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AMERICAN JOURNAL

- OF

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSOR SILLIMAN
AND

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr.

Fe a

VOL. XLV.—OCTOBER, 1843.

NEW HAVEN:

AN.—P 1088:
Md., N. HICKMAN.—London, WILEY & PUTNAM.—Paris, HECTOR
BOSSANGE & Co.—Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE,

PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN.

Mo Rot. Garden,

Bis “4

Arr. I.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLYV.
_—o—_.

NUMBER I.

Notice of some Works, recently published, on the No-
menclature of Zoology ; by Aucustus A. Gouup, M.D.,

. A Statement of Elevations in Ohio, with reference to the

Geological Formations, and also the Heights of various
points in this State and elsewhere; by Cuartes Wuir-
TLESEY, Esq., - : :

. Tides in the North iananee Lakes ; He Lieut. D. Rue-

«Les, U.S. A.—(with a chart,
Observations on some interesting Plants of New England
by Epwarp Tuckerman, Jun., - -

- Remarkable example of the Force of Wxation aa
Contraction, exerted by bodies when subjected to alter-

nations of Temperature,—with a reference to the 2 ques-
tion whether the freezing point of liquids is influenced
by differences in Prete; by Prof. Lewis C. i

vp 9 a
. An stort to refute be ‘dghiachl a ae in i. a

the Existence, in the Amphide salts, of Radicals con-
sisting, like Cyanogen, of more than one element ; by
Prof. Rosert Hare, M. D.,

. On the Rotary Action of Storms ; by Geauga Tracy,
Vill.

Corrections and Additions to the Monography of Cuscu-
tine, in Vol. XLIII. of this Journal; by Grorce En-
@ELMaNN, M.D., - . ms

. On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire Cain? Virginia,

with a Pe 9mag explanation of its low fae nt
C. B. Hayp:

. On the rans of Cisbhoidanen and “Stati of a
new construction of the pa 0% ps > by '

E. J. Dent, -- : é : 3 S

Page.

iv CONTENTS,

P.
XI. Description of a Blind Fish, from a cave in seme

by Jerrries Wyman, M.D.,_ - -
XII. On the Adverbial Genitive Case in Engl by Prof.
J. W. Gisss, -
XIII. On Phosphate of Tie (Ajaitic), in ai Virginia Mete-
oric Stone; by Prof. Cuartes UrHam Sueparp, M. D.,
XIV. On the Analogies between the Modern Igneous Rocks
and the so-called Primary Formations, and the Meta-
morphic changes produced by heat in the associated

sedimentary deposits; by James D. Dana, - -
XV. On the Temperature limiting the eal of Corals ;
by Jamzs D. Dana, “pe OT Soh:

XVI. On the Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, as tg
by the Distribution of Coral Islands ; by James D.
_Daya,—(with a map,)__-

XVII. Abstract of the Proceedings of a Fourth ES of the

ae Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, -
XVIII. Description of a new species of Torpedo; by D. Hum-
purers Storer, M,. D.—(with a plate,)_-

XIX. Description of some New ie of Plants ; s Ss. B.
Buceiey, AvM., — - - - - - -

XX. Ornithichnites of the Cheetos River Sandstones and
the Dinornis of New Zealand, - - -

XXI. On the Great Comet of 1848 ; My, Mr. 8. c ee and
Prof. E,O. Krnpaun, -

Bee 9.10 Remarks on Mr. Owen’s ee to fi Editors ¢ on Dr.
ete - Harlan’s New Fossil Mammalia, - “a
XXiil. Bibliographical Notices :—Agassiz’s Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons d’Eau Douce de l'Europe Centrale, and
. Me s Embryologie des Salmones, 211.—Hooker’s Ico-
Plant ,214.—Tuckerman’s Enumeratio Method-
ica er oeaee quarundam, 216.—Endlicher and Martius’s
Flora Brasiliensis, 217.—Chauvenet’s Binomial Theorem
and Logarithms, 218.—Transactions of the Association

of American Geologists and Naturalists,1840-42, 220.
Miscetiantes.—Notice of certain siliceous tubes (Fulgurites)
formed in the —- 220 serPlempntary notice of the Ce-
of Botanical athena
and Mosses :

, 224,—Notices
inne in Phaveroganip Plants
Disengagement of Carbonic, Acid by the Roots

CONTENTS.

of Plants, 227.—Filarie in the Blood of a living Dog: Experi-
ments of Karsten, relative to the formation of the ‘ images
of Méser,” 228,—Great Comet of 1843, 229.—Second Comet
of 1843: Meteoric Observations of April 20, 1843, 230.—
Hundredth dnigeenty of the American anges Soci-

any 231.
NUMBER II.
Ais B On a New Form of Mountain or other Barometer; by
Ome J. H. Avexanver, Esq.—(with a plate,) - -
I. Notice of “ Molluskite,” or the fossilized remains of the

—

iil.

VII.

soft parts of Mollusca; by Gmzon Aucrrnon Man-
TELL, Egq., LL. D., F. R.S., G.8., &ei, - -

An effort to refute the arguments oieaiionit in sais of
the Existence in the Amphide Salts, of Radicals con-
sisting, like Cyanogen, of more than one element ; ig
Prof. Rosert Hare, M.D., ~— -

A New Instrument for estimating de snide of Car-
bonate of Lime present in Calcareous Substances; by
J. Lawrence Smiru, M.D.,— - - - -

. On the Method of Drs. Varrentrapp and Will for estima-
‘ting the Nitrogen in i i *y J. Law-

RENCE Smitu, M. D.,

. Remarks on the First Principles of tie Differential Cal

culus, together with a new investigation of og al
Theorem ; by Prof. THEoDORE Srrone, -

. Notice of a portion of Dr. Dekay’s Report on the Fishes

of New York; by D. Humpureys Srorer, M.D, -
On Greek pe 2 Roots in —" by Prof. 1 W.
Gipps, =< 4 -
Remarks on "a8 and - Ravtiling ditenca of the
Ocean and Atmosphere; by W. C. ReprizLp, - -
Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session of the
Association of American Geologists and Naturalists,

. On the upright Fossil Trees found at different levels

in the Coal Strata of Cumberland, Nova Scotia; by
Cuances Lyewt, Esq., F. G.S., F. R.S., &e., - -

. On the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia, and on the Age

and Relative Position of the Gypsum and accompany-

ing Marine Limestones; by C. Lyett, Esq., F. G.S., &.

Page.

vi CONTENTS.

Page.

XIII. On the Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepi-
dostei, and their Analogies with those of the Labyrin-
thodonts ; by Jerrrigs Wyman, M. D.—(with a plate,) 350

XIV. On Vibrating Dams; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, - - 363

XV. Reply of J. P. Cournovy, to the accusations of J. D.
Dana, Geologist to the Exploring Expedition, contained
on pp. 130 and 145 of this Volume, - - 378

XVI. Experiments made with one hundred pairs of Broad

attery, passing through one hundred and sixty miles
of insulated wire; by Prof. S. F. B. Morse, -
XVII. On the Fossil Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of
Rain-drops in the Valley of the Connecticut ; m Cuas.
Lygtt, Esq., V.P.G.S., . + 394
XVIII. Bibliographical Notices :—Dr. De Kay’s ieront on: the
Zoology of New York, 397.—Agassiz’s Monographies
D’Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles, 399.—Lea’s De-
scription of New Fresh-water and Land Shells: Gra-
ham’s Chemistry, 401.

MiscELtanies.—Fossil Fruits described by Dr. Gideon Algernon
Mantell, 401.—Eremite, 402.—Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation at Dublin: Animal of the Belemnite : Meteoric Epoch
of August: Death of Mr. Bakewell, 403.—Death of Prof.
Hall: Death of Mr. J. N. Nicollet, 404,

AMERICAN JOURNAL

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

PROFESSOR SILLIMAN
AND

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr.

VOL. XLV.—No. 1.—JULY, 1843.

FOR APRIL, MAY, AND JUNE, 1843. —

NEW HAVEN:

Sol by B. NOYVES.—Boston, LITTLE & BROWN and W. H. 8, JORDAN.—
cw York, WILEY & PUTNAM, C.S. FRANCIS & Co., and G. §. SILLI-
prontidage Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. 8. LITTELL. Baltimore
_Md., N. HICKMAN.—London, WILEY & PUTNAM.—Paris, HECTOR
BOSS zE & > Se caemet ale Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE.

PRINTED BY B. LL. HAMLEN.

crostini mci
Published at New Haven, July 15,1843. ©

ae ; T° CORRESPONDENTS.

Commins have been received from Prof. Strong, Dy Moultrie, Prof.
» Mr. Maclaren, Mr. Allen, and others, some of w will appear in
ct.

pa,

Oar English correspondents are oes to Brees all communications and

our our friends, who desire tohave ¢ co nti inserted ina
_ pre namie, to give us timely notice of the fact, quent hap
the space is all

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS
AND STRANGERS.

_ Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt-
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where
‘they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph-
lets, &c.; which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no-
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands,
‘would usually find both acceptance and insertion.

- In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty,
with which they presume us to be acquainted.

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au-
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an
answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made
in mse pages, which may sometimes Sas in aie, retrospective.—
— .

- ae
SCIENCE.- 7 ae

Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles. Texte et Planches. Lag.
14. 1841.
‘Histoire Naturelle des - Poissons d’Eau Douce de Europe Cen-
trale. Tome I, sie contenant l’Embryologie des paleoan ss,
Liv. 2, planches. i841.
Etudes Critiques sur les s meeriaes Fossiles. Liv. ec plan.
ches, contenant les Be be u Jura et de la Craie Se oda
Monographies d’Ec rcaiieass, Vivans et Fossiles. Liv. 2, con-

tenant les Scutelles; liv. 3, les Galerites et les Dysaster, par E. e

Desor; liv. 4, PAnatomié du genre Echinus, par G. Valentin.
Planches.
aomeuclator Zoologicus, continens Nomina Systematica Gene- ;

imalium, tam viventium a fossilium. Fasiculus 1, conm-

” ae
me pot a

tinens Mammalia, Echinodermata et Acalephas. Fasciculus 2, con-
tinens Aves.—With several prospectuses. All the above from the
Author, M. Louis Agassiz, Neuchatel, Switzerland.

Recit d’une course faite aux Glaciers en hiver, par MM. Agassiz
et Desor. From the Authors.

Apergu general de la Structure Geologique des Alpes, par M.
Studer; precede de quelaues observations generales, par M. Desor.
From the Author.

Letter to Prof. Forbes. concerning his alleged discovery of the |

“Jamellar structure of glaciers.” From the Author, M. Agassiz.
Evolution of Light from the —_ Human mi by Sir
ti Marsh, Bart. M. D., M.R.I. A. Dublin, 1842.
Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. wee Il. By
James F. W. Johnston, M. A., ~
‘he Effects of a Lightning Flash on the steeple of Buxton
burch: and observations on Lightning Conductors generally ; by
Charles V. Walker, ane Lond. Elec. Soc. London, May . ith,
Rar ip From the Auth
a On the: Action of Eigtiniis Conductors. London, July 19th,
842,
Meili on the difference between, Leyden discharges and Light-

ning Flashes; by Charles V. Walker. From the proceedings of

the London Electrical Society. London, Dec. 20th, 1842. From
the Author.

Annuaire Magnetique et Meteorologique du corps des Ingenieurs
des Mines de Russie, ou recueil des observations Magnetique et Me-
teorolovique faites dans ’entendre de l’empire de Russie, et publiees
er Pordre de S. M. ’Empereur Nicolas I. Année, 1840-1842.

eceived March, 1843, from M. le Comte Cancrine, chef du corps
des Ingenieurs.

Introduction to the Atomic Theory ; by Chas. Daubeny, M. D., |

Prof. Chem. Oxford, 1841.

Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geoldgy 5 by Prof.
‘aa Second edition. London. pp. 250, 12mo. From the
. Ee st wees,

e de siles du Government du Moscow, par C, Fischer
Sante 1, , Belemnites. From the Author, forwarded
by Charles Cramer

The British idee. ly oornal of Dental cae edited by J.
arch, 1843. From the Editor.

_ Robinson, Esq.
Proceedings of the ye Electrical Society. paerath 1842-3.
Edited by the Secretary. April. From the Society.
Received April, 1843, frst Signor Giovanni Michelotti, Tarin,
the following works, viz.
Brevi Cenni sullo condizione ‘attuale della Sardigna, per PAuy.
wi te Michelotti. Torino, 1842. Ten copies.
- Cenni Statistici sopra la Ricovero di Mendicita di Torino Nell
_ Anno, 1841. pp. 36. Two >

,
;

. Atti della seconda riunione degli scienziata Italiani tenuta en To-
rino. Nel Septembre, del 1840. pp. 400, quarto, pamphlet form.

Annali della scienze del regno Lombardo Veneto, opera period-
ica di Alenni collaboratori. 1841, penners e Febbrajo, Marzo
e Aprile, Maggio e Gingno, Luglio e Agosto,

De solaris in mapas ltalice stratio repertio. Auctaee eee
Michelloti. Two copies
_ Saggio storico del rizopodi caracteristici. del terreni sopracreta cei,
" /per. Giovanni Michelotti. Modena, 1841. Quarto pamphlet. Five
copies. -

Saggio orittografico sulla classe del Gasteropodi fossili del terreni
terziarii del Piemonte di Luigi Bellardi e Giovanni Michelloti. Two
copies.

Catologo medaglio. Musio Numismatico Lavy appartnente alla
R. — della scienze di Torino. In two vols., 4to. pp, 500.
Two co

Carol Allioni Flora Pedimontana. Three volum

On the Distribution and Classification of the order “of the Paleo-

zoic Deposit of the north of Germany and Belgium, and on their

comparison with formations of the same age in the British Isles ; by
Rev. A. Sedgwick, F. R. S., and Roderick I. Murchison, Esq.,
F.R.S.. pp. 400, quarto, pamphlet form. With a set of plates.
London; 1842, roa: the Authors.

Address of Mr. Murchison before the Geological Society of Lon
don, Feb. 18th, 1842. From the Author

‘Maidstone ; its Geology, History, Antiquities and Traditions, dis-
gussed io am a memoir read in that town by Douglas Allport, Esq.

From tell.
_ Address before the Royal Society on its anniversary, Nov. 30,
1842, by the most noble Marquis of North ampton, president of the

iety. From Dr. Mantell.

Dent on the errors of Chronometers,. and explanation of a new
construction of the Compensation Balance. London, 1842. Five
copies. From the Author.

ent on the construction and management of Chronometers,

Watches and Clocks. Three copies. From the Author.

.. The Royal Sewer. Fellows ze ria Noyesoaget® ,

eG
1942, to coe 6 Som the Bed ditor. ni
On the specific inductive capacities of certain electrical loa
by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F. R.S. London, 1842. Quarto pam-
phlet, pp. 172. From the Author

Arsberattelse om Pedlibologens framsteg till —_ ee core _
af G. E. P “

Academien “er a 31 Mars, 1840;
holm, 1841. pp. 2

4
- Kongl. Vetenskaps Academien Andlingar. For Ar 1840. Stock-

holm, 1
Tal af 1 Preses Grefve M. Rosenblad. Stockholm,
1840.

Tal om Jordbrukets narvarande tillstand inom fadernestlandet, —
_hundren for dess fooksfran och utsigterna for dess framtid. ballet 1.
. V. A. vid. Presidii Nedlageande re 6 April 1842, af August,
Auckarsward. Stockholm, 1842, pp. 4 ig
Arsberattelser om nyare Zoologiska bheren och Upptiackter, till ;
Kong]. Vetenskaps-Academin afuifne for aren 1837-40. AfC. J. —
dewall.. Stockholm, 1841. pp. 585. All from the Swedish
Academy, through their perpetual Secretary, M. Jac. Berzelius.

SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC.

A “Muck Manual for Farmers. Lowell, Mass. 1843. From the

Author, Samuel L. Dana. 12mo. pp. 232.

Elements of Geology, with an outline of the Geology of North
Carolina, for the use of students of the University ; by Prof. Mitch-
ell. 1842. Small octavo, pp. 141. From the Author.

Monograph of the Fresh Water Mollusca of the United States.
No. 6. Two copies. From the Author, S. S. Haldeman, Genus
Physa. Phil. 1843.

armer’s Register, Vol. X, No. 12, containing an essay on cal
careous manures ; by Edmund Ruffin. Petersburg, 1842.

The Medical News Library, Vol. I, Nos. 1 and 2. Philadel
phia. A continued series.

Transactions of the Society of Aichi of the College of Physi-
— oe Hints of the University of the State of New York.

o. 1,

Seas ‘Summary of the Transactions of the College of Phy-
sicians of Philadelphia. 1843.

-_ Transactions of the Am. Phil. Soc. Part II, Vol. 8. Observa-
I Len, Es the " Unio. Two copies. From the Society, and

nd Logarithms, for the use of the Midship-
men in the ‘Racal School at Philadelphia, By and from Wm.
Chauvenet. 1843. Small octavo, pp. 91.

Geological History of Manhattan or New York Island ; oH Tssa-_
pe Consane, 5 Sr. New York, 1843. pp. 114, small 8vo. From
F, uth ? _

Reports of fe fret, stoubal wid third meetings of the Association
of American Geologists and Naturalists at yr ge tno in 1840
and 1841, and at a 1842, embracing ee and
transactions. Boston, :

Animal ‘Chemistry, - yas Liebig, M.D. Edited from the
author's manuscripts, by Wm. Gregory, M. D.: with additions,

——

es and corrections, by Dr. Gregory and others; by John Ww.
Wabner, M. D., Prof. Chem. in Harvard University, Cambridge.
A Catalogue of the Birds of Connecticut; by Rev. J. H. Lins-
ley, A. M.. From the Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLIV, No. 2. roe
the Author.
Transactions of the Kiiedinn Philosophical Society for Promo-

ting Useful Knowledge, held at et L Vol. Vill, Part

Third. 1843. From the Societ
” Description of the American ‘Liguailen “by A. Binney, Esq.
Boston. peneee copies.

MISCELLANEOUS.—FOREIGN. &

List of prices of mathematical and other apparatus, for sale by

E. M. Clark, London.

Memoires sur le Canada depuis 1749 jusqu’a 1760, entrois par-
ties avec cartes et le plans lithographies, 1833.

A number of bookseller’s catalogues.
_ Twenty sixth report to the 20th November, 1842, of the London
Provident Institution.

Sketch of the writings and philosophical character of Aétensctin

P. De Candolle,. Prof. of Nat. Hist. Geneva; by Prof. Daubeny, of »
Oxford. From the Author.
: Austria ; by Ww. R. Wilde, M.R. 1A. Dublin. From the i
ishers.

Fourth sébual report of the Morrison Education Society. Me-
cao, 1842.. From Rev. S. R. Bro

Journal of a tour through the United States aa 3 in Canada, made
during the years 1837-38; by Charles Pashonge M. D., F R.S.,
&e. Oxford. ae 232, 12mo. we rom the 2 Tey wees,

MISCELLANEOUS. vous.

Tenth ye Revies of the. Trostes of thie State Lunatic eae
pital at Worcester. Dec. 1842. - From Dr. S. G. How

Catalogue of Williston Sepsinkr yy? fall term, 1842, East Hamp:
ton, Mass. ome

‘Twenty fourth “Kedush Report of the ge - the New York
rk ae the Deaf and Dumb. 1843. he P. Peet,

“onus Address of the Hon. A. Gallatin, LL.D., on taking
of the New York Historical Society. New | ork,

1843. From the 2 Society.
Ath Feb. 1837 aod Sopt: 1838 ;
by “Stephen Trip, 1842. Do. a | Sept. 184!

Seventeenth Annual Report of the. Board of Manager of the &

Prison Discipline Society. Boston, 1

6
Transactions of the Hartford County Agricultural Society for
1842.

Northern Lakes as a residence for the invalids of the South ; by
Daniel Drake, M.D. Louisville, Ky. 1842. From the Authors

Annual Reports of the Interments in the city and county of New
York, for 1842; by J. H. Griscom, M. D. From the Author.

Twenty second hese Report of the Board of Directors of the
Mercantile Library Association, Clinton Hall. New York, 1843.

Catalogue of Kemper College, 1842-3. St. Louis, Missouri.

Catalogue of Middlebury College, 1842-3. Middlebury, Vt. _

New England and the West; by R. W. Haskins, Buffalo, N. : $
_ From the Author.

"The Destinies of War and Labor. An essay delivered by A. E.
Gwynne, before the Hamilton Chapter of the Alpha Delta Phi So-
ciety, 1842. Clinton.

Prof. Hitchcock’s Anniversary Address before the Mount Hol-
yoke Female Seminary. Amherst, Mass. 1843. From the Au-
thor.

Mr. ‘Colman’s Agricultural Address, 1842, at Riachester: N. x.
From the Author.

iscourse on the rightfulness and expediency of Capital Pun-
ishments; by Rev. Wm. T. Dwight, Portland, Me. 1843. From
the Author.

Gambier Catalogue for 1842-3. Gambier, Ohio. ‘Two copies.

Circular and Catalogue of Willoughby University, 1842-3.
Clinton, Ohio.

The Chicora; Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12. Charleston, S.C. From J.
B. Legare, Esq.

President’s Message and documents accompanying, » the 3d ses-
sion of the 27th Congress. From Hon. 8. J. Andr

Speech of Hon. Willis Hall in foie 9 of tha: ile on the
governor’ s message.

Report by Mr. “Ferris on the ae telegraph, Dec. 30,
1842. From Hon. F. Grange
_. Report of Mr. Aycrigg on te Coast Survey, Feb. 9th, 1843.
Eroes Hon. J. Trumbull. From Hon. ote ay" drews. From Hon.

. Boardman. From Hon. C. Mor

Mens of the Commissioners of Pend, Feb. 1843.

Report by Hon. ue a Ohio, on Military Posts, Coun-
Ee to the ge lg Jan. 4th, 1843. From Hon. J.

rumbu

; e. nn iy ei ies s at oc to steamboat explosions. niente

Collection of the dais that appeared in relation to ‘Dr.
Sewal’s drawings on the human stomach.
w England’s Mundial by Nathaniel Morton. Fifth editi ition,

wit notes, by John Davis. Boston, 1
rag ee ay , 1826. pp. 476, 8vo. From

bes CONTENTS.
———

eet
“an. I. Notice of some Works, recently tages on the No-
menclature of Zoology ; by Aveustus A. Goutp, M.D., as
4 IL A Statement of Elevations in Ohio, with clas to the
, ey on - Geological Formations, and also ‘the Heights of various
-_. points in this State and elsewhere ; by Cuartes WuiIt-

TLESEY, Esq. 12 .
“TL Tides i in the North Riera pat by iam D. isc:
~etes, U. S. A.—with a chart, - 18
WV. Observations on some interesting Plants of New England
... .. by Epwarp Tuckerman, Jun., 27

Ne Remarkable example of the Force of Seaton oa
Contraction, exerted by bodies when subjected to alter- ©
ays ie _ nations of Temperature, —with a reference to the ques-—
~ tion whether the freezing point of liquids is influenced
* iy differences in oe by Prof. Lewis C. me . oll
L “An effort to Fe Ks Sages ‘esr in ee of
: ae : the Existence, in the Amphide salts, of Radicals con- ie
a9 - sisting, like Cyanogen, of more than one element ; by
© Prof, Rosert Hare, M.D. - - 52
“VIL. On the Rotary Action of Storms ‘by Crate Tracy, 65
VIL. Corrections and Additions to the Mo Cuscu-

e4
=A

: tine, in Vol. XLIIL cof this Jou al; by GE& sg En-
~ ta - GELMANN, M. D., % ie ey « - 7
On the Ice Mountain of Hiamipehive County, Virginia,

witha proposed expla
SB Hien, OP
- x On the Errors of amet and Pos pitliod of i.
‘ a Gt she “new construction of ‘the a eee
€ E. J. De .

on of its low be ce ah by

: ‘ton, ie a 5 Blind Fish, peti a cave in Rentck
alti, Jerrares Wyman, M. D., hots Si BER OS “94
"Pa = the Adverbial = Case in ng a Prof-

J. W: Gisss, = ig =
| Bae Phosphate of bike {apes in the Virg aia. Wie

orice Stone ; by Prof. Cuarces Urnam Sueran, M. ‘ca 2 ae

CONTENTS.

XIV. On the Analogies between the Modern Igneous Rocks

and the so-called Primary Formations, and the Meta-
morphic changes produced by heat in the associated
sedimentary deposits; by James D. Dana, - -

XV. On the Temperature limiting the Pe cca of ka

@ by James D. Dana, : : ;

XVI. On the Areas of Sitatlcnge i in the Pacifa.' as ited

by the Distribution of Coral Islands; by James D.
Dana,—with a m

ap,
_ XVII. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Séscidh of the

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, -

XVIII. Description of a new species of Torpedo ; by D. Hum-

pureys Storer, M. D.—with a plate,

XIX. Description of some New: Ke of Plants dy s. B.

Bucxuey, A. M., “. -

XX: Ornithichnites of the ME ier Sandstoied ie’

- the Dinornis of New Zealand, -

XXI. On the Great Comet of 1843; a Mr. s. C. Waskes ‘a.

Prof. E. O. Ken ENDALL, -

“XXIL Remarks on Mr. Owen’s ace. i“ the Editors ¢ on Dr.

Harlan’s. New Fossil Mammalia, §- — -

XXxiil. Bibliographical Notices :—Agassiz’s Histoire Neiitetle

des Poissons d’Eau Douce de l'Europe Centrale, and
Vogt’s Embryologie des Salmones, 211 .—Hooker’s 's Ico-
nes Plantarum, 214. —Tuckerman’ s Enumeratio Method-

ica Caricum quarundam, 216.—Endlicher and Martius’ 3 "
Flora Brasiliensis, 217.—Chauvenet’s Binomial Theorem _

and Logarithms, 218.—Transactions of the Association
of American Geologists and Naturalists,1840-1842, 220

Nsooluabessdiiaies of certain siliceous tubes. ‘ Ealgunites)

‘ formed in the earth, 220.—Supplementary notice of the Ce-

1, 222.—_Cambridge Observatory, 224.—Notices

‘Taurus c)

of Botanical collections, 225.—Iodine in Phanerogamic Plants
me sses. ent of Carbonic Acid by the Roots
. of Plants, 227.—Filariee in the Blood of a living Dog: Experi- .

ments of Karsten, relative to the formation of the “ij images. |
of Moser,” 228.—Great Comet of 1843, 229.—Second Comet _

of 1843: Meteorie |

a 2

THE

AMERICAN

_ JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Arr. I.— Notice of some Works, recently published, on the No-
menclature of Zoology ; by Aveustus A. Goutn, M. D.

Report of a Committee ( of the British Association) eriotinek

_ “to consider the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology

may be established on a uniform and permanent basis.’ a
pp. 17, 8vo., Lond. 1842.

Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens Nomina Systematica Ger ,
rum Animalium tam viventium quam eeuen ete. ; auctor
L. Agassiz, Ato. Soloduri, 1842. ee

Tue British Association for the Advancement of Science has
undertaken one task, for which it will receive the hearty thanks
of zoologists. It has undertaken | to ——s. weight of its
authority in arrest of the growi nelature, and of
the injustice which some vootogriiaabiers anewed themselves to
practice towards their predecessors. None need this legislation,
and none will have more cause to be grateful for it, than Ameri-
can sPeologists. We have now a host of naturalists Peng. ae

“ia ho tnegs libraries or stantial collections of Biects, by

teference to which doubts might be readily solved, there has

already arisen among us such a burden of synonyms as to be
Vol. xxv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843.

2 Nomenclature of Zoology.

quite perplexing; and it is even now difficult to settle the claims
of priority among the various names so recently imposed.

Our best zoologists have been awake to the necessity of hav-
ing among themselves some laws, either statute or upon honor,
which shall ensure respect and justice to each other’s labors, and
render the nomenclature of our zoology such as shall bear the test
of enlightened criticism. Not a little correspondence has been
carried on, among the leading scientific men in the different —
cities, as to how this desirable object might be best secured. As
one effective means, it has been conceded to those who have been
engaged upon monographs, that they should settle the synonymy
of the objects coming within their province, and that others
should abide by their conclusions, unless they were manifestly
wrong, the writer being allowed the benefit of all suspicions. It
was deemed to be no difficult thing to establish a code of honor
among ourselves; but then the thought arose, of what avail will
all this be to us, if the great masters in zoology across the water,
shall choose to trample upon us as they have hitherto done? It
is indeed discouraging, after having, by a tedious and thorough
investigation, determined the novelty of a species, to find, in some
subsequent transatlantie journal, the same thing described under
a different name, and with such authority as to give the prior de-
scriber a very slight chance of regaining his own prior name.
With this exercise of the right of the strongest, Americans are
familiar. It must be acknowledged that, in very many instances,
there is an adequate excuse for this, from the very obscure chan-
nels through which the original descriptions have been conveyed
to the public, and the very limited circulation such works have
had. But this is not always the case ; and now, there are scien-
tific publications among us which no naturalist, whether native
or foreign, should neglect to consult. Indeed, such works as the
Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, the
Boston Journal of Natural History, not omitting this Journal,
have become as indispensable to the zoological writer who would
keep up with the level of science, as the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, or the Annales d’Histoire Naturelle, or Revue
Zoologique. io. ;

{t is but too apparent, however, that courtesy and justice are
not meted out where the plea aboye allowed cannot be made.
we look at the French, for instance, we find by their writings

Nomenclature of Zoology. 3

that most of them are, or affect to be, as ignorant of what their
neighbors the English are doing in science, as though such a
people did not exist. Very seldom do we find a French writer
referring to English books, splendid and accessible as they are,
though honorable exceptions might be named. We have been
sometimes disposed to think that the distinguished professors in
Paris, being placed at the head of the magnificent collections and
_ institutions of the French capital, had come to think that noth-
- ing in science could be known, which they did not know; that
it would therefore be superfluous for them to spend time tn cull-
ing over the works of others; and finally, that whatever pre-
sented itself as new to them, must be actually new, of course.

It was suggested a year or two since, that a paper should be
drawn up and signed by the principal zoologists in America, re-
questing the British Association to take the subject of the laws
of nomenclature into consideration, and propose a series of rules
for general use. It was thought that rules emanating from such
a source, “would be invested with an authority which no indi-
vidual zoologist, however eminent, could confer on them,” suffi-
cient indeed to ensure their observance. ‘The Association — has

anticipated our wishes, and has proposed a series of rules: cover-"

ing the whole ground of difficulty, just and honorable’ in thei
character, and with which no original naturalist author will find
much reason to complain. They are drawn up in so concise a
style, that we believe a republication of them, in this connection,
will be judicious. “They ought to be at once disseminated
throughout the scientific public, to be duly reflected upon, and
modifications suggested, before the code is finally enacted ; for
the Sopnivier, in the ‘captions of their report, invoke us

—* si qatt. novisti rectius istis,
Candidus oo si si non, his utere mecum.’

The subject. is divided into. two parts; the first, of

the rectification of the present nomenclature, and the second fo

tts improvement in future. The law of priority is lai a wn as
the only effectual and just one, as a basis of n
rise to the first and fundamental maxim:
1. The name given by the founder of a group, or the describer of a
Species, should be permanently retained, to the exclusion of all subse-
‘synonyms, (with the exceptions about to be noticed.) :

4 Nomenclature of Zoology.

2. The binomial nomenclature having originated with Linnzus, the
law of priority, in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the
writings of antecedent authors. ~

3. A generic name, when once established, should never be cancelled
in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retained in a restricted
sense, for one of the constituent portions.

4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion of the
original genus which was considered typical by the author.

. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not perfect-
ly clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides the genus,
may affix the original name to any portion of it, at his discretion, and no
later author has a right to transfer that name to any other part of the
original genus.

6. When two authors define and name the same genus, both making it
of exactly the same extent, the latter name should be cancelled in toto, and
not retained in a modified sense. ;

7. Provided, however, that if these authors select their respective
t from different sections of the genus, and these sections be after-
wards raised into genera, then both these names may be retained in a re-
stricted sense, for the new genera respectively.

8. If a later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two or more
previously published genera, it must be cancelled in toto.

9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the earliest of
them, if otherwise unobjectionable, should be selected, and its former
generic name be extended over the new genus so compounded.

10. A name should be changed, which has before been proposed for
some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in the

same genus, when still retained for such genus or species.
_ Il. A name may be changed, when it implies a false proposition,
which is likely to propagate important errors, e. g. Picus cafer, for a Mex-
ican bird. |

12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some published
work, should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall
have been so defined.

_ 13. A new specific name must be given to a species, when its old name
has been adopted for a genus which includes that species.
ig a. re —— apes the rules of Latin orthography must

On the first nine propositio ns we have no comments to make.
— 10, seems to us somewhat questionable. The different
Poa of natural history, botany and zoology, and indeed the
“ee at departments of zoology, have now become so extensive,

are pursued by students so much to the exclusion of each

Nomenclature of Zoology. 5

other, that if a genus in one department bears a name in common
with a genus in some other department, the student is very un-
likely to meet with it; or if he does, he meets it under such cir-
cumstances as to cause him no embarrassment. While, therefore,
it is manifestly improper that widely different objects should bear
the same name, we are rather disposed to regard this rule as of
prospective, rather than of retrospective, application.

Section 11, seems to us liable to still stronger objections. Sad
indeed would be the havoc in the nomenclature of American ob-
jects, if all the species named Virginicus and Canadensis, were
to receive new names because they are likely to propagate im-
portant errors, as they frequently would at the present day. And
would it not be as well to allow names of this character, already
imposed, to remain, until they become so current that they may
be retained with as much propriety as Caprimulgus, Monoculus,
&c., which it is conceded may remain unchanged. It is but
proper to say, however, that the committee propose that this
tule should be “ applied only to extreme cases, and with great
caution.”

The twelfth proposition seems to us the most important of all,
after the fundamental one. It is indeed the very gist of he
matter; the point which, if properly maintained, will ¢ |
all the others. Until lately, the right of priority has been aaa
Where a man could but show, that, at some anterior period, he
had given a name to a specimen in his cabinet, or had read a
_ Paper upon the object, and perhaps circulated specimens among ~
his friends. "The consequence has been, a superficial acquaint-
ance with the works of naturalists, and an indifference to publi-
cation. It was much easier for a man to sit down and attach a
ticket to every object in his cabinet which his ignorance sug-
gested might be new, and await his chance of claiming his
names for such of them as some patient and thorough student
should prove to be actually new, than to undertake the task of
conning all the published works in which it were likely to find
such objects noticed. In this country, we have indeed, from
the destitution of books on natural history, been compelled, per
force, to risk something, or do nothing. But this should have
rendered us doubly cautious in imposing names, and ever ready
to retract them when they are proved to be but synonyms, rather -
than be tempted by the idea, that no one is so likely to be

6 Nomenclature of Zoology.

acquainted with the objects at our door as we ourselves, espe-
cially when we happen to live in a district which has sustained
no naturalist before us. The actual fact is, that as a general
thing, the natural objects peculiar to this country have been bet-
ter known and better described abroad than at home. Certainly
we may say this, if we except the last twenty years. Nor need
we think that our territory has never been explored. ‘There are

collectors constantly employed in this country by foreign natu- |

ralists, who, in a quiet way, send across the water immense stores
of all kinds of natural objects; and one is surprised when he sees
the flood of such objects, collected at our doors and without our
knowledge, in the public and private collections abroad.

But things are now come toa different pass.. A stop will now
be put to all baseless aspirations for notoriety by attaching nobis
to the names of species, even when new, though not adequately
substantiated; and more especially, by appending it to species
created by others, in consequence of removing them to other
genera. —

Two things are now insisted upon in order to give authen-
ticity to a genus or species, viz. perspicuous definition and publi-
cation. For want of the first requisite, some of our most accom-
plished naturalists have forfeited their claims to the adoption of
names given by them. I need only mention the name of the
eccentric but learned Rafinesque, to convey an idea of what I

mean, to American zoologists. Some of the earlier descriptions |

_ of the lamented Say, too, are so brief and indiscriminating, that
it has been impossible, without figures or authentic specimens,
to identify the objects intended. A rule which we have some
where seen, that a writer should always describe an object just
as if he expected something almost exactly like it would be
found next day, would be all that is necessary to ensure a satisfac-
tory compliance with the first requisition. Nor would we be un-
derstood to say that all the works of such men are to be forfeited,
because, in some instances, they have failed to give diagnostic¢
characters sufficiently perspicuous in view of subsequent discov
eres. In regard to the species instituted by Mr. Say, such has
been the almost uniform respect of American naturalists for him,
that they have striven to perpetuate all his specific names; and
where the object intended could not be indisputably determined,
they have conventionally fixed upon some species which should

Nomenclature of Zoology. 7

bear the name proposed by him. Neither would we justify the
wholesale rejection of M. Rafinesque’s names, which some have
advocated ; because it is certain, that many of his species ma
be satisfactorily made out, and these, beyond all question, should
be adopted. :
_ The other requisite is publication. And now the question
arises, what shall be considered publication. In the words of
the committee, “to constitute publication, nothing short of the
insertion of the above particulars (the essential characters) in a
printed book, can be held sufficient.” The French Academy of
Sciences has also decided that nothing can constitute publication,
but the rendering one’s labors public, through the press.* "These
two authorities are the highest to which we could possibly have
recourse, and their dicta ought to be conclusive on this point.
The definition of the Academy, it will be perceived, is broader
than that of the British Association, inasmuch as the former
merely requires that a definition should be given to the public
in print, while the latter requires that it should be given in a
printed book. We are ready to adopt the most rigid of these
requisitions. -When descriptions are published, as many of Mr.
Say’s were, in such a paper as the New Harmony Disseminator,

it could not be expected that another naturalist, who might pub- |

lish descriptions of the same objects, in some widely current
Scientific work, justifiably ignorant of his predecessor’s labors,
should forfeit his claim to the names imposed by him. It cer-
tainly cannot be expected, that every fugitive newspaper or
ephemeral literary periodical, is to be ransacked, before a man
may be permitted to name an object. In the case of Mr. Say,
however, thanks to the assiduity of his friends, his fugitive pub-
lications have been collected, embodied, and given to the public,

in books which cannot be set aside. At the present day, every”
facility which canbe asked, is given to authors, for bringing

their discoveries before the public as soon as they please, in such
a manner as to secure all their rights. It is the custom to print,
at. short intervals, works in which the essential characters
objects. may be given, in anticipation of figures and more ex-
PLR nas casera ORME RR eo)

- “ Ainsi il est bien établi par l’Académie des Sciences, que les communications
faites par MM. Le Guillou, &c., ne sauraient constituer une publication, et que
leurs travaux resteront inédits, 4 l'état de manuscrit, jusqu’d ce qu'ils aient ete
rendus publics, par la voie de Vimpression.”—Revue Zoologique, 1841, p. 331.

8 Nomenclature of Zoology.

tended descriptions ; thus giving date and publicity to a discov-
ery, and allowing ample time for a more satisfactory development
of it. Such are the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,”
and the “ Zoological Proceedings,” in London; the “ Revue
Zoologique,” in Paris; and the “ Proceedings” of the American
Philosophical Society, of the Academy of Natural Sciences at
Philadelphia ; and of the Boston Society of Natural History, in
this country.

It will be perceived that this rule disallows any authority to
manuscript names, whether merely attached to specimens in a
museum, or even when descriptions are accurately written out
in full. In the words of the report, “many birds in the Paris
and other continental museums, shells in the British Museum,
and fossils in the Scarborough and other public collections, have
received MS. names, which will be of no authority until they
are published. Nor can any unpublished descriptions, however
exact, claim any right of priority till published, and then only
from the date of their publication.” One who is publishing may,
from courtesy, adopt names which he knows have been applied
by some other person; but in that case he must append his own
cognomen to it, and not that of his friend, for he alone will be
responsible to the scientific world for it, and his publication alone
can be referred to as authority. If another has given a name
and written a description, which the publisher chooses to adopt
in toto, stating the fact, there can then be no objection that such
name should stand, with its author’s cognomen appended. Many
works of recent date exemplify the force of the objections above
made, and have justly incurred unqualified reprobation. Perhaps
no case is more glaring than that of M. Kiener, in his beautiful
work on Shells, where he has been in the habit of adopting the
names imposed by M. Valenciennes, in the museum of the Gar-
den of Plants, and appending M. V.’s name as authority, while
Kiener alone describes the shells, and his work is the only one
that can be referred to as authority. Now, as many errors are
found to exist in the work, a writer very pertinently inquires,
who is to be responsible, he who names without describing, oF
he who describes without naming ?

But we proceed to the second part of the Report, in which are
offered recommendations for improving the nomenclature in

— ~ They are briefly comprised under the seven following
rules,

Nomenclature of Zoology. 9

- A. “The best zoological names are those which are derived from the
Latin and Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of the
object to which they are applied.”

B. “It is recommended that the assemblages of genera termed fami-
lies, should be uniformly named by adding the termination ide, to the
name of the earliest known, or most typically characterized genus in
them ; and that their subdivisions, termed sub-families, should be similarly
Génstracted, with the termination ine.”

= Specitic names should akeays be written with a small initial let-
ter, even when derived from persons and places, and generic names
should be always written with a capital.”

D. “It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, when
not applying to the generic name also, should be followed by the distinc
tive pe (sp.)”

E. “It is recommended that new genera or species be amply defined,
and een circulated, in the first instance.”

“Tt is recommended that in subdividing an old genus, in future,
the names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that of
the original group.”

G. “It is recommended that in defining new genera, the etymology of
the name should be always stated, and that one species should be inva-
riably selected, as a type or stendatd of reference.”

Under rule A, certain classes of words are specified as objec-
tionable: as, a. Geographical names ; because, though a name
may indicate that an object may be found in such a country; it
may also be found equally common in other countries, and there-
fore the name does not tell the whole truth. 5. Barbarous
names; by giving Latin terminations to local, native names.
¢. Technical names ; names expressive of trades or professions, —
unless carefully chosen. d. Mythological names. . Compar-
names ; as maximus, minimus, &c. f. Generic names,
compounded from other genera; this supposes such an alli-
ance between two genera that no other can intervene. g. Spe
cific names derived from persons. h. Generic names derived
Jrom persons. i. Names of harsh and inelegant pronunciation.
k. Ancient names of animals applied in a wrong sense. When
the original animal to which they were applied can be ascer-
tained, such names are most desirable. J. Adjective generic
names. m. Hybrid names ; i.e. words compounded of two
languages. n. anes closely resembling other names already
used. 0, Corrupted words ; those “_— are ungrammatically
Vol. xxv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843,

10 Nomenclature of Zoology.

compounded. yp. Nonsense names; words without any deriva-
tion or meaning whatever. g. Names previously cancelled by
the operation of rule 6. r. Specific names raised to generic.
Some of these might be regarded as undesirable, rather than
as objectionable ; such as those under classes b, c, d, h. To class
d, we can see very little objection. To class g, we feel very
strong objections; not simply because complimentary designa-
tions, unless “restricted to persons of high eminence as scientific
geologists,” are in very bad taste, but because of the awkward-
ness there isin attempting to pronounce. names belonging toa
nation whose language we are unacquainted with. What person
acquainted with the English language only, or we may add with
Latin and Greek also, would venture upon such words as Mi-
chaudi, Dupetit Thouarsii, Le Guillouii, Entrecastauxii, G'heis-
breghtii, Eschscholtzii.. This difficulty is not all on the part of
the Englishman; on the contrary, the names of Englishmen
and Americans are more formidable and forbidding to all the na-
tions of southern Europe, than their names are to us. Few of
us would be likely to recognize our own names when articulated
in French or Italian. | ;
With rules A and B, and with the first more especially, would
we fully concur; but from the next we should decidedly dissent.
The reason given for beginning aspecific name, when derived from
a proper name, with a small initial, “that when used alone, it is
liable to be occasionally mistaken for the title of a genus,” seems
to us to be too trivial, Persons who are so little experienced as to
be misled thus, would be misled by almost any thing. Besides,
that the contrary custom is an ancient and almost universal one,
we think that few persons would covet the compliment of seeing
their cognomen degraded from a proper toa common name. Per-
haps, however, this rule is intended to bear more especially upon
the practice Sometimes pursued, of commencing common nouns
used in the genitive form as specific names, with a capital. If
so, we would adopt it thus far. We believe that the following
tule would be both more proper and more acceptable. All spe-
cific names, except such as are derived from persons or places,
should begin with a small initial; and generic names should
always begin with a capital,
_ The method recommended in rule D, is worthy of strict atten-
tion. Another mode which we like still better is, to append the

Nomenclature of Zoology. 11

name of the author of both the genus and the species, where they _
are different, thus, Cyprina Islandica, Lin., Lam., the name of
the person who instituted the species being always kept in close
proximity to the specific name, as being more important than the
generic name, inasmuch as it is to be unchanged. The only
difficulty in the way is, that the means for ascertaining the au-
thor of a generic term are not always at hand, and it could hardly
be expected that memory would serve for both genus and species.
Whoever cannot adopt the latter method, should not fail to apply
the former, as recommended.

Any one who has observed the indiscriminate coupling of ge-
neric and specific names of incongruous genders, induced by the
removal of species from one genus to another, will see the pro-
priety of the precaution proposed in rule F

These remarks are all that need be offered at this time. The
Report itself is fully illustrated throughout, and cannot but do

We cannot but hope that some method will be taken to
give it tothe American scientific public in an entire form.

Nothing could have been more timely, in furtherance of the
movement so simultaneously made at all the principal foci of
science, than the Nomenclator Zoologicus of Agassiz. Nor is
it probable that any man living is better qualified — —_
undertake a work of the kind.

His plan is as follows. He first gives an alphabetical list of
every genus which has been instituted, whether adopted or not,
in each of the classes of zoology; he gives its author, the work
in which it originally appeared, and the date of publication of
that work; then the derivation of the name; and finally, the
oe to which the genus belongs. Then there is to be a gen-

eral register combining all the classes, thus bringing side by side,
the names which have a double use, and showing where priority
belongs. The different items are so printed, in various type,
upon the same line, as to be easily distinguished. We sincerely
wish he had added one other item, which would have tended
greatly to banish from among scientific men, sounds tapehiva to
classic ears—we mean the accentuation.

So far as genera are concerned then, no naakeal will seer
be excusable for using, for any new genus, a word already in
Use ; nor for being ignorant of all the genera which have been

12 Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States.

instituted in any particular family; nor for employing any but
the anterior name, when two or more names have been imposed
upon the same genus of animals.

This may be thought, at first glance, but a small work; and
yet the author has already catalogued, upon the above plan, up-
wards of seventeen thousand names. Doubtless, many more
will be hereafter found, in works to which he has not yet had
access. No unpublished names have been introduced. — +

. M. Agassiz has expressed his views, in his introduction, with
regard to some of the laws of nomenclature, which, when com-
pared with those laid down in the Report just noticed, accord in
the main with our own. For instance, he says he does not think
it judicious to discard barbarous names, now in use; as in that
case nearly a thousand would come to be rejected, and as many
others substituted. Nor would he reject all words doubly em-
ployed. T’o show the absurdity of too great strictness in the
laws of nomenclature he states, that he knows of more than a
thousand names, common to genera in botany and zoology ; and
says he prefers that some one more solicitous for such eclat than
himself, should undertake to substitute other names and aflix their
superbus MIHI.

It is the first grand step towards extrication from future con-
fusion in nomenclature, that we have the generic appellations
thus before us under one glance; the next will be to construct
tables of specific names upon the same plan, and this we hope will
ere long be attempted, in some of the classes at least. We agree
with the publishers of the ‘“ Nomenclator Zoologicus,” that this
is a work indispensable to all zoologists and paleontologists.

Arr. IL—A Statement of Elevations in Ohio, with reference to

the Geological Formations, and also the Heights of various

points in this State and elsewhere ; by Cuartes Wurrruxsey,
Esq. of Cleveland, Ohio.

In giving the levels for Ohio, it should be understood that they
have been taken with reference to Lake Erie, asa zero. The sur-
face of Lake Erie has generally been considered as five hundred
and sixty four feet above tide-water at Albany ; see the Report
for Michigan, 1839-40. The topographer of that State, S. W.

Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 13

Higgins, Esq., puts it at 565.333 feet. If this last number repre-
sents the levelage of the Erie Canal, it is probably good for the
surface of the Lake, as it was when the surveys were made for
that work, twenty five years since. The surface, however, fluc-
tuates in the extreme about six feet, thus rendering all measure-
ments based upon the Lake as a starting point, liable to an error
of that amount. The Ohio Canal was explored in 1824-5, and
of course its elevations are noted with regard to the stage of water
at that time. The difference between 1816 and 1824 in the sur-
face of the Lake, will render all our levels along the Ohio Canal,
when referred to the ocean, inaccurate by that amount. In the
latter part of the year 1815, and all of the year 1816, the Lake
was high, about four feet above the point of greatest known de-
pression. From 1819 to 1822 it was low, and in 1825 was still
but about two feet above the lowest known point. The error in
adopting the Lake surface, in 1824, as a starting point, may there-
fore be two feet, making its general surface above the tide-water
at Albany, in 1824—5, 563 feet, and at the time of the great rise
‘in June, 1838, 567 feet. In estimating the heights given below,
Ihave used the commonly received number of 564, to express
the surface of the Lake. Both upon the Erie and the Ohio canals
and other works, the slopes sometimes given to the bottom are
rejected, because unknown: where there is more than one sum-
mit they counteract each other in some degree. Where there are
fractional feet they are rejected. In some cases there are short
intervals not measured, or the minutes of a portion of the heights
are wanting, or the authorities are contradictory ; these are desig-
nated by an interrogation, and will go for what they are worth.

Information derived from so many sources, and transcribed many
times from one note-book to another by different persons, must of
course be subject to errors. But it has been drawn from the best
authorities, viz. the profiles and reports of the engineers in the
public employ.

For location of points I have adopted Columbus, the capital of
Ohio, in latitude 39° 67/ north, longitude 83° 3/ west, as the cen-
tre of reference. The general course and distance from Colum-
bus being given, the courses and distances of the different places
among themselves may easily be found.

_ The order of stratification in Ohio is as follows, heapisiese: at
the lowest of our explored rocks, the limestone.

14 Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States.

1. Limestone; thickness unknown, not exceeding 1000 feet ;
subdivided as follows by Dr. Locke: (1.) Blue limestone and
blue limestone marls, over 500 feet in thickness; (2.) Marl, 25
feet; (3.) Flinty limestone, 52 feet; (4.) Marl, 106 feet; (5.)
Cliff limestone, 89 feet. This limestone is the surface rock over
about two fifths of the western part of Ohio, and extending into
Indiana.

2. Bituminous slate, or black shale, 250 to 350 feet.

3. Fine-grained or Waverley sandstone, 25 to 350 feet.

4. Conglomerate or pebbled sand-rock, 100 to 600 feet.

5. Coal measures, say 2000 feet.

Formation No. I.—Elevation of some points at the surface of the limestone forma-
tion and at the bottom o: slate.

| Course and distance |Height above

bck from Columbus. the ocean. Local dip per mile.

Se ae 761 feet |S.81°52! E., 24 feet.

mingville, Erie Co. :

atom. ore Pry yy 2 N,8}°E., 100 miles| 724? «

Dublin, Franklin Co., N. ao" W. a1 oe sol

Bainbridge, Ross Co., 9.1249 We 52 46 744 6

West Keioe AdamsCo., (8.154°W. 80 “ 934 “. |S. 804° E., 37.4 feet,
ree m :

es 8. E. of Day-
ton, bottom of cliff ime S. 763° W. 62.“ 868 “ IN. 14°E., 6 feet.
stone,

Place.
Columbus

With the exception of Dayton, these locations are at or near the
outcrop of the overlapping slate, and consequently in or near the
line of bearing. bi ie

No, IIl.—Points on the surface of the black shale and under face of the fine-grained
sandstone. uss

Place. | | Height. 4
burg vill , - 2 | for as ig
ree coun . paupako 5 N.41°E., 154 miles, 764 feet.|8.8.E., very slight.
usky t hip, Craw- :
ford Co, ota gN. 7°. 62 « | 94874 /S.E. and slight.
Big WE Se Creek, Na- N.s4°E. 8 « 804 « 5 ene E.,—about
bs oad, 4 : 30 feet per mile. }
ead of Paint Creek Ca- Sesiek 43 « 6
nal; Ross Cos } South, 814 * |S. 83° E. 31.99 feet:
Morse mill, on 1, near
Poemaath 8. 34°R. 83 « | 518 «

The last station is about fifteen miles east of the outcrop, which
accounts for its being lower in natural level than the others. This
formation occupies a narrow belt of about twenty miles in width
along the Scioto valley, widening as it extends northward to the
Lake. It is here about sixty miles in breadth, east and west, and
extends eastward in form of a narrow strip along the southern
shore, to and beyond the State line.

Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 15

No. a .—Points on the surface of the fine-grained eentaienty constpentin with
the inferior face of the atte
Course and d
Old “gear township, Summit County, {N. te 110als ‘ws et
fae Chapsi n Falls, Cuyahoga County, N.
othe Falls, Trumbull County, N. SIE. 140 << 398 big
7

al, TOE.
Rison Senekie token near J. Stinson’ So: 1Ge me” to | co, se

The fine-grained sandstone region immediately succeeds the
slate, and occupies a tract similar in form, though not quite as
extensive. Next to it, on the east, the conglomerate is the sur-
face rock, and from a narrow strip at the south, enlarges, after
passing the line of the Reserve,* to a width of fifty miles, spread-
ing over the northeastern counties.

No. V.—Some points in the lowest bed of coal.

Dip.
ray, wear State line, N. 554°, 164 miles) 90 feet! F3p fey,
Tallmadge, Summit County, |N.453°E. 112.“ |1069 “ |S. 333° E., 18) feet.
ualckireer Gee” RIN. 85°E. sah fog & |f P58 Bows ao
own an t % ‘
Lick township, Jackson Co. |S, 224°E. 59 “° 17602 his and variable

A line drawn from the Portage summit northeasterly, and par-
allel to the Lake shore, will be a general boundary of the coal
region on the north in Ohio; and continued from this summit to
the Licking summit, and thende south to the River, it will form
the western limit of this great field, extending to the ce ase

Elevation of places in Hoe

Elevation—feet.

Little Mountain, Lake Co., 1164 Cong pasting
Mantua, Portage Co., sum-
mit of Chagrin and Cuya-} 1140 °°
hoga Rive

Mahoning eat Cham- : :
pion, Trumbull Goun rs : 908 Fine-grained sandstone.
Brookfield, Trumbull Co., 1154 Coal measures.

Portage Summit Lake, 958 Top of conglomerate.
High land adjacent, 1150?

rand Onan; Portage} 1068 Coal measures
Hanover, Columbiana Co., |

Sandy and Brown Canal} 1123 «

summit,

* The Reserve is the eastern part of Ohio.

Fee Place.
‘Huron summit, swamp, §.
. corner of coun
Harrisville, Medina County,
Kilbuck summit,
Tyamochtee summit, T. 5, 7
; ae , Marion Co.
Blanchard’s furs of An-
glaise, 23 erat E. of fa
Findlay, Han 0.,
Loraine’s ciate ener
extension canal,
Somerset, Perry Co.,
Zanesville—triver, at bridge,
a hill, E. of town,
Hillsborough, Highland Co.,
Greenville, Darke Co.,
Summit between Scioto =
Mad rivers, near Mechan-
icsburg, Champagne Co.,
Summit of Great Miami and
Scioto, Logan Co.,

Elevation—feet.

978
901

942

1159
679
801
1124
1044

1007

1350?

Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States.

Surfac

Near Peaction of slate
and limestone.

Conglomerate.

Limestone.

Border of coal measures.

Coal. measures.

Limestone.
te

“

“cc

Height of places in Michigan, above the ocean.
Head waters of Belle River, Lapeer Coun nty, ‘

Summit between waters of Saginaw Bay and Lake Mich. 673 “
91

Pontiac summit, Clinton and Kalamazoo Canal, -

Hillsdale County: seven miles east of Jonesville,

Summit of Central Railroad, on the line between Jack-
son and Washtenaw Counties,

Port Holmes, Mackinaw, - - - «+ =
' Height of Lakes.
Ontario, - . in = é
Erie, ero a eo ‘ 2
pum, © — ee gt ok HE cs
Huron and Michigan, ———— —“s
Niiperior, «©: “i tea By Se sige:
Height of points on the Ohio.
i oe lll Ts

ORCA. He
Portsmouth, -..- -«
Cincinnati, oe oe

992 feet.

4 &

T2111... -

1015 *
190%

232 feet.
565.333
570.005
578.008
596.180

Elevations in Ohio and the adjacent States. 17

Summit of Wabash and Erie Canal, near Fort —— + ial,
Indiana, - 810 feet.

Summit of Chicago Creek ons Illinois Rives; - 595 -*

Portage, Fox and Wiskonsan Rivers, Fort Winnebago, 699 ‘“

Elevations in etd te

Conneaut Lake, - - 1074 feet.
Alleghany summit, Bale route of. ‘Schlatter? $ sur-
veys, - 2002 *
Sugar Run summit, two shits eceeh of of Portage Rail-
road summit, 2183.“
Chestnut Ridge, National Road, 6 eee hs
Keyser’s * - - - 2843.
West: Alexandria, < <0 sree et os ATT
Wesshington ge oe Bg hes ee x AAV BSE
Elevations in New York.
Chatauque Lake, - - - 1291 feet.
Franklinville, Chatauque thy (ita a yalisy,) i588“
Summit between Elm Creek and Little binge Creek, 7
Cattaraugus County, 1725 *
Summit between Big and Little Valley Gixcics << 2A
. " Cayuga Lake and Susquehanna River, 981 “
— “ - Seneca Lake and Chemung River, 890 “—
‘s «the sources of the Alleghany and a

waters of Lake Erie, at the lowest pass, -
The ledge of Niagara limestone causing the caine
of Niagara, Genesee, Oswego and Black Rivers, 551

Height of land between Buffalo and Lewiston, 640 “

is “between Buffalo and 8 - 590 “
Mohawk, at Little —o oT eee - 385“
Hills iihavent, Pee ae
Round Top, Catskill Msiittns! pe Le + Oe
Summit on Welland Canal, a = eS 6242 “

This collection of altitudes is now published with a desire to
bring out similar statements from other quarters. ‘Topographical
geology is of the highest value in reducing the science from a
state of general calculation to the exactness of mathematical rules.
But such results require great labor, and make little show on pa-
per. If the engineers and geologists ve the United States would

Vol. xiv, No, 1,—April-June, 1843,

18 Tides in the North American Lakes.

combine and assist each other by publications similar to the
above, (excepting its errors,) the difficulty of collecting such
facts would be done away with at once. This Journal appears
to be the most convenient organ for such publications. When
tables can be formed showing the elevation, extent, thickness
and dip of the great formations in the individual States, topo-
graphical and geological models may be constructed, which shall
be miniature copies of each.

Arr. Il.— Tides in the North American Lakes ; by D. Ruceues,
si gs Ist Lieut. 5th Regt. U. S. Infantry.

Farner Lovrs Henyerin, during his voyage of discovery in
1679, observed singular currents and fluctuations in the Straits
of Michillimackinac, for which he was unable to give satisfactory
explanations. More recently the subject has attracted the atten-
tion of scientific observers, without producing satisfactory results.

The Hon. Lewis Cass, while governor of Michigan Territory,
caused observations to be made during the months of July and
August, 1828, at Green Bay, then within the jurisdiction of Mich-
igan, which have been generally received as conclusive evidence
of the non-existence of tides in the great North American lakes.

On examination of the table of the Governor’s observations, in
1836, I was led to believe that an erroneous view of the subject
had been entertained throughout the investigation.

I find the Governor’s tabular statement, published in a small
volume entitled “Historical and Scientific Sketches of Michi-
gan,” embodied in an able article from the pen of Colonel Henry
Whiting of the Army, and as I am unable to satisfy myself
whether the tabular statement has ever appeared in the Journal
of Science, I have considered it hecessary to transcribe it, (see
table A,) reserving also the liberty of occasional reference to Col.
Whiting’s communication. |

rt how propose to make a preliminary examination of this table,
with the view of ascertaining the results, premising that satisfac-
tory precautions were apparently taken to guard against local in-
equalities and fluctuations,

Taking as an example, the 16th of July, we find that observa-
tions were made at 63 and 8 o’clock, A. M., and at 1, 4, and 74

Tides in the North American Lakes. 19

P.M. ‘The question at once arises, as to the time of high water.
Was it high water between 8 and 1 o’clock? Was it low water
at lor 40’clock? We observe that embarrassment meets us at
the very threshold, and it is therefore unnecessary to quote largely
from this table, as observations were, in no instance, taken more
than six times during twenty four hours. Bearing this fact in
mind, a bare inspection of the table unfolds its true characteris-
tics; and were I to adopt it as conclusive evidence, I should be
led to concur in the opinion of its distinguished author, “that the
changes in the elevation of the water are entirely too variable to
be traced to any regular permanent cause.”

Reflection satisfied me, however, that an error in this tabular
statement may have arisen from the absence of rapid consecutive
observations, which alone enable us to grasp a principle clothed in
subtle and fluctuating indications.

The accompanying table B, is the result of observations made
under my superintendence, during the months of September and
October, 1836, at Green Bay, Wisconsin Territory, with the view
of elucidating the subject, and ascertaining, as far as practicable,
the nature of these fluctuations.

_ They were made at Fort Howard, on the left bank of the Fox
River, and about one mile above the expansion of the river into

reen Bay. It is to be observed, however, that the river still
winds some four or five miles through an extensive alluvial de-
posit, before it is lost in deep water. The river is about half a
mile wide, and is between fifteen and forty feet in depth.

The station taken for Gov. Cass’ observations is two miles

above Fort Howard, on the right bank of the river, and about
two miles below where the current ceases to be perceptible.
_ My observations were made by a vertical rod, protected from
local inequalities by two perforated concentric enclosures, and
graduated in inches referring to a zero plain above high-water
mark. The station was near a sentinel’s post, and under the im-
mediate and constant supervision of the sergeant of the guard,
and may therefore, I think, be considered as entirely free from
any accidental inequalities or irregularities of importance.

It will be observed, that the general direction of the winds was
also noted; but as I regard them only as a modifying cause, in-
creasing or diminishing results according to their direction, I shall
not comprehend their influence in this discussion, and especially :
as they constitute an element susceptible of future examination.

90.

Tides in the North American Lakes.

Taste A.

Fable of observations on the rise and fall of the Lake at Green
Bay, made by Gov. Cass in 1828.

Day of the month. |Time of f the wind. Strength of the wind.| Height of water.
- July 15. ) ; Moderate 9
i. thea 6 Noon “c 73 8
66 4 ‘“ ts 54
cc te 74 tc tt 11
«16, 64 W. Light 10
“cc ce 8 t—* “é 104
sts 1 T3 tc 6
co Oe 4 66 “c 6
te 0 74 : tt “ey 64
byron ¥ é 6 S. W. « 6...
ee 8 6c ‘ 8}
cr 8 Noon. 49 ce 6
Es 4 ts 17 54
pT Aesiee < 74 “ “ 8
“« 13, 6 6c ‘“c 1
74 ‘ 8 te (74 4
see Noon. ff Strong 7
t 74 4 « tc 4
« se 74 Bs ec 7
wee o 6 W. of S.W Light. 7
Coe SHE 8 ts rT; 5
“ce ts 9 ee 74 ll
oc 6 Noon 4 cc 54
ce 4 “ et 7
ans 74 7; 3 64
ig ee 8 No wind None 6
wef Noon N. Light. 8
is ths) 4 ‘“ 6 10
ce te 74 43 14 54
Oh 8 S. W. ‘ 94
ee 2 TG 6e 10
40 si 4 73 “
ak a 73 N. Violent. 18
«99. r S. W. Light. 10
ee Noon. “ t 0
’ heise A an c 14
ee 74 “ “ 11
: ‘ 23. 8 & Moderate. 34
ee si “4 Noon ee 73 14
a « te 4 tt te 114
eh, 74 Hic a 11
Oe. 8 N: Ee :
— Noon. + a2 :

Tides in the North American Lakes. 34
Taste A.—ConrTINvED.
Day of the month. the water.
July 24 4 N. BE. Light. 14
te te 74 ‘tc “ 10
26 8 S. W. Moderate. 54
a « Noon 6s ‘“s 54
ee 6 4 ts “ 94
73 tc 74 “ cc 123
«26, 8 « Light. 11
‘“c 6c Noon ce “c 10
“c “ 4 6c “ce 84
ec “ 74 “c “c 7
7 Br 8 W. * 103
“6c Noon. “e “ 6
aL A tc “ 2
cote 74 “ 6 12
%- 28. 8 N. Fresh. 4
“6 Noon rT; “ec 11
thr tt A “ « 2
i «a 74 a3 3 84
« 29, 8 S. W. Light. il
ae Noon. “ “ 64
ce A “s “ 4
they & 74 c it 8
=F 30. 8 N. W. = 9
Gt Noon 3 13 5
et 4 ae tc 9
* 31. 8 Ss. W. " 7
7... Noon. iT 3 te 7
ee A a3 a3 8
et ve 4 tt “ 74
Aug. 1. 8 us 13
19 ‘“ Noon tc iia 9
we te 4 “ “c 7
ae 74 e ee 8
nee * 8 N. E. e 3
a Noon “ ee il
ee A a9 “ t
s- 8 74 “ a3 11
e 8. 8 S. W. i a
ee oe Noon. 13 6e 10
ne A “ “ i
4.4 74 “ 9
re 8 9 Ts te 7
. £ 8 N. Wi tc T
— Noon. & ct 8
if7 ‘ 4 “ ay 12
e «€ 74 ct 73 |. ‘

22 Tides in the North American Lakes.
Taste A.—Conrinvep.
Day of the month. the water.|

| Aug. 5. 8 S. W. Light. 6
Sig Noon. tc rT: 64
1c 6 4 73 13 12°
Te | 74 te ‘“ 4
“ 6G. 8 a3 “ 6
ee wee | Noon. T3 “ 9
to Ok 4 ‘“c ‘c 8
CY ae 3 74 “ cc 10
m .%. g 13 és 8
ec Ok Noon. c 74 6
ree 74 “ ‘“ 2)
8 Noon, N. “ 6
Che. 4 A is (33 y:
a th Ta - “ 7
4% 9, 8 Ss. W. Strong. 2
ces tt Noon. Ty ts 0
“te 4 e 6 42
i 4 74 “ “ o
5310. 8 N.E Pretty fresh. 13
"ee Noon. &c “ 9
“ A &“ cc 10:
oe 74 “ a 16
© tf 8 f Light. 10
ck Noon. 6c 66 8.
if 4 if4 4 74 ‘s 6
te at 74 co at 7
= 12. 8 Ss. W. se 8
Ss “ Noon. ee & 2
oe. A ts et, 5
if a4 73 e “ 9
« 43, 8 « ‘ 0
ad Noon. 6 6“ 5
ee A rT tc Ay
OP 74 st 1 9
ai Th 8 * Moderate. A
bs ea Noon. 73 G 5
+; = A 6c “ 6
a & 74 “e 6 5
“15 8 N.
aoe eon. " Fresh “4
. * 4 7) 6 3
7...” ‘14 Te 6 4
* 16 8 Ss. Ww, i
$ & Noon. a may :
Ge te A “ os 5
5 ed 74 “ “ 7

Tides in the North American Lakes.

23
Tasre A.—ContTINvED.
“Day of the month. |Tim the water. |

Aug. 17. 8 N. Light. 7
a Noon (s t 3
te ¢ 4 t“ 73 11
yee 74 “ « 7
* 18. 8 N. W. i 4
wee Noon. es < a
thie CF A 3 ‘“ 10
hse 74 73 6c 5
ory, 8 Ss. Fresh. 4
eS Noon. 6 as 8
at 8 4 é“ te 8
c “ 74 74 6c 5
«90, 8 S. W. Light. 5
#4 Noon «“ « 7
vc cc 4 (a4 bc ll
19 73 74 74 cc 8
te 21. 8 N. « 6
ae Noon. e * 8
io, 6B 4 “ cc 10
ec 74 ‘ ce 9
Rae 8 None ss 10
a Noon “ tc 7
se a 4 ‘“ tc 11
ec 74 ts tc 14
93, 8 S. W. « 8
oo a Noon. os st 7
es 4 «“ “ 11
A x 74 “ ‘“ 7
~ eA. 8 ee Moderate. 8
ie Noon. a a 9
ent ooh A “ “ 7
2 74 “ « 8
o26, 8 « Tight. 10
« « | Noon « « A
Le A é“ & 11
1 yj 74 cc ts 13
26. 8 Northerly. “ 12
ae Noon. | i 6 8
“«& o« 4 73 cc 10
cai ae 74 te 7 - f
gee +g 8 « & 12
at Noon. ee «“ 8
tt A rT “ 9
o> 8 7% 3 “ 14°
« 98. 8 “ te 12
~ 29. Noon. et e 13

Tasre B..
Tide and Wind table at Green Bay, Wisconsin Territory, for seven Pa « commencing the 29th of September, 1836.

1836. at pores inp—(direction and strength.)
Hour, | 1. | 2 SESE ] 0. | 11. | 12.) High water.| Low water.| 1. | 2) 3 | 4 ) 5& | 6) 7 | 8 | 9 | 10. |. | ta fe
Sept. 29, p.m. |28 [28 30 (31 AE 29 |29 |1 &12P.m.| 9p.m. |s.w.js.w. w. | W be is.4 & |8-| 6 Le
* 30, a.m. |294/29 30 30 24 {23 (21 eet rer iam. | s. | 8. | 8 | 8. | 8 |S. WIS. W./N.w.| N. | N. [N. EIN.
PLM. (235/25 23 (23 4/27 & 6 p.m.i3 & 11 p.M.'N. E.IN IN. E.IN. E.|N. E.|N. E.|N. E.|N. E.|N. E.IN. E.IN. E.IN,
Oct. 1, a. m.|24 |22 24 (26 \274 274|235)19 8&12a.™m JA.M w. EIN. EIN. E.IN. ELIN. E.IN. E.IN. E.IN. E . In. EIN. ELI.
“6 p.m, /18 (18 24 25 27 P. M. 12P.m. |n. EN. E.| N. |N.E.| N. [N- E.|N. E.|N. E.|N. EJ) N, |N.W.
« 2. a.m. |30 (27 25 (26 33 1344/34 6a.m. B&11 N.w.in.w.| s. | 8s. | S. |S. W.| W. |N.W.|N.W.IN.W./N.W 2
6 p,m. /30 [26 264 254 84 (82 3 P.M. 10 p.m. | w.| w.| w.| w.| w.| WwW. | W. |S. W./S. W./s. W./s. W.Js, W.
3, A. M. (26 [274 23 23 8 |15 [11 | 124.™. 3a.m. |s.w. g. | E. | E. | E. IN. EAN. E.|N.E.| N.| N. | WN. | ON,
Mop, (12 [15 21 125 124 22 119 115 [13 |1&12Pp.m.) 7Trcm. | N.] N. IN. E.| N. | N. | Ne IN. EIN. E.) N. | N. | N, | NL
“4, a.m. /13 |14 30 (27 2 | 14| 3/1 &lla.m) Ga.m. | wy. [ye] ye] oN. | Ne] Ne] Ne | ON. | ON. INV EON. | ONL
“« pe m.| 8417 30 (27 |20 143114 116 [1 & lip.) Sp.m. | w.] ow. | oN. | NS. [N.W./N.W.] W. |N.W.IN.W.IN.W.IN.W.IN.W
«5, a. m.|20 |25 30 (26 ) 20 (20 2245/1 & 10 a.m.) 44.m. (N.w.|N.W.IN.W./N.W.|N.W.IN.W) We] S. | 8S. | S. | 8. | 8,
fe SE Pom. 26 1205 29 24 204 194/24 26 29 | Op.m. 4p.M. Be Bye fe Bool Be Bef Be [8s |. 8. 18. wes. -w.[8, wy.
« 6, a. m./30 |35 27 1253 3 (24 126 (29 | Oa.m. 2a.m n. | N. | N. IN.W.|S. W.S. W.IS. W./S. W.IN.W.IN. W.IN. WIN, EB
& pom. |28 27 21 (21 |23 (21 \24 127 182 | From. |1&12p.m.) £. | ge. | BE. | E. | BE. } E. | N. | N. N. | N. |N.E
¢ 7, a.m.|84 (32 24 26 3 130 304/32 | Sa.m. [1&12a.m.n.u] s. | 8s. | 5S. | S | S| 8 | S |S. EF) EB. | EL] E
“ Pp. M./31 (25 423 4/29 |30 (32 127} Gr.m. [1 &11lP.m.y. EIN, E.IN.w.| W. |S. W.| W.| W. | W. |S. W.|S. W./S. W.|S. W
“ 8, a.m. |254/26 933 93 7 Aa.M | N.w.In.w.'N.w.(N.W.IN.W.IN.W.IN.W
Remarks on wind and weather. sag 29th, p. m., high and middling clear.—30th, a. m., high, _ clear; Pp. M., middling clear. Mera Ist,
A, M., middling; P.™., cok high; p.m., middling.—3d, a. m., middli ing hight some rain; P. M., high wind “aA rain.—4th, a. m., high,

hi Bs
strong wind, N. and N. E., ‘at half past 11 o'clock water standing at zero; P. m., high.—5th, a. m., high; p.m. » middling high.—6th, a. m., high;
p. M., middling high. ~7th, a. M., middling high; P. m., middling high.—8th, a. m., Tight.

y
oy

qe
2

Dy Rh a? ira ae te

WwW ye) Ee

W.
ra
2
|
|
a
|
|
|
|
|

-
ae [AR Aa Recabes, Semen cree 2 ue ae meee
|

MW WEL VW
w | w:
lf
a

1 wW. WWD

ee et ye
oe +4 me
me to el a Gal a

Tides in the North American Lakes. 25

' The tabular diagram C, is intended to illustrate the observa-
tions embodied in table B, referred to a system of rectangular
ordinates. re ¥
The scale comprehends 40 parts in altitude to 1 inch, or 1 part
=,'; inch; and 4 parts or 4 hours in longitude to linch, or 1
hour=4 inch. As the observations. are referred to a superior
plane, as zero, the proper algebraical sign would be minus ;. bit
I have used the sign minus to represent depression, and plus ele-
vation, indicating the relation in which they succeed each other.
_ Example 1—Sept. 29th, at 2 o’clock, P. M. 28 inches, wind
8. W. high, and at 9 o’clock, P.M. 314 inches, wind 8. mid-
dling, = —34 inches, time 7 hours. .
~ Sept. 30th, at 4 o'clock, A. M. 25 inches, wind S. high, = +63
inches, time 7 hours; at 64 o’clock, A. M. 30 inches, wind S. W.
high, =-—5 inches, time 23 hours; at 12 M. 21 inches, wind
N. E. high, =+-9 inches, time 54 hours.
' Result, 2 elevations, 154 inches, and 2 depressions of 84 inch-
es, in 22 hours.

Ex. IL—Oct. 2nd, 3 A. M. 33 inches, wind S. high; 6 A. M.
25 inches, wind S. W. high, =+8 inches, time 3 hours.
- At 11 A. M. 344 inches, wind N. W. high, = —94 inches, time
5 hours; at 7 P. M. 25 inches, wind W. middling, = +9 inches,
time 8 hours; at 10 P. M. 35} inches, wind S. W. middling,
=~ 10 inches, time 3 hours.

Result, 2 elevations +-8+9=17 inches, and 2 depressions = 94
—10=~— 194 inches, in 19 hours.

Ex. Il.—Oct. Ath, 1 A. M. 13 inches, wind N. high, and at 6
A.M. 30 inches, wind N. high, = —17 inches, time 5 hours.
At 113 A.M. 0 in., wind N. strong, =+30 inches, time 54
hours; at 5 P, M. 32 inches, = —32 inches, wind N. W.- high,
time 54 hours; and at 11 P.M. 14 inches, wind N. W. high,
=-+14 inches, time 6 hours.

Result, 2 elevations +30+14=44 inches, and 2 depressions
~17 -32= ~ 49 inches, time 22 hours.

‘tis believed that these examples illustrate the principles in-
volved, in such a manner as to induce continued and minute in-
vestigation, and the employment of instruments to comprehend

lof the elements entering into the calculation.
_ Colonel Whiting remarks, that “in speculating on the supposed
tides of the North American lakes, it has been natural to regard
Vol. xxv, No. 1,—April-June, 1843. 4

26 Tides in the North American Lakes.

the head of Green Bay as the point where they would show
themselves in the greatest fullness. ‘The course of planetary at-
traction, operating on a line from east to west, would traverse a
space of from four hundred and fifty to five hundred miles.”
And further, he remarks, that ‘the configuration of the coasts
too, through which the line passes, would appear to lend much
extraneous aid, to give whatever wave might be formed an un-
due elevation.”

I fully concur in the opinion advanced respecting the position

at Green Bay, as one favorable for observations, but an inspection
of the outline of the lakes and straits operated on, convinces me
that the phenomenon would be retarded and diminished by the
irregularities and sharp projections, instead of being increased, as
inferred by the gentleman quoted. :
- It has been, I believe, satisfactorily demonstrated, that certain
periodical undulations, induced by planetary influence, constitute
tides, attended, of course, with local superficial translation. — It is
to be observed, that when the sun and moon act in conjunction,
or opposition, the attractive force, being then most powerful, the
result must be the most evident; and when the moon is in quad-
rature, that attractive force becomes the least possible, yet never
so slight as to induce the belief, that the phenomenon has ceased ;
still possessing, therefore, the characteristics of a tide. Now, in
continuation of this view, we observe that the variable and often
cramped configuration of the coast, united with the alternate deep
and shallow water, and also the islands which so strongly guard
the entrance to Green Bay, tend manifestly to impede undulation,
as well as to limit the influence of local translation ; therefore
these fixed and permanent modifying causes, being a constant
quantity, the variable influence of planetary attraction, must,
when slight, be almost neutralized, with great irregularities:at-
tending the results; and only when great present the most satis-
factory evidence of cause and effect. |

The low specific gravity of lake water, varying very little
from unity, renders it less subject to planetary influence than sea

water, and more liable to the action of the winds; moreover the
‘majestic current of the whole body of lake water, collected from
innumerable rivers, is diametrically opposed to the course of plan-
etary attraction, having a direct tendency to modify results.

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 27

Ihave observed constant elevation and depression of the ice,
three or four feet in thickness, during winter, at Green Bay, with
crevices uniformly broken, along shore, through which the water
overflowed extensive portions of the surface, indicating those un-
dulations observable during every other period of the year.

I have also the concurrent testimony of several gentlemen of
intelligence, that undulations are observed, almost uniformly,
throughout most of the great northern lakes, ?
\ Detroit, Michigan, Jan. 1, 1843.

ai O
Arr. IV,—Observations on some interesting Plants of New
England ; by Eowarp Tuckerman, Jun.

Campanvta rorunpirotta, (L.)—Hab. («.) Moist rocks, Notch
of the White Mountains, (@.) Var. alpina: caule 3-6-poll.
unifloro, foliis caulinis nune linearibus, radicalibus cordatis ova-
tisve crenatis s. integris, White Mountains; stony alpine moor
on Mount Monroe.—Our plant of the Notch is a little dwarf
ed, but differs apparently in no other respect from the form
of the low country. I have found this very state in wet places
in the alpine regions. The plant above noticed as a variety, is
very distinct in its ordinary habit, but the examination of more
than thirty excellent specimens, has led me to doubt every char-
acter by which I had supposed it might be distinguished. The
Stem-leaves, often regularly linear, vary to lanceolate wherever
the plant attains to an inch or two more of height; the radical
leaves occur cordate, cordato-ovate, and ovate; crenate, crenu-
late, and entire. The length of the segments of the calyx does
hot seem in-our plant to afford any character, since in some of
My specimens of the alpine variety, this is all but twice as great .
48 in others.—The Campanula linifolia of DC. Prodr. 7, 471,
Hook. Bor. Amer. 2,27, Uhave not seen; but if the above ob-
servations are, as I believe, correct, its claims to rank as a species,
would hardly seem to be greater than those of our variety. ~
~-Tsnot this what Pursh saw in Peck’s herbarium, and after-
Wards described as “Swertia pusilla,” from “specimens from
Labrador, in the Banksian herbarium,” the New England station
ing no doubt given from memory. I refer only to the White
Mountain Swertia, to which our Campanula makes the nearest

98 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

approach of any thing that has been found. To continue this
enquiry for a moment, is there reason to admit that Alchemilla
alpina and Sibbaldia procumbens are inhabitants of the New
England mountains, as Pursh has said? .On the one hand, all
our botanists have been unable to find them; while, if memory
was the authority, we might conjecture that the Alchemilla was
Potentilla tridentata, and the Sibbaldia, P. minima. ‘These are
found. On the other hand, the recent discovery of Aspidium
aculeatum, after it had been lost almost forty years, in the very
mountains where Pursh gathered it,* seems to encourage us to
further search for these interesting plants. Dryas integrifolia
may also be mentioned, which, though found by Peck, and also
seen by Bigelow, Fl. Bost., edit. 3, p. 219, and by Pursh, has
never since occurred to any botanist. So remarkable a plant
could hardly, it would seem, be mistaken by any one, much less
by the eminent botanists who have given it a station in our Flora.
If any where, this may possibly grow on some part of the high-.
est rocky region of Mount Washington, all of which is gone
over by the way which Peck and the earlier botanists took,
while but a small part, and that the least promising, is traversed by
the new path. Some alpine plants are singularly local and rare;
as is Arbutus alpina at the White Mountains, found by Dr. Rob-
bins in 1829, but since that time only by Dr. Gray and myself in
September last. In 1840, I ascended the great spur of Mount
Washington by the old way, with Dryas in mind, but was un-
successful in finding it. This region is so vast, barren, and diffi-
cult of examination, and the plant doubtless so local, that it may
be very long before we can pronounce positively whether it is
yet an inhabitant of our mountains.

Unirechantis NT emoeDrA, 2 SOL wpe distichis dichotome

a a. ee: eae
vv MAW ESS

culatis, caleare conico, labio superiore integro palato duplo longi-
ore, pedunculis fructiferis erectis. Koch, Syn. p. 579, Richards.

pp. p. 2, Gray in Ann: Lyc. N. Y., Hook. Bor. Amer. yoni
U. Millefolium, Nutt. MSS.in herb. Greene.

‘Hab. Tewksbury, B.D. Greene, Esq.; Plymouth, in an inun-
dated swamp near the West Pond, with Rinmiensd found only

he Aspidium. was s found o on the lower part of the Chin of Mansfield. Carex
xatilis grows about three thousand feet higher Up: It is improbable that we
shall ever come — to the “ hemlock woods,” where Pursh found the Ca-
rex of his Flor

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 29

the leaves, which at once distinguish this from every other spe-
cies which has yet been found in Massachusetts. Scapes 6-8
inches high, with two or three flowers, which are much smaller
than those of U. vulgaris. 'The leaves somewhat resemble those
of yarrow, whence the specific name proposed by Mr. Nuttall for
the American plant. They are many-cleft, with the segments
linear and spinulose-denticulate. The bladders grow separately
from the leaves, on branched stalks. ‘The specimens seem to
agree with the European; and the Tewksbury plant is pronoun-
ced to be U. intermedia, by Hooker, 1. c.
_U. srriata, (Le Conte): foliis dichotomis capillaceis, calcare
breviusculo subconico obtuso, labio superiore rotundato-ovato sub-
emarginato margine undulato, inferiore trilobo margine reflexo,
pedunculis erectis 2-6-floris.. Torr. Fl. 1, 20. (p. m.)
~ Hab. Tewksbury, Mr. Greene ; (v. s. ex herb. Greene sine
nom.) Agrees with the New Jersey plant in every respect, but
that in the latter the flowers are somewhat larger. Leaves capil-
lary at the extremities, but apparently analogous with the seta-
ceous true leaves of U. intermedia. ‘Bladders few, among the
leaves. Flowers somewhat numerous; in my specimen six.
Spur short, obtuse. 'The Flora of New England is very rich in
this curious and elegant genus. With these, eight species are
now known to be inhabitants of our waters; while in the recent
New York catalogue of Dr. Torrey, only five are mentioned.
or two others will most probably be added to our list; and
Tam almost certain that [have the true U. minor from Plymouth.
Oxvrra renirorms, R. Br., Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (in Hovey’s
Mag) p. 16.—Hab. White Mountains; moist ravines in the
Most alpine regions, Pickering and Oakes, 1825; E. T. 1840.
believe this plant has been found by no others, and it is one
of the rarer forms of our alpine regions. I found it growing
Na in a very secluded alpine gully, with Cardamine bellidi-

“ Berora—Having been led to examine several small-leafed
Birches in my collection, I arrived at some results which seemed
Worthy of being mentioned, especially as there is some confusion
in regard to our species. a

_B.romna, (L.): humilis, foliis orbiculato-obovatis serratis sub-
= Tamulisque pubescentibus, amentis feemineis cylindricis.
Willd. Sp. 4, 467, L. Mant. 124, Kalm, Itin. 1, 108, (sub Bs
nana.) B. glandulosa, Sulliv. (ex spec.)

30 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

Hab. ‘In-several low places towards the hills,” Pennsylvania,

Bartram, (ex Kalm.) High Mountains of New York and Penn-
sylvania, Pursh. Cedar Swamps, Columbus, Ohio, Sullivant.
The plant from the last station, is the only one that I have seen.
It seems to be the B. pumila of Willdenow, and is distinguished
from B. glandulosa by the entire want of the resinous dots found
on that species, as well as by its dense soft pubescence, mostly
-_ proad-ovate leaves and larger aments. The present is possibly
the more southern, and B. glandulosa the more northern of these
allied species. Although it is enumerated in the Flora Boreali-
Americana of Sir William Hooker, it would seem that the dis-
tinguished author refers his own specimens rather to B. glandu-
losa. The citation “Canada, (Linn.)” I have not been able to
identify ; our species being established on Kalm’s specimens, in
the first Mantissa, where ca habitat mentioned is ‘ America
Septentrionalis.” —

B. evanputosa, (Michx.): homilis, ramis sbeniedoncuieiiats
glabris, foliis obovatis basi integerrimis obtuse serratis glabris,
amentis foemineis breviusculis lato-cylindraceis, squamis trifidis
lobis oblongo-subovatis subzequalibus. E.'T.—Michx. FV. 2, 180,
Pursh, Fl, 2, 622, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 156, and B. pumila,
Hook. 1. ¢.

Hab. “ Circa lacus a sinu Hudsonis ad Mistassins,” Michaux,
“ Canada,’’ Masson, in herb. Lambert. (White Mountains?) My
specimen is that from the Lambertian herbarium, and a very
beautiful one. The species seems to be distinguished by its very
glabrous habit, and its leaves (all in my specimen) cuneate and
very entire at the base ; thus somewhat resembling small heaves
of Crategus parvifolia. By the former character it is separated
from B. pumila, and by the latter from the succeeding species.
Among my White — specimens are two, that may possi-
bly belong to this

B. Lereasaiaiiicans humilis glabra, ramis resinoso-punctatis,
foliis subrotundis grosse serratis petiolis nunc 4 lin. longis, amen-
tis feemineis oblongo-cylindraceis, squamis trifidis lobis eg
obovatis intermedio longiori, _

‘ Hab. White Mountains, in Oakes’s Gulf, between Mount Wash-
ington and Monroe, and elsewhere in the alpine regions. A some-
what erect shrub, with leaves which are from two to four times
as large as those of B. nana. To this last, which oceurs on our

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 31

mountains in a state undistinguishable from the Swedish and
Scottish plants, our specimens cannot properly be referred. And
from the B. glandulosa of Michx., with whose description my
Canada’ specimen collected by Masson, perfectly agrees, they
seem quite distinct. I have, however, seen many more speci-
mens of B. Littelliana than of the former plant, the characters of
which may possibly vary. erty Om aEN
~D. in honorem b. Henrici Little, M. D., Montium Alborum
serutatoris acerrimi. oe
» Bowana (L.): humillima glaberrima, ramis levigatis s. resinoso-
punctatis, foliis suborbicularibus grosse dentatis, amentis foemineis
brevibus cylindraceis, squamis profunde trifidis laciniis oblongis
subequalibus. Hook, Bor. Amer. 2, 156, (p. m.) Miche. Fl. 2,
180, Pursh, Fl. 2, 622, Bigel. Fl. Bost. 356. 3

Hab. White Mountains, alpine regions ; Cutler, Peck, Bigelow,
Boott, Oakes, etc. A very low, often prostrate shrub, with very
small, more or less orbicular leaves, and short cylindrical aments.
The leaves are generally about five lines each way in dimension :
those of B. Littelliana occur often nine lines in length, by more
than an inch in breadth, the petioles: being longer in proportion.
The aments also in the latter are twice as large as in B. nana. —

B. paryracea, 8. minor, (mihi): foliis minoribus ovatis acutius-
culis aliquandoque subrotundatis obtusis glaberrimis, . .
. Hab. White Mountains, alpine regions. Froma shrub of the
size, and much the habit of B. Littelliana, this attains some-
times in sheltered spots to the height of nine feet and over, and
a circumference of. sixteem inches. ‘These were the dimensions
of-one measured by me on Mount Pleasant. {t is a well-marked
form, and in its most alpine and smallest states, may always be
tecognized by its ovate, more or less acutish Ieaves. Rounded
leaves also frequently occur among, the others. It was perhaps
the discovery of such leaves upon northern forms of B. alba,
which led some botanists to deny (£7. Lapp. 275, ) the distinct-
hess of B, nana. If cold has this effect on the jeaves of these
shrabs, the character loses some of its value, though it is a very
striking one, All the four last mentioned Betula, (if B. glandulosa
really occurs,) approach each other very nearly in their smallest
forms, but may with care be distinguished. “The smallest shrub,
With suborbicular leaves, is B. nana; the large one, with rounded
leaves, B, Littelliana; that with ovate acutish leaves, B. papy-
racea, #6. minor, and B. glandulosa has rather large cuneate leaves.

32 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

A .xvs.—Instead of one, there are three very different Alders
Jew England. The following account of them will, it is
hoped, be found accurate.

A. incana, (Willd.): foliis sabmembranaceis oblongis acutius-
culis basi obtusis s. cordatis margine sublobatis argute serratis sub-
tus glaucis pubescentibus venis hirsutis axillis venarum nudis,
amentis feemineis ovalibus, stipulis oblongo-lanceolatis. EH. 'T.—
Betula incana, L. Suppl. 4.7. Alnus incana, Willd. Sp. 4, 335,
Muhl. Catal. p. 89, Hook. Bor. Amer, 2, 157, ( part.)—A. glau-
ca, Miche. f. Sylv. 1,379, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p. 25. A.crispa,
Pursh, Fl. 2, 623. (part., non Mich. nec Gray. )

_ Hab. “ New Hampshire and Vermont. Unknown in the South-
ern, and rare in the Middle States,’ Michaux f. Pokono Mountain,
Pennsylvania, Pursh, in herb. Lambert. Pennsylvania, Muhlen-
berg. Massachusetts, and northern parts of New England, as at

Cambridge, Woburn, Framingham, Ipswich; and exceedingly

abundant about the White Mountains; Oakes, E. T. The
Alnus glauca of Michaux’s Sylva, thongh a very abundant spe-
cies at the north, seems to have been neglected by botanists,
and is hardly to be found mentioned in our manuals. By the
leaves it is easily distinguishable from A. serrulata, and is besides
commonly taller, so as sometimes to become asmall tree. I have
a specimen from the Lambertian herbarium, ticketed by Pursh
“ Alnus crispa, July 25, 1808, Pokono,’* which is perhaps the A.
incana of Muhlenberg’s catalogue, and is certainly only a stunted
form of the present species. ‘The shrub is rare, according to
Michaux, in the Middle States, and possibly is there found pe
on the mountains.

- Our species seems too near to A. incana to be kept horargsil

The leaves agree perfectly well with those of my foreign speci-
mens of the latter; while that has been recognized as American
by Muhlenberg and by Hooker.

~ A. rusRA, (Marsh.): foliis subcoriaceis obovatis acutis sayin
serratis venis axillisque venarum villosis, amentis foemineis ova-
to-oblongiusculis, stipulis ovalibus obtusis. E. T.—Betula Ab

nus, Clayt. § Gronov. Fl. Virg. edit. 1, p.115. B. peduncu-

lis lis ramosis, Sc. Clayt. § Gronov. Virg. edit. 2, p. 146. Betula-

“Kt appears that “ incana”’ had origi inally been written on this ticket, but it is

crossed out, and crispa written over. And Michaux, after the description of be,

Alnus ne adds the synonym, “ A. incana, Willd.”

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 33

Alnus rubra, Marsh. Arb. p. 20, (ex Darlingt., descr. qu )
Betula serrulata, Ait. Kew. edit. 1, 3,338. Betula-Alnus serrt
lata, Miche. Fl. 2, 181. Alnus serrulata, Willd. Sp. 4, 336,
aucttque. B.incana, 8. Hook. Bor. Amer. 2,157.

Hab. Northern, Middle, and Western States, Michx. f. New
England to Carolina. A straggling shrub, 6-15 feet high, grow-
ing in close thickets, Leaves obovate, acute at base, thick and
somewhat coriaceous, and rough-veined beneath. Appears very
different from A. incana. Is it not possible that Hooker’s arrange-
ment above cited, was founded upon specimens of our A. incana,
incorrectly referred to the present species? It isa well known
fact that the two have long been confounded in this country.
The name of our own botanist should have the priority: his
description, though short, notices the most striking features of
the species, and cannot be mistaken. The A. rubra of Bongard,
is many years later. Add to this, that Marshall’s name is far
more expressive and apt than that of Aiton.

‘A. crispa, (Michx.): foliis ovalibus acutis basi obtusiusculis
duplicato-serratis, pubescentia molli. glutinosa indutis s. glabrius-
culis venis axillisque villosis, amentis fcemineis longe pedicellatis
ovalibus, stipulis late ovatis. E.'T.—Betula crispa, Ait. Kew.
edit. 1, 3, 339, (ex Gray, N. Carol. 43.) Betula-Alnus crispa,
Miche. Fl. 2,181. Alnus undulata, Willd. Sp. 4, 336, Muhl.
Catal. 89. .

‘Hab. Newfoundland and Hudson’s Bay, Aiton; Canada, Mi-
chaux; New England, (ex Cutler, forsan,) Muhlenberg. White
Mountains, sides of the Notch hills, and on the plain of the Am-
monoosuck. Also in the alpine regions, E. T.; high peaks
of the Green Mountains, Vermont, Dr. Robbins, ( Oakes, Catal.
Verm. 25;) mountains of Essex, N. Y., Mr. Macrae. Aiton’s
description, though less perfect than that of Michaux, seems’
to answer to our plant, and is considered as belonging to it, by
Dr. Gray, (l. c.) It is our handsomest species, and remarkable,
©xcept in the alpine state, for the soft pubescence of its leaves,
Which are also, and particularly on the lower surface, besprinkled
With glutinous particles. From oval, the characteristical form,
the leaves vary, occasionally, to broad ovate and even cordate.
The aments are on somewhat long pedicels, and add much to
the elegance of the shrub. ‘The alpine state has smaller and
More glabrous leaves. 'To this last, Alnus Mitchelliana, Curt.

Vol. xtv, No, 1.—April-June, 1843. 5

34 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

-MSS., from the mountains of North Carolina, with a specimen of
: which I have been favored by the author, seems to approach,
perhaps too near. ‘The erroneous station given by Pursh for this
species, (there is, I believe, no evidence that he was acquainted
with the true plant, his own specimen belonging to A. incana, )
has perhaps contributed to the uncertainty with which it has
been regarded. It was probably known to Cutler, but seems to
have escaped our other botanists, until recently. |
Sanix myrtiniowes, (L.): foliis oblongo-ellipticis acutis s.
obtusis basi obtusiusculis integerrimis utrinque glaberrimis subtus
reticulato-venosis glatcescentibus, amentis pedunculatis capsulis
ovato-conicis glabris longe pedicellatis, squamis brevibus obtusis
pilosiusculis, stylo perbrevi, stigmatis lobis fissis. BE. 'T.— Wah-
lend. Fl. Lapp. p. 266, Fries, Mantiss. p.71, Koch, Comment. in
Sal. p. 52. S. pedicellaris, Pursh, Fl. 2, 611, and Auctt. Amer.
- Hab. Swamps, New England; Ipswich, Oakes ; Cambridge,
Framingham, &c. E.'T. A low shrub, with a somewhat vir-
gate habit, and remarkable for its entire smoothness. The leaves
are elliptical, with a base more or less obtuse, the margin reflexed,
and the under side commonly glaucescent. The fertile aments
are rather loosely flowered, the capsules on long pedicels, the
stigma almost sessile. No one can compare Pursh’s description
of his S. pedicellaris with that given by Wahlenberg of S. myt-
tilloides, without noticing a remarkable agreement in the princi-
pal characters of the species. Mr. Oakes long ago suspected that
the plants were the same; and a careful study of our S. pedicel-
laris as compared with Lapland specimens of 8. myrtilloides, re-
ceived from the illustrious Wahlenberg, have satisfied me of their
identity. The Lapland species is less inclined to be glaucous,
as Pursh described his specimens; but this is believed to bea
variable character in this genus. The foreign plant is better dis-
tinguished by the broad, often cordate base of the leaves, a habit
which I have never observed in ours. But Koch remarks of the
species, (Comm. p. 52,) “foliorum forma valde variabilis, occur-
runt scil. subrotundo-ovata, basi subcordata apice obtusissima,
ovata, oblonga, acuminata, et lanceolata utrinque acuta.” I can-
not discern any differences in the inflorescence of the two plants.
Wahlenberg remarks that there is hardly any Willow so entirely
smooth and so very distinct as this, Fries truly calls it elegant;
noticing also, as does Wahlenberg, its resemblance in habit to

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 35

Vaccinium uliginosum. It being a very northern and re

bly broad-leafed state of the species, which suggests this com-

parison, it is not surprising that our much larger and narrower-
leafed form should not so well compare with our exclusively
alpine and small-leafed form of the Vaccinium. Fries remarks
upon S. myrtilloides, that its leaves do not easily blacken in dry-
ing: this is also true of our plant, which preserves all its beauty
in the herbarium. It should be added, that according to Fries
and Koch, this is not the S. myrtilloides of Willdenow, nor of
Smith.
_ 8. ampieva, (Ehrh.}: amentis sessilibus fructiferis breviter pe-
dunculatis, pedunculo minute foliato, capsulis ex ovata basi lan-
ceolatis tomentosis longe pedicellatis, pedicello nectarium ter qua-
terve superante, stylo brevi, stigmatibus ovatis emarginatis, foliis
ellipticis obovatis lanceolatisve recurvato-apiculatis integerrimis
vel remote denticulatis, subtus rugoso-venosis adpresse villosis
subsericeis postremo glabratis, stipulis semi-ovatis rectis. Koch,
Syn. p. 655, Comment. p. 49. 8S. plicata, Fries, Novit.p.284. 8.
ineubacea, Fries, Mantiss. 1, p. 66. S. repens? Bigel. I'l. Bost.
elit. 3, p. 392. S. fusca, Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (1. ¢.) p. 7.
Hab. White Mountains, in moist alpine ravines; abundant
about the outlet of the Lake of the Clouds, and in Oakes’s Gulf.
Our White Mountain Willow was pronounced by Prof. Fries to

be the S. incubacea of his first Mantissa, which I follow Koch se

in arranging as above. Leaves elliptical, acute or somewhat
obtuse, commonly about an inch and a half in length by about —

half an inch in breadth, glaucous on the under surface, which
is more or less covered with silvery silky hairs. Aments rather
short, and the style exceedingly so. Our plant oceurs with the
leaves almost glabrous, and again with somewhat smaller gla-
brous leaves with the margins reflexed. “ee
a8, Puyticiroiia, (L.): foliis ovatis lanceolatisve remote re-
Pando-serratis glabratis, subtus glaucescentibus, stipulis semi-
cordatis apice obliquo, amentis bracteatis masculis sessilibus, cap-
Sulis pedicellatis conico-elongatis subsericeis stylo longo. "ries,
Mantiss. 1, PBB, z

Hab. White Mountains, in moist alpine ravines; Lake of the
Clouds; Great Gulf, (called Gulf of Mexico.) A handsome,
dow, Spreading shrub, with rather large generally broad-elliptical
Very smooth leaves, which are remotely repand-serrate, and glau-

36 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

cous on the under side. Ihave never found the aments. S
cimens of this were examined by Prof. Fries, and pronounced to
be the S. phylicifolia of his Mantissa.

‘S$. Curnert, (mihi): foliis ellipticis acutis obovatisve obtusis
basi semper acutis glanduloso-denticulatis supra leevibus subtus
glaucis slabsshnctilin: (junioribus sericeo-villosis,) amentis pe-
dunculatis elongato-cylindraceis compactis, capsulis ovato-conicis
breviter pedicellatis glabris, squamis obovatis atris sericeis, stylo
mediocri stigmate bifido lobisque demum fissis. E.'T.—S. pros-
trata, Muhl. Catal. p. 95? (forsan ex Cutler.) S. retusa,
Oakes, herb. S. Uva Ursi, Pursh? Torr. Catal. N. Y., 1840,
p:. 170, Oakes, Pl. N. Eng. (1. c.) p. 7, Barratt in Notes ve a

_ Tour, §c. p. 8, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p. 25, (non Pursh.)

Hab. White Mountains; abundant about rocks in the mica-
ceous soil of Mount ‘elegans Mount Pleasant, Mount Monroe,
&c.; Cutler, Oakes, E. T. Also on the Great Haystack, (var.
infra laudat,) and mountains of Essex, New York, Mr. Macrae.—
A much depressed, commonly almost prostrate alpine shrub,
variable in some respects, but always distinguished by the glossi-
ness and glaucous under side of its elliptical or obovate leaves.
These are by no means constant in size, and sometimes occur
an inch and a quarter long by half an inch in breadth. I have
gathered a curious form on the Great Haystack, all the leaves
eing small and very narrow, averaging indeed little more than a
third of an inch in length by a line and a half in breadth. The
escription of S. Uva Ursi of Pursh, does not agree with, our
‘illow : nor do there appear to be any characters given by that
~ author which will distinguish his species from 8. retusa. I have
two specimens without fruit, from the Lambertian herbarium,
ticketed $8. Uva Ursi, which also seem to me to be undistinguish-
able from 8. retusa, with a fine set of specimens of which, from
Switzerland, I have compared them. Our plant differs from this
Species in the acute habit of its leaves, which are also thicker,
and its much elongated compact aments, the capsules being only
half the size of those of §. retusa. It is very distinct.. Hooker
admits 8. Uva Ursi doubtfully, i in his Flora, while he enumerates
§. retusa as belonging to our northern regions.

~D-in-honorem primi inventoris, b. Manassis Cutler, S. T. D.,
A.A: S., Botanicorum Nove Anglie sec. xvi facile Principis,

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 37

qui Montes Albos sedule explorans, species alpinarum nostrarum
multas detexit, Floraque sua mscr. elaborate et optime descripsit.*

_Popvtus canpicans, (Ait.): Hort. Kew. edit. 1, 3, p. 406, Willd.

Sp.4, 806, Pursh, Fl. 2,618, Micha. f. Sylv. Amer., Oakes, Pl.

N. Eng. (I. c.) p. 6, ejusd. Catal. Verm. p. 25.—Hab. Many parts

of Vermont, native; Oakes. Also in the Notch of the White Moun-

tains, E. 'T’.

