertion, I will cite out of 
many other instances that of the hole bored at Ridersdorf near 
Berlin, where water at 74°.3 F. was drawn by boring to a 
depth of 880 feet; and in proof of the latter, the numerous 
springs in Paderborn, whose temperature varies from 49° to 61°. 
EF. In the former case, then, these presumed chemical processes 
must take place far below the depth of 880 feet; in the latter 
they must be supposed to be going on, either entirely below the 
situation of the springs at a nearly equal depth, or at various 
depths beneath each separate spring. In the previous case, their 
different temperatures would be occasioned by one spring run- 
ning nearer, the other at a greater distance from, the common 
source of heat. 


Daubeny speaks, in general terms only, of chemical processes ; — 


if we may, however, judge from a note,* he seems to allude to 
the same processes as those which he assumes as the cause of 
volcanic phenomena, viz., the oxidation of metals of alkalies and 
earths by water. We may pause a little to consider these 
hypothetical chemical processes, as they ought to inform us 
whence the agent, viz., heat, is derived, which i is the point in 
question. 

As the presence of thermal springs is so universal, these met- 
als must be equally so. This hypothesis, especially in the ex- 
tent given it by those who maintain it, viz., that the whole nu- 
cleus of the earth consists of an unoxidized mass, cannot be rec- 
onciled with the proportionate density of our earth, as I have al- 
ready shown, Yet, let us admit for a moment the existence of 
these metals in a more limited proportion. Their oxidation re- 
quires the access of water; we must, therefore, suppose as many 
channels to conduct the water from the surface as there are ther- 
mal springs, or at least groups of thermal springs. Granting all 
this, the question yet remains to be answered, why the effects of 


* Report, &c., p. 68 and 69. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 55 


these subterraneous oxidations are seen on the surface, in and 
near volcanos only ; and why not even a trace of such processes 
can be detected in other places, which yet present innumerable 
thermal springs? Surely no one will bring forward the scanty 
evolutions of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from sulphurous waters 
as proofs of such processes. But, were the conditions necessary 
for volcanic activity fulfilled by the access of water to the inte- 
rior in each of these channels, then would the occurrence of vol- 
canic phenomena be much more frequent on our earth. Or, it 
_ Must at least be assumed that they were at a former period as 
universally distributed as thermal springs now are ; and that they 
have left behind a high temperature in the interior, which warms 
the Springs, and, as Daubeny also assumes, extricates from the 
limestones, in the interior, the carbonic acid gas so universally 
present. ‘That this is occasionally the case, namely that springs 
do acquire their heat at the expense of. volcanic masses elevate 
ata distant period, is certainly true, and has probably been of 
still more frequent occurrence in former times. I have myself 
already adduced instances of this kind. With the cooling of 

€se masses, however, the thermal springs dependent on them 
must of course also cool, and whether this cooling take place in a 
longer or shorter time, must depend on the greater or less extent 
of those masses, 
_ After the preceding remarks, the question remains, whether 
it be necessary to assume, in explanation of the universal distri- 
bution of thermal springs, a voleanic activity once so universally 
distributed ; or whether their existence cannot be both more 
simply and more satisfactorily explained by an increased tempera- 
ture in the interior, which is by no means merely hypothetical, 
but is Supported by innumerable facts. 

aubeny says,* “That (the supporters of my views) should 

explain to us why primary rocks, traversed, as they so frequently 
“re, with fissures of all descriptions, should not in every part o 
the world, and in every kind of situation, give rise to hot springs, 
by evolving steam from their interior, and why they never ap- 
Pear to give issue to that class of thermal waters which I have 


hoticed in Ischia, as being unaccompanied with gaseous pro- 
ducts,” 


* Report, p. 70. 


56 , Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


__A spring arising from beneath, leads us to conclude that me- 
teoric water penetrates through clefts which communicate low 
down with the former. The experience gained in boring arte- 
san wells, shows that a succession of strata is most favorable for 
such processes, and from causes easily explained. In what are 
- ealled primary rocks, however, no such alteration of strata is 
found, because they are not stratified. The usual occurrence, 
viz., the flowing of meteoric water down inclined surfaces of 
stratification which appear at elevated situations, and the rising of 
this water, by means of natural or artificial channels, after having 
been forced down toa more or less considerable depth, cannot 
then happen in unstratified rocks. It appears, nevertheless, that 
there are granitic rocks traversed by clefts more or less perpen- 
dicular, and communicating low down. Thus at Aberdeen, in 
Scotland, water has been drawn by boring in granite 180 feet be- 
low the surface, which, according to Robison, came from a cleft 
filled with sand and gravel, and rises six feet above the level of 
the earth.* Such a communication of the clefts low down, must, 
‘however, occur but rarely. 

If the primary mountain rises above its environs and the 
clefts at its base lie exposed, then will the springs flow out of the 
clefts. Such an origin of springs, which are not naturally ris- 
ing springs, is often observed at the foot of basaltic and trachytie 
cones, &c. 

On the other hand, on the limits between stratified and un- 
stratified rocks, where the latter have traversed the former, and 
where channels extending to a great depth have been formed in 
_consequence of the contraction of the traversed masses during 
their cooling, circumstances favorable to these rising springs eX- 
ist, and it is easy to conceive, therefore, that thermal springs may 
be found on the limits of these interrupted masses, but not in their 
interior. 

Let us imagine a stratified chain of mountains consisting of 
several formations in a perfectly horizontal position, whose new~ 
est portion (jiingstes Glied) is much fissured, and under which 
an impervious stratum lies, then the meteoric water will penetrate 
the former fissured stratum, but be retained by the latter. AS 
long as this horizontal position remains undisturbed, no rising 


————— 


* Compt. Rend. 183 No. 24, p. 575, and t. ii, No. 20, p. 583. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 57 


Springs can be supposed to exist in the whole of this district, and — 
the inhabitants of such mountains could only supply their want 
of water by wells (Senkbrunnen.) We will now suppose, that 
at two points of this district, voleanic masses are thrown up, and 
that, in consequence, a partial elevation of the strata takes place, 
as is shown in the diagram, fig. 1. In this case, the hydrographic 
relations undergo considerable alterations. The consequence 
will be not only a movement of the water on the impervious 
Stratum, in the direction of its inclination, but meteoric water 
will also penetrate at A between the older strata, where, during 
their undisturbed horizontal position, not a drop of water could 
penetrate, and this water will continue to flow in the direction of 
the inclination of the elevated strata.* At B, where these strata 


Fig. 1. 


are also elevated, but to a lower level, springs will commence ris- 
Ing ; and as many of such springs may be supposed to exist In a 
district, as there are alternations of impervious and pervious strata 
in these mountains. The most copious springs, however, will be 
fonnd between the mass that has been broken through, and the 
oldest formation of the stratified mountain, because here, in con- 
Sequence of the contraction of the former mass during its cooling, 
4 cleft has been formed, which receives the meteoric water flow- 
ing down on that side of the elevated mountain C, which lies 
ext to the raised strata. The meteoric water which flows down 
through the newest fissured stratum, will now as little give ori- 
810 to rising springs as during its earlier horizontal position. If, 
now, after the period of this elevation, a stratum of a new forma- 
"on should cecur, covering the extremities of the older raised 


a Se Sa ea a ee tied ine ae ee peel ee een oR noe 


* The same holds good with regard to the springs of fresh water. Thus on the 
: isch Alp springs are always found there where cones of basalt or basal- 
Uc tufa have been elevated on the jura-formation, Plieninger in Poggendorfi’s 
Annal. t. x1, p 493 


Vol. *xivit, No. l.—July, 1839, bis. 8 


58 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


strata, and extending from B to D, and if, lastly, the new forma- 
tion contain impervious strata, then the conditions will undergo 
achange. The meteoric water, which penetrates at A, between 
each separate portion, will now all issue in the form of rising 
springs at B, between the elevated mountain and the new strat- 
ified formation which lies at its side. Should any obstacle here 
present itself to its exit, the water will even take a retrograde 
course B D, and issue at D, in which case the water between the 
last formed horizoutal stratum and the impervious stratum lying 
under the newest raised ones will unite with it. We will not, 
however, enter into farther particulars, as many circumstances 
may be supposed to exist which modify the course of the springs} 
and still more complicated relations naturally arise, when, after 
the deposition of the latest formed stratum, the elevation and 
raising are repeated. It will be sufficient to have called atten- 
tion to the circumstance, that rising springs can exist ouly when 
the originally horizontal position of the stratified formations 
has been destroyed by elevations; and that the most copious 
springs, and those which arise from the greatest depths are found 
precisely at the limits between the elevated masses and the raised 
strata. 

Numerous instances can be cited in proof of this assertion. 
The Pyrenées and Alps, present very characteristic cireumstan- 
ces. ‘Thus Pallasou* shows, that not only are the majority of the 
hot springs in the Pyrenées, situated in the great granitic district 
at the eastern side, but also, that all the others issue only from 
hollows of the newer formations, where the granite rises from 
beneath, at the foot of the declivities. He shows also, that evet 
the degree of temperature of these springs depends on the greater 
or less exposure of their source; for the thermal springs neater 
the principal granitic mass are warmer, while those more remote 
are colder. 

Professor Forbes has likewise pointed out, in an interesting 
memoir on the temperatures and geological relations of certail 
hot springs, particularly those of the Pyrenées,+ that, in the 
departments of the Arriége and the Pyrenées Orientales, whet 
granite formations preponderate, in almost every case which he 
| aris See 


* Mem. pour servir 4 I'Hist. Natur. des Pyrenées, 1815, p. 435, 459. 
t Philos. Transact. for 1836, p. 575 


Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 59 


has examined, if springs rise in granite, it is just at the bound- 
ary of that formation with a stratified rock. Ina great many 
cases it happens, that part of the springs rise from granite, and 
part from the slate or limestone in contact with it; and, he cor- 
rectly observes, a more striking instance of the immediate con- 
nexion between thermal waters and disturbed strata could not be 
desired.* 

According to the observations of several geologists, the tertiary 
rocks in the Pyrenées extend horizontally to the foot of this 
chain, without entering, as the chalk, into the composition of 
any part of its mass. Elie de Beaumont thence infers that the 
Pyrenées received their position, relatively to the neighboring 
parts of the earth’s surface, between the period of the deposition 
of green sand and that of chalk (a formation, whose raised strata, 
according to Dufrénoy’s observations, ascend to the crest of this 
chain,) and before the deposition of the tertiary strata of various 
ages.t| We can very well explain, according to this supposition, 
why the springs in the Pyrenées issue between the elevated gran- 
ite and the raised strata of slate and limestone. The circum- 
Stance above quoted from Pallasou, viz., that the temperature of 
Springs becomes lower, in proportion to their distance from the 
principal granite-mass, may perhaps be of little importance, since, 
according to the remark of Forbes, cold sulphureous springs are 
to be found, even within not many yards of others, having a high 
temperature, and almost an identical mineral composition. Of 
this he has met with two examples in very different parts of the 
chain, one at the Eaux Bonnes, where a perfectly cold spring 
rises within two hundred yards of the principal hot spring of the 
Place, has similar medicinal properties, and is even more strongly 
iMpregnated with sulphur. The other example occurs at Las 
Escaldas, on the southern declivity of the Eastern Pyrences, 
Where a most efficacious cold sulphureous spring rises within 
about one hundred yards of a hot one. When, Forbes contin- 
ues, to these facts we add others scarcely less curious, of springs 
of totally different mineral composition issuing from nearly the 


IP Suscmmng oe ee Collin telerel 
_" At St Saureur and Thuez, we have the co-ordinate, and, as Forbes p. 602, 
nightly thinks, connected phenomena of intrusive rocks, dislocations or fissures, 
metalliferous impregnation, and hot springs. 

' See Poggendorif’s Annalen, t. xxv, p. 26, also p. 58. 


Se = 


ee ee ee 


60 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


‘same spot, and with temperatures from 160° to 180° Fahr., as we 
see at Arand at Thuez, we are forced to conclude that the 
source of mineralization must be independent, to a great extent, 
of that high temperature, and that the arguments, as to the origin 
of thermal springs founded upon their chemical composition, 
must be to a certain degree fallacious. 

The origin of the sulphureous waters in the Pyrenées can 
scarcely be sought for in the granite, since no substances are con- 
tained in it which can be supposed to produce such springs. If 
such springs are formed by the decomposition of sulphates by 
means of substances containing carbon, it is very probable,* then 
we must look for the origin of the Pyrenean sulphureous waters 
in the secondary formations, perhaps in some coal stratum, or 
even possibly in the tertiary formations. This inference holds, 
even if the sulphureous springs are formed in a manner opposite 
to this view. If, now, the origin of the springs in question, in 
other words, if the materials necessary for their formation be 
present in one of the newer parts of the secondary formations, 
then warm or cold sulphureous springs will result, according as 
warm or cold water penetrates to this point. The granite plays, 
then, no other part here, than that of rendering possible the de- 
scent of meteoric water to great depths, and its re-ascent in con- 
sequence of the raising of the strata effected by the granite, 
which circumstance causes the heating of these waters. 

In this point, I think both theories agree ; viz., that which at- 
tributes the heat of springs to chemical processes, and that which 
refers its origin to central heat : for those who hold the former opin- 
ion will doubtless not assign the stratified formations as the seat 
of these chemical actions, but the granite, or the parts beneath 
it. According to both theories, then, the meteoric water will be- 
come warmer in proportion as it approaches nearer to the source 
of heat, which can be sought for only at great depths. 

As the subterraneous course of springs is subjected to many 
kinds of local impediments, so veins of springs of similar origit 
may flow out at points very remote one from another; and, vice 


by volcanic fire. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 61 


versa, veins of very dissimilar local origin may issue very near 


one another. Nothing is therefore easier to conceive, than that 


any stratum in which the materials requisite for the forma- 
tion of sulphureous springs at present, may be traversed by 
Springs arising from very various depths, and therefore possess- 
ing very unusual temperatures, which circumstance would give 
rise to springs of similar chemical composition, but dissimilar 
temperature. 


Forbes* remarks that the hot springs at Baden-Baden, on the 


border of the Schwarlzwald, have a position almost identical 
With that which we have so invariably remarked in the Pyre- 
nées. They occur just where the slate rocks have been violently 
upraised by a curious granitoidal porphyry, which forms the pic- 
turesque elevations near the Alte Schloss, and which passes 


formably. The elevation is among the older of M. Elie de 
Beaumont’s systems: he expressly states that the Gres bigarré 
is undisturbed. 

Relative to the thermal springs in the Pennine Alps, Bake- 
Wellt remarks, that, according to his observations, the exits of all 
of them lie partly in the primitive mountains of the central chain 
self; partly, and indeed most frequently, at their extremities, at 
the boundary between the primitive mountains and the second- 
ary formations. 

According to the beautiful investigations of De Beaumont, two 
different systems are to be distinguished in the Alps, viz., that 
of the Western Alps, and that of the principal chain from the 
Valais to Austria, Mont Blanc lies at the point of intersection 
of these two systems, which here meet at an angle of 45°-50° ; 
also Leuk. The period of elevation of these two systems falls 
Somewhat late. That of the strata belonging to the first system 
took place after the deposition of the newest tertiary formations 
of these regions, and that of the strata belonging to the second 
‘ystem between the deposition of the earlier diluvium (des iiltes- 
fen aufeeschwemmten Landes) and the flowing of the diluvial 
Streams, and at the time of the transport of the erratic Alpine 
Tocks 


The most favorable conditions for the origin of thermal - 


Springs evidently exist when the upraising, caused by the masses 
ee ee ee 


*L.c., p. 609. t Philos, Magazine, January, 1828, p. 14. 


& 


62 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


thrown up, extends to the newest formations. Therefore we are 
justified, under these circumstances, in expecting to find many 
thermal springs in this district, and especially at those points 
where two different systems of elevation have intersected each 
other at different periods, and admitted the meteoric water to 
penetrate to the interior. The thermal springs in the Pennine 
Alps are found partly in the direction of the principal chain of 
the Alps, partly, and more abundautly, in the points of intersec- 
tion of this system with that of the Western Alps, and in this 
last system. Thus at Naters in the Upper Valais, (86° Fahr. ;) 
at Leuk (115°-124° ;) in the valley of Bagnes at Lavey, south- 
east of Ber (113°;) Saute de Pucelle, between Moutiers and 
St. Maurice, in Chamouni; St. Gervaise on Mont Blanc (949= 
98° ;) Courmayeur and St. Didier, on the southern declivity of 
Mont Blanc (93°;) Aix les Bains in Savoy (112°-117°,) with 
numerous hot springs in the neighborhood; Moutiers in the Ta- 
rentaise, Brida in Tarentaise, and some at Grenoble. 

It certainly deserves particular notice, that at one point of in- 
tersection (Mont Blanc) so many, and at the other (Leuk) the 
warmest springsare met with. Moreover, many thousand springs 
present themselves, some in the glacier streams, some under the 
glaciers themselves, and some may be stopped up. ‘Thus, most 
of the above mentioned thermal springs have been discovered 
only since Saussure’s journeys; a few very lately, such as that 
at Lavey in the bed of Rhone in 1831; and others again have 
become filled up. 

Among those which occur in the continuation of the principal 
Alpine chain, I will mention only the two most celebrated, Pfef- 
ers and Gr'astein. They are distinguished by their very small 
proportion of solid and volatile ingredients. In fact they are 
scarcely any thing more than warm glacier-water.* It seems to 
me that these thermal springs, and probably many others also in 
the Alps, reserable exactly those in Ischia, which Daubeny sup- 
poses to be purely the result of the infiltration of water to spots 
in the interior of the earth retaining a high temperature, with 
this difference only, that these spots lie somewhat deeper in the 


* Of the thermal water of Gastein, 10,000 parts contain only 3.5 solid matter 
the same quantity of water from the Liittschine, which flows immediately out under 
the glacier, contains only one, and that from the Jar at Bern only, 2.2. 


‘Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 63 


Alps than at Ischia, where the hot masses approach nearer to the 
surface in consequence of volcanic activity. 

In regions where, after the earlier general elevations, later 
partial fractures and elevations have been produced by volcanic 
action, remarkable phenomena also present themselves, with re- 
gard to the existence of thermal springs; as for instance, in Au- 
vergne, and in the vicinity of the Laacher See. 

In regard to the former, it is worthy of remark, that the baths 
of Mont-Dore are situated almost at the geographical centre of 


that group of hills, and also at the position of greatest disloca- 


tion; two of the centres of elevation, which Elie de Beaumont 
and Dufrénoy have pointed out, being found on one side, and one 
on the other, The springs issue immediately from trachyte, 
which is most remarkabl y and beautifully columnar just at the 
baths. These column have an extremely slaty cleavage perpen- 
dicular to their axes.* Although the clay-slate rocks in the dis- 
trict of the Laacher See are very massive, and so far unfavorable 
to the penetration of meteoric water to great depths, yet the 
number of mineral springs here is very considerable. They be- 
long, in general, to the class of thermal springs, although their 
temperature is for the most part but little (often only 19.5) above 
the mean of the soil. The strata of these rocks are raised, and 
thereby produce a descent of the meteoric water to deeper points; 
nevertheless, springs of this kind are very rare, where no vol- 
canic masses have been broken through. In these rocks slate- 
Surfaces (Schieferungs Flachen) are often found, which do not 
Colucide with the direction of the strata, but intersect them at 
an acute angle. These slate-surfaces give origin here and there 
to mineral springs, and.a copious disengagement of carbonic 

acid gas. 
By far the greater number of the mineral springs take their rise in 
Valleys more or less deeply hollowed, on both sides of whose de- 
Clivities, conical volcanic rocks, chiefly of a basaltic nature, have 
broken through. Some of them rise immediately from the clay- 
Slate rocks, frequently from the cleavage surfaces which separate 
the strata of clay-slate and greywacke, and some come from vol- 
Canic masses (trass and volcanic ashes) which cover these rocks. 
The circumstance that these mineral springs seldom, perhaps 
ee necag ie yf 
* Forbes, loco cit, p. 607. 


4 
64 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


never, flow out at the boundary between the erupted masses and 
the fundamental rocks, gives us an indication where to seek their 
origin. If the strata of the fundamental rocks, A, A, Fig. 2, are 


: Fig. 2. 


inclined from the erupted volcanic mass RB, then a cleft will be 
formed to a great depth in the interior of the earth at the boun- 
dary between this cone and the fundamental rocks, in conse- 
quence of the contraction of the former during its cooling. Down 
this cleft the meteoric water penetrates and meets the streams of 
carbonic acid gas developed in the interior. ‘This latter is ab- 
sorbed by the water, owing to the strong hydrostatic pressure 
exerted at so greata depth. This forms a water impregnated 
with carbonic acid, which effects a decomposition and solution 
of the stone, and hence arises an acidulous spring, rich in car- 
bonie acid and carbonates. The deeper the meteoric water pen- 
etrates, the warmer it becomes. Rising springs of water are 
then produced in this cleft, through which the concentrated min- 
eral water formed beneath at ¢, rises to 6. If here the direction 
of the slaty or stratified surface (Schieferungs oder Schichtungs 
Flache) leads down to d, which either has an immediate exit in 
the section of the valley abe, or runs at a slight depth below the 
surface, then the mineral spring will issue, owing to the pressnre 
of the column of water ab. While the rising streams of warm 
water take the course céd, the originally concentrated mineral 
water becomes diluted by the fresh water flowing down from 
above ; the carbonic acid gas, absorbed in great quantity beneath, 
is gradually disengaged as the water rises, and consequently the 
hydrostatic pressure is diminished, and thus free carbonic acid 
gas is evolved at d with the acidulous spring. It 1s clear, that 
the carbonic acid gas, which is constantly disengaged from the 
rising water during its whole course, not only moves on with the 
water on the surface of the stratum 6d, but fills all the intervals 


‘a 


* 
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 65 


of the clefts in the whole clay-slate rocks so that the gas will be 
evolved wherever these clefts are open at the surface. If these 
fissures open above the bottom of the valley, and therefore are 
| not filled with water, at least not up to the opening, then the gas 
= will escape from them with a hissing noise. If, on the other 
hand, they open from beneath the bottom of the valley, and are 
3 therefore filled with water, then the gas will escape bubbling 
; | through the water, and present entirely the appearance of a min- 
3 eral spring. If, lastly, these fissures be covered by alluvium, 
3 which, hevertheless, does not form an air-tight covering, then 
the gas will escape silently from the ground, and such places are 

recognized from the seanty vegetation which exists there. I 

= know but one of the first description of fissures in that district, 

2 which is found close to the first mineral spring, called Fehlenbor, 
in the valley of Burgbrohl, between Ténnisstcin and Burgbrohl. 

uch a fissure is also found in the Lifel, in the Brudeldreis, as it 

is called, not far from Biresborn. Fissures filled with water, 
from which gas is evolved, are tolerably numerous, as, for exam- 
ple in the valley of Burgbrohl. I formerly considered these 
Spots (which are~constantly met with in the vicinity of the - 
brooks, and consist of little basins filled with water) to be actual 
mineral springs. If, however, the basin be emptied out, or the 
Water drained off, it is at once perceived that no water springs up, 
but that merely an escape of gas takes place. I have had an op- 
Portunity of causing such gas-springs to be enclosed, and found 

e disengagement of carbonic acid gas to be extremely copious.* 
F issures, covered by accumulated earth, are very frequently met 
With. If such a place presents a slight excavation, in which the 
888 collects, suffocated animals, as birds, mice, frogs, &c., are 
Commonly found in it. 

As Springs run in the most different directions between the 
Surfaces of strata, and through the fissures of the strata, so also 
do these disengaged gases. I have often had occasion to cause 
©Xcavations to be made, in places where a scanty vegetation 
rendered the disengagement of carbonic acid gas at some depth 
Probable. Fissures were often met with in the trass, out of which 
rose abundant streams of this gas. Sometimes natural canals 

€ trass were found under a covering of Spharosiderit, which 
Fe lta ig ci 
cere der Chemie et Phys. t. lvi, p. 129. 1829.) 
ol, xxiv, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 9 


OG . Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


could be pursued from ten to twenty feet in a horizontal diree- 
tion, or nearly so, and which doubtless were prolonged still far- 
ther. 

If the carbonic acid gas arises from below with considerable 
elasticity, and the cleft contracts very much from 6 to e¢, then it 
may easily hapyen that the meteoric water may penetrate but 
little below 6. In this case, the column of water a b, will be as 
it were supported by the column of gas,+ and at the point of con- 
tact, a constant absorption of the gas will be going on. In this 
manner, probably, are those mineral springs formed, which 
abound in carbonic acid gas, but contain very little solid matter, 
and whose average temperature exceeds but little that of the 
neighboring wells. It must frequently be the case, moreover, 
that many springs which rise from a greater depth, and there- 
fore are originally warm, become cooled by mixture with cooler 
springs. 

The warmest of the mineral springs in the environs of the 
Laacher See exceed the mean temperature of the ground by 7° 
to 10° Fahrenheit. What is worthy of remark is, that they rise 
from the deepest spots of the valley, where, therefore, their sub- 


terraneous channels are proportionably deepest under the rock, — 


and possess already a relatively higher temperature. On pursuing 
the mineral springs up the valley, we find that their temperature 
decreases in a somewhat regular ratio.t 

The proportionably small number of clefts in the clay-slate 
rocks may certainly account for the circumstance, that, in the 
Laacher Nee, the Eifel, and the Taunus, so few springs of con- 
siderable high temperature occur, though the channels of the cat- 
bonic acid gas lead down to such great depths, probably to points 
where a red heat exists. Such warm springs may perhaps owé 
their existence to the favorable circumstance of a cleavage surface, 
which intersects the strata at an obtuse angle, leading up from the 
cleft between the volcanic cone and the clay-slate rock, and open- 
ing at a valley, ascd. Perhaps the warm springs at Bertrich 


* Neues Jahrbuch de Chem. et Phys. t. viii, p. 423, year 1833. 

+ The rising and falling of the periodic spring of the salt-work at Kissingen, is 
doubtless a ke ae a of the elasticity of carbonic acid gas. See Poggendarif's 
Ann. t xl, p. 


t Soin the sed of Taunus mountains, the warm springs rise deep in the valley, . 


the cold acidulous springs on the heights. 


re enw dP 


: * 
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 67 


and Hms, which rise in deeply hollowed valleys in clay-slate 


rocks, are thus produced. 

We may also easily conceive the possibility of obtaining a 
thermal spring by boring. A slight glance at the figure will show 
that a hole bored into a clay-slate rock in a valley, in the vicinity 
of a voleanic cone, will probably give exit to a thermal spring, if 
the borer reach the surface of a stratum ora slate surface com- 
municating with the cleft between the volcanic and the clay- 
slate rock. A successful attempt of this kind was actually made 
a few years ago, by boring into the clay-slate rock at the foot of 
the basaltic hill, the Landskrone in the Ahr valley, about three 
German miles north of the Laacher See, when a copious mineral 
was obtained of the temperature of 58° F., affording consider- 
able disengagement of carbonic acid gas. Indications prognosti- 
cating a favorable result of this undertaking were indeed 
ent, inasmuch as a mineral spring already existed at the distance 
of but a few steps from the spot.* 

Phenomena, perfectly resembling those which are observed 
where volcanic masses have actually broken through, present 
themselves very frequently. A cleavage, reaching to great depths, 
may also be a consequence of a preceding elevation and fracture 
of the component strata, without an actual breaking through 
having taken place. These phenomena are found in formations 
of all ages. Thus Hoffmannt has pointed out, in the north- 
West of Germany, some peculiar valleys which, originally per- 
fectly closed, are surrounded on all sides by a precipitous escarp- 
Ment, whose component strata incline from the centre downward, 
Mevery direction. He has given to these valleys the name of 
cn ; 


known hot springs of the temperature of 75° to 131°. F. at Ems, é 
level, and since an acidulous spring already exists there, the poosrbility, of i 
Cess of this undertaking is as little to be despaired of, as a favorable result can be 
Promised. Leop. von Buch’s remarks on this subject in Néggeraths Ausflug nach 

huen. Bonn. 1838, p.5. The instance of the salt work of Nauenheim, near 


68. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


_ valleys of elevation. 'The most remarkable of these, are those 
of Pyrmont, Meinberg, and Driburg, where the well-known 
chalybeate springs rise, accompanied by a considerable disen- 
gagement of carbonic acid gas. Pyrmont and Meinberg lie 
precisely at those places where the directions of the northeastern 
system of mountains and of that of the Rhine intersect. 

Here, therefore, we find also a considerable disengagement of 
carbonic acid gas; yet no volcanic masses which have broken 
through; but only the secondary strata of shell limestone, of 
keuper and variegated sandstone, raised up and fractured. ‘The 
mineral springs are of another kind, and the alkaline carbonates 
are wanting, while sulphates and metallic chlorides supply their 
place. We may easily explain this by the absence of rocks con- 
taining alkalies; for instance, basalt or any other volcanic rocks. 
The clefts produced by these fractures reach certainly to great 
depths ; carbonic acid gas may be evolved from them, but its 
elasticity seems to prevent the penetration of meteoric water. 
The mean temperature of the mineral springs there, exceeds, 
therefore, but little that of the place of their occurrence. This 
is especially the case with the mineral springs at Meinberg, 
whose considerable annual variations of temperature prove that 
they take their origin very near the surface. The considerable — 
elasticity with which the carbonic acid gas escapes, and which is 
greater than I have observed at any place where gas is evolved, 
prevents, no doubt, the deep penetration of meteoric water. More- 
over, we may remark, that the inclination of the strata, from the 
centre downwards in every direction, carries the meteoric water 
away from the seat of the evolution of the carbonic acid gas. 
Even supposing, then, that the water could penetrate to the depth 
of the channels of carbonic acid, it would not rise, owing to the 


Fig. 3 


absence of the pressure of a column of water. The section - 
the valley of elevation of Pyrmont, taken from Hoffmann’ 
work, Fig. 3, distinctly shows the inclination of the seen 
cd, ef, gh, ik, lm, from the centre downwards. 


Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. ; 


¢ fs 

It is possible that the raising and fracture of the secondary 
strata in such valleys of elevation, was the consequence of the 
elevation of voleanic masses from beneath, which masses have 
not appeared at the surface. Supposing this to be the case, 
we can easily imagine that at such places, mineral springs may 
be produced which contain carbonates of alkalies, because the 
Meteoric water only can penetrate to these masses. But the 
low temperature of the acidulous springs in question, shows that 
meteoric water penetrates to very small depths only at these 


col 


es. 2 oe 

| Valleys of elevation of the kind described, seem to be of tole = 
| erably frequent occurrence; thermal springs and disengagements 
of carbonic acid gas are not, however, always met with, either 
for want of sufficient depth of the clefts, or for want of mate- 
rials which give rise to the disengagement of carbonic acid gas. La 
Instances of three of such valleys at the eastern end of the ba- 
sin of London, are given by Buckland.* See also his and Con- } 
ybeare’s+ description of the structure of the country at St. Vin- 4 
a cent’s rocks; and the example at Matlock long ago pointed out 

. by Whitehurst.{ Many other instances of this kind occur im 

Danbeny’s report. | Stifft$ also has long ago shown, that the 

Tocks in the neighborhood of the mineral springs of the Nassau 

territory manifest evident changes in the direction and inclination 

of their Strata, especially saddle-shaped elevations, often accom- 

Panied with fractures, 

_ Finally, dislocations or faults produced by elevations and 

intersecting stratified rocks, may direct the subterranean course 

of springs in a very different manner. Buckland has given 
Many instances of springs originating from causes of this kind. 

' We take a summary view of all that has been said on’ the 
Subject of thermal springs, we. shall find it impossible to avoid 
Feeognizing a relation between elevations of Plutonic masses, the 
Upraising of Neptunian formations, and thermal springs. Cause 
and effect have, however, been frequently confounded here. 
Thermal and mineral springs are seldom, perhaps never, the cause 
of those effects, Where, however, these effects are observed, 


® 


% Geological Transact. sec. ser. vol: ii, parti, p- 119. t Ibid, vol. i, 
t Theory of the Earth, 1786. || P. 66. 
: Rullmann Wiesbaden, &c. 1823, p. 103. 2 

Geology and Mineralogy, &c, London, 1836, Vol. ii, p. 106 and 110, 


70 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 

_ where, in consequence, the penetration of meteoric water into 
the interior of our earth has been rendered possible, and where 
natural hydraulic tubes have been formed by the upraising of 
strata, there the phenomena of thermal and mineral springs were 
the consequence. 

We should transgress our limits, were we here to pursue the 
subject of thermal springs in their chemical relations, since the 
general aim of these remarks is to show that their degree of heat 
depends on the greater or less depth of their origin, consequently 
wholly and solely on central heat. The following remarks, how- 
ever, upon their chemical constitution, may perhaps not be en- 
tirely superfluous 

The chemical ingredients of those springs which take their 
origin at the boundary between volcanic and Neptunian forma- 
tions, are derived in some springs from the former, in others from 
the latter formations, in others again from both. e following 


conjecture is probable. If considerable quantities of carbonic- 


acid gas are disengaged from the interior, which are absorbed 
under strong hydrostatic pressure by the water, and thus act on 
the voleanic stone, decompositions ensue. The alkalies which 
are found in all stony masses of igneous origin, are extracted by 


the carbonic acid, and taken up by the water as carbonate of al- 


kalies, and especially carbonate of soda. In’the same manner 
are formed the bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, and of protoxide 
of iron. Metallic chlorides and sulphates may perhaps be less 
frequently derived from voleanic matter, and more so from the 
_ Neptunian formations. In this matter probably, are formed the 
great number of springs, which rise in the neighborhood of basal- 
tic hills. Where there is no disengagement of carbonic acid gas 
from the interior, no such mineral springs are found; at least we 
cannot assume that in this case the volcanic rock contribtites any 
thing essential to the constituents of the springs. 'Thus, prob- 
ably, neither in the Pyrenées nor Alps do the springs take up any 
thing essential from these rocks. The circumstance, that springs 
of very various chemical composition arise in the vicinity of the 
granite of different mountains, might here serves as an indirect 
proof. At the same time, the nearly similar composition of 
the springs occurring in the neighborhood of the basaltic cones, 
where carbonic acid gas is disengaged, however different may 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 71 


be the Neptunian formations, is an argument in favor of these — 


springs deriving their ingredients principally from the basalt. 

_ The organic matter found in such abundance in the sulphure- 
ous springs of the Pyrenées (baregine, glairine, animal matter) 
proves, that their chemical constituents must be derived, at least 
in part, from the Neptunian formations. Since no carbonic acid 
escapes from the rocks there, the granite in the interior may, in- 
deed, suffer but slight decompositions. The formation of the sul- 
phureous springs there, probably by the decomposition of sul- 
phates by organic matter, is certainly much favored by the high 
temperature of these springs; and this again is a consequence of 
the great depth to which the clefts extend in the strata, which 
are piled up one on another in considerable masses, and partly 
raised up, With many strata-surfaces between them. The coin- 
cidence of various circumstances may thus produce one class of 
thermal springs in preference to another. : 

In the Alps, where, on account of the absence of escapes of 
carbonic acid gas, decompasition of the granite and other vol- 
canic rocks does not take place, and where even the Neptunian 
formations contain few soluble substances, we find thermal 
springs, which are scarcely any thing more than ordinary warm 
Water, 


On the other hand, we see thermal springs issuing, to all ap- 
Peatance, from erupted masses, which springs contain ingredients 
*pparently peculiar to those which can be proved to issue from 
Neptunian formations. This is, for instance the case with the 
Salt-spring, which rises at Kreuznach out of porphyry. This 
Tock is but little fissured, and yet the high temperature of the 
“rings, 58° to 83°, indicates a deep origin. Since the porphyry 
has penetrated the variegated sandstone, the latter, and also the 
shelly limestone, lie in close contact with the springs, so that this 
Voleani¢e rock has no other share in the formation of these springs, 

an the production of deep clefts between itself and the Neptu- 
nian formations, which have permitted meteoric water to penetrate 
Into the strata containing the salts. We must not pass over one 
*ireumstance, which induces us to attribute to these saline springs 
* totally distinct origin, viz., that sulphate of lime, which other- 
Wise so generally accompanies the common salt, is here entirely 
absent, and that these springs are remarkable for their abundance 


of bromine and iodine. 


Ree Ree ORS © ent 


72 ; _ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


so sails escapes of steam (fumaroles) show themselves in regions 
(Tuscany for example) where hot masses have approached the 


surface of the earth by volcanic activity, one might perhaps be 
induced to expect evolutions of steam from clefts penetrating deep 
into the interior. It must, however, be observed, that between 
these two cases a wide difference exists. In regions where vol- 
canic action still manifests itself, clefts can with ease extend in 
masses which are of a boiling heat or even hotter. Meteori¢ 
water penetrating these clefts will be converted into vapor and 
exhaled. Were, however, such a phenomenon to show itself in 
regions where the increase of temperature follows the progres- 
sion, which we have found it to do in accessible depths, then 
must stich clefts extend perpendicularly to a depth of about 8280 
feet in our country. But are any rocks, even the unstratified 
masses, traversed by continuous clefts of so great a depth? In 


granite the prismatic separation is very frequent. The columnar 
structure is most distinct in basalt, aphanite, and all dense and 


homogeneous rocks. The columbs are sometimes traversed and 


disjointed by traverse clefts. ‘The surfaces of separation (Ab-_ 


sonderungs F'lachen) in the smaller masses, always lie perpen- 
dicularly on the adjacent ones, as do also the columns, when 


present. Let us assume that such a jointed separation extends 


to the requisite depth, and that meteoric water penetrates so far, 
and then it will certainly rise converted into steam; when, how- 
ever, it attains the higher colder regions, it will bécties condenagl 
again, and resume the same course or circulation. 

Since the voleanic masses, when thrown up, form, generally; 
the greatest heights, we must look in them for the compressing 
columns of water, which render the rising of the springs possi- 
ble. The possibility of such a case is conceivable, when the 
surface of the unstratified rock is inclined in one or more direc 
tions, and the columnar separations are jointed by transverse 
clefts. It is, however, even then, possible only when the trans 


verse clefts have no continuation outwards, for in this case the 


water will take a side course, and either issue on the slope of the 
rocks as springs, or, if raised strata exist, it will take the cours? 
designated in the preceding remarks. These two last cases see™ 
to be the most usual, as the circumstances above explained, prov® 
viz., that thermal springs most frequently present themselves be 
tween the unstratified and stratified rocks. I have imagined thé 


ere lL 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. , we 


last case, in order to exhibit the possibility of hot springs rising in 
the Alps, when water descends from great heights to the interior 
of the rocks, flows through warmer strata of earth, and then 
makes its exit in the valleys. It is clear that such springs merely 
flow from above downwards, when the raised strata make their 
appearance externally, but that they will, on the other hand, rise 
again, if the strata are upraised in the form of a trough on the 
Opposite side. 

Phenomena lately observed, may perhaps present cases, where 
the effect of the internal heat of the earth nearly approaches the 
surface. Marcel de Serres,* for instance, describes a cave near 
Montpellier, situated in the Jura limestone, in which, at depths 
of 135 and 150 feet, a constant temperature of 72°.5 F. prevails, 
Which exceeds by 10° the mean temperature of Montpellier 
(62°.5.) He shows that no accidental circumstance, such as de- 
Compositions, the burning of tapers, or the respiration of those 
Who visit the cave, can be the case of this phenomenon; but 
believes it is to be songht for in: the central heat, which rises 
through clefts and affects one point more, another adjacent one 
less, Thus, at the distance of about 1200 feet from this cave is 
found a cleft in the same formation, from which issue watery va- 
pors, whose temperature, 73°.5 (that of the external air being 
529-549. 5, ) is nearly the same as of an artesian well close in the 
Vicinity of the cave (70°.-72°.) These vapors, which probably 
rise from thermal springs existing beneath, are constantly disen- 
aged, and maintain a temperature of 73°.5, though in constant 
Contact with the external air. The cleft from which they issue, 
communicates with other wider clefts, which expand into caves, 
into which the inhabitants of the estate of Astier have already 
Penetrated. The laborers on this estate are in the habit of 
warming themselves pretty frequently in the hole where these 
Vapors are formed. On examinations, this vapor has all the 
Purity of distilled water. At an earlier period there existed, at 
the distance of 150 to 180 feet N.B. of the grotto of Astier, an- 
other opening from which an equally warm vapor was evolved, 
Which could be perceived at some distance off. This opening 

» however, been since filled up. ‘This constant vaporization 
of water, in the middle of the same rock in which the cave 
BE cee 


* Des Cavernes chaudes des environs de Montpellier in Annal. de Chim. et de 
Phys, t. Ixv, : 
Vol. *xxvu1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 10 


74 ‘ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


is found, shows pretty evidently the cause of the warmth in the 


w 


latter. 

It is scarcely to be doubted, but that, on closer investigation, 
the phenomenon of local heat in caves in the limestone rocks, 
which are fissured to such great depths, would be found to be of 
more frequent occurrence. The spring of the Orbe in the Jura 
mountain, formerly mentioned, which is nothing more than the 
discharge of the lakes situated 680 feet higher in the valley of 
the Joux, proves among others, to what a depth the clefts in the 
limestone rocks descend 

The whole ridge of the chalk hill of the Teutoburger Wald 
near Paderborn, is fissured to depths exceeding 800 feet, so that, 
on this whole ridge, either no springs at all, or but a few very 
scanty ones, are met with, which probably owe their existence 
to partial beds of mar] in the chalk rocks. In three villages 
which lie on this ridge, there is but one well 80 feet deep. On 
account of this almost total want of water, these are called the 
“ Dry Villages.” The cleavage continues in the valleys, which 
traverse these hills, consequently the brooks and rivers which 
flow through them gradually sink and flow out of the open- 
ings of these valleys only in the wet season of the year. At 
the foot of these chalk hills on the other hand, where the fissured 
limestone is covered by a stratum of marl, a very great number 

of copious springs issue, several of which form considerable riv- 
ers, as the Lippe, Pader, Heder, &c., immediately after theif 
exit. The cleavage of the chalk rocks is doubtless continued 
in the Quader Sandstein, which lie below and probably is lim- 
ited by the lias (gryphitenkalk) and veriegated marl, which fol- 
low immediately below the green sand, and which are remark- 
able for their large strata of clay marl (thonmergel,) that are 
impermeable, unless broken or dislocated by elevations. This 

whole chain of hills, then, from the clay-marl strata to the level 
of the springs which issue on the western declivity of the Tet 
toburzer Wald, is, therefore, saturated with water like a sponge 
Not merely geognostical reasons, but also physical relations, fur 
nish incontestible proofs of the existence of these considerable 
subterraneous reservoirs of water. For instance, while the water 
of the above-mentioned sinking brooks and rivers penetrates into 
the interior of the hills with the variable temperature of the sea 
sons, the waters of the numerous springs of Paderborn, whose 


ee 


|. a 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 75 


mean temperatute is 50°.6 F, and exceeds the mean temperature — 


of the soil by about 1°.7, present already a uniform degree of 
heat. Thus, on the 21st May, 1834, I found the temperature of 
the Alme at Brenken, where considerable masses of the water 
of this river flow down through the clefts of the chalk, to be 63°, 
while the springs at Geseke, at the distance of 22,000 feet, which 
doubtless receive their supply from this river, were of the tem- 
perature of 49° to 51°. The miller there, whose mill is turned 
by one of these springs (what is called the Vé/meder spring,) 
told me he had often opened the holes found on the banks 
of the Alme, and let in as much water as would have been alone 
Sufficient to turn his mill, but that he never perceived the slight- 
est increase of the streams. This also proves the great extent of 


‘the subterraneous reservoir of water, whose discharges are not 


Perceptibly increased by an addition of water. If, indeed, these 
additions are continued by continued wet weather, and the level 
of the subterraneous reservoir rises, then, not only will those 
springs become more copious, but water will also issue from high 
Situated channels, which contained no water during the dry sea- 
Son. Lastly, the same miller assured me that the muddiness of 
his mill streams by no means depended on that of the Alme, 
since they always become so after rain. Opinions were, how- 
ever, divided on this point, as other inhabitants of Geseke main- 
tained, that, within twelve or sixteen hours after rain, the Alme 
came mudy, and the Vélmeder springs became so too, while 
this had no influence on the springs in the town. Be this as it 
will, thus much is certain, that all the springs there do not be- 
come muddy after rain, but that many always remain clear, as 
the ‘warmer among the Pader springs. This circumstance 1s 
also a Satisfactory proof of the great extent of the subterraneous 
Teservoir, because, notwithstanding the fact, that the sinking 
Miers aud brooks, as well as the rain-water and snow-water, 
Which penetrate into the fissures of the fissured rock, are all 
muddy in rainy weather, yet the warmer springs, those conse- 
Wently which rise from a greater depth, run out clear. 

T have instituted some experiments in order to ascertain what 
Must be the extent of a single mass of water, which retains a 
Uniform temperature, when a given quantity of water is added to 
it, Whose temperature varies with the variable temperature of the 
Hvers of our latitude, and when from it is discharged an equal 


* 


_ 


76 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


quantity of water, whose annual variations of temperature are 
limited to those observed in the coldest of the Pader springs.* 
The water district (Wassergebiet) of these springs is about 216 
millions of square feet, and the quantity of water which they 
afford in one minute 16,530 cubic feet, according to measure- 
ments, as accurate as the nature of the thing would admit. It 
was calculated, from these numerical data, that a mass of water, 
120 feet in depth, must be present in this district where the 
springs rise, if all the water which sinks here in half a year pro- 
duce an alteration of temperature of 2°.25 F., presupposing that 
a mean differance of 22°.5 exisis between the temperature of the 
water which sinks, and of that which lies in the fissured rock. 
Since, however, the presupposition that a// the springs in Pader- 
born undergo this variation of temperature of 2°.25 in a half 
year, applies only to those whose average temperature does not 
exceed 5U°.6 F.; while the warmer springs, which are by far 
the more numerous, exhibit no variation of temperature during 
the whole year; the size of the subterraneous reservoir must be 
much vaster, if such considerable quantities of water of a uni- 
jorm temperature flow from it, while the water which sinks and 
is added to it, suffers variations of temperature dependent on 

those of the atmosphere. 
Calculations of this kind can, from the nature of the subject, 
ive but approximations to the real size of that of which we 
could otherwise form no estimate at all. The preceding calcula- 
tion shows, at least, that all the clefts and caverns in the chalk 
rock of the Teutoburger Wald must be filled with water from 
the level of the springs, down to some impermeable stratum. 
How otherwise can we explain the fact, that considerable quan- 
tities of water of the varying temperature of the atmosphere 
constantly sink into the rock, and that as considerable quantities 
flow out at the slope of the rock, presenting a uniform tempera- 
Jie 


* It is really a remarkable fact to see so considerable a number of springs rise in 
80 small a compass as the Jower part of the town of Paderborn. Their number 18 
said to amount to 130, several of which constantly appear close together, often al the 
distance of but one or two paces, and immediately form considerable brooks, which 
by their union form the Pader, so large a river, that its diff branches turn no less 
than fourteen undershot water-wheels of the town situated near together. Almost 
equally large masses of water, however, derive their sources from Lippspr’"s 
Kirchborchen, and Upsprung, not to mention the many other springs which lie dis- 
persed at the foot of that chain of hills, 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 77 


ture, or at all events, one which varies only 4°.5 Fahr., ina whole 
year. Since the conjecture is probable that the lias and the va- 
riegated marl present the first entirely impermeable strata, we may 
also conclude, that not only the chalk formation, but also the 
green sand, which is equally fissured, are filled by the reservoir, 
and that its bottom is formed by the above mentioned impermea- 
ble strata. Lastly, the high temperature of what are called the 
warm Pader springs (54°.5-61°.25 Fahr.) indicates also an or- 
igin from a greater depth, if they do not flow in distinct chan- 
nels, but come from warm streams, which rise from the base of 
the reservoir. 

The copious springs, which rise on the western declivity of 
the Teutoburger Wald, owe their abundance of water, even in 
dry seasons, to these vast subterraneous reservoirs; and what is 
derived from these reservoirs, is abundantly replaced in the rainy 
Teasons, when nearly all the water collected in a district so much 
fissured, penetrates into the interior. 

These large masses of water, whose temperature exceeds, by 
Several degrees the average one of the district under which they 
are collected, and which brings so much the more heat to their 
Surface the deeper they penetrate, have doubtless the effect of 
Warming the hills under which they exist. It is therefore per- 
haps a Phenomena of universal occurrence, that all chalk hills, 
Which are much fissured, and into which brooks, rivers, and most 
of the meteoric water sink, maintain a relatively higher temper- 
ature. ~The Pader springs alone, however, show how inexhaust- 
ible taust be the sources which warm such vast masses of water. 

hese springs furnish in a year at least 8688 millions of cubic 
. of water, whose average temperature exceeds by at least 

75 Fahr., the average temperature of the ground at Pader- 

™ and this excess would melt a cube of ice, having a side of 
934 feet, This heat is irrevocably withdrawn from the interior, 
and yet the thermal springs of Paderborn have sustained no 


Which could there give rise to such inexhaustible sources of heat 
: the youngest secondary formations, must be, or have been, 


“attied on to a great extent indeed ! 


- . . . 

“ By far the greater number of the remaining copious springs, which rise on the 

iy ™ declivity of the Tutoburger Wald, are also thermal ones. Some, for in- 
“im Lippspring attain a temperature of 54°.5, 


a3: Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 


Arr. V.—Reply of Dr. Dauseny to Prof. Bischof’s Objections to 
the Chemical Theory of Volcanos.—Edinb. New Phil. Jour. 
for April, 1839. ; 


Prof. Daveeny after referring to an article of his in the Edinb, 
Jour. for 1832, and to the article Volcanic Geology, in the Ency- 
clop. Metro., proceeds to vindicate his own views in regard to 
the chemical theory of volcanos, by replying as follows, to the 
objections against it. 

1st Oljection.—It is not true that volcanos are always near the sea. 

Pesckan, in the centre of Asia, is 260 geographical miles from 
any great sea, and yet has given rise to streams of lava within the 
period of our history. It also lies 25 geographical miles from the 
lake of 'Timartu or Issikul, which is not twice as large as the lake 
of Geneva. 

The volcano of Turfan also is surrounded by very inconsidera- 
ble lakes. 

Answer.—The general connection of voleanic action with, ora 
proximity to, large masses of salt or fresh water, is all that seems 
required by the conditions of our theory. 

Now, in proof of this general proximity, it may be remarked, 
that out of a catalogue of ‘no less than'163 active vents enume- 
rated by M. Arago, as occurring in various parts of the known 
world, all excepting two or three in different parts of America, 
and about the same number of which we possess very imperfect 
information, in Central Asia, are within a short distance at least 
of the ocean. It is even found that the very excepted cases, when 
examined, tend to confirm the rule, being so situated, that their 
connection, either with the ocean or with inland seas that may 
supply its place, becomes a matter of fair inference. In proof of 
this, we need only refer to the descriptions given by Humboldt of 
Jorullo; from which it appears, that distant as this mountain may 
be both from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it is nevertheless 
connected with one or both through the medium of a chain of 
volcanic eminences; and even the voleanos of Tartary, whose 
existence in an active condition is more problematical, may be 
connected with some of those extensive salt lakes which seem 0 
abound in the depressed portion of Central Asia. 

2d Objection.—Atmospheric air cannot gain admittance to the 
focus of a volcano, because there must be an enormous force act- 


Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 79 


ing outwards to protrude the liquid lava to so great a height, and 
as this pressure continues for many years, during which time the 
phenomena by no means abate in activity, it is impossible that 
air should in any way contribute to it. 

Answer.—The very conditions of our theory imply the exist- 
ence near and about the focus of the voleano of vast caverns, 
caused originally by the heaving up of the softened rocks, owing 
to the elastic vapors disengaged, and consequently filled in the 
first instance by these matters. But the amount of these vapors 
must be undergoing continual oscillation. Ist, Owing to differ- 
ences of temperature caused by the constantly varying intensity 
of the volcanic action. 2dly, By the reaction of the gases upon 
each other, as for instance, sulphuretted hydrogen upon sulphu- 
rous acid, muriatic and ca:bonic acids upon ammonia, the fixed 
alkalies and the earths. 3dly, By the ever-varying proportion 
between the amount of water decomposed by the alkaline or 
earthy metals, and generated by the union of hydrogen to the 
oxygen present. Hence, unless the passages between these cav- 
erns and the external atmosphere were hermetically sealed (which 
nO one contends), air must at times enter the latter to fill the 
vacuum thus occasioned. 

3d Objection.—If the oxidation of the earthy and alkaline 
Metals were to take place at the expense of water, enormous 
quantities of hydrogen would be evolved, which has never been 
observed. 

Answer.—Hy drogen could hardly be expected to escape in 
afree state from a spot which contained so many elements for 
Which it possesses a strong affinity, and to which it would be 
Presented under the influence of the pressure and temperature 
80 well calculated to promote its combination with them. 

; Thus, sulphur and chlorine we know to be generally present 
iN voleanos, and oxygen and nitrogen, we may fairly assume to 

80. But, although hydrogen may not be disengaged alone, 
large quantities of it, in combination with sulphur, appear to be 
almost universally evolved from volcanos, and it is probable that 
the great beds of sulphur which exist in most volcanic districts 
(viz. Sicily) are the result of the decomposition of the sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen evolved. Nor, indeed, does it seem possible to ex- 
Plain the presence of this hydrogen, without having recourse to 
the chemical theory. 


80 Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 


Ath Objection.—The evolution of carbonic acid by volcanos is 
not explained, and these diseugagements of carbonic acid gas 
could not take place in the presence of atmospheric air in those 
vast subterranean cavities without their mixing together. Now, 
the carbonic acid evolved by volcanos (Vesuvius, Bifel, &c.,) con- 
tains but little atmospheric air. 

nswer.—The evolution of carbonic acid in countries exposed 
to the influence of volcanic heat, would seem to be a necessary 
result of the existence of calcareous matter in the rock forma- 
tions. Its continuance for so long a period after the volcano has 
ceased to be in activity, seems to show, that it is not derived di- 
rectly from the chemical processes which produce the phenomena 
in question, but is only caused by the heat which these processes 
tend to diffuse through the adjacent rocks. Hence there seems 
no reason why it should be intermixed with any large proportion 
of common air, though, as I have shown, this ingredient is rarely 
altogether absent in any samples which it has fallen to my lot to 
examine. 

5th Objection.—No nitrogen, according to Boussingault, is 
evolved from the voleanos under the equator, as would be the 
case if any process of oxydation were going on in which atmos 
pheric air co-operated. 

Answer.—The nitrogen remaining after the atmospheric aif 
had been robbed of its oxygeu, by the inflammable bodies pres- 
ent, may reach the air either in a separate condition, or unite 
with hydrogen in the form of ammonia. The former I have 
generally found to be the case in thermal spriugs connected with 
volcanos in an extinct or langnid condition—the latter in the era- 
ters or fumaroles of those still in a state of greater or less activ- 
ity. Ido not wonder, therefore, that Boussingault should have 
rarely detected nitrogen in the volcanos of the equator,* but I 
should expect that sal-ammouiac may, nevertheless, be exhaled 
from some of them. If this be not the case, it is still possible 
that the sal-ammoniac sublimed may have been accumulated 
within some of the vast cavities existing in ‘the interior of the 
voleano, so that the occasional absence of nitrogen seems less 
difficult of explanation in accordance with the chemical theory, 


Ai ee rial 


* In two instances it was present. 


| 


— i cs 
ay 


Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. «81 


than the frequent associations of it with volcanos is, if we do not 
have recourse to this hypothesis. : 

6th Objection.—The metals of the earths are not sufficiently 
oxidizable to kindle on the access of water, and to produce the 
intense heat which would be necessary for producing and lique- 
fying lavas. 

_Answer.—Silicon, though when pure it is incapable of decom- 
posing water, and is incombustible in oxygen, yet kindles readily 
when united either with a little hydrogen or with alkaline car- 

hates. Aluminium, even by itself, burns brilliantly when 
heated above redness, and dissolves with the evolution of hydro- 
gen in very dilute solutions of potassa. 

Calcium and magnesinm appear to be still more inflammable, 
and the bases of the alkalies, present along, and perhaps in com- 
bination with them, might, whenever water obtained access, 
generate heat sufficient to cause the other bases to enter into 
combination with oxygen. Besides, we know that aluminium 
and magnesium enter readily, with an evolution of heat and 
light, into combination with chlorine, a body which (as we shall 
See) there is good reason for supposing present in volcanos. 

-Tth Objection.—The slight specific gravity of the metals of 
the alkalies proves fatal to Davy’s hypothesis, for, if the mean 
density of the earth surpass that of all kinds of rocks, these 
metals cannot exist, at least not in great quantities, in the inte- 
tor-of the earth. 

In reply to this T cannot do better than extract the remarks 
Which [ made in reply to the self same objection in my article 
on vdleanos, published in the Encyclopeedia Metropolitana in the 
Year 1833, 


“An objection against our hypothesis has also been sometimes deduced “— 
the mean density of the Earth, which is calculated at five times that of water 5 
and hence it has been concluded, that bodies so light as potassium and sodium are, 
*amnot make a part of its nucleus. 


exist, in the a 
On the other hand, the specific gravity of the basis of silica, and probably, also, 

of that of the other earths which predominate in lava, is sufficiently considerable 

to Warrant the’ ‘ containing these principles in the 

Proportions indicated, and united with as much metallic iron as we know to exist 

: State of an oxide in the generality of lavas, would form an aggregate pos- 
ol, Xixvur, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. li 


82  _—s- Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 


sessing a higher enh gravity than that of the compound resulting from the oxi- 
dation of the entire mass. 

Let us take for SERIA the recs baa given by Dr. Kennedy, of the lava from 
ag which he states to consist 


Silica, 52 per cent X Sp. gr. 2.65 = 127.8 
Alumina, 19 per cent X Sp. gr. 4.20= 79.8 
Lime, 10 per cent X Sp. gr. 3.00 = 30.0 
Oxide of Tron, 15 per cent X Sp. gr. 5.00 = 75.0 
Soda, 4 per cent Sp. gr.2.00= 8.0 


100 320.6 

We here find that 100 parts of this lava have a specific gravity equal to 320.6, 
and consequently that the specific gravity of the mass would be no more than 32, 
supposing it divested of water. 

Now, let us contrast this with the specific gravity of 100 parts of the metallic 
Principles which would give rise to a mineral possessing the above chemical 
Cheeposiu on. 

Silica, 52, contains of base, 26 % Sp. gr. 2.0 = 520 
Alumina, 19, contains of base, 10 % Sp. gr 2.0 = 20.0 
Lime, 10, contains of base, 7 yx Sp. gr. 4.0 = 28.0 
Oxide of Iron, 15, contains of base, 12 X Sp. gr 7.8 = 93.6 
oda, 4, contains of base, 3 X Sp. gr. 10= 3.0_ 


100 58 196.6 
Now as 58—196—100—340. 
Consequently the specific gravity of the whole would be no less than 3 4. 
specific gravity of aluminium appears not to be ascertained, but probably it is not 
inferior to that of —— which sinks in the strongest sulphurie acid, and there- 
fore is more than 

The theory, thicohrs, we have been advocating, leaves the question, with re- 


sation of such rocks as are found near the surface, in consequence of the super- 
incumbent weight, as certain metals may be rendered heavier by pressure, are 
entitled to extend this explanation to the case of the alkaline and earthy bases; 
whilst those who regard the density of the Earth to be a proof that some heavier 
matter must exist below, are not precluded from such a supposition, as our t 
implies merely the existence of such a quantity of metallic ingredients, as would 
be sufficient to peeins the materials hip leaving the constitution of the re 
mainder just as open to conjecture as it was before, 

It is curious Sedenk. that whilst some pet argued that the kind of materials 
found near the surface is inadequate to account for the density attributed to the 
Earth in general; others, as the late distinguished Professor Leslie, have ¢om 
tended, that these substances would have their specific gravity so much increased 
by the enormous pressure from above, that void internal spaces must be nece* 

sarily su pposed. On this he has founded his singular hypothesis, that the centre 
of the Earth is filled only with light, the rarest substance known ; an idea, the 
mere mention of which is sufficient. to show how little we can be justified in re 
jecting an explanation of facts, merely Kechase it appears to militate against the 
conjectures that may be conjured up with regard to the internal conditio n of our 
planet.” 


we ee ole 


Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 83 


\ 

8th Objection.—If, according to Gay-Lussac, the hydrogen of 
the decomposed water goes to form muriatic acid with chlorine, 
the above mentioned acid ought to be general in volcanos. Now, 
it is wanting, according to Boussingault, in the voleanos under 
the equator in the New World, and according to Bischof, in those 
near the Rhine. 

Answer.—I believe, that muriatic acid will be found pretty 
constantly present in volcanos now in activity. Sir H. Davy 
found it at Vesuvius on both the occasions he visited that vol- 
cano, viz. 1815 and 1829. I myself in 1834, detected it there 
in great abundance; and in 1825, found it at the Solfatara, 
in the Island of Vuleano, and near Mount Etna. It has been 
discovered also in the volcanos of Iceland; in those of Java, 
at Mount Idienne; and of South America, at Purace. The 
sal-ammonia which so abounds in the volcanos of Tartary, 
shows, that it is also present there ; and the existence of it in 
the trachytic rock of the Puy de Sarcouy in Auvergne, proves, 
that it was a concomitant of volcanic action in days that have 
gone by. 

All therefore that Bischof is warranted in inferring from its 
absence in the case of the volcanos of the Rhine and Equatorial 
America, is, that it ceases to be disengaged when the action be- 
Comes languid or extinct. Now there are many ways of account- 
ing for this. In the first place, granting the acid to be derived 
from the sea-salt present in the water which originated the vol- 
Cahic action, it would cease to be generated when this fluid no 
longer obtained admission ; or, when the heat was inadequate to 
Cause the union of the alkali of the sea-salt with the earths 
Present ; and even if it were still generated, it might be pre- 
Vented from rising to the mouth of the crater, by combining in 
lis way with the calcareous rocks through which it had to pass. 

ence the carbonic acid, which Professor Bischof remarks as so 
abundantly evolved by the voleanos of the Rhine, may perhaps 
Tepresent an equal volume of muriatic acid, by whose agency it 

ad been evolved from the limestones that contained it. 

Thus have I replied seriatim to all the objections, which an 
‘cute and learned opponent has been able to adduce against the 
chemical theory of volcanos; and having done so, might be ex- 
Peete perhaps to proceed to some remarks on the one to which 
he himself has given the preference. 


84 Mountains in New York. 


But in order not to occupy too much of your space, I will 
merely here remark, that Professor Bischof appears (at least in 
the portion of his memoir yet published) to pass over without 
any attempt at explanation, certain chemical phenomena of con- 
stant occurrence, which follow directly from the principles of the 
theory to which he has objected. 

These are, Ist, The evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, in 
quantities far exceeding what are to be explained by the reac- 
tion of carbonaceous matter upon sulphates, or any of those 
other processes which sometimes produce it on the surface of 
the earth. : 

2dly, The disengagement of sal-ammoniac, for although one 
of the constituents of this compound, the muriatic acid, might 
arise from the decomposition of sea-salt by aqueous vapor, the 
other one, the ammonia, implies the presence of free hydrogen as 
well as of nitrogen gas, near the focus of the volcanic action. 

3dly, The circumstance, which I have substantiated in s0 
many cases, that I begin to believe it almost universally true, 
that the atmospheric air exhaled from volcanos, and indeed gene- 
rally from the interior of the earth, is deprived in a greater or less 
degree of its proper proportion of oxygen. That processes, there- 
fore, by which this principle is abstracted, are going on exten- 
sively within the globe cannot be denied, and hence I conceive 
that any theory, which attempts to account for voleanic action, 
without taking notice of so essential a phenomenon, ought to be 
regarded as imperfect and unsatisfactory. 


Art. VI.—Mountains in New York; by E. F. Jounson, Civil 


ngineer. 


In a report recently made, by the author of this article, of @ 
survey of a route for the proposed Ogdensburgh and Champlain 
railway, the elevations above tide of the highest of each of the 
three distinct groups of mountains divided by the valleys of the 
Saranac and Au Sable rivers, are — as follows: 
Lyon Mountain, - - - - - - 3,864 feet. 
Whiteface do. - - - - - - = 4,666 “ 
Mit. Marcy; iecssf2+ en ele ee ATS 

To this statement of elevations, the following note was appended: 


Mountains in New York. | 85 


“The altitudes here given, were deduced from the angular ele- 
vations observed from a point near Lake Champlain, whose ele- 
vation was known, and the distances as determined from the map. 
I mention this to account in part, perhaps, for the discrepancy be- 
tween the results above given and those contained in the geolo- 
gical report as derived from barometrical measurement.” 

Prof. Emmons, State Geologist for the Northern District of 
New York, in his last annual report, in reference to the above, 
has the following : ; oe 

“Ina report to the Legislature this present session, Mr. E. F. 
Johnson, the Engineer of the Ogdensburgh and Champlain rail- 
toad, questions the accuracy of the measurements of Mt. Marcy. 
In reply to his suggestions, I shall merely remark, that it is quite 
doubtful whether the mountain in question is distinguishable 
ftom those of the same group, especially by one who has never 
Visited the interior of this section, and if visible, his measurement 
is not entitled to consideration except as a very imperfect approx- 
imation,”” 

~The observations made by myself were taken, as stated, from 
an elevated point near Lake Champlain. 

The instrument used was of a superior kind, and, graduated, 
8° as to give, with the aid of the nonius, fractions of degrees as 
small as 7$ seconds. On the day when the observations were 
Made it was carefully adjusted. 

Not only the peaks above mentioned, but the elevations of from 
30 to 40 other points were observed, several of which had been 
Previously measured. Among the latter number were the two 
Most elevated peaks of the Green Mountains, Camels Hump and 
Mansfield ; these were found, the former to be 4,220 and the latter 
4,359 feet above tide. = 

hese peaks, as measured barometrically by Capt. A. Partridge, 
(see Gazetteer of Vermont,) were found, the former to be 4,188 
and the latter 4,279 feet above tide; Jess in both cases than the 
Fesults by trigonometrical measurement. The barometrical ele- 
Yations of Mt. Marcy and Whiteface, as given by Mr. Emmons, 
Were on the contrary greater than the trigonometrical ; the former 
PY 687 and the latter by 189 feet; the first being 5,594 and the 
Second 4,855 feet above tide. 

It was this great discrepancy, that induced the remark of dis- 
WUst, as to the entire correctness of Mr. Emmon’s barometrical 


SE Mountains in New York. 


measurement ; a discrepancy which cannot be attributed to any 
inaccuracy of adjustment in the instrument used by me, since if by 
any error in this respect, the angle of elevation was too great or too 
small in one case, it Was also too great or too small in the other, 
producing a corresponding elevation or depression in both. Nei- 
ther can it be attributed toa difference in the estimated allowance 
for refraction, for this allowance was the same in both cases; 
hence if too great or too small, the elevations of both were simi- 
larly affected and to the same amount. ‘The observations were 
also made from the same spot at nearly the same time of the same 
day ; hence there could probably be no great difference in the re- 
fractive power of the atmosphere, 

Again, so great a difference could not well result from an error 
in the distances, for although these were obtained as stated from 
the map, they were tested by comparing with known distances 
upon the same map, the latter having been projected on a large 
scale and compiled from actual surveys, with the positions of the 
several peaks, as is believed very accurately defined, that of Mt. 
Marcy in particular, coinciding very nearly with the location and 
bearing of it from Whiteface and other points, as described by 
Mr. Emmons. That some other peak was taken for Mt. Marcy, 
as is intimated by Mr. Emmons, is therefore scarcely possible, 
more especially as it is certain that the one observed was the 
highest of the group in which Mt. Marcy is situated. Had the 
peak in question been a lower instead of the highest one of the 
group, its not being “distinguishable” could be urged by Mr 
Emmons with more propriety. 

Assuming therefore, as is proper to do under these circumstal- 
ees, that the trigonometrical measurement exhibits very neatly 
the relative elevations of the high peaks in Vermont and New 
York, it follows, that to place Mr. Emmons’s barometrical meas 
urements of Whiteface and Mt. Marcy upon a par, as it regat 
accuracy, with the barometrical measurements of Camels Hump 
and Mansfield, that the former should be reduced, the first about 
290 and the second about 800 feet ; or in other words, these at@ 
the differences in the barometrical measurements by the two ob 
servers. Both surely cannot be correct ; and it is equally certaill 
also, that both may be incorrect. Until, therefore, Mr. ons 
shall have proved, that his measurements are entitled to a highet 
degree of confidence, he must submit to have their accuracy que 


Mountains in New York. 87 


tioned. It is granted that it is possible he may be after all nearest 

the truth, but so long as the evidence in the case is more against — 
than for such a conclusion, his claim to superior accuracy cannot 
be allowed. Capt. Partridge has had perhaps more experience 
than any other individual in the United States in measuring 
mountain elevations with the barometer. In two measurements 
made by him of Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, the first 
gave 6,103 feet and the second 6,234 feet. The measurement 
of the same mountains by Prof. Bigelow, as computed by Prof. 
Farrar of Cambridge, gave as the height above tide 6,225 feet, 
a coincidence somewhat remarkable, considering the very great 


elevation of Mt. Washington. 


'. Emmons states that the distance from Mt. Marcy to White- 
face is about 16 miles, and that the depression of the latter from 
the former is 15 minutes of a degree. If the instrument used by 
Mr. Emmons in taking this angular depression was a suitable one 
and in a proper state of adjustment, and if he is correct as to the 
distance, the difference in elevation of those two summits would 
have been obtained therefrom with more accuracy than from the 
barometrical measurements. No one capable of appreciating all 
the causes of error in the two modes of measurement would prob: 
ably deny this. Assuming, therefore, the data above given as 
Correct, of which I cannot but express some doubt, it gives a dif- 
ference in elevation of the two peaks of 578 feet, nearly, whereas 
the difference shown by Mr. Emmons’s barometrical measure- 
Ments is 739 feet, or nearly 30 per cent. greater, being nearly as 
Much greater as the result by my measurement is /ess, showing 
that, if the 578 feet is taken as the standard, there is about as near 
‘1 approximation to the truth in the one case as in the other. 

The barometer I consider a very valuable instrument, and have 
made much use of it, as being a cheap and expeditious mode of 
ativing at an approximate knowledge of the generak features of a 
Country ; but that it will afford, by a single observation, in the 

of practiced or unpracticed observers, and under all cireum- 
Stances, resnits as much to be depended on for their accuracy as 
a be inferred from Mr. Emmons’s statement, cannot be con- 


: The principal sources of error in the use of this instrument are 
MS great liability, particularly the mountain barometer to get out 
pe i. The difficulty also of arriving at a correct knowledge 
oy change of pressure, or condition of the atmospheric column 


o.- Mountains in New York. 


which sustains the column of mercury, arising from fluctuations, 
that are independent of temperature, and for which no provision 
is made in most formulas, and the discrepancy in the results as 
given by different formulas, all claiming to be equally correct. 

Errors from these sources when they occur so as to affect the 
result differently, may neutralize each other, but when they ope- 
rate the same way, may produce a very considerable deviation 
from the truth. In the observations of Mr. Emmons, the barome- 
ter at Whiteface was compared with the barometer at Burlington 
and Albany, and if I rightly understand him, the mean of the two 
was taken, the difference being about 100 feet less at the former 
than at the latter. .The time of making the observations was 6, 
A. M. of the same day, Sept. 21. In the record which he gives 
of the state of the barometer at the two latter places at noon of 
the same day, the fact is made known that while the baromet- 
ric column fe// at the one place it rose at the other, causing @ 
difference equivalent to upwards of 100 feet of elevation. Com- 
puting the elevation of the place of observation at Burlington at 
6, A. M. above tide from the observation at Albany at the same 
time, and it gives 500 feet, nearly. Taking the observations 
made at the same places at 12, M. of the same day, and the re- 
sult is 390 feet, nearly. Which of these is correct, or whether 
either is only known from the fact that the elevation in question 
has been ascertained by the common mode of levelling to be 372 
feet, nearly, giving a maximum deviation from the truth in tw 
observations only, of 128 feet, nearly. In the case of the obset- 
vation on the summit of Whiteface, there exist no data by which 
the relative conditions of the atmospheric column as compared 
with the same column at Burlington and Albany can be ascel- 
tained.. 

Whiteface is about 35 miles west of Burlington, the nearest of 
the points mentioned, but far enough, it is believed, for considet 
able difference to exist. But one observation is recorded as hav- 
ing been made on its summit and that not under the most favor 
able circumstances, since it is stated that the “ wind was strong 
from the northeast and cloudy.” In the case of Mt. Marcy, the 
comparison was made with the barometer at Albany. In cousé- 
quence of the greater distance of the places of observation, a much 
greater error might result than in the case of the observations a 
Whiteface and Burlington. That the greater discrepancy 
tween the barometric and trigonometric elevations of Mt. Mar 


Mountains in New York. 89 


compared with Whiteface is attributable in some degree to this 
cause, it is most certainly not unreasonable to suppose. 

Again, a considerable discrepancy in barometric results may 
arise from the difference in the different formulas used in making 
the computations. Mr. Emmons makes the elevation of Mt. 
Marcy above tide 5,594 feet. Mr. Redfield, by another formula, 
makes it from the same observations 127 feet less, and by yet 
another formula which has been found by comparison with the 
known elevation of objects by levelling to give results quite near 
the truth, it is somewhat less than the elevation obtained by Mr. 
Redfield. In the case of the Whiteface Mt. the elevation by this 
latter formula, computing from Mr. Emmons’s observations, is less 
than that given by him by about 290 feet, or about 100 feet lower 
than the elevation as derived from trigonometrical measurement. 

If these causes of error exist, and the tendency of all combined 
is to affect the altitude in the same way, of which there is no ev- 
idence to the contrary, it is not difficult to-imagine. that Mr. Em- 
mons’s barometric measurement of Mt. Marcy may be farther from 
the truth than he is willing to admit. 

The propriety of this conclusion, independent of all other con- 
siderations, is I conceive most fully warranted in the great dis- 
crepancy of the relative barometric altitudes of the peaks in New 
York and Vermont already described, as shown by the trigonom- 
etrical measurement. 

The statement made by me in the report alluded to at the head 
of this article, was, I believe, clearly warranted by the circum- 
Stances of the case, and as such was entitled to a degree of con- 
sideration in no respect inferior to that which can be reasonably 
Claimed in behalf of Mr. Emmons’s measurement. It was most 
*ettainly no wish or intention of mine, in making that statement, 
* disparage, in the least, the labors of Mr. Emmons ; and it was 
not imagined that he could consider the statement as having that 
tendency ; but” since, from the tenor of his remarks, he has 
thought proper to construe it in that light and to pronounce so 
unequivocally (to use a very mild term) in respect to the superi- 

ty of his barometrical measurements, I am compelled, very re- 
luctantly, I confess, to state the facts in detail which influenced 
My judgment and which I believe fully justify me in all I have 


90 Account of a Tornado. 


Arr. VII—Account of a Tornado; by Witx1s Gaytorp. 


Havine visited and examined the scene of the tornado, so well 
described by Mr. Willis Gaylord of Otisco, Onondaga Co., N. Y¥., 
in the Genesee Farmer, Nov. 10, 1838, we also can bear witness 
to the tremendous devastation which that whirlwind produced. 

We were on the ground in September, about two months after 
the event. Before the tornado, a region of 4 or 500 acres had been 
covered by a dense forest of pine trees, many of them very tall and 
large; roads had been cut through this forest and a few solitary 
houses were planted in it, here and there. Now we looked in 
vain over the whole tract for a single perfect tree. Those which 
had not been uprooted or broken in two near the ground, were 
shivered and twisted off at different elevations, leaving only 4 
portion of a shattered trunk, so that nota single tree top, and 
hardly asingle branch were found standing in-the air: there 
were instead only mutilated. stems, presenting a striking scene of 
desolation wherever our eyes ranged over the now almost empty 
aerial space. On the ground the appearances were still more re- 
markable. The trees were interwoven in every possible way s0 
as to form a truly military abattis of the most impassable kind, 
nor immediately after the gale, could any progress be in fact made 
through the gigantic thickets of entangled trunks and branches, 
without the labor of bands of pioneers, who cut off the innumer- 
able logs that choked every avenue. We had before seen many 
avenues made through forests by winds, prostrating the trees and 
laying them down in the direction of its course: but never had 
we seen such a perfect desolation by a gyratory movement, before 
which the thick and lofty forest and the strongest framed build- 
ings vanished, in an instant, and their ruins were whirled irresist 
ibly around like flying leaves or gossamer. 

Still it was truly wonderful that people were buried in the 
ruins of their houses, and travellers with their horses and cattle, 
were exposed to this driving storm of trees which literally filled 
the air, and still not a single life was lost, although some persous 
were wounded. 

We were assured that this wind had marked a track of devas 
tation for twenty miles or more, but this was the scene of its 
greatest ravages. T'wo or three miles from this place, we saw ® 


Account of a Tornado. 91 


wing of a house which had been moved quite around so as to 
form a tight angle with its former position, and still the building 


was not broken.—#ids. 


“On the afternoon of the 25th of July, 1838, (says Mr. Gay- 
lord,) a violent tornado passed over part of the county of Allegany, 
N. Y., rarely equalled in its destructive effects, and giving a most 
striking illustration of the peculiar movements of the wind in 
these aerial currents. It was noticed in some of the journals at 
the time; but happening to cross its route, in passing up the 
Genesee valley in the succeeding month, we were so much in- 
terested with the appearance as to be induced to prepare the fol- 
lowing sketch for the readers of the Farmer. 

“The first appearance of severe wind, was, as we learned, in 
the town of Rushford, some fifteen miles from the place where 
we observed its effects. 'The day was hot and sultry, and the 
course of the gale was from the N. of W. to S. of East. At its 
commencement in Rushford, it was only a violent thunder gust, 
such as are frequently experienced, but it soon acquired such 
force as to sweep in places every thing before it. In its passage 
the same violence was not at all times exerted ; some places seem- 
ed wholly passed over, while in the same direction and at only a 
Small distance whole forests were crushed. In the language of 
ne who had suffered much from the gale, ‘it seemed to move 
by bounds, sometimes striking and sometimes receding from the 
earth,’ which indeed was most likely the case. 

“It passed the Genesee river in the town of Belfast, a few miles 

low Angelica, and its fury was here exerted on a space of coun- 
tty perhaps a mile or a mile and a half in width. The country 
here is settled and cleared along the river, but the road passes at 
little distance from the river, and at this point wound through 
One of the finest pine woods to be found on the stream. Of course 
When it came over the higher lands from the N. W., the tornado 
Crossed the river and the plain before encountering the groves of 
Pine. In the space occupied by the central part of the tornado, 
“ay three-fourths of a mile in width, nothing was able to resist its 
fury. Strong framed houses and barns were crushed in an instant, 
and their fragments and contents as quickly scattered to every 
Point of the compass ; while those out of the direct line were only 
Unroofed, or more or less domaged. Large oaks and elms, were 
literally twisted off, or crushed like reeds. 


92 Account of a Tornado. 


a 


“The road from the north approached the pine woods on what 
was the northern verge of the tornado, and the first appearance 
of the country in front was that of woodlands in which all the 
trees had been broken off at the height of 20 or 30 feet, leaving 
nothing but countless mutilated trunks. On entering the narrow 
passway, however, which with immense labor had been opened 
through the fallen trunks, it was perceived that much the largest 
part of the trees had been torn up by the roots, and lay piled 
across each other in the greatest apparent confusion imaginable. 
Fortunately for our view of the whole ground, a few days before 
our arrival, fire had been put in the ‘ windfall,’ and aided by the 
extreme dry weather, the whole was burned over so clean, that 
nothing but the blackened trunks of the trees were remainihg, 
thus disclosing their condition and position, most perfectly. This 
position was such as to demonstrate beyond the possibility of a 
doubt, the fact that the tornado had a rotary motion against the 
sun, and in perfect accordance with the course which we in a for- 
mer volume of the Farmer have ascribed to such electric aerial 
currents, a theory first developed by Mr. Redfield of New York. 

“The first tree met with, prostrated by the tornado, was a large 
pine, which lay with its top exactly to the N. of W. or precisely 
against the general course of the storm. Hundreds of others lay 
near in the same direction on the outer part of the whirl, but 
immediately after entering the fallen timber the heads of the trees 
began to incline to the centre of the space torn down, and south 
of this the inclination was directly the reverse until the outside 
of the whirl was reached, when they all lay with their tops to 
the east. This almost regular position of the fallen timber, was 
most distinct in the bottom courses, or that which was first blown 
down, those that resisted the longest, being, as was to be expected, 
pitched in the most diverse directions. That there was also av 
upward spiral motion, causing a determination of the rushing aif 
to the centre of the whirl would appear probable from the fact 
that articles from the buildings destroyed were carried high in the 
air, and then apparently thrown out of the whirl, into the com 
mon current; and also from the fact that a large majority of the 
trees both to the south and the north of the centre of the gale, 
lay with their heads inclined to that point, while the centre was 
marked by the greatest confusion imaginable. A diagram formed 
of a continued succession of circles moving from the right to the 


| 
| 


Meteoric Stones. 93 


left would illustrate the position of the trees first uprooted, as 
these lay as when first crushed by the approach of the whirlwind. — 
“Many curious facts illustrative of the force of the wind was 


"related by the inhabitants in and near the place, A farmer at- 


tempted to drive his team of horses to the barn, but the tempest 
was too soon upon him, When the rush was over, and it was 
but seemingly a moment, he found the barn torn to pieces, himself 
about thirty rods in one direction from it, and his horses as many 
tods the other, and what was most remarkable with scarcely a 
fragment of the harness upon them. A wagon was blown away, 
and a month afterwards one of the wheels had not been found. 
A house standing near the Genesee river, and a little out of the 
line of the gale, was completely covered with mud that must 
have been taken from the bed of the river. And appearances 
tender it very evident that near the centre of the whirl the water 
Was entirely taken from the channel.” 


—— 


Arr. VIIL—On Meteoric Stones.*—F rom the Annual Account of 
the progress of Physics and Chemistry, by Berzexius, in the 
Annual Reports of the progress of the sciences by the members 
of the Royal Academy of Science in Sweden. 


Arsberittelser om Vetenskapernas Framsteg. D. 31. Mars, 1835. Stockholm. 
Translated for this Journal, by Rev. W. A. Larsen. : 


Merrorre stones, as inorganic masses occurring on the surface 


of the earth, present also an object for mineralogy, the more in- 
teresting since they give us information of the mineral products 


* © é . 
Berzeling published a paper on Meteoric Stones in the Transactions of the 


Royal A 


wart Stone at Blansko, and of its analysis, was published. in this Journal, 
Ol. xxx 

R 
red entire. As a recent analysis of meteoric iron from Clairborne, Ala , by Dr. C. 
ys Jackson, publis pp. 332—337, made known the 


94 Meteoric Stones. 
of other planetary bodies, and of their likeness or unlikeness to 
those of the earth. I have communicated in a paper addressed — 
to the Royal Academy of Science,* examinations of various me- = 
teoric stones, undertaken with the design of studying them as 
mineral species, and of thereby enabling myself to determine of © 
what different minerals they are composed. The occasion of the 
investigation was afforded by the friendly commission which 
Reichenbach of Blansko gave me to examine the composition of 
a meteoric stone, whose glancing apparition within the atmos- 
phere of the earth, on the 25th of November, 1833, about 6 o’clock 
in the evening, he himself had witnessed, and of which, with 
very great expense and labor, he finally succeeded in collecting 
the scattered fragments in the region about Blansko. The me- 
teoric stones which I examined, have fallen near Blansko in 
Moravia, Chantonnay in France, Lautolax in Finland, Alais in 
France, and Ellenbogen in Bohemia, and I have also analyzed the 
meteoric iron made known by Pallas from the region between Ab- 
ekansk and Krasnojarsk in Siberia. From the analyses referred 
to, I believe I have discovered that the meteoric stones are m 
rals; as it is absurd to suppose that minerals can be formed in the 
air out of the elements of the air, they cannot be atmospheric pro- 
ducts, and the less so, as many of them present cavities, which are 
filled with a mineral of another color and probably of a different 
composition, which it were a plain absurdity to consider as being 
possibly formed in them during the few moments the attraction 
of the earth would suffer so heavy a body to remain in the atmos 
phere. They become such elsewhere. They are not cast out 
from the volcanos of the earth, for they fall everywhere, not 
merely nor oftenest in the near or remote neighborhood of a vol- 
cano ; their external appearance is unlike a terrestrial mineral, 
unlike any thing which the volcanos eject. Their containing 
unoxidized malleable iron, proves that water is not found, and 
perhaps, not air, in their former abode. They must, therefore, 
come from some other planet, which has voleanos. The oné 
nearest us is the moon, and the moon has gigantic volcanos com: 
pared with the earth. The moon has no atmosphere to retard 
the volcanic projectiles. Collections of water do not appear © 
exist on it, in a word, among the probable sources, the moon '8 
moe 


ss we ~ 


* Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Hand]. 1834, p. 115. 


* 


Meteoric Stones. 7 . 95 


the most probable. To get an idea of the elements of another 


_ planetary body, were it only the one lying nearest us, the moon, 


gives to such an examination an interest which in itself it would 


be destitute of. 


The general results of my investigations have been, that me- 
teoric stones of two sorts have fallen on the earth. Those which 
belong to the same kind, have a like composition and appear to 
come from the same mountain. The one sort is rare. Hitherto 
there have not been observed more than three meteoric stones 
belonging to it, which fell in Stannern in Moravia, in Jonzac 
and Juvenas in France. They are thus characterized; they 
do not contain metallic iron, the minerals of which they are 
composed are more distinctly crystalline, and magnesia is not 
4 prevailing element of them. Of these-I have not had any spe- 
cimen to examine. ‘The other sort is made up of the great num- 
ber of meteoric stones, which have been hitherto examined. They 
ate frequently so like one another in color and external appear- 
anee, that we might believe them to have been struck out of one 
Plece. They contain malleable metallic iron in variable quan- 
lity. We have an example of an enormous block, which was 
constituted of a mere continuous web of iron, the cavities of © 


_ Which the mineral fill up, and which came down whole in the 


fall, Solely because the iron-web held them together. Some are 
Composed more of the mineral and less of iron, in which case 
they do not cohere, but burst apart from the heat, which the ex- 
tteme compression of the atmosphere by means of their irresisti- 
ble Velocity, moving with the rapidity of a heavenly body to- 
Wards the earth, has produced in the few moments they are pass- 
Ng through the air, and from which their outermost covering is 
Continually melted to a black slag thinner than the thinnest post- 
pn: We may say then, that the meteoric stones supposed to 
Proceed from the moon, come entirely from two unlike voleanos, 
the eruptions of one of which either take place oftener than the 
other, or are projected in such a direction as that they oftener reach 
earth. “Such a circumstance agrees well with the fact, that a 
Certain part of the moon has the earth continually in the zenith 
and directs al] its projectiles straight towards the earth, though 
mey do not proceed straight thither, because they must also suf- 
st the motion, which they had before as parts of the moon. If 
"1s the part of the moon which sends to us the meteoric iron 


aN 


96 Meteorice Stones. 


masses, and if the other parts of the moon are not so full of iron, 
then we see a reason why that point turns continually Lowen 
the magnetic globe of the earth. 


The mineral portion of meteoric stones consists of various min- 


erals. 1. Olivine. It contains magnesia and protoxyd of iron, 
is colorless or grayish, but is sometimes streaked with yellow or 
green like all the terrestrial olivine. This shows that oxygen 
is wanting for a higher oxidation of the iron. Like the terres- 
trial, it is soluble in acids, and leaves the silicious earth in the 
form of gelatine. . It contains like some of the terrestrial, a trace 
of oxyd of tin and oxyd of nickel. Olivine, however, in the me- 
teoric iron found by Pallas, makes an exception to this, for it is 
without nickel, and its color is yellow approaching to green ; but 
it contains tin. Olivine comprises about one half the quantity of 
the unmagnetic minerals. Olivine separates by treating with 
acids, and the silicious earth is then set free by boiling in car- 
bonate of soda. 

Then there remain, 2. silicates of magnesia, lime, an 
of iron, protoryd of manganese, alumina, potash, and soda, which 
are not separated by acids and in which the silicious earth con- 
tains two species of bisilicates. These are probably blended with 
more, which I was not able to separate. We may conjecture 


Mg 
a species of pyroxene f ¢ S? and a species of leucite where 
C 


lime and magnesia in the first terms replace a portion of potash 
Mg 
and soda. + S?4+3AS2. The pyroxene not having so much 


color as the terrestrial, is to be attributed to the same cause as the 
want of color in meteoric olivine. 

3. Chrome-iron.—This is contained in both kinds of meteoric 
stones, in both in like small quantity, isnever wanting, and is the 
source of the chrome in meteoric iton. It can be obtained unde- 
composed if the unmagnetie portion of the meteoric stone is sepa 
rated with hydro-fluoric acid, and is then, after all the silicious earth 
is removed, treated with sulphuric acid, after which the sulphates 
and the gypsum are boiled out, when the chrome iron remains 10 
the form of a black burnt powder. This is the cause of the grey- 
ish color in meteoric stones when they are seen in the mass. 


| 


Meteoric Stones. 97 


4. Oxyd of tin.—This is mixed with the ehrome-iron. One 
can satisfy himself of its presence when the last named metal is 


_ Separated by bi-sulphate of potassa, and the solution in water is 
"treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, when the sulphuret of tin is 


thrown down. It has a trace of copper. : 
5. Magnetic Iron-ore.—This does not perhaps occur in all. It 
is taken out with the magnet, when it again manifests its property 
of dissolving in hydro-chloric-acid with a yellow color and with- 
out a disengagement of hydrogen. 2 
6. Sulphuret of Fron.—This is found in all. It has been im- 
possible for me to separate any for a distinct examination. All 
the circumstances seem to show that it consists of one atom of 
each of the elements. A surplus of sulphur in a mass, where a 
surplus of iron prevails throughout, is not supposable. One part of 
it follows the magnet together with the iron, the other part remains 
in the powder of the stone, as nothing more is given up to the 
Magnet. This is sometimes a larger percentage. - Whether this 
is by a chemical union, as is the case, for example, with the sul- 
tet of manganese in helvin, or is merely by adhesion to the 
powder of the stone, my researches could not decide; the latter 


'S the more probable when FeS is weakly magnetic, but the | 


former is not impossible. 'The sulphuret of iron causes the pul- 


Verized meteoric stone to develope sulphuretted hydrogen gas 


When it is mixed with hydro-chlorie-acid. 

7. Native Iron.—This iron is not pure, although it is altogether 
malleable. It contains carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, magnesia, 
langanese, nickel, cobalt, tin and copper. But it is moreover 
blended with small crystals within the mass, of a union of phos- 
Phuret of iron with phosphuret of nickel, and phosphuret of man- 
Saese. These are insoluble in hydro-chloric-acid and fall down 
While in the solution. Their quantity varies. ‘The iron of El- 
enbogen gives 2! per cent., but the Pallasian iron not ; per cent. 
Olt. A part is so finely divided in the mass of the iron, that 
What falls down in the solution resembles a black powder. The 
“aise of the Widmanstittian* figures is, that the foreign metals are 


meteoric 


me refer i he surface of some 
i 8 to figures of a crystalline shape on the 
i id Agram, Siberia, icin &c. first noticed by Widmanstatten. See ay 
cet Geschichte und Kenntniss meteorischen Stein-und Metall-Massen von D, 
Carl von 
Vol, x 


Schreibers. p. 70.—Tr. 
Xxvit, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 18 


2, per teateits Wuintsc 
caftg be, AIR eae Se ee, ae 


gs Meteoric Stones. 


not equally blended, but separate into imperfectly formed erys- 
talline series. If the iron is dissolved in an acid solution of sul- 
phate of iron, the pure iron is set free almost by itself and its lam- — 
ine fall down in flakes. 

The elementary bodies hitherto found in the meteoric stones 
make up just a third of those we are acquainted with, namely, 
oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, chrome, 
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, iron, man- 
ganese, nickel, cobalt, tin and copper. 

The following analyses of the meteoric iron may be cited; 
some conducted at the same time by Wherle are added. 


Tron of Pallas. Tron of Ellenbogen. : 
erzelius, Wherle.* 
Tron, - - - - 88.042 89.90 
Nickel, - - 10.732 8.517 8.44 
Cobalt, - - - 0.455 0.762 0.61 
Magnesium, - 0.050 0.279 — 
Manganese, - - 0.132) © 98.95 
Tin and copper 0.066 , 
Carbon, - - => O04 of teas 
Sulphur, - - - a trace. 
Metallic phosphurets 0.480 2.211 
The metallic phosphurets were found to contain: 
Of the Pallas Iron. Of the Ellenbogen-. 
Tron, - - - = 48.67 68.11 
Nickel, - - - 18.33 4 
Magnesium, - - oes Tite 
Phosphorus, - - 18.47 14.17 
95.13 100.00. 


This last result cannot possess entire precision, for the whole 
quantity of the metal, which I was able to take for analys'; 
was of the former only 3, and of the latter 2.8 centigramme: 
Wherle’s analysis will be seen to agree more exactly with mine 
when [ add that he had in the iron the alloy of phosphorus and 
manganese, and also of magnesia, which fell as the ammoilo 
phosphate of magnesia with the oxide of iron. 

Wherle has cited (in the forementioned Journal) still othet 
analyses of meteoric iron which I here communicate. 


* Baumgartners Zeitschrift HI, 222. 


| 


skis 


ST eage  w 


Meteoric Stones. 99 


Agram. _ Kap. Lenarto, 
Tron, 89.784 85.608 90.883 PRS 
Nickel, 8.886 12.275 450 
Cobalt, 0.667 0.887 0.665 trace of copper. 

; 99.337 98.770 99.998 


Wherle has sought the constant proportions in the metals; this 
inquiry I regard as fruitless. 