P. patsamirera, (L.): Miche. Fil. 2, 244, Willd. Sp. 4, 805,
Pursh, Fl. 2, 618, Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 153, Oakes, Pl. N.
Eng. (I. c.) p. 6, ejusd. Catal. Verm. p. 25.—Hab. Vermont,
Oakes; St. Johnsbury, Vt., a very fine large tree, E. T.

Juncus Greens, (Oakes and Tuckerm.): culmo erecto stricto
tigido subcompresso striato nudo basi foliorum vaginis incluso, 4
foliis linearibus canaliculatis rigidis apice subulatis erectis culmi
medium vix superantibus, anthela terminali composita pauci-ra-
diata bractea culmum superante suffulta, radiis erectis ramis
corymbosis multifloris, sepalis acutis mucronatis scariosis oblongo-
ovatis capsulam ovato-ellipticam mucronatam haud squanti-
bus. E. T.

«Hab. Sands, Tewksbury, B. D. Greene, Esq. ; Ipswich,
Sets W. Oakes, Esq. ; Cambridge, Needham, Dover, &c,
a.

many respects, and is perhaps the species so named by Muhlen-
berg in his Catalogue. At the same time it seems to differ
J. squarrosus in some of its most striking features. In our plant
the leaves are erect and not spreading ; the anthela is shorter —
and more corymbose, with an ‘elongated bract. In J. squarro-
Sus the bracts and margins of the sepals are white, giving a
marked character to the plant; in J. Greenei all these parts are
brown. The two species differ also in their capsules ; those of
J. squarrosus being slightly obovate, and nearly double the size
of those of our plant. This can hardly be confounded with
any other of our Junci: ‘The more naked culm at once distin-
guishes it from the other allied species.

* Tn 1789 Cutler had distinguished and described Microstylis and Comandra as
New genera; Orchis fimbriata is referred by him to O. psycodes, L., to which Dr.
Gray has.recently shown it to belong. ‘An account of the labors of this botanist
will be attempted on some future occasion.

38 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

| In honorem cl. inventoris, Flore Novanglicanz jam diu illus-
j tratoris et fautoris D

Poramoceton putcHER, (mihi): foliis omnibus petiolatis, sub-
mersis lanceolatis natantibus ovatis oblongo-ovatisve cordatis pe-
tiolis sepius longioribus, seminibus ventricosis lunatis dorso acute
carinatis. P. natans, Bigel. Fl. Bost.

Hab. Ponds and slow streams, Medford, Stoneham. With the
floating leaves of P. natans, this species possesses the lunate and
ventricose fruit of P. lucens and P. prelongus. From. these
species, both of which inhabit Fresh Pond, in Cambridge, it is
distinguished by its much larger seeds, and its beautifully cordate

-ovate coriaceous floating leaves, often on very short peti-

ie oles. From P. natans the structure of the fruit at once separates

' ‘it; that of the former being not lunate, obtuse at the margins,
abidine and finely linear-punctulate; while in ours, besides the
difference of shape, the surface is dull and oe cca
by elevated anastomosing veins. Conf. Koch,

P. Cuayronu, (mihi): foliis submersis iashaonhedie amgtiite
linearibus longis acutis margine undulatis sparsimque minutis-
sime spinuloso-scabris versus basim vix attenuatis sessilibus,
natantibus petiolatis (petiolis nunc breviusculis) oblongis lanceo-
latisve vix coriaceis (nervis non nisi versus lucem conspicuis,)
caule ramoso.—P. foliis lanceolato-oblongis, etcett., Clayt. &

— Gronov. Fl. Virg. edit. 2, p.23,. ex parte certe.. P. fluitans,
~Pursh, Fl. 1, 120, Bigel. Fl. Bost..p. 63, Torr. Fl..1, 196.
_ Hab. Ponds and slow streams, Roxbury, Cambridge. Very
different from P. fluitans. From P. heterophyllus, to which ‘it
has been latterly referred by our authors, though apparently with
doubt by Dr. Torrey, it seems to me to differ as much as from
P. natans. Ina large set of the European Potamogetons, I have
not found any which agree with our plant in the peculiar features —
of its submersed leaves. The P. heterophyllus of Pursh, col-
lected by him at ‘ Walker’s meadows,” seems to be also the P.
hybridus, 3. of Michaux, and to differ but little from this species.
It may perhaps be proper to consider it a variety: §. foliis sub-
mersis numerosioribus angustissimis. But it is possible that this
latter plant will be found to be a distinct species.

P.uucens, (L.) Bigel. Fl. Bost. This agrees in every re-
spect with the foreign plant, and is easily distinguished by its
leaves, which in P. prelongus are ovate and amplexicaul at base,

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 39

while in P. lucens they are oval or lanceolate, and petiolate. I
have found both species in Fresh Pond. )
P. Rossinsu, (Oakes.) This very curious. species is quit

abundant in Fresh Pond, Cambridge, and will, probably, as Mr.

Oakes has suggested, be found by no means rare in New Eng-
land

Carex panrcunata, (L.) Ina cold swamp between Concord
and Lexington, on the turnpike, with C. exilis, and Eriophorum
alpinum. ‘This is the true plant, an opinion sustained by Dr.
Gray when he examined my specimens. ‘The evtrene regularly
paniculate form did not occur; nor is this uniformly found in

Europe. It seems quite possible that this state may yet be found

at our station.

plano-convexis fere enerviis in rostrum mediocrem bifidum matr-
gin lat b acuminatis, sqaumis ovatis mucronatis fruc-
tum subequantibus, culmo triquetro angulis scabro.—C. cephalo-
phora, var. maxima, Dew.

Hab. Penn Yan, New York, Dr. Sartwell. Resembling C.
cephalophora, but quite different in the fruit. It seems to me
more difficult to distinguish it from C. vulpina. In that species,

and C. stipata, the fruit is ovate and scarcely margined. But in’

C.cephalophora it is somewhat tapering towards the base, and

conspicuously margined. By this character, perhaps, C. cephalo-

phora, C. Muhlenbergii, C. sparganioides, and C. rosea, may be
separated to form a distinct group; for which the name Muhlen-
bergianze is not inappropriate, especially as most if not all the
Species were discovered by Muhlenberg. From the Multifloree
of Kunth these seem to differ as much as from the Vulpine.

C. canescens, (L.)—¢. alpicola, (Wahlenb. ): spiculis superiori-
bus ageregatis, capsulis patentibus acutis convexo-planiusculis
subacutangulis. Wahl. Monogr. Car. no. 49, (1803,) ejusd. FU.
Suec. p. 595. C. curta, 6. brunnescens, Pers. Syn., Koch Syn.
C. Gebhardi, Hopp. non Schk.—y. spherostachya, (mibi): spic-
ulis 3-4 subrotundis paucifloris, perigyniis oblongioribus in ros-
trum conspicuum acuminatis. |

Hab. («.) Mountains; White Mountains, Great Haystack,
Grand Monadnoc, Green Mountains, Aschutney. Spikelets ap-
ptoximated, shorter. Glumes brown witha white margin. Fruit

40 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

commonly also brown. Our plant agrees with original specimens
of Wahlenberg’s variety, and of the C. Gebhardi of Hoppe.
Koch adopts Persoon’s name, citing for Wahlenberg’s only the
Flora Suecica, but this last was first published in the Monograph
of the illustrious Swede, which appeared before the Synopsis of
Persoon.—(7.) Mountains; White Mountains, Green Mountains,
&c. Also in swamps, Phippsburg, Me., Nuttall; Penn Yan,
New York, Dr. Sartwell. This differs still more from the true
C. canescens than even the variety 6. The form and important
_ characters of the fruit seem however to forbid a separation of
‘ In y. I have observed the color of the fruit to be always
1. The latter variety does not probably occur in Europe ;
ms, it I think it passes into the former on our mountains. That this
species is the true C. canescens of Linneus, independently of
the descriptions, is the opinion of Wahlenberg, Fries; Koch, and
Torrey & Gray. The unanimous opinion of the great bota-
nists of Sweden, with respect to a Linnzan Swedish plant,
would seem perhaps to be of more weight than even the Lin-
nan herbarium ; a contrary opinion has however prevailed.

C. neeiecta, (mihi): spica composita, spiculis 3-4 subrotundis
remotiusculis paucifloris inferne masculis, stigmatibus 2, perigyniis
oblongo-lanceolatis plano-convexiusculis enerviis in rostrum con-
‘spicuum scabriusculum margine ciliato-serratum integrum acu-
minatis squama acuta hyalina 8 mene culmo tenui erec-
tiusculo scabro.

Hab. Rocky hills, near Moutpelies Vt., 1839. This plant has
the peculiar habit of inflorescence of C. trisperma, by which it
is distinguished from the variety of C. canescens. In the fruit
it differs very much from C. trisperma. The stem in my ticks
mens is very scabrous.

C. riera, (Gooden.): spica mascula solitaria, hucidecie 2-4
erectis inferiore pedunculata oblongis, stigmatibus 3 abortu seepius
2, perigyniis ellipticis obtusis nervosis obscure trigonis punctulis
minutis conspersis rostro brevi tereti integro mucronatis, culmo
angulis scabriusculo s. glabro. EK. T.—C. rigida, Gooden. in

Linn. Tr. 2, 193, Koch. Syn. p.755, Boott. in Hook. Bor.

Amer. 2,217. C. saxatilis, Willd. Sp. 4, 275, Wahlenb. Lapp-
p. 247, Torr. Cyp. p. 397, Kunth, Cyp. p. 411, Drej. Rev. p.
41, (non Linnzi, test. Hartman in Koch, Gosdetiongh; et Boott ;
ee Linneana (in Fl. Lapp.) ut mihi videtur, ipsa. )—

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants-of New England. 1

6. Bigelovii, (mihi): spicis femineis 2-5 elongatis remotius-
culis laxis inferioribus patentibus longe pedunculatis, C. Bige-
lowti, Torr. in Schwein. Anal. Tab. C. Washingtoniana, Dew.
Car. in Sill. Jour. 10, 262, C. saxatilis, 8. Torr. Cyp. ex parte.
Hab. («.) Greenland, Vahl ; Arctic America, Drummond ; Lab-
rador, Schlechtendal ; White Mountains, and Great Haystack,
N. H.; Chin of Mansfield, Camel’s Rump, and other high peaks
of the Green Mountains, Vt. Also on the mountains of Essex
County, N. Y., Mr. Macrae. (8.) Mount Washington, and other
of the White Mountains; Chin of Mansfield.
' It seems probable that the normal state of Carex rigida is
stigmatical. In ten mature achenia from the Lapland plant, fr

*
ny

observed in all the same approximation to a three-angled shape,
which is noticeable in our plant, and in it becomes at last con-
Spicuous, and the angles quite distinct. It is worthy of note,
moreover, that this Carex very often fails to perfect its fruit.
In the greater part of my specimens, from Scotland, Lapland,

‘Germany, Greenland, and New Hampshire, the perigynia are

shrivelled, and without apparent vestiges of any achenium.
These observations are confirmed by Koch, who introduces the

character “subtrigonis” in his diagnosis of the species; and by

Drejer, (1. c.) who inserts “ stigmata 2, rarius 3,” in his descrip-

tion of it. 'The variety @. is distinguished as being perhaps the

most luxuriant and developed state of the species known, and is
probably confined to this continent. It attains to a height of 18
inches, with spikes often an inch and a half long, which are
commonly loosely flowered ; the lower ones somewhat remote,
and on spreading peduncles from half to more than an inch long.
The fruit of C. rigida seems to vary considerably. A perigynium
of the Scottish plant agreed so nearly with one of ours, as to be
almost undistinguishable under the microscope, while neither
Perfectly agreed with the fruit of the Lapland and Norwegian
forms. In the last the perigynium is conspicuously nerved ; in
the Scottish and ours much less so, and sometimes not at all ; in
the Norwegian, the whole surface is covered with dark reddish
points; in the Scottish these’ are nearly, but not wholly (as
Schkuhr would seem to intimate, 1, 55,) wanting, or rather their
color is more or léss wanting, which is also the case in ours.
The achenia also differ considerably, which is in a measure
Vol. xzv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. .

it
et.” Pa
Es: f
eon

a Norwegian specimen, and from the Scottish C. rigida, 1 have

42 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

owing to the difference in size and shape of the perigynium.
Our plant, particularly in #, runs into variations. The spikes
are sometimes wholly female, with only a few male flowers
at the top of the highest; and again they are almost entirely
male. Sometimes the long spreading spikes are crowded toward
the top, with a somewhat paniculate aspect. All this seems to
show that the species is with us in a peculiarly developed and
luxuriant state.

V Acrostts Picxrrivent, (mihi): culmo erecto, foliis planis line-

_ aribus, panicula ovata diffusa ramis verticillatis erectiusculis sca-

is, glumis subzqualibus subbidentatis, carina inferioris apice

"mucronata superiori acuta glabriuscula, palea inferiori ovato-lan-

ceolata acuta s. erosa punctatula nervata, superiori exacte ovata
obtusa enervi, arista e medio dorsi tortili seabra florem bis super-
ante.—é. rupicola, (mihi): minor panicula contracta glabrius-
cula, floribus plerumque albo-purpurascentibus. A. cantna, var.
alpina, Oakes, Catal. Verm. p. 32. es

“Hab. White Mountains, Great Haystack. (3.) White Moun-
tains, Pickering and Oakes; Camel’s Rump, Vt. What seems
the typical state of this plant is a rather tall alpine grass with an
elegant diffuse panicle.* ‘The variety is a much smaller plant,
frequently not over three inches high, when it much resembles
in habit such specimens as I have seen of the European A.
rupestris. The characters of our plant will not, however, be
found to agree with those of A. rupestris. It seems even more
different from A. canina, of which I have good foreign specimens, |
and which is well marked in its habit.

D. in honorem cl. inventoris, Flore: nostra eximii illustratoris.

“A. concuyna, (mihi): culmo humili erecto, foliis filiformi-seta-
ceis, panicula ovata patente glabra, glumis haud zqualibus, infe-
riori acuta mucronata versus apicem scabriuscula, superiori acuta
glabra, palea superiori vix ulla, inferiori glabra infra medium
arista tortili seabra florem superante basique pilis paucissimis in-
structa.

Hab. White Mountains; stony alpine moor on Mount Monroe,
with Carex scirpoidea and Potentilla minima. SSomewhat resem-
bling A. alpina in habit, but that is remarkable for the two bris-

rt have gathered this on the sandy plain of the Ammonoosuck, where indeed
Arenaria Grenlandica may also be found; both being doubtless brought dow?
from the mountains by the spring freshets.

Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 43

tles at the top of the inferior palea, and the awn. at its base. It
is quite different from A. rupestris and A. canina. .

: Tricnopium, Auctt. Amer. The following species constitute,
I believe, all of those grasses which have in this country been
referred to the genus Trichodium. Wishing to ascertain several
New England plants, and finding that I possessed all the species
mentioned in our books, I resolved to study the whole. The
result of no little labor is given below, where it will be found, I
hope, that the arrangement and synonymy of the species is im-
proved, however little the characters. The genus 'Trichodium
is wholly disallowed by Hooker, (Brit. Fl. 1,33,) and by Koch,
(Syn. 780,) and seems, (now that more is known,) to be not
only artificial, but even founded on an incomplete analysis. Still
it may be said, that the two species which form the genus as
constituted by Michaux, are distinguished by a habit almost as
striking as that of A. Spica venti, which is separated from
Agrostis by Trinius and Lindley ; and by characters which seem,
pethaps, to vary less in the original species, than in those other
forms which have since been connected with them. :

_ A. vaxrerora, (Richards.): culmis erectiusculis basi purpuras-
centibus striatis glabris, foliis linearibus inferioribus angustioribus
involutis breviusculis suberectis striatis utrinque scabris vaginis
scabriusculis, panicula tenuissime capillari laxissima ramis vertl-
cillatis scabris summitatibus pauciter floridis, glumis inaequalibus
vix lineam longis lanceolatis inferioris, carina scabra superionisqne
versus apicem palea semilineam longa acuta glabra. E, T.—Tr-
chodium laxiflorum, Micha, Fl. 1,142, Muhi. Gram. p. 60, Torr.
Fi. 1, 83, Darlingt. Cest. p. 54. Agrostis laxiflora, Richards.
App. Frankl. Narr. p.731. A. Michauaié, Trin. A. Michaucw,

var. laxiflora, Gray, Gram. §& Cyp- (cit. Darlingt.)—3. mon- ~

tana, (mihi) : caespitosa, panicula ovata patente demumque di-
Varieata, palea arista tortili exserta e medio dors! proveniente
predita—T'richodium montanum, Torr. (fide ips. ) Torr. Fl.
1, 84, |

~~ Hab. («.) Dried up swamps and pastures. Plymouth, nfl?
wich, Cambridge, Burlington, Vt. (8.) Dry rocky precipices ©
the Notch of the White Mountains. The last seems almost a
distinct species, and differs in the size at least of its flowers
from «. It is not, however, now considered distinct by Dr.
Torrey,

;

ya
ae

44 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

A. perennans: culmis fere decumbentibus basi geniculatis
ramosis glabris, foliis vage patulis planis glabriusculis s. scabris
vaginis leevibus, panicula tenui-elliptica laxiuscula ramis verticil-
latis erectis scabriusculis, glumis haud squalibus acutissimis ca-
rinis scabris circiter lineam longis, palea glabra vix lineam longa.
E. T.—Cornucopie ? perennans, Walt. F'l. Carol. p. 7 4, Agros-
tis anomala, Willd. Sp. 1, 370. Trichodium decumbens, Miche.
Fi. 1, 42, Muhl. Gram. p. 60. T. perennans, Ell. Sk. 1, 99,
(Icon.) T. scabrum, Darlingt. Cest. 1, 54, (non Willd.)

‘Hab. Carolina, Walter, Fraser, Elliott, Curtis ; Pennsylvania,
Darlington ; Columbus, Ohio, Sullivant. The habit of this spe-
cies is very marked, and it is pronounced “ quite distinct” by Dr.
Darlington. It is as that it does not occur — far to the
north.

vA. ALTISSEMA : oiNiid erectis duris rigidis crassiuisculis,. foliis
longis lato-linearibus scaberrimis vaginis vix glabris, panicula
coarctata ramis verticillatis erectis rigidiusculis scabris summitati-
bus dense floridis, glumis magnis subzequalibus lanceolatis acu-
minatis carinis scabris circiter sesquilineam longis, palea glumam
superiorem fere squanti tenuissime pubescenti carina scabra.
K. 'T.—Cornucopie ? altissima, Walt. F'l. Carol. p. 74. Agros-
tis dispar, Michz. Fl. 1, 51. Trichodium elatum, Pursh, Fl. 1,
61, 7. n. 4, (anon.) Muhl. Gram. p. 62, (fide Torr.) T’. elatum,
Torr. Fl. 1, 83.—. lara, (mihi) : panicula laxiori ramis longiori-
bus viridi.— A. Nove Anglia, (mihi MSS.)

Hab. (e.) Carolina, Walter, Curtis ; New Jersey, Pursh, Tor-
rey.—(?.) White Mountains; about brooks in the Notch. The
description of Walter can hardly be improved as respects the
prominent features of this very distinct species. Michaux has
apparently described it under the name of Agrostis dispar; hav-
ing detected (it would seem) two palex. I have observed in
the New Hampshire plant, in a single instance, a membranaceous
development at the inner base of the (inferior) palea, from which
the bristles usually found on each side of the orifice of the palea,
seemed to arise. ‘These bristles, it may be remarked, occur in
every American Trichodium ; though from the generic character

of Michaux, and the silence of other authors, we might suppose

they were wanting. The variety 2. above mentioned, is perhaps
a distinct species, but I could not distinguish its florets from those
of a. under the microscope. It is a- coarse, green scabrous, rather

‘on some Plants of New England. 46

erect grass, with somewhat broad leaves and large florets. The
name given by Walter, the discoverer of this species, is the old-
est, and, it would seem, very appropriate. é

A. scasra, (Willd.): culmis erectis basi geniculatis glabris,
foliis planis linearibus longiusculis striatis scabris vaginis glabris,
panicula diffusa ramosa, ramis 4-6 verticillatis brevibus flexuosis
patentibus divaricatis, glumis ineequalibus acutis inferiore carina
scabra superiore glabra margine scariosis 3 lin. longis, palea lon-
giuscula glumam superiorem vix haud eequante glabra. E. T.—
Agrostis scabra, Willd. Sp. 1,370, (fide Muhl.) Trichodium
scabrum, Muhl. Gram. p. 61, Torr. FU. 1, 83, non Darlingt.
Cest. 1. c.—8. tenuis, (mihi): vaginis scabris panicula tenui ramis
erectis.

Hab. («.) Pennsylvania, ‘ubique in sylvis,’ Muhlenberg ; New

Mr. Tuckerman,

York, in woods, common, Torrey; New Hampshire, in moun-

tain forests ; (8. a small delicate form with a very slender pani-
cle,) rocks of the Flume, Lincoln, N. H. This and the last
Were not considered by Michaux as belonging to Trichodium ;
and Willdenow describes the * present species as possessing two
Pale. Our plant is always distinguishable by its elegantly flex-
uous and spreading many-branched panicle, and erect habit.
Canamacrostis purpurascens, R. Br., Hook. Bor. Amer. 2,
240.—Hab. White Mountains ; moist alpine grassy places; Sep-
tember. I observed this grass for the first time the present sea-
Son. It agrees in all respects with the description, and was pro-
— to be the plant, at the time, by my excellent friend, Dr.
ray 3 7

Poa MODEsTA, (mihi): culmo spithameo basi geniculato ramo-
80 compresso glabro, foliis linearibus tenuiter striatis rigidiusculis
Supra scabris 3—4 pollicariis cire. semilineam latis, vaginis striatis
glabriusculis, ligula conspicua membranacea truncata erosa de-
mumque irregulariter laciniata, panicula stricta vix demum ob-
longa 6-9 pollicari ramis solitariis’ filiformibus ramulisque ramo-
sis rhachique scabris, spiculis sparsis breviter pedicellatis ( pedicellis
1-3 lin. Jongis) bifloris, glumis inequalibus oblongo-lanceolatis
tenuissime striatis obtusis erosis glabris, flore inferiori majori ses-
Sili lanceolato enervi carina inferiori versus apicem scabriuscula
€toso glabro ad basim interiorem pedicello florem alterum mino-
tem fulcienti instructo, caryopsi ovato fusco. E. 'T.—Poa ? uni-
Hora, Mui. Gram. p. 151, (ex. descr.)

46 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

Hab. Cambridge; wet margins of Fresh Pond brook. Muh-
lenberg mentions that his plant above mentioned, was sent him
from New England; and it seems almost certain that it was a
branch of this Poa, from which part of the florets had fallen off.
He compares it with P. capillaris, but it seems very distinct from
that species. In a large number of specimens of the plant, in
several states of development, I observe no variation from the
above characters.

Aspipium acuteatum, (Sw.) Hook. Brit. Fl. edit 1, 1, 443,
Hook. Bor. Amer. 2, 26. A. aculeatum, Pursh, Fl. 2, 662.
Hab. Green Mountains, Vermont, Pursh, 1806. Moist rocky
mountain forest, near the base of the Chin of Mansfield, the
highest of the Green Mountains, Vt., Macrae and ‘Tuckerman,
1840. Also at Indian Pass, in the highlands near Mount Marcy,
New York, Mr. Macrae. The New York specimens were pro-
nounced by Sir William Hooker to be exactly the plant of the

British Flora. It is an interesting and very beautiful addition to

the New England Ferns, and seems to have been lost since
Pursh’s time ; having escaped the notice of Boott and Robbins,
being wholly omitted by Bigelow and Torrey, and referred, as a
doubtful synonym, to A. spinulosum by Beck.

Lycoroprum annotinum, (L.): caule repente ramosissimo ramis
adscendentibus bi-tri-partitis, ramulis simplicibus in spicas solita-
rias sessiles terminantibus, foliis quinquefariis lineari-lanceolatis
mucronatis apice serrulatis patentibus acerosis ad incrementa an-
nuacontractis. Wallr. Fl. Crypt. 1,33, Micha. Fl. 2,283, Torr.
Comp. p. 388.—%. montanum, (mihi): nanum quadrifolium.
sabinefolium, Beck, Bot. p. 461, (non Michxr. nec Hook: )

” Hab. («.) Rocky and mountain forests; Manchester, Oakes;
White Mountains. (°.) Alpine districts; White Mountains, Green
Mountains. The leaves of my low country specimens from
Scotland and Bavaria, as well as those from the base of the
White Mountains, and from Manchester, are regularly, so far as
I have examined, in fives. In 8, on the contrary, they occur
only in fours. In an alpine Scottish specimen, which seems
to be marked by the same habit as our American plant, they
are also disposed in fours. It is possible this character is not
found to be constant in Britain, for the alpine form is not distin-
‘guished by British writers. That, however, it is not unknow®
to occur there, will appear from Hooker, (Brit. Fl. 1,452,) who

“Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England. 47

changes the specific character “ quinquefariis” to “about five
rows.” In this view there is nothing to distinguish our variety
but aslightly dwarf habit, which is just as noticeable in L. den-
droideum, when it occurs in alpine situations, and indeed in most
plants. I have not, however, as yet observed our plants to vary
in this respect. It seems impossible that our Lycopodium should
be the L. sabinezefolium of Willdenow, for that was referred by
its discoverer, as well as by its describer, to the different group
which includes L. complanatum. And it does not seem probable
that Michaux, recognizing as he did L. annotinum as a Canada
plant, would have referred a plant, wholly undistinguishable
from it, to a different species of another section of the genus.
The figure of Dillenius, cited by Michaux, seems also inapplica-
ble to our plant in every respect. All my American specimens
are noticeable for a cartilaginous mucre at the tip of the leaves,
which is much less conspicuous in the alpine Scottish plant. But
Wallroth mentions this in his specific character given above.
The scale seems also to vary in the length of its acumination, and
the serrulation of the leaves is more or less evident. :
~ L.inunparom, (L.): caule sut pente, ramis simplicibus
solitariis erectis apice monostachyis, foliis linearibus sparsis acutis
integerrimis supra curvis, spica sessili foliosa. _ Willd. Sp. 5, 25,
Torr. Comp. p. 388.—$. Bigelovii, (mihi): majus, ramis° subra-
mosis elongatis, foliis acuminatis sparsim denticulatis s. integris.
I. Carolinianum, Bigel. Fl. Bost. p. 384.—y. alopecuroide
(mihi): caule ramisque ut @. foliis lineari-subulatis basi sparsim-
que ‘ciliato-dentatis. L. alopecuroides, L. Sp. p. 1565, Dill.
Muse. p. A5A, (§ Ic.) Clayt. & Gronov. Fi. Virg. edit. 2, p. 168.
- Hab. («.) Swamps; Plainfield, Dr. Porter ; Topsfield, Oakes ;
New York, Macrae.—(3.) Wet sandy margins of ponds; Plymouth,
Oakes and Tuckerman ; (also New Jersey?)—(7-) Florida, Tor-
tey. The two species, L. inundatum and L. alopecuroides, seem
to have been originally distinguished by Linneus, mainly on ac-
count of the ciliate-denticulation of the leaves in the one plant,
the other being considered to possess leaves integerrima, as entire
as possible. ‘With respect to this character, it appears that many
other botanists have not taken the same view as Linneeus, though
the word in question is retained by most of our authorities. Vail-
lant, Dillenius, Haller, Necker, Weber, and Hooker, (Brit. Fl. 1,
452,) all either omit to notice this character, or have particularly

48 Mr. Tuckerman, on some Plants of New England.

altered in this respect the Linnean phrase. In like manner,
Michaux and Torrey have substituted ‘“integris” in their descrip-
tions. I have also observed in our plant, and in French speci-
mens, a very marked approach to denticulation, and in several
Bavarian specimens, regular teeth.- A. alopecuroides is a much
larger plant, and the teeth seem to be always present and con-
spicuous, as Dillenius remarks, to the naked eye. The plant
here considered the variety @. is sometimes as large as that just
mentioned, but the leaves are less subulate, with but few teeth,
or often all quite entire. The variety alopecuroides, if this view
be correct, is the extreme southern American form of the species,
the variety Bigelovii intermediate, and perhaps not occurring
north of Massachusetts, and «. the extreme northern state, com-
mon to us with Europe. ~ ee

L. Sexaco, (L.): foliis sparsis octofariis lineari-lanceolatis acu-

inatis integerrimis imbricato-patulis rigidis lepidotis, caule dicho-
tomo erecto, ramis fastigiatis summis fertilibus.. Wallr. Crypt.
Fi. 1, 32.—«, densum, (Wallr.) : foliis omnibus adpressis. LB.
densum, Lam. LL. Selago, Engl. Bot. t. 233, Bigel. Bost. p.
386, Torr. Comp. p. 389.—%. recurvum, (Wallr.) : foliis omnibus
patenti-squarrosis ramisque subrecurvis. Wallr.Crypt. FU.(1831,)
Hook. Fl. Bor. Amer. 2, 266. L. recurvum, Kitaib. in Willd.
Sip. 550.

Hab. («.) Alpine summits of high mountains ; White Moun-
tains, Green Mountains, in Vermont ; also in the Notch of the
White Mountains, near the road. (f.) In the alpine regions of
the White Mountains ; also beautifully distinct on rocks at the
Flume, in Lincoln, N. H., where it was first found by J. Brad-
ford, Esq., in 1839, and afterwards by myself, at the same spot,
in 1840. This last is quite different in aspect, especially the
Lincoln plant, and is distinguished by Hooker, in his Flora Bor.
Americana. The leaves are narrower than in «, and all more or
less-patent, squarrose or recurved. The branches are also some-
what recurved.

Cerraria Tuckermann, (Oakes): thallo albo-virescente reticu-
lato-lacunoso glabro subtus nigro fibrillis sparsis, laciniis compli-
catis adscendentibus sinuato-lobatis. marginibus crispis, apophysi-
bus minutis nigris punctiformibus instructis, apotheciis elevatis
spadiceis margine thallode evanescente cinctis demum perforatis.
C. lacunosa, Hals. Syn. View, Hitchcock, Catal. Mass. p. 124,
Tuckerman, Lich. N. Eng. in Jour. Bost. p. 9, (non Ach.)

Influence of Pressure on the Density of Liquids. 49

Hab. Trunks of trees and old rails; New England.. The
| Cetraria lacunosa of Acharius, was a lichen discovered by the
late Mr. Menzies, on the North West Coast.. Having received
from that venerable botanist a specimen of his plant, I find it is
quite distinct from what has commonly passed for it here. The
plant of Menzies and Acharius is well represented in the figure
given of it by the latter author, in his Methodus. The thallus
is broad and expanded, very deeply cellulose and reticulate, and
very rigid; the apothecia large. Ours is noticeable for its com-
plicated ascending lobes, which are crisped and beset with black
grains at the margins, the apothecia becoming at length perforate.
It has several points of resemblance to C. ciliaris, its constant
companion, and also a lichen peculiar to this continent, but can-.
not be confounded with that species, which is always remarkable
for its dark brown or bronze hue, and much shorter lacinie. The
under surface is most commonly white in the specimens of our
plant, but I believe this is an accidental and atypical state.
SoLorina saccarTa, (Ach.) : thallo membranaceo appresso lobato
cinereo-virescente lobis obtusis, subtus albo avenio fibrilloso,
apotheciis laminz: frondis primum applanatis mox saccato-depres-
sis nigro-fuscis. DC., Fries, Lichenogr. p. 49. :
Hab. Trenton, N. Y., Mr. Greene. This curious genus is new
to the United States; and the species has not before been pub-
lished as American. 'The plant is distinguishable by its rounded.
black apothecia, more or less sunk in the suzface of the cinereous-
Virescent thallus. : inoto fegbeiom |

Art. V.— Remarkable evample of the Force of Expansion and
Contraction, exerted by bodies when subjected to alternations of
Temperature,—with a reference to the question whether the
Sreezing point of liquids is influenced. by differences in pres-
sure; by Lewis C. Beck, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, &c.
In Rutgers College, N. J.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. ; j
Ar one of the docks in the city of New York, ships are raised
ftom the water, for the purpose of being repaired, by hydraulic

Ptesses consisting of cylinders with pistons or rams, having cross
tS or arms.at the ends. ‘To these arms are attached the iron

Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 7

Mo. Bot. Garden,
ss i901.

50 Prof. Beck on the Influence of Pressure

chains which raise the vessel and the frame upon which it is sup-
ported. By forcing water, ora mixture of alcohol and water,
(used in winter,) into the cylinder, the piston is forced outward,
and thus the vessel, with necessary machinery, is brought to the
required height.

During the month of December, 1834, a curious fact was no-
ticed in regard to one of these presses, by Mr. Ring, the super-
intendent of the establishment, who had the kindness to apprise
me of the occurrence, and to furnish me with all the particulars.
I have delayed the publication, in the hope that some additional
information might be obtained. But this expectation has not
been realized, and I now send you the following note, nearly in
the form in which it was prepared about eight years since.

On Saturday, the 13th of December, 1834, the ship Orleans,
of six hundred tons admeasurement, was bide’ out of the water
by means of two hydraulic presses, each of which contained a
column of liquid, (common whiskey,) fourteen feet in length,
and fourteen inches in diameter. Mr. Ring supposed that after
making the proper allowance for friction, each press must have
raised three hundred tons. The thermometer during the day
ranged at about 40° F. A change in the weather occurred on
Sunday, and on Monday, the 15th, the mercury fell as low as 7°
F. On Tuesday, the 16th, when the presses were examined, it
was found that in one of them the ram had been forced outward
one inch and three quarters, raising with it the ship, and the cra-
dle, which weighed about one hundred tons.

The following are the exact dimensions of the ipicnsstins in
which this change was observed.

Length of the eylindet, eA the 17 feet, 10 ee
Diameter, - - oi vabas? tf

_ Length of enchants of sis, ee
Diameter, = - - ds Shen Dain
Entire length of — ae jie 16 hal det
Diameter, - - - + ofS cheat
Weight of the eylieso, . 16 tons, 5 cwt.

As the effect above described, was at once supposed to be due
to the reduction of temperature which had taken place, the engi-
neer was directed to make a moderate fire on each side of the
cylinder throughout its whole length. Under this treatment the
ram soon commenced a retrograde movement, which continued

on the Maximum Density of Liquids. .— bl

until it had receded an inch and three quarters, when the ship
again rested on her pawls, where she was placed on the Saturda
previous. ; ; ;

It may be added that the liquor used in the presses at this time
was found, upon analysis, to contain about 43 per cent. of alco-
hol of the specific gravity of .825. Now it is well known that
the rate of contraction of such a liquid, by the reduction of tem-
perature which occurred in this case, at least at the ordinary
pressure, is greater than that of iron. In order to satisfy myself
of the correctness of this statement in the present instance, I
took a two ounce bottle, to which a tube of about a foot in
length, with a bore of one eighth of an inch, was attached, and
filled the bottle and tube with the liquor employed in the press.
The whole was then placed in a freezing mixture, and the tem-
perature gradually reduced to 0° F., supposing that to be. the
lowest degree to which it had been exposed in the cylinder.
With the reduction of temperature, the liquor constantly descend-
ed in the tube, as I had anticipated.

What then was the cause of the outward movement of the
ram, by which such an enormous force was exerted, as to raise
the whole of this vessel and the cradle which supported. it?
The column of liquid ‘was certainly increased in length by an
inch and three quarters. If the liquid had remained of the same
bulk, the apparent increase might be ascribed to the contraction
of the iron. But this view seems to be inadmissible, for the con-
traction of the iron would, under ordinary pressures at least,
have been less than that of the liquid, as has been shown by re-
peated experiments.

The explanation which I would offer is, that the mixture of
alcohol and water, under the enormous pressure to which LS
Subjected in the hydraulic press, reached its point of maximum
density at a higher temperature than under the ordinary pressure.
The liquor in the cylinder during the time above mentioned, was
either congealed or was near the point of congelation, and. thus
increased in bulk. Hence the outward movement of the ram,
and the raising of the ship.

In the discussions which were had in regard to the present
mode of graduating thermometers, I know it was suggested that
the freezing point of water varies with the latitude ; which, how-
ever, was proved not to be the case. But Iam not aware that

62 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

any detailed and accurate experiments have been performed, to
determine whether it is influenced by the pressure of the atmos-
phere; that is, whether water is frozen, or ice liquefied, at the
same temperature on the summits of the Alps or Andes, as in the
lowest valleys. The known effect of pressure on several of the
gases which are thus condensed, would seem to lead us to the
conclusion that the congelation of liquids, and the liquefaction of
solids, must also be influenced by this cause. If this is so, the
occurrence which I have now described, will probably be consid-
ered as a remarkable illustration.

~ I will only add, in conclusion, that the force of expansion and
contraction, as pacasttrell by the raising and lowering of this ship
and its cradle, is more strikingly exhibited, than by any experi-
ment with which I am espera

Rutgers College, March 1, 1843.

Arr. VI.—An effort to refute the arguments advanced in favor
of the Existence, in the Amphide Salts,* of Radicals consist-
ing, like Cyanogen, of more than one element; by Rosrrt
Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Diitvetdity of Penn-
sylvania.

[Republished from a pamphlet printed by the author to accompany his “ Compen-
dium of Chemistry,” and for distribution.]

Tue following is a summary of the opinions, which it is the
object of the subsequent reasoning to justify.

(a.) The community of effect, as respects the detention of
hydrogen by contact of certain metals with aqueous solutions of
sulphuric and chlorohydric acid, is not an adequate ground for an
inferred analogy of composition, since it must inevitably arise
that any radical will, from any compound, displace any other
radical, when the thiees sented its substitution, preponderate
over the quiescent affinities,

(b.) But if, nevertheless, it be held that the evolution of hy-
drogen from any combination, by contact with a metal, is a sufli-
a MR

“An amphide salt is one consisting of an acid and a base, each espe :
igen body, — oxygen, sulphur, apa or douidsiuta; as its elect:
negative ingredien

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 53

cient proof of the existence of a halogen* body, simple or com-
pound, in the combination, the evolution of hydrogen from water,
by the contact with any metal of the alkalies, must prove oxy-
gen to be a halogen body; also the evolution of hydrogen from
sulphydric, selenhydric, or telluhydric acids, by similar means,
would justify an inference that sulphur, selenium, or tellurium,
as well as oxygen, belong to the halogen, or “salt radical” class.

(c.) ‘The amphigen bodies being thus proved to belong to the
halogen class, oxides, sulphides, selenides, and tellurides, would
be haloid salts, and their compounds double salts, instead of con-
sisting of a compound radical and a metal.

(d.) The argument in favor of similarity of composition in the
haloid and amphide salts, founded on a limited resemblance of
properties in some instances, is more than counterbalanced by the
extreme dissimilitude in many others. 4

(e.) As, in either class, almost every property may be found
which is observed in any chemical compound, the existence of a
similitude, in some cases, might be naturally expected.

(f-) As it is evident that many salts, perfectly analogous in
composition, are extremely dissimilar in properties, it is not rea-
sonable to consider resemblance in properties, as a proof of analo-
gy in composition.

(g.) No line of distinction, as respects either properties or com-
position, can be drawn between the binary compounds of the am-
phigen and halogen bodies, which justifies that separate classifi-
cation which the doctrine requires; so that it must be untenable
aS respects the one, or be extended to the other. =~

(h.) The great diversity, both as respects properties and com-
position of the bodies called salts, rendering it impossible to define
the meaning of the word, any attempt to vary the language and
theory of chemistry, in reference to the idea of a salt, must be
disadvantageous.

(t.) There is at least as much mystery in the fact, that the ad-
dition of an atom of oxygen to an oxacid, should confer an affin-
ity for a simple radical, as that the addition of an atom of this
element to such a radical, should create an affinity between it,
and an oxacid. 5
tbe ee

* The epithet halogen, is applied to bodies whose binary compounds with metals
are deemed salts, and which are consequently called haloid salts.

BA Eivistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved

(j.) If one atom of oxygen confer upon the base into which it
enters, the power to combine with one atom of acid, it is quite
consistent that the affinity should be augmented, proportionably,
by a further accession of oxygen.

k.) It were quite as anomalous, mysterious, and improbable,
that there should be three oxyphosphions, severally requiring for

saturation one, two, and three atoms of hydrogen, as that three

isomeric states of phosphoric acid should exist, requiring as many
different equivalents of basic water.

(l.) The attributes of acidity alleged to be due altogether to
the presence of basic water, are not seen in hydrated acids, when
holding water in that form only ; nor in such as are, like the oily
acids, incapable of uniting with water as asolvent. Further, ©
these attributes are admitted to belong to salts which, not hold-
ing water as a base, cannot be hydrurets or hydracids of any salt
radical ; and while such attributes are found in compounds which,

- like chromic, or carbonic acid, cannot be considered as hydrurets,

they do not exist in all that merit this appellation, as is evident
in the case of prussic acid, or oil of bitter almonds.

(m.) It seems to have escaped attention, that if SO* be the

oxysulphion of sulphates, SO*, anhydrous sulphuric acid, must
be the oxysulphion of the sulphites ;-and that there must, in the
hyposulphites and hyposulphates, be two other oxysulphions.
_ (n.) The electrolytic experiments of Daniell have been erro-
neously interpreted, since the electrolysis of the base of sulphate
of soda would so cause the separation of sodium, and oxygen, that
the oxygen would be attracted to the anode, the hydrogen and
soda being indirectly evolved by the reaction of sodium with
water; while the acid, deprived of its alkaline base, would be
found at the anode in combination with basic water, without
having been made to act in the capacity of an anion,

(o.) The copper in the case of a solution of the sulphate of
this metal andasolution of potash, separated by a membrane,
would, by electrolyzation, be evolved by the same_ process as s0-
dium, so long as there should be copper to perform the office of a
cathion ; and when there should no longer be any copper to act
in this capacity, the metal of the alkali, or hydrogen of water, on
the other side of the membrane, would act as a cathion; the
oxygen acting as an anion from one electrode to the other, first
to the copper, and then to the potassium.

os
;

pls
2

oe | Bvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 55

(p.) The allegation that the copper was deposited from the
want of an anion (oxysulphion) to combine with, is manifestly
an error, since, had there been no anion, there could have been
no discharge, as alleged, to hydrogen as a cathion, nor any elec-
trolysis. a

(q.) The hydrated oxide precipitated on the membrane, came
from the reaction of. the alkali with the sulphate of copper; the
precipitated oxide of this metal from the oxygen of the soda act-
ing as an anion; and the deposit of metallic copper from the so-
lutions performing, feebly, the part of electrodes, while them-
selves the subjects of electrolyzation.

_ (r.) The so called principles of Liebig,* by which his theory

‘ of organic acids is preceded, are mainly an inversion of the truth,
since they make the capacity of saturation of hydrated acids de-
pendent on the quantity of hydrogen in their basic water, instead
of making both the quantity of water, and, of course, the quan-
tity of hydrogen therein, depend on their capacity.

(s.) All that is truly said of hydrogen, would be equally true
of any other radical, while the language employed would lead
the student to suppose that there is a peculiar association between
capacity of saturation, and presence of hydrogen.

1. Some of the most distinguished European chemists, en-
couraged by the number of instances in which the existence of
hypothetical radicals has been rendered probable, have lately in-
ferred the existence of a large number of such radicals in a most
important class of bodies, heretofore considered as compounds of
acids and bases. It has been inferred, for instance, that sulphur,
With four atoms of oxygen (SO*) constitutes a compound radi-
cal, which performs in hydrous sulphuric acid, the same part as
chlorine in chlorohydric acid. :

2. Graham has proposed sulphatoxygen as a name for this
radical, and sulphatoxide for any of its compounds. Daniell

e has proposed oxysulphion and oxysulphionide for the same put-
; poses. In reasoning on the subject I shall use the nomenclature
last mentioned, not, however, with a view to sanction If, as I dis-
approve altogether of this innovation, and deny the sufficiency of
a enieimnbeeiatelarmneienierer eran

*'Traite de Chimie Organique, tom. 1, page cs

res eet upon which it +0 been justified. Consistently with
the language suggested by Daniell, hydrous sulphuric acid, con-
stituted of one atom of acid and one of basic water, (SO*+HO)
is a compound of oxysulphion and hydrogen (SO*+-H.) Nitric
acid (NO°+-HO) is a compound of oxynitrion and hydrogen
(NO*+H.) In like manner we should have oxyphosphion in
phosphoric acid, oxyarsenion in arsenic acid, and in all acids,
hitherto called hydrated, whether organic or inorganic, we should
have radicals designated by names made after the same plan.
Their salts having corresponding appellations, would be oxysul-
phionides, oxynitrionides, &c. Also, in any salt in which any
other of the amphigen class of Berzelius is the electro-negative
ingredient, whether sulphur, selenium, or tellurium, all the ingre-
dients excepting the electro-positive radical, would be considered
as constituting a compound slestsc-puautiee radical.*
It may be expedient to take this opportunity of mentioning
that. the advocates of this new view, disadvantageously, as I think,
employ the word radical, to designate the electro-negative, as
well as the electro-positive ingredient. Agreeably to the nomen-
clature of Berzelius, the former would be a compound halogen

* The conception of the existence of salt radicals seems to have originated with
Davy. It was suggested by Berzelius, in his letter in reply to some strictures

very natural that atoms, so eminently electro-negative as sulphur and oxygen,
should be associated, we have, in the salt in question, potassium combined with a
compound body, which, like cyanogen in K+C?N, imitates simple halogen
bodies, and gives a salt with potassium and other metals. The hydrated oxacids,

agreeably to this view, would be then hydracids of a compound halogen body,
from which metals may displace hydrogen, as in the hydracids of simple halogen
bodies. Thus we know that SO3, that is to say, anhydrous sulphuric acid, is a
body whose properties, as respects acidity, differ from those which we should ex-
pect in the active principle of hydrous sulphuric acid.

“The difference between the oxysalts and the halosalts is very easily illustrated

by formule. In KFF (fluoride of potassium,) there is but one single line of sub-
stitution, that is to say, that of K|FF ; whilst in KOOOOS (sulphate of potash,)
there are two, KJ|OOOOS an d KO|OOOS, of which we use the first in replacing.
one metal by uote: for instance, copper by iron; and the second in replacing
one oxide by another.

“Ido not know what value you may attach to this development of the constitu-

tion of the oxysalts, (which applies equally to the sulphosalts and others ;) but as
to myself, I have a thorough conviction that there is therein something more than
a speculation, since it unfolds to us an internal analogy in phenomena,
which, agreeably to the perception of our senses, are extremely analogous.”

Existence of Radicals in the Amphidle Salts disproved. 87

body. Cyanogen being analogous, is by him placed in the halo-
gen class. I shall, therefore, in speaking of “salt radicals,” im-
properly so called, employ the appellation contrived by the great
Swedish chemist. (oF aes & yy

4. Nevertheless it seems to be conceded, that however plausi-
ble may be the reasons for inferring the existence of halogen
bodies in the amphide salts, it would be inexpedient to make a
corresponding change in nomenclature, on account of the great
inconvenience which must arise from the consequent change of
names.

5. Under these circumstances, it may be well to consider how
far there is any necessity for adopting hypothetical views, to
which it would be so disadvantageous to accommodate the re-
ceived language of chemists. In the strictures on the Berzelian
nomenclature, which drew from Berzelius the suggestions con-
tained in the quotation at the foot of the preceding page, I stated
it to be my impression that water should be considered as acting
in some cases as an oxybase, in others as an oxacid ; and, in my
examination of his reply,* I observed that hydrous sulphuric acid
might be considered as a sulphate of hydrogen, and that when
this acid reacts with zine or iron, the proneness of hydrogen to —
the aériform state enables either metal to take its place, agreeably
to the established laws of affinity. igh |

6. There appears to have been a coincidence of opinion be-
tween Kane, Graham, Gregory, and myself, as respects the elec-
tro-positive relation of hydrogen to the amphigen and halogen
elements, which I have designated collectively asthe basacigen
class; also in the impression that hydrogen acts like a metallic
radical, its oxide, water, performing the part of a base. 1 agree
Perfectly with Gregory in considering that hydrated acids may be
considered as “hydrogen salts.” But when the learned editor
Proceeds to allege that “acids and salts, as respects their consti-
tution, will form one class,” 1 consider him, and those who sanc-
tion this allegation, as founding an error upon an oversight. Be-
cause the salts of hydrogen, or such as have water for their base,
have heretofore been erroneously called acids, we are henceforth
to confound salts with acids, and, instead of correcting one wrong
name, cauise all others to conform thereto!

’ * Silliman’s Journal, for 1835, Vol. xxvit, page 61.
Vol. xzv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 8

68 Eristence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

7. I fully concur with Gregory and Kane, in considering that
water in hydrous sulphuric acid, in nitric acid, chloric acid, and
in organic acids, generally acts as a base ; also, that in this basic
water hydrogen performs a part perfectly analogous to that of a
metallic radical ; but, agreeably to this view, I cannot perceive
any difficulty in accounting for the evolution of hydrogen, as
suggested in the quotation above made, (6,) agreeably to which,
when diluted sulphuric acid reacts with zinc or iron, the libera-
tion of hydrogen results from the superiority of the forces which
tend to insert either of these metals in the place occupied by the
hydrogen, over those which tend to retain it 7m statu quo.

‘8. When oxide of copper is presented to chlorohydric acid, it
is inferred that the hydrogen unites with oxygen, and the chlo-
rine with the metal; and hence it seems to be presumed, that
when oxide of copper is combined with sulphuric acid, a similar
play of affinities should ensue: but would it be reasonable to

“make this a ground for assuming the existence of a compound
radical, when the phenor admit of another explanation quite
as simple and consistent with the laws of chemical affinity?

9. Whether hydrogen be replaced by zinc, or oxide of hydro-
gen by oxide of copper, cannot make any material difference. — In
the one case, a radical expels another radical, and takes its place ;
in the other, a base expels another base, and takes its place.

10. There can be no difficulty, then, in understanding where-
fore, from the compound of sulphur and three atoms of oxygen,
and an atom of basic water, hydrogen should be expelled and _re-
placed by zinc, or that water should be expelled and replaced by
oxide of copper; the only mystery is in the fact, that SO*, as an-
hydrous sulphuric acid, will not combine with hydrogen, copper,
or any other radical, unless oxidized. But this mystery equally
exists on assuming that an additional atom of oxygen converts
SO? into oxysulphion, endowed with an energetic affinity for
metallic radicals, to which SO? is quite indifferent. .

11. In either case, an inexplicable mystery exists; but it is, in
the one case, associated with an hypothetical change, in. the
other, with one which is known to take place. }

12. But if hydrous sulphuric acid is to be assumed to be a hy-
druret of a compound. halogen body, (oxysulphion,) because it
evolves hydrogen on contact with zine, wherefore is not water,
which evolves hydrogen on contact with potassium, sodium, ba-

Erristence of Radicals in the. Amphide Salts disproved. 59

rium, strontium, or calcium, to be considered as a hydruret of
oxygen, making oxygen a halogen body ? ar

13. Boldly begging the question, Graham reasons thus: “the
chlorides themselves being salts, their compounds must be double
salts.” -

14. But if the chlorides are salts, the chloride of hydrogen is
a salt; and if so, wherefore is not the oxide of hydrogen a salt,
which, in its susceptibility of the crystalline form, has a salt at-
tribute which the aériform chloride does not Bit

15. Further, if the oxide of hydrogen be a salt, every oxide is
a salt, as well as every chloride. Now, controverting the argu-
ment above quoted, by analogous reasoning, it may be said, “ the
ovides themselves being salts, their compounds are double salts.”
Of course sulphate of potash is not a sulphatoxide, as Graham’s
ingenious nomenclature would make it, but must be a double
salt, since it consists of two oxides in “themselves salts.” ;

16. I trust that sufficient reasons have been adduced, to make
it evident that the common result of the extrication of hydrogen,
during the reaction of zinc or iron with sulphuric or chlorohydric
acid, is not a competent ground for assuming that there are, in
amphide salts, ‘compound radicals” playing the same part as
halogen bodies. » of stay

17. Let us, in the next place, consider the argument In favor
of the existence of such radicals, founded on the similitude of
the haloid and amphide salts, which is stated by Dr. Kane in the
following words:— =~ Kit SEL

“It had long been remarked as curious, that bodies so different in
Composition as the compound of chlorine with a metal, on one hand,
and of an oxygen acid with the oxide of the metal on the other, should
be so similar in properties, that both must be classed as salts, and
Should give rise to a series of basic and acid compounds, for the most
part completely parallel.” —Elements, p. 681. |

18. Upon the similitude and complete parallelism of the am-
phide and haloid salts, thus erroneously alleged, the author pro-
ceeds to argue in favor of the existence in the former, of com-
pound halogen bodies, analogous in their mode of combination to
‘chlorine or iodine. ' ign ‘
19. L presume it will be granted, that if similitude in proper-
ties bea sufficient ground for inferring an analogy 1n composi-
tion, dissimilitude ought to justify an opposite inference. And

eae

60 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

that if, as the author alleges, certain bodies have been classed as

salts, on account of their similarity in this respect, when dissimi- °

lar they ought not to be so classed. Under this view of the
question, I propose to examine how far any similitude in proper-
ties exists between the bodies designated as salts by the author,
or any other chemist.

20. The salts, hitherto considered as compounds of acids and
bases, are by Berzelius called amphide salts, being produced sev-
erally by the union with one or other of his amphigen class, com-
prising oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium, with two radi-
cals, with one of which an acid is formed, with the other a base.
The binary compounds of his halogen class, comprising chlorine,
bromine, iodine, fluorine, and cyanogen, are called: by wen haloid
salts. I shall use the names thus suggested.

21. Among the haloid salts we have common salt and Derby-

‘shire spar; the gaseous fluorides and chlorides of hydrogen, sili-
con or boron ; the fuming liquor of Libavius; the acrid butyra-

ceous chlorides of zinc, bismuth, and antimony; the volatile
chlorides of magnesium, iron, chromium, and mercury, and the
fixed chlorides of calcium, barium, strontium, silver, and lead;
the volatile poison prussic acid, and solid poisonous bicyanide of
mercury, With various inert cyanides like those of Prussian blue ;
likewise a great number of ethereal compounds.

22. Among the amphide salts are the very soluble sulphates of
zine, iron, copper, soda, magnesia, &c., and the insoluble stony
sulphates of baryta and strontia; also ceruse and sugar of lead;
alabaster, marble, soaps, ethers, and innumerable stony silicates,
and aluminates. Last, but not among the least discordant, are
the hydrated acids, and alkaline and earthy hydrates.

23. When the various sets of bodies, above enumerated, as
comprised in the two classes under consideration, are contempla-
ted, is it not evident that, not only between several sets of haloid

and amphide salts, but also between several sets in either class,

there is an extreme discordancy in properties; so that making
properties the test, would involve not only that various sets in
one class could not be coupled with certain sets in the other, but,
also, that in neither class could any one set be selected as exem-

plifying the characteristics of a salt, without depriving a majority

of those mately constituted, of all sass the saline char-
acter?

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salt

24. Now, if among the bodies above enumerated, some pairs
of amphide and haloid salts can be selected, which make a tolera-
ble match with respect to their properties, as in the case of sul-

phate of soda, and chloride of sodium, while in other cases there

is the greatest discordancy, (as in the stony silicate felspar, and
the gaseous fluoride fluosilicic acid gas; as in soap and Derby-
shire spar; as in marble and the fuming liquor of Libavius, the
sour protochloride of tin, and sweet acetate of lead,) is it reason-
able to found an argument in favor of a hypothetical similitude
in composition, on the resemblance of the two classes in proper-
ties? Does not the extreme dissimilitude in some cases, more
than countervail the limited resemblance in others? And when
the great variety of properties displayed both by the amphide

and haloid salts is considered, is it a cause for wonder or perplex-

ity, that in some instances, amphide salts should be found to re-
semble those of the other kind? :

25. Again, admitting that there was any cause for perplexity

agreeably to the old doctrine, is there less, agreeably to that

which is now recommended? «Is there no ground for wonder |
that oxygen or sulphur cannot act as simple halogen bodies? By —

what rule are their binary compounds to be excluded from the
class of haloid salts? Wherefore should chlorides, bromides,
iodides, and fluorides, however antisaline in their properties,

considered as salts, while in no case is an oxide, a sulphide, se-

26. I challenge any chemist to assign any good reason where-
fore the red iodide of mercury is an

than horn silver or horn lead; or the volatile chloride of arsenic,
than the comparatively fixed sulphides of the same metal : why
gaseous chlorohydric acid is more saline than steam or gaseous
oxhydric acid. ) oae*
27. It much surprises me, that when so much stress is laid
upon the idea of a salt, the impossibility of defining the mean-
ing of the word escapes attention. How is a salt to be distin-
guished from any other binary compound? When the discord-
ant group of substances which have been enumerated under this
name is contemplated, is it not evident that no definition of them

62 LEvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

can be founded on community of properties ? and, by the advo-
cates of the new doctrine, composition has been made the object
of definition, instead of being the basis ; thus, agreeably to them,
a compound is not a salt, because it is ihinile of certain elements ;
ut, on the contrary, an element, whether simple or compound,
elongs to the class of salt radicals, because it produces a salt.
Since sulphur, with four atoms of oxygen, SO‘, produces a salt
; with a metal, it must be deemed a salt radical.
28. In proof that the double chlorides are not united in a way
to justify the opinion adopted by Bonsdorff, Thomson, myself,
and others, it is alleged by Graham, “that in such compounds
the characters of the constituent salts are very little affected by
their state of union.” —
_ 29. This allegation being, in the next page, adeaistoa to be

p: ; able in the case of the double cyanides ; an effort is made
a, to get ¢ over this obstacle, by suggesting the existence of another
; oa mpour ind radical. But the allegation of the author is erroneous

"as respects various double haloid salts, especially the fluosilicates,
the: fluoborates, fluozirconiates, the chloroplatinates, chloroiridi-
~ ates, chloroosmiates, chloropalladiates, &c., all of them compounds
in which the constituent fluorides and ohilbtidien exist in a state
of energetic combination, by which a are materially altered
as to their state of existence. -

30. Evidently the word salt has yeti i) eid: or rather so
abused, that it is impossible to define it, either by a resort to
properties or composition; and I conceive, therefore, that to
make it a ground of abandoning terms which are susceptible of
definition, and which have long been tacitly used by chemists
in general, in obedience to such definition, would be a “refro-
grade movement in the science.” I hope Dr. Kane will pardon
me for employing the language to which he has resigy -
speaking of the opinions of Bonsdorff.

31. If this doctrine, as it has been stated, is to sia do
“not perceive how it is to be prevented from claiming an incon-
venient extension. The hydrates, as well as the sulphates, must
have pretensions to contain salt radicals. Hence in the hydrated
alkalies and alkaline earths, there would be a compound radical,
consisting of hydrogen, with two atoms of oxygen, hydroxion,
and these compounds would be hydroxionides; nor can I con-

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved, 63

ceive that the haloid compounds, erroneously called double salts,
but more correctly considered as single salts, can be exempted.

32. Between the reaction of fluoboric acid with fluobases, and
sulphuric acid with oxybases, is there not a great resemblance?

33. Iam unable to understand how, if the existence of salt
radicals in oxysalts be inferred, the other salts of the amphigen
class can be exempted from a corresponding inference. But if —
the existence of salt radicals in the double sulphides be admitted, —
can it be consistently denied that they exist also in double chlo- _
tides, iodides, &c.? Is there not the greatest analogy between
the habitudes of sulphur, selenium, and tellurium, with metals,
and those of the halogen bodies? et

34. Would not the modification of the ethereal oxysalts, to
comport with the new hypothesis, be disadvantageous, both as re-__
spects our mental conception of those compounds, and the 1 1 u a
which would be rendered. appropriate? Would not the transfer
of the oxygen from the ethereal oxide to the acid, and the crea- ed
tion, thus, of new salt radicals for the organic acid salts, be ob-
jectionable ; such as oxyoxalion for oxalates, oxytartarion for
tartrates, oxyacetion for acetates; while, for their compounds, —
we should have oxyoxalionides, oxytartarionides, oxyacetion-
ides, &e.? “agus ae :

35. If sulphates are to be considered as oxysulphionides, by
what names are we to designate the sulphites, hyposulphites, and
hyposulphates, SO2, $202, S205? SO* may, perhaps, with
more propriety be considered as consisting of a compound radical,
80:2, and oxygen, forming an oxide of sulphurous acid; but ina
sulphite, anhydrous. sulphuric acid, SO becomes a species of
oxysulphion. itself, being as-much. the oxysulphion of the sul-
phites, as SO+ is of the sulphates. Of course SO* should have
a direct affinity for radicals, contrary to fact. I presume that sul-
phites would have to be trioxysulphionides ; hyposulphites, ses-
quioxysulphionides ; sulphates, quadroxysulphionides ; while ae
hyposulphates would, I suppose, be demiquintoxysulphionides !!!
»36.. Analogous complication in nomenclature would arise 1n
respect to the nitrites and nitrates, phosphites and phosphates,
arsenites and arseniates; also as respects the carbonic and oxalic
acids

87 ; It is true that natnee has not so made her bodies as that they
can be separated into classes, between which any distinct line

64 Evistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salis disproved.

can be drawn, still it has been found advantageous to classify
n to the best of our power. Accordingly it appears to me
, in the first place, to distinguish elements (or those
which act like them) according to their electro-chem-
ons to each other, or their habitudes with the voltaic
Consistently, chemists have tacitly adopted the plan
t he compounds formed by electro-negative elements
with anions, as acids; those formed with cathions, as bases;
_ while the combinations formed by the union of such acids and

bases have been considered as simple salts. ‘Thus four classes

are constituted, consisting of electro-negative elements, of acids,

es, and single salts, while, by the union of the latter, a fifth
double salts is formed. Whether the words acid, base,
be adhered to, objectionable as they are in some re-

to me disadvantageous to merge them in one name,
he views of the advocates of salt radicals, as stated
y in his edition of 'Turner’s Chemistry, 572.
2 objection, that not being electrolytes the relation of
cids and bases to the voltaic electrodes cannot be discovered, is
easily remedied; since, on the union of a common ingredient
with an anion and a cathion, there cannot be any doubt that the
resulting compounds will have the same electro-chemical relation
as their respective heterogeneous ingredients; so that, with the
anion, an acid or electro-negative body will be formed ; with the
cathion, a base or electro-positive body. Moreover, as respects
organic compounds which cannot be subjected to the electrolytic
test, whatever saturates an inorganic acid must be a base, and
whatever saturates an inorganic base must be an acid.
39. The word salt, I have shown, is almost destitute of utility,
from the impossibility of defining it, and the amplitude of its
_° Meaning. A word that means every thing, is nearly as u
i as that which means nothing.

» 40. As respects the three phosphates of water, PO:-LHO,
PO*+2HO, PO*+3HO, the argument used by Dr. Kane cuts
both ways ; although, by its employer, only that edge is noticed
which suits his own purpose. It is alleged that the difference of
properties, in these phosphates, is totally inexplicable upon the
idea of three degrees of “hydration ;” but that all difficulty van-
ishes, when they are considered as three different compound salt

especially the latter, or some others be contrived, it’

On the Rotary Action of Storms. — 8
radicals, oxyphosphionides of ieee a PO'-
PO?+3H

Al, To me the formation a three compound lng
reiterated addition of an atom, of which five of th
were previously in the mass to which the addition is
more anomalous, mysterious, and improbable, than 1
of three compounds of phosphoric acid with water, i
presence of the different proportions of water is the co
of some change in the constitution of the elements, which i is re-
ferred to isomerism.

42. No reason can be given why the addition of one, two; and
three atoms of oxygen, to the “radical,” should convey a power
to hold a proportional number of atoms of hysinogeng
acquisition of power is an anomaly. y

43. In the case of radicals formed with lpabients 1
proportions, as in acetyl and ethyl, formyl and methy
ber of atoms of oxygen in the Saree is the in
hydrogen in the radical.

44, Ethyl, C+, H°, unites, at most, with one atom
while acetyle, C+, H®, takes three atoms to form acetic a
Be .03;: Methyl, C?, H3, forms, in like manner, only a prote ae
oe while formyl, Cc, H, takes three atoms to constitute formic

nab Besides the shal sesialesalaisiids of Wiehe the femme
are above stated, there would have to be another in the =
Phites ; so that instead of the hydrated acid, or
ter, being PO?+HO, it would have to” ve —" a fourth
*xyPhosphionide of hydrogen.
; ars be mela.)

" e ie i eek

—_

Arr. VII.—On the “esas of Storms ; by Cuarves Tracy.
: (Read before the Utica Natural History Society. x as a %
Tue i investigations of Mr. Redfield and Col. Reid have nectt-
tulated a vast amount of evidence in favor of the propositions
they maintain. The tendency of this evidence is to demonstrate,
that in the large storms which affect extensive districts, and also
in the violent. tornadoes which devastate a brief path, there
are two motions, the rotary and ~ progressive ; and that the
Vol. xxv, No. 1—April-June, 1843.

66 On the Rotary Action of Storms.

rotary is by far the most violent, and has an uniform direction of
revolution, being from right to left if the storm is in the northern
hemisphere, and the reverse if it is in the southern hemisphere.
at is to say, on our side of the equator the rotation is about
» the centre through the points of compass, in the order of N. W.
_§. E,, or contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch lying
~~ on its back; and south of the equator the rotation is through the
points in the order of N. E. 8. W., or conformable to that of the
hands of a watch.

These propositions, although authorized by induction, have
encountered doubts or gained a feeble faith in many minds, for
the want of a good cause to assign for the production of the

alleged phenomena. Hence the occurrence of rotary storms, and
the | iniformity of direction of revolution, have been too readily
attributed to mere accident; and the notion that a whirlwind,
e started by mere chance, contains the elements of growth
} pility of motion, has been too easily admitted. An active

[wind, great or small, undergoes a constant change of sub-
ce. As the central portions waste into the ascending column,

supplies from the adjacent tranquil air must be drawn into the
vortex and set in motion; and if the fresh air is neutral to the
circular movement and must acquire velocity from the whirling
mass itself, then since “action and reaction are equal and in op-
posite directions,” the whirling mass itself must lose just so much
velocity as the fresh supply gains. By such,a process the forces
of the whirlwind would be rapidly exhausted, and. its existence
must speedily cease. A stable source of momentum, adapted to
originate and sustain the uniform rotary movement, is still re-
quired: and it is now proposed to develop such a source of mo-
mentum in the forces generated by the earth’s diurnal revo
lution. :
The velocity of the earth’s surface in the daily revolution being
at the equator more than one thousand miles an hour, in latitude
‘60° half as much, at the pole nothing, and varying in interme
diate places as their perpendicular distances from the earth’s axis;
and the atmosphere near the ground every where taking in part
or wholly the motion of the surface it rests on, important conse-
quences upon aérial currents must follow. A body of air set in
motion from the equator northward maintains the equatorial east-
rd velocity, and when it passes over regions of slower rotation

On the Rotary Action of Storms. 67

deviates eastward from the meridian, and ultimately describes
over the earth’s surface a curved line bearing towards the east.
A current of air from latitude 45° north, having a due south di-
rection, soon reaches regions moving faster to the east, falls behind.
them anit describes a curve to the west. Winds oblique to
meridian are similarly affected. These familiar matter
ferred to here, and illustrated by figure 1, to elucidate what fol
lows,

Fig. 1.

east and west winds, must also be considered. A carla of
itude, being a lesser circle of the globe, and at all points equall: /
distant from the pole,’ necessarily describes upon the earth’s sur-
face a curved line. But a direct course, due east at the com-
mencement, follows a great circle, and parting from the parallel
reaches a lower latitude, ‘The due east course continued in a
right line describes a tangent to the curve of the latitude. The
Velocity of the earth’s surface at any place, by virtue of the di-
urnal revolution, has for its direction the line of that tangent ;
and when the air reposing over any spot is transferred to a region
of diverse motion, the direction, as well as the degree, of its pre-
Vious force is to be taken from that of the soil on which it: pre-
Viously rested, Hence a wind from due west, if in our hemi-
Sphere, will soon be found pursuing a southeasterly eet and
crossing successive lels of latitude.

iaonere of ney have been directed to the esata
of a central ascending column of rarefied air, and centripetal eur-
rents from every side rushing towards its base. Without pursu-
ing his reasoning, it will be safe to assume that his collection of
facts established the existence of a qualified central tendency of
the air, in both the general storms and the smaller tornadoes.

68 On the Rotary Action of Storms.

He presents a theory to account for such motion, which it is not
necessary now to examine. Dr. Hare has proposed another me-

- thod of accounting for tornadoes—a truly brilliant suggestion—

of which it is only to be remarked, at present, that it proceeds on
the assumption of a rush of air from all quarters to a central
point. It has been attested also, that at large clearing fires in
calm weather, creating centripetal currents, the whirlwind and
‘mimic tornado have been produced. In accounting for the whirl-
ing motion therefore, the central tendency of the air will be pre-
supposed.

In the case of a large fire kindled in an open plain on a calm
day, a small circle about the fire is first acted on by the abate-

ment of pressure on the side next the fire, and thus receives an

- impulse towards the common centre. As this moves in, the next

t
&

so outer circle loses support and begins to move. ach particle of
: ae air is moved at first by an impulse towards the centre, and during

ag
ag

its: approach to the central region it receives fresh impulses of the
“same direction ; and if it comes from some distance its velocity
is in this way accelerated, until it reaches the space where the
horizontal is broken by the upward motion. It is obvious that
particles propelled by such impulses would seek the common
centre in the lines of its radii, and their horizontal forces would
be neutralized by impact, if no cause for deviation was at hand.
But the great law of deflection which affects the course of the

_ winds, applies to the movements of these particles. ‘The parti-

eles which seek the centre from the northern points are deflected
west, while those from southern points are deflected east. The
whole rush of air from the northern side of the centre, coming like
a breeze, bears west of the centre, while an equal breeze from the
southern side bears east of the centre. The consequence is that
the central body of air, including the fire, is acted upon by two
forces which combine to make it turn round to the left. These
forces are aided by the deviation of the currents from the east
erly and westerly parts of the circle. ‘The breeze from the west
extreme inclines to the tangent of the parallel of latitude at its
original place of repose, and therefore strikes south of the centre,
into-which the impulses it receives would otherwise carry it
The air from the east side also inclines toward the tangent of the
parallel of latitude there, whichis oblique to the north from the

On the Rotary Action of Storms. 69

b radius, and therefore is deflected northwards and strikes north of
the centre. 'The breezes from all quarters thus co-operate to pro-
duce the result; and all their forces are constant, and act with
precision and at great advantage to cause and maintain a whirl-.
wind. A diagram presenting the lines of approach of the parti-
cles or streams of air, will explain this result. The black lines
in figure 2, show the deviating currents, from the cardinal points _
alone, when the area affected by the fire is so small as to require |
no perceptible curve in those lines.

Fig. 2.

Upon the same principle, the tornado, the typhoon, and the
wide-spread storm of the Atlantic, if their currents move towards
a central spot, must have a rotary character. ‘The circular mo-
tion in the outer portions may be slight, but it is stronger near
the centre. In every such case the incoming air may be regarded
a$ a succession of rings taken off the surrounding atmosphere,
and moving slowly at first, but swifter as they proceed towards
the centre. . Each such ring is affected by the law of deviation
during its passage. The particles are veering from the radii, in
its northern. quarter westward, in its southern quarter eastward,
in its eastern quarter northward, and in its western quarter south-
ward; and hence the ring begins to revolve when far from the
centre, turns more and more as it draws near it, and finally as it
gathers about the central spot all its forces are resolved into a
simple whirl. Ring after ring succeeds, and the whirling action
is permanent.

70 On the Rotary Action of Storms.

- The deflecting power thus applied is not small. The rotary
motion of the earth varies as the cosine of latitude, and the dif-
ferences of velocity for any differences of latitude are easily com-
puted. The following are samples ; being differences of velocity
for 1° or 694 miles of latitude.
Between lat. 2° and 3° diff. of velocity 0.79 miles per hour.
: weg “ “ Phw cs

Oo « fo
3 “ype « 4yo 73 331 ts 66
6 “« 930 « QAO & “ 7.25% ts
“ s 4Qo s 430 & “« 4298 és

“The differences of velocity for one mile, or 51.84” of latitude,
are as follows.

2 ge Latitude. Difference of velocity for one mile north.
oS nce, 10° 7 4 feet per minute.
“es 23° 9 “ &
sud 42° 15.4 “
43° 16.75%, te
45° 16.3 ee

The deflection of easterly and westerly breezes by reason of
the spherical form of the earth, also, can be computed ; and it is
obviously no less important than the deflection produced in me-
ridional winds. The angle between the courses north and east,
at any point, is a right angle; and if two points in the same lati-
tude are taken, it is evident that the obliquity of the north courses
from the two points, equals the obliquity of the east courses from
the same points. F

These results show that in the northern states a fire large
enough to affect the atmosphere over a few acres may possess the
essential force for generating a whirlwind, and may produce it in
fact if the day be calm. A large storm, covering the whole
country with its centripetal currents, must produce a vortex
about the centre, which will combine the principal energies of
the storm. The tornado and water spout must revolve with
terrific violence. t

The necessary condition, centripetal motion, may arise when-
ever acentral spot subjected to intense heat is surrounded by #
cool atmosphere. This state of things, on a small scale, may
oceur in a summer’s day, upon a ploughed field surrounded by

On the Rotary Action of Storms. 7

extensive pastures; upon a black -and charred clearing in the
midst of a cool forest; or at a large clearing fire. Upon a great
scale—if an island beneath the tropical sun received upon rocks
and sands the intense radiance of a succession of clear, calm, and
hot days, and consequent sea breezes from the deep and cool
ocean pressed in upon all its shores with the violence of a high
wind, it should not cause surprise if these various breezes com-
bined to generate a vast whirlwind; nor if the lofty revolving
column should at last leave the place of its origin and traverse
the sea, a hurricane. ‘The cause which first excited the centrip-
etal tendencies of the storm, might be renewed as the upper cur-
rent of the atmosphere bore it over other heated spots ; and the
law of deflection will inevitably transform the central into circu-
lar motion. The destructive storms of our sea-coast may have
such an origin among the eastern islands of the West Indies, from
which they appear to proceed. Sade

Peleg
meets,

In the southern hemisphere the same law of deflection pro-
duces contrary results. ‘There the wind which first moves north
bends to the west, and the wind which moves south at first turns
towards the east, that from the east turns south, and that from
the west turns north. Figure 3 represents these effects. Hence

south of the equator storms revolve from left to right, or con-

<: ;

72 On the Rotary Action of Storms.

formably to the movement of watch hands. ‘Figure A exhibits |
the rotary action of a storm in the northern hemisphere; figure5
the same in the southern hemisphere.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

VK yy
SK aS

The relative motions of the parts of.a small circular space on
the earth’s surface, by reason of the diurnal revolution, are pre-
cisely what they would be if the same circular space revolved
upon an axis passing through its centre parallel to the axis of the
globe. If such space be regarded as a plane revolving about such
supposed axis, then the relative motions of its parts are the same
as if the plane revolved about its centre upon an axis perpendic-
ular to the plane itself; with this modification, that an entire
revolution on the axis perpendicular to the plane, would not be
accomplished in twenty four hours. Such plane daily performs
such part of a full revolution about such perpendicular axis, as
the sine of the latitude of its centre is of radius. The plane
itself—the field over which a storm or a tornado or a water-spout
is forming—is in the condition of a whirling table. Hence the
tendency to rotary action in every quarter of the storm is equal,
and all the forces which propel the air towards the centre coop-
erate in harmony to cause the revolution.

Water discharging from a broad basin through a central orifice,
is subject to the same law. It forms a vortex which in our hem-

-isphere turns to the left, or against the sun, and in the southerl

hemisphere must turn to the right or contrary to the sun there.
These rotations of the atmosphere and of water, being from

west to east about lines inclined to parallelism with the earth’s

axis, are singularly coincident in direction with the rotation of

the globe, and harmonize with the general mechanism of the
Utica, Feb. 27, 1843.

Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 73

Arr. vl —Corrections and ‘Additions to the Sahil of
Cuscutinee, in Vol. XLII. of this Journal; by Grorer

Ewertmann, M. D.*

A carervt re-examination of this tribe during the past season,
as well as the increased opportunity of examining specimens from
different parts of North America, have discovered some errors, and
made some corrections and additions necessary, which I should,
indeed, prefer to withhold for the present, and subject to the test
of another season’s study, if it were not important to correct such
errors as soon as possible. A fuller description of the new spe-
cies, with figures, I defer to another time.

Tam now convinced, that, although many Didetinis prefer some
plants to others, yet there is no constancy in this respect, but t
Same species often grows upon a great variety of widely different
plants. I did wrong, therefore, to name them from the genera
upon which they grew; and I should much prefer to see the
names of C’. Cephalanthi changed into C. tenuiflora, C. Cory
into C.incurva, C. Saururi into C. umbrosa, Beyr.? C. Polygo-
norum into C. chlorocarpa, and Lepidanche pines gains into
L. squarrosa, if they had not yet been published. ,

! co Cuscura, Linn.

aL _ Sabacae CrrHaanrHt. roost tga reel ouly
3-parted,

2. Cuscura Coz. i ai in ma laces near St. Louis, on
Hazel, Willow, Desmodium, Teucrium, "Solidago, etc. The long
Styles observed in some dried specimens of this as well as other
Species, are the consequence of a. continued vegetation in the
plant-press | The variety @. must therefore be stricken out,
Flowers frequently 5-parte :

3. Cuscuta vunervaca.—Certainly the most common. species.
The stylopodium is very remarkable in the living specimens
which I have examined; and the capsule is oval, even a little
Pointed, less globose than any other of our Cuseute; but Lam
hot prepared to say that this is the case with all varieties of this
ek neni akan tn 2 Pn

* The characters of the new species, &c. here dented. wai ns published in
the London Journal of Botany for April, 1843, as an appendix to the original mo-
nograph, there reproduced.—Eps.

Vol. xv, No. 1 .—April-June, 1843. _ 10

74 Monography of the North American Cuscutinee.

very variable species. ‘The stamens and pistils are as long, or
rather a little shorter than the corolla, but the latter are elongated
after flowering. (Cuscuta Americana, Hooker?)

A. Cuscura Saururt.—lIt is very probable that Cuscuta wmbro-
sa, Beyrich, ex Hooker, is the same ; which name must therefore
be substituted for mine, though not quite appropriate. This plant
is very nearly related to the former species, but can always be dis-
tinguished by the more open, campanulate corolla, which in C.
pulgivaga is globose-campanulate, the thinner texture of calyx
and corolla, which is destitute of the pellucid dots, and the oblong
lobes of calyx and corolla, which are always more or less orbicu-
lar in C. vulgivaga. Large, overgrown specimens of C. vulgi-
vaga have sometimes the lobes of calyx and corolla as long as
the tube, but can always be recognized by the above characteris-
tics. Such specimens are those from Alabama and Texas, men-
tioned in this Journal, Vol. xu, p. 340. The true C. Saururt
I have only received from western New York, and from this
neighborhood ; where it grows in abundance on Polygonum, Sau-
rurus, etc. ina few localities.

I must mention here two specimens of a Cuscuta received from
Mr. M. A. Curtis, collected, one in Massachusetts, the other in
North Carolina. In their principal characters they agree with C.
Saururi, but the flowers are much smaller and frequently 4-part-
ed; the linear oblong, obtuse lobes of calyx and corolla are rather
longer than the tube; the filaments subulate, shorter than the limb ;
ovary with a stylopodium ; styles short and thick; capsule ? ©
~ An examination of more complete specimens and the living
plants must show whether there is a constant difference between
this eastern plant and the western C. Saururi. But I may here
remark, that the eastern form of C. vulgivaga is also mneh
smaller than our western form, and from Connecticut I have a
received a tetramerous C. vulgivaga !

~ 5. Cuscuta verrucosa.—Under this name I have confounded
two Texan species: the description is chiefly taken from the fol-
lowing species, but the figure refers to this one, which was first
collected by Drummond and afterwards by Mr. Lindheimer, both
times on Petalostemon multiflorwm. The description must be
altered:—C. VERRUCOSA, Cymes umbelliform, compound ; flowers
peduncled (small), 5-parted; calyx campanulate, verrucose ; seg-
ments ovate, somewhat obtuse, shorter than the globose-campa-

Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 75

nulate tube of the corolla; lobes of the corolla long acuminate,
somewhat longer than the tube; stamens half as long as the
limb; scales ovate fimbriate, rather larger than the tube ; ovary
globose, depressed, without stylopodium; capsule depressed.—The
tissue of the corolla is composed of large irregular cells.
_ 6. Cuscura HIsPrIpuLA, n. sp.—Stem low; cymes loose, few
flowered, hairy or nearly smooth; flowers very long peduncled
(small), 5-parted; tube of the corolla turbinate-campanulate,
twice the length of the ovate subacute segments of the calyx,
shorter than the long acuminate somewhat crenulate spreading
lobes; stamens half as long as the limb ; scales ovate, fimbriate,
nearly equaling the tube; ovary with a stylopodium and short
styles.
Texas, in dry and sterile prairies west of Houston. Flowering
in April and May. Compare the remarks made in Vol. xuim, p.
341, under C. verrucosa. Liuaulene

7. Cuscura NEUROPETALA, 2. sp.—Cymes umbelliform, smooth,
flowers pedunculate (large), 5-parted ; tube of the corolla campa-
nulate, nearly equal in length to the ovate-lanceolate acute cari-
hate segments of the calyx, and the ovate short-acuminate one-
nerved crenulate spreading lobes; stamens rather shorter than
the limb; scales ovate, fimbriate, incurved, as long as the tube ;
styles rather longer than the ovary with the stylopodium. :

- Texas, in wet prairies near Houston; on different Composit,
such as Liatris,-Solidago, Helianthus, Rudbeckia, and on Myrica
cerifera; flowering in August; F. Lindheimer,
- Flowers rather large, but variable in size ; segments of calyx
always very acute, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, somewhat shorter
ora little longer than the tube of the corolla, Anthers yellow
or purple; stigmas purple. — Sirs

Thin Sassi resemble in the structure of the corolla
the more northern C. Coryli; they have the same crenulated
margin, the same fleshy cellular texture, similar ineurved tips of
the acute lobes, and the same white color, which is not altered
in well-dried specimens. - ee k

-C. neuropetala is distinguished from C. hispidula by its per-
fect smoothness, its flowers being twice or three times as large,
its more compact, umbelliform cymes ; the whole plant is taller,
(in my specimens twelve to eighteen inches high.) The calyx
segments, at least the three outer ones, are carinate ; the lobes of

76 Monography of the North American Cuscutinee.

the corolla are broader, shorter, composed of small linear cells,
which are contracted in the middle into a distinct nerve. Stylo-
podium large in proportion to the ovary. Capsule not seen. The
purple anthers and stigmas in the white flowers, give this species
a very pretty appearance.
USCUTA PENTAGONA.—Capsule globose, somewhat depressed,

without.a stylopodium.

The description is taken from the Virginia plant; the forms
from Illinois and Texas constitute two distinct varieties.

8. microcatyx: flowers shorter peduncled ; calyx not remarka-
bly 5-angled, much shorter than the tube of the corolla.—Illinois.

y. caLycina: flowers shorter peduncled ; calyx not remarkably
5-angled, longer than the tube of the corolla, which i is equal to
the acute lobes.—Texas. _

This species bears some pesnihiaah to C. Polyzonorum on

: one side, and to the three foregoing species on the other; to

xu y the acuminate lobes of the corolla, to the first by. the
Seemed ovary and pale greenish-yellow capsule ;* but it is dis-
tinguished from both by the orbicular lobes of the generally large
and more or less pentagonal calyx. . The inflorescence represents
little umbels in 7, or approaches the glomerules of C’.. Polygeno-
rum in 8. andy. ‘The lobes of the corolla are acute, resembling
in shape those of the following species, in the Texan variety; or
longer and finely acuminate, (similar to. C. verrucosa and C. his-
pidula,) in the more northern forms. Stamens short, only half
the length of the limb; anthers nearly globose. Seales large,
ovate, fimbriate, sometimes exceeding the tube. Ovary and aps
snle depressed. :

This is probably the earliest species in North America; in Texel
it has been found in bloom in April and May, and near Bardstown
early in July; while here, one hundred miles further south, hardly
any other species. begins to open its flowers hater the last _
of that month,

9. CuscuTa Sn et SN of calyx generally as
long as the tube of the corolla, mostly subacute, but occasionally.
also somewhat obtuse; the corolla is thin, membranaceous, com-
posed of a very fine cellulae tissue; stamens broad at base, sub-
ulate ; scales smaller than i in-any athe species, except C. C. Coryli ;

*In all tile: species which are here mentioned, it is of a brown color, ait ie hm
perhaps in C. Cephalanthi, where it is also light- Soldred:

Monography of the North American Cuscutinee. 77

Il. Lepipancue.

Last autumn I discovered a second species of this genus, which
imposes the necessity of altering the generic character. It must —
now read: Capsule 2-celled, 1—4-seeded.

The facies of the genus refers principally to the first species ;
the second has more the appearance of a Cuscuta, but the flowers
are also closely sessile.

1, Lerrpancne Composrrarvm.—Stems before flowering orange
colored, soon decaying. (Cuscuta glomerata, Choisy, Mem. Soc.
Nat. Hist. Genev., ex adnot. A. Gray.)

2. Lagtoinenk ADPRESSA, ”. sp.—F'lowers sessile, glomerate,
5-parted ; calycine scales seven to nine, imbricated, appressed,
ovate or orbiculate, slightly crenulate, the outer ones the largest ;
tube of the corolla cylindric, a little longer than the calyx, twice
as long as the oblong obtuse spreading lobes; stamens short i
than the limb; scales laciniately pinnatifid, convergent, covering —
the ovary; ovary with the stylopodium equaling the styles; cap-
sule globose, shortly acuminate, covered by the marcescent co-
rolla ; 2-4-seeded. (Cuscuta compacta, Choisy, 1.c¢., ex adnot.
A. Gray. C. corongta, Beyr. ap. Hook. ?)

I discovered this species last autumn, in the fertile shady woods
on the banks of the Mississippi, amongst a most luxuriant growth of
vines and underbrush, on Bignonia radicans, Rhus toxicodendron,
Laurus Benzoin, Vitis, Cornus, etc. Choisy describes it from spe-
cimens collected in Alabama.

‘The flowers are closely sessile, but distinct, and not in such
dense clusters as in L. Compositarum. ‘The glomerules either
form a continuous line round the stem of the parent plant, or they
are separate, consisting of from five to ten or more greenish white
flowers. The filiform stout stems are whitish, and do not en-
tirely disappear at the flowering time. The capsules are gener-
ally 2-seeded; but as they are not so crowded as in the other
species, they are also found 3—4-seeded.

Plate VI, Vol. xii —The tube of the flower, fig. 4, ought to
be a little Sains: The lobes of the corolla, fig. 18, are too wide
at base; they should be more oblong. The ovary, fig. 24, should
be depressed like that in fig. 28. The calyx-segments ought to
be marked in fig. 25.

78 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va.

Arr. IX.—On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Vir-
ginia, with a proposed explanation of its low temperature ;
by C. B. Haypen.

A MOUNTAIN possessing a temperature so independent of all ex-
ternal causes, as to permanently preserve ice, within a few inches
of its surface, unaffected by the vicissitudes of the seasons, or the
diurnal variations of temperature, was too singular and striking a
phenomenon, not to have early attracted observation. The Ice
Mountain has hence received frequent notice, but of so indefi-
nite and frequently exaggerated a character, as to fail to pro-
duce a general belief in its existence, or to secure it that in-
terest which this rare curiosity so richly merits. "The Ice Moun-
tain is one of the subordinate ridges of the Cacasson Mountains,
and is a continuation of the North River Mountain; the latter
consists chiefly of sandstones, and constitutes the western portion
of an anticlinal axis, which at its commencement, many miles
south of the Ice Mountain, is low and symmetrical. As this axis
proceeds north it becomes more developed, and loses its symme-
try, the rocks on the western side having a much greater inclina-
tion than the corresponding oneson the eastern. ‘This inclination
of the rocks, constituting the western side of the axis, rapidly.
increases with its development, until they become perpendic-
ular, and form a distinet ridge, which in its continuation forms
the Ice Mountain. It rises to the height of seven or eight hun-
dred feet, forming a mural precipice, whose cragged summits
split and rent, shoot suddenly up into sharp turreted spires, ot
jagged pinnacles, resembling the battlements of a Gothic cas
tle, or the minarets of a mosque. At other times, losing this
wildness, it is as remarkable for its singular symmetry, as before
for its fantastic irregularity. Still retaining its precipitousness;
it rises to the height of several hundred feet; its uniform summit,
and rude massive symmetry, its steep rock: sides, devoid of veg-
etation, save where some stinted pine has “cast anchor in the
rifted rock,” all combine to give it the character of a huge Cyclo-
pean wall. This singular structure has been thus minutely
described, both from the unique and imposing scenery to which
it gives rise, and from the connexion it is supposed to have with
the phenomenon of the Ice Mountain. At the Ice Mountain, the

On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. 79

steepness and walled structure is retained, and the mountain
forms an abutment or support to an enormous glacis or bank of
rocks, which is thrown up against it on its western side. The
following section, without pretending to topographical accuracy,
will show the structure of the mountain and the relative position
of the talus heap containing the ice.

Talus con-
\\ taining ice.

North River

Tee Mountain.

. This natural glacis lies along the direction of the mountain,
reaching high up towards its summit, and extending laterally
several hundred feet from its base; the debris consists of frag-
ments of sandstone, varying in size from a few inches to many
feet in diameter, loosely heaped together, and from their irregular
angular shape generally separated by large interstices. ‘The main
ridge seen in the section is known as the Ice Mountain, though
it is only in the interstitial cavities of the talus, that the ice is
formed and preserved. |
- The Ice Mountain was visited by the writer in the summer of
1838, a season memorable in the annals of western Virginia for
its long and distressing drought, so fatal to the crops. The
heat of this season, though unparalleled in that region for duration
and intensity, but» slightly affected the temperature of the Ice
Mountain, as ice was found in great abundance by the writer, by
removing the rocks to the depth of a few inches. A thermom-
eter on being introduced into one of the cavities between the
rocks, so as to be exposed to the air without being in contact with
the rock, rapidly sunk to below 40°, and would doubtless have
been still further depressed had it been permitted to remain.
The general low temperature of the rocks was evinced by the
moisture which either bedewed their surface, or trickled from
their sides ; the result of the condensation of the atmospheric va-
por by the low temperature of the rocks, although at the time,
the dew point must have been extremely low. During the pre-
vious winter, the rocks had been removed from a portion of the
heap, to the depth of three or four feet, and the cavity thus

ie ee ie a
ne
$ s2

80 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va.

formed filled with snow, and loosely covered with planks, but so
slightly that the snow could be seen through the crevices of the
covering ; but though so imperfectly protected from atmospheric
agencies, the snow exhibited not the slightest traces of the heat
of the past summer, and was as dry, friable, and crystalline, as if
new fallen. The dairy mentioned by Kerchival,* has three of
its sides surrounded by the heap of rocks, and hence partakes of
the low temperature of the mass. The sides of the dairy were
not however, as in ordinary seasons, encrusted with ice, nor were
icicles pendent from its roof, but its temperature was still suffi-
ciently low to subserve all the purposes of a dairy and refrigerator.
The temperature of the spring which issues from the base of the
talus is unaffected by the temperature of the overlying mass, and
though reputed to be but slightly above the freezing point, is in
reality but one degree lower than the springs of the vicinity, and
no lower than some others in the same county, which vary from
51° to 52°. The scene, as viewed from the base of the moun-
tain, was as interesting as paradoxical. On the one hand was
the North River converted into a stagnant pool, its indurated bot-
tom exposed at short intervals—the drooping foliage of the forest,
the blighted grain, tinged not with autumn’s golden yellow, but
a sickly hue, denoting that it had prematurely fallen into “the
sere and yellow leaf”—all too plainly indicating the long contin-
ued action of summer’s heat, On-the other hand was a mass of
rocks below the freezing point, enclosing in its cavities snow and
ice, while the spectator himself enjoyed an atmosphere whose
bland, spring-like softness formed an agreeable contrast to the
distrossingly hot one, (96°,)+ for which it had a few sear
before been exchanged,

Having thus given a detailed iennbotion of the Ice Mountable

it may not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes which give
it a temperature so singularly independent of all those influences
which usually determine the temperature of terrestrial. bodies—®
temperature upon which the summer’s heat, neither in ordinary,
nor in unusually long, and intensely hot seasons, exerts the slight
est influence. The solution, I conceive, is. to be found in the
large and unusual collection of rocks, which from their ees
Se
* Kerchival’s History of the Valley of Virginia.

nae esta vane a few moments before aebetidmg the’ ‘mountain, “at 2 .. M, 7

me
3

On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va. 81

homogeneous texture are extremely poor conductors of heat. “By
reference to the description and section, it will be seen that
on one side is the mountain, consisting of a massive wall many
hundred feet in thickness, and heaped up against this as an
abutment, a mass of rocks containing several thousand cubic
feet. As the mountain has a general direction from N. E. to
S. W., the talus heap containing the ice has a N. W. exposure.
The cavernous nature of this heap would admit the free entrance
of atmospheric waters, which during the winter would form ice
in the interior of the mass. 'The ice thus situated would be pro-
tected from external heat by the surrounding rocks, as ice ina
refrigerator is isolated and protected from the external temperature,
by the non-conducting sides of the refrigerator. The Ice Moun-
tain only requires for the explanation of its phenomenon, the
application of the familiar principle upon which is constructed
the common refrigerator, which temporarily effects what the Ice
Mountain permanently does—a temperature independent of ex-
ternal causes. The Ice Mountain is in facta huge sandstone
refrigerator, whose increased and unusual effects beyond those of
the ordinary refrigerator, are due to the increased and unusual
collection of poor conducting materials which form its sides.
Similar, though inferior accumulations to that of the Ice Moun-
tain, from geological causes, frequently occur in Hampshire, and
the adjoining counties. Observation showed them in every in-
stance to have a temperature far below that of the atmosphere.
That this low temperature is permanent, is proved by the univer-
sal custom of individuals residing in their vicinity so constructing
their dairies, that three of their sides are enclosed by the rocks,
in the same manner as the one already described at the Ice Moun-
tain. Even a thin layer of poor conducting materials, affords a
much greater protection than would be anticipated by those
whose attention has not. been given to the subject. The means
resorted to by the shepherds of Mount Etna, for supplying their
flocks with water, exhibits the protecting influence of a bad con-
ductor.. The shepherds during the winter, cover the snow with
a layer of volcanic sand and ashes, a few inches in thickness,
which protects it from the sun, and preserves it throughout the
summer, thus affording them an abundant supply of water for
their flocks, where it could be obtained from no other source.
Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843... I he-i,

82 On the Ice Mountain of Hampshire County, Va.

A still more interesting and striking proof of the perfect isolation
from external causes, by a poor conducting covering, is attested
by the fact, that a large glacier of ice and snow was overflowed
by a stream of hot lava from Mount Etna, without being destroy-
ed.* The ice thus covered by the lava, was protected by it from
the summer’s heat, and continues thus preserved to the present
day. This can only be explained by supposing that the lower
portion of the lava current, immediately upon its contact with the
ice, was reduced to the temperature of the glacier, and that this
reduced stratum, from its imperfect power of conducting heat,
protected the ice from the hot lavaabove. Whatever may be the
explanation of it, or however paradoxical it may appear, the fact
is attested by too high authorities to be doubted. Public atten-
tion was first called to this interesting fact in 1828, when the
discovery was made by Signor Gemmellaro, in searching after
ice. It has been subsequently examined by Lyell and other dis-
tinguished geologists, who confirm the report of Signor Gemmel-

aro. Excavations made for removing the ice, have exposed the
lava for several yards, overlying the glacier, and so superimposed,
that the relative position of the lava and glacier can only be ac-
counted for by supposing that the latter was overflowed by the
former in a melted state. Monte Testaceo may be instanced as
presenting a phenomenon more strictly parallel with that of the
Ice Mountain, and as affording a happy illustration of the principle
so frequently alluded to. Monte Testaceo is situated in one of
the suburban riomi of Rome. It is merely a large mound, com-
posed of fragments of earthenware vases and urns, and is supposed
to mark the site of an extensive ancient pottery. This accumu-
lation of bad conducting materials preserves a uniform temperature,
many degrees below the main temperature of Rome, and on this
account artificial cavities formed by digging in the sides of the
mound, are used as wine vaults. In July, 1773, Prof. Pictet
found by observation, the temperature of one of the caves to be
44°, while that of the external atmosphere was 78°.+ If this com-
paratively small accumulation produces so great a depression in
Rome, where the mean temperature is 60°, it can be readily con-
ceived that the still greater accumulation at the Ice Mountain,
SN te

33 Lyell’s Principles of Geology, London edition, Vol II, p. 124.
t Edinburgh Philosophical Journal

Dent’s new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 83

would reduce the temperature to 32°, in a climate where the
mean temperature is but 52° or 53°.*

In endeavoring to explain the low temperature of the Ice Moun-
tain, the effect resulting from the bad conducting nature of the
mass, and its protection by similar materials on all sides except
the N. W., have alone been considered. The nature of the rocks
as absorbents of heat should also be estimated, as from their dull
white color, most of the heat would be reflected, leaving but a
small portion to be absorbed. It should also be borne in mind,
that the air immediately in contact with the ice would be, from
its lower temperature, specifically heavier than the external at-
mosphere, except in midwinter, and could only be replaced by
an atmosphere heavier than itself, and therefore colder. It hence
follows that the ice could only be affected by the hot air of sum-
mer, so far as its heat is conducted by the surrounding rocks,
which, as will appear from the foregoing explanations, must be
very inconsiderable.

Arr. X.—On the Errors of Chronometers, and explanation of a
new construction of the Compensation-balance ; by E. J. Dent.f

Ir must, doubtless, be interesting to the public in general to
have the opportunity afforded them of noticing the various state-
ments of reported improvements in chronometers, that are, from
time to time, set forth by their respective inventors. Such ac-
counts moreover answer the desirable and double purpose of
registering the several ingenious contrivances, as well as of ex-
hibiting in a clear light the nature of the difficulties usually
encountered in this important branch of the mechanical arts.
such a work, too, the public obtain a more distinct knowledge of
the subject, and at the same time receive a more attractive idea
of human ingenuity striving to attain mechanical perfection. It
must be confessed, however, that the result of the skill, labor,
and expense which have been bestowed within the last fifty
years on the improvement of chronometers, affords but little
room for congratulation, and must convince every one acquainted

* Deduced from observations on the temperature of the springs of that region.
+ Communicated by the author.

84 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers.

with the historical details of the subject, that the road to perfec-
tion in the art of chronometer-making is, as in most other arts, a
wearisome one, more frequently leading to profitless trouble, than
contributing either to the interest of the contriver or the benefit
of the public. Nevertheless, by such investigations has been
obtained the knowledge of a curious fact, which has lately exci-
ted the attention and ingenuity of various persons engaged in the
manufacture of chronometers. nd od :

The fact alluded to is this—that if chronometers, as generally
constructed, be regulated to mean time at mean temperature, the
chronometer will Jose at the extremes of heat and cold; or, if ad-
justed to keep mean time at the extremes, they will have a ten-
dency to gain at the intermediate temperatures.

This fact, although in all probability known to others, was
first pointed out by myself in No. 14 of the Nautical Magazine,
in the year 1833, but I am not aware that the slightest hint has
ever yet been given as toits true cause. In order to explain it,
we must bear in mind, that no chronometer can keep a uniform
rate, unless the tension, or moving force of the balance-spring,
has an invariable ratio to the resistance of the inertia. Now in
chronometers, as usually constructed, this ratio cannot, from the
nature of the construction of the balance, be maintained at differ-
ent temperatures ; since the tension of the balance-spring, when
influenced by a change of temperature, varies according to alaw
different from that observed in the simultaneous variation of the
inertia. We cannot, indeed, assign with any great precision the
law which connects the tension of the balance-spring with the
temperature. ‘That the force of tension, however, varies very
nearly as the temperature, within ordinary limits, may be seen
from the following experiments made with a chronometer having
a glass dise for the balance, anda balance-spring of hardened and
tempered steel.

” Therma _ iLL FO >. *.
Thermometer. Hourly rate. {Number of vibrations in one hour.
2 + 5.74 j

66 — 1.80 3598.20
100 —10.30 3589.70

_ Now since the force of tension of the balance-spring (the inertia
and friction remaining the same) varies as the square of the num-
ber of vibrations made in the same period, we have the following
results from the above, taking the force of tension at 32° to be
unity.

‘a:
:

Dent’s new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 85

Thermometer. __{ Tension of balance-spring.
0000

66 , 0.9958
100 0.9911

Thus the experimental tension at the mean temperature of 66°
Fahrenheit is 0.9958; and the tension computed upon the sup-
position that it varies as the temperature, is 0.9956; differing
only by the quantity .0002th part of the whole force, correspond-
ing to about 2° of the thermometer, which, considering the diffi-
culty experienced in maintaining an equality of temperature, in
the individual experiments, is not a greater difference than might
be reasonably expected, in all probability therefore the tension
varies nearly as the temperature, within ordinary limits ; but with
regard to the variation in the inertia, we know that the effect
produced by the compensating weights, by their approach and
recession from the centre of the balance, varies as the square of
the central distance; and therefore it is not to be wondered at,
that the required ratio betwen the tension and inertia should
occur only at two temperatures: nor is it surprising that when
chronometers are regulated for mean temperatures only, they
should lose at the extreme ones; since in the case of an increase
of temperature, the approach of the weights to the centre is not
sufficiently great to effect the compensation, and in the case ofa
decrease of temperature their recession from the centre is too great
to compensate for the increased rigidity of the balance-spring.
It is true, that this law of variation in the inertia applies only to
each particle of the balance in reference to its distance from the
centre of motion, and not to a mass, unless referred to the centre
of gyration ; and as the whole inertia of the balance is made up
of the inertia of the fixed arms, as well as the movable compen-
sating weights and rim, it is plain that any attempt to exhibit
by computation the variation of the whole inertia due toa change
of temperature, would involve not only a consideration of the
figure of the balance, but also a knowledge of the law of varia-
tion in the central distance (as depending upon temperature) of
the weights and rim, of which we are at present more in igno-
rance than of the Jaw that exists between the temperature and
the tension of the balance-spring. The inertia of the balance is
a more complicated function of the temperature than the tension
of the balance-spring, and involves a higher power of it: and this
is still a source of difficulty.

86 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers.

Another circumstance that tends to aggravate the error arising
from the defect of compensation for the diminished tension of the
balance-spring at high temperature, and the excess of compensa-
tion for the increased tension at low ones,—is, the unfolding or
straightening of the circular rim of the balance at reduced tem-
peratures, and the contrary action at high ones. By this action
of the rim, the compensating weights are made to describe por-
tions of a spiral curve, whereby the variations in the central
distance, due toa given change of temperature, are greater at
the low than at the high temperature, which is the reverse of
what is required in order to effect the compensation; and although
such deviations from the required law of approach of the com-
pensating weights may be rendered less apparent by increasing
the weights, yet, in this case, other errors are introduced (which
it will be needless here to allude to) that render this mode of
proceeding inadmissible without much limitation. In the con-
struction of the balance I shall here describe, it is not pretended,
indeed, that the law of approach is mathematically what it ought
to be, in order that the proper ratio may be obtained at all tem-
peratures between the tension of the balance-spring and the
inertia of the balance,—yet it may be safely affirmed that, in this
construction, the variations in the central distance of the weights
increase at the higher and diminish at the lower temperatures ;
which is exactly the reverse of what has hitherto generally taken
place in chronometers, and therefore will doubtless afford a much
hearer approximation to the truth than heretofore attained. More-
over, the correction of the error alluded to, will be a continuous
correction ; an object of no little importance, and which is not
effected in the contrivances lately put forth to remedy the defect
by means of supplementary weights, which weights are brought
into contact with the balance rim at a mean temperature. In
these contrivances by contact, although chronometers may be
adjusted to equal rates at one of the extremes, and also at a mean
temperature, yet between these limits, they are obviously subject
to an error of the same nature as before, though of one half the
amount only; and in the other half of the range of temperature,
when the supplementary weights are brought into contact with
the tim of the balance, the law of approach is the reverse of what
It ought to be. Besides, the friction at the point of contact is
highly objectionable in this mode of correction, and will not only

et ee

is proportional to t

Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 87

destroy all confidence in the performance of such chronometers
at mean temperatures, (the very temperatures at which their ser-
vices are most required,) but it is also a gross violation of the law
of continuity, upon the maintainance of which, the correct per-
formance of chronometers must depend. ,

In order that what I have stated with respect to chronometers
of the usual construction may be the more apparent, we will, for
the sake of illustration, suppose the tension of the balance-spring
to be in proportion to the temperature; then in the accompanying
figure, let BB’ BY be a scale of equal parts, and representing the
scale of a thermometer.

Fig. 1.

B’ B
66°. ss vad

B
100°

At the extreme temperatures, B and B’, suppose a chronometer
to be regulated to mean time ; then since at these temperatures,
the tension of the balance-spring must have the same ratio to the
inertia of the balance, take BD and BY’ D” at right angles to B
B’, in proportion to the inertia at these temperatures ; and also the
parts BG and B”G”, in proportion to the corresponding tensions
of the balance-spring. Join DD” and G G”. Since the tension
he temperature, the locus of G will be the
straight line GG", and from the relation which exists between
the inertia and the temperature, the locus of D will be a curve
line, as DD’D”. Let BD’ be another ordinate to the curve, at
an intermediate temperature, which produced meets DD?” in the
point m, and cuts G G” in G’. Now in order that the chronome-

88 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers.

ter may go mean time at the mean temperature, as in the extreme _

temperatures, the tensions of the balance-spring, which are here
represented by the lines BG, B’G’, and B’ G”, should be in pro-
portion to the ordinates B D, B’ D’, and B” D”, which cannot be
the case unless B’ D’ is equal to B’ m, or unless the point D/ coin-
cide with the point m, or the curve D D/ D” coincide with the
straight line Dm D’—which is impossible. The quantity m D‘
or difference between the inertia of the balance and what tf ought
to be, for the chronometer to go mean time, is seen in the diagram
to be the greatest at the intermediate temperatures, which in the
actual performance of the chronometer is the case—and as they
are found to gain at these temperatures, it is clear that BY D’ is less
than Bm, or the curve is convex towards the axis BB’. If
the chronometer, instead of being adjusted to the extreme tem-
peratures, be adjusted to the mean, and one of the extreme tem-
peratures, (as the highest for instance,) join DD’ and produce it
until it meets D” B” in the point x ; then since D” B” is greater
than n B” by the difference D’ n ; the inertia will be greater than
it ought to be, to an increased amount, corresponding to a dimin-
ished gaining, or an increased losing rate of the chronometer,
which is also found to be the case. I shall now proceed to show
the mode of construction of the balance which I have adopted in
order to obviate the error; and I have accomplished this, not by
supplementary weights, but by effecting a more perfect conform-
ity with the proper law of approach in the compensating weights

themselves ; the correction being, thereby, both continuous and

simultaneous.

Before entering on a description
of my improvements, I will ex-
plain, ftom the following diagram,
the defects in the construction of
the ordinary compensation-balance,
and show its inadequacy to accom-
plish the required correction for the
varying tension of the balance-

y * * ’ .
1 being on the outside of the Segments, and steel on the inside ; ¢, compen-
sating weights.

Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 89

On an increase of temperature, the movable extremities of the
segments approach the centre of motion, as represented by the
dotted inner curve lines, and the reverse effect takes place on a
decrease of temperature. Now, that the inertia may correspond
with the tension, the compensation-weights, c, upon an increase
of temperature, should approach the centre of the balance with
an accelerated motion, and, upon a decrease of temperature, with
a retarded one. On examination of this ordinary balance, it is
evident that its action is directly opposed to the above requisition.
And before further investigation of the subject, it is important to
remember, that when metals of unequal expansion, such as brass
and steel, are united, (as in the compensation-balance,) the ex-
tremities of the lamine move in a spiral curve, on being influ-
enced by change of temperature. I will now proceed to the
explanation :—If we connect, by means of the dotted straight
line d, the centre of gravity of the compensation-weight, with
the junction of the lamine, at the arm of the compensation-bal-
ance, and suppose a change of temperature from heat to cold to
take place, the result will be, that the brass, which is on the out-
side of the segments, contracts more by the increase of cold than
the steel on the inside; hence the distance between the centre
of gravity of the compensation-weights, and the junction of the
lamine at the arm, is increased: in other words, the length of
the chord of the arc, or dotted line, is, by the unfolding or
straightening of the segment, augmented. Under such circum-
stances the radius of motion and the increment of distance are
increased, whilst from an increase of temperature the converse
takes place, which is the very reverse of what should occur.
For, by an increase of cold, the chord of the are d should be
shortened, and lengthened by an increase of heat; a result which
my present invention is designed to effect by applying to the or-
dinary compensation, which may be termed primary compensa-
tion, the addition of a secondary continuous compensation, which
will move the compensation-weights over a space more calcula-
ted to accommodate the force of the inertia to the varying ten-
sion of the balance-spring.

In the drawings annexed, are representations of different modi-
fications of my invention, given as exemplifications of the prin-
ciples upon which my improvements are effected.

Vol. xtv, No, 1.—April-June, 1843. 12

es ee bd ee ee 4
90 Dent's new Com Balance for Chronomete

Fig. 3, represents the plan of a compensation-balance, in which the two com-
peneiteaci-qvenuline, are each carried by a primary and a continuous secondary com-
pensation-piece, which pieces are shown straight, in order to facilitate the clear
understanding of the principles of my invention : although, in practice, I frequent-
y use a curved figure for the pieces, or make the primary and continuous second-
ary compensations in one curved piece.

a, is a simple balance-bar, made of Fig. 3.

ld or other non-magnetic metal or
metallic compound,
» two primary ¢ ene eRe Nee
of brass and steel, or other suitable m
als, which pieces are firmly fied 'o on

e balance-bar a, nearly at the extrem-
ities, and run parallel with it towards
the centre. ;

¢, two continuous secondary compen-
sation-pieces attached to the free ends
of the primary pieces b, and proceeding in a direction from the centre ; the brass
of these pieces is, in both cases, at the inside of the angle, and the steel at the
outside.

d, the compensation- warps.

¢, the timing-weights.

~The pieces b I term the primary compensation, because their
action is to vary the inertia by bringing the compensation-weights
d nearer to the centre of motion for an increase of temperature,
and the reverse for a decrease ; and it is to be distinctly under-
stood, that this may be fairly épniidersd as the only adjustment
which the ordinary chronometer possesses, to correct the errors
of the balance-spring. I have before remarked, that the com-
pensation-weights, in the usual construction, ai not go sufli-
ciently in towards the centre of motion, on an increase of tem-
ue while they come out too far ona decrease. I will now

how the correction of this fault is to be accomplished by
ty invention.

The secondary compensation-pieces c move the compensation-
weights d on a change of temperature, in a direction nearly con-
centric with the centre of motion, and thus produce but little va-
riation as regards the times of vibration: These pieces I denom-
inate the “ secondary compensation-pieces,” and their position is
such, that the variation in the central distance of the compensa-
tion-weights, due to a given change of temperature, is a max-

m,; that is, the variation which causes the secondary colm-
pensation only.

For example ; on an increase of temperature, the weight dis
moved further from the junction of the primary compensation-

Chronometers. 91

piece b with the bar; and as the length of the dotted line /,
drawn from the centre of gravity of the compensation-weight d,
to the junction with the bar,—as the length of this line, I say, is
augmented by increase of temperature, the compensation-weight
d makes a quicker and nearer approach to the centre of motion
than in the old compensation-balance ; whereas, on a decrease,
the contrary takes place.

Deni’s new Compensation Bala

oe ee

Fig. 4, shows the plan of a balance, in which the primary and continuous secon-
dary compensation is obtained by means of one curved piece on each side of the
balance. 4

g, the balance, made of brass or other Fig. 4.
non-magnetic meta
h, two blocks or studs raised above
the face of the balance, to form the sup-
ports of the compensation.

k, l, m, two lamine, each curved in
such a manner as to combine the joint
effect produced by the primary and sec-

(Fig. 4) corresponding to the primary
compensation-piece, and that from / to
m corresponding to the secondary com-
pensation-piece of Fig. 3.

n, two prolongations from the ends of the compensation-pieces ; of steel only.

yp, two compensation-weights, screwed to the prolongations x.

q, four timing-weights.

Having thus fully explained the principle of my primary and
secondary compensation, I would remark that my invention em-
braces every. modification of this principle, by which the com-
pensation shall diminish the distance of the compensation-weights
from the junction of the lamine with the arm upon a decrease
of temperature, and produce the converse upon an increase ; which
is the reverse of what has generally been done in the ordinary
construction of the balance. Mile

In order to adjust this balance; as regards the secondary com-
pensation, if the chronometer gains at the extremes of tempera-
, compared with the mean, the secondary compensation-piece
must be shortened and the time restored, by adding to the nuts
at the ends of the bar; if the chronometer loses at the extremes
of temperature, the reverse operations must be resorted to. The
ordinary adjustments. for temperature are made by sliding the
weights p along the prolongations 7.

2 Dent's new Compensation Balance for Chronometers.

In figures 3. and 4, the compensation-weights are represented
as moving in the plane of the balance ; but I produce a simil t
eflect by causing the compensation-weights to move in a plane
passing through the axis of motion; the mode of accomplishing
which may be seen in the subjoined explanations.

Fig. 5, represents a balance formed according to this mode.

Fig. 5.

sating power hitherto employed in chronome-
ers.
s, two blocks attached to the ends of the bar,

f
the lamin being fixed upon the block s, the brass being in the insides of the sta-
ples, and the steel on the outsides.
u, two pillars fixed on the end of the upper pieces of these lamine ; to carry
the weights, these pillars are furnished with screws, on which the weights turn

for adjusting their heights.
v, the two adjustable weights.

By this arrangement the weight always moves in a line nearly
parallel to the axis of the balance.

On elevation of temperature, the distance between each staple
is increased in height, and by this means the -compensation-
weight is raised from the balance-bar; under these circumstan-
ces, the augmentation thus effected by my secondary compensa-
tion enables the primary compensation to carry the weight over
a greater space and with accelerated velocity, towards the centre
of motion ; the reverse effect of course taking place on a decrease
of temperature. This variation of velocity to and from the centre
of motion, could not possibly be brought about if the weights
were placed on the before-mentioned rigid immovable supports,
at the extremities of the balance-bar, as is usually done in the or-
dinary balances of this construction. dons

It may be remarked, that the bows of the secondary compen-
sation-pieces may stand across the length of the bar r, obliquely,
or at any angle, without varying the perpendicularity of the mo-
tion of the weights. eRe Ot 3

Dent’s new Compensation Balance for Chronometers. 93

Fig. 6, isa Perspective view of a balance Fig. 6.
a F

sation of the balances shown in figures 4 and
5, if in excess, the staples must be shortened
or thickened; and the reverse must be done, if in defect : the p primary compensa-
tion is iifjasiod: by thes the height of the weight v, on the screw w, according
to the usual practic

My patent further consists in the introduction of a remontoire-
escapement into a chronometer or other portable timekeeper. The
remontoire-spring being wound up at regular intervals by the
main-spring through the train of wheels, gives an invariable im-
pulse to the balance by means of an impulse-escape-wheel.

The principle of this escapement, now introduced into a chro-
nometer, may be considered the same as that lately invented by
G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Royal, who furnished me with
the drawings from which I recently conistracted the first astro-
_ homical clock containing his escapement.

r. Airy having generously given his invention to the public,
T have adopted those parts of it which were applicable to a chro-
nometer ; and have succeeded in preserving the ordinary detach-
ed ascapemént, (which has so long and so deservedly maintained
its undisputed preéminence,) and uniting in conjunction with it
such adaptations as to convert it into a remontoire-escapement for
a chronometer

The result of this eouibiiiitidn is, that a constant impulse is
given to the balance by the impulse-escape-wheel, without its re-
ceiving any lateral pressure from the usual train of wheels ; for
that of the remontoire-spring can hardly, with justice, tic so
called. :
~ London, Nov. 1, 1842.

94 Description of a Blind Fish from Kentucky.

Art. XI.—Description of a “ Blind Fish,” from a cave in Ken-
tucky ; by Jevrrres Wyman, M. D., Member of the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History.

Tne specimen from which the following description is drawn,
was presented to the Boston Society of Natural History by J. G.
Anthony, Esq. of Cincinnati. It corresponds for the most part
with the description of the Amblyopsis speleus, described by Dr.
Dekay in the Fauna of New York, but in some particulars it
differs.

The specimen here described was 4,', inches long, and charae-
terized by a broad vertically compressed head, covered witha
whitish integument entirely destitute of scales, but on it are seen
numerous elevations or ridges, most abundant on the lateral por-
tions ; some of them intersecting each other at right angles, _The
lower jaw is more prominent than the upper; no appearance of
eyes; nostrils double, ve anterior ones tubular, the posterior
nearly circular, about ;'; inch behind the preceding. Both jaws
are provided with folds of skin, or lips; intermaxillaries and lower
jaw armed with minute slender and slightly recurved teeth, most
abundant at a short distance from median line—a group of teeth
on palatines on each side; also two groups in pharynx above,
and four below. Upper snasillaries concealed by integuments,
and destitute of teeth. Intermaxillaries form the borders of mouth -
above, and extend nearly to its angles. Branchial 2 wie large,
branchiostegous rays 6 on each sides.

‘Body covered with circular scales ‘whieh terminate abruptly at
the posterior limit of the head; the scales are smaller on back
than on the sides, and are so enveloped in the cuticle as not to
present free edges. Lateral line occupies the middle of the late-
ral region, commencing under the anterior extremity of the dorsal
fin, passes directly backwards, First ray of dorsal, a little poste-
rior to the middle of body; anal commences a little bebind t the
dorsal ; abdominals very small.

Fin rays. Pectoral, 10; dorsal, 10, first very minute ; caudal,
17 or 18; anal,’9; abdominal, 4,

Anus very far for waite; about 2; inch behind the anette form-
ed by the union of branchial membranes,

Description of a Blind Fish from Kentucky. 95

Alimentary canal; entire length less than that of the body.
(Esophagus very short ; stomach cylindrical, terminating posterior-
ly in a short triangular cul de sac, the point of which reaches the
posterior limit of the cavity of the abdomen. Stomach contract-
ed, and mucous membrane thrown into longitudinal folds. Py-
lorus situated near posterior extremity of stomach ; has a distinct
valve which projects into cavity of duodenum; two short pyri-
form cecal appendages, open by distinct orifices on opposite sides
of intestine. Mucous membrane of small intestine arranged in
reticulated cells, which become less distinct towards termina-
tion. Length of small intestine 14 inches; of large intestine 4
inch ; the two separated by a distinct valve.

’ Liver consists of two lobes ; left extending nearly whole length
of abdominal cavity, right very short. Gall-bladder distinct.
- Air bladder cordiform, deeply cleft anteriorly.

Brain ; from anterior extremity of olfactory lobes to posterior
portion of cerebellum, 0.24 inch. Olfactory lobes in contact
with and just in front of cerebral hemisphere, of slightly pyri-
form shape, and giving off large olfactory nerves. Cerebral lobes,
nearly spherical, slightly compressed on median line, where the
right and left unite. Optic lobes much smaller than preceding, and
partly concealed by the cerebellum. Cerebellum nearly spherical,
slightly divided on median line, giving it a somewhat cordiform
appearance. Fourth ventricle completely exposed, and widely
open. Posterior pyramidal bodies distinct, projecting over the
cavity of the ventricle near its middle. External to these last
arise the branchio-gastric nerves. Auditory sacs large ; ampulle
of semicircular canals containing otolites, one of which is of a
trapezoidal shape, and nearly equalling in size one of the cerebral
hemispheres. ‘The inferior optic lobes, “ lobi inferiores,” very
small, not larger than a pin’s head; in front of them rests the

-pituitary body. No optic nerve was found. Branchio-gastric
and fifth pairs of nerves of the usual size.

Internally the nostrils consist of an ovoidal cavity, "5 inch in
longest diameter ; olfactory membrane arranged in seven folds or

_ digitations of unequal length, and radiating from a point in the
anterior portion of the cavity. At the anterior extremity of this
cavity is a small orifice opening into a blind sac or canal, which
passes at first directly backwards and then ascends upon the up-

96 On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English.

per surface of the cranium. On the most careful dissection no
traces of eyes were found. .

From the above description it appears that this fish, inhabiting a
dark cavern, is reduced, as regards its organs of vision, to a much
more imperfect condition than the Proteus anguinus, inhabiting
the subterranean caverns of Illyria, or the common mole, in
both of which eyes exist, although of a microscopic size. Dr.
Dekay has placed this fish among the Siluride; though, as he
distinctly states, only provisionally. ‘The presence of scales and
cecal appendages to the pylorus, as well as the absence of cirrhi
about the mouth, would seem to indicate feeble affinities with
the Siluride. The parts entering into the composition of the
brain, when compared with those of the Pimelodus, present many
differences in the size and proportions. Its true affinities cannot
be well determined until an opportunity shall be afforded by fu-
ture dissections for the examination of its osteology.

Art. XII.—On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English; by
Prof. J. W. Gupss.

Tue genitive case in English is usually regarded as altogether
adnominal, i. e. as used only in connection with a noun. Hence
the only rule in our common grammars concerning this case is,
that it is governed by a substantive, either expressed, or implied
by the context. In the other Teutonic dialects, however, this
case is also used adverbially, i. e. in connection with a verb, and
that to indicate various relations. This adverbial use of the gen-
itive, although generally overlooked, and often misunderstood,
may be shown to exist also in English in several classes of words.

I. This genitive is found in a few substantives, and that with-
out any preposition preceding. es

1. Needs, (Old Eng. nedes, needes;) of or from necessity-

hus, ;

Soche thinges muste nedes be.— Tyndale, 1534, Mark 13: 7-
ei oe needes goe forth and see it—Rhemish Version: Luke

He will needs be a judge.—Gen. 19: 9. :

Needs here is the genitive of need. Comp. Anglo-Sax. nedes
or nydes, of necessity, composed of ned or nyd, necessity, and és;
the termination of the genitive singular masculine.

On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. 97

2. Ways, in montaye; straightways, otherways, mee side-
ways.

Ways here is the genitive of way. Comp. Germ. dnaeiee weges,
noways, genitive of keiner weg; gerades weges, straightways,
— of gerader weg.

Ways in always is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax. calle wega, in all
ig ‘ha adjective ealle and the substantive wega being both in the accusative
plural.

3. Gates, in Old English othergates, i in another manner. Thus,

If Sir Toby had not been in drink, he would have tickled you
othergates than he did.—Shaksp.

Gates here is the genitive of gate, i. q. gait, way, manner.
Comp. Scott. thus gatis, after this manner, both words being in
the genitive singular.

es in algates is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax. algeats ; also ,
Scott. mony gatis, in various ways; also always supra.

4, Times in sometimes, at one time.

Here times is the genitive of time.

Note.—Times in sometimes, at some times or intervals, is plural.

II. This genitive is found.in some substantives with a prepo-
sition preceding.

1. Adays, (Old Eng. adayes, adaies,) in or on day, i, e. by
day. Thus,

Aday when hyt is lygt.—Syr Launfal.

So in the phrase now adays.

Days here is the genitive of day. Comp. me eae dages,
by day, genitive of deg, day ; Germ. dags, by day, ge of
r Nove Ths ers that days is plates seems sometimes to have affected its use.

hus
“wai men of spirit now adays
Come to give sober judgment of new plays ?—Garrick.

2. Anights, in or on night, i ji. e. at night. Thus,

I bid him take that for pete ee anights.—Shaksp.

Such as sleepe anights.—Shaksp.

Nights here is the genitive of night. Comp. Anglo-Sax. nthies,
Germ. nachts, by aioe wats $, or es, is the termination of the
genitive singular mascu

Besides, (Old an "Bisidis,) by the side, over and above.

8,
In that dai mg ghede out of the hous, and sa sate s Bisidis the

see.— Wiclif: M
Vol. xtv, No.1. agree 1843, 13

98 On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English.

Sides here is the genitive of side. Comp. Germ. beiseits, aside,
where s is the termination of the genitive singular masculine.

4. Ships, in midships, amidships, thwartships, athwariships,
is the genitive of ship.

Il. This genitive is found in a few adjectives, either with or
without a preposition preceding.

1. Askance, obliquely. vitae Dutch schuins, obliquely, where
s is the genitive terminatio

2. Soons in Old English anemia or eftsoons, soon atecpeail
compounded of Anglo-Sax. eft, afterwards, and sones, soon. Thus,

Moyses eftsones resorting to Damascus,— Gower.

Crying eftsoons alowd.—Holland.

Eftsoons the father of the silver flood.— Thompson.

Soons here is the genitive of soon. Comp. Anglo-Sax. sones,
with the termination of the genitive.

3. Unawares, or at unawares, (Old Eng. unwares ) unexpect
edly. Thus,

That daye come on you unwares. = Tgnihale: a: 21: 34,

Jacob stole away unawares to Laban .— Gen.

Let destruction come upon him at unawares. _Ps, 35: -

Unawares here is the ‘genitive of unaware. Comp. Anglo-
Sax. unawares, which is in the genitive.

4. Wards, in inwards, outwards, towards, fromwards, onwards,
upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, afterwards, side-
wards, hitherwards, homewards.

Wards here is the genitive of ward, Lat. versus. Comp. Goth.
andvairthis, jaindvairths, vithravairths. Old Germ. inwertes,
uzwertes, anawertes, heimwartes. Germ. einwiirts, auswirts, ab-
wiirts, aufwarts, unterwirts, niederwirts, vorwarts, ruckwarts,
seitwirts, herwirts, thalwirts. Anglo-Sax. uteweardes, towardes
or toweardesyupweardes, fromweardes, hameweardes.

The termination s in these examples from the kindred dialects
is evidently the sign of the genitive case.

IV. This genitive is found in some numerals.

1. Once, (Old Eng. onys, oonys, detisiads one time, formerly.
Thus,

— and thy wyfe may onys aspye. —Poem i in the time of Hur
ry L

ka was deed oonys.— Wiclif: Rom. 6: 10.
Ice here is the genitive of one. Comp. Dutch eens, onees

wv ee ‘\
On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. 99

genitive of een, one; Old Germ. eines, ghuitive of ein, one;
Germ. einst, (for pra formerly. _
2. Twice, (Old Eng. twies, twyes,) two times. Thus;
As presente twies.— Wichif: 2 Cor. 13: 2.
Twyes is somer in that lond. er Alisaunder.
Twice here is the genitive of two.
3. Thrice, (Old Eng. thries, thryse,) three times. ‘Thus,
Thries 1 was betun.— Wiclif: 2 Cor. 11: 25.
Thou shalte denye me thryse.— Bible, 1551.
Thrice here is the genitive of three.
V. This genitive is found in some pronouns.
1. Else, (Old Eng. elles, ellys, ellis, els ; Boothe ellis ;) otherwise.
Elles wyder.—R. Gloucester.
- Let honge me ellys.—Piers Plouhman.
Ellis ye schuln have no mede at youre fadir that is in hev-
enes.— Wiclif: Mat. 6

Or els ye get no rewarde of youre father which is in heven.—
Tyndale: Mat. 6: 1.

All that els I saw.—Spenser.

Else here is the genitive of the root of Gr. doz, Lat. alius,
Goth. alis. Comp. Anglo-Sax. elles, Old Germ. alies, elies, alles,
allas, ellies, Dan. ellers; in all which forms s is the termination
of the genitive.

2. Hence, (Old Eng. hennes, hennis, hens ; also han, henne ;)
from this place.

_ Holynesse and love han ben longe. _, ailans Plouhman.

Passe thou hennes.— Wiclif: Mat. 17

Ye schulen not se me fro hennes Seibert aie Mat. 23 : 39.

Hens over a mile.—Chaucer.

Hence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Prva nciertins heona, (Lat: hinc, Proveng. hereance ;) Germ.
hinn

By a (Old Eng. cers thennis, thens ;) from that place.

- And he ghede out fro thennes.— Wiclif: Mark 6:

- They thennes went.—Chaucer.

From thensforth.—Chaucer.

Thence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax. thanan ; Germ. dannen ; Proveng. thereance.

4. Whence, (Old Eng. whennes, whsthoiiid;9 from what place.

Of whennes to this, alle these thingis.—Wiclif: Mark 6: 2.

100 On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English.

From whens hath he these thinges ?— Tyndale : Mark 6: 2.

Whens that she came.— Gower.

Whence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax. hwonan, hwanon, Old Germ. hwanan, Germ?
" wannen.

5. Since, (Old Eng. sens, sence, sithence, sithens ;) from the
time.

How longe is it a goo, sens this hath happened him ?—T'yn-
dale: Mark 9:21.

For aoe the fathers dyed, all thinges continue. a ier
2 Pet. 3:

And “i sithence the bishop of Rome will now adaies be
so called.—Jewell.

For sithens shootinge was neglected.—Ascham.

Sithence the verie apostles owne times. ~Hooker.

Before or sithence.— Hooker.

Since here probably has the termination of the genitive. Game.
Anglo-Sax. sithen, siththan, syththan ; Dutch sind Germ. seit.

6. Thus, (Old Eng. this ;) in this manner.

He hath lain ¢his long at great costes and charges and canne
not have hys matter come to the hearynge.—Latimer, 1562.

“ Thus much” for “this much.”— Webster.

Thus here is the genitive of the or that. Compare Anglo-Sax-
thus, thes; Dutch dus. The Anglo-Sax. thes, this, is the gen-
itive singular masculine and neuter of se, theo, that.

VI. This genitive is found in some words, in which s the sign
of the genitive is now hardened into sz.

1. Against, (Old Eng. agens, ageins ;) in opposition to.

He that is not with me: is agens me.— Wiclif: Mat. 12: 30.

Ageins nature. —Chaucer.

Against here is probably the genitive case of an old noun,
whose meaning cannot be exactly defined. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
io-geanes, to-genes, to-gagnes, to-gegnes, Dutch tegens. ‘These
Anglo-Saxon and Dutch forms commence with a different prefix,
but have the genitive termination.

Note.—The convenient distinction made in English betweest again and against
does not exist in the other dialeets.

2. Alongst, (obsolete, see Dr, Webster; Old Eng. alongest ;
Scott. Jangis ;) by the length. -
To sayle alongest by the lande.—WNicolls : Thucyd. 1550.

On the Adverbial Genitive Case in English. 101

Alongst the sea-coast.—Knolles. © *

Langis the ryvere of Anien.— Douglas > Virgil.

Alongst here is the genitive case of Jong. Comp. Germ. lings,
along; Old Germ. langes, and Germ. lingst,a long time; Dutch
onlangs, recently, langs, along; Swed. dengs, along.

3. Amidst, in the midst or middle.—See Midst.

4. Amongst, (Old Eng. amanges, amonges, amongest ; Scott.
amangis, amangys ;) in the crowd.

To halden amanges yeu ine hord— Old English Letter of
the year 1258.

Amonges other of his honest thinges.—Chaucer.

I stonde as one amongest all.— Grower.

Amangys thame.—WScott. Acts, 1567.

Amongst here is probably the genitive case of an old noun,
denoting a crowd or multitude.

5. Atwizt, (obsolete, see Dr. Webster, ) between.—See Betwict.

Great love was atwizt hem two.—Chaucer.

With dreadful thunder and lightning atwirt.—Spenser.

6. Awhilst, (not in Webster, nor in Richardson.) See Whilst.

7. Betwixt, (Old Eng. bituer, bytwixe, betwix, bitwixen, by-
twyr, bytwyt, betwyr ; Scott. betweesh ;) between.

Bituer them.—R. Brunne.

Bytwize us and you.— Wiclif: Luke 16: 26.

Betwir all maner folk.—Chaucer.

This was the forward pleinly t’ endite,
Bitwiven Theseus and him Arcite— Chaucer. :

Betwizt here is the genitive case of an old noun signifying two.
Compare Anglo-Sax. betweohs, betweor, betwur, betwuxt, betwict.

8. Midst, in the phrases amidst, about the midst, from the
midst, in the midst, into the midst, of the midst, out of the midst,
through the midst, etc. (Old Eng. myddes, myddest, myds,
middes, middest, mids ; Scott. myddis ;) the middle.

In the myddes of the world.—R. Gloucester.

Yet was he caught amiddes all his pride——Chaucer.

And the vayle of the temple dyd rent even thorow the myddes.
— Tyndale: Luke 23 : 45.

Which is in the myddes of the paradice of God.—T'yndale :
Rey. 2:7.

The shippe was now in the middes of the see.— Tyndale:
Mat, 14: 24.

a
€

102 Phosphate of Lime in the Virginia Meteoric Stone.

For lykewise as God ‘is in the myds of the good counsayle,
so in the myddest of an evyl counsayl, is ther undoutedly the
dyvel.— Sir T'’. Moore.

When Calidora
Him overtook in middest of his race. ia Rineielorit Faerie Queene.

- Among the middest crowd.—Spenser.

And the vaile of the temple was rent in the mids.—Original
Edition of King James’s Bible: Luke 23: 45.

Which is in the middest of the paradise of Godebs Original
Edition of King James’s Bible: Rev. 2: 7.

In myddis of the land.—Wyntown.

Midst is rarely used as a nominative, or as s an accusative with-
out a preposition.

Midst here is the genitive case of mid, the middle. Comp.
Anglo-Sax. to-middes, where middes is the genitive of Anglo-
Sax. midd, the middle; Germ. mittelst, by means of, for ae
the genitive of Germ. mittel, the middle or means.

‘ Note.—Dr. Webster supposes st in midst th f the superlative —
So Sir John Stoddart, art. Grammar, in suis Metr

ienp: P p- 129.

9. Whilst, awhilst ; (Old Eng. whiles, whilest ; Scott. quhiles,
whiles ;) while.

Wat sholde we women, worche the whiles.— Piers Plouhman.

Whailest good men wanted it—Beaumont and Fletcher. ..

Whiles he _ the wine.—Some Editions of King James's
Bible: Daniel 5

Quhiles wandeniie quhiles dandring.—Burel’s Pilg.

Whilst here is the gens case of while, time.

Note.—On the st generally, comp. Germ. nebst, (from neben, nebens ;) anders
and anderst ; selbst, (Old Germ. pe Dutch zelfs.)

Arr. XIIL—On Phosphate of Lime (Apatite), in the Virginia
Meteoric Stone ; by Cuartes Uruam Surrarn, M. D., Prof. of
Chemistry in the Medical College of the State of S. whee

M. Rumer, in a recent number of Pocernporrr,* in enume-
rating certain ingredients in meteorites, after the mention of phos

“* See
* Ueber die bei Jwan, in Oedenburger Comitate Ungarns, am 10, August
Abends zwischen 9 und 10 Uhr aus der Luft gefallenen und fir Meteorsteine 5%

neuer Art seat
Hof-Mineralien-Kabinette zu Wien, s.279. Annalen der Physik und ‘Chemie
von Poggendorff, Band tiv, Stuck 2, 1841.

sis

ike

Phosphate of Lime in the Virginia Meteoric Stone. 103

phoric acid, adds, ‘‘for Sueparp’s discovery of this acid in the
meteoric stone of Richmond, is still doubtful, (denn Sueprarp’s
Entdeckung dieser Saiire in Meteorsteine von Richmond ist noch
zweifelhaft).” Although this observation occasioned in me no
surprise, since I had stated at the conclusion of my remarks on
the mineral,* my regret “ that the smallness of the quantity, pre-
vented me from making still further experiments by means of
which my conclusion concerning its nature might have been ren-
dered certain,” still it determined me to make new trials for pla-
cing the subject if possible, beyond dispute.

Through the kindness of Prof. Si.timan, who possesses nearly
the whole of the Richmond stone, I was permitted to detach a
fresh fragment which brought into view several points of the
yellow mineral in question. The most perfect of these, having
the size of half of a pin’s head, was crushed to powder on a small
piece of clean platinum foil, previously fitted to the bottom of an
agate mortar. ‘The foil with the crushed mineral thereon, was
then shaped into a little cup, and a freshly cut piece of potassium
pressed into it, so as to be in immediate contact with the powder. —
The platinum cup and its contents were then forced to the ;
bottom of atest tube (4 of an inch in diameter and 23 long);
and after heating the tube in contact with a live coal, until a

_ slight flash of light was witnessed in the platinum cup, a few

drops.of water were let fall into the tube. On holding the open
end of the tube beneath the nose, a distinct odor of phosphuretted
hydrogen was recognized. A few drops of dilute nitric acid were
subsequently added; and after digestion for a few moments and
neutralization by ammonia, oxalate of ammonia threw down an
evident precipitate.

The foregoing experiment clearly establishes the presence of
phosphoric acid in the mineral; and the precipitate with oxa-
late of ammonia, taken,with all the circumstances detailed in my
mineralogical account of the substance, leave scarcely a doubt of
its being.combined with lime, in the form of phosphate of lime.

Charleston, S. C., March 18, 1843.

* See Vol. xvi, p. 199, of this Journal.

104 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

Art. XIV.—On the Analogies between the Modern Igneous
Rocks and the so-called Primary Formations, and the Meta-
morphic changes produced by heat in the associated sedimen-
tary deposits ; by James D. Dana, Geologist re the late U. 8.
Exploring Expedition.

[Read before the Association of American Géologiats and Naturalists at Albany,

April 26th, 1843, and published by their authority.] ;

Tue conclusions to which I arrive in the remarks that follow,
are the result of observations made by me in the course of the cruise
of the Exploring Expedition. In illustrating the subject, I have
_ drawn but little upon the facts of the Expedition, as these are by
authority reserved for the government publications now in process
of preparation. I would however state, to justify myself against
the imputation of haste in my generalization, that the regions
offered for examination during the cruise, were of varied charac-
ter and unusual interest; that the Andes of Chili and Peru, the
mountains and plains of Oration, the coral, basaltic and volcanie

- islands of the Pacific, and the regions of sandstone, coal and ba-

salt in New South Wales, and portions of New Zealand, have all
contributed to these results, offering rocks for examination of all
ages from the burning lavas and forming coral rocks to the deep-
seated granite and the associated schists; and there are scarcely
any of these different formations which re not furnish something
in elucidation of the subject under discussion. This may possi-
bly be deemed sufficient to acquit me of presumption if I dare to
differ from some names high in authority. I would disclaim ever
having been actuated by a desire to seek out novel facts or novel
principles, being satisfied that the common things which meet
the eye, are more replete with instruction than the unusual and
strange which only create surprise.
_ The principles in view bear upon the metamorphic theory of
r. Lyell, and they have been deduced by comparing the Pluto-
~ nic rocks—the various granites and associated schistose forma-
tions—with igneous rocks of all ages down to the modern lavas,
together with their effects upon sedimentary strata. It will hence
appear that although I may dissent from some of Mr. Lyell’s
views, I am still carrying out his grand fundamental canon, that
existing causes explain past phenomena, than which nothing has
done more to advance and elevate the science of geology.

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 105

I shall endeavor to establish

Ist, That the schistose acquaint gneiss: ‘and mica iad, i is no
satisfactory evidence of a sedimentary origin ;

2d, That some granites with no trace of a schistose structure,
may have hada sedimentary origin

3d, That heat producing the aia that are sessed metamor-
phic, was not applied from beneath by conduction from some in-
ternal source of heat; on the contrary it was applied through the
waters of the ocean, covering and permeating the deposits which ©

received their high temperature from the eruption itself. Tn oy

other words, the metamorphic rocks so called are not hypogene,
as explained by Mr. Lyell, but—to use corresponding phraseol-

ogy—epigene, or analogous to other rock RRS a
and solidified on the surface of the earth.

_ The argument for the sedimentary origin of gneiss, mica slate,
etc., is based upon the assumption that known igneous rocks do
not assume a schistose structure. But this is far from true, for the_
descriptions of most volcanic regions mention the occurrence of
laminated trachytes, basalts and porphyries. It is by no means
unusual to find basalts and basaltic lavas with parallel lines of
lamination, sometimes appearing only after being weathered, and —

at others so distinct as to admit of easy cleavage. This takes pla ec
| both if massive and columnar basalt. At the Cape Verds, onthe
| shores just below the town of St. Jago, the columns are gradually
falling to pieces, owing to an exfoliation of the summit, from
which curved plates separate easily, usually from a fourth to half
an inch thick. Such instances, which are not uncommon, are
imputed to a concentric structure. This is no doubt true, but the
concentric structure is but one mode of crystallization, and crys-
tallization as we believe, is the cause of the schistose structure in
all igneous rocks. Massive. basaltic lavas splitting into aes
lamin an inch or so'thick, are met with at the Sandwich Islands. —
Laminated or slaty trachytes are too well known to require more
| than a mere allusion to them. “The structure is far more thinly ~
schistose than any gneiss, and often nearly as much so as many
mica schists. Laminated porphyry is described by Prof. Em-
mons as occurring at Cannon’s Point in northern New York,
which splits into plates from a fourth to an inch in thickness.
- A schistose structure then is certainly no evidence that the rock
was not originally igneous; and if we consider how exactly this
Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 14

106. . Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

structure corresponds with the constitution of the rock and pro-
ceeds from its mineral composition, we shall see farther reason
for rejecting this assumption. The general principle upon which
this structure depends, appears to be simply this:—An igneous
rock is in general more or less schistose or slaty, according to the
cleavability of its constituent minerals. _ It is one of the general
principles of crystallography, that when crystals of any mineral,
form simultaneously, they tend to assume parallel positions.
Faces of like cleavage lie in the same direction. No one can have
glanced his eye over a druse of crystals, without being struck with
the successive flashes of light that sparkle over the surface as its
position is changed;.and if he has observed attentively, he has
perceived that a similar face in each of the crystals reflects simul-
taneously, and thus produces this beautiful effect. This is an
instance of that parallelism in the position of crystals to which I
have alluded. The same parallelism takes place in mineral aggre-
gates, such as basalt or granite. Basalt is often described as hav-
ing a regular cleavage and its columns as crystals. ‘There is no
proper analogy between the forms assumed by mineral aggregates
and crystals; for such mixed compounds cannot crystallize asa
whole. Each constituent mineral of basalt or granite crystallizes
independently, and one or the other, according to that which pre-
dominates, impresses its cleavage upon the rock, or at least. gov=
erns it to some extent in its fractures. The common cleavage of
granite illustrates these facts. .The rock consists of quartz, feld-
spar and mica—the first has no cleavage and the last yields in
quantity to the feldspar, which is therefore the mineral upon which
the cleavage of the rock depends. The unequal rectangular
planes of fracture in granite rock known by every quarrymad,
_ correspond therefore, as has been before suggested, with the cleav-
ages of the contained feldspar.
_If we examine the various igneous rocks with reference to. this
, principle, we shall find them supporting it throughout.. Basalt
consisting of feldspar and augite, and generally more or less chry-
solite, is usually like granite, one of the uncleavable,igneous rocks,
or possesses it but indistinctly. Either of these minerals may
determine the lines of fracture producing the columnar structure.
In New South Wales, my attention was directed to a bed of what
was called mica slate, overlying. basalt. In hand-specimens it
could hardly be. distinguished from a rusty decomposing mica

Modern Teneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 107

slate, but on examination at the locality, it proved to be nothing
but decomposed basalt. The chrysolite, which was very indis-
tinctly seen in the basalt itself, had become stained with iron
through partial decomposition, and was split into thin scales, and
the whole deposit had received, in consequence, the foliated struc~
ture of mica slate. ‘This foliation had taken place parallel with
the top of the bed of basalt—a semicolumnar variety—and seemed
to evince that the crystals of chrysolite, while forming, assumed
parallel positions as above explained, with the face of most perfect
cleavage horizontal. ‘The compact basalt could be chipped off
with the hammer more easily at right angles with the columns

than in other directions. The chrysolite therefore, was in this ease

the mineral on which the cleavage depended. In instances of
what are called concentric structure, the cause is the same. ‘The
mineral upon which the concentric lamination depends, lies with

its plane of most perfect cleavage, coincident with the plane of

lamination. pelts:
~ In slaty trachytes, the lamination may often be distinctly traced
to the feldspar or crystals of hornblende or mica. Large crystals
of glassy feldspar, often lie in the plane of lamination, beautifully
illustrating these principles. ‘The hexagonal tables of mica have
the same-position, and when abundant, it produces the most slaty
trachytes that are known. A fine illustration of the whole series
of rocks from granite to mica slate, is presented by an extinct vol-
cano in the Sacramento Plains, in Upper California. Much of the
rock resembles granite or gneiss—although properly a trachytic
porphyry. It consists of large erystals of glassy feldspar, dissem-
inated thickly through a greyish base, which is speckled with
small black erystals of hornblende and mica. ~ In another part of
this extinct voleano, the rock breaks into lamine a third of an
inch thick, and contains tables of mica lying as usual in the plane
of fracture, while the feldspar is in very small crystals, imbedded
in 2 compact feldspathic base.” vet
We might cite examples from the voleanic regions of Europe,
but what has been already said, appears sufficient to establish the
fact that modern igneous rocks are laminated, and in general,
more or less so according to the quantity and cleavability of the
cleavable minerals they contain. Mica, the most perfectly foliated
mineral, produces when abundant, and when not overruled by
the other constituents, the most perfectly laminated rock.

108 _ Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

If these principles are applied to granitic or ancient Plutonic
rocks, including the associated schists, we may explain all their
peculiarities of structure without other aid. In common granite
the feldspar predominates much over the mica, and fixes the di-
rection of its cleavage planes. Gneiss which contains more mica,
has both the cleavage of mica and feldspar, the former at right

angles with the latter. ‘The mica was so abundant that the form-—
ing crystals felt that mutual influence, which causes them to take

parallel or homologous positions, and. so by arranging itself in

planes, gave rise to that appearance of stratification which distin-

guishes gneiss from granite. In mica slate, the feldspar is whol-
ly subordinate to the mica, and the structure is very distinctly
foliated, almost like mica itself. A very little mica with quartz
in grains, produces a rock — a micaceous structure, because
quartz has no cleavage of its ow

-Hornblende rocks, from it to Horiblsade slate, form a pats
allel series to the above, explained on the same principles... But
as hornblende is less easily cleavable than mica, so wee
slate is just so much less cleavable than mica slate.

We hence conclude, and not without reason, that the schists
structure of these rocks results from their constitution, and that a
fine-grained granite with the amount of mica in mica slate, could
no more exist without a foliated structure, than mica itself see
crystallize in blocks like feldspar.

We may derive another argument on this subject from the:

metamorphic theory itself, which supposes that gneiss and mica
slate were once beds of clay or argillaceous sandstone. Judging
ftom the nature of such deposits—say, for example, those of the

carbonaceous era—we should never believe that the elements of

mica contained in them, lie in alternating layers, and in’so thin
alternations as mica presents in micaceous rocks. _ It is far more
probable, if the rock be considered an altered clay, that the mica,
when crystallizing, sought out its own positions upon the crystal-
lographic principles already explained, and the same result would
take place, and a rock equally foliaceous be formed, wneud “
heds of clay were stratified or compact. .

Sto to delay owes on this: branch of the subject, I acon
with my “ae —— that some granites may have gir a

metamorphic

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 109

In the remarks which have been made, I have no where deni-
ed that gneiss and mica slate may not sometimes be metamorphic,
but have endeavored to show merely that their stratiform struc-
ture is no evidence of it. There is reason to believe that some
of them are altered sedimentary deposits, and to these we may
add, with as much reason, some granites.

It has been shown that the foliated structure of mica slate is
the result of crystallization, whether metamorphic in its origin or
not. If then certain clayey deposits are so constituted as to form,
when heated, a large amount of mica, and give rise to mica slate—
others to form less and produce a gneiss—may there not have
been other deposits which should have assumed under the trans-
forming heat the irregular structure of granite ? But without lay-
ing much stress on this kind of reasoning, let us appeal to modern
igneous formations for analogies. qin

In basaltic, porphyritic, trachytic and recent volcanic regions,
there often occur deposits of argillaceous sandrocks of great extent,
which have been derived from these igneous formations. The
basaltic sandrock—called wacke or tufa—frequently so resembles
basalt in structure and. appearance, that the observer hesitates long
before he decides upon its nature, and is not fully satisfied, till he
can discern in some part of the formation, an imbedded pebble to
assure him of its derivative origin. The only peculiarity it pre-
sents is a more earthy texture, but this belongs to some true ba-
salts. I have met with such a rock in Oregon. » The Andes are
full of similar deposits, both of basaltic, greenstone and porphyri-
tic origin, and often the closest examination is required to distin-
guish these sedimentary formations. They consist solely of earth
or sand, of basaltic or porphyritic origin, which has been rehard-
ened through volcanic action, and thus made to resume the com-
pactness that belonged to the parent rock. Much of the so-called
porphyry of the Andes is a porphyry sandrock, or a sedimentary
rock of porphyry origin. Jt is as hard and firm in its texture
as true porphyry, a trachytic variety of which it much resem-
bles; moreover small crystals of feldspar are thickly disseminated
through it, and aid in the deception. Were it not that an occa-
sional pebble may be detected on the weathered surface, no one
could doubt its being actually an igneous rock. /

If sedimentary rocks of porphyry and basaltic origin may be so
remodeled or rehardened by heat, as to be scarcely distinguishable

110 _ Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

from the parent rock, may not the same be true of sedimentary |
deposits of granitic origin? Does not analogy therefore author-
ize the conclusion that granite rocks may be metamorphic as well
as gneiss and mica slate ? :

The nodules of syenite, granite, &c., found in granite, have
long been a puzzle to geologists. 'They are imputed to the pow-
er of segregation, and many are no doubt due to this cause—at
least those which by their concentric structure, show that they
were formed by crystallization around acentre. But there are
others without a trace of a concentric structure, of rounded and
cobble-stone shapes, like the stones or boulders of the roads and
fields. Why are they not imbedded stones or boulders? and why
do they not prove that the granite which contains them is as much
a metamorphic granite, as the pebbles in a porphyry bed prove it
to be a metamorphic porphyry ?. The proof is at least more sat-
isfactory than can be derived from a stratiform structure.

The granitic materials have been subjected to a higher heat
than the porphyritic, and to this we impute the more perfect re
sumption of the features belonging to the parent igneous rock.
It may be remarked that a running lava stream sometimes in-
cludes pebbles or boulders that may lie in its course. But these
are rare and there is no danger of being led astray by such isola-
ted cases. a

Our argument thus far appears to have éstablished these princi-.
ples: that mica slate, gneiss and granite may be igneous rocks or
they may be metamorphic rocks, and that the action of heat pto-
ducing the metamorphic changes has been so effectual in some
instances as to disguise entirely their derivative otigin. 'To the
rocks enumerated, the associated formations of syenite, protogine,
talcose rock, argillite, é&c. should be added, as they are part of
one and the same series and come under the same general laws.

It has always been difficult to determine what place should be
assigned to gheissoid granite—whether with granite as a purely
igneous rock, or with gneiss as a metamorphic rock. — But these
views if true, show that the gneissoid or stratiform structure is 10
evidence of a deposit origin, and the question can no longer be;
whether it should be associated with gneiss or granite. The na*
ture of each is to be settled independently. It may be said that
we place things in more doubt than they were before. It is ad-
mitted. "The more reason for doubt we know, the better, if they

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 111

actually exist, for there is little satisfaction and. little profit in
arriving at conclusions that are false. But before my remarks
are closed, I shall hope that some of these doubts may be removed.

I proceed next to the third point before us—that the heat pro-
ducing metamorphic changes, has been applied through the wa-
ters heated. by the eruption itself. It is a little surprising that
this cause of change in rocks should have been so generally dis-
regarded or rejected, by the geologists of the day. It bears a
slight tinge of Wernerism, and this may be its repulsive feature.
One of our own most distinguished geologists, Prof. Silliman,
first brought forward its claims, and urged them with conclusive
arguments in the geological. discourse appended to the American
edition of Bakewell’s Geology. Prof. Silliman has drawn his ar-
guments from what is believed to have been the condition of the
globe while the granite rocks were forming. I shall pursue far-
ther the same mode of reasoning, and deduce other evidences
from the analogies which may be found in regions of acknowl-
edged igneous action. i

Mr, Lyell in his metamorphic theory, treating of formations
remote in origin from our own era and the present order of things,
has necessarily indulged more freely in. hypothesis than is to be
found elsewhere in his. geological writings. If any well-ascer-

tained facts could be pointed to as a basis for his hypothesis, it

might be received with less caution than it now demands. But }
in truth there are no changes known to be in progress of the char- —

acter supposed, and although possible, analogies do not authorize
us to consider them by any means probable. _ How is it in active
volcanoes? _Lavas may be heated to a red heat within a yard of

the surface and still be so cool above, that the bare foot may walk

upon them. ‘To produce. metamorphic changes in a deposit a
hundred feet thick, the whole must consequently be in a state of
fusion, or the upper crust will not be done through. We all know
how small.a thickness of fire-brick it requires to confine the heat
of the hottest furnace. And if, as we believe, the heat attending
granite eruptions far exceeded common volcanic temperature, our
conclusions are still. the same. The excessive heat in a furnace
first fuses the inner surface, or the inner bricks, and thus by melt-
ing its way along, slowly commences a change on the outer row,
and three inches only may intervene, between. the heat of fusion
and the temperature which does not pain the hand. ‘

e
=

112 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

These views are further sustained by the action of heat on the
walls of dykes. In subaerial eruptions of recent volcanic regions,
the effect is usually slight; sometimes none is apparent, and at
the most only for a few feet. When streams of lava have over-
flowed tufas, it has baked them only for one or two feet and per-
haps altered the color to red, for one or two feet more; but be-
yond this, it is seldom that any effect is perceived. Clay will in-
sulate the fused rock as completely in nature as when moulded
into the shape of a furnace. 'The same effect must take place
under water, except such modifications as may arise from heating
the ocean itself, and the waters transfused through the stratified
deposits; but these belong to the theory which I shall endeavor
to sustain. The pressure of an ocean upon the erupted lavas,
will not vary the result. Heat cannot be conducted to any extent
except by fusing its way along, and in order to bake the rocks for
twenty yards from adyke by conduction alone, the first fifteen
at least must be in a state of complete fusion. There are numer-
ous examples of alterations in rocks to a greater distance than this;

but how few of them give indications that the walls of the cn |

have been in fusion even for one yard ?

But if the surrounding and permeating waters are heated at the
time of a submarine eruption the heat may then be conveyed to
great distances, and rocks may be discolored, baked or recrystal-
lized, according to the temperature or extent and depth of the
eruption.

That waters are heated by submarine eruptions, is a matter be |

observation. Dead fishes thrown up on the shores after eruptions
are proofs of it.. But it is needless to waste words upon this point,
for we know that water and fire cannot come in contact without
this effect. It is evident too that the amount of heat imparted to
the waters, will depend on the extent of the eruption, on the time
of its continuance, and more especially on the pressure of the
ocean above. For the dense waters at great depths require a
high temperature for ebullition.

To produce boiling the superincumbent waters must be so rais-
ed in temperature,. that the vapor formed below, may pass UP
through it and escape ; or in other words, ebullition will not take
Place till the heat be so raised, throughout the whole by commu-
nication from below, that the surface shall stand at 212° Fahr.
At ‘no very great depth, hence, the waters might be raised to the

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 113

heat of ignition before ebullition will begin, and if the leaden
waters of a deep ocean—for experiment as well as theory assures
us of its great density—are for days in contact with the opened
fires of submarine volcanoes, we can scarcely fix a limit to the
temperature which they would necessarily receive. Why may
they not be open for days and weeks? Why not hot springs in
incessant action at the bottom of an ocean, as well as on our con-
tinents; and in the early times of violent igneous action might
they not have poured out floods in intense ignition, exceeding
by no little in extent and temperature the bubbling fountains of
the present day? And if, as is believed, the ocean had in early
times a higher temperature than now, the effects supposed would
be the more easily produced.

We cannot doubt then, that here is heat sufficient to produce
all the changes presented by the metamorphic rocks—heat enough
to remould granite itself. In the words of Prof. Silliman, “we
can see no reason for excluding water and other dissolving agents,
acting with intense energy under vast pressure, and at the heat
of even high ignition, from playing a very important part in crys-
tallization ;” and he continues by remarking that the metamor-
phic rocks of Lyell may thus have been crystallized.

The facts observed in the vicinity of dykes are well accounted
for on these principles. Numerous instances of altered rocks

might be cited from foreign publications ; but our own country

furnishes them in great numbers and of unusual interest.

R kable changes are described by Prof. H. D. Rogers, (Rep.
N. J. p. 149,) as occurring at Rocky Hill, New Jersey, adjoining
an extensive dyke of trap. The effects of heat in baking or
hardening the intersected sandstone are distinct for a fourth of a
mile from the dyke, beyond which the rock resumes its soft slaty
structure and deep red color. Fifty feet from the trap, the sand-
stone is filled with various crystalline matters, which render it very
unequal in texture and hardness. About one hundred feet off, the
rock is a compact reddish or purplish sandstone, somewhat argil-
laceous, and is full of dark kernels or nodules of the size of a pea
or less; one thin bed in the stratum contains small irregular cav-
ities studded with erystals of tourmaline. The upper part of the
same stratum is less altered in appearance but contains kernels of
pure epidote, which continue to characterize the rock for a quarter
of a mile, and at a quarry this distance off, besides the epidotic

Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 15

114 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

kernels there is a narrow band of nearly pure epidote about an
inch and a half thick.
Many other similar examples are minutely described by Prof.
Rogers in the same highly interesting report. In one, where the
sandstone was altered to the same distance—about one fourth of
a mile—the altered rock within fifty yards of the dyke, contained
thickly disseminated crystals of tourmaline, some of them h

an inch in diameter. ;

It is surely impossible that by conduction alone the heat of the
ejected dyke should have been conveyed to so great a distance
from the dyke, and in such a degree as to produce crystals of
tourmaline and epidote, the latter one fourth of a mile from the
source of heat. ‘These effects must be imputed to the heated
waters rendered hot by the eruption. The compact structure of
the trap leaves no doubt that the eruption was submarine.

_A moment’s consideration of the circumstances attending such
an eruption will place the subject in a clearer light. The sub-
marine sedimentary deposit, whether a bed of sand or clay, is
soaked with water; and between its layers, or in the cavities or
caverns interspersed through or between these submarine beds,
the waters are collected in large quantities. As the fissure opens,
the melted rock flows up from below to fill it; the interspersed
or permeating waters are heated by its sides and convey the heat.
far into the rock. The ocean’s waters too enter the fissure as
soon as opened, and meet the liquid fires on their ascent ; hot, and
in commotion from the ignition and violent ejection of the fluid
rock, the waters are thrown into any open cavities in the walls,
and thus aid in diffusing the volcanic heat. The superincumbent
waters are next heated, and currents intensely hot spread around
by the attendant convulsions, diffuse the heat far and wide ovet
the surrounding sedimentary deposits, which are thus permeated
and buried in the fluid heat. Through such influences, we may :
account forall the alterations and crystallizations above described.

The effects of the hot waters may probably be seen beyond
the hardened portion of the rock, in the red color of the sand-
stone. We know that this is a common effect in modern volca
hic tegions, and can detect the same in many more ancient.
‘The blue and purple colors which the altered rocks assume
near'the dyke, arise, as in the common burning of bricks, from
the excessive heat, which in part deoxydizes the iron or enables

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 115

it to enter into new combinations. Tourmaline is one of the
combinations which in the cases cited may have absorbed, or
rather, have used up the iron, and as this mineral contains iron
in the state of a protoxyd, we perceive that this deoxydation must
actually have taken places Ss; Soritaner Ks

Other examples might be cited from the sandstone and trap
region of Massachusetts and Connecticut, but they illustrate no
new principles. Besides tourmaline and epidote, garnets hav
been observed adjoining some foreign dykes. ~ siiaw-ot: re

I have purposely avoided mentioning facts collected during the
cruise of the Expedition, but will cite one example in farther
illustration of the principles here supported—the one which first
suggested these views to my mind. It occurs on a small island
at the mouth of Hunter River in New South Wales. A dyke
of basalt, only eight feet wide, cuts vertically through the coal,
clays and sandstone of the coal formation. The coal for ‘six
or eight feet is deprived of its bitumen, and as some of the layers
contain considerable clay, it is baked to a hard black rock, con-
taining masses of coal resembling charcoal. Beyond this distance
it is unaltered. The soft clays are changed toa bluish chert,
like flint-in hardness and fracture, as far as the extremity of the
island; which is about eighty yards from the dyke. The sand-
stones are also baked and hardened, but less distinctly at this dis-
tance than the clays. Such are the facts, and do we need other
evidence that heated waters can and actually do alter rocks ?
Were the heat of the dyke conducted through the rocks from the
dyke, to such an extent as'to turn clays into flint eighty yards off,
the coal surely ought to have been burnt or deprived of its bitu-
men to a greater distance than two or three yards? Moreover
the clays show no evidence of fusion even in the vicinity of the
dyke. Instead of the very intense ignition required to bake
rocks so far from its source by conduction alone, without the in-
tervention of water, a comparatively low temperature will heat
the mobile waters sufficiently to produce the same effect.

- Before applying these principles to granitic rocks, and the as-
sociated schists, I would request your attention to another mode
in which heated waters modify the rocks that come under their
influence...) 4!" : 7

We know that water intensely heated, will dissolve various
earths and earthy compounds that are untouched by it when cold,

116 3 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

especially salt water, which contains so largely of alkaline salts,
The siliceous waters of the Iceland Geysers are examples of such
effects at the present time; and judging from the deposit around
these boiling springs, silica is here in solution and not siliceous
compounds. The dissolving of silica must therefore be one of
the first effects of the heated waters, and this petrifying or solidi-
fying earth, as well as heat, is distributed through the adjoining
rocks.. In regions of eruptions, numerous quartz veins or silici-
fied fossils often occur that may be imputed to this source, and
the hardening of the sandstone or clay may depend to as great
an extent upon the distributed silica as upon the heat. The silica
is not all introduced from the external. waters ;—that in the clays
themselves becomes partially dissolved and is redeposited as the
water cools; in the same manner as the common waters of the
ocean by washing through a bed of coral sand on the shores will
after a while dissolve and deposit lime enough to cement it into
a compact limestone. Why are the more ancient sandstones and
grit rocks of our globe so much harder and so much more thickly
intersected by quartz veins, if it be not due to. the heated sili-
ceous waters to which they have been for so many ages at various
eruptions exposed? and ata period—that of their formation—
when probably volcanic eruptions were more violent and nume-
rous than now ? As
The heated waters at an eruption of greenstone, holding silica
in solution which they have taken from the siliceous materials at
hand, are in a favorable state also for the formation of the many
zeolites and other trap minerals. In some amygdaloidal cavities
the waters, as they cool, deposit silica alone. - From a dense gela-
tinous solution layer is deposited on layer, and a coating of chal-
cedony or agate formed ; afterwards the remaining silica, now in
less dense solution, enters more slowly into regular crystals. The
waters that penetrate to other cavities contain compounds of sil-
ica. Percolating through the rock it takes up lime, soda, potash,
alumina, iron, &e. or the elements of the constituent minerals,
and the solution thus formed fills the open amygdaloidal cavities,
which finally on evaporation yield the various crystallized mine-
rals common in these cavities. I do not attribute these erystalli-
zations in all instances to the same period in which the eruption
of the containing amygdaloid took place, and they may have
formed at a much later period. At some subsequent erup-

ei x a ; -* ee: bs

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Pamedlins. 117
tion in the vicinity, they may have been buried and permeated
anew with hot siliceous waters, which thus gave rise to the amyg-
daloidal minerals. Some of these minerals are believed to be
formed by the percolation of cold water through the rock, pro-
ducing slow decompositions and forming new compounds. It
should however be remarked that basalt or trap while still sub-
merged undergoes but little change from cold water, except from
abrasion. It is not until exposed to the atmosphere as well as
moisture that they suffer much alteration or degradation from the
processes of decomposition.

It is now very generally admitted that these amygdaloidal min-
erals are not of igneous origin cotemporaneous with that of the
rock, and therefore no labored proof is required in this place. It
is sufficient proof of this, that the cavities, which are inflations
from steam or gas, must have been made before they could have
been filled.

As has been stated, we suppose these trap minerals to be formed
from the rock that contains them, while the hot waters are pen-
etrating, and not to be taken or compounded from its surface ;
neither were they contained in the external currents of heated
siliceous waters. .'The same minerals sometimes fill cavities in
the adjoining sandstone, but to so short a distance from the trap,
that we must believe them deposited from the waters that ex-
uded from the sides of the dyke, and not from external currents.

Silica once received into solution will be held far below the
temperature necessary for dissolving it. We might expect there-
fore various changes from the introduction of silica, where no
evidence of heat can be detected. Some siliceous limestones
may have been thus formed, without a crystallization of the
lime; and cavities like those in the calcareous sandstone of cen-
tral New York may have been filled in the same manner with
quartz crystals, without any evidence of concomitant igneous
action. — a

I do not claim that heated waters are the only means by which
sedimentary rocks have been supplied with silica. The discov-
eries of fossil animalcules have opened a new source of silex, and
this, as suggested, may possibly have been the origin of the flint
in chalk.

_ Qn the principles explained we may account for the metamor-
phic porphyries and basalts of the Andes. They lie in a region

118 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

of the most extensive volcanic action in the world, and while
below the ocean—which was the case, as the tertiary rocks of the
summit seemed to indicate, till the tertiary period had somewhat
advanced—every eruption produced a heated sea around and
through them, which hardened the porphyry conglomerates and
sandrocks, till they were almost porphyry again. And it may »
be that the feldspar crystals imbedded in, the metamorphic rock,
instead of being the refuse from porphyry eruptions or por
degradations, were crystallized by the metamorphic heat.

Having discussed the action of heated waters on the various
secondary rocks, and shown that the changes the structure of
these rocks has undergone is attributable to this cause, we pass
by a natural transition to granitic formations, and would endeavor
to prove that no new cause is required for similar effects in them.
With the knowledge of a power so efficient and so capable, so
essentially connected with submarine eruptions and so frequent
in its action, we need no other theory to account for any meta-
morphic changes. ‘The same that holds good for red sandstone
and will account for crystallizations of epidote and tourmaline,
the same that accounts for metamorphic porphyry, is as good for
metamorphic gneiss or granite. The structure of granitic rocks,
their uniform compactness without an air-cell the world over—
has often been urged as proof that they were formed under some-
thing more than atmospheric pressure. Beneath this pressure,
whatever it may have been, we are safe in saying that the ocean
was raised to a temperature far beyond that producing the erys
tallizations in the red sandstone. Mica and feldspar were also
erystallized, and the sedimentary deposit was changed ee? to
granite or to some of the associated rocks.

To explain this subject more completely, I will trace out some
of the analogies that exist between the ancient granitic pei:
and the more modern igneous rocks and deposits. “

A sedimentary basaltic sandrock or conglomerate is often:s0 50
associated with basalt,.as to make it obvious that they were
formed together—the Gastar arising from the sand or fragments
carried off from the ejected basalt by the action of the water oD
the heated rock. An instance of this kind in Illawarra, New

h Wales, is too plain to be mistaken. The basalt occurs in
layers alternating with sandstone, the sandstone having beet
formed in the interval between-different basaltic eruptions. “The

basalt is covered in places with a baked basaltic tufa or conglom-

erate, in some parts red and jaspery, and containing ragged masses

of basalt, just as they were torn from the melted rock by the agi-
tated waters. ‘3 ar

The material of the metamorphic porphyries in the Andes was
never clay like common clay deposits: it is merely fragmented
or pulverized porphyry or basalt, either thrown out as a sand
eruption, which is barely possible ; or secondly, shivered from the
rock while in fusion by contact with water ; or thirdly, produced
by subsequent abrasion. ‘They underwent little if any decom-
position before they were rehardened into rock, for as remarked,
such decompositions go on but slowly if at all in cold water.

Let ts now turn to the granitic series of rocks, and follow
where analogy leads. Granite like porphyry is an igneous rock.
In its era, granite sands were formed like porphyry sands, and
restored by heat to metamorphic granite like metamorphic por-
phyry. Such are our conclusions. I use the word granite here,
as a general term for this and the associated rocks, gneiss and
mica slate, syenite and hornblende slate, &c. which I have
shown may also be of igneous origin. These granite sands, like

porphyry sands, were formed about the region of eruption in one —

of the modes pointed ‘out, arid in all probability were never clays,
like the alluvial deposits of the present day. It has been too
much the effort to make these schists out of common clays, and
Boase, in his valuable work on Primary Geology, derives an ar-
gument against the metamorphic origin of the schists, from the
fact that common argillaceous shales contain no soda or potash.
But this argument will not. hold if the view proposed be correct.

But let us trace out some of the changes which we may show
to have thus taken place in the rocks now crystalline.

‘The change of deposited limestones to granular limestones has
occurred in all ages of the globe, and is attributable, as in other
metamorphic changes to heated waters, except in some instances
where the alteration is confined to within a few feet of an igne-
ous rock.- With regard to primary limestones, a general survey
of the facts, seems to evince that some of these were of igneous
origin, like granite. If this were the case there must have been
others of a sedimentary character formed at the same time with
the deposits of granitic sand, and through the action of the same
causes. ‘These were recrystallized by the next discharge of heat-
ed waters.

] fodern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 119 |

120 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

_ The vaporization or exudation of magnesia from porphyries,
as Von Buch supposes, in order to produce magnesian limestones,
isa less satisfactory hypothesis than to suppose this earth intro-
duced through heated waters containing magnesia in solution.
Magnesia is one of the elements of sea-water, and when heated
the water may have contained or received a much larger than the
usual supply. But this and other theories are to a great extent
if not entirely set aside by the discovery that recent coral rock
in the Pacific often contains a large amount of magnesia. I sus-
pected this fact when among the islands, both from their hard-
ness and specific gravity ; and having put some specimens into
the hands of Mr. B. Silliman, Jr. for analysis, he has obtained the
very interesting result, that carbonate of magnesia occurs in large
proportions in some of these rocks. These analyses will be car-
tied on with the different varieties of coral, and the conclusions
which must necessarily be important, will appear in the Expedi-
tion publications. ‘These facts will account for the occurrence
‘of magnesia in limestones not crystalline, which is wholly unex-
plained by any theory of dolomization heretofore proposed.
But the coral rock examined and most compact magnesian
limestones do not generally contain as large a proportion of mag-
nesia as dolomite, in which there is about 45 per cent. of the cat-
bonate. We may be compelled therefore to fall back upon a heat-
_ ed ocean—the same cause that crystallizes—for the source of the
added magnesia.
A strong argument in favor of the metamorphic origin of much
of the primary limestone and its dolomization by the method
proposed is found in some of its associated minerals, and espe
cially in the beds of serpentine or interspersed grains of this
mineral, — ze
"Serpentine appears to be a deposit from the ancient ocean, con
nected with or proceeding from the granitic eruptions, and altered
through the action of heated magnesian waters. Some evidence
of this is seen in its position in beds and not in dykes; in its
being so often associated with granitic and syenitic rocks, ye
containing none of the elements of these rocks or but in sma
proportions, which should not be expected if they proceeded from
Simultaneous eruptions in the same regions; in its not altering
the adjoining rocks like igneous ejections :—and more strongl¥
still in its containing so large a proportion of water. It is a fact

ean Ei

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 121

of much interest that rocks known to be igneous appear to con-

tain no hydrated minerals except such as we may believe to ha
been introduced since their formation, = =~ “ae

The origin of the zeolites and associated species has been
shown to be subsequent to the ejection of the rocks containing
them: that the same is true of the metallic salts is not doubted.
Talc and chlorite may be suggested as exceptions; but there is
reason to believe these minerals metamorphic. Von Buch sug-
gested some years since that tale was mica altered by magnesian
vapors; and in his account of the rocks of Norway and Lapland,
as quoted by Lyell, gives several instances of the passage of mica
slate into magnesian or talcose slate, and supposed to have been
produced by the change of mica into talc. It is an interesting
fact that chlorite is common in amygdaloids, filling cavities,
where like other trap minerals it was deposited after the cavities
were made, that is, after the ejection of the amygdaloid: and
like zeolites it may be set down as one of the products resulting
from the action of heated waters on the containing rock. It is
therefore probable that in the granitic series it had the same ori-
gin. ‘The chlorophyllite of Dr. Jackson, or hydrous iolite, is ano-
ther hydrated mineral in the ancient rocks. Here the evidence,
derived from its frequent association with iolite, is quite satisfac-

tory that it has resulted from the alteration or the hydration of ©
®

this mineral.

It has been argued that the water in hydrous minerals may be
retained, under heavy pressure, in the same manner as carbonic
acid is retained. But the analogy is false. Hot waters will not
combine with carbonic acid; they even dissolve less than cold
water. But water will combine with water or aqueous vapor

The minerals in serpentine are mostly hydrous, and thus sup-
port the view of its hydro-metamorphic origin. These are Schil-
ler spar, hydrate of magnesia, talc, nemalite, kerolite, Clintonite,
&c. As both hydrous and anhydrous crystals are formed from
aqueous solution we could not expect that all should be hy-

drous.
Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 16

122 Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

By the application of these views we may possibly discover
hereafter, the cause of the peculiar distribution of specular and
magnetic iron in New York, and of the hydrous oxyd of iron,
or hematite, in New England, and why chromic iron is so com-
mon a serpentine mineral, while it is not found at all in other
rocks. Indeed may we not now explain the occurrence of this ©
chromic iron? Is it not for the reason that the green oxyd of
chromium will not stand the dry fire, and cannot be formed, there-
fore, except through the agency of heated waters? *
_© There is much reason, therefore, to believe that serpentine is
a metamorphic rock, altered by heated waters containing magne-
sia and silica in solution. This rock has been compared to cer-
tain greenstones. ‘Trap and the allied rocks have been shown
by late analyses to consist of feldspar, augite or hornblende, and
sometimes chrysolite and iron, together with one or more zeolites.
The same hydrous minerals that fill amygdaloidal cavities, should
be expected to fill all the pores or interstices in the rock itself,
and this is what is now proved by analysis. The deposition of
chlorite in the same cavities, shows that this mineral may also be
disseminated through trap or basalt, and also that the basalt may
possibly be more or less altered, and rendered more magnesian
than is usual with this rock; and in this way we may conceive
how either of these rocks should assume a serpentine character-
I met with dykes of greenstone in Chili which could scarcely
be distinguished from some serpentine. al

It follows necessarily from these views that the granular. lime-
stone associated with serpentine must also be an altered or meta~
morphic rock. Ido not mean that it was ever a compact lime-
stone, like those of secondary formations; it may have been s0
or it may have been an aggregate arising from the wear or degra
dation of the igneous limestones. In either case it has been
changed in its structure or recrystallized. Among the minerals
in these rocks, the few hydrous species, are probably of aqueous
origin. The rest may be either igneous or aqueous; more facts
must be known before they can be distinguished. i
- There is evidence that some limestones after crystallization
and the formation of some or all the imbedded minerals, were su?
jected anew to heat. The fused quartz, and rounded apatites of
St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., have been so explained by Prof. Em-
mons, and I would only suggest as an addition to Prof, Emmons’s

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 123

explanation, that the heat was applied here through the waters
heated by some eruption. As quartz is more soluble than feldspar,
we may perhaps understand why we should find fused or round-
ed quartz enveloping unaltered feldspar. bi
Steatitic pseudomorphs of spinel, hornblende, pyroxene, &e.
may perhaps be attributed to the same cause, that is, to heated
magnesian waters, acting on spinels, &c. previously existing in
the limestone. The steatitic spinels of Orange Co., N. Y.—which
have a spinel skeleton, although mostly steatite—may have aris-
en either from a large intermixture of steatite with the material
of spinel while in the act of crystallization, or from an incomplete
alteration of the spinel into steatite ; I suspect the latter to be the
true explanation. ‘The Rensselaerite of Prof. Emmons, appears
tobe a steatitic pyroxene, as suggested by Beck, or rather a py-
roxene changed nearly to a compact steatite. Its crystals, which
are often distinct, have the form and angles of pyroxene, and leave
little doubt that such was its origin, although it constitutes rock
deposits of great extent in northern New York.*
It is probably perceived that these views lead us to class the
large family of talcose and chlorite rock, and steatite, among those
that have been altered, like serpentine, by heated waters holding

in solution magnesia, as well as silica. Excepting protogine,

they are, in general, stratified rocks, and are classed by geologists
in the’metamorphic series. We do no violence therefore to ex-

isting theories in supposing them to have been altered by heat ;

and none we believe to reason or facts in supposing that this heat
was administered in salt water. The granitic structure of proto-
gine as has been shown is no evidence that it is not metamorphic.
Ina protogine in Northern California, I observed distinct clayey
fragments, appearing to have been derived from some compact
feldspathic rock, which had undergone partial decomposition.
The fragments could not be mistaken, and marked the rock as
undoubtedly of fragmentary origin, although I was but half wil-
ling to believe it at the time. The rock closely resembled gran-
ite, yet was more disposed to crumble down. Protogines gener-
ally undergo decomposition more readily than true granites. We

find it difficult to account for this from their constitution, and

may it not be owing to their metamorphic origin ?

* See Prof. Emmons’s Geological Report.

124° Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

Thus far in our argument, I have endeavored to show that as iy a
in those igneous regions where porphyries were formed, there are =
metamorphic phorphyries, so in those igneous regions where gran-
ites and the associated rocks were formed, there are metamorphic — i C
granites, gneiss, &c.; and we have considered the evidences that =
some granites, as well as some of the schistose associates, were
originally of sedimentary origin, and have proved as we believe,
that all talcose and chlorite rocks, steatites and serpentines, are
undoubtedly metamorphic, and also some granular limestones.

We have. also argued, and may I not say proved, that heated
waters, both the transfused and superincumbent, set in motion by
the eruption, have produced changes in rocks at all ages of the
world, and in the same manner as sandstones have been altered
and -filled with erystals, and porphyries remade, so the primary
rocks have been recrystallized. Thus one and the same cause ex-
plains all igneous changes, and Lyell’s grand principle, that exist-
ing causes explain past phenomena, is carried out almost to the very
letter. We can no longer say in the words of Lyell, speaking of these
early rocks, that ‘part of the living language of nature has passed
away, which we cannot learn by our daily intercourse with what
passes on the habitable surface.” The language still lives—it is
seen in every bed of once molten rock, that courses hill or plain
throughout our globe ; it isread in the many traces of fire, im-
pressed in crystal characters on limestone, sandrock or shale ; and
is it not heard in those thunderings, muttered forth with the deep
heavings of a hemisphere, which seem to tell of submarine erup~
tions, of ejected lavas beneath an unfathomed sea, of ignited re
fountains opened and waters in commotion, hot with lava fires, n
rushing through the rocks and over the regions around ?.
In drawing the last analogy between volcanic rocks and gra-
nitic, to which I would beg your attention at this time, Iam
venturing still farther and more deeply into the dark ages of our
globe. Yet there isa ray of light penetrating even this obscu-
rity :—at least, the light of volcanic fires, by which midnight
views may be taken, and some glimpses caught of the operations
that moulded a forming world, ‘ % np
In the volcanic regions of these modern days, as well as those
of times past, when the fires now extinct were burning, the outer
limits of the region of igneous action are more generally strati-
fied, and more abound in tufas or. sedimentary deposits than the

od E

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations, 125

eS centre, where the rocks are commonly igneous. Volcanic sands
~ are blown by the winds to a greater distance from the centre of

eruption than the lavas flow, or if submarine, are diffused farther

by the waters. The centre, when exposed to view by subsequent

convulsions and rents of the mountain, is sometimes pure solid
basalt, with no trace of stratification, or division into lava beds.
I was particularly struck with this fact in the island of Tahiti,
which is a type of many others in the ocean. The island has
been so altered by convulsions and denudation, that no trace re-
mains of an ancient crater. It is but a mass of sharp ridges and
mountain peaks, the central about eight thousand feet high, and
I never suspected its true nature till months afterwards, the mod-
ern and ancient igneous formations of the Sandwich Islands were
examined. Forsix or eight miles towards the interior, the island
consists of alternating basaltic conglomerates and tufas, dipping
outward towards the shores at a small angle; beyond this, the
basaltic layers are of great thickness—one hundred to two hun-
dred feet being not uncommon ; and the central peaks are solid
to their summits without a trace of stratification—one solid mass
of semicolumnar basalt—apparently the cooled interior of the vol-
canic mountain. I would refer to my forthcoming reports fora
particular account of this interesting island. 2. gee
In the Andes the same is every where exemplified. Ascending
them, the traveller passes over conglomerates and pseudo-porphy-
ries and allied rocks, till he nears the summit, where stand at in-
tervals lofty mountain turrets of basalt, and rude erests of por-
phyry, acknowledged centres of the ancient voleanoes of this
immense chain. Occasional dykes and subordinate crests are met
with on the ascent, but the most. magnificent views of moun-
tain architecture are seen about the loftier portions of this range.
How is it now with granitic regions? When granite, gneiss,
and the schists are associated, does not the grand central. mass
consist. of granite or gneiss, and do not the schists occupy the
more distant or outer portions of these regions? 'The exceptions
to this prove the point we have established, that the schists may
be either primitive or derivative rocks. But the general fact is
too apparent not to have been noticed and described in all geolo-
gical treatises, even the earliest. Argillite is commonly exterior
to mica slate, and the talcose rocks and serpentine generally out-
side of the syenites, if they occur together. We should not

however expect greater regularity than exists in acknowledged
volcanic regions, and granites may be found inserted among all
the schists, as dykes or mountains of trap and basalt are intruded
among stratified deposits.

This subject is finely illustrated in Northern California. After
passing twice from talcose rocks over syenite to granite, and in
one instance back again to uncrystalline talcose or hornblende
rocks, we made the same transition a third time. The features
of the country were quite mountainous, and the mountains abrupt
throughout the region of talcose and syenitic rocks; but the
granite at the centres stood out in bold contrast with elvan -serra-
ted ridges, its lofty needle summits, white almost like snow from
its albitic rock, peering above the green foliage of the forest about
us, forming one of the grandest scenes I ever witnessed. The
features of the region were too much like Tahiti not to be at

once reminded of that island. From the granite, the route led
over syenites and hypersthene rocks to talcose slate and a com-
pact greenish rock resembling nephrite; from them to a stratified
jasper of red and yellow colors covering large areas. The jaspet
rock is composed of layers two or three inches thick, which con-
stantly coalesce and subdivide ; it was obviously an aqueous de-
posit. Itis associated very closely with talcose slate containing
beds of serpentine, and not far off occurs the protogine to which
I have alluded, and shown to be of derivative origin. ii

May we not safely set this down as.a vast region of igneous
action ; the talcose rocks and slates and the jasper forming its
outer border, and the granite the centre—analogous in some de-
gree to the stratified circumference and compact. basaltie centre
of Tahiti? Does not the absence of crystallization in the outer
rocks correspond precisely with this theory? Is not this jasper
the final deposition of the silica into beds of ferruginous clay,
where the waters had spread and ‘cooled far from the centre of
heat? and the taleose slates and serpentine associated with the
jasper, do they not, by evincing the action of heated easing" pst
us out in this supposition ?

_ I would not be understood as initplpieay that here was once 4
volcanic cone and a-erater, for it is too well known that eruptions
take place on a grand scale without forming cones; and in
throughout the Pacific all the larger volcanic mountains are more
like domes than cones, rising gradually at an angle of ten to four

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 127
teen degrees. But the inclination may have been still more
gradual from the centre outward. The only point which I would —
sustain, is that the region in Northern California alluded to is a
region of granitic eruptions, the granite peaks its centre, the. jasper
its outer borders. There may be many other centres in the same
mountains, as volcanoes are sometimes crowded together, but in
a hasty jaunt this could not be ascertained. Passing in only a
single devious course through the region, it is impossible to esti-
mate its extent. The jaspers were first met with about eighty
miles from the granite.

The facts that have been presented lead us in conclusion to the
following general views with reference to the earlier condition of
our globe. . I enter into no speculations with regard to the come-
tary nebula which has been supposed its condition when it first
begun its revolutions in space: neither would I go back to the
time when, according to some, it was a fluid mass resting beneath
heavy vapors ready to settle upon its cooling surface—a supposi-
tion, by the way, no more hypothetical than that assuming the
earlier rocks to be the remoulded material of another world—I
come down to the era’ when the ocean existed. Igneous action
was no doubt rife in those times, for however much we may wish
to disbelieve it, there is evidence in almost every volcanic region,
and especially such immense tracts as those of the East Indies
and the Andes, that the present are comparatively quiet times.
In the early age to which, allusion is made, igneous action ex-
ceeded beyond doubt any thing of later date. These were times
of extensive granitic eruption. Centres of igneous action were
scattered over the earth or arranged in lines the sites of former
fissures ; for in almost all modern igneous regions a linear arrange-
ment may be distinguished. From these centres or central re-
gions, granite was poured out along with gneiss, syenite or some
of the allied rocks; the ocean was agitated with repeated shocks,
and heated by the opened fires ; sands were shivered or worn
from ‘the ejected rocks and scattered far and wide around the
place of eruption by the troubled sea; and after deposition, the
permeating and superincumbent waters heated from the same
or a subsequent eruption, finally recrystallized the deposits and
studded them with new gems, or modified their composition
through the magnesia, silica and other substances held in so-
lution. )

i128 = Mr. Dana on the Analogies between the

We cannot assert that there was ever a period after the ocean
first covered the earth, in which no land appeared above its sur-
face. Whether so or not, the lands, at a later period, had
emerged, and in the shallower waters, but still under some pres-
sure, porphyry and greenstone were ejected, taking the place
of the granite or deepsea rock. Sedimentary deposits like those
of the older fossiliferous rocks may have been in progress. Granite
was in some parts still thrown out, and not till a very late period
have these eruptions entirely ceased; indeed they may now be
going on in the ocean’s depths. But on the emerging lands, the
granitic regions either ceased action entirely, or became porphy-
ritic or basaltic. These rocks have continued to the present day,
changing only by becoming more cellular where the eruptions
were subaerial. | by aie
Thus we may believe that all the igneous rocks from granite to
modern lava belong to one series, and were formed by one mode
of action. . is
» Partly in elucidation of this subject, and partly to suggest'a
doubt as to some accredited opinions with regard to the origin of
certain mountain chains, I will conclude by presenting for con-
sideration a few hints with regard to the great chain of mountains |
in western America. : :
The Andes and Rocky Mountains may be looked upon as ori-
ginally a grand scene of granitic eruptions. It may have been
an immense fissure, or much more probably a series of fissures
ranging in general north and south, over which various granitic
vents poured forth their granite floods. Granite peaks were thus
formed, some of which still stand among the highest in northern
America. The Wind River chain, according to the late surveys
of Lieut. Fremont, is about thirteen thousand feet in eleva
tion, and consists of this rock. As the land rose, granites were
succeeded ‘by eruptions of porphyry, trachyte, greenstone, &c.
These continued the elevation of the submarine land, by adding
new streams of molten rock and new beds of porphyry, sand
conglomerate ; and together with sandstones and shales of gran-
ite origin, and limestones of different kinds, they continued
building up the Andes while still submerged, or with the sum-
mits only above the waves. Sandstones, shales, salt deposits,
beds of gypsum, limestones of Silurian and secondary ages, occur
in the mountains, as on the plains of our continents; and they

Modern Igneous Rocks and the Primary Formations. 129

form in some parts, plains of immense extent, underlaid by hori-
zontal strata. The depositions then took place in the same man-
her as on the low lands of other regions. The reason why a
submarine mountain chain was formed, and not a flat continent,
is the very simple.one that the sources of all the material of the
mountains lay nearly in one and the same line; for igneous erup-
tions threw out the material and piled up the mountain. There
are two peculiarities in the structure of the mountain regions—
the first is the great predominance of sandstones of porphyry ori-
gin, and which are not common in our plains; but this should be
expected from the nature of the source where the material of the
mountains was derived. The second is the broken character of
the mountain heights. This is much less than is commonly be-
lieved, for a considerable portion of the range is covered with ele-
vated plains. Yet there are gorges and valleys of great depth, and
heights lofty and abrupt; yet nothing more than should be ex-
pected in a region of the most extensive igneous action in the
world. There are variously displaced and tilted strata, attributa-
ble to local convulsions in the range.

In this manner we may suppose the Andes to have been mostly
formed below the sea. Next, by gradual expansion below, or some
other cause, an elevation commenced in the latter part of the tertia-
ry era, if we may rely on the occurrence of tertiary rocks on the
summit. Igneous eruption continued, but diminished with the ele-
vation. ‘The mountains slowly emerged, and continued raising
their heads aloft till the continent at its foot had also appeared.
During this elevation it was subjected to a tearing ocean, and
thus its shattered sides were still farther gorged out. The eleva-
tion may not have been equal over the entire continent, and in all
probability the eastern side participated but little comparatively
in the motion, and was early dry lan

These views with regard to this chain of mountains are thrown
out merely as general hints, and as thoughts to be hereafter tested
by observation, rather than truths worthy of immediate confi-
dence.

Vol. xiv, No, 1.—April-June, 1843. 17

Cue Mes
Pees

130 On the Temperature limiting the Distribution of Corals.

Arr. XV.—On the Temperature limiting the Distribution of
Corals; by James D. Dana, Geologist of the United States
Exploring Expedition.

[Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Albany,
April 29, 1843.]

I wave before stated to the Association, that the temperature
limiting the distribution of corals in the ocean is not far from 66° F’.
On ascertaining the influence of temperature on the erowth of
corals, I was at once enabled to explain the singular fact that no
coral occurs at the Gallapagos although under the equator, while
growing reefs have formed the Bermudas in latitude 33°, four or
five degrees beyond the usual coral limits. In justice to myself I
may state here, that this explanation, which was published some
two years since by another, was originally derived from my man-
uscripts, which were laid open most confidingly for his perusal,
while at the Sandwich Islands in 1840.* The anomalies which
the Gallapagos and Bermudas seemed to present, were dwelt upon
at some length in the manuscript, and attributed in the datter
case to the influence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream; in
the former to the southern current up the South American coast,
whose cold waters reduce the ocean temperature about the Gal-
lapagos to 60° F. during some seasons, although twenty degrees
to the west, the waters stand at 84° F. Hvtratropical currents,
like that which flows by the Gallapagos, are found on the west-
ern coasts of both continents, both north and south of the equa-
tor, and intratropical currents are as distinctly traceable on the
eastern coasts.+ In consequence of these currents, the coral zone
is contracted on the western coasts and expanded on the eastern;
it is reduced to a width of sixteen degrees on the western coast
of America, and of but twelve degrees on the east coast of Amer-
ica; while in mid-ocean it is at least fifty-six degrees wide, and
about sixty-four degrees on the east coast of Asia and New Hol-

* The publication here alluded to we understand refers to an article by

r. J. P. Couthouy, which appeared last year in the Boston Journal of Natural
History. —Eps.

t The existence of these great oceanic currents was first pointed out to me by
our distinguished meteorologist, Mr. Wm. C. Redfield, who kindly furnished me
with charts of the same before the sailing of the Expedition.

Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, Se. 131

land. The peculiar trend of the east coast of South America
carries off to the northward much of the: usual sowth intratropical
current, and it is therefore less distinct in its effects, than the
northern intratropical or Gulf Stream.

e have hence the remarkable fact, that the coral zone is fifty
degrees wider on the eastern than on the western coasts of our
continents. Such is the effect of the ocean currents in limiting
the distribution of marine animals. These facts will be brought
out more fully in the reports of the Exploring Expedition. ‘The
important bearing of these facts upon the distribution of fossil
species is too apparent to require more than a passing remark.
The many anomalies which have called out speculations as to
our globe’s passing through areas in space of unequal tempera-
tures are explained without such an hypothesis. Instead of look-
ing to space for a cause, we need not extend our vision beyond
the coasts of our continents. ad

Arr. XVI.—On the Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, as indi-
cated by the Distribution of Coral Islands ; by James D. Dana,
Geologist of the United States Exploring Expedition,—with
a map.*

{Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Albany,

April 29, 1843.]

Tne theory of Mr. Darwin with regard to the formation of
atolls, or annular coral islands, has been fully confirmed by the
investigations of the Exploring Expedition ; but his regions of
subsidence and elevation, and the conclusion that these changes
are now in progress, appear to have been deduced without suffi-
cient examination. Observations at a single point of time can-
not determine whether such changes are in progress; they can
only assure us with regard to the past. A series of examinations
for years in succession is necessary to enable us to arrive at the
grand deduction that the land in any part of our globe is now
undergoing a gradual change of elevation. The views of Mr.
Darwin respecting the rise of the South American coast, as well

This map contains the track of the Exploring Squadron, and was intended to
illustrate the article on the Exploring Expedition, published in our last number,
but was unavoidably postponed,—Eps.,

132. Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific,

as that of the Pacific and East Indies, may well be receixed with

some hesitation. According to my own observations, regions in —

which his theory would require a subsidence, have actually expe-
rienced an elevation at some recent period. I might instance
several examples of this elevation in various parts of the Pacific.
Suffice it to say here, that I found nothing to support the princi-
ple laid down by him, that islands with a barrier reef are subsi-
ding, while those with only a fringing reef are rising ; indeed
facts most stubbornly deny it. Without entering upon the dis-
cussion of these facts, which, as they will appear in the Govern-
ment publications, I am not at liberty to dwell upon here, I pro-
pose to point out what are the regions of subsidence which the
coral islands in the Pacific indicate as having been in progress
during their formation.

Before proceeding, I may be excused for adding here a few
words in explanation of Mr. Darwin’s theory with regard to the

formation of coral islands. He rejects the unfounded hypothesis _

that coral islands are built upon the craters of extinct volcanoes, -—

and proposes the following theory in its stead, which is supported
by a minute as well as general survey of the facts.

The coral belt or atoll, he supposes to have been originally a
barrier reef around a high island, like the reef around many is-
lands in the Pacific. When the reef commenced, it could not
have been extended to a lower depth than one hundred or one
hundred and twenty feet, for this is the limit of the reef-forming
corals. But if the island gradually subsided—so gradually that
the corals could by their growth, keep themselves at the surface,
the reef might finally attain any thickness, according to the ex-
tent of the subsidence. In this manner, subsidence might finally
submefge the whole island, and leave nothing but the reef at the
surface. Mr. Darwin points to instances in which only the
mountain tops now remain above the ocean. Carry the process
a little farther, and we have the coral belt surrounding its little
sea—the usual condition of the coral island.

This theory, as is seen, supposes extensive subsidence. And
so we remark must every theory: for without it, we could only
have reefs one hundred and twenty feet in depth, instead of the

great thickness they are believed to possess. It is my present .

object to fix the area of this subsidence, and suggest something
with regard to the extent of it in different parts of the ocean.

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as indicated by the Distribution of Coral Islands. 133

On examining a map of the Pacific, between the Sandwich
Islands and the Society group, we find a large area just north of
the equator with scarcely an island. ‘To the south, the islands
increase in number, and off Tahiti, to the northward and east-
ward, they become so numerous, and are so crowded together, as
to form a true archipelago. They are all, too, coral islands,
throughout this interval. This then is a-rather remarkable fact
in the distribution of these islands. But let us look farther.

If we draw a line running nearly E. 8. E. from New Ireland,
near New Guinea, just by Rotumah, Wallis’s Island, Samoa or
the Navigators, the Society Islands, and thence bending south-
ward a little, to the Gambier group, (see map,) we shall have all
the islands to the north of it, with two or three exceptions, purely
coral, while those to the south, are very generally, high basaltic
islands. These basaltic islands are bordered by reefs, and these
reefs are most extensive about the islands nearest this line. In
the Feejees, the northeastern part of the group contains some
coral rings, while the southwestern consists of large basaltic isl-
ands with barrier reefs.

Again, to the north of this boundary line, the islands farthest
from it, are usually small, in many instances mere points of reef,
a fraction of a mile in diameter, while some of the coral islands
near the same line are thirty or forty miles in length.

Now a growing coral island or atoll, will gradually become
smaller in diameter as subsidence goes on, and by the same pro-
cess must finally be reduced to a mere spot of reef, or, if the sub-
sidence is too rapid, that is, more rapid than the growth of the
coral, the island will become wholly submerged and leave noth-
ing at the surface.

On these principles, I base my conclusions. Along the equa-
tor, as explained, there is a large area containing few islands, and
these small, while farther south, the coral islands are numerous
and large: Is this not evidence, that the subsidence was either
more rapid or carried on for a longer period in the former region
than in the latter, where they are numerous and large?

Near the boundary line pointed out, stand some of these coral
rings enclosing mountain tops, as islets, —as at the Gambier group.
Does not this indicate that the subsidence was less here than
among the islands purely coral to the north? and greater, than
south of the line, where the reefs are more contracted and the:
high islands larger and more elevated ?

134 Mr. Dana on Areas of Subsidence in the Pacific, &.

Washington Island, (coral,) in lat. 5° N., is the last spot of land
as we recede from our boundary line to the north-northeast.
Beyond is a bare sea, to the Sandwich Islands. Is not this an
area where the subsidence was too rapid for the corals to keep
the islands at the surface ?

It appears then that during this era, the Pacific from 30° N. to
30° S.—and perhaps beyond—was one vast region of subsidence:
that subsidence took place most rapidly over the bare area be-
tween the Sandwich Islands and the equator, and less and less so
as we go from this, to the south-southwest. At the boundary
line pointed out, it was not sufficient to submerge many of the
thountain summits, and south of this, the effect was still less.

This area covers at least five thousand miles in longitude and
three thousand in latitude. The seas about the northwest coast
of New Holland, show by their reefs, a contemporaneous subsi-
dence, and they should probably be included, as well as some
parts of the East Indies. Fifteen millions of square miles is not
then an overestimate of the extent of the region that participated
in this subsidence. :

The region of greatest subsidence lies nearly in a west-north-
west line, for we may trace it along by Washington Island far
towards the arctic coast. The whole broad area of subsidence
has nearly the same direction ; for this is the course of the boun-
dary line we have laid down as separating the high basaltic and
the low coral islands. It is highly interesting to observe that the
trend of the principal groups of islands in the Pacific, corresponds
nearly with this course. 'The Low or coral Archipelago, the Soci-
ety Islands, the Navigators, and the Sandwich Islands, lie in the
same general direction, nearly west-northwest and east-southeast.
It should be remarked that the Sandwich group, does not contain
merely the seven or eight islands usually so called; eight or ten
others stretch off the line to the north; some, small rocky islets,
and others, coral, and the whole belong evidently to one series-
I will not say that there isa connection between the trend of
these groups and the area of subsidence ; yet it looks much like it.

A further point may be worthy of consideration. The Sand-
wich group consists of basaltic islands of various ages. ‘The isk
and at the northwest extremity, T'auai, is evidently more ancient
than the others, as its rocks, its gorges and broken mountains,
indicate. By the same kind of evidence it is placed beyond

a a

doubt, that igneous eruptions on these islands continued to be
more and more recent, as we go from the northwest to the south-
east: at the present time the great active volcano, is.at the south-
east extremity of Hawaii, the southeast island. The fires have
gradually become extinct from the northwestward, and now burn
only on the southwest point of the group. At the Navigators,
and I believe also at the Society group, the reverse was true ;
the northwest island was last extinct. Is. there any connection
between this, and the fact that low islands are numerous north-
northwest of the Sandwich Islands and south-southeast of the
Society? Does it indicate any thing with regard to the nang
ter of the subsidence in these regions?

The time of these changes we cannot definitely ascertain ; nei-
ther when the subsidence ceased, for it appears to be no longer
in progress. 'The latter part of the tertiary and the succeeding
ages may have witnessed it. Although Iam by no means con-
fident of any connection, yet for those who would find a balance
motion in the changes, I would suggest that the tertiary rocks of
the Andes and North America, indicate great elevation since their
deposition; and possibly during this great Pacific subsidence,
America, the other scale of the balance, was in part undergoing
as great or greater elevation.

But why if the western American coast was rising, do we find
no corals on its tropical shores to indicate it? The cold extra-
tropical currents of the ocean furnish us with a satisfactory reply.

Arr. XVIL—Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session
of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalisis.

Te fourth annual session of this Association was held, pur-
suant to the adjournment of last year, at the New York Srare
Gronocican Museum in Albany, during the week succeeding
the 25th of April, 1843. The next meeting will be at Wash-
ington City, on the 10th of May, 1844. ‘The Chairman of the
next meeting is Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati; the Secretary,
Dr. D. D. Owen, of New Harmony, Indiana.

Wednesday, April 26th, 10 A. M.—T he Chairman of the meet-
ing, Prof. H. D. Rogers, called the Association to order. The

Secretary appointed at the last meeting, (Prof. O. P. Hubbard, )_

= ae ae

136 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

being unable to attend, on motion of Prof. J. W. Bailey, Mr. B.

Silliman, Jr. was elected Secretary.

So much of the proceedings of last year were read as referred
to the committees appointed to report on specified subjects at the
present meeting.

No business being ready at the moment for the consideration
of members, Prof. H. Emmons, by request, furnished the meet-
ing with a general account of the principles of arrangement
adopted in the great cabinet of geological specimens, collected
during the geological survey of the state of New York, and in
the midst of which the meeting was convened. He said the
intention had been to make the arrangement as far as possible an
expression of the natural order of succession observed in the vati-
ous rock masses in the state ; and as such it was both stratigraph-
ical and sectional. No attempt had been made to combine with
the stratigraphical a geographical arrangement.*

Mr. Emmons answered. in reply to a query from the Chair,
that he thought it was possible in a collection, to some extent to
express both the geological and geographical distribution, while
Mr. Vanuzxem gave the opinion that any attempt to combine
the two objects, would be productive only of confusion and diffi-
culty. Inthe New York State Museum, the gallery had been set
apart for a geographical arrangement.

Dr. Beck stated in reply to an enquiry from Dr. Houghton,
that he had found it impossible to preserve a strictly chemi
arrangement in the state mineralogical collection, although he
had given up his attempts to this end very unwillingly. ‘This
led to a discussion between Messrs. Beck, Houghton, Emerson,

Silliman, and others, on the general principles of mineralogical

_homenclature and arrangement.

ee
- Dr. Owen then read a paper “on Geological Paintings and —
- [llustrations,

* By Art. XIII. of the Constitution, “ All communications to the Association
shall be presented in writing, and upon them discussions may take place which
shall not be reported, but the facts presented in such discussions may be red
to writing by the persons communicating them, and they may then be handed in
at a subsequent session, when they may be entered on the records.”"—The Secre-
tary has felt himself bound by this article to refrain from giving any fullness
the remarks of members who have not furnished abstracts of their observations,
and the oral communications, as given in this abstract, are therefore necessarily
much abridged, although contributing very greatly to the interest of the meet-
ings.——-B. 8, Jr.

ae si
oa
x
id
ea
th he
'

Me its liability to injury by we

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 137

He called the attention of the meeting to a style dé pomaee in dis-
temper water colors, somewhat similar to scene painting, as '
adapted for geological subjects. The charts, sections, and representa-
tions of fossils before the Association, were executed in this style ;
also the beautiful landscapes of Mr. Russel Smith, so that: its capabilities
could be judged of. _ This kind of painting was recommended on the
score of cheapness, distinetness, the rapidity with which subjects may
be executed, the ease with which corrections may be made, because it
admits of execution on a large scale ; because it looks equally well by
candlelight and daylight, without even requiring any particular disposi-
tion or arrangement of lights ; and, finally, because the paintings can
be easily” transported. ;

The materials employed were unbleached cotton, whiting, the com-
monest colors, and a little glue to fix them. The canvass was primed
by whitewashing it with a mixture of water and whiting, to which about
sy of dissolved glue was added. When the canvass was dry, a mere
outline of the subject was sketched with a pencil, and the general tint
and whole effect of light and shade brought out before any details were
introduced. When the dead coloring was well executed, the finishing
was easy. When the ground tint was dry, the details could be marked
with pencil and put in with shadow tint. ‘Then a few judicious touches
with shade tint finished the design. If a clear and distinct effect was re-

quired, the color should be laid on a dry ground ; if it was desired that —
the tints should blend together, they should be laid on damp ground. ;
Any degree of contrast of light and shade could” be effected in this’

style.
As a proof of the rapidity with which subjects might be ‘ibe in
this way Dr. O. stated to the meeting, that he had in four months
— nearly eight hundred meee of organic remains, inclusive of

painting or water colors on agree

After the reading of tl ‘Deen } paper, the subject of minera-

logical classification was again introduced. Mr. J. D. Dana at %

the request of the Chair, stated that he had preferred the natural
history arrangement, as being best calculated for instruction, and
giving the most satisfactory view of the relationship of the several

species and families. The arrangement adopted by him in his

work on mineralogy, was based on the classification of Mohs,

‘and was in truth mainly a chemical system, in which either the

acid or the base was selected as the characterizing feature, accor-
Vol. xv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 18

a nel

138 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

ding as one or the other most abounded. Dr. Houghton, Mr. 8.
S. Haldeman, Dr. Beck, and Geo. B. Emerson, E'sq., continued
the discussion of the subject until the hour of adjournment.

The hours of session were fixed from 9 A. M. to 14 P. M., and
from 3 to 6 P. M.

Afternoon session, 3 P. M.—Mr. J. D. Dana read a paper “on
the analogies between the modern igneous rocks and the so-called
primary formations, and the metamorphic changes produced by

heat in tl iated sedimentary deposits.” The points attempted
to be established in this paper were—Ist. That the schistose struc-
ture of gneiss and mica slate is no satisfactory evidence of a sed-
imentary origin, and is to be attributed solely to crystallization.
2d. That some granites with no trace of a schistose structure may
still have a sedimentary origin. 3d. That the heat producing the
changes that are termed metamorphic, was not applied from be-
neath by conduction from some internal source of heat; on the
contrary it was through the heated waters of a surrounding ocean,
which received their high temperature from the eruption itself.
In other words, the metamorphic rocks so called are not hypo-
gene, as explained by Mr. Lyell, but, to use corresponding phra-
seology, epigene, or analogous to other rock formations, deposited

__ and solidified on the surface of the earth.

[As this paper by Mr. Dana is published entire in the present
number of this Journal, (p. 104,) it is unnecessary to offer any

eae

~~ abstract here.]

Mr. Dana’s paper gave rise to much oral discussion, among seV-
eral members, as to the possibility of heating a stratum of water
at the bottom of the ocean, without at the same time giving rise

_ to powerful upward currents which diffuse and dissipate the heat.

Prof. Espy said he had great difficulty in conceiving how the

ocean could be heated to any extent in the way proposed by Mr.

Dana, because of the disturbance of statical equilibrium in the
Ocean, giving tise to currents which would diffuse the heat.