But before I conclude this subject, perhaps already sufficiently 
long for my report, I must subjoin one result more of my exami- 
nation. The meteoric stone from Allais falls to pieces in water, 
to an earth, which smells of clay and hay and contains carbon in 
a1 unknown union. ‘This shows that in the region of the me- 
teoric stones, minerals fall to pieces to a clay-like mixture as on 
Me earth. Now arose the inquiry, whether this carboniferous 
earth from the surface of another planetary body contains the or- 
ganized products, whether indeed organized bodies are thus dis- 
covered there, more or less analogous with those of the earth. 

t is easy to conceive with what interest the answer would be 
Sought. It was not in the affirmative, but to decide in the neg- 
ative would be to conclude more about it than we are author- 
ized to do. The earth was found to be olivine, containing ferro- 
sulphate of nickel and of tin. 'The magnet took up the compound 
oxide of iron in black grains, along with which the microscope 
detected flitters of metallic iron. Water brought out sulphate of 
Naghesia with small quantities of sulphate of nickel ; but nothing 
organized, as none of the alkalies could be extracted. In a dry 
distillation were developed carbonic acid gas and water, together 
with a black gray sublimate, but no burnt oil, no carburetted hy- 
drogen ; in a word, the carboniferous substance was not of the 
“ame nature as the soil on this earth. ‘There were besides a car- 
bonate and black soot. ‘The sublimate heated in oxygen gave no 
ttace of carbonic acid or of water, and changed to a white, unerys- 
lallized, volatile body, soluble in water, which did not become acid 
in the process and was not precipitated by nitiate of silver. What 
this body is I did not know ; it remains unknown to me. _ Is it 
Indeed an elementary body not originally pertaining to our planet? 

° answer this question in the affirmative would be too hasty. 


100 Terrestrial Magnetism. 


Arr. IX.—Terrestrial Magnetism ; by J. Hamuron of Carlisle, 
, Penn. 


In the 22d volume of this Journal 1 suggested the idea, that 
the magnetic poles coincided with the coldest points in the north- - 
ern hemisphere, but did not assign the grounds for such a con- 
clusion. : 

In 1837, Dr. Brewster published his Treatise on Magnetism at 
Edinburgh, originally prepared for the Encyclopedia Britanica, 
which contains very full details of the latest researches on that 
subject. ; 

In the 42d page of this Treatise it is stated, ‘the discovery of 
two poles of maximum cold on opposite sides of the north pole of 
the earth, which was announced by Sir David Brewster in 1820, 
led him and other authors to the opinion, that there might be 
some connection between the magnetic poles, and those of maxti- 
mum cold.” The opinion advanced by Dr. Brewster, “ that there 

are two poles of greatest cold in the northern hemisphere,” it ap- 
_ pears, was published in the 9th volume of the Edinburgh ‘Trans- 
actions of 1821, and Dr. Dalton in remarking on it, considers it as 
a probable supposition, and Mr. Kupffer in a memoir read in 1829 
to the Russian Academy, explicitely adopts the opinion. 

Of all this I knew nothing when I wrote the letter above re- 
ferred to in 1832, nor until I met with Dr. Brewster’s Treastise 
published in 1837; but drew the inferences therein stated, from 
the views I entertained of the nature of light and heat,* and from 
observing a certain correspondence of climate at similar distances. 
from the magnetic poles. 

I regard light and heat 77 the comvmon acceptation of these words, 
as not only material in their nature, but as compounds of othet 
simple elements, and suppose the magnetic fluids to be two of 
those simple substances which enter into their constitution. 

From the refined nature of light and heat, we cannot subject 
them to experiment like other forms of matter, and the difficulty 
would necessarily be increased, if we have to do with the simple 

elements of which they are here supposed to be compounded. 

That matter exists in such states of refined minuteness of 
atoms, as to be imperceptible to such senses as we possess, }§ 

: i the word “ heat” I always mean sensible heat, and not the unknown prin 
ciple. 


“he 


# 


ad 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 101 


proved by the miasmata, which sometimes impregnate the at- 
mosphere, and yet baffle the skill of the chemist to detect them, 
although the disease which follows in their train establishes their 


existence. 


If we examine what are termed the magnetic fluids on the 
poles of the loadstone, it appears that we can neither see, feel, nor 
taste them, they are not easily disengaged from the particles of 
the iron, and the only proof of their existence is the attraction 
they exert. May not this difficulty in perceiving them, arise 
ftom their atoms being so exceedingly small, as to be apprecia- 
ble only to a higher order of senses than we are endowed with. 
Light and heat will pass through transparent bodies without much 
difficulty, but Mr. Haldat has shown that the magnetic fluids will 
hot only pass through transparent substances, but through all 
bodies, even the most dense ;—and from this I argue, that they 
are of greater tenuity than either light, heat, or electricity. 

_ The sun is continually emitting rays which reach the earth in 
immense quantities, and the question has been significantly _ 
asked, but not so easily answered, if they are material bodies, 
What becomes of this flood of light and heat? They do not ac- 
cumulate on the earth’s surface like snow, but disappear as fast as 
they arrive. It may be said they become latent. This sup 

that light and heat, as usually understood, are perceptions of the 
mind, and that the exciting causes of these sensations are un- 
known principles or substances, as evanescent and difficult to ap- 
Ptehend as the magnetic fluids themselves. Now, may it not be, 
that these substances hitherto incognita, are the identical ele- . 
nents or fluids, whose attraction causes the phenomena of mag- 
Hetism, and that instead of light and heat being mere sensations, — 
€xcited by we know not what, they are real material bodies, com- — 
Pounded of these and other elements. Ress 

There Suppose, that there are three elements ; one of which is 
ommon to light and also to heat; that light and heat are each 
Composed of two simple elements; and that when the ‘sun’s rays 
Teach the earth, they are decomposed by the attraction of the 
bodies on its surface, with which their elements unite, and from 
Which they can be again extricated by different processes. 

3 We know that light and heat can be obtained from almost 
“very form of matter, and the idea here offered to explain their 
Ppearance and reappearance, by a decomposition into simpler 


se 


| 102 | ‘Terrestrial Magnetism. 


? 


‘ 


elements, and a recombination of those elements through a play 


ts 


of attraction, is not an unphilosophical suggestion. 
olomb has ascertained that “gold, silver, glass, wood, and 

all substances, whether organic or inorganic, obey the power of 

the magnet ;”’ so that all substances are susceptible of magnetism. 


Here then is a striking coincidence between light and heat, and 


the magnetic fluids; they pervade or influence all terrestrial bod- 
ies, and friction will develope light and heat as well as magnetism. 

That the violet ray imparts the magnetic virtue to iron, is 
shown by the expermints of Mrs. Somerville, and by the still 
more striking experiments of Prof. Zautedeschi, who exposed a 
horse-shoe artificial loadstone, carrying 134 ounces, to a strong 
light of the sun, and after three days. it carried an additional 
weight of three ounces, and ultimately its power was so increased 
as to carry 31 ounces. These experiments being repeated under 
an exhausted receiver did not succeed, hence a doubt has arisen 

as to the source whence the magnetic virtue was derived, but it 


- must be conceded that the sun’s rays had some agency in evolv- 


ing the magnetism, let it come from what source it may, and this 
is readily explained if we suppose one or more of the magneti¢ 
fluids as entering into their composition. 

That a compound body should differ not only in its appearance, 
but in its most striking qualities, from either of the ingredients 
entering into its composition, is accordant with every day’s ob- 
servation of the chemist; it ought not therefore to be considered 
so extraordinary, that ROS fluids, such as we find on the poles 


of the magnet, should, when combined, produce radiant matter, 


such as either light or Kent: In fact, what is the magnetic spark, 
unless it be the result of the union of the two fluids. But elec 
tricity and galvanism also evolve light and heat; and may not 
there also be different combinations of the three cleinines which 
would account for the evident connexion existing between gal- 
vanism, electricity, and magnetism, and also their relation to 
light and heat. 

t is said, however, that light and heat are evolved from the 
atmosphere-by condensation, and this indeed cannot be contro 
verted; nor does it conflict with this hypothesis, for by conden- 
sing the air, these elements which are diffused throughout the 
atmosphere, are brought in contact, a union is effected, and light 
and heat are the result. The same effect would be produced by 


* 
¢ 


Ce Eee oT) 


Terrestrial Magnetism. 103 


the rapid passage of one of the elements through the air, but with 
increased energy, for the element itself would enter into the com- 
bination. Still I contend that light and heat, or one of them, is 


the result of the combining of the fluids of either magnetism, elec- 


tricity, or galvanism, without the aid of any other body. This is 
shown by passing electricity through the exhausted receiver of 
an air pump, when we have beautiful displays of light, and the 
effect is the more striking, the more perfect the vacuum. — 

If there are three simple elements such as I have here supposed, 
two of which are the fluids on the poles of the loadstone; then 

‘let these three be so unequally diffused over and in the earth, as 
severally to predominate, one at or near the north pole, another at 
the magnetic equator, and the third at the south pole; each at- 
tracting the others, but repelling itself; and we have an elucida- 
tion of terrestrial magnetism. 

One of the elements entering into the constitution of light, 
but not necessary to heat, abounded in the arctic regions, so as to 
predominate in all: terrestrial forms to the exclusion of the ele- 
ments constituting heat, and this element is identical with one of 
the fluids on the poles of the loadstone, then it must follow, that 
the poles of greatest cold would coincide with the magnetic poles, 
and the isothermal lines have some accordance to the magnetic 
intensities of different latitude. 

The frequent occurrence of the aurora borealis in the northern 
tegions would be explained on this hypothesis, from one of the 
“onstituents of light predominating in the arctic circle ; and the 

ason of its affecting the needle be at once shown: so I think a 
Solution may be afforded, for the curious facts, that heat while it 
imparts the magnetic virtue to soft iron, diminishes with its in- 
‘tease the power of the loadstone; while a white heat entirely 
destroys it, and a red heat reverses the poles. 

T admit that these views are merely hypothetical, but they are 

a more extended theory, which runs its ramifications 
through all the phenomena of nature, according with so many 
facts, that I cannot regard it as merely visionary ; but I admit 
that much deliberation and caution are requisite in advancing such 
Pesitions, lest we should disturb science with unfounded specula- 
ions, 


104. =~—- Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 


: Arr. X.—E zplosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen, with remarks 
on Hemming’s Safety Tube; by Prof. J. W. Wessrer of 


Harvard University.. 


Te occurrence of several explosions of the compound blow- 
pipe of Dr. Hare, in the hands of experienced chemists, is well 
known ; and the student can take up none of the modern chem- 
ical books without being made aware of the danger of using al 
imperfect or ill contrived form of the apparatus. In the use of 
two separate reservoirs for the gases, and the double concentric 
jet, it is impossible that explosion can occur. But it has, as those 
accustomed to use this splendid instrument* are well aware, beet 
modified in various ways, with the desire to render it more porta- 
ble, safe or convenient. The repetition of the early experiments 


of Dr. Hare and Prof. Silliman, by the late Dr. Clarke, of Cam- 


bridge, (Eng.) and his disregard of the claims of these gentlemen, 
are also well known; but it is somewhat singular, that so many 


| of the British chemical writers should still incline to give the 
____ eredit of these brilliant results to him who but repeated what had 


been long before accomplished in this country. As every chemist 
must deem the compound blow-pipe, in some form, an essential 
portion of his apparatus, and as it has even become one of the 
constituent parts of the cheap, and too often imperfect, ‘sets of 
apparatus,” manufactured in all parts of the country, for the usé 
of schools of all grades, not unfrequently to be used by begit 
ners or inexperienced persons, it is highly important that every 
one should be aware of the danger of operating with the single 
vessel as a reservoir of the mixed gases. 'The convenience ° 
transportation, and the small space it occupies, are great tempta 
tions to make use of the single vessel and compressed gases, a8 1 
the form first employed in England in the blow-pipe of Mr. 
Brooke. The tremendous explosions which took place with this 
instrument in the hands of Dr. Clarke, and of several others, t 

defences erected by the operators for personal protection, and the 


modifications in the jets, ad infinitum, with which the philoso- 


phical journals teemed, are too well known to be described. But 
PS Res ei a a So ees 


been 
with 


* For this invention our distinguished countryman, Dr. Hare, has recently 
most deservedly honored by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 
the Rumford medals, 


———— sae aie ni siee a aii eneeecnaeens eae 


Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 105 


the encomiums bestowed upon the contrivances of Gurney, the 
oil cylinder of Prof. Cumming, the layers of wire gauze as sug- 
gested by Wollaston, &c., have now given place to the safety 
tube of Mr. Hemming, which is in fact a modification of the 
faggot of capillary tubes proposed by Wollaston, 

This tube was first publicly exhibited by Mr. Hemming at 
the meeting of the British Association for the advancement of » 
Science, in 1832, and is fully described in the published. report. - 
The description is quoted by the late Dr. Turner in his Ele-- 
ments, with the remark that all previous modifications, of the ap- 
Paratus “are rendered unnecessary by the Safety Tube lately 
proposed by Mr. Hemming.” An authority like this, and one 
Which has become the guide of so many, will undoubtedly lead 
to the employment of this tube, as well as to its construction, by — 
inexperienced persons ; and without previous care to test its safety 
in the severest manner, its use may be attended with the destruc- 
tion, not only of apparatus, but of life. 

Thave been induced to make these remarks in consequence of 
a terrific. explosion which occurred in my laboratory a few days 
since ; and to show how much care was taken to test the safety 
of the instrument before it was exhibited to my class, the fol- 

wing notes of some of the test experiments are taken from my 
record. 

The tube was constructed of sheet brass, 6 inches in length 
and #ths of an inch in diameter, the size recommended by Hem- 
ming. This was closely packed with iron wire (No. 22), each 
Wire extending through the entire length of the tube. The 
close approximation of the wires was increased by the introdue- 
ton of a pointed rod of the same metal and same length; this 
Was driven forcibly through the centre of the bundle of wires. 
Thus the Spaces between the wires were exceedingly minute, 
and it was with difficulty that air could be forced through by 
blowing With the mouth. It is hardly necessary to remark, that 
. large cooling surface was thus produced, and that flame ap- 
Plied at one extremity would be far more effectually cooled down 
byit, than by the wire gauze when held over a gas flame, or when 
“uttounding ignited gaseous matter, as in the safety lamp. 

The tube was terminated at each end by a female screw to 
receive . stop cocks. In my first experiments, the Hemming’s 
Mabe Was prolonged at each end by a leaden tube about four feet 


Vol, XXXvir, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. ~ 


106 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 


in length, to increase the cooling surface ; and bladders, contain- 
ing hydrogen and oxygen gases in the proportions that compose 
water, were attached to the two extremities. The stop cocks 
being opened, the gases were forced from one bladder into the 
other several times through the leaden tubes and that of Hem- 
ming’s interposed, thus ensuring their mixture both in the blad- 
ders and tubes. The apparatus was now placed in the open alr, 
and an arrangement made which allowed me to explode one of 
the bladders and observe the effect without danger. 'The one 
bladder alone exploded. This experiment was repeated many 
times, shortening the leaden tubes each time, until they were el- 
tirely removed, and bladders were attached directly to the Hem- 
ming’s tube. One of them was then exploded, but the flame 
was arrested as completely as in the previous trials. 

Having repeated the experiment with the Safety Tube alone 
several times, and uniformly finding it impossible to explode both 
bladders, I now did not hesitate to hold the tube in my hand, and 
to apply a flame to one bladder ; this was repeated several times, 
and in no instance was explosion communicated from the one 
bladder to the other. Mr. Hemming is stated to have operated 
before the members of the British Association with the bladder 
under his arm; and Dr. Hare in his letter to Dr. Dalton,* states 
that he has ceupharred the mixed gases with safety, more than a0 
hundred times, allowing them to explode as far into the tube of 
efflux as where the contrivance in questiont was interposed, 
without explosion extending beyond it 

The safety of the tube having been so thoroughly tested with 
the bladders, I now substituted for one of them a strong globe 
12 inches in diameter, made of 22 oz. copper; this, as well as 
the bladder was filled with the mixed gases. The apparatus Was 
placed out of doors, and, with the necessary precautions as to per 
sonal safety, the mixture in the bladder was fired, but that in the 
copper globe did not explode. 'The same result always occulTe 
in repeating this, and in no trial could I cause the flame to trav- 
erse the Hemming’s tube. 


y next experiments were made without the bladder. A 
small jet, —— an orifice of about ,'; of an inch diametel, 
Ne si ihanaltemaeOe 


* Amer. ae Vol.- XxxuI, p, 196. put 
t Dr. Hare alludes to some improvement he has made in Hemming’s tube, ?? 
has not informed us in what it consists, 


Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 107 


was screwed into the tube, the mixed gases were condensed in 
the globe by a syringe, until on opening the stop cock they is- 
sued out with considerable velocity. The globe thus charged 
was again placed in the open air, with arrangements for igniting 
the gases as they issued from the jet and for protection, should 
explosion occur. They were ignited without explosion, and con- 
tinued to burn quietly. The experiments were repeated with 


"different proportions of the gases and under different pressures, 


always without explosion. 

The safety of the tube had thus been severely tested, and there 
was apparently no cause to apprehend accident, so that I saw no 
objection to exhibit it to my class in connection with the usual 
illustrations of the properties of hydrogen gas and the compound 

low-pipe. Accordingly, two bladders, filled as before, were at- 
tached to the two ends of the tube, the stop cocks opened, and 
one bladder being fired, the other did not explode. This latter, 
by applying a flame to an orifice and exploding it, was afterwards 
proved to have retained the mixture. 
_A few days after this, I exhibited the gases burning at the jet 
on the copper globe, to several gentlemen who happened to visit 
the laboratory ; and subsequently employed the same apparatus, 
filled with the mixed gases, before the audience usually attend- 
ing the lectures at the Cambridge Lyceum. It was used as a 
compound blow-pipe, and particularly for obtaining the intense 
light from lime in the focus of a reflector, as proposed by Lieut. 
mond. No accident or inconvenience occurred. On the 
following day, as the gases had not been entirely consumed, it 
Was used on my lecture table before the class. 

It may be thought that unnecessary precaution was taken to 
‘scertain the safety of an apparatus that had come to us with the 
“actions I have already alluded to; but we cannot be too care- 

ul in experiments of danger, especially with new apparatus, and 
when made in this country from description only, and by artists 
hot always aware of its applications, or not prepared to put it to 
the test to which such instruments are usually subjected by the 
best English makers.* 


a eer ere me orem 


* : 4 “ 

An instance occurred under my own observation a few years since, where a 

— was compressing air into a copper globe, made in this vicinity, when it 
urs . : , 
t wounding the operator very severely in the hand and face 


108 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 


Having occasion to exhibit the compound blow-pipe in my lec- 
ture on the 16th of May, in addition to my usual method with 
two separate gas holders, andthe double, concentric jet, the cop- 
per globe was charged with the mixed gases, but with a smaller 
proportion of hydrogen, viz. 14 vols. to 1 vol. of oxygen, for the 
purpose of making some comparative experiments. After using 
‘the gases in the separate vessels, I proceeded to operate with the 
new instrument; the jet was ignited and a few experiments 
made with confidence and safety. Having closed the stop cock, 
I removed (as I had often done before) a very short piece from 
the end of the jet for the purpose of obtaining a somewhat larger 
flame, to be directed upon a lump of magnesia. 'The orifice ex- 
posed was now ;,th of an inch in diameter and about 6 inches 
from the end of the Hemming’s tube, being at the extremity of 
a small brass tube bent upwards at an angle of 45°, the same 
which had been used in all the previous experiments. The globe 
was nearly in contact with my person, the jet and Hemming’s 
tube projecting horizontally in front of me from right to left. 
With the right hand the stop cock was opened, and the emission 
of the gases adjusted ; with the left the jet was ignited. The 
slight crackling noise, which all must be familiar with who have 
operated with the compound blow-pipe, occurred several times, 
and the gases were extinguished, but no communication of flame 
or explosion of the gases in the globe took place. 

On again applying a lighted paper to the jet, however, the 
copper globe exploded with tremendous noise and force, shatter- 
ing several glass vessels standing upon the table and shelves i 
the rear, and projecting the torn copper, stop cocks, and tubes, iD 
different directions. My fingers, resting upon the stop cock, were 
bruised ; and the right shoulder severely, by a large fragment of 
the copper, which in its course robbed me of no small part of 
the coat sleeve, and the cuff was entirely carried away. ‘The 


force of the explosion was exerted principally in the direction of ° 


the tube and jet in front of me, or I should not probably have 
escaped with so little injury. ‘The noise and concussion were 
deafening, and my hearing was not perfectly restored for several 
hours. No one, fortunately, of the class was injured ; the usual 
good order and attention were but momentarily interrupted ; the 
lecture was proceeded with, and the remaining experiments pel 
formed. 


— 


Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 109 


On examination afterwards, it appeared that a large fragment 
of the globe had been projected behind me, striking a shelf in 
which it caused a large indentation, and a fissure of more than 
two inches in length, and of nearly one indepth. One large piece 
of copper was projected over the heads of some persons present out 
of an open window several yards distant from the table. The 
windows being open, but one pane of glass was broken; but the 
sound was heard in all the college buildings, and at a very consid- 
erable distance beyond. 

The question now arises, how could this explosion have oc- 

cured with an apparatus which had been subjected to such ap- 
parently thorough and severe tests? I have carefully examined 
the tube and every fragment of the apparatus, and recalled all the 
citeumstances and arrrangements, without being able to discover 
any imperfection or assignable cause. I have made experiments 
With the tube and bladders since the accident, and with the same 
tesults as before the explosion: the tube is as perfect as ever, 
and as incapable of transmitting explosion. 
That the stop cocks and every part of the globe were perfectly 
ight, and allowed of no leakage by which a stream of the gases 
Might have come in contact with the flame at the jet, I cannot 
but feel confident, as nothing of the kind was observable du- 
ting the condensation or in the previous trials. ‘The apparatus 
was new and very faithfully made. 

It was found by Mr. Hemming, that when the gases contained 
* Portion of water mechanically suspended in them, the flame 
Would return through the tube proposed by Mr. Gurney, where 
layers of wire gauze, &c. are employed, and even in its improved 
orm, where layers of asbestos are interposed. But with the tube 
filled with wires, exhibited before the: British Association, it Is 
Stated to have been impossible to produce explosion, even when 
the gases were made to recede by withdrawing the pressure on 
the bladder, In the present case no recession could have taken 


Place from diminution of pressure, as the compressed gases were 
‘ushing out with great velocity. 

How far the compression of the gases may have aided the 
Combination of their bases, we are unable to say ; but from the 


°Xperiments of Biot, we know that it must be made suddenly and 
Violent] 
t 


Y, for when gradually applied, as in the sinking of a mix- 
me of the gases to the depth of one hundred and fifty fathoms, 


110 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 


where the compression would be about thirty atmospheres, no 
such effect was produced. And in the present case, the conden- 
sation had been made rapidly, and two hours before the explosion 
occurred. It is not impossible that the state of compression and 
close approximation of the particles of the gases may have aided 
the rapid combination, and but a slight increase of temperature 
have been required to produce explosion, which may have been 
caused in the tube, by the slight explosions to which I have be- 
fore alluded as so often occurring in the jet. The capacity of 
the jet and stop cock, in front of the safety tube, was sufficient 
to contain but about one cubic inch of the gases, and the com- 
bustion of so small a quantity could have had but little influ- 
ence in raising the temperature of the safety tube; probably 
none, when we consider that the compressed gases were expand- 
ing as they passed out, and no doubt attended with the usual 
effect, the absorption of caloric. 

In a letter now before me, Dr. Hare has suggested the heat- 
ing effect of the previous slight explosions, as the most probable 
cause of the final explosion; but for the reasons just stated, I am 
constrained to seek for some more satisfactory explanation. 

Although it would be difficult, if not impossible, to prove that 
electricity, from the presence of the different metals entering 
into the construction of the various parts of the apparatus, or de- 
veloped by, or evolved from the gases, or the products of their 
first partial combustions, was not the immediate cause of this 
explosion, it would be equally difficult, in the present state of 
our knowledge, to prove that it was. The ignition of platinum 
sponge, and the combination of oxygen and hydrogen which it 
effects, it is well known, were, when first observed, attributed by 
Dobereiner to electricity, which has not been disproved, or satls- 
factorily explained, even by the researches of Faraday. 

aving communicated to the distinguished inventor of the 
compound blow-pipe a brief notice of the occurrence which 
have described, it will not, I trust, be deemed an undue liberty 
to remark, that in the letter above referred to, Dr. Hare appeals 
to consider all explosions as dependent on “a mysterious electrical 
reversal of polarities,” and that we are not as yet able to deter 
mine all the modes by which such reversals may be induced. 

From the first experiments made with the Hemming’s tube; 
it is obvious that it cannot be said that the wires were not 


| Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. - EY 


sufficiently small size to arrest explosion. Neither can it be sup- 
posed that the outlet at the extremity of the jet was insufficient 
for the expansion of the exploding mixture, and that in conse- 
quence of that expansion, the inflamed gases were driven back 
into the copper globe. This expansion must have been far 
| greater than 15 or 18 times, as deduced from Davy’s experi- 
ments, to have overcome the force exerted by the gases, which 
at the moment were issuing from the globe, under a pressure 
probably of nearly two atmospheres. 
The expansion of hydrogen and oxygen gases by explosion, 
: has not, I think, been satisfactorily determined; and Davy, 
| Whose results are most commonly adopted, does not appear to 
| have deemed his own conclusive. I have made some experiments 
on the subject, and should not have offered the preceding re- 
marks until more satisfactory results had been obtained, had it 
hot been necessary to defer the investigation to an interval of 
more leisure. 

When water is mechanically suspended in the gases, the dan- 
ger of retraction and explosion is undoubtedly increased, but the 
influence of the small quantity formed in the jet on the occurrence 
of the slight explosions already alluded to, must have been ina 
great measure, if not altogether, counteracted by the elasticity of 
the issuing gases. ; 

The cause of this explosion is certainly mysterious; but in 
Whatever manner we may attempt to explain it, it must be re- 
garded as additional evidence of the danger of employing the 
gases in a state of previous mixture, and of the importance of 
adhering to the use of two separate vessels and the concentric jet. 
With these, although less convenient on some accounts, there are 
other advantages ; their perfect safety, however, is alone suffi- 
“lent to induce us to recommend them, and them alone, to the 
chemical student. 

The trials with the tube of Hemming previous to the occur- 
fence of this explosion, seemed to warrant the statement in Its 
favor which has been made in anote in the edition of my Manual 
of Chemistry, now passing through the press. 

Laboratory of Harvard University, Cambridge, June 5th, 1839. 


112 Greck Conjugations. 


Arr. XI—On the Greek Conjugations ; by Prof. J. W. Gupps. 


THE conjugations found in our common grammars, have usually 
been formed by writers directing their attention to a single language, 
and are probably the best for merely practical purposes. 

It often happens, however, that there is another arrangement of 
the conjugations which enters more deeply into the nature of the 
verb, separates more closely between primary and derivative forms, 
and prepares the way for more successful comparisons with other 
languages. 

The classification to which I allude is based, for the most part, on 
the broad distinction between internal or strong inflection which takes 
place within the root itself, and external or weak inflection which 
consists in the addition of new syllables and leaves the root untouched. 

As the internal inflection, which consists principally in the change 
of the vowel or in the reduplication of initial letters, is found in rad- 
ical or primitive verbs, and has a manifest analogy in different lan- 
guages, it has of late engaged the attention of philologists. 

These remarks apply more or less to Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, 
including English, verbs. I shall confine my attention at present to 
the Greek. 

Strong Inflection. 

Strong verbs in Greek are divided by philologists, for the sake of 
exhibiting their vocalic changes, into four classes. 

The tenses chosen for the purpose of showing these vocalic chan- 
ges are the 2 aorist, which usually exhibits the radical vowel, the 
2 perfect, and the present. 

Class I. 

This class includes verbs whose radical vowel undergoes no chang® 

in inflection. 


2 aor. éygdpyr, perf. /éyoage, pres. /oaqo. 
2 aor. sigor, perf. ——_— pres. S890, 

2 aor. 2golpnyr, perf. 26 grpa, pres. 6/1T0. 
2 aor. éxdanr, perf. xéxona, pres. #670, 
2 aor. éxoifny, perf. #éxguge, pres. xgimT0), 
2 aor. 2aor, perf. dédac, pres. dé, 

2 aor. 29uov, perf. dédcc, * pres. Jim. 4 
2 aor. épinr, perf. zépue, pres. pio. 


Here belong a few verbs with « made and continued long by posi- 
tion, one verb with 7, and a few doubtful examples with ¢. 


Greek Conjugations. 113 


2 aor. %ucgroy, 2 perf. uéuagra, pres. méortor, 
2 aor. 2 perf. Adlaure, pres. Aguaw, 
2 aor, éxhyyor, 2 perf. aénhyya, pres. ahijoow, 
2 aor. *otIor, 2 perf. Béforda, pres. Pot 


The Latin language exhibits examples not only of a, but of other 
vowels, made and continued long by position ; as, Jambo, pret. lambi ; 
verto, pret. verti ; mordi, pret. momordi; curro, pret. cucurri. 


Class I. 


This class includes verbs whose radical vowel « is ciangee in the 
course of inflection into other vowels. 


2 aor. &ganor, 2 perf. .rét9070, pres. Tgé70. 

2 aor. Beyor, 2 perf. Aédoya, pres. Aéyo. 

2 aor. ®augzor, 2 perf. dédogxe, pres- déguor. 

2 aor. dorddyy, 2 perf. Zorole, pres. otédho. 
2 aor. eTauor, 2 perf. TETOUC, pres. TEMLVO). 

2 aor. txtavoy, 2 perf. xtova, pres. «revo. 
Z aor. LpIiony, 2 perf. EpIoga _ — pres. pteign 


This second class has a striking aii to the I. and IL. Teutonic 
Conjugations ; as, 


CONJUGATION I. 


Goth. past brak, part. brukans, pres. brika. 

Germ. past brach, part. gebrochen, pres. breche. 

Eng. past brake, part. broken, pres. break. 
CONJUGATION IL. 

Goth. past halp, part. hulpans, pres. hilpa. 

Germ. past half, part. geholfen, pres. helfe. 

Eng. past holp, part. holpen, pres. help. 


__ This seeond class of Greek verbs, like the I. and IL. Teutonic con- 
Ingations, has its radical vowel sols either preceded or followed 
iquid. 


by a li 
Class ITI. - 
This class includes verbs: ‘Whose radical\vowel a, t, v, is lengthened 
° doubled j in certain tenses, 7 being equivalent to double «-. 


2 aor, eugttyor, perf. nénoay ct, ' pres. noc lo. 
2 aor. xltiyoy, perf. nexdyye, : | pres. hilo, 
2 aor. ertixny, pert. rérnxer, eoUs? pres. Ti}x0, 
: 2 aor, Wexor, perf. dédyxa, . pres. Odzve. 
Pha Eqitvoy perf. négyra, pres. palvel. 
Xxvn, No. Scilibe: 1839, bis. 15 


114 Greek Conjugations. 


2 aor. Exotyor, perf. “éxorya, pres. xgitw. 
2 aor. tovtyor, perf. Bésovzo, pres. fgiza. » 
2 aor. iuiizoy, - perf. uéuixe, pres. “vxco. 


This third class has a striking analogy to the IV. Teutonic conju 
gation, where however @ has been changed into 6 or @; as, 


- Goth. past sloh, part. slahans, . pres. slaha. 
Germ. past schlug, part. geschlagen, _ pres. schlage. 
Eng. past slew, part. slain, pres. slay. 

Class IV. 


This class includes verbs whose radical vowel 4, v, is made a diph- 
thong by Gina in the perfect and present; as, 


2 aor. évFoyr, perf. 2én013-, pres. mel do. 
2 aor. tumor, perf. Adhoune., pres. hela. 
2 aor. épvyor, pert. zépevye, pres. pevyo- 
2 aor. tuyor, perf. tétevze, pres. Tedzo. 


2s the first and second examples the radical vowel « is made@ 
diphthong by prefixing « or 0, as in Sanserit the same vowel is made 
a diphthong by prefixing a. In the third and fourth examples the 
radical vowel v is made a diphthong by prefixing «, as in Sanscrit the 
same vowel is made a diphthong by prefixing a. This mode of form 
ing a diphthong out of i or wu by prefixing a, is called Guna by the 
Sanscrit grammarians. 

This fourth class has a striking analogy to the V. and VI. Teutonic 
conjugations ; as, 


CONJUGATION V. 


Goth. past drazb, part. dribans, pres. dreiba. 

Germ. past tried, part. getrieben, pres. treibe. 

Eng. past drove, part. driven, pres. drive. 
CONJUGATION VI. 

Goth. past baug, part. bugans, pres. biuga. 

Germ. past bog, part. gebogen, pres. biege. 

Eng. past lien part. bowed, pres. bowed. 


In Conj. V. the radical vowel 7 is, made a diphthong in Gothic by 
prefixing aore. In Con VI. the radical vowel wu is made ati 
thong by prefixing a or 7 
~ The fourth class of Greek verbs, like the V. and VI. Teutonic co” 
jugations, has the radical vowel usually followed by asingle conse 
nant and that not a liquid. 


Greek Conjugations. 115 


The verbs belonging to these four classes are all primary or radical 


verbs. 
, Weak Inflection. : 
! _ Weak verbs in Greek, or verbs externally inflected, include some 
Primary verbs whose root or theme ends with a vowel or diphthong, 


| and all derivatives or secondary formations. 
Primary Verbs. 


perf. bé0gaxa. 


perf. xéntovxa. 


pres, doce, 
pres. 7Talw, 
perf. méxauxe. 


pres. déa, fut, djow, perf. dédexe. 
pres. cela, fut. ceicw, perf. oéoeuxa. 
pres. vedo, fut. vevow, perf. vévevze. 
pres. tlw, fut. tico, perf. TETLRG. 
pres. fda, fut. Sooo, perf. Pé8axe. 
pres. oie, fut. Aovow, perf. Adhovxe. 


Ul 
pres. 2tia, 


fut. arico, 


perf. wéatuxe. 


_ - Secondary Verbs. 
In do; as, tiuéw from teu}, and this from tla; xowdm from *6uy. 
Th é; as, movéw from abvog, and this from 7é»w ; xowarvéw from xol- 
Paros, 
; 2 eo ; as, xounetdo from zou), and this from 2éunw; dovietw from 
dvhos. 


In 60 ; as, otepaydw from otépavos, and this from otégw; dovidw, 
from dotdoc. : ies 

Th bo ; as, Taviw from telyw. 
In fo ; as, oterdtm from orévw ; dogudtm from d@gos. 
Th (fw ; as, fartite from Pdatw; aydito from fidos. 
Ih ito ; as, tonito from fonw. 
Th aie ; as, Onuelym from oiuc. 
70tvo from Adds. 


In byw ; as, 
I ; . . 
hw directly, from nouns or adjectives > as, novelido from mouxlhos. 


116 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


Arr. XII.—Notice of Prof. Ehrenberg’s Discoveries in relation to 
Fossil Animatcules ; also Notices of Deceased Members of the 
Geological Society of London, being extracts from the Address 
of Rev. Winuiam Wuewett, B. D. F. R. S., President of the 
Society ; delivered at the Annual Meeting, Feb. 15, 1839. 


Tue Council have adjudged the Wollaston medal for the pre- 
sent year to Prof. Ehrenberg, for his discoveries respecting fossil 
Infusoria and other microscopic objects contained in the materials 
of the earth’s strata. We all recollect the astonishment with 
which, nearly three years ago, we received the assertion, that 
Jarge masses of rock, and even whole strata, are composed 0 
the remains of microscopic animals. This assertion, made at 
that time by Professor Ehrenberg, has now not only been fully 
confirmed and very greatly extended by him, but it has assumed 
the character of one of the most important geological truths 
which have been brought to light in our time: for the connection 
of the present state of the earth with its condition at former pe 
riods of its history, a problem now always present to the mind of 
the philosophical geologist, receives new and unexpected illustra 
tion from these researches. Of about eighty species of fossil In- 
fusoria which have been discovered in various strata, almost the 
half are species which still exist in the waters: and thus these 
forms of life, so long overlooked as invisible specks of brute mat- 
ter, have a constancy and durability through the revolutions of 
the earth’s surface which are denied to animals of a more col 
spicuous size and organization. Again, we are so accustomed t 
receive new confirmations of our well-established geological doc 
trines, that the occurrence of such an event produces in us little 
surprise ; but if this were not so, we could not avoid being struck 
with one feature of Prof. Ehrenberg’s discoveries ;—that while 
the microscopic contents of the more recent strata are all freshW# 
ter Infusoria, those of the chalk are bodies (Peridiniwm Xanthi- 
dium, Fucoides,) which must, or at least can, live in the waters of 
the ocean. Nor has Prof. Ehrenberg been content with exami 
ing the rocks in which these objects occur. During the last tw° 
years he has been pursuing a highly interesting series of researches 
with a view of ascertaining in what manner these vast masses © 
minute animals ean have been accumulated. And_the result of 


Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 117 


his inquiries is,* that these creatures exist at present in such 
abundance, under favorable circumstances, that the difficulty dis- 
appears. In the Public Garden at Berlin he found that workmen 
were employed for several days in removing in wheelbarrows 
masses which consisted entirely of fossil Infusoria. He produced 
from the living animals in masses, so large as to be expressed in 
pounds, tripoli and polishing slate similar to the rocks from which 
he had originally obtained the remains of such animals ; and he 
declares that a small rise in the price of tripoli would make it 
worth while to manufacture it from the living animals as an arti- 
cle of commerce. These results are only curious; but his spee- 
ulations, founded upon these and similar facts, with respect to the 
formation of such rocks, for example, polishing slate, the siliceous 
paste called keiselewhr, and the layers of flint in chalk, are re- 
plete with geological instruction. 

As the discoveries of Prof. Ehrenberg are thus full of interest 
for the geological speculator, so they have been the result, not of 
any fortunate chance, but of great attainments, knowledge, and 
labor. The author of them had made that most obscure and 
difficult portion of natural history, the infusorial animals, his 
study for many years; had travelled to the shores of the Med- 
iterranean and the Red Sea in order to observe them; and 
had published (in conjunction with Prof. Miller) a work far 
eclipsing any thing which had previously appeared upon the sub- 
ject. It was in consequence of his being thus prepared, that 
When his attention was called to the subject of fossil Infusoria, 
(which was done in June, 1836, by M. Fischer) he was able to. 
produce, not loose analogies and insecure conjectures, but a clear 
determination of many species, many of them already familiar to 
him, although hardly ever seen perhaps by any other eye. ‘The 
animals (for he has proved them to be animals, and not, as others 
had deemed them, plants) consist, in the greater number of exam- 
Ples, of a staff-like siliceous case, with a number of transverse 
Markings; and these cases appear in many instances to make up 
Vast masses by mere accumulation without any change. Whole 
Tocks are composed of these minute cuirasses of crystal heaped 
together. Prof. Ehrenberg himself has examined the microscopic 
Products of fifteen localities, and is still employed in extending 
PN est Se aides ec Sl 


* Abhandl. Kén. Ak. Wissensch. Berlin. 1838. 


118 Ehrenberg’s Discoverics—Notices of Eminent Men. 


his researches; and we already see researches of the same kind 
undertaken by others, to such an extent, as to show us that this 
new path of investigation will exercise a powerful influence upon 
the pursuits of geologists. We are sure therefore that we have 
acted in a manner suitable to the wishes of the honored Donor of 
the medal, and to the interests of the science which we all in 
common seek to promote, in assigning the Wollaston medal to 
Prof. Ehrenberg: for these discoveries. 

Although it is not necessary as a ground for this adjudication, 
it is only justice to Prof. Ehrenberg to remark, that his services to 
geology are not confined to the researches which I have men- 
tioned. . His observations, made in the Red Sea, upon the growth 
of corals, are of great value and interest; and he was one of the 
distinguished band of scientific explorers who accompanied Baron 
von Humboldt in his expedition to the Ural Mountains. AndI 
may further add, that even since the Council adjudged this med- 
al, Prof. Ehrenberg has announced to the Royal Academy of Sci- 
ences of Berlin new discoveries ; particularly his observations on 
the organic structure of chalk; on the freshwater Infusoria found 
near Newcastle and Edinburgh, and on the marine animalcules 
observed near Dublin and Gravesend ; and, what cannot but give 
rise to curious reflections, an account of meteoric paper which fell 
from the sky in Courland in 1686, and is found to be composed 
of Conferve and Infusoria. 

I now proceed to notice some of the most conspicuous names, 
both among our own countrymen and foreigners, which have been 
removed by death from our lists since last year. ais4 

In Sir Abraham Hume the Society has lost a member who was 
at all times one of its most strenuous friends and most liberal sup- 
porters, and especially in its earliest periods, when such aid was 
of most value. Indeed he may ina peculiar manner be consid- 
ered as one of the Founders of the Society. English geology, 4° 
is well known, evolved itself out of the cultivation of mineralogy; 
—a study which was in no small degree promoted, at one time; 
by the fame of the mineralogical collections of Sir Abraham 
Hume and others. 'The Count de Bournon, exiled by the French 
revolution in 1790, brought to England new and striking views 
of crystallography, resembling those which Hairy was unfolding 
in France; and was employed to arrange and describe the mine! 
alogical collections of Sir John St. Aubyn and Mr, Greville, and 


Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 119 


especially the collection of diamonds of Sir Abraham Hume, of 
which a description, illustrated with plates, was published in 
1816. Some years before this period a few lovers of mineralogy 
met at stated times at the house of Dr. Babington, whose influ- 
ence in preparing the way for the formation of this Society was 
mentioned with just acknowledgment in the President’s Address, 
in 1834, by Mr. Greenough; and certainly he, more fitly perhaps 
than any other person, could speak of the merits and services of 
his fellow laborers. Of the number of these Sir Abraham Hume 
was one; although not, I believe, one of those who showed their 
zeal for the pursuits which associated them by holding their 
Meetings at the hour of seven in the morning, the only time of 
the day which Dr. Babington’s professional engagements allowed 
him to devote to social enjoyments of this nature. 

Out of the meetings to which I refer this Society more imme- 
diately sprung. The connection of mineralogy with geology is 
somewhat of the nature of that of the nurse with the healthy child 
born to rank and fortune. -The foster-mother, without being 
even connected by any close natural relationship with her charge, 
Supplies it nutriment in its earliest years, and supports it in its 
first infantine steps; but is destined, it may be, to be afterwards 
left in comparative obscurity by the growth and progress of her 
vigorous nursling. Yet though geology now seeks more various 
and savoury food from other quarters, she can never cease to look 

k with regard and gratitude to the lap in which she first sat, 
and the hands that supplied her early wants. And our warm ac- 
knowledgments must on all due occasions be paid to those who 
zealously cultivated mineralogy, when geology as we now under- 
Stand the term, hardly existed; and who, when the nobler and 
mote expansive science came before them, freely and gladly trans- 
ferred to that their zeal and their munificence. 

The spirit which prevailed in the infancy of this Society, and 
to Which the Society owed its permanent existence, was one 
Which did not shrink from difficulties and sacrifices ; and among 
the persons who were animated by this spirit Sir Abraham Hume 
was eminent ; his purse and his exertions being always at the 
SetVice of the body. He gave his labors also to the Society by 
taking the office of Vice-President, which he discharged with 
diligence from 1809 to 1813. He died in March last at the great 
age of ninety, being then the oldest person both in this and in the 
Royal Society. - 


120 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


Mr. Benjamin Bevan was a civil engineer, and throughout his 
life showed a great love of science, and considerable power of 
promoting its purposes. He instituted various researches, theo- 
retical and practical, on the strength of materials ;* and it was he 
who first proved by experiment the curious proposition, that the 
Modulus of Elasticity of water and of ice is the same. In 1821 
he wrote a letter to the secretary of this Society, recommending 
that the form of the surface of this country should be determined 
by barometrical measurements of the heights of a great number 
of points in it,—the barometer which was to be used as a stand- 
ard being kept in London. Mr. Bevan and Mr. Webster were 
commissioned to procure a barometer, and Dr. Wollaston recom- 
mended one of Carey’s barometers, but it does not appear that any 
further steps were taken. I may remark that recent researches 
have further confirmed the wisdom of Mr. Bevan’s suggestion, 
that heights should be measured, as all other measurements are 
made, from some fixed conventional standard, instead of incurring 
the vagueness and inconsistency which result from assuming the 
existence of a natural standard, such as the level of the sea. 

Nathaniel John Winch was born at Hampton Court in the year 
_ 1769, and after a voyage into the Mediterranean, and travels im 
various countries in Europe, settled at Newcastle-upon-T'yne as @ 
merchant. He had early paid great attention to botany, which 
he continued to cultivate during a long life, and kept up a corres 
pondence with all the leading botanists in Europe. He was one 
of the earliest, and always one of the most active members of the 
Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle; and, in coD- 
junction with a few of his friends, gave to that town a scientific 
and cultured character, which still distinguishes it. He,was one 
of the honorary members of this Society; and contributed to its 
meetings, in 1814, “ Observations on the Geology of Northum- 
berland and Durham,” and in 1816, “ Observations on the Easter? 
Part of Yorkshire,”+ which were printed in the fourth and fifth 


ih 


* To Mr. Bevan our Journal is indebted for many valuable communications.— 
Ep. Lon. Phil. Mag. 

t Besides these papers, Mr. Winch published: ‘“ The Botanist’s Guide through 
the Counties of Northumberland and Durham. By N. J. Winch, J. Thornhill, and 
R. Waugh.” 2 vols. 1805.— Flora of Northumberland and Durham.” !” the 
Transactions of the Newcastle Natural History Society, vol. 2.— Essay 0 - 
Geographical Distribution of Plants through the Counties of Northumberland, Dur- 


a ee LEE 


Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 121 


volumes of our Transactions. In these he stated his object to be 
to combine with his own observations much interesting informa- — 
tion on the subjects of the quarries, and coal and lead mines, of 
those districts, which had long been accumulating, and was 
widely diffused among the professional conductors of the mines. 
And these memoirs, though not containing much of originality in 
their views and researches, were, at the time, of considerable 
utility. He died May 5th, 1838, and, by his will, left to this 
Society a very considerable and valuable mineralogical collection, 
now in our Museum. 

Mr. William Salmon of York, was one of the persons who was 
most zealously and actively engaged in the examination of the 
celebrated Kirkdale Cavern. He measured and explored new 
branches of the cave in addition to those first opened, and made 
large collections of the teeth and bones, from which he sent speci- 
meus to the Royal Institution of London, and to Cuvier at Paris. 
The bulk of his collection was deposited in the Philosophical 
Society at York, then newly established. _ 

T now proceed to notice our deceased Foreign Members. : 

Frangois-Dominique de Reynaud, Comte de Montlosier, was — 
born at Clermont in Auvergne, April the 16th, 1755, the year of 
the celebrated earthquake of Lisbon. He was the youngest of 
twelve children of a family of the smaller nobility of that prov- 
ince, and was remarkable at an early age for the zeal with which 
he pursued various branches of science and literature. 

Count Montlosier must ever be considered as one of the most 
Striking writers in that great controversy respecting the origin of 
basaltic rocks, which occupied the attention of mineralogists du- 
"bg the latter half of the last century ; and to which, in so large 
# degree, the progress and present state of geology are to be as- 
ctibed. The theory of the extinct volcanos of Auvergne, the 
Subject of his researches, was the speculation which gave the main 
pulse to scientific curiosity on this point. It is true that he 
Was not the originator of the opinions which he so ably ex- 
pounded, Guettard, in 1751, had seen, vaguely and imperfectly, 
that Which it now appears so impossible not to see, the evidences 


ham, and Cumberland.” First edition, 1820; second edition, 1825.— Contribu- 
HONS to the Flora of Cumberland.” 1833.—“ Addenda to the Flora of Northum- 
berland and Durham,” 1836. 

Vol, *xxvit, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 16 


122 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


of igneous origin in the rocks of that district: and the elder Des- 
marest, whose examination of them began in 1763, had made that 
classification of them, which is the basis, and indeed the main 
‘substance, of the views still entertained with regard to the struc- 
ture of that most instructive region. His map of the district, pub- 
lished in 1774 (in the Transactions of the Academy of Paris for 
1771, according to a bad habit of that body still prevailing, ) ex- 
hibits the distinction of modern currents of lava, ancient currents, 
and rocks fused in the places where they now are, which distine- 
tion supplies a key to the most extraordinary phenomena, while 
it reveals to us a history more wonderful still. But striking and 
persuasive as this view was, and fitted, apparently, to carry with 
it universal conviction, the theory which it implied, collected, as 
it seemed at the time, from one or two obscure spots in Europe; 
was for a while resisted and almost borne down by the opposite 
doctrine of the aqueous origin of basalt; which came from the 
school of Freyberg, recommended by the power of a connected 
and comprehensive system,—a power in science so mighty fot 
good and for evil. Montlosier’s Essay on the Volcanos of AU 
vergne, which appeared first in 1788, was, however, not written 
with any direct reference to this controversy, but was rather the 
exposition of the clear and lively views of an acute and sagacious 
man, writing from the fullness of a perfect acquaintance with the 
country which he described, in which, indeed, his own estate and 
abode lay. In its main scheme, although Desmarest’s is men 
tioned with just praise,* the object of this Essay is to criticise and 
correct a work of M. Le Grand d’Aussy, entitled Voyage en Au- 
vergne. But as the main additions to sound theory whieh this 
work contains, (a point which here concerns us far more than its 
occasion and temporary effect,) we may, I think, note the mode 
in which he traces in detail the effects which the more recent 
currents of lava (those which follow the causes of the existing 
valleys) must have produced upon the courses of rivers and the 
position of lakes ; and the idea, at that time a very bold and, I 
believe, a novel one, that lofty insulated ridges and pinnacles of 
basalt, which tower over the valleys, have been cut into thei 
present form by the long-continued action of fluviatile watel, 
is ee 


* After mentioning Guettard, he says, “ Les mémoires de M. Desmarest, publi¢s 
quelques années aprés, entrainérent tout-dfait opinion publique.” (p. 20- 


Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Noatices of Eminent Men. 123 


aided by a configuration of the surface very different from the 
present. ‘The striking and vivid pictures which Montlosier draws 
of such occurrences, are to the present day singularly instructing 
and convincing to those who look at that region with the geolo- 

gist’s eye. After publishing this essay, M. Montlosier, a man of 
varied and commanding talents, became involved in the political 

struggles of his time, and was an active member of the National 

Assembly, to which he was sent as Deputy of the Noblesse of 
Auvergne. In his place there he resisted in vain the proposals 

for the spoliation of the clergy; and one speech of his on this 

Subject was very celebrated. After witnessing some of the chan- 

ges which his unhappy country had then to suffer, he became an 

exile, and resided in London, where for some years he was the 

editor of the Courier Francais, a royalist journal. Under the 

empire, he returned to France, and was employed in the Foreign 

Office of the Ministry, but recovered little of his property except 

@ portion of a mountain, which was too ungrateful a soil to find 

another purchaser. The situation however could not but be con- 

genial to his geological feelings; for his habitation was in the ex- 

tinet crater of the Puys de Vaches. The traveller, in approaching 

the door of the philosopher of Randane, had to wade through sco- 

tie and ashes; and from the deep basin in which his house stood, 

4 torrent of lava, still rugged and covered with cinders, has poured 

down the valley, and at the distance of a league, has formed a 

dike and barred up the waters which form the lake of Aidat Pet 

4 Spot celebrated by Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont in 

the fifth century, as the seat of his own beautiful residence, under 

the name of Avitacus. It is curious to remark that Sidonius does 
hot overlook the resemblance between his own mountain and 

Vesuvius: 


“ ZEmula Baiano tolluntur culmina cono, 
Parque cothurnato vertice fulget apex.” 

In this most appropriate abode M. de Montlosier was, in his old 
48e, visited at different times by several distinguished English 
8eologists, some of whom are now present ; and invariably de- 
lighted them with his unfading interest in the geology of his own 
fegion, his hospitable reception, and I may add, his lofty and vig- 
Srous Presence, according well with his frank and chivalrous de- 
meanor. His ardor of character had shown itself in early age: 

From my first youth,” thus his Essay opens, “I occupied my- 


. 


124 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


self with the natural history of my province, in spite of repulse 


and ridicule.” The same spirit involved him in other struggles 


to the end of his life; and, indeed, we may almost say, beyond 
it. He took a prominent part in the political controversies of his 
day ; and few works on such subjects, which appeared in France 
in modern times, produced a greater fermentation than his “ Meé- 
moire a consulter” on the subject of the Jesuits. In this work he 
maintained that the position of the Jesuits in France was danger- 
ous and illegal; and he must be considered as the originator of 
that movement in consequence of which their body was, a few 
years later, suppressed by the government. 'The expression of 
his opinions respecting the conduct and influence of the clergy of 
his country was condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities, and 
was deemed by them of a nature to exclude him from that recog- 
nition of his being a son of the Catholic Church, which is implied 
by the performance of the funeral rite according to its ordinances. 
This, however, did not prevent the inhabitants of the neighbor- 
hood and the military stationed at Clermont from showing the re- 


gard which his intercourse with them had inspired, by attending 


his sepulture in great numbers. He was buried in a spot pre- 
viously selected by himself, in the crater of the extinct volcano 
in which his abode was, in the middle of the scenes which he 
had from his earliest years loved and studied, and taught others 
to feel a deep interest in. He died at the age of 83, on his way 
to Paris in order to take his seat in the Chamber of Peers, of which 
a member.* : 
Anselme-Gaétan Desmarest, honorary member of the Royal 
Academy of Medicine, and Professor of Zoology at the Royal 
Veterinary College of Alfort, was the son of Nicolas Desmarest, 
who has just been mentioned as the predecessor of Montlosier in 
his theory of the volcanic origin of Auvergne. 'The son also em- 
ployed himself upon the same district; and published an enlarged 
ee 


* Besides his “ Essay on the Extinct Volcanos of Auvergne,’ M. de Montlosier 
was the author of the following works: ‘Mémoire a consulter sur un Systeme 
Religieux et Politique tendant 4 renverser la Religion, la Société et le Trone’ 
(1826.)  “ Dénonciation aux Cours Royales rélativement au Systéme Religie et 
Politique signalé dans le Mémoire A consulter,” (1826.) “ Mémoires de M- le 
Comte de Montlosier sur la Révolution Francaise, le Consulat, |’Empire, et Jes 
principaux Evyénements qui ont suivis 1755-1830.” Of this work two volumes 
have appeared, which bring the narrative down to the author’s quitting the Na- 
tional Assembly in 1790. 


Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 125 


and improved edition of his father’s map of Auvergne ;—a work 
which is still spoken of with admiration, for its fidelity and skillful 
construction, by all who explore that country. But the labors of 
the younger Desmarest were principaily bestowed upon the other 
parts of natural history. We possess in our Library, extracted 
from various journals, and presented us by the author, his ‘“‘ Notes 
on the impression of marine bodies in the strata of Montmartre,” 
published in 1809; his “Memoir on the Gyrogonite,” published 
in 1810; to which he added, 1812, the recognition of the analogy 
of this fossil with the fruit of the Chara, pointed out by his 
brother-in-law M. Léman; his review of a work by M. Daudebard 
é Ferussac, on the Fossils of Freshwater Formations, in 1813; 
his memoir on 'T'wo Genera of Fossil Chambered Shells, in 1817 ; 
and his “ Natural History of Proper Fossil-Crustaceans,” published 
in 1822 along with M. Brongniart’s “ Natural History of Fossil 
Trilobites.” In the Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle,” the arti- 
cle Malacostracés, which contains a complete account and classi- 
fication of Crustaceans, is by M. Desmarest, with others on the 
“ame subject. In this work all the articles on Crustaceans had 
orginally been assigned to Dr. Leach; but when the lamented 
illness of that distinguished naturalist prevented his finishing this 
task, it was committed to Desmarest, who carefully studied the 
labors of his predecessor ; and, with most laudable industry and 
self-denial, made it his business to follow his method as closely 
4S possible. He also published a separate work on Crustaceans 
In 1825, ; 
_ Count Kaspar Sternberg was one of ‘those persons, so valuable 
in every country, who employ the advantages of wealth and rank 
in the cultivation and encouragement of science. He belonged 
0. @ younger branch of one of the best and oldest families in Bo- 
emia; and was closely connected with the persons of most eleva- 
ted station in that country. He was born the 6th of January, 
1761, and received a distinguished education at Prague ; not only, 
*S Was then common among the Bohemian nobility, through pri- 
Yate tutors, but by following the public course of the university. 
© Was created Canon of the Chapter of the metropolitan church 
% Ratisbon, which, obliging him to receive the lower degree of 
holy orders, bound him to celibacy. At Ratisbon, then a consid- 
“table Place, and the seat of the Diet of the German empire, he 
formed friendships with several eminent persons, and especially 


126 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


with Count Bray (afterwards Bavarian minister at various courts,) 
a man of letters, and a distinguished botanist. Count Sternberg 
also cultivated botany, and became an active member of the Bo- 
tanical Society of Ratisbon. During the time that Germany was 
a prey to the miseries of war, he retired to his hereditary country 
seat Brzezina, in the circle of Pilsen, in the northwestern part of 
Bohemia. Here his attention was early drawn to the coal forma- 
tion, of which mineral he possessed an extensive estate at Radnitz. 
He soon formed the intention of publishing representations of the 
fossil vegetables belonging to the coal strata. These had already 
‘begun to excite the attention of geologists. Some of these works, 
containing notices on such subjects, preceded the existence of 
sound geology, as the Herbarium Diluvianum of Scheuchzer, 
the Sylva Subterranea of Beutinger, and the Lapis Diluvii Tes- 
tis of Knoor.* At the beginning of the present century, Faujas 
de St. Fond had published in the Annales du Muséum some im- 
pressions of leaves, not indeed belonging to the coal, but to a later 
formation. 'These impressions were examined and determined 
by Count Sternberg, in the Botanical Journal of Ratisbon, if 
1803. In the following year appeared the first truly scientific 
work on this subject, the “ Fora der Vorwelt’”’ of Schlotheim, @ 
which the great problem which was supposed to demand a solu 
tion was, Whether the vegetables of which the traces are thus eX 
hibited belong to existing or to extinct kinds? Count Sternberg 
was in Paris when he received the work of Schlotheim, and he 
studied it carefully by the aid of the collections which exist 2 
that metropolis. He published in the Annales du Muséum a 20 
tice on the analogies of these plants, but concluded with observ 
ing, that a greater mass of facts was requisite; and that, these 
once collected, the general views which belong to the subject 
would come out of themselves. 

Bearing in mind this remark of his own, when fortune, after the 
storming of Ratisbon in 1809, set him down in the midst of the 
great coal formations of Bohemia, he proceeded forthwith to man 
age the working of his mines, so as to preserve as much as po* 
sible the most remarkable impressions of fossils. Combining his 

Sh orale ee ie 


_* To the earlier works on this subject we may add Martin’s Petrificata —_ 
sia, published 1809; and Parkinson’s Organic Remains, (1804,) which conta 
many plates of vegetables. 


re 
ee 


Ehrenberg's Discoveries—Notices of E’minent Men. 127 


own specimens with those found in-other places, he began to 
publish, in 1820, his “Essay towards a Geognostic-botanical 
Representation of the Flora of the Pre-esisting World.” In this 
work he not only gave a great number of very beautiful colored 
engravings of vegetable fossils, but also attempted a systematic 
classification of them. But he stated, in the first portion of his 
work,* that the problems, important alike for botany and geology, 
which offered themselves, could only be solved by combined la- 
bors on a common plan; and after mentioning the various Euro- 
pean Societies to which he looked for assistance (among which he 
includes this Society,) he adds, ‘‘ Bohemia and the hereditary 
states of the Austrian empire, I am ready, with some friends of 
science; to make the subject of continued investigation.” The 
specimens of which he published representations, with many 
more, formed the Count’s collection at his castle of Brzezina; 
but he declared in the outset, that as soon as the National Bohe- 
mian Museum at Prague was provided with the means of receiv- 
ing and displaying this collection, the whole should be transferred 
from Brzezina to the capital. This was afterwards done; and in 
this and other ways he was one of the principal founders of the 
Museum at Prague. He also gave notice, that while the collec- 
“ion continued in his own residence, it was open to the inspection 
of every lover of science, even in the absence of the Count himself. 
The publication of Sternberg’s Flora der Vorwelt went on till 
1825, after which it was discontinued till 1838, when two parts 
appeared, terminating the work. In this last publication he states 
‘hat he is compelled to give up this undertaking, having been in 
* great measure deprived of sight for two years, so that he was 
obliged to devolve the greater. part of such labors upon MM. Cor- 
da and Presi, His hearing also failed him. He adds, however, 
~ though thus no longer able to pursue the path which he has 
tedden for twenty years, he shall not fail to render to the science, 
“which he was one of the founders, any service which may be 
in his power, This publication was the crowning labor of his life, 
for he did not long survive it; he retained, however, to the last 
elasticity and activity of his mind. He died very suddenly 
— Country seat already mentioned, on the 20th of December, 
838, being carried off by apoplexy in his 78th year. 
Sanaa eget 


* Erster Heft, p 16. 


128 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 


In his own country his influence was highly salutary: he di- 
rected his attention especially to the improvement of the national 
education ; and we cannot be surprised at finding such a person 
very soon at the head of nearly all the institutions for literary and 
public purposes. He founded the National Museum of Bohemia, 
of which he was the President ; gave to it his library and his va- 
rious collections, and further enriched it at various periods of his 


life. He was, indeed, zealous in all that concerned Bohemian - 


nationality, and was an accomplished master of the language and 
literature of his country : since his death I am assured that there 
is hardly one Bohemian of any class who does not mourn for him 
as for a most respected benefactor. "Throughout Germany, he 
was looked to by all who felt an interest in science with a respect 
and regard which he well merited. The emperor Francis held 
him in the highest esteem; he gave him the title of Privy Cout- 
cillor, and the Grand Cross of St. Leopold, held in that monarchy 
as a distinguished honor. 

In the preceding sketch I have mentioned Schlotheim as one of 
the predecessors of Count Sternberg in fossil botany. Although 
this writer died in 1832, and was an honorary member of this So 
ciety, he has never been noticed in the annual address; I may 
therefore here add. a few words with reference to him. Baron 
F. von Schlotheim was Privy Councillor and President of the 
Chamber at the court of Gotha, and his collection of Petrifactions 
has long been celebrated throughout Germany. Besides his Flora 
of a Former World, or Descriptions of remarkable Impressions of 
Plants, which appeared in 1804, he published, in 1820, ‘ Petrifac- 
tenkunde, or the Science of Petrifactions according to its preset 
condition, illustrated by the Description of a Collection of petrified 
and fossil remains of the animal and vegetable kingdom of a for- 
mer world.’ And in 1822 and 1823 he published Appendixes to 
this work. His collection was also further made known by att 
cles in Leonhard’s Mineralogical Pocket Book and in the Isis. 
After his death a new description of this collection was announ- 
ced, but whether it appeared I am not able to say. Schlotheim’s 
introduction to his account of his collection contains some extel 
sive geological views. 

It is only justice to M. de Schlotheim to add here what is said 
of him by M. Adolphe Brongniart, whose own labors on fossil ve- 
getables have been of such inestimable value to the geologist, and 


Ehrenbere’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 129 


are every year increasing in interest. ‘“ Almost half a century,” 
he says, “elapsed, during which no important work appeared on 
this subject. It was not till 1804 that the ‘ Flora of the Ancient 
World’, by M. de Schlotheim, again turned the attention of nat- 
uralists to this branch of science. More perfect figures, descrip- 
tions given in detail and constructed with the precision of style 
which belongs to botany, and moreover some attempts at compar- 
ison with living vegetables, showed that this part of natural 
history was susceptible of being treated like the other branches 
of science: and we may say, that if the author had established a 
nomenclature for the vegetables which he described, his work 
would have become the basis of all the succeeding labors on the 
same subject.” 

The following gentlemen were elected, Feb. 15, 1839, Officers 
and Council of the Society for the year ensuing. 

President.—Rev. W. Buckland, D.D., Professor of Geology 
and Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 

Vice-Presidents.—G. B. Greenough, Esq. F.R.S. and L.S.; 
Leonard Horner, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E-; Charles Lyell, jun. Esq. 
F.R.S, & L.S.; Rev. Adam Sedgwick, F'.R.S. and L.S., Wood- 
Watdian Professor in the University of Cambridge. 

Secretaries —Charles Darwin, Esq. F.R.S.; William John 
Hamilton, Esq. 

Foreign Secretary.—H. 'T. De la Beche, Esq. F.R.S. & LS. 

Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq. F'.R.S. 

Council.—Professor Daubeny, M.D. F.R.S. & LS. ; Sir P. 
Grey Egerton, Bart. M.P. F.R.S.; W. H. Fitton, M.D. F.R.S. 
& LS.; Prof. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.; Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ; 
W. Hopkins, Esq. M.A. F.R.S.; Robert Hutton, Esq. MP. 
¥ -LA.; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. M.P. F.R.S. ; Prof. Miller, 
MAL; R. 1. Murchison, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S. ; Richard Owen, 
Esq. F.R.S.; Sir Woodbine Parish, K.C.H. F.R.S. ; George 
Rennie, Bsq. F.R.S.; Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. 


Vol. xxxvir, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. 17 


130 _ Meteor of Dec. 14, 1837. 


Arr. XII.—Account of a Meteor seen in Connecticut, December 
14, 1837 ; with some considerations on the Meteorite which ex- 
ploded near Weston, Dec. 14, 1807; by Enwarn C. Herrick, 
Rec. Sec. Conn. Acad. 


On the evening of Thursday, the 14th of December, 1837, a 
meteoric fire-ball of great splendor, was seen by many persons in 
this vicinity. At the time of its appearance, Mr. A. B. Haile and 
myself were abroad here, engaged in making observations on 
shooting stars in concert with Messrs. I", A. P. Barnard, J. D. Dana, 
and J. H. Pettingell, in New York. Our attention was exclu- 
sively directed to the northeastern part of the heavens, and the 
western quarter, in which the meteor appeared, was unfortunately 
concealed from view at our station by a contiguous building. A 
brilliant flash suddenly illuminated the roof on which we stood, 
and concluding at once that the unseen source of the light must 
be a meteor of uncommon splendor, we noted the time. It was 
7h. 39m. 32s. P. M. 

I was not able, after much inquiry, to ascertain the position of 

_the meteor at its first appearance. The testimony of two inde- 
pendent witnesses several rods distant from each other, near the 
middle of this city, coincided as to the azimuth of the point of 
extinction, and furnished me with data for fixing it at 8. 89° W. 

_ The altitude was less certain, but appeared to be about 9°. 

The meteor was much more splendid than Venus. It was ap- 
parently, according to the estimates of different observers, from 
one fourth to three fourths as large as the full moon. It mov 
downwards from a point between S. and W. at an angle of from 
30° to 50° with a vertical, to the point before indicated, where it 
appeared to explode, and to throw down one or more large frag- 
ments. ‘The time of flight was 1 or 1.5 seconds. It was attended 
by a long and broad train of scintillations, some part of which re- 
mained visible for about ten seconds, and of course, long after the 
meteor was extinct. It is uncertain whether the report of the 
explosion was heard here. If audible at this distance, the sound 
would not have arrived until two or three minutes after the disap- 
pearance of the meteor, and unless very heavy, it might easily 
have passed unnoticed amidst the noise of the city. 


Meteor of Dee. 14, 1837. | 131 


Thinking it probable that some portion of this meteor had fallen 
in the southwestern part of this State, I made inquiries by letter in 
Various towns in that region. At Wilton, (28 miles, about W. by 
S. from this city,) the meteor was scen by several persons, and 
their testimony was kindly collected for me, by Mr. Hawley Olm- 
stead. Mr. Edward Baldwin, one of the observers at that place, has 
given me some additional details. For observations at a spot 
about seven miles S. W. from Wilton, I am indebted to Rev. 
Theophilus Smith of New Canaan. At Wilton, the meteor pas- 
sed a little south of the zenith, in a westerly direction. It grad- 
ually enlarged until just before the explosion, and at the largest, 
it was of “the magnitude of one fourth of the moon.” The bril- 
lianey of the meteor was exceedingly great, and rendered minute 
objects on the ground distinctly visible. Its light was so intense 
that it arrested the attention of a person engaged in study in his 
fom with two candles burning before him. The train was long, 
and remained in sight several seconds after the explosion. When 
25° or 30° above the horizon, the meteor exploded with a heavy 
report, which, according to the mean of various estimates, reached 
the ear in about thirty seconds afterwards. One or more of the 
observers saw luminous fragments descend towards the ground. 

ost of the witnesses imagined that they heard a whizzing noise, 
4 the meteor passed over their heads; but this could not have 
been noticed until several seconds after the meteor’s passage. 

After collecting numerous observations from witnesses in vari- 
ous places, I found that they were not sufficiently exact and con- 
cordant to enable me to give a satisfactory account of the meteor, 
and I was for some time uncertain whether it was worth while to 
Publish them. ‘The following are the results which were ob- 

ined. The direction of the path of the meteor while visible, 
Was probably one or two degrees N. of W. and inclined down- 
wards. The length of its path, and its relative velocity, can only 
be roughly conjectured, as I do not find that any one saw the 
Meteor at its earliest appearance. Its path while visible may 

ve been from 15 to 20 miles long. Ou account of the direction 
of the earth’s motion at the moment, the relative velocity of the 
Meteor was probably less than the absolute, but how much less 
cannot be determined, as we do not know the angle which its 
Path made with our horizon. When it exploded, it was three or 
Sur miles above the surface of the earth, and probably over the 


132 Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 


town of Poundridge, Westchester County, N. Y.* The fragments 
which fell, doubtless lie buried somewhere in that region,—to be 
discovered, perhaps, in future ages. The larger part of the me- 
teor appears to have passed on, in its path around the sun. The 
size of the meteor can be ascertained in the present instance with 
about as much certainty as in most similar cases. Respecting 
this particular there is always abundant room for fallacious results. 
The observer is commonly too unskillful to make a just com- 
parison of the angular size of the meteor with that of any celes- 
tial body ; and he is moreover, without being conscious of it, 
often prone to exaggeration. He rarely sees the bare nucleus, 
but only the envelope of flame and sparks, and that, greatly en- 
larged by irradiation. Hence, there is danger of making the size 
of the body much too large, especially when the calculation 1s 
based on observations taken at the distance of 50 or 100 miles. 
The nearer the observer is to the meteor, the less is the probabil- 
ity of error in this respect. In the present instance, an estimate 
of the apparent size of the meteor by an observer at North Bran- 
ford, (nearly 40 miles from the place of explosion, ) would make 
the diameter of the meteor ten or twelve times as great as that re 
sulting from the observations at Wilton, only about six miles from 
the place of explosion. The data from Wilton make the diameter 
of the meteor about 150 feet, and it was probably a little less than 
this. The distant observations on the apparent size of the me- 
teor must be rejected, 


On the velocity of the Weston Meteorite. 


The meteor which cast down stones in several places in and 
about Weston in this State, on the morning of Monday, Decem- 
ber 14, 1807, excited uncommon attention far and wide, and full 
accounts of its interesting phenomena, were published in the 
highly valuable memoirs of Professors Silliman and Kingsley;t 
and of Dr. Bowditch.t To the elaborate calculations of the lat 


* T did not succeed in obtaining any observations on this meteor from the State of 
New York, but I was not able tomake thorough inquiry in that quarter. 

t Trans. Am, Phil. Soc. v1, 323; Mem. Conn. Acad. 1, 141; Med. Repos: xt; 
202. See alsoa paper in the Churchman’s Monthly Mag. New Haven, ¥; « : 
count by Messrs Bronson and Holley in N. Y. Spectator, Jan. 2, 1808; Med. 
Repos., x1, 418; ib. xiv, 194, (1811.) 

} Mem. Amer. Acad. 11, 213, 


Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 133 


ter we are indebted for our knowledge concerning its height, di- 
rection, velocity and magnitude. 

The case of the Weston meteor is one of exceeding impor- 
tance, because it is probably the only instance where a meteor 
from which stones are known to have come to the earth, has 
been sufficiently well observed for the determination of its velo- 
city. This element is of great value, on account of its bearing 
on the relation between meteorites and shooting stars. There 
can indeed be no reasonable doubt, that many of the meteor 
which have been seen and heard to explode, and whose phenom- 
ena have been submitted to calculation, were true meteorites; 
but this is a case where there is absolute certainty. 

Dr. Bowditch ascertained that the course of the Weston me- 
teor “was about S. 7° W., in a direction nearly parallel to the 
surface of the earth, and at the height of about eighteen miles.” 
{twas about a mile further from the earth’s surface when it ex- 
ploded, than when it first appeared. The length of its path from 
the time it was first seen until it exploded, as determined from 
the observations made at Rutland, Vt., and at Weston, was at 

107 miles. This space being divided by the duration of 
the flight as estimated by two of the observers, viz. thirty seconds, 
We have for the meteor’s relative velocity, about three and a half 
miles a second. 'The observations made at Wenham, Mass., are 
Ptobably less exact in this respect, and need not be mentioned 
here, Every one accustomed to observations on meteors, knows 
how difficult it is accurately to determine the duration of their 
visible flight. An inexperienced observer, however intelligent, 
will frequently give the time, ten or even twenty fold too large. 

he apparent motion of the Weston meteor, was probably much 
Slower than that of most meteors, but it seems to me highly im- 
Probable that its visible flight could have exceeded fifteen or 
twenty seconds. Mr. Page, the observer at Rutland, Vt., says,— 
“motion very rapid, probably thirty seconds in sight.” The 

ry rapid, probably 

“e traversed by the meteor as there seen, Was not over 15 de- 
fees. Now it is scarcely credible that any man could consider 
*Svery rapid, the motion of a meteor at the rate of one degree in 
'Wo seconds of time. It will perhaps be deemed improper to 
Mtroduce here, at this distant period, the recollected observation 
ne not unversed in science, who saw the meteor from a spot 

a few miles northwest of this city, and who is confident that it 
Could not have been in sight as long as ten seconds. I will 


134 Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 


therefore make no further use of his testimony. There are, how- 
ever, two considerations which may throw some light on this 
" point. 

1. The meteor if a satellite, must have moved with a velo- 
city greater than three and a half miles per second, because if it 
did not, the earth’s attraction would soon have brought the whole 
mass to the ground. But it is certain that much the greater portion 
passed on. In order to have done this, through the air, at the 
height of eighteen miles, it must have had a velocity not less 
than five miles per second. ? 

2. According to Mr. E. Staples, (one of the observers at West- 
on,) “when the meteor disappeared, there were apparently three 
successive efforts or leaps of the fire-ball which grew more dim 
at every throe, and disappeared with the last.”* Soon after the 
meteor disappeared, were heard three principal heavy reports, 
which “succeeded each other with as much rapidity as was col- 
sistent with distinctness, and all together, did not occupy three 
seconds.” Professors Silliman and Kingsley, who thoroughly 
examined the region where the stones fell, a few days after the 
event, say, “ We think we are able to point out three principal 
places where stones have fallen, corresponding with the three 
loud cannon-like reports, and with the three leaps of the me 
teor.” The account given by Mr. Isaac Bronson, of an investiga 
tion made Dec. 19, 1807, by himself and Rev. Horace Holley, 
confirms this position. 

(1.) The most northerly fall was in Huntington, on the border 
of Weston, near the house of Mr. Merwin Burr. (2.) The see 
ond principal deposit was near the house of Mr. William Prince 
“in Weston, distant about five miles in a southerly direction 
from Mr. Burr’s.” (3.) The third and probably the largest col- 
lection, fell near the house of Mr. Elijah Seeley, “at the dis 
tance of about four miles from Mr. Prince’s.” 

Although it is not certain that these several masses came i0 the 
same direction from the meteoric body, yet until the contrary 4P” 
pears, it may, not unfairly, be assumed that they did; an ° 
sequently the interval of space at which they struck the earth, 

, ke 

* Observers in Wallingford, Meriden, Cheshire, &c., “ all agree that its motion 
was not uniform either in velocity or direction, but that it seemed to bound, of ” 
one of them expresses it, to move scolloping.” Ch. Mo. Mag., v. 36. This ni 
probably due to the resistance of the air, which, in such cases, must be exceedingly 
great. 


i 


| 
| 


Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 135 


furnishes some measure of the velocity of the meteor relative to 
the earth’s surface. The statement will permit us to allow not 
quite a second of time between each report, and we thus obtain a 
velocity as great as four or five miles a second. This result is of 
course no more than a rude approximation to the truth. 

The velocity thus far spoken of, is only the velocity relative 
10 the earth. Here the question arises,—if the meteor was not a 
satellite of the earth, what was its absolute rate of motion? Now 
it will be noticed (p. 133, lines 14, 15) that the path of the meteor 
must have been nearly in the same direction with that of the 
earth at the time. Their directions in azimuth were almost iden- 
tical ; the direction of the meteor’s path in altitude, appears to have 
been a little below that of the earth. If the meteor was mov- 
ing around the sun, then nearly the whole of the earth’s velocity 
(at that season) of rather more than nineteen miles a second,— 
must be added to the meteor’s relative velocity to obtain the true 
Velocity, In this view, its absolute rate of motion will be found to 
have been at. least twenty miles a second. 

Itremains only to inquire, whether it is more probable that the 

eston meteorite was a satellite of the earth, or a primary body 
moving around the sun. If this meteor had passed the earth’s 
surface in the direction opposite to that of the earth’s motion, 
With about the relative velocity which it exhibited, then we might 
be compelled to consider it a satellite of the earth. But the pe- 
culiar direction in which it moved, makes it an ambiguous case. 

must therefore resort to other instances, for a solution of the 
qWestion. Numerous observations on meteoric fire-balls which 
Were without doubt real meteorites, have been made and com- 
puted. It has most generally been found, that whenever they 
‘ome ina direction more or less opposed to that of the earth’s 
motion, their velocity is greater than ten miles a second; which 
Proves them to be in revolution about the sun and not about 
the earth, Their velocity has indeed more than once, exceeded 
thirty miles a second. It is then from analogy altogether prob- 
able that the Weston meteor was a body revolving around the 
Sun, and that if it had approached the earth from the contrary 
di tection, it would have been found moving with a relative velo- 
“ity of not less than forty miles a second. 

New Haven, Conn, 


136 Notice of British Naturalists. 


Arr. XIV.—Some Notice of British Naturalists; by Rev. 
Cartes Fox, Cor. Mem. of the N. Y. Lyc. of Nat. Hist. 


Continued from Vol. xxxvr, No. 2, p. 230. 


Ray had two contemporaries whose names are still remembered 
with respect. 'T'o the first we owe the origin of British Con- 
chology. 

Martin Lister was descended from an old and respectable 
Yorkshire family ; but his parents, having removed: from their 
own county, had settled in Buckinghamshire, where he was born 
in 1638. His earlier education was superintended by his uncle, . 
Sir Matthew Lister, Physician to King Charles I, and President 
of the Royal College of Physicans in London. At the usual age 
he entered the University ; and in 1658, being then but 20 years 
of age, he took his degree at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Like 
Ray he appears to have distinguished himself here by his abili- 
ties and his classical attainments; and two years after, he was 
created by the royal mandate, a fellow of his College. ‘The pro- 
fession which he now chose to pursue was that of medicine } and 
having traveled for some time upon the continent, in order to pel 
fect himself, as was then usual for persons of his education, about 
five years after he had become a fellow, he settled at York 
practice as a physician. Whether he had heretofore, paid avy - 
tention to the study of Natural History, further than his profession 
required, does not appear; but it was not till 1671 that he first 
became an acknowledged writer upon the subject. The only 
periodical work of importance, the pages.of which were at this 
time open to accounts of miscellaneous scientific discovers 
was the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon- 
don. In this work we find Lister’s first paper,—“ Observations 
on an acid liquor obtained from ants and perhaps other insects. 
After having thus once began, he was a frequent contributor ; and 
he appears to have been not only an acute observer, but likewise 
a careful collector of miscellaneous facts on a variety of subjects 
His papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount, in tHe 
whole, to about forty ; several of which are upon antiquities, and 
one or two upon the anatomy of Testacea. But his princip* 
works, and those upon which his fame and usefulness as an a" 
thor chiefly rest, are—I. Historie Animalium Anglie, 74 


. 


Notice of British Naturalists. «137 


Tractatus ; Unus de Araneis ; alter de Cochleis, tam terrestribus 
lam fluviatilibus ; tertius de Cochleis Marinis. Adjectus est 
quartus de lapidibus ejusdem Insule, ad cochlearum imaginem fig- 
uratis, London, 1678. Ato. II. Historia, sive Synopsis Con- 
chyliorum quorum omnium Picture ad vivum delineate, exhiben- 
tur. Lond. 1685-92, and a third edition at Oxford, 1770. This 
latter edition consists of 1059 plates, exclusive of the anatomical 
ones; but there is very little letter press connected with it. Mr. 
Granger informs us that the drawings were executed chiefly by 
his two daughters, Anna and Susanna, and some think that these 
ladies engraved the plates likewise. 
- Evercitatio Anatomica de Cochleis maxime terrestribus et 
Limacibus. 1694. 8vo. 
- £ver, Anat. altera de buccinis flaviatilibus et marinis. 
1695. 8vo. 
V. Exer. Anat. tertia Conchylorum bivalvium. 1696. Ato. 
The plates are remarkable for their fidelity and excellency. In 
his first work he confines himself chiefly to the ‘shells of the 
horthern counties, and describes sixty-three species. In his second 
Work a large number, not before noted, are added. His other 
Writings, some of which are upon medicine, are numerous ; but may 
be said, in general, to be marked with a propensity to hypothesis, 
and too Strong an attachment to ancient doctrines. He now became 
Well known in the scientific world; his practice as a physician 
Was Constantly increasing ; and his fame was generally extended. 
In 1684 he was persuaded to remove to London, in order that he 
might enjoy the advantages which the metropolis alone could 
ord him ; and in 1698 he was sent on an embassy, with the 
Earl of Portland, to the Court of France. On his return he pub- 
lished an account of his journey, which was severely satirized, 
*S containing some things which were supposed to be puerile and 
frivo us. He was elected a fellow of the Royal College of Phy- 
Scans; and in 1709 he was appointed Physician in Ordinary to 
ween Anne. This honor, however, he did not long live to en- 
Joy } for he died February, 1711,—having reached the highest 
Point in his profession. | When we read over the list of his nu- 
Merous Writings, we are surprised at his great and unceasing indus- 
€ isa remarkable instance of what a person may do who 
makes use of all his time ; for Natural History seems to have 
Qn but a recreation to him ; and all he did on this subject he 
Vol, *xxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 18 


138 Notice of British Naturalists. 


appears to have accomplished during his leisure hours. His pro- 
fessional practice was large; he was by no means unacquainted 
with the writings of preceding Physicians, and his information 
on general topics was such as might be expected from one hold- 
ing the high station in society which he did. What has been 
justly remarked of those among the ancients who wrote on Nat- 
ural History, we may apply, without much change, to Lister,— 
that they were men of enlarged minds, who were far from being 
confined to one study; that their views were elevated, and their 
knowledge various and profound ; and that while no object appear 
ed too minute for their consideration, their depth of thought pre- 
served them from trifling or unimportant investigations. Lister 
may be said to be the father of Conchology in England ; and his 
anatomical examinations prove how correct a view he took of the 
subject. In these writings he has displayed both great accuracy 
of observation, and indefatigable industry in detecting the most 
minute particulars of the economy of this part of creation; and 
we may still refer to his works with profit, instruction, and in- 
terest. 

Sir Roserr Srppatp.—The principal source of information te 
specting him, is from an autobiography written in 1695, recently 
published, with other scraps of Scottish history* under the title of 
“ Analecta Scotica.” He was descended from a noble family of 
great antiquity, and enjoyed the influence of a judicious and ex 
cellent mother, who was very careful of his education. He was 
born at Edinburgh, April 15, 1641, and received his education 1 
the high school and university of that city. He then spent tw? 
years and a half on the continent, studying medicine at Leyden 
and in Paris, and cultivating the acquaintance of the leading 
vans of the day. Having obtained a French diploma of medicine 
he travelled in various parts of France, and returned through Eng- 
Jand to Edinburgh in October, 1662. ‘There was in those days no 
public coach north of York, whence he travelled to Newcastle 
on horseback with a guide, whom he retained through the re- 
mainder of his journey. 

On his return to his native country, he projected the plan fot 
establishing a Royal College of Physicians in Edinburgh, and W 
active in carrying it into effect. In 1686 he is said to have embra- 
ced Popery; from which, in a few years, he- again room 


* Naturalist’s Library, vol. ix, p. 18. 


Notice of British Naturalists. 139 


His practice was extensive, and it was chiefly as a recreation from 
his severer duties that he pursued the study of Antiquities and 
Natural History. He was aman ofan active, investigating mind ; 
he had before him a field hitherto altogether unexplored, and i it 
his profession, as well as in these pursuits, he rose to eminence. 
In the latter part of his life he was knighted, and appointed Phy- 
sician in Ordinary to King Charles Il. He died in 1712. His 
Writings are numerous, as appears by the following list of his 
works: » 

Disputatio Medica de variis Tabis speceibus, Lugduni incor: 1661. 4to, 

Nancius Scoto Bri tannus; Edin. 1683 

An Account of the Scottish Atlas; Edin. 1683. Folio 

Seotia Illustrata, sive Prodromus Histories Naturalis, &e. Edin. 1684. Folio. 

Again. 1696. Folio. 
Pilsncogi Nova, &c.; Edin. 1692. 4to.; reprinted at the instigation of Pen- 
773. 


i aap anent the Xiphias, or Sword Fish, exposed at Edinburgh. 
An Essa ay concerning the Thule of the Ancients; Edicburgh, 1693. 

Camden’s Britannia, Additions to edition of 1695. Folio. 

Introductio ad Historiam rerum a Romanis gestarum, &c.; Edin. 1696. Folio. 
Auctarium Musi Balfo urani, e Museo pinbelinnts &0u3 ; Edin. 1697. 8vo. 


Coelii Sedulii Scoti poemata sacra ex MSS. &e.; Edin. 1701. 8vo 
eorgii Sibbaldi, Regule bene et salubrita Bite bad 3 ee 1701. 8vo. 
Commentarius in Vitam, G. Buchanani; Edin. 
The 9 and Independence of the Kingdom ian sciihiek of Scotland Asser- 
ted. Three Parts. Edin’ 
pel Answer to the Snr Letter to the Lord Bishop of Carlisle, &c.; Edin. 
ns Bion poeratis legem et in ejus Epistolam ad Thessalum, &c. ; Edin. 1706. 8vo. 
ae ty — concerning the Roman Monuments, &c, in N. B.; ' 
ne © His ories, Ancient ond Modern, of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and 
Stirling ; Edin. 1710. Foli 
iy a Account of the Writers, &c. which treat of N. B. Two Parts. Edin. 1710. 


Visine quedam erudite Antiquitatis, &c.; Edin. 17 0. 


Reprinted, Cupar Fife; 1803. 8vo 

Commentarius i in Julii ‘Agricole Expeditiones; Edin. 1711. Fol 

Bains eetares concerning the Roman Ports, &c. in the Friths of Forth and Tay; 
in 

fons, Glosiarii de pes et Locis N. B.; i 1711, Folio 
ies rerum a Romanis, post avocatum Agricolam, &c.; Edin. 1711. Folio. 

Description of the Isles of a Bak and ele “Edin, 1611. Folio 


140 Notice of British Naturalists. 


The “ Scotia Illustrated,” although the labor of twenty years, 
manifests but a small acquaintance with the natural arrangement 
of the subject ; and it contains many of the errors of system of the 
older writers. Each general term is not only strictly defined, but 
each genus and order are traced back to their original cause. 
Thus we find one chapter, to introduce an account of the Scotch 
rivers and brooks, headed, “ De aqua dulci”— On Fresh Wa- 
ter,” and informing us that “the necessity for fresh water is very 
great, that both men and wild beasts, and even plants themselves, 
may drink thereof and be irrigated.” Another, the first chaptet 
on animals, is headed, “ De hominum dignitate et prestantia,” 
and includes an account of the creation of man, and his superior 
worth and dignity in comparison with the inferior orders. 

But Sibbald was not only a naturalist, he was a physician 
by profession ; and it was not to be expected that he would 
omit all mention of a subject to which he had dedicated his life. 
At that time there was scarcely any ,production of the earth, 
the air, or the water, which was not pressed into service. In this 
respect, and in this department, we are perhaps more deeply 
indebted to the new and enlightend laws of science, than in any 
others whatever. 

Absurd and ridiculous remedies were still in vogue in the time 
of Sibbald. Inone instance, he recommends the foam ofa horse, 
taken fresh from its mouth, and mixed with oil of roses, as 2 cur 
for.the ear ache. In another, the liver of a mad dog eaten cooked, 
as a preservative against the fear of water. Again he prescribes 
the skin of a mad dog in the same rabid state, prepared with ga¥s 
and alum, as a preventive against the gout. 

We do not think, that as a science, Natural History owes much 
to this work ; and it is not only an instance, how little can either 
be accomplished -without fixed principles ; but also of the many 
errors into which any one must fall, who for himself neglects 0 
reflect upon his own observations. It is interesting to observe 
the then medical condition of Scotland, when so few appeared 
to see for themselves whatever is either beautiful or excellent 
in the world around them, and to form conclusions from their = 
experiments and remarks. He who has succeeded in exciting 
a more general attention to any given subject, has opened the WaY 


; ; ; 6 
to improvement. When men are once induced to think, ee 
gre 


will both reason correctly, and strike out new ideas. The : 


ee ee ee a ee a 


Notice of British Naturalists. 141 


difficulty is to fix their attention, and to give it a particular direc- 
tion; this once done, the rest must naturally follow. 
n the patronage of the public, the progress of science must 


| hecessarily depend. If no one will buy books, none will write 


them, and where there is no reward, there will be no laborers. 

We as @ nation aspire to eminence in science, and thus to com- 
mand the respect of the world, we must as a nation, cherish 
every species of scientific investigation, and the talents by which 
they are sustained. 

A nation is but a collection of individuals, and consequently a 
degree of this responsibility falls upon each person, in his own ap- 
Ptopriate sphere. The aggregate of grains of sand forms the beach 
of the sea, and each globule of water contributes to form the resist~ 
less wave, that breaks on the shore. It is true that ardent minds, 
impelled by their own innate energy, will sometimes advance in 
science without assistance, and that thus talents of a high order and 
Peculiar cast, may force their way into notice, notwithstanding 
all discouragements and difficulties; and being wholy dedicated 
'0 one subject, will finally achieve great results. Intense desire 
may produce intense action; but minds capable of such excite- 
ment and energy are rare ; and it cannot be doubted, that had they 
been encouraged by efficient aid, and warmly cherished by favor, 
they would have attained still more noble ends. The strength 
Which would carry them successfully through their journey, is 
Spent in overcoming the difficulties that thicken in the early part 
of the Way. Butall the various degrees of mental power are ne- 
fessary in science ; sound and unpretending as well as brilliant 
minds may be usefully employed. Most men will however, 

or only on such subjects as promise them final rewards. Even 
Senius may encounter peculiar discouragements ; and, necessity 
often directs its efforts to such pursuits as are most in request 
‘mong mankind. It is probable, that even of those few who 
have, perseveringly labored against hope, there was not one whose 
Mmagination did not hold out to him, however delusively, honor, _ 
‘molument or posthumuous fame, as his exceeding great reward ; 
Hor perhaps could he without this support have continued to strug- 
gle with Opposing difficulties. 

This country is full of active minds, and science commands a 
Portion of them to labor in its cause. "The names of Wilson, Bar- 


’ 


142 Notice of British Naturalists. 


tram, Audubon, Say,* Conrad, Nutall and many others testify to 
our successful cultivation of Natural History, and the works which 
have been published within the last few years in the United States, 
evince an increasing taste for natural science.t 

We now come to a new era in Natural History. 

In 1735 Laynexvs published in Sweden the first edition of his 
‘Systema Nature.’ The great and most obvious improvements 
which he made, were the introduction of the binomial nomencla- 
ture, and the natural classification of all departments of nature, 
—beginning with man and gradually descending as he could 
trace similitudes. And here he appears to have had some idea, 
but which he did not live fully to elucidate, of the circular theory, 


‘since brought more clearly into notice by Mr. Mac Lay Mr. Vi- 


gors, and Mr. Swainson, of London. 

The discovery of new truths is the peculiar province of an origiN- 
al genius. Linnzeus, absorbed in the studies of nature, carefully 
reviewed all former systems, thus laying his foundations deep ; and 
collecting what he held to be true in each, he then digested, re 
arranged, modified, and invented, according to one general plan. 
As the greatest genius is unavailing without strenuous industry; 
Linneus labored incessantly either in his closet or in the fields. 
The grandest as well as the most correct views, are those which 
have been gained by minute observations, and by the application of 
all the more precise and accurate methods of study. He regarde 
all Nature asa grand unity, infinite in detail, but consistent in exe- 
cution and end ; and with Bacon for his guide, he examined each 
pie Een eo 


* The greater sari of his library and collections he left, on his death, to the Acad- 
emy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. We are truly glad to find a late English 
writer speak as follows of ~_ Tt er ones “ How few vives an adequate 
idea of oa ardent zeal, th the most de- 

cumstances, that indefatigable ae in collecting, that laborious @¢ 
curacy in ota with precision and clearness ; and above all, that hist mo 
worth, that kindness of heart and gentleness of disposition, wines make Say the 
object of veneration to all who knew him, and cause his memory to be che orished 
with fondness by all who had once the happiness of ealling “him their friend.” 
Doubleday, in Mag. of Nat. Hist., No. xxvi1, new series. 

+ Among the signs of this, whieh we rejoice to see, shy be named the inoremet 
demand in our great cities, <a; eS ven in our smaller towns, for lectures. ‘* Not, ® 
Dr. Channing justly obubrvds, that these and other like means of instruction, are sla 
of themselves to carry forward the hearer ;’but they stir up many, who, but for such 
outward appeals, might have slumbered to the end of life.” And they not only doy 
as we find by ses Me many on to deeper research, but they are forming 
an elevated national tas’ 


te Pes Ee Vig Fn 
a 


Notice of British Naturalists. 143 


Species by itself, with the double view of noting its own pecu- 
liarities, and its connection with the one great whole. 