Mr. W. C. Redfield said it was with reluctance that he entered upon
this discussion, but in the course of it the assumption “had been made,
and seemingly admitted on all hands, that water at the bottom of the

ocean, if raised in its temperature by the outspreading of lava or other

ed, must immediately leave the bottom and rise to the surface. This
was not necessarily so. He would illustrate his position by what often
occurred in so rare and mobile a fluid as the atmosphere, and woul

_ Association of American G'eologists and Naturalists. 139

cite a single example which he thought might be deemed sufficient.
Humboldt in his travels in South America took note of the temperature
at eighteen inches from a surface heated by the sun, and also at the level
of six feet. Instead of finding a difference of temperature such as
was due to the elevation or natural state of equilibrium, it was four
hundred and fifty times greater, being 7° F. in four feet and a half of
elevation, which could not have been the case did heated air necessarily
rise immediately from the surface. We know, too, that in our eee
can summers we have often a stratum of warm air on the surfac
brought from a great distance by geographical transfer, so that the ther’
mometer stands between 80° and 90° F., which continues even through
the night, and day after day, at only some nine thousand feet beneath the
snow line. Now if air heated above its ordinary temperature must im-
mediately rise, how could this occur? And in so dense a fluid as wa-
ter, confined under the enormous pressure of the ocean depths, how
greatly lessened would be the chance of any speedy displacement of ah
heated stratum from the bottom of the deep sea i
Heated waters if spread in the bottom of a quiet sea could not per-

meate or rise through the incumbent colder waters, unless in a state of
ebullition, or by the slow process of atomic displacement between the
several planes of equal and differential temperatures, or by that insen- _
sible geographical transfer which probably occurs even at the low

epths.. Nor can the overlying colder waters permeate the
that lies beneath. Moreover, we know from the observations of v
gers, that in deep soundings made in some parts of the ocean, a we
stratum has sometimes been found deeply imbedded beneath colder wa
ters. This fact, which he had deemed conclusive; i is of more certain
value than any of our scene aie A

“* Mr. Redfield annexes the following observations, ‘made by Scoresby, and by
the expedition commanded by Capt. Buchan in 1818, which showed an increase
of temperature at increased depths, in certain of the arctic seas. It
should be noted that the law of expansion in water, as its temperature descends P
below 40° Fahrenheit, does not apply to sea-water.

“Taare Scoresby’ '¢ Observations.

ELOW THE SURFACE.
pee 1 Hentactore. | Fesbocw deep | _ Lativode

“% 31° : 2 “ e 13 79° N
ge 3 33.8 37 79

gi Beatie 34.5 47 79
31 36 100 79
i, ues 36. 400 - 79
31 | 37 730 79
29.7 ~ 36.3 120.

eo 6. 761 73

140 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Mr. R. admitted that in numerous conditions which are familiar to
our observation, heated air or water was constantly displaced by that
of lower temperature and greater density. In these common cases
the colder portions of the fluid, by favor of associated conditions, find
access below the warmer portions, and force the latter to a higher level.
But in the great aerial and oceanic masses it is often otherwise; and
the truth was that mistakes of importance have sometimes been made
in relation to this matter. He thought all would allow, that there was
no more innate tendency in heated air or water to rise than in. heated
lava. An inferior stratum of heated water could not disobey the law
of its own gravity, and might remain at the bottom of the. ocean for a
length of time that no one could determine.

Referring to another part of the paper of Mr. Dana—

Dr. C. T. Jackson suggested that the conversion of pulverulent —
into magnesian carbonate of lime, might have been effected by the
tion of magnesian springs, containing bicarbonate of magnesia. He
would ask Mr. Dana if any such springs existed in or around the coral
islands of the Pacific Ocean, or if any sitiee9 of the mages existence
of such springs could be traced.

~ Dr. Jackson had witnessed with much interest Mr. Silliman’ ‘Ss anelysit
of the corals, and of the magnesian limestone, formed from them, and
it had occurred to him that a new theory of the formation of the mag-
nesian limestones might arise from the facts observed by Mr. Dana.
He was not entirely satisfied with M. Von Buch’s theory of cher

Tasce I1.—Observations of Buchan’s Expedition.

Temperature at ELOW THE SURFA ee
surface. joe [= to Latitude and date.
3g |
Ea 34 30" From 79°.45 N.
, a 34.5 35" to 80°.27 N., in|
mers 34 60 June and July.
34 34.5 72
35.6 83 “
32 36 94 «
32 35.3 95 &
31.5 365 e :
32 35.6 108 «
30.3 36. 120 “ }
30.5 36.5 142 3 ec
: RS A 365. ot 173 “ ,
7 32.5 36.3 185 “e
| 31.5 37 237 ‘
; 32.5 355.- 270 «
= 35 331 “
— 43 700 Ee
?
Xpedition,

a
ce harbor, west side of Spitzbérgen, See Capt. Beechy’s narrative of the

ee es ee

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 141

zation, by the action of igneous magnesian rocks. In some of the
localities discovered by that distinguished geologist, thick beds of non-
magnesian limestone existed between the dolomite and the igneous
rocks, from which the magnesia was supposed to have been exuded,
Von Buch supposed in such cases, that the pyroxenic porphyry pene-
trated the central mass at some point which was not visible, and thus
conveyed magnesia to the superincumbent carbonate of lime. Dr. J,
thought it more probable that the limestone, so situated, had become
charged with carbonate of magnesia, by means of water charged with
bicarbonate of magnesia; for the carbonate of magnesia would be de-
posited only at the surface, where its solution was freed from pressure.
Heat, by expelling one equivalent of carbonic acid, would also cause a
deposit of carbonate of magnesia from a solution of the bicarbonate.
In the instances. cited by Mr. Dana, if no magnesian springs occur
at the present time, we may reasonably suppose their former existence
as one of the effects of volcanic action during the semi-extinct state of
volcanoes. We may conceive of the disengagement of carbonic acid
from various carbonates, acted upon by chlorohydric acid, or by sul-
phurous acid, both of which are abundantly exhaled from volcanic
vents. If. then carbonic acid. gas was disengaged and. discharged
through comminuted volcanic magnesian rocks, such as tuffs, volcanic
ashes and various pyroxenic rocks ; those substances. would be decom-
posed and their magnesia would be dissolved under pressure of the
ocean, by carbonic acid, and would form bicarbonates, which would
deposit the carbonate of magnesia the moment the solution was freed
from pressure, or was acted upon by heat. Hence the. various pulve-
rulent carbonates of lime, corals, é&e. might in this manner be ¢
with carbonate of magnesia. It is possible thus to account for the form-
ation not only of the compact secondary magnesian limestones, but
even for the formation of granular dolomite, but it is probable that the
latter variety was rendered crystalline by the subsequent action of heat.
Mr. Dana said, in answer to Dr. Jackson’s suggestion, that

there existed no springs of hot water charged with carbonic acid

or bicarbonate of magnesia, as Dr. Jackson had supposed, in any
of-the coral islands of the Pacific, and therefore such an explana-
tion must rest entirely on hypothesis, and in reply to an enquiry

from the Chair, he further stated that so far as Mr. Silliman had

examined the corals brought home by him from the Pacific, they
had proved to be pure carbonate of lime, but thus far only a few
had been analyzed, not enough to be the basis of an opinion,
as to the presence or absence of magnesia in them. He consid-
ered that the carbonate of lime was secreted by the powers of

142 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

animal life from sea-water, and it was not impossible that mag-
nesia might be secreted in the same manner.

Prof. E. Emmons, referring to the interest of the subject of
metamorphism, advanced the opinion that the view of Mr. Dana
was not sufficient to meet all the phenomena, and that cases ex-
isted where the changes could not be referred to his explanations.
The influence of trap dykes had no doubt been overrated, and in
his observations the alterations effected by them were confined
to a very limited space, a foot or less, and not unfrequently the
line of contact. He thought that there were metamorphic chan-
ges due to the influence of cold water transfused through and
filling all the pores of rocks, particularly those changes "which
take place in lime-rocks. The siliceous nodules on the clay beds
of Johnsberg, seemed to be in the position where they were form-
ed, as the clay presented internal evidence of having never been
moved, and this change from feldspar to clay, and the segregation
of the silica, he deemed referable to the transfused water.

‘Mr. Dana said he recognized also the action of cold water as
supposed by Prof. Emmons, and cited.a bed of clay at the foot
of a basaltic hill in New South Wales, containing nodules of sili-
ceous matter, which he supposed proceeded from the decomposi-
tion of basalt.

Prof. H. D. Rogers found objection to the theory of Mr.
Dana, on the ground that an internal fluid mass of molten Java,
was more likely to. convey heat to the superincumbent rocks,
than an ocean of water heated to any considerable extent. Prof.
Rogers said he would ask liberty to explain his views more ful-
ly at another hour.

The Association then adjourned till 9 o’clock, Thursday morn-
ing. ;

Thursday, April 27th, 9 A. M.—The Association met at the
hour appointed, when the Chair presented a list of names from
the standing committee, of gentlemen as candidates for admission
to the Association, viz. Messrs. A. Osporn, of Herkimer, N. Y-}
G. S. Weaver, of Cambridgeport, Vt.; Lyman Winner, of Hoo-
sick Falls, N. Y.; and Franxtin vaseate, of Canijoharie, N. Y-
They were unanimously elected.

The Secretary then read a letter from Prof. O. P. Hubbard, the
Secretary elect, to the Chair, stating that he was unable to be
Present at the meeting, from the pressure of other duties, and eX-

ay * ? ei i .. S
Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 143

pressing his regret ; also from Mr. John H. Redfield, secretary of
the New York Lyceum of Natural History, containing a resolu-
tion of the Lyceum, inviting the Association to hold one of their
regular annual sessions in that city at an early day.

It was resolved, “that the Association authorize the publica-
tion, in Silliman’s Journal, of Mr. J. D. Dana’s paper ‘on the
analogies between the modern igneous rocks and the so-called
primary formations, and the metamorphic ere produced by
heat in the associated sedimentary deposits.’ ”

Prof. Lewis C. Beck then read a paper “on certain phenomena
of igneous action, chiefly as observed in the state of New York,”
of which the following is an abstract.

In this paper the author first adverted to the facts which are exhib-
ited in various parts of New York in favor of the inference that cer-
tain primary rocks have been subjected to heat, subsequently to the
crystallization of the imbedded minerals which they contain. Amo
the most striking examples of this kind, he noticed the locality in the
town of Hammond, St. Lawrence County, where the crystals of apatite,
feldspar and pyroxene in white limestone are often variously bent, an
have their angles smooth and rounded as if by fusion, while crystals of
zircon have been broken and their terminations moved from their ori-
ginal position. Similar appearances were referred to as occurring in
the scapolite near Natural Bridge in Lewis County, and in the apatite
and so called idocrase in Orange County ; all of these minerals ne
found in the white limestone.

~The author next noticed some peculiarities sircnnsient by the mine-
rals occurring in gneiss and mica slate. In the former, whenever gar-
net is found the crystals are seldom perfect. Localities were enume-
rated in Westchester, Montgomery, Saratoga and Essex Counties, at
which rounded or apparently fused garnets occur in the gneiss. On
the other hand, when the same mineral is found in mica slate it almost
invariably presents a perfect form and a fine finish. Such are the spe-
cimens’from Dover, Dutchess » &e.

From ‘the facts adverted to, the alt thinks we are warranted
in the conclusion. that whatever may have been the agency by which
these minerals were originally segregated, the rocks in which they are
found were subsequently subjected to a high temperature, sufficiently
high at least to soften many of the minerals imbedded in them. The
mica slate having been farther removed from the supposed source of
heat, has its imbedded crystals more perfectly developed.

In noticing other evidences of igneous action, Dr. B. observed that
there was one circumstance’ applicable to all the minerals found in the

; Ge,
144 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

primary masses, with the exception of serpentine, viz. the total absence # a,
of water, at least in any thing like atomic proportions, On the other.
hand, this substance is a common ingredient in those minerals which

are found in fissures of trap and greenstone, and in lavas which have

been ejected from volcanoes. It was hence inferred that water was

not evolved from a central nucleus during the earlier geological eras.

- Several localities were referred to in New York in which the con-

nexion between trap and serpentine, or the change of the former into

the latter, is well exhibited. Facts were also stated in regard to the
occurrence of the hydrous minerals both in trap rocks and in lavas.

The general conclusion drawn from them was that the presence of wa-

ter, known to be an almost constant condition of modern volcanic ac-

tion, was no less so during the periods when the ejection of the trappean

rocks took place.

The author also endeavored to show by a reference to facts connect-
ed with traps and lavas, that as we proceed to the interior of the earth
there are arrangements of mineral forms quite different from those
which characterize the lowest of the primary rocks which appear on
the surface.

Dr. B. also submitted some re upon what has rb called
Antediluvian Climate, or the climate which i is supposed to have
prevailed during the fepiheens era.

The author referred to seyeral well known facts, to show that from
the earliest periods of geological history down to the latest, the animals
and plants afford the evidence that a higher temperature prevailed than
is now observed, except in tropical regions. But he thought it had been
hastily concluded that during these remote periods the refrigeration
was gradual. ‘The remains of animals found in the oldest of the tran- —
sition prove that the arrangements of light and heat were the same or "

nearly the same as those which at present characterize tropical regions, Pits
and the Same general conclusion was drawn from an examination of ¥
the remains found in the latest of the tertiary. There appears to
no gradation from more to less tropical forms in these immensely diss «9
tant geological eras.. A uniform or nearly uniform condition of things
in regard to light, air, and heat, must have prevailed from one end to
the other of this far-reaching series. Again, if it be admitted that the
bowlder era was characterized by the prevalence of ice, at least in
northern regions, the change from a tropical to a polar temperature
must have been comparatively sudden.

The author upon reviewing all the facts, concluded that the theory
of Poisson afforded a more consistent elon than that which -
been generally adopted.

Pa
jation of American Geologists and Naturalists. 145
Mr. J. D. anaeen in reply to the reasoning of Dr. ——

i marked that

B. argued that the zeolites might ee tebe formed by the action
of ~e volcanic steam on the rock: if this be possible it will by no
means account for the large geodes of chalcedony in these rocks,
which, consisting of layer deposited in layer, and often occurring in
stalactites, was evidently formed from aqueous solutions. He also re-
marked that the numerous minerals of Vesuvius were not looked for
in the recent eruptions, but in the older lavas of Somma, which had
been exposed for some years at least to the action of moisture and other
decomposing agents; and that as far as his observation went, lavas im-
mediately after eruption do not contain hydrous minerals of any kind.

- To Prof. Beck’s remarks on the refrigeration of our globe, he replied
that this theory of refrigeration must be admitted by those who believe
in its once fluid state ; but it cannot be asserted that this gradual dimi-
nution of temperature continued in progress till the recent period. Yet
the diffusion of corals proves that the ocean was undergoing refrigera-
tion in the tertiary period. The reef-forming corals do not grow where
the winter temperature is below 66° F., and are in general confined
between the latitudes 28° north and south of the equator. Yet we find
coral rock on Porto Santo, near Madeira, where the water in winter
often stands at 58°; and farther back in the tertiary period similar reef-
forming corals oceur in England, and in the oolitic period still farther
north. Mr. D. alluded to a statement made by Mr. Couthouy at the
meeting of the Association at Boston, that the limiting temperature of
edrals was '76° F., and took occasion to remark that Mr. Couthouy was
indebted to himself (Mr. D.) for the views there advanced by him with
regard to temperature limiting corals: and added that the temperature
76°. F. was a mistake by Mr. Couthouy for 70°, the limit fixed upon by
Mr. Dana when the views were communicated by him to Mr, Couthouy.

Prof. John Johnston of Middletown, Conn., observed that the
crystals of beryl at Haddam, were singularly broken and distort-
ed, in a manner similar to that mentioned by Dr. Beck as belong-
ing to the el era of — from Hammond, so well known to
all mineralogists.

PO. TF, puaksies laid on the table specimens of risctianr pio
rocks bearing upon the Lomita which had been started yester-
day and continued to-day.

They were from Pequawket Mountain in New Hampshire. This
mountain was upwards of four thousand feet high, consisting of a pe-
culiar granite destitute of mica. It had burst through an argillaceous
slate, which at the base of the mountain was broken up into fragments.

Vol. xiv, No. 1,—April-June, 1843. 19

146 Association of American Greologists and Naturalists.

Half way up the mountain large masses of the slate, many upwards of
100 Ibs. weight, were found imbedded in the granite ; further up was a
breccia. of granite and slate, in which the latter is found varying in size
from a diameter of several feet to less than one inch, mixed up with
the granite in the greatest possible confusion ; the slate standing in ev-
ery. possible position was aptly compared on the spot to the books of
an extensive library scattered about. Passing over this breccia for the
eighth of a mile, we find a finer breccia; at the summit only fine scales
of the slate are found in the granite. We learn from this locality that
the changes effected by the granite are very slight; the angles of the
fragments are preserved, and there is no appearance of fusion. At the
lower part of the mountain, changes in the structure are evident, but
none in the form. The conclusion forces itself upon the mind, that
here the granite was not intensely heated, or else that it is a very poor
conductor of heat; that it was not liquid, but in the state of a thick
paste. is leads to a consideration of the absence of vesicles, for the
formation of which a pasty state is not favorable. The density of the
paste. may be estimated from the fact of magnetic iron in masses of
several inches in diameter being found imbedded in it. . If the granite
had been in a liquid state, the iron would have sunk to the bottom. . Dr.
J. exhibited a hand specimen showing the drift scratches, which would
be appreciated by those who knew the difficulty of obtaining small
characteristic specimens. The mountain was coyered with these
scratches ; they were from. N. 10° W. to S. 10° E.. The occurrence
of metamorphic rocks is frequent in New Hampshire, Maine, and Ver-
mont. An examination of the line of junction between the slate and
granite shows that the eruption took place immediately after the depo-
sition of the oldest argillaceous slate, and that it is much older than the
granites of Switzerland. .

_ Prof. E. Emmons then exhibited specimens, showing the ef
fects of alteration by artificial heat, producing a columnar struc-
ture resembling basalt in a piece of the Potsdam sandrock, which
had for many years been used as the hearth of an iron furnace;
also a mass of sand altered by similar means. He instanced a
trap dyke passing through the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, and
converting the adjoining portions into a rock resembling white
crystalline limestone. Prof. E. adverted to these as. instances of
_ change effected by dry heat. He then showed other specimens
which he supposed to have been altered by the aid of heat and
‘Water conjointly ; among these are specimens of calcareous spat;
coated with chalcedony and other Rossie specimens. Prof. E.
would divide the effects of heat under two heads ; first, dry heat j
and second, the conjoined effects of heat and water. |

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 147

The President then requested Mr. George B. Emerson to take
the chair, while he favored the meeting with sone remarks ae
hydrated minerals and antediluvian temperature

Prof. Rogers suggested whether the steam mae so ically accom-
panies volcanic emissions, may not have furnished the water of the
hydrous minerals found in the serpentine, referred to by Dr. Beck.
We may easily conceive that this steam, by mingling with the lava
matter in some localities and not in others, might cause the difference
between the igneous injections involving hydrous minerals and those
destitute of them. Organic remains afford evidence of the existence
of water upon our globe at very remote dates, as early as the eruption
of many of the ancient basalts and serpentines. A source of the steam
existed, therefore, in periods of very ancient volcanic action.

Upon the subject of the ancient climate of the globe, Prof. R. avow-
ed his dissent from the doctrine maintained by Prof. Beck, that the
temperature of the ancient globe was uniform throughout the vast pe-
riod of the secondary and tertiary races. He contended that we ought
not to look for proofs of a very obvious refrigeration during any but a
greatly prolonged period of geological time, since we must presume
that the earth had already approximated to a statical condition of tem-
perature at the time it became the abode of the earlier organic tribes. _
At the same time he appealed to the supposed habits of the ancient —
races, in support of the doctrine of a gentle and progressive cooling
of the earth’s surface. The hypothesis of Poisson, which explains the |
changes in the earth’s general climate, by assuming the solar system
to have passed successively into portions of space having different tem-
peratures, being alluded to by Prof. Beck as offering a probable cause
of the refrigeration in the past-tertiary period: Prof. R. stated that so
sudden and transient a reduction of temperature must be considered as
incompatible with the conditions of that theory. A translation of our
system into a cooler region of stars we cannot suppose to arise but in
a very gradual manner, hor would the globe part generally with its
heat when so near its statical condition, but with an almost impercepti-
ble slowness. He referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream on
climate and its obvious dependence upon the physical geography of
America, to show that local geological revolutions in the northern lati-
tudes, causing changes in the distribution of land and water, would be
sufficient to produce a temporary distribution further southward than
usual of the arctic mollusea..

Mr. Gebhard also gave his views on the sniokect briefly.

‘On motion of Mr. Emerson, the Association accepted the invi-
tation of the Mohawk and Hudson, and Troy and Schenectady

148 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Rail Road Companies, to make an excursion on their roads on
next Monday; and the matter was referred to the standing com-
mittee, to decide on the time and manner of the excursion.

‘Mr. James Halil then read a communication, “on wave lines
and casts of mud furrows.”

- Mr. Hall presented specimens illustrating a paper read at the meet-

ing of the Association in Boston, and exhibited some specimens of the
Medina sandstone, presenting the markings which he called wave lines,
from their perfect identity with the lines of sand deposited by the re-
tiring waves upon a sea beach or upon the beaches of lakes.*

Every one must have observed that each advancing wave carries
forerartl upon its crest a small quantity of sand, which at the moment
of the cessation of the advancing motion, and at the commencement
of the retreat, is deposited, marking in the most perfect manner the
outline of the wave. (Mr. H. illustrated by lines on the black-board
how these might be obliterated by a subsequent wave.)

These markings, often left on beaches for miles in extent on the
ebbing of the tide or the dying away of the wind, might appear fanci-
fal. He supposed that these minute tracings could hardly be preserved
in the solid strata, but since other markings equally liable to obliteration
were preserved, there was no reason why these could not be. They
appear through successive layers of the sandstone, the layers varying
from half an inch to two and three inches in thickness.

From the direction of these curves, the wind must have been from
the N. W., or varying from that to N. N.

In cuimsiaiisiog with these markings, were the stranded shells of Lip
gula cuneata, which had been drifted ashore, and being an obstacle to

the retreating waters, they presented all the appearances attendant on
small pebbles in running streams, where the water scoops out a little

hollow before it and on each side, while beyond is a little ridge of sand.
The markings to which the name of mud Jurrows has been applied,
consist of little ridges upon the under surface of strata, varying in size
from the finest possible lines or strize, to that of ridges from an inch to
six inches in diameter. .
~ These always occur at the njpeocion of a more sandy stratum with an
argillaceous one below. ~
They have all the appearance of having been the filling of grooves
or furrows made in the mud deposit below, after it had become partially
indurated. No other cause could be assigned for their production.
| RR eS Oa

PGS
my Mantell in his Geology of the Southeast of England first called the atten-
a to the occurrence of a marks on the sandstones v5 ee

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 149

There is one situation at Goodwin’s Falls on Cayuga Lake, where
the lower side of an extensive stratum was completely covered with
these casts of grooves. On Seneca Lake shore, twenty miles distant,
and at precisely the same elevation, was a similar stratum, and probably
the same one as seen on Cayuga Lake, and marked in like manner.

_ Mr. H. presented two specimens where these ridges were more than
an inch in diameter. On the most elevated part of one of these, and
for a foot or more in length, the surface is covered with small shells,
while upon the surface on either side of the ridge, there were no shells.

The inference was that the shells had drifted over the smoother bot-:
tom into the furrow and there remained till covered by the receding
deposit to which they adhered. _ The direction of these ridges is always
in right lines, and in a uniform direction. There are sometimes two
or more systems of these ridges, similar to the groovings upon the sur-
faces of our present rocks.

Prof. Rogers inquired if these were not always at the sppianvcscs
of softer strata with more arenaceous deposits.

Mr. Hall answered that they were.

Prof. Rogers advanced the opinion that the coarse argillaceous
matter carried over the surface by currents produced this grooving.

Mr. Hail replied that he had drawn the same inference regard-
ing the smaller casts or lines, but had not satisfied himself of the
origin of the larger ones.

Some general remarks were here made upon ancient -denuda-
tion, during the deposition of the limestone of the Helderberg di-
vision, or about the period of the ——. of the ocsiioal sand-
stone.

‘The Association then took a recess.

Afternoon session, 3 P. M.—The Chair proposed, from the
standing committee, the names of the following gentlemen as
members of the Association. Messrs. H. L. Kenpricr, U. 8.
Francis E. Sprvner, Herkimer, 'N. Y., Dr. Sawuki Foiiay,
U. 8. A., Prof. Pearson and Prof. Bosfin’ of Union College,
Schenectady, N. Y. These gentlemen were unanimously elected.

Prof. aay read a paper on the crystals formed in the tissues
of dicotyledonous plants.

He stated, that in examining the ashes of many plants, great num-
bers of polygonal bodies were found, which subsequent observation
showed to result from crystals. These crystals can easily be found in

situ in the layers ‘of the libre of chestnut, locust, hickory, and many

other trees.. They also can be found in great quantities in even the

ion of American Geologists and Naturalists.

hardest woods—as lignum vite, oak, mahogany, &c., and may be ob-
tained isolated, by scraping the bark or wood into water, and picking
out the woody particles. In the ashes of the leaves of many trees,
every ramification of the vascular bundles was found marked out by
rows of crystals. In very young leaves these crystals were only found
along the midriff and a few of the principal veins. These crystals -
were shown to be referable to three principal forms :

Ist. Form A, being modifications of a rhombic prism, oblique from
an acute edge, and with the acute edges frequently replaced. This is
‘the most abundant form among dicotyledons.

. 2d. Form B, to which were referred crystals with the lateral planes
at right angles, as in hickory, iris, &c.; and,

3d. Form C, which isthe same as the conglomerate raphides of Que-
kett.

It was shown that the forms A, B and C, sometimes occur together
in the same plants; that these crystalline forms all belong to the same
system; that the identity of the corresponding plane angles rendered
it probable that all these forms were derived from the same primary ;
and that the fact observed by Mr. Quekett of London, that forms A and
B produced dissimilar effects on polarized light, might be due to the
light being transmitted along different axes in the two kinds of crystals.

Tables, accompanied by drawings, showing the occurrence of these
crystals in a great number of plants, were presented by Prof. B., who,
in connection with these, remarked on the small amount of crystals in
the Pine tribe, where they appear confined to the bark, and their appa-
rent absence in some large groups of plants, as the Labiatw, Composit,
Gramine, &c.

An account was given of the micro-chemical and other experiments,
proving the composition of the crystals in all the plants contained in the
tables to be oxalate of lime.

Tn remarking on the number of these crystals contained in plants, it
was stated by Prof. B. that the number contained ina single square inch
of the liber of many trees, as the willow, poplar, locust, &e., no thick-
er than a piece of writing paper, was at least a million, and that con-
sequently the amount in the whole tree, including its bark, wood and
leaves, must be enormous, and yet nearly all the trees of the forest were
thus filled with crystals. .

| Remarks were then made by Prof. B. on the important questions con-

ne the st and consequences of this vast production of erystal-
oe oxalate of lime in the ‘vegetable kingdom, and upon the develop-
ment of heat and electricity which must attend its formation. He sug-
he ont questions worthy of examination, whether oxalate of lime is
izer, whether the fall of leaves, shedding of bark, &c. might not

be nature’s method of distributing this substance, as a fertilizing agent ?
whether it could be detected unchanged in soils? and what changes
does it undergo during the decomposition of vegetable matter? He
then stated that although oxalate of lime was the most common crys-
talline matter in plants, other substances also occur, and he showed
drawings of cubical crystals in the cells of the potato, right square
prisms in the cells of the outer layers of the onion, and flattened octa-
hedrons, &c. in Rhus, all of which forms are incompatible with those of
oxalate of lime. The examination of these forms and the acicular and
other crystals of monocotyledonous plants, Prof. ia proposed to make
the subject of a future communication to the ety.

Prof. B. then read an abstract of some i on crystals, by
M. Payen of Paris, which he had met with since the preparation of his
memoir. His only knowledge of Payen’s labors was derived from this
brief notice in the London Microscopic Journal, which did not enable
him to judge to what extent M. Payen might have anticipated his re-
sults. In cases, however, where the results obtained by M. Payen might
be similar to those obtained by Prof. B., the latter could still claim ori-
ginality, although not priority of discovery.

‘Dr. Jackson enquired of Prof. Eeey, if he Gad aecsie simi-
lar crystalline bodies in Indian corn?

Prof. Bailey stated that he had not observed any definite forms
in any of the grasses.

Dr. David Dale Owen then od a paper “on ar Geology of
the Western States.”

The formations of the district described, belong shidty to the eras s of
the bituminous coal, the carboniferous or mountain: limestone, and the
Silurian rocks of Murchison.

The order of superposition of the above formations, their dip and out-
crop, were exhibited by two eighteen feet sections; one running from
S. E. to N. W., from the Unaka Mountain in Tennessee, to the mouth
of the Wiktouste river; the other from 8. W. to N. E., from the Chick-
asaw bluff on the Mississippi to Pittsburg. The superficial area of each
group p of rocks was laid down on a large chart, colored to correspond
with the sections. Over each formation, in their appropriate geograph-
ical and stratigraphical position, were figures of the organic remains
on a magnified scale, so that they could be seen at a distance.

The most interesting points touched upon by Dr. Owen, were the de-
scription of the “ Great Illinois Coal Field,” equalling in area the en-
tire island of Great Britain, and occupying the greater part of Illinois,
about one third of Indiana, a northwestern strip of Kentucky, and ex-
tending a short distance into lowa. A specimen of coal from this coal

“ig ar

152 Association of American Ge

field was exhibited, which displayed in a beautifully distinct manner the on ¥

te ee ee

woody fibre. ;
The absence of trap dykes and dislocations in the western coal meas-
ures, was adverted to, as a remarkable contrast to the coal fields of
England, which are wonderfully disturbed by volcanic action and in-
trusive rocks. The position of the most productive salt springs was
pointed out on the section near the base of the coal measures. —
Rising from beneath the great Illinois coal field, and circumscribing
it nearly in its whole extent, was a limestone, considered the equiva-
lent of the mountain limestone of Europe, every where characterized
by two very remarkable fossils—the Pentremite and Archimedes, and
‘very important in practical economical geology, since no workable seam
of coal has ever been found beneath the rock containing these organic
remains; they are, therefore, trustworthy guides in determining the
limits of the western coal measures.
_ Next in the order of succession followed a fine-grained sandstone and
chert, interesting as being the repository of colossal beds of iron ore,
not only in Tennessee, but in Kentucky and Indiana. It prevails in the
region of country in these states known by the name of the Knobs,
‘This formation has yielded some weak brines, but they have not been
able to compete with those procured in the coal formation. a
The lower part of this formation was supposed to be the representa-
tive of the Devonian system of England, and the Chemung group of
New York. wT,
The whole of the above described groups of rocks rested on a black
bituminous shale, very like coal shale, but unaccompanied by any per-
fect seams of coal, and considered equivalent to the Marcellus shale of
the New York geologists. 4

The above comprised one half of the paper; the reading of the re- _ *
mainder was postponed for a future day, and Dr. Owen concluded by 7

drawing up a summary of the foregoing in the form of a series of que-

ries calculated to draw forth the comparative observations of others in
e

distant parts of the west.

__ Mr. James Hail then presented to the Association, a section
intended to show the western relations of the New York strata,
as developed in Ohio and other western states.

‘The Chair mentioned to the meeting, that G. B. Emerson, Esq-
would favor the Association with a lecture on the importance
of natural history as a branch of education, on Friday evening;
at 74 o’clock.

_ The Association then adjourned,

BR
Association of snlileniiien telitittin. 153

his ~ Friday, April 28th.—A letter from Walter R. Johnson, E'sq.

to the President, was read, in which he expressed his regret at
being prevented from attending the present meeting, and enclo-
sing his contribution towards the printing of the Transactions.

Mr. Nicollet then read a eek “on the cretaceous formation J
the Missouri River.”

Commencing at Council Bluffs and proceeding up the river, it was
the design to give an intelligible view of the formations exposed on the
river banks. But, previously, for the purpose of connecting the creta-
ceous formation with the geological formations at the east, he stated
that the carboniferous formation could be observed from St. Louis up
the rivér; that at Council Bluffs and Riviere des Moines on the Missis-
sippi, the same carboniferous fossils were found. That south of the

ssouri there was a continuation of the carboniferous and Silurian
systems, In Iowa, the representative of the Silurian system contained
a great number of fossils characteristic of the formation, while at the

south, the mineral region of Missouri contained none or very few fos-

sils, and we infer that it belongs to the same system, merely from the
mineral characters. That owing to the topographical | character of the
country, no vertical sections were exhibited.

Mr. N. commenced his detailed observations, by giving a sketch of
the topography of the banks of the river. The course of the river was
continually changing—so much so that many of the bends described
by Lewis and Clark could not now be recognized, and some laid down
by himself on the map exhibited, in 1839, had already disappeared. He
had, in fact, lately learned that the great bend opposite Council Bluffs,
had been cut off. And hence it resulted that the travelling ¢ distances of
his party, differed much from those of Lewis and Clark. Soon after
leaving the Tchansansan, of Woody River, the hills Fecede from the
banks, but after two days’ journey the river again washes their base,

and the carboniferous limestone again appears. in place. Near the

mouth of the Sioux River, the carboniferous rocks again appear, and
this he considers their true limit, not having met with them or any of
the older fossiliferous rocks beyond this locality. At this place the
rocks in the bluff, consisting of argillaceous shale and carboniferous
limestone, were seven or eight feet in thickness.

On reaching | the Ayoway River, a great change takes place in the
vegetation and i in the geological formation of the country. At the third
bluff above the mouth of the river, to which the name of Dixon’s Bluff
had been given, in honor of one of his most faithful and devoted guides,
occur a group of rocks which we called Dixon’s group. It consists of— .

Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. . 20

154 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

A. Argillaceous limestone, containing Inoceramus barbarini very
much compressed; three feet of this rock appears above the water;
how deep it extends below he had no means of ascertaining. Dissem-
inated through it is iron pyrites in great abundance. ;

_B. A calcareous marl, generally from thirty to forty feet thick, con-
taining few fossils; an Orbicula and fish scale were found init.

C. A ferruginous clay containing selenite in acicular crystals, and of
great variety and beauty of form.

These rocks, which are always found thus associated, constitute the
base of the cretaceous formation of the Upper Missouri; it extends from
the Sioux to the Ayoway River, twelve miles, and rests immediately on
the carboniferous limestone—all the intermediate strata appear to be
wanting. Along this line, A disappears on account of the rise of the
country, and between B and C is found a thin layer of fibrous carbo-
nate of lime, containg Ostrea congesta of Conrad. The specimens of
marl sent from this place have been found by Prof. Bailey to contain
microscopic multilocular Foraminiferc, the same as found in New Jer-
sey. Here too, a white indurated clay alternates with C.. A little be-
yond the mouth of the Tchansansan River (or the * continued Wood
River’’) commences the Coteau de Missouri, along which, on the right,
is the American desert ; along here on both banks occurs this formation.

D. The last member of the cretaceous group, is a plastic clay, two
hundred feet thick, divided into unequal beds by clay containing nodules
of argillaceous iron ; it also contains fragments of limestone, the differ-
ent varieties of which were indicated for the benefit of future geolo-
gists. The plastic clay is full of new species of Ammonites, Inocera-
mus, Belemnites, Baculites, &c. and also remains of vertebrated ani-
mals which have been described by Dr. Harlan. Dr. Morton has de-
scribed and figured some of these fossils in the Journal of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Of the few species collected by
Mr. N., four have been identified with those of the same formation on
the Atlantic. This formation exhibits the geological features of the
Upper Missouri for four hundred miles, retaining the same lithological
and fossil character. From specimens and information he thinks this
formation extends much farther to the west and northwest. ;

Nr. N. concluded this portion of his paper by giving an account of
the topography of the country, and spoke in terms of high commenda-
tion of the accuracy with which Mr. Catlin had depicted the scenery in
his interesting volumes. In the midst of the clay banks, and from the
summit of the hills, dense smoke is frequenly observed to arise from
crevices in the plastic clay ; he called them pseudo-volcanoes. From
aoe, from the occurrence of the light spongy material brought

‘by the waters, and strewed along the shore, many have erro-

A ar li : of American or ee ee and ae ee 155

neously supposed that volcanoes existed on the Upper Missouri. This,
however, is a mistake. The smoke and pseudo-pumice, he supposed
to proceed from the same source, the ignition of the. iron pyrites and
lignite, which are found in great abundance in the plastic clay. These
pseudo-volcanoes were not in action during the journey of Lewis and
Clark, nor during that of Mr. N.; but every thing concurs to prove
their existence; the unanimous declarations of the Indians and voya-
geurs—the blackened and sterile appearance of the more recent, and
the name given to the district, cote brule, or “ burnt coast.” The In-
dians call these spots mankah zita, or “ smoking earth” —thus -
nizing their difference from volcanoes, which would be called burning
mountains.

Mr. N. exhibited in illustration of his paper, his splendid map of the
hydrographieal basin of the Upper Mississippi, embracing an area of
10° of latitude and of longitude, prepared for government and engraved
on its order. This map is not yet published; but will soon appear in
connection with the report of Mr. Nicollet, accompanied by a map of
the same territory, on a reduced scale, with the topography exhibited
thereon, as directed by a recent order of the Senate. Some notion of
the extent of the territory embraced may be formed from the statement,
that it is nearly once and a half as large as that of France.

Mr. N, stated, for the benefit of future collectors, that the fossils and
selenites, &e. could be obtained immediately after rains without. the
labor of digging, and that if favored with a brilliant sun they occa-
sioned a beautiful appearance by their glittering lustre. Hence the
name of “ shining hills,” so appropriately given by the Indians, and by
them mentioned to the first white explorers. ‘This name had been sup-
posed [erroneously] to apply to the Rocky Mountains. — ;

Prof. Rogers enquired of Mr. Nicollet, if there was any evi-
dence of the existence of a saliferous formation south of the Yel-

lowstone River, = segs eel iig
Mr. Nicollet replied, that he had no definite knowledge on the
subject, having never been there. —

Dr. Houghton, referring to the rocks about the great Salt
Lake, stated that these formations belonged to the strata of the
lower portion of the coal series.

Prof. Rogers said, that in confirmation of the remarks of Mr.
Nicollet, as to the pseudo-voleanoes of the Upper Missouri, he
would state that he had been informed by fur-traders and others,
in whose statements implicit reliance could be placed, that high
up on the Missouri and Yellowstone, there were these hills of
* ‘burning clay, and that after they were burnt out they sunk down,

156 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

leaving permanent memorials of the fact. As among the species

of fossils, (perhaps not more than twenty in number,) collected by NG
Mr. N. four proved to be identical with those of the Atlantic cre-
taceous formation, and as it was probable that future researches

would show a greater conformity of fossils, we had exhibited be-
fore us one vast formation, the extremes of which were apparently

identical in date, and the deposit of one great sea. This became.

the more interesting from the difference which existed between
it and that of Europe, as among two hundred species of fossils
which had been found in cretaceous formations of the Atlantic,
but one, and that even doubtful, has as yet been identified with
an European species. The evidence appears strong, that the
fauna of the formation on the two continents was dissimilar, and
that there was a general identity of the fauna in America, as
shown by a comparison, by Dr. Morton, of the cretaceous fossils
of New Jersey with those of Upper Missouri. The Atlantic fos-
sils corresponding with those of the Upper Missouri, as far as

observed, are as follows: Ammonites placenta, (Dekay,) some |

very large, also found in New Jersey; A. Conradi, (Morton,) in
Alabama; Baculites ovatus, (Say,) in New Jersey ; Belemnites
mucronatus, found in New Jersey, Alabama, and English chalk.

Mr. Redfield mentioned the occurrence of a cretaceous fossil,
the E'zogyra costata, (Say,) in the city of Brooklyn, opposite the
city of New York. It was found about sixty five feet below the
surface, in excavating a well in or through the drift on Brooklyn
heights. his is believed to be the first authentic memorial of

the cretaceous formation found in the state of New York. ‘The.

specimen, a very fine one, is in the cabinet of Dr. John C. Gay.
The Chair stated, that the Association was without a treasurer,

Dr. Locke having been detained from attending the present meet- ~

ing. Dr. Douglass Houghton, of Detroit, was then elected to
the office ; and the accounts and funds of the Association were
handed to Dr. H. by the Secretary. |

The Secretary then presented to the Association a collection of
corals and coral rocks from the West Indies, received last yeat
from Mr. Peter A. Brown, of Philadelphia. : :
_ The Chairman remarked, that as it was understood that the
Secretary was engaged in a series of chemical examinations. 0D
the corals and coral limestones of the Pacific, it might be inter-
esting to make some comparison also with those of the West In-

>i,

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 157

_. dies, and therefore proposed that the specimens presented by Mr.
+ Brown ‘be given to Mr. Silliman for this purpose, which was
passed. :

Mr. James Hail read a communication “on the geographical
distribution of fossils in the older rocks of the United States.”

Mr. H. commenced with some general views as to the formation of
sedimentary rocks. They required for their deposition materials to fur-
nish the detritus sand or mud of which they were made up ; bodies of
water in which these materials could be suspended, and from which they
might be deposited according to their density—sand first, and the more
finely comminuted particles forming mud afterwards. As to the ma-
rine exuvice they contained, these would depend, as to distribution, num-
ber and character, materially upon the depth of the ocean, the distance
from the land or shore at which the matter enveloping them was depos-
ited, and consequently where they had lived, and the nature of the bot-
tom upon which they had their existence.

In connection with this he might be allowed to mention, that Mr. Da-
na had informed him that the forthcoming reports of the Exploring Ex-
pedition would contain numerous facts as to the distribution of shells

and crustacew at the present day. He had met with no essay upon
this subject, and the few scattered facts which were to be found in dif-
ferent authors rather stimulated than satisfied curiosity. The few facts
upon the subject which had fallen under his observation, were now of-
fered, in the hope of calling the attention of others to the subject, rath-
er than with the expectation of furnishing any complete solution of the
problem. sate

The rocks which in England are called Silurian, and which in this
state we have termed the New York system, [under this name on! com-
prehended the Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian systems, which are
now considered as forming one system,] are known'to be of great ex-
tent in this country. The researches of Murchison in Europe show
their extent in that continent, and some of their fossil characteristics are
known to occur abundantly in Siberia. “The perfect development, wide
yange and comparatively undisturbed state of these rocks in the United
States, afford excellent opportunities for studying the condition of the
ancient ocean, from which they were deposited over wide areas. He
exhibited a section extending from the eastern part of New York to the
Mississippi, in which he had endeavored to point out the comparative
developments of the different strata. Having travelled over this ground,
he was acquainted with the lithological and fossil characters of the rocks,
He first considered the changes in lithological character which these
strata exhibit in proceeding westwardly, and their greater or less devel-
opment. — ;

158 Association of American Geologists and Naturalisis.

The lower rocks exhibited by the section, and which were well de-
veloped in New York, he had met only at a few points westward.
They occur at Frankfort, Ky., and according to Dr. Owen, on the Mis-
sissippi at Prairie du Chien, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin.
Their development at Frankfort cannot well be ascertained. The same
fossils which typify these rocks in New York are found in Kentucky
and at the mouth of the Wisconsin. We thus have a uniform compo-
sition, nearly similar developments and like fossils, extending this great
distance ; and must, therefore, admit a uniform condition in the depth
and bottom of this primeval ocean. Already do we know that this ex-
tent east and west was not merely a margin, but that the same rocks
extend into Canada and stretch west beyond Lake Huron; and Profs.
H. D. and W. B. Rogers have identified them in Pennsylvania and Vir-
ginia. (Specimens from some of the different localities were then ex-
hibited.) :

The next was the Hudson River group, made up of shales, shaly
sandstones, and sandstones with little calcareous matter. This also is
seen in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and on the Mississippi aboye Dubuque ;
but with a change of character—having become more calcareous, 80
much so as to have received the name of Blue Limestone. Its thiek-

ss is apparently less than in New York. In New York its typical
fossils are of the Conchifera, while with some exceptions the Brachio-
poda are rare. At the west, the latter are the predominating fossils;
while the fossils which are characteristic in New York, are the least
prominent at the west. Corals and crinoidea are also far more abun-
dant throughout the group to the west, and indicate a source of the cal-
careous matter. The crustacea also appear in greater numbers, and tri-
lobites different from those of the Trenton. Of the Oneida conglome-
rate, the Medina sandstone, and the Clinton group, we have scarcely
any definite traces at the southwest. The Niagara group, which is
next in order, consists in New York of shale and limestone, both being
highly fossiliferous, the former containing corals, crinoidea, shells and
trilobites—the latter, chiefly corals. At the west the shale has disap-
peared with its fossils, and the limestone much increased in thickness,
and, as in New York, abounds in corals. Here we haye the calcareous
matter increasing as We go west. This mass in the centre of New York,
only a few feet thick, is two hundred and fifty feet at Niagara. Falls,
and in the western states little less than a thousand. The Onondaga
salt group, which in New York is upwards of a thousand feet thick,
has thinned out to the west so as to become almost insignificant, _Suc-
ceeding these bai have the Helderberg limestones, an extensive group
Tee in fossils. They, however, except the two upper limestones,

ppear before we leave this state. And these two are well devel-

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, 159

oped in Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky, and also on the Mississippi. The
general character remains the same, with the exception of being light-
er colored—the fossils are identical.

Then come the Marcellus shales and the Hamilton group, which form
an.important part of the series in New York. Its thickness is nearly
a thousand feet, and contains more individual fossils than all the rocks
below them. In the eastern part of this state these groups consist of
slaty and sandy shales and impure sandstone—westwardly, the sand di-
minishes and the mud increases. In Ohio, é&c. the lower member alone,
a black shale, is visible, and it has thinned down to one hundred or even
fifty feet, and has apparently lost all its fossils. Here we have a bet-
ter instance of the gradual change and final disappearance of fossils
than is elsewhere afforded. The lithological characters also change as
we proceed west, and in accordance with the laws of mechanical de-
posits. If the origin of the deposit was at the east, we have first the
sand—then mud intermingled with sand—then mud alone, and beyond,
the clear blue ocean without turbidness.

We may then infer, that in this great ocean, greater depth and quiet
were found at the west, and at the east a shallower sea and proximity to

group for a great extent. In Ohio, this group has diminished from two
thousand in New York, to four or five hundred feet in thickness, and

it is almost non-fossiliferous. Here terminates the New York system,
the rocks of which attain a greater development than perhaps in any
part of the world. (Mr. Vanuxem thought the Old Red Sandstone

should not be excluded from the system of New York rocks.)

and that a change in mechanical deposits at different distances from
their sources is also attended with change in the fossils. We find too,
in the first period, which includes the Hudson river group, a higher de-
gree of vitality over the west portion; and in the second, that of the
calcareous deposits an organization more fully developed here at the

ee ) as
a

— a

160 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

east. In the third division, still greater difference is perceptible in New
York than west or south.

The sea here emphatically teemed with life, while at the west it was
cold, dark and deep, with scarcely an inhabitant. And we may also
learn that the same rocks may at one point be highly fossiliferous, and
at another destitute of them, and may thus often be mistaken for differ-
ent rocks, if sole reliance is placed upon fossil character... The next
rock exhibits even greater changes in the organic contents and compar-
ative conditions of the eastern and western extremes. of this ocean.
These consisting of sandstones and shales, red, green and gray, with a
few shells, fish scales and fragments of bones, are equivalent to the Old
Red Sandstone of Europe. » In the eastern part of New York, it forms
the Catskill mountains, and in Pennsylvania, it is about two thousand
feet thick, but it can scarcely be identified beyond the Genesee River,
nor do we know that it reappears at: the west. Then follows a
coarse conglomerate, which, after the disappearance of the Old Red,
rests upon the Chemung group. ' In Indiana, however, the rocks of the
Chemung are’ succeeded by a fine sandstone, which contains beds of
oolitic limestone, with fossils entirely different from any at the east.
Succeeding this limestone we have the conglomerate, which at the east
rests upon the Chemung group.

Thus we have the great coal formation resting in one place upon the
Chemung group, at another upon the Old Red Sandstone, and at anoth-
er upon the limestone, which underlies the coal basin of the west. He
concluded by remarking, that from what has been said it was evident
that this immense ocean was bounded on the east by a continent which
supplied all the mechanical deposits; that during some periods there
was a cessation of these deposits, and calcareous deposits were produ:
ced. The influence of these deposits did not extend throughout the
whole area, and beyond their reach flourished corals and many other
beautiful forms in security, which thus prevented them from anes
beyond their own domains.

[Mr. Hall’s paper was read partly in the morning and_ partly
in the afternoon, but it has been given above without division:]

r. Houghton, referring to the paper just read by Mr. Hall,
said that the sandstone of Lake Superior, lying east from Ke-
wuna Bay, dips at a moderate angle to the south, or a little east of
south, and passes under a limerock which he considers to be the
éqhivalent of the Trenton limerock of New York; while those
conglomerates and sandrocks lying westerly from Kewintia Point,
and flanking the trap on the north, dip to the north, mostly at a
high angle. These last Mentioned rocks are probabigueantem-

me on
7

ee a

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 161 °

poraneous with the New Red, and were doubtless deposited during
the long period that marked the upheaval of the trap, as trap
was found, in a very coarse condition, to enter largely into the
fragmentary material, composing, more particularly, the lower
strata of these rocks. on ent

Dr. H. proceeded to state, that the Pentremite limestone men-
tioned by Mr. Owen, in the part of his paper read yesterday,
seemed gradually to thin out as it went north, and to exist, after
we lose it in continuous beds, in strips and patches. ‘2

Prof. H. D. Rogers then said, that if he understood Mr. Hall,
he considered the black bituminous slate of the west, as the
equivalent of the Marcellus shale and Hamilton group of the
New York system combined. A careful examination of that well
characterized stratum had led him and his brother, Prof. W. B. Ro-
gers, to regard it rather as the representative of the Marcellus shale
alone. They had during the last summer and autumn traced
both the Marcellus shale and the Hamilton through Pennsylvania
and Virginia and East Tennessee, to their southwestern termina-
tions, the former thinning out in Virginia, and the latter abruptly
disappearing with the ending of the Clinch Mountain in an enor-
mous fault in East ‘Tennessee. ‘The Marcellus shale, unaccom-
panied by any indications of the Hamilton group, was subse-
quently identified by its fossils during the same tour by Prof.
H.-D. Rogers, at Canary Fork, the Harpeth Hills near Nash-
ville, and other localities in Middle Tennessee ; also-in Kentucky,
southwest of Louisville, and at New Albany in Indiana, the fos-
sils most frequently met with being the Orbicula corrugata, and
aminute Lingula. Prof. R. thought that the Hamilton group—
of which he could discover no trace by organic remains in the
west, being in New York so remarkably replete in fossils—would
in accordance with a general law of our strata continue some, at
least, if not many of its species, as far westward as its sediment-
ary Materials. © ‘

He next adverted to his having met with what he considered
the Dictuolites Beckii, a Medina species, and Fucoides biloba, a
Clinton form, in the so-called blue limestone formation of Cincin-
nati, and the Strophomena rugosa of the Clinton and higher
groups of New York in the same blue limestone at Madison, In-
diana.

“Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 21

In reply to Prof. Rogers, Mr. Hall said he did not consider the
black bituminous shale of the west as the equivalent, but as the
only representative of the Marcellus shales and the Hamilton
group.

The President replied, that there was no equivalent of the
Hamilton group at the west; the Marcellus shales were far
more persistent, and were found where the other was entirely
wanting. And such, too, was the case with regard to some
other of the New York formations. ‘There was another: fact
worthy of observation, that those species which we are apt to
deem characteristic, are found to make strange aberrations,
and may occupy dwellings, to which we perhaps think they
have no title. Thus he had found in the blue limestone of
Cincinnati the Dictuolites Beckii and Fucoides biloba, fossils
which were typical of the Hudson River shales, associated with
those of the Trenton and Clinton groups. Now he would ask,
were these species created at an earlier period in the western
ocean, and did they remain there during the convulsions which
had elevated the New York rocks? Or did the earlier species of
the Hudson River group continue on in the west, and thus be-
come associated with the beings of another era? One or other
of these suppositions must be correct, if the set have been
correctly identified.

Mr. Hall in reply to what had fallen from the President in
relation to the fossils which he supposed he had found out of
place, remarked that there were indeed fossils in the Hudson
River group resembling the Strophomena rugosa, but there was
great doubt whether they were that fossil. He referred to the
figure, in the Silurian Researches, of the Leptena tenuistriata,
which was corrugated in a manner similar to the Strophomena
corrugata. Similar differences exist in respect to other fossils.
Mr. Murchison has given a figure of Orthis canalis, which he
considers distinct from the O. elegantula of Dalman. Von Buch,
in speaking of this shell, remarks that it is found at the Iron
Bridge at

weden only in being smaller. Similar observations might be
made in regard to other fossils, and they could only be declared
distinct or identical by comparison in hand.

In relation to the Fucoides biloba, he had seen a similar fossil,
as well as several other species of Fucoids in. the Hudson River

—, in England, and that it differs from those from _

Ba ada

Association of American Geologists and Nature ois

group, which were very similar if not identical with titan tit
Clinton group. But he had never seen any thing resembling the
Dictuolites, except in the Medina sandstone. Both these forms
might have been called into existence at the period of the Hud-
son River group, and the conditions favoring their existence have
never recurred till the subsequent periods of the Medina sand-
stone and the Clinton group.

Both the Hudson River group and the Clinton group are at
distinct points exceedingly different in composition, being at one
point almost wholly argillaceous and arenaceous, while at another
they were calcareous... Where these are similar in lithological
character, the fossils are very similar likewise, and perhaps some-
times identical. A similar example occurs in the formations of
the Niagara shale and the Delthyris shaly limestone, where sev-
eral of the points are identical. In the latter there is a shell
almost precisely similar to the’ Orthis canalis of Murchison, but
larger and more resembling the O. elegantula of Dalman.

Dr. Emmons enquired whether he had understood Mr. Hall
correctly, as saying that he considered the Caradoc sandstones as
equivalent to the Hudson River group.

Mr. Hail replied in the affirmative, and remarked that they
also evidently included the Clinton group.

Dr. D. D. @wen then took up the reading of his paper, “on

the Geology of the Western States,” where it was left at yester-
“day’s session.

_ Beneath the black bituminous shale with which the previous remarks
pel ee are thick beds of limestone, often magnesian, forming a mass
varying from one hundred to five hundred feet in thickness, and occu-
pying a vast superficial area, particularly in the north and northwest.
This is the lead-bearing rock of Iowa and Wisconsin, and has yielded
more lead than any other formation in the western states. ‘The actual
produce of the mines. situated in the Mineral Point district of Wiscon-
sin.and Northern Illinois, was in 1842, 32,000,000 Ibs. of lead.

It was remarked that in lithological character and mineral contents,
the formation of this American lead region bore a strong resemblance
to the “scar limestone” and great lead-bearing limestone of the North
of England, a member of the carboniferous group, and that, were it
not for the sure test furnished by a comparison of the organic remains,
one would be strongly tempted to pronounce the formation in Iowa and
Wisconsin identical with that of the lead region in Northern England ;
whereas an investigation of the specific character of the fossils proves

164 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

the limestone of the northwest to be the equivalent of the Wenlock for-
mation of Marchison in England, some of the Eifel limestones in Ger-
many, and the Helderberg rocks of New York.

Besides the rich lead veins which traverse this formation in the north-
west, it contains a valuable copper ore and vast quantities of carbonate
of zinc.

The most remarkable feature in the paleontology of this great west-
ern limestone, is the number of imbedded fossil corals, amongst which
the chain corals hold a conspicuous place, especially i in the lowa ex-
tension of this formation. —

~ This great limestone formation rests on thin beds of a blue and grey
renter alternating with marls, often a complete mass of agglutina-
ted shells. It has yielded to the paleontologist more prolific subjects
for Soldiers and research than any other group of western rocks,
especially in the families of Trilobites, Brachiopoda and Encrinites, and
has enriched our cabinets with numerous specimens of the marine in-
habitants of our globe atvalmost the earliest period to which animal re-
mains have been traced. Many of them are identical with those found
in the lower Silurian rocks of England.

_ This deposit is thickest near the centre of the Ohio ealeae and al-
ternates towards the northwest. Though it occupies the surface only
over a comparatively limited area, yet there is every reason to believe
that it is coéxtensive with the whole mass of superincumbent rocks.

The metallic yeins which are so wide in the overlying magnesian
limestone of Iowa and Wisconsin, thin away on reaching the more yd
tensible layers of this underlying shell limestone and marl.

No inferior rocks are visible in the valley of the Ohio, but near the
Wisconsin River are sections which show the relation of these lowest
limestones of the Ohio valley with the inferior rocks. There the last
described limestones are seen resting on a siliceous sandstone, beneath
which we have again a magnesian limestone, so like the upper lead-
bearing magnesian limestone as not to be distinguishable from it in hand
specimens ; and near low water of the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien,
another sandstone is visible beneath this lower magnesian limestone of
the Wisconsin River. No well defined fossils have been found in these,
the sandstones and lower magnesian limestones of the northwest; so
that it becomes difficult to pronounce on their equivalencies. Judging
from the lithological character, absence of fossils, mineral crystalliza-
tions, geological position, it seems probable that they correspond to the
formation i in the lead region ‘of Missouri. It is highly probable, too,
that the lower magnesian limestone of Wisconsin is cotemporaneous
with ‘the calciferous limerock of the New York geologist, as well as
with the magnesian limestone that forms the Natural Bridge in Virginia.

;
a

Description of a new Species of Torpedo. 165

An important problem still remains to be solved with regard to the
mineral lands of the west. We have seen that the metallic veins so
productive in the thick beds of the upper magnesian limestone of Iowa
and Wisconsin, dwindle away on reaching the underlying thin layers
of shell limestone.. Now the question for solution is: do these mineral
veins, when they reach the underlying magnesian limestone, again ex-
pand and become productive ?

Such are the geological formations of the beautiful valley of the Ohio,
projected by nature on a scale of grandeur commensurate with the vast
territory, the mighty vegetation, the majestic rivers, the gigantic forests,
and the wide expanse of trackless prairie, that characterize this magni-
ficent region of the west.
~ Dr. Owen concluded his remarks by a series of queries intended to
draw the attention of other geologists to some points in western geology
which still demand investigation.

The hour of 6 having arrived, the Association adjourned.

‘The Chair reminded the meeting that Mr. Emerson would
favor the Association and the public with a lecture, on the impor-
tance of natural history as a branch of common education, at
74 o’clock this evening.

[Our engagements to various dkrcitindinite forbid the contin-
uation of these “Proceedings,” and we are reluctantly compelled
to postpone the remainder to our October No.—Eps. Am. Jour. ]

Arr. XVII. “Description of anew species ig Tupelo ae D.
Houmenreys Storer, M. D.—with a plate. -
[Read before the American: Academy a Arts and Roem April 25th, 1843.]

In the January number of she ‘American Journal ‘of Science
and Arts, | made a slight reference to a species of Torpedo which

had been taken a few weeks previously upon the coast of Massa-

chusetts. ‘The description of a species captured on the coast of
Ireland, published by William Thompson, Esq., Vice President
of the Belfast Natural History Society, in the Annals of Natural
History, answered so well to my specimen, that I was led to sup-
pose it must be the nobilana, Buonaparte. When however I
carefully compared, with mine, the description and figure of the
foreign species, contained in the second edition of Yarrell’s Brit-
ish Fishes, I found no slight differences in the form of the disk
of the body—in the size of the pectoral and caudal fins, and in

166 Description of a new Species of Torpedo.

the situation and form of the temporal orifices in the two speci-
mens ; and at once suspected the American fish must be an un-
‘described species. As Yarrell’s figure was engraved from a dried
specimen, and consequently might not perfectly represent the
form of the fish, I wrote to Mr. Yarrell, stating to him my doubts
of the identity of the two fishes, and presenting him with my
figure. His opinion coincides perfectly with mine. I have there-
fore the pleasure to offer you a description of a Torpedo hitherto
unknown to men of science ; and as no other species of this genus
is known to exist on the shores of our hemisphere, I shall call it
Torpedo occidentalis.

Dr. Mitchill introduced the Rata torpedo into his “Fishes of
New York,” published in 1815, upon the authority of several fish-
ermen with whom he had conversed, who had been electrified
by a species of Ray, when they were detaching it from the hook
with which it was taken. He had never seen a specimen, but
had no doubt of its being the common torpedo, and consequently
catalogued it as such. Since the appearance of Dr. Mitchill’s
paper, I cannot find any farther notice of the existence of the
electrical Ray in our waters. In my Report on the Ichthyology
of Massachusetts, published in 1839, I cited the testimony of sev-
eral observers to prove that an electrical fish, known as the cramp-

Jish, was occasionally taken on the shore of Cape Cod, but had
never been seen by a naturalist. During the month of November,
1842, a specimen of this long looked for species was captured at
Wellfleet by Mr. Seth N. Covell, and I was so fortunate as to ob-
tain it. , 7

For the following valuable letter { am indebted to Capt. Na-
thaniel E. Atwood of Provincetown. This gentleman, for nearly
a quarter of a century, has been a practical fisherman.

“In answer to your first question, my father came to live on
the south side of this harbor, called Long Point, in 1819. Previ-
ous to that time I never saw acramp-fish. It happened that year,
and four or five years after, that cramp-fish were found uncom-
monly plenty. I should think at this place there were found
from sixty to eighty per year. Since that time they have been
very scarce, and for the last ten years previous to this, I think
the whole number found would not exceed thirty; this yeat
about a dozen have been found. They are found here in the
months of September, October, and November, and at no other

COCO EEE O_O

Description of a new Species of Torpedo. 167

time of the year. The smallest I ever saw, I should think did
not exceed twenty pounds weight, and was about as large as the
head of a barrel; the largest I should think might weigh from
one hundred and seventy to two hundred pounds; but as I have
never weighed any of them, I cannot exactly tell their weight.
The largest circumference is about twelve feet, or four feet diam-
eter. You ask if I have ever received a shock fromthem? I can
truly say that I have received a great many very powerful shocks,
which have thrown me upon the ground as quick as if I had been
knocked down with an axe. Although this shock is so powerful
and severe, I have known individuals when taken from the water
alive not to exhibit that power if they possessed it. You ask how
they are captured? The largest number of their own accord run
ashore upon our sandy beach. I have known two to be taken
with the hook in our bay by persons fishing for other fish; and
others, being discovered in the day time near the shore, are har-
pooned and dragged on shore. pagel

“You also ask if I have known any one to receive a shock
without having taken the fish up with the hand? I have received
many shocks by taking hold of the pole of the harpoon, when I
was at the distance of eight or ten feet from the fish, but the
shocks are not so severe. I have also felt its effect when holding
the rope attached to the harpoon, but in this and in cutting the
liver from the fish when it is nearly dead, there is generally noth-
ing more than a numbness felt in the fingers, and they seem to
incline to straighten, so that I have known it difficult to grasp
the handle of the knife while cutting the fish.” . “It does not
run on shore on the north or town side of our harbor.” — “ No part
of the cramp-fish is used.except the diver ; this contains very good
lamp-oil, equal to purified sperm-oil.. I have never known it used
for any other purpose of late; but formerly it was used for cramp,
by bathing the parts afflicted, and it has been taken inwardly for
cramp in:the stomach, but of its effects when thus given I know
nothing. ‘The smallest of the fish I have seen, produced about
one pint of oil, and the largest produced three gallons; the com-
mon size fish produce from one to two gallons.”

The entire length of my specimen, which is a female, is four
feet and two inches, and its greatest breadth is three feet: the
greatest length of the pectoral fins is two feet, and their greatest
breadth is fifteen inches.. The first dorsal fin, which is three

168 Description of a new Species of Torpedo.

inches and a quarter long and five inches high, is situated at the
posterior portion of the pectorals, one half of its base being poste-
rior to those fins. The second dorsal is two inches long, and two
inches and three quarters high; it is two and a half inches back
of the first dorsal, and three inches anterior to the commencement
of the upper lobe of the caudal fin. The ventral fins are ten
inches long, and five and a half inches wide. ‘The anus is large,
and is situated beneath the middle of the ventrals. ‘The caudal
fin is nearly triangular ; its lower portion is the larger: the depth
of this fin at its posteror extremity when expanded is eleven inch-
es; its posterior margin is straight. The globe of the eye, which
seicireiahor, is an inch and a quarter in diameter: the cornea is
oval ; its longest diameter is one half of an inch, and is directed
obliquely outwards; its shortest diameter is three eighths of an
inch. The spiracles are oval, and smooth at their edge; they
are one and a quarter inch in their largest diameter, and one inch
in their shortest diameter, and are directed outwards and a little
forwards. On the anterior and inner surface of the spiracles, just
within the orifice, is a plaited membrane, the folds of which re-
semble somewhat the nasal septa; the longest of these folds are
next to the median line, and they gradually diminish in length
as they recede from it. The mouth when closed, measures six
inches across from the angles, and when opened to its widest ex-
tent, it measures from the middle of the upper to the middle of
the bowie jaw five inches. The teeth are numerous, small and
sharp—broad at their bases, and pointed at their extremities like
spines. When the fish is placed upon its under side, and the
anterior extremity of the disk is turned backwards, the nostrils are
observed about three inches beneath its edge: they are covered
above by amembranous prolongation, formed by a fold of the skin
which arises from their exterior angle and is continued to the me-
dian line ; the free edge of this fold is five eighths of an inch wide
at its greatest width. A second fold commences at their outer
upper angle, and passes downwards and inwards to the middle of
the lower edge of the aperture. A third fold commences near the
middle of the second, and is directed outwards and a little down-
wards. The nasal cavity is divided by a horizontal plate into
two portions, and at right angles to this proceed numerous small
‘Septa going to the upper and lower margin of the nostrils. The
color of the whole upper surface of this species, is a dark brown

Description of a new Species of Torpedo. 169

with a few almost black dots wanes over it: precast ~
neath is white.

My friend Dr. Wessel dissected the mdepotitiade organs, anit has
furnished me with the following notes.

The electrical organs of the 'Torpedos have already been well
described, especially by Mr. Hunter and Mr. John Davy; and in
the present species there exists nothing which does not sufficient-
ly correspond with the descriptions of these anatomists. The or-
gans in which the electricity is developed, are situated in the space
comprised between the anterior edge of the pectoral fin and the
cranium, the outline of which is sufficiently obvious in the plate.
They are of a kidney shape, the concave edge being directed
towards the bronchiw, and measure fifteen inches in length and
eight in breadth. They consist of multitudes of triangular, quad-
rangular and hexagonal columns, extending from the upper to the
under surface of the body, and each column is subdivided into
numerous cavities or cells by transverse septa, of which Mr.
Hunter counted more than one hundred to the inch, and each
cell is filled with a gelatinous fluid. The most remarkable pecu-
liarity, however, is the disposition of the nerves by which the
electrical organs are supplied, and which have undergone a devel-
opment of which there is probably no parallel in the class of fishes.
The fifth and eighth pairs of nerves are the electrical nerves.
The fifth pair of nerves, B, is distributed to the anterior part of
the head, and the anterior portion of the electrical apparatus ; and
the eighth, C and C’, known as the vagus” ‘or branchio-gastric
nerve, has its usual distribution to the organs of respiration, and
the cesophagts and stomach, and in these directions its branches
are of the usual size ; but the additional branches which go to the
batteries, as also is the case with those of the fifth, have acquired
a volume many times that of the spinal marrow itself, and are to
be regarded as an index of the great activity of the organs to
which they belong. One other peculiarity equally remarkable
remains to be noticed, viz. the ganglia from which the posterior
nerves, the eighth pairs, originate. By referring to the plate the
following parts will be seen: 1. cerebral hemispheres; 2. optic
lobes; 3. cerebellum. These constitute the brain properly speak-
ing, and have the same relative size as in the Raiade generally ;
but behind is a ganglionary mass (4) which exceeds the brain
itself in bulk, and from which the electrical nerves, as will be

Vol, xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 22

170 Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Plants.

seen in the plate, are derived; this has been denominated the
branchio-gastric ganglion in fishes; and as well as the nerves
which have been already described, will serve to indicate the im-
mense activity of the electrical apparatus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Torpedo occidentalis.

Fig. 2. Brain. 1. Cerebral hemispheres. a Optic lobes. 3.
Cerebellum. 4. Branchio-gastric ganglion. A. Olfactory nerve.
B. Fifth pair; B’, branch to the anterior part of the head. ©, C’.
Branchio-gastric or electrical nerves; D, branch to esophagus and
stomach ; EH, eae marrow.

sci XIX.—Description of some New. ge of Plants ; by
S. B. Bucxuey, A. M. .

[Beie unable to find room for Mr. Buckley’s detailed account
2 a botanical tour through the mountains of Alabama, Georgia,
Tennessee, and Carolina, we have, in accordance with his re-
quest, merely extracted the description of new species for present
publication. We also append, in a note, the diagnostic character
of a new genus of Santalacez, established by Dr. Torrey, upon
materials chiefly furnished by Mr. Buckley, to whom it is dedi-
eated ; a full account and figure of which will hereafter be ane
in this Journal.*—Ebs. |
_ Srrepropus macu.atus (n. sp.): stem and nerves of the lower
surface of the leaves minutely pubescent ; leaves sessile, ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate ; pedicels generally in pairs at the summit
of the branches, not distorted ; sepals subspatulate, acuminate,
yellowish-white with numerous purple spots, rather longer than
the filaments; anthers oblong ; uss longer than the stamens ;
stigma short. _

* Bockieyva, Torr. ‘peta divici. Perigonium ealycintm, profande quadripar-
titum ; laciniis demum deciduis. Masc. Stamina 4, perigonii laciniis opposita-
Fem. Perigon. tubo cum ovario connato; limbo quadripartito. Discus epigynus

carnosus, breviter quadrilobus.- Stamina nulla. Ovarium inferum, unilocularis,
uniovulatum; stylus unicus Wri Wagan quadrilocbum. Drupa oblonga, ¢om-
pressa, putamine crustaceo, suleato. Semen endocarpio adherens. Embryo in axi
albuminis copiosi carnosi reclusus, gracilis,—Arbuscula ‘Tennesseensis. Folia al-
terna, disticha, integerrima, OCR fe Flores terminales, parvi, virides 5
oa umbellulati : — solitar

= Bo rya‘dbatiah ylla, Nutt. gen. N. Am. pl. 2, p. 232.

Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Plants. 171

~ Cumberland Mountains, Tennessee: flowers in April. Plant
1-2 feet high, with the habit of Streptopus lanuginosus, but-dif-
fers from that species in its larger flowers and spotted sepals.

SmILax GRANDIFOLIA (7. sp.): leaves cordate ovate, abruptly ©
acuminate, smooth, shortly petioled, 5-7 nerved; flowers nu-
merous, fodaish brown, on peduncles 1-2 inches long, anthers
yellowish white ; stem terete, and upper branches often unarmed ;
prickles slender, 34 lines long, and very acute.

Hab. Alabantia and Mountains of North Carolina. July.

Stem climbing, 8-10 feet long, often the whole plant nearly
smooth or with a few scattered prickles. Leaves large, on petioles
2-4 lines long. Differs from S. rotundifolia in its larger leaves,
longer peduncles, more numerous and differently colored flowers,
and more slender prickles.

Puacerta Pursuit (2. sp.): assurgent, pilose ; upper leaves ses-
sile, pinnatifid, lower petiolate and subpinnate ; lobes lanceolate ;
acute segments of the corolla fimbriate. —Whole plant, especially
the leaves and calyx, very hispid. Flowers blue, ina simple ter-
minal raceme; pedicels elongated; stamens exsert ; anthers oblong
elliptic ; atyle two-cleft, longer than the stamens. Differs from
P. fimbriata of Michx. in its blue and more numerous flowers,
erect habit, and also in being larger and much more rigid and
pilose. Phacelia fimbriata, Pursh, Flora, Vol. I, p. 140. —

Hab. Western and Southern States. Mr. John Carey, of New
York, showed me the error into which Pursh had fallen in sup-
posing this plant to be P. fimbriata, of Michaux.

PHAceLta FIMBRIATA ( Michz.): “procumbent, oo ppaet upper
leaves sessile, pinnatifid, | bes of the
upper leaves’ sublanceolate, acuminate ; segments Hy the lower
leaves ovate, subobtuse ; raceme solitary, ‘ahiort corolla white, sub-
rotate, lobes of the pinices ciliate ; flowers subdistant on elonga-
ted pedicels. -

‘Hab, High m mountains North Carolina.’ Michaur, Flora, Vol.
I, p. 134...
- Whole plant slightly pilose or nearly smooth, 6-8 inches high.
Easily distinguished from the preceding by its procumbent habit,
white subrotate corolla, and fewer flowers. It is also much
smoother and less rigid.

eign?

172 Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Plants.

Puacersa pusinua (n. sp.): leaves sessile, pinnatifid; segments
obovate, abruptly acuminate; racemes simple ; pedicels short or
elongated; divisions of the corolla round, entire; flowers pale

-blue or white, nearly as large as in the two preceding species ;

stamens exsert ; sepals linear-oblong, acute, § the length of the
corolla. ;

Hab. Prairies of Alabama. Flowers in April.

Whole plant pubescent, subglaucous, branches numerous, uni-
ted near the root, assurgent, capsule ovate, villous.

Puacetia srevistytis (n. sp.): leaves petioled, pinnatifid ;
segments slightly incised, lobes subcuneiform ; segments of the
corolla blue, round, entire; anthers subincluded; styles shorter or
equalling in length the corolla; capsule orbicular, hairy, in length
nearly equal to the short style ; racemes terminal ; pedicels elon-

_ gated.

‘Hab. Limestone rocks, Hamburg, Wilcox County, Alabama.
Flowers in April. -

~ Stem branching, and with the petioles slightly pubescent; leaves
smooth, with a few scattered hairs on the margins and both sur-
faces. Distinguished from P. bipinnatifida by its smaller flowers,
subincluded or included style and filaments, and the larger and
less incised lobes of its leaves. : :

Anpromepa (Levucoruea) monrana (2. sp.): leaves perennial,
subcoriaceous, ovate-lanceolate, entire and minutely serrate, matr-
gins ciliate ; flowers in large terminal or axillary panicles ; pedi-
cels 3-bracted, the two upper bracts opposite the lower at the
base ; bracts subulate, stem of the panicle pubescent.—Shrub 5-6
feet high, rigid, leaves nearly two inches long and one broad, on
petioles about half an inch long. The upper portions of the stem
have scattered mucronate glands, appressed and pointing upward.

Hab. High mountains of Virginia and North Carolina.

AnpRomEDA (Zenopta) recuRVA (n. sp.): leaves deciduous,
ovate, acuminate, serrate, glabrotis; corolla cylindrical, 5-toothed ;
anthers biaristate, included ; calyx of 5 sepals, 2-bracted.—Shrub
3-4 feet high; stem smooth and much branched. Flowers it
long, naked and somewhat recurved racemes; pedicels short.
Leaves about 24 inches long and 14 broad; petioles 2-5 lines
long, midrib and veins of the leaves slightly pubescent. This
species has an affinity to Andromeda racemosa, but differs in its

ie”
27 te pe

Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Plants. 173

biaristate anthers, recurved racemes, larger leaves, and it is also a
smaller shrub. . .

Hab. Mountains near Paint Rock, Tennessee, and the Warm
Springs, North Carolina.—F lowers in April.

Ancexica Curtis (n. sp.): leaves large, bipinnately divided,
segments subcordate or lanceolate ; lacinie submucronate; stem
glabrous, terete, striate, involucre and involucels none—Stem ~
large, about 3 feet high, petioles large, long, and sheathed at the
base ; segments of the leaves 3-5, leaflets large and deeply lacini-
ate, umbels crowded, fruit large, oblong, elliptical, commissure
with 2 vitte, lateral wings as broad as the seed.

Hab. High mountains of North Carolina, especially the Bald
Mountain in Yancey County, where it was discovered in flower
by the Rev. M. A. Curtis.

ARUM POLYMORPHUM (n. sp.): stemless; leaves ternate, ovate,
acuminate, outer leaflets rhomboid-ovate, auricled or deeply divid-
ed, approaching a pentaphyllous form ; spadix clavate, longer than
the subcylindric tube; fertile florets crowded around the base;
spathe peduncled; tube subcylindric, broadest at the top ; lamina
ovate, acuminate, longer than the tube; stem 1-14 feet high,
form of leaves very variable, but generally the outer ones are
more or less divided near the base; fruit, scarlet berries, few and
crowded at the base of the spadix.—I have a subpentaphyllous

form, collected on the banks of the French Broad, in which the
spadix is more attenuate towards theapex. It is possible that this
form may be the A. quinatum of Nuttall. ae

Carex Caroninrana (n. sp.): styles 3; pistillate spikes 2-3, long
exsertly pedunculate ; scales of the fertile florets ovate, acute, as
long or longer than the perigynium ; perigynium triquetrous, sub-
acuminate, achenium ovate, elliptical, 3-angled, angles subacute ;
scales of the staminate spike ovate, subobtuse, reddish-brown ;
culm compressed, striate, subfiliform, fertile florets few and small,
3-6, generally 3, on long filiform peduncles ; radical leaves nume-
rous, 4-6 lines wide, as long or longer than the culms, culms nu-
MOEPOUSs. aie ty ee

Grows in tufts, Table Mountain, South Carolina, April to May.

Carex miser (n. sp.): styles 3; staminate spike solitary ; pis-
tillate spikes 2-3, lower one shortly peduncled, erect; bracts
smooth, ovate, subacuminate, with membranaceous margins ; pe-

174 Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Plants.

rigynium lanceolate, acuminate, 3-sided, twice the length of the
bracts; achenium ovate-lanceolate, 8-angled, shorter than the
styles; scales of the staminate spike oblong, subobtuse, margins
membranaceous; stem slender, erect, triquetrous, radical leaves
numerous, subsetaceous, shorter than the culm, which has 2 or
3 setaceous leaves near the summit longer or equalling in length
the spikes ; spikes small, aggregated near the summit of the culm,
and nearly covered with a reddish brown color.
Hab. Summit of Roan Mountain, North Carolina.
_ Carex styLorLexa (7. sp.): stigmas 3 ; staminate spike solitary ;
pistillate spikes 2-3, lower exsertly and long-peduncled ; peduncles
filiform ; pistillate scales linear, acute, nearly as long as the fruit,
with broad I gins ; perigynium rhomboid-ovate,
subtriquetrous, inflated, and slightly curved at the apex ; acheni-
um-obovate, 3-angled, angles prominent, subacute ; stem smooth,
slender, 3-angled ; leaves linear-lanceolate, smooth, shorter than
the stem; peduncle of the staminate spike varies in length from
a few lines to 5 or 6 inches; scales of the staminate spike mem-
branaceous, lanceolate, acute. :
Hab. Mountains, Macon County, North Carolina.

Diervinua sessitiroiia (n. sp.): leaves sessile or subamplex-
icaule, oblong-ovate, lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous; capsule ey-
lindric-oblong, acuminate, crowned with the subulate-setaceous
teeth of the calyx, beak short.—Diervilla trifida, 3. Torr. & Gray’s
Flora, Vol. 2, p. 11. if

Hab. Mountains of North Carolina, June to July.

Stem 2-4 feet high, branched, leaves 2-4 inches long, obseure-
ly serrate, flowers crowded near the summit or at the summit of
the branches on peduncles from the axils of the leaves ; peduncles
3-6 flowered ; ‘flowers sessile or pedicellate. Differs from D. tri-
fida in its sessile leaves, shorter beak, and larger cylindrical capsule.

Hyrertcum GRraveoLens (7. sp.): stem simple or slightly
branched, terete, smooth; leaves oblong-ovate, clasping, punctate
on the lower surface ; flowers in terminal or axillary cymes; sepals
linear-lanceolate ; petals narrow, oblong-lanceolate ; stamens nume-
rous, filaments nearly the length of the styles and petals ; styles
3, nearly twice as long as the carpel ; stem 2-3 feet high; flow-
ers large, numerous, in a somewhat trichotomous cyme; leaves
usually about two inches long and little more than an inch

Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Planis. 175

broad.— Whole plant when touched emits a strong and unpleasant
odor.

Hab. High mountains, North Carolina. Flowers, July to Aug.

ScureLuaRiaA arcutTa (7. sp.): leaves cordate, ovate, dentate,
long petioled ; stem and petioles pubescent ; calyx short, teeth of
the calyx obtuse; flowers small, few, in axillary or terminal ra-
cemes; leaves smooth, with a few minute hairs on both surfaces
and the margins ; stem subprocumbent, 8-12 inches long; leaves
14-2 inches long, 1-14 inches wide, petioles 2-24 inches long,
teeth of the leaves large, subobtuse, upper surface of the leaves
deep green, under surface pale green.

Hab. Black Mountain, North Carolina, near the head of the
Swaninoa River; generally grows on large rocks. Flowers,
July to August.

Vaccinium Hirsutum (. sp.): leaves deciduous, ovate, entire,
slightly mucronate, nearly sessile ; corolla oblong, and nearly
closed at the apex, with five short teeth ; anthers awnless, includ-
ed ; filaments and style hairy ; berry globose, many-seeded ; whole
plant, including the flowers and fruit, thickly coated with small
hairs.—Plant about a foot high, much branched ; flowers in small
terminal or axillary racemes; pedicels one or two-bracted. The
hairy flowers and fruit of this species will easily serve to distin-
guish it. .

Hab. Mountains, Cherokee County, North Carolina.

Zizta pinnatiripa (n. sp.): leaves tripinnately divided ; seg-
ments ovate-lanceolate, cuspidate ; stem smooth, striate, branch-
ing towards the summit, with one or two long petioled leaves
near the base; petioles of the lower leaves about 12 inches long,
and those of the upper an inch, or nearly sessile ; umbels few, ax-
illary and terminal, 10-12 rayed ; involucels naked or with one or
two small leaflets; fruit elliptical with prominent ribs, dark
brown when mature; flowers yellow.

Hab. Banks of the French Broad River near the Warm Springs,
and near Sugar Town Falls, Macon County, North Carolina.

/Twaricrrum pEeBiLe (”. sp.): stem low, procumbent or assur-
gent, much branched, glabrous, dicecious or polygamous ; flow-
ers few, on axillary or terminal peduncles ; leaves on long petioles,
ternately or biternately decompound ;’ leaflets small, petioled,
broad or rounded, crenately and obtusely lobed; carpels oblong,

176 Mr. Buckley on some New Species of Planis.

strongly ribbed and slightly stipitate, about the length of the
slender style; filaments filiform, anthers linear, elongated, acute.—
Plant 6-8 inches high, sending out numerous branches near
the root. Petioles 1-2 inches long; those of the leaflets 3 lines
to an inch in length. Differs from T. dioicum in being procum-
bent, much smaller, and in having petioles to the leaflets, and
fewer flowers.

Hab. Rich woodlands near Allenton, Wilcox Co., Alabama,
March and April. The stem and leaves decay and disappear
about the first of May. |

Ints Durrincxu (n. sp.): bearded, leaves subfalcate, ensiform ;
scape 1-4 flowered ; petals obovate-spathulate, deflexed ; filaments
inserted into the tube of the corolla; anthers linear oblong.—
Stem 6-12 inches high, generally longer than the leaves. Fila-
ments exsert from the tube nearly one third the length of the co-
rolla; tube of the perigonium elongated, slender, exsert. A variety
is stemless, one-flowered, with the leaves much longer than the
flower. Described from specimens received from Prof. Duerinck,
who collected them near St. Louis, Missouri. It is probable that
‘ this species is the Iris Missouriensis, of Martins, which name be-
longs to a species previously described by Nuttall. See Martins’
Delectus seminum Horti Botanici Louvaniensis, 1840.

JusTICIA LETEVIRENS (7. sp.): leaves lanceolate, ovate, acumi-
nate ; flowers axillary and terminal, white, in cylindrical com-
pact spikes.—Stem erect, simple or branched, nearly 12 inches
high, slightly glaucous. Leaves large, 2-3 inches long, 1-2 inch-
es wide, glabrous on the lower surface, slightly hairy above, grad-
ually tapering into short petioles. Flowers numerous in a com-
pact bracted spike ; bracts ovate ciliate ; tube of the perigonium
exsert, caducous ; corolla 3-4 toothed ; filaments 2, slender, inserted
and included within the tube of the corolla; capsule at the base
surrounded with numerous filiform bracts (calyx ?) poi

Hab. Near rivers in shady woods, Wilcox Co., Alabama; flow-
ers during the summer. | : eae

_ Maxva LeConru (n. sp.): leaves subsagittate, entire, obtuse,
dentate ; teeth large, obtuse; lower surface of the leaves very
pubescent ; midrib and veins prominent ; upper surface scabrous ;
sepals ovate, acute ; involucre 5-6 leaved, as long as the caly;
carpels wrinkled.—Stem shrubby, 4-5 feet high, pubescent, much

Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones. 177

branched, flowers large, pale red ; leaves numerous, rather small,
on petioles 6 lines to an inch long; under surface greenish white,
and covered with a dense, soft, woolly pubescence. A well de-
fined species; described from specimens received from Maj.
LeConte, who collected them in the southern part of Georgia.

Preris Aapamensis (7. sp.): frond pinnate ; leaflets alternate,
linear-lanceolate ; pinnule alternate, oblong-lanceolate, terminat-
ing abruptly at the base, sessile, generally auricled on the upper
basal margin ; stipe and rachis smooth, black.—F'rond 4—6 inches
long, 2-3 broad, with an oblong-lanceolate outline ; easily distin-
guished from other species growing in the United States, ny its
auricled pinnule.

Grows in tufts on limestone rocks, that form the banks of the
Tennessee River, at the foot of the Muscle Shoals, Alabama. —

Puuox eiutinosa (n. sp.) viscid-pubescent ; leaves oblong-lan-
ceolate, mucronate ; divisions of the calyx long, setaceous; tube
of the corolla twice the length of the calyx; flowers bright red
or scarlet.—Stem simple, erect, about 12 inches high; whole
plant covered with a glutinous pubescence. Differs from P. aris-
tata in its simple, erect stem; bright red or scarlet flowers, and
its leaves are also broader as. wail as mucronate. Phlox aristata
has many assurgent stems from the same root ; this species rarely
if ever more than one.

Hab. Pine woods, Black’s Bend, Wilcox Co., Alabama : May.

Art, XX.—Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones
and the hened of New Zealand.

Ir is oak: great seein: ait unmingled perhaps with some
pride, that we present to our readers: the following correspondence
between Dr. James Deane, the original observer of the Ornithich-
nites, (so well and boldly described by Prof. Hitchcock,) and Dr.
Mantell of England, to whom we had the pleasure last summer
of transmitting a very full and beautiful series of these tracks
collected by Dr. Deane, and apnokiypdiiecs by the letter which
follows.

The greatest scepticism has existed in England in relation to
the truth of Prof. Hitchcock’s and Dr. Deane’s inferences from

Vol. xiv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 23

178 Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones.

these singular impressions, on the part of those enjoying the
greatest and best deserved reputation in paleontology and com-
parative anatomy. This is not surprising when we reflect on the
important bearing which the facts if admitted would have on our
preconceived notions of the fauna of this comparatively ancient
geological era. But we believe the evidence on which these
inferences rest has never been fully presented to any mind com-
petent to judge of the facts, without resulting in the most thor-
ough conviction of their correctness, Fy

‘The letter from Dr. Owen will be read with peculiar interest,
as containing in a most desirable form, the first information which
it has been in our power to present of that most interesting dis-
covery—the existence of the immense Dinornis Nove Zelan-
di, so valuable in bearing out and confirming the views of Prof.
Hitchcock in relation to the authors of the fossil impressions in

the Connecticut sandstones.
bert og Letter of Dr. Deane to Dr. Mantell.

_ Dear Str,—With this letter you will receive through Prof. Sil-
liman of Yale College, a box of fossil footmarks derived from
the New Red Sandstone of the Connecticut, a considerable riv-
er intersecting this State. These beautiful fossils, indicating a
high grade of animal existence in a period of the earth so im-
mensely remote, may well be regarded among the wonders of
paleontological science. Prior to the year 1834 the traces of ex-
tinct birds so low down in the geological series, were altogether
unknown, and even now that the accumulated evidence of the
fact is so overwhelming, the assumption that they are such, is
received with grave circumspection. That’the footsteps of Con-
necticut River are, however, the authentic traces of extinct birds,
is confirmed by the undeviating comparisons they bear to living
nature. In the year just mentioned my attention was attracted
to these splendid relics, so boldly displaying the essential charac-
ters of foot-prints of living birds, that I could not hesitate con-
cerning their origin, although no effort of the mind could com-
prehend the period of their antiquity. The impressions were
perfectly defined, succeeding each other in the determinate order
of living birds, and being aware that footsteps of animals upon
rocks were unknown, or at least controverted occurrences, I
communicated the discovery to Prof. Silliman of Yale College,
and to Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College, then geologist to the

Dr. Deane's Letter to-Dr. Mantell, ‘179

state of Massachusetts. Both gentlemen admitted the» plausibil-
ity of my statements, yet remained -incredulous as to inferences,
ascribing the origin of these remains to accidental causes, and it
was only after accurate models were transmitted to them, that
the real truth was obvious. Prof. H. then gave the specimens
an inspection which resulted in the unqualified conviction that
these foot-prints were genuine vestiges of birds. He subsequently
explored the entire valley of the Connecticut River with extra-
ordinary success, the details of which he has given to the scien-
tific world in several treatises of great ability.
During the past year I have received letters from Prof. Silliman;
enquiring if I could furnish such examples of these fossils, as
might appear to establish the fact that they were unquestionable
footsteps.of birds, but it is only at this time in my power to render
a satisfactory reply, and that reply is most emphatically expressed
by the beautiful specimens I now have the pleasure of sending you.
You cannot fail to observe, notwithstanding the enormous con-
trast in the size of these footmarks, the striking resemblance they
bear to each other, and for distinctness and beauty of impression,
and fidelity to living nature, the O. éuberosus is most remarkable
of all, indeed its perfection supplies a model for the compara-
tive anatomist. Although the distinct varieties of these imprints
hitherto discovered, established several intrinsic characters com-
mon to all, such as succession of feet, numbers and arrangements
of toes, form and insertion of claws, &c., it was not until the
discovery of this variety that an example occurred so faultless as
to illustrate the construction of the joints with precise accuracy,
although Prof. Hitchcock had long suspected the truth that its
perfection reveals. In exploring the bed of the river at low wa-
ter in 1841, I was gratified with the discovery of several new
species of. these imprints, exquisitely perfect. If they had been
made in wax and. turned into solid stone, they could not have
been more so. | The material upon which the animal trod pos-
sessed a degree of tenacity not only to retain distinctly the lobate
form of the respective joints; but even in some rare instances,
the corrugations of the integuments. In them every feature of
the impression is without blemish, the ridges marking the boun-
daries of the joints.and also of the toes being clear, sharp and
correctly defined, and the impress vividly distinct. These fea-
tures are all displayed by examples now before you. The sur-
face of the rock is compact and smooth, and I wish to call your

180 Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones.

attention to the fact that the part depressed by the weight of the
bird is so condensed as to appear to be enamelled, and is extremely
hard. Each tuberous joint presents the appearance of being
swayed by a distinct blow rather than being moulded by a fleshy
joint. In some examples there is no concavity in the depression
of the individual joints, on the contrary the surface is flattened
and may properly be illustrated by the impress of a hammer uponr
a mass of lead. [Nos. vi, xv to xvi, inclusive.] The beauty
and perfection of the impressions seem due to the condition of the
plastic material at the time of receiving them, and the finest ex-
amples are those in which the impressions are most superficial,
being evidently made when the surface of the stratum had been
subjected to a partial process of desiccation, just at that ‘point suf-
ficiently hard to take as well as receive the minutest lines. This
peculiarity is very apparent in your collection; in some of the
specimens the surface is thoroughly enamelled by this drying pro-
cess, and it is an indispensable condition to the complete preser-
vation of these remarkable fossils. The contour of the foot in
this species is surpassingly elegant.* In the nomenclature of Prof.
Hitchcock it is denominated Ornithichnites tubcrosus, but it is
proper to remark that it is not identical with that so named in his
final report to the legislature of Massachusetts. The tuberous
expansion of the joints being truly developed in this variety, it
has received the appellation to which it is eminently entitled. ©

This superb variety may be taken as the type of these impres-
sions, and in its essential elements it is faithfully represented by
the foot-prints of most species of extinct birds. The identity is
displayed in the order of the joints, as every example in the col-
lection will show, the inner toe having two, the middle three,
and the outer four lobed swellings. This distinguishing feature,
as far as it goes, is conclusive evidence of this identity, but the
analogy extends to the claws, which are so distinctly stamped
that their peculiar form and. insertion can be closely traced. In
most of the specimens ‘this appendage is beautifully illustrated
and so delicately executéd as to suggest the idea that its plantar
surface was membranous. .'The analogy is still further main-

«™ Most of our readers have seen the accurate and expressive representatives of
these forms in the drawings publi hed by Prof. Hitchcock in this Journal, and his
final State Report, and also those copied from them by Dr. Buckland in his Bridge-
water ‘Treatise ; otherwise we should illustrate the present paper by several
drawings.—Eps, th %

Dr. Deane’s Letter to Dr. Mantell. — » I8t

tained by the divergence of the toes, the progression and alter-
nation of the feet, and the existence in each variety of steps
of an identity or individuality as unequivocal as is ever displayed
in animated nature. The examples xv, xvi, xvi, xvii, are in
point. If you will place them in the order of numbering two
and a half feet asunder, which was the length of the stride, so
that the connecting line shall fall a little inside of the centre of
each impression, they will occupy their original positions, and it
will be observed that the long toe is alternately upon either side

_ of this line. Indeed we may sometimes follow the route of the

bird several rods, step after step, and the sight is sufficient to fill
the beholder with astonishment; he is irresistibly carried backward
through the long series.of years, until lost in the unsatisfactory
computation of the era in which these impressions were made.
Their existence upon the face of the rock, without any excep-
tion, is in strict conformity to the laws of nature. The footsteps,
invariably those of a biped, occur upon the upper surface of the
stratum, while the cast or counter-impression is upon the lower.
Not a single deviation has ever occurred. ‘The reverse impres-
sion is beautifully illustrated: by the specimen No. xu. It is
moulded by a subsequent deposition in the matrix, formed by
the foot of the bird, and it is an indispensable condition, which
universally exists. The foot is usually tridactylous, although
there is the same deviation from. this condition, as is found in
living birds. There are usually three, sometimes four, but rarely
five toes. The length of step is in correspondence with the di-
mensions of the foot. °When it is one inch in length, the inter-
vening distance of the step is from three to five inches, but when
the foot-is fourteen inches and upward, the stride is from four to
six feet! When I talk of a foot fourteen inches in length, it may
appear incredible that the earth ever produced such a colossal
‘ird, but~if you refer particularly to No. xxx, you will find it of
full meastire, and that:without a projecting heel! I am particular
to state, that its el us magnitude consists entirely of the three

toes, the heel not to th ind. It is altogether a remark-

able impression by reason of its size, and perfect delineation.
With the exception of the lateral claws, it is accurate as any spe-
cimen I have ever seen, and as it is a shallow impression, it is best
seen by placing it at a distance of ten or twelve feet, in the re-
flection of a strong light. In all these remains the distinctive

182 Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones.

marks of organization are traced with great fidelity. ‘There are
no conflicting phenomena to disturb the inevitable conclusions of
the judgment, but a mutual relation is ever perceptible, aves carries
the internal evidence that these
uine vestiges of birds, and that no quadruped animal with which
we are acquainted, living or extinct, would have made them.

_ The feet of birds being so prominent an organ, to separate them
into generic divisions, we cannot omit to inquire if the extinct
genera have their representatives in the living. The inference
is that by leaving their traces on the muddy bottoms and margins
of the ancient waters, the extinct birds were waders, and to some
of the species the classification of living birds supplies a simili-
tude. The O. tuberosus is very accurately represented so far as
form is concerned, by the pinnated feet of the Fulica custata and
other genera of the order Gralle, the toes being bordered by
membranes that give the same form and expression to the foot,
and completes the presumption that these dream: oe
are authentic traces of birds.

- Assuming them to be such, the enquiry vital wtaxest
itself why we do not discover the co-existence of these fossil
bones; but there are plausible explanations why the skeletons of
birds should not be found in strata deposited by the agency of
water. It is not the element in which birds live, and as nature
in her appointments has adapted all animals to the media in
which they exist, we may see in this law a philosophical reason
why their bones do not exist. The osseous system of birds con-
sists merely of thin cylindrical shells of great strength and buoy-
ancy, and it therefore results that should death accidentally hap
pen upon water, the carcass would not be quietly deposited at the
bottom, but be drifted about by currents until destroyed by de-
composition or violence. This seems to be a legitimate conclu-
sion, although it by no means follows that such bodies would not
accidentally become entangled at the bottom, or be suddenly en-
veloped by a stratum of that plastic material subsequently to be
converted into solid rock. It is not therefore impossible but the
skeleton may be discovered, a single bone of which will be sufli-
cient to determine the order of animals to which it belongs.. And
if comparative science be ‘so invariable in its application, that
from a fragment a complete fabric may be restored, does it not
follow with great force, that from exact impressions of each bone

Dr. Deane’s Letter t0 Dr. Mantell.. «188

of the foot of an animal, with all its appendages, we may thereby
reconstruct its corporeal frame? Comparative anatomical science
owes its absolute certainty to the uniform operation of nature’s
laws; they are constant, and this consistency is the key that de-
ciphers the mysterious dialect engraven upon the enduring rocks.
We learn from this imperishable record that the footmarks of
Connecticut River are none other than real vestiges of birds stri-
ding over the earth, in a period of its existence so remote, that
the imagination is overwhelmed with the conjecture of its dura-
tion. It is impossible.to stand upon the ancient rock and see the
faithful characters engraven there, without yielding to the irre-
sistible truths they reveal. | It is there that, rejecting hypothesis,
we bow to the supremacy of truth, because we feel its all-con-
straining power.) i es hae ; + ae

Not the least interesting of the fossil remains of this ancient
rock are the impressions produced by the fall of rain-drops, some
fine examples of which I add. They exist under the actual con-
ditions regulating footsteps, and not unfrequently both are found
upon the same surface. The track No. 1, is an instance, although
not very striking. My attention was foreibly arrested when gath-
ering these minerals, by observing an analogous appearance upon
the mud of the river's bank, within a few feet of the rock whence

the specimens were taken. ‘They were similar, with the excep-

tion that the recent impressions only required the action that
operated upon the ancient to convert them into beautiful fossils.
Tracks of living birds are extremely numerous upon the alluvial
mud of Connecticut River, and when’ indurated by the action of
the summer’s sun, their entire removal is frequently easy.

-L have thus thought proper, dear Sir, to accompany these me-
morials of extinct existence, with such remarks as may perhaps
serve to explain the manner in which they exist. But after all, I
leave them chiefly to tell their own story, for they reveal in silent
though eloquent language, the events that occurred in a period of
time so far back in the infancy of our earth. I deem that they
could scarcely fall into better hands, for Iam not unacquainted
with the surprising discoveries in fossil geology, developed by
your agency. I have never studied them without gratification,
for the bright light thus thrown upon the mysteries of creation.

» Jam, dear sir, most respectfully, your obedient servant,

ets: } James Deane.

Greenfield, Mass., Sept. 20, 1842.

184 Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones.

Reply of Dr. G. A. Manitell to Dr. Deane.
Crescent Lodge, Clapham Common, England, Feb. 13, 1843.

ly dear Sir—I have deferred replying to your highly inter-
esting communication, and acknowledging your kindness, until
an opportunity occurred of submitting the specimens of ornithoid-
ichnites ‘to the examination of the Geological Society of London.
At the last. meeting I placed the specimens before the Society,
and read the letter with which you had favored me, and after-
wards gave a viva voce description of the fossils, illustrating my
remarks by drawings showing the position and relative distances
of the foot-prints when in situ. A brief notice of foot-prints by
Mr. Redfield, was read on the same evening, and Mr. Lyell, who
communicated it, gave a graphic account of the appearance of
the impressions of feet seen by him in various localities of the
United States, in company with Prof. Hitchcock. Mr. Owen (of
the College of Surgeons) was not present, but the President, Mr.
Murchison, read a short note from that gentleman, expressing his
doubts as to foot-prints alone being sufficient evidence to prove
whether the animals which made them were birds or reptiles.
Mr. Murchison was also sceptical as to these markings having
undoubted claims to be considered as true foot-prints of birds;
but Mr. Lyell stated his conviction that they were genuine ornt-
thichnites. 'The enormous magnitude of the largest imprints,
served to present the greatest objection to some of the Fellows;
but this difficulty is removed by the recent discovery in the mod-
ern alluvial strata of New Zealand, of some bones of a struthioid
bird with trifid feet, equal in size to the most colossal of the fos-
sil foot-prints hitherto observed in your country. This New
Zealand bird is stated by Mr. Owen, (who has described the
bones hitherto received in England in the Zoological 'Transac-
tions,) to belong toa new genus allied to the ostrich and emu.
There is a tradition among the natives that some individuals of
this giant of the feathered tribes existed not more than one hun-
dred or one hundred and fifty years ago. . It seems therefore to
have been annihilated by human agency, like the dodo. The
Apteryx of New Zealand will in all probability share oe same
fate ere another century or two shall have passed away. ~

At the anniversary meeting of the Geological Society, Mr.
Murchison, the President, alluded to the subject of Ornithich-
noidites, and after paying a just tribute of annie to you as the

Prof. Owen’s Letter to Prof. Silliman. —=———-185

first observer, and to Prof. Hitchcock as the successful investiga-
tor of this important branch of paleontology, confessed that the
gigantic bones from New Zealand, evincing as they did most
unequivocally the existence, even in our own times, of birds as
large as any required by the American footmarks, had removed
his scepticism, and that he had no hesitation in declaring his be-
lief that the Ornithichnites have been produced by the imprints
of the feet of birds which had walked over the rock when in a
soft and impressible state ; an opinion in which I entirely concur.
Sooner or later the skeletons of these unknown birds will be dis-
covered in the strata.

It cannot fail, sir, to be gratifying to you to know, that your
brief but lucid description, illustrated by the highly interesting
suite of specimens, has placed this important subject before the
geologists of England in a most clear and satisfactory point of
view, and that the thanks of the Society were warmly and unan-
imously expressed for so valuable acommunication. With great
respect, I am, dear sir, your obliged and faithful servant,

Gipron Atcernon MAnreELt.

Letter of Prof. Owen to Prof. Silliman on the Ornithichnites
and Dinornis.
Royal College of Surgeons, London, March 16th, 1843.
My dear Sir—I beg to acknowledge the favor of your esteem-
ed letter of the 27th of February, and am unwilling to delay my
answer, although I am not able to answer all the points to which
it relates. Ihave not yet, for example, seen the entire collection
of foot-prints in the possession of our common friend, Dr. Man-
tell, but on the few which he has obligingly submitted to me,
(ewer very clear ones last Saturday night at the soirée of the Pres-
ident of the Royal Society,) I may venture, after much mature
consideration, to speak. “You may be aware that M. De Blain-
ville contends that the ground—viz. a single bone or articular
facet of a bone—on which Cuvier deemed it possible to recon-
struct the entire animal, is inadequate to that end. In this opin-
ion I do not coincide. Ihave had too frequent evidence of the
potency of the law of correlation of structures in an animal or-
ganism to doubt the strength of Cuvier’s proposition. But if a
single bone has been deemed insufficient to give the entire ani-
mal, with more reason may we doubt the efficacy of a foot-print.
Vol. xrv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 24

186 Ornithichnites of the Connecticut River Sandstones.

We must bear in mind the conflicting opinions to which the Chi-
rotherium impressions have given rise: next, in regard to the
Ornithichnites, it is important to remember that there were rep-
tiles at the age of the New Red Sandstone, the Rhynchosaurus,
e. g. (see Trans. of the Cambridge Phil. Soc., Vol. VIL, Part III,
p. 355,) which presented a singularly close approximation. to
birds in the form and structure of their edentulous skull; and
might not a corresponding modification of the feet complete the
resemblance of these ancient reptiles to the fabled cockatrice ?
A biped reptile would not be more anomalous than a jerboa or
kangaroo.

_ In the foregoing remarks, I wish to be understood as merely :
indicating the grounds which justify caution in assuming the ex-
istence of a highly organized, warm-blooded, quick-breathing,
perhaps volant, feathered biped, from foot-prints merely. 1 have,
however, recently acquired very important additional evidence of
the former existence in the north island of New Zealand, of a
gigantic bird, having the same low grade of organization, as re-
gards the respiratory system, which I have demonstrated in the
Apteryx of the same island. (Zool. Trans. Vol. II.) It is to
this circumstance, perhaps, that Dr. Daubeny alludes in his letter
to you. My evidence is not however foot-prints, but the bones
themselves. If you will refer to the Transactions of the Zoolo-
gical Society, Vol. Ill, Part I, p. 29, you will see the first indi-
cation of the gigantic Struthious bird of New Zealand, which
indicates Cuvier’s principle, as showing what may be made out
of asingle fragment of bone. Three years after that fragment
was interpreted, a box containing femora, tibia, a metatar
bone, and portions of pelvis, vertebra, &c. was transmitted to Dr.
Buckland from New Zealand, who generously placed them at
my disposal. They were described at the meeting of the Z00-
logical Society, January 24, 1843, and established the fact that
at no very remote period, say a couple of centuries ago, there
existed in New Zealand a tridactyle Struthious bird, one third
larger than the African ostrich, resembling the apteryx in the
proportions of the tibia to the metatarsus, and in the absence of
air in the former, and therefore, most probably in the rudimental
state of the wings. Now the metatarsal bone of this bird, which
I have called Dinornis Nove Zelandia, is fully large enough to
have sustained three toes equivalent to produce impressions of
the size of those of the Ornithichnites giganteus of Prof. Hitch-

Mr. Murchison’s Address before the Geolovical Society, 187

eock. This I had the pleasure to demonstrate to Mr. Boott of
Boston, during his late visit to London. It seems most reasona-
ble, therefore, to conclude that the Ornithichnites are the im-
pressions of the feet of birds, which had the same low grade of
organization as the Apteryr and the Dinornis of New Zealand,
and these latter may be regarded as the last remnants of an ap-
terous race of birds, which seems to have flourished at the epoch
of the New Red Sandstones of Connecticut and Massachusetts.
Believe me, very faithfully yours,
Ricuarp Owen.

In concluding this subject, we are sure our readers will agree
with us that we cannot do better than to quote the following
paragraph from the last address of Mr. Murchison before the Ge-
ological Society of London, Feb. 17, 1843. Mr. M. says:

“To American geologists we are indebted for our acquaint-
ance with this new class of phenomena. The existence of the
fossil bones of birds of ordinary size had, it is true, been ascer-
tained by Dr. Mantell in the Wealden strata, but great was our
astonishment, and I may add our incredulity, when Prof. Hitch-
cock first announced that in rocks of considerable antiquity, (the
exact age of which is still uncertain,) there existed innumerable
impressions in successive layers, which must have been formed
by birds, some of them of gigantic size, and to which he boldly
assigned the name of ‘Ornithichnites.’ Various. opinions were
entertained, and much scepticism prevailed concerning these im-
pressions ; but it is due to Dr. Buckland to state, that he never
doubted that the views of Prof. Hitchcock were founded on true
natural analogies, and he accordingly published this opinion with
illustrative plates in his Bridgewater Treatise. ; The recent visit
of Mr. Lyell to North America, and a memoir he has read, as
well as a communication from Dr. James Deane of Massachu-
setts,* have necessarily brought this highly interesting subject
again before us: whilst a very remarkable discovery in natural
history, has at all events almost entirely dispelled scepticism re-
garding the true bird-like character of even the largest of the
footsteps, however difficult it may be to imagine the presence of
such highly organized creatures at a very early period. ‘The ob-
servations of Mr. Lyell completely support the views of Prof.

* The same which accompanies this article.—Eps.

188 On the Great Comet of 1843.

Hitchcock as to the littoral nature of the footstep deposit in Con-
necticut, and that the prints in question were left by birds on
the mud and sand of former estuaries, the bottoms of which were
gradually submerged, and by the increase of fresh matter were
permanently preserved.”

We are forced to omit an interesting page on the Dinornis of
Prof. Owen, for want of room. Mr. M. continues: “Now to apply
this discovery to our Ornithichnites, one of the greatest difficul-
ties which many of us had to overcome, was the gigantic size of
the largest American footsteps, which measure fifteen inches in
length ; and it is a most curious fact that upon placing the fossil
east alongside of the metatarsal bone and tibia of the largest
individual of Dinornis, Prof. Owen is of opinion, that if the feet
of this great tridactyle bird be found, they will, from the usual
proportions maintained in such animals, be fully as large as those
of the American Ornithichnite. From this moment, then, I am
prepared to admit the value of the reasoning of Dr. Hitchcock,
and of the original discoverer, Dr. James Deane, who, it appears
by the clear and modest paper lately brought before us by Dr.
Mantell, was the first person who called the Professor’s attention
to the phenomenon, expressing then his own belief, from what he
saw in existing nature, that the footmarks were made by birds.
Let us now hope, therefore, that the last vestiges of doubt may
be removed by the discovery of the bones of some fossil Dinor-
nis ; and in the mean time let us honor the great moral courage
exhibited by Prof. Hitchcock, in throwing down his opinions be-
fore an incredulous public.” gon

Arr. XXI.—On the Great Comet of 1843; by Mr. S.C. Waux-
eR and Prof. E, O. Kenpaui, of Philadelphia.*

High School Observatory, Philadelphia, May, 1843.
To rue SECRETARIES oF THE AMERICAN PuiLosopntcaL SocreTy, &e.
Gentlemen—We avail ourselves of the centennial meeting of
the members of this Society to lay before them generally, the rea-
sons which induce us to believe that the recent visitor is a com
ot oh >, gece

. * The first letter was communicated to the American Philosophical Society, at
their centennial anniversary, May, 1843; and published in the United States Ga-
zette, May 29,1843: since revised, and furnished by the authors, for this Journal,
at the request of the Editors. The second letter is now for the first time published.

On the Great Comet of 1843. 189

of short period of only 21% years; and that it is identical with
those of February, 1668, and of December, 1689. An early sug-
gestion of its identity with that of 1668, was made, we believe,
by Prof. Peirce, in a lecture delivered at Boston, on the 23d of
March last. Shortly before that date, viz. March 20, it appears
to have been noticed by Mr. Cooper of Nice, in a letter to
Schumacher, published in the London Times. The question of
their identity has been discussed by Prof. Schumacher and Mr.
Petersen of Altona. The latter applies Galle’s elements to the
perihelion passage in 1668, and Prof. Sehumacher expresses an
opinion in favor of their identity. 'The subject has been more
fully discussed by. Mr. Henderson, the Astronomer Royal of Scot-
land; who, in a letter to Schumacher of April 11th, states that
“there appears great probability in favor of the supposition that the
late comet, and the one which appeared in 1668 are the same.”
Mr. Henderson then gives the elements of the comet of 1668,
and a comparison of the ephemeris computed from them with
the places of the nucleus of the comet as found by Mr. H. ona
map in his possession containing a trace of its path among the
stars, from March 9th to March 21st, 1668, as seen at Goa. The
agreement is quite sufficient to warrant a conclusion of their
identity. 'The first suggestion of the identity of the comets of
1689 and 1843, was made by ourselves in a letter to the editor
of the Philadelphia Gazette, April 6th, in which after giving our
own elements of this comet, and Pingré’s elements of that of
1689, we mentioned “ these elements agree quite well with Prof.
Peirce’s and ours, except the inclination. The observations used
by Pingré are pronounced to be good by Olbers, and he expresses
confidence in the elements of Pingré. Still the imperfections of
instruments and ¢atalogues of stars in 1689, may have caused
such imperfections of the observations as to lead Pingré to an incli-
nation of 69°, instead of 39° or 36° as found at present. When
we consider that the inclination found by Prof. Peirce and our-
selves is derived from an orbital motion of less than 2°, it is mani-
fest that the position of the plane of the orbit, or in other words
the inclination, must be quite uncertain. The same difficulty
must have occurred in 1689, under still more unfavorable cir-
cumstances. It is quite likely therefore that a modification of
the elements of this comet not greater than those of Halley’s
comet in its successive periods, would represent the observations

190 On the Great Comet of 1843.

used by Pingré, as well as ‘his own elements, or at least within
such limits as those to which the errors were liable.”

In a communication in the Inquirer of the 11th April we still re-
peated our suggestion of the sameness of these comets. Finally in
the Boston Courier of April 25th, Prof. Peirce published his ele-
ments of the comet of 1689 and found au inclination smaller even
than that of 1843, with other elements agreeing very well with
those of the recent comet. This removed all doubt in our minds
of the identity of these ets, and on the arrival of the London
Times of April 14th, sie Schumacher’s opinion confirma-
tory of Prof. Peirce’s of the sameness of the comets of 1668 and
1843, we compared the periods to see if the comet of 1843 could
not be both that of 1668 and 1689, and we found that a period
of 21% years would answer for all three. We announced this
conclusion ina letter; dated May 8th, in the United States Ga-
zette of May 11th, with an attempt to account for its not being
seen except about the eighth period of its revolutions, when it
returns to the perihelion at the same season of the year. We
also stated that our parabolic elements, which gave an orbit pass~
ing through our first and last normal places of March 20th and
April 9th, gave the place on the middle date of March 30th too
much advanced. We also stated that such was the case of all the
good parabolas obtained for its orbit in Europe or America, and
mentioned our coincidence in opinion with Encke, that the pa-
rabola was not the true orbit, and added that probably it would
be found to be an ellipse of 21% years. We also stated that an
attempt further to correct the parabola for the middle observation,
would lead to a paradox such as Encke had encountered in his
attempt to complete an orbit on the presumption that the curve
is a parabola. We immediately, with the kind assistance of Mr-
John Downes, commenced the computation of an orbit on Gauss’s
general method, without presuming upon any conic section; but
hoping to find an ellipse, and found a double paradox, a comet
moving in an hyperbola, and that hyperbola having its perihe-
lion point within the body of the sun. We immediately announe-
ed this result in the United States Gazette of the 19th April, and
invited an expression of opinion from astronomers, as to the legit-
imate interpretation of this result. It was manifest, that if the
centre of gravity of the comet and tail was moving away in a
non-periodical curve, our favorite opinion of the identity of these

On the Great Comet of 1843. 191

three comets, and short period of 21%-years, would be untenable.
Although we considered the hyperbolic orbit as well as the small
perihelion distance to be both paradoxical, we were willing to
submit them as genuine deductions from our observations and
computations, and leave them to be received as paradoxes, or ex-
_ plained away as the sequel should show. In so doing, we post-
poned for the time urging our favorite theory of the short period
of 21% years. It is true that we had suggested the probable cause
of the acceleration of the comet’s place for the middle observation
as computed from a parabolic ephemeris, to be owing to the
shape of the comet, in the United States Gazette of the 6th of
April, after pointing out the acceleration of the comet’s place for
the middle observations, viz.* ‘The slight difference between
the two curves (our parabola and the true path of the comet) is
lost amidst the errors of observation, and the uncertainty whether
the central portion or the densest part of the nebulosity corres-
ponds with the actual centre of gravity.” We were aware that
Encke had resorted to this hypothesis, to explain the paradox of
the acceleration of his comet, previous to his more fortunate sug-
gestion of the resisting medium. In regard to the recent comet,
our attention was early called to this source of error by our: es-
teemed correspondent Mr. E. C. Herrick, of New Haven, who, in
a letter addressed to S. C. Walker, on the 29th of March, remarks,
“The concentration of light in the nucleus (as seen in the 10
feet Clark Telescope of 5 inches aperture) seemed to me on two
occasions to be iderably nearer the anterior than the posterior
e could detect three dim starlike points,
but it was almost impossible to decide with certainty. Where
the tail is so immense; is there not some hazard in assuming the
centre of the nucleus to be the centre of gravity of the whole body ?”
We are particular about the-dates of these suggestions respecting
the centre of gravity of the comet and tail, in as much as it is
found to bea matter of much importance in the sequel. Having
fairly on the 19th and 20th laid our two paradoxes, viz. the hy-
perbolic orbit, and the perihelion distance less than the sun’s
semidiameter, before the public, with some suggestions as to the
inferences that would follow from a strict interpretation of this
result of calculation and observations, viz. that of the necessity

* See Mr. R. W. Haskins’s paper on the “ Resisting Medium” in this Journal,
Vol. xxx111, p. 19.

192 On the Great Comet of 1843.

of a rebound, or of the comet’s flowing round the sun, we waited
for the opinions of our friends, and for further information from
the European observatories. We have since received both, and
hasten to lay them before you. First, the arrival of the Caledo-
nia brought out the announcements from most of the European
observatories in Prof. Schumacher’s excellent Astronomical Noti-
ces of April 22. From these it appears that the comet’s nucleus
was first seen in Europe, at Nice on the 14th, and first observed
at Rome on the 17th of March. This was five days later than
it was observed at several places in the United States, viz. on the
9th and 11th, not to mention Mr. Clarke’s measures of the dis-
tance of the nucleus from the sun on the 28th of February.
The latest observation quoted by Schumacher, is that of Hncke
at Berlin, March 31st. Perhaps it was seen later. We follow-
ed it at the High School Observatory till the 10th of April.
The conclusion of Encke, Steinheil, Nicolai, Schumacher, Ar-
gelander and others, that the parabola is not the true conic sec-
tion for this comet, confirmed the announcement we had made
on the 11th April. Encke who alone of all the astronomers yet
heard from, had discussed the question of the particular conic sec-
tion, had found an hyperbola resembling ours, with the perihelion
point just falling outside of the sun. Thus one of our paradoxes,
that of the hyperbolic orbit of the observed centre of the nebu-
losity, was confirmed by the only astronomer in Europe, who as
far as heard from had gone over the same ground with ourselves.
For the other paradox, viz. a perihelion point within the body
of the sun, we find the most ample confirmation. 'This element
is thus stated by the European astronomers : aby
Plantamour, Geneva, = - = 0.0045

Arago, Paris, - . - - 0.0054 -
Galle, Berlin, - - - - 0.0118
Argelander, Bonn, - - - 0.0072.
Nicolai, Manheim, am ie) teres Sy ec 0,0087 :
Encke, Berlin; --.- +. - +. 0.0047 or less.:
Do. do. Me aalbyi= - 0.0036
Don ijxs Mie ertek Foiaisiieie de oO OOER nypeiey
Mean, a, OARS @ sere elie {> -O.0087,
Do. omitting Galle, - - - * 0.0049
Our last result, - - ~ = 0.0041 hyperbola.

' Sun’s semidiameter, - - - 0.0047

On the Great Comet of 1843. 193 i

Thus it appears that Plantamour, Nicolai, and Encke on two
occasions, had encountered the same paradox as ourselves, viz.
that of a perihelion point within the sun. It is also remarkable
that none of the orbits except Encke’s hyperbola suffice to rep-
resent the observed path of the centre of the nebulosity among
the stars.

Hence it appears from the concurrence rm. authorities on these
subjects, that good observations of the path of the centre-of the
nebulosity, carefully reduced, lead to a hyperbolic orbit, and an
approach of centres of the sun ~ comet as near as their physi-
cal qualities will permit.

In this stage of the enquiry the principal difficulty consists in
reconciling these two paradoxes with our favorite opinion of the
identity of the three comets of 1668, 1689, and this year, with a
short period of 21% years. Now it is fortitifite that in the case
of our hyperbola the same natural and plausible explanation that
does away with the one paradox does away with the other. The
true key to the solution of the difficulty is, we are persuaded, the
suggestion first made to us by Mr. Herrick, March 28th, and first
suggested to the public, by ourselves, in the United States Ga-
zette of April 6th, viz. the “uncertainty whether the central or
densest portion of the nebulosity corresponds with the actual cen-
tre of gravity.” We now proceed to state the opinions of our es-
teemed friends and correspondents on this point. Dr. Anderson
of New York, writes under date of May 19th and 22d, stating
unhesitatingly that ‘the analogies in favor of the identity of the
comets of 1668 and 1689, should lead us to reject the hyperbolic
orbit as being unnatural in itself, and wholly irreconcilable with
‘these analogies. And that we should rather regard this hyper-
bolic orbit, and too close perihelion distance, as the consequence

of some error in the data, or in the methods, or in the computa-
tions. ‘That there is nothing in the effect of contact of the bod-
ies, or resistance of the comet by the atmosphere of the sun,
which could change the character of the conic section, from one
of a less velocity to one of a greater. From Professor Alexander,
of Princeton College; we have received a letter dated May 20th,
in which he proposes an explanation of the difficulty at once sim-
ple and natural, and fulfilling all that was required by Dr. Ander-
son. It is based on the supposed occurrence of the very error
against which we were cautioned Ki Mr. Herrick, March 28th,
Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843.

194 On the Great Comet of 1843.

and which we alluded to in our published letter of April 6th,
namely, the error arising from measuring the place of the densest
point of the nucleus instead of the common centre of gravity of
the nucleus and tail. We give below his letter in full. We have
also had placed in our hands by Professor A. D. Bache, a letter
from Professor Bartlett, of West Point, dated May 23d. We give
below that part of his letter which treats on this subject, remark-
ing that we have no doubt that the coincidence in opinions of
Mr. Herrick, Professor Alexander, and Professor Bartlett, has ta-
ken place without either one having any knowledge that the same —
idea had occurred to the other two. We would also remark that
the criticism of Professor Bartlett, on Arago’s parabolic elements
and on our own, is just, and confirms our statements that no para-
bolic ephemeris will perfectly represent consecutive observations
of this comet. e k of only two sets of elements that will
give a good ephemeris; the one is Encke’s and the other is ours.
Both are hyperbolic and paradoxical. We give them below.
The explanation of Professors Alexander and Bartlett, we have
no doubt, isthe true one. It is plain and natural, and a priori ex-
tremely probable. It will also satisfy the criticism of Professor
Anderson, in as much as it points out the particular source of the
error of the data, which Dr. Anderson supposed must exist some-
where. The explanation is doubly satisfactory for ourselves,
since it leaves the way clear for the establishment of the short
period, and the identity of the three comets of 1668, 1689, and
1843, and leaves us still a hope of seeing this remarkable vis-
itor in 1865. Moreover it does away with both paradoxes, and
shows at the same time, that the European astronomers, aS well
as ourselves, who were led into them, arrived at them in the le-
gitimate and only possible mode of observation and computation.

Professor Bessel, of Kénigsberg, the greatest living astronomer;
and since Olbers’s death, the most experienced and sagacious ob-
server of comets, remarks in a letter to Prof. Schumacher, dated
March 28th :— This comet seems to have expended the greater

‘part of its nucleus in building up its splendid tail.’”

» We are happy to add the testimony of our friend Mr. Nicollet

_ in favor of the strength of these analogies, and of the probable

return of this comet in 1865, as an inference not to be in the
slig htest degree shaken by the fact that a nice discussion of the
Ae disct
bservations of the apparent centre of the nebulosity has led to

tee a p> ;

the two paradoxes already quoted. We bail the favorable opinion
of this distinguished traveller, who received the Lalande medal
for the discovery and the elements of the comet of the year
1821. We are happy further to add the testimony in favor of
the plausibility of the period of 21% years, communicated to us
in writing or verbally by our valued friends, Alexander, of Prince-
ton; Mitchell, of Nantucket; Gilliss, of Washington; Herrick,

of lew Haven; Loomis, of Wossin? Reserve ; ses nearer home,
of Professors Patterioen and Bache. — ;

Bassin, Saturday, May 20, 1843.

My dear Sir—Your esteemed favor was received last evening.
_ [have entire confidence in the scrupulous care with which your
observations have been conducted, and do not doubt that the com-
putations founded upon them have been well guarded; yet that
the comet should have actually struck the sun or his envelope,
and then rebownded, seems to me to be so violent a supposition,
as to be inadmissible, except upon compulsory evidence, or in the
absence of any other rational explanation. Admitting the facts,
however, to be as above stated, how are we to avoid the conclu-
sion? Iwill venture to suggest what lam at present disposed
to regard as a plausible solution of the difficulty.

The centre of gravity of the comet of 1843 was at an unusual
distance from that which seemed to be the actual nucleus: this
led to an erroneous estimate of the comet’s position. As, more-
over, the comet, when first observed, was nearly in its perigee, it
is altogether possible that the error arising from the cause here
suggested, was at the same time at its maximum, and that it con-
tinually decreased until the comet disappeared. - The effect upon
the relative position of the apparent.and true orbits would conse-
quently be such as is roughly represented above—the true or
dotted orbit deviating more and more from the apparent, as we
retrace it in the direction opposite to the comet’s motion, and
thus-escaping the sun at the perihelion. |
~ Iam obliged. to pause, as the hour has arrived for closing the
mail. I hope to see you at Philadelphia in a very few days, and
may perhaps write you again before that time, in answer to the
anes you more partigularly propose.

In extreme haste, yours truly,
: SrerHen ALEXANDER.

° an C. Wavxer, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.

196 On the Great Comet of 1843.

' 2 » West Point, May 23d, 1843.

My dear Bache—The more immediate purpose of this letter,
is to suggest to yourself and the Society, what has appeared to
me a possible explanation of the very great discrepancies between
the observations and both the ephemerides computed from M.
Arago’s and Mr. Walker’s elements.

I suppose that the apparent orbit of the comet is different from
the true; or that the path of the nucleus is not the same as that
described by the centre of gravity of the entire mass. ‘To illus-
trate my meaning, suppose the comet to approach the sun ina
parabolic or very elongated elliptical orbit, which will be, by the
principles of physical astronomy, the path of the centre of grav-
ity. As the comet approaches the perihelion, letit be greatly but
gradually elongated in the direction of a line joining the nucleus
and the sun, the tail being thrown off ina direction from this
latter body, and suppose this to result from the repulsive action
of the cometary particles upon each other, in consequence of the
heating influence of the sun, in the same manner as the elastic
force of vapor is increased by an elevation of temperature: The
action being limited to the particles upon each other, the centre
of gravity will be undisturbed, and continue to describe its reg-
ular orbit from which each extremity of the elongation will re-
cede on the line of the radius vector, though in unequal degrees,
till it reaches a maximum, resulting from an equilibrium between
the elastic force of the cometary medium and the weight of its
elementary particles, or the force by which they are drawn to-
wards the centre of the mass.

The expansive action here supposed, would, in the nature of
things, -be gradual ; and hence, before the nucleus, or the thing
observed, could be totally resolved into a vapor like the tail, and
thus disappear, the reverse action would begin, in consequence of
the rapid retrocession of the comet from the sun. ‘The disturbed
motion of the nucleus being for a part of the time from the true
orbit, or that of the centre of gravity, towards the sun, the ob-

Servations, if made at this time, would give a constantly increas-

ing eccentricity, or diminishing perihelion distance; and thus the
perihelion itself might be brought apparently within the surface
of the sun, while not a particle of the, comet’s matter would
touch that body. The observations, if made while the mass of
the comet is contracting towards its centre of gravity, would give

On the Great Comet of 1843. 197

an increasing perihelion distance till this point is again brought
within the nucleus in the depths of space. Very truly yours,
Wo. H. C. Bartverr.
A. D. Bacue, LL. D., Philad.

We subjoin Encke’s hyperbolic elements, and also our own.
The latter have been recomputed, after correcting a slight over-
sight in our calculations, kindly pointed out by Prof. Anderson.
Encke’s ephemeris agrees beautifully with his observations. Our
hyperbolic elements give an ephemeris corresponding with our
normal places within one second of space :

Encke. W., K. and D.

Perihelion passage, § —- Feb. 274.49778 27458939
m. t. Berlin. i m. t. Green

Longitude of perihelion, 2ZT9° 2! 29.9 Fe 280° 44 3.7
’ m. “ March 0 m. eq. March 30

Long. asc. node, ; : 15 24.9 15 57 3.2
Inclination, . . 2 = 12 38.2 34 19 52.0
Eccentricity, . «=~. ~—Ss«:1.00021825 1.00090495
Gaussian angle,*¥ . . +©19 11’ 49”.0 2° 26’ 12”.1
Perihelion distance, . . 0.00521966 0.00410367
Daily motion retrograde, 13/.175559 159’.58936
It will appear on comparing these Sete, that they agree
very well, éxcepting the eccentricity and its secant, the Gaussian

angle. This i is always the most uncertain element in such inves-
tigations. We might a priori believe that our result has more
weight, from being derived from twenty two days’ motion of the
comet, whereas Encke’s was derived from only eight days’ mo-
tion. Moreover, our places were normal, or average places, and
his derived from observations of a single night. A third argu-
ment in favor of our elements is, that they were derived directly
from the normal places, without any hypothesis respecting the
conic section. Whereas Encke’s were obtained by variations
from a parabolic curve acknowledged to be erroneous. ‘That
there can be no error in the process of computation by Mr. Downes
and ourselves, is shown by the fact that the elements reproduce
by computation our normal places, after applying the following
small corrections, viz.

* This angle is the arc whose secant is the same as the eccentricity.

198 On the Great Comet of 1843.
March 20.5. R.A. —0”.6 Dec. +0”.7

"30:6 R, A. —0 0 Dec. —1.0
April 9.5 R. A. —0 .6 Dec. +0 .3

These normal places were obtained from a comparison of all
our observations with the best ephemeris we could obtain, which
was computed from our elements at our request, by Mr. John
Downes, the editor of the United States Almanac, and obtained
from the average corrections concurring together near the 20th
and 30th of March, and 9th of April, for Greenwich mean mid-
night. These are far more correct than the result of any single
measure. We give them for the use of astronomers freed from
refraction, parallax, and aberration. -

March 204.5, R. A. 46° 4/38”.4 Dec.S.9° 9/ 45.5

March 304.5, 59. bk 1, 2 6 36 32 .5

April 945, 68 56 41 6 4 AB 36 .7.
_ Let us now consider the period belonging to the mean motion.
It is obvious that if we adopt the explanation of Messrs. Alexan-
der and Bartlett, the mean motion and consequent period of the
centre of the nebulosity observed, and of the real centre of gra-
vity, must be the same. This is a necessary condition, since
they both arrive at the perihelion point at the same instant of
time. Now the earth’s sidereal. motion in a mean solar day is
3548”.18761. The mean motion of the apparent centre of the
nebulosity by our elements is 159”.58936. This gives a period
for the apparent centre of the nebulosity, and consequently for
the actual centre of gravity, of 22.2339 years.

This is the keystone of the arch; it is the last argument that
was wanting to complete the conclusion. Analogy had already
raised a violent presumption of a period of 21% years.. ‘The same,
or nearly the same period, has here been derived by a process en-
tirely independent of these analogies, and entirely free from any
hypothesis respecting the period or nature of the conic section
that forms the orbit. The coincidence is wonderful, and shows
not only the strong probability of the period, and of the identity
of the three comets, but also the extreme precision of the notmal
places, derived from our measures with the filar-micrometer ; for
an error in any of these places of 10” would have led to a greater
discrepancy. ss

We have presented the argument a posteriori, from the nature
of the orbit observed in March and April last. We have found a

On the Gfeat Comet of 1843. 199

period that in seven revolutions reaches back nearly to 1689, and
in eight revolutions to 1668. We now present the argument @
priort derived from analogy.

Lon. of Lon. of | Inclina- eens Perihelion
passage.

soy Comet. Perihel. Node. tion, dista g
1 | Comet of 1668 | 279°.6 | 359°.8 | 35°.9 | O Feb. 28.8d
2 | Comet of 1689 | 273 .5 | 346 .5 | 30 .4 | 0.0103 | Dec. 2.13
3 | Comet of 1843 | 280 .5 | 348 .5 | 39 3) 0 Feb. 27.54
4 ae 272 .3| 356 .5 | 36 .6 | 0.0 27.20
5 “ 262 .7 | 857 .7 | 36 .7 | 0.0541 27.55
6 = 277 .0 | 361 .3 | 35 .7 | 0 27.45
7 2 | 274 8 | 359 .1 | 35 .9 | 0.0109 | 27.09
8 « 274 .5 | 357 .6 | 36 .4| 0.0113 27.46
9 ss 279 .2| 359 .9 | 36 .0 | 0.0045 27.46
10 281 .4| 365 .9 | 35 .0 | 0.0080 27.37
11 “ 275 .5| 359 0 | 36 .1| 0.0104 27.54
12 nel 277 .5 | 361 .0 | 35 .7 | 0.0071 27.47
13 «“ 280 .5 | 364 .6 | 35 :2 | 0.0037 27.39
14 Bs 278 .8| 362 .2}35 .5| 0.0054 27.41
No, 1. By Henderson, Astronomer Royal of Scotland.
2. By Prof. Peirce, from Pingré’s places.
3. By Prof. Peirce, from his and Mr. Bond’s places.
4, By Messrs. Nooney and Hadley, from Walker and Ken-
dall’s places.
5. By Prof. Anderson, from Prof. Bartlett’s places.
6. By Prof. Anderson, from Walker and Kendall’s places.
7. By Prof. Alexander, from his own places.
8. By Mr. Galle of Berlin, do.
9. By Mr. Septet of Geneva, do.
10. By Prof. E do.
11. By Walker, ‘Kendall and Downes, do.
12. By Argelander, do.
13. By Nicolai, do.
14, By Laugier and Mauvais, do.

Either argument is quite conclusive, and their coincidence es-
tablishes almost to a demonstration the period of the comet of 214
years, and its identity with some of the many others, quoted by
Pingré in his Cometography, as having occurred in the three se-
ries of cycles of 175 years (8 revolutions) which precede the re-
spective dates of its recent appearance in 1843.2, its expected ap-
pearance in 1864.9 or 1865.0, and in 1886.9. It also completely
confirms the observation made by Messrs. Herrick and Bradley,

200 On the Great Corhet of 1843.

of the eccentricity of the densest portion of the nebulosity in that
nebulosity. It confirms the remark, we published in the United
States Gazette of April 6th. It confirms the coincident opinions
of Profs. Alexander and Bartlett. It explains away the seeming
paradoxes of the hyperbolic motion of the apparent centre of the
nebulosity, and of the tendency of this fictitious curve to a peri-
helion point within the sun’s surface, while the true ellipse of
21% years’ period has a perihelion distance greater than the sun’s
radius, leaving the comet free to depart and return, as it must do
about the Ist of January, 1865, to be seen under more favorable
circumstances than at this visit. :

We conclude by expressing our great satisfaction at the expla-
nation of Profs. Alexander and Bartlett, which, with the computa-
tions of the new orbit, by Henderson, for the comet of 1668, and
by Prof. Peirce for 1689, have removed the only known obstacle
to the admission of the period of 21% years and the elliptic orbit
suggested by ourselves on the 8th inst.; accordingly we offer it
to the members of the Society on this their centennial celebra-
tion, as the established period of this remarkable comet.

Encke in 1819, from 21 days’ observation of his comet, found
by the application of Gauss’s method, a mean daily motion of
989.3, whereas the true motion was 1076”.9. In 1826 Santini

‘found from 30 days’ observations of Gambart’s comet, a mean
daily motion of 700.4, whereas the true motion was 528.0. Our
mean motions from the elements and the true period are respect-
ively 159”.6 and 162”.2. The conjectures of Encke and Santini
turned out to be true. Our coincidence is even closer; but re-
quires an additional hypothesis, that of Messrs. Herrick, Alexan-
der, and Bartlett, which in some degree weakens the inference.

If we admit this hypothesis, and suppose that the perihelion
distance was possible, that is, for instance, greater than 0.0047,
then we shall find the elliptic elements of the comet’s orbit the
same as the hyperbolic, omitting the Gaussian angle, and making
the eccentricity greater than 0.9994.

The actual elliptic elements may be found on this hypothesis
by assuming the above value of 0.9994 for the elliptic eccentri-
city, and then giving to the difference between the elliptic and
hyperbolic radii vectores the form of a constant quantity multi-
plied by the reciprocal of the square of the elliptic radius vector.
This constant should then be determined from the series of obser-

OA pr: 10.
4Mar.30
Fin
4Mar. 20.

é Mar.11.

~~ Feb. 28

; {Mar 11 |

| Mar 20 ’
i} XX 3

oH Mar. 30 Ph

Apr. LO}

t
24

On the Great Comet of 1843. 201

itisite by the method of least squares. ‘The elliptic elements
should of course be used in computing perturbations.
We have the honor to be your obedient servants,
gars C. WALKER,
E. Oris Kenpauu.
To Messrs. John K. Kane, Alexander Dallas Bache, LL. D.,
Robley Dunglison, M. D., Joshua Francis Fisher.

High School Observatory, Philadelphia, June 16th, 1843.
To THES ' oF THE AMERICAN PurnosopHicaL Society.

Gentlemen—Since writing the letter which was read at the
centennial meeting of the Society, we have compared our normal
places of the comet on the 20th and 30th of March with the Euro-
pean observations. We have not been able to find any later than
the 31st of March, and must still rely on our own measures for the
comet’s place on the 9th of April. In order to test the normal
places for March 20th and 30th, we subjoin the differences there-
from of the European observations referred to the date of Green-
wich mean midnight, after rejecting two in all, whose discrepan-
cies from the mean result exceeded ay seconds of space.

Observation compared ~~, Correction of jorrection o Date of normal |
with "| normal place, ha: ' normal me wth a

: iT ro. ye Mz : } i Eat
ca tee pies

an See:

Port hspeary 2

ad hi cat
March 30.5
Mean correction, | -+10".7 — "0
I i cos seer Reinstabne cob

If we allow to the High School observations the same weight
as that of one European he then the normal places of
* ‘Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843.

202 On the Great Comet of 1843.

the point of observation of the come 1 nebulosity will stand sein
being freed from parallax and aberration.

] Greenwich | Normal see Correc.
mean time, | R. A.

Mar. 204.5 ae A a4 -+0''.0
+9 .5

Mar. 30 .5
April 9.5! 56 “i é to 0

Corrected 9% Normal gee Correc.|Corrected nor-
mal place, R Dec | Dec. lee al place, Dec.

46° Al a9 4 —9°. Of 4515 o =r A\—9 9! os

59 51 10. —5 .2i—

68 56 41 6 —0 .0'—4 45 357

36:32 .
4 48 3507

- Then the corrections of the ephemeris, computed from our hy-
perbolic elements, will be

March 20.6... das=—0".6; apr ey
«> ~ March 30.5... Fé + 9.5; x, Ah OND,
$a Oe April 9.5 : — 0.6 5 f3

- These values are so small that a change in the elements of the
orbit of the point of the nebulosity observed, which should re-
duce them to zero, would be too small to indicate any change in
the conclusions already drawn by us from our first normal places.
Unless, then, further observations shall be obtained from the
southern hemisphere previous to the perihelion passage, we see
no way of avoiding the conclusion that the point of the nebu-
losity observed was moving in an hyperbola, with a mean daily
motion of about 160”, which in a curve having a periodical char-
acter, would give a duration of a revolution of about 22 years,
with elements, as far as we know, identical with those of the
comets of 1668.2 and 1689.9.

We subjoin from Pingré’s Conietography ¢ a list of comets that
have appeared at dates when this comet, if it be the sameas
those of 1668.2, and 1689.9, must have been in a situation to
be seen from some part of the earth. It must be recollected that
this comet can never have come to its perihelion in the months
of November, December, January and February, without being
a conspicuous object in the morning or evening twilight, before
or after the passage of the perihelion. In all instances it must
have been best seen in the southern hemisphere. We have
given nearly all the coincidences in dates. 'Those which have
no (*), nor (?) annexed are coincidences in date. Those marked
with an (*) have, besides the coincidence in date, some circum
stance, whether of physical appearance or apparent path in the
heavens, analogous with the comet of 1843. Those mar
with: an (?) Sot perp mete ebiticidenees i in date without des

On the Great Comet of 1843. 203

as iad Date ne “ecent ap Rae revotution® aid neal!
a period. -
B.C 13 175.00 104 21.876
A. D. 268 (?) 9x 175.02 72 X21.878
442 (?) 8X 175.15 64 21.894
7X 175.17 56 X 21.896
5X 175.04. 40 21.880
1143 (*) 4 175.05 3221.881
3x 175.40 ~~ 24% 21.925
1493" BCTTS: 10 ** > ~16X21.888
on 1668.2 (*) 1175.00 © 8X 21.875
Perio of “eight revolutions 5
: Date, ica es ceding expected return|Single revolutions and mean
- if “1865,04. period.
: B. c. 60(*) 11X175.00 | 88X21.875
* Ard. 290-4) 8 9X 175.00 — 72 21.875 5
Re (?) 7XK175.14 56 X 21.892 ;
: 815 6X 174.99 | 48 * 21.874
990? 5X 174.99 40 X 21.874
1165 LA 175 23 32 X 21.904
‘ 1340* 3X 174.98 24% 21.873
wb ea BUG Peetoe cfs, 42K VILATS oe fi: {6 X21.809
. 1689.95(*) | 1175.00. | 8X21.875
“1865.04. | AF Hi oi
ee ee ee "Periods of eight revolutions in
ee Seer preceding rppected return Single evn ‘and me ag to
Bie. DIM G44 ee © 96X21.874-" |»
PR ie: CRS » 64 21,856
si Oe Oe Ox 17497, |. 48X21.871
“1012 (*) 5X174.96 | 40X21.
1962 (+) ih ent 5 ada iii
1 ABT (Bp emebin dost tue ee

“We eee naihd the aptulon es pm able astronomers, that
the densest povsinn of. the nebulosity of the recent comet (neces-
ected as the proper point for micrometric measures) was
eccentric to ong from the real head or centre of gravity
of the comet, tail and nebulous envelope. In fact the comet nev-
er presented any appearance | of a distinct kernel or head, but only
a.vague and ill-defined nebulosity or cloud, gradually condensed
towards the centre, or, according to Messrs. Herrick and Bradley,
towards a point nearer the sun than the centre of the disc (if we
may so call it) of the nebulosity. In Prof, Bartlett’s letter, men-

204 On the Great Comet of 1843.

tion is made only of the elastic force of the vaporous matter sur-
rounding the comet and composing its envelope or tail. On this
hypothesis we have suggested the simplest and most natural meth-
od of completing the elliptic elements, viz. that of making the
excess of the supposed elliptic over the actual hyperbolic radius
vector of the point observed equal to a constant co-efficient of the
reciprocal of the square of the radius vector, and determining by
means of the constancy of this value, the actual eccentricity cor-
responding to a period of 21% years, and a perihelion point of the
centre of gravity or head of the comet actually outside of the
- sun though nearly in contact with it. In fact this multiplier is
not necessarily constant, nor necessarily a co-efficient of the re-
ciprocal of the square of the radius vector ; still this hypothesis
is — most simple and plausible that can be maile; and is perhaps
plex as the nature of the question permits us to make.

na the subject of the physical organization of the head, tail,
and nebulosity or envelope of comets, has been discussed by Sit
William Herschel, Olbers, Brandes and Bessel, with their charac-
teristic genius and acumen, we deem it proper to consider the
bearing of their opinions and researches on the present question.
Sir William Herschel* states that the kernel or head of the
great comet of 1811, of about 1” in diameter, could only be seen
with high powers in his most powerful telescopes, and that with
ordinary instruments he saw only the nebulosity or envelope ;

but that when the head or kernel was seen, it was seen within.

the envelope eccentric from the sun, or in other words the densest
portion of the envelope or nebulosity was eccentric towards the
sun. ‘This is precisely the phenomenon observed by Messrs. Her-
rick and Bradley with reference to the disc of the nebulosity,
though the kernel or head could not be seen. ‘This also agrees
with Bessel’s remark, that this comet seems to have thrown out
nearly all its head in faening the nebulosity and tail.

~ We come next to Olbers’s theory+ of the formation of the en-
velope and tail of comets. This was promulgated in 1812, short-
ly after the appearance of the great comet of 1811. We do not
recollect to have any where met with a translation of it. It is
perhaps the only ve ever proposed that: or all the phe-

oAy *
Monatliche Correspondenz, Vol. xx 459.
EB AS lee ot MEV, KXV, ak ; path

On the Great Comet of 1843. 205

nomena observed respecting that comet. Olbers supposes that

_ any particle. composing the surface of the comet, or approaching

from the frozen regions of space within a certain distance of the
sun, is affected with a new repulsive force resembling that which
drives off substances from an excited prime conductor. These
particles thus polarized he supposes to be thrown off from the
head of the comet with a force proportioned to the mass of this
head or nearly solid portion of the comet, and inversely as. the
square of the distance from the centre of this head. 'The same
particle in acquiring polarity with reference to the comet, acquires
also polarity with reference to the mass of the sun, and is repel-
led by that mass, instead of being attracted by it with-a force al-
so varying inversely as the square of the distance from the sun.
The origin of this polarity may be ascribed to the action of the
sun’s light or heat, or both. This particle thus endued with one
repulsive force acting in the direction of the prolongation of the
radius vector from the sun, and inversely as its square, and with
another repulsive force acting in the direction of the prolongation
of its radius vector from the centre of the comet and inversely
as its square, and with its original tangential velocity, at the time
of parting with its actual cohesion with the comet, moves away
in'space in such a manner as not to return. Now the geocentric
position inthe heavens with respect to the head of the comet, of
any such particle for any given elapsed time after it is thrown off
from. the comet’s surface, may be readily computed, from the
known tangential direction and velocity for any assumed values
of the two repulsive forces of the comet and sun, for a unit of
distance—say the earth’s mean distance from the sun. Olbers
remarks that the heliocentric: orbit of such a particle must be an
hyperbola, oints in space where the two repul-
sive Soreds of the sun’ » and comet make equilibrinm, for any ori-

ginal direction of repulsion from the surface of the head, must

have the portions of expelled matter more condensed than any
portion of space between such points and the comet's head, thus
form apparently a hollow envelope or nebulosity, in the shape
‘of an hyperboloid having the head of the comet in its internal
focus, and its apex towards the sun, the continuation of this hol-
low hyperboloid from the sun beyond the parameter, (so to speak, )
forms the tail of the comet. The shape of the hyperboloid, and
consequently of the tail, depends upon the ratio of the repulsive

206 On the Great Comet of 1843.

forces of the sun and comet. If the one is determined. by meas-
ure, the other can be computed from it. Olbers made measures
of the shape of the visible section of this hyperboloid.

Brandes* gave this theory a thorough discussion, and finds
analytically that the opinion of Olbers is true, that the envelope if
so caused must be an hyperboloid, and then from the observed
dimensions of a section of this hyperboloid as seen from the earth
computes the ratio of the two repelling forces for that comet.

The theory of the formation of comets’ tails seems to have
made but little advances from 1812 till the return of Halley’s
comet in 1835, when the astronomers of Europe, with a full
knowledge of Olbers’s theory, and with powerful instruments,
observed the tail and nebulosity of that comet, with reference to
this theory.t Struve remarked that the densest point of the ne-
bulosity was eccentri¢ in that nebulosity, conformably to the ob-
servation of Messrs. Herrick and Bradley for the recent comet. But
the most indefatigable observer was Bessel,{ with the Konigsberg
heliometer. He detected a pendulous or vibratory motion of that

portion of the nebulous matter, which was expelled from the hemi-

sphere of the comet next the sun, resembling that of a magnet

round the magnetic pole. He finds that with the addition of this
pendulous motion of this streaming matter, or in other words of

the apex of the hyperboloidal envelope of the comet in the plane

of the orbit, and for fifty degrees or more on each side of the
antipode of the comet’s tangential direction, all the observed
phenomena of the tail of Halley’s comet may be explained.
Bessel then proceeds to compute the repulsive force of the sun
and comet on these expelled particles from the observed shape of
the tail. He also computes for any point of the tail how long
the expelled particle had taken since the date of its expulsion to
arrive at the point observed. Bio, ge
_ All these phenomena Bessel explains upon the supposition that

there is no molecular attraction or repulsion between the particles
thus expelled; but that their heliocentric motion is due to the
tangential direction in which they are expelled from the comet,

and to the two forces of repulsion of the sun and comet, and th
aa coe

Dian.

* Monatliche Correspondenz, Vol. XXVI, p.533 wy
os Schumacher’s Astronomische Nachrichten, Vol. xin, p. 303. ; :
_, F Ibid., Vol. xu, p. 177. Also Schumacher’s Jahrbuch for 1837, p. 142. Con.
des Tems, 1839.

On the Great Comet of 1843. 207

orbital direction and velocity of the particle at the time of expul-
sion. . ‘The reason assigned by Bessel for not supposing a mole-
cular connection between the particles of the nebulosity of the
comet, is the fact that the rays froma star seen by himself in
the Konigsberg heliometer, through this nebulosity, were not re-
fracted by the medium of the nebulosity, but preserved, when
seen through this medium, the same relative position with refer-
ence to any other fixed star as when seen before entering the
medium. Bessel argues that this could not have been a vapor,
gas, or air, through which the star was seen, or it would have
been refracted.

Having stated the principal points of the theories of Olbers and
Bessel regarding the formation of comets’ tails, it remains to con-
sider their bearing on the present question. It is obvious that the
difference between the radius vector of the head and of any particle
(one in'the point aimed at for instance) of the-nebulosity, would
not be a-simple multiplier of the reciprocal of the square of the
radius vector; but would on the contrary include a term depending
upon. the reciprocal of the square of the distance of this particle
from the centre of the head. It may be shown, however, from
the length and narrowness of the tail of the recent comet, that
this latter term is nearly insensible, since the comet’s expulsive
force compared with the sun’s, must in this instance have been
very small, for when acting in the normal to the radius vector, it
was able to impress se a emall: “oe pa ena on es —
Ciara off.»

- We conclude short nn s0ksee -tbeory of the ution of
comets’ tails we adopt, if we suppose the particles of the nebu-
losity and tail to be material, and the densest portion of the for-
mer to be extended from the centre of the comet’s head towards
the sun, the simplest method of deriving the true elements of the
orbit of the. head, from the computed elements of the orbit of the
point observed, is that which we mentioned in our letter of the
parang ‘May last.

- We subjoin the dimen of the comet computed from our first
sehen places by Prof. Anderson of Columbia College, New York,

208 Remarks on Mr. Owen’s Letter

Perihelion passage, .. . Feb. 274.579857 m. t. Green.

. Longitude of perihelion, . 279° 40/35”.50
sit pepe of ma node . .15°..0/ 56.45 . mh. oq. Meh. Sy

_ Inclination, . . BARE 4.66

_ Eccentricity, . « . . + 10008560

4. Gaussian angley... 6.6 «6902923'. 04.7 6
Perihelion distance,. . . 0.00415697 .

_. Mean daily motion retrograde, 146’.50299.

. We have the honor to be ve obedient epee
: rs C. Warern)

EB. Ohi KeEnpDact.
To Messrs. John K Kane, eannies Dallas Bache, LL. D.,
' pera es = ™ — eee Fisher. ;

bi
Cath any

n XI skineinabey s on Mr. Giowite oem to the Editors © on
Dr. Frarlawe: New Fossil Mammalia.

as THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, OF peste)

New Orleans, May 5, 1843,
Sralohiaet the last number of your Journal, (Vol. xx1v, No.
2, p. 341, April, 1843,) I was gratified with the poral of an in-
teresting letter by Prof. Owen of the Royal College of Surgeons,
London. ‘The observations and opinions of Dr. O. on fossil oste-
ology, are entitled to. the highest respect; placed at the head of
the richest osteological collection in the world, and endowed with
a genius which peculiarly qualifies him for the successful prose-
cution of his favorite department of science, he has perhaps ac-
complished more for its advancement than any other single living
laborer in this attractive field.of research. His criticisms on My
“notice of new fossil mammalia,” are conceived in the proper
spirit, having no other object than the enone of vie
and as such are duly acknowledged:

I write under a full conviction of the difficulties pee my
present isolated position: there does not exist a scientific library
within a thousand miles, and the natural and physical ssid
have consequently few votaries.

The observations of Dr. Owen and myself on certain fossil
mammals, have resulted in some discrepancies of opinion, which
I conceive require some explanation on my part.

on Dr. Harlan’s New Fossil Mammalia. 209

Prof. Owen pronounces me i in error in supposing that his genus
“ Mylodon,” is founded on my genus Megalonyx laqueatus ; the
latter he admits is a true Megalonyr, and by no means to be in-
cluded in his Mylodon. My original description of M. laquea-
éus, was published in the Philadelphia Journal of the Academy
of Natural Sciences in 1831. Subsequently, perhaps about the
close of the same year, I published in the “American Monthly
Journal of Geology,” “a description of the jaws, teeth, clavicle,
&c. of the Megalonyr laqueatus”—fossils then in the collection
of Mr. Graves of New York.

Now, the “error” above noticed, rests entirely on a difference
in opinion between Dr. O. and myself respecting the true nature of
these New York specimens. Ona careful inspection at the time,
I considered them as belonging certainly to the genus Mosalonys,
and as‘closely allied to if not identical with the M. laqueatus.
But when the entire skeletons of individual species cannot be
examined, it is not easy to pronounce with certainty in all cases,
on the identity of species. Dr. O. relies in every instance on the
structure, arrangement, &c. of the teeth, in his designation of
species, without conceding to other portions of the skeleton a
relative importance. ‘To me it appears that the organs of masti-
cation, viewed alone, are more liable to lead to error in forming
distinctive characters than are the organs of locomotion; thus,
in form, structure, and arrangement of the enamel, the superior
molars of the horse differ more from the inferior molars of the
same individual than do the molars of the Megalonyz of the
New York ow from the M: vei nemid of sl original me-
moir. |

On a careful examination and 1 vehiipettecié of the tibiee in both
specimens of Megalonyz, I could perceive no specific difference,
much less discrepancies authorizing the adoption of a new genus
for it, as Dr. O. has done under the name of Mylodon. 'The
form and structure of the tibia in'my new genus “ Orycterothe-
rium” of Missouri is totally distinct from either. Professor Owen
has founded his observations of the characters of the New York
species on the drawings of the cast of the jaws and teeth, to-
gether with the figures accompanying my memoir. In the pres-
ent state of our inquiries, I think that we are not yet prepared to
pronounce with certainty that “the name Orycterotherium Mis-
souriense, must sink into a synonym - Mylodon Harlani.”

Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843,

210 Remarks on Mr. Owen’s Letter, &c.

Professor Owen proceeds to state, “'The Megalonyx laquea-
tus of Dr. Harlan is a true Megalonyz,” [but which was not
“mainly founded on the cast of a tooth.” | ‘Nor can I conceive
any reasonable ground for its specific distinction from the Mega-
lonyx Jeffersonii.” Perhaps not, if we confine our observations
to teeth. Of the latter animal we have as yet only the bones of
the fore-arm and hand, and a broken tooth, to rest our opinion
on; I think, however, that in a comparison of the radius alone of
the two specimens we might detect “ reasonable grounds for spe-
‘cific distinction.” I have no means in reach of comparing the
distal extremity of the tibia of the Orycterotherium Missourt-
ense, with the same part in the Brazilian species which forms
the type of Dr. Owen’s “ Mylodon.” _ :
Dr. O. remarks at p. 345 of the letter above quoted: “ The
tibia of the Missouri Mylodon corresponds with that of the Me-
gatherium, in the deep ovoid depression at the anterior and inter-
nal part of the lower articular end.” He also supposes that a
similar structure will be found to characterize the tibia of the
« Scelidotherium,” and farther on continues: “The Megatheroid
family thus appears to have been as strikingly distinguished by
this structure of the ankle-joint as the sloths are by the pivoted’
articulation of the astragalus with the fibula.” It is somewhat
surprising that two experienced anatomists should differ so wide-
ly on a structure submitted to ocular demonstration ; in the tibia
of the Megalonys laqueatus originally described by me, as also
in the specimen in possession of Mr. Graves, there is not the
least approach to such a conformation. Nor will the tibia of the
Megatherium show any such comparison with the same part in
the Megalonyz ; they all differ widely in this respect from the
Orycterotherium.

Further on, p. 345, Dr. O. states: ‘In my report on the ‘ Mis-
sourium,’ printed in the proceedings of the Geological Society,
Dr. Harlan will find that I have duly acknowledged the origina-
tor of the opinion that the ‘ T’etracaulodon’ was nothing but the
young of the gigantic Mastodon. To Mr. Wm. Cooper of New
York, the honor of this insight belongs.” ‘This paragraph in-
volves two errors; the ‘ Tetracaulodon” was not founded on
characters peculiar to a young animal ; nor was it first announced
by Mr. Cooper that the ‘ Tetracaulodon” is only a variety of
the Mastodon. That the four tusks exist in the skull of the

aha

ee 211

adult Mastodon is abeinidadiely testified by specimens now in nu-
merous cabinets, including that of Mr. Koch’s, if we rightly re-
member, and by reference to dates it would be easy to show,
that I immediately announced its identity with the Mastodon, in
a paper read before the American Philosophical Society in 1830,
shortly after the appearance of Dr. Godman’s memoir. At first
we had only noticed this additional tusk in the young animal,
but in the following year, when on a visit to the University of
Virginia, at Charlotteville, we were shown adult jaws with the
same peculiarity, and published the fact in the “ American Month-
ly Journal of Geology.” I beg to be understood, Messrs. Edi-
tors, to make these comments on Dr. Owen’s remarks in good
faith and kind feelings, and with the utmost deference to the
opinions of my valued friend, Prof. Owen; but we are none of
us immaculate. In all my investigations I have striven for truth
and not for victory. Iam, therefore, not impatient of criticism ;
on the contrary, when conducted in the manner of Dr. O., I
court it, as subservient to truth and to the best interests of science.
We are proud to bear testimony to the very general accuracy of
his published facts; in matters of mere opinion, however, an
honest difference must be anticipated. We are very willing to
concede, that in most cases it will prove in the end that “it is
not Homies nods, but we that sleep.”

I sincerely hope that Prof. Owen will frequently favor the read
ers of your important Journal with his valuable observations. —

_T have the pata! to ape ene! —_ much oe fiend;

Haran.

Arr. X XIII.—Bibliographical Notices.

1. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d’ Eau Diwce de l’ Europe a
trale ; par L. Agassiz. Embryologie des Salmones; par C. Voc
Neuchatel, 1842. Planches.—M. Agassiz, in order to render his ex-
cellent monograph on the fresh-water fishes of Central Europe as com-
plete as possible, has determined to enter into the details of anatomical
structure and development of the different natural families, which will
come under his observation. To this end he has associated with him
M. Vogt, the author of the present liyraison, comprising ‘‘ l’Embryolo-
gie des Salmones.” ‘This is founded on the original observations of

212 Bibliography.

the author, commencing with the earliest period at which the ovum
comes within the reach of the microscope, and following it through its
various stages of development, terminates with the escape of the em-
bryo from its membranous envelopes.

“The arrival of the spawning season of the Goicwnie palza, the spe-
cies experimented upon by M. Vogt, is announced by these fishes asso-
ciating in pairs, and jumping frequently above the surface of the water,
the female protruding ova at the same time that the male ejects the
seminal fluid ; by these simultaneous movements, impregnation is effect-
ed, but large numbers of ova escape the fecundating influence. In or-
der to procure a sufficient number of ova for microscopic observation,
he has found it most ¢ nt to’ have recourse to artificial impregna-
tion, which is more sisal ‘as regards the numbers impregnated,
than when effected in the natural manner. The artificial mode con-
sists simply in squeezing ova from the female, and the seminal fluid.
from the male, and the two are brought in contact by being placed in a
vessel containing water. The development takes place perfectly well
in the house, provided water is used taken from the locality in which
the fish usually deposits its ova. ‘This last is by no means an unimpor-
tant step, since his experience goes to show that ova which are, ordina-
rily deposited in lakes, are destroyed or blighted, if water from rivers
is made use of, and vice versa. The water should also be frequently
agitated and changed, and all sudden variations of temperature avoided ;
the most favorable degree of warmth, being from 4° to 8° R. or from
40° to 50° F. Congelation of the water in which they are —
retards their progress, but does not destroy life.

He finds the ova liable to diseases, and like those of some species of
Limax, are often attacked by vegetable growths, confisting of slender
jointed filaments, often expanded at their free extremities, giving the
egg a milky appearance, and finally destroying its vitality. He has
seen the same growths attacking young fishes, and causing death in the
course of eight or ten days. If the same specimen is to be brought
frequently under the microscope, care should be taken to keep it im-.
mersed in water, and not to keep under the instrument beyond a few
minutes at one time. If the outer or shell membrane is to be removed,
it is most easily accomplished under water; if the vitelline membrane
is to be opened, this should be done in the air, for the vitellus 1s ren-
dered completely opaque, by being brought in contact with water.
We mention these different steps, ne the benefit of those who — to
engage in similar investigations.

“If the ovary of . palea is examined in the spawning season,
ova of different degrees of development are to be seen, but all consist-
“of the same essential parts. According to M. Vogt, the following —

Bibliography. 218

. is the order of events in the formation of an ovum ; a simple cellule is

first produced in the substance of the ovary, which has been denomina-

ted “‘la vesicule germinative,” germinating vesicle, or vesicle of Pur-

_ kinje; this, after it has acquired a certain size, forms exterior to and
enclosing itself, a second which is the “ vitelline membrane,” and at
the same time there is formed in the interior of the germinating vesicle
a number of granules, which constitute what is called, the ‘tache” or
“taches germinative,” germinating spot or spots—they being for the
most part grouped together, so as to form a single granular mass.
These different parts once formed, increase in size, but in different pro-
portions. When. first. formed, the vitelline membrane is only large
enough to enclose the germinating vesicle; but when the vitellus is
perfectly formed, it is many*times larger. The entire ovum having
acquired the diameter of § line escapes from the parietes of the ovary
into the cavity of the abdomen, having previously acquired an envel-
oping membrane, which corresponds to the shell membrane of the eggs
of birds.

The mature ovum, which is susceptible of impregnation, is nearly
transparent, having a slightly yellowish tinge, resulting from the pres-
ence of globules of oil in the vitellus, which, in consequence of their
lightness, occupy its most elevated portions, constituting what is de-
nominated the oil disk. The vitellus contains no cellules whatever,
and has a very strong resemblance to albumen. Immediately on be-
ing immersed in water, the latter penetrates the shell membrane, and
accumulates between it and the membrane of the vitellus, occupying

- the place of albumen. in the eggs of birds and reptiles, which has no
existence in ova of the C. palwa. The vitellus floats and turns freely
in the watery. fluid. en ee el

As to the effects of the seminal fluid, the author says but little, al-
though beyond a doubt indispensable tothe development of the genus.
The difficulty of appreciating its immediate effect, may be estimated
from the fact that impregnated and unimpregnated ova manifest, during
the first day, precisely the same changes; after this period, however,
the difference is striking ; the ova going on through the successive steps
of the development of organs, and the other becoming opaque, soon
passes into a state of putrefaction.

_ M. Vogt has given detailed descriptions and figures of the evolution
of the different organs, and the changes which they undergo during em-
bryonic life 3 not commencing, however, with the first appearance of
individual organs merely, but going back to the formation of the cel-
lules, out of which the organs themselves are generated. ‘I'he nervous
system, skin and muscles, intestinal canal, with its appendages, and the
sanguiferous and respiratory systems are described in turn, as they

214 Bibliography.

each pass through their successive transformations. The formation of
cellules and their transformations into tissues and organs, form one of
the most prominent topics treated of in this work, and it will be obvious
to those who have paid attention to the subject, that the author’s views
with regard to these changes, vary somewhat from those of Schwan,
Valertin, and others, which at the present day are the most generally
accepted. It is well known that the researches of Mirbel and Schlei-
den, have proved that all the organs and parts of plants are originally
composed of simple cellules; and Schwan, in making similar research-
es with regard to animals, has been led to the conclusion, ‘ that in their
primitive state, all the tissues are composed of cellules, and that the
elements of all the organs, whatever their form, are also generated

rom them.” The researches of Vogt confirm these results, but as re-
gards the formation of the cellules themselves, he entertains different
views. Schwan maintains that the nuclei and nucleoli are primary,
and the germinating vesicle, secondary formations ; whereas, according
to Vogt, the vesicle is in nearly all cases formed first, and the nuclei
and nucleoli subsequently. In the cellules from which the epidermis,
black pigment and intestinal canal are formed, no nucleoli make their
appearance, until a comparatively advanced period. The nuclei are
much more generally found than the preceding, a very few cellules be-
ing destitute of them but these he thinks are’ as clearly secondary
formations, since they cannot be recognized until some days have
elapsed. With regard to the truth of the author’s views, as respects
this and some other subjects treated of, it will be impossible to form a
correct estimate, without going over the same ground and repeating
his experiments. Setting aside, however, the controverted points, we
think it will be readily admitted that his observations form an exceed-
ingly valuable addition to the science of embryology, and the labor and
industry with which these observations have been conducted, justify us
in forming a high estimate of the results of his future’ researches.
Agreeable to the plan adopted by M. Agassiz, this livraison will be
followed by another, by the same naturalist, on the anatomical structure
of the Salmonide. :

2. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum; or Figures, with brief descriptive
characters and remarks, of new or rare Plants, selected from the au-
thor’s Herbarium. New Series, Vol. I, 1842; and Vol. II, part 1, Jan-
SATY > 1843. (8vo., plates 401-550.) London: H. Bailliére—We du-
ly informed our readers, (Vol. xiii, p. 189,) that the new series of this
low-priced and very valuable work. was to be continued regularly as @
quarterly publication. Three numbers of the continuation have n0W
reached us ;. which are principally devoted to the illustration of the rar-

Bibliography. 215

ities of Gardner’s collections in Brazil, Schomburgk’s in Guiana, Skin-
ner’s in Guatemala, Linden’s in Mexico, Mr. Wright’s, &c. in the Falk-
land Islands, and Cunningham’s, &c. in Australia. One of the most
remarkable of Dr. Gardner’s plants is his Utricularia nelumbiifolia,
(t. 505 ;) which sends up from a creeping stem numerous scapes more
than two feet high, bearing a raceme of very large violet-colored ‘flow-
ers, and round, centrally peltate leaves 3 or 4 inches in diameter, which
resemble those of the Nelumbium! Among those from Mr. Skinner’s
collection in Guatemala, we were surprised to meet with a Smilacina,
(S. flecuosa, Hook.) ‘The antarctic plants are especially interesting.
Among them we have a figure (t. 492) of the Bolax glebaria of Com-
merson, one of those dwarf and singularly tufted Umbelliferous plants
so characteristic of the vegetation of the southern extremity of this
continent. The rounded and excessively dense tufts of this species,
which in their young state D’Urville compares to mole-hills cov-
ered with green turf, at length, according to Mr. Wright, resemble
small haystacks! ‘Their appearance, we imagine, is not unlike that of
the larger masses of Diapensia Lapponica upon the Alpine summits of
the White Mountains, only that they are+on a much greater scale.
The Dalibarda geoides of Persoon and DeCandolle turns out a genu-
ine Rubus. We find only two North American plants, viz. Carex fil-
ifolia, Nutt., (under which a wrong name is inadvertently cited in place
of that of the more able author of the Monograph of North American
Cyperacee,) and Oakesia Conradii of Tuckerman. Sir Wm. Hooker
has not the fruit of this interesting plant, and he states that the flowers
in his specimens do not so well accord with Dr. Klotzsch’s description
as could be wished. He figures the abortive pistil: which is frequently
found in the staminate flowers; but as he does not notice some curious
particulars observed by the writer of this article, it may here be briefly
mentioned,* 1. The plant is polygamo-diacious ; or, at least, some of
the flowers are not unfrequently perfect. 2. These perfect flowers sein
sometimes provided ‘with three stamens, similar to those of the sterile
flowers; but more commonly they present a single antheriferous sta-
men, sometimes accompanied by two short sterile filaments, and some-
times destitute of these rudiments: occasionally a fertile flower is fur-
nished with three short rudimentary filaments. 3. In the perfect flow-
ers; especially when only one stamen is antheriferous, the anther. is
commonly found to be one-celled ; the other cell being entirely sup-
pressed, or else reduced to a mere vestige, as was seen in a single in-
stance. 4. The lobes of the style are variable in number, and are of-

* Since this article was in type, these characters have also been pointed out to
the writer by Mr. Oakes, who furnished the specimens he examined,

216 Bibliography.

ten two-toothed or cleft. 5. The floral envelopes, or rather scales, are
not distinguishable into two well-defined series, (calyx and corolla;)
and their number is very variable; the innermost series (corolla of
Klotzsch and Tuckerman) not unfrequently consisting of three scales,
and the others of 5 to 10 successively imbricated scales. A. Gr.

8. Enumeratio methodica Caricum quarundam : species recensuit et
secundum habitum pro viribus disponere teniavit Envarpus TuckER+
man, Jun. LL.B. etc. etc. Schenectadie: 1848. (pp. 21, 8vo.)—This
pamphlet we believe is not formally published, but was printed for pri-
vate distribution among the author’s botanical friends. It is the result
of an attempt—in most respects very successful—to effect a natural
distribution of the species of the vast and difficult genus Carex. aes
Tuckerman adopts the following primary sections.

1, PsyLLOPHORES, eae ) nr unica ereeonocne endroxyan
s. dioica. Stigmata 2-3.

(2. Vienzz, (Koch.) Spiculee plures poniiien androgyne, in spicam
continuam, s. interruptam, s. paniculatam disposite. Stigmata 2.
Steed <i eeanaPoge (mihi.) Spicis compositis ramosis ramisque Betti

rogynis, apice masculis 2-3-stigmaticis. Wahl.

ns . Lapranmuee, (mihi.) Vigneas inter et conven Signa 2,
rarissimé 3.

5. Leeitimz, (Koch.) Suseis sepiiedlacn sexu distinctis, rarits
aR Spica terminalis feré wrdetes meperene nune aay
_. These sections are mostly divided into subsections, and the Lestettial
to minor groups, amounting to fifty-one in number, which (except those
of the first section) are not. furnished: with diagnoses,—and really it
would prove no easy task to characterize them,—but are distinguished
by the names of their leading species. Many interesting critical re-
marks are interspersed among, and follow the systematic: portion; and
four new species are indicated, viz. C. alopecoidea, (= C. cephalo-
phora, var. maxima, Dew.,) C. neglecta, (aff. C. trisperme and C. Dew-
eyane,) C. Monile, (= C. bullata 6. ? Torr. and Gr.) and C. Torreyt,
(= C. pallescens ?) .The proposed arrangement of the C. straminea

group is perhaps the best that can be done with it; except that C. ari--
distinguish

da will renew its claim to specific distinction, We cannot

C. Meadii, Dew. from C. panicea. In conclusion, we must be allowed a

to express our strong dislike of the attempt to change, in one or two
cases, long established specific names, because they conflict with the
Linnean canons and other excellent rules. “ C. scirpina” may be @
better name than C, scirpoidea, Miche, (although nomina Barbaro-Lat-
ina are as expressly forbidden by the canon as Barbaro-Graeca,) and

irae 7 ; ui? al

Bibliography. 217

“ C. vulpineformis” is greatly preferable to C. vulpinoidea, Miche. ;
but to discard the received names, as here proposed, on the strength of
the axiom § 223 Phil. Bot., besides the danger of the precedent, is re~
ally to be “‘ plus saint que le Pape ;” for Linneeus himself ever adopted
all the nomina Barbaro-Latina there cited as examples, viz. Tamarin-
dus and Morinda, as well as one of the three N. Greco-Latina, viz.
Sapindus. The practice of the great botanist affords the safest con-
struction of the rule. ‘The genus Carex, with all its difficulties, has
long been an especial favorite with the botanists of this country ; who
will hail with pleasure so pease a laborer in this e unexhausted field
as Mr. Tuckerman. A. Gr.

are Flora Fr Zepe Tigges: Diallo Plantarum in Brasilia hac-
tenus detectarum quas cura Musei Cas. Reg. Palat. Vindobonensis
suis aliorumque Botanicorum. studiis descriptas, et methodo naturali
digestas sub auspiciis Ferdinandi I, Austria Imperatoris et Ludovici I,
i@ Regis ediderunt.SterHanus Ewnpuicuer et Caron. Frip.
Put. De Mantis. (Vienna, and baal royal fol.) Fasc. I, 1840.
Fase. II, Jan, 1841.. Fasc. IIL.—V, Apr. 1842.—This work, although prin-
cipally based upon the rich collections of Martius, &c. at Munich, and of
Pohl at. Vienna, is intended to embrace all the known Brazilian plants ;
which, at the commencement of the undertaking were estimated at
15,000 species. _ It will extend, it is thought, to a dozen large volumes,
and will:probably. require as many years for its completion; although
the enterprising authors have secured the aid of many celebrated bota-
nists, such as. Nees von Esenbeck, Bentham, Lindley, Schlechtendal,
Unger, Zuccarini, Spring, Reper, Peppig, Meisner, Kunze, Grise-~
bach, Hornschuch, Decaisne, &c. for the elaboration of particular or-
ders. The first fasciculus comprises the Musci, which are elaborated
by. Prof. Hornschuch, and the» Lycopodiacea by Prof. Spring ; and is
illustrated by eight plates. The second contains the Anonacee, by Mar-
tius, (with 14 plates,). who adds an interesting historical account of the
species cultivated. for their edible fruit. In the third, fourth and fifth
fasciculi, the learned Nees von Esenbeck has given a monograph of the
Cyperacea of Brazil, illustrated by thirty plates from admirable draw-
ings by Putterlich of Vienna. . All the plates of the systematic part of
the work, we should remark, are engraved upon stone in the same ex-
cellent style as those of Martius, Nov. Gen. et Spec. Brasil. ; Siebold
§ Zuccarini, Flora Japonica, etc. Several new genera are estab-
lished, one. of the most interesting of which is Hoppia, nearly allied to
Carex. The genera of the tribe Sclerice are greatly, not to say undu-
ly. multiplied ; and, in a note, even. our Scleria triglomerata is separa-
ted as the type of a new genus, ceeriaianrine ; which name however
Vol. xtv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843.

218 Bibliography.

the anterior Trachyloma of Bridel renders inadmissible. _ In the Rhyn-
chosporee, we are pleased to find that Nees has adopted the genus Psi-
locarya of Torrey; to which he has added eight species. The Ptilo-
cheia, N. ab E., nearly approaches Eriochete, (sub Rhynchospora,)
Gray, in Torr. mon. Cyp. A good figure and full analysis is given of
Scirpus (Isolepis) subsquarrosus, Mubl., under the name of Hemicarpha
subsquarrosa, from which a second species from St. Louis, H. Drum-
mondii, N. ab E., (in a note,) does not appear to differ; and the genus
is at length referred to the Hypolytree.

The fifth fasciculus of this Flora also contains the Smilacee and Di-
oscoree, by Prof. Grisebach, with six plates. Each fasciculus compri-
ses a portion of a very interesting and graphic introductory chapter by
Prof. Martius, upon Brazilian vegetation generally, with illustrations of
some of its more remarkable features and peculiarities in different re-
gions. This is illustrated by a series of spirited Tabula physiognomice,
in tinted lithography, eighteen of which are already published. The
whole Flora will form a series of monographs, prepared by some of
the ablest botanists in Europe, (each with its letter-press and plates in-
‘dependently numbered,) which, if we mistake not, may be separately
purchased. The subscription price is very moderate, viz. from thirty
to thirty-three florins for each volume of 40-50 leaves and as many

(uncolored) plates. A. Ga.

5. Binomial Theorem and Logarithms ; for the use of the Midship-

men at the Naval School, Philadelphia. Perkins & Purves, 1843.—
This is the title of a work recently published, from the pen of Profes-
sor Chauvenet, of the United States Naval School, Philadelphia. The
author modestly remarks in his preface, that his original design was
to use the work in manuscript, but he found it necessary to enlarge
it so much as to render its use in that form impracticable. He says,
‘ in preparing it for the press, the original design has been still farther
extended, and the work now assumes the form of a distinct, if not 4
complete, treatise upon the binomial theorem and logarithms.”

We have read the work somewhat carefully ; although it has been
prepared especially for the use of the midshipmen, we consider it wor
thy of general circulation. Such a work has long been a desideratum
among elementary mathematical treatises. ‘The subjects upon which it
treats, although intimately connected, and in some measure dependent
upon each other, have hitherto been treated of disconnectedly, and could
only be studied properly by reference to different works. Here we have
@ complete and thorough treatise upon the subjects on which the author
Whites: He has introduced into it every thing necessary to make it 80;
at the same time he has omitted every thing not absolutely essential to
that purpose. =“

Bibliography. 219

- Its chief excellence consists in the clearness and precision of the steps
by which he advances. He combines clearness with sufficient length, so
that his steps are abundantly evident, at the same time that there is difli-
culty enough to render them interesting to the more intelligent student.

He does not pretend to originality, but his style and method are pe-
culiar to himself, and his demonstrations are either altogether new, or
happy modifications of those of other writers. With regard to the
binomial theorem he says in his preface, “a rigid demonstration of it,
at once simple and elementary, has been much sought for by mathe-
maticians. The one here given depends upon a principle which is the
foundation of the differential calculus, and is in fact little else than a
translation, of the very simple demonstration afforded by that science,
into the elementary language of algebra.” We have examined the
‘demonstration with some care. The principle is similar to that used
by Bourdon in his later editions, (we have not seen his earlier,) and by
other algebraists. Prof. Davies, in his translation of Bourdon, gives
Euler’s method, which though ingenious seems by no means so clear
or so elegant, and certainly more abstruse and less direct. Euler
first deduces the binomial formula in the case when the exponent is a
positive integer, and then proves that the same formula exposes the
expansion of binomials affected with negative and fractional exponents.

Professor Chauvenet has made the demonstration at once elegant and
direct, by first proving the fundamental principle somewhat in the form
of a ee 3 principle is found in the peculiar nature of the

quotient gat , whatever be the nature of the exponent m, He

aia reaituanp shows in a few lines that this quotient is always exact,
the series limited, when m is positive and integral; and then in
an satay striking manner demonstrates that when a—y, although

the quotient then becomes = ria (the expression for an infinitesimal quan-

tity,) that still it is for all settee if the exponent is equal to mz”~', the
well known form of the differential co-efficient of x”. When theta
principles are established, the demonstration becomes at once direct and
clear, and as elementary as the student can desire. He has inter-
spersed through the work numerous and appropriate examples ; into
this chapter in particular he has introduced a beautiful collection,
many of them original, others from French works, which illustrate fully
the application of the binomial theorem.

The chapter on the “nature and use of logarithms” is extremely
happy, well calculated to interest the student and to place the subject
before him in an entirely new light. We would call the attention of
teachers of mathematics particularly to it. The mode of deriving the

220 Miscellanies.

logarithmic formula, is that of Euler, but so modified and improved as
scarcely to be recognized. The method of finding “ the number cor-
responding to a given logarithm,” is different from any we have before
seen. The method usually employed is by “ the reversion of series,”
as it is called, a method which ‘is tedious and liable to the great objec-
tion, that it does not reveal the law of the resulting series, by which
any succeeding term may be inferred or deduced from the preceding
terms, however numerous. ‘That law has been invented and applied by
the author. ;

In short, we consider the work to be a valuable one, and one from
which almost any mathematician may derive advantage.

6. Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and
Naturalists, 1840-1842. Boston: Gould, Kendall & Lincoln. Royal
8vo, pp. 544, with 21 plates.—This volume embraces the reports of
the doings of the three first years of the Association of American Ge-
ologists and Naturalists, at their meetings held at Philadelphia in 1840
and ’41, and in Boston in 1842. Several of the papers it contains, and
all the proceedings of the sessions, have already been before our read-
ers in the pages of this Journal ; but the great bulk of the volume ap-
pears now for the first time, and embraces all the papers read before
the Association at its.three first meetings. .We shall not attempt any
notice of its contents, but can assure our readers that the volume is
every way creditable to American science, and must be considered as
an essential companion to all who would keep up with the rapid pro-
gress of American geology and the cognate sciences; while it gives

to the body from whichsit emanates a character which at once places

it among the permanent ints of scientific progress.

—=

MISCELLANIES,

DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.

_ 1, Notice of certain siliceous tubes (Fulgurites) formed in the earth;
in a letter from Cuartes E. West, to the Editors, dated Rutgers Fe-
male Institute, New York, March 21, 1843.—A remarkable natural
phenomenon was observed a few years since in the town of Rome, state
of New York. I was particular at the time, to gather what information
I could respecting it, which is now submitted to the readers of your
valuable Journal.

A lambent flame was seen playing at night upon the surface _ of a
sand bank, some seventy or eighty feet high, which forms the east bank

of the ancient channel of what. is called Fish Creek. This excited the
curiosity of the neighborhood and Jed to an examination of the spot.
After removing some twelve or eighteen inches of the soil, they dis-
covered an irregular tube of very coarse glass, which had evidently
been made from the sand of the bank. The sides of the tube were
compressed, and very irregular. Its longest diameter was about half
an inch. Its interior was highly glazed, while its exterior was rough,
being covered with particles of sand. When they had exposed about
fifteen feet of the tube, they found it necessary to sink a shaft of logs
to prevent the caving in of the bank. They continued to dig thirty
feet deeper, when it was discovered that the tube, which had main-
tained an almost vertical position, made a sudden inclination and passed
deeper into the bank. The fear of inhumation now compelled them
to relinquish all further effort in tracing its course. They, how-
ever, dug five feet more in a vertical line and came to water; ma-
king in all rising of fifty feet from the surface. The tube was single
for some distance from the top, where it made two bifurcations. Some
eighteen inches below the surface were found thin strata of indura

sand, which were easily broken by the shovel; they were highly
inclined, and their surface was undulating. Some of them were sepa-
rated from each other one or two inches, others three or four inches.
These interstices were filled with sand, which by digging, had shaken
out in some instances and left the strata like the leaves of an open
“ae they were glazed, but not so highly as was the interior of wa

mk this narration of Fast two questions neice suggest slate,
selves, Ist. In what manner was this at stonineh and 2d. What
was the source of the light? -

Without attempting to offer: satisfactory. rophies to ‘ete aieclicats, I
would remark in relation to the first, that sand tubes of a few feet in
length have been frequently described, bat none of them, so far as
Liscaels equals in interest the one referred to. None had its great
length. To account for their formation, several theories have been
proposed. One, that carbonate of lime held in solution had been
gradually deposited around vegetable stalks, which finally wasted
away, leaving these peculiar tubes. Another, that they are the work
of insects. The third and most popular theory is, that they are
produced by lightning.* It has been suggested, that whenever the
electric fluid in its passage into the earth meets with the essential
ingredients of glass, it fuses them into these singular tubes, provided
the current be of sufficient intensity. It appears to me that neither

* Hence the name Fulgurites, by which they are usually known.

222 Miscellanies.

of these causes is adequate to produce a tube fifty feet in length, such
as we have described. That the first two had any agency in the mat-
ter, we cannot admit for a moment ; for the tube gives evidence of
igneous action, and consists of silex instead of lime. With respect to
the third, let us inquire, if from the diffusive tendency of electricity to
divide itself into a thousand ramifications on coming in contact with
moist bodies, it is probable that the fluid would pass for fifty feet or
more in a continuous line through moist sand? It strikes us as highly
improbable. Again, if lightning is the cause, why did it not produce
a solid mass, instead of a tube? And yet, if we set aside these objec-
tions, the tube appears as though it were formed in this way. The
smooth and highly glazed surface of the interior, admitting atmos-
pheric electricity to be the agent, might be accounted for from the
fact of its being nearer the central action of the fluid, and also from
the fact that there would be ‘no particles of unmelted sand within the
tube to mar its surface, while the exterior in its liquid and afterward
pasty state, coming in contact with particles of sand, would be pierced
_by them and made rough. It would be natural to suppose that a tube

"produced in this manner would collapse, presenting a flattened ap-

- With regard to the second question, it is now impossible to tell what
the gas was which produced the light, because it has disappeared since
the destruction of the tube. It may have been phosphuretted hydro-
gen, derived from the decomposition of animal bones deposited ages
ago beneath that sand bank, or it may have been pure hydrogen, re-
sulting from the changes which native protosulphuret of iron undergoes
when exposed to moisture ; for it is well known in the spontaneous de-
composition of water by this mineral when thus exposed, that it ab-
sorbs the oxygen of the water, forming a protosulphate of iron, and
eliminates heat sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; or it may have
been sulphuretted hydrogen derived from the decomposition of iron
pyrites, the bisulphuret of iron, which is often associated with organic

_ remains, which would also afford phosphuretted hydrogen, thus yield-

ing a mixture of these gases, one of which burns spontaneously at or-
dinary temperatures.

The writer has made these gratuitous comments, not with the inten-
tion of satisfactorily accounting for these phenomena, but for the sake
of awakening enquiry among your readers upon this interesting subject.

2. Supplementary notice of the Ceraurus crosotus ; in a letter from
Prof. Joun Locke, M. D., to the Editors, dated Cincinnati, Feb. 24,
1843.—Below are some figures of parts of the crustacean which I
have denominated the Cerawrus crosotus, described and figured in &

Miscellanies. 223

previous letter. (See this Journal, Vol. xt1v, p. 346.) It is very rare
that we meet with this fossil entire ; my own specimen, which is some-
what mutilated in its smaller appendages, is the only one known to me.
To the practical geologist it will be a matter of interest to be informed
what fragments are of most frequent occurrence. The subjoined
figures represent such as’are most abundant in our rocks.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. _ Fig. 4.

Fig. 2 is an accurate drawing of a specimen in my own cabinet, magni-
fied six times in linear dimensions. By referring as above to fig. 1, it will
_ be seen that it is the cheek or lateral portion of the shield. This is by
far the most common fragment, and it is fortunately very well charac-
terized by its pectinate form. Fig. 3, from a fragment in my own pos-
session, magnified to the same scale, represents the tail or termination
of the animal. The two longer processes are continuations of the last
costal arches, while the four intermediate smaller appendages, and the
two exterior ones, of similar size, are attached merely to the margin of _
the crustaceous covering, and are similar to the fringe of the cheek in
Fig. 2. Fig. 4, from a specimen in Mr. Carley’s cabinet, is evidently
the same as fig. 3, but with the lesser processes broken off, as at a.
Before other parts had been examined, this last had deceived one of
our best naturalists, who mistook it for the anterior instead of the pos-
terior termination of a crustacean. Since I communicated to you my
account of the entire fossil, (Vol. xtrv, p. 346,) I have discovered that
the best specimens are covered with elegant tubercles, showing in this
respect a close analogy to the Ceraurus pleurexanthemus of Dr. Green.
A fragment is not unfrequently found, which if it belongs to this spe-
cies, would indicate a central process from the posterior margin of the
shield, running down over the middle of the body, like a Chinese cue
of hair. My best specimen, already referred to, is broken at this
point, and does not settle the question with regard to such a process.

Contemporaneous fossils —Strophomena alternata, 8. semiovalis, nu-
merous crinoidean joints, Orthis testudinaria, Cryptolithus tesselatus,
Calymene senaria, Isotelus megistos, and numerous branched corallines,

224 Miscellanies.

are associated immediately with the Ceraurus. The Isotelus gigas is
found below it, and the Cryptolithus terminates perhaps sixty feet
above it. ‘The particular locality at which. the best specimens are

~ found is about sixty feet in altitude below the reservoir at Cincinnati,

and about one hundred feet above low water of the Ohio.

3. Cambridge Observatory.—The deficiency of instruments at this
observatory is about to be supplied upon a scale of munificence, worthy
of the princely liberality of the Boston merchants. Davip Sears of

ston has given five thousand dollars for the erection of an observato-
ry tower, which will be furnished with instruments from a contribution
of twenty thousand dollars, which was subscribed within sixty days from
the date of the Sears donation, and to which he himself gave an addi-
tional sum of five hundred dollars. The ready patronage, which has,
upon this occasion, been so generously extended to American astrono-
my, is most honorable to the republic, and no country can point to a
larger donation to science, in proportion to its wealth. The other do-
nors are Peter C.. Brooks, who gave one thousand dollars ; Samuel Ap-
pleton, William Appleton, John P. Cushing of Watertown, Joseph Pea-
body. of Salem, Thomas H. Perkins, Jonathan Phillips, Robert G. Shaw,
and George C, Shattuck, each of whom gave five hundred dollars ; Na-
than Appleton, Abbot Lawrence, Amos Lawrence, Israel Munson, The-
odore Lyman, Nathaniel West of Salem, D. L. Pickman. of Salem,
George Howland of New Bedford, Gideon Howland of New Bedford,
John A, Parker of New Bedford, William Rotch, jr. of New Bedford,
James Arnold of New Bedford, N. W. Neal of Salem, John. Parker,

~ William Pratt, John Wells, Ezra Weston, J. W. Ward, Josiah Quincy,

Samuel Falls, Francis Parkman, Martin Brimmer, Thomas Lee, Fran-
cis C, Gray, Horace Gray, Henry Oxnard, William Lawrence, N.S.
Bowditch, George W. Lyman, Charles Lyman, George F. Parkman;
Thomas B. Wales, Daniel P. Parker, John L. Gardner, George Ballett,
Edmund Dwight, William Sturgis, Nathaniel Silsbee of Salem, John
C, Gray, Ozias Goodwin, James Davis, jr., Dr. John Codman, John
Quincy Adams, Dr. Wm. J. Walker, Charles G. Coffin of Nantucket,
Jared Coffin of Nantucket, J. W. Barrett of Nantucket, G. R. Upton
of Nantucket, Dwight Boyden, Henry Plympton, F. Tudor, H, Cod-
man, Samuel C. Gray, William Amory, J. Ingersoll Bowditch, Thomas
B. Curtis, Bates & Co., Joseph Grinnell of New. Bedford, J. J. Dixwell,
James 8. Amory, Samuel T. Armstrong, J. Chickering, Dr. John Ware,
John M. Forbes, George H. Kuhn, Joseph Whitney, Andrew E. Bel-
E S. Austin, jr., F. Bassett, Richard D, Harris, and: Thomas Wet-

dor » of whom the first eighteen gave two hundred dollars each, the
ollowing thirty, one hundred dollars each, and the remainder smaller

Miscellanies. 225

sums, principally of fifty dollars. In addition to these’ individual con-
tributions, the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge gave one
thousand dollars; and this lead to the societies was almost simultane-
ously given by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences with the
still larger donation of three thousand dollars ; the other societies which
contributed, are the American, Merchants and National Insurance Com-
panies, and Humane Society, each of which gave five hundred dollars ;
the Neptune and Washington Insurance Companies, each of which gave
three hundred dollars; the Equitable Safety Insurance, which gave two
hundred and fifty dollars ; and the Tremont Insurance Company, which
gave two hundred dollars.

The location of the present observatory is very bad on many ac-
counts ; so that about a year since, the Corporation of Harvard Uni-
versity ‘had wisely profited by an advantageous opportunity to purchase
the best possible site in its vicinity for astronomical purposes. The po-
sition is elevated, and eommands in every direction a clear horizon,
without any danger of molestation from trees, houses, smoke, or other
causes, and with hills well situated for the erection of meridian and
prime vertical marks. Upon this, which is known as Summer House
Hill, the Sears Tower will be erected, with the other buildings for mag-
netic, meteorological-and astronomical observations, and the house for

observer. The funds invested in the observatory, when it is com-
pleted, will amount to thirty-five or forty thousand dollars ; consisting,
besides the above twenty-five thousand dollars, in the house and lands
given by the College, the extensive mingnete appara: ren) by the
American Academy, a telescope for m Fran-
cis Peabody of Salem, Mr. Bond’s astronomical. clock, transit telescope,
telescope for occultations, and his other instruments; and lastly, the nev-
er-to-be-forgotten little comet seeker belonging to President Quincy,
with which Mr. Bond first detected the head of the recent comet, and
was enabled to make his observation of the 9th of March, and to which.
instrument we are largely indebted for the contribution of these funds.
The new instruments which will probably be purchased if the funds
should prove to be sufficient, are, an equatorial telescope of the
class, being of the same dimensions with the celebrated Pulkova tele-
scope; a transit circle; a small equatorial of six feet focal length; a
comet seeker of the largest size; and a zenith sector. With these in-
struments, the observatory will be as well endowed as any in the world,

% -for the class of observations to which it will be principally devoted.

4. Notice of Botanical Collections.—We take much pleasure in an-
nouncing that three enterprising botanists are now engaged in exploring
the most interesting portions of the far West, and that their collections

Vol. xxv, No. 1.—April-June, 1843. 29

i
226 Miscellanies.

of dried plants will be offered to subscribers, in sets, as they come to
hand: ‘Two of these collectors, Mr. Charles A. Geyer, (well known as
the botanist of Mr. Nicollet’s official northwestern expedition,) and Mr.
Liiders, who are for the present attached to Sir. Wm. Stewart’s party,
have by this time reached the Rocky Mountains. ‘The particular field
of Mr. Geyer’s operations, and the extent of his journey, were undeci-
ded at the time of his departure from St.Louis. Mr. Liders expects
to:spend the next winter, and perhaps the ensuing summer, at a station
of some Roman Catholic missionaries on the upper waters of Lewis
and Clarke’s, or Great Snake River. These botanists being well ac-
_ quainted with the vegetation of the general Valley of the Mississippi
and of the lower Missouri, will doubtless avoid the common and better
known plants of this region; and thus their collections may be expect-
ed to prove unusually choice and valuable. )

The third collector, Dr. Lindheimer, a very assiduous botanist, in-
tends to devote a few years tothe exploration of Texas; and he pledg-
es himself to exclude from his sets all the common plants of the south-
western United States. — ‘
: ~ These several collections will be assorted and distributed, and for the
most part ticketed, by Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis; assisted, as far as
‘need be, by the authors of the Flora of North America, who promise
to determine the plants, so far at least as they belong to families pub-
lished in that work; and for the information of subscribers, particular
notices of the centuria offered for sale, will probably appear in this
Journal, as they come to hand. The number of sets being limited, ear-
lier subscribers will receive a preference. ‘The three explorers are en-
tirely independent of each other; and their collections are to be sepa-
rately subscribed for. 4 '

The price of the Rocky Mountain collections of Geyer or of Li
ders, is fixed at ten dollars (or two guineas) per hundred; that of Dr.
Lindheimer’s Texan collections at eight dollars (or £1, 13s. 6d. sterling)
per hundred—payable on delivery of the sets at St. Louis, Missouri,
Dr. George Engelmann; at New York by Wiley & Putnam, 161,
Broadway, and Stationers’ Hall Court, London; and Prof. A. Gray, of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, to either of whom sub-
scribers may address themselves (post paid) by mail. The additional
expense of transportation, doubtless trifling in amount, will be charged
upon the sets deliverable in London. ~~

The writer of this notice cheerfully states that the dried specimens
made by these botanists which have fallen under his observation, are
well selected, very complete, and finely prepared; and he cordially
_ Dr. Engelmann in recommending the enterprise to the patronage

Miscellanies. | 227

For the purpose of obtaining some immediate pecuniary aid in the
prosecution of his present arduous undertaking, Mr. Geyer also offers
for sale, (through the parties above mentioned,) a selection from his
collections of the last year in Illinois and Missouri ; consisting of twen-
ty sets of one hundred and fifty species of plants, which are offered at
six dollars per set. A list of this collection, with critical remarks, and
descriptions of some new species it contains, received from Dr. Engel-
mann too late for present ing on find a place in the ensuing num-
ber of this Journal. A. Gr.

6. Jodine in Pitasnenia Plants and Mosses.—At a meeting of
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, on the 7th of December last, ‘ Mr.
Brand read ‘a notice of the presence of iodine in some plants growing
near the sea,’ by G. Dickie. The author found, by chemical examina-
tion of specimens of Statice Armeria from the sea-shore, and of oth-
ers from the inland and higher districts of Aberdeenshire, that the for-
mer contained iodine, and that soda was more abundant in them, while
potassa prevailed in the latter. Iodine was also found in Grimmia mar-
itima; and Mr. P. Grant of Aberdeen has also found it in Pyrethrum
maritimum. An analysis was made of specimens of Statice Armeria,
Grimmia maritima, Lichina confinis, and Ramalina scopulorum, all
growing near the same spot, and occasionally during storms exposed to-
the sea spray : all these plants, with the exception of the Lichen, con
tained iodine. The specimens having been washed previously to nit
ysis, the iodine could not have been derived from saline incrustation.
All these vegetables were healthy, and the author of the paper has
been led to conclude that the marine Alge are not the only plants which
possess the power of separating from sea water the compounds of io-
dine, and of condensing them in their tissues, and this without any det-
riment to their healthy functions.”— Gardener's Chronicle.

6. Dietnpaiiendel: of Cadunie Acid, by the Roots of Plants.—* It
appears from the researches of Messrs, Wiegmann and Polsdorff as re-
ported in the last number of the ‘ Annals of Chemistry,’ that the roots
je living plants disengage carbonic acid, and that this acid is capable

the silicates of the soil, which resist even the action of

Seen acid. ‘This most curious discovery throws a new light
upon the importance of carbonic acid to vegetation, and explains clear-
ly, what has been by no means evident, namely the manner in which
flinty substances prove beneficial to vegetation, and how minerals so
hard as feldspar are made to contribute to the maintenance of plants.
Plants of tobacco, oats, barley, clover, &c. were grown in quartz sand
which had been heated red hot, and then digested for sixteen hours in

228 Miscellanies.

dilute nitro-muriatic acid. One would have thought that, after such
treatment, the quartz could have contained nothing capable of sustain-
ing vegetable life; nevertheless the plants grew in it, and their ashes
were found to contain potassa, lime, magnesia, and silicious earth,
which had been obtained from the decomposition of the quartz sand by
the decomposition of the roots.” Gardener's Chronicle. (We see no
poof nor probability that the carboni acid in such cases is disengaged
from the roots.) “erase

7. Filaria in the Blood of a living Dog.—MM., Gruly and Dela-

fond exhibited to the Academy of Sciences, at their session, Feb. 6th,

numerous specimens of an Entozoon, allied to the Filarie, obtained

from the blood of an apparently healthy dog. Physiologists have been
for a long time aware of the presence of Entozoa in the blood of rep-
tiles and fishes, but this is the first instance in which they have been

- ed in the blood of a mammal. _ It is of great importance to physi- +
_ ology, path

pathology, and natural history, to prove not only their existence
in the blood itself, but that they circulate with it in the higher animals.

= ~The entozoa in question, have a length of 0.25 millimetre, and a di-
- ameter of 0.003 to 0.005 millimetre. Body transparent, colorless;

anterior extremity obtuse, posterior terminated by a thin filament.
Their motions are very active, swimming with an undulating meve-
ment among the globules. They were detected in the blood drawn
from the coccygeal arteries, external jugular veins, capillaries of the
conjunctiva, mucous membrane of the mouth, skin and muscles, The
urine and excrements contained none. Their diameter is less than that
of a blood globule, which will allow them to pass wherever the blood
circulates.— Comptes Rendus, Feb. 6th, 1843. ean

8. Experiments of Karsten, relative to the formation of the “* images
of Méser ;” extracted from letters of Humboldt to Arago.—* On pla-
cing a medal on a glass plate, and under the last a metallic plate, Kars-
ten has ascertained that an image of the medal is formed upon the up-
per surface of glass, when an electrical spark is made to fall on the

If the medal rests on several plates of glass, and the last on
metal, the spark produces images on all the plates, but only on their
upper surfaces; the most feeble being the most distant from the medal.
To render the images visible, they must be exposed to the vapor of
iodine or mercury. The spark is necessary for the production of
images. M. Karsten has not succeeded with the electricity of the
pile.” (Berlin, 10th March.) is
“J have seen experiments of M. Karsten; the effect is instantaneous,
and the figures very distinct. The electricity emanating with greater

Miscellanies. 229

intensity from the prominent or convex part of the medal, changes the
molecular state-of the glass, in passing to its lower surface. The image
is rendered visible, by the most gentle breath. The vapor is deposited
in little drops on all the parts of which the molecular condition is
changed, whilst it is deposited uniformly where no such change exists.
(Berlin, 22d March.) — Comptes Rendus, April 3, 1843.

9. Great Comet of 1843. iba Mlondis comet, which was. seen in
the sunshine on the 28th day of February last by thousands of spec-
tators in New England, and which for a month after adorned the
evening sky with its long and brilliant train, has excited uncommon
interest in all quarters of the globe. A letter from Mr. John Tay-
lor, of Liverpool, to the Editors of this Journal, states that in the
Isle of France, (S. lat. 20°,) the comet was seen in great splendor
from the 28th of February to the 8th of March, (and doubtless later,)—

the train resembling “a stream of fire from a furnace.” At Bombay,

(N. lat. 19°,) the train was discovered shortly after sunset March 4, as
a long, straight beam of light streaming from the western horizon to-
wards the zenith. The next night the nucleus, or at least the lower

_ termination of the comet, became distinctly apparent. From this time

onward, numerous observations were taken at that place, but with what
precision remains to be seen. Similar accounts have been received from
various places on both sides of the equator; yet we have no evidence
that by any of these early observers (except Mr. Clarke of Portland)
was the position of the nucleus accurately determined.. This defi-
ciency is matter of great regret, as it is obvious that good measures of
the place of the nucleus taken within a week after the perihelion
passage, would far outweigh in value those which were made pacag
the latter part of the month of March.

It appears quite probable that the train of this comet was seen in ak
evening before the perihelion passage, at Bermuda, Philadelphia, and
Porto Rico, on the 19th, 23d and 26th of February.. Some of the ob-
servations on which this statement is founded, need however further
inves before they are given to the public.

‘In stating at p. 413 of the last volume of this Journal the distance
of the nucleus of the comet from the sun on the 28th of February, as
measured by Mr. F. G. Clarke, of Portland, Me., an error was commit-
ted, which is corrected in the following valuable weird; which have
_been kindly furnished me by that gentleman. The nucleus and also
every part of the tail, as seen by him, in strong sunshine, were as well
defined as the moon on aclear day. The nucleus and tail’ bore the
same appearance, and resembled a perfectly pure white cloud, without
any variation except a slight change near the head, just sufficient to

230 Miscellanies.

distinguish the nucleus from the tail at that point. The denseness of
the nucleus was so great that Mr. C. has no doubt that it might have

been visible upon the sun’s disk if it had passed between it and the ob-
server. This dense appearance he considers due in part to the fact

that the tail was foreshortened by projection, and so directed with ref-
erence to the earth, that the nucleus must have been seen through a
considerable mass of the matter of the tail. Notwithstanding the difh-
culties resulting from the nearness of the comet to the sun shining in
its strength, Mr. C. succeeded in remy with an desiroment of reflec-

tion the following measurements, v

Behigs 3h. 2m. 15s. P. M., Sun’s farts limb ha fhearest
limb of nucleus, 4° 6 15’

Feb. 28, 3h. 6m. 20s. P. M., ‘Sun's act nw fom farthest

limb of nucleus, . oT! yes
Feb. 28, 3h. 9m. 40s, FP. May) ee OR sirm evies sabres
we Hippreftelly Sc as ta «Be 6 30"
_ The first of these measures Mr. Bs iidons feliatite within 15";
and the other two may be taken as near approximations. Due allow-
ance must of course be made for the motions of the two bodies during”
the depot of observation. When the sun was in the plane of the me- |
tidian, the angle made by the line joining the centres of the sun and
sae with the lower vertical, on the eastern side, was about 73°.
se data must evidently supersede those derived from the observa-
aes which were made at en seit the use of instruments.
10. Second Comet of 1843.—M. Victor Ve an astronomer at-
tached to the Paris Observatory, discovered May 3, 1843, a telescopic
comet on the limits of the constellations Cygnus and Pegasus. It is a
feeble nebulosity, of an oval shape, and about 3’ diameter, with a sen-
sible condensation of light towards the centre. It was seen by Sir J.
South at ee on. the 10th of the same month,—Lond. Ath.
May 13, 1843.

11. Bicone Risinocass, April 20, 1843:—On the night of April
20, 1843, (the anniversary of the great meteoric shower of April,
1803 ») | watched alone in the open air, at intervals during the entire
night, which was one of uncommon sereneness. The number of me-
teors noted by me, did not exceed what I assume to be the average

number, visible after midnight, at she seasons,—or from twelve to

an hour for an individual obsery
__ The next night was likewise very cheek but I made no " observatioa:
Persons | who were abroad to a late hour, informed me, that without

| Miscellanies. 231

giving any special attention, they remarked that shooting stars were
unusually frequent. As however no reckoning was kept of the number

- actually seen, it might be unsafe to deduce any very positive inference

from this information.

It was intended to watch for shooting stars on the morning of the
2d of January last, but on that morning as well as on the next, the
sky at this place was orale and she intended observations were

— af EB. C. H.

12. “Fandseilen seirsie oF the Auovion Philosophical Society.
—This society celebrated its centennial meeting in Philadelphia on the
26th of May last and the four following days, closing on the evening of
Thursday the 30th. An opening address was delivered by Dr. Robert
Patterson, embracing a sketch of the origin and progress of the society.
Alarge number of scientific laborers were assembled, and forty five
papers were read on different departments *. scientific ee oa The
following is a list of the papers read. : 4

Friday Morning, May

26th.
1. On Phosphorogenic Emanation, by Professor Josern Henry, of New Jersey College,
ceton.

Prince
72. ee — so ns amily Proboscidea, their general character and relations, their mode of denti-_

geological distribution, by Isaac Hays,
3. On. Araya ais try, by Professor THEoporE ‘Strona, of Rutgers College,
runswick, N.
4. On Two Storms s, which occurred in February, 1842, by Professor Exias eens, of
Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio.

Friday Evening.

5. Historical sketch of Continental Paral Money. Part second, By Samuet Breck, ae
6. wo hie Theory of Earthquakes, baie. a: rH. D, sia of the University of Penn-
sylvania.

Morita, May 2th.

7. Histo rogress ca ons an Minmsite ont at Washington City. Descrip-
mint Bi the Solids erecting, and of the instruments ordered for the Depot of Charts
and Instruments of the U. S. Navy, by Lieut. J. M. coy U.S. N.

8. On the Influence of the Microscope gh the Science of Anatomy, by W. E. Horner,

» Professor in the bse by oO

9. On the ‘Tides sand Currents of the Atmosphere and Ocean, by Wituiam C, Reprrexp,
Esq. 0
10, * tn Hor url ther Variations of the Magnetic Elements, of the Te emperature
‘a Pras wrk ourly and other bee and of the siete of r, deduced from py years’ ont
College, by Professor A. D. BacuE

ober Magn
of she rEniversit oar * Petaeyebis.
11. Biographical M Memoir of the Hon. Edward Livingston, by Henry D. GrLrin, Esq.

a Saturday Evening. ‘
12. = bie? ema h of the Three-deck Ship, the Pennsylvania, by Joun LenTHat1, Naval

13. Method “ Arrang! the Spi ider’s Lines in the Micrometer of a Transit Instrument,
D. of C Cinein nnati,
14. On the walle of Cone, by Professor W. A. Norton, of Delaware College, Newark.
15. On the at ig ere of Carbonic Acid by the Light of the Sun, by Joun W. Dra-
ro i i City

Letter from Count Rumford to Chancellor Livi ingston on Steam Car-

16, Letter from Chancellor Livingston to the Soci ‘eel of rote of New York on Air Springs,
Air
i — by the Rev. Professor ALonzo Porrer, of Union College.