If, as has been said, he took the first hint of his zoological sys- 
tem from Ray, and if he owes to Aristotle and Aldrovandi many 
of his materials, he yet claims the praise of originally elucidating 
and fixing the most important principles of nature. What thein- 
ventor of the watch owes to the miner, and to the worker in 
metals, and to him who first observed the elasticity of the steel 
spring, so much does Linnaeus owe to those who preceded him. 
The material world lay before him, and he made himself its mas- 

r 

As regards England, his influence was at once perceptible and 
became ultimately very great. His pupils dispersed themselves 
Over the world to collect specimens, and with their master’s sci- 
ence extended both his fame and their own. The Travels of 
these students were translated, and given to the British public as 
early as 1771. The Amenitates Academica* were quickly prin- 
ted both in Holland and Germany, parts of them, being translated, 
Were published in England. A new interest in Natural History 
Was thus created. It became not only the amusement of men of 
leisure, but the diligent pursuit of the learned ; and Societies and 

tofessorships were every where instituted for its promotion. The 

ystema Nature now became the universal Text Book, and 
having been enlarged, although perhaps scarcely improved, by 
Professer Gmelin, it was used as a basis by contemporary and 
subsequent writers. In 1778 Linnaeus died, having produced a 
greater and more lasting effect upon the mind of Europe, and hav- 
ing roused in the world with more effectual energy than perhaps 
any literary man had ever done before or has done since. 

From this period we may date the general establishment of 


Museums in England.* We do not mean to say there were ne 


Museums previous to that period. The first on record ‘was form- 
ed about 1650, by John Tradescant, who was either a Fleming 


" contains a fine, 


The following extract from the paper ‘ Cui bono,’ now rare, 
and, for those times, a very enlarged view of the subject :— 

“Tandem quoque ex contemplitione rerum creatarum, VIS 
freata ad nostram utilia sint necessitatem, licet non immediate, : 
dum et tertium. Immé ita, quod maximé nobis nocere putamus, sepe plurimam 
hobis expediat. Absque his vita nostra longe nobis difficillima, aded ut, si cardua 
* spine non crescerent, terra nostra mult) esset sterilior, &c. 


visuri sumus, quod omnia 


(144 Notice of British Naturalists. 


or a Dutchman, and Gardener to King Charles I, of England. 
He travelled over a great part of Europe and Asia Minor, and into 
Barbary, Greece, and Egypt; chiefly with a view of improving 
himself in natural science. He introduced a considerable num- 
ber of exotic plants into England, and was the first to prove that 
they might be rendered useful, and made to thrive by due culti- 
vation. He was followed in his pursuits by his son, John, who 
inherited the museum, and to which he made considerable addi- 
tions. On his death it was sold to Mr. Ashmole, “the greatest 
virtuoso and curioso that was ever known or read of in England.” 
We may form some idea of what it contained from the “ Museum 
Tradescantianum,” a catalogue of it, published in 1656, and 
which is divided into the following heads: 1. Birds with eggs. 
2. Four footed Beasts. 3. Fish. 4. Shells. 5. Insects. 6. Min- 
erals. 7. Fruits, Drugs, &c. 8. Artificial curiosities. 9. Mlis- 
cellaneous curiosities. 10. Warlike Instruments. 11. Habits. 
12. Utensils and household stuff. 13. Coins. 14. Medals. 
Isaac Walton likewise makes mention of some of its contents in 
his Complete Angler (part I, chap. I). “I know we Islanders 
are averse to the belief of these wonders; but there be so many 
strange creatures to be now seen, many collected by John Trades 
cant, and others added by my friend, Elias Ashmole, Esq., who 
now keeps them carefully and methodically arranged at his house 
at Lambeth, near London, as may get some belief of some of the 
wonders I mention. I will tell you some of these wonders that 
you may now see, and not till then believe, unless you think fit. 
‘ou may see there the Hog-fish, the Dog-fish, the Dolphin, the 
Coney-fish, the Parrot-fish, the Sword- fish and not only other in- 
credible fish, but you may there see the Salamander ; several sorts 
of Beannelas: of Solan Geese ; the Bird of Paradise ; such sort of 
— and gach birds’ nests, and of so various s forms, and so woll- 
ae 


* Reamur, the celebrated French Naturalist was the first person who formed an 

or oa ceoeecton of ani nals i in France. He was born in 1683 and died in 17573 
that sting was nearly the same as in England. The 
chs known Brisson, who was the keeper of his Museum, derived from it the prin- 
cipal materials for his work on quadrupeds and birds. These last afterwards con 
stituted the basis of the Royal Museum at Paris. The earliest considerable Muse- 

um in this country owes its origin tothe late Mr. Peale of Philadelphia. In this 
museum was first seen a complete skeleton of the mastodon. Many of Wilson ® 

birds, and not a few of the animals procured in the Rocky Mountains, being ® also 
there, it has become classical from the frequent reference to these and other speci 


aoe 


. Notice of British Naturalists. 145 


derfully made, as may beget wonder and amazement in any be- 


holder,” &c. e Dodo was preserved in this collection. Mr. 
Ashmole presented the whole to the University of Oxford, where’ 
it still remains; and it has of late been much enlarged by the 
munificence of its present Curator, Mr. Duncan. — 

The next collection was Dr. Woodward’s, which became the 
foundation of Sir Hans Sloane’s; and the whole was purchased, 
in 1753, by the British Parliament, and is now known as the Brit- 
ish Museum. Another collection, once much celebrated, was that 
in possession of Sir Ashton Lever,* who died in 1788, and which 
was sold by auction in lots, and dispersed in 1806. 

But still museums were very far from being common or popular 
in any part of Europe. London was, at the period we refer to, as 
how, a place of general resort for scientific men, and a large num- 
ber of such persons were collected there. ‘The celebrated Bishop 
Horsley, the learned and able antagonist of Dr. Priestley, was an 
active member of the Royal Society. Sir Joseph Banks, possess- 
ing the advantages not only of great abilities, but of fortune and 
4 high station in society, constantly exerted himself in this cause. 


~ He and his friends, convinced that without extensive collections 


it is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, to make any great 
Progress in Natural History, were diligently employed in forming 
Societies, and in collecting specimens for examination from differ- 
ent countries, ‘The eminent men of that day, likewise deeply felt 
the importance of bringing together those who pursue the same 
Studies, and they understood that, especially in physics, union is 
Power; that the first thoughts and more transient discoveries of 
Individuals, made known to acircle of scientific friends, may, and 
often do, both save the labor of many, and draw out the energies 
of many more, and that particular subjects being alloted to differ- 
nt observers, on the principle of the division of labor, the ex- 
aminations are more exact and availing. The Royal Society 
had already proved the advantages of such meetings. We owe 
very much to the publication of their ‘ Transactions,’ in which, 
each contributing a little, where otherwise none would have 
Contributed at all, the result is an immense mass of facts, thoughts, 
‘nd experiments, And indeed the British Association for the Ad- 


oe notice of this museum, see Journal of Travels in England, &c. 1805-6. 
of 1, by B. Silliman, 


Vol. xxxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 19 


46 Notice of British Naturalists. 


vancement of Science may be said to be but the carrying out of 
this principle on a grander and more enlightened scale.* 

In this country much has been done both in forming scientific 
and popular museums and societies. It must, however, be al- 
lowed that few of our societies are efficient, and too many exist 
only in name; but the Philosophical Society, the Academy of 
Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia; the Lyceum of Natural His- 
tory, of New York ; similar institutions in Baltimore and Charles- 
ton ; the American Academy, and the Natural History Society, of 

ston ; the Institute, of Albany ; the young Natural History So- 
cieties of Salem} and Yale College; and a still more youthful 
Society in Harvard University, evince that all are not asleep, or in 
astate of suspended animation. Several of these institutions have 
valuable collections, most of which are rapidly increasing. Among 
the most distinguished, are those of the Academy of Sciences and 
the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of New 
York, and the Natural History Society, of Boston. 

Among our popular Museums are several of great merit in our 
principal cities, at the head of which is deservedly placed the fine 
museum of the late venerable Peale—with its colonies in other 
cities,—and several others, in all our larger towns. 

Our living Naturalists are numerous. Audubon, Nuttall, Hat- 
lan, Morton, and Torrey are not without coadjutors, and it would 
require a long catalogue to enumerate them all. The early pub- 
lication of Wilson’s Ornithology, with its continuation in later 

ears, and of Holbrook’s Herpetology, still going on, affords sul- 
ficient proof that this country is alive to the claims of Natural His- 
tory. 

The next great writer upon British Zoélogy is Tuomas PeN- 
nant. We should wish to depict Pennant’s character as that of 

aaa 


* Among the earlier collections formed in England, the Wyckliffe Museum may 
be particularly noticed as one much celebrated in its day. It was formed and ow? 
ed by Marmaduke Tunstall, an independent gentleman, of old family, at Wickliffe, 
in Yorkshire. He was the friend and correspondent of the greatest naturalists of 
the day. To this collection the writers of those times owe much ; and from unique 
specimens contained in it, Edwards, Brown, Pennant, Latham, and Bewick, illus- 
trated their works. At his death it was sold ; and having passed through the hands 
of Mr. Alian, of Darlington, in the county of Durham, it became in 1822 the founda- 
tion of the excellent collection in Newcastle upon Tyne, where it still remalm ; 

t The East India Museum of Salem is an unique and most interesting collection ’ 
and the Chinese Museum at Philadelphia, although having little relation to sciences 


is rich beyond all example, in illustrations of China. 


Sa eee 


Notice of British Naturalists. 147 


aman, a father, and a Christian, (for as such he appears eminent- 
ly to have fulfilled his duties,) rather than as merely a literary 
and scientific person; but unfortunately our materials are very 
scanty. ‘The chief source from which all the biographies of Pen- 
nant have been drawn, is a work which was published by him 
in 1793, under the fanciful idea of writing after his death, ‘ 7’he 
Literary Life of the uate Thomas Pennant > and which con- 
tains a few circumstances of his private life, and peculiarly shows 
the bent and tone of his mind. 

He was born in 1726 at Downing, in Wales. His family was 
old and respectable, possessing some landed property, and having 
for some generations held honorable situations under Government. 
He appears to have been an only child. When properly pre- 
pared, and at the usual age, he entered Queen’s College, Oxford ; 
but afterwards he changed to Oriel, and on taking his degree, as- 
simed the law gown. He is here described as conspicuous for 
his general intelligence, and for the progress he made in classical 

Owledge. But his taste for Natural History was formed at a 
Very early period, and long before he was able to indulge it to the 
extent which he afterwards did. It is, indeed, not uncommon 
that those who, when young, have evinced a taste for this sci- 
ence, neglect it altogether in after life ; their feelings being, in this 
Tespect, like those of children pleased with the first sight ofa beau- 
tifal object. It is extremely rare that a person who has neglected 
this study in youth, becomes fond of it in after years. Pennant 
“ys, “a present of the Ornithology of Francis Willoughby, when 
I was about twelve years of age, by my kinsman, John Salisbury 
(father of Mrs, Piozzi, known as the Biographer of Dr. Johnson, ) 

"St gave me a taste for that study, and incidentally a love for 
Natural History in general, which I have since pursued with my 
Constitutional ardor.” 

n leaving college he probably returned to his home, and there 
Pursued his studies in the law. In these, however, he never 
made much progress. His station in life was one which is, per- 
haps of all others, the least adapted for nourishing common am- 
bition, or for stirring up a person to diligence in the business of 

Ne. It was a saying of the late Lord Eldon, that if a man be 
desirous of rising to eminence in the legal professon, he should 
he dependent solely upon his own endeavors for a maintenance. 
Now the contrary was exactly Pennant’s case. He knew that he 


Lis Notice of British Naturalists. 


should inherit a handsome property on his father’s death ; and in 
the mean time his allowance was such, that while it afforded him 
a comfortable competence, it prevented his indulging in luxu- 
ries; or seeking, in a more expensive sphere, for a higher stand- 
ard of mind. and action. The law he never practiced; anda 
few years after leaving college, he married, and settled down asa 
quiet country gentleman. It was not till he was about forty 
years of age, that he came into possession of his patrimony. 
His mind however, was naturally active ; and he was constantly 
employed in laying a foundation, in other studies, for his future 
eminence in the walks of natural science. Intimate social inter 
course he appears particularly to have enjoyed. He was far from 
shutting himself out from the society of his friends; he mixed 
freely with such as his neighborhood afforded; and with the 
marked politeness of the old school of manners, he highly relished 
the company of the fair sex. He has left a few sonnets of his 
own composing, which he addressed to particular ladies; and 
while the verse is neither very polished, nor manifests much 
study or care, the whole is marked by a pleasing playfulness 
of fancy ; an enlightened conception of the beauties of nature, 
(the constituents of poetry,) and a high moral delicacy. During 
this time, his attention seems to have been turned to the prac- 
tical and economical uses of natural science ; and he thus refers 
to the subject in his preface to British Zoology ;—“ At a time 
when the study of natural history seems to revive in Europe; 
and the pens of several illustrious foreigners have been employed 
in enumerating the productions of their respective countries, W@ 
~ are unwilling that our island should remain insensible to its Pe 
culiar advantages; we are desirous of diverting the astonishment 
of our countrymen at the gifts of nature bestowed on other king- 
doms, to a contemplation of those which (at least with e4 

bounty) she has enriched our own. Why then should we neg- 
lect inquiring into the various benefits that result from these _ 
stances of the wisdom of our Creator, which. his.divine munifi- 
cence has so liberally and so munificently placed before us tgs 


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Notice of British Naturalists. 149 


_ Previous to 1757, his only publications of consequence were 
two papers in the Philosophical Transactions. In that year, Lin- 
neus seeing one of the productions, was so much pleased with it 
as to procure his election as a member of the Royal ‘Society of 
Upsal; an honor which appears to have had its appropriate effect 
upon his mind, in stirring him up to still greater endeavors; an 

this is indeed, the principal benefit of such literary distinctions. 
In 1761, being then thirty-five years of age, he began his first 
great work on British Zoology. It was published in folio at his 
Own cost, and contained one hundred and thirty-two plates. 


Which they perform in the economy of the world; and the possibility of procuring 
their assistance, or avoiding their ravages, are all subjects which have been very 
slightly investigated. Asa singular instance in point, we may mention the eul- 


tries, to the 
estin to 


ide are covered, and carrying it with them into the female fig, produce that natural 

iti : 

produ 

nay farther study. A society, which promises to be successful in its results, 
as lately been established in London, on this principle, for the introduction in the 


? improvement in some branches of mechanics might be expected fi 
au accurate investigation of this subject. The writer contributed ew years 
oh an anonymous article to this Journal, (Vol, xxxu, pp on the 
womical uses of some species of Testacea,’” wit of showing that 
®ven in a branch generally supposed to he least capable of any practical benefit, 
- Principle might be much extended, and greatly carried out; a if so, that 
nj 


others, universally confessed to be more capable of it, it need not to be 
u‘glected for fear of failure. Natural science is, still, too little considered as a 
7 It cannot be said by any means yet to have arrived at its climax; but when 
'S perfected, it will, it appears to us, combine in one grand circle, natural system- 
sal arrangement, founded on anatomical distinction ; a minute description of the 
> individual and social habits of each species; a knowledge of the uses to 
Which ®y may be made available; the purposes of their creation, and the place 
ach holds in tite great chain of nature ; a vast mass of materials has been 
; but much is still wanting to finish so great a work. Nature is 
as a whole, but only limb by limb ; and the next great marked im- 
Nt in this science, will probably be the conjunction of the different parts 
ne general intimate union; and the combination of the science with the art. 


150 Notice of British Naturalists. 


The profits of it he had dedicated to a Welsh charity school in 
London, of which he was the patron; but the expense of the 
undertaking was so great, and the sale comparatively so limited, 


that he lost considerably by the work. As the editions were mul- . 


tiplied he added to it, and improved it ; and it was afi terwards pub- 
lished in octavo with profit. The first one hundred pounds 
that he realized from it, he presented to the school. ‘'T'wo years 
after this, his wife, to whom he appears to have been much at- 
tached, and of whem he speaks in the warmest terms of affection, 
died; leaving him two young children; and to relieve his mind 
from the grief natural to such an event, he paid a visit to the 
continent. 

We may imagine with what pleasure Pennant, with a mind 
constituted as his was, found himself surrounded by the great 
naturalists and literati of his day. Among them he visited, and 
became intimate with Buffon, Voltaire, Baron Haller, the tw 
Gesners, and Dr. Pallas. The intimacy thus formed, with Pallas, 
continued through life; their correspondence was frequent ; and 
Pennant tells us that to this gentleman he owed the first hint of his 
Synopis of British quadrupeds. But Buffon was then the most 
noted naturalist in that part of the continent ; and naturally there- 
fore, the person in whom Pennant felt the greatest personal interest. 
He spent a week with him at his country residence. Buffon was 
born in 1707, of a noble family, and at an early age inherited 4 
large property. He dedicated his life to the pursuit of science 
In 1749 he began to publish his “ Histoire naturelle,” and comple- 
ted it in 1767. He died about 1780. His talents were original, 
and of high order; and by the beauty and eloquence of his style, 
the earnestness with which he insisted upon the advantages of this 
study; and the magnificence of his published works, he al: 
tracted great attention to the science. Asa practical naturalist, 
he was, however, exceedingly deficient. He depended ina great 
measure upon the information afforded by others; and like Gold- 
smith, in a somewhat similar undertaking, his brilliant imagin® 
tion worked this up into an interesting and most popular book 
He pursued no regular system, although he had his own peculiat 
views. Whether he already saw the danger which was likely 
arise from too servile an adherence to Linnzus; or whether It 
was owing toa want of sufficient knowledge of scientific detail 5 
and an affected independence of mind, he merely grouped ms 


* 


Notice of British Naturalists. 151 


subjects according to a coarse, outward resemblance ; and ridiculed 
amore accurate system of classification. 

The mind of man is ever more inclined to follow some one 
leader, and to lean upon the labors of others, than to strike out 
truths for itself. Thus it has always happened, that a fondness 
for certain popular systems has chained down the general intellect 
toone point. Buffon perceiving the popularity of the writings 
of Linneus, foreseeing to what it would lead, and endeavor- 
ing to avert this evil, in this way rushed into the contrary ex- 
treme; he thus discarded all system but what he chose to call 
the natural one, “ ne seroit—il pas,” says he, “ plus naturel, et 
plus vrai de dire qu'un dne est un dne, et un chat, un chat que 
de vouloir, sans savoir pourquoi, qwun ane soit un cheval, et un 
chat un loup—cervier ?” 

On Pennant’s return home in 1767, he was elected a fellow of 
the Royal Society ; and in 1768, we find him engaged in pub- 
lishing a second edition of his British Zoology. Like Ray, 
he was, throughout life, celebrated for his frequent tours through 
Great Britain, accounts of which he published from time to time. 
His object in these journeys was to study natural history in the 
different parts of the country; but he paid attention to every 
thing of interest; and especially to antiquities. In 1770 he vis- 
ited Scotland, with the condition of which, strange as it may 
Seem at the present day, the English were then almost unac- 
quainted. “] had the hardiness,” says he, “to venture on a 
Journey to the remotest part of North Britain, a country almost 
8s little known to its southern brothers as Kamtschatka. I 
brought home a favorable account of the land. Whether it will 

ank me or not, I cannot say, but from the report I made, and 
showing that it might be visited with safety, it has ever since 

®en inondée with southern visitors.” In 1772, he made another 
Visit to that country, and went as far as the Hebrides. His only 
Companion in these journeys was a self taught artist, whom he 
“upporied, and who illustrated his different works with views, 
®ngraved in a very excellent style. Besides these trips to Scot- 
land, he visited Ireland, as well as the north of England and Wales, 
and published an account of the Topography of London. All these 
tours he performed on horseback ; a mode of travelling to which 
he attributed the excellent health which he enjoyed through life. 
¥ thus moving about, he acquired much information for his va- 


152 Notice of British Naturalists. 


rious works; and he discovered many novelties, which perhaps 
were novelties only, because no one had hitherto taken the trouble 
to look for them. Since his day, England has been diligently 
explored, and he is fortunate who succeeds in discovering there 
any thing new. In this country there is altogether as good a field, 
if not better, for original discovery, as Pennant enjoyed ; and the 
experience of our travelling naturalists and of the scientific and 
exploring expeditions proves sufficiently, that he who takes the 
trouble of observing, will be fully rewarded for his pains. ‘The 
accounts which Pennant published of these tours, are perhaps 
the most instructive and interesting of the kind which we possess. 

It is a common remark, that the climates of both Europe and 
America are gradually changing. 'T’o decide whether this is the 
case or not, or whether the difference arises only from a higher 
state of cultivation, is a work of great difficulty. The data on 
which to proceed, are in a great measure wanting. Well con- 
ducted meteorological observations, although we now have some 
of great value, have not been recorded in numerous places and 
for a sufficient length of time, to form the basis of general con- 
clusions ; and without some such certain and well known expetl- 
ments, from which sound deductions may be drawn, it is not pos 
sible to arrive at any satisfactory opinion. 

It is a circumstance worthy of observation, that both in the 
United States, and in Great Britain, many birds appear to have 
changed their habitations within the last one hundred years. 1 
his first tour to Scotland, Pennant visited the Fern Islands, 4 
group of barren rocks off the Coast of Northumberland, and there 
found the little Auk, (Mergulus alle, Selby,) and the Black Guil- 
lemot, (Uria Grylle, Lath,) not unfrequent ; while, according 
to Mr. Selby, the first dees not now occur at all, and the latter is 
only occosionally met with in that location, Another instance 18 
that of the Crane, ( Grus cinerea, Bechst.,) which, according ' 
Ray, was in his time found, in some counties, in large flocks, but 
which now ranks among the rare visitors. Others again, once 
scarce, have taken their places, and become comparatively COM 
mon; among which we may particularly remark, as of very ' 
cent date, the Honey Buzzard, (Buteo Apivorus, Ray.) A long 
list of such changes might be given. We must now revert 4 few 
years, to trace Pennant’s literary labors. 


| 


Notice of British Naturalists. 153 

In 1769, he published a volume on British fishes; and in the 
same year he began a work on Indian Zoology, which however, 
proceeded only to twelve plates, and was afterwards republished 
in Saxony. Of this he observes:—“my mind was always in a 
progressive state; it could never stagnate ; this carried me fur- 
ther than the limits of my own Islands; and made me desirous 
of forming a zoology of some distant country, with which I might 
relieve my pen by the pleasure and variety of the subjects.” In 
1770, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Dron- 
theim. In 1771, the honorary degree of doctor of law, was con- 
ferred upon him by the University of Oxford. About this period, 
he married a second wife ; the fortune he now possessed, allowed 
him to indulge his natural taste for hospitality; and being thus 
comfortably settled, he entirely lost, as he informs us, his desire 
of rambling. In 1785, appeared his great work on the “ Arelie 
Zoology ; which was shortly after translated both into German 
and French. He was now elected a member of the American 
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, an attention which was 
peculiarly gratifying to him; and he observes on the occasion, 

at “there science of every kind began to flourish, and among 
others of natural history.” 

From this time he continued to print other occasional works ; 
among them a pamphlet entitled, ‘ American Annals ; an incite- 
ment to Parliament men to inquire into the conduct of the com- 
manders in the American war ;' and he was now much engaged 
In his duties as a magistrate and a landlord. His health continu- 
ed good till within two years of his death, when, in 1798, he 
quietly sank into the grave at the age of seventy-two. In person ~ 

Was rather above the middle height, well proportioned, and 
Somewhat inclined, in the latter part of his life, to corpulency. 
His complexion was fair; and his countenance peculiarly open 
and benignant, 

hile many may stand higher in general estimation for their 
genius and abilities, few surpass Pennant in his unceasing indus- 
ty and his continual endeavors to be useful to his fellow men. 
Mild and amiable in temper he avoided politics as far as he could, 
an age peculiarly subject to political excitement ; and this, re- 
fined a disposition originally tender and gracious. He fulfilled 
his domestic duties in a manner truly exemplary ; and his writings 
Und in passages which prove that he never forgot his con- 
hie Xxxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 20 


154 Notice of British Naturalists. 


stant dependence upon his Creator. The distresses in which his 
poor neighbors were involved, gave him unfeigned uneasiness ; 
and he endeavored to relieve them by every means in his power. 
His name was long remembered by them with love and respect. 
But we cannot do better than to let him speak for himself, as re- 
gards his occupations and character. ‘TJ still haunt the bench of 
justices (1793). Tam now active in hastening levies of our gen- 
erous Britons into the field. However unequal, I still retain the 
same zeal in the services of my country, and have grown indig- 
nant at injuries offered to my native land; or have incited a vig- 
orous defence against the lunatic designs of enthusiastic tyranny; 
or the presumptuous plans of fanatical atheists to spread theit 
reign or force their tenets on the contented moral part of theit 
fellow creatures.” “I am often astonished at the multiplicity of 
my publications, especially when I reflect on the various duties 
which it has fallen to my lot to discharge, as a father of a fam- 
ily, landlord of a small but very numerous tenantry, and not an 
inactive magistrate. I had a great share of health during the lit 
erary part of my days: much of this was owing to the riding eX 
ercise of my extensive tours, to my manner of living, and to my 
temperance. I go to rest at ten; and rise, summer and winter, at 
seven ; and shave reguilarly at the same hour. I avoid the meal of 
excess—a supper; and my soul rises with vigor to its employ- 
ments, and I hope does not disappoint the end of its Creator.” 
“Thus far has passed my active life, even to the present yeal, 
1792, in which I have passed half way of my sixty-seventh yeal. 
My body may have abated its wonted vigor, but my mind still 
retains its wonted power, its longing for improvements, its wish 
to receive new lights through chinks which nature has ma a 
In his zoélogical works he includes the whole of the British 
vertebrated animals—testacea, crustacea, &c. His arrangement 
is founded upon that of Linnenus; but he occasionally alters his 
plan to that which seemed to him better adapted to the subject. 
instead of confining himself to mere description and classification, 
which was a prominent fault in previous works on natural history; 
and one which has not been avoided by succeeding British Natt 
ralists, he, as far as he is able, both introduces notices of habs 
and manners, and indulges in detail. His writings are still con 
sidered as standard works, and are still constantly referred to a0 
quoted. In some departments, very little has since been added, 


Notice of British Naturalists. 155 


but of course in the more intricate subjects we can scarcely ex- 
pect to find him perfect. The plates are numerous, and executed 
with great fidelity. Those of the Testacea have seldom been 
surpassed. From his life we may learn that the busiest station 
does not preclude attention to this study ; and while it relieves 
and graces narrow. circumstances, it adds increased lustre and 
honor to the highest stations. 

The British Conchologists of this period were Emanvet Men- 
Drs DA Cosra, who published at London, in 1778, a very beauti- 
fully executed quarto volume under the title of ‘ Historia natu- 
ralis Testaceorum Britannia ; or the British Conchology, con- 
laining the descriptions, and other particulars of the Natural 
History of Great Britain and Ireland? The plates are very 
faithful, and are colored. The text is both in French and Eng- 
ish. His system was peculiar to himself, and has never been 
adopted. It was in conformity to a system which he had pro- 
Posed shortly before in a thin octavo volume, called ‘ Elements of 
Conchology.’? His work is still often referred to for the plates. 

The other writer, who is less generally known, is WALKER, 
who published a volume in 1784, on the intricate subject of the 
Minute British Shells. ‘ T'estacea minuta rariora.’ 

Ten years before Pennant’s death, in 1788, appears the first 
edition of Rev. Gisert Wurte’s ‘ Natural History and Antiqui- 
ties of Selborne;’ a work which ever has been, and ever will be, 
tead with pleasure. Born in 1720, at Selborne, a little country 
Village, the surrounding scenery diversified with hills and woods, 
he passed through the ordinary routine of education ; and in due 
time became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford ; and one of the 
Senior Proctors of the Univerity. “Being of an unambitious 
temper, and strongly attached to the charms of rural scenery, he 
early fixed his residence in his native village, where he spent the 
steater part of his life in literary occupation, and especially of the 
‘tudy of Nature. This he followed with patient assiduity, and a 
mind ever open to the lessons of piety and benevolence which such 
4 study is so well calculated to afford. ‘Though several oceasions 
Offered of settling upon a college living, he could never persuade 
self to quit his beloved spot, which was indeed a peculiarly 
happy Situation for an observer. He was much esteemed bya 
Select society of intelligent and worthy friends, to whom he paid 


156 ~~ ~=«O'Notice of British Naturalists. 


occasional visits. ‘Thus his days passed tranquil and serene, with 
scarcely any other vicissitude than those of the seasons, till they 
closed at a mature age, on the 26th June, 1793.” His work, 
consisting of letters addressed to Mr. Pennant, and which, in the 
original edition, is a thick quarto volume, illustrated with plates, 
is a singular instance how much may be effected in a very small 
sphere by a joint habit of observation, and of noting down every 
thing as it occurs. We lose constantly many interesting pal- 
ticulars, from neglecting to make a memorandum of them at the 
time ; they may at the moment appear to be of very slight im- 
portance, but each year will add to their value, and each separate 
circumstance connects the foregoing with some general principles. 
He who tries this plan is soon surprised to discover what a large 
mass of curious information he brings together. It is the founda- 
tion of the success of fictitious writings, that human nature, de- 
picted exactly as it is—the manners and sayings either of indi- 
viduals or great classes of men, faithfully recorded—always prove 
highly interesting and popular. This, if the description be but 
graphic and faithful, is equally true as regards the habits and in- 
stinets of the inferior creatures ; and what White di¢, all persons 
of any literary taste are equally capable of accomplishing. As# 
clergyman, confined to his parish, which he seldom appears ' 
have left, and diligently engaged in his duties, the only time in 
which he could indulge this taste, was during the hours of te 
laxation and exercise; and having once attained the habit of 
daily making notes, the time required for doing so was very little 
and such as every one has at his disposal. It is to such observa 
tions, rather than from the labors of professed naturalists, that 
for the present at least, we must look for the progress of natt 
history in this country. We must depend upon individual effort 
for combined results; and it is an encouragment that one need not 
be an accomplished naturalist, or one by profession, in order ! 
make useful observations. Pennant, in a short essay attached 
to his zodlogy, has particularly pressed the attention of clergy- 
men to this study. There certainly is no reason why they sho 
neglect, and there are many cogent reasons why they shoul 
cultivate it. Country clergymen often enjoy many facilities for 
its successful prosecution ; while classical knowledge and literary 
habits render them peculiarly fit for making discoveries 4” 


ae Notice of British Naturalists. 157 


improvements. It falls in very happily with their professional 
knowledge. 'The mysteries of the creation of God, as well as 
his attributes, and his government of the world in his dispen- 
sations to man, it is their duty to study and to exemplify; but | 
while they confine themselves to the revealed word alone, they 
shut out of sight a volume which speaks not less forcibly of the 
love and excellencies of the Creator, and of his mighty wisdom 
and perfections. 'There is no reason why persons of this profession 
should’ be less sensible to, or less well informed in regard to phy- 
sical objects, than the other educated classes of society, but rather 
the contrary ; and the greater their knowledge is, the greater 
likewise will be their capabilities of fulfilling the end of their 
lives. The Jesuits,* whose system of education is perhaps, as a 
means, one of the very best adapted for producing the required 
tesults, are very far from’ neglecting the study of these subjects; 
and they have exemplified in practice, what the good George Her- 
bert has asserted in theory, that “the country parson is full of all 
knowledge, They say it is an ill mason that refuseth any stone : 
and there is no knowledge but in a skilful hand,—serves either 
positively as it is, or else to illustrate some other knowledge. 
He condescends even to the knowledge of tillage and pasturage, 
and makes great use of them in teaching, because people, by 
What they understand, are best led to what they understand not.”’+ 

Some of the ereatest living naturalists of Great Britain are 
clergyman, among whom we may mention Dr. John Fleming, 
Minister of Flisk, Fifeshire, Rev. Leonard Jenyns, and Professors 
Buckland and Sedgwick, to whom Geology owes much of its 
Present eminence. 

The following extracts from White’s original preface, are not 
Unworthy of repetition :— 

“The author is also of opinion that if stationary men would 
Pay some attention to the districts in which they reside, and 
Would publish their thoughts on the objects which surround them, 
ftom such materials might be drawn the most complete county 
Sa ae eee rea 


~ Sie etiam quoniam artes, vel Scientia Naturales ingenia disponunt ad Theo- 
logiam, et ad perfectam cognitionem et usum illius inserviant, et per seipsas ad 
eundem finem juvant ; qua diligentia par est, et per eruditos Preceptores, in omni- 
bus “incere honorem et gloriam Dei querendo, tractentur.” 


Pars4. Cap. XII. §3. 


s ‘onstitutiones Societatis Je. 
A Priest in the Temple.” Chap. IV. 


158 Notice of British Naturalists. 


histories which are still wanting in several parts of this country.”* 
“If the writer should at all.appear to have induced any one of his 
readers to pay a more ready attention to the wonders of creation, 
too frequently overlooked as common occurrences ; or if he should, 
by any means, have lent a helping hand towards the boundaries 
of historical and topographical knowledge, his purpose will be 
fully answered. But if he should not have been successful in 
any of his intentions, yet there remains the consolation behind, 
that these pursuits, by keeping the body and mind employed, 
contributed to much health and cheerfulness of spirit, even to old 
age.” 
But while writers were thus arising on all sides, and were dil- 
igently employed in illustrating the zodlogy of their own country, 
this science could not yet be said to have become, in the propet 
sense of the word, popular. Illustrated books are peculiarly ne- 
cessary in the pursuit of this study. Such were still expensive, 
and difficult of attainment. "The works of Linnzeus were stil 
concealed in the Latin tongue ; and the majority, those for whom 
such a refining study is chiefly to be desired, were thus shut out 
from the most efficient means of acquiring a philosophical knowl- 
edge of the subject. This difficulty was now to be removed. 
In 1790, Tuomas Bewicx first appeared conspicuously before 
the public, both as a naturalist, and the reviver of the art of et 
graving on wood; and we may justly be allowed to consider the 
publication of his works as an era inthis science, so far as it ret 
dered the subject more easily available to the mass of the people. 
In this year came out the first edition of his ‘General History of 
Quadrupeds ;) a book which went through nine editions before 
the year 1824, Although he does not confine himself to British 
animals, he gives, with his usual accuracy of delineation, eng'® 
vings of all the species which were then known. The improv 
ment, however, which he afterwards made in his art, will be 
readily observed by those who compare his earlier style im this 
work, with the softness and spirit which characterize his birds 12 
the later editions. 'Thomas Bewick was born in 1753, at Chetty” 
burn, in Northumberland. His parents were far from being 2 


; . The intelligence, accuracy, and fullness of Sir John Sinclair’s great work, 

The Statistical History of Scotland,’ are well known. It was formed on this pri 
“ and the account of each parish and district contributed by its respective 
ister. 


Notice of British Naturalists. 159 
affluence, and moved in a humble although respectable station of 
ive. At an early age he was sent to a dame’s school, and he af- 
terwards completed his English education under a better instruc- 
tor. Here he strongly manifested his love for the picturesque, 
and his taste for drawing. So evident, indeed, were those traits 
of character, that his father was induced to bind him, at the age 
of fourteen, an apprentice to a copper-plate engraver, at Newcastle 
upon Tyne. Of this part of his life nothing particular is known, 
except his dislike to his business, which was chiefly the coarse 
and dirty work of cutting brass dial-faces for clocks; but he ap- 
pears to have worked industriously, and to have been steady and 
diligent in his habits: In 1770 he first proved his talents for 
Wood-engraving, while his employer was engaged in executing 
the cuts for Hutton’s Monsuration. The mathematical dia- 
grams requiring greater correctness than could be attained by the 
use of the ordinary chisel, he invented a double-edged instrument 
which answered every purpose in making a very fine and straight 
line. His attention once turned in this direction, he made rapid 
Progress. 'Till 1787 he was employed in illustrating some vol- 
umes of fables, and other small books; and, as in such works, 
birds and animals were the frequent subjects of his graver, he ac- 
quired an excellent accuracy in their delineation. By degrees he 
Improved. With this progress he made new experiments and in- 
Ventions, and with the growing facility of execution, his mind 
Was daily more fixed upon his subject. 

In 1786 he was married; and in 1789 he published his cele- 


brated print of the Chillingham wild Bull, the largest and most 


highly finished wood engraving which he ever executed. 

Tn 1790 he published, as we have said, his work on quadrupeds ; 
and in 1797, after nearly six years of constant labor, the first vol- 
ume of his ‘ British Birds’. appeared. After the lapse of nearly 
8 similar period, in 1804, the second volume, that on water birds, 
Was presented to the public—the whole term proving, if any proof 
Were wanting, his great perseverance, and that the work was not 
hastily nor crudely executed. 'The book went through six edi- 
lions before 1826. ‘The Wycliffe or Tunstall Museum, of which 
We have already made mention, was the occasion of this popu- 

Work ; for Mr. Tunstall perceiving Bewick’s great abilities as 
an engraver, first proposed the subject to him, and offered him all 


= facilities of which he afterwards made use. While this gen- 


Man lived he was the constant and liberal patron of Bewick. 


160 Notice of British Naturalists. 


From this time he was chiefly occupied in adding to, improving, 
and carrying through the press the various editions of his works 
on natural history ; but he likewise found time to illustrate ma- 
ny smaller and less popular books for the publishers. 

He died in 1823, at the age of seventy-five. His character as’ 
a naturalist cannot be rated very high. Nearly all that he knew 
of natural history he derived from the observation of others ; and 
his education had not been such as to prepare his mind for pursu- 
ing the subject philosophically. He possessed a strong love for 
nature, but he expended it, in a great measure, on drawing and 
engraving the dead specimens. We owe but few original remarks 
to his works. For the greater part of his life he resided in Gates- 
head, the suburb of Newcastle upon Tyne, and consequently he 
had fewer opportunities of personal investigation, than if his life 
had been passed in the country. 

In appearance and character he was not unlike the celebrated 
Dr. Johnson. Large and uncouth in person, unpolished in his 
manners, and, at times unpleasantly rough in his demeanor ; he 
was yet possessed of strong good sense ; much perseverance and 
ingenuity; and in all his actions and all he said, there were 4p 
parent a sterling warm-heartedness, and a talent for wit and hu 
mor which could not fail to please. ‘ When animated in conver 
sation, and he was seldom otherwise, his eye was peculiarly fine, 
and imparted a vivacity to his countenance very difficult to de- 
scribe or forget. There was more of intelligent benevolence and 
candor init, than I ever saw in another ; but it was mixed with 
an earnest gravity, almost bordering on severity when speaking 
in disapproval; and with the brightest animation, when discus 
sing the beauties and wonders of nature, or subjects of equal in- 
terest. His humanity was very extensive, cherishing continu- 
ally some scheme for the improvement of his fellow creatures; 
the better treatment of the animals intrusted to them. His lan- 
guage was extremely forcible ; and the words he made use of, 
those calculated in the plainest and most familiar manner to con 
vey his meaning ; but unfortunately this love of simplicily, of 
tentimes led to a degree of coarseness which no one could heat 
Without reprobating.”* His dialect was broad Northumbrian. 


* Mr. George Atkinson, in the Transactions of the Natural History Society 
Newcastle upon Tyne and Durham. 


Notice of British Naturalists. 161 


‘He mixed a rough, sound good sense, and some times an orig- 
— Inality of remark in his conversation, which always rendered 
what he said interesting. His pleasantries were less remarkable 
for true wit and delicacy, than for the union of strong sense an 
honest merriment. éf 
His engravings are distinguished by their extreme fidelity, and 
for the truth with which he has caught and transferred to paper 
the peculiar air and habit of his subject; while he reduced it 
from its natural size to a small wood cut. But his-improvements 
in the art of cheap and correct engraving, have had a much more 
| extensive influence than in natural history. Those who may 
| temember, or have seen the books put into the hands of children 
during the last century, will perceive how much, in the present 
day, this all-important class of books owes to Bewick; and how 
the distorted representations of nature, have given place to correct 
: and graceful figures; and those who reflect upon the variety of 
| subjects which now owe their illustrations to the art, will feel in- 
clined to give Bewick the credit of being truly a benefactor of 
Mankind. He left several children. One of his sons is now an 
artist of no small ability. 

In 1800 appeared Turron’s translation of Gmelin’s edition of 
the Systema Nature of Litmeus. This work is printed in 
Seven thick octavo volumes; but at a comparatively low price ; 
and although it is now fallen both in value and estimation, yet at 
the time it did great good in opening the science to the mere En- 
glish reader. It has been accused, and justly, of faults, both de- 
Tived from Gmelin, and from its own author. Varieties are given 
#8 species, synonyms as distinct species, and hypothetical and fab- 
ulous animals are occasionally obtruded as existing. ‘Too much 

dependence was placed upon preceding writers. But consider- 

ing the vastness of the work; the difficulties to be encountered ; 

and the doubt which hung over many parts of it, it is well exe- 

cuted, It is now of value only to the historian of science, the 

‘nnalist, or the professed system maker ; being as faithful a record 
the errors, as of the real science of its period. 

Wittiam Turron, M. D., was through life, a zealous naturalist ; 
and besides this book, he published some smaller volumes on con- 
chology. His favorite pursuit was the investigation of British 
Shells. Fig industry and perseverance were great ; but his cir- 

: ae seine narrow, and he not possessing much originality 
s > No. 1—July, 1839, bis. 21 


162 _. Notice of British Naturalists. 


of thought, he was unable to take a high stand in the scientific 
world. He died in Cornwall, where he had chiefly resided, about 
1834, at an advanced age. f 

‘In 1802, appeared the “ Ornithological Dictionary,” of that 
most industrious observer and writer, Col. Gecrer MonracvE, of 
Knoule House, Devonshire. We have in vain searched for any 
biographical notice or memoir of him ; and it is much to be de- 
sired, if materials exist, that some account of his active and sci- 


entific life might be given to the public. This work is only upon. 


British birds ; and the plan is well adapted for reference, as he 
threw his materials into the form of an alphabetical catalogue. 
He presents much original information, the greater part of which 
he collected himself. His object was to render the subject popu- 
lar ; and he appears to have written expressly for “ such as might 
wade through columns, before they could find the object of their 
inquiry, but who are desirous of being better acquainted with the 
most beautiful part of the animal creation.” He corresponded 
with the most eminent naturalists of his day. He was the first 
to observe, as British, several birds which had previously beet 
overlooked; among which we remark the Macroramphus gris 
eus,* (Leach.) of the United States and the Ardea lentiginosa, 
(Mont.) which naturalists have hitherto been in the habit of com 
sidering the Ardea minor, ( Wils.) likewise of this country: 

In 1813, Montague published a supplement to his dictiona'y, 
which is nearly as large as the original book. But his great 
work was that on British conchology, “ Testacea Britcnntt, 
or natural history of British shells, marine, land, and Sresh 
water, including the minute, &c,” a quarto volume of upwate 
of six hundred pages, and published in London, in 1803. This 
is an invaluable work. As a describer of shells, he probably 
stands at the head of English writers on the subject; and his 
book is still unsurpassed. He spared neither pains nor expense 
in procuring specimens; and he was enabled both to add many 
new species, and clearly to distinguish between such as had bith 
erto been considered merely as varieties. In 1808, he published 
a supplement, in which many new species are given. He fol- 
lows in general, the Linnean arrangement, but has made one new 

Re ne 


* Scolopax Novoborocensis, (Wils.)—Eps. 


BE SERIES SET OO Rage ee eee a ee ee eee eee esl 


genus, (Balanus,) and followed Pennant in some cases in pref- 
erence, 
_ The only other work of which he appears to have been the 
author, is entitled,“ Te Sportsman’s Dictionary, or Tractate on 

unpowder,” which we have never seen. His collection of 
shells, is, we believe, now deposited in the British Museum of 
London. 


: 
| 


In 1804, appeared the “ Natural History of British shells, 
including figures and descriptions of all the species hitherto dis- 
covered in Great Britain, systematically arranged in the Linn~ 
@an manner, with scientific and general observations on each, by 
E. Donovan, in five octavo volumes. This is a beautiful work, 
and was among the first of the kind which was issued in period- 
ical numbers. The figures are the size of life, well engraved on 
Copper, and faithfully colored. 'The letter press is, however, of 
Comparatively small value; and the volumes are chiefly referred 
fo at present, for the plates. He describes in all, two hundred 
and nineteen species.* ag 

Shortly after, in 1808, there followed by the same author, 
“The Natural History of British fishes, including scientific and 
Seneral descriptions of the most interesting species, §c.” 'This 
Work is likewise in five octavo volumes ; and as he appears to 
have limited it to that number, he excluded many of the com- 
moner Species. The figures are one hundred and ten in all, whereas 
tt is ascertained that tvo hundred and twenty-six exist in the 

itish seas and rivers. The work is beautifully executed, and 
~© Sate remarks as are made on the above may apply to this. 
area pe ae SC 

* The researches of Lea, Conrad, Say, Totten, Morton, Vanuxem, Binney, Cou- 
thouy, Kirtland, Ward, Hildreth and others, in relation to our recent and fossil 
“onchology, have disclosed most interesting treasures, and we highly appreciate 
their labors : while it is still much to be desired, that some general work on the 
®Nchology of this country were published ; were it bat a list of what has already 
been described, with references to the periodical works in which the descriptions 

found. As j the student is without a guide to American econchol- 


+ Agr 
Collect the Scattered fragments, and as this is in the power of very few, an insur- 
Mountable barrier is thrown in the way of farther improvement, 
Species, have, we bilicte.{ eds’ descubad a¢ belonging to the United States ; the 
Number might, we well know, be greatly increased ; but from want of an acquaint- 
ance with what has hitherto been noted, every student is at a loss whether to con- 
* the species he may find as new, or at present known. Would not such a 


Notice of British Natur livia? Sees Sea 


164 Notice of British Naturalists. 


_ From this period, for several years, we have no great work es 
pecially dedicated to British Zoology. In 1815, Lamarck, by 
the publication in Paris, of his Histoire naturelle des animauz 
sans vertébres, created a new interest in this study, and placed 
conchology on a new basis; one, however, of which Lister pre- 
viously appears to have seen the propriety. In 1817, appeared, 
likewise in Paris, Cuvier’s Regne Animal. So strong a hold, 
however, had the system of Linnzeus taken on the minds of the 
British naturalists, that neither of these great works was as €OI- 
dially received as they ought to have been; and it has required 
some years fully to attract attention to them; and to show the 
effect which they have produced on the study of the natural sci- 


ences. 

While therefore, this study was gradually gaining ground in 
England; materials were being collected, and many provin-_ 
cial museums and societies, were both formed, and maintained 
with spirit. We must pass on to the year 1825, when Mr. Prr 
peux Joun Sexsy, published the first volume of his magnificent 
work on British birds. It isin large folio. The plates are drawn 
from nature ; frequently from the living specimen, and are lith- 
ographed. Where the dimensions will admit of it, the figures 
are of the size of life; and all are beautifully colored with much 
precision and accuracy. ‘T'wo volumes of letter press accompa 
ny this work. These are confined chiefly to the mere deserip- 
tion and habitat; nor indeed, however much we may lament 
that the admirable sketches, which Mr. Selby is capable of giv- 
ing, should be omitted, was it intended to be otherwise. For 
he says in the preface, “I have contented myself with referring 
by occasional notes, to any anecdotes particularly interesting 4 
to the species under consideration.” In the first edition of his 
first volume, he had chiefly followed the natural arrangement 
proposed by the celebrated French ornithologist, M. Temminck ; 
but finding it to be imperfect, and not adapted to the natural, of 
der, at least of British birds, in his second edition he has rewritten 
the work, and had adopted that system which is proposed by Mr. 
Vigors. 

Mr. Selby is living, and is still ardent in his favorite pursuit. 
He is a gentleman of property and of education ; and his unr 
ing “industry is manifested by the various works which he has 
either edited or published, and the various papers which he bas 


= Notice of British Naturalists. 165 


supplied for the transactions of different scientific bodies. But 
he is scarcely less celebrated among those who knew him, for 
his thorough knowledge of British ornithology, than for his lib- 
erality of feeling ; and many of the museums of his neighbor- 
hood are indebted to him for valuable and rare donations. He 
resides at "['wizel House, Northumberland; a situation well 
adapted from its neighborhood to the sea, for observing and pro- 
curing rare birds. He established, two years since, in conjune- 
tion with his brother-in-law, Sir William Jardine, Bart.—likewise 
zealous naturalist,—the “ Magazine of Natural History,” a 
periodical work which has presented some valuable essays on the 
subject. He is also editor of the “ Library of Natural His- 
tory.” 


In 1828, appeared the “ History of British Animals,” by Joun 
Firmine, D. D., minister of Flisk, Fifeshire, a synopsis, printed 
in one thick octavo volume, chiefly a compilation from previous 
wniters,* 

In 1835, Rev. Leonarp Jenyns of Swaffhaur Bulbeck, near 
Cambridge, published a “ Manual of British Vertebrate ani- 
mals, or descriptions of all the animals belonging to the classes 
Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, and Pisces,’ &c. He 
had previously published in a pamphlet form, a “ Systematic cat- 
aogue,” containing the ground work of this larger book. 

The materials are nearly all original; on the subject of classi- 
fication, no individual author has been rigidly adhered to; al- 
though he tends towards the opinion held by Mr. Mac Leay, of 
the circularity of natural groups. He was much assisted by Mr. 
Yarrell, as well as by Mr. Gray of the British museum, so that 
he had every facility for producing correctness, and performing 
the work in a good manner. Besides those species now found, 
he enumerates all the extinct species. “The object of the au- 
‘hor is to present naturalists with a manual in this department of 
Our, Fauna, adapted to the existing state of our knowledge, and 
Such as shall be calculated to meet the wants of science in that 
advanced age, to which it has attained since the publication of 
former works of this nature. In furtherance of the end, two 


Sirti ae ae 


"I should desire to speak more particularly of this gentleman and his work, but 
am unable to find any particulars concerning him ; and I have it not in my power 
to meet with a copy of the book at present. Itis, in part, superseded by the later 
Work of Jenyns, 


166 | Notice of British Naturalists. 


points appeared necessary to be attended to. One was to ascer- 

tain, as far as practicable, the additions which had been made, 

of late years, to our list of British animals. * * * The other 

important point, was to take care that the descriptions should, as 

far as possible, be obtained from the animals themselves, and 

nothing inserted upon the credit of other writers, which was capa-— 
ble of being verified by personal observation. 'The day is forever 

gone by, in which unscientific compilations will be thought to be 

of any service to Zoology; so far from advancing its progress, it 

may be said unhesitatingly, that they tend only to retard it.” 

_ Hitherto, however much the birds themselves might have been 
attended to, their eggs and nidification, had been ina great meas- 
ure neglected. Beautiful as are the former, and wonderful in 
their construction as are the nests; no one had as yet thought 
this branch worthy of separate attention. A French writer had, 
we believe, attempted a work, on this portion of the natural his- 
tory of his own country ; but had never completed it ; and it was 
left to Mr. Wituiam Hewrrson, to present the public, with the 
first original and well executed book, on this interesting topic. 
About 1831, he began to publish by subscription, in numbers; 
“ British Oology, being illustrations of the eggs of British 
birds,” &c. It is in octavo, and consists of colored lithographic 
plates of the eggs, each one the natural size, and colored with 
great fidelity. A short description of the nest and eggs, accom- 
panies each plate. ‘To draw an egg, so that on paper it may ap 
pear natural, is no easy task, but being an excellent artist, he has 
accomplished his labors with great credit. The work now fin- 
ished, is in three thin volumes, and contains all the British eggs: 
with the exception of a few of the very rarest. 

Mr. Hewitson, who is still a young man, is descended from a 
old and highly respectable family in Newcastle upon TyD® 
Whena mere child he manifested a strong taste for drawing, and 
was fond of copying the figures and vignettes in Bewick’s works. 
To these books, thus early put into his hands, he owes, we believe; 
his fondness for this science. He had the advantage of a liberal 
education, and became a civil engineer. Ashe grew up, his taste 
for drawing connected with natural history increased, and all his 
leisure hours he spent in the fields and woods. Like most boys 
he was fond of taking birds’ nests; but unlike most boys, he be 
came intimately acquainted with the species and varieties, and he 


tetera 


se gele “gate ai 


Notice of British Naturalists. 167 


turned this knowledge to a good account. When he entered up- 


on his profession, although his time was chiefly occupied with 
that, he yet found or made leisure not to neglect that which had 
afforded him so much satisfaction in his youth; and what time 
he could spare was spent in this absorbing pursuit. While enga- 
ged in publishing his work on Oology, he made a tour through 
Norway, for the purpose of procuring the eggs of such birds as 
are only migratory in Great Britain, and added several important 
facts to those with which we were already acquainted. : 

Although, as we have seen, Pennant had figured and described 
Many of the British fishes, Mr. Donovan had given about one half 
of the species, and Mr. Jonathan Couch, of Cornwall, had estab- 
lished a high reputation as the Ichthyologist of that county ; yet no 
one had hitherto treated this branch as one altogether national ; 
and this is the more surprizing, when we consider that this 
country is entirely surrounded by the sea, that these animals form 
avery important part of food, and that the coast is comparatively 
Very limited in extent, and unchangeable in climate. 

For many years Mr. Wittiam Yarrewt, of London, had been 
forming a collection of Fishes; and his possessing the advantage 
of being able to search the London markets, put him in possession 
of all such species as are more common, and many of the rarer ones. 
In 1836 appeared the first number of his ‘ History of British 
Fishes,” which is completed in two thick octavo volumes. While 
this work is altogether popular, and the price moderate, as a scien- 
tifie production it is invaluable ; and it contains all that is known 
Upon the subject, including a great variety of curious, and origi- 
nal information. It is printed in the same shape and style as 
Bewick’s works, and each species is illustrated by a wood cut, 
€xecuted in a manner perhaps unsurpassed in this art. ae 

Mr. Yarrell is still alive, and is well known, equally for his ur- 
banity of manners, his connection with science, his very valuable — 
Ptlvate collection in some branches of natural history, and his pa- 
Pers in the Linnzan and other Transactions. He is now engaged 
in publishing, in the same form as his volumes on fishes, a gen- 
eral work on British birds. 

About the same time Dr. Brut, of London, published in like 
*m a volume on the ‘ British Quadrupeds’ which includes all 


i are known, with a great variety of information concerning 
mh. y 


168 Notice of British Naturalists. 


The last writer upon British Testacea is Mr. Josuva Awper, 
of Newcastle upon T'yne, in the Transactions of the Natural His- 
tory Society of Northumberland and Durham. He describes 71 
species of land and fresh water shells as belonging to his neighbor- 
hood, many of which are new. 

We have thus traced the gradual progress of natural science, as 
connected with Great Britain, from the days of Ray to our own 
times. We have seen how by degrees it has gathered strength, 
and how accuracy and scientific power also advanced. We have 
likewise seen that nearly all which has been accomplished has 
been done by those who had higher and more important duties to 
fulfil, but who, when weary, refreshed their minds by the observa- 
tion of the works of God, instead of wasting in idleness or frivo- 
lous amusement, these their leisure hours. A complete account 
of the higher order of the zoology of that country, it is now i0 

_ the power of any one to possess; and as regards the mammalia 
and- birds, little probably remains to be added. But when we 
consider how each successive writer has thought that he had ex- 
hausted the stores of nature; how Ray supposed that the world 
did not contain above 150 species of beasts and reptiles, 50 of 
birds, and 500 of fishes, although now, in our own days, we have 
described 1200 species of mammalia, 6500 of birds, 8000 fishes, 
and 1500 reptiles, we may justly suppose and hope, that maby 
more both of shells and fishes may be added to the list of the 
British Fauna. And as regards the United States we may lear 
how much is to be accomplished ; although much has been done, 
and from what we do know, we may be incited to additional en- 
deavors. Of this we may be assured, that as this study becomes 
more popular, so shall we see the mind of the people improving; 
simplicity of heart, and love of the works of God multiplied ; 4" 

a thousand intellectual pleasures opened to those who, under 
Providence, are obliged to spend a larger part of their lives in har- 
rassing and fatiguing employments. We shall find that this 
study forms a bond of union between the lower and the highet 
classes of society,—the practical mechanic and the man of scl 
ence ; that it increases human happiness, by enlarging the sphere 
of intellectual pleasure; for every new development of intelli- 
gence is a source of pure enjoyment. The bond of union will 
be the love of knowledge. ‘There is an equality in science, for 
the great requisite is not the amount of information, but the 4 
sire to be informed. - 


ey 
a, 


ee ' 


nN 


* 


Miscellanies. | 169 


MISCELLANIES., 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


1. Pictorial delineations by light; solar, lunar, stellar, and artificial, 
called Photogenic and the art Photography. 

nark.—The great interest excited by this subject induces us to post- 
Pone the greater part of the miscellany which we had prepared and even 
set up for the present number, that we may make room for general 
Rotices from foreign Journals—detailing the history of the processes as 
far as known, and the most perfect state of the art, as far as it has gone. 


I. Photogenic Drawings.* 


by the publication of a series of experiments made by our countryman 
Mr, Talbot, directed towards the same object, and producing nearly simi- 
lar results, In describing this interesting invention it will be well to 
ommence with the first discoveries made by Mr. Wedgwood about the 
Year 1800, and afterwards extended by Sir Humphry Davy. ase 
_ The attention of these two eminent chemists was directed to the sub- 
ect by the extraordinary effect produced by light upon the nitrate of silver, 
Which led them to hope that the purposes of the artist might be assisted 
by the Susceptibility of the metallic oxide. The first experiment was 
made by Mr. Wedgwood for the purpose of copying paintings upon glass, 
and was eminently successful ; the copy obtained possessing all the fig- 
utes of the original, in their native shades and colors ;.it was also in a 
high degree permanent, so long as it was preserved from the action of the 
light, The same gentleman discovered that the shadow of an opaque ob- 
Jct thrown npon the paper was copied in outline with great correctness ; 
ut though both these celebrated chemists were constant and persevering 
their endeavors to render the drawing permanent, they were entirely 
uasuccessfal ; the lighter shades darkening by exposures and thus oblit- 
“rating the impression, eet : 

Their failure in this important object was published with their expert- 
ments in the Philosophical Transactions, and both having given up the 
attempt, their discoveries have since remained unimproved. But in the 
meanwhile M, Daguerre, it appears, struck by some hints he had received 

ma friend, has steadily pursued his experiments for the last twenty 
21 ep eae ae 


* Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 83. 


Vol. *xxv1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. a 


170 M iscellanies. 


years, and having at length attained his object has declared his discove- _ 
ries and claimed the invention as his own. Full and satisfactory deserip- 
tions are promised by M. Arago and two other scientific engineers ap- 
pointed to report on the subject, and in the interval a slight outline has 
been given in the French papers, fiom which the following account is 
tak ; 


en. 

A polished metallic plate is the substance made use of, and being pla 
ced within the apparatus is in a few minutes removed and finished by a 
slight mechanical operation. The sketch thus produced is in appearance 
something similar to aquatint, but greatly superior in delicacy ; and such 
is the extraordinary precision of the detail that the most powerful micros- 
cope serves but to display the perfection of the copy. The first efforts of 
the inventor were directed towards architectural subjects, and a view of 
the Louvre and Notre Dame are among the most admired of these engra- 
vings. In foliage he is less successful ; the constant motion in the leaves 
rendering his landscape confused and unmeaning ; and the same objection 
necessarily applies to all moving objects, which can never be properly de- 
lineated without the aid of memory. But in the execution of any station 
ary subject, buildings, statues, flowers, the leaves of plants, or the bodies 
of animals, the fac-simile is perfect; and the value of the invention may 
therefore be easily conceived. 

Several eminent artists have examined the designs, and were equally 
delighted with the precision and delicacy of the representation. Am 
the sketches exhibited by the projector was a marble bas-relief and plas 
ter imitation; the first glance was sufficient to detect the difference be- 

these two; and in three views of a monument taken in the morlr 
ing, noon, and evening, the spectators easily distinguished the hours at 
which they were executed, by the difference of the light, though in the 
first and last instances, the sun was at an equal altitude. 

But perhaps the anatomist or zoologist will derive the greatest advan- 
tages from the discovery, the form of the animal being as easily studied 
from the drawing as from the original, and the most powerful microscopes 
not having hitherto detected the smallest deficiency in the details. Not 
is the invention devoid of interest to the astronomer, for the light of the 
moon is sufficient to produce the usual results, requiring only additional 
time for its operations. The following extract from “ Le Commerce” 18 
sufficient to substantiate its value in this respect :—‘ The experiments on 
the light of Sirius have confirmed the testimony of natural philosophy, and 
abundantly proved that the stars are bodies of the same nature as the sun ; 
at the request of M. Biot, M. Daguerre has submitted his apparatus t0 the 
influence of the light of the moon, and has succeeded in fixing the image 
of that luminary. We observed that the image had a trail of light some 
thing like the tail of a comet, and we ascribe it to the movement of the 
body during the operation, which is of much longer duration than that + 
the light of the sun.” 


piss Miscellanies. 171 

In the spring of 1834, Mr. Talbot began a series of experiments, with 
the hope of turning to useful account the singular susceptibility evinced 
by the nitrate of silver when exposed to the rays of a powerful light; but 
not being acquainted with the researches of former chemists on the subject, 
he commenced with the same disadvantages which had baffled the skill 
and perseverance of Sir Humphry Davy. The plan he at first proposed 
Was, to receive a well-defined shadow upon a sheet of paper covered with 
asolution of nitrate of silver, by which means the part shaded would re- 
main white, while the surrounding portion was blackened by exposure to 
the light. But he was well aware that the sketch thus obtained would re- 
quire to be protected from the rays of the sun, and examined only by an 
artificial light. ~ He had carried these inquiries to some extent, and be- 
Come possessed of several curious results before he learned the steps which 
others had taken to attain the same object: and the decided terms in 
which Sir Humphry Davy expresses his failare might perhaps have dis- 
couraged his less experienced follower, had he not fortunately already 
©onquered the difficulty which had destroyed the hopes of the former 
chemists, 

Mr. Talbot continues :—“ In the course of my experiments directed to 
that end, I have been astonished at the variety of effects which I have 
found produced by a very limited number of different processes when com- 
in various ways; and also at the length of time which sometimes 
: elapses before the full effect of these manifests itself with certainty. For 
T have found that images formed in this manner, which have appeared in 
800d preservation at the end of the twelve months from their formation, 
have nevertheless somewhat altered during the second year.” He was 
‘ induced from this circumstance to watch more closely the progress of this 
change, fearing that in process of time all his pictures might be found to 
deteriorate ; this, however, was not the case, and several have withstood 
the action of the light for more than five years. 

The images obtained by this process are themselves white, but the 
stound is differently and agreeably colored ; and by slightly varying the 
Proportions, and some trifling details of manipulation, any of the following 

Ors Were readily obtained :—light blue, yellow, pink, brown, black, and 
* dark green nearly approaching to black. 

The first objects to which this process was applied were leaves and 
flowers, Which it rendered with extraordinary fidelity, representing even 
the veins and minute hairs with which they were covered, and which 
wit frequently imperceptible without the aid of a microscope. — Mr. Tal- 
bot Ses on to mention that the following considerations led him to con- 
felve the possibility of discovering a preservative process. Nitrate of sil- 
Yer, which has become darkened by exposure to the light, is no longer the 
“ame chemical substance as before; therefore, if chemical re-agents be 
*Pplied to a picture obtained in the manner already mentioned, the dark- 


172 Miscelianies. 


ened parts will be acted upon in a different manner from those which re- 
tain their original color, and after such action they will probably be no 
longer affected by the rays of the sun, or, at all events, will have no ten- 
dency to assimilate by such exposure; and if they remain dissimilar, the 
picture will continue distinct, and the great difficulty be overcome. 

The first trials of the inventor to destroy the susceptibility of the metal 
- lic oxide were entirely abortive; but he has at length succeeded to an 
extent equal to his most sanguine expectations. ‘The paper employed by 
Mr. Talbot is superfine writing paper; this is dipped into a weak solution 
of common salt, and dried with a towel till the salt is evenly distributed 
over the surface: a solution of nitrate of silver, is then laid over one side 
of the paper, and the whole is dried by the heat of the fire. It is how- 
ever, necessary to ascertain by experiment the exact degree of strength 
requisite in both the ingredients, for if the salt predominates, the sensi- 
bility of the paper gradually diminishes, in proportion to this excess, till 
the effect almost entirely disappears. 

In endeavoring to remedy this evil, Mr. Talbot discovered that a Te 
newed application of the nitrate not only obviated the difficulty, but ren- 
dered the preparation more sensitive than ever: and by a repetition of the 
same process the mutability of the paper will increase to such a degree, 
as to darken of itself without exposure to the light. This shows that 
the attempt has been carried too far, and the object of the experimenta- 
list must be to approach, without attaining this condition. Having pre- 
pared the paper and taken the sketch, the next object is to render it per- 
manent, by destroying the susceptibility of the ingredients for this purpos® 
Mr. Talbot tried ammonia and several other re-agents with little success, 
till the iodide of potassium, greatly diluted, gave the desired result; this 
liquid, when applied to the drawing, produced an iodide of silver, @ sub- 
stance insensible to the action of light. This is the only method of pre 
serving the picture in its original tints, but it requires considerable nicetY, 
and an easier mode is sufficient for ordinary purposes. It consists 12 
immersing the picture in a strong solution of salt, wiping off the super 
fluous moisture, and drying it by the heat of the fire; on exposure to the 
sun, the white parts become of a pale lilac, which is permanent and 
immoveable. Numerous experiments have shown the inventor that the 
depth of these tints depends on the strength of the solution of salt; he 
also mentions that those prepared by iodide become a bright yellow under 
the influence of heat, and regain their original color on cooling. Without 
the application of one of these preservatives the image will disappe by 
the action of the sun ; but if inclosed in a portfolio, will be in no danget 
of alteration: this, Mr. Talbot remarks, will render it extremely cnr 
nient to the traveller, who may take a copy of any object he desires, 
apply the preservative at his leisure. In this respect Mr. Talbot's syst™ 
is greatly superior to that of M. Daguerre, since it would be scarcely PO 


Miscdllantea 173 


sible for a traveller to burden himself with a number of metallic plates, 
which in the latter process are indispensable. 

An advantage of equal importance exists in the rapidity with which 
Mr. Talbot’s pictures are executed; for which half a second is con- 
sidered sufficient; a circumstance that gives him a better chance of 
success in delineating animals or foliage; and although our countryman 
has not thought it necessary to adorn his invention with his own name, 
hor to keep it a secret till he could sell it to advantage, his claim to origi- 
nality is equal to M. Daguerre’s, and can only be rivalled by that of Mr. 
W gewood, the real discoverer and originator of the art. 

Since the publication of the above discoveries, numerous candidates 
have appeared in the field, all claiming the palm of originality, while 
Philosophers of every grade and county have eagerly pursued the investi- 
gation of the subject. The first we shall notice is M. Niepce, who claims 
priority even over M. Daguerre; and the account he publishes, if correct, 
will undoubtedly determine the question in his favor. A letter from M. 

er is the principal evidence for M. Niepce, who it appears mentioned 
his discovery to this gentleman in the year 1827, while on a visit at Kew, 
and by the advice of his friend he drew up a memoir on the subject, and 
Caused it to be forwarded to the Royal Society. This document was, 
however, returned, it being contrary to the rules of the Association to 
Teceive accounts of scientific discoveries unless they detailed the process 
employed. M. Neipce shortly afterwards returned to France, having pre- 
Sented to his friend several specimens of the newly discovered art, which 
are still in the possession of M. Bauer. The pictures taken, are of two 
kinds, copies from engravings, and copies from nature; the best of the 
former is in the possession of M. Cussel, and is considered nearly equal 
0 those of M. Daguerre, with suitable allowance for twelve years’ expo- 
Sure; the specimen taken from nature, is however, by no means so suc- 
‘essful, and is considered inferior to the earliest attempts of his country- 
man. There can be little doubt that the principle of both processes is 
Precisely the same, though greatly improved by diligent experiments, the 
material employed in each being a metallic plate, apparently covered with 
transparent varnish; but whether intended to receive or to fix the impres- 
S1on is not at present made public. We now come to a statement of M. 
Bauer, Which, if not founded on error, will raise the invention of Niepce 
far above those of both his rivals; he distinctly asserts that he 

ies of engravings produced solely by the action of light, which were 
®apable of being multiplied in the same manner as an ordinary copper- 
Plate ; if this be the case, the greatest secret still remains unknown, even 
=. Daguerre hi e* ted that M. Niepce did 

imself. It is much to be regret ep 
Not at once publish his extraordinary discovery, with a full detail of the 
Process employed, as he would then have retained the indisputable right 
to the merit of the invention, but having preserved the secret so long, and 


174 Miscellanies. 


the process being in every respect so different, we cannot see that it in 
any way interferes with the position of Mr. ‘Talbot. 

We must leave this question and now proceed to analyze the claims of 
two of our countrymen, Messrs. Havell and Wellmore, who are said to have 
introduced an important addition to the process pursued by Mr. Talbot, a 
full description of which is contained in a letter to the editor of the Liter- 
ary Gazette. The first attempt of this gentleman was directed towards an 
etching, by Rembrandt, of an old man reading, and the result was a rever- 
sed fac-simile; a negro face surmounted by locks of silver; the disappoin- 
ted artist discovered that a second transfer entirely destroyed the spirit of 
the picture. To remedy this evil he had recourse to a new process, by 


which this defect was indeed removed, but the great merit of the art, name> 


ly, self-acting power, was lost. A thin plate of glass was laid on the subject 
to be copied, upon which the high lights were painted with a mixture of 
white lead and copal varnish, the proportion of varnish being increased for 
the darker shading of the picture. The next day Mr. Havell removed the 
white ground with the point of a penknife, to represent the dark etched 
lines of the original, and a sheet of prepared paper having been placed 
behind the glass and thus exposed to the light, a tolerable impression was 
produced ; the half tints had, however, absorbed too much of the vi ' 
ray, an imperfection which was remedied by painting the parts over with 
black on the other side of the glass; if allowed to remain too long exposed 
to the sun’s rays the middle tints became too dark, and destroyed the ef 
fect of the sketch; about ten minutes in a powerful sun was consid- 
ered sufficient. Another method employed by Mr. Havell was to spread 
a ground composed of white lead, sugar of lead, and copal varnish, over * 
plate of glass, and having transferred a pencil drawing in the usual man 
ner, to work it out with the etching point till it bore the appearance of @ Spi 
ted ink drawing, or in the hands of an engraver a highly finished engt® 
ving. The above process Mr. Havell made public under the impress! 
that it had been hitherto overlooked, but Mr. Talbot, hearing that he ~ 
about to apply for a patent, laid claim to the improvement as his ow, and 
not only pointed out some parts of his former memorial where it wa5 a 
tinctly mentioned, but also produced several drawings made precisely 1 
the manner described; he has also laid before the Royal Society me 
method of preparing the sensitive paper, which consists in immersINg 
in a solution of nitrate of silver, and after washing it with bromide of al 
tassium, the nitrate of silver is again applied, the preparation being 
dried by the fire between each operation; the paper thus treated 15 eX 
tremely sensitive, changing with the feeblest daylight, first to @ on 
green then to olive green, and finally to black. 

A letter to Mr. Talbot from his friend M. Biot has also been published, 
and contains many interesting experiments. After commenting 0? © 


value of the discovery, he continues—* The interest with which I viewed 


OTE ES Pr nee oe ee ee aa 


Miscellanies. 175 


this circumstance, engaged me to make some experiments upon your pre- 
paration, in order to vary its application to the researches in which I am 
occupied. First, I wished to know whether the change of color was in 
any degree influenced by the paper itself; I therefore spread the sub- 
stance on a piece of white unglazed porcelain instead of paper, taking 
care to operate by night, and drying it each time at the fire, as you say, I 
thus obtained a dry solid coating upon the porcelain, which I shut up in 
adark place until the morning. In the morning I took it out, and found 
it of a pale sulphur yellow color: I then presented it to the daylight at 
an open window looking north; the weather was then very cloudy; yet 
no sooner had I so presented it than already it was turned green, and 
Soon afterwards it became black. I then wished to know whether the 
preparation would succeed equally well if not dried at the fire; I there- 
fore, in a darkened room, mixed the aqueous solution of bromide of po- 
tassium with that of nitrate of silver; a precipitate fell, which I spread 
on a porcelain plate and left it to dry in the dark; the next day I wrapped 
it in several folds of paper, and brought it into another room to show it to 
a friend ; but having taken off the covers in a dark corner of the room 
in order to exhibit the original color, pale lemon yellow, instantly we saw 
lls tint become green, and I had hardly time to present it to a window 
opening to the north before its color had passed to dark olive green, after 
Which it almost immediately became nearly black. I do not think it pos- 
sible to find any substance more sensitive to light.” Had M. Daguerre 
or M. Niepce published their experiments at the commencement, Mr. 
Talbot would have appeared merely as an improver of a foreign discovery. 

We must notice here that, by possibility, this art may not be altogether 
unknown to jugglers in India. It is many years since an offer was made, 
our presence, by one of them, to show any gentleman his portrait taken 
by a single look alone. The master of the house, however, deeming the 
Proposal an insult on the credulity of the company, ordered the man of 
“lence to be instantly expelled with the rattan. 


mes hotographic processes, by Andrew Fyfe,* M. D., F. R.S. By §e- 

Photography may be divided into three parts: the preparation of 

the Paper,—taking the impressions,—and preserving them. : 
1. Methods of preparing the Paper. 

Though paper besmeared with solution of lunar caustic is darkened 
oy €xposure to light, it is by no means sensitive + other methods have 
therefore been recommended for preparing it for photographic purpo- 
Ses. That originally given by Mr. Talbot is to soak it firstin a weak 


| si Read before Soc. of Arts Edinb. Mar. and Apr. 1839, From the New Edinb. 
eal. Jour. April to July, 1839. 


176 Miscellanies. 


solution of sea-salt, and when dry, to rub it over on one side with so- 
lution of Junar caustic, by which chloride of silver is formed, and 
adheres to the paper. As thus prepared, it acquires a dark color on 
exposure to light; the depth of color depending on the strength of the 
solutions ; hence it may vary from lilac to deep purple, approaching 
to black. 

In preparing paper by this method, it is very difficult to get the chlo- 
ride uniformly spread over the surface, and accordingly, when exposed 
to light, it often gives a variety of shades; indeed, in many places it 
continues white. It was this that induced me to try the use of other 
salts of silver; and the one which I have found to answer best is the 
phosphate, procured in the usual way, by the addition of the phosphate 
of soda to the solution of lunar caustic. In preparing the paper by 
this method, I generally employ one part of phosphate of soda dissol- 
ved in about eight of water, and the nitrate of silver dissolved in about 
six of water. The paper is first soaked in the phosphate, and then 
dried, after which the nitrate is put on on one side by a brush, the pa 
per again dried and afterwards again put through the salt, by which 
any excess of silver is converted to phosphate. As thus prepared, 
it acquires a yellow tinge, which becomes black by exposure to light 
It is equally sensitive as the chloride, and, in my opinion, gives 4 
much more pleasing variety of shades. 

Instead of preparing the paper by the process described, I frequently 
employ the phosphate precipitated before applying it, for which pur 
pose the nitrate solution is dropped into that of the phosphate of soda, 
the yellow precipitate is allowed to fall to the bottom, and the supe! 
natant fluid is poured off; what remains must be kept in stone bottles 
or in a dark place, as it isextremely sensitive to light. In preparing 
the paper with it, it is put on with a broad flat brush, and then dried in 
the usual way. Though there is a little difficulty at first in getting the 
phosphate uniformly spread over the surface, yet by a little practice 
a uniform ground is easily given, and when once acquired, the metho 
has the advantage of being much cheaper than those previously sieth 
commended. I sometimes add a little mucilage to the fluid, whi 
keeps the phosphate suspended in it. There are other methods 0 
preparing the paper, which though they do not give it so sensitives ye 
are cheaper than those stated; I allude to the use of the phosphate " 
solution in ammonia, or, which is cheaper, in the carbonate of ammo- 
nia which is procured by adding concentrated solution of carbonate of 
ammonia to the phosphate collected by precipitation as already de 
scribed. A still cheaper fluid may be prepared by adding a strong Lat 
lution of nitrate of silver to’a concentrated solution of carbonate of 
ammonia, by which a carbonate of silver is obtained in solution 


Miscellanies. ' 177 


which can be applied to the paper on one side by means of a brush. 
‘Paper thus prepared is white; it has the advantage of being easily 
prepared, and of giving, on exposure to light, a uniform ground which 
is of a brownish color.* 


2. Methods of taking the Impressions. 


From what has been already stated, it must be evident that the most 
direct mode of taking the impressions is, by placing on the paper the 
object, the delineation of which is wished, and then exposing it to the 
light. For this purpose it ought to be kept as close as possible on the 
paper, and the best method of doing so is to place it in a frame with 
glass in front, and a stuffed cushion behind it. The time required de- 
pends, of course, on the intensity of the light, and the density of the 
object; and it is of the utmost consequence to take care that it is long 
enough exposed, and that, at the same time, the exposure is not too 
long continued, for if not long enough, though the outline will be 
given, yet the representation will not be distinct in all its parts; 
Whereas if too long continued, the fainter parts begin to darken, 
and the representation is indistinct. The time required must be 
found by practice. In bright sunshine one minute will be sufficient 
for some objects: when there is no sunshine an hour or two may be 
required, and in this case there is little or no danger of destroying the 
impression by too long exposure, as the light is not of sufficient in- 
tensity to darken too much the fainter parts. 

Impressions from Engravings may likewise be got in the same 
Way; and for this purpose, instead of using those thrown off on thin 
Paper, by which it is supposed the light is most easily transmitted, it 
* Tthink, better to take those on thick paper, because, though the 
light is not so easily transmitted, yet the impression of the engraving 
18 much Bolder, so that a more distinct delineation is given by the 
Photographic process. 

Camera Obscura.—The use of the camera obscura for photo- 
Staphic purposes, has been described by Mr. Talbot. ‘Though repre- 
Sentations may be got in this way,.yet, so far as I have found, they 

ave not the minute distinctness of those got by the method already 
noticed. Owing to the interference of the lens, the light does not act 
Rearly so powerfully on the paper, as when it has to permeate merely 
a frame of glass. ‘The same is the case when the light is reflected, 
7 creeper tne 


‘ "Instead of purchasing lunar caustic of commerce, a cheaper method of procuring 

tis to dissolye pure silver in‘nitric acid diluted with its own bulk of water, taking 

“are to have in the vessel more silver than the acid can dissolve ; and after it has 

*8 Up as much as it can, to dilute the solution with four or five parts of water, or 
ired 


178 Miscellanies. 


and hence the necessity of getting quit of the mirror placed in cameras, 
for throwing the representation in such a way as to allow of its being 
traced by the artist. Hence, in taking impressions by the camera, the 
prepared paper must be fixed on the back of the box, directly opposed 
to the lens, and the focus properly adjusted. I have found greatad- 
vantage, in taking impressions by the camera, in using the paper moist, 
and keeping it so all the time it is exposed. For this purpose, after 
moistening it, I place it between a cushion and a pane of glass, tied 
tightly together, to prevent, as much as possible, the escape of mois- 
ture. In this way I have succeeded in a few minutes in getting a faint 
outline of the object exposed to the lens. 

I may here mention that the camera affords a good method of ta- 

“king profiles from busts, not by the reflected light from the bust, but 
by interposing it between the lens and the source oflight. The bust, 
for instance, may be placed, during sunshine, at an open window, and 
the image from it thrown on the prepared paper; using the precal- 
tion, of having the face slightly inclined towards the source of light, 80 
as to give its outline as distinctly as possible. 

Etchings.—A method of taking impressions of etchings on glass by 
the photographic process was described by Havell of London. For 
this purpose the glass is covered with etching varnish, and aftet the 
figure is etched on it, it is smoked, so as to darken the varnish to 
prevent the transmission of light; of course, the smoke does not adhere 
to those parts of the glass exposed by the etching needle, and is there 
fore easily wiped off with a cloth, thus leaving the etching free for the 
light to passthrough. On exposing this with the prepared paper be- 
hind it, a beautifulimpression is taken. In taking impressions in this 
way, the varnished side must be placed next the paper, which must 
be kept close upon the etching by means of a cushion, otherwise the 
impression is not well defined. When the glass side is next the pape 
the impression is very indistinct, owing to the light, when it passes 
through the exposed parts of the glass, being diffused, and by which the 
lines run into each other. 

From the ease with which impressions can be got in this ways 
curred to me that the process might be still farther extended, 50 ag 1 
enable us to take copies of oil paintings, or of drawings on boards, 
through which the light does not penetrate, and for this purpos¢ 
have followed different methods. One of these is to cover the glass 
with a transparent varnish, as with a thin solution of Canada balsam 
in oil of turpentine, and, after Jaying it down on the oil painting, to 
etch it out on the varnish, in the usual way; after this, the glass is 10 
be slightly heated, so as to soften the varnish, which is then tobe 
smoked, by holding itin the flame of an argand gas lamp, taking oar? 


it oc- 


Oe 


Miscellanies. 179 


not to soften the varnish too much; when cold, the smoke is wiped off 
with a cloth from the parts of the glass exposed by the etching needle. 
Another method is to cover one side of the glass with starch solution, 
of such strength, that. when dry it is transparent, and it is then to be 
laid down with the glass side next the paintings, which can be traced 
with a pencil on the starch, and then etched on the other side, as al- 
ready described. From glass etchings thus procured, impressions are 
taken in the usual way. 

This process of transparent etching is applicable to the camera 
obscura; for, instead of using ground glass, as is commonly done, the 
Tepresentation may be thrown on starched glass, on which it is traced 
and then etched on the other side, as above described. 

Before finishing this part of the subject, I may here allude toa 
method of taking the impressions, by which I have succeeded in giv- 
ing them a resemblance to oil paintings. 

By the method noticed, paper, or some absorbing substance, is used. 
Thave already stated that the phosphate suspended in water may be 
employed, which suggested to me the use of the same substance along 
with a varnish, in the hopes of being able to take the impression on 
panel-board or metal. Ihave found this to answer as well as with 
paper. The varnish I have used is Canada balsam and turpentine, 
with which the phosphate, dried by the cautious application of heat, 
and excluded from light, is thoroughly incorporated; with this the 
panel-board, previously prepared as for an oil painting, is varnished ; 
When dry, the impression is taken on it in the usual way. It will be 
found to have all the richness of an oil painting. 

Y this process, impressions equally distinct and brilliant may be ta- 
ken on metal, Perhaps this maybe of service in saving engravers the 
time and trouble of laying down on_the metal the figure to be en- 
gtaved, 


The impressions received by the modes now described are taken by 
€xposure to the solar ray. Itis well known that the paper may be 
darkened by other means, as by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; but there 
ne hecessity for having recourse to so intense an artificial light. I 
have found that, by concentrating the light of a common fire by me- 
tallic mirrors, the paper is darkened, and the same also occurs with the 
flame of a gas lamp. Of course, the time required is much longer 
than when exposed to sunshine. In this way I have succeeded in get- 
ling impressions of dried leaves alniost as distinct as by solar light; 
indeed we may dispense altogether with the mirror, for, by exposing 
the paper with the leaf on it, ima frame, to the light ofa common fish- 
‘ail gas-burner, at the distance of a few inches, I have procured speci- 
Mens, some of which, though on a small scale, have all the richness of 
13€ taken by solar light. 


180 Miscellanies. 


The concentration of the rays by a metallic mirror, so as to get quit 
of the interference of the lens, would no doubt be a great improvement 
in the camera obscura, provided it could be accomplished. May not 
something of this kind be the method followed by Daguerre in getting 
his camera representations? 


3. Preservation of the Impressions. 


It is evident that, as the impression is produced by the agency of 
light on the compound of silver, when the paper is again exposed, the 
light will begin to act, and ultimately darken the whole, thus effacing 
the impression; hence the necessity of a preservative process. Two 
methods have been recommended by Mr. Talbot, as applicable to the 
chloride, one by the iodide of potassium, the other by sea-salt. When 
solution of iodide of potassium is added to that of lunar caustic, a yel 
low iodide of silver is thrown down. The same is the case when 
the iodide is put on paper, previously covered with the chloride, and, 
provided the solution is strong, it acts also on the chloride when dark- 
ened, thus converting it to yellow iodide, which is not in the least af- 
fected by light; hence, by putting the paper with the impression 
through solution of the iodide, provided it is weak, the white chloride 
only is acted on, and being converted to iodide, is no longer liable to 
change. As, however, the iodide will act on the dark chloride, itis of 
the utmost consequence to attend to the strength of the solution, which 
should be such that it will not attack the faint parts of the impre> 
sion. After the paper is passed through it, it should be kept for some 
time in water, to wash off the superfluous iodide of potassium, which, 
if left on, would gradually destroy the whole of the impression 5 © 
deed, even with this precaution, I find it extremely difficult to preserve 
them. The second method recommended by Mr. Talbot is merely 
immersing the paper in solution of sea-salt. This process does nob 
however, seem to answer well; I have repeatedly failed in preserving 
the specimens in this way, and even when they are preserved, they 
are completely altered in their appearance, and deprived of their 
original brilliancy. 

I have already stated, that I prefer the phosphate of silver for 1a 
king the impressions, not only because it is equally sensitive a the 
chloride, but gives a greater variety of shades. In addition to 
it has another advantage ; the impressions are easily preserved. 


ter various fruitless attempts, I at last found that the darkened pa 
0 


this 


phosphate is easily dissolved. I had, therefore, recourse we! “ 
for their preservation, and though I did not completely meee 
first, yet Lat last did so, by attending to the precaution of washing 

he ammoniacal solution, because, when left on, the impression ; 


these, 


Miscellanies. 181 


ally becomes darker and darker, and is ultimately destroyed, owing to 
the action of the light on it. The method I now follow is to put the 
paper into a diluted solution of water of ammonia (one of the spirit of 
hartshorn to about six of water,) and leave it there till the yellow 
parts become white, showing that the phosphate is dissolved, after 
which it is washed with water to carry off the whole of the ammoni- 
acal solution. It should then, when nearly dry, be subjected to pres- 
sure till dried, by which it is prevented from wrinkling, and the im- 
pression retains its original sharpness, which, unless this is done, it is 
aptto lose, by the fibre of the paper being raised by the repeated 
moistening. 

Though the phosphate specimens may be preserved in this way, 
yet they do not retain exactly their original appearance. Those parts 
whitened by the ammonia, owing to part of the silver being united 
With the paper, gradually acquire a faint reddish tinge,—but, though 
altering the appearance, it does not affect the brilliancy; indeed, in 
Some cases it rather improves it, by giving a pleasing tint, which con- 
trasts well with the darker parts, and gives the appearance of color- 
ing. Ihave also found that carbonate of ammonia answers equally 
Well, and, being much cheaper, it will of course be preferred. I gen- 
erally employ a solution, prepared by dissolving one part of salt in 
about four of water, in which the paper is kept for a minute or so, and 
then afterwards washed, and subjected to pressure, as already noticed. 
Impressions thus preserved acquire the same reddish tinge as those 
acted on by ammonia. 

Thave before stated that the paper may be prepared by washing it - 

ver with a solution, procured by adding nitrate of silver to carbonate 
ofammonia. The impressions taken with that paper are easily pre- 
Served by merely washing them with water, to carry off the part not 
acted on by the light, which is another advantage, in addition to those 
Slated, for using the carbonate solution. Like the phosphate speci- 
Mens, they also acquire a reddish tint. 
: Other preservative methods have been recommended, as, by cover- 
ing the impressions with a yellow color, to prevent, as much as possl- 
ble, the transmission of the chemical ray of the light; but those above 
Slated, particularly when the phosphate or carbonate is used, are so 
Simple and efficacious that it is unnecessary to allude to them. 

Before finishing this part of the subject, I may here allude to a val- 
Yable practical application of photography, in diminishing the labors 
of the lithographer. In communicating the impression of any object 
0 the Stone, as of a dried plant, or in copying an engraving, it is ne- 
Cessary to trace them on paper, and after again tracing them with the 
‘ansfer ink, transfer them to the stone. Now, by receiving the im- 
; Pression on paper by the photographic process, all the labor of the 


~ 


182 Miscellanies. 


first tracing is avoided. But there is no necessity for using paper, as 
the impression may at once be communicated to the stone, which ea- 
sily receives the phosphate, and which may therefore be prepared in 
the same way as the papers, and the impression also taken in the usual 
manner, after which it is traced over with the transfer ink. By this 
process not only is a great deal of labor saved, but the representation 
must be much more exact than when traced ; for though by the latter 
the outline is correct, yet much is left to be afterwards filled in by the 
eye, whereas, by the photographic process, every, even the most mi- 
nute filament, is distinctly and accurately laid down on the stone.” 

Method of taking Impressions in which the lights and shades are not 

reversed. 

By the different methods now described for getting photographic 
impressions, the lights and shades are always reversed, because, as it 
is by the action of the light that the compound of silver is darkened, 
wherever it is prevented from penetrating, the paper retains ils ori- 
ginal color. Though the impressions thus procured are accurate as t0 
outlines, yet in many cases the representation is far from being pleas- 
ing; it is therefore a great desideratum to have a method of getting 
impressions in which there is no reverse; in fact, to give a true repre 
sentation of the object, and in this I have succeeded by the use of the 
iodide of potassium. I have already stated, that when the darkened 
phosphate is exposed to the iodide, it is instantly converted to yellow, 
provided the solution is of sufficient strength ; if weak, the action goes 
on slowly. In some impressions which I had attempted to preserve 
in this way, 1 observed that when exposed to light they began to fade, 
which induced me to try the effect of light on darkened paper, soaked 
in solution of iodide, of such strength that it just failed to attack it 
instantly. In my first attempt I succeeded in bleaching the pape 
but in my next I failed. On considering the circumstances under 
which these trials were made, I found that the only difference between 
them was, that in the first the paper was moist, in the last it was ary: 
Accordingly, on repeating the experiment with the paper moist, I 
again succeeded in getting a delineation of the object placed on the pa 
per, as distinct and altogether as brilliant as those obtained by the 
other process, 

Pee 

* For this method of applying the photographic process I am indebted to nt 
Nichol, lithographer, by whom lithographic impressions, thus taken, were exhibited 
to the Society of Arts. As a proof of the value of this process, I may also mentions 
that on the evening of the 17th of April, when I exhibited a photographic 


of dried ferns, it was, by Mr. Forrester, lithographed, and impressions taseh 
: it would have 
te deline® 


it, in the course of two hours; had this been done in the usual way, 
required many hours of labor, and after all not have given such accurate | 
tions. P 5 le 


[ ae Miscellanies. 183 


‘The method which I now follow is, after preparing the phosphate 

| paper, to darken it, then immerse it in solution of iodide of potassium, 

of such strength that it does not act instantaneously, and, when still 

moist, to expose it to light with the object on it, and continue the ex- 

posure till the exposed part of the paper becomes yellow. In this 

case, there is a tendency in the iodide to convert the dark phosphate 

to yellow iodide, which go on slowly, but is hastened by the light; of 

course, if the object on the paper is impervious to light, the impres- 

sion is black throughout, but if it is of different density, so as to allow 

the light to be differently transmitted, the impression presents the 

lights ‘and shades as in the object itself; because those places behind 

the dense pieces retain their original blackness, while those behind 

the less dense are more or less bleached, just according to the trans- 

Mission of the light. Whenimpressions thus procured are kept, they 

begin to fade, owing to the slow but continued action of the iodide of 

potassium; hence the necessity of a preservative process. After re- 

Peated trials, I have found, that by far the simplest and the best is 

_ merely immersion in water, so as to carry off the whole of the iodide — 

| of potassium notacted on by the phosphate, and by which any farther 

| action is completely prevented. By this method, the specimens do 

Not lose in the least their original beauty, and they may be exposed 
to continued sunshine without undergoing the slightest alteration. 

Thave succeeded also in taking impressions with the chloride in the 

same way—but it is necessary for the success of the process, to use 

the Solution of the iodide much weaker than for the phosphate, be- 

Cause the chloride is more easily acted on. In both cases it ought to 

’@ made of such strength that it just acts, and then, before using it, 

| it must be weakened by the addition of a little water. For the phos- 

+ phate, it will be found, in general, that 1 of salt to 10 of water, and 

or the chloride, that about 30 of water, will give a solution of the 

Tequisite strength. Of course, in preserving the specimens, the pre- 

Utions as to washing and pressure must be attended to. 


| HL. Pp erfection of the Art, as stated in Notes on Daguerre’s Pho- 
: tography. By Sir Joun Roptson.* 

Sir—Ip compliance with the request, that I should commit to wri- 
ling and put into your hands the substance of what I communicated 
‘0 the Society of Arts in reply to the questions put to me at the last 
Meeting, I beg to state, that circumstances having led to my be- 
ng included in a small party of English gentlemen who were lately in- 


gg Seatetary to Royal Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. (Communicated by the 
ty of Arts.) Edinb. Jour. 


Ps 


184 Miscellanies. 


vited to visit the studio of M. Daguerre, to see the results of his discov- 
ery; I had an opportunity of satisfying myself, that the pictures pro- 
duced by his process have no resemblance to any thing which, as far 
as I know, has yet been produced in this country ; and that, excepting 
in the absence of color, they are as perfect images of the objects they 
represent, as are those which are seen by reflection from a highly pol- 
ished surface. The perfection and fidelity of the pictures are such, 
that on examining them by microscopic power, details are discovered 
which are not perceivable to the naked eye in the original objects, 
but which, when searched for there by the aid of optical instruments, 
are found in perfect accordance: a crack in plaster, a withered leaf 
lying ona projecting cornice, or an accumulation of dust in a hollow 
moulding of a distant building, when they exist in the original, are 
faithfully copied in these wonderful pictures. 