232 _ Miscellanies. +5

onday Morning, alae © eo

9 1 : AMUEL GEORGE Maktor ; ‘,
oe api ois state of the Colony of Pennsylvania, previous to the

/ te on, Esq.
al s ber roo Cranium, by Cares D. Metres, M. D., Professor in’ ~*~

- James C. Booru and Martin Bove, Esq.
: ree the rt a Projectile, by ae Pa
College, age ies

t of Contact, by arene ea Bee. Bacus, of the aie

ana
Y gpomee Ad "
ca), &c., by Professor Me,
Be ee
ais the Sources of the Mississippi, by J. N.

aye

a Eclipses, by Professor SrerHEN Ae ia

MeFi, eae 30th.
tory of the United ‘States Mil itary
slope steed of the Comet of February.

ited Sta :

Fe ® (:
31. On Copro ites by Ta AC one
32. On the oat citay Bt upon the Health of Individuals of the ‘ificae: é
ace, OATE:
: Peco of some new Fossil Shells from the Tertiary of Virginia, by Henry C. i
EA,
34. Notice of the re ical Observations now a3 ee the ened Posts of the
i Mo OWER i Pye n U.S. ; |
"by Ja AMES P, hae, : 4 er z 4 ; a
36. On On. f Mi ban i i haute by J i ot ie Esa were Fi
— » Esq

weep Ee
- On we enti ah of the vie of Sigilfaria, i in the Coal Strata of ors
4 . CoTayto

37
38. Comparison of the Dim ensions of the Earth, ‘obtained from Measurements made in
Survey of the State of Massa Py ie with pee a n Determinations, by
Sakon Borpen, Esq. and R. T. Pain ae he Boston.
39. On gaegyrenl produced upon Sensitive ates in the Dark, a P. B. GoppaRD,
M. D. and Jos i SAXTo. N,
40. Comparison of Meghan ¢ Observai tion he Philadelphia, and Toronto,
casion Vn an a Sietiiten nce of the magnetic Pe aa May Bah, 1643, “ie ‘Pro- ha
eS fessor A. D. Bacue, of the University of | ry
EY ve mw Inedited Lower of Franklin u; upon Su cts of Selene, communicated by Gro. i
ANCROFT, .
. On the byte uF the ‘Turbine Water Wheel, and the results of its practical applica-
ti L ans ed fle
a of Combinatora enn, by Professor Syivester, F. R. Slate
‘ of University Coll lees
oi 44. ag ar ee Protheate Henry D. Rocers, State Geologist.
y ge eS Fiat Haass, in reference to Cyanosis, vies

s chaamats © het _ * Not read. Sati

ae Pol . +
LUALEES » «

THE

MER ICae JOURNAL

Jan ps Sh of the Physical S Selene” ‘
artes i: od bogus plod 1818, ‘and the forty third.

being devoted to : “national and unive

known and accredited, both poate and abroad. —
Searches and dee ies; its m ‘ego us department res
of topics of general interest ; ae a large part of the wo :
e reading oe pub.
voiding loc us 1, and party interests and S cieitices es, i fregoes the support
of popular eel s and relies solely upon we oan no, and the patriotic.
Forei; nals, (many of them change,) n quoie from its

the Science and Arts of the present da
ieee ont Arts is published urd at New Haven, as
Conn. Each number contains ins at least 200 pages, closely and handsomely printed on

Sabeclibers oe wilt caer pple ahe
Postmasters ters are authorized to
a ieee

= ly from them by mail,
aoe in me set ca
1 an agent, and therefore

“esi Gnd er yect ity sub.
pe pera pen nee 6h) “paid from $1 to $1 373 per loam
Se senha ' induce y to decline
taking the work. Ne feietaice since Innes, "ye et tol
2a AP yates in ion since ender ; an
fawatiea “hac effect “gion lageyrerigpeiae th work, and
also gy pba sey, Ing ie
sistance in aiding them t inline experiment, by mang this notice tare pub-
lic, and inducing their ds to subscribe.
Experi at ha tpn na glade lar edoas Peg of ‘eanveyance to
camera sgertsiigg most sure itn pte all ee en rach
agencies shana and away from the great lines of transportation e utterly
“Blled—delay and : is “and often abandonment of of the work aerate result,

“Sew oe Coun March sg 1842.

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c.

- TERMS. 4
mum ; published in four Quarterly numbers, making two vol- if
ght to nine hundred pages s for both volumes, avhich are fully

r, of f
istrted by plates.
semi area at ninety days.

s beuaee can frank ‘as remittances.

y remitted ledged a bill or receipt in the next |

No. of the Journal or by letter: ‘if no such paper or letter is received, it sh be :
the remittance has miscarried, (a very rare occurrence.

tenes. Lats € tyme.

i
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H

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" Hacking New
ae Meni: C. W. and J. E. James, ienvetiilng agent
_For other agencies at home and sbroad se the fire st page.

ta ADVERTISING SHEET

mi tehlapet- diced BY
PROFESSOR SILLIMAN
o | AND ve ;
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‘VOL. XLY.—No, 2-001 OBEI oa

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FOR rLy, AUGUST, AND : AND

LE & BROWN and W. #1. 8. JORDAN —
NAM, C. 8. FRANCIS & Co., and G. 8. S
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uphia, CZ yo i ielewat
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PRINTED BY B.“L. HAMLEN,

TO CORRESPONDENTS.
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NEW ENGLAND GLASS COMPANY,
BOSTON, Mass.

Having, at the suggestion of Prof. Silliman, of New Haven, un-
dertaken and succeeded in» manufacturing a description of Glass
Ware, particularly suited to Chemical Analysis, and Chemical and
Philosophical Apparatus, which has arlene been obtained from
abroad, hereby give notice to scientific men and others, that they
_are prepared to execute orders for any form of Glass connected with
these departments of science, equal in durability and workmanship

to the best specimens of Bohemian manufactures, and at reasonable

ices. ‘They would specify as always on hand the following neces-

Fe pr
sary articles of Chemica

Berzelius’s Digesting Cpteiea in nests; Deen Flasks, assort-
ed sizes, of anew and most approved pattern; Gas Bottles, Woulf’s
.do. ; Retorts, Plain and Tubulated ; Precipitating a the “usual
form,. and also the tall Hydrometer Jars, (Eprouvettes of the
French ;) Tubes thick and thin, and of any size, also “Solid Rods ;
Tube Funnels for Gas Bottles and Woulf’s Apparatus ; Capsules,
assorted sizes; Dropping Tubes, Acid Bottles, and Wide Mouth
Bottles for Salts; Funnels; Nooth’s Apparatus; Mortars, Electri-

cal Cylinders, and every description of Philosophical - Peymatic

, see pparatus. Any articles not specified ma

- This branch of their business is bone. the superintendence of an
‘experienced practical workman d the public may be
assured of his perfect knowledge of t the Piet Sada the ng
pany will give their purreyite attention to the ex in of all o
ders, so as to fulfill the aes of those who. may favor Sem
with their commissions.

hey are also prepared, as heretofore, to execute all ioalers with
which they may be favored, for every description of Flint Glass, at
ie 9 Soneeeoding with the times.

Henry Wuirney, Agent.
Boston, No. 9 Doane street, March 5, —

yen Dr. & yl | “CHILTON,
PRACTICAL CHEMIST, &c.,

No. 263 Broapwayr, New York,

jes constantly for sale at his establishment, a general assort-
_ ment of Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus, Chemical Prepara-
tions, and every thing necessary for the study of Chemistry and
other branches of Natural Philosophy—among which are the fol-
~ lowing:

“% a ee
eg

Pixu’s Frencn Arr-Pumps, WITH GLASS BARRELS; other air-
pumps with brass barrels, single and double, of various sizes, to-
gether with the various apparatus used with them.

Large and small Puate Exvectrrican Macuines, Cyiinper
Exectricat Macnines, and a variety of Ea eraiows ‘APPARATUS.

Exvectro-Maeners, mounted on frames, of various sizes, capa-
ble of supporting from 20 to ag Ibs.

Page’s Compounp Macnet and Exectrotome, for producing
brilliant sparks and powerful piri The same instrument, with a
contrivance attached by which the intensity of the shocks can be

modified at pleasure, which renders it one of the most conve :

instruments for the application of electricity as a remedial agent in
‘the cure of disease, and for physiological experiments.

different kinds, an a great Brie coal of ee Magne InsTRU-
- MENTS for the purpose of il he Bory of Exectrro-Mac-
NE’

‘TISM.
Gatyanic Barrertes on Prof. Faraday’s plan, and others, for
da ite &c. Catorimorors of different sizes.

Nooth’s Apparatus for i impregnating ee wih ist acide

Apparatus for solidifying carbonic

Guass Conpensine SYRINGES * oa Pobre M cit Lan-
aah with Astronomicat and other Suipes—Acare and STEEL

Porcetain, Wepewoon, eae and Buacx Leap Cruci-
BLES—Murrtes and Currr

Berzelius’s Sprair iis with Sranps and Rines, Grass Spir-
IT andred diferent of Crvstaxs in wood, in boxes containing one

OF Particular ee paid to the analysis of ores, minerals,

mineral waters
New York, J une 19, 1841.

Small working models of Exectro-Macnetic Macuines, of E

o ‘3
,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO connespoxpents, FRIENDS

AND STRANGERS.

Remarks.—This method of on has been siopt-
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph-
__lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no-
_~ tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or

even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, » -

would usually find both acceptance and insertion.

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our
fellow-men for information, advice, or santas in lines of duty,
with which they presume us to be acquainted. ©

‘The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn rite us, that we may

“not seem inattentive to the civilities of r many respectable persons, au-

thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an
answer; although, as a substitute, many ackno knowledgments are made
in these pages, which may sometimes be, it in ent retrospective.—
Eds. geen

, screncx:—yorniait ing

Account of the Museum of Economic Geology and Mining Re-
cords Office sapien by government in the department of her

Majesty’s Comm s of Woods and Forests, under the direc-
se a E.R. S., F. G.S.; by T. Sop-

On the theor y and constenction: ror a Seris smour, or instrument for
measuring earthquake Bre and other concussions; by James D.
Forbes, Esq., F. R. S., &c. From the Transactions of the Royal
Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XV, part 1, 1841. From the author.
n a remarkable structure observed by the author in the ice of
r glaciers : by J. D. Forbes, Esq., with a plate. Read before the
~ Royal, Society of Edinburgh, 1841. From the author
Observations on the Kutora Borealis from Sept. 1834, to Sept.
1839 ; bY Robert Snow, Esq. London, 1842, From the author.

‘ | 2

Report of the Manchester Geological Society at their Fourth An-
nual Meeting, Oct. 27th, 1842, Jas. Heywood, Esq. in the Chair.
From the Council.of the Society.

On the Galvanic Properties of the Principal Elementary Bodies,
with a description of a new Chemico-Mechanical Battery ; by Al-
fred Smee, Esq. London, 1840. From the author

On the Public Institutions for the advancement of Agricultural
Science which exist in other countries; by Chas. Daubeny, M. D.,
F.R.S. London, 1842. From the author. ?
_ Tables for the extemporaneous applications of Corrections for
_ Temperature; by S. Elliot Hoskins, M.D. Guernsey, 1842. Two
- copies from the author. ,

- _ Lecture on the application of Science to Agriculture; by Charles

Daubeny, M. D., F. R. S. London, 1842. From the author.

_ _ On the intimate rationale of the Voltaic Force ; by Alfred Smee,
F. R. ondon, 1842. From the author.

Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society, Part 2. From
Mr. Teschemacher. ;

De mutationibus quas. subit momentum virge magnetice, partim ©
ob temporis, partim ob temperature mutationes; auctore Christo-
phore Hansteen. Christianie, 1842. .

Experimental Researches in Electricity, 18th series ; by Michael
Faraday, Esq. D. C.L. From the Philosophical Transactions,
Part I, 1843. London. From the author. ‘i

On the transparency of the Atmosphere, and the law of extinc-
tion of the Solar Rays in passing through it; by Prof. Forbes. From
the Philos. Trans., Part I], 1842. London. From the author. '

Delphinus Leucopleurus, nova species, descripta ab H. Rasch, con-
servatore Musei Zoologici universitatis regie Fredericianze. Chris-
tame, 1843. Received August 27th, 1843.

Descriptio ornamentorum maximam partem aureorum et nummo-
rum seculi viii, vi. et ixni in preedio Hen, in parochia Eger in Di-
cecesi Norvegiz Agershusiensi repertorum; auct. Chr. Andr. Holm-
h Christianie, 1835. Received August 27th, 1843. )

Semina Horti Botanici Christianiensis, 1842, collecta. . From the
Royal University. Christiana, Norway. )

SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC.

_ Elements of Chemistry, including the applications of the Science
in the Arts, with numerous illustrations; by Thos. Graham, F. R. 5S.
With notes and additions, by Robert Bridges, M.D. Philad. 1843. ~
Published by Lea & Blanchard. From the publishers. Large
Svo, pp. 749, ne

Relique Baldwiniane—selections from the Cnesponicn ofthe
~ late Wm. Baldwin, M. D., U. S. N.; comtileds by Dr..
Philad. 1843. 12mo. pp. 846) From H. C. Townsend, pe :

Report on the exploration of the country lying between the Mis-
souri River andthe Rocky Mountains, on the line of the Kansas
and Great Platte rivers; by Lieut. J. C. Fremont, of the corps of
Topographical Engineers. Washington, 1843. pp. a From
Col. Abert, and do. from Hon. Mr. Huntington, Norwi

Lithotripsy, or breaking of stone in the bladder; oy fais Gold-
smith, M. D. New York, 1843. From the author. ~

Foreign Agriculture, No. I... The Economy of Farming, from
the German of Prof. Benger, with copious notes from other authors;
by E. Goodrich Smith. New York, 1843. From the author.

‘An historical sketch of the state of American Medicine before the
Revolution; bys John B. Beck, M. D. Albany, 1842... From the

"Susanne of new theories to the scientific ; by A. Girard. Mo-
bile, 1843.—With a newspaper containing an tinicte entitled, Sug-
gestions of a new Planetary System. From the author
_ Observations of Encke’s Comet at the High School Observatory,
Philadelphia, March-April, 1842, with the Fraunhofer Equatorial ;
by S. C. Walker and E. O. Kendall. Read May, 1842. From
the authors.

Contributions to the Gedlbay of the Tertiary ‘Formations of Vir-
ginia, second series ; by Prof. W. B. Rogers and Prof. H. D. Ro-
gers. Read _— 1839. 38

Address to the Norfolk baie Tem vane Bebhy at Heivtd meet-

ing at Quincy, 29th Sept. 1842; by open Q. Adams, From J. Har-
rington.

An Election Sermon, by the Rey: Samuel C. Fecksvi, Jan. 7th,
1843, before his Excellency the Governor of eee et, John
Davis, the Lieutenant Governor, and Common Cou

The Hieropbant, or Monthly Expositor of Sigied Syintol and
Propeesy ; conducted by George Bush. No. III, Aug. 1

of the joint special committee _ of the Senate at House
of Represent of Massachusetts, to whom was referred the pe-
tition of Geo timer and pore than 65,000 citizens of Mass.
From Sam’! Greele. 1843.

Mid Lothian coal mining biieaay ’scircular for 1843. Richmond.

‘Twenty-fifth anbadiire port of the Asylum for the Insane, 1842,
Philadelphia, 1842. From Dr. Pliny Rite
~~ Memoir of John Treadwell, LL. D., late Governor of Connecti-
cut; by Prof. Olmsted, of Yale College. Pamphlet form, pp. 31.
1843, From the author.

A
_ The Dial. . Nos. 12 and 13. Boston, April, 1843. From the

itors.

A Discourse at the ordination of the Rev. F. Butler, pastor of “8
ce eT Church in the East Parish of Windsor, Vt. ;
Rev. J. Richards, pastor of the Church at Dartmouth College
1843. F rom the Author.

Transactions of obs Natural History Society of Hartford, No. I
Address on the birth diy of ong May 24th, 1836 ; by Dr. 5.

rvis. ‘T'wo copies

‘Fifty-sixth annual report ef the Regents of the University of
New York, made to the Legislature, March 1, 1843. Albany.

Reply of Col. Abert and Mr. Markoe to the Hon. Mr. Tapp
of the U. S. Senate. Washington, 1843.

- Report of the select committee relative to the renewal of the
State mo with Penns Ivania cast iron rails; Mr. Range chair-
man. April 4 Harris urg.

“Facts for at People.” Ciricinnati Q., March, 1842.

Catalogue of fruit and: forest trees for sale by Pacaces & Co.,
Flushing, L. 1. 1843.

Perkins — for the Blind. Annual report of the Trus-
tees, 1843. Bost

~ Report of the Birdos Temperance Union, 1843. New York

Report of the Am. Protestant Reformation Soc. N. Y. 18

First annual report of the Western Baptist Theological Institute
of Mabie oe Ky. 1843. From E. Robins.

w Grammar of the English Language. scamee? 1834. From
the nintibn

Annual address before the Board os f Trade of the bits of Pittsburg,
on Jan. 24th, 1842; by A. s, Esq. Pittsburg, 1842.

Catalogue of the valuable tinted; of Mr. Town, for sale. Wi-
ley & Putnam’s Catalogues.

Army and Navy Chronicle. Washington, June Ist, 1843.

Collection of the documents which appeared in the public papers
in relation to Dr. Sewall’s drawings of the human stomach.

_ Dr. Pusey’s Sermon. Published in New York

Address before the Philological Institute, Dee. ub, 1942, byt
J. Bigham, Esq. Pittsbur
__ Order of Exercises at exhibition of Phillips Academy, Andover,

iss., August 8th, 1843,

‘Hunt’s Magazine and Comiberciah Review, No. L, Aug. 1843.

An address delivered before the New Haven Horticultural Society ’
May 25th, 1843; by Alfred S. Monson, M. D., Pres. of the Soc’y-

A discourse on the duties and qualifications of an historian, deliv-
ered at the fourth anniversary of the Georgia Historical Societys
Feb. 1843 ; by the Hon. M. Kin ng. Savan nah.

Quarterly Journii of the American Eeudihion Society, hue

of Western Reserve College for 1841-2. Hudson.
ee Prof. St. John,

gle
a:
a

_ Report on School House Architecture, made to the Board of Com-
missioners of Common Schools; by Henry Barnard, Esq. Hart-
ford, 1842. From the authors. is ee
American Book Circular, with notes and statistics. 1843. From
Wiley & Putnam, publishers, New York. ie: Tee
The progress and results of Emancipation in the English West
Indies; by John Jay, of Bedford, N. Y. 1842.
» The Snag Nullifier—description of an invention for preventing
accidents by striking against snags. 1843. From the author, L.
G. Mickles. ‘
Annual circular: of the Medical College of Louisiana, tenth ses-
sion, 1843-4. New Orleans. le
’ ae announcement of the Jefferson Medical College of Phil.
3-4

Report of the joint special committee on the subject of the ef-
fects of lead pipes on well water in the city of Lowell; by Dr. S.
L. Dana. 1842. From J. W. Grant, Esq.

Address delivered by Hon. Daniel Webster at the completion of
the Bunker Hill Monument, June 17th, 1843.

Catalogus Collegii Hamiltonensis, 1843.

te RIS eslisietiksislcronencw:
The Nonconformist, London, July 12, 1843, from J. C. Dun-
lap, Esq.—A number of copies of the Scotsman and the Witness,
Edinburgh, from J, Dunlap, Esq.—Jersey and Guernsey Advocate,

April, 1843.

NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC.

_ Albany Daily Tribune, March 17th, 1842, from Mr. Delavan.—
New York Card.—Albany Patriot, from Mr. Delavan, containing
some temperance discussions ; a series of them, also of the Evening
Journal.—Christian Freeman, Hartford, March 24th, 1843.—The
Dayspring, Boston, June and July, 1842.—The Planters’ Banner,
Franklin, La.—The Clarion, Washington, D. C.—New York Daily

ibune.—Washingtonian Weekly News, New York, 1843.—Bos-
ton Semi-Weekly Courier, Feb. 1843.—The Literary Age, Feb.
1842, Philad.—Cincinnati Gazette—American Messenger, Jan.
1843.—The Southern Chronicle, Jan. 11th, 1843.—The Midnight
Cry.—The Protestant Vindicator, New York, Dec. 1842.—The
Washingtonian Reformer, April, 1843.—Christian Intelligencer, New
York.—The New World Monthly Messenger, Feb. 1842.—The

illennial World.—New York Spectator, March, 1843.—Republi-
can, Savannah, Geo.—New York American, containing an article

Dr. Hare on lead pipes, June 9th, 1843.—Vicksburg Sentinel,

with meteorological tables for that place.—Brookl

News, June 3d, 1843, with a notice of a curious impression on stone

found in that city. Ohio Observer, Feb. 2d, 1843, containing a let-
ter from Mr. E. Andrews to Prof. Barrows, Hudson.—The Consti- ©
tution, Middletown, Dec. 1842, from Dr. Barratt, containing an ac-

ount of the hard winter of 1779-80; from the same source, a no-
tice of the various floods in Connecticut river.—Newark Daily Ad-
vertiser, May 2, 1842, from Prof. Henry, with a notice of the com-
et.—Indiana Statesman, Jan. 1843.—Georgia Messenger, Macon,
June, 1843, from S. T. Bailey, with a notice of the phenomenon

SPECIMENS.

~_ Orthis, three miles below Rochester, Genessee River. From
Samuel Griswold, Mumfordville, N. Y. : pa ba
A suit of Pliocene Shells from the Tertiary of Italy, near Pied-
mont. From M. Avocat Jean Michelotti, a Turin.
~ “A series. of Ammonites cornutus, from’ the Kimmeridge Clay ;
and sundry other interesting fossils.. From Dr. G. A. Mantel. °
. A suit of fossils from Mount Lebanon, Syria, embracing some in-
teresting fishes, similar to those from the yellow limestone of Monte
Bolca, Italy. From Rev. E. R. Beadle. bbe > ae

CL a oh eee

Ue ie a
gpa ae a
: - a © Se OS 2

fies
ee

AMERICAN:

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &. 9

Art. —On a New Form of Mountain or other Barometer;
by J. H. Atexanper, Esq. ee a plate.)

Tan modifications of shape and details, which different ingen-
ious individuals have proposed or executed upon barometers, are
now so numerous, that, if on the one hand one might be suppos-
ed dispensed from adding to the variety, equally on the other the
want of full acceptation, with any, serves to shew the object yet
unattained, and the whole subject therefore open still for reflection
and effort. I question much if, generally, in the judgments of
those who have had more especial occasion for making observa-
tions with mountain-barometers, all the modern complications
of structure, introduced with the best intentions, are not found to
have contributed to the embarrassment of the observations if not
of the result ; by rendering necessary a number of merely collat-
eral operations and by hiding accidental defects, which are only
least harmful when soonest found out.

_ Mr. Hassler seems to partake of an opinion like this, from the
account which has been recently published* of the new portable
barometer of his construction—an instrument characterized by
all the originality and much of the appropriateness, which belong
to all the works of this distinguished philosopher. I mention
this instrument in particular, that I may not obtain credit for
more novelty than really belongs to the arrangement which I pro-
pose. ‘T'ouching the respective merits of either or of any other
arrangement, it is not my purpose now to speak.

¢. 176, H. R. 2d session, 27th Congress.
Vol. xiv, No. Sp ian 1843, 30

234 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer.

In planning my barometer, besides the abstract principles which
must of course govern in any ascertainment of the weight of the
atmosphere directly by experiment, I had these two concrete
ones for guides :—

Ist. That the mercurial column should be throughout so expos-
ed to view, that no fracture, irregularity, in-crept air or other acci-
dental affection of its trustworthiness, can escape instant notice.

2nd. That the observer be left at all times free, to employ only
so much of the auxiliary apparatus as fits the object he may have
in view, or the refinement (not the certainty) he may aspire to.
Hence nearly every one of the few pieces that compose the read-
ing of the result is entirely detached, and to be added or removed
at pleasure: in the case of its employment as a stationary barom-

eter, this may be said of every piece.

The extent, to which these principles and others accessory to
them have been carried out, is seen in fig. 1 of Plate [V, accom-
panying this description. The entire instrument is here shown,
with all its parts in suitable positions for use. These parts are,
1. A small rectangular steel bracket, with a gimlet-pointed
screw for clamping it to any convenient upright wooden support
by one arm; while the other is pierced to allow the passage of
the stem of the suspension hook. is

2. The suspension hook, made of a single piece of steel; suit-
ably bent at one end, the bearing-part of which is also fashion
into a knife-edge ; the other end being screw-cut and receiving,
after its being passed through the bracket, a nut by which its ver-
tical motion is produced and its position regulated. A washer in-
tervenes between this nut and the bracket: but otherwise there
is no provision for any azimuthal motion, such a motion, more
than the nut itself has, being unnecessary. In elevating or depres-

sing the tube, it is only required to prevent the hooked end from
turning horizontally; by the finger, the revolutions of the nut
then have all their proper effect.

3. The corve, or basket-handle, for carrying the tube. The
rim and arms of this are cut out of a piece of clock-spring; the
cross-bar of steel is.a knife-edge corresponding with the bearing
part of the hook; the excess in length of the rim over the cireum-
ference of the tube is bent from both ends equally to allow of
forming clamp-jaws; one end is reinforced in thickness with @
piece of steel riveted to it, in which a screw thread is cut; and

- a
eo

New Form of Mountain or other Barometer. 235

finally a clamp-screw, whose head is seen in the sketch, working
through the jaws aforesaid, completes the arrangement, and al-
lows of its being put on or taken off at pleasure. It is not advi-
sable to interpose between’ the spring and the glass any paper,
woollen cloth, or other hygrometric or electric substance.

4. The tube itself; as to its contents and their manner of in-
troduction, I will speak hereafter. The tube should be about
35 inches long ; in the sketch, in order to bring it within the lim-
its of the page, I have represented it as much shorter. The
open end is ground off as smoothly and as nearly at right angles
to the tube-axis as may be; about an inch and a half from the
end, a short line is marked to serve as the zero of the graduation ;
and at a half-inch or some other convenient length above, another
mark is made for the subsequent adjustment of the float when the
instrument is in use. : ; |

‘The ‘graduation is then continued, either in the engine or by
hand, so as to lay off in tenths of inches from 27 to 31 inches ;
and higher or lower in the discretion of the maker, on the tube.
It is obvious that this division may, if so desired, be carried to
hundredths in the same operation: but I have not found it de-
sirable. Many tubes are sufficiently soft to be cut at once by a
hard steel point in the engine: if the cutter be made of white
cast iron of a kind frequently met with, hardly any tube will pre-
sent a difficulty ; but in any event, and in the particular case from
which this description is taken, the resort to fluo-silicic ‘acid to
etch the lines is ready and successful. In whatever manner
produced, the reflections from the mercury column behind them
lend an increased depth and beauty. =

5. The vernier is composed of a piece of watch-spring long
enough to reach round three fourths of the circumference of the
tube, and thus to hold in its place the scale, riveted at right angles
to the spring. ‘The lower edge of the spring is worked true ; and
forms an index-edge, similar in fact to what. is generally used in
mountain-barometers. The scale itself is made of mother of pearl ;
not so much from the luxury of taste, as for two practical reasons :
the first, that the peculiar surface of pearl offers much less friction
than any other material otherwise applicable, and thus makes the
sliding of the vernier very uniform, easy and pleasant; and the
second, that the transparency of the pearl allows the graduation
of the tube to be seen through the scale of the vernier, and the

ris

2%
Soy

236 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer.

bservation of coincid therefore to be much more precise and
- agreeable. «> . Hi
- The reading is not nearer than to 0.01 of inches; which is quite
refined enough for any purpose to which I may expect its appli-
cation, and indeed I might say for every purpose, except the deter-
mination of some atmospheric constants, when all recognized cor-
rections would have to find their place. Whenever in such case
or any other, all those corrections are employed, it will be appro-
priate to read the measurement closer and closer.. At present
there seems to be no need.
_ For instance, in the climate of Baltimore, for at least half the
year, a change of 1° Fahr. in the dew-point implies an elevation
or depression of the barometer of more than 0.016: such a change
is very comnion, in the same locality, within the hour—such.a
difference highly probable, at the same moment, between places
not very remote even from one another. ‘Yet in the multitude
of barometers read to thousandths, who reads the hygrometer?
“i So, in the application of the barometer to other than strictly
meteorological purposes, the correction of a zenith distance for re-
fraction when the angle is as great as 85°, is upon 0.01 of an inch
of mercury only 0.2 of a second—a quantity to be sure general-
ly admitted in calculation, but not materially affecting the most
of astronomical or geodetic results; In zenith distances not so
great, more usual, and more reliable, the amount of correction is.
still less: an altitude of 45° varies for +1; in the barometer less
than two hundredths of a second, a quantity in all ordinary cal-
culations to be safely neglected. Similar considerations apply to
this instrument, when rendered portable for the determination of
heights. If the thermometer and hygrometer remain the same,
a variation of ;,\,; in the barometric column would correspond
toa difference of level of little more than 10: inches; a space far
within what any barometric observation has yet pretended to an
swer for. ee SER, nities eset
The correction, too, arising from the specific gravity of the metr-
cury, a particular rarely registered with the measurements, .e0-
closes within no narrow margin the apparent accuracy of a read-
ing to thousandths of inches. If we take 13.6 asa mean specific
gravity, giving with a certain temperature and dryness a stand
of 30 inches, a specific gravity of 13.601 would give an equiva
lent stand under the same circumstances of only 29.9978 inches.

T apprehend at eared cha: btt- acesdentalbiifet 0 barometers, made
even by the same person but at different periods, or from any cause
containing mercury of different ies; agreetl j in fhe: specific grav-
ar as nearly as this.

Finally, not to. make: too denig dintuasiies of anal point, it is

- even rare to find two observers, in direct succession upon ihe

same instrument, reading to a coincidence as close as the thou-
sandth of an lipsli I thought myself therefore justified in dis-
carding a graduation which, as I before said, multiplies the medians
ment without increasing the certainty.

Nevertheless, in limiting the tube-graduation to tenths of inches,
Ihave not shut out the means ’of.subdivision to thousandths in a
ready and unexceptionable. manner; whenever such subdivision
should be requisite. These means consist in the application of
a reading microscope or micrometer, whose position on the tube
is held and: regulated by a spring and clamp. ‘The zero is ad-
justed, first, to the now magnified image of the mercury surface :
and then, by the motion of the screw, the space between said sur-
face and the nearest division onthe tube below, i ‘is measured in
hundredths of inches by the comb of the micrometer, and thou-
sandths on the head of the screw in a well-known manner.

6. A piece.of watch-spring, about th hes in length, is bent
round at one end, so as to embrace three quarters of the cireum-
ference of the tube: the other end, which will then project from
the tube, has merely a light triangular, notch..made-im its ,upper

edge. to catch the | loop of string or wire,

‘mometer. in order to prevent any: unsteadiness or wriggling

motion, w ly a strip, a
seiabiaaniae th, from the : spring g, is fastened with a
single rivet at right angles. to the former, so as to be vertical or
peervee ai meee the poles is made ; jor, as was.done in the present .
nstance is cut out of a wide clock-spring. -

sil Nothing more need be said of the float than that it is of ivo-
dd eeat: thin:and light. as i consistent ris its safety; and
t surface and the parallel fidu-
cial edge of the rectangular notch seen in it, must be exactly equal
with the space between the zero mark on the tube and that other
line next above the zero mark, which has been spoken of already
in $4. It is obvious that in such case, when the image of said

fiducial edge seen by reflection on the tube, coincides with the

New Form of Mountain or other Barometer.

appropriate mark, the under surface of the float and of course the
surface of the mercury beneath it in the cistern must also coin-
cide with the zero of the graduation. pia
I apprehend that this symmetrical position of the float around
the tube, tends to make such a coincidence of the zero mark and
the mercury-surface more exact than is likely to be attained in
any other arrangement; which places the float at a greater dis-
tance; and entirely on one side of the tube. No single point of
the mercury-surface, perhaps, is ever to be taken as precisely in
the normal plane of the base to the atmospheric column equili-
brating the barometric column: but this equilibrium is made by
pressure of an infinite number of atmospheric columns whose ba-
ses are in different horizontal planes, or, what is the same, by the
pressure of an aggregate column whose base is as irregular as the
cistern surface. A float, then, whose horizontal base extends
equally all round the axis of equilibrium, may be supposed to
present the fairest average of these irregularities and a general re-
sultant of these several pressures. —. ; tte
_ In any event, its exactitude may be taken as within any such
methods as the estimation of the capacity of the cistern, an Eng-
lish manner of construction ; or the ivory point used in some con-
tinental barometers; or the minimum visibile, the most used but I
think the most objectionable of all.
8. The cistern is a porcelain or glass dish of suitable size j
which, when occasionally cleaned, admits of the application of
heat to drive off all moisture. Wood is not favorable for such a
purpose ; because it receives a very smooth surface only with dif-
ficulty. It is besides hygrometric ; and all varnish which might
be used to remedy this disqualification brings another quite as bad
—in the action, which the resinous components of such varnish
. are apt to have on the mercury. ‘eu
What has been so far described, contains all the parts necessary
for establishing a stationary barometer. I suppose, of course,
though I have not yet mentioned it, that the mercury is pure,
that its specific gravity is ascertained, that the tube has been
boiled, and that in immersing it in the cistern no substance’ has
been placed in contact with the mercury, likely to act upon Ot
soil it. As a suitable. implement for this purpose, I have figured
in fig. 5 a tool, which Mr. Green applies in such cases. It is of
tron, covered with clean undyed leather: the spheroidal pad at

one end takes the place of the finger ; and the pressure, which from
its shape can be exerted by the whole hand and wrist to keep it
in place, will be, in several positions of the tube, of the highest
convenience. t i ; wor er Boe
The additions, necessary for constituting a mountain barome-
ter, are shewn in figs, 2 and 3; of which’ the first is a vertical
section, and the other a ground plan seen from below, of the ap-

In fig. 2, is seen surrounding the tube, shewn by dotted lines,
a steel cylinder, cemented to the tube. The middle part of said
cylinder is left more massive than either extremity, and is work-
ed into an octagonal shape to allow its being firmly clamped in a
vice... 'The lower extremity is cut into a screw thread, which fits
the screw of the inverted, bottomless, iron disk that is to form the
termination of the tube. This disk is made of a piece of a gun

rel. The lower edge of this is also screw-cut, and is fitted
with the ring seen in fig. 3. The notches in that ring, which
are also shewn, serve for catching a lever or handle by which the
ring isserewed up. The single line in fig. 2, between the ring
and the disk, is a section of the bottom of the sub-cistern; which
bottom is a plate of Russia-iron, hammered so thin as to be flexi
ble, and secured by the ring before mentioned. _ isis CA Be

One side of the disk is tapped with a screw-thread and fu
nished with a screw, as seen in both drawings, for opening or shut-
ting off the communication of the atmosphere. As this is only
opened, when the tube is immersed in the cistern ; and as one’s
fingers should be carefully kept from the mercury, fig. 4 repre-
sents a tool which I use for unscrewing and screwing: the hook-
ed end of it, as can be readily imagined, fitting in the hole of the
handle seen in fig. 3. Inasmuch as a great deal of power can-
not be exerted with such a tool, the handle is necessary in order
to tighten up the screw more effectually after the withdrawal of
the barometer from the cistern.
_ [should mention that all the permanent screws—those con-
necting the disk with the cylinder or collar, and the ring with
the disk—are laid in a cement, which Mr. Green contrived, and
which, fusible only at a very high heat, has the property of quick-
ly hardening. An idea of the tightness thus given to all the
joints may be formed, when I state that in an experimental ar-
rangement of this kind, wherein the disk had been turned out of

240 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer.

a piece of cast-iron, supposed to be uniform enough,—the tube
being inverted and immersed in water of about 130°, —the ex-
panded mercury, not able to escape by any of the joints, actually
forced its way in two or three places through the metal itself;
that is, through flaws in its texture, though they were so micro-
scopic as not to be observable to the naked eye, except by the
emission of the quicksilver. So comminuted was the stream,
and.so great the force of emission, that the metal ascended in
graceful wreaths, like smoke, to a height not less than two feet.

Having now explained the different parts of the instrament, I
shall describe the: ene a were taken in = com-
position of it. ;

_ First, upon the open end of the eagle was videdieahe the collar;
and they were then ground to remove any irregularities, and
make them fit evenly. Then the tube was clamped in a vice ;
and the disk was screwed on in cement, as far as possible. Clean
mercury was then sifted into the tube, until it filled a part of the
disk. ‘The whole was then boiled over a spirit-lamp by suc-
cessive portions; the flame being finally brought about as near
to the end of the tube, as is shewn in fig. 2. The whole was
then replaced in the vice, the plate of Russia-iron laid in its place,
and the ring screwed on in cement, as tightly as might be. The
tube was then removed, the’side-screw taken out, while the in-
strument was held in a position somewhat inclined, but not so
far as by possibility to uncover the end of the tube by the mercu-
ry now contained in the disk ; and warm mercury was sifted down
through the screw-hole, until it overflowed. The overflowing
was regulated by the pressure of the finger against the elastic
bottom, the tube being held nearly horizontal; and the screw
was inserted and turned tight. I should have said that due care
was taken, before inserting the screw, to disentangle and expel
any air that might have been taken in with the mercury; and
the proof of success in that regard was afforded, in giving the in-
strument, held in proper position, some smart shocks in order
to see if any air could be forced up the tube above the cylinder.
None shewed itself ; and I think because there was none there.

This mode of secthinalbog the tube, I regard as one of the most
important modifications which it has been my aim to describe }
and the merit of its suggestion belongs to Mr. Green, the artist
who constructed the various portions of the instrument. The

New Form of Mountain or other Baron

end which we had in view, in various plans which were con-
trived and tried, was to provide some means of following the
expansions and ‘odntiactighbaal the mercury, arising from chan-
ges of temperature; so as to furnish the air no chance of getting
in. his the elastic plate does very well; indeed I may say
completely: the heat of the hand being enough, in a few min-
utes, to cause a convex appearance, and the pressure of the at-
mosphere, on its sana to a cold acm sufficient to make it
concave.

‘It was of course: iphorieniolt to. wore: hin solic ond ne conse-
quence the disk, of as small a diameter as would be compatible
with the other conditions requisite. After some experiments,
therefore, to ascertain what elasticity was attainable by hammer-
ing out the Russia-iron, consistent with uniformity and strength,
I calculated the following table, shewing the relations existing
between the clear inside diameter of the disk and that of the
tube, on the assumption that the range of temperature does not
exceed 90° Eanes, meer aint ap oe anoceuty:s is agp e% pressed upon

a the ~~ ‘ fe Seg eS a Pep

" Ineibe tube-diameter. igs rc ; : ‘or eats rea

ar 0.90
ei pL ORG, nals ;

0.30 136.

‘ 0.40 be hdeBk r
( 0.60. ic Geb mg ee TA git «
ADs iy ois LB: a
0.75... sibhey! Oe

These aptvtioias paver bean found to'suit very well in prac-
tice in the instances where they have been applied.

‘Thave before spoken of the advantage in precision, which the
symmetrical disposition: of the float is presumed to afford to the
measurements. I give here the formula, for calculating the
amount of correction which is to be applied to make up for the
partial sinking of the float, ‘and the er elevation of the
mercury in the tube and cistern.

It is manifest, that the heavier shee float, vith the same diame-
ter, the deeper it (and of course the zero of the graduation) will
sink in the cistern; and also, that. with. a float of constant weight

Vol, xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843.

(242 New Form of Mountain or other Barometer.

and diameter, the larger the cistern the less will be the vertical
rise of the fluid in it, in consequence of the eames by: the
float. If then we call

W, the weight of the float—for instance in grains ;

w, the weight of a cubic inch of mercury at any given tempe-
rature ;
<ingely the diameter of the cistern; in anaes na

__D, the diameter of the float
_ d, the external diameter of tube “

_d,the internal diameter. “ “

_And z, the circumference of a serait ewe diameter is s unity ;
the sum of the semen will be |

a A Gieaye e re seen):
reducing to a ae ava ‘denominator, ° we have .
ins W . (42-07 — : 5. = 7 ; <
TTS (D?—d*). ey = es

~ ‘If we eon the change of specific gravity by a change of tem-
perature, as we may in this case safely do, and take w=3426, 56
grs. (which corresponds to a specifie gravity for mercury of
13.5728 at 62° F., and very near .13.6 at the maximum density
of water,) and Site to x its numerical value of 3.14156, etc., the
correction becomes in round numbers

) W.(4?4+07-d*)
~ 2691. (D* —d?) . (42462 —Dy

Such is the quantity to be subtracted from the reading, i in order
to give the height of the barometric column unaffected by the
weight of the float.

It only remains to be added, that in comparing the few barom-
eters of this construction, which have so far been.made, with
some others, among which were those of Mr. Troughton, of Mr.
Hassler, and of Mr. Green—I mean coming from the hands of
the persons named—the former, after deducting the amount: of
correction, stood uniformly higher than any of the latter; which
I attribute not so much to the individual precautions in securing '
a better vacuum as to the greater precision with which the zero

of the measurement can he ascertained,
_ Baltimore, Md. , May %, 1843

4 week ; HORS ee Biya 2

Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite 23.

Anr. Il.—Notice of “ Molluskite,” or the fossilized remains of

_ the soft parts of Mollusca; by Gipron Aucrernon Maney,
Bag. LL D., F) RoBi Gi Syeda) se

[Read before the Geological Society of London, January, 1843.)

_ Since the interesting discovery by Dr. Buckland of the nature

and origin of the fossil remains termed coprolites, substances hav-
ing the same general appearance and composition, but destitute
of the spiral structure, and distributed in amorphous’ masses in
the strata, have commonly been placed in the same category
under the name of pseudo-coprolites. .

In the blocks of firestone or upper green sand, which are seen
at low water along the shore at Southbourne in Sussex, con-
cretions of this kind are thickly interspersed among the shells
which abound.in those rocks. In my earliest geological research-
es along the Sussex coast, these fossil bodies particularly arrested
my attention, but I failed to obtain any clue to their origin, until
the important memoir on coprolites by Dr. Buckland, pointed out
the right path of enquiry, and offered a satisfactory solution of a
problem which had baffled the attempts of previous observers. —

_ That a large proportion of the concretionary and nodular mass-
es of the substance in question is the mineralized egesta of fishes
and other marine animals, there can be but little doubt; although
it is rarely possible to detect the traces of intestinal structure
which are so commonly impressed, or less distinctly, on the
coprolites of the chalk, wealden, and lias, But in the rocks at
Southbourne, instances are not unfrequent in which the copro-
litic matter (I use the term for the: sake of convenience) occurs
in the state of casts of shells belonging to the genera Cucullea,
Venus, Trochus, &c., which abound in the firestone ; and in these
examples the substance appears to have originated from the soft
bodies of the mollusea. In Sussex, in the layers of firestone
which occur at the line of junction with the galt, pseudo-copro-
lites are very abundant. 'They are not uncommon in the beds
of galt, at Ringmer and Norsington near Lewes, and at Bletching-
ly in Surrey ; and they abound in the same argillaceous deposit
at Folkstone in Kent. Dr. Fitton, in his elaborate memoir on
the strata below the chalk, (Geological Transactions, Vol. IV, part
2, page 111,) has given an accurate description and analysis of

244 : Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite.

the coprolitic nodules and concretions which occur at Folkstone.
Dr. Fitton states, “that they resemble coprolites in their chem-
ical composition, though no traces of animal structure are appa-
rent in them. 'They sometimes enclose portions of shells, but no
fragments of bone or scales of fishes have been detected. In
some cases they are of a very irregular figure, surrounding or
incorporated with fossil remains, especially of ammonites, the an-
terior of which is filled up with matter of the same kind.” The
last quoted remark of this eminent geologist, bears immediately
on the subject | of the present communication.
“In the grey: Shanklin sand these substances also ere in
some localities. I have observed them in western Sussex, in
Surrey, in the Isle of Wight near Ventnor, andin Kent. But in
no-locality: do they oceur in greate: —— and variety, than in
the ‘ ” of Kentist Maidstone, belong-
ing to Mr: Ww. i. Beasted ; to whose talents, zeal, and liberality,
geology is indebted for many important discoveries. =
' Mr. Beusted having long paid attention to this subject, had the
etficinine: to submit to my examination (more than two years’
since) several specimens of Rostellarie, Trigonia, Cucullea, and
other shells, the cavities of which were filled with a dark brown
substance, in every respect identical with the nodular and irregu-
lar concretions of coprolitic matter, which abound in, the sur-
rounding sandstone. At the same time Mr. Beusted expressed
his conviction that the carbonaceous substance was derived from
the soft bodies of the mollusca, and that the concretionary and
amorphous portions of the same matter, dispersed throughout the
sandstone of this bed, were fossilized masses of the soft bodies of
the animals which had become disengaged from their shells, and
floated in’ the sea, till enveloped in the sand and mud, which is
now concreted into the sandstone called Kentish rag. ‘The evi-
dence collected’ by Mr. Beusted appears to me so conclusive, and
so confirmatory of the correctness of the opinion I have previ-
ously advanced, that I beg to place before the Society the fol-
lowing abstract of his correspondence with me on the subject.»
“The bed of Kentish rag in my quarry which lies immediate-
ly beneath the stratum that contained the remains of the Iguano-
don, abounds in the usual shells of the Shanklin sand, particu-
larly in Trigonie, (generally 'T, aleeformis,) and there is an abun-
dance of a dark brown coprolitic looking matter, of which I'send

Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite. 245

you specimens. In some instances this material actually forms
_the entire casts of the univalves and bivalves, and I think there
ean be no doubt that it is derived from the soft bodies of the
animals which inhabited the shells found in connection with it,
fossilized in this peculiar manner. There are many examples
which look more like true coprolites of fishes, and some of these
contain shells partly crushed, as if they had been the partially
digested contents of the intestinal canal. I am therefore inclined
to think that the dark material which now occupies the shells,
was the soft body of the mollusc, that those of a concretionary
form which are imbedded in the stone are coprolites, and that
the shapeless portions of this substance distributed in the rock
have originated from floating masses of dead shell-fish. In illus-
tration of the manner in which such an accumulation of mate-
tials as I find in my quarry, may have been formed, I beg to call
your attention to the following extract from the American Journal
-of Science for 1837, which seems to me to afford an explanation
of some of the appearances that I have attempted to describe.
~~ “One of the most curious phenomena of the year 1836, was
the fatal effect of an epidemic among the molluscous animals or
shell fish of the Muskingum River, in the state of Ohio. It
commenced in April and continued until June, destroying mil-
lions of that great race, which peoples the beds of streams. As
the animals died, the valves of the shells opened, and decompo-
‘sition commencing, the muscular adhesions. gave way and the
fleshy portions rose to the surface « ing the shells
in the bed of the stream. “As masses of the dead bodies floated
down the current, the headlands of islands, piles. of fixed drifted
wood, and the shores of the river in many places were covered
with them, and the air in the vicinity was tainted with the pu-
trid effluvia exhaling from these accumulations of decomposing
animal matter. ‘The catise of the disease among the shelly tribes
remains as much, a. mystery as ‘that of the Asiatic cholera among
e human race.’

“Now Senallt ‘tite whole-el this shells which o occur in the bed of
Kentish rag, appear to have been dead shells. I mean that from
the open state of the valves it is probable that the animals for the
most part, were dead before they were enveloped in the sand and
mud; and from the large quantity of water-worn fragments of
wood perforated by lithodomi, that is imbedded with them, it

246 Dr. Mantell’s Notice of Molluskite.

would seem that this stratum had constituted a bank of drifted
wood and shells, presenting a very analogous condition to the
phenomena above described. The gelatinous bodies of the Tri-
gonie, Gervillie, Ostreee, Rostellariz, &c. detached from their
shells may have been intermingled with the drift wood, in a sand
bank, while in some instances the animal matter would remain
in the shells, and become fossilized in the state mhncingics in the
accompanying examples.” —

‘The above remarks present a correct view of the clnatinetanteus
under which the agnsansin erie to occur in the quarry of
Mr. Beusted. |

Some of the dark prener e ab from a Trigonia, was
submitted by my friend, the Rev. J. B. Reade, to a careful anal-
ysis by Mr. Rigg, who obligingly favored me with the following
note: “My analysis confirms your suspicion respecting the pres-
ence of animal carbon in the substance which you sent for ex-
amination. After removing the lime, &c. by means of dilute
hydrochloric acid from ten grains of the darker portion of the
stone, there remained 1.2 grains of dark powder, which gave by.
analysis with oxide of copper .16 of a cubic inch of carbonic acid,
and apparently a small portion of nitrogen. On subjecting to the
same kind of analysis two grains of the darker body without
previously acting upon it by any acid, .054 of a cubic inch of
carbonic acid was obtained ; so that from these results there is no
doubt but the darker portion of these substances contains: apie:

.35 per cent. of its weight of carbon in an organized state ise

The presence of animal carbon in fossil remains will, I vate
be found of frequent occurrence, not only enclosed in the shells”
of mollusea, but disseminated in the surrounding matrix. In the:
unique specimen of a fossil fox from Ruingen, which I had the
pleasure of dissecting for our distinguished president, I found a
considerable quantity of carbonaceous coprolitic matter within
the abdominal region, and I have frequently detected its presence
in the grit and sandstone of Tilgate Forest associated with the
bones of reptiles. The black material which is so commonly
seen to occupy some of the spiral cavities of the Paludina com-
posing the Sussex and Purbeck marbles, and which by its con-
trast with the white calcareous spar, adds considerably to the
beauty of those fresh-water limestones, contains a large propor
tion of animal carbon, doubtless derived from the soft parts of

“Me der eel be ee ee a Se OAT
WOOPEUOCW. HE

the mollusca having been enclosed at the period of its formation.
A microscopical examination detects with a low power innume-
rable portions of the nacreous laminz of the shells of extreme
thinness, intermingled with the carbonaceous ‘matter, together
with numerous siliceous spicule of sponges, very minute spines
of echinoderms and fragments of Polyparia; these extraneous
bodies probably became entangled among the soft animal matter
before the latter had undergone decomposition.

If my inferences be deemed correct, the term snitbaaliné would
bea proper designation for the substance in question. —

-N.B. This memoir was illustrated by drawings and numerous
specimens of the molluskite; in some instances forming large
‘amorphous carbonaceous masses in the sandstone, and in others
filling the shells of the Trigonie, Terebratule, —
~ Crescent Lodge, Clapham Common, (Eng.) January, 1843.

Eiristence of Radicals in the A

Arr. UL. —An spelt to refute the arguments advanced in favor
- of the Existence, in the Amphide Salts, of Radicals consist-
- ing, like Cyanogen, of more than one element ; by Rogert
“Hae, M. D,, Prof. Chem. Univ. Pennsylvania.

(Concluded cowed 65.) ie <Sghiowe pee.

. 46. Respecting the new ‘principles which I Uhave been contest-
_ ing, Dr. Kane alleges “ that the elegance nd sin iplicity with
which the laws of saline combination 1 may te traced ‘from them
is ‘remarkable,” because he ‘conceives, that without an appeal to
‘those principles, the fact that the number of ‘equivalents of acid
in a salt are ‘proportionable to the ‘number of agtraleny of oxy-
gen in the base, would be. inexplicable. ,

_ AT. Thus, when the base is a protoxide, we have one atom of
the protoxide of hydrogen to. take its place ; when the base is a
sesquioxide (two. of radical and. three of oxygen, ) three atoms of
the protoxide of hydrogen take its place : if the base be a i
two atoms of the Ae of dada take its Ace:

—

* * Dr,Mantell yoy eat sock ad as to henna to us, in illustration of hie: memoir,
very ‘distinct and satisfactory specimens of the molluskite, together with ammo-
nites from the Kimmeridge clay, having td beta in good preservation ;
also belemnites with their chambers preserved.—

248 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

AS. [have already adverted to the existence of certain chemi-
cal laws, inexplicable in the present state of human knowledge.
Among these is that of the necessity of oxidation to enable me-
tallic radicals to combine with acids. But as a similar mystery
exists as respects the adventitious property of combining with
radicals, which results from the acquisition of an additional atom
of oxygen by any of the compounds hitherto considered as an-
hydrous acids, the new doctrine has in 1 that ae no sation
ent claim to credence.

49, But if, without impairing the siichennantis pretensions of
the prevailing doctrine, we may appeal to the fact that the ac-
quisition of an atom of oxygen confers upon a radical the basic
power to hold one atom of acid, is it not Daieigient that the ac-
quisition of two atoms of ox oxygen sh pes confer r the power to hold
two atoms of acid; and that with each fi ition of oxy-
gen a further power to hold acids should be conferred?

50. So far then there is in the old doctrine no more inscruta-
bility. than in that which has been proposed as its successor.
Since if on the one hand it be requisite that for each atom of
oxygen in the base, there shall be an atom of acid in any salt
which it may form, on the other, in the case of the three oxy-
phosphions, for each additional atom of hydrogen extraneous to
the salt radical, there must be an atom of oxygen eae to
this radical.

61. It being then adinitée: that, diiesbaalt the atoms of acid
in any oxysalt will be as the atoms of oxygen in the base, it must
be evident that whenever an oxysalt of a protoxide is decomposed.
by a bioxide, there will have to be two atoms of the former for
one of the latter. For the bioxide has two atoms of oxygen, and.
requires by the premises two atoms of acid, while the salt of the
protoxide, having but one atom of oxygen, can hold, and yield, :
only one atom of acid. 'T'wo atoms of this salt, therefore, whe-
ther its base be water, or any other protoxide, will be decomposed
by one atom of bioxide; provided the affinity of the acid for the
bioxide predominate over that ore for the Peoignlae e |
when water is the base.

52.. It follows, that the displacement of water from its sulphate,
adduced by Katia ‘does not favor the idea that hydrous sulphurie
acid is an oxysulphionide of sisi more than ier apres
that it is a sulphate of water. |

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 249

63. Of course, in the case of presenting either a sesquioxide,
or a trioxide, to the last mentioned sulphate, in other words, hy-
drous sulphuric acid, the same rationale will be applicable. —

54, The next argument advanced by Dr. Kane, is, that some
of the acids of which the existence is assumed upon the old doc-
trine, are hypothetical, as they have never been isolated. -This_
mode of reasoning may be made'to react against the new doctrine
with pre-eminent force, since all of the compound radicals ima-
gined by it are hypothetical—none of them having been isolated.

55. he third argument of the respectable author above named
is, that acids display their acid character in a high degree only
when in the combination with water.

66. This argument should be considered in reference to two
different cases, in one of which all the water held by the acid is
in the state of a base, while in the other an additional quantity is
present acting as a solvent. So far as water, acting as a solvent,
facilitates the reaction between acids and bases, it performs a part
in common with alcohol, ether, volatile oils, resins, vitrifiable
fluxes, and caloric. Its efficacy must be referred to the general
law, that fluidity is necessary to chemical reaction. “Corpora
hon agunt nisi soluta.? . Se

57. Ina majority of cases, basic water, unaided by an addition-
al portion acting as a solvent, is quite incompetent to produce re-
action between acids and other bodies. Neither between sul-
phuric acid and zinc, between nitric acid and silver, nor between
glacial or crystallized acids and metallic oxides, does any reaction
take place without the aid of water acting as. a solvent, and per-
forming a part analogous to’ that which heat performs in promo-
ting the union of those oxybases with boric, or silicic acid. -

58. It is only with soluble acids that water has any efficacy.
The difference between the energy of sulphuric and silicic acid,
under the different circumstances in which they can reciprocally
displace each other, is founded on the nature of the solvents which
they require, the one being only capable of liquefaction by water,
the other by caloric.

59. In support of his opinions the author adverts to the fact,
that with hydrated sulphuric acid, baryta will combine energet-
ically im the cold, while a similar union between the anhydrous

and the same base cannot be accomplished without heat.
But it ought to be recollected, that to make this argument good,
Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 32 :

250 Evvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

it should be shown wherefore heat causes the baryta, a perfectly
fixed body, to unite more readily with an aériform substance in
which increase of temperature must, by rarefaction, diminish the
number of its particles in contact with the solid. If the only an-
swer be, that heat effects some mysterious changes in affinity,
(or as I meshale say in the electrical state of the particles, ) it should
be shown that the presence of water or any other base has not
been productive of a similar change, before another explanation
is held to. be necessary. But I would also call to mind that the
hydrated acid is presented in the liquid state; and if it-be asked
why water, having less affinity than baryta, can better cause the
condensation of the acid, I reply, that it is brought into contact
with the acid. both as a liquid and a vapor, of neither of which
forms is the earthy base susceptible. But if all that is necessary to
convert anhydrous sulphuric acid into an-oxysulphionide, be an
atom of oxygen and an atom of metal, what is to prevent baryta
and anhydrous sulphuric acid from forming an oxysulphionide of
barium? All the elements are present which are necessary to form
either a sulphate or oxysulphionide ; and T am unable to conceive
wherefore the inability to combine does not operate as much
against the existence of radicals as of bases.

60. I would be glad to learn why, agreeably to the salt radical
theory, anhydrous sulphuric acid unites with water more greedily
than with baryta, and yet abandons the water promptly on being
presented to this base. Why should it form an oxysulphionide
with hydrogen more readily than with barium, and yet display,
subsequently, a vastly superior affinity for barium ?

61. It seems to be overlooked, that anhydrous anita acid,
being the oxysulphion of the sulphites, hake to form sulphites on
contact with metals.

62. But if the sulphate of water owe its energy to that portion
of this liquid, which, by its decomposition gives rise to the com-
pound radical oxysulphion, and not to the portion which operates
asa solvent, wherefore in the concentrated state, will it not react
with iron and zinc, without additional water, when, with dilution,
it reacts most powerfully with those metals.

63. Some stress has been laid upon the fact, that sourness is snot
perceived, excepting with the aid of water, as if to derive force
for the new doctrine from that old and popular, though now aban-
doned test of acidity ; but it should be recollected that it is not the

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 251

water which goes to form the compound element in the “hydra-
cids,” erroneously so called, which confers sourness. Will any
one pretend that either sulphuric or nitric acid, when concentra-
ted, issour? Are they not caustic? Can any of the crystallized
organic acids be said to have a sour taste, independently of the
moisture of the tongue? The hydrated oily acids being incapa-
ble of uniting with water as a solvent, have none of these vul-
gar attributes of acidity. ‘The absence of these attributes in prus-
sic acid would alone be sufficient to render it inconsistent to
consider them as. wcsibe 8 Se connexion ign the — of 2 ik

roge n.

64. It has been remarked, ‘that liquid carbonic acid does not
combine with oxides on contact. T'o this I would add, that it does
not combine with water under those circumstances, but, on the
contrary, separates from it like oil, after mechanical mixture: nor
does i it, under any circumstances, unite with an equivalent propor-
tion of water to form a hydrate. Of course, as it is not to basic
water that it is indebted for its ability to become an ingredient 1 in
salts, it cannot be held that this faculty is the result of its eet
conversion into an orycarbionide of hydrogen.

65. Chromic acid is admitted not to require water for isolation,
and cannot, therefore, be considered as oxychromionide of hydro-
gen. Yet the oil of bitter almonds, which consists ofa
radical, benzule, and an atom of hydrogen, and which i is there-
fore constituted precisely as the salt radical doctrine requires for
endowment with the attributes of an “ hyd
titute of that acid reaction W hich hyd
culiarly competent to impart. It follows that ‘we have, on the
one hand, in chromic acid, a compound endowed with the attri--
butes of acidity, without being a hhydruret of any compound ra-
dical ; and, on the other, in oil of | bitter almonds, a hydruret of a
compound radical, without any of the attributes of acidity. ;

66, The last argument in favor of the existence of salt radicals,
which I have to answer, is that. comeaaee on certain results of the
pica on of. saline vanes

the cavity of which: the current was conveyed by wires, so termin ee within
it, as to shut an interval between them through which the current, being convey-

252 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

67. On subjecting a solution of sulphate of soda to electrolysis,
so as to be exposed to the current employed, simultaneously with
some water in a voltameter, Daniell alleges that, for each equiv-
alent of the gaseous elements of water evolved in the voltameter,
there was evolved at the cathode and anode, not only a like quan-
tity of those elements, but likewise an equal number of equiva-
lents of soda and sulphuric acid. This he considers as involving
the necessity, agreeably to the old doctrine, of the simultaneous
decomposition of two-electrolytic atoms in the solution, for one in
the voltameter; while, if the solution be considered as holding
oxysulphionide of sodium, instead of sulphate of soda, the result
may be explained. consistently with the law ascertained by Far-
aday.. In that case, oxysulphion would be carried to the anode,
where, combining with hydrogen, it would cause oxygen to be
extricated, while sodium, carried tothe cathode, and Groxidizig
water, would cause the extrication of hydrogen. |

68. Dr. Kane, alluding to the experiments above sieetiiney
‘and some others which I shall mention, alleges that ‘“ Profes-
sor Daniell considers the binary theory of salts to be fully estab-
lished by them.

69. Notwithstanding the deference which I have for the: is.
tinguished inventor of the constant battery, and disinclination for
the unpleasant task of striving to prove a friend to be in the
wrong, being of opinion that these inferences are erroneous, I
feel it to be my duty, as a teacher of the science, to show that
they are founded upon a misinterpretation of the facts meee
to for their justification.

70. It appears to me, that the simaltanigous’ appearance of the
elements of water, ad of acid and alkali, at the electrodes, as
above stated, may be accounted for, simply by that electrolyzation
of the soda, which must be the natural consequence of the expo-
sure.of the sulphate of that base in the circuit. 1 will i in support
of the anaes whith li am about to Apaoeae quote the language

sien

ed by the electrolytic process, « effected the decomposition of the intervening fiquids
the resulting gas being caught and measured by the tube. = instrament Tt
been called a volta-electrometer, or voltameter.
Faraday found that when various substances were s aleciulyats a ‘soltnangtst
being at the same time i in the circuit, rest for every pala of watet
n the other b

posed
could be dec

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved. 253

of Professor Daniell, in his late work, sing 4 raasgeiacinaees to
Chemical Philosophy,” page 413:——

“Thus we may conceive that the force of ieay receives an impulse
which enables the hydrogen of the first particle of water, which under-
goes decomposition, to combine momentarily with the oxygen of the
next particle in succession; the hydrogen of this again, with the oxy-
gen of the next; and-so on till the last particle of hydrogen commu-

_hicates its impulse to the ar sa. and escapes in its own. elastic
form.”

_ 71. The process here represented as taking place in the in-
stance of the oxide of hydrogen, takes place, of course, in that of
any ‘other electrolyte.

72. It is well known, that when a fixed alkaline solution is
: subjected to the voltaic current, that the alkali, whether soda or
potassa, is decomposed ; so that if mercury be used for the cath-
ode, the nascent metal, being protected by uniting therewith, an
amalgam i is formed. If the cathode be of platinum, the metal,
being unprotected, is, by decomposing water, reconverted into an
oxide as soon as svalved: This shows, that when a salt of po-
tassa or soda is subjected to the voltaic current, it is the alkali
which is the primary object of attack, the decomposition of the
_Water being a secondary result.

73. If in a row of the atoms of soda, extending from one ep
trode to the other, while forming the base of a sulphate, a series
of electrolytic decompositions t be induced from the cathode on the
right, to the anode on the left, by which each atom of sodium
‘in the row will be transferred from. the atom of acid with which
it was previously combined, to that next upon the right, causing
an atom of the metal to be liberated at the cathode; this atom,
deoxidizing water, will account for the soda and i deoded at the
cathode. Meanwhile the atom of sulphate on the left, which
has been deprived of its sodium, ‘must simultaneously have
yielded to the anode the oxygen by which this metal was oxi-
dized. Of course the acid is left in the hydrous state, usually
‘called free, though more correctly esteemed to be that of a sul-
phate of water. _

74, I cannot conceive how any other result could be expected
from, ts. pespoteol gris of ihe base of sulphate of soda, than that

254 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved

which is here described. Should any additional illustration be
requisite, it will be found in a note subjoined.*

75. I will, in the next place, consider the phenomena onssevel
by Professor Daniell, when solutions of potassa and sulphate of
copper, separated by a membrane, were ee the medium of a
voltaic current.

76. Of these I here quote bis own sceount—(Phiosobicl
Magazine and Journal, Vol. xvi, p. 172)—

“A small glass bell, with an aperture at top, had its mouth closed by
tying a piece of thin membrane over it. It was half filled with a dilute
solution of caustic potassa, and suspended in a glass vessel containing a
a neutral soluiian of dae * oe below the surface of which

nie easy t fedora hawn bhmidlegnmobe sap rietaiie aa oxygen and acid

“tt
- atthe anode, and soda and hydro, n at the cathode, may ensue, simply by the
Wish he followin, ’

electrolyzation of the alkaline base & ‘association of formule

- Anhydrous sulphuric acid is represented by the usual formula, SO. 3 oxygen by
the usual symbol, ; sodium by Na; bite acting asa solvent, by HO. Each
atom of oxygen, sodium, or acid, is numbered from right to ets 1, 2,3, A, 80 that
the change of pant on consequent to electrolysis may be see

te os rat: 2. 4. a
Anode 0 At 3: 6 Oo HO Cathode,
2 2. 3. 4,
Na Na Na Na.
1 2, 3. 4
sO3 SOs sO3 SO3
HO HO HO HO mee, :
1. 2 ne Bas ae ‘ pes
Anode 0 O 8) oO @) -H . Cathode. —
1 2. 3. 4.
mar rr tet Tr
Na Na Na Na
2. 3. 4.
—_ wn
SOs. $03 803 S03
HO

oh : HO gs ee
As the atoms che eh in the porand pe Se a of oxygen. (1), is
Sac ¢

at the anode, the atom of sodium, ‘Na, with which it had been united, having been
ansferred to the second — of F sulphuric acid, which had Set its sodium to

(

the third atom of acid, S03 3, this having, in like manner, yielded i its aaaege to

as
the fourth atom of acid, $03, from. which the fourth atom of seit Na, had
been abstracted by the electrolytic power. The atom of sodium thus removed
from the fourth atom of acid, is represented in union with the oxygen of an atom
of Sutera Seth the e hydrogen, H, is at the cathode.

a a

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salis :

it just dipped. A platinum electrode, connected with the last zine, rod
of a large constant battery of twenty cells, was placed in the solution
of potassa ; and another, connected with the copper of the first cell, was
placed in the sulphate of copper immediately under the diaphragm
which separated the two solutions. The circuit conducted very readily,
and the action was very energetic. Hydrogen was given « off at the
platinode i in a solution of potassa, and oxygen at the zincode in the sul-
phate of copper. A small quantity of gas was also seen to rise from
the surface of the diaphragm. In about ten minutes the lower surface
of the membrane was found beautifully coated with metallic copper,
interspersed with oxide of copper of a black color, and hydrated oxide
of copper of a light blue.

~ “The explanation of these phenomena is obvious. In the experi-
mental cell we have two electrolytes separated by a membrane, through
both of which the current must pass to complete its circuit. The sul-
phate of copper is resolved into its compound anion, sulphuric acid ++
oxygen (oxysulphion), and its simple cathion, copper: the oxygen of
the former escapes at the zincode, but the copper on its passage to the
Platinode is stopped at the surface of the second electrolyte, which for
the present we may regard as water improved i in its conducting power

y potassa, The metal here finds nothing by combining with which
it can complete its course, but being forced to stop, yields up its charge
to the hydrogen of the second electrolyte, which passes on to the pla-
tinode, and is evolved.

’ “The corresponding oxygen stops also at the diaphragm, giving up

its charge to the anion of the sulphate of copper. ‘The copper and oxy-
gen thus meeting at the intermediate point, partly enter into combina-
tion, and form the black oxide; but from the ‘rapidity | of the action,
there-is not time for the whole to combine, and a portion of the cop-
per remains in the metallic state, and a portion of the gaseous oxygen
escapes. The accent of blue hydrated oxide doubtless arose
from the mixing of a small portion of the two solutions.”

_ 77. It will be ‘alinitiedl. that agreeably to the admirable re-
sharchde of Faraday, there are two modes in which a voltaic cur-
rent may be transmitted, conduction and electrolyzation. In order
that it may pass by the last mentioned process, there must be a
row of anions and cathions forming | a series of electrolytic atoms
extending from the cathode to the anode. It is not necessary
that these atoms should belong to the same fluid. A succession
of atoms, whether homogeneous, or of two kinds, will answer,
provided either be susceptible of electrolyzation, Both of the
liquids resorted to by Daniell, contained atoms susceptible of

256 Elvistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

being electrolyzed. If his idea of the composition of sulphate of
copper, and the part performed by the potassa, were admitted for
the purpose of illustration, we should, on one side of the mem-
brane, have a row of atoms consisting of oxysulphion and copper ;
on the other, of oxygen and hydrogen. .

78. Recurring to Daniell’s own description of the electrolyzing
process, above quoted, an atom of copper near the anode being
liberated from its anion, oxysulphion, and charged with electrici-
ty, seizes the next atom of oxysulphion, displacing and charging
an atom of copper therewith united. ‘The cupreous atom thus
charged and displaced, seizes a third atom of oxysulphion, ‘sub-
jecting the copper, united with it, to the same treatment as it had
itself previously met with. This process being repeated by a
succession of similar decompositions and recompositions, an elec-
trified atom of copper is evolved at the membrane, where there
is no atom of oxysulphion. Were there no other anion to receive
the copper, evidently the electrolyzation would not have taken
place ; but oxygen, on the one side of the membrane, must suc-
ceed to the office performed by oxysulphion on the other side ;
while hydrogen, in like manner, must succeed to the office of the
copper.

79. Such being the inevitable conditions of the process, how
can it be correctly alleged by Professor Daniell, the transfer of
the copper being arrested at the membrane, that as this metal
“can find nothing to combine with,” it gives up its electrical
charge to the hydrogen, which proceeds to the cathode? As hy-
drogen cannot be present, excepting as an ingredient in water,
how can it be said that the copper can discharge itself upon the
hydrogen, without combining with the oxygen necessarily liber-
ated at the same time by the electrolytic process? How could
the copper, in discharging itself to a cathion, escape a simultane-_
ous seizure by an anion? Would not the oxidizement of this
metal be a step indispensable to the propagation of that electro-_
lytic process, by which alone the hydrogen could, as alleged,
“‘nass to the platinode,” i. e. cathode ? r

80. In these strictures Iam fully justified by the following.
allegations of Faraday, which I quote from his Researches, 826,

A single ion, i. e. one not in combination with another, will have
no ‘tendency to pass to either of the electrodes, and will be perfectly

bp... ee ee, ee? ee ee ee ee ee ee ed. 257
— f : “s

indifferent to the passing —* unless it be itself a or igen of more
elementary ions, and so subject to actual decomposition.”

Hf, therefore, an ion pass towards one of the lestetlenh didi
ion must also be passing simultaneously to the other electrode, although,
from secondary action, it may not make its appearance.”

81. In explanation of the mixed precipitates produced. upon
the membrane, I suggest that the hydrated oxide resulted from
chemical reaction between the alkali and acid, the oxide from |
the oxygen of the water or potassa acting as a cathion in place
of that of the oxide of copper: also that the metallic copper is to
be attributed to the solutions acting both as conductors and as
electrolytes ; so that, at the membrane, two feeble electrodes were
formed, which enabled a portion of the copper to. be discharged
without combining with an anion, and a portion of oxygen to
be discharged without uniting with a cathion.. In this expla-
nation I am supported by the author’s account of a well known
experiment by Faraday, in which a solution of magnesia and
water was made to act as electrodes at their surfaces respectively.

82. There can, I think, be no better proof that no reliance
should be placed on the experiments with membranes, in this and
other cases where the existence of compound radicals in acids is
to be tested, than the error into which an investigator, so saga~
cious as my friend Professor Daniell, has been led, in onplataieay
the complicated results, P

. 83. The association of two electrolytes, anid chino re-
action between. the potassa and acid, which is admitted to have
evolved the hydrated oxide, seem rather to ‘have eet difficul-
ties than to have removed them.

‘84. In this view of the abies, Fo am | sudepiead. by the opinion
of Paraday, | as expressed i in the following language:—

“When other metallic ; solutions are ‘used, containing, for instance,
peroxides, as that of | copper combined with this or any decomposable
acid, still more complicated results will be obtained, which, viewed
as the direct results of electro-chemical action, will, in their proportions,
meee nding but confusion ; but. will. appear perfectly harmoni-

s and simple, if they be considered as secondary results, and
will price in their proportions with the oxygen and hydrogen evolved
from water by the: action of a definite quantity of electricity. bs

85. I cannot conceive, that in any point of view the complica-
ted and “ confused” results of the experiment of Daniell with
electrolytes separated by membranes, are rendered more intelli-

Vol, xxv, No, 2.—July—Sept. 1843. 33

258 Evistence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

gible by supposing the existence of salt radicals. I cannot per-
ceive that the idea that the anion in the sulphate is oxysulphion,
makes the explanation more satisfactory than if we suppose it to
be oxygen. Were a solution of copper subjected to electrolysis
alone, if the oxide of copper were the primary object of the cur-
rent, the result would be analogous to the case of sodium, except-
ing that the metal evolved at the cathode, not decomposing water,
would appear in the metallic form. If water be the primary ob-
ject of attack, the evolution of copper would be a secondary ef-
-» 86. It is remarkable, that after I had written the preceding
interpretation of Daniell’s experiments, I met with the following
deductions stated by Matteuchi, as the result of an arduous series
of experiments, without any reference to those of Daniell above
‘mentioned. It will be perceived that these deductions coincide
perfectly with mine, © er.
- 87. [subjoina literal translation of the language of Matteuchi
from the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome 74, 1840, page
© When salt, dissolved in water, is decomposed by the voltaic cur-
rent, if the action of the current be confined to the salt, for each equiv-
alent of water decomposed in the voltameter, there will be an equiva-
lent of metal at the negative pole, and an equivalent of acid, plus an
equivalent of oxygen, at the positive pole. The metal separated at
the negative pole will be in the metallic state, or oxidized, according to
its nature. If oxidized, an equivalent of hydrogen will be simultane-
ously disengaged by the chemical decomposition of water.” f+" ;
88. Thus it seems, that the appearance of acid and oxygen at
the anode, and of alkali and hydrogen at the cathode, which has
been considered as requiring the simultaneous decomposition of
two electrolytes upon the heretofore received theory of salts, has,
by Matteuchi, been found to be a result requiring the electrolysis
of the metallic base only, and, consequently, to be perfectly recon-
cilable with that theory. Paden phbes\ (eZ %
89. In fact I had, from the study of Faraday’s Researches,
taken up the impression, that the separate appearance of an acid
and base, previously forming a salt, at the voltaic electrodes, was
to be viewed as a secondary effect of the decomposition of ‘the
water or the base; so that acids and bases were never the direct

- tee tsk iPS ash ices! # et neg

Pe ee ee ee ee ee ee) pour dis a ae
Tagg uy

VOC

” Of Liebie’s “ Principles, » 80 called, se ge

90. Under the head of the “ ‘theory of organic ahida,”?4 in Tachig’s
Treatise on Organic Chemistry, we find the following allegations
dignified by the name of principles. . Manifestly they must tend
to convey a false impression to the student, that hydrogen has
a peculiar property of creating a capacity for saturation, instead
of being only the measure of that capacity, as is actually true,
and likewise that in this respect it differs from any other radical.

91, The allegations to which I refer are as follows, being a
literal saan from the French copy of the Traité of Liebig,

sé —. hydrated aida are Scpabiaislinns of one or more elements with
hydrogen, in which the latter DAY, be replaced wholly or in part by
equivalents of. metals.” 4

“The capacity of saturation fescue consequently on the quantity of
hydrogen which can be replaced. _

“The compound formed by the other elements being considered as
‘a radical, it is evident that the composition of this radical can exercise
no influence on the capacity of saturation.

“The capacity of saturation of these wxtde augments or diminishes in
the same ratio as the quantity of hydrogen, not panies $ ae ae salt
radical, augments or diminishes. +
-) “If into the composition of the salt radical shicirs should be! sithodgea

an n undetermined quantity of any elements, without changing ed
; hydrogen : : ee

92. As by the advocates of ene pee ie ae « salt radicals, ”
g the part of a metallic radical,

capacity of nae in nn same predicament as any: other
electro-positive radical, I cannot conceive wherefore laws, which
affect every other body of this kind, should be stated as if partic-

ularly associated with hydrogen.
BE tah SOUR SEAS 1a

* There is, in some respects, a coincidence ‘so remarkable as the part taken
by Dr 1, that I quote at the inigiaig

which oa been held t by us us respectively on this 8 “‘eabjeet.-

of hydrogen, Dr. Kane uses the following words : — “Tt was at pe
time rein that it shared with eree the power of generating acids;
sulphur, chlorine, iodine, cyanogen, &c., formed one class by combining with nies
gen, so they formed a second class, ‘called hydracids, by entering into union with

260 Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts disproved.

_ 93. Would not a more comprehensive and correct idea be pre-
sented by the following language ?—

94. From any combination of an acid with a base, either the
base or its radical may be replaced by any other radical or base,
between which and the other elements present, there is a higher
affinity. Of course from acids called hydrated, from their hold-
ing an atom of basic water, either this base, or its radical (hydro-
gen), may be replaced by any other competent base or radical. _

- 95. The premises being manifestly fallacious, still more so is
the subsequent allegation, that in consequence of the hydrated
acids being compounds formed with hydrogen, their capacity
of saturation os on the: quantity a this element which can

Pees Pe dae Bas

#& 96. Is not hina ion of the obvious truth that the quan-
tity of hydrogen present is as ‘the capacity of ‘saturation ; and
that, of course, the quantity of any element which can be sub-
stituted for it, must be in equivalent proportion? Would not a
student, from this, take up two erroneous ideas—first, that the
capacity of saturation is conferred by the radical, and in the next
place, that of all radicals, hydrogen alone can give such a capa-
city? . Is it not plain, that the assertion here made by the re
brated author, would be true of any radical ?

97. Passing over a sentence which has no bearing on the tone
under discussion, in the eth eaponys have a reiteration

hydrogen. * * * In the year 1832 I proved this view to be incorrect, that
all the properties of the compounds of hydrogen combined to show that it was
an eminently pectro pare body, that it took place’ along with iron, manganese,
and zine. * These jews have been still farther somroboratea by the re-
searches of Graham. * * There rests now. no doubt, n the minds of phi-
losophical chemists, that rasa is a metal enormously mF ile.”
soa justifies the following feneenge, held in my letter on the Berzelian ‘nomen:

' “Tam of opinion that the employment of the word hydracid, as tea
with oxacid, must tend to convey the erroneous idea, with which, i n opposition
to his own definition, the author seems to have been imbued, Laie hydrogen
in the one class, plays the same part as oxygen in the other. But in reality,
the formas, i is eminently a combustible, and of course the radical, by his awry defi-
nition

So entirely have I concurred in considering hydrogen as an aériform nase that,
for more than twenty years, I have, in my lectures, accounted for the amalgam@
cae of ale when ‘aoa in contact with sal ammoniac, by inferring am
‘™monia to be a gaseous alloy of io motaltia — nts, hydrogen and ninoge
being both aériform metals.

Existence of Radicals in the Amphide Salts

and expansion of the error of those by which it is preceded. We
are informed that the ‘capacity of saturation augments and di-
minishes with the quantity of hydrogen which can be replaced,”

which is again an inversion of the truth, that the quantity of hy-

drogen varying with the capacity, the quantity of any other rad-
-_ competent to replace it, must be in equivalent proportion.

~ 98. Is not the eénelnding allegation a mere truism, by which
we are informed, “ that if any undetermined quantity of any ele-
ment should be introduced into the composition of the radical,
without changing the capacity (as measured by hydrogen), the

‘capacity would be found the same when measured by any other

radical ?” .
99. As all that is ts ascribed to eedeigen: must be equally
true of any other radical, there would have been less liability to

‘misapprehension, had the generic term radical been employed

wherever hydrogen is mentioned. But by employing the word
radical to designate halogen elements, the advocates of the exist-
ence of compound radicals in amphide salts have deprived the
word in question of much of its discriminating efficacy. In fact,
their nomenclature would confound all ultimate elements under

one generic appellation, and all their binary combinations under

another, so that almost every chemical age wagther, mae
or compound, would be a salt or a radical.

100. Before concluding, I feel it to be due to the éelebrated
Pin at chemist above mentioned, to add, that however I may
differ from him as to the acids being hydrurets of compound rad-
icals, I am fully disposed’ to make acknowledgments for the light

thrown by his analytical researches on organic chemistry, and

the successful effect of his ingenious: ‘theoretic speculations, in
rendering that science ‘more an 56 of study with physicians
and ee ; .

262 A New Instrument for estimating the quantity of

Arr. IV.—A New Instrument for estimating the quantity of
Carbonate of Lime present in Calcareous Substances ; by J.
- Lawrence Surru, M. D.

jaan the most ready methods used for the purpose of esti-

mating the quantity of carbonate of lime contained in calcareous
substances, are Davy’s pneumatic and Rogers’ methods, the one
estimating it from the bulk of carbonic acid, and the other by
the weight of the. carbonic. acid afforded by the action of an acid.
The principal objection to the former, is the complication of the
apparatus, and for the latter it is necessary to be furnished with
a more than ordinary pair of balances, and a set Fig. 1.

of accurate weights, whereas the instrument about —s_|

to be described is free from both these objections, ~
with: “i enna _— of affording more
~ancppeard at first, that by taking acertainquan- =|
tity of the substance to be examined, and letting ce ae
fall upon it by degrees a solution of acid, the
strength of which we know, that it might be pos-
sible to estimate the quantity of carbonate of lime —
in the same manner as the carbonates of the fixed
alkalies are estimated ; but for this to “succeed, it
is necessary that the eabstanee should be finely
pulverized, and free from any materials,soluble in
the acid used, but as it is not common to be fur-
nished with these two conditions, another method
had to be adopted, the principle of which is, to
treat the calcareous substance with an excess of. 30.
acid, the strength of which is known, and then to <p)
find out the amount of this excess, thereby know- | 22
ing the quantity of acid taken up, from which we ~ 2
can easily calculate the quantity of carbonate of | #4
lime present. In the application of this principle, 3
it will be found that any thing like difficult mani- LY

pulation is avoided, and that there is no calealation
required.

Carbonate of Lime present in Calcareous Substances. 263

a The first thing to be furnished with, is an instrument, which
consists simply of a tube about half an inch in diameter, and
tem inches long, having the principal part of it graduated in one
hundred parts. The simplest form to be given to this tube, is
such as is represented in figure 1, the extremity a being drawn
out and bent downwards, leaving an opening so small as to allow
a liquid to flow but slowly from the tube. To the upper part, for
convenience’ sake, is adapted a perforated cork, with a small tube ;
this is placed for the purpose of regulating the flow of the fluid,
by placing upon it and withdrawing from it the finger, as we
may wish to arrest or allow the liquid to flow from the extremi-
ty a. With this instrument, that I propose calling the Calcari-
meter from its use, we must be furnished with two fluids, a solu-
tion of muriatic or nitric acid, and a solution of patency st of
which are prepared of a certain strength.*

Preparation of the acid solution.—This solution i is is pe as
follows: weigh out fifty grains of dry finely powdered pure carbo-
nate of lime, or what is better, carbonate of lime precipitated from
any of its solutions by carbonate of potash or soda; place this in
a tea-cup or other convenient vessel, add to it about an ounce of
water, (this is done simply for the purpose of moderating the ac-
tion of the acid,) then take the muriatic or nitric acid of commerce,
dilute it with one part of water; with this. liquid. fill the instru-

Ment to the 100 point, then let the acid fall gently. upon the
carbonate of lime, so as not to create a ce, and
by proceeding carefully with the aid of a piece of litmus paper,
we can find the exact point at which the carbonate of lime is all

taken up, by the soluti saction. When we see
that nearly all the lime is =e up we 2 proceed very cautiously,
by adding but a few drops of the acid at a time, and agitating
the mixture considerably, for | the purpose of bringing the insolu-
ble carbonate well in contact with the different parts of the
fluid. When the acid reaction commences, the acid is no
longer added, and the point at which the acid now stands in

We tube: is metieed, and by subtracting me from 100 we have

bd: The Ce dedi inetrasiast, ries 0 to 100 is ins ounce, and the length of
the graduation had pettss be from eight to ten inches; of course this will vary with
the « x of the tube. As they are all to be of the same capacity, the graduation
may be made upon te tube itself or upon a piece of paper and pasted on, then var-
nished, first with a solution of gum arabic, and afterwards with copal varniah:

264 A New Instrument for estimating the quantity of

the number of degrees of acid used to dissolve fifty grains of
carbonate of lime, but as it is desired that the liquid should be
so made as to require 50° of it to dissolve fifty grains of the car-
bonate, it is diluted with the proper quantity of water. For
example, suppose the fluid marked 65° after the experiment; this
indicates that 35° of the acid solution were required to dissolve
the 50 grains. Now instead of 35° we require it to take 50° to
dissolve the same quantity, so that by making up the difference
between the thirty five and fifty with water the solution is pre-
pared; that i is to say, to every thirty five parts of the acid experi-
mented with, fifteen parts of water are added. The solution can
be again tested if necessary, and slight modifications made.

_ Preparation of the alkaline solution.—The alkaline solution

in. now prepared with ease. Let fall 50° of the acid into a vessel,

then make a mixture of. equal parts of ammonia and water, fill

the instrument to the 100°, and let it flow upon the acid, and.

mark the point at which the acid is neutralized; suppose it to be

twenty, then 80° have been used for that purpose ; but it must

be so made as that it will require 100°, therefore to every eighty
parts of the solution experimented with, add twenty parts of wa-
ter. In making either of these solutions, one gallon can
be made with the same ease as one ounce, and more-
over, when they are once made, there is never any is
necessity of recurring to the carbonate of lime, as the
acid may now be prepared with aid of the ammonia. “i
Thus, then, 50° of acid dissolve exactly fifty grains | in
of pure carbonate of lime, and 100° of the ammonia

Fig. 2.

neutralize fifty of the acid. ; ocase Fi

As using the same tube for both acid and alkali is
attended with some inconvenience, having to wash it — .
out after using one before introducing the other, I have |
used an additional tube, (fig. 2 ;) about the same diame- |
ter and a little more than half as long as the calcarime- .
ter, for the acid. It has simply three marks upon it; Fe Re
the capacity of the tube from the point marked a to the A
lower extremity is equal to the capacity of 50° of the Y.
other tube, and the other two marks correspond to ten
and five ; the use that is mage of OR will be bereatet ex:

Carbonate of Lime present in Calec out Seba

_ Manner of performing: the -—-Being furnished with
_ the two tubes, the two fluid; 1p or other c i |
_ asmall piece of glass rod a few inches long, a wine-glass, and a
piece of litmus paper, a portion hich has been reddened by an
acid, we proceed as follows. Weigh out fifty grains of the sub-
stance to be examined, place it in the cup and add to it about
one ounce of water, fill the instrument last described up to the
highest mark upon the stem with the acid ; this is done by hold-
ing it between the thumb and fore-finger, having the little finger
applied to the lower opening. After the acid is poured in, before
Withdrawing the finger, introduce the cork and place the fore-
finger of the other hand upon the opening of the tube on the
cork, for the purpose of preventing the liquid flowing out, when
the lower opening is left unprotected ; after seeing that the acid
stands exactly at the mark, it is allowed to flow gradually upon
the substance. After all the action has ceased, stirring it towards
the end to insure this result, we fill the graduated tube with the
solution of ammonia, in the same manner as we did the last, and
let it fall gradually upon the mixture of acid and calcareous sub-
stance, arresting at will the progress of the flow, by simply pla-
cing the finger upon the tube in the cork. This instrument
should always be transferred to the left hand and held in an in-
clined position: During the addition of ammonia, the mixture
should be well agitated with the glass rod, and occasionally tested
by bringing a little of it upon the extremity of the rod i be contact
with the litmus paper, and so soon S paper
ted, or begins to turn the red part of it blue, the experiment is
completed, and we now look at what number of degrees the fluid
Stands in the tube and we are furnished with the per centage of
carbonate of lime contained in the calcareous substance examin-
ed.* We may be saved the trouble of testing too often, by pay-
ing attention to the strength of the reaction of the fluid upon the
litmus. paper.

Tn most marls hich have served as the subjects of my exper-
iments, more or less alumina is to be found, a part of which is
dissolved. by the acid,-of which part a very good use can be
made. While adding the ammonia, the alumina immediately

+e magnesia happens to be present, it will be estimated as lime, but this will |

very seldom be a cause of error, as it exists very rarely in calcareous manures, for: :
which this instrument is particularly intended. :
Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843,

266 A New Instrument for estimating the quantity, §§c.

around where the ammonia falls, is thrown out of solution, and
if we stir the liquid, the alumina will be redissolved so long as
there is any free acid, so that when the flocks of alumina are no
longer taken up, we are furnished with an assurance that the
process is nearly completed. The acid that the alumina and iron
takes up is acted upon by the ammonia, with almost the same
readiness as if free, so that no cause of error is to be apprehended
from that source. —
Tt may sometimes happen from oversight, that too much am-
monia is added; notwithstanding this, the analysis need not be
lost. Still holding the instrument in the left hand over the cup,
having of course arrested the flow of the fluid, we pour some of
the acid solution into the wine-glass, introduce the small end of
the acid instrument into it, and allow it to rise on the inside to
either of the small marks, and add this acid to the liquid and go
on as before with the experiment, and at the conclusion read off
what is indicated and to it add ten or twenty according as we
‘may have added the acid measured by the first or second mark. |
~ After what has been said, a few words will suffice to explain
how the instrument operates. :
It takes 50° of acid to dissolve fifty grains of carbonate of lime,
or 1° to dissolve one grain, and it takes 2° of the ammonia solu-
tion to neutralize one of the acid, and therefore in treating a sub-
stance consisting in part of carbonate of lime, for every grain that
is present one degree of the acid is taken up, so that when we
come to add the ammonia, we know how much of the acid is
taken up by the quantity of ammonia left behind, thereby know-
ing the number of grains of carbonate of lime, which we multiply
by two, (as fifty grains of the substance was used,) to arrive at
the per centage. This multiplication is not actually performed, as
the instrument is so graduated as to dispense with it.
_ Were it at all necessary to give any evidence of its easy appli-
cation, I might state that it, along with the fluid, has been placed
in the hands of persons entirely unacquainted with chemistry;
and even with the principle of the instrument, and they have,
with some little instruction in the manipulations necessary, ob-
tained results only one or two per cent. out the way, in their first
examination,

Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 267

Arr. V.—On the Method of Drs. Varrentrapp and Will for
estimating the Nitrogen in Organic Pion by J. Law-
RENCE Sara, M. D.

‘TO THE EDITORS.

As I sent you some time since, an account of a new method
invented by MM. Varrentrapp and Will for estimating the quan-
tity of nitrogen contained in organic substances,* it becomes my
duty to see that you are furnished with an account of M. Reizet’s
investigation of this method, which investigations were presented
to the Académie des Sciences in July of last year.

M. Reizet finds that the method is applicable, with some care,
to substances containing large quantities of nitrogen, and small
quantities of carbon, but when we analyze a substance poor in
nitrogen and rich in carbon, the result is invariably inaccurate.

M. Reizet was led to suspect that there were errors attendant
upon this method, from the fact that some years ago Mr. Faraday
showed that organic substances containing no nitrogen, when
heated with potash in contact with air afforded ammonia, a cir-
cumstance which must affect materially MM. Varrentrapp and
Will’s method, for they burn the organic substance, mized with
potash and lime, in a tube, the tube being partly filled with air,
so that when heated not only would all the nitrogen of the sub-
stance be converted into ammonia, but also the nitrogen, of the
air contained in the tube, so that when the nitrogen was calcu-
lated from this ammonia, a larger ety, than the substance
rarely contained would be indicated.

Sugar and other substances devoid of nitrogen were burnt by
M. Reizet, after the method made mention of, and he stated to
me that he has obtained as much as 2 per cent. of nitrogen in
burning 15 grains ¢ of sugar with the mixture of potash and lime,
and the truth of which I have since witnessed. The following
isa table of the results of some of his experiments upon sugar.

0.250 gram. foger ‘famished aoe gam. aifogen.

1.000. r " it te ewig 4 ce
1.500 “ . “« 0.0149 « és
2.000“ ¥ “« 09.0153 “ ct

* See this Journal, Vol. xiu, p. 253, April, 1842.

268 Nitrogen in Organic Compounds.

Besides substances destitute of nitrogen, many that contained
but a small quantity of nitrogen were experimented with, and al-
ways a larger quantity of ammonia was obtained than was due to
the nitrogen present in the substance.

M. Reizet has also found that the mixture of alcohol and ether
used, decomposes a small quantity of the bichloride of platinum,
which is always added in excess, so as to form a small quantity
of the protochloride, wash being insoluble in this menstruum, is
only a cause of error.

‘From these experiments, M. Reizet ‘oiehich that MM. Varren-
trapp and Will’s method should be used with great reserve, when
new substances are the subjects of analysis, but he does not doubt
that in the hands of — eee it tmight become a valu-
able means of control.

~The contents of this jokes should have Beaty einssinsicnie to
you before, but I have been for some time intending to try a
modification of this method, which suggested itself to me, asa
means of remedying the defects pointed out by M. Reizet, but
my occupations have prevented me from testing this modification,
and as it is impossible for me to say when I shall be able to per-
form the necessary experiments, I have to content myself, in
bringing it to your notice simply as a suggestion.

First, then, in preparing the mixture of potash and lime, after
we have heated the mixture for the purpose of drying it, while
hot, place it beneath a vessel containing oxygen gas, which gas
will become condensed in the pores of the mixture, and prevent
the nitrogen of the air finding its way in, when exposed to the
atmosphere. Oxygen is preferred to hydrogen gas, from the fact
that the former would be absorbed in larger quantity, and more ef-
fectually exclude the nitrogen. Thus much then for the prepara-
tion of the mixture. When employed, it is to be mixed with the
substance to be analyzed, introduced into the tube, and the air of
the tube is then to be driven out either by oxygen or hydrogen
gas; if these precautions are taken, which will certainly not be
found difficult of application, I doubt not that all error arising
from the nitrogen of the air would be avoided.

Charleston, 8.C., April 12, 1843. .

Messrs. Editors—I have just received the January number of
the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, and there find an arti-

First Principles of the Differential Calculus, §c. 269

cle of M. Will’s concerning M. Reizet’s experiments upon the
new method of estimating the nitrogen of organic bodies. M.
Will has not been able to obtain an appreciable quantity of ni-
trogen from the combustion of sugar and other organic ponent
ces free from nitrogen.

1.214 gram. sugar candy, burnt with the soda and lime, gave
0.00086 gram. nitrogen, which — 0.07 per cent. of the
qhgat used.

0.386 gram. stearic acid gave 0. 00028 gram. nitrogen.

i Bumerpns other experiments were made with a larger auaiaies
of the same and other substances, with similar results, and he
accounts for M. Reizet obtaining ammonia from sugar, by suppo-
sing that his mixture of soda and lime contained a nate prob-
ably the nitrate of potash.

Dr. Fownes has also been testing the experiments of M. Reizet,
and finds them incorrect, substantiating those of M. Will. 10 grs.
crystallized tartaric acid gave him 0. Saal P: e. Sanpgsay a steered
too small to be considered.

_M. Constantin Zwenger, in his article on Blaterin, thon! der
Chem. und Phar. Sept. 1842,) states that this substance contains
no nitrogen, having satisfied himself of that fact by MM. Varren-
trapp and Will’s method, the substance being eonatithtat me fal
— G20 Hlt4 O05,

_T have also examined a ppeditnts of animal. ¢ chareoal that tga
M. Laurent by the old method 2. ce ich
ps burnt with the soda and lime gare n im 26 pr cn. a

Yours, &e. re . ah Smiru.
iidlacisns June 9, 1843. 4 Oe ea

Arr. VI. esau t on the First Principles of the Differential
Calculus, together with a new investigation of Taylor's The-
; arenes = by Prof. Rona Sraoxe.

sisted i Sa “ fanction: of z, and suppose. that 2 is chang-
ed to ath; then 9¢ becomes 9(z-+h), which it is our object to
in a series ; considering x and h as indeterminate quanti-
ties, sghich: are independent of each other.
’ ‘We may evidently assume o(2+h)=92-+(A+B)yvh, (1), (a
finite expression ;) and suppose that A is a function of « and in-

270 First Principles of the Differential Calculus.

dependent of h, also that B is a function of z and h, such that it
=0 when h=0, and that yh is a function of 4 independent of «,
and such that it =0, when h=0; for according to these supposi-
tions when h=0, (1) becomes-identically gxr=9z, as it (evident-
ly) ought to be.
_ Since A is arbitrary, we may put 2h for h in (1), and if we use
B’ to denote the value of B when h is changed to 2h, (so that
B’ is the same function of x and 2h that Bis of x and h,) (1)
becomes. o(4+2h)=9r+(A+B’)y(2h), (1’); also since x is ar-
bitrary we may put #+A for x in (1), and if we denote the in-
erements of A and B (arising from the substitution of r+A for z
in A and B, which are supposed to be functions of z,) by 4A and
4B; it becomes 9(@+2h)=9(4+h)+(A+B)yh+(4A+4B)yh,
or substituting the value of ¢(z+h) from (1), 9(#+2h)=9r+
(A+B)2yh+(4A+4B)vh, (1); and subtracting (1”) from (1’),
we get A[y(2h) —2vh] + B’y(2h) —2Byh —[4A + AB]vh = 0,
which must be an identical equation ; .*. since A is independent
of h, and B’, B, 4A, 4B, are not independent of it, (since each
of them =0 when A=0,) we must have 4(2h)—2vh=0 or
y(2h)=2yh, and since his indeterminate y=1, .°. 2h=2h, an
identical equation, and A is arbitrary, as it ought to be; hence
the equation is easily reduced to 2(B/—B)—sA—4B= 0, (2),
which must be satisfied so as to be an identical equation. —
Since y=1, (1) becomes o(a-+h)=92+(A+B)i=o2+Ah+
Bh, which thal that Ah+Bh is the increment of yz arising
from the substitution of 7+-A for x, .". we may denote this inere-
ment by 4a, and shall have 49r=Ah-+Bh, (3), so that (1) be-
comes 9(2+-h)=9r-+ 49x, (4). id
First Principles of the Differential Calculus.
We may consider / as an increment of ms on denote it by dn,
and (3) becomes 49¢=A4c+B4s, (3”), o1 =A+B, (3”)5
which must manifestly be an identical seni: and be satisfied
so as to leave 4x indeterminate; .:.since A is independent of 42,
(or h,) the first member of the equation must be considered as
having a ric which is independent of eat .". if we denote this
term ws “ , We get ee oA, (4’), or dna = dx=Adz, (493
where z is called the independent variable, prvieab of 2;

First Principles of the Differential Calculus. 271

and dz,-dex are called their differentials, and =A is called
the differential co-efficient, since we must multiply dz by it to
obtain doa =e .dv=Adz. The same results are readily obtain-
ed by writing for 4a in the first member of (3’), dpr+ 4’grx=A4r
+Bzz, the d relating to the term that involves the first power
of 4 only, and the 4 to the remaining part of the right mem-
ber of (3’), .*: we get dpr=Asr=Adz, by using d for 4, in the
tight member of the equation ; this process shows the propriety
of calling the method of obtaining the expression der=Adz,
(together with its various applications,) the differential calculus,
since Adz is only a part of the entire difference Ah+Bh, obtain-
ed by putting dpc =Ah=Adz. We consider the method which
we have given (deduced from considering (3’) or (3’) as an iden-
tical equation) for obtaining (4’) or (4”), as being the true founda-
tion of the differential calculus. —

These remarks however are to be understood as referring to the
principles of the science ; for in practice the common method of

gi» BQ€ aes) . tae _ Aga
regarding ~7 = Aas expressing the limit of the ratio Zo=.

A+B when 4c is diminished in infinitum, is generally more sim-

ple and expeditious than any known method, and is therefore by

no means to be abandoned. Tamales amt ES oh Rg

~ Again, the method of Leibnitz, which consists in rejecting the
term B4z in comparison with the term Az in (3) when 4z is
indefinitely small, so that 4¢¢=Adz, or denoting these supposi-
tions by using d instead of 4, dyr=Adz, has its practical advan-

> ‘Migess’ ee be ee é

| brant rc a ee der ,

. Finally, we may consider, (if we please,) 7 ~-=Aas denoting
the operation that must be performed on gz in order to obtain A,
the co-efficient of the first power of h (only) in the expansion
of g(a+h); for it is only this co-efficient that is obtained by the
several methods that we have noticed ; and we may observe that
if we change h into dz, we shall get o(7-+dv)=92+ Adzr+Badz,
and that the term Adz is the differential of gz, so that we have

Pe en tee ae
dgxz= U or a, =A.

272. New Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem.

Investigation of Taylor's Theorem.

We shall now resume (2), 2(B’ —B) — 4A —- 4B=0, (a), which
we may put under the form 2(B’—B) —4(A+B)=9, (a’), which
is to be satisfied so as to be an identical equation ; hence since
B’ is the same function of z and 2h, that B is of x and h, it is
manifest that B must be of the same form as 4A, also that B’ has
the same form as 4A, ee that we must use 2/ in B’ where
we use Ain 4A tes

If we substitute 9 = for A in 26) it becomes ano = AUB

(3), which substituted i in (A) ¢ gives Biases h+ Bh, :

(b); since A is a function of «, the form of A must be similar
to. oe tg gz when we use A instead of gz, .:. we may PH

dA
a h+Ah, (5), where 7 is independent of h, and A’ is
= Se of z and h, such that it =0 when h=0; since A=

d =) (ep ;

diya aa ae] q\ac) dia
de We get 7 =—7—, or (if we denote © pene Arr 2 an as
F Pt Bo Re OE ER, "

1s customary,) 7-=G,21 Which reduces (5) to 4A= Ss

A’h, (5’) ; hence (from what has been said) we may represent B
and B’ by B=B,h+(z, h). h, B=B2h+-0(x, 2h). 2h, (6), where
B, is supposed to be independent of h, and 6(x, h) denotes the _
same function of z and h, that (x, 2h) does of « and 2h, these
functions being such as to =0 when h=0, so that the formsof ~~
B and B’ are similar to that of 4A, as they ought to be; and eS
4B=h[4B,+40(2, h)], (7). By substituting the values of 4A, y
By B’ and 4B in (a), and rejecting the common factor h, it be-

comes after a slight reduction 2B SA Aste, 2h) —242, h)
—4B,—4x, h)=0, which is to be an identical equation, -"+
since 2B, and dg 2t independent of h, and since the other terms
of the equation are not independent of it, i rs of them

dA d2qt
=0 when h=0,) we must put 2B, - 7 = or B hae sha

New Investigation of Taylor's Theorem. 273

d? Pee Hons aah
2. B=$ 5 h-+02,h).h, which substituted in 3”) gives 4qe=
d? ox

atta = +62, h). h?, (3); and since the form of 4A

must be ns to that of aa; when we use A instead of gz,
d?A

we may denote 4A by pedi h+4 dar 4-6/(0, hy. h?, (5),

oe, h) denoting a fanetion tr x and h, Kasai that it =0 when
(G2)

dx?
ant and if (according to the usual method) we denote —
d7A

3m
by © aie » we get 7.9 esti ; and we may here observe that we

d*-'ox
J a a=" | dor
shall denote any expression of the form ——j>—— by G3
where n is supposed to bea positive integer preater than zero. In-
dA
stead of using the equation that remains after putting 2B,— 7 =9,

we shall use (a’) in what follows ; and since the forms fo B and
B’ are to be similar to that of 4A, we may by (5”) represent
them by B=Bh+B,h?+0"(2, h). h?, and B’=B,2h+B, (2h)?
in 2h).(2h)?, (x, h) being the same function of « and h

that 6”(a, aay is of x and sec each of Reese functions being, =0

doz
mee hi and since si. a? Bat ae a “8 we get AtB= 7,
ri sts e h+B, h? 40" (a, h). he; hence substituting the values

of B, B, and A+ Bin. (oi beopmes2(8 Ge ah + 3B, he +

d*ox
(2, 2h). (2h)? =0"(m h). “3 na (HE 4a Sh Byh +
Ox, h). it) =0, fe") a

If we rae 4 (= og: ee eh + &c. * by (3) we e get

dor.

a(F- Be chs 25 6 ee _ ~ ht Ag h? +&c. which being
substituted in (a’”’), rejecting the terms which destroy each other,
dividing by 4?, then putting the terms which are independent

Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843, 35

274 New Investigation of Taylor’s Theorem.

of h (or which do not =0 when h=0) equal to zero, we get

d*y 1 d’¢
2. 3B, — Gz3 = a0, or B wee 77} hence (3’*) becomes dgr=

dox d? 9x 1
a h+4 dx? h? +33

ins ihe 6"(x, h). h’, on and since

4A has the same form as Jeux, (5) becomes 4A = oaks te

+55 5 3 = eh oM"(a, h)h?, (8), and as B and B’ must be of

similar forms, it is evident from what has been done that we may
put B=BA+B,h? +B wht + BAS + &c., and B’/=B,(2h) +
B*(2h)? +B,(2h)*+B, hye See dae these values
dx
and A+B= ae dat ht 5-3 de 4B, h?+&c. in (a’),
_ a?
we get aa dat h+d a8 h24(2'-LB, hs-+&e)
.d* ox 1 d*oxr ;

~4(GttGe h+5-3 Gs h?+B sh? +80.) =0 hc
‘is under a more convenient form than (a’”).

d? Led?

If we develope (44 aa ht53 a ht +é&c. Jove (5”,
reject the terms which destroy each bse divide by h, then put
the terms which are manent of h, equal to —_ ise “9

A \dton _ d* Ge.
and ssbiitintig oe Faint of B, in eh we at in vibe a

way find B, = =5 57 syeity 5 me and so on ; sateen hide:

d? px 1 d*qr 1 do tw
Fe? Ate 3 3 dx* hi ‘+3734 3.4 dxt = hs pee: and substituting

doz.
this in in = Suen we get etic +74; 4 a

d* ox
Faeeht ass 3 dae = ht dicen a Ge # Seat8) the ee

__, continuation being evident.

(A) is the theorem of Taylor which we vicpceed to “inves
tigate ; and we have obtained it without making any use
the binomial theorem. It may not be improper here to ob-
serve, that although (A) has been found on the supposition
that @ is i erent i may be applied when a particu-

Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 275

lar value is assigned to a, provided that none of the quanti-

dyx d? ox ;
ties 92; Ge? de®?
value of x is substituted in them, and if: any one of the aforesaid
quantities is infinite, the true development will be given by (A)
no further than to the term that first becomes infinite ; and in
order to obtain the development of the rest of the series, recourse
must be had to particular eee of algebra.’ If we substitute

&e. becomes ‘infinite when the ‘particular

dpr
the particular value x2=0 in (A), oad denote what 92, age ke.

dy’'x 6
become wien we substitute x=0 in them, by 92, Gp» &c., then

if we write x for h, oe we may evidently do,) (A) will be

d®
changed to 9(x)= caet r+h se at + bite (A’), which is

Maclaurin’s theorem; and which is applicable always when the

dy’x
quantities vx, ‘ae &e. are. hone of them. infinite ; should any

of these quantities be infinite, then ‘we are to apply particular
processes to obtain the development (when it is possible). ae h
is negative, the odd powers of / in (A) are negative, and must
have the sign — ; and similar goer are tas seer to oar

~ New Brunswick, Api 1843. oy

; pal ;

Ane. VIL—Notice se vinden of Dr Dekjs Report ‘ai the
1 tate CT York ; ch r, M.D.

[Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, June 21, 1843.]

he aaa I read to ae ociety a few weeks since a notice of Dr.

Dekay’s Report on the Reptiles of New York, I promised to re-
view his report on the fishes also of that state. -Unavoidable
circumstances have prevented me thus far from redeeming my
Pledge ‘put fearing I may still longer be detained from giving

that careful attention to the volume referred to, which, from the
popes patronage under which it has been produced, will
ubtedly be looked upon as authority in the department upon
whale it treats, by scientific men abroad, if not in this country,
I would at the present time offer you a few general remarks upon
the descriptions of those species which are also found in the wa-

276 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York.

ters of Massachusetts. This I feel compelled to do, not merely
to prevent'the propagation of many errors which are observable
throughout the pages before me, but also to enter my feeble pro-
test against the efforts of any individual to stand on ground which
is already occupied—to redescribe, under new generic and spe-
cific names, genera and species which have been known and
acknowledged by scientific men.
Previous to presenting you these rough notes, I would sinaiai
I have endeavored to persuade another, possessing more leisure
and much more accurate knowledge of many of the fluviatile
species. contained. in this volume than myself, to perform this
duty, but he has refused to attempt it, and I have no alternative
left me but to perform it myself. I cannot commence, however,
without observing that I have left untouched the descriptions of
the western and southern species, trusting the ichthyologists of
those sections of our country will feel likewise called upon to
point out any glaring defects which they may find to exist. I
would only add, if at any future period I should ascertain that
‘any of my observations now made are erroneous, I shall, upon
this floor, correct them. Entertaining for Dr. Dekay no feelings.
save such as should actuate every naturalist, I shall be most happy,
if I have unintentionally wronged him, to do him full justice—
to prove to him, what I feel you already As that my sole ob-
ject is to establigk the truth.
There is undoubtedly much valuable fnfortnation in the volume
before us; prepared as it is by one who ina manner represents
the zoologists of the state of New York, it cannot be otherwise.
It is not my purpose to dwell upon its merits ; they will undoubt-
edly be fully appreciated by all who ‘akiae it; I would merely
point out to you some of its defects. And as I have been ena-
bled to devote but fragments of time to its snquningtiny I will
follow the arrangement of our author. a
- On page 16, Dr. Dekay has thought proper to foxon: a new ge-
nus, to contain a species which he calls Pileoma semifasciatum ;
but the description and figure of this fish bowed it in the “a
Ettheostoma. of Rafinesque,
_ Boleosoma tessellatum, tm. 20. \—This species was describes by
me before this Society in April, 1841, and the description, accom-
‘panied by a figure, was published in the. number of your Journal
for January, 1842, under the name of E'theostoma Olmstedi, from

Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 277

its discoverer, Mr. Charles H. Olmsted, of East Hartford, Conn.
Dr. Dekay observes, “it approaches the genus Etheostoma in the
form of its head, but its opercules are said not to be scaly.” In
this species the preoperculum is destitute of scales, although the
artist in the figure before us has pretty liberally distributed them
over both the gill-covers; and the lower portion of the opercu-
lumis naked. Such appearances would almost justify Rafinesque
when he formed his genus, to say the “ gill-covers without scales.”
The genus Perca is described as having bony opercula, and the
genus Labrax differs from Perca in having scaled opercules ; still
the upper portion of the opercula of the Perches exhibit a greater
or less number of well marked scales. If Dr. Dekay is dissatisfied
with Rafinesque’s genus, I am unwilling he should thus presump-
tuously attempt to expunge my specific name; personal friend-
ship, as well as the most common rules of scientific etiquette,
prompt me to act on the defensive.* — . :

_ Pomotis appendix, (p. 32.)—Inasmuch as one of the charac-
ters of the genus Pomotis is “opercule with an elongated mem-
brane at its angle,’ Mitchill’s specific name of the fish here de-
scribed is evidently inappropriate, and it will undoubtedly be
hanged by some future ichthyologist who shall have an oppor-

- tunity of examining it.

_ Uranidea quiescens, (p. 61.)—About a year and a half since,
Mr. Olmsted, of whom I have previously spoken, sent me @ spe-
cimen of what appeared to him to be a new species. I at once
Tecognized it to be the Cottus viscosus of Haldeman. ‘That spe-
cimen is now in your cabinet. It is, in the volume before us,
described as a new species under a new genus.t

- Gasterosteus quadracus, (p. 67.)—Dr. Dekay in describing
this species remarks, “ Dr. Storer describes a membrane attached
to the ventral spine, which escaped my notice.” In a living
specimen now swimming before me while I am writing this no-

* Since these remarks were penned, Mr. Olmsted assures me that he examined

in the state collection at Albany, with Prof. Emmons, the gentleman who discov-
8 State: , ‘men which Dr. Dekay describes in his report as the

also states that the specimen which Dr. Dekay calls Uranidea
ens, was examined by him in the same collection, in company with Mr. Hal-
who unhesitatingly pronounced it to be his Cottus viscosus,

278 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York.

tice, a beautiful scarlet colored membrane is perfectly gran
extending from the posterior edge of the ventral spine. In five
specimens preserved in spirits, this membrane is equally ——
but colorless.

Rhombus triacanthus, (p. 137.)—The original description of
this species by Peck is very accurate. When speaking of the
situation of the spines from which it derives its name, he says:
“There is a small horizontal spine, pointing forwards, at the be-~
ginning of the dorsal fin; another at the beginning of the anal
fin; and a third, arising from the sternum and pointing back-
wards a little before the anus.” Dr. Dekay describing the fins,
observes: “ Pectorals long and pointed. Anterior to this fin, is
a broad acutely tipped. movable spine; and before this, a broad
axe-shaped movable plate or spine (see figure) occupying the.
place of the ventrals.” This is unintelligible to us. A very
minute spine at the origin of the anal fin, pointing forwards, and
an equally minute ‘spine situated in front of the anus, pointing

kwards, are all we have ever been able to find upon the ab-
domen, although the figure illustrating this species exhibits three
spines in this situation. All the specimens we have examined
have had the edge of the gill-covers smooth; the superior ante-
rior angle of the operculum in the figure referted to, shows two"
prominent sharp spines.

Gunnellus mucronatus, (p. 153. ‘estiTugler the description of %
Murenoides guttata, Yarrell, in his ‘ British Fishes,” observes:
“A specimen of a spotted gunnel from America, for ears . wes
indebted to the kindness of Mr. Audubon, proves on comp
to be in every respect so similar to the British gunnel, that shen
is little doubt it is the same species.” 2d. edit. Vol. I, p. 271. Dr.
Dekay says of this species, “it resembles the G. vulgaris of Yar=
rell, but from the above description is evidently distinct from that
species.” I would only remark, that Yarrell, with specimens of
both the foreign and native fishes before him, would be as likely
to be correct as our countryman, who apne not intimate that er
ever saw a foreign specimen. —

Lophius Americanus, (p. 162. Had our author ‘told us a
had compared our species with a specimen of the foreign fish
Lophius piscatorius, and had he pointed out any differences which’

hoticed to exist during that examination, we should un-
doubtedly have yielded our assent to his opinion ; but until some

Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 279

ichthyologist has compared the two, and shown distinctions, we
shall continue to believe our species to be the old Lophius piscato-
rius of Linnzeus, Cuvier, Pennant, Donovan, Fleming, and others.
_ Batrachus tau, (p. 168,)—We have here an instance of the
absurdity of retaining the specific name first given to a species,
whether it has any or no significancy—whether it is appropriate
ornot. I will use the words of Dr. Dekay: “The apparently
odd specific name of tau, given by Linnzeus, is derived from the
Greek name of the letter T; such a figure being produced on
the head by two elevated lines in the dried specimens.” In other
words, this species cannot be identified when living, because its
scientific (not its natural) characters do not appear until it is dead.
_ Ctenolabrus wninotatus, (p. 174.)—This fish, which is made
anew species by Cuvier, in which he is followed by Dekay, is
a mere variety of the common burgall, which may be seen by
occasional visit to the fish market. si

. Pimelodus catus, (p. 182.)—It is very questionable whether
this specific name should be retained, when there are several spe-
cies of the genus, all of which our author calls cat-fish.

_Labeo gibbosus, (p. 194.) Catostomus tuberculatus, (p. 199.)
The former of these species I introduced into my report on the
fishes of Massachusetts as a new species, upon the authority of
Lesueur, with his description, never having met with a specimen
myself. I was exceedingly surprised to find the two species in
the volume before me classed under distinct genera. — ‘My friend
Mr. W. O. Ayres, of East Hartford, Ct., whose zeal in the cause
of ichthyology is equalled only by his accurate knowledge of the
species in his vicinity, has determined that so far from being dis-

: listinet species, but that they real-

#hatr ara nnt

tinct genera, they are not even

ly are one and the sags oT De ‘ is oe Te

_ Stilbe chrysoleucas, (Pp. )—Dr. - y - marked out
what he considers a ne oi and calls it Stilbe, and as a syno-
nym of the species under this genus, he places “ Leuciscus
chrysoleucas, New York shiner, Storer, Fishes of Massachusetts,
p. 88.” Hither Dr. Dekay or myself, are in error. He says
there ‘is ashort spine before the dorsal fin, which is short.
Anal fin long.” The identical specimen which furnished my
description, which prompted Dr. Dekay to quote it as a synonym,
has belonged to the cabinet of this society, since the hour it was
described ; it is now on your table for examination. The anal fin,

280 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York.

Klein in his characteristics of the genus Leuciscus, calls “short.”
In Dr. Dekay’s new genus it is “long ;” the species which he
describes has fourteen rays in its anal fin; the species before you
has one ray less, thirteen. The difference of the length of the
anal fin then, consists in the thickness of a single membranous
ray. But it is said to have a “short spine before the dorsal fin ;”
that spine I did not notice in the description of this species in
my report, because it does not exist in the specimen before you,
nor have I been able to find a vestige of a spine in ten other speci-
mens I have examined, since the publication of the volume be-
fore me. In all other peppatts, it is eke a Leuciscus, and the
Leuciscus chrysoleucas.

_ Fundulus fasciatus, (p. 216.)—This i is an n Hydrargyra of le.
sueur. Respecting the imperfect elaboration of tis genus, I must
beg leave to dissent from Dr. Dekay. _

Fistularia tabacaria, (p. 233.)—Our siiiadle while speaking of
the spotted pipe-fish, tells us, “its geographic range is therefore
from Brazil to the coast of New York, and probably still farther
north ; for Smith, in his History of Massachusetts, speaks of hav-
ing seen two specimens of this fish from the coast of Martha’s
Vineyard, in 41° 30’ north latitude.” I shall make no comments
upon the work here referred to, but would refer Dr. Dekay to
Silliman’s Journal, Vol. xxxvi, for a general notice of it, while
I add that Dr. Smith’s collection of fishes was purchased several
years since by this Society, and that in that collection, were the
two specimens Dr. Dekay refers to, and that one of those speci-
mens was described by me in my report, as the Fistularia ser-
rata, and that that same specimen was sent by me to Dr. Dekay,
and was by him also figured and described on p. 232, as Iie FB.
serrata.

Osmerus viridescens, (p. 243.)—In the synonyms of hist spe-
cies Dr. Dekay has arranged, “the Smelt, ©. viridescens, Sto-
rer, Mass. Rep. p. 108.” In my report, I catalogued this species
as the “ Eperlanus Artedi,” and gave as a reason for so doing that
“Cuvier does not acknowledge this to be distinct from the Euro-
pean fish, and therefore Artedi’s name has the priority.” 1 have
yet to loins that this species is distinct from the European smelt.

Baione fontinalis, (p. 244.)—Dr. Dekay has thought proper to
form anew genus for what is ne sete a young a
trout—Salmo fontinalis. —

4 J
‘ Mand

~ Clupea elongata, (p. 250.)—We could have overlooked Dr.
Dekay’s copying our description of the common herring of Mas-
sachusetts, without giving us credit for the same, had he not un-
fortunately transferred an error contained in said description into
his pages. Instead of the eyes being “two diameters apart,” the

‘distance between the eyes is less than the diameter of the eye.

- Alosa tyrannus, (p. 258.)—Our common alewive is here cata-
logued under Latrobe’s specific name of tyrannus, although it is
acknowledged to be “absurd and unmeaning,” because Peck’s
prior name of serrata “is a mere name without any specific
character, or clue to its identity.” Why is not Peck’s name as
appropriate here as that of Pimelodus catus? 'The specific char-
acter is evidently indefinite in both—in neither more so, how-
ever, than the name of tyrannus in this species ; and we are not
a little surprised that the New York ichthyologist had not retain-
ed the very acceptable and appropriate name of Dr. Mitchill,
piece for this species.

- Amia occidentalis, (p. 269. Why i is not this species the Amia
calva, described and figured by Kirtland in Vol. III, No. 41, of the
Boston Journal of Natural History, published in Noventiber; 1840,
as inhabiting Lake Erie? Its size is the same as that species ;
the number of its fin-rays differ but slightly. Dr. Dekay, it is
true, while pointing out its characters, says “tail unspotted ;”
but then he afterwards acknowledged, when speaking of _
colors—« I can say nothing, ae Thad only a ¢ ores sree

- Lota inornata, (p. 283.)—I read rip ies to
this Society, April 21, 181, 1 der the nam 0 a brosmiana a;
that description, accompanied — figure, , appeared in your Jour-
nal for January, 1842. | ahaa hin

-Brosmius vulgaris, vir 299: De Dekey was rights in doubt-
ing mers ideenierat the American cusk with the European species.

myself a time since, that I had committed an error
in my report. he ut. r author has never seen a specimen of Le-
sueur’s cusk, I would here point out its differences from the for-
eign species. It is of a more elongated form; its dorsal and
anal fins are united to the caudal fin; its eyes are oblong, and
there is an ‘immense difference: in the’ number of their fin-rays.
Dr. Dekay seems to have ‘misunderstood my account of the color
of this species. He says “the cusk of Storer, is uniform dark
slate.” described, as I here state, in my report, a specimen

” a xtv, No. 2.—July—Sept. 1843.

282 Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York.

twenty five inches in length, and weighing between three and
four pounds. That small specimen was of an uniform dark slate
color; but on the next page, I say “in a specimen weighing
twenty pounds,” (or in other words, in the more mature fish,)
“the color is brown upon the back, with yellowish sides and.
white abdomen.” This, the adult fish, you perceive is not of
an uniform dark slate.” pees .
- Lumpus anglorum, (p. 305.)—In my account of the lump
fish in my report, when speaking of the ridge in front of the dor-
sal fin, I remarked, “this ridge is formed of distinct rays; which
are very visible in the dried specimen.” Dr. Dekay, who must
hhave had my report before him when he described that species,
because he quotes me as having seen “one which weighed sev-
enteen pounds,” observes “the dorsal lump without any vestige
of rays; at least, I found none in two which I examined.” A
dried specimen belonging to the cabinet of this Society lies before
you, in which the rays are perfectly obvious. 1f Dr. Dekay had
dissected a specimen, he would never have made such an error;
eight rays are distinctly seen upon removing the flesh. he
Anguilla tenuirostris, (p. 310.)—The description of this spe
cies is one of the most accurate in the volume before us; and had
it borne its true specific name, it should have been left untouched.
This species is Lesueur’s “ Mureena Bostoniensis,” and I cannot
see an effort made to erase it, without protesting against such a
step. Dr. Dekay says “it may possibly be the Bostoniensis of Le-
sueur, as given in his brief sketch of the Murenidz of the United
States; but the description is too incomplete to enable me to de-
termine it with certainty.” How does it differ from the Bostoni-
ensis?' Lesueur’s species is “above of a dark olivaceous brown,
throat and abdomen grayish, region of the anus yellow ochre,
towards the tail reddish.” Dekay’s species is “grayish olive
above, yellowish beneath.” Lesueur’s, “jaws acute and short.”
‘Dekay’s, ‘‘ head small, tapering to the jaws.” Lesueur’s, “ length
about twenty four inches.” Dekay’s, “length one to two feet.”
The differences I cannot perceive; they cannot be pointed out.
Dr. Dekay says, ‘(I think it probable, but am not so certain, that
the common eel of Massachusetts, noticed by Dr. Storer, may
‘also be referred to this species.” I would only remark, I never
“saw but one species of eel in the Boston market; that eel, Le
Sueur saw in the same market, and called it Bostoniensis ; that

bees

Notice of the Report on the Fishes of New York. 283

same eel, Dekay has admirably described nearly thirty years sub-
sequently, as a new: speciesi: Aish A etorineeer FPPC
- Syngnathus fasciatus, (p. 319.)—This species I described and
figured several years since in my report, under the name of S.
Peckianus. Dr. Dekay says his species differs from mine in the
following particulars: ‘The body of our species, in front of the
dorsal fin, is heptangular; head and rostrum proportionally longer ;
the greatest depth of the rostrum scarcely exceeding twice the
greatest depth of the head. . The dorsal fin longer than the head,
measured to the posterior part of the operculum.” My descrip-
tion reads as follows—‘ on each side of the anterior portion of the
body are three ridges, and one passes from the neck through the
middle of the abdomen to the vent ;” these seven ridges, I suppos-
ed made it heptangular. The length of the head differs much
in its proportions to the whole length of the fish in this species,
andcannot be relied upon. ‘Thus in three specimens lying before
me at this moment, one measuring eight inches, has the head
one inch long; another measuring eight and a half inches, has
the head precisely as long as the former ; and a third seven inch-
es long, has the head seven eighths of an inch long. As great a
difference is noticeable in the depth of the rostrum. also, in
my report, state the dorsal fin to be longer than the head.
. Syngnathus viridescens, (p. 321.)—In my report, I called
this species fuscus. The difference between Dekay’s fish and
that which I described is this—in his specimen its color was
“dark olive green above ;” in mine, the “body was of an irreg-
ular dull brown color above.” You ean judge whether a mere
shade of color constitutes a specific character.

- Lactophrys camelinus, (P- 341.)—I do not refer to this page to
say aught of the genus, which appears to me however to be alto-
gether unnecessary, but merely to observe, Lregret that any sci-
entific man should allow himself to refer to a mere popular work,
particularly if that work has been publicly pronounced, and prov-
ed to be, full of errors and unworthy the slightest confidence. I
would again refer him to the notice of a History of Fishes of
Massachusetts, contained in Silliman’s Journal for 1839.

_ Spinax acanthias ? (p. 359.)—After quoting this species with
a query, upon my authority, Dr, Dekay observes, “1 am almost
inclined to suspect our species distinct from that of Europe.”
This remark would have seemed much less singular if he had

given any reasons for his suspicion. The line which he ainsende
from me thus in parenthesis, could have weighed nothing with
him, (“‘under the lateral line, a series of white circular spots,”
Storer,) because this appearance exists also in the foreign fish.
Thus Yarrell, in his description of this species, says, “the upper
part of the head, body, and fins, slate gray ; under parts are
ish white ; young specimens generally exhibit a few white spots.”
2d edit. Vol. Il, p. 526. I stated the specimen which I describ-
ed to be “thirty four inches in length”—you perceive it was an
immature fish. —

Had not these citenrlis at already so protracted, I chau
have made a few observations upon the Scopelus Humboldtii,
Ammodytes Americanus? Hippocampus Hudsonius? and others.

I hope that some ichthyologist posses nial oe inisare, will furnish
a more extended 1 notice of the dosh thus cursoril y exam-
inedy = {

—Itis to abi seginttod that Dr. Dekay wiped have studiously
seiblessd the labors of Rafinesque. With all his eccentricities,
and want of method and frequent want of accuracy, there is
much worthy of commendation in his “ Ichthyologia Ohioensis”
—much which should claim the grateful remembrance, at ke
of American ichthyologists.

Anr. VIIL—On Greek Verbal Roots in English; by Prof. J. w. Gimas

Greek verbal roots are liable to various changes or modifications,
which disguise them more or less to the English eye, and prevent the
full appreciation of the meaning of many important. terms. Ages
these are some employed in natural science. -

Modern philologists have attempted with great labor to clameite these
changes or reduce them to general principles, and to give a philosoph-
ical account of their origin. We propors to give their results $0 ad
as the English language is concerned.

I. The following are euphonic processes, having for their objec
merely to relieve the organs of speech, or to please the ear.

1. The radical vowel a is sometimes changed into e. This is effect:
ed by attenuation or precession of vowel sound, ‘See Prof. A. Crosby :
Greek Gram. § 29. Examples will occur as we proceed. ’

2. The radical letters, particularly a vowel and liquid, are some-
times transposed; as, dragon for dracon, ‘ sharp-sighted,’ from »/dare,

Greek Verbal Roots in. a 285

‘to see,’ by transposition «/drac ; tmesis, ‘a
‘to cut,’ by transposition and precession of vowel a/tme; emblem,
‘something inlaid,’ from 4/bal, ‘to cast? or —_ 4 ie AED asubeie
precession of vowel a/dle.

3. The last consonant of the root sometimes ailppes or pcitmnndligage
itself to the first consonant of the suffix ; as, crypt, ‘hidden,’ from
a/cryb, ‘to hide,’ by accommodation a/cryp ; prolepsis, ‘ anticipation,”
from a/lab, ‘to take,’ by precession of vowel and accommodation
v/lep; apsis, ‘juncture,’ from a/aph, ‘to join,’ by accommodation
‘ap; practical, ‘doing, from «/prag, *to do, by accommodation
prac ; apoplectic, ‘striking down,’ from a/plag, ‘to strike,’ by pre-
cession of vowel and accommodation a/plec ; hectic, ‘ habitual,’ from
/hech, ‘to have,’ by accommodation 4/hec; dogma, ‘an opinion,’
from a/doc, ‘to seem,’ by accommodation a/dog ; paradigm, ‘an ex-
resp from a/dic, ‘to show,’ by accommodation Jdig. —

4, The last consonant of the root sometimes assimilates itself to the
first letter of the suffix; as, comma, ‘a segment,’ from 4/cop, ‘to cuts’
lemma, ‘a received truth, from: wei to take,’ 8 saeneage of
vowel a/leb.

5. The last consonant ok the rob is sometimes var off before sp
suffix by syncope; (1.) m; as, climate, ‘a country in reference to its
geographical position,’ from a chy: ‘to lean; (2.) d; as, phrase,
‘a speaking,’ from «/phrad, “to say ;? (3.) th; as, plastic, ‘ forming,’
from.a/plath, ‘to form,’ by dropping the final th and strengthening the
vowel a/plas ; (4.) the digamma or u; as, pleiad, the name of a star,
from »/pleu, * to sail,” by Sropping sip final u and then protracting ‘the
vowel e, a/ plet

6. The final eael the root is sometimes sideasd Wheelnaind before the
suffix by'an epenthetic 8; as, caustic, « burning,’ from a/cau, ¢ to burn ;
‘schism, ‘a division, from «/schid, ‘to divide,’ by dropping the final
d and strengthening the —_ vate upasm, *a contraction,’ from
a/spa, ‘to draws ot
IL The following perio arise from internal infeotianss or change
of vowel within the root itself.

1. The: radical vowel a is. sometimes -séolianted by internal inflec-
tion; as, system, ‘things standing together,’ from «/sia, ‘ to stand,’ by
baker and a RNET: of vowel ste. So emblem from »/bal ;

2. The fade? ‘eheok ais ‘somnettiner changed into o by internal in-
flection ; as, ode, ‘a song,’ from v/aed, ‘to sing; tome, ‘a volume,’
from a/tam, ‘to cut; ; tone, ‘a note,’ from 4/tan, ‘to stretch ;’ para-
bole, ‘a comparing,’ from 4/bal, ‘to cast’ or ‘lay.’

Ill. The following were originally emphatic processes for expressing
with more force the idea of continued action.

286 Greek Verbal Roots in English.

1. The radical vowel a is sometimes protracted ; as, Jemma, ‘a re-
ceived truth,’ from a/lab, ‘to take,’ by protraction and precession of
vowel 4/leb; phenomenon, ‘something appearing,’ from «/pha, ‘to
show,’ by protraction and eee of yorts and by the addition of
n, A/phen.

2. The radical vowel is sometimes strengthened by a nasal ; as,
yeedenn, ° a drum,’ from a/typ, ‘ to strike.

3. The radical vowel is sometimes strengthened by guna, that is, u
is mate into eu; as, zeugma, ‘a juncture,’ from a/zyg or zug, *to
join;’ pentateuch from a/tych or tuch.

4, The two first letters of the root are sometimes repeated; as,
synagogue, ‘an assembling together, from 4/ag, ‘to lead’ or ‘ bring.’ -

5. The form of the root is sometimes lengthened, (1.) by the addi-
i of a vowel; as, @sthetic, * pertaining to. rhetoric or taste,’ from
a/aesth, ‘to perceive ;? Genesis, ‘origin,’ from »/gen, ‘to produce ;’
(2.) by the addition of the consonant n; as, diaphanous, ‘ shining
through,’ from a/pha, ‘to show ;’ or ¢3 as, hasta ‘to immerse,’ from
»/baph, ‘to immerse,’ by accommodation and strengthening J bapt 5
ja by the addition of a vowel and erect as, auxesis, ‘increase,’

espe *to increase.’ ;

LIST OF GREEK VERBAL ROOTS IN ENGLISH.

1. r/a, (Gr. 4/%,—=Sansc. a/wd,) breathing; whence air for aer,
(./a-+ suff. er,) the fluid which we breathe ; aerial, w/a we
suff. i+-Lat. suff. al,) pertaining to the air.

2. a/aed, (Gr. a/¢0,) by internal inflection oed, (Gr. @0,) singing ;
whence ode, (a/oed -+-e mute,) a sng tragedy, (a/trag + Soak
suff. y,) literally a goat-song.

3. a/aesth, (Gr. </ai6;) with lengthened form aesthe, (Gr: aio)
perceiving; whence esthetic, dns ahora suff. tic,) a te
perception, particularly of the beau

4. a/aeth, (Gr. ce) shining ; a ether, (W/acth+-sft er )
the shining upper air

5. »/ag, (Gr. ify =Lat. »/ag,) by. ithaviond sellainsiei tag (Gr. ay.)
leading or bringing ; whence paragoge, (pref. para+-a/ag repeatet
suff. e,) a bringing or putting on of a letter or syllable to the fod of “
word ; synagogue, (pref. syn+-a/ag repeated+-ue mute,) a congreg®
wreetse, - Jews ; nS pint Bs Aad repeated +e mute;) a ns
ple-lea ?

6. aph, v/arh (0 ‘nfitte or ae =Lat. x/ag joining ; whence opis

apsides, (4/aph--suff, sid,) literally a juncture.
a. Pe aa i Binns rae eon whence er adj: ciel
(wv rate women

Greek Verbal Roots in English. 287

s/arch,) one ruling alone; archetype, (s/arch with union-vo
a/typ-+-e mute,) first impressed, original ; architect, (March with union-
vowel i-+-a/tec+suff. t,) a chief leh Wi reese eoemntatae
with e mute,) a chief duke. ~

8. a/aug, (Gr. a/ody, =Lat. ‘af aug, ian pres with lengthened fore,
iaive, (Gr. av&e,) increasing; whence sents: (a/emepeot aieshi in-
crease, as the name of a rhetorical

9. a/ba, (Gr. a/Be,) going 5. whence bass or base, (o/bapoul sia
or se,) a stepping, that on which any

10. a/bal, (Gr. 4/80), =Lat. a/bal. in ro ig by, intaroul inflete
tion bol, (Gr. 8o2,) by transposition and lengthening of the vowel dle,
(Gr. 84,) casting or laying; whence symbol, (pref. syn+-a/bol,) what
by comparison. suggests something else; parabole, (pref. para+-a/bol
+-suff. e,) a comparing or laying along side; parable, (the same form
more fully Anglicized,) a species of smigihad omen entice
(pref. en+-4/ble-+-suff. m,) something inlaid. j

AL. /baph, (Gr. a/8e9,) with final radical snicteetbantes tems
ree Gant) dipping ; whence baptize, cont ize,) to administer

sacrament of baptism.

ve vibe, (Gt. nfo) feeding, whence botany, (w/bo-fsiple sult
tany,) the science of plants; proboscis, (pref. profe/bossl aerle
ase s,) literally what feeds before.

18. a/camp, (Gr. a/xaua, = Sanse. a/kamp,) with final eae
iengibiened by t, campt, (Gr. ihe meee whence anacamptic,
~~ ana--a/campt-Lsuff. ic,) reflected.

14. a/cau, (Gr. a/xav,) burning ;. sscdeabiale pa («/caustrength-
ened by s-+-double suff. tic,) burning ;, cautery, (o/cau-+suff. tery,) an
instrument for meen holocaust, (x/hol with union-vowel o-pa/cau

holly

“16 ileas (Gr. / 198) by lengthening the yowel chre, (Gr. zg1,)
using; whence catachresis, catenend eatefceney mk. sis,) abupe, as
the name of a rhe

16. a/chri, (Gr. May sab snaihtings deieialen haken, (/chri-strength-
ened by s-+suff. m,) unguent x Chirtst, dalches eee by s+
suff. ¢,) literally, the:

17. a/chro, (Gr. 710). sliiihan Siediniie hinens (a/chro--suff mée,)
a metal which affords beautiful c

‘Nore.—The three preceding numbers, a/chra, a/chri, and a/chro,
are reenter: as collateral roots, all signifying primarily to touch the

errs afeky, (Gr. a/x¥,) pouring ; whence parenchyma, (pref. para+-
pref. en-+n/chy+suff. ma,) the spungy substance of the viscera.

19. a/cla, (Gr. 4/#ha,) breaking ; whence iconoclast, (4/icon with
union-vowel o-+-a/cla strengthened by s+-suff. ¢,) an image-breaker.

288 Greek Verbal Roots in English.

20. a/clin, (Gr. a/xduv, =Lat. a/clin, Eng. lean,) leaning; whence
clinic, (a/clin+suff. ic,) pertaining to a bed; climate or clime, (a/clin

_suff. mate or me,) a country in reference to its geographical position ;
enclitic, (pref. en+-«/clin+-double suff. ¢ic,) inclining.

21. a/cap or cop, (Gr. a/*an or xo7,) cutting ; Capon, (/ cia he
on,) the name of a bird; comma, (4/cop--suff. ma,) a segment ; apo-
cope, Maes epotVenp a ¢) a At Ss off, as the name of a gram-

22. Mots (Gr. a/*oa,) mixing; whence crasis, (Vora sult sis,)
a mixing, as the name of a grammatical figure. :

23. a/cri, (Gr. a/*9t, =Sanse. r/kri, Lat. s/kre or kri,) sifting or
separating 5 whence crisis, («/cri-+suff. sis,) a separation, decision ;
critic, (A/ critdouble suff. tic,) pertaining to judging. 3

24. a/oryd, (Gr. xgu8,) with final radical strengthened by ¢, crypt,
(Gr. xguzt,) hiding ; iene anges (a/crypt,) hidden, a vault ; apocry-
pha, (pref. apo--a/ers . a,) hidden, nee to books which were
laid up at home and not read in public.

25. a/cy, (Gr. a/*,) containing ; whence cyst, (Wey cecil
by s-suff. ¢,) a bag or tunic containing morbid matter in sidtinals bod-
ies; cyma or cyme, (a/cy--suff. ma or me,) literally something con-

tained. ©

26. a/darc, (Gr. «/dagx, —Sansc. a/dric,) by transposition iia,
(Gr. dgax,) seeing; whence dragon, (4/drag for drac4-suff. on,) pies
sighted, the name of an animal.

27. a/de, (Gr. »/08,) binding; whence anademe, (pref. asin
-+-suff. me,) a chaplet of flowers ; diadem, (pref. peehabeapnet “
a head-band worn by kings.

28. a/dem, (Gr. »/5e#,) by internal inflection dom, (Gr. ae bld-
ing; whence dome, (a/dom-+e mute,) a house.

. adic, (Gr. dex, =Sansc. dig, Lat. dic, Eng. teach,) sigs
w/ineidens paradigm, (pref. para+«/dic+suff. m,) an example ; —
tic, ee apo-+r/dic+-double suff. ‘tic)) demonstrative.

30. a/do, (Gr. a/50, =Sanse. dd, Lat. da,) giving; ‘eileia dee;
fait cull se,) quantity given ; iitbibotes (pref. anti+-a/do-suff. te,)
a counteracting medicine ; apodosis, (pref. pep sioyas my aps
application of a similitude. ©

31. a/doc, (Gr. a/dox, Lat. doc;) thinking or seeming ; whence
dogma, (4/doc--suff. ma,) an opinion

32. a/dra, (Gr. a/dee,) acting ; ariseaits drama, (/ dra--sufl. ma)
an action labored after the rules of art
33. a/dram, (Gr. a/dgau,) by interil inflection drom, (Gr. deat)
running; whence dromedary, (4/drom-+suff. ad--Lat. suff. ary,) 4
species of camel ; syndrome, out tye mute,) a concul-

Greek Verbal Roots —

rence ; hippodrome, (4/hipp with uni mn nv rel o ee “ei ae —
place for running horses

» 84, a/ep, (Gr. of Fer, =Sanse feats Le tafe) ngine whence
epic, (x/ep--suff. ic,) narrati

85. aferg, (Gr. o/ Feo; = Bag wap ne scien inflection org,
(Gr. Fogy,) working ; whence organ, («/org-+suff. an,) an instrument;
energy, (pref. en--a/ erg--suff. y,) efficacy 5 liturgy, (A/lit with union-
vowel o--a/erg—-suff. y,) public service. —

86. afeth, (Gr. V5) to be wont ; “whence ethic, (etpout ic)
relating to morals.

| 87. o/gam, (Gr. o/7aHt;) marrying ; whence polygamy, wale
/gam-+suff. y,) marriage with several.

38. 4/gen, (Gr. a/7é, =Sanse. dzhan, Lat. gen and gna or ¢ na,) by
internal inflection gon, (Gr. yov,) and with lengthened form gene, (Gr.
78v,) producing ; whence oxygen, (a/ory-+a/gen;) acid-making ; cos-
mogony, (/cosm with union-vowel o-ba/, 'gon-+suff. y,) the origin of the
world ; Benen; (Mgene-Psull. sis,) _ aeapeesas of the first book
of Moses.

89. glyph, (Gr. a/yive) cutting ii in; whence. nile a cavity in-
tended as an ornament; Pee oie (wee with union-vowel o+°
“ere a sacred character.
40. »/gno, (Gr. a/770, =Sanse. s/dthnd, i. igus or no, Eng.
know,) knowing ;. avis gnome, (a/gno-+suff. me,) something known,
a maxim ; ce ‘gno--suff. ad ae the —_ or pin of a

; whence graphic, nie So ic mei ~ a
(tetera) an instrument for communicating to a distance ;
Aaplngnaehe (A hagi __ union-vowel union-vowel o-W/graph-t-suf a,) sacred
writings. © :
42. (Gr. ator, oiak peri weisanar’ “ahobee harpy, (n/ harp
suff. nee a Galees: paanster' meyer, ik Sante suff. oon,) a

43. preect or sstnoekt (Gr. shicy wt win. by ashipcniical sche, (Gr.
ace having; whence hectic, (a/hech+-double suff. tic,) habitual ;
(n/ene-pa/ heek-+ sult sy;) itt habit ; scheme, (a/eche-+-eull

ws
44. »/id, (Gr: genie sais. a/rwid, Lat. 4/vid, Eng. wit,) with
— form ide, (Gr. Fide,) seeing; whence idea, (a/ide-+-suff. a,)

ae Eis (Gr enflab, —Sanse. ‘a/labh,) by lengthening the radical
vowel leb, (Gr. 478,) taking; whence astrolabe, (astr with union-
Vol. xiv, No. ota itt 1843. 37

290 Greek Verbal Roots in English.

vowel o-+a/lab-+-e mute,) literally a star-taker ; prolepsis, (pref. pro
so/leb--suf. sis,) anticipation ; lemma, (leb+-suff. ma,) a received

truth. |

46. eflamey, (Gr. lawr,) shining ; whence lamp, a light made with
oil and a wick

47. a/leg, (Gr. a/iey, —Lat. «/leg,) by internal inflection log, (Gr.
Joy,) gathering, speaking ; whence prolegomena, (pref. ~pro--a/leg+
suff. omena,) preliminary observations; lewicon, («/leg--double suff.
sicon,) a dictionary ; dialogue, (pref. dia+«/log+-ue mute,) a con-
versation.. —

48. v/lip, (Gr. Jlin, = =Lat. liqu,) leaving, failing ; whence ellipsis,

(pref. en-+-v/lip-+-suff. Sed an omission; eclipse, (pref. ec--a/lip+
suff. se,) literally a failure.

49. v/lit, (Gr. a/hat,) supplcating. whene litany, (/ lit-4-double
suff, -any,) a form of supplication. _

50. a/ly, (Gr. /iv,=Lat. /lu in todong loosing whence ancien
(pref. ana--a/ly-+suff. sis,) a resolving.

51. a/mach, (Gr. »/uaz,) fighting ; Bi a naumachy, (n/ame
/mach--suft. y,) a fight of ships; monomachy, (a/mon. with union-
vowel o-+-a/mach-suff. y,) a single fight.

52. a/man, (Gr. 4/uer,) to be mad; whence mania, (/man--s

ia,) madness.

53. a/math, (Gr. a/uad,) with lengthened form uth (Gr. pads,
learning; whence philomath, (a/phil with union-vowel gibi a
lover of learning ; chrestomathy, (a/chrest with union-vowel o--a/math
-tsuff. y,) useful or necessary learning ; mathematical, (x/mathe+-
— suff. matic+-Lat. suff. al,) pertaining to the science of quantity.

54. «/nem, nom, (Gr. A/veu, vou,) pasturing, ruling ; whence nomad ;
antinomian ; astronomy ; economy.

55. a/op, (Gr. a/on,) seeing, whence optic; synopsis ; intone

56. a/path, (Gr. 4/700, =Lat. a/pat,) suffering; whence patos
pathic; apathy.

_ 57. a/pau, (Gr. A/zev,) ceasing; whence pause.

58. a/pemp, pomp, (Gr. ere mort y) sents ; whence none lit
onaby a sending under esco:

59. a/pen, pom, (Gx. a/er, 209, =Lat. a/pen in penury) boing
abisaie, geoponic, laboring the. earth.

"60. a/pet, (Gr. a/72r, =Sanse. a/pat, Lat. x/pel,) by syncope of
the radical npwel and extension pto, (Gr. mto,) falling ; whence. a?

ptom.
61. ales (Gr. pahtages =Lat. a/pat,) spreading, aio : sheen
62. yen phe, ie ats Ga, $7, i a ae joe ni

Greek Verbal Rootsin English. = 201

63. w/ pha, (Gr. a/ga, =Sanse. dhs wth Tengthened fo none,
st ~ gar, purrs) aires — —_— SN phe

pane idan phor, (Gr. ye 23 909, scdiatai a/bhei, Laks fer, Bng
bear,) bearing ; whence periphery ; metaphor ; phosphor.
65. a/ phil, (Gr. a/p42,) loving; whence philter ; philomel. _
66. a/phleg, phlog, (Gr. a/phey, ploy, =Sanse. a/ bhradzh, Lat.
he, and Sug, Eng. sain abinings noeiiet waeen paren philo-

giston,
67. \/phraa (Gr. ee) soying ‘vem: phrase poriphress

paraphra,

» 68. site. (Gr. nami Pr hands: Siaplrane: F

69. a/phtheg, (Gr. »/8ey7,) saying ; whence ee

10. a/phthi, (Gr. »/p%,) wasting away ; whence p

11. /phy, (Gr. NA ES =Sanse. »/bhit, Lat. had ‘tee a) on
born; whence physic ; symphysis ; neophyte

72. »/plac, ploc, (Gr. nisin lei folding: whence ilo im-
plication, a figure of rhetoric.
ee = a es) xing whenee apoplery

: neumonic.

77. a/po, (G Tr. fy “sande. p Lat. vpn fone saad
whence symposium

78. »/poe, (Gr. 708) “ benim fi. poet (Si, “) mak
ing; whence poet ; poem

79. »/prag, (Gr. Seed > asicg whence pragmatics prasis.
80. a/pri, (Gr. a/791,) sawing 5 whence prism.

be A/ pst, pse> (Gr. Vy, v1) 7 rubbing + “whence Spilinpeest, an

pets . w/praly (Gr. w/ vals) playing onan instrument; whence psalm ;
psaltery

83. envi (Gr. w/o =lat writ inpitit, Eng. spit,) spitting ;
whence ptysmagogue.
84. a/rheu; rhe, (Gr. “ioe, ée, eaSante. Mfarie Lat. 4/ru in rivus,)
: ee _rheum; rhetoric; diarrhea; catarrh.
. 85. r/scad scand, (Gr. nfoxed, oxavd, =Sansc. a/scand, Lat.
tf ndal..«

seeing ; whenc ‘ shop.
56 a/schid, (Gr. Jon, = . a/ishhid, Lat. 4/scind, Eng.
sheathe,) dividing; whence schism.

292 Greek Verbal Roots in English.
88. hese (Gr. none, = =Lat. a/spa in spatium,) drawing ; liste

spasm

89, alae (Gr. onag, =Sansc. a/sphar, Lat. a/spar in auld’
scattering ; whence sperm

ee spond, (Gr sored, gnovd,) pouring out; whence

spond

91. abi ste, (Gr. stent ory, = —Sansc. a/stha, Lat. sta, Eng. stay,)
stiiding ; whence apostate; metastasis ; apostasy ; system

92. v/stal, stol, (Gr. a/otel, otk, —Eng. stall,) ohictig, sending
wherive peristaltic ; diastole ; apostolic ; j apostle ; epistle..

93. »/steph, (Gr. n/ore@,) crowning; whence Stephen, a proper name.

94, Pericsnen nae ate weal stig in instigate, Eng. stick,) mark-
me Sb aranges real (Gr. x/oreep, otg0g,) turning ; whence srophe

+ 96. r/iag, (Gr. toy,) arranging ; whence tactic ; syntax

97. a/tam, tom, (Gr. a/ Tap, Tom, =Lat. n/i tem,) by Siaiipenition sii

bscthetiey of radical eae ime, (Gr. zn,) cutting 5 whence tome;

atom; anatomy ; epitome ; tmesis

98. Mian, ton, (Gr. tay, tov, ssattdwinss ven, Lat. a/ten, Eng. inns)

g3 whence tone ; tonic; hypotenus

“99, A thaph, (Gr. a/Oag, in Oént, chine /tap, Lat. ae be
rying ; whence cenotaph.

100. a/thraph, throph, (n/boag, ie) nourishing ; whence atrophy.

LOL. A/the, (Gr. 9/0, =Sansc. a/dhd, Lat. «/do in meen. ae
whence thesis; theme; anathema ; antithetic.

102. v/thel, (Gr. 4/6ed,) willing ; whence monothelite.

103. /ther, (Gr. »/49, =Lat. ferv,) to be warm ; ; whence thermal
anthracite.

104. /ti, (Gr. a/,) honoring; whence Titus, Timon, proper
names

105. a/trap, mare (Gr. a/tga7, To07,) turning; whence trope:

106. 4/tych, (Gr. a/tvz,) with guna of radical yowel teuch, (Gr. ran)

making ; whence pentateuch.
© 107. a/typ, (Gr. a/to7, igi ie ARIES type, ympasios
“108. a/2a, 20, (Gr. a/ba, Co,.=Sansc. a/dzhiw, Lat. nee =
ne whence azote ; zoolo, fk
109. a/ze, zy; st aid 2) boiling whence apontes} zeolite j ae

azyme.
y 10. a/ 20, iG w/in, Sans. a/ yu, Lat. J ju in jus,) binding, ent
ing; whence zon
AL 29g, (Gr. s/cv7s =Sanse. /yudzh, Lat, o/jug, Eng. yoke)
una of sect Ra (Gr. riche joining 5 whence pete!

Mr. Redfield on Tides and Curre

abit

Ann. 1X.-Remarks on Tides and. the Prevailing Currents of
the Ocean and Atmosphere ; by W. C. RepFIELp.

[Read before the American Philosophical Society ‘at their centennial meeting,
; May 27th, 1843.] ga ae PD

, ‘Tue summary remarks ‘and suggestions which follow, relate
chiefly to the systematic currents of the ocean and the atmos-

phere; and were drawn up on short notice in the summer of
1838 at the request of a gentleman attached to the U. S. Explo-
ting Expedition,* and were designed for reference, correction,
and verification, by the scientific observers of the Expedition. —
The views thus submitted I had derived, in previous years,
from somewhat extensive examinations of the observations which
had been. made by voyagers and travellers in different seas and
countries, and they are offered without an array of particular ref-
erences to the numerous facts and observations from which they
have been derived. ‘This course was adopted, on that occasion,
as being the least laborious, and because it was the undoubted
design of the observers of. the expedition to subject all general
views and theories to the test of direct observations. e
or those specific observations from
which my results had been drawn, I delineated on maps and
charts which were’ furnished me for the purpose, not only the
: f the systems of general winds and

wreck of the Peacock, near the mouth of the Columbia River.

It is not my design to bestow further labor upon this exten-

sive subject till the observations and results of the expedition
shall have been pul lished. But as observations on meteorology
and the cognate branches of terrestrial physics may have been
more limited in. the expedition than I could have had reason to
apprehend, particularly in the Atlantic, I venture now to lay be-
fore the Society my nfinished memoir of that period, even with-
out those specific delineations which would have been afforded

by the lost maps, which I have not yet attempted to reconstruct.

* James D. Dana Esq., geologist of the expedition.

294 Mr. Redfield’s Remarks on Tides.

I proceed now to the remarks which were addressed to the
gentlemen of the expedition.

The preparation and departure of the Expedition fitted out by
the goverment of the United States for the scientific examination
of distant seas and countries, naturally awakens feelings of inter-
est and expectation in the American public, as well as among
the friends of science, in this and other countries. In such feel-
ings the writer of these remarks fully partici pates, and the oppor-
tunities for useful observation which the Expedition is likely to
afford, on various natural phenomena which have engaged his
attention, may perhaps justify the following statements and sug-
gestions, addressed to those who are to conduct the movements
and perform the scientific labors of the expedition.

“The instructions which have been drawn up by Sir J. F. Ww.
Herschel, for observations in meteorology, and by M. Arago, for
the discovery vessel, the Bonite, together with the valuable re-
ports which have been made to the U.S. Naval Lyceum by its”
committee and other distinguished individuals, with direct refer-
ence to this expedition, have presented many important topics of
investigation.* There are still, however, some points of interest
and importance which seem to deserve more particular notice.

Indeed, the subjects of natural science which invite the inves-
tigation of the Expedition, are too numerous and important to be
easily exhausted.

OF TIDES.

The valuable labors of Prof. Whewell and Mr. Lubboek tae
greatly enlarged our knowledge of the tides; owing chiefly to
the fact that these gentlemen have followed the method of direct
induction from actual observations, made at different localities.
To the directions given by Prof. Whewell for obtaining the cor-
rect establishment, or true time of high water at the full and
_ change of the moon, nothing more need be added.

It is a question of some importance, however, if it be not al-
ready determined, whether the main tidal wave of .the North
Atlantic be Srived directly from the great Southern Ocean, aS
Prof. Whewell supposes, or, whether it mainly follows a circuit
of es pevolution, north of the equator, around an elongated axis of

Pia 7

*See Naval Magen for Jamasy, 1837, Vol I, p- 64, et seq.

Mr. Redfield’s Remarks on Tides. = 298

neutral position, situated in mid ocean, somewhere between 18°
and 26° north latitude, as had | ggested at an earlier period.*

A like question arises in regard to the tide-waves of both the
North and South Pacific. ‘The inquiry is therefore presented,
whether the tidal wave in the North Pacific ocean does not move
in a circuit, around a central position not greatly distant from the
Sandwich Islands, the wave moving westerly in mid ocean in
the intertropical or equatorial latitudes and easterly in the higher
latitudes; and whether the tide-wave of the South Pacific does
not follow a like course, around a central point or position at or
near 'Tahita or the Society Islands. If this view of the course of
the tide-waves should be sustained by observations in the Pacific,
the tide-wave on the western coast of North America will be
found moving southeastward, and together with the counter-
wave from the South Pacific, might fully account for the extra-
ordinary convergence and height of the tides in the Bay of Pa-
nama. Such a system of revolution in the tidal waves of the
gteat oceans may account, also, for the absence of any considera-
ble tides at the Sandwich and Society Islands, and at the Wind-

ward Islands of the Antilles. — xe
- Such circuits of revolution in the tides, would bear some anal-
ogy to those which, as I apprehend, are exhibited in the system
of currents in the several oceans, as well asin the system of
general winds, which likewise prevail. ‘These systems of rev-
olution and compensation, in the currents of the aqueous and aeri-
al oceans, I have ventured to refer directly to the law of gravita-
tion, as connected with unstable eq ilibrium and with the rotary
and orbital movements of the several zones and meridians of the
chrith’s*surface sy: Ge EO

“As connected with the enquiry on tides, it is important to as-
certain the direction of the main stream of flood tide in the ofing,
at the several islands and prominent headlands which are most
exempt from the local influences of reefs and shallows.

CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC.
“The great system of aqueous circulation, which appears to be

developed under various modifications in the several oceans on

-* See note in Silliman’s Journal for Oct. 1833, Vol xxv, p. 132.
+ The law of equilibrium in our system, I apprehend, is a law of motion, not of

296 Mr. Redfield on the Currents of the Atlantic.

both sides of the equator, has been glanced at in the foregoing
remarks on tides. One of the most active, if not the best known
current of this oceanic system, is the Gulf Stream of the North
Atlantic. It appears to be established that a main portion of the
Gulf Stream moves from the American coast towards the Azores
and the Canary Islands, and thence along the coast of North Af-
rica, turning westward till it again coincides with the equatorial
current in its course towards the Caribbean Sea. This great cir.
cuit of the ocean current is found to coincide, mainly, with that
which is also performed by the general winds in the basin of the
North Atlantic. For the trade winds, on leaving the tropical
latitudes, pass eastwardly through the temperate zone, but in
amore irregular manner, sweeping’ around the track of ocean
known as the grassy sea and the belt of summer calms, which
lies a few degrees north of the tropic, known to navigators as
the horse latitudes. It isin this extratropical region of ¢
that the major axis of this great elliptical circuit of general winds
‘appears to lie. It is this calm region that separates the general
westerly winds of the higher latitudes from the trade winds of |
which they are the counterpart ; and it is chiefly these westerly
winds of the higher latitudes which, in the performance of thei
great circuit of revolution, are again merged in the regular trade
winds.* But let us return to the consideration of the more lim-
ited currents which prevail in the ocean. — | ial

Pe I may add, that so far as the writer is concerned, ‘the first exhibition of this
view is found in my communication published in Silliman’s Journal for April,
1831, Vol. xx, p.50. In this instance, however, I have ascribed the currents of

ory ; a view which I soon after found reason to abandon. The outlines of the
great systems of horizontal revolution in the winds I have also sketched in my
summary of “ Facts in Meteorology,” which appeared in Silliman’s Journal for
October, 1833, Vol. xxv, pp. 122-136. Previous to this period, I had examined the
journals of whalers who had cruised on the “ off shore ground’’ of the North Pa-
cific, in that belt of calms and light winds near the latitude of 30°, which is
the favorite resort of the sperm whales in that sea, and which corresponds to t 1e
s0 called «horse latitudes” of the Atlantic. From this and other like evidence !
had arrived at the conclusions which I now maintain. oe eh

Sir John F. W. Herschel maintains the connection or continuity of the trades
with the prevailing westerly winds of higher latitudes; and refers to the well

Mr. Redfield on the Currents of the Atlantic. = 297

‘Having noticed that portion of the Gulf Stream which, on
passing the bank of Newfoundland, moves towards the Azores
and the African coast, we will now follow that considerable por-
tion of the Stream. which is found to pass towards the western
coast of the British islands and along the coast of Norway, till
it enters the polar basin, From this frozen region it again emer-
ges in the great polar current, covered with floating ice, which,
skirting the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, falls in with
the Gulf Stream at the southern extremity of the Grand Bank,
and now becomes, mainly, a subaqueous current, the deeper por-
tion of which can be traced only by its propelling effect on the
deeply immersed icebergs, which it forces athwart the warm
tropical stream, till they become dissolved by the higher tempe-
rature of the latter. Ge at
Observations of the temperature made in sounding at various
depths in the Gulf Stream, and particularly in the region where it
overruns or crosses the polar current, would be of high interest, and
of great value in estimating the dynamics of the ocean currents.

As connected with the foregoing outline of the main system
of superficial currents in the North Atlantic, I propose now a par-
ticular inquiry, relating to a single branch of this system of ocean
streams, which perhaps may serve to show the origin or charac~
ter of some currents which pursue opposite directions in other
oceans. From what source, then, is that southwesterly current
derived which commonly prevails along the coast of the United
States, in the direction which is opposite to the Gulf Stream?

Iam aware that this is usually considered by seamen as an
eddy current, derived from the Gulf Stream ; but from this view
Iam compelled to dissent. For, in the first place, this current
never assumes the gyrating form of an eddy; but continues its
course, when unobstructed by gales, in a direction which is gen-
erally parallel to the coast. But, secondly, in case this current
be derived from the Gulf Stream, it must necessarily partake of
the same elevated temperature ; whereas, the reduction of tem-
perature which occurs on crossing the northwestern limit of the
Gulf Stream is most remarkable, and is almost without a par-
allel in the Atlantic, except in the immediate vicinity of ice.

It appears vain to allege the proximity of soundings or shal-
lows as explaining this extraordinary change of temperature, for
this cannot avail if the waters of the counter current be derived

Vol. xiv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 38

298 Mr. Redfield on the Currents of the Atlantic.

from the Gulf Stream, to say ent of the erroneous character
of the position here noticed.

. From the evidence which is afforded by numerous facts and
Gakevatious, it appears that the current in question is neither
more nor less than a more sluggish. prolongation of the polar or
Labrador current, which sweeps along the northeastern shores of
this continent and the island of Newfoundland. And this cur-
rent, if I mistake not, may be directly traced in its gradations of
temperature, by the thermometer, from off the southern coasts of
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia through the entire distance to
Pape: Hatteras, if not to Florida.

_ An-eddy current offsetting from the Gulf Stream, Wh no
. where be so likely to be met with as at the point of intersection
of this stream with the extremity of the Grand Bank of New-
foundland, and sweeping from thence upon the southern shores
of the inlaid of that name ; ‘and yet, the harbor of St. John’s on
the southern coast of Suieeipcendbands; is known to have continued
ice-bound in 1831 so late as the month of June, although in the
latitude of Paris. This fact isa convincing proof of the unim-

peded continuation of the polar current to the southward, in this
region, notwithstanding the near proximity of the Gulf Stream.

That Col. Jonathan Williams and others should have ascribed
the reduced temperature of the ocean near our shores simply to
the effect of shoals or shallow soundings, need not excite our
surprise, as such striking reductions of temperature are found on
the Great Bank of Newfoundland, and on that of the Lagullas,
off the Cape of Good Hope, and while so little has been known
of the system of ocean currents, and the proximate origin and
courses of the colder streams of this system. And it is well
known, that the low temperature of the sea on these banks and
shallows-hus-bean ascribed to the effects of radiation. But, if I
mistake not, it has been shown that a non-luminous body is in-
capable of radiation through water ; and should this be otherwise,
any possible effect of this kind is wholly overborne by the cold
of the great polar currents, which constantly traverse the banks |
and shoals referred to.

If Lam correct in this view, it is the reduced seanpeentactel
the currents from the polar regions, or, from contiguous oceal
depths, which has led Williams, Davy and others to support the
erroneous, or at least very apestionable poneriliation, which as-

Currents of the Southern and Pacific Oceans, 299

cribes a reduced ter to the sea on all banks and shal-
lows. If the ocean was devoid 1 of currents, I think we might —
expect an increase of temperature on shoals in summer, or in
warm latitudes, and a reduction of temperature in winter. A
friend who made a full set of observations in crossing the Atlan-
tic, informs me that on arriving at soundings in the English Chan-
nel, he found an increase of 2° in the temperature of the waters.*

Perhaps I may be allowed to refer, for a moment, to the geo-
inieat agencies of the polar currents. It is well known that
extensive fields and packs of ice, including many icebergs of
vast magnitude, are constantly carried by the polar currents to-
wards the lower latitudes. On reaching certain regions, such as
‘the banks of Newfoundland and the Lagullas of Southern Af-
rica, the ice is brought into proximity or contact with the warm
counter-currents of the system, which flow from the torrid zone,
where the ice is soon dissolved. ‘The numerous masses of earth,
rocks, beach bowlders, and sedimentary matter, which are borne
by the ice in great profusion from the cliffs, the shores and the
sea-bottom of the Arctic regions, and probably” also from the Ant-
arctic, are thus added continually to the vast submarine deposits
which there accumulate. May not the continuance of this trans-
porting process, through a long series
cient to account for the existence and present extent of the great

banks referred to; without seaneort rm to the evidence
es meee areas of the

earth’s eveanias geht npiheviti
CURRENTS OF THE othe a6 pacic ‘OCEANS.

That ‘the currents. of, the ‘Atlantic Ocean are connected with,
and. form an extension of those of the Indian and Southern oceans,
has been proved by the , researches of Rennel and others. Hence
it follows, that the drain 0 of these currents. must. be compensated
by « other currents. which pass from the Atlantic to those seas, by
some unknown or unexplored route, currents which move either
at the surface or at lower depths. _ If these compensating currents
exist at the surface, as is quite probable, on what meridians of the
extreme South A Atlantic are they to be found ?+

* George W. Blant
The consideration Sere the connection of the currents of the North Atlantic and

a 9 seas with those of the North Pacific, through Bhering’s Strait, has been
Peiposctf omitted, as being less important in a general view, and beyond the ex-
pected range of observation by the expedition.

300 Mr. Redfield on the

In view of an attempt to penetrate the Antarctic regions, it
seems important to ascertain those routes by which the warmer
currents of the great Southern ocean enter the polar basin, and
on what routes or meridians they again emerge as ice-bearing
currents, moving towards the lower latitudes. ‘The thermometer
will prove an important auxiliary i in determining these localities,
and the course of the polar currents from the Antarctic basin is
now partially known, by the course of the icebergs which de-
scend to the lower latitudes. It is by following the course of the
warmer currents which enter the polar basin that the nearest ap-
proach will probably be made to the Antarctic pole; and the
same system of continuous current might afford the means of

final escape, should a aes ee to winter in the ice of
that perilous region.

_ As regards the great spelen 6 cutrents:in the Pacific, we may

infer from the facts already known, that a current from the Ant-
arctic region sets to the northward, several degrees west of Cape
Horn, which unites its waters with those of the more temperate

- latitudes in their flow to the coasts of Chili and Peru, and thence
towards the equator. If an ice current does not thus unite with
that of the coast, the latter is mainly supported by the great afflux
of the extratropical currents from the west, which, in performing
their constant circuit of revolution, next sweep from the coast of
Peru towards the equatorial latitudes, where they continue their
course to the westward, again to leave the intertropical latitudes
with an elevated temperature, which is in turn aay to t
higher latitudes.*

The numerous archipelagos of islands and the extensive groups
of coral reefs in the Pacific, serve to intercept the regular westerly
progress of its warm intertropical currents, and to determine more
than one circuit of compensation and revolution in each hemis-
phere. This class of obstructions partly supplies the place of 2
continent, in defining separate basins of revolution for the cut-
rents of this vast ocean, and this is particularly the case in the
South Pacific, where these obstructions are scattered over wide
areas. Hence, strong currents ‘pike to the neem? have.
Sees Puke wear ener ee 4

ok papa grand ht Fens Sn

Prevailing Currents of the Pacific Ocean. 301

been found in various parts of the Pacific, below the latitude of
30°, moving in direct opposition to the influence of the strongest
portion of the trade winds.* Thus the system of currents, as
we shall find of the winds, becomes more complex and irregular
in this vast ocean than in the Atlantic; which, at least so far as
relates to winds, is contrary to” representations which have been
often erroneously made by scientific” writers; representations
which doubtless were ess in nen — on the wie
tific theory of winds. !

‘Good observations on the aiceasioniy atrexigthy, pie vetigipates
of the currents, in all parts of the Pacific, will prove of great im-
‘portance, and should be made: and pene nie carefully, by
the expedition. -

_ The obstacles which eb nic the naturél syotem of cur-
rents are least numerous in the North: Pacific, where the trending
of its continental coasts, except in high latitudes, is highly favor-
able to a strong development of the regular geographical currents,
— to these coasts. - ne se NAN of China and Japan

‘atlantic, This current, . fitid; was OE noticed, ineldod
tally, by the officers of Coo k’s last exploring expedition, and i its
velocity stated, in some instances, at five miles an hour.

observations, to which I have had access, have confirmed the
existence of this current, and have shown the elevated tempera-
ture which this stream carries from the lower latitudes; so that
near one thousand. miles east of the coast of Japan, in’
north, the temperature of the surface water has been found at
794° of Fahrenheit.t In the South Pacific, near the coast of
New Holland there is found, also, a like warm current, pursuing
its southern ainenin® through t cc ete — of that hemis-

phere

But oni as ss eipebend to the sian width of the Pacific,
and to the consequent absence of a defined ocean boundary near
its. central ak mecca thete is here less of apparent regularity and

* "This counter ont, rt r to th sustwaids ‘is 's sometimes found in the equa-
torial regions of the adie and oilier seas, _ beats some analogy to the wester-
ly monsoons of the Indian and Pacific ocean

+ Voyage of Capt. Dupetit Thouars. Other and earlier ob tions had attract-
ed ‘my attention, particularly i jn the cruising voyages of our American whalers,
but I now refer to this. as a more recent and convenient authority.

302 Mr. Redfield on the

system, both in currents and winds, than perhaps in any other
ocean; the constant and reciprocal equatorial and polar tenden-
cies of oscillation not permitting a single circuit of revolution to
extend from Asia to America without deflection. Hence we find
more apparent irregularity and complexity in the currents and
winds of mid ocean, in this vast sea, than in those regions which
are more nearly adjacent to the continental coasts.

A knowledge of the currents and winds of the Pucite pes 1
am convinced, will serve to remove all mystery and all doubt
from the once vexed question of the first peopling of its islands,
from the Asiatic continent; in spite of the long urged objection
of the opposition of the trade winds. A case is still recent where’
the wreck of a Japanese junk was drifted the entire distance to
the Sandwich Islands, with its surviving crew ; thus completing
nearly half of the great circuit of winds and currents in the North
Pacific.. But we shall find an additional means of transport near
the equator, which is afforded in the N. W. monsoon of the In-
dian and Pacific oceans, and which, according to my inquiries, is
found to extend, at one portion of the year, as far eastward as
the Society Islands; or more than half the distance from ity md
dian Ocean to the coast of South ncaa i +

OF .GENERAL WINDS, OR PREVAILING CURRENTS OF THE AMOS
sine of the most remarkable ct teristics of the iene
is its constantly progressive action; exhibited in secAiege 2"
which are more or less rapid, and mainly horizontal. »

To whatever general cause these movements may - isc
they are found in most countries to predominate in particular di-
rections in the surface winds, but more uniformly at higher ele-
vations. ‘The greatest uniformity of the surface winds has been
noticed chiefly in certain zones or regions which, for the most
part, lie between the parallels of 30° latitude, north and south;
limits which comprise half of the earth’s surface. ‘These more
regular winds have hitherto been known best on the great routes
of commerce, on the Atlantic and certain portions of the Indi
oceans, and hence have been called the Trade winds. ”

Pers order to account for the supposed uniform character of the

winds, a general theory of winds has been adopted, of much
Dlavsiilty, founded on the alleged effects of calorific rarefaction

p ope: ey, Se ae gle is :

FCcumee SS , UF L 5p

in the equatorial region. Aided by sue: ions,
this theory continues to receive the = generals sanction of the scien-
Me world.

_ It isnot my design, in thin controuniennialns to cdslekes dhepidiis.
But the facts and results which I have delineated on the accom-
panying maps,* indicate courses of circulation in the atmosphere
which are nearly and mainly horizontal ; while the common the-
ory alleges a course or circuit of circulation, in each hemisphere,
which is essentially vertical, the warm air being supposed to as-
cend near the equator to great elevations : and there flow outwards,
to supply the inward current from the higher latitudes; the obli-
quity from a north and south: direction being of course due to the
earth’s rotation. I propose, therefore, to state ina summary way,
some of the facts and considerations wetiin in. did own views
serve to invalidate this calorific theory.

'~ 1. The specific difference of mean Se eatistiel in the satan
tropical winds as compared with: equal zones af vee ons
winds, is te he dy namical
effects which ‘are exhibited in these ‘winds. 1 am not aware that
any successful eels “has: been apa to prove the:eonverse of
this objection. ~

~ 2.° Phe rising. of the: saan bay of An trade wind in tbe
equatorial latitudes, in the manner alleged, has never been con-

ed by observation ; and, as I apprehend, may safely be deni-
ed. ‘Nor has any proof of ale; sania bekh sia other than infer-

jomena, whic!

Ithink may be exp lained in a manner.
3. The nent snow line of of the , Andes has been found-n near
one thousand feet higher in 16° to’18° south latitude than at the
equator, or om the parallel of the equatorial calms of the Atlantic.
This fact, in a-region so fa worable to an equable development of

natural influences, I aie! to be wholly conclusive against the
ts

ode: = saiedereiiel as: to the north and south, of the local-
ity of the trade winds and the belt of equatorial calms, which re-
sults fromthe abape?: of seasons, bears no adequate proportion to

ad Those Jost in the Peac
uf See the observations ok i Pendand’ in the Journal of the London Geograph-

ical Society. Also, Penny Cyclopedia, Vol. VIL, Art. CiLumaTe.

304 _.. Mr. Redfield on the

the alternate geographical declination of the sun, nor to the actual
geographical change in the zone of greatest temperature, which
follows the sun’s declination.*

The semiannual change of the locality in the trade arial is
believed to be greatest in the Atlantic, where it does not ap-
pear to average more than 7° or 8° of latitude; while the annual
range of the sun’s declination exceeds 46°, and the actual trans-
fer of the zone of heat, which follows the declination, appears to
be nearly 40° of latitude. These facts, also, I deem to be con-
clusive against the theory.

_5. Even within the oidinary. geographical limits of the: pareve
winds, there are extensive portions of the system of winds which,
in their course and » direction, do not accord with the received
theory, but appear wholly irreconcilable with its requirements. —

To illustrate this objection, I refer, first, to a circuit of inter-
tropical winds in the equatorial basin of the North Atlantic, which
appears to extend from the delta of the Quorra, the ancient Niger,
for more than two thirds the distance to the coast of South Amer-
ica; in which circuit the winds revolve to the right, with more
or less of regularity, around a central and probably elongated
axis. And second, to the existence and great extension into open.
sea of those portions of the monsoon winds which blow obliquely
Jrom the equator, in directions where there can be none of the
continental rarefaction which has been alleged as explaining
these alternating winds. For if the-winds of the equatorial lati-
tudes rise to the higher regions, the monsoon winds of the Indian
Ocean, on departing from the south side of the equator, could
never be made to sweep eastwardly upon the earth’s surface for
even six thousand miles, as they now do annually, instead of as-
cending four or six miles in pene} to flow off from the: pase
as puperior winds.

* In other words, an essential geos ical cl the | eat, of'so
months’ duration, does not change, Seeihai the Dealers of ree trade winds.
Hence, these winds are not, mainly, the result of heat.

1 M. Bougainville says, “ from the 23d of February to the 3d of Wakh: we ead
whetily winds, constantly varying between S. W. and N. W., with calms an

rains ; every day either a little before noon or soon after, we had sudden gusts

rain accompanied with thunder. It was strange to us to meet with this extraordi-
nary wind under the tropic, and in that ocean so much renowned above all other
seas for the u uniformity and freshness of the E. and 8, E. trade winds; whieh « ae

Prevailing Currents of the Atmosph 305
_-6. The sixth objection which I offer to the common theory of
the trade winds, consists in the frequent occurrence, in our Ameri-
can climate, of the highest summer heats for several days in suc-
cession, sometimes irrespective of the immediate heat of the sun,
which heated air, as appears from comparative observations, is
mainly brought to us by geographical transfer along the earth’s
surface, and which appears to depart in the same manner. ‘This
could never happen if the most heated portions of the atmosphere
necessarily ascend from the surface. A like objection is derived
from the frequent interstratification and horizontal transfer of
currents of unequal temperatures and hygrometrical conditions,
which appear to move over great distances without any obvious
change in their relative altitudes.
Having already noticed; in the course of these remarks, the
system of horizontal circuits of revolution pursued by the winds
on each side of the equator, it is now only necessary that I refer
the observers of the expedition to the particular delineations of
these circuits, and of the alternating system of monsoon winds,
on the maps which are furnished herewith.*

It must not be supposed, however, that these circuits of revo-
lution in the great winds, are generally uniform or strictly defined
in their location or development, even on the open ocean. On
the contrary, the winds which proceed outward from the trades,
often overlie those which at the same time are returning into the
trades, This often occurs extensively, on different meridians
along the same parallel; besides the incidental fluctuations and
disturbances to-which the winds are always liable, and the shitt-
ing of their. field of revolution to the north or south, by the
change of seasons. But the general result, is a continued and

* 27 ny ee t .
said to reign in it-all the year round. We shall find more than one opportunity to
make the same observation.” cat bai
“This relates to the southern Pacific in long. 110° to 115° west from Greenwich,
and serves to show an extension of the westerly monsoon winds at that season,
rvations have tended to con-

umerous
fimme the tenn ethene of these winds in the intertropical latitudes of the Pacific,
, i er the whole western coasts

opposite to the alleged course of the trade winds

of intertropical America,
* In the al of the maps referred to, some general notion of the system of

xxv, p. 124-125.

Vol. xv, No. 2.—July-Sept, 1843, 39

306 , ‘Mr. Redfield on the

successive series of laminated or stratified currents, overlapping
and moving upon each other in like series of subordinate circuits,
the major axes of which, in the northern summer, are principally
found in the calms of the horse latitudes.

The calms and light winds which are peculiar to this last
mentioned region in summer, result not so much from any general
suspension of the aerial movements, as from the absence of that
brisk relative motion which commonly prevails in other latitudes.
For, the predominating movements of the atmosphere being ei-
ther from the east or west, in conformity with the law of the
earth’s rotation, and there being little movement of the surface
winds in these directions along the parallels in which lie the axes
of atmospheric revolution, it follows, that only the more sluggish
northerly and southerly winds chiefly prevail on these parallels,
in mid ocean, at this season. And I may here suggest, thata
like explanation is mainly applicable to the calms of the equa-
torial region, both between the regular trades, and the Indian

monsoo er ' : a
Towards the eastern borders of a basin of revolution, such as
the North Atlantic, there appears to be less of sluggishness in the
aerial currents which move to or from the lower latitudes; which
here appear more clearly defined and more strongly developed;
and hence are more readily traced in their course; as is seen in
the northerly winds which gradually merge in the N. E. trades,
in the region between Madeira and the Canaries, and thence t
the tropic. While, near the western -borders of the Atlantic and
over the adjacent coasts of America, the opposite southerly and
southwesterly winds of the circuit are often well developed at
the earth’s surface, at least in the warm season. Like charactel*
istics pertain to the system of winds in like latitudes, in other
circuits of atmospheric revolution, in different oceans. aid
That the N. E. trade winds have not sooner been traced in
their horizontal curves into the southwest winds, may be owing
in part to the frequent overlying of the southwesterly upon the
easterly winds, which occurs mostly towards the exterior pol
tion of the trades; and partly, to a neglect to inquire into ™
actual and successively varying directions of the trade winds, 18
‘the central and western parts of the ocean basins, in the inter
tropical latitudes. In these latitudes, in the regions here men
tioned, the N. E. trade winds are more often found nearly at east

Prevailing Currents of the Atmosphere. 307°
om veering to E. S. E. or S. E., than has been generally imag-

But the courses traversed by storms, in the trade-wind latitudes:
of the western Atlantic, and in corresponding latitudes in the
western portions of other seas, as shown by my own inquiries
and those of Col. Reid, I conceive to have proved this horizon-
tal course of atmospheric circulation, in the clearest manner ; an
it was this kind of evidence which first brought conviction to my
own mind.* In pursuing this branch of the evidence we are thus
able fully to establish the western half of the north Atlantic cir-
cuit of revolution in the general winds ; while, the better defined
courses of the regular winds from the latitude of Madeira to the
trades, in the eastern Atlantic, is such as to remove all reasona-
; ireuit of revolution, from left
to right, around the region of extratropical calms, called the horse
~ I may add, on this occasion, that if further proofs were wanting
of this horizontal circuit of revolution in these general winds, it
found in the rotation of ‘the great storms, from right to left in
the northern hemisphere, around their several moving axes, while
pursuing their natural course of progression in this great aerial
circuit. The question has often been asked, why should all these
storms revolve in this direction, rather than in the opposite ?
ich is noticed in the southern

earth’s rotation. For, in the ws
mosphere upon the earth’s surface, obliquely from a
towards the poles, the narrowing of the meridional spaces and the
reduced velocities of rotation in the earth’s crust on the parallels
newly arrived at by the surface wind, with the constant retarda-
tions of eastern movement in the front of the mass which results

* See my published maps of 1830 and 1835 containing the tracks of storms ; also,
my communications in Silliman’s Journal and the Nautical and Naval Magizines,
since-April, 1831; likewise, the charts &c., of Col. Reid, R. E., published in the
fessional Papers of the Royal Engineers, and his elaborate work on the Law

of Storms, issued at the time these remarks were in preparation; a copy of which
was received and forwarded to the expedition. More recently the labors of

Mr. Piddington of Cal ta have afforded much additional evidence, as relates to
the Indian and China seas.

therefrom, conjoin to induce a rotary tendency in the incumbent
winds, in the very direction in which the storms are found to
revolve.* Pe

This dynamical tendency to gyration in the atmospheric cur-
rents or winds which are in contact with the earth’s surface,
is constantly productive of sensible effects, particularly as we
proceed from the intertropical to the higher latitudes. This,
l apprehend, is the chief cause of the changes and variableness
of the winds in these latitudes, and also of the remarkable in-
crease of the barometrical oscillations, the great storms being only
the more strongly marked cases of gyratory action; while the
numerous weaker or abortive cases which go to fill up the inter-
vals of space, and partly overkios each. onhiae, and which are also
modified by the ordinary ture and locality,
have excited little notice or inquiry. Ii is this law of terrestrial
rotation which, as I apprehend, is maintained by Prof. Dové of
Prussia, in his attempts to show the elements of gyration in the
general winds; a writer with whose labors I hate been but —_
and partially acquainted.

‘The general correctness of the foregoing view of the prime
cause of local gyrations in the atmosphere, as well as the rotation
in great storms, may be shown by an experiment made on the sur-
face of a common globe; which I have occasionally pointed out
to friends interested in these inquiries. Let a concave surface
wood or other substance, of a circular form and a diameter equal
to five or ten degrees of the globe, be prepared and perforated
with a small hole in the center, through which a pin may be
loosely placed, to serve as an axis. ‘Then let the concavity be
lined with flannel or other yielding material, and placed upon the
top of the globe near the equator. Then cause the globe to re-
volve from west to east in the direction of the earth’s rotation;
while the concave body is guided, carefully, by the pin at the
axis, in the direction of the storm tracks which are found on my

vg It will be noticed that the rotation of the. great storms, as well as more e ordi-
nary atmospheric gyrations, is opposite to that of the great natural circuit of winds
in which they are carried forward. Thus, if'a general current of revolution swept

Prevailing Currents of the Atmosphere. 309

chart of 1835,* and so as to impinge with equal weight and sur-
face on all sides of the pin or axis, and’the incumbent body will
be found to revolve from right to left, in ~ manner of the storms »
of the northern hemisphere.

This experiment requires delicate. management, and is more
difficult because of the necessary rigidity of the incumbent sur-
face, causing one part partially to counteract another ; but in the
case of a fluid, where all the particles move freely upon each oth-
er, no such impediment exists.

As it is chiefly the lower stratum of oe hich | is ies et into
gyration from this cause, it must be evident, as above suggested,
that within the geographical. limits of the trade winds the great
circuit of aerial revolution must be a nearly horizontal one, and
that the storm tracks mark distinctly the usual course of this rev-
olution. Consequently, the main outflowing course of the trade
wind from the er asta is hot in the wre magne of
the atmosphere.f

~ It was my design to ive sllowea: sein sel remarks with
a detailed explanation of the delineations of the several systems
of te winds which I have placed on the maps before re-
ferred This was particularly my intention as relates to the ex-
fthabes “eu abiuts of the monsoons, and the several belts of
light winds and calms which may be viewed as. the anticlinal and
synclinal axes, so to speak, of the several systems of general

winds. But the lateness of t the, eal and my necessary avocations
i prevented me from bor, in time for the expe-
Sin. ; % : iting seis fe ett

This” egies seashthiiags 2 thes ‘results of. deapibien which I
Sian pursued with. no little interest, is now commended to the
gentlemen of the ex] for their impartial examination ; and
With the he expectation ainbdetine, that truth only, as apart from
any favored yk be er of their researches in nat-
ural science. © ig ane cae

be found ie this Journal, Vol. xxx1, for October, 1836; also
iugaine, April, 1836, and Col. Reid’s work on the Law of

* This Shiart diohe
in London Naniticat M
Storms.

t This is oa abo by the fpiceastinshy heat of the summers in countries
near the western estern boundaries of the great oceans, this heat being conveyed horizon-
tally by the surface winds from the lower latitudes; while in winter the results
ified and an opposite state of temperature induced, by causes which are
peculiar to continental meteorology. j

310 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Arr. X.—Abstract of the Proceedings of the Fourth Session of
the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.
(Concluded from page 165.) .

Saturday, April 29, 1843.—After the reading of the minutes,

Mr. Dana read a paper on the distribution of corals, alluding to a for-
mer statement of his, (p. 145) that the reef-forming corals are limited in
their distribution in our present seas by the temperature of 66° Fah., and
also to the fact of the absence of corals from the Gallapagos under the
equator, and their presence at the Bermudas, added farther, that owing
to these currents the coral zone limited by this temperature was singu-
larly contracted on the western shores of the continents by the extra~
tropical currents, and expanded on the eastern by the intratropical cur-
rents. On the western shores of America it was reduced to 16° of
latitude in width, and in those of Africa to at least 12°, while in the
mid ocean the zone is fully 56° wide, and on the eastern coast of Asia
and New Holland 64°. These facts with regard to the influence of
Oceanic currents, may explain many anomalies in the distribution of
fossils. Mr. D. denied the truth of Mr. Darwin’s principle, that islands.

with barrier reefs are subsiding, and those with fringing reefs rising,
and stated that he was not satisfied by his observations, that any eleva-
tions or subsidences were now in gradual progress in the Pacific or on
the South American coast. His observations fully confirmed Mr. Dar-
win’s theory, that atolls or coral islands were once barrier reefs around
high islands, which high islands have disappeared by subsidence. From
the distribution of these islands, he drew conclusions different from those
of Mr. Darwin, with regard to the areas of subsidence. If a line were
drawn in an E.S. E. direction from New Treland by the Navigator and
Society Islands, the islands to the north, with two or three exceptions,
would be found to be low and coral, and those to the south, high and
basaltic.* These coral islands diminish in number and size as we Te
cede to the north from this line, and over a large area between the
Sandwich Islands and the equator there is an open ocean without is-
lands. As we go south from the same line, the extent of the reefs
around the high islands diminishes. From these facts he concluded that
the subsidence in progress during the formation of these islands was
greater under the equator where the coral islands were few and small,
than farther south, where they are numerous and large : that still greateT
subsidence took place over the open seas where the currents were too

* See the map accompanying Mr) Dana’s article, published in the present vol-
ume of this Journal, page 131, “ ae ah

ae
issociation of American Geologists and Naturalists. 311

rapid to permit the growth of the coral to keep the islands at the sur-
face: that the subsidence south of this line, where high islands prevail,
was less than on the line, and still less than to the north of it. The
large area of subsidence thus indicated, is not less than five thousand
miles long and three thousand wide, and covers at least fifteen millions
of square miles. He also alluded to the singular fact that the longer
diameter of this area of subsidence corresponded to the trend of the
Navigator, Society and Sandwich Island groups, and the low or coral

archipelago. gee 5

As present opinions seem to require a balance motion in changes
of elevation, he suggested that inasmuch as the tertiary rocks of the
Andes and North America indicate great elevations since their deposi-
tion, that possibly during this great Pacific subsidence, America, the
other scale in the balance, was in part undergoing as great or greater
elevation. ‘The absence of corals from the western tropical parts of
this continent, was explained. by reference to the extratropical currents
before alluded to. — a A ng ag igiesa
~ The President enquired of Mr. D. if he considered this subsi-
dence to have taken place equally over the entire area. —
~ Mr. D. replied, that it could hardly be expected that this effect
should have been eractly uniform, considering the vastness of the
area, but that considered as a whole it must have been nearly

Uniform.
‘The President objected to the supposition of Mr. Dana, that
this vast amount of subsidence was due to the gradual refrigera-
tion of the earth from a heated state; he thought it susceptible
of mathematical demonstration that the amount of subsidence
Was too slight to account for the changes which must have taken
place in the Pacific. Indeed, the earth must have acquired a
nearly statical equilib ium of temperature before the existence of
the corals, which probably did not make their appearance until
the post-tertiary period. )

Mr. Redfield said he had been much gratified with Mr. Dana’s refer-
ences to the fixed memorials of the warm currents in the Pacific, as af-
forded in the coral formations. Previous to the sailing of the Exploring
Expedition he had the satisfaction of reviewing with Mr. Dana, partly in
reference to a great dynamical question which regards the currents of
the atmosphere and the ocean, some of the evidence which he, Mr. R.
had before obtained of the character and courses of the great system
of currents in the Pacific, and of the low temperature of the extratropi-
cal currents which sweep towards the equator along the western coasts

312 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

of North and South America.* The effect of these cold currents was
such that the temperature of the sea at the Gallapagos Islands, under
the equator, was from ten to twenty degrees below that of the Gulf of
Mexico, and the waters of the Gulf Stream on the coast of the United
States. Moreover, the observations had shown a great difference in
the temperature as taken on opposite sides of these islands. ‘This dif-
ference he had ascribed to the low temperature of the inflowing current
from the southern hemisphere, which from the observations obtained
he had supposed to sweep near these islands. Analogous effects had
also been noticed on the western coast of the African continent ; and
the obvious bearing of the observations which he had collected from
other parts of the Pacific was to establish the existence and approximate

outlines of a general system of currents in that vast sea, and which, -

as in other oceans, controls and modifies the temperature of its waters,
most remarkably, even on the same parallels of latitude. ip eae
_ He had mapped out the results of his former inquiries on this pre-
vailing system of both winds and currents on blank charts furnished
by Mr. Dana, which were intended for the use, as well as correction, of
the observers of the Expedition. These maps he regretted to say had
been lost before the end of the cruise, in the wreck of the Peacock.
He was now pleased to find, however, that the main results as to ocean
temperature and currents, which had cost him no inconsiderable labor
at earlier periods, no longer rested on scattered observations made by
different navigators; but that Mr. Dana, among other highly valuable
labors, had carefully examined and brought to bear on the case the an-
deniable evidence of innumerable register thermometers afforded in the
living corals, which serve to mark with greater certainty and precision
the extent and boundaries of the warmed waters of the Pacific Oceat.

Mr. John L. Hayes differed from Mr. Dana on the question of
general elevation and subsidence in the areas of coral islands ;
his belief was, that according to the views of the great Prussian
geologist Von Buch, the districts of elevation were limited and
not contemporaneous. :
_ Prof. Rogers enquired of Mr. Dana what was the maximum
rate of subsidence consistent with the growth of corals. 03

Mr. Dana replied that there were no definite facts bearing 0?
the subject, but that it must of necessity be very gradual. ofl
_ Prof. Rogers remarked that if accurate measurements could
be made fot a sufficient period of time on existing reefs, of the

depth of the water from fixed points, evidence might be accumu
beset M ; i sactiniapreesliienisenieeea aA i

(5 + See Mr, Redfield’s paper, at page 203 of this volume.

a of ae ee een ey ee
Association n 313
5 eRe Yes ? {= oo eee ai . ais

lated equal in value to that derived from imilar means on the
coast of Sweden, as bearing ‘the great | dyn ami es of yur earth.
Prof. Bailey read a paper sere! to the ob he had made

upon the microscopic fossils in specimens from the infusorial stratum
and adjacent miocene deposits at Petersburg, Va., which had been sent
to him for examination by M. consis iatek of that nese nlinsers
erer of the locality. —

He stated that the infantil Ga ,and naanehided: nat of Senne
tella, Pecten, &c. contained all shee species: of | Coscinodiscus, Actinocy-
clus, Dictyoca, &c. which he had previously described as characteristic
of the pes me at Richmond ¢ ‘and, ee ace clifis 5 and that in ad-

curious oreReEN fossil which mes suspected asi vet a ser pes of a

ygoceros.
In the niacat spichcanple fi odaaster no’ sre of Depiaiabe but
found them abundant among the contents of the shells sent by M. Tuo-
mey from the miocene beds. of Pi | of these
were shown, among which were species a ‘Textularia, Rotalia, Trilo-.
culina, and also of a minute crustacean, resembling a Cypris in form, —
but which Mr. Dana. ra inigeimed jim: might be analogous to the) mar
nie genus Cy therin

Prof. B. then nine that tes had detected Polythalmia, ina appctlads
of shelly limestone in the collection of Dr. Chilton in New York, which
was used in ‘the construction of the Alamo, and which was probably
quarried in the neighborhood of the. fortress: © ‘The species. appeared
similar to. those of the ereticeous roup. fe also stated that he had

* ar as Md. ‘sent by M. Tu

y igotiferotin: 7 "As amber occurs at the same ~

locality, he: suggested — ey i might have produced
h it aecompal

‘Prof. H. D. Roge m rea “the following letter from his.
brother, Prof. pin sy & per of er on the limits of
the prtaeepes rine in Jaane

gett » University of vieginiss April 23, 1843.
os sover” vat the infusorial stratum on the Rappahan-
‘as referred to in my Report for the year 1840,
de pact a | similar deposit at numerous other locali-
ties, ing from the Potomac River to near the southern boundary
of the state. “Among these points may be enumerated the Stratford
cliffs on the Potomac, the vicinity of Westmoreland Court House, and
Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 40

314 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

a great number of localities between the Potomac and Rappahannock
Rivers, the James River below City Point, Petersburg on the Appo-
mattox River, and a tract about Dupre’s bridge on the Nuhenen River.

Further search will, I am convinced, greatly multiply these localities,
and the observations already made are quite sufficient to prove the wide
horizontal extension of this interesting division of our tertiary series.
Although in some of these localities, as at Richmond, the stratum re-
poses upon beds containing eocene impressions, and although beneath
the miocene strata, at other places, as for example the Stratford cliffs
and Petersburg, it is underlaid by unequivocal miocene, and hence at
these places, if not generally, is to be referred to a position in the geo-

- logical series within and near the bottom of the miocene division of the
tertiary, I am inclined however to the opinion that these strata are not
all upon exactly the same horizon, and that some of them lie ina higher
part of the formation. M.'Tuomey of. Petersburg, who has recently
observed the deposit at that place estimates its thickness at thirty feet.*

In connection with these statements it may be interesting to add, that
accompanying the infusorial material I have found vegetable remains
at some localities in great abundance. They are imperfectly carbo-
nized, still preserving their form and the fibrous texture, and they seem
all to be referable to creeping and apparently cryptogamous plants,
From the specimens I am now collecting, I hope to be able to decide
with some certainty as to their true character, *

Mr. Dana remarked that he had observed the same forat' of
microscopic shell, as No. 7 of Prof. Bailey’s figures, in Oregon. »

Prof. Bailey sald the same form had also been found on the
coast of England, probably washed from the chalk.

Mr. W. C. Redfield read a paper entitled “ remarks on ‘some
new fishes and an fossil memorials from the new red sandstone
of New Jerse

In this paper Mr. R. alluded to the general absence of fossils in this
formation and the enhanced geological value of the few fishes and other
remains which had been brought to light, and submitted to the Associa-
tion specimens of three new species of these fishes which he had ob-
tained from near Pompton in New Jersey. He referred to the allied
characters of these fishes with specimens which he submitted from the
new red sandstone formation of England, and particularly to the a
heterocercal character of their caudal structure. He showed
similarity to the more heterocercal forms of the fishes of the oa or

el even when of the same genus, and their want of analogy ' to. the

¥. ee en ns

Poe, a2 SAS * Seu this Journ, Vol. xx1v, p. 339.

Association of American Geologists + 1 Naturalists. 315—

homocercal forms of the fishes which are found as we ascend above the
lias He referred likewise to the Ornithoidichnite which he had found

red sandstone of the Middle States of the Union ; and noticed in con-
nection with these tracks, the interesting discoveries of the bones of a
gigantic struthoid bird, which formerly existed in New Zealand, the
Dinornis of Prof. Owen, a good account of which was to be found in
the Penny Cyclopedia for March, 1843, Vol. xxvi, p- 518.* me

In continuation Mr. R. then referred to the fossil rain-marks which
are found in the same rocks, and submitted some remarkably well
characterized specimens, from different parts of New Jersey and Mas-
sachusetts. He showed that an objection which had been made at the
¢ these rain-marks, founded on their
urface of the rock, in some observed

unburnt bricks were ‘exposed to

apparently in relief. He found that the circumstances most favorable

New Jersey belonged. to the upper divisio

the same name in Europe. One fact whic

i‘ portionate iy ane ee ra oh .
rain-drops gave evidence of the strength of the shower ensuing.

* See this Vol. p. 185.

816 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

_ Mr. John L. Hayes, from an extensive observation of the feet
and tracks of living birds, was led to the belief that the Ornithich-
nites of Hitchcock were probably impressions of volant Gralle, as
these birds inhabited low and marshy ground, while the heavy
Struthoid birds allied to Apteryx and Dinornis, were the LS
Goenters of arenaceous plains and lofty hills.

_ Dr. Emmons showed specimens from the Potsdam sandstones,
having strong impressions resembling rain-marks—proving the
existence of these ancient meteorological registers, and of course
of the rains producing them, much lower down in the rocks than
haretotare observed. |

*. Prof. Hitchcock then extibied casts of nearly all the varieties
of bird-tracks hitherto discovered in the Connecticut sandstone.
These casts had been skillfully prepared and grouped by his friend
Dr. James Deane of Greenfield, the original discoverer of the
tracks. He said he could not but feel that the Apteryx character
of the impressions, taken with the discovery of the Dinornis, had
had a great influence on the mind of Mr. Owen, as deciding his
“final conclusion. He had himself been so much impressed with
the mammalian massive character of the Ornithichnites giganteus
when first discovered, that after an attentive consideration he re-
jected the specimens, in the belief that no bird could make s0
bold and deep an impression. He could not believe that the. birds
which made such impressions were volants; while on the other
hand, some of the impressions were so. ehidete: and slight as to
equal the tracks of any of the volants of the present day.

Dr. Jackson vead extracts from.a letter of Elie de Beaumont,
expressing his great interest in the specimens of O. giganteus
which Dr. J. had sent him, and his belief that they were —
tracks. —

In the course of this discussion Ex-Governor dewans had been
introduced to the Association by Prof. Emmons. He was”
dressed by the President, who expressed in the name of the AS
sociation the great lignthiais American geology owed to him
for the zeal and fidelity with which he had carried: the New’ ue

~survey to a successful completion.

To which Gov. Seward briefly replied. — 8 ts is aa

- Subsequently Gov. S. was elected i hbibatied of the .e Association

Mr. John L. Hayes read a report, prepared in pursuance of
resolution of the Association, upon the probable influence of ice
bergs upon drift.

t
ee ae oe ee eee ea ee
Association Uy he EVES CONS ee ees 9 “Seo é

- The information presented had b b eer obtained from an xamination
a ; es ear aoe

of; more than @ighty persons, principally masters of: vesse’s eng"g

the whale and South Sea se al fisheries, in the merchant service and

Labrador fisheries, all of satin had seen icebergs ; also from authentic
published accounts. He adverted to the intense interest with which all
glacial agencies were regarded, to explain the various: phenomena. of
drift, the transportation of earth and large fragments -of rock in a
southerly « direction, the abrading and furrowing of the rocks in the
“same direction, the distortion and bending of strata of clay, ‘the forma-
- tion of jowivahapots cavitio® ntit the aS 8% longitudinal ridges of

To throw light upon these sinsbvenden ra whapecibllont information;
1 As to the mode of formation of icebergs, their ee Pe

Ro The magnitude and form of those floating at sea.
8. The direction, rate, and nature of their ae ‘he imi of
their transport, their grounding. and di
A. The positive and negative: seoenniay as to the apoion of
fragments of rock and earth. = - Ha 4
In the first place, it was § of northern and
southern glaciers, that jslands of jee are "fragments (
“detached from those glaciers—that the fixed icebergs:¢ or glaciers of the
Arctic and Antarctic shores are governed by the same laws, and ex-
hibit the Me iers of the Alps. © Like
the Alpine glaciers, ‘the fixed icebergs of the north and south polar
shores are formed by the yearly accumulation ‘ sie eg
rock and earth are. found on their. ‘surface and in their interior, as they
are found on the Alpine glaciers: “Several of the fixed icebergs of the
Antarctic were particularly ¢ de , Instances were cited ‘where
these fixed icebergs or glac , had been strewn with stones transport-
ed from a distance, which stones has been afterwards covered by new
: now and ice; where Jarge rocks were found in the perpen-
di the glacier overhanging the sea, and where they have
Bela covered with | piles of sand and volcanic scorie. It was shown
from the Leo's ‘structure of these icebergs, their fissures, “c. that
sea precisely as the glaciers of the Alps do
nstal ces | ah the. detachment of icebergs from the
: eres immense waves produced from their fall
€ _ waves lifting up large vessels upon the shores,
er bergs and dashing them to pieces, and loosening from
mbedded ed fragments of rock.
“9. The enormous mechanical power which might be exerted by mov-
ing icebergs, was inferred from their great magnitude. Many were

318 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

described from oral accounts over two hundred feet in height, and from
two to fifteen miles in length; and some, which from careful admeas-
urement, were found to be from two to thirteen miles in length.

_.3. With regard to the nature of their movement, it was observed
that it was very slow and perfectly steady, and in the direction of the
great under currents which always tend from the poles to the equator,
and that no rotary movement had ever been noticed; and indeed no
remarkable movement except that produced by the overturn of the
iceberg. » Facts were mentioned illustrating the great depth of water
in which icebergs sometimes ground, and that they thus remained .
grounded many years. The limits of the transport of icebergs were
shown from the facts observed to be about 40° of north fatase and
36° south latitude.

4. Many otingcial facts were stated as to the iehiegiencsibh of bowl-
ders, from a small size to the diameter of many feet, and from an ex-
amination of the positive and negative testimony upon the subject, it
was inferred that aa are ‘rarely: seen ar with Heiye mate-
rials except near their sou .-

From the facts exhibited, the following iniédtaiioen were. hati ple
xa ‘The steadiness in the movement of the icebergs in our present.
seas, in the direction and under the influence of great under currents.
in our northern hemisphere from causes which must have prevailed as”
well in the ancient as in our present seas, favor the theory that icebergs
with gravers of rock in their lower portions, or pressing the sand and
gravel by their immense weight along the surfaces of the rocks in the 3
bottom of the ancient oceans, might have scored and grated along the:
rocks, grinding off their salient points, and leaving their surfaces
smoothed and striated in the fixed southerly direction in which he
now occur.

2. The immense magnitude of the icebergs in our present seas, and
the evidence as to their present mechanical power, when moved
powerful currents, warrant the conclusion that they must have ometelh /
a powerful influence in pushing and crowding along the sand and. gravel 7
which formed the bottoms of the ancient seas, and in thus forming: ace
cumulations analogous to the moraines of the glaciers. ~ x

3. The length of time during which icebergs may remain sonal
even when swept by rapid currents which might surround them with
sand and mud, or sweep away the loose materials, leaving hills or banks.
upon spots: protected by the stranded icebergs, favors the idea that
agency had an influence in giving the present form to our drift.

4. The formation of glaciers upon the present coasts under such cit
cumstances, that fragments of rock and detritus from the land ae
which they form becomes attached to them, the constant advance

R a
ae

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 319

separation of the glaciers from the land, and then floating into the sea
as icebergs, with loads of earth and rocks, lead to the conclusion that
icebergs, breaking off from the shores of ancient seas, were important
agents in the transportation of rocks and earth from their parent beds.
The existence of immense fragments of rock in situations where they
could not have been carried by water alone, as on the sides of hills
with valleys intervening between them and their parent beds, but where
they might have been left by stranded icebergs, favors this conclusion.

5. The fact that a large part of the fragments detached from glaciers
are of small size, and that these small fragments of icebergs or glaciers
are dissolved and broken to pieces at no great distance from the parent
glaciers, together with the fact that fragments of rock, although often
seen near their source, are rarely seen at a distance, lead to the infér-
ence that the same causes limited the transportation of the bowlders
and larger fragments of the drift, to within the comparatively small
distance from the parent rocks at which they now occur. — decasi

Mr. Nicollet, from the committee on drift, had drawn upa
short. paper on the erratic deposits of the great valley of the Mis-
sissippi, which however he did not read, but made some remarks
on the great importance and interest of the subject, and its bear-
ing on the philosophy of geology and present causes. He urged
the importance of an united effort on the part of all of the mem-
bers of the committee on this subject, and the advantages of
their making up a general report on the subject to embrace the
views and observations of all. — eke ae
~The standing committee then handed to the chair the follow-
ing resolution, which was passed, and the letters mentioned ad-
dressed. ; Re. Ge hee 2 Sa 7?

_ “The standing committee has come to the conclusion that from
the number of papers to be presented, it is inexpedient to accept
the polite invitation of the railroad companies. ‘Therefore re-
solved, that the secretary address a letter of thanks, making
known the regret of the Association, and that it be sent to the
secretariegfof the said companies at an early hour.”

Dr. Of T. Jackson was on the committee appointed to report
on the subject of drift; he had, from his labors in the field and
laboratory, been prevented from giving that time to the pre-
paration of a paper on the subject which it seemed to require.
He would call attention to a few subjects orally. The uniform
direction of these scratches seemed to indicate a general cause
acting in a direction from the north. In Lapland and Finland
their course was found to be from northwest to southeast.

320 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Dr. J. gave way toa motion that the Association now take i
recess.

» Afternoon.—Mr. S. B. Buckley read a paper on the Zyeutii
of Owen, (the Basilosaurus of Harlan,) and exhibited some of
the enormous fossil vertebra: of this extinct animal.*

Mr. Redfield spoke of the importance of retaining this skele-
ton in the country, and of its appropriateness, when suitably
erected, as an ornament to this hall, which now vcontained § so rich
a collection of paleontological remains.

On motion of Prof. Hitchcock, a resolution was “adopted ex-
pressing the sense of the Association as to the importance of hav-
ing this skeleton placed in the state museum.

Prof. Bailey said that it was interesting to see the two ex-
tremes of existence united in the same specimen ; he had exam-
ined the marl in which the bones of the Zygodon were imbed-
ded, and found it composed to a great extent of minute Forami-
nifera and Polythalmia, some of which were perfect, others de-
composed or showing only casts of thin cells. The paris he
did not recognize as having seen before.