The subjects of most of the numerous specimens which I saw, were 
views of streets, boulevards, and buildings, with a considerable num- 
ber of what may be termed interiors with still life; among the latter 
were various groups made up of plaster-casts and other works of art. 
It is difficult to express intelligibly a reason for the charm which is felt 
in beholding these pictures ; but I think it must arise, in some measures 


from finding that so much of the effect which we attribute to color; is 


preserved in the picture, although it consist only in light and shade; 
these, however, are given with such accuracy, that, in consequence of 
different materials reflecting light differently, it is easy to recognize 
those of which the different objects in the groups are formed. A work 
in white marble is at once distinguished from one in plaster-of-Parisby 
the translucency of the edges of the one, and the opacity of the otn@ 
Among the views of buildings, the following were remarkable: A 
set of three pictures of the same group of houses, one taken svon after 
sunrise, one at noon, and one in the evening; in these the change of 
aspect produced by the variations in the distribution of light, was 
emplified in a way which art could never attain to. 

One specimen was remarkable from its showing the progress made 
by light in producing the picture. A plate having been exposed dur- 
ing 30 seconds to the action of the light and then removed, the appear 
ance of the view was that of the earliest dawn of day ; there was 
grey sky, and a few corners of buildings and other objects beginning 
to be visible through the deep black in which all the rest of the picture 
was involved. ks 

The absence of figures from the streets, and the perfect way 10 
which the stones of the causeway and the foot-pavements are Lee 
dered, is, at first sight, rather puzzling, though a little reflection & - 
fies one that passing objects do not remain long enough to make any 


‘si Sere ight 1M, 
5) Me 


a ee. 


Miscellanies. 185 


perceptible impression, and that (interfering only for a moment with 
the light reflected from the road,) they do not prevent a nearly accu- 
rate picture of it being produced. 

Vacillating objects make indistinct pictures, e. g.a person getting 
his boot cleaned by a decrotteur gave a good picture, except that hav- 
ing moved his head in speaking to the shoe-black, his hat was out of 
shape, and the decrotteur’s right arm and brush were represented by a 
half-tinted blot, through which the foot of the gentleman was partially 
visible. 

There can be no doubt that when M. Daguerre’s process is known 
to the public, it will be immediately applied to numberless useful 
purposes, as by means of it, accurate views of architecture, ma- 
chinery, &c., may be taken, which being transferred to copper or to 
stone, may be disseminated at a cheap rate; and useful books on ma- 
ny subjects may be got up with copious illustrations, which are now 
foo costly to be attainable: even the fine arts will gain, for the 
eyes accustomed to the accuracy of Daguerrotype pictures, will no 
longer be satisfied with bad drawing, however splendidly it may be 
colored. In one department, it will give valuable facility. Anatom- 
ical and surgical drawings, so difficult to make with the fidelity which 
it is desirable they should possess, will then be easily produced by a 
= skill and practice in the disposition of the subjects and of the 
Ignts, 


It is a curious circumstance that, at the same time that M. Da- 
guerre has made this beautifuland useful discovery in the art of deline- 
ation, another Parisian artist* has discovered a process by which he 
Makes solid casts in plaster of small animals or other objects, without 
Seams or repairs, and without destroying the model, (Moulage d’une 
seule piéce, sans couture ni reparage, et avec conservation parfaite du 
modele). Tamin possession of several specimens of his work, among 
Which are casts of the hand of an infant of six months, so delicately 
€xecuted, that the skin shows evident marks of being affected by some 
slight eruptive disease. I am, dear Sir, very faithfully yours, 
Joun Rosison. 
James Top, Esq., Secretary to the Society of Arts. 

Edinburgh, 1st June, 1839. 


2. Correction of an error—Cinnabar not found in Michigan.—In Vol. 
» at page 33, of this Journal, it is stated in a letter to Dr. J. L. Comstock 
yB.F. Stickney, that “a black and garnet colored sand is found on the 
shores of Lake Erie and Michigan which is a sulphuret of mercury and 
Yields about 60 per cent. of that metal.” No confirmation of this too 
Oe ee ee 


I 


‘tlippolyte Vincent, Mouleur, Rue Neuve St. Frangois No. 14 (au Marai). 
Ol. xxxvi1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 24 


186 Mistellantes. 


hastily accredited report having been given, we have long supposed that 
it was a mistake, and that credence had been too easily given by us to a 
result which if true, would have been extremely important, and which 
we confess we ought not to have admitted without the most rigorous 
proof. It is now in our power to settle this matter on the authority of Mr. 
Stickney himself, and through the kindness of our friend Josiah Thomp- 
son of Philadelphia, from whom we have received a letter dated June 29, 
ult., and covering a letter to him from Mr. Stickney dated Dec. 21, 1831, 
thirteen years after the first publication of the supposed discovery of cin- 
nabar. Mr. Thompson remarks: “When in the west some years ago I 
visited the localities mentioned, (on the shores of lakes St. Clair and Erie,) 
and soon found that the sand in question contained no mercury, but was 
probably composed of garnets either broken up or in very small crystals. 
I afterwards wrote on the subject to Mr. Stickney who gave me the su 
stance of his subsequent researches in the annexed communication.” 
-“T should not have thought of reviving the thing at so late a period had 
I not heard it alluded to by a very distinguished scientific lecturer, whose 
authority for the assertions had been derived from the communications 
originally appearing in your widely circulated Journal, and which have 
been transferred to several standard works both American and European.” 

We now quote Mr. Stickney’s statement: 

“ Some nine or ten years since I lay wind bound on the western shore 
of Lake Erie, with a small craft for several days, near the mouth of Otter 
Creek, a little south of Pleasant Bay, where the black and garnet colored 
sand is abundant. It struck me as probable, that it was a sulphuret of 
mercury. I levigated a few grains of the latter between two stones; ¢ 
bright, opaque, red appearance when broken tended to confirm me in the 
‘opinion. Having no other employment, I mixed clay, water, and sand, 
with my hands and formed it into a retort and receiver; dried them ™ 
the sun ; and afterwards baked them in the hot sand and ashes when 
we had a fire on the beach. I then introduced a small portion of the r@ 
sand into the retort; it could be but a small portion, as it did not 
more than half a pint. I set up my apparatus with small stones; fitting 
on and luting the receiver with some of the same clay and sand. Thus 
prepared, I put charcoal from our fire into the little furnace, and plowed 
them with a blowpipe made of a hollow weed. After continuing it for 4 
time at a low red heat and permitting it to cool moderately, I broke the re 
ceiver, and discovered, as I then conceived, minute globules of mercury: 
I now concluded I had determined the presence of mercury in the sa™ 
I took with me quantities of the sand; and when I returned home I sei 
mitted some of the red sand pulverised to nitro-muriatic acid, and precPF 
tating the solution with carbonate of potash, I had a copious white precip 
itate. I weighed the sand; but having accidentally spilled some of “A 
solution, I did not weigh the result. I made minutes at the time whic 


. 


He 


+7 i+ > tOgee Ye 
be5352 


Miscellanies. 187 


; Inow refer to. About eighteen months since, making some experiments 
on iron ore, I obtained a white precipitate,* so near resembling that from 
the sand, that I was led to suspect my mistake. I now undertook another 
and more minute examination of the sand. I obtained the same white 
precipitate, and submitted it to sublimation, but found no mercury, but 
every appearance of iron. I have examined the sand with the magnet 
and glasses. The black I think is a rich iron ore, highly magnetic; the 
red and reddish we may consider, and perhaps with safety, garnet and 
carnelian. In some places about the shores of these lakes there are large 
quantities of the black and red sand; some nearly all black, and others 
mostly red. I have specimens from Lake Michigan that are all black 
and all magnetic. When we commit an error, it is more important that 
it should be corrected than to develope a new truth. I therefore have a 
desire that this correction should be as extensively known as the error.” 


3. An Essay on the Development and Modifications of the Ex- 
ternal Organs of Plants. Compiled chiefly from the writings of J. 
Wolfgang Von Goethe, for a public lecture to the class of the Chester 
County Cabinet of Natural Science. By William Darlington, M. D.” 
West Chester, Penn. 1839. 12mo. pp. 38.—The object of this es- 
‘ay, is, in the words of its author, to give “an exposition of the views 
Which are entertained by some of the most eminent naturalists of the 
#3 'especting the successive development and modification, or trans- 
formation, of the external organs of Plants; showing that all their ap- 
Pendages,—from the crude cotelydons of the germinating seed, to the 
most delicate component parts of the perfect flower,—are nothing but 
Modified forms of that expansive tissue which envelopes the tender 
Shoots of plants, and is the principal seat of vegetable life; or, in other 
Words, that the organized covering, called the bark of plants, is the ori- 
ginal raw material, (if I may so term it,) from which are formed and 
elaborated all those multiform organs, or appendages to the stem and 
branches, known by the names of Leaves, Stipules, Bracts, Involucres, 
Glumes, Calyces, Corollas, Nectaries, Stamens and Pistils.” The 
serm of this doctrine is found in the writings of Linneus, but it was 
_ fully developed in 1790, by Goethe, whose fame as a poet-has 
eclipsed his reputation as a naturalist. The labors of succeeding bot- 
aniats have established its truth. Dr. Darlington has presented this 
“urious subject in an interesting and lucid manner, and with his accus- 
tomed scientific accuracy. 
4, ag of the Essex County (Mass.) Natural Flistory Society, 


Bro., alem.—T he first number of this Journal was published in 1836, 
2 sry OS ei a eaaseae : 


* An equivocal inconclusive result.—Eds. 


188 Miscellatted, 


and comprises 44 pages. Its contents are: Anniversary Address, by 
John L. Russell, M.D.; the Act of Incorporation, Constitution and Bye- 
Laws of the Society; Catalogues of its Officers and Books, and of the 
Donors to the Library and Cabinet. 

The second number was published a few weeks since, and extends from 
page 45 to page 108. It comprises the following papers: 

1. Familiar notice of some of the shells found in the limits of Essex County, 
Mass., with reference to descriptions and figures ; by John L. Russell, page 47 to 
page 76. 

2. Notice of the occurrence of specimens of Vespertilio pruinosus, Say, (Hoary 
Bat;) by H. Wheatland. 76, 77. 

3. A sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of the southern part of Essex County 
in Mass. communicated to the Essex Co. Nat. Hist. Soc. April 24, 1839; by Wm. 
Prescott. 78—91. 

4. Two new species of Musci, with figures ; by John L. Russell. 92, 98. 

5. Remarks on Hyla femoralis, observed in the north parish of Danvers, Mass. ; 
by Andrew Nichols. 93—96. ; 

6. Notice of rare plants; with a description of a curious variety of Cladonia Un- 
cialis; by John L. Russell. 96—100. F 

7. Remarks upon Scarabeus Goliatus and other Afiican beetles allied to it; by 
Thaddeus Wm. Harris. 101—107. 

The Society was incorporated in February, 1836, by the Legislature of 
Massachusetts. From the prefatory remarks in the second number It ap- 
pears that the institution is in a prosperous condition, and has already 
collected a considerable cabinet and library. Of the industry and =— 
gladly welcome every new laborer in American Natural History; 
withstanding what has been already accomplished, the field of discovery 
is yet very far from being exhausted, and we hope that the honor of gath- 
ering in the harvest may not pass from our own shores. 

July, 1839. 


5. “ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at 
Philadelphia for promoting useful knowledge. Part 2, of Vol. © 
new series (or Vol. 12, of the entire series) :—p. 155 to p. 337. $10, 
Philadelphia, 1839. : 4 

This part of the Transactions of our most ancient and active — 
tific body has just made its appearance. It contains several papers ° 
much importance, and well sustains the high character of the Sociely 
from which it emanates. We annex a list of all the communication? 
comprised in it. 

Art. II. Descriptions of New North American Insects, and Observatio 
already described. By [the late] Thomas Say. Continued from Vol. 
p- 470. pp. 155—19 


ns on some 
IV; N. 3 


Havana, in the island of Cuba. By Richard Cowling Taylor, and Thom 
Clemson. 191—196. 


of the 
at 


- Notice of a Vein of Bituminous Coal, recently explored in the vicinity 


pe PORT, 


IV. Observations on the changes of color in Birds and Quadrupeds. By John 
Bachman, D. D.. 197—239. 

V. Determination of the Longitude of I stations near the Northern Bound- 
ary of Ohio, from Transits of the Moon, and Moon-culminating Stars, observed in 
1835, by Capt. Andrew Talcott. By Sears C. Walker. 241—266. 

VE. On the magnetic Dip at several places in the State of Ohio, and on the rela- 
tive Horizontal Magnetic Intensities of Cincinnati and London. By Prof. John 

ke. In aletter to John Vaughan. 267—273. 

VII. New formule relative to Comets. By E. Nulty. 275—295. 

VIII. Account ofa Tornado, which, towards the end of August, 1838, passed 
over the suburbs of the city of Providence, in the State of Rhode Island, and after- © 
wards over a part of the village of S t. Also an extract ofa letter on the same 
subject from Zachariah Allen, of the city of Providence. Communicated by Rob- 
ert Hare. 297—301. 

IX. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism, No. III, On Electro-Dynamic 
Induction, By Joseph Henry. 303—337. 


6. Notice of the “ Journal of the Statistical Society of London.” 8vo. 
18s. per year.—This society was established at London in the spring of 
: 1834, and has prosecuted with great vigor the objects for which it was 
2 instituted. The journal of the society, (the first number of which ap- 
, Peared in May 1838) is published monthly, and contains an account of 
be the proceedings of the Statistical Society of London, and of other socie- 
} ties, communications on statistical subjects; queries and tabular forms for 

Prosecuting original inquiries; copies or abstracts of parliamentary re- 


ee Ports and papers relating to statistics; reviews and lists of new statistical 
t Works, &c. 'The work is in our judgment, one of very great value : as 
; : 4 specimen of the papers contained in it, we may mention the following: 
+ Account of the changes and present state of the population of New Zeal- 
a and; Statistics of the copper mines of Cornwall, England; Statistical 
 Mustrations of the principal Universities of Great Britain and Treland : 
Statistical table of crime in Ireland; Moral Statistics of three parishes in 
t city of Westminster; Account of Algeria, or the French provinces in 


Africa; Statistics of the city of New York. It is not necessary to say 
anything here of the importance of authentic statistics to all classes of 
Philosophic inquirers and men of business. 6 these the work in ques- 
tion cannot fail to be highly acceptable and useful. We hope it may gain 
* general circulation throughout our country. 


- 7. Progress of the U. States Exploring Expedition —The exploring 
_- “adron, of which we have given accounts in Vols. 35 and 36, arrived 
at Orange Harbor, Terra del Fuego, on the 17th of February, 1839, in 
forty days from Rio Janeiro. Commt. Wilkes then transferred himself 
from the Vincennes to the brig Porpoise, in which, attended by the 
Schooner Sea Gull, he sailed from Orange Harbor on the 25th February, 
1839, with the intention of penetrating as far south as circumstances 


: 


190 Miscellanies. 


might permit. The Peacock, commanded by Lieut. Hudson, attended 
by the schooner Flying Fish, departed at the same time, on a similar voy- 
age, but by a different route. No tidings concerning their success have yet 
reached us. The Vincennes, under command of Lieut. Craven, is to be 
employed during their absence, in surveying in the vicinity of Orange 
Harbor. The Relief, having on board several members of the scientific 
corps, was dispatched for a like period, on a cruise through the straits of 
Magellan, but in making the attempt to enter by the Cockburn Channel, 
she encountered a succession of violent winds, and about the last of 
March, narrowly escaped shipwreck in a storm near Noir Island. On 
this occasion the Relief lost four anchors. For this reason she did not 
continue the cruise, but sailed for Valparaiso, where she arrived on the 
15th April, 1839. Throughout the squadron, health and harmony have 
prevailed, among both officers and men. 


8. Cold Bokkeveld Metcorites.—Our last number contained a brief ac- 
count of the fall of a large meteorite at Cold Bokkeveld, near the Cape of 
Good Hope, October 13, 1838. By notices in the Lond. and Ed. Phil. 
Mag. May, 1839, it appears that instead of a single meteoric mass, great 
numbers of stones were thrown down, and according to one statement 
they were scattered in one line of direction throughout the space of 150 
miles. The explosion was “louder and more appalling than the strongest 
artillery, causing the air to vibrate for upwards of 80 miles in every direc- 
tion.” The following analysis by Sir M. Faraday, of a piece of one 0} 
these meteorites forwarded to Sir J. F. W. Herschel, was communicat 
by the latter to the Royal Society, at its session of March 21, 1839.~"~ 

“The stone is stated as being soft, porous and hygrometric ; having, 

when dry, the specific gravity of 2.94 ; and possessing a very small degree 
of magnetic power irregularly dispersed through it. One hundred parts 
of the stone, in its natural state, were found to consist of the following 
constituents, namely : 


Water, - - - 6.50 Alumina, - - - 522 _ 
Sulphur, - - - 424 is ae 1.64 
Silica, - 28.90 Oxide of Nickel, 82 
Protox. of Iron, 33.22 Oxide of Chromium, .70 
Magnesia, - - 19.20 Cobalt and Soda, a trace. 


9. Meteoric Iron from Potosi—H. M. Juben, a lieutenant in the 
French Navy, among other minerals which had been presented to him, 
brought from Peru a piece of meteoric iron found near Potosi in Bolivia j 
was stated to him to be meteoric iron of great purity ; it is cavernous, being 
filled with vacuities, most of which are irregular, but some have the 10 
of a rhombic dodecahedron ; some of them also are filled with a greenish 
vitreous substance similar to the Olivine of Pallas. No traces Ww 


- of fusion appear, although the mineral evidently indicates the action of a 
high temperature. The tenacity of this iron is extremely great, but it is 
readily hammered and filed. It does not oxidize even when exposed to a 


analyses performed by M. Morren give us its composition— 
fron, . note ee ee 90.241 
Nickel, - 68 we 1 9959-100, 

This iron is remarkable on account of the large quantity of nickel; no 
trace either of copper, cobalt or manganese was discoverable. The spe- 
cimen is deposited in the museum of Angers.—Chronique Scientifique, 
#4 Feb. 1839, in Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. May, 1839. 


10. Encke's Comet.—During its recent return to the perihelion, this 
comet has been carefully watched by observers in various parts of Europe. 
At Breslau, it was first detected as early as the 19th of August, 1838, by 
M. Boguslawski. At Berlin, it was first seen on the 16th of September, 
and in England and France about the same time. At Marseilles, M. 
Valz observed with much attention the changes of the comet’s dimen- 
ns: He estimates its volume on the 10th of October to have been 826 
limes as great as on 24th of November following. He obtained a view of 
the body as late as the morning of the 12th of December, two days before 
its perihelion passage. The differences between the observed and the 
calculated places of the comet have been found very slight. According 
'o Gautier, they indicate that the mass of Mercury was assumed too large 
¥ M. Encke. 


Il. Remains of the Mastodon in Missouri.—In various parts of this 
"ast continent, remains of the Mastodon have been occasionally disin- 
terred.* J have recently obtained an uncommonly large, entire, head of 
the Mastodon, together with many of the other bones. The circumstan- 
“s attending its discovery are these : . 
€w weeks since, receiving information from a friend that many 
bones were found on the land of Captain Palmer & Co., about 
22 miles south of St. Louis, I immediately proceeded to the spot; and 
through the politeness and encouragement of Captain Palmer, commenced 
Perations, which proved more successful than my most sanguine antic 
Pations. The outside formation and peculiar construction of the upper 
Part of the head is different from that of any quadruped in Natural 
History that I am acquainted with. It is composed of small cells about 
ree quarters of an inch square, and about three inches deep, covered by 
* thin Cranium ; attached to the upper jaw is the snout which projects 


large 


* ce eS iaeece : ; F 

We have omitted a few lines in this place as being erroneous in fact, since 

a entire skeletons have been made up, and an entire head is described and 
‘ed in our Vol, 36, page 189. 


Miscellanies. 191 


moist atmosphere. Its specific gravity is 7.736. The mean of three | 


192 < “ealientes. 


about eighteen inches over the lower jaw, and which has never been de- 
scribed before. 

The position of the tusks in the head, has been a subject of discussion 
among Naturalists, and they have been placed in the same manner as those 
of the Elephant. It gives me pleasure to state, that I can now settle this 
question—for in the head which I discovered, I found a tusk firmly im- 
planted in the socket, and had it conveyed with great care to my museum, 
but owing to the ignorance and carelessness of a laborer, in carrying it 
up stairs, it was broken off, but its position can be proved by a number of 
gentlemen of the highest respectability. The tusks are not situated in 
the same position as those of the Elephant, as was supposed by some. 
They diverge outwards from the head with the convexity forward, and the 
point turning backwards in the same plane with the head ; the tusk found 
in the head measures ten feet one inch, from the base to the tip, following 
the outside of the curvature, and two feet in circumference near the 
socket. The other tusk measures only nine feet—part of the roof 18 
wanting. When placed in the head in their original position, the dis- 
tance from tip to tip, measures sixteen feet. I may add, that it required 
two stout men to carry the largest tusk, and two yoke of oxen to carry the 
head and tusks from the place of disinterment to the museum. 

Besides the mastodon’s head, I have found near the same place, several 
highly interesting remains of antediluvian animals, one of which espe 
cially merits attention. It is the head of a nondescript animal, which 
appears to have been superior in size to the largest elephant, and which 
resembles somewhat the mastodon in the hind part of the head, but ie 
front part is entirely different; and until it is recognized or proved 0 
have been previously discovered, I shall name it Koch's Missourian, in 
honor of the State it is discovered in, and intend, in a very short time “A 
give a minute description of it, as well as of a great many relics not 
herein mentioned. 

A. Kocu, Proprietor of the St. Louis Museum. 
St. Louis Com. Bulletin of June 25, quoted in Phil. Nor. Am. July 11, 1839. 


discovered a new metal. The oxide of cerium, separated from the min 
eral by the usual process, contains nearly two fifths of its weigh 
the oxide of the new metal, merely altered by the presence of the ail 
rium, and which, so to speak, is hidden by it. This consideratio? in 
duced M. Mosander to give the new metal the name of Jatané or 
lantan. é 

It is prepared by calcining the nitrate of cerium, mixed with nitrate 
of latanium. The oxide of cerium loses its solubility in weak acids» 


Miscellanies. 193 


and the oxide of latanium, which isa very strong base, may be sepa- 
rated by nitric acid, mixed with 100 parts of water. 

Oxide of latanium is not reduced by potassium; but by the action 
of potassium on the chloride of latanium, a gray metallic powder is 
obtained, which oxidises in water with the evolution of hydrogen 
gas, and is converted into a white hydrate. 

The sulphuret of latanium may be produced by heating the oxide 
strongly in the vapor of oxide [sulphuret?] of carbon. Itis of a pale 
yellow color, decomposes water with the evolution of hydrosulphurie 
acid, and is converted into a hydrate. 

The oxide of latanium is of a brick-red color, which does not appear 
to be owing to the presence of oxide of cerium. It is converted by 
hot water into a white hydrate, which destroys the blue color of lit- 
mus paper reddened by an acid; it is rapidly dissolved even by very 
dilute acids ; and when it is used in excess, itis converted into a sub- 
salt. The salts have an astringent taste, without any mixture of sweet- 
hess; the crystals are wholly of a rose-red color. The sulphate of 
Potash does not precipitate them, unless they are mixed with salts of 
cerium. When digested in a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 
the oxide of latanium dissolves, with the evolution of ammonia. The 
atomic Weight of latanium is smaller than that assigned to cerium; 
that is to say, to a mixture of the two metals. 

Berzelius has repeated and verified the experiments of M. Mosan- 
—— Institut, May 14, 1839. Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag., May, 

9, 


13, Biography of Scientific Men.—Professor Webster of Harvard Uni- 
Versity has nearl y ready, from the press, a selection from the biographies of 
eminent scientific men in Europe, more particularly of those who have 
largely contributed to the progress of chemical science. The work will 
“omprise translations from the admirable Eloges” delivered before the 
F tench Academy of Sciences, by Cuvier, Arago, &c., and from the me- 
olrs published in the various philosophical Journals and Transactions of 
other learned societies in Europe. A copious list of the writings of the 
Individuals will be connected with the biography of each, and great facil- 
Illes be thus afforded to the student for reference to original papers. | 

The size of the volume will be between four and five hundred pages, and 
Me price not to exceed three dollars. We cannot doubt that this work 
Will prove both valuable and interesting. Few persons in this country 
®an have access to the original sources of information ; and Prof. Web- 
ster is therefore performing an acceptable service by bringing the history, 
the labors, and the personal traits of many eminent men before the Amer- 
ean public. It is superfluous to add that he will acquit himself with good 
Vol. sxxvix, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 5 


194 Miseallaniés. 


judgment and ability ; and we wish him that full success which we trust 
he will obtain as he deserves it well. Subscribers’ names will be received 
by the editor of this Journal, by James Munroe & Co., booksellers, Boston, 
and §. Colman, 8 Astor House, New York. 

The volume will contain biographical notices of—Ray, Priestley, Four- 
croy, Wollaston, Cuvier, Leslie, Van Swinden, Knight, Young, Henry, 
Peron, Hutton, Playfair, Piazzi, Fraunhofer, Breguet, Fourier, Herschel, 
Pallas, Count Romford, Vauquelin, Volta, &c. &c. 


14. Note by Mr. E. F. Johnson, Civil Engineer.—In the article in the 
present number of this Journal, entitled “ Mountains in New York,” the 
angular depression of Whiteface Mountain from Mt. Marcy is quoted erro- 
neously from the report of Prof. Emmons at 15. The depression of 15° 
applies according to Prof. E. to Whiteface as seen from Dial Mountain, a 
high peak situated a short distance S. E. from Mt. Marcy. At the time 
of writing the article I had not access to the report of Prof. Emmons. 
The error originated in the use of some rough and imperfect notes in 
pencil made nearly a year since, and which were in consequence partially 
defaced. The depression of 15’ of Whiteface from Dial Mt. corresponds 
very nearly with the difference (234 ft.) in elevation of those two peaks, 
comparing the height of the latter as given “ approximately by levelling’, 
by Prof. E., and the former as determined trigonometrically by myself 


15. A Northern Lynx taken in Connecticut.—A wild animal of the 
genus Felis, was trapped at Southington, Conn., during the night of Ma - 
21, 1839, and was shot the next morning by the person who found it 1 
the trap. It weighs thirty-two pounds. Its length is nearly three feet; 
tail about four inches long and tipped with black. The species to which 
it belongs is probably the F. borealis, Temm., although it does not em 
tirely agree with the description given in Richardson’s Fanua Bor aceh 
Americana. Further investigation is requisite to settle the species sat 
factorily, especially as the Lynxes of North America are not yet well 
termined. The animal in question, doubtless strayed from the north, 
and its like is rarely seen within the limits of this State. E. C. H. 


16. Preservation of animal fat for Soap Making, by D. Tomlinso”, 
Schenectady, July, 1838.—Fat saved for making soap soon passes, — 
cially in hot weather, to a spoiled and offensive condition ; sometimes 
with the loss, in this manner, of the fat, or it is devoured by rats. None 
of these occurrences happen in my house : nor is the fat boiled in lye ws 
make soft soap. The fat, as it is saved from time to time, is put into 4 
prepared cask, and strong lye is added to it. As it accumulates ' 
quanuty, lye is added, and occasionally stirred by a stick. When the 
cask is full, the soap is already made and ready for use. The lye cask 


- Miscellanies. 195 


is filled with ashes for leaching, and the lye is drawn off to add to the 
Soap cask, and more water is added; and thus by filling water and 
draining, the solution becomes weak, when it is used for bleaching, &c. 
When the lye cask is emptied, it is filled immediately with ashes, to be 
used as above mentioned, so that the cask is always in use; by which 
means it is kept in order, and lasts many years. When left empty, as 
Some persons practice, it shrinks and soon becomes useless. Some quick 
lime put into the ash cask, near the bottom, causes the lye to be more 
Caustic. 

Cedar and white pine make the best casks for lye or soap. The pine 
should be free from knots and resin, as the lye will incorporate with the 

_Tesin, convert it to soap, and leave the wood porous and leaky. 

When soap has accumulated beyond the wants for soft soap, it is con- 
Yerted into hard soap, by adding one quart of salt to three gallons of soap; 
tis then boiled and put into tubs, &c., to cool. It is then cut into pieces, 
the froth scraped off—then melted again to a boiling heat, leaving out the 
lye at bottom, put it in a box to cool, and cut into bars for drying. 
A little rosin or turpentine added before boiling, improves the color and 
quality of the hard soap. 

- B. In winter, the leach tub should be set in the cellar, or where it 
will not freeze—or, when filled, the ashes sh6uld be only dampened with 
Water, not to freeze, and it should stand till spring, before it is leached, 
to prevent freezing. 

omitted to say, that this mode of making soap relieves from the Pagan 
Practice of boiling soap at a certain state of the moon. 


_ 1%. Notice of Vespertilio pruinosus* and Icterus Pheeniceus.—Sir :—I 
improve this opportunity to inform you that on the 8th inst., (July, 1839,) 
I obtained in my garden the Vespertilio pruinosus, (Hoary Bat,) of 
Say, and answering perfectly to the description of Dr. Godman in his 
Natural History, Vol. I, age 68. It is the first instance that I have 
leamed of its being found north of Pennsylvania.+ . One was captured by 
Barton some years since near Philadelphia and presented to the museum 
in'that city, “ Mr, T. Nuttall also observed it at Council Bluffs.” Upon 
“apturing the animal, I found to my surprise, two young ones attached to 
€ breasts of the mother, nearly equal to her in size. It indeed required 
* number of violent efforts to shake them off, and they then again immedi- 
ately attached themselves to the breasts of the mother as before. The 
atter measured 43 inches in length and 112 inches in alar extent. The 
“US eee 
“Extract of a letter from Rev. James H. Linsley, to the junior editor, dated 
Stratford, July 294, 1839. 
i © presume our correspondent has not seen the Journal of the Essex Co. Nat. 
Hist, Soc, No. ii, where a similar occurrence is recorded Vid. this No. p. 187-8, 


196 Miscellanies. 


young measured each 33 inches in length and 3 inches across the wings. 
The old was a light yellow, and the young about the color of the chin-— 
chilla, of S. A. I immediately prepared the three for my cabinet, and 
while so doing, noticed that the stomachs of the young were remarkably 
distended with milk. 

Before I close this article, allow me to add that I have observed the 
red wing (Icterus Pheeniceus) to be carnivorous. No writer that I have 
seen makes any mention of flesh in describing the food of the red wing, 
A friend assures me that while riding out the first week in June last, he 
saw a female bird of this species feeding very intently on the ground, and 
as he passed near she laid hold of something nearly as long as her own 
body, and made several unsuccessful attempts to rise with it in her bill. 
It proved to be the skeleton of a bird completely cleaned of flesh, which 
by a few of the primaries attached to the wings, appears to have been the 
semi-palmated Ringed Plover. 


18. Malaria.—Thomas Hopkins, Esq., at the conclusion of a me- 

moir read before the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester, England, 

_Noy. 15, 1838, presents the following summary of the effects of wa- 
ter in generating malaria. 

It may be presumed that in those parts of the world which have # 
high temperature, malaria will be found, and especially when the air 
has been sometime stagnant, in the following situations, viz: 

1. Over the open sea. It will be mild here, because the tempera- 
ture is not very high. 

2. Over slowly moving rivers. They will be somewhat more heat- 
ed by the sun than the sea is, and will therefore evaporate more freely. 

3. Over meadows and woods. The great extent of moist surfaces 
admits of great evaporation from these. 

4. Over shallow stagnant water. The temperature of the water 
will be high, and evaporation consequently great. 

5. Over tide sands and muds. These become very hot, and con 
sequently evaporate copiously. 

. Over marshes. These combine great heat, extensive surface for 
evaporation, and abundant moisture. 

The author proposes that hygrometrical, barometrical and ere 
metrical tables should be kept at various places, in order to judge 
how far moisture and heat with variations of pressure affect the PF 
duction of malaria. He gives the following table of mortality ! . 
lustrate local agencies on health. 

_ “A Table of the Deaths per 1000 of Strength, and the portion of pars 
who died of Fever, per Annum, of the White Troops in the 
Indies, being the average of the returns for the Twenty rae 


Miscellanies. 197 


from 1817 to 1836, arranged in the order of: the Mortality. Ta- 
_ ken from the Official Report from Twenty-two Stations. 
Deaths in Deaths by 

1000, Fever, 


*"The Bahamas, <5 ss. s. eis ee Pe 
Me Mevnnnah la Mar, . 0.04088 0 ee o's eS 200 
MuMentero Bay, 20s Chemex 178-9 150-7 
prmpenich Town. 664. er u* 2 BOER 162-4 141-1 
mereobago, ais es ek pee ewes - 152-8 104-1 
O-Port: Antonio, . .0.0i-<v sacs wee ee ee 149-3 126-0. 
pep Perk Camp, 4220630 46 <2 eee 140-6 120-8 . 
Meeiatinidas<< isi ¢ bes oa OR ea 137-4 49-3 
Bete lais; ew td 64 ge rs eS 122-8 63-1 
A ee ae Be ee eer 113-1 93-9 
on LS ear era etme ae 106-3 61-6 
am Falmouth, .. 5 <<. pines ae -.-. 102-6 80-0 
eerany Mill, oe a pts egies 90-2 70-5 
STON SHIEH, cs ps ce MG's we 8 84-0 59-2 
_ 2 eee ee ee are eee Bee 
Be POLY Atcumtng. 3655. 5576 Aw tee oe 73-5 55-5 
17. Si. Kits, Nevis and TOrGia, 66 <4 ts * 1-0. 42-I 
SS See a eee +. 61-8 26-3 
pecmarohdoes, 2s. ss es fy eee tks. See die 
me Bt Vincents, . .3n se seo 6 ce ht er 
2i. Antigua and Montserrat, .-..-.-+ e+e 40-6 14-9 
22, Maroon OWN Gs 4.5 5 38 Seek oe TEN Sw 32-7 §=615-3 


Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., Jan. 1889.” 


19. Electrical Excitement in Leather by Friction.—The Rev. 
Thos, Drury, under date of Dec. 17, 1838, at Keighley Rectory, 
Yorkshire, England, communicates the following fact to Dr. Faraday. 

He speaks of what he terms an extraordinary electrifying machine, 
_ Which is no other than a leather strap which connects two drums in 
‘large worsted mill in the town of Keighley.‘ The dimensions and 
Patticulars of the strap are as follows: 3 

It is in length : : ; ‘ ; ; 24 feet 
Breadth : . : : : 6 inches 
Thickness , : : ; : at + do. 

It makes 100 revolutions in a minute. Noa 

The drums, over which it passes at both ends, are two feet in dia- 
Meter, made of wood fastened to iron hoops and turning on iron 
axles ; these drums are placed at 10 feet distance from each other, 
and the Strap crosses in the middle between the drums, where there 
1S some friction; the strap forming a figure of eight. There is no 


198 Miscellanies. 


metal in connexion with the strap, but it is oiled. If you present 
your knuckle to the strap above the point of crossing, brushes of elec- 
trical light are given off in abundance, and when the points of a prime 
conductor are held near the strap, most pungent sparks are given off 
to a knuckle at about two inches; I charged, says Mr. D., a Leyden jar 
of considerable size in a few seconds by presenting it to the prime con- 
uctor. The gentleman who told me of this curious strap has fre- 
quently charged his electrical battery in a very short time from it, 
and he informed me that it is always the same, generating electricity 
from morning to night without any abatement or alteration. If this 
strap had the advantage of silk flaps and a little amalgam, it would 
rival the machine in the lecture room in Albemarle-street.”—Jb. 


20. Great Scheme for Magnetical Observations —The Joint Phy- 
sical and Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society of London 
—of which Sir J. F. W. Herschel is president—have agreed to re- 
commend to her majesty’s government the establishment of regular 
observations of the magnetical intensity, dip and variation on the fol- 
lowing stations : 

In Canada, St. Helena, Van Dieman’s Land, Ceylon, and the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

The observations to be made hourly with magnetometers during 
three years from their commencement. 

That on certain selected days, and upon a common plan concerted 
with each other and with European observatories, “ the fluctuations of 
the same elements shall be observed during twenty-four successive 
hours, strictly simultaneous with one another, and with intervals of 
not more than five minutes,” &c. &e. 

As it is uncertain whether the government will adopt the plan pro- 
posed, we omit the remaining details.— Jb. 


21. Action of Spongy Platina.—M. Kuhlmann has described se¥- 
eral new reactions determined by spongy platina. Among which are 
the following : 

Ist. Ammonia mixed with air on passing at a temperature of about 
572° Fahr. over spongy platina is decomposed, and the azote which 
it contains is completely converted into nitric acid by combining with 
the oxygen of the air. 

2nd. Cyanogen and air, under similar circumstances, occasion the 
formation of nitric acid and carbonic acid. 

3rd. Ammonia, when combined so as to form a salt, 
same way as free ammonia. 

4th. Free azote cannot in any case be combined with free oxyge™ 
but all the compounds of azote, under the influence of spongy platina, 
yield nitric acid. 


acts in the 


Miscellanies. 199 


5th, Nitrous and nitric oxides, hyponitric, and nitric acids mixed 
with a sufficient quantity of hydrogen, are converted into ammonia by 
their contact with spongy platina, and frequently without even the 
assistance of heat. The action is frequently so energetic that violent 
explosion ensues. All the azote of these oxides or acids passes to the 
state of ammonia, by combining with the hydrogen. An excess of 
nitric acid gives nitrate of ammonia. 

6th. Cyanogen and hydrogen give hydrocyanate of ammonia. 

ith. Olefiant gas and excess of nitric oxide, when hot and passed 
over spongy platina, produce carbonate and hydrocyanate of ammo- 
nia and water, 

8th. With nitric oxide and excess of the vapor of alcohol, there are 
obtained under the same circumstances, the same compounds as above, 
and olefiant gas and a deposite of carbon, 

9th. Free azote could not be combined with free hydrogen, but all 
the compounds of azote were converted into ammonia by hydrogen, 
either free or carburetted. 

10. In the last mentioned reactions, the presence of carbon in com- 
bination with azote or with hydrogen, occasions the formation of hy- 
drocyanic acid. . 

Ith. All the gaseous or vaporizable metalloids, without any ex- 
*eption, combine with hydrogen under the influence of spongy pla- 
tina, 


12th. The vapors of nitric acid mixed with hydrogen are totally 
Converted into acetic wether, and water, at a moderate temperature. 

- Kuhlmann remarks that when precipitated platina (noir de pla- 
tine) is substituted for spongy platina, the action is infinitely less en- 
*rgetic in the greater number of cases, which is the reverse of what 
might be expected. The precipitated platina has indeed no power in 
Producing nitric acid, it is very weak in producing ammonia, and it 
ever becomes incandescent as happens with spongy-platina; but 
in converting acetic acid into ether, the action of precipitated platina 
18 On the contrary more quick, and produces it even at common tem- 
Peratures, 

It has been subsequently remarked that Berzelius has before stated 
that when nitric oxide is mixed with hydrogen gas, and the Rin ster 
®Xposed to partly calcined spongy platina, water and ammonia are 
gradually formed, on account of the union of the hydrogen with both 
the elements of the nitric oxide.—Trraité de Chimie, ii, 43—44; L’In- 
Sttut, No, 261—262.— Ib. 

22. Formation of Metallic Veins by Galvanic Agency —Mr. Fox 


*ays, that he has succeeded not only in forming well-defined metallifer- 
*'S Veins in a crack in the middle of masses of clay by means of vol- 


200 Miscellanies. 


taic agency, but also in imparting to the clay a laminated or schistose 
structure; the veins and lamine being perpendicular to the voltaic 
forces. In some instances only a pair of plates, or in preference cop- - 
per pyrites and zinc, were employed to produce the voltaic action; 
but a constant battery consisting of several pairs of plates was much 
more effective. Among the veins thus produced in clay, Mr. Fox 
mentions oxide and carbonate of copper, carbonate of zinc, oxides of 
iron and tin. Veins of carbonate of zinc were formed, sufficiently 
firm to admit of being taken out in plates of the size of a shilling. 
Mr. Fox then describes a vein formed in pipe-clay, by Mr. Jordan, 
by five pairs of cylinders, in three weeks. The clay divided an earth- 
enware vessel into two cells, in one of which, containing the cop- 
per plate, a solution of sulphate of copper was put; and in the oth- 
er, or zinc cell, a solution of common salt. Well-defined veins were 
thus produced of carbonate and oxide of copper, and carbonate of 
zinc, parallel to the laminz into which the clay divided; as well as 
another of carbonate and oxide of copper at right angles to them. 
On dividing the mass of clay in the direction of the principal hori- 
zontal vein, the carbonate of zinc was found on the negative side, or 
towards the copper plate: and the carbonate of copper nearest the 
zine plate: and as the former must have been derived from the zinc 
plate, it is curious to observe such a complete transposition of the 
respective metals. 

Mr. Fox is of opinion that these results have a strong bearing on 
the numerous mineral veins and beds which are found conformable to 
the direction of the lamine of the containing rocks, as well as on 
those veins which traverse the laminz of the conformable veins —1- 


TO OUR SUBSCRIBERS AND READERS. 

In No. 73, April 1839, we gave notice that we should publish a du- 
plicate No. in July, and the present No. being the second for that 
month, appears in fulfillment of our promise. The reason assigned 
was to avoid linking together two years by the same volume,—that " 
future we may finish a volume in the last quarter of the year, and begin 
a new volume with a new year,—thus avoiding a degree of confusion 
which had been often experienced in the orders for the work. Ours” 
scribers will therefore please, on the appearance of the October No., t0 
pay up to that time, including both Nos. of Vol. 37, and making 5 Nos. 
instead of 4 for the year 1839. In January, with the appearance 0 
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Thenceforward the Journal year will go along with the calendar yer 


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AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


a antarctic 


Arr. I.— Some notice of British Naturalists ; by Cuartes Fox. 


_ Narvrar History, like other branches of science, has had its 
infancy, its childhood, and its maturity. At first and in early 
times, it observed isolated facts and grouped them promiscuously, 
without skillful arrangement and classification founded on natural 
analogies and differences. It has advanced slowly, until in our 
limes it has fallen into the train of the inductive sciences, and 
Now marches onward with confidence and success. 

Solomon is the earliest naturalist ; then follows Aristotle, Pliny, 
and Elian. Of the works of Solomon on natural history, we 
know little, although he described “ Trees from the cedar-tree 
— that is in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of 
the wall; and spake also of beasts, and fowls, and of creeping 
things, and of fishes.” It is believed that Aristotle not only had 
“cess to his writings, but made great use of them in the com- 
Pilation of his own works. Natural History was to him a collec- 
hon of miscellaneous facts; mingled with much that was doubtful, 
and still more that was apocryphal: his works evince vast indus- 
ty in collecting, and a mind well adapted to research. In the 
Words of Mr. Swainson :* 

“To his famous book, Meg: Zoid» ‘Iotoguas, he first sought to define 
by the precision of language, those more prominent and compre- 
hensive groups of the animal kingdom, which, being founded on 
(gS ico On SS em 


Vv : * Cabinet Cyclopedia. 
ol. *¥xv1; No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 28 


218 Notice of British Naturalists. 


nature, are exempt from the influence of time and the immuta- 
bility of learning. Had this extraordinary man left us no other 
memorial of his talents than his researches in zoology, he would 
still be looked upon as one of the greatest philosophers of ancient 
Greece, even in its highest and brightest age. 

“With peculiar tact he brought the rules of philosophic reason- 
ing to bear upon a subject to that time neglected; upon the ex- 
tent and depth of his personal researches; upon the clearness 
with which he arranged his results; and above all, upon those 
obscure perceptions which he acquired while so employed, of hid- 
den truths which were to be developed only in subsequent ages. 

“He discarded from his work all those popular tales, and fan- 
cies, and beliefs, which were received by the mass of his coun- 
trymen as religious truths sanctioned by antiquity, interwoven in 
their history and consecrated in their poetry. The death of this 
great father of the science, was the death of natural history in 
the Grecian era. he splendor of his discoveries passed like a 
comet. He left no luminary behind to follow his wake, still less, 
to throw additional light upon realms which he had but glanced 

” 


After nearly four hundred years, Pliny appeared and strove 0 
emulate Aristotle, but without his erudition or genius; his vo- 
luminous works are chiefly compilations; they abound in fables 
and prodigies evincing credulity rather than a disposition to i- 
vestigate truth; and this is the more surprising, as Rome po* 
sessed the most wonderful menagerie that has ever been col- 
lected, containing not only lions and other ferocious beasts des- 
tined for the circus; but probably all that was rare and curious 
in more peaceable tribes, since these were often exhibited in # 
umphal processions. Pliny informs us that Sylla exhibited the 
terrific spectacle of a combat of one hundred male lions. C#s# 
had four hundred, and Pompey had six hundred lions at one time. 
Natural history now declined in Rome, and with the fables and 
absurdities of Alian and one or two others, all records of science 
expired for nearly fourteen hundred years. Nor was there, A. 
1500, much more sound knowledge, as regarded the works of 
the Creator, and the wonders of the earth and of the heaves; 
than there had been in past ages.* 


some, calling 
we 


Ry- 


* As an instance of the ridiculous extravagancies into which 
themselves Philosophers, rushed, even as late as the seventeenth century, 
copy the following actual Patents, of the period of 1634, as recorded 1 


f 


eee ee 


Notice of British Naturalists. 219 


In the sixteenth century appeared—with the revival of learn- 

ing in England, Lister, Willoughby, and Ray; Belon in Mans; 
Rondelet in France; Saleciani in Rome; Gesner in Germany, 
Aldrovandus in Bologna, and others, producing among them im- 
portant works on the leading branches of natural history. 
_ The end of the sixteenth, and the beginning of the seven- 
teenth centuries, were signalized by rapid advances in know- 
edge. The art of printing, now come into general use, and the 
reformation, now fully established,—the former by extending and 
making more common all kinds of knowledge, the latter by free- 
ing the minds of men from that thralldom in which they had so 
long been held,—prepared, if they did not force the way, fora 
vigorous and successful emancipation of the human mind. Men, 
temarkable for the freshness and grasp of their intellect, arose, 
both on the continent, and in England ; and not afrai he 
hame of reform, they carefully scrutinized all the information 
and theories which they had received from their fathers, and 
boldly cast aside all which they did not find to be true. 

Our present improvement and progress in science we owe pri- 
marily to England. It was there, about 1600, that Lord Bacon 
the father of natural science, arose. ‘T'o that country, and to 
that master-mind, we are indebted for the logical precision which 
alone could direct our steps in the search after truth: and it is 
this period which we must mark as the new era in natural science. 
As the rising sun dispels the mists and fogs of the morning, so 
did the brightness of his exalted mind illuminate the darkness 
around. 

The object of this paper is to give a sketch of the progress of 
hatural history—limiting it, for the present, chiefly to the higher 
orders of Zoology in Great Britain, We shall, therefore, now 
ati an 


Mer’s Federa: « The Fish-call, or a looking-glass for fishes in the sea, very 
'seful for fishermen to call all kinds of fish to their nets, seins, or hooks.” “ An 
ofitable, when com- 


ic 
either by hot fevers, or otherwise, cannot take rest 
idaout eg amore moistening and cooling temper, 
ise.” "These patents were for fourteen years, and 
“2 Exchequer.—See Life and Adminis. of Edward, first 
7. Lister, Vol. I, p- 23, note. 


either by musical sounds, or 
paid £1 6s. 8d., yearly 
Earl of Clarendon, by 


220 Notice of British Naturalists. 


confine ourselves to that portion of the world; with an occa- 
sional glance, but only incidental, at other countries, as our plan 
is restricted within narrow limits. We shall at the same time, 
give short sketches of the lives of such as have been peculiarly 
devoted to this science, for its own sake. In this view, science is 
in our utilitarian age more neglected in the present, than in some 
former periods of its history. Men are too much taken up in at- 
tempting to promote the minor arts. The philosophical spirit is 
too much banished; that spirit, which Bacon has characterized 
as the germ of life in the sciences. Hoping to be ourselves guided 
by this spirit, we shall not however abstain from introducing ap- 
posite proofs of the usefulness of the knowledge and study of 
natural history. 

The state of science towards the close of the sixteenth cel- 
tury, presented a field of observation singularly calculated to at- 
tract the curiosity and awaken the genius of Bacon. : 

“One of the considerations which appears most forcibly to 
have impressed itself upon his mind, was the vagueness and un- 
certainty of all the physical speculations then existing, and the 
entire want of connection between the sciences and the arts. 
Those things are in their nature so closely united, that the same 
truth which is a principle in science, becomes a rule in art; yeh 
there was at that time hardly any practical improvement which 
had arisen from a theoretical discovery. The natural alliance 
between the knowledge and the power of man, seemed entirely 
interrupted ; nothing was to be seen of the mutual support which 
they ought to afford the one to the other. ‘The improvement of 
art was left to the slow and precarious operation of chance, and 
that of science, to the collision of opposite opinions.”* 

To use Bacon’s own words in his Advancement of Lear ning * 
“As things now are, if an untruth in nature be once on foot, 
what by reason of the neglect of examination, and countenance 
of antiquity, and what by reason of the use of opinion in simil- 
itudes and ornaments of speech, it is never called down.” 

But there was still another circumstance which, in a pee 
manner, attracted his attention—the neglect then prevalent of 
ordinary, and the thirsty zeal for extraordinary objects. What 18 
immediately before us, and of every day occurrence, howevet 

ea 


uliar 


* Professor Playfair. 


Notice of British Naturalists. 221 


important arid interesting it may be in its peculiar features, we 
are apt to neglect and overlook. That which is rare, and is sel- 
dom observed, excites an active investigation. And thus it was 
that the philosophers of old, in their pursuit of natural science, ap- 
plied their chief attention to phenomena, and left the more general 
laws of physics uninvestigated. Nobody sought to know why 
astone falls to the ground ; why smoke ascends; or why the stars 
revolve around the earth; while the discovery of a double-head- 
ed snake, or a deformed bird, excited the warmest interest, and 
the approach of an African seal to the shores of Europe, revived 
the fable of a mermaid. But the natural consequence of this 
neglect of common, and of minute attention to the extraordinary , 
occurrences, was to render it impossible to establish any general 

or useful principles, and still further, to deduce any general laws. 

It is a beneficial rule of the Creator, that that which is in nature 

Most éruly valuable, should be the easiest of access; and it is in 

the properties of such things as exist familiarly around us, that 

Wwe must look for the explanation of what seldom occurs. 

To quote again from Bacon, in a passage which contains the 
germ of much of his Novum Organum: “So it cometh often to 
pass, that mean and small things discover great, better than great 
can discover the small : and therefore Aristotle noteth well, ‘ that 
the nature of every thing is best seen in its smallest portions,’ 
and for that cause he inquireth the nature of a commonwealth, 
first in a family, and the simple conjugations of man and wife, 
parent and child, master and servant, which are in every cottage. 

Ven so likewise, the nature of this great city of the world, and 
the policy thereof, must be first sought in mean concordances and 
small portions. So we see how that secret of nature, of the turn- 
ng of iron touched with the loadstone towards the north, was 
found out in needles of iron, and not in bars of iron.” 

Notwithstanding, however, this well merited compliment to 
the Aristotelian philosophy, as regards Natural Science, this 
Course is imperfect and deceptive. It has culled a few froma 
Steat many things; it has taken its principles from common expe- 
Menee, and without due attention to the evidence or precise nature 
of the facts; the philosopher is left to work out the rest from his 
°Wn invention, y 

Like Luther before him, his great predecessor in the work of 
reform, although in another-sphere, Bacon bore a strong enmity 


ti aoe eae 


eee 


222 Notice of British Naturalists. 


to what then went under the title of Aristotelian philosophy. It 
was indeed little better than an eclectic system, passing under 
that great name, mingled with the dogmas of Popery, and was in 
a great measure devoted to the propagation and support of trivial 
arguments or positive error. Bacon was not unacquainted with 
the writings of Aristotle ; for in those days, to be well educated, 
was to be an adept in his system; but his acute discrimination 
soon perceived, that however well adapted, this system was to 
act.asa guide in some branches of knowledge; it was wholly 
unfit for the investigation of natural science ; and in this respect, 
was but the blind leading the blind. 

Bacon cannot indeed be said, in toto, to have originated the 
inductive philosophy, for Aristotle himself does both use it and 
recommend its adoption in certain cases. It is, in truth, founded 
in the very nature of man’s intellectual powers, in the very fit- 
ness of things. But he culled it forth from the mass of facts 
and speculations where, hitherto, it had lain concealed and neg 

‘lected; he applied it where it had never been applied before, 
and, in this respect, too great a degree of praise cannot be awarded 
to him. If not an inventor, he stands at least next to that place 
of honor; and we know not but that the new and just applica- 
tion of old and venerable principles to new positions, demands @ 
genius more energetic and more subtle than his who first struck 
upon the vein of thought. Few have power; fewer still have 
courage to interfere with opinions rendered venerable by ant- 
quity, or supported by high and noble names. It is by this 4 
plication of mind to matter, that mind becomes truly predomr 
nant, and claims to itself its high and commanding rank among 
created things, and its mastery over matter. 

Although Bacon pointed out to all succeeding naturalists the 
course which they ought to pursue in their researches, he was 
himself no naturalist. He was the commander of the host, but 
he did not himself march at their head: he was by far too ™ 
occupied with his investigations of the laws of mind and mattet 
to be able to pay any minute attention to the particulars ; ae 
what he has left behind under the name of “ Natural Bis 
is rather intended as an example to his successors, than as 4 ste 
of absolute profit. The great principle for which we are indeb 4 
to him, was from the observation of a large body of physical fae 

to deduce general laws, not by theorizing, but by steady a" 

stern induction. 


Notice of British Naturalists. 223 


“ As things are at present conducted,” says he, “a sudden transi- 
tion is made from sensible objects and particular facts, to general 
propositions, which are accounted principles; and around which, 
as around so many fixed poles, disputation and argument contin- 
ually revolve. Fyrom the propositions thus hastily assumed, all 
things are derived, by a process compendious and precipitate, ill 
Suited. to discovery, but wonderfully accommodated to debate. 
The way that promises success is the reverse of this. It requires 
that we should generalize slowly, going from particular things to 
those which are but one step more general, from those to others 
of still greater extent; and so on to such as are universal. By 
such means we may hope to arrive at principles, not vague and 
obscure, but luminous and well defined, such as nature herself 
will not refuse to acknowledge.” The end of all knowledge is 
utility, the improvement of the condition of mankind; and vain 
Must that species of it ever be which revolves within itself, and 

in view no ultimate effects. 

It was not long before his works began to take effect among 
thinking men. Truth advances slowly; especially when long 
*stablished errors oppose its progress ; but still, there are always 
M society a certain number of persons, who, standing on a higher 
eminence, like the Hebrew sentinels of old, receive the first 
gleams of light, and inform those below of the fact. Bacon 
awakened a spirit of inquiry; and the minds of men began to 
be opened to the absurd fables of ancient authors, and to cast 
aside the interminable synonyms which obscured, while they 
Were meant to elucidate natural history. 

The first whom we may rank in the new school of British nat- 
uralists was John Ray, or Wray, for he wrote his name in both 
Ways. He was born in 1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree, in - 
Essex ; a small and picturesque country hamlet, but remarkable 
for hothing else, we believe, except as being the birth place a few 
Years before of the celebrated William Bedell, bishop of Kilmore, 
= elarid; a man equally remarkable for his piety and modera- 
tion; and respected and well treated by even his opponents and 
enemies, 

Ray was the son of a blacksmith, who, from the little we can 

of him, appears to have been in his station, a person of so- 
ber habits and respectability, and to have amassed sufficient prop- 
to give his son a good education. Of the early years of the 


a 


* as the contrary. While thus diligently pursuing his graver dut 


224 Notice of British Naturalists. 


naturalist we know nothing. Interesting as an account of this 
period in general is, as giving some evidence of future activity 
and eminence, it is too often lost for want of a record; and this 
especially in the station in which young Ray’s early life was 
past. He was when a boy sent to a classical school at Braintree, 
and at the age of sixteen he entered, as a commoner, at Kathe- 
rine Hall, Cambridge. Not being, however, satisfied with this 
college, he was soon transferred to Trinity, where, in the usual 
course, he took his degree. His abilities were certainly good ; 
and he was remarkable at this early period for his proficiency in 
the knowledge of the learned languages. He was likewise very 
industrious ; and being aware of the value of time, he carefully 
gathered up the fragments of it; and was able to accomplish not 
a little, besides the usual routine of study. And here he soon 
manifested his taste for natural history. Botany first attracted 
his attention. Like Lord Bacon, he was extremely fond of flow- 
ers; and he collected and examined what he met with during 
his walks for recreation. As this was his first love among the 
works of God, so was it always his strongest passion, and pre- 
dominant over that for all other departments of nature. His abil- 
ities soon attracted attention in the university. In succession he 
became a Fellow of Trinity College; Greek and Mathematical 
Lecturer, and Reader in Humanity, besides holding several other 
offices. Not only was he an eminent tutor, but likewise a dis- 
tinguished preacher. Theology was a favorite study of his; a 
he brought the books of revelation and of nature respectively © 
bear the one upon the other. He was not however ordained at 
this time; for, during the disorders of the Commonwealth, the 
ministerial office was as generally held by persons not in 0 oe 
ies, 
he found time, in 1660, to publish his first work on natural his- 
tory—a Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, in the arrangement of 
which he was much assisted by a friend of the name of Rid. It 
is neither the power of intellect, nor ¢he brilliancy of genius, 
which is the peculiar honor of man; but the soundness of a 
judgment, the strength of his moral feelings, aud the warmath © 
his affections. Without these latter the former are, as they men 


cern himself, mere baubles; trusts committed to him, it is true, 
but which he wants the power properly to use. And we may 


here remark upon what appears to have been a disting 


Notice of British Naturalists. — | 225 


part of Ray’s character, his admiration for friendship, and his 
cherishing of his friends. We never find him alone. Is he wri- 
ting a book? Some friend assists him in collecting the details. 
Is he making a tour to increase his stock of knowledge? Some 
brother in feeling is his constant companion. Is he engaged in 
editing the works of another? He is performing the last melan- 
choly duty for one who never forsook him, either in prosperity 
or adversity, 
This work may be said to be the beginning (of any importance) 
of the publication of local floras ; a branch of literature which 
has been of late so successfully cultivated; and which has had 
more effect in ascertaining and fixing this part of the natural his- 
tory of Great Britain, than even the writings of more scientific 
and learned authors. And it is greatly to be desired that it were 
more thoroughly prosecuted than it has hitherto been, in this our 
own land. Not only do we want such accounts of plants, but 
likewise of all the different departments of nature. From such 
Sources the great and commanding writers draw their informa- 
fon; and if these minor springs run dry, we cannot possibly ex- 
pect any truly important results. It was in this way that the 
steat Cuvier himself began, when engaged in his investiga- 
tions of the inferior animals, while a tutor in Normandy ; and 
he owed not a little to it in after life. Each district has its own 
Peculiarities which are easily observed by those who live there ; 
and thus to collect information will ever be found a labor which 
Is fully repaid by the pleasure which accrues from it. 'To make 
It public may cost more pains; but magazines and journals are 
always ready to notice any important fact or observation. Pre-| 
vious to this time botany had been much neglected over the 
whole of England; but this publication of Ray gave it a new~ 
Spring, and set up a model of what might be effected by others. 
Q hay’s own words, “many were prompted to those studies, and 
tind the plants they met with in their walks in the fields.” 
© had now hit upon a path along which his genius pointed, and 
for the following of which his peculiar talents fitted him. Hav- 
ing once begun, he eagerly pursued his researches; and not con- 
ent with what he met with in the neighborhood of Cambridge, 
he *xtended his investigations throughout the greatest part of 
England and Wales, and the south of Scotland. In these tours, 
© Was only absent at intervals, he was generally accompa- 
29 


‘Vol. Xxxvi, No, 2.—April-July, 1839. 


226 Notice of British Naturalists. 


nied by Willoughby, whose various works on the subject are 
well known, and whose fondness for nature was equal to his own, 

Of these short journies he kept journals, which were afterwards 
published under the title of Iééneraries. They contain little that 
is of general interest; and are curious chiefly from the account 
which they give of the state of the roads and towns at that 
period. vig 

The restoration of king Charles IT, bringing with it-a reburn to 
old manners and customs, and more peaceful times, Mr. Ray de- 
termined to enter into holy orders. For this, as we have seen, 
his previous education had been such as fully to prepare him; 
and in December, 1660, he was ordained both deacon and priest, 
by Dr. Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln. He however still remained 
at the university, engaged in his previous duties, without any 
fixed cure of souls. In 1662, came the celebrated Bartholomew 
act; and as, from conscientious motives, he refused to sign the 
declaration, he lost his fellowship and other offices. From what 
sources he now derived his income does not appear. Whether 
his father had been enabled to leave him any property, or whether 
his previous college appointments had been so lucrative as to el 
rich him sufficiently, none of his biographers mention. He how- 
ever immediately set off, with a party of three, for a scientific 
tour upon the continent, whence he did not return till March, 
1665 ; and till, in conjunction with Mr. Willoughby, he had col- 
lected a large number of miscellaneous specimens of natural his- 
tory. Then began his great labors; and those in which the of 
der and strength of his mind are peculiarly perceptible. ~ 

Bishop Wilkins had for some time previously occupied his 
leisure in the study of botany ; and for the next two years, * 
was engaged with him in classifying the plants of England; and 
in throwing them into a natural arrangement. With his first plan, 
as he informs us in his preface to the Synopsis methodica Str- 
pium Britannicarum, he was not altogether satisfied ; and, as 
was very natural on a subject so truly new, he perceived maby 
errors. In this trait, however, it is not difficult to trace the germ 
of his future eminence. 

Far as he had proceeded beyond all previous writers, he could 
not be contented till he had attained the utmost excellency whieh 
his imagination held out before him; and instead of sitting down 
quietly to rest, one labor was but the precursor of ano 


Seen ee ee 


| 


Notice of British Naturalists. 227 


greater. 'These errors he by degrees corrected, and laid the foun- 
dation of that natural system which was so long afterwards 
adopted. In 1667, at the age of thirty-nine, he was admitted a 
member of the Royal Society of London, at that time no small 
honor, and no little profit to the mind, as the greatest philosophers 
of the day were its active members; in 1670, he published the 
first edition of his History of British Plants. 

From this period his life passed quietly away. The man of 
science lives much by himself. He converses with nature: free 
ftom the turmoil and anxieties of the world, his days are rather 
marked by the progress of his discoveries in knowledge, than by 
any thing which can interest the general reader. He gradually 

ame more celebrated asa naturalist; and being still a person 
of most industrious habits, his writings accumulated. Among 
other subjects which engaged his attention at this time, we find 
that he was actively employed in investigating the phenomenon 
of the circulation of the sap in trees, the discovery of which was 
teserved for later times, and a deeper knowledge of the princi- 
ples of mechanical science. His writings are contained in about 
twenty volumes, They have never been collected, and many of 
them are now very scarce and difficult of attainment. Besides 
his volumes on botany, which form nine independent works, he 
edited the writings of his friend, Mr. Willoughby ; published his 
wn travels both in England and on the continent,—the most 
femarkable topic in the latter of which is his description of lock- 
&ates for canals, which appear to have been then quite novel,— 
* collection of unusual or local English words ; the same of prov- 

8; a dictionary of three languages ; a persuasion to a holy life 5 
the wisdom of God manifested in the works of creation; Physico 
* heological discourses, with practical inferences; two volumes 
® insects, and some minor volumes and papers. 

With a glance at his private life we shall conclude this sketch. 

After his return to England he appears never to have officiated 
aS a clergyman ; but to have resided where his fancy led him, or 
the Society of his friends induced him. In 1672, he met with a 
heavy affliction in the death of his old and constant friend, Mr. 
Willoughby. This gentleman left him by his will, property to 
: ~ “Mount of £60 per year, and bequeathed to his care the edu- 
“ation of his two sons. The younger one afterwards became the 

Lord Middleton, ‘Thus occupied he removed to Middleton 


228 Notice of British Naturalists. 


Hall, where he staid, in all, about four years ; and he appears to 
have acted, not only the part of a valuable tutor, but of an indul- 
gent guardian and kind parent to his charge. 

“Tn 1673,” says his biographer, “having lost some of his best 
friends, and being in a manner left destitute, he began to have 
thoughts of marriage; having met with a young gentlewoman, 
(then in the family he was in,) of about twenty years of age, 
whose piety, discretion, and virtues, as well as her person; recom- 
mended her to him.” Her name was Margaret Oakeley, of an 
Oxfordshire family. They were married in the May following, 
and he never appears to have had occasion to repent of his choice. 

In 1679, having parted with his pupils, with an affection for 
the place of his birth, he removed back again, as his years were 
increasing, to Black Notley. Here for ten years he resided, being 
actively engaged in writing, till in 1687, his health failed; he 

ecame infirm, and he died, worn out, in 1704, in the seventy- 
sixth year of his age. He was buried in the Parish church, and 
a monument was erected to his memory by his friends. 

A good fame is the peculiar possession of the dead ; and with 
all his faults, few appear, in those busy times, to have left behind 
them a more unsullied name. If we may judge from the high 
station which he held in Cambridge, and from the internal evr 
dence of his works, he was a fine scholar, and possessed of both 
descrimination and taste. Contemplation rather than action was 
the peculiar form of his mind; but he wanted not activity, and 
certainly was of a restless and most inquiring turn. While any- 
thing was to be learned, which he thought it worth while to 
employ himself upon, he allowed no difficulties to dishearten him 
and no self-denial to prevent his pursuit. And we may here 
make a general observation, that however much it may please 
some to disparage the study of natural history, or to declare to 
be only fit for trifling and inferior minds, we not only see in this 
case, but in all others, that eminence in this science is of peculiar 
difficulty of attainment. The highest powers of judgment, of 
research, and of perseverance are necessary ; and it has seldom 
been reached, where general learning and a well regulated edu 
cation have not previously prepared the mind. Considering the 
numbers who have attempted it, there are fewer who have 
any real progress in this, than in any other of the pursuits 
mankind, 


— esi 


Notice of British Naturalists. | 229 


~ Of his goodness of heart we have already had occasion to speak. 
A child-like simplicity seems to have been a prominent point in 
his character ; and he enjoyed the society of those whose minds 
were of a humble and inquisitive nature. His friendships were 
unalterable ; and his course in life was marked by an absence of 
quarrels, and the love of those connected with him. In 1682, he 
was led into dispute with Tournefort and Rivinus. Literary con- 
toversy is but too often the offspring of arrogance and folly on 
one side or the other, and seldom leads to any other result than 
to leave each champion the more strangely convinced of the truth 
of his own opinion. Ray was soon sorry for it and gave it over. 
“The contentious way of writing was by no means agreeable to 
his sweet and peaceful nature, who, as he loved all men, so de- 
sired to be at perfect peace and unity with all.” It is perhaps to 
be lamented, that having voluntarily entered into holy orders, he 
should so entirely have forgotten the vows which were upon him, 
not afterwards to have officiated ; and we can only account 
for it from the fact of his being in a measure prevented by the 
Bartholomew act, and by the bent of his mind leading him, weakly 
leading him perhaps, to other pursuits. Had he made natural 
history a part of his studies while prosecuting his still more im- 
Portant profession, all honor would have been due to him; but as 
t is, We can only be sorry that his course in this respect was not 
different. Ip the words of one who knew him well, we conclude: 
“Th his dealings no man was more strictly just; in his conver-- 
sation no man more humble, courteous, and affable. ‘Towards 
od no man more devout. Towards the poor and distressed no 
man more compassionate, and charitable according to his abilities.” 
He was but a man, and as such but weak and fallible. In 
his Works his piety is predominant. He never forgot that he 
Was occupied in searching the wonders of his God; or that his 
Were to tend to his honor and glory: and thus it is that 
Where Science becomes the handmaid to religion, she is in her 
“PPtopriate sphere and is all glorious; but that when she de- 
Scends from this her proper place, then her form is polluted, and 
her influence worse than evil. 

id we not confine ourselves especially to the writers upon 
British hatural history, the name of Willoughby, the friend of 
¥; would be deserving of high and honorable mention, He 

€N in a great measure to zodlogy, what Ray was to bot- 


230 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


any; but he included in his writings, species from ail countries. 
His chief works on birds and on fishes—which are still valuable 
from the correctness of the plates—he did not live to finish, and 
they were edited and published by Ray. Of his character, a 
biographer thus speaks : 

“ And now, having mentioned the diligence of this great man, 
let me add that it was such, and his labors so incessant in studies, 
that he allowed himself little or no time for those recreations and 
diversions which men of his estate and degree are apt to spend 
too much of their time in; but he prosecuted his design with as 
great application as if he had been to get his bread thereby. All 
which I mention not only out of the great respect I bear to Mr. 
Willoughby’s memory, but for an example, as has been before 
recommended to persons of great estate and quality: that they 
may be excited to answer the ends for which God gives them 
estates, leisure, parts, and gifts, or a good genius, which was not 
to exercise themselves in vain and sinful follies ; but to be em- 
ployed for the glory and in the service of the infinite Creator, and 
in doing good offices in the world, especially such as tend to th 
credit and profit of their own families.” . 
(To be continued.) 


Arr. IL—On the Natural History of Volcanos and Earth- 
quakes,* by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Professor of Chemistry 2 the 
: University of Bonn. Communicated by the Author. — - 


I. Are volcanic phenomena capable of a satisfactory explanation 
Jrom the increase of temperature towards the centre of the earth, 
or can chemical processes be admitted with greater probability 
to be the cause of volcanic action ? 


On inquiring into the cause of voleanic phenomena we must 
not forget, says Von Humboldt,t that the arrangement of volea 
nos sometimes in circular groups and sometimes in double lines, 
is the most decided proof that their action is not dependent om 

ee Os Eee er 


On the structure and action of volcanos in various parts of the earth, 9 oe 
Abhandlungen der Kénigl. Acad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1822 and 1823, P- 
and in Jameson's Phil. Jour. vol. v. p. 223 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 231 


any trifling causes, lying near the surface, but that they are vast 
and deeply-seated phenomena. Thus, for example, the whole 
of the high country of Quito is one volcanic hearth, of which 
the mountains of Pichincha, Cotopazi, and Tunguragua, form 
the summits. The subterranean fire breaks out sometimes from 
one, sometimes from another of these vents, which are usually 
considered as distinct volcanos. The earthquakes, with which 
America is so dreadfully visited, are also remarkable proofs of 
the existence of subterranean communications, not only between 
countries free from volcanos, as has been long known, but also 

tween volcanic hearths situated at a great distance from each 
other. All these circumstances prove that the forces do not act. 
at the surface of the crust of the earth, but that, proceeding from 
the interior of our planet, they communicate contemporaneously 
by fissures with the most distant points on the surface.* 

Wo hypotheses may be proposed respecting the causes of vol- 
canic phenomena. ‘The one supposes them to be occasioned by 
intense chemical action taking place between bodies having a 
Very great affinity to each other, and by which so great a heat 
IS produced, that lavas melt and are forced to the surface of the 
earth by the pressure of elastic fluids. According to the other, 
the earth at a certain depth is at a white heat, and this heat is 
the chief cause of volcanic phenomena. 


: The hypothesis, which ascribes volcanic phenomena to intense 
chemical action, shewn to be untenable. 


We will not detain our readers, with an account of the earlier 

‘ypotheses, which derive volcanic phenomena from the action of 
ton upon sulphur, or from the combustion of pyrites or coal, as 
their insufficiency is self-evident. But Davy’s discovery of the 
metallic bases of the alkalies and earths was considered as throw- 
iN a great light on this subject. 
; This distinguished philosopher, who instituted some very 
interesting experiments at Vesuvius during its eruptions in 1814, 
1815, 1819, and 1820, endeavored to explain the phenomena by 
the oxidation of the metals of the alkalies and earths.+ He 
ge ee oer rea oN 


*Von Humboldt’s Reisen in die ZEquinoctial Gegenden des neuen Continents, 
*4,p. 496, t. iii, p. 24, 26, and 40, offer many instances of this kind. . 
p mg es Phenomenes des Volcans. Annales de Chim, et de Phys. vol. xxxvii, 


232 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes, 


thinks himself justified in supposing the caverns beneath the 
Solfatara of Puzzuoli to have a subterranean communication 
with Vesuvius, because whenever the latter is in action, the for- 
mer is in repose. A slip of paper which Davy threw into the 
mouth of the Solfatara, during an eruption of Vesuvius, was 
not rejected, from which he concluded that there must be a de- 
scending current of air. The subterranean thunder, which is 
heard at such great distances from beneath Vesuvius, seems to 
him to indicate the existence of great subterranean caverns, filled 
with gaseous substances, and that the same caverns which, du- 
ring the activity of the voleano, continue for a long time to eject 
enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, must be filled, during its 
repose, with atmopheric air. In proof of the existence of exten- 
sive caverns, he mentions those in the limestone of Carniola. 
Now, as the metals of the earths in the supposed voleanic ¢av- 
erns are not only exposed to the action of the air but also to that 
of aqueous vapor, they will be oxidized at the expense of both, 
and be converted into lava. He thinks his hypothesis capable of 
explaining all the phenomena which he observed. 

* Davy also touches upon the circumstance, often mentioned by 
geologists, that almost all great volcanos are situated near the sea.* 
Supposing their first eruption to have been caused by the action 

of the sea-water upon the metals of the earths, and the metail 
oxides, ejected from the craters in the form of lava, to have left 
vast caverns, the succeeding eruptions would be effected by the 
oxidations which would ensue in those caverns. Davy is of 
opinion that when volcanos lie at a distance from the sea, 
those of South America, the water may be furnished from subtel 
ranean lakes; for Von Humboldt asserts that some of these vol- 
canos cast up fish. ; 
If we wish to ascribe voleanic phenomena to chemical actos 
“says Davy, the oxidation of the metals of the earths and alkaties 
eee 


in the centre of Asia, which is 260 geographical miles distant from an 
and from which st f lava have issued within the period of our history: 
the opinion that the vicinity of extensive lakes operates on the volcanos of Ce ‘a 
Asia, in the same manner as the ocean, is unfounded. The volcano of pt ne 
surrounded by very inconsiderable lakes, and the Lake of Temartu OF Ts ‘tie 
which is not twice as large as the Lake of Geneva, lies fully 25 geographical ra ' 
from Pesckan. See also Girardin in opposition to Davy’s hypothesis in JamesoP 
Phil. Journ. vol. ix, p. 136. 


te —— Ss 


~ 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 233 


merits our attention in preference to any other process. He him- 
self, however, observes, that the observations in mines and in hot 
springs seem to indicate, with some degree of probability, that the 
interior of the earth possesses a very high temperature, and that, 
if the earth’s nucleus be supposed in a state of fusion, the expla- 
nation of volcanic phenomena is simpler than according to his 
Own theory. 

_Gay-Lussac very justly remarks, that it is impossible to con- 
ceive the admission of atmospheric air into the focus of volcanos, 
as there must be a force within them acting outwards, by which 
the liquid lava, a substance about three times as heavy as water, 
is raised to a height of above 3000 feet, as at Vesuvius, and more 
than 9000 feet in many other volcanos. <A pressure of 3000 feet 
of lava, equal to that of a column of water of 9000 feet high, or 
to about 300 atmospheres, necessarily prevents the entrance of air 
into the interior of the volcanos; and as this pressure continues 
for many years, during which time the phenomena by no means 
abate in activity, it is impossible that air should in any way con- 
tribute to it. ; 

The presence of water in volcanos during the various stages of 
their activity is, on the other hand, a circumstance repeatedly 
Witnessed by all observers.* Even the smoking during their in- 
tervals of repose is, for the most part, nothing but a disengage- 
Ment of aqueous vapor. Violent eruptions are not unfrequently 
followed by such enormous quantities of steam, that it condenses 
'n the atmosphere, and falls in heavy showers, as was the case 
after the memorable eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed Torre 
del Greeo in 1794. Among the elastic fluids evolved. from vol- 
fanos, besides aqueous vapor, we frequently find sulphuretted hy- 

Sen gas, as, for example, from those at the equator ; and from 

“8, as Vesuvius, muriatic acid gas. But the formation of 
these gases in the interior of volcanos cannot be conceived with- 
out the presence of water. : 

the oxidation of the earthy and alkaline metals were to take 
at the expense of water, enormous quantities of hydrogen 


es See, among others, Monticelli and Covelli, der Vesuv. Deutsch bearbeitet von 
Sgerath and Pauls. Elberfeld, 1824, p. 157. Ee as 
*e von Buch’s geognostiche Beobachtungen, tom. i. 152. ere is, ho 
ret, still another cause which occasions these heavy showers, as we shall shew 
afterwards, : ; 


Nol. xxxv1, No. 2—April-July, 1839. vi 


234 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


would be necessarily evolved during volcanic eruptions. But this 
gas seems never to issue from voleanos. According to the ob- 
servations of Breislak,* Spallanzani,t Monticelli and Covelli,t 

offmann,$ and Poulett Scrope,|j flames are never seen to rise 
from the crater of Vesuvius. Neither did Gay-Lussac{ during 
his stay at Naples in 1805, during which he was a frequent wit- 
ness of explosions, which raised the fluid lava to a height of 
above 600 feet, ever observe a combustion of hydrogen gas. Each 
explosion was accompanied with dense black columns of smoke, 
which would have inflamed, had they been composed of hydro- 
gen gas, as they were traversed by bright red-hot masses.’ Ac- 
cording to Boussingault, neither hydrogen, muriatic acid gas, nor 
nitrogen gas, is evolved from the volcanos, under the equator, in 
the New World.** In opposition to this evidence, we have the 
assertions of Von Buch.tt 

Davy’s hypothesis does not account for the exhalations of car- 
bonic acid gas (Mofettes,) which not only succeed every eruption 
of Vesuvius, but also occur in the vicinity of extinct volcanos 
and in places affording unquestionable traces of former volcanic 
action (Auvergne, Vivarais, Eifel, Laacher See, Bohemia, and 
so forth{tt,) in amazing quantities, and as far as we can learn 
from history, with uninterrupted uniformity. ‘These phenomen® 
must necessarily be closely connected with volcanic action, and 
cannot pass unnoticed. 

But these disengagements of cabonic acid gas could not take 
place in the presence of atmospheric air in those vast subterranealt 
cavities without their mixing together. Yet, according to Mon- 
ticelli and Covelli,$$ the Mofettes of Vesuvius contain but lite 
atmospheric air, which seems not to intermix with the carbonie 
acid gas until it reaches the surface. I have examined many 
such exhalations of carbonic acid gas, in the vicinity of extinet 
volcanos, (in the neighborhood of the Laacher See and in the 

oy ee 


* Lehrbuch der Geologie, transl. into German by Strombeck, vol. iii, P- ye 
+ Voyages dans les Deux Siciles, ete. vol. ii, p. 31 ¢ Loco cit. p- . : 


yp. 31. 
§ A personal communication. __|} Considerations on Volcanos. London. 
I Loco cit. p. 420. 

** Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. lii, p. 23. tt Loco cit. t. ii, p- 141 


tt Monticelli and Covelli, 1. c. p. 191. Bischof and Néggerath in Schweigge | 
Journ. v. xliii, p. 28. Bischof in Schweigger-Seidel’s Journ. v. xxvi, p- aie is 
same in his Vulcanischen Mineralquellen. Bonn. 1826. p. 251. Von 5 2 
Poggendorff’s Ann. vy. xii, p. 418. §§ Loco cit. p. 194. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 235 


Hifel,) as well as in places where there are no immediate volcanic 
traces, (Hundsriick, the eastern declivities of the Teutoburger 

ald,) and, in general, have found a scarcely measurable quan- 
tity of atmospheric air. According to Boussingault,* the elastic 
fluids, which are evolved from the volcanos at the equator in the 
New World, consist of a great quantity of aqueous vapor, car- 
bonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and sometimes fumes 
of sulphur ; he considers sulphurous acid gas and nitrogen, on 
the other hand, as accidental. This philosophert also found the 
same gases, viz., carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, in 
the springs which rise in the vicinity of these volcanos. All 
this is by no means favorable to the supposition of the existence 
of vast subterranean cavities filled with air under the craters, and 
an equally unfavorable circumstance is, that, according to Bous- 
Singault, no nitrogen is evolved from the volcanos under the 
*quator, which must necessarily be the consequence of oxidation 
at the expense of atmospheric air. 

Independently of all this, the metals of the earths have been 
ound by more recent experiments to be by no means so easy of 
Oxidation as Davy’s hypothesis assumed. Besides, this proneness 

10 oxidation must be supposed to be a property more especially 
belonging to the metals of silica and alumina, as these earths to- 
gether with oxide of iron, are the principal components of vol- 
canic products—lavas, basalts, &c., generally amounting to about 
0.8, whilst lime and alkalies, although never entirely wanting, 
rm but an inconsiderable proportion. But Berzeliust has shewn, 
that Silicium, the conibustible base of silica, when freed of hy- 
‘gen by being gradually heated to a white heat, is incombus- 
tible even at that heat in the air or in oxygen; and that it is 
‘dually incapable of decomposing water. In like manner Wéh- 
 found,§ that aluminum, the metallic base of alumina, is not 
xidized under a red heat, and decomposes hot water but very 
Slowly, while on cold water it has no influence whatever. — 

Therefore Davy’s hypothesis would be applicable only to the 
Metallic bases of alkaline earths and alkalies. But, as these oc- 
cur only in small proportions in the volcanic rocks, it is scarcely 

“Receivable that so much heat should be evolved by their com- 


hn ction tien 


| 


heco cit. ». lii, p. 5. t Ibid. p. 181. ¢ Poggend. Ann. v. i, p. 221. 
§ Poggend. t, xi, p. 146. 


236 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


bustion at the ordinary temperature as would be sufficient to melt 
the pure earths, or to inflame their metals, supposing them to 
exist at the seat of the volcanic action. 

The slight specific gravity of the metals of the alkalies, also 
proves fatal to Davy’s hypothesis ; for, if the mean density of the 
earth surpass that of all kinds of rocks, those metals cannot exist, 
at least not in great quantities, in the interior of the earth.* 
Davy’s hypothesis, therefore, according to the present state of 
science, will not account for voleanic phenomena.t 

Gay-Lussac,{ assuming that water supplied the oxygen in vol- 
eanos, endeavored to account for the absence of uncombined hy- 
drogen among the exhalations of voleanos, by supposing it to 
form such combinations with other bodies as would not inflame 
by coming into contact with the air. This is the case when it 
combines with chlorine to form muriatic acid gas. He here re- 
fers to the observations of Breislak,$ and of Monticelli and Covelli,|| 
which shew that this acid is among the exhalations of volcanos. 
He himself, however, observes, that an enormous quantity of mu- 
riatic acid must be evolved from the craters, if the hydroge, 
which would result from an oxidation by means of water, were 
to enter into combination with chlorine. But it would be strangé 
that such an exhalation should not have been remarked soonel- 
In order to account for the formation of muriatic acid, he men 
tions the experiments made by him and Thénard, in which they 
evolved that acid, by introducing aqueous vapor into a mixture 
of sand and common salt heated to a red heat. In support of his 
position, he mentions the occurrence of common salt in the lavas; 
from one of which, (that of Vesuvius in 1822,) Monticelli 
Covelli extracted more than 0. 09, and in the slags which cover 
the white hot lava, and which sometimes contain very beautifil 


* Also the latest experiments, made with admirable exactness a Prof. Reich 
in Freiberg, with the assistance of the torsion-balance, have given 544 for = 
density of the earth, as a mean of 14 experiments which afforded vary — oh 
same results. Versuche iber die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde mittelst der Dr a 
wage von F. Reich. Freiberg, 1838. ae result accords very nearly with thal 
which was found by Cavendish and Hutte 
“+ Davy, however, afterwards hustonds his hypothesis. 
Travel, or _ Last Days of a Philosopher. 

t Loco e Loco cit. iii, p. 57 a 

Eee, ‘ ‘72. See also Daubeny’s Description of Active an 
nos. Lond. 1826. p. 372, and v. Humboldt’s Reise, ete. t. 


d Extinet Volea 


See Consolation 
. 


* 


a 


ts: 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. = 237 


crystals of salt. He father notices the spongy lavas which con- 
tain so much iron-glance, and is of opinion that this may also be 
a consequence of the sublimation of chloride of iron, and its sub- 
sequent decomposition, by coming in contact with aqueous vapor 
and atmospheric air, while at a red heat.* And, lastly, he men- 
tions that chloride of iron, in contact with water, becomes so ex- 
ceedingly hot, that it is capable, in large quantities, of raising 
itself to a white heat, and that the chlorides of silictum and alu- 
minium must be able to produce a much more extraordinary d 
gree of heat. et 
It cannot be denied that there is some justness in these conelu- 
sions. But it must be remembered, on the other hand, that the 
premises are only taken from appearances at Vesuvius,t and that 
the occurrence of common salt and muriatic acid in the products 
and exhalations of volcanos, seems by no means to be general. 
We have already quoted Boussingault’s observation, that muriatic 
/ acid is not evolved from the volcanos under the equator in the 
‘ New World. ‘The hot springs in those regions contain but little 


We may here notice the formation of artificial crystals of oxide of iron in a 
Potter's furnace. Poggendorff’s Ann. y. xv, p. 630. Mitscherlich, who gives an 
account of this, finds an analogy between this formation and similar ones in vol- 
ne He explains it by supposing that common salt and steam both act together 
"pon silica or siliceous combinations, and form muriatic acid, and that this comes 
either alone or with a small quantity of water into contact with oxide of iron, or 
: ferriferous combinations. Thus chloride of iron is formed, which is again decom- 
Posed by the aqueous vapors, and, if the decomposition proceed slowly, the oxide 
ofiron remains behind in large crystals. 

the conditions necessary for the formation of iron 


tis also found in the greatest abundance in Auvergne, (Volvic, Mont d'Or, Puy 
Dome, ge On the other hand, it has never been found by Nég- 
Strath in the volcanic masses of the Siebengebirge, the Laacher See, and the Eifel ; 
Rita only lately been found that some of the slags of the Roderberg, an extinct 
s ua” about two. leagues distant from Bonn, are scantily coneeet — sad 
—. = Thome der yulkanische Roderberg &e. Bonn. 1835. p. - Itis 
“Y Of notice, and speaks in favor of the probability of the above-mentioned 
Production of iron-glance, that in the places last mentioned, the appearance of 
sears of chlorine is very limited. kek 
nad ¢ observations of Von Humboldt, Gay-Lussac, Von Buch, and Monticelli, 
: ve at different times, shew also that the exhalations of muriatic acid are very 
~ ph . They are sometimes so frequent as to surpass the exhalations of sul- 
Prous acid, sometimes only a few traces of it are found. 


238 Natural History of Volcanos and Harthquakes. 


common salt.* In my frequent excursions in the vicinity of the 
Laacher See and in the Eifel, I have never found any efflores- 
cence of salt either on the undisturbed or fresh broken lavas, and 
other products of the extinct craters in those districts. On the 

uncovered walls of trass, in the Brohi valley, efflorescences are, 
indeed, to be found, but they contain chlorides only as very sub- 
ordinate ingredients.+ The lixiviation of trass, basalt, and other 
volcanic rocks, also gives but a trace of common salt.{ That 
muriatic acid must have played a very insignificant part in the 
eruptions of these ancient volcanos, seems to be proved by the 
mineral springs which rise in their vicinity; for common salt is 
one of their least considerable components, indeed they frequently 
contain mere traces of it. This is the result of more than forty 
analyses of mineral springs in those regions, which I have under- 
taken during. these last few years. But these waters would ex- 
tract the chlorides from the voleanic masses through which they 
flow, if they existed in any considerable quantities in them, and 
would return impregnated with them to the surface. 

From all this we do not seem to be justified in considering the 
chlorides as the chief agents in voleanic phenomena, although it 
cannot be denied that they may, in some instances, co-operate in 
their production. It has even been supposed that the beds of 

ee ae 


* Loco cit. + Die vulkanischen Mineralquellen, &c. p- 243. 
¢ Idem, p. me as 247. 
= Many volcanos have produced considerable quantities of common § salt, as, for 
suvius, Hecla, &e. Also sal-ammoniac is found among the voleani¢ 
a 


of 


sublimations of Vesuvius and Etna, and almost exclusively in some V ei! 
the interior of Asia. Vauquelin found in a porous rock, gee considera 
ble part of the Puy de Sarcouy, in the chain of the Puy de Déme, 0 eis” 


iron-glance in that neighborhood. (Ann. des Mines. vi, p 98.) 
spar crystals i in the trachyte, colored sulphur-yellow by muriatic acid vapors © 
former time. Common salt also forms the chief ingredient in the thermal — 
of St. Wectaire, in the department Puy ee iy In the mineral springs of 


d'Or, Vichy, Chaudes-Aigues, Vals, &c., on the contrary, it is in very 5@ ph re 
tities. In the lavas of Etna 0.01 of muriatic mw? has been found. In basalt, ink: 


nedy found 0.01; Klaproth 0.0001 ; I, 0.00085 of muriatic acid. [al ebirge 
a acid in a steatitic substance in Prem ie Ste conglomerate of the Siebengen's 
Die vulcanischen phagprie corres = 277. oat this occurrence OF 


salt mines at Poza, near Burgos, in Old Castile, are situated in the cet 
ter, in which the latter collected various voleanic products. Journ. de 
Iv, p. 457 


~ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 239 


rock-salt are of volcanic origin. But this proves nothing more 
than that rock-salt may have been raised from the interior of the 
earth by voleanic power, and that the beds of salt are a conse- 
quence of voleanic action, but not conversely, that chlorides and 
the disengagement of muriatic acid are the cause of that phe- 
nomenon. 

Now, since neither any process of oxidation, nor processes in 
which chlorides take an active part, are capable of affording a 
satisfactory explanation of volcanic phenomena, we can scarcely 
conceive any other powerful chemical process, which could alone 
give rise to them. We may, therefore, look upon the hypothesis 
Which seeks the cause of voleanic phenomena in. intense chemi- 
cal action as untenable. 


Il. The hypothesis which supposes the temperature of the earth 
Sradually to increase towards the centre, to a red and white 
heat, explains in a satisfactory manner (according to the pres- 
ent state of science) volcanic phenomena as well as earthquakes. 


If the heat of the earth continually increases with the depth, 
the rocks must at a certain depth be in a state of fusion, But 
Since they possess such various degrees of fusibility, the more 
fusible rocks must be in a liquid state, at depths in which the less 
fusible ones are still solid. At certain depths there must, conse- 
quently, be masses of melted rocks, enclosed in the solid rock, in 
the same manner as iron ores are melted and reduced in the less 
fusible masses of which blast furnaces or crucibles are composed. 

hese depths must, according to the above hypothesis, be looked 
Upon as the seat of volcanic action. The crystalline rocks are 
the most easy of fusion on account of their containing alkalies, 
Which indéed are not wanting in any of them. So that, in gen- 
eral, the more abundantly alkaline minerals, as felspar, mica, leu- 
tite, &e., are contained in volcanic masses, the more readily will 
they fuse.* 

‘Sir James Hall+ has endeavored to ascertain the degree of fusi- 
bility of various lavas and other volcanic rocks. Lava from Ve- 


Ropar hol nea ae ASA eG SO ne eet 

: According to Von Buch, (Abhandlungen d. Kénigl. Acad. d. Wissenschaften 
zu Berlin, 1818-1819, p. 62,) it may be taken as a general rule, that all real lavas, 
Whi h flow in streams deen the sides of volcanos, contain glassy felspar. Vesuvius 
ng the only exception out of so many is not worth mentioning. 


Fansact. of the Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh. Vol. v, &c. 


240 Natural History of Volcanos and Harthquakes. 


suvius of the year 1785, melted at 18° of Wedgewood’s pyrome- 
ter, lava from Torre del Greco not till 40°. But their fusibility 
varied very considerably, according as the melted lava had been 
cooled rapidly to a glass, or more slowly to a stony erystalline 
mass. Thus, for example, those two lavas, when in the form of 
a glass, both melted at the same degree, (18°,) whilst the lava of 
1785 was less fusible than that of Torre del Greco, when of a 
stony nature.* From other appearances it may, in general, be 
concluded, that the fusibility of lavas is between that of silver 
and copper. Thus in the lava which destroyed Torre del Greco, | 
some gold and a few copper coins were found unmelted ; but the 
silver coins were melted and baked together with some copper 
coins.t Davy found that a copper-wire of ;'; of an inch in diam- 
eter, and a silver-wire of ,'; of an inch, thrust into the lava neat 
its source, instantly melted.{ A wire of copper $ of an inch in 
diameter, which I held in a stream of fused basalt, flowing out 
from a furnace, melted immediately. But the basalt was doubt- 
less heated far above its fusing point. Now according to Daniel,$ 
silver melts at 2233° F., but copper at 2548° F*.; we may there- 
fore take a mean of 2282° F. (=100U° R.) for the melting point 
of lava. sa 

Now, if we suppose the increase of temperature to sane 
follow the same progression as has been discovered in accessl id 
depths, the lava must be in a state of fusion, according to the 0 é 
servations near Geneva and in Cornwall, at the depth of a 
113505 feet, and from those in the Erzgebirge at about 12682 
feet below the level of the sea near Vesuvius or Etna.|| ~ 


: Par verted, 
* Glass is well known to be acted upon in a similar manner. When te ‘cs 
by being melted and slowly cooled again, into Reaumar’s porcelain, it beco 
usible. 


ns fa 
t Thompson : Notices of an English Traveller, &c. Breislak. (Voyage bag 4 

Camp., vol. i, p. 279,) mentions, that when bell-metal was plunged inte ne 

the zinc melted out, leaving the copper behind. 

_ £ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxxviii, p. 138. 
§ Journ. of Science, xxiii. yen 
|| According to my observations made on a cooling basalt-ball of pebstrr ss 

inches diameter, and which I shall communicate afterwards, the paeaaea om 

perature from the surface towards the centre of the earth, seems to take Fb. 

in an arithmetical, but ina geometrical progression. But the exponent 0 Begs 

gression being very little greater than 1, this progression comes very. - propor 

arithmetical one. The depths, above calculated, being but insignificant supposing 
tion to the diameter of the globe, no great error has been committed in 


Natural History of Volcanos and Barthinkss. 241 


_ Ifwe suppose steam to be the power by which the lavas are 
raised from this enormous depth, and by which the volcanic 
bombs, rapilli, and ashes are thrown up, and according to all ob- 
servations hitherto made, water in its elastic state seems to be the 
only means by which the lavas* and other volcanic rocks,+ are so 
taised ; it is yet a question whether its expansive force could be 
sufficiently raised by heat? Parrott reckons that the temperature 
of lava, at the moment of its ejection, is five times as great as 
Would be necessary to raise it 48000 feet by the elastic force of 
steam, supposing the steam to be formed in the presence of water. 

it from more recent inquiries on the elastic force of aqueous 
Vapor, this calculation must undergo considerable corrections. 
The formula of Mayer, as altered according to the last results of 
the experiments at Vienna§ corresponds the most nearly with the 
elastic force of steam as actually observed, so that it may be con- 
sidered as the most correct determination of its elasticity at higher 
‘emperatures. If we wish to find the pressure of the steam in 


Boece ey 


the increase of temperature follows an arithmetical progression as far as these 
depths. With this exception, we can hardly hope ever to b quainted wi 
the true progression of the increase of the temperature to the interior. Therefore 
all such calculations, as the former, can but give approximations to the truth. 

Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, p. 186. A short time before the great eruption of 


the interior of the crater did not redden litmus. Many other naturalists have 
also found that the outlets of smoke of the Peak of Teneriffe emitted pure wa- 

Tonly. Voy. de La Peyrouse, t. iii, p. 2. H ann, in his letter to Von Buch 
7” the geognostical structure of the Lipari Islands, in Poggendortf’s Annal. vol. 
oat P-/ and 45, and in several places in his account of the voleanic island which 
rose the Mediterrunean. Sea, vol. xxiv, p- 65. According to Monticelli and Co- 
Velli, the smoke which rises from the lava-streams consist almost exclusively of 
aqueous vapor. Loco cit. p. 27, 65. and 83. Numerous fumaroles (exbalations of 
“queous vapor) rise on the island of Ischia out of the cracks in the lava. Forbes, 
‘a Edinb. Journ. of Science, N. 8. iv, p. 326. Reinwardt, Verhandlingen van het 


4, Pp. 215, 

; The water contained in basalt speaks in favor of this opinion. See Klaproth’s 
an . ge, &e., vol. iii, p. 249, and Kennedy in Appendix to the same, p. 255. 

elting basalt, and introducing a gun-barrel into the crucible, I observed a consid- 
erable evolutio por. 

ndriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie. Riga u. Leipzig, 1815, p. 264. 

§ Arzherger in the Jahrbiichern des Polytechnischen Instituts, vol. i, p 

ol. xxxvi, No. 1.—April—July, 1839. 3 


242 “Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 
Paris inches of a column of mercury from this formula, we shall 


have log. e=2 8316686 + log. (213+1)— ot 


in which ¢ is the temperature in degrees of Reaumur = 


- Pe 


It is clear that the elastic force of steam cannot surpass a cer- 
tain maximum, which it reaches when its density is equal to 
that of water. This is the case when the elasticity of the vapor 
€=232952 Paris inches of mercury, or nearly 8320 atmospheres, 
which supposes a temperature of 2786° F.t 

Thus, if aqueous vapor were to reach its greatest possible elas- 
ticity, its temperature must exceed that above assumed for the 
melting point of lava by 504° F. The highest column of lava, 
which steam at its maximum elasticity is capable of supporting, 
is, therefore, if we suppose the specific gravity of liquid lava three 
times as great as that of water, 88747 feet. But a temperature 
of 2786° F. will, according to the observations at Geneva and in 
Cornwall, be met with at a depth of 139265 feet, and according 
to those in the Frzgebirge, at a depth of 155613 feet (about 
thirty English miles) below the level of the sea near Vesuvius 
or Hina.t 

Supposing, then, the values found for the maximum elasticity 
of steam for the corresponding temperature, and for the depth at 

which that temperature must exist, to be correct, it would not be 
possible, that a column of lava, of the whole height, from the seat 
of the volcanos to the surface of the earth, should be raised Up: 
On the other hand, in the same manner as a bubble of air let into 
a barometer, dives the mercury into the Torricellian vacuum far 
above the barometric height, aqueous vapor may raise a column 
of lava of a height equal to its expansive force into the chand 
opening into the craters. Thus, then, it may happen that aqueous 
vapor, though far from its maximum elasticity, may yet be able 
to raise a column of Java equal in height to its elasticity from still 
greater depths to the surface of the earth. A continual alterna- 
tion of columns of Java and steam in the channels may be Very 
well conceived, the consequence of which would be an alternate 

a 

On steam and steam engines in the Abhandlungen der Kénigl. technische® 
Deputation far Gewerbe, part i, p. ¢ t Ibid. 

Supposing the mean temperature of this localtiy = 61° F. 


eae 
Tans we 


(ee eagle le 
eas 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 243 


ejection of lavas, red hot masses, and clouds of steam, just as 
Spallanzani,* Scrope,t and Hoffmann, observed on Stromboli. 

We have now to examine the circumstances under which wa- 
ter might find its way to the origin of volcanic action. The diffi- 
culties which present themselves when we suppose a direct com- 
munication between the sea and the seat of the volcanos, have 
already been discussed by Gay-Lussac. We shall make an at- 
tempt to solve these difficulties. 

If we imagine the sea to have free access by means of fissures 
to the seat of the volcanos, the depth of which, according to the 
above calculation, may be taken at from 113505 to 126829 feet, 
the elastic force of steam at that depth, where t=2282° F.., will 
be =5310 atmospheres. But the hydrostatic pressure of these 
columns of water is only from 3547 to 3963. atmospheres. The 
expansive force of steam at that depth in which the temperature 
is 2282° F, is, therefore, greater than the hydrostatic pressure 
opposed to it, so that the latter cannot resist it- But since, as 
the temperature decreases, this expansive power diminishes more 
‘apidly than the hydrostatic pressure, there must be a certain 

epth and a corresponding temperature in which they will be in 
equilibrium. For a constant increase of temperature of 1° F’. in 
51 feet, this point will be at the depth of 88044 feet below the 
Surface of the sea, where the temperature is 17549°.5 F. ;§ for, 
’€cording to the above formula, if ¢ be taken equal to 1754°.5, 
a lel as 


* Voyag. t. ii, p. 21. 

t Considerations on Voleanos, &c., p. 54. A phenomenon observed by 
during the night in the crater of Stromboli distinctly shows, that, by the force of 
aqueous vapor alone, the column of lava is raised. The lava once suddenly dis- 


r 
being discharged by the sinking lava which had become tenacious on the s 5 
will now escape laterally through the fissures in the walls of the edge of the cra- 


Abhan 


§ To simplify the calculation, I have supposed the mean temperature of the 
Surface — 32° F. 


244 =Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


77028 


=77028 inches of a column of mercury, or —3- =2751 atmos- 
pheres, and ate gives the same number. On the other hand, 


for a constant increase of temperature of 1° F. in 57.1 feet it ad- 
vances to a-depth of 105627 feet below the surface of the sea, 
where the corresponding temperature would be 1881°.5 F. ;* for 
the same formula gives e= 92435 inches of a column of mercury, 


105627 
or 3301 atmospheres, when ¢ =1881°.5, and 5 
same value. Presupposing the correctness of the premises, these 


aes 88044 
calculations shew the possibility of columns of lava te ec 


29348 and = =35209 feet being raised by the power of 
steam from the respective depths of 88044 and 105627 feet below 
the surface of the sea, whilst there is an uninterrupted communi- 
cation between the sea and the voleanic focus. The difficulty 
mentioned by Gay-Lussac, that the water would, under its own 
pressure, take the gaseous form before reaching the strata, which 
are at white heat; without being able to raise the lavas, to cause 
earthquakes, and to support the voleanic phenomena; is conse 
quently also set aside, in so far that the water cannot assume the 
form of gas under its own pressure before reaching those depths 
and their corresponding temperatures. At depths greater than 
88044 or 105627 feet below the surface of the sea, if the commu- 
nication with the sea remained free, a reaction would take place 
in the colamn of water. Perhaps the phenomena mentioned in 
Chap. xi, on Hot and Mineral Springs, vol. xxiii, of Ed. New 
Phil. Journal, and observed by Horner near the Kurile Islands, 
as well as the powerful stream of hot steam, observed by Holl- 
mann near Vulcano,t beneath the surface of the sea, probably at 
the same place where the crater of the cone formerly throw? up 
at this spot was situated, proceeds from a similar volcanic efler- 
vescence. In general, the rising of smoke from the sea during the 
eruptions of neighboring volcanos is by no means an uncommon 
occurrence.{ ‘The reflux and the internal agitation of the seals 


gives the 


* To simplify the calculation, I have supposed the mean temperature end 
surface = 32° F, oco cit. p. 67. “a 
¢ D. Curbetto (Von Buch loco cit. p. 78) observed a great quantity of smoke am 
flames (?) accompanied with tremendous detonations, rise from the sea - 
cerote, during the volcanic eruption on that island. Fish and pieces aa sat 

were seen floating about. Several examples of this sort are cited farther 0M 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 245 


also a forerunner of almost all eruptions, especially of those of 
Vesuvius. 

But if a reaction should take place in the column of water, yet 
the rising vapor would soon be so far cooled down as to become 
liquid again, without the expansive force of the enormous quanti- 
ties of vapor formed at the volcanic focus being thereby percepti- 
bly diminished. In addition to this, the hydraulic resistance in 
the narrow channels, through which the water is admitted, in- 
creases very considerably as its velocity becomes greater. But 
the column of water, by which the aqueous vapor is cut off from 
communication with the surface, acquires very great velocity in 
those narrow channels, from the enormously increased elastic 
force of the steam, by which the resistance may very easily be 
increased to the extent of much more than 1000 atmospheres. 
So that, notwithstanding that the expansive force of steam whose 
temperature exceeds 1754° or 1881° F., is greater than the hy- 

ostatic pressure of the column of confining water, yet this re- 
Sistance may suffice, in the manner just mentioned, to raise a col- 
umn of lava, of even a greater height than we have above reck- 
oned, to the summit of the voleano. If we may be allowed to 
take a comparison with an analogous phenomenon, it may be re- 
Membered that the touchhole of a cannon, or of a bore-hole in a 
mine, does not weaken much the action of the powder, although 

Proportion of the diameter of the touchhole to that of the 
mouth of the cannon is as 1 : 30.* If Perkins’s well known ob- 
“ervation,t that water and steam cannot be forced through nar- 
TOW openings in the red-hot generator of a steam engine, is appli- 
Cable to the gigantic generator, which formed the volcanic focus: 
this might be added to the causes already mentioned, which afford, 
Tesistance in the channels through which the waters are admitted. 

8o long as the communication with the sea remained open, the 
Volcano could never come to a state of rest, although the forma- 
_ =a Ce ee Se 


Same, vol. xxv, p. 591. 


246 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


tion, or much more the access of new lava from remote places, 
might require a long period before actual volcanic eruptions could 
again take place. Of Vesuvius we know that the periods, when 
it is entirely free from evolutions of aqueous vapor, are not 
long duration. On Lancerote some of the cones, which were 
erupted eighty years ago, still continue to emit steam. The 
cones of Jorullo emitted boiling hot vapors, and boiling springs 
rose in the neighborhood at the time when Von Humboldt visited 
them, that is, forty-four years after the last eruption. Burkart, 
on visiting Jorudlo twenty-four years afterwards, saw scarcely 
any evolution of watery vapor from these cones; but vapor of 
the temperature of between 113° and 129° F. was still rising 
from fissures in the neighborhood of the principal crater.* Very 
hot vapor continues to the present day to issue in all directions 
from the sides of the rocks on Pantellaria, and yet there seem to 
have been no eruptions on this island since the commencement 
of the historical era.t 
Bat it is very probable that the channels by which the watet 
enters become obstructed from time to time. ‘This may be ef 
fected by the lava itself, which is the more likely, as the chan- 
nels may perhaps be very narrow. It may, however, also - 
caused by the hot steam. Indeed, Monticelli and Covelli ob- 
served, during the eruption of Vesuvius in October of 1821, that 
the fragments of lava, when no longer possessed of a great inter 
nal heat, remained separate; but that when they were them- 
selves very hot, or traversed by the hot vapors, they united $0 
firmly together, that they could be separated only by heavy 
blows with a hammer on the tenacious surface.{ If the aqueous 
vapors of ordinary elasticity and temperature are able to effect 
onto mt ae 
* Aufenthalt and Reisen in Mexico in den Jahren, 1825, bis 1834 Von Burkart. 
Stuttgart, 1836, t. i, p. 227 and 228. 
t Hoffmann, loco cit. p. 69. ill 
t Loco cit. p. 10. It may perhaps be allowed here to mention an aboer etn 
my own, though on a somewhat limited scale. I found that the stones by whic 
the Kaisersquelle at Aix la Chapelle is closed, and that the canals of the Schwert 
at Burtscheid, which consist of black snitthle. sete converted on the inser side into 
a doughy mass by the continued action of the steam. But the Kea ce 
suesie of 
274. Burkatt 


heat and acid watery vapors. See among others Krug von Nidda, p- 
loco cit. t. i, p. 194. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 47 


this, what effect, it may be asked, may not steam of such extra- 
ordinary elasticity, and of a temperature eqnal or even greater 
than the melting point of lava, exert upon fusible rocks, solidified 
masses of lava, &c., which it meets with far above the volcanic 
focus in colder regions? Would not such steam convert the rock 
into melted liquid matter? It is, indeed, difficult to conceive a 
state of which even Papin’s digestor can give us but a slight idea, 
If the channels become obstructed after a considerable quantity 
of water has found its way to the volcanic focus, the aqueous 
Vapor may attain its maximum elasticity, as. the focus will act 
like a steam-boiler closed on all sides, that is to say, it will be 
able, according to the above calculations, to raise a column of lava 

of 88747 feet. 
The filtration of a large quantity of water, which, although it 
| becomes gradually heated as it descends, is prevented by its velo- 
city from assuming the temperature of the strata through which. 
it passes, must tend to cool the volcanic masses. But it will be 
Cooled to a far greater extent by the considerable formation of 
steam. In this manner a gradual solidification of the lava will 
take place not only in the crater, but also in the great volcanic 
focus itself,* whereby the termination of the volcanic eruptions 
18 produced.t The contraction of the walls of the voleanic focus 
during the reduction of their temperature causes fissures in the 
tocks,t by which the waters are admitted in other places. But 
in doing so, it may frequently happen that these fissures do not 
Communicate with the channels by which the water is admitted, 
and that the volcanic action is consequently for a time suspended, 
that on its revival the slightest shock is sufficient to break 


. Necker, Memoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Ge- 
neve. Genéve, t, ii, parti, p. 155. 
t Observations made on Vesuvius and the Peak of Tencriffe shew, that the 
Bteater Part of the ashes is thrown out last, so that their appearance may be con- 
ed as a sign of the approaching termination of the eruption. In prepornce = 
se elasticity of the vapors diminishes, the substances will be thrown to a Jess dis- 
tance, sé that the black rapilli, which are the first ejected after the lava has ceased 
sy will be cast farther than the white ones. Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, 


_ tItis well known that considerable fissures are formed in lava during its cool- 

™B; especially when it is on the surface of the earth. The streams of lava in the 
wy surrounding the Laacher-See, offer many instances of this kind. Hamilton 
: also mentions great fissures in the lava-streams of Vesuvius. Gilbert’s Annal. t. vi, 
PBL Bee also Necker, loco cit. 


248 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


through the walls, and thus to reopen the communication.* This 
may even be caused by the expansion of the cooled walls of the 
focus by the heat communicated to them from all sides; in the 
same manner as a small crack in a crucible increases when expo- 
sed to a red heat. 

The more the temperature of the lava is reduced by the water 
and the generation of the steam, the longer will be the time re- 
quired for the refusion of the solidified lava. In this manner a 
long period may elapse, as the lava is so very bad a conductor of 
heat.t The repose and activity of a volcano are, therefore, the 
alternate solidification and liquefaction of the lava, and the inter- 
ruption and renewal of the supply of water to the volcanic focus.f 
If. the store of lava in the volcanic focus should at first become 
exhausted by repeated discharges, the volcano is entirely reduced 


may here notice the well-known phenomenon, that among the ejected 


masses ies a voleano, pieces of rock occur, which neither belong to the pssst 
ani 


Vesuvius particularly, furnishes remarkable instances of this kind. Suc 

es, however, are. now found much more rarely than formerly on this or 
Saag from which it seems to follow, that the channels of the ejections have 
been by degrees widened. 

t Monticelli and Covelli, loco cit. p. 15 and 39. 

} Experiments hitherto made shew, that long spaces of time are oem to pro- 
duce the strongest effects, viz., the elevation of lava to the greatest height. Von 
Humboldt (Reise, &c., t. i, "961, calls our attention to the circumstance, 
long intervals of quiescence seem to characterize the very high volcano. 
smallest of all, Stromboli, is nearly always in activity. The eruptions of 
are less frequent, although they are still more so than those of Etna an 

Teneriffe. During the quiescence of the latter, from 1706 to 1798, ‘sixteen erup- 
tions of the former “in place. From the colossal summits of the @ndes, Cotopart 
and Tungurahua, an eruption is observed scarcely once in a century- We a 8 
venture to state, that the frequency of the eruptions of active voleanos is inversely | 
as their height and mass. After these general remarks, we may mention the cit 
cumstance that large lava streams, namely, such as issue from Etna a and 
never flow from the crater itself. and that the quantity of the melted a 
commonly inversely as the height of the fissures from which the lava issues- 

a ee map: of these two last- mentioned volcanos always pry tes — 


itself This phenomenon has not bees seen on the Peak of Teneriffe 
hundred years. The crater was most inactive during the eruption in pi 
1798. Its basis did not sink, whilst the greater or less depth of the crater of 


tions requisite for producing the greatest effect, viz., for producing the highest. 
gree of the increased elasticity of the watery vapors, are not always preset 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 249 


toa state of rest, or at least until it-receives a fresh supply of lava 
_ from adistance. If the afflux of water be not interrupted, the 
__ exhalations of vapor may still continue, of which we have already 
mentioned several instances. 
| We may next consider how lava may be elevated from the 
| depth of a volcanic focus. 'The hypothesis, which ascribes vol- 
canic phenomena to the central heat, supposes that melted matters 
exist at a certain depth. In adopting this opinion, we need not 
asstme that lava is produced by the melting of solid rocks, but 
on the contrary, that melted matters have existed since the crea- 
tion of the world.* In the annexed diagram AB represents the 


s 
boundary between the solid crust of the earth and the melted 
; ‘Matters in the interior of the earth ; CD represents a wide rent, 
exhibiting a communication from the surface to the melted mat- 
_ tes; EF, GH, IK, LM, &c., are narrow rents conducting water 
: from the sea or subterranean collection of water to the heated in- 
_ letior ;+ and F, H, K, M, may be caverns in the solid crust, 
formed during the consolidation of the originally fluid matters of 
@ former period. Under these circumstances it may easily be 
Conceived, that water penetrating into the above mentioned rents 
and caverns is converted into steam, which, by pressing on the 
Melted matters, causes them to rise through the rent CD. If the 
lower opening in the wide rent at D be on the same level as the 
Whole boundary between the solid rocks and the melted matters, 


cacao ee eee ence 


é On this supposition, we assume that no basalt has been produced by the repeated 
melting of any known rock. Leonhard’s Basalt Gebilde, &c. Stuttgart, 1832, 
“1, p. 263. 
7 : t Water will naturally also penetrate into the wide rent, but, inasmuch as it is 
7 Xt able to fill up the rent, it cannot confine the steam generated beneath, and the 
will therefore escape 


Vol. Xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. a 


250 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


small quantities of these only will be raised upwards, for the sur- 
face of the melted matters will soon sink below the opening of the 
rent at D, and steam will rise. Thus the elevation of a column 
of lava to a considerable height by a column of steam will take 
place. But if the lower opening of the rent CD descends more 
or less below the surface of the melted matters, considerable quan- 
tities of these will rise into it before this surface sinks below the 
opening. The same may take place if between the opening of 
the rent CD and the other rents, (those down which water flows 
from the surface,) ridges of solid rock reach downwards from the 
solid crust into the fluid mass. ) 

Such ridges may be viewed as occasioned by gradual solidifica- 
tion of the fluid mass from above downwards, for it is well known 
that melted matters, if they crystallize by cooling, exhibit on 
their under surface considerable inequalities ; and the consolida- 
tion of the melted matters in the interior of the earth is assuredly 
produced by crystallization. 

There is another circumstance which may cause a continuation 
of the rent CD into the melted matters. After the rising of the 
lava and steam in this rent, the walls of it are cooled by the for- 
mation of steam, and by the atmospheric air having a ready access 
to the empty channel. Therefore these walls may gradually in- 
crease by the solidifying of the melted matters; nay, the rent 
may be entirely solidified and obstructed, so that it can only now 
be re-opened by the force of ‘steam previous to a new eruption 
taking place. If even immense quantities of lava are ejected by 
the steam, yet the level of the melted matters in the interior may 
be but slightly changed, for in the same manner, as all seas on 
the surface of the earth communicate together, so the melted 
matter in the interior does the same. However, more or less time 
may elapse, before the melted matter which has sunk at one place 
in consequence of ejection, can regain its former level by the 
afflux of other melted matters from a distance. Therefore the 
repose and activity of a volcano, besides depending on the intel 
ruption and renewal of the supply of water to the volcanic focus, 
may also proceed from the alternate obstruction and re-opening of 
the lava channel by the melted matters. In the latter case m 
the state of rest, exhalations of steam will take place, inasmuch 
as water penetrates continually to the volcanic focus. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 251 


_ But if the afflux of water be interrupted by an obstruction of 
the water-ducts, and if none of the above-mentioned causes be 
capable of restoring the communication ; or if, during the repose 
of the volcano, the lava-ducts become so obstructed by consolida- 
tion, that the steam cannot force its way through them, a voleano 
may reach. a state of perpetual repose. Such causes may have 
effected the extinction of the volcanic activity of the numerous 
extinct volcanos distributed throughout the globe. If this took 
Place at a former period, when the thickness of the crust of the 
earth was still increasing considerably, in consequence of the 
gradual cooling of the earth, and as this process is still going 
on, there is no probability that such extinct volcanos will at any 
time become again active. 

If volcanos, for instance Hina, are considerably elevated above 
the surface of the earth, it commonly happens that the walls of 
the lava-channels cannot resist the pressure of the melted matter 
in their interior. In this case rents are formed from which the 
lava issues, Such rents are always seen in the direction of the 
axis of the volcanic cone,* and their extent is often very consid- 
erable. A rent of this description produced by one of the most 
Violent eruptions of Hina, viz. that of the 11th May, 1669, was 

2 German miles in length, and occupied almost one-third of its 
height. Scrope+ saw distinct traces of it near Nicolosi so late as 
the year 1819. Even the rent formed during the eruption in 
1794, on the declivity of Vesuvius, towards Torre del Greco, 
Was, according to Von Buch 3000 feet in length, and according 
'o Breislak, 237 feet in breadth at its upper edge. 

Other volcanos afford instances of the formation of rents and 
hills, Thus, during the most violent eruption of Seaptar Jokul 
°n Iceland, in 1783, a rent eight English miles in length was 
formed in a plain at the foot of the mountain. ‘Three craters, 
from which immense quantities of lava flowed out, rose in the di- 
fection of the rent, and afterwards a fourth appeared below the 
Sea in the same direction, and at a distance of thirty miles, the 
*uption of which formed an island, which afterwards disappeared 
‘gaint Similar phenomena took place in the same year in the 
island of Java, And Von Buch informs us, that in the island of 


Saar ce eae NP eta Ie a MES OO ee de Oe 


* 
Vv : 
t Considerations, . 158. t Ibid, p. 154. 
§ Leonhard’s Taschenbuch, 1824, t. ii, p. 439. 


252 Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 


_ Lancerote, during the eruption in the year 1730, a rent was formed 
above two German miles in length, on which about twelve con- 
ical hills rose, whose summits were from 600 to 800 feet in 
height. ; 

In like manner basaltic cones, (also porphyritic and granitic 
hills,) are often seen, which are situated in a line, and of which 
two or more are connected by rents, which are filled wp by ba- 
salt. Remarkable phenomena of this kind are seen near Murol 
in Auvergne.* 

It seems surprising that the same kinds of lava are not always 
ejected from volcanos. Von Buch+ distinguished on Vesuvius 
alone, eighteen distinct principal kinds of lava; and old and new 
lavas of Hina also differ in their characters. The lavas of neigh- 
boring volcanos are often very different from each other. In like 
manner, unstratified rocks of very different natures are often met 
with close to each other.{ The Siebengebirge, near Bonn, offer 
remarkable instances of this kind. There, trachytes, trachyte 
tuffs, basalts, and basalt tuffs, are met with close to each other. 

lt dykes traverse the trachyte and the trachyte tufts, and vol 
canic scorie occur on the Roderberg, opposite to the Siebenge 
birge, on the left bank of the Rhine. However different all these 
rocks are, yet they seem to lead to the conclusion that theit ori- 
gin has been from the very same materials; for, notwithstanding 
this difference in their nature, it would be easy to form in the 
Siebengebirge a gradation from a white trachyte to a compact 
black basalt.§ On the other hand, there is every reason to SUP" 
pose that the nature of melted matters in the interior is different 
in different places. If, therefore, after the ejection of melted mat 
ters existing in a particular spot, new eruptions will take place 
only when such matters flow from remote places towards this 
spot, we can hence easily conceive how different lavas may be 
ejected at different times. In the Stebengebirge, as well as in 
other places where unstratified or voleanie rocks occur, many in- 
et, ae 


* Leonhard’s Basalt Gebilde, t. i, p. 408. t Beobachtungen, &c. t. ii, p. 174. 
t The lavas of Vesuvius, of the Solfatara, of Ischia, and of Etna, are quite differ: 
ent in their nature. 


§ See Leonard Horner, on the Geology of the Environs of Bonn, in the ‘Trans 


actions of the Geological Society, vol. iv, 2d Ser. p.438. Von Buch states Lape ” 
several places in the neighborhood of Clermont and Puy de Dome, 4 pee 
ten 


from granite into trachyte may be traced, and thus to have the gradation ex 
from granite to basalt. 


oS ate 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 253 


stances are exhibited, which indicate that these rocks are of very 
different ages.* 

If the activity of a volcano ceases, but the channels by which 
the waters enter remain open, the volcanic action may be replaced 
by hot springs.+ In this case it is easy to conceive that the me- 
teoric waters, continually sinking into the hot interior, would 
there assume the surrounding high temperature, and rise again to 
the surface with a temperature, diminished proportionally to the 
decrease of pressure, either through the former lava-channels, or 
other fissures more recently opened.{ But if at that depth, the 
hydrostatic pressure be greater than the elastic force, which the 
Water has there acquired, no steam will be generated in the whole 
Course of the spring; but, in the contrary case, from the lowest 
Point up to the point where the elastic force becomes greater than 
the hydrostatic pressure, the water will escape in the form of a 
Vapor. However high the temperature of the water may be at 
the lowest point of its course, whether in the liquid or in the 
gaseous state, yet, when it reaches the surface, it cannot exceed 
the boiling point. The reason of springs but seldom attaining 
even this maximum, may be either the loss of heat communicated 
to the superior strata of the earth, or that they meet with streams 
of gas, (carbonic acid, or sulphuretted hydrogen,) which, even if 

ed of very high temperature, will cause a depression of 
their temperature, as is proved by experiments cited in Chap. IT, 
of Memoir on Springs, p. 336, vol. xx, Ed. Phil. Journ.¢ The 
Production of hot springs, according to the last species of volcanie 
aa ee 


‘ning from east to west, parallel to the general line, of voleanos in Mexico. 
—$ Von Humboldt is also of opinion, Reise, &c. t. i, p. 187 and 188, that the va- 
Por which rises from the “‘ Narices del Pico” as they are called, and from the rents 
the crater of Teneriffe, is nothing but atmospherical water which has penetrated 
by infiltration. 
§ According to M. Arago, the hottest spring in Europe unconnected with mod- 
Volcanic action is that of Chaudesaigues in Auvergne, whose temperature he 
{Motes at 176° Fah. Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, 1836. The next hot- 
3 to this seems to be Thuez, in the Pyrenees, whose temperature is, according to 
Tofessor Forbes, 171°.5 Fah. Phil. Trans. t. ii, p. 603, for 1826. Forbes believes, 
a 610, the baths of Nero, near Naples, the hottest spring on the continent of Eu- 
eee is connected with modern volcanic action, the temperature being 
oF. 


254 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


action, may, however, be thus imagined; that the water which 
descends to the volcanic focus is there converted into steam, 
which, rising through fissures into higher regions, meets with at- 
mospheric waters which it warms, and with them returns to the 
surface.* The course of hot springs produced in this manner 
can, therefore, occur only at inconsiderable depths below the sur- 
face. Lastly, it may happen that the lava last raised did not es- 
cape from the crater or its lateral openings, but became solid on 
its way onwards, and thus stopped up the channels. If, in this 
case, water should descend through rents into this still extremely 
hot lava, hot springs would also thus be produced, supposing @ 
communication between these and other rents which lead to the 
surface at a lower level; but these springs will decrease in tem- 
perature by degrees as the lava gradually cools, till they reach 
that degree which naturally belongs to the place where the lava 
is situated. However, we have already proved by experiments 
formerly mentioned, and calculations founded upon them, that, if 
such masses of heated lava be of considerable extent, a very long 
period may elapse before the decrease in the temperature of the 
springs will be even perceptible.t On the other hand, there are 
examples of a very rapid decrease in the temperature of hot 
springs in the neighborhood of voleanos recently become extinct. 
Thus, the temperature of the hot springs on Jorullo decreased 
40°.5 F. in twenty four years, between the visits of Von Hum- 
boldt and Burkart.t| The temperature of the mixture of gases 
which issues from the rents in the Pass of. Quindiu, near the Mo- 

ral, in the Quebrada del Azufral, decreased from 1801 to 1827, 
according to the observations of Von Humboldt and Boussingault, 

from 118° to 66°.4.§ If, instead of this gas, a mineral spring ha 
: flowed at this place, it would, doubtless, have suffered a similar 
diminution of temperature. Boussingault mentions, on the other 
hand, that, in a period of twenty-three years, the temperature of 
re 


* Perhaps the numerous hot mineral springs which rise at the foot of the still 
smoking mass of rocks on Pantellaria, as well as the numerous hot sulphureous 
springs in the vicinity of Sciacca, in Sicily, have a similar origin. Hoffmann, |. & 

t Die vulkanischen Mineralquellen, &c. p. 150.—I have calculated, that, onde 
the circumstances there mentioned, a mass of melting basalt,.equal in 
third of the Donnersberg, near Milleschau, in Bohemia, would be s 
heated all the water which has issued from the whole number of sprin 
bad since the time of Adam. 5 ae 

t Burkart, loco cit. t. i, p. 226. § Poggendorff’s Annal. t. xvill; Pr" 


gs at Carls- 


Bk Nah A eee 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 255 | 


the hot springs of Mariana and Las Trincheras rose severa) de- 
grees. According to the observations of Hamilton, Della Torre, 
Abbé Soulavie, Von Humboldt, and Forbes, the hot spring named 
La Pisciarella, which rises near Naples, from the exterior of the 
- cone of the Solfatara, is subject to extraordinary alternations in 

its temperature, from 101° F. to 199.°4 F.* But even in very 
short periods striking differences are sometimes found. Thus — 
Forstert asserts, that-in the neighborhood of Tanna, a voleano 
on one of the New Hebrides, the hot springs vary several degrees 
in temperature from one day to the other. : 

There is not, perhaps, a more striking example of intimate con- 
lection existing between volcanic phenomena and hot springs 
than in Iceland. As the volcanic eruptions are there confined to 
the district of the trachyte formation, so also are the principal 
mineral Springs only found in this formation ;{ from which it 
seems natural to infer, that it is one and the same process acting 
M both cases, but in a different manner.$ 

The hot springs in this voleanic island confirm Krug Von Nid- 
da’s system of classing thermal springs—namely, 1. such as are 
“nstanily bubbling and boiling up—permanent thermals ; 2. 

€ in which this ebullition only takes place at particular peri- 
ods, and which are perfectly tranquil during the remaining time 
—intermitting thermals ; and, 3. those whose surface ts always 
undisturbed, and in which no bubbling or boiling ever takes 

ée. The springs of the first class always have a temperature 
at the surface equal to that of boiling water under the usual at- 
Mospheric pressure. ‘Those of the second class only reach the 
boiling point during their temporary ebullition, and lose consid- 
erably in temperature during their period of rest. The springs of 

€ third class never reach the boiling point of water. 

The most famous of the intermittent springs is the Great Gey- 
Ser. At the time when Krug Von Nidda visited it, it presented 
tWo different kinds of eruption. The smaller ones were repeated 
tegularly every two hours; and the water was thrown only from 

teen to twenty feet high. 'The greater ones succeeded each 


# 


Forbes, loco cit. p. 611. t Journ. de Phys. 1779, p. 434. 

*Alll the hot springs of Mezico also rise out of trachyte and dolerite rocks. Burk- 

“th, p. 363, 

t § Krug Von Nidda on the mineral springs of Iceland, p. 272, in Karsten’s Archiv. 
%; P- 247, and in Jameson's Phil. Jour. vol. xxii, p. 90 and 220, 


256 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


other at intervals of from twenty-four to thirty hours; in these 
cases, the masses of steam ascended to the clouds, and the water 
spouted to a height of ninety feet. For two hours after, one of 
the smaller eruptions, during which time there were no traces of 
action, and only thin clouds of steam were formed at the surface, 
the temperature of the water was 194° F., which was reduced 
still lower.by the evaporation. After a dull rumbling noise 
within, the water suddenly began to boil up again, the basin was 
filled till it flowed over, immense bubbles of steam burst from 
the funnel-shaped opening, and projected the water to a height 
of about twenty feet. Immediately after the eruption, when 
tranquillity was completely restored, the water was at the boiling 
point, but its temperature soon fell below that degree. 

The Strokr, the eruptions of which almost exceed in grall- 
deur those of the Great Geyser, has this peculiarity, that it is at 
the same time a permanent and an intermittent thermal spring. 
It shows itself to be permanent by its incessant ebullition, and 
intermittent by the tremendous eruptions which seem to be re- 
peated at intervals of from two to three days. 

No doubt can be entertained respecting the nature of the 
agent by which the waters of the Geyser, the Strokr, and other 
less considerable springs, are thrown to such an immense height. © 
It is, as in voleanos, a gaseous body, principally aqueous vapor 
We may, therefore, very fairly agree with Krug Von idda, 
and consider volcanos in the same light as intermittent springs 
with this difference only, that instead of water they throw out 
melted matters. 

He takes it for granted that these hot springs derive their tem- 
perature from aqueous vapors rising from below. When these 
vapors are able to rise freely in a continued column, the water at 
the different depths must have a constant temperature, equal to 
that at which water would boil under the pressure existing a 
the respective depths. Hence the constant ebullition of the pe 
manent springs, and their boiling heat. If, on the other hand, 
the vapors be prevented, by the complicated windings of a 
channels, from rising to the surface; if, for example, they be ar 
rested in caverns, the temperature in the upper layers of water 
must necessarily sink, because a Jarge quantity of it is lost by 
evaporation at the surface, which cannot be replaced from below: 
And any circulation of the layers of water at different tempera 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 257 


tures, by reason of their unequal specific gravities, seems to be 
very much interrupted by the narrowness and sinuosity of the 
passage. The intermitting springs of Iceland are probably 
caused by the existence of caverns, in which the vapor is re= 
tained by the pressure of the column of water in the channel 
which leads to the surface. Here this vapor collects, and presses 
the water in the cavern downwards until its elastic force becomes 
sufficiently great to effect a passage through the column of water 
which confines it. The violent escape of the vapor causes the 
thunder-like subterranean sound, and the trembling of the earth, 
which precede each eruption. The vapors do not appear at the 
Surface till they have heated the water to their own tempera- 
ture. When so much vapor has escaped that the expansive 
force of that which remains has become less than the pressure 
of the confining column of water, tranquillity is restored, and 
this lasts until. such a quantity of vapor is again collected as to 
produce a fresh eruption. The spouting of the spring is, there~ 
fore, repeated at intervals, depending upon the capacity of the 
cavern, the height of the column of water, and the heat gene- 
tated below.* 

The two distinct classes of eruption in the Geyser, which we 
have already mentioned, seem to be attributable to two different 
cavities. A smaller cavity fills quicker, and, therefore, empties 
itself more frequently ; a larger one fills slower, empties itself 
seldomer, but with greater violence. But the playing of the 
Geyser, the Strokr, and some others, is subject to very great va- 


i 


r in this state of activity, It 
then again became quiescent, ‘except that the water, deep in the tube, continued, 
as Usval, to boil violently. 

Vol. Xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839, 33 


258 Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 


riations. Channels may become stopped by the incrusting prop- 
erty of the water. During the frequent shocks which accom- 
pany the greater eruptions, some cavities may fall in, and be 
choked up, and new ones formed. The greatest changes, how- 
ever, are caused by the earthquakes, which from time to time 
visit the island. Thus, during the earthquake of 1789, the 
most important spring in the country, next to the Geyser, disap- 
peared, and at present only steam is evolved from its mouth, 
while the Strokr, which before this was but an inconsiderable 
spring, increased to such an extent, that it is now considered to 
rival the Geyser in importance. It may be observed, that the 
eruptions of the Strokr have no connection whatever with those 
of the Great Geyser. During the long eruption of the former, 
the latter remained quiet, and vice versa. In general, each of 
these numerous hot springs, which are here crowded together 
in a very small compass, seems to be totally independent of each 
other. This might also be inferred from the striking difference 
in their levels. 

It seems probable from the situation of the celebrated hot 
springs of Iceland, (of which more than fifty may be counted in 
a space of a few acres, at the foot of a rock about 300 feet high, 
which leans against a chain of higher rocks ;) from the numerous 
fissures in these rocks, which are composed of alternate layers of 
tuffas, of slag-streams, and slag-conglomerates, as well as from 
the fact, that the springs are confined exclusively to the lower 
region, which extends along the foot of the hill, whilst on its 
sides and summit are found only gaseous exhalations (aqueous 
vapor and sulphureted hydrogen gas ;) that these springs ate 
supplied from the meteoric waters of the neighboring hills, an 
that, being originally cold, they are indebted for their high tem- 
perature solely to the hot vapors which they receive from below. 
The hot springs in Iceland seem, therefore, to be produced in the 
manner described at page 253. 

Lastly, If the permanent obstruction of the lava and the water 
channels has taken place, of course no hot springs can exist, OF 
at least they can only flow during the cooling of the lava last 
ejected and solidified. This seems to have been the case in the 
volcanic district of the Siebengebirge, the Laacher See, and the 
Bifel, as in these places no hot springs, with the exception of 
the baths of Bertrich, are to be met with; although in the two 


’ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 259 


latter districts, the number of thermal springs whose tempera- 
ture exceeds that of the soil at the most by a few degrees, are 
enormous, and considerable exhalations of carbonic gas give 
evidence of former galvanic action. It may, however, be con- 
jectured, with some probability, that in the vicinity of the 
Laacher See, and in the Eifel, springs may have existed, whose 
duration depended on the cooling of the masses of lava. Sim- 
lar circumstances seem to have occurred in Auvergne and Vi- 
varais, although the hot springs, which are not uncommon in 
those countries, show that many of the former volcanic channels 
are still unobstructed. 
he examination of deposits obviously formed from springs 
Which existed at a former time, may often present an indication 
of their temperature. Thus, on the volcanic tongue of land, 
called the Sneefield-Syssel, in Iceland, we find none of the hot 
Mineral springs which are so numerous in other parts of the 
island, and which are distinguished by their holding silica in so- 
lution, and exhaling sulphureted hydrogen gas. But, in former 
limes they existed here, for in many places we find siliceous in- 
frustations in the form of tuffas and sinters. One cold spring, 
Which is now flowing, has certainly taken the place of a hot 
siliceous spring, for its present deposits are only calcareous, and 
quite distinct from the older incrustations.* The circumstance 
that atragonite is deposited from hot springs, calcareous spar, 
% the other hand, from cold ones, gives us also an indication 
of this kind. Since G. Rose+ pointed out that the former Is 
only deposited from a hot solution of carbonate of lime, the 
®ecurrenice of arragonite in any deposit, leads us to infer with 
*ettainty, that these deposits owe their origin to a hot spring. 
If, on the contrary, we find calcareous spar in any deposit, we 
may infer with equal certainty, that it was produced by a 
cold spring. t 
If the melted nucleus of the earth be the common seat of the 
Volcanic activity of the whole earth, subterranean communica- 


t Poggendorff’s Annal. t. xl, p. 353. 


viz. according to G, 


260 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


tions subsist between all volcanos. The existence of such com- 
munications cannot be doubted. Immediately after the earth- 
uake which overthrew Caraccas, there followed the great 
eruption of the voleano of St. Vincent, and the earth no longer 
trembled at Venezuela. When the dense, black column of 
smoke, which, in the year of 1797, had issued for several 
months from the volcano near that city, disappeared, the cities 
of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga, 280 English miles dis- 
tant, were at the same hour destroyed by a violent shock. 
Other instances of this kind will be mentioned afterwards. 
Andrea Lorenzo Curbeto’s description of the great volcanic 
eruption in the island of Lancerote, for which we are indebte 
to Von Buch,+ also shows how, for six years, from 1730 to 1736, 
the gaseous fluids in the interior found new vents in all direc- 
tions, sometimes here and sometimes there, and yet were not ca 
pable of preserving a single one permanently open. Sometimes 
two or three openings were formed at once, with a tremendous 
erash, accompanied with flames,(?) which alarmed the whole 
island. At one time, three apertures united suddenly into one 
very high cone; lava flowed out below and reached the sea. 44; 
says that acute geologist, the unhappy Lancerote had, like Tene 
rife, possessed a volcano, perbaps not one of those numerous 
cones would have been thrown up, and probably not a single 
village would have been destroyed.t He thinks it highly prob- 
able that this eruption took place entirely from one great rent. 
Lieder aiken oe 


* Von Humboldt Reise, t. 1. p. 498. Loco cit. 
$ Von Buch supposes that only the gaseous matters, but not solid substances, 
viz. lavas, slags, Japilli, and ashes, proceed from the focus of the yolcanie phe- 
nomena. He observes that these masses always show themselves to be of a na- 
ture corresponding to the rocks out of which they are ejected. 
must not furget that Von Buch was at that time still attached to Davy's hy- 
pothesis, which ascribes volcanic phenomena to the combustion of the metals of 
the alkalies and earths, and which does not require us to suppose the origin of 
volcanic action to lie at any great depth. Itis indeed, very different, according 
to the hypothesis which we are endeavoring to defend. In this, the seat of the 
volcanic actions is supposed to be identical with the place where the elastic forces 
producing them act. The connection between the lavas, and the slags, lapilli 
and ashes resulting from them, and the rocks at the surface, would only th 


4 e 
converting fusible rocks into a state of hydro-igneous fusion. 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 261 


Daring the violent eruption in the low country of Skaptar 
Jokul in Iceland, in 1783, which suddenly brought up the most 
enormous masses to the surface, the lava burst forth at three dif- 
ferent points, more than two geographical miles distant from one 
another, and spread over a surface in the plain,* which is suppo- 
sed to equal in extent sixty geographical square miles. This 
mass is so considerable as to surpass in magnitude that of Mont 
Blane.t Under almost the whole of Iceland, there is a voleanic 
furnace, which communicates by many apertures with the sur- 
e. The masses of melted matter, therefore, seek an outlet at 
Various points, and many places are mentioned, at which the lava 
only been ejected once within historical times. The vol- 
canic phenomena are not confined to the island alone, they also 
break through in the neighboring sea. In January, 1783, such 
an irruption took place in the sea, eight geographical miles from 
ape Reikianes, several islands were raised, and great quantities 
of pumice and light slags were floated on the coast. In June, 
the whole island was shaken by earthquakes. The submarine 
*tuption discontinued, and at a distance of fifty geographical 
mniles, the grand eruption of Skaptar Jokul commenced. On 
the 13th June, 1830, a similar submarine eruption was_ re- 
peated. + 
The immense masses of lava ejected from a single volcano, 
and the enormous extent in which volcanic actions are felt at 
the same time, scarcely leave room to doubt that every active 
Volcano is in immediate communication with the whole melted 
Matter in the interior. In this manner alone can it be conceived, 
W, for instance, the masses ejected at different times from 
Suvius vastly exceed the whole bulk of the mountain,$ while 
the latter seems upon the whole to undergo no diminution, for 
ae ees east 
"See Om Tordbranden paa Island i Aaret 1733, ved Student Soemund Mag 
— Kort beskrivelse over den eye Vulkans, Ildsprudning | Vester Skopte- 
. »yssel paa Island i Aaret 1783 of Magnus Stephen sen. Kidébenhava 1785, 


9, p. 64. Th, 
qamene geogr. Beschreibung von Island, 1824, p. 107. Pennant Ie Nord de 
bi 


: Berghaus Almanac for 1838, p. 75. 
°urn. de Geologie, t. i. x : 
§ This was rie ey even by the ancients; and Seneca, Letter 79, after stating 
difficulty, solves it by remarking, that the fire of the volcano, ‘in ipso monte 
nn alimentum habet, sed viam.”—Daubeny on Volcanos, p. 155. 


- 


PO Se ee Sen eee 


262 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


the falling in of its cone at one period, appears to be balanced 
by the accumulation of ashes at another. 

If arent, reaching from the surface to the melted matters in 
the interior, be of great length, but not open throughout its 
whole extent, the first eruption will take place where there is 
the least resistance. 

If this channel become obstructed, the volcanic fire will seek 
another vent.* Violent concussions may open new fissures} and 
close old ones, by which frequent changes may be produced in 
the channels of the lava and water. - Fissures obstructed by lava 
are closed so firmly as to be incapable of being re-opened ; new 
ones, therefore, are formed. Thus it is, at least, if a volcano 
produce eruptions from its sides. If it happen that a wide and 
lasting vent be formed, all partial workings in the neighborhood 
will cease. A similar combination, although on a somewhat 
limited scale, is presented by groups of mineral springs, espe 
cially of hot springs. In such groups, new channels are seen to 
open, new springs to rise, and old ones to close. ‘The only dif- 
ference is, that, as these changes are not accompanied with any 


violent action, as is the case with volcanos, they require a greater _ 


length of time for their accomplishment. 

We have, in the preceding inquiries, as yet only supposed the 
admission of water from the sea. But this does not seem always 
to be the case, even in volcanos situated near the sea. Acco? 
ing to Hamilton,{ the water of the springs and wells of Torr 
del Greco diminished so much a few days before the great erup 
tion of Vesuvius, on the 15th June, 1794, that the corn mills at 
the principal spring were nearly stopped, and it was daily nece™ 
sary to lengthen the ropes in the wells, in order to reach the 
water. Some wells dried quite up, and on the morning of the 
12th June, at Resina, a subterranean rumbling noise was he 
after a heavy rain. Monticelli and Covellig relate that, before 

een ae 


* Thus the interior of the crater of the Peak of Teneriffe, shows it to be a vole 
cano, which for thousands of years has thrown out fire only from its sides- 
Humboldt, Reise, t. i. p. 195. staal 

f According to the inhabitants of New Andalusia, the soil in various districts 
their province has become more and more arid, in consequence of the frequent 
earthquakes with which they are visited from time to time —V. umboldt, Reis 
hp. 2. t Phil. Trans. for 1795, p. 79. fi 

g Loco cit. pp. 12 and 63. See also Monticelli, in Leonard's Taschenbuch 
die gesammte Mineralogie, vol. xiv, p. 87. 


ee eee 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 263 


the great eruption of this voleano in 1822, at the beginning of 


January, the springs at Resina, St. Jorio, and particularly in the 
Places in the immediate vicinity of Vesuvius, diminished percep- 
tibly.* Monticelli observed similar phenomena before the erup- 
tion in 1813, and he thinks that, in general, they are a sure sign 
of one. It is hardly to be doubted that rents were opened by 
the earthquakes, through which the water descended to greater 
depths, accumulating, perhaps, in great caverns, and from thence 
found its way to the source of the volcanic action. 

We find considerable accumulations of water in all mountains 
taversed by numerous fissures. We will only now mention the 
Western declivity of the T'eutoburger Wald, in which such con- 
siderable rivers have their source ; the Jura mountains; and the 

emmi.t The volcanic inundations, of which Von Humboldt 
gives such extraordinary examples,{ are an additional evidence of 
the existence of such great subterranean accumulations of water, 
mM the Vicinity of volcanos. Lastly, we have, further, examples 
of volcanos coming into action after violent storms of rain; for 


Instance, the Mer-Api, in Java.§ In the Andes of Quito, the 


idians imagine they have observed, that the quanity of percola- 
ting snow-water increases the activity of volcanos.|| Can it, then, 
any longer be doubted, that the proximity of the ocean is by no 
SE pense Se a a 


of the Canary Islands, notwithstanding the height of the mountains, and the mass 
of clouds which travellers always see collected over this Archipelago. Reise, 
Ep. 173, 
Von Humboldt (Reise, t. iii, p. 229) mentions several rivers which lose them- 
selves in the gneiss rocks. When these gneiss mountains were upraised, consid- 
frable caverns may have been formed, which were afterwards filled with water. 
 Annal. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxvii, p. 128. This cireumstance, however, 
Must be considered, that the strong heat over the active volcano dilates the atmos- 


— fr 

*S Inondat. Voleaniques. Journ. de Physique, t. tank 103. 
§ Memoir of the Conquest of Java. London, 1815, p. 40 
| Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, p. 263. 


264 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


means a necessary condition in the production of volcanic phe- 
nomena? But all that has been said respecting the channels by 
which the seo-water is admitted to the volcanic focus, holds 
equally good with respect to those admitting springs or rain-wa- 
ter; only with this difference, that, in the more lofty volcanos of 
America, the volcanic focus may be imagined much higher, and 
yet columns of water of considerable pressure will not be want- 
ing, provided those accumulations of water be situated at a great 
height in the mountains. 

The same power by which masses of lava are forced up, some- 
times so as to reach the surface and flow over it, or in other cases 
becoming solidified in their channels, will also raise whole moun- 
tains. These elevations may take place through rents of more 
or less considerable width ; and partly form dykes, or mountains 
of some magnitude ; or raise up or break through the upper strata 
of the earth. Thus Von Buch* informs us that on the island of 
Lancerote, during an eruption in 1730, a rent was formed above 
two German miles in length, on which about twelve conical hills 
had risen, whose summits were from 6U0 to 800 feet in height. 
In like manner basaltic cones (also even porphyritic and granitie 
hills) are situated in a line, and of which two or more are come 
nected by rents, which are filled up by basalt. Remarkable phe- 
nomena of the kind are seen near Mural in Auvergne.t 

We have abundance of proofs of the rising of masses of melted 
or at least semifluid matter,{ out of the interior of the earth, 1 
the filling up of dykes with compact crystalline rocks, in all o 
which, as in the rocks of undoubted voleanic origin, felspar forms 
a necessary and principal ingredient.§ We find these rocks 12 
contact with all the stratified and superficial formations, ls 
with those which are going on at the present day. But similar 
masses, which have evidently flowed in streams from eraters, 4° 

ee ee ee 


* Leonhard’s Taschenbuch, 1824, Abth. ii, p. 439. 

t Leonhard die Basalt Gebilde, t.i, p. : 

{ Cones of basalt, trachyte, and phonolite, whose inclination i 
siderable, cannot have risen in such a thin liquid state, as that in which I 
from volcanos; for, according to the observations of Elie de Beaumont, 
mentioned, lava streams having an inclination of only 6° cannot form @ com 

ass. e on this subject, Leonhard, loco cit, t. i, 17, &e. 

§ Felspar may certainly be considered as a characteristic sign of ap 
gin in rocks, as this mineral is never found in rocks, in the formation of 
the action of volcanic power can be proved to have been wholly excluded. 


s often very con 
ava issues 
already 
tinuous 


jgneous rage 
which 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 265 


also found in positions which shew that they must have risen 
from the interior of the earth, after the formation of the stratified 
tocks, and found their way into fissures, which in many cases do 
hot reach the surface. ‘Thus, granite, syenite, trachyte, the por- 
phyries, the greenstone, and so on, up to the basalts, form dykes 
in the stratified rocks as well as in one another. They also not 
unfrequently appear in beds between the strata of the Neptunian 
tocks. Granites have been forced up to the surface at the most 
widely different periods ; we find them most commonly in clay- 
te, and in the greywacke formation, in gneiss and in mica- 
slate, and they are sometimes connected with other more consid- 
erable masses of granite. Even after the formation of the oolitie 
and chalk groups, they have been ejected; but there are no 
stanitic dykes described as intersecting these rocks. The stra- 
rocks are usually altered in the immediate vicinity of masses 
or dykes of granite; and their stratification becomes indistinct 
and confused. 'The porphyries, like the granites, exist as inde- 
Pendent formations; but these are not so frequent or so exten- 
sive, and are more frequently in contact with more recent stra- 
tified formations than the granites. ‘The trap rocks traverse all 
the stratified rocks from the gneiss and greywacke group, at least 
‘0 the oolites inclusively. ‘The basalts are found in all forma- 
tions, from the transition and secondary rocks to the lignite inclu- 
‘ively, nay, in the newest formations.* 

In general, some alteration in the adjacent rock and some new 
Mineral productions,t are found where such masses have been 
forced up, and large and small fragments of the rock are not un- 
‘ommonly found firmly imbedded in the latter. We may here, 
-Y Way of example, mention the conversion of compact limestones 
Mto marble, exactly as Hall changed limestones by heating them 
n close vessels or under pressure ; and again, the disappearance 
* the black color and the bitumen in the coal sandstone.t 
—, er ee 


Would probably also thks up substances from the melting mass (alkalies) which 

Would serve as a flux. 

: * The combustion of beds of brown coal seems also to have been effected by 

'gNeous fluid masses which had risen from the interior. Thus the remains of such 

“ombustions always oceur in Bohemia, according to Dr. Reuss, (Néggerath Ausflug 
Vol. *xxvi, No, 1.—April-July, 1839. 


266 Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 


The conglomerates which frequently surround these volcanic 
masses, and which are not confined to the basalts and trachytes, 
but are also found accompanying the greenstones, porphyries, and 
granites, Von Buch considers to be produced by the friction of the 
rising matter against the rock; and their existence is a further 
proof of the pyrogenetic origin of these masses. 

Other phenomena lead us also to infer that crystalline rocks 
have risen in a melted state. If, for instance, such rocks are sep- 
arated by rents, crystals are often found in them, broken through 
the middle, and both pieces are imbedded in the separated rocks. 
Thus, my friend Prof. Néggerath has observed, that many of the 
larger crystals of glassy felspar in the trachyte of the Drachenfels 
are broken through in this manner, and that the one piece is dis- 
placed several lines from the other. He observed the same phe- 
nomenon more frequently in the porphyritic granite near Gop- 
fersgriin in the Fichtelgebirge.* The olivine in the basalt of 
Burzet in Vivarais, presents the same appearance, according to 
Scrope,t and the separated portions of crystals exactly correspond. 
Faujas observed among the basalts of the bridge of Bridon adja- 
cent columns, with included fragments of granite broken through, 
in consequence of the formation of the columns. All these phe- 
nomena prove that these crystalline rocks must have been still 
soft, after the imbedded crystals had arrived at the stage of per- 
fect solidification, and that the breaking of the crystals is a con- 
sequence of cooling. 

‘The occurrence of arragonite in the fissures and cavities of 
crystalline rocks, basalt, for instance, seems also, according to the 
above-mentioned experiments of G. Rose, to prove, that these 
rocks were at least still hot, when cold solutions of carbonate of 
lime penetrated into the fissures. . 

astly, instances of the formation of dykes of volcanic matter 

at the present day, offer a further proof, if further proof be necces 
sary, of their igneous origin, and the accounts given of the recent 
eruptions at Ponohohoa in Owhyhee,{ establish the possibility of 
eruptions through rents. : 
rca a 


nach Béhmen. Bonn. 1838, p. 171,) in the neighborhood of basalts, and these ie 
nomena are so enormous, that they cannot be considered as caused by acciden 
combustion. . 
* Noggerath loco cit. p. 71. Sce also Goldfuss and Bischof, Physikalisch-sta® 
tische Beschreibung des Fichtelbirges, t. ii, p. 114. 
t Consider. p. 136. } Poggendorff’s Annal, t. ix, p- ial, 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 267 


- Ifalterations in the adjacent rocks, or other phenomena already 
Mentioned, are not observed, we may infer that the elevations 
have taken place in a.solid state. Notwithstanding this solidity, 
the highly elastic and exceedingly hot vapors may certainly cause 
considerable chemical alterations in the elevated masses, as well 
as in the adjacent rocks. 

It is impossible to determine any regular order of succession in 
the elevation of the pyrogenetic rocks. 'They occur in every pe- 
od of the stratified formations. Older ones have very commonly 
received those of more recent date into their fissures. "There 
scarcely exists a single unstratified rock which is not somewhere 
'0 be found filling up dykes in granite. Basalt-dykes traverse 
many unstratified rocks, such as trachyte, conglomerate, and oth- 
es. In Iceland, tufa is found al ternating with slaggy lava; and _ 
dykes of a porous trachytic rock traverse the tufa of Strombol . 
and Vuleanello in the Lipari Islands, &c.* 3 

Masses of melted matter will break through the bottom of the 
sea more easily, because resistance is there the least considerable. 

© this may be ascribed the frequent elevation of islands from 
the bottom of the sea, not only in historical times, but also at the 
Mesent day; and under the eyes of observers, in whom the ut- 
Most confidence may be placed. The most extraordinary and 
instructive island in this respect is Santorin, because it unites 
the whole history of voleanic islands and islands of elevation. A 
ore beautiful, regular, and perfect crater or elevation is not to be 
ound, than in the space which is almost entirely surrounded by 
the inner circle of Santorin (which encompasses more than one- 
half of it) and by its continuation as exhibited in the islands of 

asia and Aspronisi.t Here it is probable that the clay-slate 
Was broken through and upraised. 'These islands, therefore, form 
1 inseparable whole, and cannot have been raised one after an- 
other. On the other hand, history and tradition inform us, that 
Mature has never ceased in its endeavors to create a volcano in the 
“entre of this crater of elevation. One hundred and eighty four 
Yeats before the birth of Christ, the Zsland of Hiera (now called 


a. ee 


sg la Beche, Handbuch der Geognosie Von v, Dechen. Berlin, 1932. Absch- 

itt xj, 

i Von Buch in Poggendorf’s Annal. v. x, p- 172. See the drawing in his splen= 
: atlas, and the sketch in these Annal. v. xxiv, p. 1. 


268 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


Palaia Kameni*) was formed, and since that, as it seems, many 
other rocks have been raised in its centre. In 1427, this island 
was increased. In 1573, the Little Kameni was thrown up, eX- 
actly in the centre of the basin, accompanied with an ejection of 
steam and pumice ; and between 1707 and 1709, was raised the 
New Kameni, which still continues to send forth sulphurous va- 
pors.+ Lastly, in the present moment another new island seems 
to be about to appear to the east of Kameni, about 900 feet from 
the coast of Santorin, according to the report of a naval officer of 
Santorin,t (Nauplia, 4th December, 1834.) 'The inhabitants of 
the island assert, that thirty years ago this bank lay at the depth 
of 90 feet; in 1820, it was only 60 feet below the surface; and 
at present the sea is only 20 feet deep over it. According to later 
accounts given in the public journals, this bank continues to rise 
so rapidly, that if it meet with no interruption in its progress, it 
will, by the year 1840, be able to lay claim to the denomination 
of an island. In the year 1713, it is said an island arose among 
the small islands near Venice, accompanied with flames, smoke, 
and the most vehement shocks. 'This phenomenon, which con- 
tinued. four weeks, drove away the inhabitants from the adjacent 
islands. After about two years a similar occurrence was repeate 
and a second island was thrown up under the same circumstances. 
These two islands are now, as the neighboring ones, inhabit 
and cultivated.$ 

From Leop. Von Buch’s instructive exposition of the nature of 
voleanic phenomena,|| which, together with the careful works of 
Von Hoff, contain a critical compilation of all cases yet known © 
the production of new mountaius and islands by volcanic action, 
we will borrow only the following examples of recent date. 
first I shall mention is the island of Sabrina, near St. Miguel, 
the Azores, which is celebrated’ for the many islands that have 
Jess on, te ee a 


* Von Hoff, Geschichte der natirlichen Verinderungen der Erdoberfliche, t- ii, 
p. 137. For an account of some crater-shaped islands, see Poggendorff's A 
Vv. Xxiv, p. 101. 

r: See the account of Father Bourignon in Raspe’s specimen, &c. de novis @ mare 
natis insulis, 1763, p. 48. 

Allgemeines Organ ftir Handel und Gewerbe, &c. No. 23. 1835; and ier 

son’s Phil. Journal, vol. xxi, p. 175. 

§ Justi’s Geschichte des Erdkérpers, p. 135. | 
Il Poggendorff’s Ann. v. x, p. 1 and following; p. 169, 345, and 514 and fol 
owing. 


rere 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 269 


attempted to rise in its vicinity, and which made its appearance 
on the 13th or 15th June, 1811; it began to disappear in Octo- 
ber, and towards the end of February, 1812, steam was only oc- 
casionally seen to rise out of the sea at the spot where the island 
was formerly seen.* Secondly, The rising of a new island near 
Vnalaschka, in May, 1796, which not only remained, but, up to 
1806, had increased in circumference, as well as the peak in 
height. It required six hours to row round it, and rather more 
than five hours to ascend in a direct line from the shore to the 
summit of the peak.t The creation of both these islands was 
preceded by violent earthquakes, and columns of smoke, which 
ascended from the sea, whilst stones were thrown to a great dis- 
lanee. Of Sabrina this surprising circumstance is related—that 
the stones, on leaving the sea, were black, but suddenly became 
ted hot when they emerged from the columns of smoke. ‘Tillard 
found on this island the skeleton of a shark so calcined, that the 
bones fell to powder on lifting it up. Of the other island it is 
only said, that during the night fire rose, which was sometimes 
80 bright, that all objects were distinctly visible in Unalaschka, 
at a distance of twenty leagues. Smoke continued to rise for four 
Cars, 


Phenomena of this kind have taken place still more recently 
‘mong the Molucea Isles, as we are informed by Prof. Rein- 
Wardt.t Near the active volcano of Gonung Api, in the group 
& the Banda Islands, a considerable mass of black rock rose up 
na bay, out of the sea, without any noise. When Reinwardt 
Visited this extraordinary spot in 1821, he found it still very hot, 
and the newly raised mass sent forth boiling hot vapors. A pre- 
Csely similar occurrence took place on the coast of Ternate. On 
Lancerote also, on the 31st August, 1824, after several days of 
Molent earthquakes, accompanied with a subterranean thunder 
? © noise, a new volcano burst forth with a terrific crash, emit- 
lng streams of fire, so that the whole island was illuminated, and 
dee = 


* See also V. Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, p. 254, and t. iii, p. 6. It is worthy of re- 
Mark, that the small island of 1720 has reached exactly the same height as Sabrina 
attained in 18] 
an 1000 feet high. Unfortunately, the depth of 

But it certainly offers an example of one of the 
atest elevations of the present day. 
= ii i ieni ardentium insule Jave, &c. disputatio geologica. 


Auctore van der Boon Mesch. Lugduni Batav. 1826 


270 Natural History of Volcanos and Farthquakes. 


throwing up so many red hot stones and fragments of rock, as to 
form a mountain within twenty-four hours.* 
The last occurrence we shall mention, and which is still fresh 
in our memory, namely, the volcanic island which appeared in 
July, 1830, in the Mediterranean, between the southwest coast 
of Sicily and Pantellaria, shews, that these phenomena may take 
place in two different ways. New islands may be formed in the 
sea either by the elevation of solid rock, by violently breaking 
and raising up the original strata, or merely by the heaping up of 
the loose masses which are ejected. This event was of the lat- 
ter description, and in its ephemeral existence exactly resembles 
above-mentioned case in the Azores. Under which of these 
forms such volcanic productions appear, may depend on the na- 
ture and thickness of the rocks to be broken through, on the depth 
of the sea at the place of the eruption, and the strength of the 
voleanic force. However, the visible part of this island may, 
perhaps, as is the case with many others, only have been the 
summit of a peak situated in the centre of a crater of elevation, 
which remained buried in the sea, similar to the cones of many 
land volcanos, which, if they had been situated in the sea, would 
have been unable long to. withstand the action of the waves, asis 
the case with most of these islands. Hoffmann,{ who approached 
very near to this island, shortly after its appearance, saw quite 
plainly, that it was nothing else than the edge of a crater, the 
walls of which were gradually raised above the surface of the wa 
ter by the materials ejected from it. From this crater vapors 
rose uninterruptedly with great violence, yet without noise, which 
were succeeded by the ejection of slags, sand, and ashes. The 
appearance of this island was also preceded by a noise resembling 
thunder, and by the elevation of a mass of black colored water to 
a height of eighty-two feet, columns of smoke rising at the same 
time to a great height.. The accounts leave us in uncertainty 
respecting one of the most important circumstances—whether 
fire rose out of the crater or not. However, Hoffmann and his 
companions are inclined. to’ the more probable opinion, that this 
voleano vomited no fire, and that what some observers took for 


aoe 


* Annal. de Chim, et de Phys. t. xxvii, p. 382. ; 
{ See, on the contrary, Von Humboldt in his Reise, t. i, p. 254, note. 
+ Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxiv, p. 75. 


ee 


Sie eee 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 271 


flames, was only the ferilli in the smoke.* Lightning, caused by 
the electricity excited by the rapid evaporation, was observed 
there, as it is during the eruptions of Vesuvius and other igneous 
mountains. At the end of December, 1830, this island, which 
was 2100 feet in circumference, and the highest point of which 
tose 210 feet above the sea, shared the fate of Sabrina, and dis- 
appeared. E'rom the bottom of the sea it had risen between 700 
and 900 feet ; and from what depth below, may be conjectured 
from the calculations previously given. : 

Thus, then, the rising of islands out of the sea, is a well au- 
thenticated fact, and if we should for a moment be left in doubt 
concerning the cause of this phenomenon, by the appearance of 
steam in the presence of the sea-water, yet the evolution of 
aqueous vapor from volcanic islands, enclosed on all sides by 
solid rock, seems to dispel such doubts. : 

Examples of elevations on land in historical times are much 
More rare. Of these we are only acquainted with the elevation 
of Monte Nuovo, near Puzzuoli, in 1528, which rose 400 feet in 
about three days; that of Monte Rosso, near Catania, in Sicily, 
n 1669, which rose to a height of 820 feet in about four weeks, 
and that of Jorullo, which rose to a height of 1480 feet above 
the plain, in one day, on the 29th September, 1759. 

These are also formed, like the volcanic islands, in two differ- 
‘it ways. The Monte Nuovo was formed by the accumulation 
of the loose masses ejected from the volcano, whilst mountains 
* basalt, trachyte, phonolite, &c. which are so abundantly scat- 
tered Over the surface of the earth, have been formed by the up- 
‘alsing of solid rocks.t : 

esuvius, or rather its cone, seems also to present an example 
of an elevation in the historic area. Its formation perhaps does 
Not go farther back than the period of the famous eruption of 79 
* &t the Christian era, in which Herculanewm and Pompeii were 
destroyed ; for ancient writers never speak of the mountain as 


#* WP: : i ; 
: Without exactly wishing to generalize, this circumstance is yet sufficient to 
ender us distrustful in judging of descriptions of similar phenomena in which 
a 

' °s are so often mentioned. F q 
ae Humboldt, Nouv. Espagne. v. ii. p. 290. See Burkart loco cit. vol. i, p. 


z The late investigations of Buch, Dufrenoy, and Elie Beaumont, show that the 
of | € Nuovo is a crater of elevation, therefore not entirely or chiefly composed 
O8e masses of ejected rocks.—Ed, New. Phil. Journ. 


272 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


consisting of two peaks, which they probably would have done, 
if the Monte Somma had stood, as at present, distinct from the 
cone of Vesuvius.* It is also remarked that the distance men- 
tioned in ancient writers, as intervening between the foot of 
Vesuvius and the towns of Pompeii and Stabiae, appears to 
have been greater than exists at present, unless we measure it 
from the foot of Monte Somma, so that this affords an additional 
probability, that the latter mountain was then viewed as a part 
of the former, and that no separation between them had at that 
time occurred. We may also be sure from the semicircular fig- 
ure which the southern escarpment of the Monte Somma pre- 
sents towards Vesuvius, that it constituted a portion of the walls 
of the original crater ; and Visconti, it is said, has proved by ac- 
tual measurements, that the centre of the circle, of which it isa 
segment, coincides as nearly as possible with that of the present 
crater. ‘There seems, therefore, little room to doubt, that the old 
mouth of the voleano occupied the spot now known by the name 
of the Attrio del Cavallo, but that it was greatly more extensive 
than this hollow, as it comprehended likewise the space now 
covered by the cone, which was thrown up afterwards in con- 
sequence of the renewal of the volcanic action that had been 
suspended during so many ages. This view likewise tends, as 
it seems, to reconcile the accounts which ancient writers have 
given of the structure of the mountain, antecedently to the pe 
riod before mentioned.t 

_ As for the mode of action of the vapors, it is indifferent whether 
they have to contend with loose and unconnected, or with melt- 
ing masses, only that the former are propelled into the air like 
cannon balls,{ and falling into a parabolic curve, accumulate and 

Ne a ee 


_* Daubeny, a Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos, «&c. p- 144, - Be 
also Von Buch in Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxxvii, p. 173. . 
1 See the Historical Notices given by Daubeny, loco cit. p. 145, and following: 
¢ V. Humb. (Reise, v. i, p. 226) calculates from the time the stones thrown . 
during the lateral eruption of the Peak of Teneriffe, on the 9th June 1798, arg 
in falling (which according to Cologan was from twelve to fifteen seconds, ree 


oning from the moment they reached their greatest height,) that they yes 
. ; ; $ mai 


tions made by other observers, give still greater heights. 
of such projections was observed at Cotopari by La Condamine (Voy 
teur.) He saw propelled laterally, a block of about 1000 square feet, 
of nearly 14 geographical miles, 


age 4 J Equa 
to a distance 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 273 


produce a mountain, whilst the latter remain at the height to 
which they are borne up by the elastic fluids. 

~ In elevations of the latter description, the vapor cannot escape 
through the uplifted mass. This mass is supported by the elas- 
tic foree of the vapor, cools gradually, and then remains, as it 

Were, wedged in between the strata it has broken through. But 
according to Von Buch’s* observations on Palma and Gran Ca- 
narta, it may happen, that the vapor bursts forth from the centre 
of the mass it has raised, and thus exposes its interior. Sucha 
crater would thus be the effect of the elevation of the island, 
for which reason he gives it the name of crater of elevation, 
(Erhebungs Krater,) to distinguish it from the craters of erup- — 
tion, by which true volcanos open a communication with the at- 
mosphere. 

Further, this philosopher has pointed ont,t+ that voleanie cones 
cannot be generated by the building up of streams of lava. He 
infers this from observations made by Elie de Beaumont, and 
Which have been already alluded to. This philosopher meas- 
uted the mean inclination of about thirty lava streams of E’tna, 
and of a great many of Vesuvius, aud found that a stream hav- 
Mg an inclination of 6°, or even more, forms no continuous 
mass. Such a stream inclines too much to be able to attain 
More than a thickness of a few feet. When its inclination is 
only 3° or less, the mass may be spread, and accumulated to a 
Considerable height.t 

astly, we have to notice the upraisings which are the conse- 
quences of earthquakes, and often extend to large islands and 

Whole tracts of country. Elevations of small compass, accom- 
Panied by partial depression, which is no doubt merely a conse- 
ence of the elevations, were observed before,$ and during]} the 
famous earthquake of Lisbon. Small elevations also took place 

uring that in Calabria. The commissioners who were em- 

Ployed to make observations of the earthquakes in the county of 

ignerol, relate, that the very day (2d April, 1808) when one 

WiGigge ll ats 


&e. 

ol. xx. p. 376, &c. Edin. New Phil. 
Journ. * and Description Geologique de la France, t- iv. 

§ Palassou Mém. pour. servir & !' Histoire Nat. des Pyren. p. 260. 

I) Philos. Trans. t. xlix. p. 417. q Jour. de Phys. Ixii, 1806. p. 264. 
Vol. Axxv1, No, 2.—April-July, 1839. 30 


274 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 4 


of the most violent shocks was felt, the masting engine at Tou- 
lon was elevated more than an inch.* This observation is wor- 
thy of note, as it shows that many effects of earthquakes may 
often take place at great distances from their seat, which, owing 
to their minuteness, may escape observation, unless casually dis- 
covered. For accounts of elevations of a more considerable kind 
in equatorial countries, we are indebted to Humboldt. The ele- 
vations in the island of Lancerote,t and those on the coast of 
Cumana,{ are of this kind. - 

The most remarkable instance of the elevation of great tracts 
of country of late years, is that which took place in Chili, on | 
the 19th November, 1822. For the account of this. important | 
phenomenon we are indebted to Mrs. Maria Graham, a well in- | 
formed observer.$ After violent earthquakes, which were felt 
through an extent of country 1400 English miles in length, and 
during which, it appeared as if the soil was suddenly raised and 
immediately sunk again, or as if the earth had an undulating | 
motion from north to south, accompanied with a noise like the | 
rushing of steam, the whole coast for an extent of about 100 | 
English miles, actually rose between three and four feet within | 
twenty four hours.|| In all the small valleys the earth in the 
gardens was disturbed, and sand and water rose in quantities 
through the cracks. The granite rocks near the coast, which 
are traversed by small parallel dykes, showed many narrow rents 
parallel to the old ones in some instances. The former were 
traced one mile and a half inland. The phenomena which most 
forcibly arrested the attention of Mrs. Graham, were evident 
marks of this coast having been raised ina similar manner by 
earthquakes in former times, and indeed to a height of fifty feet 
above the sea level. 

. ee 

* Idem, t. Ixvii. 1808. p. 308. t Relat. Hist. t. i. p. 188. 

t Ibid. t. ii. p. 279. 

§ Geol. Transact. v. i., Sec. Series, part ii. p. 413. Mr. Greenough felt dispo- 
sed to call in question the observations of Mrs, Graham, but she has defended her 


Statements very creditably, and has been supported by Mr. Meyen, Berghaus = 
nal. der Erdkunde, t. xi. p. 129. 


|| Fr. Place also confirms this account of the extent of the elevation, in meee? 
of Sc. No. xxxiii, p. 36. According to the reports in the Ann. de Chim. bg 
il nte 


i os some 
seconds, but they soon subsided again. At the same time a slight shock was felt 
inthattown. - 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 275 


The latter phenomena are so much the more important the 
more frequently they occur. We can, therefore, have no diffi- 


eulty in admitting most earthquakes to have been the causes of 


such elevations. Many coasts, as is well known, bear evident 
marks of having been raised in former times. Thus Vetch* ob- 
served on the coast of the island of Jura, in Scotland, six to 
seven terraces one above another, the lowest at the level of the 
sea, the highest about forty feet above it, all covered on their 
horizontal surfaces with pebbles like those which the sea still 
throws up. Mr. Smith of Jordanhill has also pointed out, that 
in a former time an elevation of the west coast of Scotland has 
taken place.t Peron noticed a similar phenomenon on the coasts 
of some islands in the neighborhood of Van Diemen’s Land. 
Many other instances of this kind occur, which present traces 
of elevations, some of them perfectly incontestable,{ others very 
Probable.§ In conformity with this, are also the assertions of the 
inhabitants of Olaheite,|| and those of the Moluccas, that their 
islands still continue to rise. 

The latest earthquakes, which, in the month of February, 
1835, destroyed a great part of Chili, (Conception, and many 
other towns,) offer also evident proofs of elevations occasioned 
through their agency. Some days after this devastation the sea 
did not rise to its ordinary level, the difference amounting to four 
or five feet in height. This difference decreased gradually ; in 
the middle of April it was still two feet. The fact that the isl- 
and of Santa Maria has risen nine feet, proves the actual eleva- 
Hon of the country. Near Tubul, southeast of Santa Maria, 
the country has risen six feet, and the island of Mocha seems to 
have risen about two feet. 

The gradual elevation of Scandinavia and Finland is pecu- 
liarly interesting. More than a century ago, Celsius called at- 
tention to this phenomenon, and endeavored to account for it by 
ere eld es 


Geological Trans. Sec. Series, v. i. part ii. p. 416. 
+ Phil. Mag. 
Wermerian Soc. vol. viii. part i. in the press. 


+ Dolomieu Oryktol. Bemerk. dber Calabrien. Frankf. u. Mainz 1789, p. 157. 


ii. P. 115, 

I Correspondence Astronomique, v. X. p- 266. = 
MW Poggendorff’s Ann. t. ii. p. 444, according to Prof. Reinwardt. 
Naatical Magazine, No, 49 and 51.. March and June, 18936. 


v. x. p. 136; Jameson’s Phil. Journal, vol. xxv. p. 378; and Mem. 


rochi in Biblioteca Italiana 1821. Sept. Breislak Reisen in Campanien, t. 
1 - 


276 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


a gradual sinking of the level of the Baltic. Playfair,* how- 
ever, remarked, as early as the year 1802, that an elevation of 
the land may be assigned as the cause of this phenomenon with 
more probability than a sinking of the water. This supposition, 
he thinks, accords with Hutton’s theory, according to which the 
continents have been actually raised by subterraneous powers, 
and are even now supported by them in their place. Lastly, Von 
Buch,+ without having seen Playfair’s work, gave his opinion, 
“that the whole country, from Frederickshall in Sweden to Abo 
in Finland, is in the act of rising slowly and insensibly.” The 
rising of the Gulf of Bothnia amounts, according to the obser 
vations communicated by Hillstrém, from 3.71 to 4.61 feet ; on 
an average 4.26 feet during a century.{ Beds of sea-shells, 


found sometimes 200 feet above the present level of the sea, as, — 


for instance, on the sea-coast and on the islands of Uddevalla, 
as also on all the sea-coasts of the south of Norway, and which 
sea-shells consist of such kinds as are still found living at these 
places in the sea, prove how much the level of the Baltic has 
changed even during the time that the present testacea have M- 
habited it.§ But the rising seems to be very unequal at various 
places. In the north it is more considerable than in the south. 
On the eastern coast of the Danish islands of Méen and See 
land, Lyell|| found no indication of a recent elevation of land. 
The first place along the whole coast of the Baltic, where an 
elevation is said to have taken place, is the town of Calmar. 
Beyond the Swedish coast, on the coast of Finland, the inhab- 
itants are perfectly convinced, either that the water sinks or the 
land rises. This remarkable phenomenon has excited a general 
interest among the Swedish naturalists, and caused continual 
exact observations of the marks inscribed on the shores of the 
Gulf of Bothnia. Thus Nilson{ thinks he has found convile 
cing proofs that the most southern part of Sweden is sinking, 
whilst the remaining part is rising. He has also endeavored to 
See ee 


* Illustrations of the Huttonian theory. 

t Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland, t. ii. p. 389. 

{ Bruncrona u. Hallstrém in Poggend. Ann. t. ii. p. 308. 

§ Berzelius Jahresbericht, 1426 92. 

|| Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxxviii, p. 64. és 

I Berzelius Jahresbericht, No. 18, p. 386, and Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xlii, P- 
472, 


7 on 
err 


Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 277 


give probability to the supposition, that the sinking took place, 
and still takes place, not suddenly, but gradually. Forchham- 
mer* likewise alluded to similar phenomena, in order to prove 
that elevations in Scandinavia take place not only in different 
proportions, but that a depression is also going on. He infers 
from his observations, that the level of the coast of Denmark has 
Varied in a different proportion from that of the Swedish coast, 
which he ascribes to the feeble earthquakes that have been felt 
80 often in Sweden, but never in Denmark. He estimates, ac- 
cording to rough calculations, the elevation of the island Born- 
holm, to amount to one foot in the course of a century. 

If elevations of countries, in which volcanic actions are felt, 
and which are agitated by violent earthquakes, be produced, as 
is very probable, by the same causes as these phenomena, yet it 
is difficult to imagine these causes to operate in elevating coun- — 
tries where no such phenomena occur, or where, at least, they 
take place but rarely, or to a small extent. The latter is the 
case in the Scandinavian Peninsula. That region has no active 
Voleanos, no hot springs—even thermal springs bearing a tempe- 
Tature of but a few degrees higher than the mean temperature 
of the place, are considered as rarities ; whilst, in other countries, 
they are of very frequent occurrence. All this proves that the 
crust of the earth in this country must be very solid, and trav- 
ersed by comparatively few rents or fissures. 

Berzelius assigns as the cause of this rising of the Swedish 
Coast, the gradual cooling of the earth; and says: “Its diam- 
ter, in this manner, decreases, and the consolidated crust leaves 
either empty spaces between itself and the fluid mass, or sinks 
downwards. Being, however, of so large an extent, that fold- 
Ings and bendings must occur, portions must rise up on one side 
and sink on the other. This supposition seems to be suppor ted 

y the sinking of the western coast of Greenland, and of an 
island Situated in the Gulf of Youghall, a phenomenon which 
has been recently pointed out by Elie de Beaumont and Pingel. 
Kléden also has recently given much probability to the suppo- 
Sition of a sinking of the Dalmatian coast.t 

_ Oe ee ee Ter ye ee 

* Phil. Mag. ser. iii, y. ii, p. 309, and Poggend. Ann. t. xlii, p. 476. 

t Poggendorff’s Ann., t. xliii, p. 361. 


278 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


We shall endeavor to show in our next section what effect 
_ might be expected on the surface of the earth, if its solid crust 
should still continue to increase in thickness towards the interior 
by gradual consolidation of the fluid centre. Besides, I think 
that a sinking of the outer crust can scarcely be supposed to 
occur, but that it is much more probable that caverns should be 
formed at the moment when the fluid mass becomes solid. At 
least the latter effect was seen in fusing two basalt balls, two feet 
in diameter, in which many larger and smaller cavities were 
found. I shall allude to these phenomena in another section. 

If we take into consideration all that has been already said on 
ejections and elevations, (sowlevémens,) we shall be induced to 
adopt the following inferences. Masses of our earth, still in @ 
fluid state, may be raised through and above its solid crust. The 
rising of the lava in the craters of volcanos is a satisfactory proof 
of this circumstance. Solid rocky masses, strongly heated, may 
be pushed upwards during violent convulsions, and elevations of 
the original rocky covering, or be thrown up in the form of loose 
masses, more or less heated. The not unfrequent rising of small 
islands from the bottom of the sea, and the elevations (sowléve- 
mens ) actually observed to take place in the continents, are evi- 
dences of these operations. All these phenomena are effects of 
forces, which develope their whole intensity in a very short time, 
often ina few moments. But large islands, and even whole coun- 
tries may, in a very short time, be raised several feet, as was 
shown in the cases of Chili and Santa Maria. On the other 
hand, Scandinavia presents us with an instance of an elevation 
which, compared with the preceding, takes place with extraordi- 
nary slowness. 

Besides all these elevations which have been actually observed; 
other appearances occur, which lead us to infer that elevations 
have taken place previous to the existence of any record. e 
are the elevations of old volcanic masses, as basalt, trachyte, he, 
their penetration into fissures, and the elevation of whole systems 
of mountains. In regard to the first, the conclusion may, 2S has 
been already shown, be considered as well founded as it is ge" 
erally possible to be, when drawn from phenomena which have 
taken place before any records were in existence. The similarity 
between these phenomena, and those which have taken, and st 
take place, before our eyes, render it extremely probable that they 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 279 


were produced by forces which were in operation for a very short 
period only. Changes in the contiguous rocks, and the imbed- 
ment of fragments of them in the volcanic rocks, render it also 
equally probable that these masses were raised in a fluid, or at 
least softened state, and either rose above the surface of the earth 
in the form of conical mountains, or remained adhering in rents 
of the rocks. These phenomena, then, belong entirely to the 
same class as the elevations of lava in volcanic craters. When, 
on the other hand, no changes are perceived in the contiguous 
tocks, when these have been simply broken through and upraised, 
When the broken masses consist of acute-angled fragments of all 
dimensions heaped one upon another, then we cannot assume 
at the elevations took place in a fluid or softened state. 

Were elevations of this kind the work of a short space of time, 
ordid they proceed slowly? In vain do we look around us for 
some clew to the solution of this question.. From physical 
stounds we are led to the following conclusions. If fused rock 
come in contact with water in the interior of the earth, the wa- 
tery vapor disengaged, will operate, with the whole expansive 
force which it can acquire from the heat of the rock, in a short 
time ; provided that the continued formation of vapor be not lim- 
ited by want of water. It is the same process as that which 
lakes place in the glass-blower’s blow-pipe when he forms large 
globes, If, then, water acts on fused masses in a confined space, 
We have the conditions requisite for producing a rapid elevation, 
and therefore, asa general rule, we may regard elevations of fused 
ihasses and rapid elevations as co-ordinate phenomena. If, on the 
other hand, we imagine a solid rock deep under the surface, 
Whose temperature is far below. a red heat, then its elevation 
fan take place only when a considerable source of heat exists un- 
der the rock, which gives rise to the formation of vapor. But 
the more the heat of the vapor exceeds that of the rock, which is 
0 be raised and supported by it, the more will it become conden- 
Sed, and thus a great part of the effect is lost. If the condensed 
Yapor return to the source of heat, it will again assume the form 

Vapor, and thus a constant circulation will ensue. It is actu- 

Ya process of heating by steam. If the solid rock be a very 
bad conductor of heat, then that surface which is in contact with 
' Vapor, may gradually acquire its temperature, and the vapor 
thus attain its maximum of operative force. It naturally depends 


280 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 


on the weight of the solid mass, whether the vapor can effect its 
elevation, and by what elasticity. Although we must suppose 
that the elastic force of the vapor progressively increases, in pro- 
portion as the temperature of the surface of rock in contact with it 
rises ; yet, on the other hand, we must consider, that when the 
vapor, which had not yet attained its maximum of expansive 
force, has effected an elevation, then, a regressive effect, as re- 
gards duration of time, will ensue, because, by the elevation, the 
space which confined the vapor has become enlarged. Secondly, 
if the conducting power of the solid mass be greater than we have 
just assumed it to be, then the heat, which is communicated to 
the surface of contact by condensation of vapor, is as quickly dif- 
fused above, as it can be conveyed from the vapor below, and if 
the latter produce a continued elevation, the effect must inevita- 
bly be regressive. We can therefore conceive it possible, under 
the conditions stated, that the same force, viz. vapor of water, 
which, when in contact with a fused mass, developes its whole 
intensity in a short time, can produce only a gradual effect, when 
in contact with solid masses whose temperature is far below that 
of the vapor. We thus see the possibility of fused masses being 
raised by vapor in a short time, while solid masses may be raised 
very slowly by the same agent, and that the latter elevation may 
go on in a regressive ratio. Lastly, it is even possible that a grad- | 
ual elevation of a solid mass may continue, although the elevating | 
effect of the vapor has long ceased. Fr instance, if the subter- 
raneous heating by steam continue, and if the heat, communica- | 
ted to the surface of contact by condensation of the vapor, be | 
diffused above more slowly than it is conveyed below, then it is 
clear that the solid mass, supported by the vapor, will gradually 
be expanded. | 

These remarks have shown that the operations of vapor, aS 2 
elevating force, may be very various as regards the relations of 
time and space, and that its effects depend not only on its own | 
temperature, but also on that of the masses it has to elevate, 0? | 
their relative conducting power, and lastly, on the capacity of the | 
space within which its operations take place. 

We can therefore understand how the slow elevation of Sean- 
dinavia may be the result of the operation of watery vapor, taking 
place in a diminishing ratio, and how therefore this phenomenon 
stands in close connexion with the original elevation of tha 


naam 


Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 281 


country, which is principally composed of masses of igneous 
origin. We shall pass over the consideration of the question, 
whether this original elevation took place in a fluid or solid state, 
that is, whether in earlier times these masses rose suddenly and 
continued to rise more and more slowly as they gradually cooled, 
ot whether this gradually decreasing ratio has always existed. 
€ may, however, be allowed the remark, that the slow eleva- 
tion which still continues when the operation of the vapor, as an 
elevating power, has long ceased, may be regarded, according to 
What has been stated above, as the result of an expansion pro- 
duced by the caloric disengaged from the vapor during its con- 
densation. For example, let us assume that the solid crust of 
the earth in Scandinavia was 139,840 feet thick, that the ex- 
Pansion of this crust by heat takes place in the same ratio as in 
earthern ware ; then, an average increase of heat of 2°.9 R. du- 
ting the space of 1000 years, would be sufficient to effect an ex- 
Pasion of 4.26 feet in a stratum of the above-mentioned thick- 
hess, And this is the average ratio of the rising of that country. 
Be the cause of the elevation of Scandinavia what it may, 
this cireumstance is remarkable, that in the southern part of Swe- 
» where the country, according to Nilson’s statement, sinks, 
Secondary formations, viz. chalk, occur in great abundance, while 
m the north of Sweden, as well as in Finland, the gneiss-granite 
formation predominates. We must not, however, attach too 
much importance to the connexion which appears to exist be- 
tWeen the elevation of the northern part of Sweden and the prev- 
alence of the latter formation, as Nilson* says, the chalk also lies 
°n gneiss, and less frequently on greywacke. It is neverthless 
femarkable that the granite island of Bornholm, which is situated 
°PPosite to the sinking coast of Schonen, is still in the act of 
dea” according to the observations of Forchhammer above allu- 
€d to, 


As regards the sinking of countries, there is no difficulty in re- 
Satding it as the result of an elevation of neighbering countries. 
et We can imagine many causes, independent of such elevations, 
Which may produce depressions. It does not, however, lie within 
Ne scope of these remarks to enumerate these causes. 
2 yaa 


* Petrificata Suecana Form. Cretaceae, &c. 1827, p. 81. 
Vol. *xxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. ” 


282 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. » 


It remains to consider the elevations of whole systems of rocks, 
events which must have taken place prior to the existence of our 


records. ‘There is doubtless no difficulty in also explaining these 


phenomena through the agency of steam. Elie de Beaumont,* 
however, is of opinion, that these elevations are a consequence of 
the inequality between the cooling of the interior and exterior 
of the earth. We shall examine this subject, after pointing out 
the laws that prevail during the cooling of large masses of fused 
matter. 
To be continued. 


Arr. II.— Descriptive Catalogue of the North American Insects 
belonging to the Linnean Genus Srwinx in the Cabinet of 
Tuappevs Wittiam Harris, M. D., Librarian of Harvard Uni- 
versity. 


Te insects belonging to the order Lepidoptera have peculiar 
claims to our attention. In the adult or winged state they are 
among the most beautiful, and in their previous or caterpillar state 
are the most injurious of insects. Living while young principally 
on the leaves of plants, they are at all times more or less exposed 
to our observation, and too often obtrude themselves on our No 
tice by their extensive ravages, While it is comparatively easy 
to discover these insects and observe their transformations, the de- 
termination of their names and their places in a scientific arrange 
ment is rendered in many cases impossible, and in all exceedingly 
difficult, to the American student, from the want of suitable de- 
scriptive works on this branch of entomology. Having overcome 
these difficulties myself only at a great expense and much loss of 
time, it has occurred to me that a descriptive catalogue of our 
Lepidoptera might be useful to others, while it would serve to 
confirm the names given to these insects in my cabinet, and 
transmitted in return for specimens to my friends. My own Co™ 
lection has now become quite extensive, and contains @ large 
number of undescribed species from various parts of the United 
States. Passing by our Butterflies, nearly all of which have bee? 

fee 


* Poggendorff’s Annal. vol. xxv, p. 55. 


ies 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 283 


figured and for the most part described in Dr. Boisduval’s “ His- 
toire et Iconographie des Lepidoptéres de l’Amérique Septentrio- 
hale,” I propose, at the present. time, to offer for publication 
descriptions of the native insects in my collection belonging to 
the second grand division of the order Lepidoptera, comprising 
the Sphinges of Linneus. Should these be favorably received, 
they may hereafter be followed by descriptions of our Phaleenze 
or moths. The larve or caterpillars of many of the species are 
described partly from my own observations, and partly from the 
figures given by Mr. Abbot in his great work, on the Lepidoptera 
of Georgia, edited by Sir James E. Smith. My obligations to 
the gentlemen who have favored me with specimens will be 
found recorded on almost every page of this catalogue, and I beg 
leave to tender to them my most grateful acknowledgments, and 
‘ Solicit from them, and from others, a continuation of similar 
avors. 


Linneus was led to give the name of Sphinx to the insects in 
his second group of the Lepidoptera, from a fancied resemblance 
Which some of their larve, when at rest, have to the Sphinx of 
the Egyptians. The attitude of these larve is indeed very re- 
Inatkable. Supporting themselves by their four or six hind-legs, 
they elevate the fore-part of the body, afid remain immovably 

ed in this posture for hours together. In the winged state the 
true Sphinges are known by the name of humming-bird moths, 
ftom the sound which they make in flying, and hawk-moths, 
ftom their habit of hovering in the air while taking their food. 

hese humming-bird or hawk-moths may be seen during the 
Morning and evening twilight flying with great swiftness from 

Wer to flower. Their wings are long, narrow, and pointed, 
and are moved by powerful muscles, to accommodate which 
their bodies are very thick and robust. They delight most in 
the honeysuckle and scarlet Bignonia, from the tubular blossoms 
of which they extract the honey, while on the wing, by means of 

eir excessively long maxilla or tongue. Other Sphinges fly 
during the day-time only, and in the bright sunshine. Then it 
'S that our large clear-winged Sesie# make their appearance among 
the flowers, and regale themselves with their sweets. The fra- 
stant Phlox is their especial favorite. From their size and form 
and fan-like tails, from their brilliant colors, the swiftness of their 

ight, and the manner in which they take their food, poised upon 


284 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


rapidly vibrating wings above the blossoms, they might readily 
be mistaken for humming-birds. The A¢gerie are also diurnal 
in their habits. Their flight is swift, but not prolonged, and they 
usually alight while feeding. In form and color they so much 
resemble bees and wasps as hardly to be distinguished from them. 
The Smerinthi are heavy and sluggish in their motions. They 
fly only during the night, and apparently take no food in the 
winged state, their maxille or tongues being so short as to be 
useless for this purpose. The Glaucopidide, or Sphinges with 
feathered antenne, fly mostly by day, and alight to take their 
food like the Agerie, to which some of them bear a resemblance, 
while others have nearly the form of Phalene or moths, with 
which also they agree in their previous transformations. 


SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA. 


It was not my intention originally to give here the characters 
of the genera, but to refer the student for them to the works of 
Latreille and other entomologists. Upon further consideration, 
however, I have thought that the labor of determining our Sphin- 
ges by means of the catalogue would be much abridged, if a sy- 
nopsis of the families and genera were to be prefixed to it. 


Class Insecta. 


Animals with jointed bodies, breathing through lateral holes or spiracles, PTO 
° n 


Order Lepidoptera. 


The young, called larve or caterpillars, are provided with jaws, and from ten 1 
sixteen legs. They feed principally upon vegetable substances. The pup® eer 
no food, are incapable of moving about, are apparently without legs, these parts 
with their other members being folded up and firmly soldered to the body. 


Section I.—Papiliones. 


Antenne threadlike and knobbed or thickened at the end. Wings not confined 
by @ bristle and hook; all of them, or the first pair at least, elevated perpe 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 285 


larly, and turned back to back when at rest. Only one pair of spurs to the hind- 
legs in the greater number. Thorax moderate ; abdomen rather slender. Flight 

rv with sixteen feet; transformation in the open air. Pupe angu- 
a and fastened by silken threads, or ovoid, and enclosed in an imperfect co- 


Section Il.—Sphinges. 


Antenne thickened in or just beyond the middle, tapering at each end, and 
most often hooked at the tip; more rarely slender and nearly setaceous, with a 


The Sphinges may be divided into two tribes. 
Tribe L—Sphinges legitime. 


Larva colored, naked, for the most part horned on the tail, and feeding on the 
hed of plants ; or whitish, slightly hairy, not horned, and living on woody mat- 
mh can the stems of plants, Antenne of the winged insects tipped with a mi- 
® bristly tuft.* Palpi (except in the Ageriade) with the third joint minute 
‘nd indistinct, 
Tribe I].—Sphinges adscite. 
Larva, always colored, more or less hairy, never horned, feeding on leaves, and 
A sforming in a silken cocoon, which is fastened to the plants on which they live. 
ntenne of the winged insects not tufted at the end. Palpi distinctly three-jointed. 


The first tribe, or Sphinges legitime, may be divided into three families. 


Family I.—Sphingiade. 


Antenne fusiform and prismatic ; ending in a hook, and, in the males, trans- 
Yersely biciliated beneath ; or, more rarely, curved, and, in the males, bipectina- 


in the Smerintht. 


* TR Thee fet + Tot 
S 


286 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


ted beneath. Palpi pressed close to the face, short, thick, and obtuse, with the 
third joint minute and concealed. Body thick ; abdomen conical and not tufted at 
the end. Flight crepuscular. Larve colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which 
is sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot; they devour the leaves of 
plants, and go deep into the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the 
surface, under leaves, in an imperfect cocoon. 


The North American genera in this family are six. 


Genus I.—Smerinthus. 


Wings more or less angular and indented, the front margin of the hind-wings 
projecting beyond the upper or fore-wings when at rest. Antenne short, prismat- 
ical and fusiform, arcuated or curved near the tip, transversely biciliated or bipec- 
tinated beneath inthe males. Tongue obsolete. I granulated, wit the hea 
triangular, horned on the tail, obliquely banded on each side, and transforming in 

earth. 


the 
Genus I].—Ceratomia. 


Wings entire. Antenne elongated, abruptly ending ina short and slender hook, 
transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi horizontal and nearly cylin- 
drical. Tongue moderate. Abdomen longitudinally striped. Larva with horns 
on the fore-part of the body, a row of little teeth on the back, a long caudal horn, 
and oblique bands on each side; it transforms in the earth. 


Genus II.—Sphinx. 


Wings entire. Antenne long, abruptly ending in a short and slender hook, and 


transversely biciliated beneath i 


-~ 


Genus V.—Cheerocampa. 


Wings sinous or angulated. Antenne rather short and slender, generally srene” 
ted, tapering, and ending ina long hook; more rarely straight, with a short termi 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 287 
Genus VI.—Deilephila. 


in the males transversely biciliated beneath. Tongue moderate. Abdomen con- 
ical, pointed, and transversely banded at the sides. Larva elongated, not tapering 
before, and the head and first three segments not retractile, with a series of nine or 
ten round spots on each side, and a long caudal horn; transforms in the earth. 


Family Il.—Macroglossiade. 


and concealed ; short, thick, and obtuse at the end in some; slightly elongated 
and subacute in others. Body short and thick, or flattened a little; abdomen tufted 
attheend. Flight diurnal. Larve colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which is 
sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot; they devour the leaves of 
Plants, and enter the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the surface in 
a1 imperfect cocoon under leaves. 

In this family we have three genera, Pterogon, Thyreus, and Sesia. 


Genus VII.—Pterogon. 


Genus VITI.—Thyreus. 
Wings angulated and indented. Antenne long, and ending with a long hook. 
Palpi short, thick, and obtuse at the end. Tongue moderate. Abdomen ovoid. 
've elongated, not attenuated before, longitudinally striped on the back, 
obliquely banded at the sides, with a long and straight caudal horn: they trans- 
™ in the earth. 


Genus IX.—Sesia. | 


elongated, subacute, and forming a conical beak. ‘Tongue long. Abdomen short 


back, with a short, slightly recurved caudal horn: they transform in an imper- 
' cocoon under leaves on the surface of the ground. 


Family I1.—AXgeriade. 


Antenne arcuated ; either thickening to beyond the middle, attenuated and 
“Urved but not hooked at the end, and biciliated beneath in the males; or very 
slightly fusiform and almost threadlike, and simple in both sexes. Palpi elonga- 
ted, slender, distinctly three-jointed, prominent, separated and not pressed close to 
Me head, nearly cylindrical, covered with very small scales and almost naked ex- 


288 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


cept at the base, which is hairy, and pointed at the tip. Wings more or less trans- 
parent. Abdomen with a caudal tuft. Flight diurnal. Larve whitish, soft, 
slightly downy, living within the stems of plants, and generally transforming in a 
cocoon made of fragments of wood and bark cemented by a gummy matter. pe 
with the edges of the abdominal segments armed with transverse rows of 
teeth. 

The a aire a tsa in this family may be disposed in the genera Trochilium, 


£geria, and T 
Genus X.—Trochilium. 


Wings narrow, entire, all of them, or the hind-pair at least, transparent. An- 
tenn short, stout, arcuated, gradually thickened nearly to the end, which is curved 
but not Vinckid ; underside generally fringed with a double row of very short bris- 
tles in the inales: Tongue very short. ‘Body thick ; abdomen slightly tufted at 
the end. 

Genus ae ea 


ble row of — mention baa the males. Tongue long. Body slender; abdomen 
nearly or y 1, ending with a flat or trilobed tuft. 


Genus XII.—Thyris. 


a broad, subiriangular, more or less angulated and indented, opaque, W! 
small semitransparent spots. Antenne fusiform, but slender and only sigh 
thickened in the middle, arcuated, and simple in both sexes. ‘Tongue moderate. 
Body short and thick ; abdomen eonical, and tufted at the en 


| Tribe I .—Sphinges adscite. 


The species described in this ae may be disposed in three families, Ag? 
ristiade, Zygeniade, and Glaucopidide 


Family IV.—Agaristiade. 


Antenne straight, slightly thickened in or beyond the middle, and curved at the 

ip. Palpi elongated, slender, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with the ter- 

minal joint cylindrical, scaly or almost naked. -Win ngs broad, subtriangular. re 
hairy or tufted. Flight diurnal. Larva elongated, cylindrical, or enlarged @ 
behind, slightly hairy, transversely banded or spotted, and without a caudal horn. 


Genus XIII.—Alypia. , 


<7 re peter, sabtrianguter, entire, and opaque, with large whitish spots. An- 
elongated and slender, thickened very gradually from beyond — 
middle nearly to the tip, which is tightly curved, obtuse, and not tufted. Palpt 
long, porrect, sig with the first two joints very hairy, and the third joint «8 
lindrical, peels and obtuse, ‘Tongue moderate, and spirally rolled. Abdome co 
somewhat elongated, nearly cylindrical, frittged at the sides and tip with sh 
hairs. Anterior and intermediate tibiae _— clothed with hairs. Posterior bie 
with two pairs of pretty long unequal spurs 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 289 
Family V.—Zygeeniade. 


Antenne arcuated, abruptly thickened and curved beyond the middle, Palpi 
generally elongated, sometimes short, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with 
the terminal joint scaly or almost naked. Wings narrow, opaque, often spotted, 
the hind-pair rather small. Abdomen more or less cylindrical, obtuse, and not 
tufted atthe end. Flight diurnal. Larvae short, contracted, variegated with spots, 
slightly hairy, and not horned on the tail. 

Genus XIV.—Mastigocera. 
: Wings long, narrow, entire, opaque, the hind-pair quite small. Antenne simple 
in both sexes, filiform at base, suddenly thickened and fusiform beyond the middle, 
very much attenuated towards the tip, and ending in a long curved point. Labial 
palpi somewhat curved, extending considerably beyond the clypeus, separated, 


Side into a little tubercle. Legs long and slender; posterior tarsi laterally com- 
Pressed, and hairy on the outside, in the males, 
Family VI.—Glaucopidide. 

Antenne slender, almost setaceous, or very slightly thickened in the middle, and 
distinetly bipectinated beneath in the males. Palpi slender, more or | longated, 
at pressed to the face. Wings sometimes narrow, and sometimes widened, en- 
fire, and for the most part opaque. Abdomen nearly cylindrical, and frequently 

at the end. Flight diurnal, Larve cylindrical, hairy, without a caudal horn. 


Genus X V.—Procris. 


i 

‘0 nearly naked. ‘Tongue short, but distinct, and spirally rolled. Abdomen 

Sender and nearly cylindrical in the males, thicker in the females, and tufted at 
nd. Spurs of the hind tibiw two in number, and very minute. 


Genus X VI.—Glaucopis. 


“urved. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Caudal tuft minute or wanting in the 
steater number, Posterior tibiae with three or four spurs of moderate size. 


h From this Synopsis it will be seen that the divisions and arrangement which I 
= adopted, differ somewhat from those of the entomologists of the present time. 


® affinities or resemblances of the Lepidoptera, in their different states, are so 


290 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. L. 
SPHINGES. L. 


Crepuscularia. Latr. Clostérocéres. Duméril. Hétérocéres. 
Boisduval. (Part. ) 


Tribe I. SPHINGES LEGITIME. L. 
Family I. SPHINGIADA. H. The Sphingians. 
§ Alis angulatis. L. 

Genus I. Smerintuus. Latr. 


* Antenne transversely biciliated beneath in the males. 
L. S. excecata. Smith—Abbot. 

Fawn-colored ; fore-wings deeply scalloped and toothed on the 
outer edge, clonded and banded with brown; hind-wings rose- 
colored in the middle, with a large round eye-like black spot, 
having a pale blue centre, near the anal angle; fringes narrow, 
white ; thorax with a central lance-shaped chestnut-colored spot, 
the point of which extends upon the head. Expands two and a 
half to three inches and a half. Larva granulated, apple-green, 
with two short pale lines before, seven oblique yellowish white 
lines on each side, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds upon the 
leaves of the apple-tree, and upon those of Rosa Carolina also, 
according to Abbot, who (in his Insects of Georgia, p. 49, pl. 25,) 
has represented a variety of the larva of a yellow color, and greet 
ish at the sides, which are obliquely banded with yellow, and 
have two longitudinal rows of rust-red spots upon them. It en- 
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Pupa chestnut- 
brown, with a short obtuse anal spine. 

2. S. Astylus. Drury. = integerrima. H. Catalogue Ins. 
Mass.* 

Ciunamon-colored ; fore-wings angulated but entire, tinged 
with rosy white at base, with whitish wavy bands near the tip, 4 
bluish mark along the inner margin, and a tawny yellow spot oP 
each outer angle; hind-wings tawny yellow at base, with 4 
round black eye-like spot, having a pale blue centre, near the anal 
angle; middle of the thorax cinnamon-red, shoulder-covers paler 


* Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by T. W. Harris; appended 1 
Prof. Hitchcock's Report on the Geology, &c. of Massachusetts. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 291 


with a rosy white tinge, and a brown edge above ; abdomen with 
a longitudinal dorsal brown line. Expands from two and a half 
_40 two inches and three quarters. 

My Specimens, a male and a female, were captured at Cam- 
bridge on the Azalea viscosa. 

3. S. Myops. Smith-Abbot. = Rosacearum. Boisd. 

Chocolate-brown ; fore-wings sinuated and angulated on the 
outer edge, varied with wavy whitish and brown bands, with a 
white Z at tip, and a tawny yellow spot on each of the outer an- 
gles; hind-wings with abbreviated whitish and brown bands 
upon the front edge, ochre-yellow next to the body, with a round 
black eye-spot having a pale blue centre near the anal angle; 
head and shoulder-covers glossed with bluish white; a rusty 
brown stripe in the middle of the thorax; abdomen with a few 
tawny yellow spots on each side. Expands from two inches and 
three lines to two inches and six lines. Larva, as figured by Ab- 
bot, (Ins. Georg. p. 51, pl. 26,) apple-green, the head margined 
with yellow, and two rows of rust-red spots with six oblique yel- 
lowish bands on each side of the body. Abbot says that it eats 
the leaves of the wild cherry-tree, and buries itself in the ground 
to undergo its transformations. . Pupa deep brown. 

M. Boisduval has named and figured but has not described this 
Species, in the first volume of his Species Général des Lepidop- 
fetes, pl. 15, fig. 4; moreover the name given by him is subse- 
quent to that of Sir J. E. Smith, which is an additional reason 
why it cannot be adopted. 

** Antenne pectinated on both sides in the males. 

- S. geminata. Say. 

Rosy ash-gray ; fore-wings angulated and with a sinuous outer 
Margin, varied with transverse wavy rosy gray and brown lines, 
4 brown Spot and angulated band near the middle, and a deep 

Town semioval spot at tip; hind-wings rose-colored in the mid- 
dle, With a large semioval black spot including two pale blue 
Spots near the anal angle; thorax with a large central semioval 
brown spot. Expands from two and a quarter to more than two 
Mehes and a half. 

Tam indebted to the Rev. L. W: Leonard, of Dublin, N. H., 
for My specimens, both of which are males. The figure of S. 
%ellatus Jamaicensis, in Drury’s Illustrations, Vol. I, pl. 25, fig. 
2,3, very nearly resembles the geminata, but it has only one blue 
Pupil in the eye-spot of the hind-wings. Mr. Kirby’s S. Cerisit, 


292 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


(Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pl. 4, fig. 4,) is probably identical 
with Drury’s species. 

* * * Antenna, in the males, with the joints distinct and doubly 
bipectinated. . 

5. 8S. Juglandis. Smith—Abbot. 

Rosy gray, drab, or dusky brown ; wings indented on the outer 
edges; fore-wings with a dusky outer margin, a short brownish 
dash near the middle, and four transverse brown lines converging 
behind and enclosing a square dark brown spot adjacent to the 
middle of the inner margin; hind wings with two narrow trans- 
verse brown lines between two brownish bands; thorax witha 
central brown line; abdominal segments plaited and prominent 
at the sides. Expands from two and a quarter to three inches. 
The females are much larger and of a lighter brownish gray color 
than the males, with the square spot on the fore-wings less dis- 
tinct. Larva with the head small, and the body attenuated be- 
fore and behind, pale blue-green, with a long caudal horn, and 
seven oblique white bands on each side. When disturbed it 
makes a creaking noise by rubbing together the joints of the fore- 
part of its body. It eats the leaves of the black walnut, and en- 
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Mr. Abbot (Ins. 
Georg. p. 57, pl. 29) has figured a remarkable variety of the larva, 
which is of a crimson color, with the fore-part of the body and 
the oblique bands yellow. Pupa deep chestnut-brown, granula- 
ted, with six little tubercles on the head-case, a transverse row of 
acuminated granules on the hinder edges of the abdominal seg- 
ments, the last three of which segments are flattened beneath and 
angularly dilated at the sides, with the tip broad, truncated, and 
externally bidentate. 

The antennz of the males of this species differ from those of 
the preceding in having the joints distinct to the naked eye; and 
each joint furnished with two teeth or short pectinations on each 
side. Mr. Doubleday presented me with specimens, from Flor- 
ida, which differ from our northern specimens only in being of a 
darker color. 

* * * * Antenna, in the males, 

6. S. modesta. H 

Drab-colored ; fore-wings scalloped, with a transverse dusky 
band before the middle ; hind-wings purplish-red in the middle, 
deeper red next to the base, and witha blackish spot near the 
anal angle. Expands four inches and one quarter. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 293 


_ Ihave never seen but one specimen, which was much rubbed 
before it came into my possession. It is a female, with a very 
thick and robust body, and simple antenne, and probably is the 
North Americar representative of S. Tilia and Quercus. 
§ Alis integris, ano simplici. L. 
Genus II. Crratomia. H. 

I have been induced to propose a new genus for the reception 
of a single species, presenting characters, in the larva and winged 
state, which do not allow it to be included in the genus Sphinx 
aS now received. ‘The larva of this species, in the possession of 
horns on the fore-part of the body, exhibits a peculiarity which 
hitherto appears to have been unnoticed or- undescribed among 
the Sphinges. The name of the genus, derived from égarta, 
hor ns, and duia, the shoulder, alludes to this peculiarity. An 
analogous and still more imposing form is found in the larve: of 
the Phalene, belonging to the genus Ceratocampa. 

C. quadricornis. H. : 

Light brown ; fore-wings with zigzag and wavy brown and 
Whitish bands, dusky in the middle to the inner margin, the an- 
terior edge whitish, and a large white dot near the middle ; hind- 
Wings with three dusky transverse bands, and a broad blackish 
hind-border ; fringes dotted with white; head and a broad line 
®n each side of the thorax to the shoulders white ; shoulder- 
overs with three and abdomen with five longitudinal brown 

hes. Expands four anda half to nearly five inches. Larva 
Pale blue-green, longitudinally wrinkled, with a pair of short 
denticulated horns on the second segment, a similar pair on the 
third, two parallel series of little teeth on the first four segments, 
2 dorsal row of larger teeth extending to the tail, a long bluish 
Caudal horn, and seven narrow oblique white lines on each side 
of the body. It feeds upon the leaves of Ulmus Americana, 
and transforms in the earth. 


Genus Il. Spnrx. L. 


* Tongue-case of the pupa detached from the breast. 
1. S. cingulata. F. = Convolvuli. Smith—Abbot. 

Dark ash-gray, variegated with brown, body beneath white ; 
Middle of the hind-wings pink, with three or four black bands ; 
"ges of the wings spotted with white ; and five pink-colored 
“pots separated by short transverse black lines on each side of 


294 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


the abdomen. Expands about four inches. Larva, as represent- 
ed by Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 63, pl. 32) dark brown, with a dou- 
ble chain-like rust-red dorsal line, a paler lateral line, a series 
of eight hook-shaped yellowish spots on each side enclosing the 
spiracles, and a short curved horn on the tail. Eats the leaves of 
the sweet potato (Convolvulus batatas,) and enters the earth to 
undergo its transformation. Pupa with a long hooked tongue- 
case spirally recurved at its extremity. Inhabits the Middle and 
Southern States. 

I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston, 8. C., for 
a specimen. 

2. 8. Carolina. L. 

Ash-gray ; fore-wings with blackish wavy lines; hind-wings 
whitish in the middle, with four black bands, the two central 
ones narrow and jagged ; fringes spotted with white ; five orange 
colored spots encircled with black on each side of the abdomen; 
and the tongue excessively long. Expands about five inches. 
Larva apple-green, transversely wrinkled, with seven oblique 
white lines on each side, and a rust-colored caudal horn. Com- 
monly known by the names of potuto-worm and tobacco-worm, 
from the plants on which it is found; transforms deep in the 
earth. Pupa with along tongue-case, curved near the head, 
straight and touching the breast only at the end, representing the 
handle of a vase. 

3. S. Drupiferarum. Smith—Abbot. 

Pale reddish-gray ; fore-wings-with a dark brown band ex- 
tending from the inner margin to the tip, and crossed by slender 
black lines between the nervures ;* hind-wings with two trans” 
verse blackish bands; thorax dark chestnut, with the sides and 
the head white; abdomen dark brown above, with a slender 
dorsal black line and about five whitish lateral spots margined 
with black. Expands three and a half to four inches. Larv% 
according to Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 71, pl. 36) apple-green, with 
seven oblique lateral bands, which are violet above an white 
below, a line on each side of the head and the caudal horn vio- 
let. Feeds on the leaves of the Celtis and plum, and is trans” 
formed in the earth. Pupa, like that of S. Ligustr?, with a short 
tongue-case detached from the breast. 


: ; Z led 
* The veins, or elevated and branching lines on the wings of insects, @r¢ cal 
nervures by Mr. Kirby. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 295 


4S. Kalmie. Smith-Abbot. 

Rusty-buff ; fore-wings streaked with light brown, and with a 
narrow whitish band near the outer margin ; hind-wings with a 
harrow central and a broad marginal blackish band; fringes 
brown spotted with white; shoulder-covers white edged with 
brown; abdomen with a slender dorsal black line and short 
transverse bands alternately black and white at the sides; be- 
neath dull reddish white. Expands three and a half to four and 
aquarter inches. Larva, according to Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 73, 
pl. 37) pale green, with seven oblique yellow bands, edged above 
with violet, on each side, the caudal horn and a line on each side 
of the head blue, and the hinder pair of legs yellow. Feeds on 
the leaves of Kalmia latifolia, and transforms in the earth. Pu- 
pa with a short detached tongue-case. 

5. 8. Gordius. Cramer. 

Brownish ash-gray; fore-wings streaked with black between 
the hervures, with the anterior and inner margin dusky-brown, a 
White dot near the middle, and a large gray spot at base ; fringe 
Spotted with white ; hind-wings with a narrow central and a 
broad marginal dusky brown band, and a white fringe; thorax 
deep chestnut, with the sides and the head above whitish ; ab- 

omen with a central black line, and the sides ash-white trans- 
versely banded with black. Expands three to three inches and 
a half. Larva apple-green, with seven oblique white lateral 
bands, slightly edged above with violet, a rust-red caudal horn, 
and a brownish line on each side of the head. It lives on the 
apple-tree, and enters the earth to be transformed. Pupa with a- 
very short-detached tongue-case. _ 

- 8. cinerea. H 

Ash- ray ; fore-wings long, narrow, and entire, with five short 
oblique lines between the nervures ; hind-wings with two black- 
'sh bands ; shoulder-covers slightly edged with black above ; ab- 
domen With a narrow dorsal black line, and short alternate bands 
of black and dirty white on the sides. Expands four and a half 
‘0 five inches and a quarter. 

The specimens from which this description is taken were 
Talsed many years ago from larvee, which, at the time, i neglect- 
ed to figure and describe. ‘'T’o the best of my recollection, these 

'v® were found on-the lilac, and, with the pup, cor responded 
— hearly in form, color, and size, to those of the European S. 


296 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


Ligustri. The present species is remarkable for the length and 
sharpness of the wings, which are of a fine neutral gray tint, and 
for the prominence of the head and palpi. 

* * Tongue-case of the pupa not detached, but buried, and sol- 
dered to the breast. 

7. S. sordida. H. 

Dark gray ; fore-wings variegated with dark brown, dashed 
with a few blackish lines, and with a whitish dot near the mid- 
dle ; hind-wings with a blackish basal spot, and two broad black 
bands ; a dark brown line on each shoulder-cover ; abdomen with 
a dorsal black line, and alternate black and light gray bands on 
the sides. Expands two inches and three quarters. 

- Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to 
me, I judge from analogy that it belongs to this division of the 
genus Sphinx. 

8. S. Hyleus. Drury.=Prini. Smith—Abbot. 

Rusty brown ; fore-wings mottled with white, banded with 
jagged dark brown lines, with a white dot near the middle, and 
a spot of the same color at tip; hind-wings whitish with a nat- 
row indented brown band across the middle, and a broad one on 
the outer margin ; fringes spotted with white; a whitish line 
above the eyes extending on each side of the thorax; two lon- 
gitudinal rows of white dots on the top of the abdomen, and a 
series of short narrow white bands on each side. Expands two 
and a quarter to two inches and three quarters. Larva pet 
green, with six or seven oblique lateral whitish bands edged 
above with pink, a purple caudal horn, and a pale blue line on 
each side of the head. It feeds on the leaves of Prinos glaber 
and various species of Vaccinium, and enters the earth to be 
transformed. 

This insect is much like the Brontes of Drury, which, how 
ever, is a much larger species, more distinctly banded with 
white, &c. 

9. S. Plebeja. F. 

Gray ; fore-wings with a white dot near the middle, and five 
or six short oblique blackish lines between the nervures ; hind- 
wings sooty black, dirty white at base; fringes white, spotte 
with dark brown; abdomen with three black lines, one do : 
and two on each side, the latter enclosing a longitudinal series ° 
“es white spots. Expands three inches. Inhabits the Souther 

tates, 


/ 
i 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 297 


The only specimen which I have seen was taken by Prof. 
Hentz in North Carolina, and now belongs to the Boston Soci- 
ety of Natural History. 

10. 8. Coniferarum. Smith—Abbot. 

Gray; fore-wings with about three narrow and indented 
brownish bands, a spot near the middle, one or two streaks be- 
yond the middle, and the nervures near the outer margin brown; 
hind-wings dusky or blackish gradually fading into gray towards 
the base ; fringes spotted with brown and white; abdomen gray 
with brownish incisures. Expands one inch and three quarters 
fo two inches and three quarters. Larva, as figured by Abbot, 
(Ins. Georg. p. 83, pl. 42,) chequered with brown and white spots, 
With a dorsal whitish line, and a short caudal horn. It eats the 

ves of various kinds of pine, and enters the earth to transform. 
Mr. Leonard informs me that the tongue-case of the Pupa is 
short, and buried so as not to rise above the leg-cases. 

For my specimen J am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard, 
Who raised it from a larva found on the pine in Burlington, Vt. 
lu the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there is 
. larger specimen, which was taken in North Carolina by Prof. 
Hentz ; the bands on the wings in the latter are less distinct than 
M my specimen. é 

MOM. Bile. 1. 

Gray ; fore-wings slightly indented on the outer margin, with 
afew irregularly scattered black dots, and a blackish stripe ex- 
lending from the base to the tip; hind-wings rust-red, with a 
broad black hind-border; thorax with five longitudinal black 
lines, and abdomen on each side banded with black. In the fe- 
male the blackish stripe on the fore-wings and the lines on the 
thorax are usually wanting or indistinct. _Expands three and a 
Warter to four inches. Inhabits the Southern States, the West 
Indies, and South America. 

; In the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there 
'SAspecimen of this tropical insect, which was captured by Prof. 

“entz in the interior of North Carolina, where eventually the spe- 
“es may become common. According to Madam Merian (In- 
Stes de Surinam, page and plate 61) the darva, in Surinam, 
‘Ves on the leaves of a species of Psidium or Guava, 1s of an ob- 
‘eure brown color, with a black dorsal line, some small irregular 
White spots on the sides, and the head and caudal horn purple. 

Vol. *xxvi, No, 2.—April-July, 1839. 38 


298 Catalozue of North American Sphinges. 


The tongue-case of the pupa, from the figure, seems to be short 
and soldered to the breast. From the shape of its body and 
wings, this insect must belong to a very distinct group in the 

- Linnean genus Sphinx; but, without knowing more of the larva 
and its transformations, I do not feel authorized to separate it 
from the present genus. 


Genus IV. Puivampe us. H. 


The insects belonging to this genus cannot with propriety be 
included in the genus Cherocampa of Duponchel, or Metopsilus 
of Duncan, to which they approach the nearest ; and, therefore, 
I have considered it proper to institute a new genus for their 
reception. 'They, indeed, seem to form a characteristic and typi- 
cal group, peculiar to the New World, being found only in the 
United States, Mexico, the West Indies, and the tropical parts of 
South America. The larve feed chiefly on the vine and the 
plants allied to it, which suggested the name of the genus, de- 
rived from gem, I love, and céuacios, a grape-vine. In those spe- 
cies whose transformations have passed under my own obser- 
vation, the larve when young were furnished with a long slen- 
der caudal horn, recurved over the back like the tail of a dog; 
when about half grown, the caudal horn is shed with the skin, 
and is replaced by a prominent, eye-like, polished spot. The 
oblique spots on the sides of these larve slope downwards and 
backwards; this is also the direction of the bands in the larve 
of Pterogon ; but in those of all the other Sphinges the oblique 
lateral bands slope upwards and backwards. 'T'he pupa is elon- 
gated, attenuated at the fore-part, with a pretty long, robust, 

rough, anal horn, notched at the tip; the tongue-case is buried 
and soldered to the breast, and slightly longer than the wing- 
cases; and the fore-part of the abdominal rings is roughened 
with deep punctures. In the perfect state, the fore-wings are el 
tire, acute, slightly emarginated below the tip in the males, and 
almost falcated, with a sinous inner margin, and well-marked 
hind-angle; the outer margin of the hind-wings is undulated oF 
slightly crenated ; the shoulder-covers are large; and the abdo- 
men is short, thick, conical, ‘and usually immaculate. Madame 
Merian in her Insectes de Surinam, plates 34 and 47, has repr 
sented the transformations of three species of this genus; and 
two are also figured by Mr. Abbot in the Insects of Georgia, plates 

- 40 and 41. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 299 


LP. Vitis. L. 

Grayish flesh-colored ; fore-wings, except the anterior and 
outer margins, dark olive, with a broad stripe from base to tip, 
crossed by another from the middle of the inner margin, a small 
hook-shaped spot near the middle, and the nervures behind, of a 
pale flesh-color ; hind-wings pale green at base, with the inner 
and hinder margins rose-red, a black spot near the middle and a 
black transverse band behind; a longitudinal line on the head 
and thorax, the shoulder-covers, two broad stripes on the abdo- 
men, and a round spot on each side of its base of a dark olive 
color. Expands about four inches. Larva, as.represented by 
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 79, pl. 40,) pale pea-green, longitudinally 
striped on the top of the back and transversely at the sides with 
brown, and with seven oval, oblique, cream-colored spots on each 
Side. According to Linneeus and Mad. Merian, it lives on the 
Stape-vine ; but Mr. Abbot has represented it upon Jussi@a erecta. 
lnhabits the Southern States, South America, &c. 

This insect fades very much by age, which changes the flesh- 
colored portions to a pale reddish buff or nankin color. y spe- 
cimens were received from Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston, 
8. Carolina.* 

2. P. Satellitia. L. = Licaon? Cramer. 

Light olive, variegated with dark olive; fore-wings with an 
abbreviated band beyond the middle, an oblong patch on the ba- 
Sil half of the hind margin including a square darker spot, a semi- 
oval spot near the tip, and a triangular one near the hind angle, 
of a dark olive color, and two approximated brownish dots near 
the middie ; hind-wings with a black spot near the middle of the 
Mier margin, and a transverse blackish band behind, obsolete 
Rear the anal angle and ending there in a few small black spots ; 
2S dyes a ea iene, 


"T have received from Dr. H. B. Hornbeck, King’s physician, in the island of 
a Thomas, W.I., a species which is closely allied to P. Vitis ; and, as it is no 
Uescribed in any of my books, f am happy to describe it bere under the name of 

P. Hornbeckiana. és, 2 

Above olive gray ; fore-wings dark olive, with two silvery white stripes crossing 
*8ch other in the middle of the wing, the longest stripe toothed near the base of 
the Wing and obsolete thence to the middle, three of the nervures and a band on 
the Outer margin whitish a proximated black dots near the middle; hind- 
WiNgs on the inner cargti pink, with a large square olive-colored spot, dusky be- 
hing With a black transverse band ; an olive-colored line on the head and thorax 

© shoulder-covers and first segment of the abdomen olive, bordered with white ; 
"PPer part of the abdomen olive, with a central gray line; outer sides of the legs 
“Ml antenne white. Expands about four inches. Inhabits St. Thomas, W. I. 


300 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


a slender line on the head and thorax, the shoulder-covers, and a 
transverse patch on the top of the first abdominal segment, dark 
olive. Expands from four to four inches and three quarters. 
Larva, when young, pea-green, with a slender recurved caudal 
horn, and of the same color or of a clear light brown and without 
a tail afterwards, with six oblique broad oval cream-colored spots 
on each side of the body; feeds on the leaves of indigenous and 
exotic grape-vines, and on those of Ampelopsis hederacea, and 
enters the earth to transform. 
3. P. Achemon. Drury. = Crantor? F. 

Red-ash colored ; fore-wings with a few short transverse brown 
lines, and shaded with brown from the middle to the hind mat- 
gin, with a square spot near the middle of the inner margin, an- 
other near the tip, and a triangular spot near the hind angle, of a 
deep brown color ; hind-wings pink, with a deeper red spot neat 
the inner margin, a dusky hind border, and a transverse row of 
small black spots; palpi and a large triangular spot on each shoul- 
der-cover deep brown. Expands from three to four inches. Larva 
pea-green with a slender recurved tail when young, of the same 
color or light brown and without a tail subsequently, with six 
oblique oblong oval scalloped cream-colored spots on each side. 
It eats the leaves of grape-vines and of the common creeper OF 
Ampelopsis. 

This and the preceding species, in the larva state, are very in- 
jurious to our cultivated grape-vines. 


Genus V. Cue@rocampa. Duponchel. 
Metopsilus. Duncan. Deilephila. (section. ) Boisduval. 

This genus was established, in 1835, by M. Duponchel,* to 
receive certain European Sphinges the larve of which have the 
head and fore-part of the body retractile, the head being very. 
small, and the first three segments abruptly diminishing in size 
from the fourth, which gives to the fore-part of the body @ tT 
semblance to the head and snout of a hog. Hence the F rench 
name of these larvae, cochonnes, and the generical name proposed 
by Duponchel, which is derived from yorgos, a hog, and xis @ 
caterpillar. 'This peculiarity in the form of the larve seems (0 
have suggested to Linnzeus the names that he has given two 
AE Ge On sigue Gant ee 


* Godart and Duponchel. Lepidoptéres de France. Supplement. Tome Il, P- 


159. (1835.) 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 301 


of the species, to wit, porcellus, the pig, and Elpenor, the name 
of one of the companions of Ulysses, who was changed to a hog 
by Circe. In the year 1836, Mr. Duncan,* probably not aware of 
the previous establishment of this genus, pointed out its charac- 
ters under the name of Metopsilus, derived from jétwaor, the 
Jront, and yo, slender, in allusion to the form of this part of the 
larva. These naturalists, in separating this new group from the 
genus Sphinx, or rather from Deilephila, seem to have had only 
European insects under consideration ; but in America there are 
several species, which, so far as similarity of form and habits, in 
all their States, indicates a natural affinity, ought certainly to be — 
included in the same generical group, from which, however, they 
will be excluded unless the characters of the genus are somewhat 
modified to receive them. Believing the genus to be a good one, 
and susceptible of modification, I have changed the characters of 
tin the synopsis prefixed to this catalogue, so as to admit our 
American species. In C. Pampinatrix, Cherilus, and versicolor, 
the antenna are rather short and slender, arcuated, and end ina 
very long slender hook ; the fore-wings have the outer and inner 
Margins sinuous, so as to exhibit prominent outer and hinder an- 
gles ; the hind-wings have a sinuous hind-margin, and a promi- 
Nent angle near the tail; and the abdomen is rather short, 
*onical at tip. The darve of the first two of these species have 
the eleventh segment conically prolonged above, forming a base 
a very short slightly curved caudal horn, and the sides of the 
body are marked with oblique bands sloping upwards and back- 
Wards. They transform above ground, under fallen leaves, or 
slightly covered with grains of earth, connected by a few threads, 
80 as to form a loose imperfect cocoon. The pupa is short, thick, 
obtusely rounded before, with the tongue-case imbedded, indis- 
tinct, and nearly as long as the wing-cases; the tail is rather 
blunt, and ends in a long, slender point, which, under a mag- 
hifier, is found to be rough, and notched at the tip. 
4+ C. Pampinatriz. Smith—Abbot. 

Light olive-gray above, shaded with olive ; fore-wings with a 
dot near the middle, a transverse band near the base, a broader 

nd beyond the middle and a large triangular spot adjacent to 
“ach acute angle and almost forming a third band, of an olive 
Color ; hind-wings rust-colored, dusky behind, and gray next the 
elcap ee 


. Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library. Entomology. Vol. iv, p. 154. (1836.) 


302 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


anal angle; head and shoulder-covers dark olive ; and a white 
line on each side of the thorax at the origin of the wings. Ex- 
pands two and a half to two inches and three quarters. Larva pale 
green, with a longitudinal series of six triangular orange-colored 
spots on the top of the back and a darker green lateral line ; sides 
below this paler, almost white, sprinkled with rusty dots, and 
with six oblique green.bands; caudal horn short, bluish green. 
It varies in being of a clear light brown color, with the back 
bounded on each side by a darker longitudinal line, meeting at 
the origin of the caudal horn, the sides tinged with pink, and 
obliquely banded with brown. Feeds on the leaves of the grape- 
vine. Pupa clay-colored, sprinkled and punctured with black, 
and with the incisures of the abdomen black. 

Mr. Abbot, on plate 28 of his Insects of Georgia, has represen- 
ted this larva with the caudal horn too long and too much curved, 
and the eleventh segment not so much produced behind as It 
ought to be. This species, in the winged state, comes very near 
to Cramer’s Sphinx Myron, which, from the figure, seems 0 
want the spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and, according to 
Cramer, has a very short tongue, a character that does not apply 
to the Pampinatrir. 'The larva, above described, is one of the 
most injurious to our cultivated grape-vines; for, not satisfied 
with devouring the leaves, it nips off the fruit-stalks when the 
grapes are not more than half grown. I have gathered under 
single grape-vine above a quart of unripe grapes which had been 
detached thus during one night by these larvee. 

2. C. Cherilus. Cramer. = Azalew. Smith—Abbot. — 

Rust-colored ; fore-wings rusty gray tinged with blue, with a 
dot near the middle, a few spots between it and the base, and * 
very broad band beyond the middle, rust-colored; hind-wings 
rust-colored, dusky near the anal angle, with a whitish fringe; ® 
spot at the sides and a slender line on the top of the thorax, the 
edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal segments 
white. In the male the broad band of the fore-wings is marked 
by a pale and a dark zigzag line so as nearly to divide it into two 
bands. Expands two and a half to three inches. Larva, as ae 
resented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 53, pl. 27,) varying 12 color, 
being either pale green, with a narrow dusky dorsal line, 4 deel 
ish line on each side, a blue-green caudal horn, and the s! es 
obliquely banded with green; or clear pale red, with the lines 
aud bands brownish, and the horn chestnut-colored. Mr. Abbo 


i a ER a AT 
“4 
B. 


cm 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 303 


says that it lives on Azalea nudiflora, and that it spins itself up 
ina thin web on the leaves. Pupa like that of C. Pampinatriz. 
3. C. versicolor. H. 
Light olive, variegated with olive-green and white ; fore-wings 
with narrow curved bands of white and olive-green, and a zigzag 
white line at tip; hind-wings rust-colored, with the inner and 


" hind margin olive-green ; tips of the palpi, a line on each side of 


the head above the eyes, a longitudinal dorsal line from the front 
to the tail, and the edges of the collar and of the shoulder-covers, 
White ; two spots on the metathorax and the abdominal segments 
on each side of the dorsal line tinged with dark buff. Expands 
about three inches. 

Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to 
me, I have ventured to place it in the genus Chewrocampa. The 
palpi are rather thicker towards the tip than those of the two pre- 
ceding species ; the fore-wings are not quite so much emarginated, 
and consequently, their angles are not quite so prominent. The 
under-side is quite as prettily variegated as the upper-side; that 
of the-fore-wings being pale olive, tinged with deep buff near the 
hind-angle, with rust-red in the middle, and mottled and streaked 
with olive-green and white; that of the hind-wings olive-green, 
banded with white, dark olive, and buff. My specimen was taken 
Sitting upon the leaves of Azalea viscosa ; it was quite fresh, and 
seemed to have been recently transformed. 

Dr. Hornbeck has presented to me a species, from St. Thomas, 
fesembling the versicolor very nearly in color and form; but the 
Palpi are more promiuent, the antenne are not so much arcuated, 
and the terminal hook is much shorter. It evidently leads to the 
seus Deilephila. 

4. C. tersa. L. 

Grayish olive above ; fore-wings streaked from base to tip with 
humerous narrow dusky and pale lines, and with a minute black 
dot near the middle; hind-wings black, paler round the edges, 
With the anal angle and the fringe cream-colored, and a trans- 
Verse row of small wedge-shaped cream-colored spots near the 

ind-margin ; areddish white line on the sides of the head and 
thorax ; shoulder-covers slightly edged above with rust-red ; sides 
of the abdomen, and the body and wings beneath, rusty buff, 
Streaked and sprinkled with dusky olive-gray. Expands two and 
three quarters to three inches. Larva, according to Abbot, (Ins. 

'g. p. 75, pl. 38,) pea-green or brown, with seven white eye- 


304 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


like spots having a red centre and a black margin and connected 
by a longitudinal white line, on each side of the body, and a red 
caudal horn. It lives on Spermacocce Hyssopifolia, and, like the 
other species, is transformed in an imperfect cocoon which it spins 
above ground. Pupa clay-colored, freckled with dusky spots. It 
inhabits the Southern States, the West Indies, and South America. 
I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook of Charleston, S. C., and 
to Dr. H. B. Hornbeck, of St. Thomas, W. L, for specimens. 
The antenne are straight, with a shorter terminal hook than in 
the three preceding species; the outer margin of the fore-wings 
is not so sinuous, and the abdomen is much more elongated, slen- 
der and pointed. It may be necessary, hereafter, to institute a 
new genus for the reception of this and several other closely al 
lied West-Indian and South-American species. 


Genus VI. Detternima. Ochsenheimer. 


1. D. lineata. F. = Daucus. Cramer. 

Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a pale buff-colored stripe from 
the base of the inner margin to the tip, crossed by six white lines 
on the nervures, the outer margin ash-gray, the fringe and edge 
of the inner margin white; hind-wings rose-pink, with a white 
spot near the inner margin, a black band at base, another neat the 
hind-margin, and the fringe, white ; a white line on each side of 
the head above the eyes, and six lines, of the same color, placed in 
pairs, on the thorax; two rows of small black spots and a slender 
dorsal white line on the top of the abdomen, the sides reddish, 
with a short transverse black band on each side of the first ab- 
dominal segment, and a white band behind it, followed by @ lat 
eral series of alternately black and white spots. Expands from 
three to four inches. Larva pea-green, with a longitudinal series 
of nine or ten orange-colored oval spots encircled with black, 0? 
each side, and an orange-colored caudal horn. Feeds upot the 
leaves of the purslane and, turnip, and of various other humble 
plants, and buries itself in the ground to undergo its transforma 
tions. Pupa light brown. 

Contrary to what is usual among our Sphinges, 
broods of this species in the course of one summer. 
true Sphine lineata of Fabricius, described by him as a0 — 
can insect in his “ Systema Entomologia.” His. deseriptio? 
the thorax, “ strits tribus albis duplicatis,” applies exactly — 
insect, and not to the Livornica of Europe, with which itis © ten 


there are tw 
This is the 


ene, a 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 305 


confounded, and which has only four white lines instead of six, 
on the thorax. The larva of the latter, moreover, differs from 
that of our lineata. Dr. Hornbeck has sent to me from St. 
Thomas, W. I., specimens which vary a little, but are not speci- 
fically distinct from the dineata of the United States. 

2. D. Chamenerii. H. = Epilobii. H. (Catalogue. ) 

Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a sinuous buff-colored stripe, 
indented before, beginning near the base of the inner margin and 
extending to the tip, and a dark olive-brown tapering stripe behind 
it,a black spot at base, a white dash and a diamond-shaped black- 
ish spot before the middle ; hind- wings dark brown, with a trans- 
verse rose-colored band, including a white spot near the body and 
a deep red one before the anal angle ; inner edge of the fore-wings 
and fringe of the hind-wings whitish; palpi white below; a_ 
White line above each eye extending on the sides of the thorax, 
Where it is bounded above by a black line ; abdomen with a dor- 
sal series of white dots, two black and two alternating white 
bands on each side of the base, and two narrow transverse white 
lateral lines near the tip; segments beneath edged with white. 
Expands from two and three quarters to three inches. Larva 
green, somewhat bronzed, dull red beneath; with nine round 
cream-colored spots, encircled with black, on each side, and a dull 
ted caudal horn. It lives on the E’pilobium angustifolium, and 
(as Mr. Leonard informs me) transforms in the ground, without 
Making a cocoon. Inhabits New Hampshire. 

The larva very closely resembles that of D. Gali, as figured 
by Roesel, III, Tab. VI, Fig. 1,2. For a specimen of it, and 
for the insects in the winged state, I am indebted to Mr. Leonard, 
by whom they were raised. This species is the American rep- 
Tesentative of D. Galii, and is also allied to several other Euro- 
Pean species, such as D. Epilobii, Esule, Amelia, Tithymali, 
Dahiii, Euphorbia, &c.; but Iam satisfied that it is perfectly dis- 
thet from all of them; and the long description which I have 
Sven of it will render it easy to discover in what respects it differs 
tom them. Moreover it is a legitimate species, which is more than 
Can be said of all of the above-named European insects, some of 
Which are now admitted to be hybrids. Mr. Kirby (Fauna Bo- 


‘Teali-Americana, IV, p. 302,) describes a North American species, 


Under the name of D. intermedia, which, according to him, has 
the Stripe on the fore-wings of a pale rose color, and wants the 
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 39 


306 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


dorsal series of white dots on the abdomen; in other respects it 
seems nearly allied to the Chamenerii. When my Catalogues of 
the Insects of Massachusetts were published I was not aware that 
the specific name E’pilobii had been previously appropriated ; for 
the species to which I then applied it I have now substituted 
that of Chamenerii derived from Tournefort’s name for the genus 
E/pilobium. 


ano barbato. L. 


§ Legitine 
Family Il MACROGLOSSIADE. H. The Macroglossians. 
Sesiide. Stephens. Sesiada. Kirby. 


* Wings angulated and indented ; antenna tapering at the end, 
with a long terminal hook. 


Genus VII. Prerocon. Boisduval. 


P? inscriptum. H. 

Ash-gray ; wings angularly indented ; first pair with two dusky 
bands near the base, connected on the inner margin by a blackish 
line, a few undulated and zigzag transverse lines beyond the mid- 
dle, a dusky outer margin, a half-oval brown spot at tip, and a 
small deep brown patch including a white I near the tip; hind- 
wings reddish gray, with a dusky hind-margin; collar edged 
with brown; abdomen with two dorsal series of black dots. Ex- 
pands two inches. Inhabits Indiana. 

Of this species I have seen only two individuals, both females, 
having rather long slender and simple antenne, attenuated and 
curved so as to form a hook at the end. In the shape of the 
wings and distribution of the colors this insect nearly resembles 

_ some species of Smerinthus, from which genus it is excluded by 
the length of the tongue, which nearly equals that of the body: 
Pterogon Gaure, which I suppose to be the only legitimate spe 
cies of the genus that has yet been discovered in the United 
States, is known to me only by Mr. Abbot’s figure. 


Genus VIII. Tuyrreus. Swainson. 


1. T. lugubris. L. 
Brown; wings sinuated and slightly angulated on the outer 
edge ; first pair with an oblique streak and an eye-like dot before 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 307 


the middle, and a large triangular brown patch near the tip; hind- 
wings with two or three obscure transverse brown lines; male 
with a triple-tufted tail. Expands two and a half to three 
inches. Inhabits the Southern States. Larva pale green, with 
three darker longitudinal dorsal lines, nine oblique yellowish 
bands on each side, and a long, slender, nearly straight caudal 
horn. Mr. Abbot, from whose figure (Ins. Geog. p. 59, pl. 30) 
this description of the larva is taken, says that it feeds on Virgin- 
lan creeper, Ampelopsis Hederacea, and that it enters the earth to 
wansform. The pupa is elongated, chestnut-brown, with a short 
anal point. 

My specimen of this insect was presented to me by Dr. J. E. 
Holbrook. It is closel y allied to several South American species, 
figured by Cramer, such as his Fegeus, Gorgon, &c. ; and, in- 
deed, the Fegeus may prove to be identical with it. 

M. Boisduval (Icones Hist. des Lépidoptéres d’Europe nou- 
veaux, Vol. I, p. 15) refers the Gorgon of Cramer [?] to his genus 
Pterogon ; but, in my opinion, the genus T’hyreus of Swainson, 
besides having the priority in point of time, is entitled to rank as 
a distinct genus. Is the European Gorgon of Esper, Hubner, 
and Ochsenheimer, quoted in Mr. Children’s Abstract of the 
Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera (Philos. Mag. N. 8. Vol. V, 
p. 37), the same as the Surinam species named Gorgon by Cra- 
Mer? And if not, is M. Boisduval’s citation of Cramer’s name 
Correct ? 

2. T. Abbotii. = Abbottii. Swainson. 

Chocolate-brown ; wings very much indented on the outer 
edge ; first pair with wavy and oblique blackish brown streaks, 
and a black dot near the middle; hind-wings yellow, with a 
broad blackish brown hind-border ; edge of the collar and a trans- 
Verse Stripe across the thorax black ; abdomen banded with black 
at base, tufted at the sides of the hinder segments, and terminated 
by a triple-tufted rust-colored tail. Expands from two and one 
third to nearly three inches. Larva, as figured by Abbot, 
(Swainson’s Zoological Illustrations, Part 1, pl. 60) pea-green, 
With narrow dorsal brown lines, nine lateral oblique yellowish 
bands broadly bordered above with brown, and a long slender 
slightly curved caudal horn. It feeds on the grape-vine. Pupa 
chestnut-brown, with two yellowish abdominal incisures. 


308 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


This species is not uncommon in the Southern States, and I 
have one specimen which was taken in Cambridge, Mass. 

_ 3..T? Nessus. Cramer. 

Dark brown; fore-wings with a sinuous and angular outer 
edge, a blackish brown band across the middle, another near the 
outer margin, and a small rust-red spot near the tip; hind-wings 
rust-red, with a dark brown hind-border; abdomen with two 
pale yellow bands behind the middle, four rust-red spots on each 
side, and a triple-tufted tail. Expands from two to two inches 
and a quarter. 

Of this species I have seen only females, in which the antenne 
are similar to those of the same sex in J’. Abbotii. The palpi, 
however, are more acuminated, and approach in form to those of 
Sesia Pelasgus, &c. It ought, perhaps, to be included in anew 
genus, which, without a knowledge of the larva and pupa, | shall 
not venture to propose. 

* * Wings entire; antenne thickened towards the end, with 
a minute terminal hook. 


Genus IX. Sesia. F. (Syst. Gloss.) 


1. S. Pelasgus. Cramer. 

Wings transparent and iridescent, with a broad purple-brown 
border and nervures; antenne and palpi, above, blue-black ; 
head and thorax olive; breast and legs eream-white ; abdomen 
purple-brown below, ochre-yellow above, with the two middle 
segments and a spot behind them purple-brown, and three lateral 
white spots ; tip with a central fan-shaped brown tail, and two 
black tufts on each side of it. Expands from two to two inches 
and one quarter. 

2. P. diffinis. Boisduval.. = fuciformis. Smith—Abbot. 

Wings transparent and iridescent, with a narrow blackish bor- 
der and nervures, and a rust-red spot at tip; antenna and palpi 
black above ; thorax and breast covered with pale yellow hairs ; 
abdomen black above, with two longitudinal patches of yellow 
hairs, the two middle segments black, the next two covered with 
yellow hairs, and the tip with .a fan-shaped tail, which is yellow 
in the middle and tufted with black on each side. Expands from 
one inch and three quarters to two inches. Larva, according to 
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 85, pl. 43.) pale pea-green, reddish beneath, 
with a longitudinal dorsal line, a lateral pale yellow stripe, and # 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 309 


short recurved caudal horn. In Georgia, it feeds upon the Ta- 
bernemontana Amsonia, and forms an imperfect cocoon on the 
surface of the ground. Pupa brown with the abdominal incisures 
ochre-yellow. ; 

My specimens were presented to me by Mr. Leonard, who cap- 
tured them in New Hampshire, where the T’abernemontana does 
hot grow. ‘The larva must, therefore, be sought upon some other 
plant; perhaps it may be found upon the Apocynum. M. Bois- 
duval has named and given a figure of this species in his Hist. 
Nat. des Insectes Lépidoptéres, Vol. I, pl. 15, fig. 2; and, as it is 
evidently distinct from the European fuciformis, 1 have retained 
the name proposed by M. Boisduval, although he has not estab- 
lished a claim to it by any description of the insect. Mr. Kirby’s 
8. ruficaudis (Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 303,) is evidently different 
ftom this species, and comes nearer to the Pelasgus, to which, 
however, the description does not very well apply, in many 
respects. 


Family Ill. AEGERIADE. H. The Algerians. 
Genus X. 'Trocutium. (Scop.) Stephens. 
Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. 4igeria. F. (Syst. Glossat.) 


1. T.. marginatum. H. 
Black ; wings transparent ; first pair with a broad border, the 
tip, and a transverse band beyond the middle pale brown ; hind- 
Wings with a broad black fringe ; antenne black ; two longitu- 


_dinal lines on the thorax, hind margins of the abdominal seg- 


Ments, orbits, palpi, and legs, except at base, yellow. Expands 
father more than one inch and a quarter. 

This insect was taken in New-Hampshire, and presented to me 
by the Rev. L. W. Leonard. 

2. T. tibiale. H. 

Brownish ; wings transparent; first pair with a narrow border 
and an abbreviated band beyond the middle pale brown ; hind- 
Wings with a narrow brownish fringe ; antenne black ; orbits, 
two lines on the thorax, edges of the abdominal segments, and 
tibiae yellow; hindmost tibiee thickly covered with yellow hairs. 
Expands one inch and a half. The yellow bands on the abdo- 
Men are much narrower and less bright than in the marginatum. 

Found in New-Hampshire on the Populus candicans, and pre- 


‘Sented to me by Mr. Leonard. 


310 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


3. T. denudatum. 

Chestnut-brown ; fore-wings opaque, with a large triangular 
transparent spot adjacent to the outer hind-angle, a rust-red spot 
at base and another near the middle; hind-wings transparent, 
with the margin and fringe brown, and a rust-red costal spot ; 
orbits, edges of the collar, incisures of the abdomen, tibia, and 
tarsi dull yellow; antenna brownish above, rust-yellow at tip 
arid beneath. Expands from one inch and a quarter to more than 
one inch and a half. The transparent spots at the tips of the 
fore-wings have the appearance of being caused by the removal 
of the colored scales. 

The specimens, from which the descriptions of these three spe- 
cies are drawn up, had become somewhat oily, and it is possible 
that some of their characteristic markings may have become ob- 
literated. 

Genus XI. AScerta. F. (Syst. Glossat. ) 


Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. T'rochilium. Scopoli. 


1. 4. tricincta. H. (Catalogue. ) : 

Blue-black ; fore-wings opaque ; hind-wings transparent, with 
the border, fringe, and a short transverse line near the middle 
black ; palpi at tip, collar, a spot on each shoulder, and three 
bands on the abdomen yellow; antennz short, black; four pos 
terior tibiae banded with orange ; tarsi yellow, tipped with black ; 
tail flat, with two longitudinal yellow lines. Expands from one 
inch to one inch and two lines. : 

This species seems to come near to the European Asiliforms ; 
but the male has only three yellow abdominal bands; while 2 
the Asiliformis there are five bands in the male sex. The am 
tennz are shorter and thicker than in the following species, and 
are furnished beneath with a double row of short pectinations oF 
teeth, which are thickly fringed with hairs. "The sexes wer 
captured together upon the common tansy. 

2. 42. Cucurbite. H. (New-England Farmer.) 

Fore-wings opaque, lustrous olive-brown ; hind-wings transp@ 
rent, with the margin and fringe brown; antennz greenish black ; 
palpi pale yellow, with a little black tuft near the tip; thorax 
olive ; abdomen deep orange, with a transverse basal black band, 
and a longitudinal row of five or six black spots; tibie and tarst 
of the hind-legs thickly fringed on the inside with black, and 0” 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 311 


the outside with long orange-colored hairs; spurs covered with 
white hairs. Expands from thirteen to fifteen lines. Larva, 
similar in form and color to those of other species of the genus, 
lives in the pith of squash and pumpkin vines, which it leaves at 
the root, and forms in the ground a cocoon composed of grains of 
earth cemented by a gummy matter. Pupa, by the aid of the 
abdominal denticulations, almost entirely excluded from the co- 
coon during the last transformation. 

The sudden death of the squash-vines, during midsummer, is 
occasioned by the ravages of the larva of this insect. For further 
Particulars relating to it, a communication, by the author, in the 
New-England Farmer, Vol. VIII, p. 33, for 1828, may be con- 
sulted. This species seems to be closely allied to, but sufficiently 
distinct from the tibialis of Drury, and the Bombiliformis of 

ramer. 

3. Ai. caudata. H. = fulvicornis. H.* (Catalogue.) 

Brown ; male with the fore-wings transparent from the base to 
the middle ; hind-wings transparent, with a brownish border, 
fringe, and subcostal spot ; antenne, palpi, collar, and tarsi tawny 
Yellow ; hind-legs yellow, end of the tibie and first tarsal joint 
fringed with tawny yellow and black hairs; tail slender, cylindri- 
cal, nearly as long as the body, tawny yellow, with a little black 
tuft on each side at base. The female differs from the male in hav- 
ing the fore-wings entirely opaque; the hind-legs black, with a 
Tusty spot in the middle of the tibize, and fringed with black ; cau- 
dal tuft of the ordinary form and size. Expands from one inch 
10 one inch and three lines. Larva inhabits the stems of our 
Indigenous currant, Ribes Floridum. , 

The Zyzena caudata, of Fabricius, has a somewhat similar 
fail, but does not belong to the genus 4igeria. 

- 4B. Syringe. H. 

Brown ; fore-wings with a transparent line at base ; hind-wings 
transparent, with a brown border, fringe, and subcostal spot ; an- 
enna, palpi, collar, first and second pairs of tarsi, and middle of 
the intermediate tibice rust-red ; middle of the tibie and the tarsi 
of the hind-legs yellow. Expands one inch and two lines. Larva 
"Ves in the trunks of Syringa vulgaris, the common lilac. 

PN oko ht inlt brie be eee se BOT 


be Credited to Mr. Say, in the Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by 
Mistake 


312 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


5. AZ. exitiosa. Say. 

Steel-blue ; male with the wings transparent, the margins and 
fringes, and a band beyond the middle of the first pair steel-blue ; 
palpi, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal 
segments, two bands on the tibie including the spurs, anterior 
tarsi, and lateral edges of the wedge-shaped tail pale yellow; 
Semale with the fore-wings opaque ; the hind-wings transparent, 
with a broad opaque front-margin and the fringe purple-black ; 
antenne, palpi, legs, and abdomen steel-blue, the latter encircled 
in the middle by a broad saffron-colored band. Male expands 
from nine to thirteen lines ; female from fifteen to seventeen lines. 
Larva inhabits the trunks and roots of the peach and cherry 
trees, beneath the bark. 

The larva is the well-known peach-tree borer, which annually 
injures to a great extent or destroys numbers of these trees. For 
the means of preventing its ravages, see Say’s Entomology, Vol. 
II, and my communication in the New England Farmer, Vol. V, 
p- 33. The insects above described, though very dissimilar, are 
really the sexes of one species. I have raised many of them from 
the larve, and have also repeatedly captured them, in connection, 
on the trunks of peach and cherry trees. 

6. 4. fulvipes. H. (Catalogue. ) 

Blue-black ; wings transparent, margin and fringes, and a trans- 
verse band beyond the middle of the first pair blue-black ; ante 
ne black, yellowish at the end ; palpi beneath, a spot on the tho- 


rax under the origin of the wings, intermediate and hindmost’ 


tibie, all the tarsi, and the basal half of the underside of the ab- 
domen orange-colored ; hindmost tibie somewhat thickened by 4 
covering of tawny hairs. Expands thirteen lines. 

7. Al. Tipuliformis. 1. 

Blue-black ; wings transparent, with the margin and fringes 
blackish ; the first pair with a transverse blue-black band beyond 
the middle, and a broad one at tip streaked with copper-colot j 
antenne black ; palpi beneath, collar, upper edges of the shoulder- 
covers, a spot on each side of the breast, three narrow rings sen 
the abdomen, ends of the tibie and the spurs pale golden yellow ; 
tail fan-shaped, blue-black. The male has an additional trans 
verse yellow line between the second and third abdominal bands. 
Expands from seven and a half to nine inches. Larva lives mu 
the pith of the currant-bush. 


i 
a 
4 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 313 


This destructive insect is nota native, but has been introdu- 

eed from Europe with the cultivated currant-bush. 
8. 42. scitula. H. 

Purple-black ; wings transparent, with the margins golden yel- 
low ; the first pair with a narrow purple-brown band beyond the 
middle and a broad one at the tip ornamented with golden yel-— 
low lines ; fringes blackish ; front and orbits covered with silvery 
| white hairs; antenne black ; palpi, collar, upper edges of the 

~ shoulder-covers, a narrow band at the base of the abdomen, a dor- 
| sal spot behind it, a broad band around the middle, the lateral 
edges of the fan-shaped tail, anterior coxe, sides of the breast, 
tibie and tarsi except at the joints, with the spurs golden yellow. 
_ Expands about eight lines. 

This beautiful little species is easily distinguished by the prev- 
| alence of yellow on the under-side of the body and legs. 


9. 42. Pyri. H. (New-England Farmer. ) 

Purple-black ; Wings transparent, with the margins, a narrow 
band beyond the middle of the first pair, and a broad one at tip 
Purple-black, the latter streaked with brassy yellow; antenne 
blackish ; palpi beneath, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers, a 
broad band across the middle of the abdomen, a narrow one be- 
fore it, an indistinct transverse line at base, the posterior half of 
the abdomen beneath, the sides of the breast, anterior coxe, legs 

except the joints of the tibie, and the lateral edges of the wedge- 

| shaped tail golden yellow. Expands six lines anda half. Larva 

ves under the bark of the pear-tree. 

For some further particulars respecting this species, see my 
ommunication in the New-England Farmer, Vol. LX. p. 2, 1830. 
__M. Edward Doubleday presented me with a new species of 
4igeria which he captured in Florida, and Dr. J. W. Randall has 
Still another which was taken in Massachusetts. 'T'o these gen- 

*men belongs the right of first naming and describing these spe- 
“les which they have discovered, and I do not feel myself author- 
ized to anticipate them. 

Genus XIL Tyrts. Illiger. 
T. maculata. H. (Catalogue.) 

Brownish black, sprinkled with rust-yellow dots ; hind-mar- 
8s of the wings deeply scalloped, with the edges of the inden- 
‘ations white ; each of the wings with a transparent white spot, 
Vol. xxxv1, No, 2—April-July, 1839. 0 


314 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


which in the fore-wings is nearly oval and slightly narrowed in 
the middle, in the hind-wings larger, kidney-shaped and almost 
divided in two; palpi beneath, a spot before the anterior coxe, 
the tips of the tarsal joints above, and the hind-edges of the last 
three or four abdominal segments white. Expands from six to 
eight lines.» - 

This species comes very near to the fenestrata of Europe, but 
is sufficiently distinct from it. 

Mr. Doubleday has presented to me a much larger species of 
Thyris, which was captured by him in Florida, and was new to 
my collection. There isa figure of it in M. Boisduval’s Hist. 
Nat. Ins. Lépidopt. Vol. I, pl. 14, where it is named T. lugubris. 
This name has not yet received the proper sanction of a descrip- 
tion; but, taking into consideration the circumstances under 
which this nondescript came into my possession, I do not think 
proper to describe it myself at this time. 


Tribe I. SPHINGES ADSCIT®. L. 
Family IV. AGARISTIADAE. H. The Agaristians. 
Hesperi-Sphinges. Latr. Agaristides, Boisd. Zygenida. Kirby. | 
| Genus XIII. Anypra. (Hiibner.) Kirby. 
Zyzena and Sesia. F.  Agarista. Latr. 


A, octomaculata. F. 
Black ; with two sulphur-yellow spots on the fore-wings, and 
two white ones on the hind-wings; shoulder-covers and front 
sulphur-yellow ; first and second pairs of tibie thickly covered 
with orange-colored hairs. Expands from eleven to fifteen lines. 
Larva, as represented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 8, pl. 44,) eylin- 
drical, elongated ; yellow, with transverse rows of black points, 
slightly hairy, and without a caudal horn. It lives on the grape- 
Vine, and encloses itself in a cocoon in the earth. 

Iu some individuals there is a white spot near the end of the 
abdomen, and the inner white spots of the hind-wings are €0- 
larged and cover the whole base of the wings. Mr. Kirby (Fauna 
Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pl. 4, fig. 5,) has described another spectes 
of Alypia, a native of Nova Scotia and Canada, and names it A. 
MacCullochii. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 315 


Family V. ZYGENIADE. H. The Zygenians. 


“yzenide. Stephens. Zygénides. Boisd. 

Hitherto I have not met with any insects in the United States 
belonging to this family ; but Dr. Hornbeck has‘sent to me, from 
St. Thomas, a species which not only seems to be undescribed, 
but must constitute a new genus, the characters of which are 
given in the Synopsis, and those of the species in the note below.* 


Family VI. GLAUCOPIDIDE. H. The Glaucopidians. 


Procrides and Zygénides. Boisd. Zyganiade. H. Cat. Cte- 
nuchide. Kirby. Callimorphe. Westwood. 


Genus XV. Procris., F. 
Ino. Leach. 


P. Americana. = Aglaope Americana? Boisd. = dispar. 
H. (Cat. ) 

Blue-black ; with a saffron-colored collar, and a fan-shaped, 
somewhat bilobed, black caudal tuft. Expands from ten lines to 
Me inch. Larva, according to Prof. Hentz, hairy, green, with 
black bands. It is gregarious, aud devours the leaves of the 
stape-vine, and undergoes its transformations in an oblong-oval, 
tough, whitish cocoon, which is fastened to a leaf. 
£ Spree mene se 

* Genus XIV. Masricocera. H. 


t has an entirely different form from that of the 
type of the genus. These characters are so very striking, that I have ventured to 
A ae this new genus, although the transformations of the species are unknown 
ome. 


M. wespina. 1 
Light Tust-brown ; wings immaculate; collar, first abdominal. segments above, 
third below, and a triangular spot on each side, white; head, thickened part of 
the antennae edge of the thorax behind the collar, and a large triangular spot on 


, 


tach side of the second abdominal segment, black; breast black, spotted with 


W, f. 
The Zygena Ewnolphus of Fabricius, and the Pretus of Cramer are probably 


°ongenerical and closely allied to this species. 


316 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 


This insect appears to be the same as the one figured in Gué- 
rin’s Iconographie and in Griffith’s Cuvier, under the name of 
Aglaope Americana, Boisduval; but it is not an Aglaope, for it 
has a distinct, spirally-rolled tongue. 


Genus XVI. Guavcopis. F. 

The insects which, at present, I refer to this genus, belong to 
Zyzgena of the Entomologia Systematica of Fabricius ; whose 
Z. Glaucopis, if it was not actually the type, furnished the ge- 
nerical name which this author gave, in his last work, the Sys- 
tema Glossatorum, to this group of his former Zygene. Sev- 
eral of the insects, which Mr. Westwood, in his edition of Drury’s 
Illustrations, refers to the genus Callimorpha, without doubt be- 
long to the family Glaucopidide. Mr. Kirby has placed one spe- 
cies, after Lithosia, in a family which he names Ciéenuchide. 

ese insects seem to me much more nearly allied to the Sphin- 
ges adscite than to the Phalene of Liunzeus, with which also 
they agree in their diurnal flight, and in their transformations, so 
far as the latter are known. Although they do not appear to be 
strictly congenerical, I prefer to arrange them, for the preset, Un- 
der the genus Gilaucopis, in groups or subgenera, which, when 
the larvee and their transformations are better known, it may be 
proper to raise to the rank of independent genera. 


Subgenus Syntomeida. H. 
Antenne bipectinated, tapering at each end. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. 
Palpi short, not extending beyond the clypeus, slightly curved and hairy at base, 
ed with short close seales; terminal joint somewhat acuminated. , 


near the tip of the wing. Body cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and 
with a rounded tubercle on each side of the first abdominal segment. Spurs of the 
posterior tibiz four, small, and approximated. 


1. G. (S.) Ipomee. = Sesia Ipomea. Gmler, in letters. 

Fore-wings greenish black, with three yellowish white dots 
near the front margin and two others close together beyond the 
middle ; hind-wings violet-black, with a transparent colorless spot 
at base ; body tawny orange ; antenne and head black, the latter 
spotted with orange; a broad stripe on the shoulder-covers, a. 
transverse spot on the thorax behind, and the incisures of the ab- 
domen, black; legs violet-black; coxze beneath, and a spot on 
the thighs, orange-colored. Expands one inch and three quarters. 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 317 


-Ireceived this species from Dr. A. G. Emler, of Savannah, 
Georgia, and have adopted the specific name that he gave to it, 
and from which it is to be presumed that the larva lives upon the 
Ipomea. The Melanthus and Nycteus of Cramer resemble it 
somewhat, and are probably congenerical with it. 


Subgenus Cosmosoma. Hubner. 


Antenne long, very much attenuated at the end, and with a double row of very 


Short pectinations beneath. ‘Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Palpi long, curved 
upwards, and extending beyond the clypeus; the joints cylindrical, covered with 


small scales, a little hairy at base, and obtuse at tip. Wings elongated, hind pair 
rather small, and with the discoidal cell and nervures as in Syntomeida, Body 
cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and with a small tubercle on each side 
of the first abdominal segment, Spurs of the hindmost tibie four and of moderate 
size. 


2. G.(C.) Omphale. Hubner (according to Say). = Aige- 
ria Omphale. Say. 

Scarlet ; wings transparent, veined and bordered with black, 
the first pair with a small black subcostal spot, and the black bor- 
der very much widened at tip; head azure-blue ; antenne black, 
With the tips white ; two terminal joints of the palpi, and a line 
on each shoulder-cover black; four azure-blue dots in a transverse 
tow on the fore-part of the thorax; last four segments of the ab- 
domen black, with four azure-blue spots on each side, and a dor- 
sal black line extending from the middle of the second segment 
including in it seven azure-blue spots; belly and outside of the 
Second pair of tibie black. Expands one inch and a half or more. 
Tnhabits Florida. 

For a specimen of this beautiful insect I am indebted to Mr. 
Doubleday. It cannot belong to the genus Algeria, to which it 
Was referred by Mr. Say, in his American Entomology, where it 
is figured. As Hiibner’s works are not accessible to me, I have 
drawn up the characters of the subgenus Cosmosoma from the 
Specimen of the Omphale in my possession. Zygena Androm- 
acha of Fabricius and the Caunus of Cramer probably belong to 
the same subgenus. 

Subgenus Lycomorpha. H. 

Antenne rather short, curved, toothed or with very short pectinations on each 
Side, which give to the joints, when seen from beneath, a cordate or bilobed appear- 
ance. Tongue about half as long as the body, spirally rolled. Palpi short, hardly 
€xtending beyond the clypeus, nearly horizontal and but slightly curved at base 
and covered with large and rather loose scales. Wings not elongated, rounded at 
tip; discoidal cell of the hind pair long, extending nearly to the hind-margin, and 


318 Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 
closed by an oblique nervure. Body rather short, nearly cylindrical, not tufted 
behind. Spurs of the hind-legs three, two at the end and one beyond the middle 
of the tibiz. 

3. G. (Z.) Pholus. Drury. 

Blue-black, or deep indigo-blue, wings at base and shoulder- 
covers orange-colored. Expands fourteen or fifteen lines. Larva, 
according to Mr. Leonard, pale green, with yellowish spots run- 
ning into the green (in a specimen preserved in spirit, pale green 

-mottled with red;) head black, covered with a few short whitish 
hairs ; body sparingly clothed with rather long hairs, which are 
white at the sides and black on the back, the hairs arising singly 
from minute tubercles, those on the third segment the longest 
and with the others before them directed forwards. It eats the 
lichens on stone heaps and walls in shady places, and undergoes 
its transformations in a thin silky cocoon. 

This pretty species is often seen flying in considerable numbers 
in the fields, throughout the day, and at first sight would be mis- 
taken for a species of Lycus. 

Subgenus. Ctenucha. Kirby. 

Antennz pectinated on both sides in the males, thickened in the middle with 
extremely short pectinations in the females. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. 
Palpi slender, rising beyond the clypeus, néarly cylindrical and obtuse, covered 
with small close scales, and somewhat hairy at base. Wings in some rather nat- 
row, in others widened and rounded at the tip; discoidal cell of the hind pair 
closed by an angulated nervure. Body nearly cylindrical, enlarged a little behind 
in the females, with a few minute tufts at the sides of the segments, obtuse and 
slightly tufied at tip; first abdominal segment with a conspicuous tubercle on each 


Spurs of the hind-legs small, four in number, two terminal, and two beyond 
the middle of the tibia. . 


A. G.(C.) semidiaphana. H. 

Slate-colored ; wings rather narrow and subacute; first pait 
brownish slate, with the anterior edge clay-colored ; hind-wings 
semitransparent in the middle ; head and antenne black ; collar, 
front. edge of the breast, and base of the palpi, orange-colore 
Expands fifteen to sixteen lines. Inhabits the Middle and South- 
ern States. 

Dr. Charles Pickering, several years ago, gave me specimens of 
this insect, which he captured near Philadelphia; there are also 
specimens of it, in the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural 
History, taken in North Carolina by Prof. Hentz; and I have re- 
cently received several individuals, in fine preservation, which 
were found by Mr. Doubleday in Florida. This species some 


¥ 


sige 
OF 


Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 319 


what resembles, in form and color, the Thetis of Linneus and 
ury. 
5. G. (C.) Latreillana. = Ctenucha Latreillana. Kirby. 

Fore-wings dusky drab, with a silky lustre, and the anterior 
edge clay-colored; hind-wings rusty black; fringes of all the 
wings white, interrupted with black in the middle; top of the 
head, orbits behind, base of the palpi, front of the breast, anda 
Spot on the fore-part of each shoulder-cover orange-colored ; tho- 
tax, abdomen, and coxe, glaucous or greenish blue with a silky 
lustre ; belly and legs light brown. Expands almost two inches. 
Inhabits New-Hampshire and Maine, and, according to Mr. Kirby, 
Canada and Nova-Scotia. 

I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard for one specimen, 
taken by him in New-Hampshire, and to Dr. J. W. Randall for 
another from Maine. Although they are rather smaller than Mr. 
Kirby’s Latreillana, and do not exactly agree with the descrip- 
tion in the Fauna Bor. Amer. Vol. IV, p. 305, I think that they 
must be referred to his species. ‘This insect has precisely the 
Same antennee and nearly the same form as the ucopis of 
Drury and Fabricius, stated by the latter author to be a native of 
Carolina, and is, without doubt, generically allied to it, and prob- 
ably also to several other American species, such as the Pylotis 
and collaris of Drury. The following species, from the figures 
given of them, seem also to belong to the same generical group; 
viz. Glauca, Celadon, Circe, Celestina, Asterea, Cephise, Alec- 
ton, Cassandra, and Porphyria of Cramer. 

Subgenus Psychomorpha. H. (Catalogue) = Callimorpha. Westwood. 


With loose hairs so us to conceal the joints. Wings short, somewhat triangular, 
With the outer margins rounded ; discoidal cell of the hind pair short, closed by a 
sinuous nervure. Body slender, hairy at tip. T.egs short, hairy ; spurs of the hind 
libize three, slender, nearly concealed by the hairs. 
6. G.(P.) Epimenis, Drary. = Psychomorpha maculata. 
H. (Catalogue. ) 
Brownish black ; fore-wings sprinkled in spots with light blue 
Scales, which form a narrow band near the hinder margin, and 
marked with a large yellowish white patch beyond the middle ; 
hind-wings with a broad dark orange-red band behind the mid- 
The white spot of the fore-wings is indented towards the 


320 American Amphibia. 


middle of the wing, and on the under side there is a small trian- 
gular spot near the base of the wing, and a short transverse one 
beyond it which unites behind with the angular projection of the 
large white patch. Expands rather more than one inch. 

I captured this beautiful insect on the wing at midday, in Mil- 
ton, Mass., and have since seen it flying among the shrubbery at 
Mount Auburn, Cambridge. There is also a broken specimen, 
among Mr. Say’s insects, which was taken in Indiana. My spe- 
cimen is a male, as is also the one in Mr. Say’s cabinet, and they 
have the anal organs very large and hairy. Drury’s specimen 
seems to have been a female, for he says the antenne are seta- 
ceous. It is possible that this insect is not one of the Sphinges 
adscita ; but I place it here on account of its diurnal habits, and 
a certain resemblance, more easily seen than described, which it 
bears to some of the Gilducopidide. It does not agree generically 
with the types of Latreille’s genus Callimorpha. When my 
Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts was published, [ had 
not seen a colored copy of Drury’s Illustrations, and failed to re- 
cognize this insect in the uncolored one which I used. 

Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 1, 1839. 


Arr. IV.—On American Amphibia ; by Anm. Sacer, M. D. 


Detroit, (Mich.) March 5, 1839. 
TO PROF. SILLIMAN, 


* Sir—tIr the following observations upon some of the Americatt 
Amphibia, and description of some new ones, appear worthy of 
publication, you will confer a favor by inserting them in your val- 
uable journal. 

The structure and arrangement of the teeth, are of acknowl- 
edged classific importance in distributing animals in a natural 
series, and like most other characters are of variable importance 
in different classes, depending upon the constancy and generality 
of their existence, structure and arrangement. In the Class Am- 
phibia, Lat., Order Batrachia, Brongn., they are generally regarded 
as of generic value, (and here let me say that I have frequently 
verified the truth of the observations of Drs. Davy, Weber and 
others with regard to the biauriculate structure of the heart in this 


oH 


American Amphibia. 321 


class, by which the ordinal character of M. Brongn. is invalida- 
ted,) thus Rana and Hyla are distinguished from Bufo, by the 
presence of teeth in the upper jaw, and in two transverse processes 
of the palate, generally anterior to the internal nares, sometimes’ 
between, but never behind them, the toads being quite destitute 
of both. The Salamandrae possess not only teeth in both jaws, 
but also palatines, which according to most authors, are arranged 
in two longitudinal rows. This character does not agree with 
my observations upon our Salamandrae. Indeed so varied is the 
arrangement of the palatine teeth in those American Salamanders 
which have fallen under my observation, that if much importance 
be attached to this character, they might be divided into several 
Sub-genera. My observations have not been sufficiently exten- 
sive, to enable me to determine whether a classification founded 
upon agreement in the general dental arrangement of the pala- 
tines in this class, would be natural or coincident with one based 
upon a general correspondence in all the generic characters. Fu- 
ture investigation may settle that point. At all events it is believ- 
ed that the modifications in the arrangement of the palatine teeth 
from their constancy will be found to be of essential importance 
in determining species, the more so from the admitted fact that 
the color of these animals (a character much employed for this 
purpose) is extremely variable. I shall content myself by sub- 
mitting the result of my investigations. The palatine teeth of 
the Salamandra erythronota, Raf., are arranged in two longitudi- 
hal palatine rows, slightly diverging as they proceed backward. 
This is the only species that agrees generically with the description. 
The Sal. interrupta, Gr., has two longitudinal patches of palatine 
teeth, each composed of several rows, nearly in juxta-position cen- 
trally. In the Sal. agilis, there is but a single longitudinal patch 
of palatines composed of several rows so arranged as to form very 
acute angles pointing forwards. The Sal. variolata, Gill., has be- 
Side an armation of the longitudinal palatine ridge similar to the 
last, two partial rows on the transverse palatine ridge, interrupted 
inthe middle, curved backward and joined to the longitudinal 
Patch. Those of the Sal. maculata, Gr., are similar to the last, 
but the longitudinal patch has fewer rows. The palatines of the 
Sal. rubriventris, Gr., differ only from the Sal. variolata in having 
the transverse and longitudinal rows separate. The Sal. bilineata, 
has no longitudinal rows, and the straight transverse row has a 
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 41 


322 American Amphibia. 


wide central interruption. The Sal. Zwrida, has an uninterrupted 
transverse palatine row forming an obtuse angle directed forward. 
The Sal. subviolacea, Bart., corresponds with the last in having 
but a transverse row, but may easily be distinguished by this row 
being undulating with a slight central angle. The palatine teeth 
in all are curved backward and very acute. It will be perceived 
that these nine species may be divided somewhat into three groups, 
founded upon the possession of longitudinal or transverse teeth 
only, or both combined. In nearly all, the general structure of 
the tongue is similar to that of the Ranae, but is more closely 
bound down; the sides and the posterior extremity which is quite 
short and rounded, are free but not capable of being projected 
from the mouth as in the Ranae. 

In the Sal. lurida and subviolacea, it is almost perfectly bound 
down all its length. I would here remark that the expression, 
“tongue not attached at the bottom of the gullet but to the edges 
of the jaw,” found in the works of the most eminent authors, 
when applied to the Ranae, conveys an erroneous idea. _I believe 
in all the species of the restricted genus Rana, the tongue is com- 
posed of two muscles a hyo-glossus and genio-glossus, the former 
attached to the horns of the hyoid cartilage, the other to the an- 
gle of the lower jaw. Such is the structure in all the species 
of Rana, Bufo and Salamandra I have examined. In the male 
Bufo Americanus, Le Conte, as well as in the Hylae, there isa 
sac beneath the tongue opening by an orifice on each side of 
it; a fact not mentioned in any of the books to which I have had 
access. In the works of some of our American Herpetologists, 
the fact of the existence of the external branchiae in the early 
period of the development of the young tadpole, appears to be 
doubted. I possess many specimens illustrative of this fact, a8 
well as the development of the anterior extremities of the tadpole 
of the Ranae, previous to their protrusion. 

The following appear to be nondescript species: 

Sal. agilis, Nob. Palatine teeth an oblong patch, composed of 
several rows so arranged as to form very acute angles pointing for- 
ward ; curved backward ; length 23 in.; head 4 in.; tail 13 in. 
fore legs fin.; hind legs $ in.; head oval, flattish ; snout obtuse ; 
nostrils lateral, small, round ; eyes prominent ; body and tail round, 
the last terete, pointed ; toes minute, four anterior, five posterior 
Color of the head, back and tail above testaceous or lateritiouss 


American Amphibia. 323 


dotted with livid; the head so thickly dotted as to obscure the 
ground color; sides deep livid, spotted with straw color ; beneath 
straw colored, spotted with livid—sometimes the back as well as 
sides, uniformly deep livid with minute pale yellow dots; (a dif- 
ference not depending upon age, sex or season.) Skin smooth. 

Sal. Jurida, Nob. Palatine teeth a single transverse row, form- 
ing a very obtuse angle, pointing forward ; body somewhat gran- 
ulated, sub-quadrangular; tail compressed, three fourths the 
length of the body lanceolate, sub-acute ; skin beneath the throat 
folded ; color above dark olive brown ; beneath sub-fuscus ; sides, 
tail and beneath spotted with pale yellow. 

Dimensions.—Total length 4! in.; head and neck § in.; 
head § in. wide; body 12 in.; tail 12 in.; fore legs # in.; 
hind legs { in. 

Description.—Head rather large, gibbous, short, oval; snout 
quite round before ; commissure of the jaws extends to the cen- 
tre of the eyes; eyes large, prominent; nostrils minute, sub- 
ovate ; neck thicker than the body; skin beneath plaited ; body 
thick ; the spine forms a prominent ridge; tail compressed, linear 
lanceolate, somewhat obtuse at tip, the edges obtuse ; legs short, 
but broad; toes much depressed; head above smooth, shining 
with minute pores; body and tail somewhat granulated ; color 
above very dark brown, tinged faintly with olive; beneath yel- 
lowish brown ; an irregular row of yellow spots along the sides 
and inferior part of the tail; beneath irregularly spotted with 
the same. The whole abdomen and inferior part of the sides 
appear to have a pure pale yellow ground. When viewed with 
a glass, numerous minute depressions are visible which except in 
afew spots are bounded with dark brown; Iris dusky golden. 
Perhaps a variety of Salspicta, Harl. 

Scincus dateralis, Say. var? Perhaps a distinct species. 

Description—Total length 64 in.; length of head 1} in. ; 
Width 8 in.; head and trunk 2§ in.; tail 34 in.; form of head 
ophioid ; trunk sub-quadrangular ; tail round, terete; a single 
tow of obtuse teeth in each jaw ; no palatine teeth ; tongue non- 
€xtensile, emarginate at tip, soft, free ; nostrils near the tip of the 
snout, lateral, oval, bordered by a membrane; eyes dark, a rudi- 
mentary third eye-lid ; the true lid covered with tetragonal scales ; 
tympanum a little below the surface, meatus auditorius externus 
Tz in. long, oblong oval, transverse, its outer margin serrated an- 


324 American Amphibia. 


teriorly ; the anterior legs including the toes # in.; toes 5, free ; 
order of length 3 and 4 equal, 2-5-1; Ist, about half the length 
of 2d, which is one third shorter than 3d and 4th; nails all much 
compressed, deep, much curved at point and very acute ; posterior 
extremities 1,1, in.; toes five, much longer than the anterior — 
ones ; order of length 4—3—5-2-1 a regular gradation from ¢ to {5 
of an inch, the fifth opposable to the others ; nails as on the anteri- 
ors. Head covered with plates; scales all round, imbricate and 
wider than long; two rows of larger ones sub-quadrangular on 
the sides of the lower jaw and beneath it, a large triangular one 
beneath its extremity ; scales of the tail larger and wider in pro- 
portion to their length than those of the body ; the central infe- 
rior row much larger than the others ; toward the end of the tail 
the scales become sub-verticillate, the tip sub-acute ; 28 rows of 
scales surround the trunk; the scales beneath the toes sub-ser- 
rate, beneath the feet tuberculate ; anus a transverse slit; color 
above olive brown; head immaculate ; a narrow line of dark 
brown through the first lateral row of scales; another through 
the third, extending from the head to the tail, then approximating 
and passing on the first and second rows, one third the length of 
the tail ; on the neck an oblique line, between them; a broader 
stripe of the same color separates the back and sides, includes a 
row, and half the two adjoining rows of scales, and extends from 
the eye to the middle of the tail becoming narrower on the tail ; 
another somewhat obscure line of the same color, extends from 
the lower angle of the tympanum to the tail where it is lost; legs 
above of the color of the back with three irregular dark longi- 
tudinal stripes, the central one wider; sides and trunk beneath 
with a tinge of yellow on the latter; tail and legs beneath pale 
lead color. 
The species sometimes attains a size from 4 to } larger than 
the specimen from which this description was drawn. It proba- 
bly belongs to the genus Siliqua of Gray. Frequents houses. 


. 


Found, though rarely, in Detroit. 
This drawing represents the upper surface of the cas 
head. 


——=—IEI=— i. ae 
‘ 


Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 325 


Arr. V.— Translations relative to Bowlders and Cobalt Ores, 
Jrom the Néues Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geolo- 
gie und Petrefaktenkunde, herausgegeben von Dr. LeonaarDd 
und Dr. Brown. Jahrgang, 1838. Rev. W. A. Larnep. 


1. On the Recent Explanations of the Phenomenon of Erratic 
Blocks ; by Hr. Prof. B. Srruper. 


Tue wish expressed in your last letter of publishing in the 
Jahrbuch, my geological remarks upon the recent explanation of 
the phenomenon of erratic blocks, is the occasion of the following 
communication. 

After all the endeavors, observations, and speculations of the 
last ten years, we see the phenomenon of erratic blocks still veiled 
in a mist, which hinders us from taking a full and exact view of 
them, and which has not as yet permitted a general elucidation. 
Hence we are disposed to view every new theory with favor, and 
Wwe overlook at first its difficult points, though they may be not a 
few, because of the satisfactory explanation of others, on which 
we have hitherto labored in vain. : 

The floating or forcing of bowlders by powerful currents of 
Water, still appears to me, to afford the explanation, which best 
agrees with the facts, although at the same time I confess that I 
am not prepared with an entirely satisfactory answer to several 
admitted and recent objections. In order to hold up the blocks 
while floating from the Alps to the Jura, we suppose instead of 
streams of pure water, streams of mud and detritus, without being 
able fully to show what became of this smaller rubbish. In order 
to carry them over the deep Swiss lakes or the Baltic Sea, we 
assume a kind of lateral impulse, while we make the avulsion of 
the blocks cotemporaneous with the rise of the mountain and the 
Sinking of the sea: but, it is clear from examinations in Switzer- 
land, that the spread of the blocks must have been later than the 
formation of the present molasse-vallies,* which however we 
deduce from the last heaving process of the Alpine range ; that, 
Moreover, in the later epoch of the molasse formation, the sea in 


* Molasse is a term, descriptive of a soft green sandstone, occurring throughout 
the lower country of Switzerland.—Lyell, Principles of Geology, Vol. 4, p. 75.—Tr. 


326 Prof. Strider on Bowlders. 


the interior of Switzerland, had only a very small depth and al- 
ternated with dry land such as we now regard as low land, (tief 
land); and, finally, that the elevation of the Alpine chain could 
scarcely have been an instantaneous thrusting up of the whole 
mountain mass, in which the sea might have been slung on 
high with it, but a very complicated process continued through a 
long space of time.* The great depth of the Swiss lakes has 
ever been the principal objection with the opponents of that ex- 
planation, and the ease with which the new ice and glacier theory 
sets aside this difficulty, accounts of itself for the interest with 
which it has been received. The difficulty lies not, as I think, 
in carrying the detritous streams and blocks over the lakes. 
The water-course could do no more than force a part of the wa- 
ter of the lake, and, considering the small difference of specific 
gravity, the height and rapidity of the streams, hardly a very 
important part, out of its basin and mingle with it; had the 
stream at once poured itself out entirely over the whole lake, in 
that case the back portion of the detritus would flow on over it, 
as we see the upper water in our lake move over the deep, still 
water. The separation of the solid materials from the detritous 
water might to be sure raise the bottom of the lake, yet not 
more than we see the bottom of the molasse-vallies now elevated 
in many places by diluvial ruins, that is, at the highest one hun- 
dred feet. Nor is it difficult of solution why the basins of the 
lakes have not been entirely filled up by the later transportation 
of smaller blocks such as have occurred in part within the his- 
torical period ; for, originally these blocks were not, as is gene 
rally supposed, so naked and free, as we now see them, but cov- 
ered with thick coatings of rubbish. This appears very clearly; 
among other examples, in the immediate neighborhood of Berne. 
A row of low hills stretches in an arch convex to the west across 
the Aar-valley close to the west end of our city, which has 

its contiguous eminences for breast-works. In the late demoli- 
tion of the fortifications, these eminences which were universally 
supposed to be works of art thrown up on the common level of 
the ground, were penetrated to their center and it was found that 
they consisted for the most part of enormous heaps of Alpine 

GR eRe’, cites 


* The imbedding among the diluvial ruins of the blocks at Stratligen and Utz 
nach, of unchanged pines and firs, plants and insects of the present time in brown 
coal, appears to place the spread of this detritus at a very recent epoch. 


Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 327 


blocks, whose interstices were entirely filled up with smaller 
gravel and sand, which also occurred independently, in great 
masses, as well over as underneath and along side the accumula- 
tion of blocks. This chain of hills is manifestly the last remains 
of amuch more general overspreading of detritus, which 
been torn to pieces and carried away by later water-courses. A 
glazier-mound (Gletscher-Gandecke) it is not, as I at first suppos- 
ed, on becoming acquainted with the new veins, and Hr. v. Char- 
pentier himself is the person who corrected my mistake; as just 
atthe time of our visit to the diggings, clear traces were brought 
to light of orderly arrangement and a quiet subsidence from wa- 
ter. In the mean while, the difficulty, in which the masses of 
smaller rubbish place us, will be no reason in geology, which has 
grown hardened against difficulties of this kind, for rejecting the 
Whole theory of diluvial currents, in favor of which there are so 
Many other facts. Indeed we have only to suppose the original 
lakes to have been some hundred feet larger in extent than at 
Present, and then we have surrounding our lakes considerable 
Plains and broad valley flats, which the eye at once perceives 
arose from the emptying of earlier, much more extended lake 
basins, and which have in fact received very large quantities of 
that rubbish. 

The ingenious theory Hr. Venrrz has constructed, on the 
Phenomenon of bowlders, and which Hr. v. Caarrentrer has 
heen able with so much acuteness to bring into consistency with 
the more recent geological views, builds for the blocks a bridge 
of ice over the Swiss lowland and the abysses of her lakes and 
has them sledded down by the advancing glacier, in rows (tra- 
§en in Guferlinien) to its outermost limit, where they heap up 
IN ice-piles or glacier-walls. The glaciers, hitherto blocked up 
°n the back central chain, broke out from all the slope vallies 
‘pon lower Switzerland, for the most part overspread it, and then 
Mounted to a considerable height up the Jura. The rubbing of 

ice occasioned the jags and erosions often visible to a great 
height on the rocky walls of our slope vallies and which have 

therto been regarded as evidence of the ancient water-courses. 
And in order to support the assumption of so great a cooling of 
the climate, a general elevation and distension of the whole Al- 
Pine region and its contiguous parts is presumed to such a height 
88 to sink the mean annual temperature of the lowland down to 


328 Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 


oni 


that of Chamouni. This theory rests principally, if not exclusively, 
on observations made in the vallies of Valais, Savoy, and Vaud. 
The appearances in the Aar-valley are less favorable to it. We 
see around Berne not only the declivities on both sides of the 
valley but the valley-bottom itself covered with blocks, and these 
are not in any respect, as we have just seen, accordant with glacier 
ramparts. Moreover, on the plateau of Langenberg and Belp- 
berg, elevated nigh a thousand feet above Berne, bowlder almost 
strings itself to bowlder ; the whole surface of these hills, which 
ie in the midst of the Aar-valley, is thickly strewn with blocks, 
and although here and there we may suppose ourselves to have 
observed a linear accumulation like the Swedish osar,* yet is 
the direction of these ramparts usually parallel with the direction 
of the valley; they appear to be the remnants of an earlier de- 
trital coating mostly carried away by later streams, and not mo- 
raines.t Moreover, in the upper Aar-valley, in the region of 
Meiringen, exist facts, which if not in direct opposition, are yet 
not in the desired coincidence with the glacier theory. ere, 
too, we see no old moraine. The blocks occur at very different 
heights ; they have been transported high over the Brunig, indeed 
more than two thousand feet high over. the Aar-valley; we find 
them in multitudes at_the Scheideck-pass and at Zaun perhaps 4 
thousand feet above the valley-bottom ; then again at Riiti above 
Meiringen, which may be situated some hundred feet lower than 
Zaun; finally, almost in the valley-bottom itself, by Willigen, 
and on the Kirchet, and lower in the valley by Brienzwiler, Bri- 

enz, Oberried, &c. But the glacier theory seems to me t0 
"pressed with the most weighty objections on the side of physics- 
Supposing the present quantity of snow on the surface of Swit- 
zerland to have remained unchanged, while the requisite refrige- 
ration is derived from an alteration of the earth’s axis or any 
other source, still the question at once arises whether in fact all 
the vallies would fill with ice and then this flow together towards 
Switzerland in one enormous, almost horizontal glacier ? Lea¥> 
ing too unsettled, the mode in which the as yet enigmatical 
movement of the glaciers is effected, granting the hitherto gene 


: Oasar, elongated hills. Purtties, Geol. p. 208. In Swedish as is4 chain of 
hills, and asar is the plural form and is more properly written osar.—TR. — 

t Moraine, the rubbish brought down by glaciers and left after the ice has 
melted.—Tr. 


ee 


Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 329 


_ tally received explanation of Saussure and Escher, that it is by 


the pressure of snow on the heights falling down, to be unten- 
able, still we are justified in asking for analogies, in the coun- — 
tries where the state of things, which they assume, actually ex- 
ists. If it requires a fall of temperature of only 6° at the highest _ 
in order to secure the forming of glaciers at the foot of the higher 
show mountain ranges, why do so many Alpine valleys, whose 
annual temperature falls below the requisite degree remain desti- 
tute of them? Why is not the Altai entirely encircled with ice, 
Where the temperature of the surrounding lowland scarcely rises 
above 1°? Why hear we not of such colossal glaciers and im- 
mense plains in Scandinavia and Greenland covered several thou- 
sand feet entirely with ice? Why are not Chamouni, Latschthal, 
Bagne, &c., filled with glaciers? Manifestly the origination of 
glaciers is not dependant solely on the relations of temperature ; 
there appears also to be required in order to its being filled with 
glaciers, a depth and breadth of the valley fixed in relation to the 
height of the adjacent snow mountain range, which ought not to 
be passed over. This simple remark must at once have forced 
itself upon geologists, so.well acquainted with the Alps as those 
Who have attempted to establish the new theory ; and, apparently 
in order to meet this objection, Hr. v. Charpentier thought it ne- 
fessary to make the lowering of the mean temperature cotempo- 
Taneous with a considerable elevation of the mountain range, in 
which however, it has not become clear to me, how it is consis- 
tent that the land should be powerfully swollen by internal heat, 
and at the same time while this higher heat is streaming out, cover 
itself with ice? Granting, meanwhile, the possibility of such a 
State of things, inasmuch as no rise of annual temperature is 
feported of Scandinavia at the present time in the process of ele- 
vation, we are obliged again to inquire, here too, after analogies, 
and the Himalaya at once offers itself to us as a mountain range, 
Which might well be likened to elevated Alps. This lies, to be 
Sure, 15° farther south than the Alps, but its summits con- 
Siderably exceed the height, (about 20,000 feet,) which H. v. 
©. requires for the loftiest Alpine top in the diluvial era, and in 
still stronger. contrast does the elevation of its valley-bottoms 
and plateaux surpass that (5 or 6000 feet) to which the valley- 
_ottom of Switzerland ought according to the theory to have 
been raised at that time. ‘The state of things of the one moun- 
Vol, Xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 42 


330 Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 


tain will allow of being transferred, with sufficient accuracy for 
our object, to the other, if we deduct about 3500 feet from the 
Himalaya heights in comparison with the Alps—which is about 
the difference of the snow limits on the south slope of both ranges. 
And what state of things do we find in the Indian Alps? “It 
is remarkable,” says Rirrer, “ that there never has been any re- 
port of a single glacier formation throughout Himalaya. The 
sublime phenomenon of glaciers, which appear to have attained 
their most perfect development in the European Alp-formation, 
according to any observations hitherto made, never occurs in the 
Himalayan Alp-region.” Thus, at first sight we are cut off fromany 
comparison here and instead of immeasurable fields of ice, many 
thousand feet thick, which we expected to see, we only meet with 
snow on the peaks and caps in no greater, rather in smaller quan- 
tities than on the Alps at their present heights. But a closer 
view, points out another result, which may be pronounced almost 
decisive of our question. With the elevation of the ground, all 
the isothermal lines mount up rapidly in height. On the south 
slope of the Himalaya, we meet with the extreme limit of culti- 
vation at 9400 feet; in the deep indented vallies of the interior, 
it mounts up to 10,700 feet ; on the plateau land, to 12,800 feet; 
and on the interior table land of Thibet, which can be best com- 
pared with the upraised lowland of the molasse region, the same 
appears at 14,000 feet, whence it goes no higher. This eleva- 
tion would correspond to perhaps 10,000 feet, in our latitude, or 
to the heights of Diableret and Fitlis. Hence, a rise of ground, 
even twice as great as that required by H. v. C., never appears t0 
produce the formation of such extraordinary glaciers as must be 
assumed in order for the glacier to have formed the ice-piles of the 
Rhone-valley, which at the Jura, must have mounted over the 
valley-bottom about 2000 feet, and which must have extended 
below to Soleure. We should arrive at still more striking co} 
clusion, were we to apply the glaciers theory to the Scandinaviay 
blocks, and yet it is scarcely allowable to explain such similar @p- 
pearances as occur in North Germany and Switzerland, by tW° 
altogether different theories. What if in the hill country, at the 
foot of the glacierless Himalaya, the phenomenon of erratic block 
should reappear? Several accounts seems to establish the fact 
beyond a doubt. 


Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 331 


We can avoid a part of these difficult questions, if we assume 
with HH. Acassiz and Scurimprer a general ice-covering of the 
earth, a freezing of the water in seas, lakes and streams from the 
poles to the equator. On the frozen inland sea, which thus in 
part overspread Switzerland, the Alpine fragments might have 
been slid to the Jura and to the slopes of the outjutting molasse 
hills, and in the same manner the Swedish blocks could have 
been shoved across the Baltic. 'The sudden occurrence of this 
ice-epoch was the cause of the destruction of the antediluvian 
animal races and vegetable species, of which not a single sort has 
survived to our time: and thus even in the earlier geological 
epochs, the periods of heat and life have been interrupted by pe- 
tiods of freezing and death. This originally Indian view of na- 
ture is capable of taking a very poetical form ; and Hr. Schimp- 
fer has given us a specimen of it. It looses, moreover, with the 
Sword of Alexander to be sure, several of the most ravelled knots 
in Geology and Paleontology, but to make it harmonize with 
facts and with the prose of physical investigations, is a problem 
Which far surpasses at least my powers —the striking relations 
between the dispersion of the blocks and the shape of the val- 
lies, which must ever lie at the foundation of any satisfactory 
theory, are left in the one lately proposed unregarded and unex- 
plained. We see not how the blocks could have alighted, as they 
often have done in great numbers, behind outjutting hills, or 
pressed in upon the sides of the vallies; why, farther, their zone 
Tises so high on the Jura opposite the Rhone-valley, and then to- 
wards Soleure gradually sinks down till it reaches the present 
valley-bottom ; wherefore in the narrows of the vallies, the blocks 
are altogether wanting, while on the contrary in the wide portions 
they occur in the greatest number. But still more difficult is it 
to see from whence this periodical freezing, this alternation of 
heat and cold, of life and death, could have been derived. Not 
from a change of internal heat, for we know from Fourier, that at 
Present, the influence of the internal heat upon the temperature 
of the surface scarcely amounts to ;'5° ¢. The warmth in which 
We live, and which remains constant at different depths of the 
ground according to latitude, and also agrees with the mean an- 
hual warmth of the atmosphere, is almost exclusively an effect of. 
the sun. We might accordingly be referred to a periodical change 
in the intensity of solar heat,—a problem, with which Herschel 


332 New Cobalt Minerals. 


has recently busied himself without being able to find any 
ground, in all the depths of astronomy, for a greater change of 
annual heat than at the highest from 3° to 4°, and besides this 
change could only have come on very gradually, and could never 
have produced a sudden destruction of all organic nature. Still 
less do we find in the unequal temperature of space surrounding the 
earth, as assumed by Porsson, an explanation of the cause of these 
changes of heat and cold in terrestrial bodies; for, while a con- 
siderable increase in the coldness of the space in which the earth 
moves, would indeed produce a greater dissipation of the warmth 
of the earth, a lower temperature of the polar nights and more 
rapid loss of heat in our nights, it could scarcely be the means of 
freezing over all the bodies of water on its surface; and further- 
more, these changes could only after a long space of time exert 
an influence—and that a very gradual one—on the annual tem- 
perature and organic life. We are thence peremptorily referred 
to hypotheses to account for that change of temperature, but 
hypotheses are justly regarded as unproductive, and, although 
they played an important part in the geology of the last century, 
yet certainly physical inquirers, who do so much honor to our age 
as HH. Acassiz and Scuimerer, will again and again visit the 
smooth worn rocks before they resort to this extreme expedient, 
and repeat the question to themselves and others, whether this 
polishing could only be the effect of ice, or whether every possi- 
bility is cut off, that they may have been produced by water cur 
rents, as previous to their labors was generally believed. 


Il. On two new Cobalt Minerals, from Modum in Norway; 
by Hr. Prof. Dr. Wouter, (with a note by Prof. SueparD,) 
from a letter to Hr. Dr. Bium. 


We were too late with our examination of the new Modum 
Cobalt minerals, which you gave me last autumn. My analysis 
of them had been completed for some time, and I was about at- 
ranging the results, when I came across an acticle by ScHEERER 
of Modum, in the last number of Poggendorff’s Annals, where the 
same minerals are accurately and fully described.* ScHeeren’s 
i eee aii ty pepyty aee 

* The cobaltic a eee cat oe : ae Pd y ScHE ERER, as 0C- 
curring in two varieties ; one of which is crystallized and pata and as having 


a 


LS LT 


New Cobalt Minerals. 333° 


analysis agrees quite exactly with mine, and leads to the same 


formula of composition. The arsenic-pyritical one has exactly 


the same form as the arsenic-pyrites, and is distinguished from it 
by a reddish color resembling cobalt-glance ; points it directly 
to the composition of arsenical-pyrites, wherein a part of the iron 
is replaced by a quantity of cobalt varying in different individ- 
uals. From the crystals examined by me, I found the follow- 
ing compositions : 


Tron, - - ~ - 30.9 
Cobalt, - ~ - - 47 


the exact mispickel lustre and crystalline form, even to the piers of the ere 
Sp. Gr. = 6.23. The analysis of <— foie two to three unex in | ps 


Sulphur, - 
Arsenic, - - - - - . - = i 
ron, “ S » . - - - 26.54 
Cobalt, - ‘ - - - - - 8.31 
99.97 


but that it aids in forming a strictly chemical compound, inas h € 
replaces the iron. He adds some account likewise of the ee? position of the 
re with reference to the occurrence of the cobalt mine of Skut . This last 


forms a vertical bed, or stratum whose direction is north and a and termin- 
ates Suddenly at the southern declivity of a mountain. Following the direction of 
this stratum nearly a mile, there is found on the opposite side of the Storcte river, 
the cobaltic-arsenical- pyrites bed, having the identical arrangement with that af- 
fording the cobalt glance. It would hence appear that the cobaltic stratum had 
Supplied cobalt to that containing the mispickel as Jong as the metal held out. 

he other variety has a tin or silver lustre, si a Sp. Gr. =6.73. Itoccurs com- 
Pact, with a conchoidal fracture, and a more or less distinet tesseral cleavage : 


. also in g ingle crystals exhibiting octahedral, sabes rhombo-dodecahedral and icos- 


itetrahedral faces. According to ScHEERER, it contained, 


Arsenic, - ue - - - - - 77.84 + 
Cobalt, - a - “ ~ » - 20.01 
Sulphur, - . - “ : " a 0.69 
Tron, i F é si - e n 


Copper, - - . . . ; 
100.05 


Breirnaupr has described this ore under the name of Tesseralkies—Poacenp, 
Ann. d. Phys. B. XLU, 8.546 

The first mentioned ore here pagel is without doubt, the same substance 
Which was noticed at Franconia, N. H., in 1824 by Dr. J. F. Dana of Dartmouth 
College, (Vol. vil, p. 301, this Younsl) Sef icons in 1833 by Mr. A. A. 


334 New Cobalt Minerals. 


Sulphur} - - - - Mit 
Arsenic, - - - - 47.4 


Scheerer found in two crystals 8.3 and 6.5 parts of cobalt. 
e may name this spieces to distinguish it from the common 
Arsenic-pyrites, cobalt-arsenic-pyrites. 

In all the crystals examined by me, a circumstance was re- 

marked, which Scurerer has not mentioned, that the apparently 
purest and best formed crystals were more or less penetrated with 
clear crystalline quartz, the quantity of which in some specimens 
made up almost a quarter of the weight, in which case the in- 
ternal structure could be seen on the outside. This comming- 
ling remained in all the crystalline portions, even when the whole 
crystal was dissolved in aqua regis. Besides, there remained 
small black spangles, still undissolved, which had altogether the 
appearance of graphite, and are in fact nothing else. I have also 
observed in this undissolved residuum still a third mineral, in 
very hard, brownish yellow, but quite microscopic crystals, which 
is certainly not quartz, but nothing could be determined concern- 
ing its nature. 
_ The second mineral, with limewhite color mingled with lead 
gray, very definitely distinguished from that of arsenical-cobalt, 
and which occurs both compact with scaly grooves and beautifully 
crystallized in tesseral forms, the crystals oftener growing together 
with crystals of cobalt-glance, is arsenical-cobalt with $ more 
arsenic than usual. According to my analysis, it contains, 


Hayrxs of Roxbury, (Vol. xxrv, p. 387, this Journal.) Dr: Dawa describes it a8 
occurring in crystals analogous, if not identical with those of mispickel ; and Mr. 
Hayes found their Sp. Gr, = 6.214, according to the analysis of the latter 1t 
contains, 


Sulphur, - ° : ; ‘ : 4 17.84 
Arsenic, -. - ‘ : st $ : 41.44 
Tron, - - a e - 32.94 
Cobalt, - : ‘ 3 é : ; 6.45 
98.67 
Loss partly iron 
partly iro wee 


Mr. Haves proposed for it, the name of Danaite, Henry examin ; 

scribed numerous forms of this ore from Franconia (see my treatise.) I h pec 32 

no sufficient reason for separating it from mispickel, with which it agrees 1? — 

respect save in the substitution of a small per-centage of cobalt for iron. as 
The second variety of cobalt ore, described by ScHEeRER and WouLER 

not appear to differ from the normal varieties of smalentine Cpe rome 


Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets. 335 


Crystalline, Compact. 
Cobalt, - 18.5 . - 19.5 
Iron, - - 1.3 - - 14 
Arsenic, - - 79.2 - - 19. 


If we assume the trifling unessential commixture of iron to be 
a substitution for cobalt, then this composition corresponds to the 
ormula Co As*, a combination, which must contain according to 
estimate 20.74 parts of cobalt and 79.16 of arsenic. 

The name proposed by Scueerer for this mineral, arsenic-co- 
balt-pyrites, appears to me in other respects little appropriate. 

It is a striking circumstance that neither of these minerals con- 
fains nickle, which is elsewhere so constant a concomitant of 
cobalt ; at least, it must have occurred in so minute a quantity 
as not to be observed in the small portions of the minerals sub- 
jected to analysis. 


Arr. VI—A New Method of Making Permanent Artificial Mag- 
nets by Galvanism ; by J. Lawrence Sarrn, Student of the 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 


_ Ever since galvanism has been known to produce magnet- 
sm especially under certain forms of apparatus, it has been a 
Steat desideratum to retain permanently, the great power that 
is generated within the limits of a few square inches of metal. 
few years since, having seen what an intense degree of mag- 
hetie force could be generated in a bar of soft iron, by passing 
galvanic currents around it ; the idea (very natural to most persons 
Witnessing the same experiment) occurred to me, whether this 
Magnetism conld not in some manner be retained; I was aware 
that so long as soft iron was made the agent it could not; and if 
tempered steel was used a difficulty would also present itself, 
and it was not until about eight or ten months since that the 
following experiments were put into operation. The object that 
ad in view, was to substitute for the iron used in the electro- 
Magnet, red hot steel and cool it suddenly. 
A few feet of copper wire were coiled as shown in the figure, 
the arrangement being such, that the galvanism in its circuit 
Would generate north and south polarities, at the end of the re- 


‘ 


336 Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets. 


Positive Pole. Negative Pole. 


3 Ss N 


spective coils. The coils were varnished in order that they might 
be immersed in water, without any interruption taking place in 
the current of the galvanic fluid. The two extremities of the 
wire were attached to a battery, consisting of a single pair of 
plates, each plate of about twelve square inches. A horse-shoe of 
soft iron was then introduced into the coils to test their magnetic 
power ; the iron was found capable of sustaining about one and 
a half pounds. After withdrawing the iron, a piece of steel, of 
the same shape, made red hot, was introduced and both steel and 
wire were plunged into cold water, and contrary to my expecta- 
tion the steel was found to be but feebly magnetic. I then re- 
peated the experiment, with this difference, that before cooling 
the steel, I united its two extremities (projecting below the ends 
of the coils) by a piece of soft iron, which by keeping up the 
circulation of the magnetic fluid, enabled me to procure a magnet 
of some power, that is to say, the steel used weighing one ounce, 
after undergoing this process, was able to sustain six ounces. It 
must be recollected that the instruments used were of a rude 
character, and that they could not create a temporary magnet, of 
more than one and a half pounds power. By this experiment It 
will be seen that one fourth the maximum power developed was 
secured permanently, but it is not to be supposed that in all in- 
stances the ratio of the power secured, to the power developed 
will be as great as in this, but I believe if proper proportions be 
observed in the steel used, there will be an approximation to this 
ratio, even when the magnetic force is of great intensity. 
This method of making magnets may be of some practical 
utility, for the apparatus required is of the simplest kind, consist- 
ing merely of a few square inches of copper and zink, and a few 
am 


* 
iniitertiennn ——aypeaaensttli 


fein, 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 337 


feet of wire; moreover the magnets produced are of a greater 
power in proportion to the generating energy, than those made by 
any other process, with which I am acquainted. 

Twill here mention an experiment which I have tried in com- 
mon with others, of making magnets by attaching red hot pieces 
of steel to an artificial magnet, or to the temporary electro-maguet, 
and cooling them suddenly. 

To an artificial magnet capable of sustaining eight pounds, I 
applied a piece of ignited steel weighing one ounce, semicircular 
in form, and immersed it in water ; it was found capable of sus- 
taining three ounces, only about one fortieth of the power used, 
and in no experiment, although many were made, was the ratio 
between the preduced and the producing powers greater. 

The reason of this great disproportion appears to be, that when 
the metal is raised to a red heat, magnetism is not easily induced 
in it, and that it is ouly when it arrives at a lower temperature 
in the cooling process, that it receives that magnetic virtue which 
it retains, and this no doubt also accounts for its inferiority to. the 
first method mentioned—for there the galvanic fluid is made to _ 
circulate around the steel : and the current of the magnetic fluid 
is also. kept continuous by the soft iron uniting the two poles. 


—S— 


Arr. VII_— Remarks on-the “ Natural History of the Fishes of 
M assachusetts, embracing a Practical Essay on Angling ; by 
Jerome V. C. Smiru, M. D.” Read before the Boston Society 
of Natural History, March 20, 1839. By D. Humpureys 
Srorrr, M. “ 


My report upon the Fishes of our State having been presented 
to the chairman of the Zoological Commissioners, I feel that, as 


their ichthyological curator, a duty is expected of me by this so- 


lety, before ceasing from my labors. In the year 1833, a - 
ume entitled “ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusetts 

Was published by one of our number. To many perenne; ae 
itaccuracies contained in that work are at once obvious ; by ot - 
ets, who have a slighter acquaintance with natural history, all is 
Supposed scientific and true; while if errors really exist, it is cer- 
tainly the duty of some one-to correct them. I have thought it 

Vol. xxxvz, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 43 - 


338 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


would very naturally be expected of him to whom you have 
ever entrusted the care of the subjects upon which the work in 
question treats; and with this feeling, I have thrown together 
the following observations, which I now offer without further 
remark. 

Commencing with the Cartiiacinous Fisnes, the first ten pa- 
ges are occupied with the history of two foreign species of Petro- 
myzon, neither of which is found in our waters. 

The marinus and fluviatilis should have been Americanus and 
nigricans ; both of which were accurately described by Le Sueur 
in the “'Transactions of the Philosophical Society” in 1818— 
fifteen years before the appearance of this work. These two for- 
eign species are accompanied by figures copied from the German 
plates of Strack; and one or two points require to be noticed. 
It is well known that one of the characteristics of this ge- 
nus is “its seven branchial orifices.” Now it happens, that the 
engraver of Strack’s plates thought that six would suffice, and 
accordingly omitted one in his figure. The American copy- 
ist, while he has attempted to exhibit the very attitude of the fish, 
has carefully followed his original, and the specimen before us Is 
minus a branchial hole. The German did however continue the 
dorsal fin to the caudal, as is natural. The plate before us repre- 
sents it as terminating at some distance in front of that 
_ The plate of the second species exhibits in Strack the true 
number of branchial openings; this copy has but five! 

I suspect that foreign ichthyologists will scarcely pardon the 
presumption which would assert that these two species, which are 

ribed as distinct by Linneus, and have been thus acknowl 
edged by all ee naturalists, “are to all intents and put- 
poses the same fish.” 

The thirty four following pages contain the order SeLacHi. 
In the prefatory remarks to this order, Dr. Smith observes, that 
the male shark may at once be recognized by the appendages = 
the ventrals, though he says “their use is totally unknown.” 

Had he consulted standard works on the subject, he would have 
found that these appendages were called “claspers ;” and know- 
ing that the female did not possess them, their use might with- 
out much stretch of the imagination be inferred. 

Eight species of sharks are here catalogued. The Scyllium 
canicula and catulus 1 have never seen, nor heard of, on our coast, 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 339 


rather Spinar acanthias—picked dog fish. 

Eight pages are appropriated to the Carcharias vulgaris— 
white shark ; and its history is illustrated by a figure from Strack, 
while its appearance in our waters remains to be proved. 

The Carcharias glaucus—blue shark—is evidently confound- 
ed with the scyllium punctatum—mackerel shark—a common 
species with us. 

A species of Zygana is found in our waters ; but as we have 
no proof given us of its being the vudgaris, our species must be 
seen and described before it is acknowledged to be that species ; 
and before we can receive the assertion in the pages before us, 
that “scarcely a season passes by, in which fine specimens are 
hot taken in the vicinity of Nahant, about the Cape, &c.” To be 
sure, we are told that “but a little time since, a sailor offered one, 
tecently caught, for sale, which he wheeled through the streets of 

ston on a barrow, attracting crowds of people who gazed upon 
it in perfect wonder ;” but it was not the specimen of which we 
have a figure, surely, which created such surprise in this good 
city, because this is a copy from a German plate! 

f the species here registered as Nelache maximus—basking 
shark—J have not been able to obtain the slightest information, 
and have no doubt that it is the Somniosus brevipinna, (Le 
Sueur) nurse or sleeper—described from a specimen taken by the 
fishermen at Marblehead. 

That a species of Torpedo exists: on our coast, we have un- 
doubted authority for believing; but as no naturalist has as yet 
Seen it, the species remains to be distinguished more definitely. 
We have here an inaccurate figure of the Vorpedo vulgaris 
copied from Strack to illustrate our fish, when that species has 
been much more correctly exhibited by Pennant in his “ British 
Zoology,” 

Strack is again called upon fora plate of the Rava clavata- 
thornback. The species called thornback in Massachusetts, I 
have not had a proper opportunity to examine, having never seen 
More than one specimen, and that previous to my determination 
to describe our fishes from recent specimens ; if I am not in error, 
however, it will prove to be the Raia radiata—starry ray. 

A species of Trygon is occasionally seen on our coast; but its 
characters have not yet been pointed out, so that it is premature to 


They have undoubtedly been mistaken for the Squalus canis or 


340 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


introduce it here with a plate of the pastinaca—the European 
species—especially as other species of this genus have been found 
on the coast of Rhode Island, to which this is much more likely 
to belong. 

An elaborate account of the Stwrgeon—acipenser sturio—ac- 
companied by a figure, follows the Setacui: the Massachusetts 
sturgeon is the stwrio oryrinchus. 

Four species are here included in the Piecroenarur. The 
aluteres monoceros proves to be a new species to which I have 
affixed the name of “ Massachusetensis” in my report to the Gov- 
ernor: neither the ostracion triqueter nor bicaudalis have I ever 
heard of on our coast. The specimen which Dr. Smith sup- 
posed to be the latter fish, is a new species to which I gave the 
name of Yalei, in a communication read to this society in 1836. 

Under the head of Tetraodon turgidus—swell fish—we find 
the following sentence, which cannot be passed over unnoticed, 
however unwilling we may feel to write a line of unmixed cen- 
su “The only apology we can make for not having dissected 
one of them with reference to explaining their internal organiza- 
tion, is the poor one, that there has not been time since the com- 
mencement of this essay.” Here we see an author voluntarily 
coming before the public, dedicating his labors to a distin- 
guished LL. D., and offering as an apology for a neglect $0 
palpable that his own conscience accuses him, that he needed 
time! It is humiliating enough for him who has but a certain 
time allowed him in which to perform a duty, to be compelled to 
offer such an excuse, although he has a right to expect the cit 
cumstances of his case will be considered; but, when an individ- 
ual to consult his own convenience, chooses to publish a superfi- 
cial treatise with his name prefixed as its responsible author, such 
an apology cannot be received by naturalists—regardless as he ap- 
pears alike of his own reputation and the true interests of science, 

Although in the LopHosrancun, the Syngnathus typhle 's 
described, and illustrated by a figure, I have not heard of its 
having been seen in Massachusetts. 'T'wo species have been sent 
me by correspondents, both of which are new, and will appear in 
my report. 

Having reached the order MaLacopreryGit ABDOMINALES, 
the genus Salmo, three species of trout are introduced, the “ trut- 
ta, and “ fario,” and “‘hucho,” while the only one I have been 


In 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 341 


able to learn any thing respecting, after two years’ labor, the 


“fontinalis,” is omitted altogether. 

ine pages are devoted to the “ Clipea harengus’—Euro- 
pean herring ; our species is the “ elongata,’ described by Le 
Sueur in the first volume of the “Journal of the Academy of 
Natural Sciences.” 

Upon page 165, we have a figure of the “ Esox lucius’”— 
pickerel—whose history is spread over nearly twelve pages. Our 
fish, is the “ reticulatus,” which cannot for a moment be mista- 
ken for the European species, by any person of common obser- 
vation : we are here told that Dr. Williams, author of the history 
of Vermont, states that the pike bears in that state the name of 
muschilongae :—the maskinongé, is the “ esox estor.” 

Ihave thought that little if any change was produced in the 
color of our species by age; the largest I have ever seen was as 
brilliant as smaller specimens. I suspect the brightness of their 
coloring depends principally upon the locality ; thus, those brought 

fom a pond in Brewster upon the Cape, which has a sandy bot- 
tom, are perfectly beautiful; while those caught at West Cam- 
bridge Pond, and others in this neighborhood, are far less attrac- 
tive in their colors. 

But one species of the genus “ Belone,” the “ truncata,” (Le 
Sueur,) is found on our coast ; this however is here omitted, and 
a foreign species is introduced, with a figure as usual from Strack. 

hat one or more species of “ Hxocetus”—flying fish, are oc- 
casionally taken on board vessels in our waters is undoubted ; but 
that the « mesogaster” is one of these species, is far from being 
proved, 

The Cyprinus crysoleucas’”’ could not have been known to 
the writer of the volume before us: he says “‘ Though we have 
Seen individuals two inches in length, they are oftener less than 
one.” Of great numbers which have fallen under my notice, the 
average is from four to six inches. Ess. 

he “ Cyprinus oblongus” and “teres,” I have not seen: the 
Writer seems not to have known that there existed more than one 
Species of sucker ; for he says, “from the earliest period of our 

yhood, we have been familiar with the fresh water sucker, a 

lazy, still fish, of a dingy color,” &c. &c. 
nder the head of “ O'yprinus teres,” the writer speaks of a 
fish which was taken by the keeper of the Boston light house in 


‘ 


342 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


a lobster-pot, and calls it the sea-sucker ; he observes, it “has a 
mouth precisely like the fish above described,” &c. ; and from the 
fact of its being introduced here, we infer it was considered a 
neighboring species. The fish here spoken of, formed a part of 
the collection of fishes purchased of Dr. Smith, and is the “‘ Um- 
brina nebulosa” described and figured by Mitchill in his “ Fishes 
of New York.” 

The author is guilty of a gross and altogether inexcusable 
error in the following species; he speaks of the “ Abramis chry- 
soptera”—bream: now the common European bream is the 
* Abramis brama,” and as yet we know of no “abramis’” with 
us. The “ Pomotis vulgaris” is generally known as the bream; 
it is the only species I ever heard of as being called bream in 
New England, and as the “ Pomotis vulgaris” is not mentioned 
in the pages under examination, the inference is irresistible that 
what is here called “ Abramis chrysoptera is the “ Pomotis vul- 
garis.” So that we have a foreign fish catalogued as being found 
in our waters, which is included in the family Cyprinrpas, order 
Mavacopreryen, instead of our own beautiful species, to receive 
which, a genus was formed by Cuvier, and included in his fam- 
ily Percomes, order AcanrHorreryenu, showing conclusively, 
that the common name being given, the scientific name of a 
foreign species is attached, whose common name was the same 
as ours. 

Respecting the four following species, I have only to say, the 
are all unknown in Massachusetts: the fishes which are known 
as the “ Roach” and “ Dace” are not the European species “Leu- 
ciscus rutilus” and “vulgaris,” but undescribed fishes. 

The “ L. alburnus” and “ cephalus” I have never seen; and 
as no foreign fluviatile species has as yet been met with in our 


state, I feel it is just to doubt their existence. That many of the 


Cyprinipar would thrive in our waters if transplanted to them, 
may reasonably be concluded from the rapid increase of the 
“Cyprinus auratus—gold fish, in our ponds; and my friend, 
Rev. J. E. Russell, of Salem, informs me that an English ged- 


tleman residing in Newburgh, New York, has stocked his ponds 


with the Hnglish carp— Cyprinus carpio,” from a few “ 
imported. 

On page 189, isa figure of the “ Silurus glanis,” an European 
fish, copied with considerable accuracy from Strack’s plates, de 


| 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 343 


Signated as the “ Horn pout,” and described as our fish, which 
belongs to a distinct genus. Dr. Smith observes, “there are — 
two species (of Silurus) in this vicinity. _I never heard of one. 

From a careful inspection of our market for two years, and a 
constant intercourse with fishermen during that period, several of 
Whom for along time were bank fishermen, | am satisfied the 
Bank cod—“ Morrhua vulgaris,” is not taken in our waters. I 
have accordingly described our species in my report under the 
name of “ M, Americana.” 

The “ Merlucius vulgaris’ —Hake, is called by our fishermen 
the “ Whiting ;’ our author, learning therefore that the Whi- 
ting was found on our coast, has supposed of course that it was 
the Huropean Whiting, and we accordingly have here an ac- 
count of the “ merlangus vulgaris,” which is not seen with us. 
Our “ Pollock” is not the European fish, but the “purpureus” 
of Mitchill. 

What can be more amusing than the remarks which we find 
under the genus “ Raniceps.” The “ Blennius viviparous” and 
“ Raniceps trifurcatus” are here side by side as synonymes of the 
same fish—Blenny. 'The one belonging to the order AcanrHo- 
Tere, family Gosromae; the other, to the order Marac- 
OPTERYGH, family Gapipar. Thisis notall; a perfect burlesque 
of the “ viviparous blenny,” appears in the form of a figure 
copied from. Strack, with these remarks accompanying it; “on 
ooking over that splendid series of German lithographic plates 
of fishes, by Dr. Strack, 1828, an exact figure even to the color- 
ig was noticed, which truly exhibits the blenny of the harbors 
of Massachusetts, and must therefore, we strongly suspect, have 
been drawn from the American blenny.” After reading the 
above, what can the student think, when we tell him that this fish 
Was never found in our waters; that our blenny is totally un- 
like the « viviparous,” and instead of being earicatured in “the 
Splendid series of German plates,” was, years ago, figured by 
Professor Peck, in the American Academy’s Transactions, as the 
« anguillaris,” formed by nature. 

Determined to have a “ Raniceps,” we find that Dr. Smith has 
here introduced the “ blennioides ;’ the individual which he 
Speaks of, as “a cream colored fish truly disgusting in appear- 
ace,” was purchased of him by this society, and proves to be a 
Specimen with the cuticle abraded, of what he upon page 243 


344 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


calls incorrectly “muraena conger ;’ but more of this in its ap- 
propriate place. 

Five species are mentioned in the family “ PLEuRoNectes,” 
but one of these, “ Hippoglossus vulgaris” —holibut, is found 
on our coast, 

Under the head of “ Platessa vulgaris,” our compiler gives 
the appearance and habits of the European flounder, and says 
“it is one of the most common fish in Massachusetts Bay ;” and 
for a figure, he introduces a wretched copy of Strack’s plate of 
the “ P. vulgaris”—plaice ! 

Two pages beyond, we have a copy of the “ flesus”—“ floun- 
der, from Strack, described as the “plaice; and both the flounder 
and plaice described as the “ Platessa vulgaris.” It will at once 
be perceived that these two copies of foreign fishes should be 
transposed : the plate on page 214 should take the place of that 
on page 216, and vice versa. Neither of these species however, 
the “ vulgaris” nor “ flesus” is found with us. 

Reference is made on page 216, to a species which is called 
the “ American turbot,” supposed to be the “ European pears $5 
it isthe “ Rhombus aquosus”—* watery flounder.” 

Neither the “ Solea vulgaris” —* Sole,” nor “ Rhombus maz- 
imus”—“ Turbot,” were ever seen by any. of our fishermen 
‘upon this coast; the opinion was so firmly established, that what 
is called in our dinar ket the “ turbot” was the same as the foreign 
turbot, that could not persuade the fishermen that they were not 
identical ; it was only when two fine specimens were brought here 
the last season, of the true turbot, from the the coast of “Treland, 
that they were satisfied of their mistake; and even then, one of 
the most experienced of their number istered that although they 
differed, the only difference was this, that wherever a white spot 
existed in the American fish, a spine took its place in the foreign 
species, and that opinion he still entertains, although our fish is 
oblong in its form, and the turbot is nearly circular. 

The xc Cpclagteiies minutus” is probably the -young of the 
“vulgaris.” Although the “Echeneis remora,” is here itro- 
duced with a plate from Strack, it nas not yet been found in our 
waters. 

‘Twenty pages are devoted to the “ “anguilla vulgaris” and 
“muraena conger,” neither of which is found on the coast of 
New England. The former has been mistaken for the “7 


| 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 345 


ena Bostoniensis” of Le Sueur. The latter, is the species unin- 
jured which when defaced, Dr. Smith called “ Raniceps blen- 
nioides,” it is evidently a new genus, which, from the appearance 
of concealed spines distributed over its head, I have called “ Cryp- 
tanthodes”—and given the specific name of “ maculatus” on ac- 
count of its mottled surface, arranging it in the family “ Buccoar 
Loricarar, mailed cheeks.” 

Our writer seems to have been ignorant of the fact, that the 
“ Anarrhichas lupus” — Cat fish,” was used as food among us. 
Many of our fishermen prefer it to any other species. I have 
eaten it at my own table, and should never wish a sweeter or 
More delicate meal than that afforded by a young cat fish. It 
is a little singular, that instead of Pennant’s plate of this species 
having been copied, which is quite good, and within the reach of 
all, Strack’s plate which is very incorrect, making the anal fin 
to appear as high as the dorsal, should have been preferred. 

Upon page 254, “ Labrus tautoga’’ should be “ L. America- 
nus ;” we read here that “the Boston market is but poorly sup- 
plied with them; whenever they are for sale, it seems to be the 
result of accident.’”” The two last years our market has been 
Slutted with them, throughout the season in which they are 
taken. 


Upon page 259, we have a description of the eunner, or marine 
Perch as it is often called; and it is surprising that after the 
author observes, “since the commencement of this little vol- 
ume, no one species has given us more trouble and perplexity in 
the classification than this ;’ to find it arranged in a wrong genus, 
With the sage remark, “ to all appearance the perch or cunner is 
the tautog in miniature; and if it were black it would be sup- 
Posed to be the young of that fish!” And this too, while the 
Preoperculum of the former is strongly denticulated throughout, 
and the edge of that of the latter is perfectly smooth ! 

Among the “ Labroides,” we also find the “ squetee” arranged 
asa“ Labrus,” instead of being placed in the family ‘“ Sctenoo- 
des” genus “ Otolithus.” 

Upon page 263, Dr. Smith probably refers to the “ Centro- 
Pristis nigricans,” when he speaks of the “ Perea varia.” 

The next eleven pages are occupied with descriptions of nine 
Species, neither of which is found in Massachusetts. We have 

Vol. xxxy1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 44 


346 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


neither a “ Scorpaena,” nor a “ mugil,” nor a “ surmudlus ;” and 
yet here we find an account of each. 

If instead of copying upon page 273, a plate of the Huropean 
perch, from Strack, our only species of “ Perca” the “ flavescens” 
had been delineated, while the writer before us had avoided an 
error, he would have conferred an obligation. 

The 


“ Bodianus leucos”—“rufus’—and ‘ pallidus” are all 
unknown fishes to me. 
Six pages are devoted to the “ striped bass” —“ Labraz lin- 


eata,”’ here incorrectly called “ Perca labrax”—the European 
species. Our writer observes, “one old fashioned bass only, is 
known to us from Cape Cod to Maine:” if he will visit Boston 
market in any of the spring or autumnal months, he may see an- 
other very common and pretty species of bass—the “ mucrona- 
tus’—the “smaller American bass,” called by our fishermen 
* Pond perch.” 

The probability of the “ Uranoscopus scaber” being found 
here, may be inferred from the following remark of Rich- 
ardson in his “Fauna Boreali Americana’—the “ Uranos- 
copus scaber,” is common to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, 
without having been detected in the Atlantic.” 

We are told by the writer that he had not found the “ 777 
gla lineata” in Massachusetts—we have no “ Trigla” on out 
coast; but the Prionotus strigatus,’ incorrectly called here 
“ Trigla lineata,” is common at Martha’s Vineyard. 

Four species of “Cotti”—sculpins,” are here spoken of; one 
of which, the “gobio,” we are told, “is universally known 
all over New England ;” another, the “ quadricornus” “is found 
along the whole coast ;” the “ scorpius” is illustrated by a fig- 
ure from Strack; and with the “cataphractus” “ the fisher- 
men are particularly familiar under the name of ruper seulpin 
—horn sculpin,’ &c. Not one of these fishes is ours—the 
“ aeneus,” and “ Virginianus” and “ Groenlandicus’’ are common 
along our entire sea-board, but not one of the above mentioned 
species did I ever hear of being taken. 

The “ Batrachus grunniens’” is mistaken for the “ varies 
tus” of Le Sueur. 

Under the genus “ Lophius,’ we have an account of the 
€ piscatorius ;” our writer tells us he was fortunate enough to ob- 
tain one, the body of which, was four feet in length, and “ when 


SE 
ktm a tte 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 347 


the jaws were open, it could receive a morsel as large as a man’s 
head.” What excuse then can be offered for his illustrating this 
species with the plate of a distinct fish—a foreign species—be- 
longing to another genus, which grows only to the length of ten 
or twelve inches! the “ Chironectes histrio.” Such negligence 
cannot be overlooked ; we have the “ piscatorius” in our waters; 
orhad the author preferred, as he ever seemed to have done, to 
copy from figures rather than from nature, he could have found 
a plate of it in any work on Ichthyology. 

I have no doubt that Cuvier is correct in considering the 
“ Scomber grex” and “ vernalis” as the same species. 

Neither the “chrysos” nor the “ plumbeus” do I know. 

Eight pagesare occupied with the “ Scomber scomber”—“ Euro- 
pean Mackerel ;” it is not found on our coast. 

Respecting the “ Surmuilet,’ I would only introduce a single 
remark of Dr. Richardson. “ Mudllus, in its geographical distri- 
bution, is confined to the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Euro- 
pean Atlantic, including the Baltic.” 

Upon page 307, we are told that “the spinous fins (of the 
Tunny) have a yellowish tinge ;” as the finlets are the only por- 
tions of the fish, which are yellow, they are probably intended. 
The “ Centronotus ductor” — pilot fish,” may possibly be found 
within the waters of Massachusetts, although I have never been 
able to procure one. 

The “ Zeus JSaber”—common dory, I have never seen, nor 
heard of as being found in our waters. 

Although we are told in the volume before us, that the “ Chry- 
Sotosus luna”—({“ Lampris guttatus,”) “has been taken within 
a day’s sail of Boston ;? and Richardson in his “ Fauna Boreal 
Americana” accordingly observes under the head of this fish, that 
“Dr. Smith enumerates it among the fish of Massachusetts ;” 
Ihave never been able to learn any thing regarding it, from any 
of the fishermen, and therefore, although as it is a northern 
Species, further investigation may establish its existence In our 
Waters, I should be unwilling to consider the point as proved 
from the notice here referred to. 

Dr. Smith, tells us évo species of “ Sword fish” have been 
discovered : Cuvier knew but one. : 

The “ Seserinus alepidotus” is here catalogued in the family 
“Squampenss,” instead of the “ Scomberoides,” as it should have 


oak Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 


been: the only species described, is an inhabitant only of the 
Mediterranean and Black Seas. 

Under the head of “ Fistularia,” we find the “ tabacaria”’ 
illustrated by a figure from Strack ; and our writer says, “ had 
we not two excellent specimens of this fish taken near Holmes’ 
Hole, its existence would not have been credited so far north of 
the Equator.” One of these “ two excellent specimens” belongs 
by purchase to this Society, and is not the foreign fish, but the 
“ serrata.” 

Thus have I taken a hasty review of that portion of the vol- 
ume before us which treats of distinct species : the remainder of 
the work I have not referred to, determined to confine myself 
only to what appeared absolutely necessary to be noticed. The 
remarks upon the “ Anatomy and Physiology of Fishes,” and 
the “ Treatise on Angling,’ are foreign to my purpose. The ac- 
curacy or errors of the former, may be ascertained by consulting 
any standard work on Comparative Anatomy ; of the datter sub- 
ject I plead entire ignorance. 

A few words more and my unpleasant task isdone. The 248 
pages over which we have thus rapidly passed, contain notices of 
105 species, of which 80 are foreigners, and but 25 are found in 
the waters of our State. Of these 105 species, 36 are illustrated 
by figures; of these 36 illustrations, but 9 accompany species 
which are found on our coast; of these 9 figures, 6 are copied 
from “ Strack’s Plates,” and 3 from Mitchill’s “ Fishes of New 
York!’ Of the 36 plates contained in this “ History,” not one 
is drawn from nature. If “the chief value of a written history 
is in its truth, and next in the evidences of its truth,’”* what reli- 
ance can be placed in us as naturalists, when one of our number 
is allowed to publish such a work as this, and it is permitted to 
circulate for years without a word being said or a line written 
to point out its inaccuracies? Why should we wonder that Yar- 
rell, in his “ History of British Fishes,” should really think that 
the “ Silurus glanis” and * Petromyzon marinus” were foun 
in Massachusetts, or that Richardson in his “fauna Boreali 
Americana,” guarded as he generally has been in receiving what 
is stated here, should almost believe that the “ Lampres gutla- 
tus,” and “ Clupea harengus,” and “ Merlangus vulgaris,” and 

PRR oe 
* North American Review, No. 53, p. 439. 


Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. S49 


“ Echeneis remora,” were inhabitants of our waters, when not a 
doubt of the correctness of this compilation is expressed by an 
American ichthyologist ? 

I have studiously avoided noticing any of the numerous exag- 
gerated stories which are so liberally distributed throughout the 
pages before us, feeling they could not deceive the naturalist, to 
whom alone I would address myself; but what can be thought of 
the assertion on page 75, that the “ Astacus Bartonii”—little 
craw-fish, which measures from “the tip of the rostrum to the 
end of the tail two inches,” and the “ Astacus marinus” —our 
common lobster, are the same species! JI will make no comments 
upon this statement, but beg permission to extract a few lines 
from the page referred to. “On some of the highest points of 
the Green Mountains between Massachusetts and New York, in 
those small basins of water which are formed between different 
eminences, lobsters are not only numerous, but really and truly 
formed precisely like those of the ocean ; yet they rarely exceed 
two inches in length. The question at once arises, how came 
these animals in that locality, if the ova of the lobster were not 
conveyed there by some bird? The fresh water together with 
the climate of those high regions, has prevented the full devel- 
opment of these miniature lobsters, though in character, habit, 
and anatomical structure, there is the most perfect resemblance ; 
and were the ova from the family on the mountain Biacet under 
favorable circumstances in the borders of the sea, we have no 
doubt that the progeny would be as large in one or two genera- 
tions as any specimens which are exhibited from the ocean.” 

Such is the “ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachu- 
setts.” | have endeavored honestly to review it. Believing fully 
the remark of Babbage, “that the character of an observer, 
as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed,’* I have felt no pleasure 
in the progress of my examination ; the duty has been performed 
for this Society, that when ridiculed for the publication of one 
of its members, they may be able to say, we are aware that these 
errors exist ; they have been pointed out by him who felt called 
upon to do so. 


* « Reflections on the decline of Science in England, by C. Babbage.” p. 182. 


350 Electro Magnetism. 


Arr. XVIIl.—E£lectro Magnetism; by Cuarues G. Pace, M. D., 
ashington, D. C. 


In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, of this Journal, I described a revolving 
armature and mentioned that the plan admitted of enlargement 
only with the alteration of the mode of revolution. I must pre- 
mise here, (as I have heretofore expressed myself,) that I do not 
suppose this power susceptible of infinite increase, and in giving 
these descriptions to the public, Iam only selecting from the mul- 
titude of machines I have constructed, such forms as obviously 
economize a given galvanic power. A number of machines 
wherein the poles of the magnets were changed, and others where 
the poles were not changed, but both systems, the stationary and 
revolving, were rendered magnetic and non magnetic at intervals, 
have been laid aside as not worth describing. Another form 
wherein the magnets were made to revolve and attracted by sta- 
tionary armatures is obviously defective, as will be readily seen by 
referring to figure 3d, and supposing the systems reversed. If the 
armatures were stationary, and the charged magnets revolving, 
the magnets would always be attracted by the nearest armature ; 
consequently the magnets would be charged only during one half 
of a revolution. Figures 1, 2, and 3, are modifications on a large 
scale of the revolving armature described in No. 2, of the last vol- 
ume of this Journal. In figure 1, } b, are two Electro Magnets 


Fig. 1. 


disposed at right angles to each other, and firmly secured to 
wooden pillars. Where it is practicable, the magnets should be 


Electro Magnetism. 351 


supported by wood, as every piece of metal of any kind surround- 
ing a magnet, detracts from its action, by reason of closed cur- 
rents excited by the disturbance of magnetic forces. For the ac- 
tion of closed currents see Vol. xxxv, No. 2, pages 254 and 5. 
The armature @, is mounted upon a brass shaft e, as I have here- 
tofore shown by experiment that an iron or steel shaft detracts 
greatly from the inductibility of the armature. At e, firmly secur- 
ed to the shaft is the electrotome or cut-off, the black portions 
representing the intersections of ivory or other non conducting 
material. . 'T'wo pairs of plates (compound series) are connected 
by their poles with the cups p p._ By the revolution of the arma- 
ture the two magnets are charged in succession, and thus the 
action is maintained during the entire revolution. 


Fig. 2. 


Figure 2, exhibits a machine of more simple construction than 
the last, or perhaps than any other. It possesses also the advan- 
tage of straight magnets much preferable to the U magnet. 506 
ate wooden frames or braces supporting the straight magnets m m. 
@ a are the two armatures upon the brass shaft e. The electro- 
tome constructed upon the same principle as that of figure 1 may 


o 


352 Electro Magnetism. 


be placed at e, and the wire connexions as before directed. This 
is at once a very beautiful and simple machine, but in order to re- 
alize its full power, the two straight magnets should be charged 
by separate batteries. It cannot be made very large with any 
economy, and the proportions should be very different from those 
seen in the figure ; the armatures should be much shorter than 
the magnets. 

Figure 3, represents a revolving armature machine, invented 
in the month of March, 1838. 


Fig. 3. 


The magnets b b b b are secured by brass screws to the braces 
ec. The armatures aa are attached to two arms e e, which in 
this case may be run upon a steel shaft. The electrotome is sim- 
ilarly constructed and placed, and the connexions similar to those 
of figures 1 and 2. This is the last of a series of experiments 
made with reference to this subject, and after much attention, { 
am inclined to give it the preference. Soon after this was 1N- 
vented, a machine of larger size was built by the subscription of 
several gentlemen in Boston. — It contained eight magnets, four re- 
volving armatures and the revolving system was one foot in diam- 
eter. Not being able to be present during its construction, some 


Observations on Electricity. 353 


errors Were committed, and on the first trial it made only eighty 
revolutions a minute. The remodeling was delayed until fur- 
ther subscription should warrant the proceeding; and I regret to 
learn that the recent disastrous fire in Boston has destroyed the 
machine and batteries. 


Art. [X.— Observations on Electricity ; by Cuarues G. Pace, 
M. D., Washington, D. C. 


It is somewhat singular that the following fact has so long re- 
mained in obscurity, especially as the Franklinian theory has de- 
rived its principal support from the converse of this fact: “Ifa 
pith ball be laid in a groove on the table of the universal discharger, 
and a Leyden jar or battery be discharged in the direction of the 
groove, the ball will be propelled in the direction of the passage 
of the fluid, that is, from the positive to the negative.” It must 
have happened, that in every case of repetition of this experiment, 
the jar was charged in the ordinary way, viz. the interior or 2~- 
Sulated coating charged with vitreous or positive electricity ; for 
it will be found that if the insulated coating be charged with 
negative or resinous electricity, the ball will be propelled contrary 
to the supposed direction of the fluid, that is, it will move from 
Negative to positive. “If a card be placed upon the table of the 
universal discharger, and the wires or directors be brought into 
Contact with the card on opposite sides, but at some distance 
from each other, the perforation made by a discharge between 
the points, will be found nearer the negative than the positive 
wire.” By reversing the experiment the same error will be foun 
in this statement, If the negative surface be insulated, the per- 
foration takes place nearest the positive wire. ‘The same correc- 
tion will apply to the experiment with the flame of a candle be- 
tween two cups of phosphorus. 

Curious result from the configuration of the electric spark at 
the positive and negative surfaces. If a tapering jet from which 
Issues a stream of hydrogen gas be applied to a conductor charged 
Positively, the gas will be inflamed nearly every time the spark 


| is drawn ; but if the conductor be charged negatively, the gas 
Will rarely be kindled, frequently requiring six or more applica- 
_ “ons before it succeeds. 


Vol. XxXv1, No. 2.—April—July, 1839. 45 


354 Observations on Electricity. 


During the month of October last, I made a number of experi- 
ments with a view to ascertain the utility of presenting points 
only upon one side of the plate in the electrical machine. My 
attention was called to this subject by a singular experiment 
shown to me by Mr. Daniel Davis, which for some time appeared 
rather enigmatical. A circular plate of glass was charged by 
movable coatings, and on removing the coatings, it frequently 
happened that both sides of the plate when presented toa charged 
électroscope, exhibited signs of the same species of electricity. 
After numerous repetitions with a very careful examination, it 
appeared that only the central portion of the negative side was 
charged negatively, while a considerable annular space exterior 
to this, was charged positively ; the redundant positive electricity 
having forced or spread itself over the edge of the plate. On 
reversing the experiment and making the redundancy upon the 
negative side, the negative electricity appeared to pervade both 
surfaces as did the positive before. Some of our instrument 
makers have been in the practice of placing the collecting points 
of the prime conductor only upon one side of the electrical 
plate, finding that they answered better in many cases, than a. 

row of points upon both sides, although no satisfactory reason 
has been given for this difference. After witnessing the above 
experiment, it occurred to me that the difference was owing to 
the facility with which electricity distributes itself upon glass, 
especially if it be not entirely clear and dry. Experiment fully 
confirmed my anticipations, and I was surprised to find to what 
extent the plate might be discharged by the application of a con- 
ductor to any part of its charged surface. The prime conductor 
having been removed, the plate was turned several times and the 
silk fies: thrown back leaving both sides of the plate exposed in 
a highly charged state. The hand was then laid upon the plate 
at some distance from the edge and quickly withdrawn. On ex- 
amining the plate not only the parts under and contiguous to the 
hand were discharged, but the whole of that portion directly op- 
posite to the hand on the other side of the plate was found dis- 
charged to the same degree, although the distance over the edge 
of the plate was in some cases fifteen inches. It will be found 
that single or only two points on each side of the plate and near 
its circumference will succeed better than numerous points upon 
one side. 


Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 335 


Arr, X.— Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December 
6 and 7, 1838; communicated by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec, 
Sec. Conn. Acad. 


Various observations made in this country on the shooting 
stars of December 6 and 7, 1838, were published in the 72d No. 
of this Journal. By recent intelligence it appears that this mete- 
orice display was also noticed in distant regions. 

1. Rev. Peter Parker, M. D. in a letter to my friend, Mr. A. 
B. Haile, dated Canton, China, January 12, 1839, (received here 
May 3, 1839,) after referring to the observations made there from 
I2th to 14th November, 1838, states the following important 
facts: “On the fifth of December, [1838, at Canton, N. lat. 23° 
30’; E. lon. 113° 3’] however, the falling meteors were still more 
abundant, [than on the morning of November 14, 1838,] one 
hundred and sixty being counted in the space of one hour from 
eight and a half to nine and a half o’clock, P. M.; anda few eve- 
nings after this they were much more frequent. have often kept 
a lookout since, but no recurrence has been witnessed.” ‘The 
Canton Register of Dec. 11, 1838, gives the following account of 
the same event: ‘ With reference to the highly interesting me- 
teorological observations taken on the 12th and 13th ult., we have 
been informed that a much more remarkable phenomenon was 
hoticed on the evening of the 5th inst., when from half past eight 
to nine, one hundred and eight meteors were counted ; and from 
hine until half past, fifty two; the moon and clouds then inter- 
Tupted the view.” 

The number of observers is not stated, but it was doubtless in- 
sufficient to note all the meteors visible. 'The evening on which 
the meteors were most abundant at Canton was probably the 
Seventh or eighth. The earliest observation after the ¢hird of the 
Month, which the weather permitted us at New Haven, was on 
the evening of the sizth, about a day and a half later than the 
first observation at Canton. 

2. The London Times of Dec. 11, 1838, contains a letter from 
Mr. George Jeans, a copy of which is here given, with the omis- 
Sion of a few unimportant remarks. “Yesterday evening, Dec. 
7, as I was amusing the son of a friend in this neighborhood with 
4 42-inch telescope, the atmosphere being unusually good for 


356 Shooting Siars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 


telescopic observations, and what light airs there were, being from 
W. N. W., we were surprised by the frequency of those meteoric 
exhibitions called falling stars. From 6 to 7 o’clock, five min- 
utes rarely elapsed without one, and frequently several descended 
in guick succession, so that by estimation, I should think about 
thirty were seen in that time. But from 7 to 8, it was very sel- 
dom that a single minute passed without a meteor, and for a con- 
siderable time it literally rained [?] without any intermission. 
After 8 o’clock they became less numerous again, but still equal 
to what had been observed at first, till half past 9. Nor had they 
ceased between 10 and 11; and when returning home after mid- 
night, though the moon was shining brightly, I counted several. 
They were not of one kind alone, but of all the species usually 
enumerated ; nor did they fall from one part of the heavens only, 
but were widely diffused, and took various directions, chiefly to- 
wards the S. and E., but not always. The mass of them were 
not brilliant nor rapid, though occasionally there were some 
splendid specimens of both, and then commonly with a train. 
Very many of them came apparently from the zenith, faint and 
blue, and nearly perpendicular. Icannot estimate the number at 
less than 300; and though it is a mere guess, for I soon found it 
useless to try and count them, I am inclined to think that below 
the truth. T'etney, (N. lat. 53° 28’; W. lon. 50”) near Girimsby, 
Lincolnshire, Dec. 8, 1838.” 

This account is much less definite than could be desired. The 
observations appear to have been made chiefly by one person, 
watching only a part of the time. 

3. In a letter dated Savannah, Ga., May 4, 1839, Mr. Thomas 
R. Dutton communicates the following: “ After I wrote you in 
regard to the December shower of 1838, I obtained some inform- 
ation with regard to it from Captain Dyer of the ship Eli Whit- 
ney. He was then on his passage from Boston to this place, and 
off Cape Lookout, (about N. lat. 34°; W. lon. 77°). He made 
no memoranda at the time, and is not therefore certain of the 
date, but thinks it was on the night of the eighth; [more proba- 
bly the seventh.) He says, ‘The meteors started, with few ex- 
ceptions, from the meridian or near the zenith, and moved to the 
W. and sometimes S. W. I noticed a few, however, moving to 
the E. A great many I observed to commence their movement 
a little to the W. of Capella, and others to the W. of Aldebaran, 


Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 357 


and in a few instances from other parts of the heavens. A few 
left trails of light, but the most of them did not. The greatest 
number was seen between 8 o’clock and 12, after which compar- 
atively few were observed.’ Capt. D. informed me that he must 
have noticed as many as two hundred, during the four hours 
above mentioned. His testimony is worthy of entire confidence.” 
None of the observers, whose statements are cited above, were 
apprised (so far as I can learn) that any thing unusual was expect- 
ed to occur at the time. On this account, their testimony will 
perhaps by some be considered more satisfactory. It is to be re- 
gretted that the observers did not notice, with more attention, the 
region of the heavens from which the meteors appeared to radiate. 
In regard to the question of the annual occurrence in December 
of an uncommonly large number of meteors, I annex the follow- 
ing extracts. 'The evidence which they contain is quite indefi- 
hite, and each one may allow them what importance he pleases. 
(1.) “The meteors called Falling-stars were much more fre- 
quent during this winter than we ever before saw them, and par- 
ticularly during the month of December,” [1824, at Port Bowen, 
N. lat. 70° 20’; W. lon. 80° 40]. Then follows a particular ac- 
count of several meteors observed on the 8th, 9th, 12th, and 14th 
December. Compend of the Journals of Capt. Parry’s Three 
potas to the Arctic Seas, (5 vols. 18mo, Lond. 1828, ) vol. 5, p. 
9, & 


, &e, 

(2.) M. J. Milbert, in chap. 3, of his Voyage Piitoresque a ['Ile 
de France, etc. (Paris, 1812, 8vo,) gives a sketch of the meteor- 
Slogy of that island, (S. lat. 20°; E. lon. 57° 30’.) In his ac- 
count of the character of the month of December, he states that 
this season is the time in which luminous meteors are seen trav- 
etsing the heavens.* It cannot be determined whether his state- 
ment refers to any particular part of the month. 

(3.) “During the severe concussions [of the earthquake] of the 
4th and 5th, [December, 1809, at the Cape of Good Hope, | the 
Watches and clocks lost a good deal of time, a fire-ball was ob- 


—___ 


** Cette saison brdlante est celle aussi ou les méteéores brillent dans le ciel et se 
Présentent quelquefoi un énorme globe de feu ou comme une longue fusée 
{Ui traverse lentement l’espace, jetant une lumiére trés vive ; d'autres fois ils pro- 
duisent une détonation aussi forte qu’un coup de canon; il n'est pas rare de voir 
paraitre tout-’-coup dans le ciel ces jets de lumiére qui, parfois, se divisent aprés 
Vexplosion, en laissant une trainée blanchatre qui forme un léger nuage, et bient6t 
ui se perd dans l'espace.” Tome 2, p. 83 


\ 


358 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 


served over the mountains in the west; various shooting stars 
appeared ; the firmament was completely free of clouds, &c.”— 
Edinb. Ann. Reg. for 1809. 8vo, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 509. 

(4.) In an anonymous table of the dates at which unusual 
numbers of meteors have been seen, contained in the London 
Monthly Chronicle, (vol. i, No. 9, Nov. 1838,) the sixth of De- 
cember, 1826, is given. What authority there is for it, [ do not 
know. The table seems to be derived chiefly from a similar one 
published by M. Quetelet, with additions from various papers 
which have appeared in this Journal. 

New Haven, Conn., May 15, 1839, 


Arr. XI.— On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an 
account of observations made on and about the 20th April, 
1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec. Sec. Conn. Acad. 


Ir is generally known that in April, 1803, a remarkable shower 
of shooting stars was witnessed throughout a large part of the 
United States. In order that an account of this interesting event 
may be placed on permanent record, I have collected for this Jour- 
nal the following statements concerning it. 

As hypotheses which I do not credit, are often interwoven with 
the testimony cited, I take occasion here to express my entire dis- 
sent from the suppositions that shooting stars, whether single or 
in showers, are connected, either as cause or effect, with earth- 
quakes, pestilence, electrical discharges, winds, seasons of heat or 
cold, or any particular sort of weather; or that the movements of 
these meteors have any correspondence with the direction of the 
wind, or with lines of magnetic dip or declination. That they 
are connected with the causes of the Aurora Borealis, is quite 
doubtful, yet it is well worthy of notice, that very brilliant dis- 
ig of the latter have often occurred about the 13th of Novem 

a 


I. Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 
1. General account.— The newspapers from North Carolina, 
Virginia, and New Hampshire, contain accounts of a remarkable 


exhibition of meteors, or of shooting stars, seen at Raleigh, [N. C.| 
Richmond, [Va,] and Portsmouth, [N. H.] towards the end of 


Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 359 


April, 1803. The beholders have, in several places, given certi- 
ficates of what they witnessed. They declare that night the 
heavens seemed to be all on fire, from the abundance of lucid me- 
teors. ‘They passed over head in all directions, and were too > 
numerous to be counted. One witness counted one hundred and 
sixty-seven in about fifteen minutes, and could not then number 
them all. This luminous display continued from one until after 
three o’clock in the morning. Part of the time the light was so 
great that a pin might be picked up on the ground. The modern 
opinion of these appearances is, that they consist of phlogistous gas, 
(inflammable air) catching fire in the upper region of the atmos- 
Phere. But it is not easy to explain wherefore the air of so many 
parts of the continent was so over-charged with hydrogenous va- 
por so early in the season.[!!] |The coruscations are stated from 
all parts to have been unusually frequent and brilliant.” —Medical 
Repository, (8vo, New York,) 2d Hex. vol. i, 1803-4, p. 300. 

2. Observations at Richmond, Va., N. lat. 37° 32/; W. lon. 
17° 26. “ Shooting Stars.—This electrical phenomenon was ob- 
served on Wednesday morning last at Richmond and its vicinity, 
ma manner that alarmed many, and astonished every person 
who beheld it. From one until three in the morning, those 
starry meteors seemed to fall from every point in the heavens, in 
- Such numbers as to resemble a shower of sky rockets. 'The in- 
habitants happened at the same hour to be called from their houses 
by the fire-bell, which was rung on account of a fire that broke 
out in one of the rooms of the Armoury, but which was speedily 
extinguished. Every one, therefore, had an opportunity of wit- 
Hessing a scene of nature, which never before was displayed in this 
part of the globe, and which probably will never appear again. 
Several of these shooting meteors were accompanied with a train 
of fire, that illuminated the sky for a considerable distance. One, 
M particular, appeared to fall from the zenith, of the apparent size 
of a ball of eighteen inches diameter, that lighted for several sec- 
onds the whole hemisphere. During the continuance of this re- 
markable phenomenon, a hissing noise in the air was plainly 
heard, and several reports, resembling the discharge of a pistol. 
Had the city bell not been ringing, these reports would probably 
have seemed louder.. The sky was remarkably clear and serene, 
and the visible fixed stars numerous the whole night. We are 
anxious to know at what distance from Richmond this phenome- 


360 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 


non has extended. It is hoped that persons who have remarked 
it in other places, will not neglect to inform the public of the par- 
ticulars; as such information may add in a great degree to the 
knowledge of meteorology. 

“ Since writing the above, we have been informed that several 
of the largest of these shooting meteors, were observed to descend 
almost to the ground before they exploded. Indeed, many of 
those which we saw, appeared to approach within a few yards of 
the house tops, and then suddenly to vanish. ‘Some persons, we 
are told, were so alarmed, that they imagined the fire in the Ar- 
moury was occasioned by one of these meteors, and in place of 
repairing to extinguish the earthly flames, they busied themselves 
in contriving to protect the roofs of their houses from the fire of 
heaven, | 

“This circumstance of the shooting stars descending within a 
short distance of the ground, is, however, a fact highly important 
to be known ; as it has been generally supposed that meteors 
only proceed in a horizontal direction and never fly perpendicu- 
larly upwards or downwards. Those which we particularly re- 
marked, appeared to descend in an angle of sixty degrees with the 
horizon ; but as the smaller ones were so numerous and crossed 
each other in different directions, it was only possible to ascertain 
with any precision, the paths of the largest and most brilliant.” 
—Quoted in N. Y. Spectator, of April 30, 1803, from the Vir- 
ginia Gazette, of Richmond, April 23, 1803. 

3. Observations in Schoharie Co., N. Y. N. lat. 424°; W.- 
lon. 743°.—* In the Balance of the 17th ult. we republished from 
the Virginia Gazette, an account of a remarkable phenomenon 
which was observed in Richmond. ‘The same appearance of in- 
numerable meteors or shooting stars, has also been announced 
from various parts of Massachusetts; and we have just received 
a communication from a gentleman of veracity and respectability, 
who resides in Schoharie Co, in this State, which gives in sub- 
stance the following particulars, He was returning home from a 
journey, late in the same night that the meteors were observed at 
Richmond, when he was astonished at the immense number of 
shooting stars which fell in all directions around him. Some of 
them approached so near the earth, that he could plainly distin- 
guish them between the high hills on the east and west sides of 
him, which were distant not more than half a mile. ‘Those that 


Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 361 


seemed to fall nearest were apparently as large as a barrel [!] and 
had tails from 12 to 20 feet in length. He judges there was no 
intermission (as to numbers and motion) for two hours, during 
which time the whole hemisphere was illuminated.”— The Bal- 
ance, (Hudson, N. Y.) vol. 2, p. 205, June 28, 1803. 

4. Observations at Wilmington, Del. N. lat. 39° 41’; W. 
lon. 75° 28’-—* On the 16th and I7th [April, 1803] we ‘ok a 
brisk storm with torrents of rain and lightning ; and early in the 
morning of the 20th, electrical meteors were surprisingly numer- 
ous and vivid. Newspaper accounts since inform us that the 
Same phenomena were observed over a great part of the country.” 
—Dr. John Vaughan, in N. Y. Med. Repos. 2d hex. vol. 2, (1805) 
p. 140. 

These are all the accounts of the display which I have been 
able to procure. They give no information concerning the point 
of radiation, or the hour of the greatest abundance. ‘The radiant 
point was doinbtless north of the ecliptic ; and it is perhaps not 
unreasonable to conjecture that it was (as seen in this latitude) 
near the region of the heavens where it appeared to be on the 
morning of the 19th of April, 1839.* 

This meteoric shower appears to be the legitimate successor 
of those which occurred April 4th, (morning of 5th,) A.D. 1095, 
and April 5th, (morning) A. D. 1122, (both of the pie style, 
corresponding nearly to the 11th of the Gregorian.) [I have not 
Succeeded in finding any meteoric shower in April, between 1122 
and 1803, and can not determine whether there has been a regu- 
lar progression in the time of the recurrence of the phenomenon. 
No evidence has come to my irre ag that any such display 
Was seen in April, 1830. 


IL. Observations on shooting stars, on and about April 20, 1839. 


1. New Haven.—On the morning of Friday the 19th, Mr. 
Francis Bradley and myself watched from midnight until 3 


e idea advanced by M. Valz, (Com. Ren. Acad. Sci. 1838, 2d sem. p. 977,) 
ta ls meteoric displays of the same name, in any two successive years, the 
meteors appear to move in contrary Rreenney: is irreconcilable with various obser- 
and it is. quite improbable, viewed 


theoretically, A short time will determine the question. 
25,1095, in Com. Ren. 1836, 2d sem, p. 145, from 


Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 46 


362 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 


o’clock. The sky was clear, and the moon interfered only until 
about 1 A.M. One watched in the North quarter, the other in 
the South. During the three hours, we observed fifty eight me- 
teors as follows: 
From Oh. to lh. A. M. in N. nine; in S. nine = 18 
“ 2 4 eleven; <“ six: .-h? 
mei 3 4 “ thirteen; “ten. = 23 

Several of the meteors were large, and left trains, but there was 
nothing remarkable in this respect. One apparently as large as 
Jupiter, fell near the horizon in the N. W. about a quarter past 
two o’clock, which as it burst, shot forth three red fire-balls. The 
times of flight were generally less than half a second. | Soon after 
we took our stations, we noticed that the apparent paths of the 
majority of the meteors, if traced back, would meet in a spot 
somewhere between « Lyre and ; Draconis, (about R. A. 273°, 
N. D. 45°,) and the radiant did not appear to change its place 
among the stars as they moved westward. 

On the morning of the 20th, Messrs. C. P. Bush, M. Canales, 
J.T. Seeley and myself, began observations at fifteen minutes past 
midnight. During the hour next following, we observed nine- 
teen meteors. The radiant could not be so well determined as 
on the morning previous. The time was unfavorable :—the 
moon (then near the first quarter) interfered, and the sky was 
partially clouded. In good circumstances, we should probably 
have seen double the number. Considering this quantity as only 
about equal to the yearly average, we concluded to abandon the 
field. An accident entirely prevented any further observation on 
my part, for several days succeeding. 

2. Hudson, O.—The observations of four members of Western 
Reserve College were obtained, through the kindness of Prof. 
Loomis. On the 19th, from 2h. to 3 h. A. M., two observers, 
looking from E. to W. by way of S., saw thirteen meteors ; from 
3h. to 4h., twelve. On the 20th, two observers, saw, from 2 
to 3h. A. M., dwelve; from 3h. to 4 h. thirteen. 

3. Geneva, N. Y.—Mr. Azariah Smith, Jr. watched at various 
times on the mornings of the 16th, 19th, and 20th. He saw 
several meteors, (two of unusual splendor on the 19th,) but the 
number was not above the average. All, or nearly all of them, 
came from the head of Draco.—Observations at Rochester, N. Y. 
and at Claiborne, Ala. detected nothing unusual. ‘The news- 


SE i ha OTN Ah ct enemy 


alii cchimeemimaioeti cabs, — 


Report on a re-examination, §c. 363 


papers mention that at Charleston, S. C., at 10 o’clock, P. M. of. 
the 20th, a fire-ball of great splendor was seen in the North. 

The details above given lead to the conclusion, that no unusual 
display of meteors was visible in this country on the mornings of 
the 19th or 20th: April, 1839. It is to be regretted that no thor- 
ough observation was made on the mornings of the 21st and 22d. 

It deserves to be mentioned, that the meteoric shower of April, 
1803, is by European writers, almost universally referred to the 
twenty-second day of the month. ‘The documents which I have 
quoted, compel the belief that the true date is the twentieth. The 
only ground for suspicion concerning it, is the apparent failure 
on this day, for two successive years, of any recurrence of the 
shower, 


Arr. XII.— Notice of a Report on a re-examination of the Eco- 
nomical G'eology of Massachusetts ; by Epwarp Hircucocs, 
Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst Col- 
lege. Boston, 1838. 


Communicated by Professor C. U. Suzparp, at the request of the Editors, 


Tue objects aimed at in the undertaking, were Ist, the collec- 
tion and analysis of soils, with a view to their amelioration on 
chemical principles; 2nd, the discovery of coal, marl and ores ; 
3rd, a more accurate determination of the boundaries to the vari- 
us rock formations ; 4th the scientific geology, and lastly to pro- 
cure additional specimens for the illustration of the geology and 
Mineralogy of the State. 

rof. Hrrcncock confines himself however, in the present re- 
port pretty nearly to the first and second topics above enumer- 
ated, and dwells particularly upon those developements of valu- 
able materials within the commonwealth, which have been ef- 
fected since the publication of his earlier reports. 

As a preliminary to the consideration of soils, he classifies the 
different kinds observed as follows : 

l. Alluvium from rivers, do. peaty; 2. Tertiary soil, do. 
Sandy ; 3. sandstone soil, red, do. gray; 4. Graywacke soil, con- 
glomerate, do. slaty gray, do. slaty red; 5. Clay slate soil; 6. 

imestone soil, magnesian, do. common; 7. Mica slate soil; 8. 


364 Report on a re-examination of the 


Talcose slate soil; 9. Gneiss soil, common, do. ferruginous; 10. 
Granite soil; 11. Sienite soil; 12. Porphyry soil; 13. Green- 
stone soil. 

The principal deposites of the 2d variety of soil occur in the 
valley of the Connecticut river, and in the counties of Plymouth, 
Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket. ‘‘ The surface on these 
places is usually covered with a white or yellowish silicious 
sand, which forms one variety of these soils. Where the sand is 
washed away, a deposite of clay is exposed, white, or whitish 
in the southeastern part of the state, but bluish on Connecticut 
river. This is the other variety of tertiary soils. Either of them 
in a pure state, is exceedingly barren ; but duly mixed, they form 
a very productive soil.” (p. 10.) 

The limestone soil is confined to the county of Berkshire. It 
is thus denominated because it contains more of the salts of lime 
than any of the other soils of the state, although the calcareous 
earth even in the limestone soil, is by no means abundant, it hav- 
ing, in the opinion of Prof. H., been partially withdrawn by cul- 
tivation. 

The specimens of soil for analysis were taken in nearly every 
instance from cultivated ploughed fields, and when practicable, 
from land which had been long enough under cultivation to cause 
the decay of all coarse vegetable fibres. Care was observed to 
avoid on the one hand, rich soil situated near to houses, and on 
the other, worn out and neglected fields. The samples were 
obtained at a depth of three or four inches below the surface ; 
and in the selection, roots, undecayed manure, and large pebbles 
were rejected. After having been previously spread for several 
days upon boards, during the dry days of October, they were 
transferred to tin canisters. A portion of each specimen was 
withdrawn for analysis, and the remainder was enclosed in @ 
glass bottle, which is intended for preservation in the State col- 
lection. One hundred and twenty such bottles were collected, 
besides fifty others, containing marls, clays, muck-sand, marsh- 
mud, ochres, &c. 

In proceeding to the analysis of these numerous specimens, 
Prof. H. remarks, that the objects were, ‘ first, to ascertain the na- 
ture and amount of the earths that form the basis of the soils. 
Secondly, the nature and amount of the salts that act as stim= 
ulants to vegetation; and thirdly, to determine the amount 


Economical Geology of Massachusetis. 365 


condition of the organic matter which constitutes the nourish- 
ment of plants.’ 

_ The time at his command, however, was inadequate to a rigid 
analysis of these soils, according to the rules laid down for the 
nicest processes of quantitative research. Being forced to con- 
duct many analyses contemporaneously, the use of silver and - 
platinum vessels was of necessity out of the question; nor was 
there room to verify results by repetition; still he believes that a 
Sufficient approximation to the truth was secured, to answer the 
purposes intended. 

The almost total absence of carbonate of lime is a remarkable 
feature in the soils of Massachusetts. But seven specimens of 
the whole number effervesced with hydrochloric acid, when ex- 
amined with the utmost care to observe this phenomenon; nor 
did either of these examples afford carbonate of lime in a higher 
ratio than about 3 per cent. 

It was a leading object in the research to determine the quan- 
tity of finely divided matter in the soil, since the best soils are 
usually characterized by their fineness. Prof. H. thinks the 
main defect of their soils to consist in the coarseness of their tex- 
ture, and this he very properly attributes to the circumstance of 
their originating, for the most part, directly from primary rocks. 

The salts soluble in water, equalled from 1 to 2 parts in a 
thousand of the soil, and in every case it was believed to contain 
Sulphate of lime (gypsum:) Carbonate of magnesia was also 
very frequently an ingredient, though in mere traces. ‘The pres- 
€nce of soda and potassa was not determined. The peroxide of 
iron exists from 1 to 4 per cent., and upwards in few instances. 

tof, H. regards this last asan useful ingredient in soils. The ra- 
tio of the alumina to the other. ingredients varies from 1 to 18 
Per cent. The instances are common in which he found it above 
10 per cent., which is beyond what might have been supposed 
for a region where the argillaceous formations are so uncommon 
as they are in Massachusetts. 

In respect to the earthy ingredients of a soil, it is undoubtedly 
true that a very wide diversity of constitution is compatible with 
fertility, provided the mechanical condition, and the proportions 
of salts and organic matter are propitious. Prof. H. is of opinion 
that ‘the salts especially admit of but little variation without 
Producing sterility, either by their deficiency or excess; and 


‘ 


366 Report on a re-ecamination of the 


hence to determine their amount is an important point in agricul- 
tural chemistry. And the differences which are so obvious in 
soils derived from different rocks, do not depend entirely upon 
the different proportions of the earths which they contain. ‘For. 


the quantity and nature of the salts resulting from the decompo- 


sition of rocks are considerably different. 'Thus we should ex- 
pect, that the gneiss and granite soils would contain a larger 
amount than usual of the salts of potassa, and where sulphuret 
of iron prevails, of the salts of iron; the porphyry soils, of the 
salts of soda; the graywacke and sandstone soils, of the salts of 
lime, magnesia, and perhaps potassa and soda; the mica slate 
soils, of the salts of magnesia and potassa; the talcose slate soil, 
of the salts of magnesia: or perhaps more commonly we should 
find the lime and magnesia uncombined with an acid,’ (we do 
not perceive how this can be.) 

‘Such differences as these in the constituents of soil, will un- 
questionably affect their fertility; and it would be desirable to 
ascertain how far they exist in the soils of Massachusetts. Ihad 
hoped to accomplish this object ; but it will require a great num- 
ber of delicate and accurate analyses, demanding far more time 
than has yet been allowed me. As will be seen in the sequel, I 
have attempted to determine the amount of the salts of lime in 
all the soils that I have collected; but it will need comparative 
trials by the ordinary modes of analysis before the peculiar char- 
acteristics of the different classes of our soil can be pointed out ; 
and besides I have made no attempt to determine the existence 
and amount of potassa and soda in my specimens.’ p. 27. 

Prof. H. next proceeds to the developement of a new method of 
analysis derived from Dr. Samven L. Dana of Lowell, Mass., and 
which Prof. H. regards as a most important contribution to agri- 
cultural chemistry. The account is prefaced by the following 
remarks from Dr. D. 

* Geine forms the basis of all the nourishing part of all vegetable manures. The 
relations of soils to heat and moisture depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under 
its three states of ‘ vegetable extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould,’ the principle 
which gives fertility to soils long afier the action of common manures has ceased. 
In these three states it is essentially the same. ‘The experiments of Saussure have 
long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. of all 
the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical 
importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and insoluble geine 1 
soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and propor 
tions of the earthy constituents and soluble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation 


} 


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H 
f 


Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 367 


of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as 
undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the 
labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, pub- 
lished in the books, to see that fertility depends not on the proportion of the earthy 
Ingredients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are 
these ; that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly, or chiefly, of one earth ; 
or any soil, with excess of salts, is always barren; and that plants grow equally 
well in all soils, destitute of geine, up to the period of fructification,—failing of 
geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, 
all that is essential ; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with 
the first. . The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of 
plants. The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury. 
The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve 
all into ‘ granitic sand ;’ by which I mean the finely divided, almost impalpable 
mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica slate, sienite, and argillite; the 
last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look 
at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic principles constant constitu- 
ents—silica, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphuric and phos- 


ave been overlooked from the known difficulty of detecting phosphoric acid. 
Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with mucilage or gelatine, 
that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless the good effects, 
the lasting effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on 
its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to 


~ which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar form - 
ations; but all our granitic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic 
Principles which plants demand. This’is so true, that on this point the farmer al- 
Feady knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows: 
soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture, but the best possible 
Mixture does not give fertility. That depends on salts and geine. If these views 
are correct, the few properties of geine which I have mentioned, will lead us at 
once toa simple and accurate mode of analysing soils,—a mode, which determines 
®t once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable 
nutriment,—a mode, requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental 
tact,—one, which the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy ; and, 
With a little modification, perfectly within the reach of any man who can drive a 
team or hold a plough.” 


368 Report on a re-examination of the 


Rules of Analysis. 
. “ Sift the an through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; dake it just up to 
Bick, tie se paper 
2. Boil 100 ; grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or 
carbonate of soda, in 4 ounces of water, for half an hour ; ; let it settle; decant the 
clear ; wash the grounds with 4 ounces boiling water ; throw all on a ihe fil- 
ter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil, (1); wash till color- 
ss water returns Mix all these liquors. It isa brown colored solution of al] the 
soluble geine. Al] sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any 
phosphates, are on the filter. Dry therefore, that, with its contents, at the same 
heat as before. Weigh—the loss is soluble geine.” 
“Tf you wish to examine the geine ; pracipitate the alkaline solution with ex- 
atl ime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if lime-water 
aes has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colorless. Collect the geate of 
lime on a filter; wash with a little oane or very dilute muriatic acid, and you 
have geine quite pure. Dry and weig 
4. “Replace on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents; wash with 2 
rams muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold-water. Wash till 


tle oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touche 
salts of lime Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in 
boiling water. The insoluble will be phosphate of lime. Weigh—the loss is the 
sulphate of lime; (1 make no allowance here for the difference in atomic weights 
of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.)”” 
_ 5. “ The earthy residuum. if of a greyish white color, contains no insoluble geine 
—test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel—if the odor of burn- 
ing feat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine is indicated. Ifso, calcine the 
earthy residuum and its filter—the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine ; 
that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegeta- 
ble food. fla ny error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate, if one be 
present. but these exist in too small quantities in ‘granitic sand,’ to affect the result. 
The actual weight of the residuary mass is ‘ granitic sand.’ 

“ The clay, mica, quartz, &c. are easily distinguished. 
which may be easily tested by acids ; then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 
100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the Joss of weight is due to 
the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron may be so considered ; for the ulti- 
mate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime. 

“ Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as 
before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter.””* 32-35. 

pela a CRS Pel P sete 


* In applying Dr. Dana’s rules given in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I 
found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several processes to- 
gether. T accordingly made ten nce esi upon a table, each pro vided with 


If your soil is calcareous, 


at chen a The sand bath was also made large enough for aerate 3 the ten 
flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes with almost as great 
facility as one could have been carried forward in the usual way 


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Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 369 


A tabular view is given in the report of 125 analyses of soils, 
conducted on the principles above laid down. The first column 
of the table gives the soluble geine, the 2d, the insoluble geine, 
the 3d, sulphate of lime, the 4th, the carbonate of lime, the 5th, 
the phosphate of lime, the 6th, the granitic sand, the 7th, the 
moisture absorbed in 24 hours by 100 grs. of the soil previously 
heated up to 300° F., the 8th, the absorbing power in propor- 
tional numbers, and the last, the specific gravity of the soil. 

Notwithstanding the expedition with which examinations ac- 
cording to the foregoing rules are capable of being made, we can- 
not but express our astonishment at the zeal and patience with 
which the author must have labored in order to bring forward so 
many results. And whatever may be the value which the chem- 
ical reader may attach to the formula by which they are conduc- 
ted, taken as a whole, still, in regard to the columns of organic 
matter, of absorbing power and specific gravity, no objections are 
likely to be urged. 

Of Dr. Dana’s hypothesis respecting the state in which vegeta- 
ble and animal matter exists in the soil, and the changes through 
which it passes before being taken up by the roots of the plants, 
it is exceedingly doubtful whether the progress of organic chem- 
istry will ever raise it to the character of chemical theory. Re- 
cent researches would rather lead us to regard soluble geine as 
Composed of at least three vegetable acids, viz. the crenic, apo- 
crenic, and ulmic, together with a black matter called by Her- 
MANN (Journ. d’ Erp. t. 12, p. 277,) earthy extract: while the 
insoluble geine is ulmic acid mingled with undecomposed veg- 
etable remains. HERMANN gives the following view of the con- 
Stitution of the above acids. 


Crenie. Apocrenic. Ulmic. 
Carbon, 535. (= Tatoms.) 1070.1(= 14 atoms.) 6190. 
Hydrogen, 99.8(=16 “ ) 87.3(=14 “ ) 431 
Nitrogen,  88.5(= 1 “ ) 265.5(= 3 “ ) 1108. 
Oxygen, 600. (= 6 “ ) 600. (= 3 “ ) 2274 


1323.3 (combining weight. ) 1722.9 (combining wt.) 10000. 


What therefore Dr. D. considers a simple salt, (a geate, ) is more 
Probably a family of salts, viz. a crenate, an apocrenate, and an 
ulmate, with the addition moreover of earthy extract. How these 
Principles become the nutriment of plants is yet far from being 

Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 7 


370 Report on a re-examination of the 


cleared up, although there remains the best reason for supposing 
that it chiefly depends upon their capacity to afford carbonic acid. 
The more alkaline the bases united with these acids in a particu- 
lar soil, the more favorable are the conditions for vegetation, a 
fact which is apparently connected with the superior solubility of 
alkalescent salts. 

It may be doubted whether the steps directed to be taken in 
the analysis for the determination of the salts of lime are free from 
all objection. The treatment of the soil after being freed from 
geine, with dilute hydrochloric acid, must necessarily take into 
solution aluminium and iron, beside rendering a portion of the 
silicic acid soluble. On evaporating the fluid to dryness as di- 
rected, and treating the mass with boiling water, it would there- 
fore follow that a residuum of alumina and sesquioxide of iron, 
(owing to the partial decomposition of the chlorides of aluminium 
and iron from evaporation to dryness,) together with some silicic 
acid (rendered insoluble by the same treatment,) would go to in- 
crease the weight assumed to be pure phosphate of lime. 

As might be anticipated therefore, we find the ratio of phos- 
phate of lime in the soils of Massachusetts exceedingly high, va- 
rying from 0.5 to 2 per cent. 

Growing out of the same procedure, it appears also, that the 
proportion of sulphate of lime must generally be rather too high : 
for if, as we suppose, the hydrochloric acid attacks the aluminium 
and iron, the aqueous solution regarded in the formula as chlor. 
calcium only, must contain also the chlorides of iron and alu- 
minium, as well as some silicic acid. Consequently, we find the 
sulphate of lime quoted in some of these analyses at 3 p. ¢., and 
even higher in a few instances. 

The foregoing inadvertencies (as they strike us) in Dr. Dana’s 
rules of analysis, are not conceived to vitiate in an important man- 
ner the results contained in the report, nor do we mention them 
because we imagine they were unperceived by the inventor of 
the formula or by Prof. H.; but through a desire to induce these 
gentlemen to obviate, if possible, the objections urged against it, 
and still preserve its claims to convenience on the ground of fa- 
cility of working and accuracy of result. 

The report contains the following remarks respecting the re- 
sults of these analytic investigations. 


“4 


commen 


Vesontite rtm tt 


Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 371 


They show us the amount of nutriment in the soils of Massachusetts ; also how 
much of it is in a fit state to be absorbed by plants, and how much of it will need 
further preparation. As this is probably the first attempt that has b de to ob 
tain the amount of geine in any considerable number of soils, we cannot compare 
the results with those obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however, 
for comparison with future analyses; and we learn from them, that geine, in both 
its forms, abounds in the soils of the state, and that it most abounds where most 
attention has been paid to cultivation. It ought to be recollected, that I took care 
not to select the richest or the poorest portions of our soils; so that the geine in 
this table is probably about the average quantity. It is hardly probable that the 
number of specimens analysed from the different varieties of our soils is sufficiently 
large to enable us to form a very decided opinion as to their comparative fertility, 

in som 


especially when we recollect how much more thorough is the cultivation 

arts of the state than in others. It may be well, however, to state the average 
quantity of geine in the different geological varieties of our soils, which is as 
follows ; 


Soluble Geine. Insoluble Geine, 

lluvium, 2.25 - ere cet 
Tertiary argillaceous soils, oo ee eo 
Sandstone do. 3.28 - - - - 2.14 
Gray wacke do. $3.60, <5 -= - - 4.00 
Argillaceous slate do. 5.77 - - - - 4.53 
Limestone do. 3.40 - - - - 4.04 
Mica slate do. 4.34 - - - - 4.60 
Talcose slate do. 3.67 “ - * * 4.60 
Gneiss do. AD nae se 
Granite do 4.05 + . . * 3.87 
Sienite do. 4.40 ety ae . - 4.50 
Porphyry do. G97. ae et ee 
Greenstone . do C56 ss - - - 6.10 


One fact observable in the above results may throw doubts over the fundamen- 
tal principles that have been advanced respecting geine ; viz. that it constitutes the 
od of plants, and that they cannot flourish without it. It appears that our best 
alluvial soils contain less geine, in both its forms, than any other variety, except 
those very sandy ones that are not noticed in the above results, because their num- 
is so small. Ought we hence to infer that alluvium is a poor soil? I appre- _ 
hend that we can infer nothing from this fact against alluvial soils, pt that they 
are sooner exhausted than others, without constant supplies of g For if a soil 
contain enough of this substance abundantly to supply a crop that is growing upon 
it, that crop may be large although there is not enough geine to ki 
Now analysis shows that our alluvial soils contain enough of g 


gree of fineness that they allow air, moisture, and lime, rapidly to convert vegeta- 
ble matter into soluble geine, and yield it up readily to the roots of plants : but I 
Presume that without fresh supplies of manure, they would not continue to pro- 
duce as long as most of the other soils in the state. A considerable part of our al- 
luvia are yearly recruited by a fresh deposite of mud, which almost always con- 
tains a quantity of geine and of the salts of lime, in a fine condition for being ab- 
80rbed by the rootlets of plants. And on other parts of alluvial tracts, our farmers, 
I believe, are in the habit of expecting but a poor crop unless they manure it yearly. 
Yet so finely constituted are these soils, that even if exhausted, they are more easi 

¥estored than most others; so that taking all things into the account, they are 


372 Report on a re-examination of the 


among the most valuable of our soils; and yet I doubt whether they produce as 
much at one crop as many other soils; though the others perhaps require more 
labor in cultivation, 
amount of soluble and insoluble geine obtained by Dr. Dana’s method of 
analysis, ought to correspond pretty nearly with the amount of organic matter ob- 
tained by the old method ; and by comparing the two tables of results that have 
been given, it will be seen that such is the fact. Several circumstances, however, 
e errors of analysis, will prevent a perfect agreement. In the first place, by 
the old method of analysis, 100 grains of the soil are weighed before expelling the 
water of absorption ; but by the new method, not until after its expulsion. Again, 
by the old method only the very coarse parts of the soil are separated by the sieve : 
but a fine sieve is used by the new mode, and this removes nearly all the vegeta- 


perfect agreement in the results of the two methods. 

The three next columns in the Table contain the salts of lime in our soils. 
have already described the infrequency of the carbonate ; but very different is the 
ease with the sulphate and the phosphate which were found in greater or less 
quantity, in-every soil analysed. In respect to the sulphate of lime, or gypsum, 
it may not be unexpected that we should find it in all soils, since we know it to 
occur in all natural waters throughout the state ; and we cannot conceive of any 
other source from which the water could have derived it, except the soil. But the 
phosphate of lime has generally been supposed to be much more limited, nay to be 
scarcely found in soils, except where animal substances have been used for manure. 
It is possible that in all the soils which I have analysed, such might have been its 
origin, though not very probable. Yet there is strong reason to believe, that this 
salt is a constituent of all soils in their natural state. The arguments on this sub- 
ject are stated so ably by Dr. Dana that I need only quote from his letter. 

* When we consider that the bones of all graminivorous animals contain nearly 
50 per cent. of phosphate of lime, we might be at liberty to infer the existence of 
this principle, in the food, and, consequently, in the soil, on which these animals 

raze. If we look at the actual result of the analysis of beets, carrots, beans, peas, 
potatoes, asparagus, and cabbage, we find phosphate of lime, magnesia, and potash, 
varying from 0.04 to 1.00 per cent. of the vegetable. Indian corn too, by the anal- 
ysis of the late Professor Gorham, of Harvard College, contains 1.5 per cent. phos- 

phate and sulphate of lime. It may be said that this is all derived from the manure. 
We shall see by and by. Let us look at the extensive crops often raised where 
man has never manured. Rice, wheat, barley, rye, and oats, all contain notable 
portions of phosphate of lime, not only in the grain but in the straw, and often in 
the state of superphosphates. The diseases too, ergot and smut, show free phospho- 
ic acid. Can it be that, owing to certain electrical influences of the air, in partic- 
ular seasons, lime is not secreted by the plant to neutralize the free acid? May 
not this be a cause of smut and ergot? Does it not point out a remedy ? Take too 
the cotton crop of our country. What vast quantities of phosphates do we thus 
annually draw from the soil? Cotton gives one per cent, ashes, of which 17 per 
cent. is composed of phosphate of lime and magnesia. The like is tue of tobacco. 
It contains 0.16 per cent. of phosphate of lime. If we turn to the analysis of forest 
trees, we find that the pollen of the pinus abies, wafted about in clouds, is composes 
of 3 per cent. phosphate of lime and potash. May not this too be one of nature s 
beautiful modes of supplying phosphoric acid to plants and to soils? If, as the late 
experiments of Peschier have proved, sulphate of lime, in powder, is decomposed 
growing leaves, the lime liberated, and the sulphuric acid combining with the 


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Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 373 


potash in the plant, why may not phosphate of lime, applied by pollen, act in the 
same way? At any rate, the existence of phosphate of lime in our forest soils is 
proved not only by its existence in the pollen, but by its actual detection in the 
ashes of pines and other trees.—100 parts of the ashes of wood of pinus abies give 3 
per cent. phos. iron; 100 parts of the ashes of the coal of pinus sylvestris give 1.72 
phos. lime, 0.25 phos. iron; 100 parts of ashes of oak coal, give 7.1 phos. lime, 3.7 
phos. iron ; 100 parts of ashes of bass wood 5.4 phos. lime, 3.2 phos. iron; 100 parts 
of ashes of birch wood 7.3 phos. lime, 1.25 phos. iron ; 100 parts of ashes of oak 
wood 1.8 phos. lime ; 100 parts of ashes of alder coal 3.45 phos. lime, 9. phos. iron, 

“These are the calculated results from Berthier’s very accurate analyses, and 
those very curious crystals—detected in some plants—the ‘ raphides’ of DeCandolle, 
are some of them bibasic phosphates of lime and magnesia. Phosphate of iron, we 

now, is common in turf; bog ore, and some b d acid soil their-acidity 
to free phosphoric acid. If we allow that our untouched forest soil contains phos- 
phate of lime, it may be said, that this, being in small quantity, will be soon ex- 
hausted by cultivation, and that the phosphates, which we now find in cultivated 
fields, rescued from the forest, is due to our manure ;—I give you the general result 
of my analysis of cow dung, as the best argument in reply. My situation and du-— 
Hes have led me to this analysis. I give you it, in such terms as the farmer may 
comprehend : water, 83.60; hay, 14. ; biliary matter, (bile resin, bile fat and green 
resin of hay,) 1.275; geine combined with potash, (vegetable extract,) 0.95; albu- 
men, 0.175,’’ 

“The hay is little more altered than by chewing. The albumen has disap- 
peared, but its green resin, wax, sulphate and phosphate of lime remain, and when 
We take 100 parts of dung, among its earthy salts we get about 0.23 parts phosphate, 
0.12 carbonate, and 0,12 sulphate of lime. Now, a bushel of green dung as evacua- 
ted weighs about 87.5 Ibs. Of this only 2.40 per cent. are soluble. Of this portion 
only 0.95 can be considered as soluble geine.’’—pp. 43-47. 


acidity 


For the sake of comparison, Prof. H. has subjected a few spe- 
cimens of soil taken from fertile western lands to the same kind 
of analysis. 


| 2 S leslgclo ls 
gg\esles|38| 28/38/22 
Sa ilcalertenisalse|ss Remarks. 
Bo (So |S" | Sl Bs [e758 
RR = 3 z 2 
ee |" 
ee a 
Rushville, — Llinois, 7.4 | 2.5|3.4 | 0.6/ 1.5 84.6, 6.3 | 
Sangamon co. do 5.6] 1.2| 0.4/1.3 /86.6| 6.3 


lor Apparently never 
“a sha ; S ihivaled: 


Peoria county, do. | 3.1} 4.8] 3.5 | 1.0 87.6 5.7 


Cultivated 14 years 
i ee 


of carbonate of lime to convert more insoluble into soluble geine, whenever occa- 

pare the p ling analyses with some of those that 
have been given of the Massachusetts soils, the superiority of the western soils will 
Not appear as great as is generally supposed. And there is one consideration re- 
sulting from the facts that have been stated respecting geine, that ought to be well 


374 Report on a re-ecamination of the 


considered by those who are anxious to leave the soil of New England that they 


regions which have not been cultivated: and for many years, perhaps, those re- 
gions will produce spontaneously. But almost as certain as any future event can 
be, continued cultivation will exhaust the geine and the salts, and other generations 
must resort to the same means for keeping their lands in a fertile condition as are 
now employed in Massachusetts, viz. to provide for the yearly supply of more 
geine and more salts.—pp. 47,48 


Next follows some remarks upon the power of soils to absorb 
water. This is conceived to depend principally upon the organic 
matter they contain, and next upon the proportion of alumina, 
after which cabonate of lime is considered favorable to the imbi- 
bition of moisture. These ingredients of soil being essential to 
fertility, the absorbing power, if correctly ascertained, becomes to 
some extent a measure of its productiveness. Prof. Hrrcencocx’s 
method of determining the problem in question, was to expose 
100 grs. previously heated to 300° F. in a cellar for 24 hrs. on a 
small earthern plate. At the end of this period, the plate was 
again weighed and the increase ascertained. 

The power of a soil to absorb moisture is no doubt a very 
important consideration to the agriculturalist ; and it appears to 
us to depend upon several conditions beside those above hinted at. 
For example, the mechanical condition of the soil must materially 
influence its capacity for acquiring moisture. A finely comminu- 
ted soil will absorb in a higher ratio than one which is coarse or 
gravelly. The presence of carbonate of potassa, or chloride of 
calcium, by their deliquescent properties will also powerfully aug- 
ment the absorbability of a soil. It is in part owing to the alka- 
line carbonate referred to, that the light soils in and near New 
Milford, (Conn.) possess such superior qualities for agriculture. 
This carbonate is supplied without interruption from the decom- 
posing state of the feldspar in the granitic gneiss hills (called Can- 
dle Mt. range) situated west of the village, and which run north- 
ward to Cornwall. We know also, that wood-ashes constitute 
the best amendment for light silicious soils, rendering them pro- 
ductive in almost every species of crop, even when applied with 
very small quantities of other manure. Illustrations of this fact 
-are frequent upon Long Island and the dry sand soils of the Con- 
necticut valley. 


Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 375) 


A new method for learning the absorbing qualities of soils has 
lately been practiced by M. Berruier,* which appears to us as 
particularly deserving of notice. It consists in filling a small filter 
with the dry soil, and then thoroughly moistening it until water 
drops from it; when the water has ceased dropping, the filter 
with its contents is transferred to one cup of a balance and a 
moistened filter of the same size to the other, when the gain in 
weight is noted. The following are some results obtained in this 
way by Berruier: 

A vegetable soil from Ormeson, near Nemours, of a pale ochre 
yellow color, taken from a vineyard and considered of excellent 
quality, absorbed 0.36 its weight of water. 

Quartzy sand of Nemours, such as is employed in the glass fac- 
tory of Bagneaux, absorbed 0.227. 

Quartzy sand of Aumont pulverized in a mortar, absorbed 0. 30. 

The kaolin of Limoges, absorbed 0.46. 

The chalk of Meudon, when purified and in the condition of 
Spanish white, gained by the process 0.35 its weight. 

The report contains likewise several interesting experiments 
directed to the converse of this problem, viz. to ascertain the ca- 
pacity of soils to retain water, which is by no means proportional 
to their powers of absorption: for these results we must refer the 
teader to the report. 

Prof. Hitchcock comes at the following very just conclusions. 
in respect to the soils of Massachusetts, viz. that the grand desid- 
erata in them are carbonate of lime and an additional supply 
of geine, or organic matter. He then proceeds to point out nu- 
merous sources of these materials in different sections of the state, 
many of which have been brought to light in the progress of the 
survey. 

An extensive bed of marl is pointed out as existing in the 
horthwest part of Stockbridge, in Berkshire county, on land of 
Mr. Buck, a second in the same town, four miles from the court 
house in Lenox, a third in the northeast part of Lee, (the thick- 
hess of which in some places is ten feet,) also several beds in 
West Stockbridge. Numerous other beds have also been noticed 
in the neighboring towns. The purest of these marls when dry, 
are white and much lighter than the common soil, and they ea- 


* Ann. des Mines, t. xiv, 1838. 


376 Report on a re-examination of the 


sily fall to powder. They abound in small fresh water shells. 
They contain from 50 to 90 p. c. of carbonate of lime, with con- 
siderable organic matter and traces of phosphate of lime ; and can- 
not fail of proving an invaluable application for the adjoining 


The clay-beds of the state are described as frequently contain- 
ing calcareous matter, particularly those which give rise to those 
curious rounded and flattened concretions, called clay-stones, and 
which often consist of carbonate of lime in the proportion of 50 
per cent. Calcareous diluvium abounds in Springfield, West 
Springfield, and South Hadley. It consists of the detrital mat- 
ter from a red slaty rock, which originally contained a few per 
cent. of carbonate of lime. ‘The lime serves as a cement, and 
imparts to the aggregate the firmness of a rock; but on being ex- 
posed to the weather, it finally crumbles down and in this condi- 
tion may be conveniently spread upon land. 

The composition of the various limestones in the state is also 
given, from which research it appears that they are chiefly dolo- 
mitic. Several new localities are moreover added to the list ; and 
what to us was quite unexpected, two deposites of green sand, 
one at Marshfield (in a region of granite) and the other at Gay 

ead. Hydrate of silica, or the light silicious soil which under- 
lies peat-deposits is also used as a fertilizer to some extent in the 
state, and no doubt with good reason, inasmuch as its animal orl- 
gin, (having composed originally the skeletons of infusoria,) 1ts 
impregnation with peat juice, and its favorable mechanical condi- 
tion, must each contribute to render it highly serviceable. - 

_ Prof. H. next points out the sources of geine, or vegetable neu- 
triment with much particularity and good judgment; and finally 
concludes this part of his subject with the following remarks : 
Though I have dwelt so long upon the analysis and improvement of our soils, it 
will be seen that I have touched only a few of its more important features, and that 
even these are but imperfectly considered. Many minor points, of no small im- 
portance, however, have been wholly passed over, or only alluded 10 5 and sensi- 
ble that I cannot do them justice at present, I shall not attempt to discuss them. 
My great object has been, after ascertaining the greatest deficiences in our soil, to 
satisfy the Government that we have the means of remedying them and of nvekang 
great improvements in them, by the aid of chemistry. If I may hope that I have 
accomplished this object, then I take the liberty to inquire, whether it be not 1m- 
portant enough, and whether there is not enough still left to accomplish ES an 
it, to make the appointment of a State Chemist desirable? We ought to have cH 
further experiments made on the subject of geine, and the salts, which the se 


4 


Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 377 


contain: also accurate analyses of the crops grown on soils with different manures ; 
seg erersigations as to the manner in which calcareous matter acts upon vegeta- 

| substances : as also experiments directed by an able and experienced 
Bon on the best mode of bringing into use the vast deposites of geine and ve- 
getable fibre which our state contains. And since we have chemists of this char- 
acter among us, why should not the services of at least one of them be secured for 
this object? The geological surveyor might often collect substances for analysis ; 
but if obliged to go as thoroughly into the chemistry of the subject as is necessary 
to valuable results, he cannot within any reasonable time accomplish the more ap- 
propriate objects of his appointment. In at least one state of the Union, where 
geological surveys are in progress, one gentleman is appointed, whose time and at- 
tention are exclusively devoted to the chemical examination of the soils, ores, &c., 
collected. And I would fondly believe, that Massachusetts will not rest satiety 
till this work is done at least as thoroughly as in any other state. I believe there 
is abundant labor for an experienced chemist upon our soils alone: but many other 
> gig found in the state, ought to be analysed, that their real value may be 

own. 


Among the secondary considerations relative to the soils of 
Massachusetts, yet unsupplied in the report for want of time, we 
presume, are descriptions of the subsoils, (or bottoms on which the 
cultivable lands immediately rest,) the topographical situations of 
the soils in respect to a supply of water from springs, lakes and 
tivers, and accurate tables of the rain-guage and thermometer du- 
ting the warm season; all of which points are entitled to attention 
among the elements for determining the agricultural capabilities 
of a country. 


Since the publication of Prof. H.’s first report, the prospect of 
discovering workable beds of anthracite coal in the region of 
greywacke where it was predicted to exist, has become strongly 
heightened. The Mansfield coal company have sunk a shaft to 
the depth of 84 feet, from which a drift is worked horizontally to 
short distance into a bed of coal about ten feet thick. Its spe- 
Cific gravity is 1.79. It consists of carbon 96. alumina, iron, &c. 

The railroad from Boston to Providence passes within 80 rods 
of this mine. 

No attempts have of late been made to re-work the coal at Wor- 
cester, which is situated in an older class of rocks. Its specific 
gravity is 2.12. It contains water 3. carbon 75. earths and ox- 
Ides 20, 

Small and irregular veins of a very superior bituminous coal 
are found in the sandstone of the Agawam River in West Spring- 
field. It is in fragments mingled along with calcareous spar and 
Pleces of the sandstotie rock, from which circumstance Prof. H. 

Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 


378 Report on the re-examination, §c. 


thinks it may have been formed by sublimation, and accordingly 
he infers that coal may exist beneath this spot, and that the por- 
tions visible have been volatilized by the agency of trap, which 
rock he supposes, from the situation of the sandstone, lies at a 
depth of between one and two hundred feet below the bed of the 
river. If Prof. H. is right in his conjecture, the coal must be 
reached before the above mentioned depth is attained. 

Under the head of ores, we make the following extracts: 

1. Carbonate of iron at Newbury. Sp. gr. = 2.94. Consists 
of 


Carbonate of lime, = - - - - 45.67 
- magnesia, - - - 8.97 
iron, - - - - 21.76 
" manganese, - - - 16.10 

Silica and alumina, - - . 3.34 

- - - - - . 4.16 


Loss 
It is very ‘Wbtindaaté, 
2. Magnetic tron in Warwick. It is very abundant, but is 
not worked on account of difficulties experienced in its reduction. 
Sp. gr. = 4.47. Analysis. 


Oxides of iron, - - ~ - . 66.4 
Oxide of manganese, - - - - 16.6 
Silica and alumina, = - - 17.0 


3. Chrome iron ore. This ee ore is found in Chester, 
where it occurs in serpentine, in covches from 5 to 18 inches wide. 
According to Dr. Hotcanp it contains traces of platinum. 

4. Limonite( Hematite). This is abundant at several places in 
Berkshire County, where Prof. H. admits that the beds extend 
downwards into, and are embraced by the older rocks. 

5. Copperas. The amount of this annually manufactured at 
Hubbardston is seventy-five tons. 

Several new localities of galena, blende and copper-pyrites are 
indicated ; and the report concludes with brief notices of ochres, 
clays, water-cement, soap-stone and serpentine-marble. 

On the whole, the present work will be found to sustain the 
character of the more voluminous report by which it was prece- 
ded, and cannot fail of advancing the agricultural prosperity of 
the state, to an elevation corresponding to that which she has 
reached in the arts and manufactures. 


i ete 


Scientific Proceedings, §. 379 


MISCELLANIES. 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Sgciety of Natural History in 
the months of June, July, and August, 1838; drawn up from the Records 
of the Society, by Avcustus A. Goutp, M. D., Recording Secretary. 

He who makes a valuable discovery and refuses or neglects to impart 
it, robs mankind of a blessing, and himself of the honor that is his due. 
So it is with scientific bodies. The toilsome and ingenious labors of 
Many an original discoverer, though gratifying to him in their pursuit, gain 
him no lasting credit; and he will be supplanted by some succeeding as- 
Pirant, because he fails to promulgate his discoveries. 

None are so likely to have the fruits of their labors usurped as scientific 
men in America, where the means of disseminating researches are so 
limited. In view of this, and from the consideration that our members 
are entitled to the credit of the description of many objects previously un- 
known to science, the following abstract of its proceedings, in the manner 
of the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” has been 
drawn up by the direction of the Society. It is offered for publication, 
With the intention that, should it receive a place in the American Journ 
of Science, it should be continued from time to time. 

It may be proper, by way of explanation, to say, that it is the custom 
to commit the objects presented at the semi-monthly meetings to members, 
Who are to report on them at a subsequent meeting. It may be further 
added, that most of the new species mentioned in this paper, in which 
only short, specific descriptions are given, are described at length and 
illustrated by figures in the “ Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. II, 

0. 2,” recently published. 

May 16, 1838.—Gro. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 

Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson, reported upon some specimens of limestone 

from the Welland Canal, presented by Srerpsen Wurre, 
Showed it to be a carboniferous limestone filled with fossil shells, identical 
With those in the limestone found on the Aroostic River, Maine ; and of 
fered reasons for supposing that there was a continuous bed from Quebec 
to the Aroostic. 

Dr. J. announced that three cases of minerals, collected by him on the 
public domain in the State of Maine, had been ordered by his Excellency, 
Gov. Evererr, to be deposited in our Hall, with the State collection of the 
Minerals of Massachusetts. 

Rev. F. W. P. Greenwoop and Dr. A. A. Gouxn, reported upon a pa- 
Per read at the last meeting by Jos. P. Covrnovy, Esq., on a species of 


380 Scientific Proceedings of the 


Thracia named by him Thracta Conradi. It had been previously re- 
garded as Th. corbulvides, Deshayes, and is also described and figured by 
Mr. Conrad as Th. declivis, of authors. From the muscular and palleal 
impressions, the contour and surface of the shell, they were satisfied that 
it is a new species. 

They also reported at some length on the confused synonymy of the dif 
ferent species of the genus T’hracia, and showed that recent authors, es- 
pecially Kiener, had increased, rather than diminished, the confusion pre- 
viously existing. 

Rev. Mr. Greenwoop reported upon several fruits from Burmah and 
Siam, recently presented by Rev. H. Malcom. Among them were the 
Tamarind, (Tamarindus Indica,) which is also found in the W. Indies, 
where it is named 7". occidentalis, although the differences in the two 
hemispheres, if any, are very slight; also the Anona squamosa, the sweet 
sop of the English, which also grows in the W. Indies. 

He also presented the fruit of the Mamea Americana, from the nut of 
which the peculiar flavor of Noyeau is said to be derived. 

Mr. Eowaro Tuckerman, Jr., presented specimens of the Geaster 
quadrifidus of Persoon, and read a paper upon it. He considers it a new 
addition to the Flora of North America, as Schweinitz, the only person 
who mentions it, says “nondum Pennsylvaniz.” It was found on the 
sands beyond Mount Auburn, in company with G. hygrometricus. This 
last is found on the bare conde only; while G. 4-fidus is found in firmer 
earth under trees. The name 4-fidus is very far from specific, the number 
of divisions into which it splits being wholly accidental. The specific 
name, fornicatus, Hudson, is better. 

At this locality he ound more lichens than at any other place of the 
size, he had ever examined. T'he reindeer moss (Cenomyce rangiferina) 
here grows to the length of five inches, eight inches being the usual length 
in Lapland. A large number of species of the genera Cenomyce and Par- 
melia are found here, some of the last genus of unusual size and lux- 
uriance. 

Mr. J. E. Tescnemacuer, presented the palatal tooth of the Ptychodus 
polygyrus, Agassiz, an extinct species of shark. The strength and effi- 

ciency of t deren viewed as instruments for crashing shells and crus- 
tacea, are very remarkable. The palatal teeth of this genus are very rare, 
though the incisor or jaw teeth are common. Only a very few, and most 
of those imperfect, are yet found in European cabinets. Mr. T. had seen 
but two in England. 

r. D. H. Srorer read a letter from J. G. Anrnony, Esq., ‘of Cincin- 
nati, in which he states that in his researches among the organic remains 
of that vicinity, T'rilobites with antenne occur; and requests the Society 
to cooperate in the investigation of this curious genus. The letter and 
subject were committed to Mr. Teschemacher. 


nian 


| 
; 
* 
: 
2 
é 


Boston Society of Natural History. 381 


Dr. C. G. Pace, of Salem, through Dr. Wyman, presented a specimen 
of Lilium with very extraordinary markings, found in company with La- 
lium Philadelphicum, and probably a variety of that species. 


June 6, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 


Joseru P. Cournovy, Esq., presented two species of Cidaris, and ac- 
companied them with a written paper on the generic distinctions of the 
Echinodermata, especially on those of the genera Echinus and Cidaris. 
This paper was rendered peculiarly interesting by the writer’s personal 
acquaintance with the economical value of these animals, and by his amu- 
sing description of the manner in which they are served up and devoured 
on the Mediterranean coasts. 

Mr. C. also read a paper on the genus Patelloidea of Quoy and Gai- 
mard, (Lottia of Sowerby,) a genus which is not to be distinguished from 
Patella by the shell, but in which the animal is very essentially different. 
His principal object was to show, and to illustrate by living specimens 
upon the table, that the Patella amena of Say, and Patella alveus, Con- 
rad, both belonged to this genus. He conjectured that the P. cerulea and 
P. pellucida of Europe, would also be found to come under this genus. 
He showed that in the animal, the anal and genital orifices are not situa- 
ted, as stated by Quoy and Gaimard, like those of Patella, just back of 

€ head and near the right tentacula, respectively ; but that they are sit- 
uated at the bottom of the cervical sac, near the base of the branchiw, 
He described a thin, subtriangular, corneous plate, situated perpendicu- 
larly on each side of the lingual ribbon, of which he had nowhere seen 
any mention. He had constantly found it both in Patella and Patelloidea, 
and thought it should constitute a part of their generic characters. 

t. W. Wurrremore, had found Planorbis armigerus, Cyclas similis, 
and Physa heterostropha of Say, in a small pond in Cambridge, speci- 
mens of which he laid upon the table. 

Dr. Jererizs Wyman, made a report upon an anomalous substance 
resembling bone, recently committed to him. On submitting a definite 
portion to fire, it gave out the odor of burnt leather, leaving a mass of the 
Same magnitude, but with a loss of 25 per cent. in weight, effervescing 
With sulphuric acid. He remarked, that although concretions had been 
found in nearly every cavity of the body, none of so large a size had been 
found except in the alimentary canal or the urinary organs. Its rough 
Prominences forbade the idea that it was derived from the former, and 
hothing of an analogous character had been taken from the human uri- 
nary organs except in one instance, Its structure was laminated. | The 
only conclusion to which he could arrive was, that it was formed in the 
animal economy, and probably in the system of some of the lower orders 
of animals, 


382 Scientific Proceedings of the 


Dr. W. also made some remarks upon a skeleton of the sloth (Brady- 
pus tridactylus) prepared by himself. The following are some of the pe- 
culiarities in its structure, viz. its three toes; its walking upon the side 
of the foot; the divergence of the posterior extremities from the pelvis ; 
the articulation of the fibula as well as of the tibia with the astragalus; 
the length of the anterior extremities, so that the fore arm, as well as the 
hand, is planted upon the ground in walking, so as to bring the body into 
a horizontal position; the extensive codssification which takes place in all 
the bones of the hand and foot; the peculiar lateral disposition of the 
claws, and the source of the deception in President Jefferson’s notions of 
the Megalonyx, so philosophically and decisively controverted by Cuvier ; 
the bifurcation of the zygomatic process; and especially the existence of 
nine cervical vertebra instead of seven, as found in all other animals. 
This last point, he observed, was still controverted, it being contended 
that what appears to be a transverse process only, does in fact bear the 
rudiment of arib. Dr. W., however, has been unable to detect any thing 
like an articulating surface in this specimen, an old one, by long macera- 
tion of the bones. The eighth vertebra also has a distinct circular fora- 
men for the vertebral artery, which is the distinctive character of the cer- 
vical vertebra. 

Dr. J. B.S. Jackson remarked, that in regard to the transverse process 
bearing a rudimentary rib, something analogous was found in the human 
foctus, the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra being a sep- 
arate piece which afterwards becomes codssified. 

Dr. Srorer stated, that he had received another letter from J. G. AN- 

“tHoNY, Esq., of Cincinnati, communicating the discovery of a new ge- 
nus of the Trilobite family, and that he had submitted it to Mr. Tesche- 
macher ; 


: June 20, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 


Josern P. Cournovuy, Esq., began the reading of a monograph of the 
Family Osteodesmacea of Deshayes, embracing the genera Thracia, Ana- 
tina, Periploma and Osteodesma. He commenced with the genus Thra- 
cia, and shewed the great confusion which now exists in respect to bot 
the generic and specific characters. This had arisen partly from British 
writers having confounded the type of the genus, Anatina declivis, Pen- 
nant, (Anatina myalis, Lam.) with another species, Mya declivis, Donov. 
(Anatina convera, Turton,) and more especially by Blainville supposi™g 
a shell before him to be Anat. myalis, which was not so, but W nat. 
trapezoides, and which he consequently removed from the genus Thracta 
and made it the type of Osteodesma, which genus again, he erroneously 
considers to be synonymous with Periploma, Schumacher. 
originated numerous other mistakes in subsequent writers. 
deavored at great length to reconcile the synonymy of the following spe- 
cies, and the following are the results of his research. 


i 
| 
i 
i 


Boston Society of Natural History. 383 


Turacta pusescens, Leach. Mya declivis, Pennant, Maton and 
_Rackett, Wood, Dillwyn and Brown; a wi _Brown ; 


Mya pubescens, Pulteney, Montagu, and Tur Thracia pubes- 
cens, Blainville, Deshayes, Kiener ; Anatina ania, Lam. “Bainville 
It is believed that this shell has never been found on our coast; the 


shell which Mr. Conrad supposed to be identical with it, hese on fur- 
ther examination, to be a distinct species: 

Turacia convexa, Couthouy. Mya declivis, Donovan ; Mya con- 
vera, Wood, Turton; Anatina convera, Turton, (Brit. Biv.,) 
Brown; Ligula distorta? Montagu. 

THRAcIA corsuLoipes, Deshayes, Blainville, Lamarck, Kiener. 

The exterior surface of the valves is not smooth, as described by 
Deshayes, unless when the granular asperities have been accidentally 
effaced: 

Turacia piicata, Deshayes, Lamarck, Kiener. 

Turacia pHAsgoLina, Kiener; Amphidesma phaseolina, Lam. 

THRACIA SIMILIS, Couthouy. Th. testa ovato-oblonga, aspera, al- 
bida vel cinerea, subdiaphana, inequilaterali, latere postico lon- 
giore, truncato et subcompresso, angulo obtuso ab apice ad mar- 
ginem infero-posticam decurrente; cardine foveolé subtriangu- 
lari, valva utraque ligamento externé prominulo; intus alba, im- 
pressionibus muscularibus anticé elongatis, quasi clavatis, posticé 
rotundatis ; saree pallii posticé valdé excavata; an ossi- 

culum? Length 32, height 44, diameter ,% of an inch. Hab. 
Coast of Brazil, not far from Rio Janeiro, whence it was brought 
by a seaman, containing the animal, 

In general aspect and its surface it closely resémbles Th. corbuloi- 
des ; but it is destitute of the prominent ridge in the centre of the 
valves, it is much less inequivalve, and its ligamentary apophysis is 
much shorter, broader and more triangular, and its anterior muscular 
impression is simple instead of double, as in that species. In outline 
it approaches to Th. phaseolina, but is revise cosdiges by its rough sur- 
face and by its very marked striz of growt 

Turacia Conran, Couthouy. Th. testa “albicelnerartente: ovato- 
transversa, ventricosa, subequilaterali, fragili, paullum hiante, 
margine sinuato, anticé rotundata, posticé subtruncata, carina ob- 
tusa ab apice ad marginem infero-posticam decurrente, ligamento 
externé prominente, interné callo nymphale valva utraque inserto, 
Length 212, height 2,4,, diameter 1,8 inches. Inhabits probably 
the whole coast of New England. 

This shell was described and figured by Mr. Conran, in his “ Ameri- 

can Marine Conchology,” as 7's. declivis, under the supposition that it 
was identical with Mya declivis, Pennant; and besides mistaking ours 


384 Scientific Proceedings of the 


for the British shell, he has given as synonyms the names of three distinct 
species. In the “ Catalogue of the Animals and Plants of Massachusetts,” 
in Prof. Hitchcock’s Report of his Survey of Massachusetts, it is set down 
as Anatina convera, Wood. In Dr. Storer’s excellent translation of Kie- 
ner’s “Iconographie,” it is regarded as identical with Th. corbuloides, 
Deshayes. From this it differs, however, in several important particulars, 
such as its less elongated form, less truncated extremity, smooth surface, 
and above all in the palleal impression forming posteriorly a deep and al- 
most acute angle instead of the semicircular one of Th. corbuloides. The 
only locality where this shell has been found alive is believed to be Chel- 
sea Beach. 

Mr. C. conjectured that Mya (Ligula) distorta, Montagu, referred by 


Kiener to Th. corbuloides, would prove to belong among the perforating 


Corbule ; and to these also he was disposed to refer Anatina truncat1, 
Turton. Both of them have similar habits of burrowing in the limestone 
of the British coast. 


July 18, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. 


Mr. Cournovy, continued his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and made 
remarks upon the following species. 

PerreLoma TRAPEzowES, Deshayes. Periploma inequivalvis, Schum. ; 
Anatina trapezoida, Lam.; Osteodesma trapezoidalis, Blainville. 

Blainville was led into the error of placing this shell in the genus Os- 
teodesma from supposing it to be identical with Lamarck’s Anatina my- 
alis, But he has committed another serious error in his generic descrip- 
tion, which has been adopted by Rang in his ‘‘ Manuel des Mollusques.” 
He says the shell is “ inéquivalve, la valve gauche plus bombée que la 
droite,” whereas the right valve is more convex than the left. Perhaps 
they were misled by the peculiar position of the ligament, which is re- 
markable for being placed anteriorly instead of posteriorly, as in most 
other shells; a fact not noted in any description. In the very perfect spe- 
cimen under observation the ossiculum is nearly a complete semicircle. 
Deshayes speaks of it as triangular. 

OsreopesmA nyattna, Couthouy. Mya hyalina, Conrad. : 

The genus Osteodesma, Deshayes, will doubtless prevail over Lyonsia, 
Turton, and Magdala, Leach, MSS., all of which are founded on Mya 
Norvegica, Chemnitz, the Amphidesma corbuloides of Lamarck. The 
name is expressive of the distinguishing feature of the shell. Blainville 
and Rang were led into the error of supposing Periploma and Osteodesma 
to be identical ; and Deshayes, though he notices the mistake and refers 
to his article on Osteodesma in the Encyc. Method. for its actual charac- 
ters, yet by a singular oversight that article is entirely omitted. mig 
quently, it is to be found only in his recent edition of Lamarck. In Se 
“Catalogue of Animals and Plants of Massachusetts, 1834," it 1s not 


Boston Society of Natural History. 385 


as Amphidesma corbuloides, Lam.; but the European shell is twice the 
size, more elongated, more besaaly truncated, more inequilateral, — 
and covered with a much stronger and more opaque epidermi 

Gould noticed the peculiarity of the ossiculum several years since, and 


consequently referred the shell to the genus Lyonsia. 


r. Cournovy, also read the description of a new species of Eolis 
lately found by him, and which he name 

Eotis piversa. E. corpore limaciformi, posticé acuto, diaphano, lu- 

teo-rufescente, capite distincto, sub-orbiculato, depresso; tentaculis 

gracilibus elongatis duabus instructo, duabusque brevioribus ad par- 

tem posticam capitis positis; branchie aurantiace seriebus binis la- 

teribus dorsi dispositis. Orrificia ee i magna, juxta collum 

ad Jatus dextrum, ano paullum pone; pede supra laciniato. h 

$*, breadth 35 of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay, Chetek 
each, 

Found among the roots of Laminaria saccharina. In its color and 
general aspect it resembles E. salmonacea, Nobis, but differs in the form 
and position of the tentacula and genitalia. In E. salnonacea the lateral 
tentacula seem to be a prolongation of the fleshy lips, instead of being 
placed near the neck; the superior ones are long, somewhat compressed, 
and as it were serrated at the edges, while in E. diversa they are short, 
smooth and round. 

Dr. Jerrries Wyman, reported upon a collection of fossil bones from 
the Brunswick canal, Georgia, presented by Mr. Cooper. It consisted of 
eighteen bones béldaging to the genera Bos, Elephas, and probably Mas- 
todon. Among them were the atlas of a ruminant, of gigantic size; me- 
tatarsal bone of right foot of genus Bos, about twice the size of the cor- 
responding bone of the common ox which he exhibited by its side, and 
Similar to it in every particular; several vertebre of a Mastodon; portions 
of a tusk and teeth of an Elephant. These teeth resemble those of an In- 
dian elephant, but the layers of enamel are more numerous and closer. 
An 0s calcis having the hinder portion broken off, but which is now mee 
than that of our elephant, though not so massive. 

Dr. W. had also examined some fossil hones brought from Burmah by 
Rev. H. Malcom. They consist of a portion of the brim of the pelvis, 
Probably of a Mastodon; tooth exhibiting the longitudinal crescentic lay- 
ers characteristic of a ruminant, and corresponding with a figure by Mr. 
Clitt in the Trans. of the Geol. Society, vol. vii, of the tooth of a deer from 
the same locality ; »ertebra of a Saurian, also resembling a figure by Mr, 
Clift, and which he regards as the vertebra of a crocodile, with all proba- 
bility of truth. This locality on the river Trawaddy, below Ava, is the 
Only locality known where the bones of mammalia and saurians are found 
associated, 

Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.+April-July, 1839. 49 


386 Scientific Proceedings of the 


Dr. Wyman had also examined the recent elephant’s tooth brought from 
Singapore by Mr. Malcom. It indicates greater age than any other tooth 
on record. The successive teeth have 4, 8, 12, 15, &c. transverse plates 
of enamel, up to the eighth set which has 23 plates, which is the greatest 
number heretofore recorded. But this tooth bas 26 plates firmly solidified, 
and some others are broken off from the anterior extremity; indicating a 
very great age for the animal. 

Mr. Tuomas M. PRrewer, alluded to a remark at a former meeting 
when speaking of the cow blackbird. He had said that its eggs could 
not be hatched by the golden-finch, because that bird had not been eb- 
served to breed before the first of August, which is later than the breeding 
season of the cow ie This remark had nearly proved false. At 
a part of June,@Mr. B. had discovered two pairs of finches build- 
ing their nest:, and they had nearly completed them when the weather 
suddenly became very warm, the nests were deserted and the birds disap- 
peared. As yet, therefore his former remark holds good. 

. A. A. Gouin, had examined the marine production presented some 
time since by Mr. Bullister, and commonly called Neptune’s Goblet. He 
had not been able to find any mention of it in Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, 
or in any scientific work, except in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv, p. 
180, where it is described and figured by Col. Hardwicke under the name 
of Spongia patcra. It is not a true sponge however, although it belongs 
to the family of sponges. It is common in the vicinity of Singapore. 

The President, (G. B. Emerson, Esq.,) read a report on the specimens 
of paper and pasteboard manufactured from the Beach grass, and pre- 
sented by its inventor, Mr. Sanderson, of Dorchester. The plant is the 
Arundo arenaria, Lin. It is placed in the genus Calamagrostis by With- 
ering and Decandolle, Ammophila by Hort and Hooker, Psamma by 
Palissot de Beauvais, Torrey, Eaton and Beck, Phalaris by Nuttall. It 
is called sea-reed or mat-reed, in England, and is found on all the shores 
from Iceland to Barbary, and all the Adantic shore from Greenland as 
far south as New Jersey, at least. Its principal use heretofore has been 
a negative one, connected with the very terms of its existence. It effect- 
ually secures the shifting sands on which it grows; and for that purpose 
large sums are annually appropriated by government, that by its cultiva- 
tion important harbors may be preserved. 

Mr. E. had not succeeded in finding the ingenious gentleman who had 
converted the otherwise useless stalks of this plant to so valuable a pur 
pose. The paper is not even, but it is smooth, sofi, and pleasant to write 
upon, and takes ink well. It is firm and very strong, and may be whitened 
readily. The pasteboard appears to be specially valuable. 

Mr. Sanperson has thus opened a new source for industry to the en: 
terprising inhabitants of the most barren parts of New England; and if 
he is a benefactor to his race who makes two stalks of grass to grow where 


resi asinine cdeainbaeestinsee 


Boston Society of Natural History. 387 


but one grew before, surely he deserves well of his country, who indi- 
rectly converts barren sands into fruitful fie 
August 1, 1838.—Mr. J. E. Tescuemacuer, in the chair. 

After the reading of the records of the preceding meeting, Rev. Mr, 
Malcom who was present, remarked in relation to the fossils brought by 
him from Burmah, that they are found only at a small stream below the 
city of Ava, where the region is perfectly sterile. The soil is clayey, and 
the bones are very numerous and lie in abundance upon the surface. 
The place abounds with petroleum wells, and this article is the only pro- 
duct from whence the inhabitants derive their support. 

He remarked that the Spongia patera was found only at Singapore, 
and always grows below low water mark, and is fished up by divers. 

A specimen of Burman tea was presented by him. It is raised in the 
interior and compressed into globular masses of four or six inches in di- 
ameter, some substance, said to be blood however, being mixed in to 
cause their cohesion. These are brought to the sea ports on the backs 
of mules and sold at ten cents per pound. The Burmans use no other 
tea, and yet Mr. M. found it to be unknown at Calcutta. He pronounced 
it an excellent tea. 

Mr. C. B. Avams, read a paper entitled “‘ Remarks on some species of 
Shells found upon the southeastern shore of Massachusetts.” ‘They were 
the results of his observations in several visits to that region, and contain 
many interesting facts as to the habits, localities, and varieties, and sev- 
eral important characteristic additions to the original descriptions. 

Cotumpetia avara, Say, Differs a little from Say’s description ; 
Coste 14 to 18 on the body whorl; young shells are carinate at the ter- 
mination of the coste. Found at New Bedford and vicinity, Falmouth, 
Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, but not north of Cape 

Buccinum visex, (Nassa vibex, Say.) Number of revolving lines on the 
body whorl more frequently 9 or 10; as many as3t» 5 teeth on the inner 
side of labrum. Rare. He had found five specimens about New Bed- 
ford. Mr. P. G. Seabury had found others. They are all old and some- 
what cretaceous, but in some the rufous bands are distinctly marked. It 
has not been found north of Cape Cod. 

Buccinum trivirrarum, (Nassa trivittata, Say.) The two u 
bands of rufous are double, being on each side of one of the peeckving 
lines, and the third is often triple; the upper band is darkest, but in many- 
cases the bands from which the speci#s derives its name are wanting. It 
is generally covered with a dirty cinereous pigment. Abundant at Nan- 
tucket, not eee at New Bedford, and occasionally found living at 
and near Boston 

B. osso.etum, (Nassa obsoleta, Say.) The cancellate and granulated 
appearance iientioned both by Say and Kiener (B. oliviforme) is not a 


388 Scientific Proceedings of the 


constant character except in the adult shell; the white band upon the 
inner side of the labrum is usually well defined. Inhabits not only our es- 
tuaries but our ocean shores, though it seems to prefer places not exposed 
to the surf. The finest specimens grow at Nantucket, where they are 
abundant. In winter he had observed them to collect together in heaps, 
filling up slight depressions in the flats, 

Purpura tapittus, Lam. He had not seen this common species at 
New Bedford, Wood’s Hole, or Nantucket; but had found Fusus cinereus 
in situations where he expected to find that species. 

Ranewua caupata, Say. Well described by Mr. Say; the canal is 
not longer than the spire, but equal or shorter. It is rare, and not found 
north of Cape Cod. 

Fusus cinereus, Say. The fauces are not unfrequently white ; some- 
times there are bands of purplish red in the fauces; the transverse coste 
are often nearly obsolete. Generally found clinging to the wet sides of 
rocks near low water mark. 

Mr. Avams also read descriptions of the following shells recently 
discovered by him in the waters of Massachusetts. 

AMINIA SEMINODA. J. testa parvula, acuto-conicd, nitida, albida, 
sub-translucida; anfractibus septem convexis, decusatim granulosis; 
anfractu postremo infra striato; apertura elliptica, basi effusa; colu- 
mella reflexa, uniplicataéa. Length .15, breadth .07 inch. Inhabits 
Dartmouth harbor. 

Only four specimens were found, about five feet below low water 
mark, on valves of Pecten concentricus. In size and figure it resem- 
bles Actgon trifidus, Totten, but differs in its convex whorl, granu- 
lous surface, and more distinct and uniform revolving lines; also in 
its less rounded and more effuse aperture. 

Pyramis Fusca. P. test& parvuld, conicd, decisa ; epidermide 
fusca, nitida; anfractibus sex, convexis; sutura impressa, sub-dupli- 
cata; apertura ovali, supra angulata, infra rotundata; labro tenuis 
columell4 convexa, reflexa, haud duplicaté. Length .15 inch, breadth 
O07 inch. Inhabits harbors of New Bedford and vicinity. 

Cerituium Emersonu. C. test& parva, conica, elongata, longi- 
tudinaliter rugosa, lineis granulatis cineta; anfractibus septemdecim, 
planulatis ; apice acuta; sutura sub-impressd, ampla; apertura sub- 
quadrata; labro pectinato ; columella in spiram ducta; cauda recur- 
vata. Length .45 inch, breadth..12 inch. Inhabits New Bedford 
harbor on the Fairhaven side, avd Nantucket (?). A variety has the 
granules obsolete, or coalescing into simple elevated, revolving lines 

CERITHIUM NiIGRocINCTUM. C. testA parvul4, conico-cylindricas 
granulosa, nigro-rubra; anfractibus tredecim, sinistrorsum volventt- 
bus; spira elongata, acut&; sutura sub-duplicata ; apertura sub-ellip- 


Boston Society of Natural Hitory. 389 


ticd, parva; caud& recurvata. Length .3 inch, breadth .08 inch. 
Inhabits Dartmouth harbor, clinging to sea-weed. 

Differs from C. perversum, Lam., in the black sutural ridge, and in 
the position of the middle series of granules; and from Murex ad- 
versus, Montagu, in its recurved canal, its distinct suture and its color. 

Mr. Couthouy concluded his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and also 
instituted a new genus to include shells formerly embraced in genus 
Anatina, but which, having a spoon-shaped hinge, are destitute of an 
ossiculum. He thus characterized it. 

Genus CocHLopEsma. 

Animal oval, compressed, enveloped in a thin mantle, closed by a 
meibrane in front, except at the anterior inferior extremity, where it 
Opens to give passage to a broad compressed foot, extending alon 
the whole inferior surface of the abdominal mass, which is inconside- 
Table; edges of the pallium thickened, and a little rugose ; siphons 
long, slender, divided in their whole extent, and opening separately 
into the branchial cavity. 

Shell transversely oval, thin and fragile, sub-equilateral, convexo- 
depressed, slightly gaping at both extremities, inequivalve, right valve 
more convex, beaks moderately prominent, inchning a little back- 
wards, summits cloven and sub-nacrous posteriorly ; extremities 
rounded, Ligament double, the external very slight and membra- 
hous, the internal received into a horizontal, spoon-shaped process on 
each valve, supported by one or two divergent falciform cost, pro- 
jecting from it obliquely and posteriorly ; muscular impressivns su- 
perficial, remote, the anterior elongated-oval, the posterior smal] and 
Sub-triangular, united by a palleal impression profoundly indented pos- 
teriorly, 

The Anatina Leana, Conrad, is the type of the genus; and the 
Anatina pretenuis, Turton, probably belongs to it. 

Mr. Couthouy then read descriptions of the following new species 
of shells 

UCULA NavicuLaRis. N, testa parva, levi, fragili, ovali, sub- 
®quilaterali, luteo-virescente, anticé rotundata, posticé truncatula, 
herding dentibus octodecim, intus albo-nitescente. Length 41, height 
zo breadth 3, of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay, vicinity of 
Plymouth. 

Beaks more central and basal outline much more strongly curved, 
than in N. myalis, Couth. 

Buiia tineotata. B. testa parvuld, oblongo-ovata, ferrugined, 
transversim obliqué frequenterque striata, spira, prominula, apertura 
Magna, ad basim valdé dilatat4 et sub-effusd, Length ;4,, breadth 


7 


390 Scientific Proceedings of the 


#y of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay. Taken from a fish’s 
stomach taken off Race Point, and resembles B. lignaria in min- 
lature. 

Burts ntematis. B. test perparva, hyalina, globosa, convoluta, 
eel a tenué striata, spird unlla, apertura ad basim valdé dila- 
ta epgth ;, of an inch, breadth about the same. Inhabits Mas- 
sutbingiatts Bay. 

Butta Govipu. B. testa parva, ovata, convoluta, fragili, alba, 
transversim tenué striata, spira depressi, imperforata, interdum pro- 
minula, anfractibus quatuor, superné rotundatis, suturis impressis, 
apertura mre anaes versus basim dilataté, columella arcuata. 
Length }3, diameter ; of an inch, nearly. Inhabits Massachusetts 
Bay. In size and she much like B. insculpta, Totten, but is 
smoother, more solid and not umbilicated. Often the outer volution 
forms an elevated, rounded ridge, encircling and rising above the 
others. 

PLevrotoma prcussaTa, P. testi parvula, ovali, fusiformi, al- 
bida, anfractibus quinque convexis, longitudinaliter plicatis, trans- 
versé striis frequentibus tenuibus decussatis, aperturi elongato-ovali, 
basi sub-canaliculata, labro tenui, levi, superné indentato, columella 
nitida, depressd arcuata, ad basim sinistrorsum divergens. Opercu- 
lum rudis. Length 3, diameter 3, of an inch. Inhabits Misetiee 
setts Bay. Distinguished from Fusus harpularius by its color, the 
greater convexity of the whorls, and the angular sinus at the junction 
of the lip. 

ANCULoTUS DeNnTATUs. A. testd rotundata vel sub-conici, irregu- 
lari, olivaceo-nigrescente ; anfractibus quinque, ultimo magno, ventri- 
coso, sepe fasciis duobus aut tribus radiis cincto; suturis impressis, 
spira obtus4 plerumque eros’; apertura eros4, basi effusa ; columella 
atra arcuata, depressa, ad basim cower posticé excavata, intus vi- 
rido vel fusco-albescente. Operculo corneo, unguiculato. Length 
22, diameter }1 inch. Inhabits the rapids of the river Potomac, Va. 

Greatly ciaeanbiin A, monodontoides, Conrad, but is distinguished by 
the peculiar flattening of its purple columella, the remarkable fossa in the 
umbilical region, and its more obtuse tooth situated nearer the base. 

Dr. T. W. Harris, made some remarks on the difficulties met with by 
himself and others in the study of Botany, on account of the want of strict 
accuracy in our books. Thus, in Bige ow’s Florula, Vaccinium 1s placed 
in Octeandria, while all our species are invariably 10-androus, and are so 
arranged in all more recent works. Menyanthus has the stigma rifid 
oftener than bifid, and sometimes quadrifid. Cheledonium, which belongs 
to Polyandria, has only 8 to 12 stamens; while Crataegus, which belongs 
to 20-andria, is found with only 10 stamens. - 


’ 


| 


. : Boston Society of Natural History. 391, 


Dr. H. had recently found a Si/ene growing on earth thrown out from 
a newly dug drain, and had since observed it on the corn-fields, near by.. 
It proves to be Silene noctiflora, Sowerby. It flowers in the evening, and 
Mr. Sowerby says the same flowers open for several successive evenings 
until they are impregnated. Do H. nds this to be not true. Eaton says 
the teeth of the calyx tube are equal; but they were alternately longer and 
shorter. This plant may be considered as naturalized among us. 

Beck pronounces the Lathyrus maritimus, Bigelow, to bs Pisum mari- 
timum ; but Dr. H. is confident that Dr. Bigelow is corre 

r. A. A. Haves, presented a specimen of native nitrate of soda from 
Tamarugal in Peru. It contains sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, Lo- 
date of soda, and chloriodide of sodium. In presenting this specimen 
With its analysis, Mr. Hayes makes the first public announcement of the 
discovery of Iodate of soda, as a new chemical species. 

Mr. C. B. Apams, enumerated the minerals in the collections from Cal- 
ifornia by Mr. Kelly, and from Nova Scotia by Rev. Mr. Prior, and made 
various remarks respecting them, to designate their peculiarities and value. 

August 15, 1838.—Dr. T. W. Harris, in the chair. 

Dr. Jerrrizs Wyman, exhibited a foetal kitten contained in its mem- 
branes, showing the peculiar manuer in which the placenta encircles the 
fetus like a zone. Also the uterus of a mouse, showing its bead-like ap- 
pearance when impregnated. Also the egg of the snapping turtle near 
the close of incubation, showing the passage of the umbilical vessels 
through a hole in the sternum. These are finally cut off and the aperture 
closed by a peculiar muscle. 

r. T. M. Brewer, remarked further on the goldfinch alluded to at a 
preceding meeting ;—that on 22d July he again observed the bird at its 
nest, where there were four eggs. This was three weeks earlier than 
usual, and the cow-bunting leaves us three weeks earlier still. 

Mr. E. Tuckerman, Jr., presented some plants not yet catalogued, as 
belonging to this country, they were Cladonia vermicularis, Cetraria 
valis, 2 ne a Parmelia, all from the White Mountains. 

. W. Harris read a paper entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the N. Ameri- 
ma insects belonging to the genus, ae hrus of Fabricius, with descrip- 
tions of some newly detected species.” He proceeded to show that the ge- 
hus Scaphinotus, Dejean, is established on very insufficient charaaere 
Those of Spheroderus are somewhat better. The same also with Mr, 
Newman’s genus Jrichroa. He concludes that the insects placed in Cy- 
chrus, Spheroderus, Irichroa and Scaphinotus, are more closely related 
to each than to any other genus, a can constitute merely subgenera. 

The following are si new species 

Cycurus ANDREWS! ck ; sborhs deep greenish blue, heart-shap- 
ed, narrowed behind, aa slightly margined at the sides; elytra deep blue, 


392 Scientific Proceedings, §c. 


lines. Inhabits North Carolina. Resembles C. marginatus and more 
nearly still C. cristatus from Oregon. 

Cycurus Leonarpu. Black ; head transversely striated ; thorax viola- 
ceous, subquadrate, narrowed behind ; elytra broad ovate, carinated at the 
sides, bronzed violet, deeply crenato-striated. Length, including mandi- 
bles, from 11 to 13 lines. Inhabits northern and western parts of Massa- 
chusetts and New Hampshire. Hitherto confounded with C. viduus, from 
which it essentially differs in color and its more dilated form. 

Cycurus Tusercucatus. Black opaque; bead rugose and with two 
longitudina] impressions on the front; thorax rugose, truncato-cordate, 
contracted behind; coleoptra ovate, very convex, granulated, with a triple 
series of smooth tubercles on each elytron; epipleura rugosely punctured. 
Length 7 to 8! lines. Inhabits Oregon. 

Cyrcurus ancutatus. Black; head carinated; thorax angulated at 
the sides, much contracted behind; elytra violaceous-brown, somewhat 
flattened, crenulato-striate ; legs brownish-piceous. Length 6 lines. 
Inhabits Oregon. 

Cycurus cristarus. Black; head carinated; thorax cordate, con- 
tracted behind; elytra crenato-striate, with a narrow, blue margin. 
Length 5: lines. Inhabits Oregon. 

Dr. Harris exhibited specimens of Nymphea odorata (var. sanguinea) 
from the Botanic Garden, Cambridge; and remarked upon the tendency, 
strongly exhibited in these specimens, which all the parts of the flower 
have, to become leaves. | 

r. Goutp remarked that this lily was originally brought from Mossy 
Pond, in Lancaster, where it grows in one small spot. He was inclined to 
_ regard it as a distinct species, having constantly fonnd the angles of the 
leaves more prolonged, the color darker and the size smaller than in N. 

a 


Mr. C. B. Anams, had spent a day at Fresh Pond, and gave an account 
of the shells he had found there. They were the following species, V2. : 
Unio nasutus, complanatus, and radiatus; Anodonta implicata, Say; 
Cyclas similis; Planorbis trivolvis, bicarinatus, deflectus? and hirsutus, 
MS.; Valvata tricarinata; Succinca ovalis; Lymnea heterostropha, col- 
umellaris, catascopium, Physa heterostropha, Paludina decisa, hus rica? 

Of Unio nasutus only one specimen was found, U. radiatus was abun- 
dant, clean and beautiful. From one of them dropped a beautiful pearl 
in the form of a flattened sphere, .16 inch in the longer and .11 inch in 
the shorter diameter. Of Anodonta implicata, Say, he said, that a com- 
parison of adult shells only, with specimens of A. cataracta from other 
calities might lead to the conclusion that they were distinct species ; but 
an examination of them in every stage of growth from the size of the 


lo- 


ne a ne 


j 
i 
| 
| 
| 
| 
; 


Miscellanies. 393 


thumb nail upwards, renders it probable that they are only a variety of A. 
cataracta. An undescribed species of Planorbis was found abundantly. 
He first found it in Mansfield, and it has since been found by Dr. Gould 
in Dedham, and he proposes to describe it under the specific name 
hirsutus. It resembles the European albus in the revolving lines of hairs 
by which it is covered, A minute species of Paludina seems also to be 
new, 


2. African Meteorite—(From the London Nautical Magazine.) —Ex- 
tract from a letter, dated Nov. 24, 1838, written by a gentleman (on whom 
reliance may be placed) residing at the Cape of Good Hope. “T have 
taken the liberty to transmit under your charge, for Sir John Herschel, 
the accompanying aérolite, another portion of an enormous aérolite, that 
exploded in the department called the Cold Bokkeveld, about 112 miles 
N N. E. of this place, on the morning of the 13th October, (1838,) and 
which for magnitude ranks with the largest on record of undoubted au- 
thority. Judge Menzies, returning from circuit, saw it traversing the at- 
mosphere about 60 miles from the estate, where it exploded with a report 
equal to the discharge of some heavy pieces of artillery, to the great as- 
tonishment of the inhabitants, one of whom had a narrow escape from be- 
ing destroyed by it. I am making strong efforts to secure a piece, said 
to have made a hole in the ground that would admita dining table! ‘This 
may be exaggerated. A man declares the hole is three feet in diameter. 
Also to collect information regarding its velocity, course, altitude, &c.” 


3. New species of Argulus; notice from Dr. T. W. Harris.—It may 
interest some of your readers to be informed of the discovery of another 
species of Arcutus in this country. It was found in the gills of a her- 
ring, caught upon Brighton bridge from Charles river, during the month 
of June last. It differs from Arautus foliaceus of Europe, and from the 
species described in a former number of your Journal, vol. xxxiv, p. 225, 
in the size and form of the body, and in the shortness of the legs. Hav- 
ing presented the specimen to Dr. A. A. Gould, for description, I shall not 
attempt to oe him by giving a detailed account of its specific char- 
acters at this 

Cambridge, ia Feb. 8, 1839. 


4. Cabinet of Minerals for sale—The Cabinet of Minerals of the late 
Dr. Young, of Edenville, N. Y., is offered for sale. This collection was 
selected with great care by Dr. Young, and embraces the rare and beau- 
tiful productions of Orange county, N. Y., and Sussex county, N. J. Its 
crystals of spinelle, corundum, Franklinite, Brucite, Troostite, melanite 
hornblende, bronzite, idocrase, &c., &c., would be an invaluable eter 
Sition to any public cabinet. It has been generally pronounced by min- 

ol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 50 


394 Miscellanies. 


eralogists to be one of the most select and beautiful collections ever formed 
in this country. 
Edenville, April 12th, 1839. 


5. Correction.—In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, p. 375, we mentioned the suppo- 
sed spontaneous crystalization of liquid carbonic acid in one of Dr. Tor- 
rey’s tubes. Ina letter from him dated New York, March 1, it is re- 
marked that the crystals which we had observed were 
sulphate of ammonia, which was formed by the combina- 
tion of sulphuric acid with ammonia during the decom- 
position of the carbonate to obtain the carbonic acid 
gas for condensation. He adds, “a very good method 
of showing the rapid condensation of the carbonic acid, 
and its ebullition at the same time, is to surround the 
upper part of the tube with a freezing mixture. Place 
the mixture (ice and salt) in a bottle, the bottom of which 
is cut off. The mouth is furnished with a perforated 
cork, through which the upper part of the tube is thrust. 

“IT have been shooting with a kind of air gun, using 
my liquified carbonic acid for throwing the balls, and [ 
hope soon to emulate Perkins’ steam gun.” 


carbonic 
acid. 


sulph. 
ammo- 
nia. 


6. Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirotherium, and of vart- 
ous Animals, in sandstone.—The readers of this Journal are familiar 
with the reports made by Professor Hitchcock, on the foot marks of 
birds and perhaps quadrupeds upon the sand stone rocks of the val- 
ley of the Connecticut River. See vol. xxix, p. 307, and vol. xxxil, 
p- 174. We have cited also those observed ten years ago at Corn- 
cockle Muir in Scotland, vol. xv, p. 84; and more recently near Hild- ~ 
burghausen, in Germany, vol. xxx, p. 191. 

We shall now, from the reports of the doings of the Geological So- 
ciety of London, cite some other facts of this class, We allude to 
the now famous quarries of Storeton Hill, near Liverpool, England. 

We have recently received from Prof. Buckland fine copies of these 
impressions, and it is no more possible to doubt the genuineness of 
their originals, than those of the must recent impression of a foot made 
in any yielding surface of the present hour. The same is true of the 
impressions of Prof. Hitchcock, whatever doubt may have been felt 
by some persons who have never examined them. : 

The communication which we now cite was made to the Geological 
Society by the Natural History Society of Liverpool, with drawings 
by John Cunningham, Esq. 


ac 


eee 


' 
i 
i 
i 


Miscellanies. 395 


In the early part of last June, there were discovered in the Store- 
ton quarries, on the under surface of several large slabs of sandstone, 
highly relieved casts of what the workmen believed to have been hu- 
man hands; and the circumstance having been made known to the 
Natural History Society of Liverpool, a committee was appointed, 
who drew up the report communicated to this Society. 

The peninsula of Wirral consists of new red sandstone; and to- 
wards the northern extremity, the formation may be separated into 
three principal divisions. The lowest is composed of beds, slightly 
inclined towards the east, of red or variegated sandstone, occasional- 
ly abounding with pebbles partly derived from the coal-measures ; and 
in the bottom strata‘either angular or little water-worn. Seams of 
marl are very rare in this division, the argillaceous matter being con- 
fined to nodules or concretions of clay of the same color as the sand- 
stone. 

The middle division consists of white or yellow sandstone, in some 
places argillaceous, and frequently containing round concretions of 
clay, and pebbles. The strata are separated by seams of white or 
mottled ve anit almost imperceptible, but sometimes seve- 
ral inches t 

The siietaael division is formed of red or vate gated sandstone, 
inclosing also nodules of clay and pebbles of quartz; and it abounds 
With strata of red marl. 

The Storeton quarries are situated in the middle division; and the 

casts which have hitherto been noticed, occurred on the under sur- 
face of three beds of sandstone, about two feet thick each. 
Strata incline 8° to the northeast, but they are traversed by several 
faults, which range in the strike of the beds. The authors of the re-_ 
port are of opinion, that each of the thin seams of clay in which the 
sandstone casts were moulded, formed successively a dry surface, 
Over which the Chirotherium and other animals walked, leaving im- 
pressions of their footsteps; and that each layer was submerged by a 
depression of the surface. The lowest seam of clay was so thin, that 
the marks penetrated into the subjacent sandstone. The following 
account is then given of a hind foot and a fore foot, selected from 
slabs in the Museum of the Royal Institution, Liverpool. 

Hind Foot, consisting of five digits; one of which, from its resem- 
blance to a human thumb, has been generally distinguished by that 
designation. 

Total length from the root of the ihe to the tig of the se- 
cond toe 

Extreme brandi tis the point ‘ot the thumb to ‘the point of the 
fourth toe . . : 


Inches. 


396 Miscellanies. 
Inches. 
Breadth across the toes . ‘ . , ee 
Breadth across the palm 
Length of the curved line se i Pom the cont = the thamob 


to its point . " 64 
Breadth of the ball of the Popes P «Ak 
Relief of the ball of the thumb from the Skew of the slab ee 
Length of the first toe from the root to the point. . 5} 
Length of the second ditto , ‘ ; ; ° , By 
Length of the third ditto . . ° 4 
Length of the fourth ditto ‘ ; 2L 
Average breadth of the first three sais ; ‘ ° et 

1 


Average breadth of the fourth tue rather Jess ee P 
Relief of the second toe, which presents the greatest prominence is 

One hind foot has been observed which measured 12 inches in its 
greatest length. 

Judging from the appearance of the casts, the sole of the foot 
must have been amply supplied with muscles, the casts of the ball of 
the thumb and the phalanges of the fingers being prominent. The 
digit which has been called a thumb, is of a tapering shape, and is 
bent backwards near the extremity, where it ends ina point. It is 
extremely smooth, and there is no satisfactory evidence of either @ 
nail ora claw. The toes are thick and strong, and had probably 
three phalanges each, and at the terminations are traces of stout, CO- 
nical nails or claws. The sole of the foot is supposed to have been 
covered by a slightly rugose skin, the folds of which are stated to be 
distinctly visible in the casts of the toes. 

Fore Foot. Perfect impressions of the fore feet are extremely rare, 
owing either to the animal having ased those feet lightly, or to the 
impressions having been obliterated by the tread of the hind feet. 
The best preserved cast exhibits a thumb and three toes, being defi- 
cient of the fourth. The dimensions, which are generally half of 


those of the hind foot, are as follows: 
Inches. 


Length from the root of the thumb to the point of the second toe 
Total breadth not ascertained in consequence of the absence of 
the fourth toe ‘ ; : . . ‘ 
Breadth of the palm. : ; : : é : . : 
Length of the thumb * é : . , : 
Breadth of the ball of the ‘Coast ; a . : ; : 
Length of the first toe. : . . . ‘ : ' 
Length of the second toe . : : . . ‘ P . 
Length of the third toe. ! ‘ . ; . . 
Greatest breadth of the toes. ; : . . : 


ue 2 ad mt Ore 


a 


cian noes 


Miscellanies. 397 


The thumb is slightly bent back, and pointed, and the toes were 
armed with nails. 

Traces of one animal have been observed in a continuous line on 
aslab ten yards long. The length of the step varies a little, but in 
general, the distance between the point of the second toe of one hind 
foot and the point of the same toe in the hind foot immediately in 
advance, is between 21 and 22 inches. Each fore foot is placed di- 
rectly in front of the hind, and the thumbs of both extremities are 
always towards the medial line of the walk of the animal. Some 
further observations are given by the authors with respect to the pro- 
gression of the animal, on the supposition that the digit conjectured 
to be a thumb, was rearly the first. Conceiving such to be the case, 
they state, that the animal must have crossed its feet three inches in 
walking, for the right fore and hind feet are placed 14 inch on the 
left side of the medial line, and the left fore and hind feet 14 inch on 
the right side of the same line. 

The casts of the Chirotherium, although the most remarkable, are 
by no means the most numerous, which exist on the Storeton sand- 
stones. Many large slabs are crowded with casts in relievo, some of 
which are supposed to have been derived from the feet of saurian rep- 
tiles, and others from those of tortoises. Occasionally the webs be- 
tween the toes can be distinctly traced. “It is impossible,” say the 
authors of the report, “to look at these slabs and not conclude, that 
the clay beds on which they rested, must have been traversed by mul- 
titudes of animals, and in every variety of direction.” 

A note by Mr. James Yates was then read, giving a brief account of 
sketches of four differently characterized footsteps, traced from casts 
procured at Storeton, each of which is distinct both from the casts of 
the Chirotherium and the web-footed animal mentioned in the preced- 
ing report. 

A paper was afterwards read “ On two Casts in Sandstone of the 
impressions of the Hind Foot of a gigantic Chirotherium, from the 
New Red Sandstone of Cheshire,” by Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bart., 
M.P., F.G.S 

These specimens first came under the notice of Colonel Egerton, 
about 1824, and they were placed in the author’s cabinet in 1836; 
but it was not until the recent discovery of the Chirotherium at Store- 
ton, that their true nature was suspected. The exact locacity, at 
which the specimens were discovered, is not known ; but it is proba- 
able, that they were obtained from the neighborhood of Colonel Eger- 
ton’s residence, near Tarporley, and from one of the beds of sand- 
stone, which alternate with the red and green marls in the upper part 
of the new red system in that part of Cheshire. 


398 Miscellanies. 


The casts, which consists of a rather soft and coarse sandstone, 
were evidently formed in the impressions of two hind feet; and 
though they have suffered from exposure to the weather for twelve 
years, yet they are sufficiently perfect to have enabled Sir Philip Eger- 
ton to take the measurements of the different parts, and draw up the 
accompanying comparative table. Itis necessary to state, that though 
he preserves the use of the term thumb for the convenience of com- 
parison with previous descriptions, yet he is of opinion that the mar- 
ginal digit which has been so designated, is not the representative of 
the fifth, but of the first toe. 


: Large Chi- 

Hessberg Storeton  rotherinm 

Direction of the Measurements. Chirothe- Chirothe- from near 
ium. rium. Tarporley. 


Length from the maak to the point of the ‘ ae ge eee Fr 


Length from the heel to the point of the 3 
thumb - - - 


Length from the heel to the angle between ? 4 
the Ist and2nd toes - - 


2nd and 3rdtoes 4 
3rd and 4thtoes 4 
e 


5 


Breadth from the thumb to point of 4th toe 6 
Breadth across the sole below the thumb 3 
Breadth from Ist toe-point to 4th toe-point 4 6 .. . 
From these measurements it appears, that considerable differences 
exist in the three specimens of Chirotherium. Upon comparing the 
footstep from Hessberg with that from Storeton, it will be found, that 
the former is thicker and more clumsy than the latter; that the sole 
is shorter and broader, and the toes wider and longer. The most im- 
portant discrepancy, however, is in the position of the thumb, which 
is placed much nearer the heel in the Hessberg specimens than in 
those from Storeton. The cast from near Tarporley resembles the 
latter more than the former; it nevertheless differs considerably in 
the proportion of the breadth to the length of the sole, which is 
greater; and in the proportions of the length of the toes to the length 
of the sole, which is less than in the Storeton specimens. It is also 
distinguished by the greater divergence of the toes from each other. 
From these differences and the gigantic size of the Tarporley spe 
cimen, the author conceives that the animal which made the im- 
pression was a distinct species; and he proposes for it, in compli- 
ance with the adage ex pede Herculem, the name of Chirothertum 
Herculis.—Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1839. 


of 10 
— 2 


an 8 OC&F Or OO ~» 


PWD A -P TN OH 
ooo Oo HN WD ® 
fe) 


Miscellanies. 399 


7. New Works received. 


From motives of convenience we have omitted, on the present 
occasion, our usual list of acknowledgments ; but we are unwil- 
ling to postpone the mention of the following works, which have 
been presented since our last number. 

1. Geological Report on the State of New York, continued 
from last year, being State Document, No. 275; communicated 
to the Legislature of the State, by Gov. Seward, Feb. 27, 1839. 
pp. 851. Copies from L. Vanuxem, E. Emmons, and B. D. Sil- 
liman. 

2. Geological Report on the State of Michigan in continuation, 
Doc. No, 23, Feb. 4, 1839, by Douglass Houghton, State Geolo- 
gist. pp. 123. From A. Sager, and a second copy to the Yale 
Nat. Hist. Society. 

3. Second Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the 
State of Ohio, by W. W. Mather, and several assistants. Colum- 
bus. 1838. From C. B. Goddard, Esq. 

4, First and Second Annual Reports on the Geological Sur- 
vey of Virginia, for 1836 and 7, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Ro- 
gers. Univ. Virg. pp. 87. 

5. Report on the Geological Survey of Virginia, Doc. No. 56, 
in continuation, for 1838, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Rogers. 
Univ. Virg. pp. 32, quarto. 

6. Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland. 1838. pp. 33. 

7. Report on the Geology of Indiana, 1837-8, by D. D. Owen, 
State Geologist. pp. 54. 

8. Third Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsyl- 
Vania, by and from Prof. H. D. Rogers, State Geologist. 1832. 
pp. 118. 

9. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Phil. Vol vi, Part I. 1838. p. 152. 
From the Society. 

10. Third edition in quarto of the catalogue of shells in the 
collection of Dr. John C. Jay, N. Y., 1839. 2 copies. From the 
author to B. Silliman, Jr., and to the ¥ale Nat. Hist. Society. 

11. The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches 
in the counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caer- 
marthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, 


4 


400 Miscellanies. 


and Stafford, with descriptions of the coal fields and overlying 
formations, by Roderick Impey Murchison, F. R. S., F. L. $8., 
Vice President of the Geological Society of London, &c. &c. &c., 
in two parts. Part I, containing over 600 pages, large and full 
quarto, illustrated by 112 wood cuts and a map; with [3 pictur- 
esque views, generally colored, and several of them folded. Part 
If, Organic Remains and Sections, over 200 pages quarto, making 
more than 800 for the entire work. There are 27 lithographic 
plates for the organic remains, containing nearly 700 figures. 

The colored sections are nine, generally taree folded, and con- 
taining 111 distinct sub-sections. 

The country described by the author, after seven years of 
arduous exertion among the mountains and in the cabinet, is rep-_ 
resented on a splendid colored map of five feet by three, after the 
three sheets of which it is composed are duly joined. At the bot- 
tom of this map is an ideal colored section, representing all the 
rocks which are described by Mr. Murchison. 

For this magnificent work we are indebted to the accomplished 
author, who has achieved a signal triumph for British Geology 
and for the scietice itself. 

12. Seventh Report of the British Association for the advance- 
ment of science, Vol. vi, pp. over 700—over 500 for the general 
meeting, and about 200 for the sections, &c. &c.,— illustrated by 
thirteen plates and maps, several of them folded. From the Asso- 
ciation. 

13. British Annual and Epitome of Science, for 1839, edited 
by Robt. D. Thomson, M. D. From the editor. : 

14. Annual Reports for 1838 and 9, of the Royal Institution 
of Civil Engineers London. From the Institution. 

15. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, for 1838, 
January to December inclusive—except August. From the So- 
ciety through R. K. Kennett, Covent Garden. 


INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVI. 


A. 


Account, saditiony) of shooting stars of 
of Dec., 1828. 355. 

Acknowledgment of new works, 399 

Adams, C B., on shells. found on shore 


of Mas grt 
Bits of pe ond, 393. 
Pog works of N. Y, iron of, ex- 
perimented on, 4. 
Agates, cause of red color of, 207. 


as s HS nions atte to bowlders'' 


quot 
ge Win , statement of circular whirl-}! 


lee ryta and pac Senge by 
Chromate Potassa 
‘Barytes, sulphate of in N. Y., 
Batteries, galvanic, the baien, ~ fresh 
& immersion of, 137 
Beck, Dr. L. C., notic oo mee SPP, 
ores of paper, nN. J., 107. 
N Brunswick Tor- 


nado or Water: ae oF 1835, 115. 
ralogical and chemical 
‘se 


eke. of ‘State 0 
Berthier, M , mode of ascertaining the 

ioaicbeat qualities of —- by him, 375 
‘Berzeliu of Sweden, 


ermal waters of, mig 


Amphibia, Kisericatt Dr Sager on, 320. 

Analysis of acidu lous or carbonated! 
Springs, 8. 

i: b Dr Hayes, of cobalt ore from 


of two cobalt ores, 332-3, ques- 
tioned, 332. 

‘ofiren ores in Mass., 

of native iron from radian Af- 
rica, 213. 

of meteoric iron, 81. 


of marl from Farmington, Ct., 
176. Per 
of Salt springs at Onondaga and 
ae N'Y , 3, 5, 6. 
ciple a 


ort kit 

of soils, rules fr, 368. 
Angling, practical sea. om ie 
Anthony, J.G. discription a fossil, 106. 
Argulus, new species of, an anounced, 393 
Ashvill i from 


203 
tralia, a weapon by natives of, 
64. 


Aus 
deiirilie d,1 
B. 
Baer, ine on depth of frozen ground in 


} 
| 
ra Prof. F. W., pp topped of paral- 
| Jax peated ‘Cygni by, 200 
hof, Dr. G., get eo of volea- 
earthquakes, 230. 
ptiggr i ge of wood in the human 


sharia, erratic, 21). 

recent ee of. 325. 
Boiling a Sg — of, 253, 4, 5, 6. 
Boom bia: tp of, 164. 
f Nat. History, paper read 


minutes of their proceedings, ~ 


379. 
*| Bowditch, Dr. notice of, 214. 
Bowlders and + bs miichon 39, 44. 


Brewer, T. 7 on the et ‘blackbird and 
gold dfach, : -91 

Bricks, quantity made in N Y j aL. 
Brine springs in N. Y., 

British naturalists, some notice of, 217. 


British Association, 7th report of, ack- 
nowledge , 399. 
Annual received for 1839, R. D. 
Thoms on’s, 400. 
Brunswick, N , Terakad P1686, 


| Buckland, Prof , Calymene omen <a 
106 
Building stones, 45, 

C. 


abinet of ae for sale, 393. 


Siberia, a, 210 
Bakewell’ s Geology, third Am. Ed., 201, 


Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1339 


Calcareous tufa, 
51 


402 


Calymene 0g om described, 106. 

gpl se inet Pro m., account of bitu 
nization of wood in hum 

Carburetied Hydrogen gas disengaged in 


Catalogue of insects of genus sphinx in 
N. America 2 ‘Rie 

Carbo copper compound of, 110. 

Cavity contai ainthg et oo 

Cement hydraulic, 37, 4 

Champlain, Lake, nedegy formation of, 


Charpe ntier, Hr. V , completion of Be 
See Test ry of ‘phenomena of bow 


Themical examination of native iron, 
213. 


action not the cause of volca- 


nos, 231. 
“ Chemist try of organic es, 202. 
Cherty limerock or coriferou limerock 
roposed as the — ce to 


tate geologists, by ‘A. E 
China Sea tyfoon in 1835, tis etd 


itby 
ick theriuns, footsteps of in sandstone, 


Chili, eh Soe of land in, 274. 


man era, 118. Cow 


INDEX. 


Counties of Queens, Kings and Rich- 


ond, 
tries, Dr. ., Statement of circular fires 
seers. * wind, 5 
rrents, marine, proofs of in D Y., 37. 


Dana, Dr. ganalysisof Congres Spri 2 mas 
new method of analysis 
of soils, 
Danaite, proposed as a new mineral spe- 
cies, 334. (Vote. 
Daubeny, Dr. C., his analysis of Lebanon 
springs quoted, 
on thermal waters in N. 
America, 88. 
quantity of salt in sea water, 


= 


188. 

Davy’s by pothesis of volcanic action ex- 
amined 5 

De K 


J . oe ale on zoolo- 


OE N 
gy of N Y., ; 
Deposites from ‘hot springs indicate their 


bi csi 


Chure ount of extraordina- 
ry.ec ho 1s. 

Circular fires occasioning whirlwinds, e 

Citations from Geol. Reports on State 
N.Y, for ~3, 1. 

Civil Engineers, institution of, received, 


n, pee H. meteorological aper 
edited by ei a 


Col rg sohiiwinde caused by fires, 50. 
Conrad, T. A., report on the paleontolo- 
ica | department of the survey of N 


Copper i in combination with carbon, 110 
Pinion ae Ip, 
C 


of, I 
Gray sulphuet if 112 


De - Beche, ted sandetenes cf 68. 


Directions for tracing r 
Distillation destructive Of oil of wine, 76. 
= t, geological, of N. Y., report on, 
Vb 
;. Emmons’ report on the 2d, 23. 


~ geological, Vanuxem on the 3d, 
30. 
James Hall, on the 4th, 34 
Dog, ton prolate, retaining power to bark, 
U4. 


Drought, effects of, 80. 

Durango, Mexicb , mummies at. 200. 

vet wight, Theo., natemeutol concerning 
realar ff res and wind occasioned by, 


5 

Dykes i in a Co; N.-¥,, 26. 
med, 264. 
E. 
pee gpm natural wo of, 230. 
Eaton, A’ proposes cherty li es = 
serie: ‘to his article on. 

71, 193 

{Ec ‘ho, musical, in Virginia, he 
any mes see 

Beenainical geo of Mass., paroes on 


notice am ores of in N. J 4: 104: 
Pyrites, 
r ide 
Co —. auantty a manufactured in 
Correction 
Porigienn Iime-rock of N Y., as a line! 
of referen hee 
Couthou two species of Cida-| 
ris an Sass 381. 


monography of the Osteodes- 


| EB 


dy 2 

o subseribers and readers, 216. 
fe a a 
Electro magnetism 


“i Dr. Page, 350. 
ricity, observations on, by Dr. Page, 


macea, 382-9 Ele 

County of Essex, report on, 26 

Counties of Montgom eee Herkimex El ectro-magnetic rotations, sale 
Oneida and n human era, instan- 


Oswego, Geol. report on, 


ees of land i 
of, 271. 


PR 


INDEX. 


Emerson, G. B., on a new paper from 
386. 


homie grass, 
Emm aoe E., report on the 2d Geol. dis- 


Eneroichmentso As has sea in N. Y., 16. 
Erman, M. Jr., r to M. Arago, 205. 
Evade: blocks, 

rof. Struder r on, 328, et. 2) 
Essex oma Geol. report on, of by E 

mmo 

Bihetise? iaticistive distillation of, 76. 
ore ‘(Conti tinental) price of labor in, 


European observations 2 Bn meteoric 
shower of Nov , 1838, 1 

Experiments on the iron seEases county, 
N. Y,, 94. 


Exploring expedition, U. S., progress of, 


r. 


Failure of water in steam boilers detected 
y galvanoscope, I 

Falls of Niagara, and river, 49. 

Fibrous carbonate of lime, 113. 

Fires, circular, occasioning columnar 

whirlwinds, 50. 
Fish skins, mode of preparing, 196. 
“ Fishes o a usetts,’ 


r. Sto 
Floras, eal commencement of, 225, 
Floyd, Mr. 4: , Pecount of whirlwind in 
In dia, April, 18: 
ce oy “ps of ‘Ghirotheriam i in sandstone, 


Fossil fish in red eps Re 186. 
Foster, J. Pe ; head of Mastodon gigan- 
t 


notice of Kilee or Boome- 


ce of new mode of prepar- 
ing fish fons 196. 

notice of British pataralictn, ay 
Fresh immersion of galvanic batteries 


Frodshiees W.i es = a member of 


Fucoides and’ rippie marks, 46. 
‘i G. 
= batteries, fresh immersion of, 


ae ae of preparing, 335. 

of construction, 124. 

Galvanoseope, use of to ee t failure of 
water 1 m boilers 

Gay- Lideaaly s nbpiatoh on jacana action) 

examine 


’ reviewed b 
# Gre 


403 
iappounie county, Mo., mammoth in, 


of, in soils of Mass. si. 


_ 80 ~ e y, 376. 
cs a limestone of Prot NY 38. 


|Geine, sonaener on of, 369. 
qua 


and Penn., eevee to 
the cherty Hinmerock: by A. E Age 
Goooey of Maine and Mass., media 
143. 


Bakewell’s, 3d Am. edition of, 201. 

Geology of Mass. , (economical,) by Prof. 
Hitchcock, examine 

apie oe reports, several acknowledg- 


ties cone Ps Dr. a Manet, 203. 
Genera of 8 


Comal 
E38 
= 
R 
ag 
is) 
3 


Gould, A. A., minutes of the procedings 
of the Boston Society of Nat. Hist., 379. 
on spongia, called Neptune’ 8 
goblet, 386. 
Granite ecame © m Ni X,, 20. 
Graywacke of Hudson river 
Great fires pier’ oning whirlwinds, 55. 
Greece, revival re letters in, 192. 
enw a, and Dr. 
Goube da species of Phracia, and on 
fruits from urmah, 
G in marles orl oii: 38 
ure, prejudice against, 43. 


H. 
von James, at the 4th geological district 


Gas inflammable, disengaged at many 
places in N.¥,6.. 


aerdesiag ‘of iron , 42. 
Hare, Clarke, on destructive distillation 
of oil of w ine, 

Harris, T. W., catalogue of N. 
can insects of the genus sph in or his 
cabinet — 

us Cychrus, 391. 

new species of A rgulu 8, 393, 

remarks on the inaccura- 


Iayes, Dr., os oes of soda, as a 
new chemical spec 
is analysis of a cobalt ore, 334. 
pes of Mastodon a ye nteum, 189. 
ight of water in Lake ario, 43. 
He aphdd Sir J., letter to, on pt tee of 
the star 61 Cygni 
emical examination of 
native iron, 213. 
Hermann’s view of the constitution of 
eine, © 
Sasriick, E. C., _meteoric shower of April 


1 
: ‘ dnating stars of Dec. 1838, 
355. 


A404 


aon £: C., agate stars of April 
A 


n from a clear sky, 178. 
Hildreth, Dr. ‘s. "P. : meteorological jour- 
nal kept by him, 78. 
teheock, Prof. 


; ree of marl 
fom Farmington, Conn., 176. 

report on re-examination 
of economical geol of Mass. noticed, 


Hot t spri ngs replace volcanos, 253 
one Baron Von, hi opinion on 
of ae actio 
Detain of 8th April, 1838, in India, 
a 


when potty to elas- 


— ef chonifest action in volca- 
untenable, 231. 

3) Labstinating heat explains 
volcanic action, 239. 


Ice a = af a river, 186. 
ell, 


eamnersioh or, saivaile batteries, 187. 

Impressions of animal footsteps on sand- 
ston 

Indelibie ink, new, composition of, 209. 

ee e gas disengaged in N. Y. 


fusca fie, wae of, 261, et passim. 


Iron ore 2 
h 


sidentiy of, 
experiments on that ene eoieel 
ck ks, Essex, N.Y., 
0. 


02. 
sinie ak examination of, 213. 


Ieods, formation of from lava, 267-8-9,| 


Mar 
peony C. T., his jcaalieti reports Mana of = — 
of, I 


revie 


on 7 re from re * 


INDEX. 


L. 
dagbore price of, on continent of Europe, 


Lake oP of N.Y, 
Larned, Rev. 
wlders and bbalt ores, 
Lava, pee ate to show the ejection of, 
249. 


not uniform in ejections, 252. 
breaking through sea and forming 
islands, 
Lead, Prof. Emmons on occurrence of, 
in 
Leather mountain, 114. 
springs analysed, 7. 
Com pterous obit catalogue of sphin- 
ges. 
soaps Prof. Emmons on, in N.Y., 47 
Lim e, fibrous carbonate, 1 3. 
as of reference for state goclogiats, | on 
Lives lost by a whirlwind in India, 
ber estimated, 
Loomis, Prof. E., a - meteorological table 
165. 


and a » 
bgp 2 of bis Py list of 172. 
Lyce f Nat. Hist of offi- 


fir im tor 1839, 195. 
M. 


Macomber, D. O., account of a frozen 
well, 194. 

Magnetic needle, variation of, 28. 

meets galvanic, modes of construct- 


Magnetic (electro) rotations, 129. 
agnets, mode f pr eparing permanent 
artifici ee nes, 
agnetism. electro, by Dr. Page, 350. 
Magnus, Dr., a on tempera- 
ture of the earth, 203 
aine and Mass., geological reports on, 
reviewed, 143. 
se titiad Rev Mr. ., on fossil bones from 
na (Mastodon? Eas ), 198. 
ry, Webster's, new 
ition 
Marine cu ele oofs of, 37. 
a Jour kept yg 


ennal, SP | — Ohio, 
Jay, J.C. > catalogue of shells, 3d edi-/|M occurring in Mass., 3 
sig ! rol giganteum, hea 9. 
ifoas on, W. R. ph gee on two va-||Marcy, Gov. Wm. ological rasa 
— of Essex 94 communicated él him, agrey © 
Jones, Rev. & ¥ oualas view of price of Mather, W. W., t on e first dis- 
fe else et of N. ~ yes ogical verve, 15. 
ournal, Slatiiby ological, 78, 165. McCord, J. Met . Register kept at 
Judson, D., on use of n nitric acid in pul- Montreal ~ ‘him 
monat , 191. Mea ae nates of Lebanon 
que 
K. ns Bi sg gy N. C., 81. 
ston or ng, notice of, 164. showe vy. 1833, ia hee in 


. Booman 
= Rng = classification of hot 


Euro 179. 
ger: os 7, 1838, 355. 


oe deans relative : 


* 


INDEX. 


pee shower of nee 20, 1803, 358. 
eorite, African, 343 
Treinget Poked abstract of, 78. 
Register kept at Montreal, 
1838, 180. 
table and register, by Prof. 
E. Loomis, 165. 


Register and Sci. Journal, 
edited by James H. C 
a — offered for sale, 393 
Volborthite, 187, 


ral, ne 
Miscellanies, domestic and foreign, 174, 
Montreal, Met. Register kept at in 1838, 
ne of Goce county, 23. 
aised, 264. 
Mountain leather, 114, 
mies at Durango, Mexico, 200. 
— Silurian System "received, 
Mussime, mode of preparing fish skins 
nt) 
Musical echo in Va., 174. 


N. 


“\ maemt a notice of, 2 
Natiy and ores of, in New Jer- 


405 


F. 
Page, C. G., og  gelyenie. bests 137. 


failure Fao wie i 
Page. Charles G., on wn loctré-tiaponlieae, 


pager “a on electricity, 353. 
n musical echo in Va, 174, 


Palodiitalogicn! department of survey on 
N. ad, 12. 


, by T. A. Conr 
Parallax of the star 61 Cy 'ygni, 200. 
Patton, J. H., account of hurricane in 
cominnicaied by him, 71. 


India 
Peat t occurring 
Pe br in aN. 'Y. and Va. ;(note) 12, 


Petrifying’ springs in N. ¥ 


., Jetter_on gee ‘revival of 
letters in ees oe 

Postscript to p. 71 

’|| Potassa, shores of an agent to distin- 
uish between baryta ta and betes. 183. 

Prejudice against pure gyps 

Price of labor and subsistence ‘in certain 
parts of Taroge 

Proceedings a the the 5 Society of 
at His 

Progress of U. 8. ta expedition, 
195. 


pay 
ue Hist. of fishes of Mass. ., reviewed, 


Navigation, steam, 133. 

New York geological —s 1. 

New works rec d, 

Nitric acid in puloeuat diseases, bees 

Pe ae springs in N. 7 ee alys 

Norton, Prof. A., treatise on rine at 
ly 

Note on New Brunswick tornado, 113. 

Notice, iin of Hon. Stephen Vas) 
Renssel 156. 


oO. 
Obituary rh of the Hon. Stephen Van 
Rensse laer 
rici “ity 353. 
Sey Phespen rescence of, 
Officers of Lyceum of ae Hist. N. ; 


Oiler f wine, ira we of, 76. 
Manes jhtro duc my, 


Onondaga, salt Sp “, analy, 6. 
Ontario, Lake, its 
small ey nid into, 4 xi 
cree of, and height of wa 


globules a blood, 6. 
Q. 
Quantity of salt in sea water, 188. 
R. 
a solar and terrestrial, 182, 
Rai a clear sky, 


Raleigh : 3 Ty foon of ‘Aug. 5th and 6th, 
1835, 


os biography of, 223. 
Reclamation of M.A Warder, 187. 
co are! in ip anion. 207. 
Red pin pleat, 6. 
Reid ia W . of colu goa 
whirlwinds necenanpt y fires 
additional facta Raley igh’s 
pat in “Chiskas sea, Of 
Red oxide, co Ae in, 'N. Jerse rsey, 109, 
ed rp arr of De la Beche , 68. 


Reference line for ante geologists, 61. 


ind caused by fires 


56. 

Remarks by the os to subscribers and 
readers, 4), 165, and 6, 216. 

— on the Nat it of the fishes 


ass., 
aes caused by voleanos, 


Ons of oper in a Jersey, 107. 
» al 


bod ine, chemistry of, 202. 
Ornithology of U.S., by J. K. Towns- 


nd, 201. 
Outlet of small lakes into Ontario, 42. 


251. 
Report the geology of Maine and 
Rais s 4 43. 


ass , 
Revival of letters in eres 192. 
Rides - a Ontario, 40, 


Ripple sanke, 46. 


| 406 INDEX. 


8. 
ey Abrm. on American amphibia, 


Salt, quantity of in sea ae ae 
Salt, oe of, in 1000 p 


Salin 
aniivs is of several, 3, 5, 6. 
Sandstone of Potsdam, N. Y., 25. 
red, fossil ches in, "136. 
hite se siliceot 3, 2k. 


Shepard, C. U., ‘on meteoric iron from 
Buncombe ae ee N.C 
oor a report of, on the 
economical ieology of Mass., 
alysis of Warw ickite, 85. 
n ite to Wohler’s analysis 
of cobalt ores, eo 33. 
ec, 1838, additional 


to 
Sho wer, Tm of April 20th, 1803, 
358. 


April 5, 1095 and 1122, 361. 
Siberia, depth of frozen oauadge , 21 0. 
Silurian System by Murchison, acknowl- 
, Junius, on steam ships and navi- 
par oe 
— Janes L., on chrom. potassa as al 


da aot iled,366. 


Soils, oes os hong 


i analysis, how t 


n, 364. T 
in Kings, Queens, oe Richmond, 


: “of Mass. table of geine contained 
in, 
f absorbing arg 374. 
brthe West analyzed, 373. 
lar and terrestrial radiation observed 
at Montrea 
it catalogue of the N. American, 


Sprin bier “22: Sach carbonated, at 
Ballston and Saratoga, 8. 
Springs, "bine, ik 


Springs of nitrogen in N. Y., 7. 
pe trifying, | in ,N..¥. fil. 
thermal, of North America, no- 


dant shooting, account of, 179, 355, 358, 
361. 


State chemist propaged for Mass., 376. 
Statement of s lost by a whirlwind 


agen Pode ea action, 241. 
rig if - failure of water in, de- 
tected, 

maximum, elasticity of, 242. 

stipe and navigation, 13. 
Steel, Dr , analysis of Caoeans spring, 8. 
Strokr, aopount of, « 
Struder, P rof. Ps ,on erratic blocks, trans- 

i: 


, arks on “natural his- 
vry of fishe Fue) Massachusetts, 1 S3es 
Subuitdinate rocks of 

Subsistence in continental ‘Europe, price 
of, 176. 


Subterranean temperatures, 204. 
urvey of N. , geological, 1 et seq. 
ileontological, 


Sussex, duke of, notice of Dr Beciintl 


ee 
_— 
aad 


Synopsis of the families and genera of 
Lepidoptera, 2¢ 


om of salt in 100 parts of Onondaga 
d foreign salt, 

rabolar view of oe price of labor in cer- 

Pec arts of espe Noy ope, 176. 

emperature of the ea 

of the nate. in a. ia, 205. 

increasing, the cause of vol- 

canic action, 239. 

Temper pains, ’ subterranean, 204 


wells in N’ + 25. 


ertiar me 4g L. Cha i ain 

H , on palatal tooth a 

tychodus pete tes rus, 380. 

Thermal springs, ae Nidda’s classfica- 

tion of, 

Thermal ‘seater of N. America, noticed 
Prof. C. Daubeny, 

homson, T., chemistry of organic bod- 

ies 

Tongueless dog retaining power to bark, 
194. 

Tornado of N. Brunswick in 1835, 115. 

Townsend, J. K., ornithology of U.S. 


Fiat ailoes from Prof. Struder’s account 
of erratic ks, 325 


g: ee Jr. My on Geaster quadri- 


Tuckerman 
dus, 

Turpin M., memoir by, on red globules 
in bl ood, 206. 


nN. 
hot, in Iceland, 253, et seq. 


Tyfoon of “Aug. 1835, in China seas, facts 
concerning, 59. 


INDEX. | 


V. 
Van Rensselaer, Hon. 8., obituary no- 
tice of, 156. 
Vanoxem, L., on 3d geological district of | 


Variation of ate needle, 28. 

Vv sar , theory and aa of 
327. 

Polborthive e, a new min 


Volcanic action, how paihaat by Davy, 
132, and 6. wi 


407 


wae spout at New Brunswick in 1835, 
Water i in steam boilers, failure of, detee- 


ted, 141. 
Webster's manual of chemistry, new edi- 
ion, 


Wells, frozen, noticed, 184. 

Whirlw om 8, columnar, by W. C. Red- 
eld, 50 

Whislrind of 8th April, 1838, India, no- 


ida ‘occasioned by circular fires, 50. 


by ra 939 indore a, bituminization of, in ham: man 
depth of, 24 of 
by Gay Lus c, 236. Works. received and acknowledged, 
oer and ‘arcuakuk natural his- 
tory of, 230. Wray, dss ie agent sketch of, 223. 
Buch, L., on nature of volcanic od Wyman, Dr. J., aeomaloes sub- 
nena, stance resembling aio 
Von PBue h, L. , Opi nion on formation of n foss ae from Georgia 
certain congione rates, 266 and Huiinah, 335. 
servations on volcanic erup- on a fetal kitten, 391. 
tion in island of Lancerote, 260, recent tooth af elaphait from 
observations on Pa Ima and Singapore, 
Gran pri vnc on the skeleton of Sloth, 382. 
n formation of volcanic cones, 
273. ¥. 
as Yellow pte ore, 1 
Walferdin ication on subter- Young » his phat of minerals for 
ranean aut 204. sale, 
Warder, M. A.,r reclamation of, 187. Z. 
Warwickite analyzed, Si ‘ > 
Water ned awe 46. oe ayaa on construction of galvanic 
es of access pe Cleats fires,| magnets, 124. 
262, passim electro-magnetic rotations, 129.