Dr. C. T. Jackson resumed his communication on shes subject
of drift, begun in the morning session, being one of the ee oe
appointed last year to report on that sibiisodd

Few subjects excite more attention at present among geologists thant
the phenomena of drifted rocks and soils, and the recent attempts to
combine observations and form some plausible theory has invested it
with a still higher interest. It was formerly supposed that the phe-
nomena of drift were the effects of a transient deluge, which many were
inclined to identify with that described in Genesis. It is now however
generally conceded among geologists, that this occurrence was prior to
the creation of man. There are no remains of his works or presence |
to be found in the tertiary shale which immediately preceded this epoch;
neither arrow-heads, firebrands, or any other work, nor the vestiges of
his footsteps or the fossilized bones. Hence we may conclude that man
was not formed until the world was finished and prepared for his abode.
The geologist sees in the diluvium not proofs of Divine vengeance,
but evidences of the highest wisdom and goodness of the Creator in
thus preparing and commingling the soils of the earth. The earliest
exact observations on this subject were made 3 De Saussure, Pallas,

se desertion Ww this skeleton by Mr. pea in ‘this Journal, Vol. xu, :

and De Luc, on the continent of Europe, and by Sir James Hall in
Scotland. More recently Von Buch has collected a vast amount of
interesting facts, and lastly Messrs. Charpentier, Agassiz, Sefstrom,
De Beaumont, Durocher, and many other distinguished men in Europ
and America, have added their labors, both in the collection of facts
and the development of theoretical views. It was natural that causes
should be sought for effects observed, and not surprising that when
bold and plausible hypotheses were advanced, they should find warm
advocates, as well as uncompromising opponents, and thus from a tho-
rough sifting of the facts and principles by both parties, truth would be.
in the end attained. ak gow Eh Gy oo ees ;
The present state of the controversy as to the phenomena of drift,
aptly illustrates these remarks. A cause now in action was discovered,
which was deemed sufficient to have produced the various effects which
are termed diluvial, or drift phenomena. Many eminent men incau-
tiously embraced the new theory, which within two or three years from
its promulgation, has been found utterly inadequate, and is now aban-
doned by many of its former supporters. ‘This was the glacial theory
of the celebrated Agassiz of Switzerland. He then called attention to
a report by M. Durocher on the phenomena as exhibited in Scandinavia,
and a comparison of the facts there noted with what he had observed
in the notthern states of this country. De Beaumont objects to the
use of the word diluvium, and prefers the terms employed by Char-
pentier, terraines erratiques, blocs erratiques, and phenomene erratique.
In England and this ‘country the term drift has been substituted, but
to cover all the cases must be combined with some other word. Thus
we say, drift, stria, embankments, ridges or phenomena. Durocher
uses the word diluvium, but by it he does not intend to express a belief
in any theoretical views. He refers the phenomena to
tior to the existence of man, as is done in this country. i
D. left the French Arctic Exploring Expedition for the purpose of in-
i ; then visited
Spitzbergen, the northern coast of Lapland, St. Petersburgh, Finland,
the interior of Russia, Poland, the north of Germany and Denmark,
continuing his travels until June, 1840. Thus passing over an immense
surface, he collected all the most important facts, and consulted the
observations of the geologists residing in the yarious countries he vis+
ited, He found in the north of Europe, that the furrows and scratches

Association of American Geo

crossing each other at angles; never greater than 10° or 12°. This co-

incided exactly with the observations of Dr. J. on the drift scratches of

Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. On the borders of the
Vol. xLv, No. 2,—July—Sept. 1843. Al

392 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Gulf of Alten, (the variation being 11° west,) the strie on the sleat
run north and south magnetically; those on the amphibole N. 15° W.
and S. 15° E. by compass. On the borders of Lake Ladoga, the striee
on granite run N. 22° to 25° W. by compass. In Finland, the-strice are
further from the meridian, being N, 69° W. to S. 69° E. by compass.
Proceeding south, this angle diminishes to N. 20° W. and 8. 20° E.—
N. 30° W. and S. 30° E.; the normal direction being N. 25° W. mag.
_M, Sefstrom found on the west side of the Gulf of Bothnia that the
direction was N. W. and 8. E. and this may be considered as the mean
of all the observations ; the variations being accidental, owing to ele-
vations producing deviations in the course of the currents. Valleys of
erosion follow the same direction.. The direction of the Osars, and

sand and gravel.

and like them resemble railroad embankments, and are composed
Marine shells are found in the drift of Denmark, of which M. Beck

recognizes seventy species as identical with those now living. They
are-often broken, but sometimes both valves occur together. Near
Stockholm the shells were found whole, and were tranquilly deposited.
So also at Uddevalea, originally explored by Alex. Brongniart. These
are among the proofs of the submergence of this region during the
diluvial epoch. From the 8. E. of Finland to St. Petersburgh and
Moscow, erratic blocks of granular granite, peculiar to Viborg in Fin-
land, are found scattered—the least distance is from one hundred and
forty to one hundred and fifty leagues. Blocks of sandstone at Memel
came from Lake Onega, a distance of two hundred and forty five
leagues. Thus the drift phenomena in the north of Europe are more
remarkable than those described by Dr. J. in the Reports on the Geol-
_ BY of Maine, in which erratic blocks were traced to a distance of one
- hundred and twenty six miles in a direction S. E. by E. Examples of
these were mentioned in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, an
Rhode Island; and reference was made to the works of Prof. Hiteh-
cock for other striking instances, : p. at ee
Messrs. De Beaumont and Durocher are equally cautious in adopting
any one cause for the phenomena. Durocher thinks there is abundant
proof of two separate causes, distinct as to the time of their occurrence:
Ast. The breaking up of the Northern or Frozen Ocean, by which @
current loaded with ice was sent over the partially submerged countrys
abrading the rocks, producing strie and bowlders, and carrying them
to the S. Ee 2d. That afterwards icebergs formed on the ‘oast a

carried off each summer their load of rocks and earth, and depose’
them tothe SE. Inthe meanwhile the land was gradually rising from

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 323

the sea level, and brought the detritus above the surface. During the
periods of tranquillity marine shells were deposited in those portions
of the country which were submerged. Durocher, De Beaumont, and
Bohtlink, all consider the glacier theory insufficient to produce the
effects observed. -And the phenomena in Scandinavia, like those ob-
served here, all go to disprove the hypothesis of Agassiz. Even in
Switzerland, the celebrated Prof. Andre De Luc regards the views of
Agassiz as fanciful and imaginary. Dr. J. referred to the quotation of
Peter Dobson’s hypothesis by Mr. Murchison. He concluded by re-
marking that he had travelled over most of the Swiss glaciers, and
knew the statements made were greatly exaggerated. He knew too
that our drift strice and erratic blocks did not radiate from one principal
mountain group, nor were they in any case much deflected by them ;
nor was there any proof that glaciers had ever existed in Maine, New
Hampshire, or Massachusetts. Wi ce et oe ar: ‘si
Mr. Nicollet then rose and addressed the meeting at conside-
rable length and with great animation on the subject of Dr.
Jackson’s paper just read, and in opposition to the glacial the-
ory of M. Agassiz. He expressed his astonishment that M.
Agassiz should have entirely overlooked the labors of his prede-
cessors in the same field, and particularly of M. De Saussure, who
spent forty years in investigating all their phenomena, and he
hearly exhausted the subject. It was impossible to conceive how
the effects ascribed by M. Agassiz to the moving glaciers could
With propriety belong to them. ‘The mer de glace was an \m-
Mense vault of ice under which, as in a grotto, one could walk
even for twenty miles, while on its bottom runs a stream of wa-

ter. How could the bottom of the mer de glace then be suppos-

ed to score and furrow the rocks in its path? M. Agassiz had
overlooked too the true effect of the expansion of the ice ; he
ad ascribed to ét the downward movement of the glacier, while
De Saussure long ago proved that this motion was due to gravity
only. The expansion did effect the fissuring and arching up of
the glacier, just as it produces the same phenomena in the ice of
Our rivers. oh : Sey ae .
One very important point in the subject of diluvial furrows
had been overlooked by M. Agassiz as well as by many other
Observers of the same facts, not only in the Alps but in other
places—this was whether the furrows on the rocks obeyed the
irection of the valleys, or the general direction of diluvial fur-
tows, irrespective of the sides of mountains and the course of

324 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

valleys. Until full observation was made of the facts with this
point in view, we could arrive at no valuable general conclusions.

An animated and pleasing debate then ensued between Prof.
Hitchcock, Mr. Nicollet, Mr. Redfield, and the Chair.

Prof. Hitchcock remarked that so disastrous had been his experience
in respect to the glacial theory of Agassiz, that he was almost afraid to
say any thing more on the subject. His views had been so much mis-
understood on both sides of the Atlantic, that he was satisfied that the
fault lay in the language which he had used on former occasions. He
had been supposed to be an advocate for the unmodified glacial theory.
But if he could trust his own consciousness he never had been a be-
liever in it. ‘The views which he presented in his paper on the phe-
nomena of drift in North America, read to this Association last year
and now published in their Transactions, are essentially the same as
those which he held when he gave his anniversary address before this
body in Philadelphia : and those views he certainly stated i in that ad-
dress. Nay, he invented a new term, viz. ‘glacio-aqueous, to express
the final conclusions of his mind on the subject. By this term he meant
to say that the phenomena of drift were the result of the joint action
of ice and water, without saying which of these agents had exerted the
greatest influence. But whether that glacio-aqueous action had been

the result of the enormous accumulation of glaciers according to Agas-

siz, or from floating icebergs while northern countries were yet beneath
the ocean according to Lyell and. Murchison, or of the upheaving of
the Arctic Ocean whereby its aqueo-glacial contents were precipi-
tated southward according to De la Beche, he had not then made up his
mind nor has he yet made it up. The Etudes sur les Glaciers of Agas-
siz did indeed throw a flood of light into his mind, by showing how (if
that writer has rightly inti feebed the phenomena of glaciers) moving
ice could produce such effects as are connected with drift. It did seem
to him to have introduced a new element into the dynamics of drift, and
he expressed his strong admiration of the labors of the distinguished pro-
fessor of Neuchatel, though he certainly never meant to adopt his views
in full: and in saying that the fundamental principle of Agassiz’s the-
ory seemed to him to be true, he meant only that ice and water had
been the agents employed in producing the phenomena of drift, for
he understood the glacial theory to require both these agencies. Indeed
the melting away of the vast accumulations of ice around the poles,
which this theory supposes to have been done suddenly, must have pro-
duced ars currents and transported oabetat in that direction | in
vast doer ge

Teahioets

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 325

_ The ground then which he (Prof. H.) took and still takes was that
ice and water were the agents employed in producing the phenomena
of drift, and he found that nearly all geologists of the present day ad-
mit this position. He was happy therefore to find his views in accord-
ance with the whole geological world. Geologists do indeed differ in
the proportions in which they mix ice and water for this work ; but they
all admit both agents to have been concerned. Even Elie de Beau-
mont, according to Dr. Jackson’s paper just read, admits: both these
agents, and this certainly is an advance upon the views which have so
extensively prevailed in continental Europe on this subject. Prof. H.
did not feel as if we could safely go farther than to say that drift was
the result of glacio-aqueous action, and he had some doubts whether
we could ever go farther except hypothetically. Yet most geologists
seemed not willing to stop there: and he had no objection to their
indulging in conjectures in the wide field beyond, and he would always
be happy to examine their ingenious hypotheses. And in regard to the
glacial theory he could not agree with Dr. Jackson, that it was already
dead and waiting to be buried. The late numbers of the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal, of the Geologist, and other European periodicals,
loaded_as some of them were with papers on this subject, certainly
looked as if some vitality still remained in that theory or its advocates.
He was particularly interested in the effort of Mr. Maclaren to make.
the glacial theory and the iceberg theory coalesce. Indeed it would
not be strange if the true and ultimate theory on this subject, if that is
ever reached, should be a combination of all the three leading hypo-
theses which have been alluded to above. = ide

In conclusion, he begged leave to say, that he derived his first ideas
of glacio-aqueous action, nearly twenty years ago, from the papers of
Sir James Hall on the diluvial phenomena of Scotland. For although

that writer imputes those phenomena to a deluge, he loads the waters
aS et

326 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

to those of Lyell and Murchison, yet he had relied mainly on the force
of the polar currents. But as to the cause of these currents, which
had been previously referred to, he desired to wash his hands of all sus-
picion of attributing them to the melting of ice and evaporation in the
lower latitudes. He considered them to be due to other causes of a
far different nature.

-»Mr. R. spoke of the vast effects of the regular polar currents ie the
ocean in the transportation and deposit of bowlders and drift, cur-
rents which must have been in action ever since the earth had rolled on
its axis with an. incumbent ocean ; and he thought this mighty and endu-
ring agency as conjoined with ice had not been duly appreciated. He
felt that much credit was due to Mr. Hayes for the facts which he had
collected from observant voyagers, and took occasion to allude to the
summary outlines of the systematic currents of the ocean which had
been given by himself at a former meeting of the Association, but not
furnished for the report of proceedings. He then traced on the map
the. natural course, as well as the deflected or forced direction of these
currents as they issued from the Arctic regions ; the natural course fall-
ing westerly and the deflected one easterly of a meridian line, and cor-
ponding severally i in direction with each of the two systems of strie
found on the rocks of North America. He showed on the map the
coincidence of these strie with the present courses of the great ice-
fields and numerous. icebergs of the north; suggesting that attention
to the phenomena of single icebergs in open sea would fail to produce
an adequate conviction of the efficiency of the cause in question. © But
those who had attentively considered the narrative of the last voyage »
of Capt. Back might be satisfied that the movements in mass of such
vast packs of ice and icebergs as those in which his ship was enclosed
for many months and moved slowly a great distance to the southward
by the force of the great current and the agitation produced by storms,
doubtless while rending and moving by means of the vast floes and the
base of the bergs ,the incoherent portions of the shores and the suba-
queous topography and grooving the faces of the coherent rocks, were
causes which acting without stint of time, were sufficient to youn
most of the phenomena which have been noticed in drift formations.

Mr. Hayes said his observations had proven to his satisfaction
that the immense mass of these icebergs below the water caused
them to be entirely influenced by the currents beneath the sut-
face, and ‘explained why apparently they were not affected by
the winds and currents above the surface. He alluded to some
facts which had been observed as illustrative of this point. — The

eason of; these strong under-currents he did not undertake to x

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 327

plain. He would ask of Mr. Redfield whether in his opinion
there was any reason to suppose that the currents in the ocean
below the surface, always tended towards the equator.
Mr. Redjfield replied at some length, explaining the geograph-
ical system of currents observed in the ocean. ‘These were main-
ly independent of the atmosphere and winds. ‘The whole of the
evaporation at the equator, let it be as much as it may, would
have no sensible effect in producing a current from the polar
regions to supply its place. The Mississippi, through its numer-

ous branches, received the drainage of many thousands of square

miles, and some had contended that the influence of its current
must materially affect the force of the Gulf Stream. He would
not undertake to say but what some effect was produced, but he
could say, that it had never yet been perceptible to observation. .
In reply to a question of Mr. Horsford, Prof- Espy stated that
the evaporation at the equator could not be the cause of the polar
currents towards that point. A current of one mile per hour
would fill up the entire deficiency caused by the evaporation, in
one hour. It was idle therefore to look to that cause for the
effect. He thought the mean temperature at the poles and equa-
tor, a sufficient cause to explain the phenomena of the currents.
Mr. E. explained this point at some length. The specific grav-
ity of the water, caused by the difference of temperature, would
give a current from the poles to the equator. At the equator, the
temperature of the water at the surface was about 70°, while at
the depth of one thousand fathoms it was but 37° or 38°, and.
remained at about that temperature as you went to a greater
depth. 'This could only be accounted for by supposing that the
Water at that depth was supplied by a current from the polar
regions. 7 — . Se pattie
Mr. Hall read a short paper and presented a natural section of
& portion of the shore of Lake Erie, exposing the broken and
contorted strata and intermingled drift. ‘ .

"This section was exhibited to the Association last year, with a view
to elicit similar facts and to enable us to draw some inference as to the
cause producing the phenomena. : :
_ He stated that the subject of drift had. occupied but a small portion
of his attention, having been engaged mainly in the study of ‘the older
rocks and their contents. In the outcropping edges of the limestones
and other firm strata, he had frequently noticed the separation of the
layers, one being eleyated at a much higher angle than the next below,

328 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

and the space filled with loose materials. Sometimes large masses
were thrown over upon the stratum in place to the south—at other
times they had been lifted and fallen back, presenting abrupt anticlinal
axes of small extent.

In the section before us similar causes seem to have operated ina
more stupendous manner, and to have produced corresponding results.

He gave an explanation of the section, which consists of a stratum
of loam, resting on clay and gravel, and below this the shaly strata,
which are cracked throughout into short blocks as if by a violent undu-
latory motion ; insinuated beneath these, and between different strata,
we find clay, gravel and pebbles, with smaller fragments of the shale.
These materials are often folded and cortorted in such a manner as to
lead to the conclusion that they could only have been produced by a
tremendous force from the northward, forcing the loose materials be-
neath and between the strata, and mers - whole to the southward,
producing the folded appearance. =~

The surface of the firm rock behenth is Gries and striated, pre-
cisely in the same manner as the surfaces of our present strata, so that
if the broken rocks above were removed the surface would present the
same appearances as those of the grooved and polished rocks. .

It is here quite evident that the breaking up of the strata, the inter-
mingling of the drift, &c., all took place during a single period, being
produced by a force movi to the southward. This ihc whatever it
may have been, seems sufficient to have produced the breaking up of

strata, the production of worn fragments, and the excavation or denuding

operations every where visible.

The phenomena presented in this instance lead us to the most inter-
esting conclusions, but whether we are warranted in assuming that sim-
ilar causes may have produced the effects every where, it is perhaps
impossible to decide. The subject of drift and the causes of its pro-
duction are still open to discussion, and no theory yet advanced seems
satisfactory to all parties. Therefore, without a desire to advance any
theoretical considerations, he had presented the facts for the considera-
tion of the Association.

After explanation of sections of the drift and river sash at
ees: Mr. Horsford inquired whether there was evidence of

he original north and south valleys having been excavated by
a force operating from south to north.

Mr. Hall replied that he had formerly embraced that opinion;
but finding no positive evidence of such a force had abandoned it.
If this opinion were true we should expect to have found remains
of southern drift among the loose materials at the north, but s°
far from this being the case he had always found northern mate-

ye
ae

Association of American G ‘ecologists and Naturalists. 329

tials in the southern drift. He was led to believe from the facts
in the case, that there must be valleys of two distinct epochs.
Prof. H. D. Rogers then addressed the meeting in a very elo-
quent manner, showing how the absence of southern materials in
the northern drift might be accounted for by supposing the forces
of the northern currents to have been so great as entirely to have
swept all vestiges of the superficial drift into the Gulf of St. Law-
rence. This vast reflux of waters was attendant on the uplift of
the continent, and the great drainage which resulted from the
flowing off of the oceanic waters. . : Fn
. Mr. Hall read a short paper in explanation of two sections at
Portage, N. Y.

Under the terms diluvium, drift, &c., are included products, which,
however similar they may be in general characters, are often due to
different causes, and are the results of eras widely separated in time,
and differing in many essential circumstances. The more ancient ap-
pear to have been the more universal, and as we descend to modern
periods, the extent of the operation seems to have diminished. )
In our theories we have made provision for a wide sweeping deluge,
for immense excavating waves, and for hemispheres of ice, but we have
overlooked the subsequent and minor, though often important operations
of the bursting of lakes, or the change in river channels, which must
have occurred frequently during the earlier periods after the emergence
of our continent from the ocean. The existence of such lakes, would
a natural consequence of the contour of the surface.
Evidence of the outbreaking of such lakes is seen in the margins of
all our great valleys, where more recent detritus is spread over the
older deposits of that kind... «8% 908 6 0 Sug
Bones, shells and fragments of wood, are frequently found in these
deposits, which are referred to the drift period—though we are not pre-
pared to say that the drift is destitute of such remains, yet those which
Mr. Hall had seen were clearly in positions to be referred to a subse-
quent period, ‘ai sie. ta Sic sent naga
In the excavation of the Genesee Valley canal, at Portage, along the

side of a hill which consists of alternating layers of fine sand and clay,

at a point about two hundred feet above the base of this deposit, some
fragments. of fine-grained wood, highly impregnated with iron pyrites,
Were found. ‘This was in a layer covered by a mass of gravel and sand
eighty feet thick, which, from the nature of its materials, was a deposit
subsequent tothe drift, and of southern origin.*
" The existence of these two deposits was pointed out in the Annual Geological
for 1839 : ;

Vol. xiv, No, 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 42

330 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

_ Upon the surface of this sloping hill is about ten feet of a deposit of
sand, clay and gravel, saturated with water, and constantly moving
down the side of the hill. This is evident not only from facts ascer-
tained in excavating the canal, but also in the fact that the oak trees
which grew upon the high ground have slidden down and become inter-
mingled, standing in all directions among the hemlocks which skirt the
margin of the river below.
"The deposit in which the fossil wood is found, was probably made in
a lake which was afterwards filled with an accumulation of gravel and
sand, derived from the outbursting of some reservoir farther south,
This deposit being pervious to water allows this liquid to pass through
it; and meeting with an impervious mass below, flows out in the form of
springs, undermining and carrying down the surface matter.
~ In a transverse section extending across the river valley and channel,
_ Mr. H. illustrated the changes which had taken place in the direction of
the Genesee, during a paratively recent period. | Kate
_ ‘The river to the south of Portage flows in the bottom of a broad val-
ley, extending toward the north. At Portageville the stream bends
around to the left, and after flowing a short distance nearly south, turns
‘to'the north and northeast, cutting its channel through the rocky slate
in some’ places to the depth of three hundred and fifty feet, and forming
in its passage three falls of sixty six, one hundred and ten, and ninety
six feet respectively. This channel is narrow with mural banks; but
a short distance below the lower fall it emerges into a broader valley;
in a line with the chantiel to the south of Portage, before it is deflected
from its course. Aan eS
The space between these two points, as shown in the section, is @ deep
broad gorge filled to a great height with clay, sand and gravel. pret
- This is evidently the ancient channel of the river, and yet i
had become filled with this drift the stream found an easier passage by
excavating the solid rock for three miles, than by removing these loose
materials. bend bee
- Still below this point the river leaves the broad channel and exc®
yates a gorge through the shales emerging into the broad valley at
Mount Morris. wit | ae
.- Several other lakes and. streams in Western New York exhibit the
same phenomena, and although there are northern channels filled with
drift, the streams often turn at right angles and excavate their course
The Chair mentioned to the meeting that Prof. Hitchcock
would favor the Association with a public lecture in the evenings

AGIOUTrNe

at 74 o'clock.

Stes Sta as

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 33%

“Monday, May 1, 1843.—The minutes of Saturday were ac-
cepted, and the Chair presented from the committee on publica-
tion the completed volume of transactions, comprising the pro-
ceedings of the Association from its organization to the present
time, together with all the papers which have been read at former
meetings of the Association. It was ordered that the present com-
mittee on publication be continued for the year to come, and that
Dr. Amos Binney be the treasurer of that committee. It was also

‘Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to
the committee of publication for the very acceptable manner in
which they have performed the laborious and responsible duty
of publishing the first volume of the Transactions of the Asso-
ciation.

- Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to
Prof. E. Hitchcock, for his very interesting address before the
Association on Saturday evening, and a copy be requested for
publication. Mascagni ede ae «istire

Prof. Hitchcock read a paper on native copper found in drift
in Massachusetts, and also on the occurrence of yttro-cerite in the
same state. He considered the copper as having originated in the
ptimary to the north of the place where it was found ; there was
no drift in that direction, having any other than a northern ori-
gin; he considered this fact might have an important commercial

ng: is 7 aya
- Dr. Jackson stated he had found the yttro-cerite in Bolton, Ct.
_B. Silliman, Jr. reminded Prof. Hitchcock that copper was
found at Bristol, Conn., in the primary, beyond but near the
junction of the new red, and that Prof. Shepard had expressed
the opinion in his report, that all deposits of copper in the secon-
dary were limited in extent, and were originally derived from the
Dr. L. C. Beck stated that native copper had been found near
Somerville, N. J., under circumstances similar to those in Massa~-
chusetts and Connecticut ; one mass in his hands weighed when
found, one hundred and twelve pounds. :
vof..2; De Rogers enquired of Dr. D. Houghton if he con-
sidered the native copper of Lake Superior, as belonging to the
older secondary, and whether the trap and sandstone of the penin-
sula of Michigan, were of the same geological age as the similar

formations of New Jersey and Connecticut.

332 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Dr. Houghton said he could not speak definitely as to the
contemporaneousness of the two formations, but he was sure of
the similarity of their structure. The copper in Michigan was
frequently accompanied by zeolites and prehnite.

. Silliman, Jr. reminded Dr. H. of the discussion on this
subject, at the meeting in Philadelphia in 1841, and stated his
analysis of the Lake Superior copper in reference to its being an
alloy of silver and copper, and also the silver on the copper to as-
certain if it were an alloy of copper and silver; but he had found
both the metals distinct and quite pure, although fused into per-
fect union at their two surfaces. He would enquire of Dr. H.
whether he had found silver under similar circumstances, and
whether the silver was not segregated by the action of the dyke,
and found in Sppattin MaenanE and sinus it epee to be of any
economical value.

Dr. Houghton said the wet. mass in Yale Géllexe dab,
referred to by Mr. S., was the only loose mass, where he had seen
the silver and copper united ; he had been at the same vein that
afforded this specimen, and had found silver distinct in branch-
ing masses, but in very small quantity, and he had in one case
found antimonial sulphuret of silver; the silver and copper were
both very nearly pure

Dr. Beck said the fone in N. Jersey were of a similar character.

On motion of the Chair, Dr, L. C. Beck, B. Silliman, Jr., and
Dr. D. Houghton, were appointed a committee to draw up a re-
port for the next annual meeting, embracing all the known facts,
bearing on the occurrence of native copper, in the. pyran re~
gions of the United States.

Mr. James Hall showed a specimen of. the heat limestone
from near Niagara, as proving in a very conclusive way, the di-
rection of the diluvial agency by which the surface of the rocks

_ in situ had been ground down; in this specimen the nodules of
chert had resisted the diluvial action and stood out in relieve above
the surface of the stone, having before them a ridge of limestone
which had been protected by the chert nodule.
The Chair said he adverted to this fact last year, and cond
ered it as conclusive evidence against the hypothesis of simple
-aqueo-glacial action, as the cause of the smoothed and poli
ets he considered that such an effect could result only from
the sweeping over the rocks. of a vast accumulation of angular

Association of American Gteologists and Naturalists. 333°

and loose fragments of hard rocks, mixed with smaller gravel and
sharp sand. cote ah o HR AS a ge 3
_ B. Silliman, Jr. stated that much of the loose material which
covered the red sandstone of Connecticut, consisted of fragments
of rocks, many of which could be referred to the trap mountains
to the north, which presented one surface worn down quite flat,
like the rubbing stone of a stone-cutter, and as if they had been
carried evenly and for a long time, over the surface of the rocks,
by some force competent to keep them in one position. He left
it for gentlemen to decide as best suited their own views, whether
they were thus held by being set in ice, or by a superincumbent
and adjacent mass of loose materials and waters. The large peb-
bles of quartz and other hard rocks, of which the coarser beds of
conglomerate in the Connecticut valley were composed, were
worn down without dislocation, and had, measurably, served to
protect a dee of adjacent rock from degradation in a manner simi~
lar to the cherty nodules shown by Mr. Hall. The striations in
these valleys were about 8. 20° E. and were on the whole irre-
Spective of the directions of the valley, frequently scouring the
sides of hills, in a line oblique to the axis of the valley.

The Chair urged that the diluvial currents had extended far-
ther to the south in the long parallel valleys of Pennsylvania, and
had been much influenced by the existing topography of the
country ; and the scourings on the rocks there were resultant
lines between the general direction of the onward current, and
the direction of the mountain slopes. It was uninfluenced by
the topography of the country so long as the waters stood above
the summits of the mountain ridges, but when the inundation
was nearly exhausted, the subdivided current conformed itself
almost entirely to the configuration of the surface. ene
- Mr. Redfield said that the diluvial markings on our American
rocks, might be viewed as constituting two distinct systems, in
one of which the strice have a southwesterly direction, in the oth-
er a southeasterly one ; the latter system greatly predominating
in the country lying east of the Hudson. is

The discussion was continued for some length by Messrs.
Houghton, Jackson, Espy, Rogers, Hitchcock and Hall, and it
was generally admitted that we must find, in the conjoint action

‘water, ice and loose detritus, a cause sufficient to account for
all the phenomena known by the various names of glacial, dilu-
vial and aqueo-glacial.

334 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

B. Silliman, Jr. then made a few remarks on the configura-
tion of the valleys of the secondary, as influenced by and con-
nected with the intrusion of trap rocks.

The subject of appointing a committee on drift, to report at
our next meeting, having come up for discussion, it was

Resolved, That the following gentlemen be instructed to re-
port on the present state of our knowledge on the subject of drift.
New England and New York, Prof. E. Emmons; the West and
far West, J. N. Nicollet; the South, W. B. Rogers;

The chairman explained to the meeting, a view which had
occurred to him to account for the crescent-formed dykes of trap
in the new red sandstone of New Jersey and Connecticut.

That the crescent form of the trappean dykes of the New Red sand-
stone regions of New Jersey and Connecticut is in some manner con-
nected with the dip of the stratified rocks which they traverse, is plainly
indicated by the constant dependence between the direction of these
crescents and the direction of the dip. Thus in New Jersey, where
the dip of the Red Sandstone is towards the northwest, the horns of the
crescents point towards the same quarter, while in Connecticut, where
the strata. possess an easterly dip, the points of the crescents are direct-
ed eastward. pls

~ May we not explain this curious relationship by conceiving the fissure
through which the melted trap has pushed to the surface, to conform
itself, where it traverses the upper part of the inclined sandstone, to
the plane of the dip. The sandstone being disrupted in a plane par-
allel to the dip, the beds on the upper side of the sloping dyke will be
lifted off from those upon which they reposed, and in this tilting of the
beds, there will arise towards the extremities of the fissure seams oT
transverse cracks, extending in the direction of the dip. Now when
we view the outline of the principal or central portion of the fissure
continued into these transverse cracks at its extremities, we readily pet
ceive that it must constitute a curve or crescent concave in the direc-
tion of the dip. ~~ Ai Cee

_ Mr. B. Silliman, Jr. remarked that there was an almost pet
fect identity between the views just explained by Prof. Rogers
and those arrived at more than two years since by his friend Dr.
James D. Whelpley and himself in the Connecticut valley.
These views had been laid before Mr. Lyell, by Dr. Whelpley;
and illustrated to Mr, L. by visits to several localities in the vicin-
ity of New Haven. It had been their intention to lay a paper 0B

the subject before the present meeting, but they would postpone

it to next year. It was then

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, 335

_ Resolved, That Dr. J. D. Whelpley, Prof. H. D. Rogers and
B. Silliman, Jr., be a committee to report on the intrusive trap of
New Jersey and Connecticut. - best co ¢ ;

Mr. Dana exhibited a few drawings by himself, illustrating
the metamorphosis of the Anatifa. The young of the common
barnacle was first noticed and figured by Thomson, who remark-
ed its close resemblance to the species of the Cypris family among
Crustacea. These drawings show the same with regard to the
Anatifa, and prove also that the pedicle in the Anatifa corres-
ponds with the anterior legs, (properly a pair of antennz, ) of the
young Cypris-shaped animal. In the young state it swims free
in the ocean and has a pair of compound eyes. The eyes disap-
pear when changing to the adult form; in this state the Ana-
tifa is a fixed animal, like the barnacle, and has no further use
for eyes. One of the drawings represents the young free ani-
‘mal; a'second, the same attached by its anterior legs, which ter-
minate in a disk to the sea-weed, and a third, the full developed
Anatifa, with the valves of the shell of the young, (the exuvie, )
loosely adhering to the foot of the pedicle. —

‘The propriety of uniting these animals with the order Crusta-
cea, has been often suggested. .'The structure of the mouth and
legs, and the fact that they change their skin from time to time,
like the species of this order, would alone seem sufficient to au-
thorize this union; but now after the discovery by ‘Thomson
and others respecting the young, there is no reason for farther
hesitation. wets day dhe pn
- Dr. L. C. Beck read a paper on the occurrence of bituminous
or organic matter in several of the New York limestones and
sandstones. eee ‘dies i
~ In this paper the author stated that in almost all the New York water
limestones which he had analyzed, the residuum left, after the action
of dilute muriatic acid, when subjeeted to heat, gave out a bituminous
‘or peaty odor. In some cases the proportion of this matter could be
determined by first carefully drying the whole insoluble residuum, as
certaining its weight, and then subjecting it toa red heat and noting
the loss. In other instances, however, while the bituminous odor was
sufficiently evident, the loss of weight was scarcely appreciable. The
same fact was observed in the limestone from Rochester, and generally
in those limestones termed fetid. The sandstones at Laona and else-
where in Chatauque County are often so highly impregnated with this

ora like substanee that specimens, even though kept for some time, .

336 Association of American G'eologists and Naturalists.

burn with flame. This bituminous matter has been observed in a lime-
stone from Saratoga County, which, from the circumstance of its being
made up of rounded grains, has been called oolitic limestone by min-
eralogists. :

Dr. B. remarked that the odor of the fetid limestone had sometimes
been referred to the presence of iron pyrites, giving rise to sulphuret-
ted hydrogen. If it was due to iron pyrites, the sulphuretted hydrogen
would have been evolved during the process of solution ; which was:
not the case. : je
~The author adverted to the statements made by Dr. Daubeny at the
last meeting of the British Association (1842) concerning the occur-
rence of organic matters in various secondary limestones, and was
inclined to consider the whole’ class of facts as proofs that races of
organic beings had existed at the period of the formation of these
rocks, of which not a single representative now remains. _ Hs
_ Dr. Emmons remarked that this bituminous matter was of
general occurrence in the New York rocks, even the older arena-

In some limestones noticed by Mr. Hall, the bitumen was so”
abundant as to run out when lime was burnt and render the spe-
cimen offensive to handle. The limestone at Montreal was s0
charged with bituminous matter as to smut the hands, while a
case had been cited by the late Mr. Eaton, of a limestone having
when heated the smell of horn, indicating the presence of nitro-
genized matter. ime, 166 ESS, ee

Dr. Owen read a paper on fossil Palm Trees, found in Posey
County, Indiana. ’ , ee

They were discovered about twelve miles from New Harmony; in
excavating in a slaty clay on the banks of Big Creek, a tributary
of the Wabash, for the purpose of laying the foundation of a saw and
grist mill, and forming a rag dam. The stratum in which they are im-
bedded is one of the upper members of the Illinois coal-field. »

From the first commencement of the excavation from twenty to twen-
ty five fossil stumps have been seen. Dr. Owen has disinterred only
three himself, These were found standing erect, with from five to
seven main roots attached, and ramifying in the surrounding material.
There is every reason to believe that if pains had been taken to expose
the others, all would have been found provided with roots. ne

Besides the three trees which were transported to Dr. 0.’s labora~
tory, several segments of other trees, previously dug out, were nd
amongst the rubbish: Some of these had the scars of the stems well

‘preserved, and presented besides the structure of the bark, which re

ati

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 337

sembled minute wrinkles, something like the impression left on soft
clay by pressing a file on it. No medullary rays or growths could be
discovered on the transverse sections of the trees. we thse
. All the specimens observed had part of the bark converted into a
black carbonaceous substance. Judging from the disposition of the scars
on several of the specimens found, there must have been at least three
species. ‘This was shown on a drawing; and Dr. O. exhibited a mod-.
el, quarter the natural size of the smallest stump excavated. A portion
of one of the roots of the largest one was also laid before the Associa-
tion. ‘The general character of these interesting specimens was deter-
mined by the form of the scars, being longer horizontally than yertical-
ly, and the absence of flutings. In the bed of Big Creek, fifteen feet
beneath the roots of the trees, is a seam of coal supposed to be from
three and a half feet to four feet thick. Almost immediately over
them is a layer of sandstone, and over that an imperfect seam of coal.
The top of the fossil tree is about fifteen feet beneath the level of the
bank of Big Creek. dich aap Hlth at are oe
Dr. Owen supposed from the present position of these trees, that they
have been quietly submerged and now occupy the spot where they orl-
ginally grew. wig SRI ee A ae
"A more detailed description of this locality of fossil, palm trees will
probably appear hereafter in this Journal. ;
Dr. C. T. Jackson read a report on the organic matters of soils,
and exhibited specimens of them and their characteristic salts
and compounds. es : es
~ He demonstrated the complex nature of mould or humus, and proy-
ed that only refined and exact analyses would show the causes of fer-
tility and. barrenness in soils. Several cases in point were cited, and
among others the analysis of three soils; one of which was almost bar-
ten; the second was moderately fertile ; while the third was remarka-
bly productive and had been cultivated for nearly one hundred years.
In these three soils the relative proportions of organic and mineral mat-
ters were. precisely the same, insomuch that it was supposed at first
that they were all taken from the same spot; but a more refined anal-
ysis showed a very marked difference in the condition of the organic
matters, and to this difference, imperceptible to an ordinary or crude
analysis, the difference in fertility was owing. ‘
‘The organic matters formerly con ounded under the names of ulmin,
geine and humus, are numerous and very different in their chemical
nature, varying in different soils and producing various degrees of fer-

Vol. xxv, No, 2—July-Sept 194343

338 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

- Berzelius who first described and named geine, has utterly abandon-
ed that name* as improper, there being no such proximate principle, it
having been proved to be a very complex compound of new and pecu-
liar acids. ‘Those which we know at present are the following: crenic
acid, apocrenic acid, humic acid, humin, extract of humus, glairin, glu-
cic acid, apoglucic acid and coal of humus.
- The five first of these substances are generally present in fertile soils.
Crenic acid forms two salts with lime, one of which, the crenate, is very
soluble in water and in alcohol, while the subcrenate is more difficult:
ly soluble.

-Apocrenic acid is highly charged with nitrogen, and is a very vale:
able ingredient in soils, furnishing a portion of the nitrogenous matter
of plants. It is probably formed by the gradual change of vegetable
matters through the influence of the air and ammoniacal salts derived
from decomposing animal manures and from rain. It forms from the
erenates and humates, when they are exposed to atmospheric influence,
by breaking: up the soil during cultivation. Hence we'see that a yellow
‘soil turns black by two or three years’ meen to the atmosphere, and
from an unfertile state becomes fertile. We can readily produce the
same result in a few hours, when we operate ona small quantity of
soil in the laboratory. Apocrenic acid forms salts with lime and with
peroxide of iron, which are nearly insoluble in water, but which are
readily decomposed by the action of carbonate of ammonia, or by
potash or soda; so that we may readily conceive of the fertilizing
influence of these alkaline matters, since they render the organic ma-
nures, which were before insoluble, perfectly soluble in water, so so that
‘they may be absorbed by the rootlets of plants. If these matters are
absorbed, as they infallibly must be, it is evident that they must under-
go a series of modifications in the sap vessels, so that they are no lon-
ger found in the juices of plants in the state which they were when they
were first absorbed, Now, by analysis of the sap of plants before the
putting forth of their foliage, we find certain extractive matters and su-
gar. In some, apoglucic and glucic acid have been discovered.

Let us then consider the composition of these substances, and see
whether it is possible for humic acid, for instance, to pass by chemical
changes into sugar. -

‘

Sugar is composed of - + 6 "TO Bes i
Glucic acid of ei twagtice chat 10 Ris
Humie acid of ‘ > ined imc » Dic Mewes
Ulmin fromsugar - - + 40. $2.5 sin: Meee

; ieee
__* The erroneous statement in the Amer. Jour. of Science, was U shen to the re-
er having only a iat ae tion of Berzelius’ Chemistry, w was printed

in French at Bruxelle

- Now 11 atoms of sugar consists of 66 carbon, 110 hydrogen, 55
oxygen, and may form, by decomposition according to Mulden,
: ; sige § Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
3 atoms of glucic acid, + - 2 30 15

latomofulmin, - - - 40. 32 14

latom of formic acid, + - 2 | 2 lc: a
23 atoms of water, +. - + O MB tates’ WB
ms seme eS 66 | ee:

- Then by the opposite action, which is the regeneration of vegetable
matter, we may have ulmin or humic acid converted into glucie acid,
formic acid or sugar.
By the action of the atmosphere, glucic acid is converted into apoglu-
cic acid, and by the action of nitrogenized bodies it is further convert-
ed into crenic acid and apocrenic acid. ‘Thus we see how these impor-
tant organic matters may be formed from ordinary vegetable matter,
by exposure to the influence of moisture, atmospheric air, and the soil,
Dumas regards vegetables as true organs of reduction or deoxida-
tion, while animals are regarded as organs of combustion or oxidation,
Thus while plants absorb carbonic acid and give out oxygen, animals
absorb oxygen and give out carbonic acid gas. Plants directly or indi-
rectly furnish us with our aliment, and after consuming it, animals ren-
der the same amount of matter to the vegetable kingdom in another
form, which is better adapted to their use. Thus we see the great and
mysterious circle of the revolution of organic elements is complete.
Besides the organic matters derived from vegetable mould, we must
consider the action of saline matters which constitute the necessary
Components of plants. tae Ua Lapoes
_ We have already seen by the beautiful researches of Prof. Bailey,
that nearly all kinds of forest trees contain in their bark, and enclosed
in their sap-vessels, crystals of oxalate of lime, more than a million of
Which have been discovered in a square inch of the bark of the birch
tree. ‘This discovery is truly interesting, for it shows us another step
the process of changes of organic matter ; for it is one of the easiest
things for the chemist to convert sugar into oxalic acid. We must not
fail to remark also, that while oxalic acid isa deadly poison, oxalate
of lime is perfectly harmless ; so that here we have this powerful acid
in chai What function this salt performs in vegetation is yet un-
When we examine any kind of grain or any seed which is not charg-
ed with oil so as to prevent an examination by the test we shall now
describe, it is discovered that the seeds contain phosphates of certain
bases. During the spring of 1840, Dr. J. discovered the presence of

340 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

phosphoric acid in Indian corn, wheat, oats, beans, peas and chestnuts.
This was done by burning away the seeds by heat and nitric acid, when
in several cases, glacial phosphoric acid and phosphates of lime and
magnesia were discovered. — In his first operations, the whole seed was
burnt in order to obtain the ashes for analysis, but having been shown
by Mr. A. A. Hayes, specimens of Indian corn which were soaked in
a weak solution of sulphate of copper, whereby the precise limits of the
- phosphates were shown by the formation of phosphates of copper, he
was induced to examine the situation of these matters by this test ; and
then by dissecting out the organs of the plant which contained the phos-
phates, he was enabled to analyze them in a more thorough manner, so
as to arrive at interesting and important results.

_ Specimens of various seeds were exhibited to the Association, which
demonstrated the presence of phosphates in the cotyledons only. This
was stated to be a general fact in every case where the experiment had
been tried. The presence of the salts above noticed is a most iat
tant discovery. It explains the origin of the bones of animals. _

Around the cotyledon of Indian corn, Mr. Hayes: discovered a layer
of a salt of peroxide of iron. This was also demonstrated by examples
shown to the Association. This iron shield around the cotyledon of
corn is not to be overlooked, for it is the source of the oxide of iron
which enters into the composition of the red eanaee of the blood of
animals,

Indian corn also contains : a fat oil which exists in the transparent hard
portion of the corn, combined with starch and a peculiar ni
body called zeine. This serves to form the fat of animals, and the
starch and zeine form the carbonaceous ‘Compourids of me muscles mm
tissues.

Dr, L. C. Beck then read a paper from J. N. Nicollet, on ihe
mineral region of the state of Missouri.

The mineral region embraced in this paper, comprises the Val-
leé Mines; Mines La Motte; the Pilot Knob; and the Tron
Mountain. At Valleé’s mines the principal ore is the common

sulphuret, (galena,) which is invariably found in ferruginous clay
containing concretions of argillaceous oxide of iron, and lumps of
the radiated and crystalline varieties of sulphuret of iron. The
lead-bearing clay is at irregular depths from the surface, and is
of variable thickness; under it is a limestone. ‘The main shaft
of this mine is sunk about two hundred feet, and the lode is com-
puted to be about four hundred feet above the Mississippi, hen
thd hd tg country Pes six hundred f oe above the same. a

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 341

The following section furnished by the superintendent of the
mines, shows the descending order and thickness of the several
1, Ferruginous clay mixed with rubble, - - 30 feet.
2, Red clay mixed with large masses of rock requir-
inp biatine eae
_ 3. Red clay similar to No. 1, in the seams of lead, 70 “
4, Rock masses of limestone Se ee 4

ey”
_§. Lode, in red clay, of indifferent thickness, say 4o «

| | eve vn" Reenenagy ga

Pursuing a general direction, at the bottom of the shaft, the
ore is found to swell out laterally into pouches, or branches off
so as to admit of lateral openings; so that the whole extent of
the galleries is estimated at fifteen miles under ground, Over
_ the surface, the lead region may be distinctly traced. “>

Tuesday morning, May 2.—The. secretary read a paper by
Mr. Nicollet, on the earthquake of New Madrid. j
Prof. H. D. Rogers communicated to the Association the re-
‘sults of his researches in relation to the recent earthquakes, and
ave an outline of a theory of earthquake action, by which he
and his brother Prof. W. B. Rogers propose to explain the forces
Concerned in the formation of anticlinal flexures, and to account
for several other dynamic phenomena in geology. '

_ The characteristic features of earthquake motion, were shown to con-
Sist, as originally stated by Michell, in a peculiar rapid undulation or
Wave-like rocking of the ground, and a short vibratory jar or tremor,
the tremulous shaking seldom extending to as great a distance from the
Source of the earthquake as the undulation. Details of several earth-
quakes were quoted, to prove that the rocking motion is a true billowy
undulation. Thus, during the severe shock so destructive at Hayti in
May, 1842, the public square at Porto Plata was seen to undulate like
the waves of the sea, the houses rocking to and fro like vessels in a
Storm. In the great earthquake which shook the Windward Islands on
the 8th of February last, the earth in Antigua reeled to and fro for more
than two minutes, and the same is mentioned in relation to the motion
at Guadaloupe and every other locality, where the phenomena were
Oeroiuly noted, 8 stes aod ga nae :
_ The captain of the British steamer Tay reports, that being off Anti-
gua and looking towards the shore, the hills appeared to be in motion,
During the earthquake of Conception in 1835, the motion of the ground

342 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

at Valdavia, according to the interesting description of Capt. Fitzroy,
was undulating and regular, like waves rolling, from west to east, but
strong; and it lasted nearly ten minutes. The houses waved and crack-
ed. The same earthquake was felt at the island of Chiloe by Mr.
Douglas, who describes the motion, we are told by Mr. Darwin, as hor-
jzontal and slow, similar to that of a ship at sea, going before a high
_ regular swell, with three to five shocks in a minute.
Prof. Rogers proceeded to show the manner in which these earth-
quake undulations advance, and adduced some facts from which even
the amplitude of the individual waves or pulsations may be approxi-
mately computed. As a confirmation of the truth of the generalization,
long ago arrived at by Michell, that the disturbance is not simultaneous
over the whole region shaken, but is transmitted with a high velocity,
he presented the results of an analysis of the earthquake which happen-
ed in the United States, on the 4th of January of the present year, re-
specting which he had collected some instructive information. ae
‘This earthquake was felt from the sea-coast of Georgia and South
Carolina, to beyond the western frontier military posts, and from the
latitude of Natchez to that of Jowa, a space in each direction of about
eight hundred miles; and there are reasons for believing that its actual
extent was considerably greater. A comparison of the dates of the
shock, as felt at the numerous localities heard from, seems to settle
with satisfactory accuracy, the direction, velocity and mode of progress
of this earthquake. ‘The facts collected from more than twenty five
stations, and embodied in a tabular form, make it obvious that the shock
was simult throughout an elongated and narrow belt or line, rang-
ing in aN. N. £. direction from the western edge of Alabama, nei
through Nashville and Cincinnati, being also simultaneous along every
other line having with this a parallel direction; whereas no such syn-
chronism existed, where the localities compared were situated in any
other than a N. N. E. and s,s. w. position. Places lying to the w. N- W>
of others invariably encountered the convulsion soonest, and by an in-
terval of time, in this case, strictly proportionate to the distance.
These general facts justify, it is conceived, two important conclu-
sions; first, that the area in agitation at any given instant was linear,
and secondly, that the earthquake moved from w. N. W. to E, 8. E., keep~
ing parallel to itself in the manner of an advancing wave. — The data
brought together in the table, indicate with considerable precision the
velocity with which the shock was propagated from w. N. W. to E. 8. BE
Ascertaining the moment when the belt of synchronal disturbane reach-
ed St. Louis, arid that again when it coincided with a line passing through
Tuscaloosa, Nashville and Cincinnati, the earthquake is found to hav®

Shot: transit, the

. rite, e .
f=) twWwosy £0UL ocuvil

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 343

}, en Anaad j + hd ee

distance passed over being about J . From
this it would appear that the velocity was about thirty two miles per
minute. If in like manner the times be compared when the earthquake
was at Nashville, and again in a mean position between Columbia and
Charleston, it will be found to have occupied in this part of its rapid
march, about eleven minutes and eighteen seconds, but the distance
being three hundred and eighty miles, the velocity indicated was nearly
thirty three and a half miles per minute. So close an agreement of
the two sets of results, bespeaks the accuracy of the data upon which
these computations are based. ye
_ In support of the above inferences respecting the direction of trans-
mission of the earthquake, is the observed direction of the oscillating
motion, which is described as having been at various localities from
west to east. / pe ‘
_ The phenomena of the recent earthquake of Guadaloupe were next
alluded to, as confirming in a remarkable manner the accuracy of the
general laws of earthquake motion, deduced from the above described
earthquake of the United States. — In the West India convulsion, the ve-
locity of transmission was about twenty seven miles per minute, the
pulsation being propagated laterally from an immensely elongated axis
of disturbance, extending in a N. and s. direction, through the Wind-
ward Islands, to Bermuda on the N., and to the coast of Guiana on the s.
~ Respecting the origin of the wave-like motion of the ground in earth-
quakes, some able writers have been disposed to consider it as the re-
sult of a mere tremulous jar radiated from some deep-seated focus, or
line of sudden fracture, and reaching the surface at points more and
more remote from the source of disturbance. All the> circumstantial
descriptions of the phenomena disclose, however, an essential and char-
acteristic difference in the two motions, and plainly indicate the wave-
ike motion to be an actual billowy oscillation of the earth’s crust.
That the vibratory jar is not the cause, but itself the necessary conse-
quence of the undulation, is apparent from the following considerations.
A mere tremulous vibration transmitted along @ given column through
the earth’s crust, would not sensibly elevate or depress: the surface,
since the waves of compression and dilatation among the particles of
the column, would neutralize each other in their effect on the dimen-
‘sions of the mass. © It is difficult to conceive, moreover, how the broad,

Bling Sound. But if-it were even practicable to account for the enor-

mous magnitude of the low, broad waves into which the crust is thrown,

344 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

how shall we derive from a vibration radiated from a deep focal spot or
line, their remarkable number and isochronism? A simple vibratory.
jar sent through the crust, if competent to produce a great wave at all,
could on the hypothesis produce no more than one, as the result of a single
concussive force, so that when these waves follow each other, at regu-
lar intervals of a quarter of a minute or more, for several minutes,
‘we must admit that they are generated in some other manner, since
there is no conceivable cause for a strictly isochronous repetition of the
subterranean force.

But an objection of another kind suggests itself, in the excessively
fissured and crushed condition of the strata in many regions, and their
extremely heterogeneous composition, which must inevitably lead toa
rapid gated or see: “P a a megoe, waves of vibration within
the rocky ma

An eminent t British eniegies pr Oe that the sndildionh mo-
tion in earthquakes, may be of the nature of the vibration in a stretched
cord when it is struck; but Prof. Rogers and his brother find it difficult
trimnpginerihe es e deny the theory mis a pulsating fluid under the crust, how

and so unelastic, nodal vibrations could
take place i in the solid. fabric of the globe, causing waves of the heigl
and een ati of the earthquake undulations.

ecting the opinion that the vibratory jar is.the cause of se eos

latory motion, they deem it more in accordance with known phenome-
na, to recognize it as the effect, and to attribute the tremor to an exten-
sive, minute fissuring and grinding together of the strata under the alter-
nate dilatation and compression going on in wiely part of the ater
mass, during the undulation. ave
The dimensions of the individual inundations would eppannin beans
ceptible in certain cases of direct calculation. Though the waves or
temporary flexures must be of various magnitudes in different earth-
quakes, their amplitude in the more violent convulsions is manifestly
very great. Thus taking the data furnished by Darwin in his account
of the earthquake of Conception, it may be shown that the probable
width of each pulsation in that instance, was at least ten geographical

miles, while there is reason to conclude that in the great Lisbon’ earth+

ange each wave of the crust had an amplitude atoinening to aes
five miles.

That the jwago-like snctiel of the earth is. of the chabchen af, an. ati
al billowy pulsation, is shown not only by the visible heaving of the
ground, but by the sensations produced, and by the alternate opening
and closing of enormous. parallel chasms of great depth, and the direc
tion of these, phich. i; iene to the course of the undulation.
Of the manner in which the v in ear es

a es

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 345 -

be supposed to originate, Michell suggests, that large tracts of country
may be supposed to rest on fluid lava, which when disturbed may trans-
mit its motion through the overlying crust. Comparing the process to
the waves caused in a carpet, when one end of it is lifted from the floor
and suddenly brought down again, he conceives, that ‘+a large quantity
of vapor may raise the earth in a wave, as it passes along between the
‘strata, which it may readily separate in a horizontal direction, there be-
ing little or no cohesion between one stratum and another. The part
of the earth that is first raised, being bent from its natural form, will en-
deavor to restore itself by its elasticity, and the parts next to it having
1eir weight supported by the vapor which will insinuate itself under
them, will be raised in their turn, till it either finds some vent or is
again condensed by the cold into water, and by that means prevented
from proceeding any further.” pio
Prof. Rogers and his brother propose an explanation of the origin of
the pulsation which they deem more in harmony with sound dynamic.
considerations, and with the observed phenomena of earthquakes.
stead of supposing it possible for a body of vapor to pass horizontally
between the strata, or even between the crust and the fluid lava, which
at their contact must be closely entangled, they attribute the movement
to an actual pulsation in the molten matter itself, engendered by a lin-
ear disruption of the crust from enormous tension, and the sudden or
explosive escape of highly compressed steam and gaseous matter. ‘Up-
on this doctrine the course of the subterranean vapors would be towards
and not from the line of disruption, and the undulation of the crust
Would arise from the instantaneous and excessive change in the press-
ure on the surface of the lava mass, the operation of which would be
as effectual as a sudden downward stroke in creating in the fluid a sys-
tem of great oscillatory waves. The billows excited on the surface of
the sea of molten lava, by the rupturing and immediate collapsing: of
the crust, must, it is conceived, be of the nature of progressive waves of
oscillation. Generated in a group on each side of the axis of disturb-
ance, these waves will move off in parallel order, the two belts coales-
cing at their extremities to form a rapidly dilating elliptic zone, the out-
line of which will mainly depend on the form and elongation of the rent.
Around the extremities of the fissure, the pulsation will be feeble from
the rapid reabilien progress, in this position of the Eres and this per-
haps may explain the absence of a sensible shock during the Guada-
loupe earthquake, in the region N. and N. w. of Bermuda, while it was
distinetly felt to a great distance in a due west direction. If the earth’s
crust be ruptured along a very short line, or the rent be by the orifice
of a volcano, the pulsation will be approximately circular. Such seems
to have been nearly the form of the celebrated Lisbon earthquake.
Vol. xuv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. at

346 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Should the line of disruption, on the other hand, be greatly elongated,
and the pulsations on one side of it only be studied, the belt of advane-
ing waves may seem straight, the apparent form of the lines of sym
chronous shock in the recent Mississippi earthquake.

The views here suggested of the nature and cause of the wave-like
motion in earthquakes, rest upon a generalization which the authors of
this communication regard as one of the soundest deductions in geolo-
gy, that fluid lava underlies large regions of the earth’s crust, and that
this crust is of very moderate thickness. If it be conceded that the earth-
quake undulation and its attendant phenomena imply actual pulsation in
a subjacent fluid,.the whole tendency of geological fact is to demon-
strate that this fluid can be only intensely heated rock or lava. And
conversely, the frequent recurrence of earthquakes in every known dis-
trict of the globe, and the vast distances over which these pulsations
are transmitted,—in some instances more than three thousand: miles,—
are facts which lend strong support to the doctrine of central heat,
since they indicate that the internal igneous fluid is absolutely universal.

~ Prof. Rogers next gave a concise description of the structural features
of the great Appalachian chain of the United States, illustrating the
nature of the flexures in the strata, their remarkable parallelism and
great length, their distribution in groups, and the law of their succes
sively diminishing curvation, crossing the region from southeast to north-
west. Referring to the published volume of the Transactions of the
Association, for a full exposition of the views of his brother and him-
self in explanation of the phenomena, he confined himself to shewing
that the bending and elevation of strata in regular flexures or axes, is
the necessary consequence of a wave-like oscillation of the crust, act-
ing simultaneously with a horizontal or tangential pressure. The iden-
tity of the ancient undulations, thus causing permanent flexures, with
modern earthquakes, was then maintained, and facts appealed -
proof that these convulsions sometimes produce Phin ee an!
arches of gentle curvature, at the present day. ~

_ Other applications of the theory of the paroxysmal undulation noeee
earth’ 's crust, were then adverted to; particularly the ready explanation
it affords of the remarkably wide and uniform distribution of the coarse
apap in some of oe rocks of mechanical origin. It was argued,
xt t that of an inundation as broad
and diffused as an noah can we attribute the strewing of the
great sheets of matter now forming certain conglomerates and sant:
‘stones. Repeated oscillations of the crust, if very vehement, and ac-
companied as they would be by some permanent elevation of the sur
face, might send the ocean upon the dry land, and form of the 4
mentary detritus a. superficial layer as broad as the area i

Association of American Gieologists and Naturalists, 347

The amazing momentum imparted by the pulsating crust to the sea
above it, and the huge magnitude of the surges into which this would
be thrown, would contribute greatly to the dispersion of the erratic mat-
ter. In this manner Prof. Rogers conceives we may explain, by a series

of tremendous earthquakes proceeding from a high arctic latitude, the
‘ tush of mingled water, ice, and fragmentary rock, at the formation of
the so called ‘‘ drift” which now overspreads all the northern parts of
North America and Europe. Upon this view of the origin of that in-
teresting stratum, a competent cause is suggested for the almost univer-
sal scratching and polishing of the floor upon which the drift reposes,
since the enormous velocity that would be imparted by the vast sea-
waves to successive portions of the angular rocky matter, would natu-
rally give the blocks and fragments great cutting power. It seems un-
necessary therefore to appeal to the stranding of icebergs, for the force
which scored and grooved the surface of the strata throughout the north-
ern latitudes. ' ‘

Dr. Jackson exhibited to the members several specimens of
sulphuret of antimony, silver ore, blende, and the tin reduced
from the ore, exhibited at the last meeting, all from the state of
New Hampshire. Boh si ado ew
- The attention of the meeting was then called to several points
of business from the standing committee. nee
_ The following nominations for membership, were proposed and
confirmed. Prof. Albert Hopkins, Schenectady, N. Y., Mr. W.
J. Lettsom, British legation, Washington, D.C., Dr. Norwood,
Madison, N. Y., Dr. A. Clapp, New Albany, Ind., Dr. Charles
Pickering, Washington, D. C., Hon. Judge B. Tappan, Stenben-
ville, Ohio, Mr. M. 'Tuomey, Petersburg, Va., Dr. J. 'T. Plummer,
Richmond, Indiana, Erastus Smith, Esq., Hartford, Ct., Dr. Jef-
fries Wyman, Boston, Rev. E. H. Newton, Cambridge, N. Y.,
Mr. Geo. Gibbs, Mr. Wolcott Gibbs, and Dr. J. R. Chilton, New
York, Prof. D. Olmsted, New Haven, Ct., Dr. Wm. M. Carpen-
ter, and Dr. J. L. Riddell, New Orleans, Mr. Root, Syracuse,
N. Y., Dr. Charles Page and Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, Washing-
ton, D. C., Lt. Ruggles and Col. H. Whiting, Detroit, Mich.,
Mr, J. G. Anthony, Cincinnati, Ohio, Dr. William Darlington,
Westchester, Pa., Mr. R. Buchanan, Cincinnati, Ohio, Dr. J. P.
Kirtland, Geo. H. Cooke, Dr. John Wright, Troy, N. Y.

_ Resolved, That all papers read at the present session of this
Association, be handed as far as practicable to the Secretary, be-

fore the rising of the Association.

348 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Resolved, That at all future sessions of this Association, the
various papers read, and reports submitted to the session, shall be
considered, from the time of their presentation, as the property of
the Association, and shall be delivered by the author to the sec-
retary at the time. :

Resolved, That the several committees appointed at the last
session of the Association, which have not reported or have not
been remodeled, be continued and their several members be Te-
quested to report at the next session.

Resolved, That this Association hold its next annual meeting
at the city of Washingion, on the second Wednesday of aces
1844.

The following were the olticate clected for sas next meeting
of the Association.

Chairman. Dri rare Lackes Panini Ohio.

Secretary.—Dr. David Dale Owen, New Harmony, isin
_ Treasurer.—Dr. Douglass Hotighton: Detroit, Michigan.

- Local Committee —Hon. H.L. Ellsworth, Prof. F. piaerecalie es
cis Markoe, Jr., Dr. Chas. Pickering, J. D. Dana.

Standing Conndtahio —Same as last year, viz. Prof. E. Hitch-
cock, Dr. Ducatel, Dr. C. T. Jackson, Dr. L. C. Beck, L. Vanux-
em, Dr. J. B. Raber Prof. J. W. Bailey, Prof. B. cee" Job
L. Hayes, Esq.

Resolved, That boveaner the chairman of each meeting ‘be
elected at the meeting over which he is to preside.

Resolved, That the following gentlemen be requested to pre-
pare reports on the present state of our knowledge on the various
subjects affixed to their several names, and as far as practical,
to present them to the Association at its next session.

On Fossil Corals.—James D. Dana; Dr. A. Clapp, anit Sia
Gebhard, Jr.

On Fossil Foot-narks,—Prof. E. Hitchcock.

| On Fossil Crustacea and Crinoidea.—James Hall.

On American Fossil Botany.—H. D. Rogers, J. E. Tesehe
macher, and J. W. Bailey on the microscopic portion.

On American Forest Trees and their distribution. —Geo. B.
Emerson. — :

On American pig ale —Rev. Mr. Russel, Mr. paws
Sete Tre

* Since deceased.

» On Entozoa—Dr. J. Wyman. br. spiek. Rairadene
On the Fossil Osteology of North America.—Dr. J. Wyman. |
~~» On the Geological distribution of Minerals.—J. D. Dana.
~ On the Chemical relations of the American Coals.—W. B. and
R. E- Rogers. dni’ ,
On the Chemical and Economical Relations of the Gireen
Sand of the United States.—J. B. Rogers and C. 'T’, Jackson.
- On the Native Compounds of Lime, Magnesia, Iron and
Manganese.—Martin H. Boyé and James ©. Booth.
On the Evaporating Power of various Coals.—W. R. John-
On the Comparative Ichthyology of the Coast of North Amer-
ica. and E'urope.—D. H. Storer. |
On the Fossil Fishes of the United States.—John H. Redfield.
_» On Volcanic Pheno: and the Distribution of Volcanoes.—
J. L. Hayes. : segs sind
On Drift Phenomena.—Prof. E. Emmons, for the New Eng-
land states and New York; J. N, Nicollet,* for the West and far
West; W. B. Rogers, for the Southern boundary.
Afternoon.—Mr. Hall read a paper upon the Crinoidea of the
rocks of New York, their geological and geographical distribution.
These may be regarded as the most singular and beautiful fossils of
our older rocks. When found in all their gorgeous perfection, they re-
mind one of the fanciful creations of some fairy tale ; and the glowing
descriptions of the coral groves of our tropical seas can be in some de-
gree appreciated. site ° age ie
~ If we find their external and general characters beautiful, their more
minute and intricate structure is often still more curious and interesting.
Mr. H. referred to the ingenious work of Miller, published in Eng-
land in 1821, as the groundwork on which we are enabled to found ge-

neric distinctions. Mr. Say’s descriptions of the ‘Caryocrinus ornatus
and C. loricatus aré almost the only scientific descriptions of Crinoidea
with which I have met. Some notices and figures of other species from
different parts of the country, serve to show how rich are our rocks in
these remains. |

Here follows a short description of the general structure and habits
of these animals. In some species the mouth, composed of small tri-
angular plates, shows a close analogy with the Echinidea. The deli-
cate structure of this class of animals, rendered them peculiarly liable
to destruction upon slight causes; and their immense numbers are only

* Since deceased, Sept. 11, 1843.

350 Association of American Gteologists and Naturalists.

attested by their comminuted remains, which in some places constitute
thick masses of limestone. They are likewise scattered throughout the
calcareous shales, and commenced their existence ata very early period
in the earth’s history, and their remains are found in greater or less abun-
dance, from the calciferous sandrock through all the formations of the
New York system. eT ‘af
-In the lower rocks, these remains, with one or two exceptions, are so
far obliterated as not to be referable to their appropriate genera. It is
not until we reach the rocks of the Niagara group, that we find them
in any degree of perfection, In the finely comminuted homogeneous
mud deposit forming the lower member of this group, these animals
flourished in great numbers and equal perfection. There are in this
group more ascertained species than in all the rocks of New York be-
sides, no less than nine being already established. Several of these
are of genera unknown elsewhere, and are therefore interesting from
their unique character, Mphpeapubtcyy dae BE ta

Here followed a description with figures and specimens illustrating
the structure of the Caryocrinus ornatus, the Hypanthocrinites decorus
and H. celatus, the Cyathocrinites pyriformis, and several other species.
Some of these were exceedingly beautiful and delicate in their structure.
Several other forms from the Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups
were also exhibited, some of them of great beauty and perfection. —

In their geological range, these fossils appear to be more limited than
any other forms; and so far as my observation extends, not a single
form is known to extend beyond the rock or group of which it is typl-
cal. Their fragile nature appears to have been such, that they were
unable to withstand any great changes in the condition of the ocean bed,
and when a quiet deposit is succeeded by one made ina more disturbed
sea, they seem all to have perished. This was shown in the Niagara
group, in the transition from the calcareous mud to limestone. —

In all the distinct masses forming the Helderberg series of limestones,
we find these remains to change with the commencement of a new de-
posit ; and though often only fragments occur, they are yet sufficien
characteristic. When the shales of the Hamilton group succeed these
limestones, we find a new and distinct'creation of these animals, differ-
ing from those of the rocks below. Among these are many beautiful
forms, though they are for the most part imperfect. In this group com
mences the Pentremite, and an allied genus, the Nucleocrinus. a

_In the Portage and Chemung groups of rocks, these remains are like-
wise entirely different from any of those below, and different from each
other. Though the materials of the two groups are similar, there are
no remains continued from the lower to the higher. — ee.

Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. 351

Geographical distribution.—From the extensive destruction of these
animals, and the transportation of their broken remains over large
areas, it is impossible to determine what has been their original extent
when living. The fragments have doubtless been often drifted to great
distances from their original places of growth. Wherever they are
‘known to exist in any degree of perfection, their geographical extent
is very limited. Of the nine or ten species known in the Niagara
group, not more than one is known to range beyond a distance of forty
or fifty miles, and this one not more than sixty or seventy. Nearly all
of them are confined to the space of a few miles. Certain situations
appear to have been favorable to their growth, and though the nature
of the deposit may appear equally uniform for a much greater distance,
they do not occur.

In the limestones of the Helderberg series, their remains are widely
distributed, but from their being usually in fragments, the fact furnishes
ho argument that they were thus widely distributed when living. - In
most cases in this series and in the Hamilton group, the perfect speci-
mens are scarcely known beyond the single locality.

In the Portage group, the only perfect species known does not extend
horizontally more than ten or twelve feet, and the place appears as if a
forest of these beautiful forms had been swept down and covered with
the soft mud above. fs ’

_ The well ascertained species of the Chemung group, are almost equal-
ly limited in their geographical range. _ oft pees

_ From all the facts collected it appears, that certain epecies) though
preéminently typical of certain formations, cannot be relied ae OFer
any wide area of country. Their presence may be relied upon as iden-
tifying certain formations, and their absence is not by any means to In-
terfere with conclusions regarding identity drawn from other sources.

The natural history of this class of animals, in connection with their
geological distribution, is exceedingly curious and interesting, and these
few facts may serve to enlist observation upon their situation and con-
dition in other parts of the country. ere

‘Dr. Owen read a paper ona universal system of geological
coloring and symbols. sh DF : 7
» -It was proposed that the three primitive colors should be adopted to
represent the three, great paleontological periods, viz. blue (indigo)
for the primary fossiliferous ; red (light red, or a carmine tint) for the
secondary ; yellow (zamboge) for the tertiary, —that the principal groups
of these periods, when compatible with distinctness, be indicated by a
variation in the tint, the intensity increasing in the descending order,
and, if necessary, imparting at the same time to the limestones a bluish

cast, and to the argillace deposits a greyish tint.

352 Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.

Pink (lake) was proposed for granitic rocks—greens for serpentine,
greenstone and trap; the first being the light green, the last the dark-
est; or if particular greens for each be thought preferable, terre verte
may represent serpentine ; sap green, greenstone ; Prussian green,
trap ; reddish grey, for trachyte ; light grey, for modern lavas; reds
with yellow spots, for porphyry; grey with white spots, amygdaloid.
A purple color composed of the lake of the granite and the indigo of
the lowest fossiliferous, was thought to be the most appropriate color for
the metamorphic rocks. If it should be thought desirable to distinguish
the different members of the metamorphic group, neutral tint might re-
present gneiss; native ochrous purple, mica slate; archal, hornblende
schist ; and the mixture of indigo and lake of the period clay slate and
killas. Ultramarine, or ultramarine and lake, might represent metamor-
phic limestone. For the carboniferous rocks, considered by some an
independent formation, burnt sienna was recommended, which having
a decidedly red hue, would give to this formation the tint of the period
to which it belongs, aye er [ity eet

In detailed sections and charts the same general system should be
adhered to: If a variation of the tint should not be found sufficiently
distinct in‘such cases, then sandstones and siliceous deposits of the’ first
period may uniformly be indicated by chrome yellow ; those of the sec-
ond period, by yellow ochre or the red color of the period; those of the
third period, by gamboge yellow ; limestones of the first period may be
represented by indigo; those of the second period, by Prussian blue;
those of the third period, by cobalt blue. If possible, the demi-tints
should not predominate, but rather the primitive color of the period.

All the primitive tints being transparent colors, they can be more €a-
sily laid on in a neat, delicate and uniform manner, than the opaque
mineral pigments; and, if desirable, they may be glazed on the top of
the lithological tints, and the general hue of the period thus imparted. |

Thus, according to the plan proposed for detailed geological séctions,
blue will always indicate limestones or calcareous deposits ; greys, ar-
gillaceous strata; greens, argillo-calcareous deposits ; ‘dark grey oF
black, carbonaceous beds. ~ i pipe ’

In addition to this system of coloring, still further to facilitate the re-
cognition of formations, a'system of symbols was also proposed, on @
similar plan to chemical symbols, taking the first letter of the name ¢
a formation to represent it, and, when that was appropriated, the first
and second, or when two or three words are employed, the first letter
of each word, thus: + bccn me thts ey.

Granite, G. Gneiss, Gn.

“Metamorphic rocks,M. «||. Mica slate, M.S.

Fossil Trees in the Coal Strata of Nova Scotia. 353

Hornblende schist, H. 8. -
_ Metamorphic limestone, M. L. ©
_ Chlorite schist, 3
Clay slate, C. 8.
Cambrian rocks, C.
Silurian, ie
Old red sandstone, O. R. 8.
Mountain limestone, Mn. L.
_ Millstone grit, M.
Carboniferous rocks, Ca.

| Green sand, G. 8.
~ Chalk, Ch.

Lower cretaceous, L. Cr.
Middle cretaceous, M. Cr.
Upper cretaceous, U. Cr.»
Eocene, E.

Miocene, Mi.

Older pliocene, O. P.

New pliocene, N, P.

Post pliocene, P. P.

Red conglomerate, R. C. Serpentine, Se.
Magnesian limestone, Ma. L. Greenstone, Gr.
Zechstein, Z. Trap, T.
New red sandstone, N.R.S. Basalt, B

Lias, L Trachyte, Tr.
eetioe oolite, I. O. ;
“Middle oolite, M. O. Abavedalbit, Am.
* Upper oolite, U. 0. ibe “i ei La.
‘Weald, W. es
A paper was then ex 1% Mr. ee on the mineral resources
St. Louis and its vicinity. It was
- Resolved, That this Association ie its present session and attr
te meet on the second eaenaratnd of May, 1844, at 10 o’clock, A. M.,
at Washington, D. C.

H. D. Roess, Chairman.
iB. Suztiman, Tr. Secretary. : .

Arr. XI.—On the upright ‘Fossil Trees found at different
levels in the Coal Strata of Cumberland, Nova Scotia ;
ee Cuarues Lye, Esq., F.G.S., FP. R.S., &e.

[Communicated to this Fparaal by the author.] 2
Tur first notice of these fossil trees was published in 1829 by
Mr. Richard Brown, in Haliburton’s Nova Scotia, at which time
the erect trunks are described as extending through one bed of
sandstone twelve feet thick. Their fossilization was attributed
by Mr. Brown to the inundation of the ground on which the for-
est stood. Mr. Lyell in 1842 saw similar upright trees at more
than ten different levels, all placed at right angles to the planes of
Stratification, which are inclined at an aa of 24° to the 8. 8. W.
Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843.

954 Fossil Trees in the Coal Strata of Nova Scotia.

The fossil trees extend over a space of from two to three miles
from N. to S., and according to Dr. Gesner, to more than twice
that distance from E. to W. ‘The containing strata resemble
lithologically the English coal-measures, being composed of white
and brown sandstones, bituminous shales, and clay with ironstone.
There are about nineteen seams of coal, the most considerable
being four feet thick. The place where these are best seen is
called the South Joggins, where the cliffs are from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred feet high, forming the southern shore
of a branch of the Bay of Fundy, called Chignecto Bay. The
action of tides, which rise sixty feet, exposes continually a fresh
section, and every year different sets of trees are seen in the face
of the cliffs. es :
The beds with which the coal and erect trees are associated
are not interrupted by faults. They are more than two th
feet thick and range for nearly two miles along the coast. Im-
mediately below them are blue grits, used for grindstones, after
which there is a break in the section for three miles, when there
appear, near Minudie, beds of gypsum and limestone, and at that
village a deep red sandstone, the whole having the same souther-
ly dip as the coal at the Joggins, and being considered by Mr.
Lyell as the older member of the carboniferous series. a
Above the coal-bearing beds and stretching southward for
many miles continuously along the shore, are grits and shales
of prodigious thickness, with coal plants, but without vertical
trees. a —cpe td
Mr. Lyell next describes in detail the position and structure
of the upright trees at the South Joggins. He states that no
part of the original tree is preserved except the bark, which is
marked externally with irregular longitudinal ridges and furrows
without any leaf-scars, precisely resembling in this respect the
vertical trees found at Dixonfold, on the Bolton Railway, de-
scribed by Messrs. Hawkshaw and Bowman. No traces of struc-
ture could be detected in the internal cylinder of the fossil trunks,
which are now filled with sandstone and shale, through which
fern leaves and other plants are occasionally scattered. Mr. Lyell
saw seventeen vertical trees, varying in height from six to twenty
feet, and from fourteen inches to four feet in diameter. The
beds which inclose the fossil trees are usually separated from each
Psi by masses of shale and sandstone, many yards in thickness

Fossil Trees in the Coal Strata of Nova Scotia. 355

The trunks of the trees, which are all broken off abruptly at the
top, extend through different strata, but were never seen to pen-
etrate a seam of coal however thin. They all end downwards,
either in beds of coal or shale, no instance occurring of their ter-
mination in sandstone. Sometimes the strata of shale, sandstone
and clay with which the fossil trunks have been filled are much
more numerous than the beds which they traverse. In one case
nine distinct deposits were seen in the interior of a tree, while
only three occurred on the outside in the same vertical height.

Immediately above the uppermost coal-seams and vertical trees
are two strata, probably of fresh-water origin, of black caleareo-
bituminous shale, chiefly made up of compressed shells of two
species of Modiola and two kinds of Cypris.

‘Stigmarie.are abundant in the clays and argillaceous sand-
stones, often with their leaves attached, and spreading regularly in
all directions from the stem. ‘The other plants dispersed through
the shales and sandstones bear a striking resemblance to those of
the European coal-fields. Among these are Pecopteris Conchi-
tica, Neuropteris flexuosa? Calamites canneeformis, C. approxi-
matus, C. Steinhaueri, and C. Nodosus, Sigillaria undulata and
another species. ‘The genera Lepidodendron and Sternbergia
are also present. The same plants occur at Pictou, and at Syd-
ney in Cape Breton, accompanied with Trigonocarpum, Astero-
phyllites, Spheenophyllum, and other well known coal-fossils.

The author then gives a brief description of a bed of erect Ca-
lamites, first discovered by Mr. J. Dawson, in the Pictou coal-
field, about one hundred miles eastward of the Cumberland coal-
measures before described. ‘They occur at Dickson’s mills, one
mile and a quarter west of Pictou, in a bed of sandstone about ten
feet thick. They all terminate downwards at the same level,
where the sandstone rests on subjacent limestone, but the tops
are broken off at different heights, and Mr. Dawson observed in
the same bed a prostrate Lepidodendron with leaves and Lepi-
dostrobi attached to its branches.

From the facts above enumerated Mr. Lyell draws the follow-
ing conclusions :— te Lee Te —— ae
1. That the erect position of the trees, and their perpendicu-
larity to the places of stratification, imply that a thickness of
several thousand feet of coal-strata, now uniformly inclined at
an angle of 24°, were deposited originally in a horizontal posi-
tion.

356 Coal Formation of Nova Scotia.

9. There must have been repeated sinkings of the dry land to
allow of the growth of more than ten forests of fossil trees one
above the other, an inference which is borne out by the indepen-
dent evidence afforded by the Stigmaria found in the under-clays
beneath coal-seams in Nova Scotia, as first noticed in South Wales
by Mr. Logan. ro
3. The correspondence in general characters of the erect trees
of Nova Scotia with those found near Manchester, leads to the
opinion that this tribe of plants may have been enabled by the
strength of its large roots to withstand the power of waves and
currents much more effectually than the Lepidodendra and Sigil-
lari, which are more rarely found to retain a perpendicular po-
sition. ~ naga es, - 3
_ Lastly, it has been objected that if seams of pure coal were
formed on the ground where the vegetables grew, they would
not bear so precise a resemblance to ordinary subaqueous strata,
but ought to undulate like the present surface of the dry land.
In answer to-this Mr. Lyell points.to what were undoubtedly ter-
restrial surfaces at the South Joggins, now represented. by coal-
seams or layers of shale supporting erect trees, and yet these sur
faces conform as correctly to the general planes of stratification
as those of any other strata. Seee~ Hae
_ He also shows that. such an absence of superficial inequalities
and such a parallelism of successive surfaces of dry land, ought
to be expected according to the theory of repeated subsidence,
because sedimentary deposition would’ continually exert its lev-
elling action on the district submerged. what baer

Arr. XII.—On the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia, and on the
Age and Relative Position of the Gypsum and accompanying
© Marine Limestones ; by C. Lretx, Esq. F. G. 8. &e. &¢- i
[Communicated to this Tougnal by the author.) a
_ Tum stratified rocks of Nova Scotia more ancient than the car
boniferous consist chiefly of metamorphic clay-slate and quartzite,
their strike being nearly east and west. Towards their northern
— Jimits these strata become less crystalline and contain fo ils,
some of which Mr. Lyell identifies with species of the upper Silu-
rian group, or with the Hamilton group of the New York geol
gists. :

Coal Formation of Nova Scotia. 357

_ The remaining fossiliferous rocks so far as they are yet known
belong to the carboniferous group, and occupy tensive tracts in
the northern part of the peninsula, resting unconformably on the
preceding series. They may be divided into two principal for-
mations, one of which comprises the productive coal-measures,
agreeing precisely with those of Europe in lithological and palzeon-
tological character.. The other consists chiefly of Red Sandstone
and red marl, with subordinate beds of gypsum and marine lime-
stone, but this series is also occasionally associated with coal-grits,
shales, and thin seams of coal. A variety of opinions have been
entertained respecting the true age of the last mentioned or gyp-
siferous formation, and it is the purport of this paper to show,
first, that it belongs to the carboniferous group ; secondly, that it
occupies a lower position than the productive coal-measures.
These last are of vast thickness in Nova Scotia, being largely de-
veloped in Cumberland County, and near Pictou, and recurring
again at Sydney in Cape Breton. In all these places they contain
shales, probably deposited in a fresh-water estuary, in which sev-
eral species of Cypris and Modiola abound. ‘The plants of these
coal-measures belong to the genera Calamites, Sigillaria, Stigma-

the estuary of the Schubenacadie River, the district of Brookfield,
and the cliffs at the bridge crossing the Debert River near Truro.
Several species-of corals and shells are common to all these lo-
calities, and recur in similar limestones in Cape Breton. In this
assemblage of organic remains we find a Crustacean intermediate
between the Trilobite and Limulus, Orthoceras, (two species, )
Nautilus, Conularia, Enerinus and Cyathophyllum, besides some
Species of the carboniferous limestone of Europe, such as Euom-

358 Coal Formation of Nova Scotia.

phalus levis, Pileopsis vetustus? Pecten plicatus, Isocardia unio-
niformis, Producta Martini, P. Scotica? Terebratula elongata,
Fenestella membranacea ? Ceriopora spongites, Goldf. For assist-
ance in determining these the author has been chiefly indebted
to M. De Verneuil.
The plants associated with these limestones consist of several
species of Lepidodendron, Calamites, and others agreeing with
carboniferous forms. With these Mr. Lyell found in Horton
Bluff scales of a Ganoid fish, and in the ripple-marked sandstones
of the same place Mr. Logan discovered footsteps which appear
to Mr. Owen to belong to some unknown species of reptile, con-
stituting the first indications of the reptilian class known in the
carboniferous rocks. Several of the shells and corals of this
group have been recognized by Messrs. Murchison and De Ver-
neuil as identical with fossils of the gypsiferous deposit of Perm
in Russia, and it had been successively proposed, (see Proceedings
of the Geological Society, Vol. Ill, p. 712, and Mr. Murchison’s
Anniversary Address, Feb. 1843, Vol. IV, p. 125,) to refer these
gypsiferous beds of Nova Scotia to the ‘Trias, and to the period
of the magnesian limestone. ‘That they are more ancient than
both these formations Mr. Lyell infers, not only from their fossils,
but.also from their occupying a lower position than the produc
tive coal-measures of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. In proof of
this inferiority of position three sections are referred to ; first, that
of the coast of Cumberland, near Minudie, where beds of red sand-
stone, gypsum and limestone are seen dipping southwards, or ia
a direction which would carry them under the productive coal+
meastires of the South Joggins, which attain a thickness of sev-
eral miles. Secondly, the section on the East River of Pictou;
where the productive coal-measures of the Albion: mines repose
on a formation of red sandstone including beds of limestone; in
which Mr. J. Dawson and the author found Producta Martini
other fossils common to the gypsiferous rocks of Windsor, S¢-
Some of these limestones are oolitic like those of Windsor, and
gypsum occurs near the East River, fourteen miles south of Pic-
tou, so situated as to lead to the presumption that it is an integt™
of the inferior red sandstone group. “Thirdly, in Cape Breton
ecording to information supplied by Mr. Richard Brown, the
gypsiferous formation occupies a considerable tract, consisting of
red marl with gypsum and limestone. In specimens of the lat+

Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepidoste. 359

ter Mr. Lyell finds the same fossils as those of Windsor, &c. before
mentioned. Near Sydney these gypsiferous strata pass beneath
aformation of sandstone more than two thousand feet thick,
upon which rest conformably the coal-measures of Sydney, dip-
ping to the northeast or seaward, and having a thickness of two
thousand feet. —
To illustrate the gypsiferous formation the author gives a par-
ticular description of the cliffs bordering the Schubenacadie for a
distance of fourteen miles from its mouth to Fort Ellis, which he
examined in company with Mr. J. W. Dawson and Mr. Duncan.
The rocks here consist in great part of soft red marls, with sub-
ordinate masses of crystalline gypsum and marine limestones ; also
three large masses of red sandstone, coal-grits, and shales. The
strike of the beds, like that at Windsor, is nearly east and west,
and there are numerous faults and flexures. ‘The principal mass-
es of gypsum do not appear to fill rents, but form regular parts:
of the stratified series, sometimes alternating with limestone and
shale. ae se : sap

- The author concludes by describing a newer and unconform-
able red sandstone, without fossils, which is seen to rest on the
edges of the carboniferous strata on the Salmon River, six miles
above Truro. pores

Arr. XIIL—On the Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the
- Lepidostei, and their Analogies with those of the Labyrintho-
_donts ; by Jurrrres Wyman, M. D.—(with a plate.)

[Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, August, 1843.]

Tur Lepidostei, like other Sauroid fishes, are provided with
large conical teeth, intermixed with more numerous teeth of a
smaller size. ‘The larger teeth are found on the upper and lower
maxillaries, and the intermaxillaries ; the smaller ones are found
on the same bones, and also on the vomer and palatines. On the
two last they are arranged “en carde,” except on the anterior
portion of the vomer in the Lepidosteus oryurus, where they are
arranged in a linear series. The larger teeth, of which the mi- —
croscopie structure is here more particularly described, are a little —
recurved, have a conical form, and sharp and slightly trenchant
points; externally the surface js smooth near the apex, but more.

360. Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepidostei.

or less striated or fluted near the basal portion. The base is im~
planted in a cavity or alveolus, with which it is anchylosed ; but
from which, when shed, the teeth are detached by the absorption
of their substance at the points of union.

The teeth of the Lepidosteus platyrhinus, Raf. and L. oxy-
urus, Raf. when cut at right angles to their axes, present a sur
face which is subdivided into numerous segments, by lines ex-
tending from the circumference towards the centre, the whole’
resembling somewhat a section of a porcupine quill. Under the
microscope this appearance is seen to be the result of a peculiar-
ity of organization hitherto undescribed in the class of fishes, and
to which there is an approximation in the teeth of the Ichthyo-
saurus, and a still closer resemblance in those of the Labyrintho-
donts. With regard to the teeth of the Lepidosteus feror, Raf.
Iam unable to give any information, since as yet I have not been
able to submit them to microscopic examination. Fae

In the Lepidosteus oryurus, where the teeth are the least com~)
plicated, (though constructed upon the same plan as in the L. pla-
tyrhinus,) the basal portion is fluted, while that near the apex is
perfectly smooth, which differences correspond to others in the
substance of the tooth still more striking. (See fig. 1, f.) Ex
ternally the tooth is covered with a layer of investing substance
or “cementum,” (figs. 1 and 2, 6,) which follows the outline
of the more internal fluted portions; and within this is a second
more transparent layer, (figs. 1 and 2, ¢,) which at the space be-
tween two adjoining convolutions extends in a straight or but
slightly curved line. towards the centre, (fig. 2, d,) and being
folded on itself returns again towards the circumference; and
this is repeated between all the different segments. The length
of the involved. portion is equal to a little more’ than one third of
the diameter of the tooth. The pulp cavity, which in the ma
ture tooth is quite small, is charactérized by the existence of ra-
diations from its circumference towards the exterior of the tooth,
terminating at equal distances from its centre, and occupying the
middle of the spaces between the involutions of the cementum,
(figs. land 2, ¢.) The space comprised between the involutions

_ of cementum and the radiations from the pulp cavity, is filled.
“with “dentine,” which is characterized by the existence of calei~
gerous tubes, of which there are highly magnified representations
in fig. 2, a, and 3; these last in nearly all cases radiate from the.

VOLE NOW. PLATE

ee Sy

Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepidostei. 361

prolongations of the pulp cavity, but very few of them coming
from that cavity itself. :

In the apical portion, which is perfectly smooth externally, the
internal structure is much more simple than that of the basal por-
tion which has just been described, there existing no involutions
of cementum, and no radiations of the pulp cavity. The calci-
gerous tubes in the apex radiate at once from the central cavity,
extending towards the circumference.

The teeth of the Lepidosteus platyrhinus, Raf. (fig. 4,) com-
monly known as the ‘“duck-bill gar,” are constructed upon the
same general plan, though more complex in the details. The
involuted cementum extends in straight lines towards the centre
for a very short distance only, and then becomes more or less
irregular in its course, sometimes being undulated, and at others
changing its direction suddenly so as to form angles, (fig. A, b.)
The pulp cavity and its prolongations are also more or less irregu-
lar, according to the condition of the cementum, generally ter-
minating in a simple dilatation, or, as is sometimes the case, bi-
furcating, as at fig. 4, a. In the central portion of the tooth exist
also numerous pulp canals, which send off calcigerous tubes from
their circumference, a conformation similar to that met with in
the Rhizodus, among the extinct Sauroids. |

- Remarks.—In considering the structure of the teeth above de-
scribed, no one can fail to recognize the analogy which exists
between them and those of the Labyrinthodonts, described by
Prof. Owen in his Odontography ; and had we nothing but the
teeth of the respective animals to which they belong with which
to institute comparisons, they would both be referred at once,
Without doubt, to one and the same natural family. Prof. Owen
does not appear to have been aware of the existence of the Laby-
rinthodontie structure in the Lepidostei, since in speaking of the
teeth of this genus no reference whatever is made to it, and in
describing the involuted cementum of the Labyrinthodonts he
says, ‘‘such a disposition of the external substance may be traced
at the base of the tooth in a few fishes, but is more conspicuous
in the fang of the Ichthyosaurus.”* If any one will make a
comparison between the accompanying figure of the tooth of the
wa i oe

™ Odontography, or a Treatise on the Comparative Anatomy of the Teeth, &c.,
by Richard Owen, F.R.S. &e. Vol. J, p. 201.

Vol. xnv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 46

362 Microscopic Structure of the Teeth of the Lepidostet.

Lepidosteus oryurus, and that of the tooth of the Ichthyosaurus
given by Prof. Owen in his Odontography, Pl. 64 B, fig. 3, it will
be at once seen that in the former there is a much closer resem-
blance to the Labyrinthodonts than in the latter; that is, in the
Lepidosteus oryurus the involutions of the cementum are much
more extensive—although the Ichthyosaurus is described by Prof.
O. as having teeth much more complicated in this respect than
we) existing animal.

In comparing the teeth of the Lepidostei with those of. the La
hs fohatleiditens those of the former will be found much less com-
plex than in a greater portion of the latter; though quite as much
and even more so, than in the Labyrinthodon leptognathus, fig-
ured in the Odentograplays? Pl. 63 B, fig. 1. Between the tooth
of this last and that of the Lepidosteus oryurus, there is no ma-
terial difference except in the size of the pulp cavity; the radia-
tions of this last and the involutions of ae cementum —
—— the same relative position in both.

Thus we have the teeth of the Lepidostei, and some of the spe-
cies of the Labyrinthodonts at least, reduced to the same type or
plan of organization. In both the fly cavity sends out its radi-
ations, and in both the cementum is more or-less prolonged in-
wards, at regular intervals subdividing the tooth into numerous
sections. The calcigerous tubes in both cases are directed from
the rays of the pulp cavity towards the investing ciemen tite and
its involutions.

The question very naturally presents itself, whether some of
the fossil teeth from the Warwick sandstone i in England and the
Keuper in Germany may not be referred to some extinct Sauroid
fish, rather than the Labyrinthodonts, according to the views of
Prof. Owen. 'The former existence of gigantic Batrachian rep-
tiles it is presumed will not be doubted, since it is based upon
osteological evidence which it is impossible to controvert. But

. Owen informs us that in many instances the teeth from
both the formations above mentioned, which were submitted to
him for examination, were either mere fragments, or teeth de-
tached from the jaws on which they grew. ‘These he very natu-
_ rally referred to the Labyrinthodonts, no such peculiarities of

structure having been.shown to exist in the other Vertebrata, eX-
-cepting in arudimentary form in the Ichthyosaurus, and the bases
oe the teeth of a few fishes... Since however the Lepidostei pre

Vibrating Dams. 363

sent peculiarities of structure which vary only in degree from
those of the Labyrinthodonts, the existence in a fossil tooth of
the Labyrinthodontic structure alone, would seem to be an insufli-
cient character for determining to which of the two natural fami-
lies, Sauroid fishes or Labyrinthodonts, it might belong. 'T’'hese
remarks involve questions which we have no means at present of
deciding, and would therefore submit them for the consideration
of those favorably situated for instituting such comparisons as are
necessary for arriving at correct conclusions.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

_ Fig. 1, transverse section of the tooth of Lepidosteus oryurus,
Raf; a, pulp cavity; } and ¢, cementum; d, dentine; ¢, radia-
tions from the pulp cavity ; f, tooth of natural size.

. Fig. 2, highly magnified segment of preceding section; a, den-
tine; b and c, cementum; d, one of the involutions of the camen-
tum; é,. pulp. caVitYewnis eo) ge

_. Fig. 3, calcigerous tubes highly magnified.

_Fig. 4, portion of transverse. section of the tooth of the Lepi-
dosteus platyrhinus, Raf.; a, ‘one of the radiations from the pulp
cavity, bifurcated at its termination ; b, one of the processes from
the cementum, having an undulated instead of a straight course
as in the Lepidosteus oxyurus; ¢, dentine; d and, tooth aud
transverse section of the natural size.

ee ee 4

Arr. XIV.—On Vibrating Dams ; by Etas Loomis, Professor

‘of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Western Reserve
P “College. j sigs ae Be gh ¢ |

-Somerime in the winter of 1841-2, my opinion was asked re-
specting a remarkable phenomenon noticed at. Cuyahoga Falls, a
Village on the Cuyahoga River about eight miles from Hudson.
The phenomenon consisted in the vibrations of the doors and
windows, and other movable objects belonging to the buildings
in the village. 'They were noticed at certain stages of the water,
and‘at times ceased entirely. They were generally ascribed to
a certain dam in the river; and various conjectures were formed
as to the mode of their production. The subject was new to me,

and I did not at first form any distinct idea of the phenomenon

364 Vibrating Dams.

itself or its cause. Some weeks afterwards, I visited the locality,
and although the water was at too low a stage to exhibit the phe-
nomenon in question, I succeeded in obtaining a pretty good de-
scription of the facts and formed my opinion as to its cause. I
published a notice of it in the Ohio Observer which led to some
discussion, and brought to light several similar cases elsewhere.
As I have not succeeded in finding any notice of this subject in
such books as I have had the opportunity of consulting, I have
thought it desirable that the facts should be placed on record.
[propose therefore to communicate such information as I have
been able to collect, and shall conclude with some speculations
as to the cause of the phenomena. ©

ae I. Dam at Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio.

This dam is a portion of an are-of a circle, the convexity of
course being turned up stream. It is formed of hewn oak timbers
one foot square, piled upon each other in tiers, all morticed firmly
together, so as to form as it were one huge plank two feet thick ;
twelve and a half feet in breadth, and ninety feet in length, meas-
ured not between the banks, but between the points of support.
Its curvature is described with a radius of a hundred and twenty
feet ; that is, the are is about one eighth of the circumference of
acircle. There is an embankment of earth upon the upper side,
which until recently was left in an unfinished state. ‘The bank
did not rise to the top of the dam, and sloped off very abruptly.
This dam was erected in the summer of 1840. During the winter
of 1840-1 there was noticed considerable rattling of the windows
of the neighboring houses ; a phenomenon different from what had
ever been noticed before ; but during the winter of 1841-2, which
was a very open and wet winter, the vibrations were more Te-
markable and became a matter of general complaint. 'The doors
and windows of most of the houses in the village would shake
for days together violently as with the ague, and to such a de-
gree as seriously to disturb sleep. ‘This phenomenon was appa
rently somewhat capricious. After continuing for a time, perhaps
an hour or a day or longer, the vibrations would suddenly cease,
and after some interruption might be as suddenly resumed. ‘The
rattling of vibrating objects would frequently cease, while the vi-
brations could still be felt. A window, when apparently at rest,
if putin motion by the hand, would continue to rattle. The

ae ee

Vibrating Dams. 365

buildings themselves (stone as well as wood) would vibrate with
the doors and windows. This might be felt and also seen; as
for example, a slender branch of a grape vine trained up against
the side of a stone building, was seen to vibrate in exact time with
the doors and windows. :

The vibrations ceased entirely when water ceased to pour over
the dam; they were also inconsiderable when the depth of water

was eighteen or twenty four inches. A depth of five or six inches

produced the greatest effect. The number of vibrations per second
was thought to be about constant, but no accurate experiments on
this point were ever made. From the best estimate I could ob-
tain, they amounted to twelve or fifteen per second. A heavy
log resting against the dam materially impaired the effect. The
vibrations were seldom noticed in summer, as the water rarely
run six inches over the dam ; I-however formed a plan during the
summer of 1842, for a series of experiments during the ensuing
winter and spring, to determine particularly the number of vibra-
tions per second. I had several methods in mind to be tried if
others should fail, but the one with which I expected most success
‘was with a monochord; being simply a cat-gut, one end of which

‘passed over a pulley and was stretched by a variable weight.
The number of vibrations was too small for a musical sound, but

by holding a small slip of paper near the string when vibrated, a
succession of rattles is produced, which I hoped might be tuned
to unison with the rattling of the windows. ‘The vibrations of
the string could be easily determined by the principles of acous-
tics. Iwas however never allowed the opportunity of testing
my methods. In my first communication to the Ohio Observer,
Thad stated as a test of my theory, “if this dam were filled up
to the top with earth it would probably cease vibrating.” ‘To
my great regret the experiment was immediately tried. During
the season of 1842 a large amount of rock, estimated at two hun-
dred and fifty tons, was deposited upon the embankment. ‘This
raised the bank fully up to the level of the dam for a depth of six

feet-or more. Since that time the river has passed through every

stage of elevation, known in ten years; from that in which you
might walk with dry shoes over the entire length of the dam, to a
depth of six feet on the break of the dam, which happened June
5, 1843, the greatest rise known since 1832. ‘The result is that
‘the vibrations have entirely ceased.

366 Vibrating Dams.

Il. Dam in East Windsor, Conn.

The following information is derived from a letter from Mr.
M. W. Osborn, dated Florence, Erie Co. Ohio; and another from
Mr. N. 8. Osborn, dated Scantic, Conn. This dam ison the
Scantic River, in the township of East Windsor. It was formerly
eighty feet in length; but is now one hundred, and is perfectly
straight. It is based on a sandstone rock, raised from six to
seven feet from the rock, and about five feet from the surface of
the water below the dam. The dam is a flat one, the rafters be-
ing raised not more than twenty five degrees. It was built by
raising two tiers of, logs, one in front and the second much lower,
some ten feet back of the front one. ‘These are bound together,
and secured by ties running from one to the other. On these
tiers of logs each rafter rests, with its foot on the solid rock at the
bottom of thedam. The base is covered with gravel about three
fifths of the distance towards the top. The vibrations are most
remarkable when the sheet of water is about four or five inches
deep. A gentle breeze up the stream is said to be most favorable
to the vibrations, but a-high wind, disturbing the falling sheet of
water, in a measure: destroys the effect. An unbroken sheet the
whole length of the dam is necessary to get the greatest effect, and
an unbroken sheet to a considerable extent to get any effect. Any
article, whether light or heavy, resting on the edge or top of the
dam, thereby separating the sheet of water, impairs the effect, and
hence arises the practice of nailing strips of board every twelve
or twenty feet to destroy the vibrations. This is an infallible
remedy. Mr. Osborn has resorted to it yearly for fifty years. It
has been his uniform custom to cause strips of board from six to
twelve inches in width to be nailed with their ends projecting
beyond the dam sufficiently far to divide the sheet of water. The
width of the boards must be taken into account. It is found
from experience that the narrowest ones must be placed nearest
together, while the wider ones will bear to be separated a greater
distance. These pieces usually become torn off during the win-
ter and spring freshets, but the vibrations are not felt at all while
the water is high, or while the sheet that pours over the dam
much exceeds four or five inches in depth. A sheet of water of
much more than this depth falls with a smooth unbroken surface,
and without vibratory motion. =

Vibrating Dams. 367

Some effect is felt when the depth of water is less than four
or five inches. When the water commences pouring over the
dam ina thin sheet, the tremulous motion is perceived in the
falling water. 'This motion increases as the water descends, and
avery thin sheet is soon broken and falls irregularly. As the
depth of water increases, it is less and less scattered in its fall,
until at length it forms an unbroken sheet. It is not until this
takes place that much effect is produced on the surrounding at-
mosphere. The strength of the vibrations increases with the
depth of water up to four or five inches ; beyond this, the vibra-
tions diminish, until at length they cease to be felt in the atmos-
phere, and cannot be perceived in the sheet of falling water. The
tremulous motion of the water, which is greatest at the bottom
of the sheet, is not confined to the falling water, bat may be seen
for a short aletenes back of the edge of the dam.

~The vibrations are not at all times very perceptible to the ear.
They give a fluttering sensation, like that produced by a partridge
while “drumming.” The number of vibrations is about five
per second. A window will commence vibrating, and increase
in force for five, ten or fifteen minutes, or perhaps longer, when
it will gradually cease, and sometimes remain at rest for a short

Owing, as is supposed, to the unequal thickness of the
sheet of water, caused by the settling of some portions of the
dam, and the breaking of some planks, the vibrations have not
been experienced for the last two years, until since some recent
tepairs. ‘They occur now only occasionally, and the effect is but
slight in. comparison with “what has formerly been witnessed.
The same cause has prevented them before, within the memory
of Mr. Osborn. 'The dam has constantly been built on the same
plan for fifty years or more. The most powerful vibrations ever
Witnessed occurred when about twenty feet of one end of the dam
Was about two inches higher than the rest of it. They appa-
tently began at that end of the dam, from which they extended
the whole length, when the rest of the sheet was too thick to vi-
brate of itself. At that time they would continue to grow more
Powerful until the motion was communicated to the water in the
dam near to the edge, when it would cease fora few minutes. The
Vibrations have been known to affect windows in a house nearly
One fourth of a mile distant in a northwest direction, and anoth-
era little more than one fourth of a mile in a southeast direc-

368 Vibrating Dams.

tion, the foundations of both of these buildings resting on sand.
It is not recollected that any vibrations have ever been noticed
in the windows on that side of Mr. Osborn’s house which is
turned directly from the dam.

Il. Dam at Springfield, Mass.

The following 1s the substance of aletter from Mr. Amasa
Holcomb, well known as the manufacturer of Herschelian tele-
scopes. ‘The dam crosses Westfield River about two miles west
of Springfield. It is four hundred and fifty feet long and seven-
teen feet high, and stands on solid rock the whole length, It
runs nearly north and south, and is perfectly straight and level
on the top. The water is taken from the dam in a canal about
eighty rods to a paper mill; and where the dam joins the canal
there is a strong breastwork of stone laid without mortar. Where
the dam joins the bank at the south end, there is also a breast-
work of stone, with an apron of plank for a few. feet, on which
the sheet of water falls and turns it to the north. All the rest.
of the sheet falls into water of six feet or more in depth, it hav-
ing torn away the rock below the dam. The dam is of wood,
framed. A row of posts. about three feet apart are framed into
the highest plate of the dam its whole length. The upper side
of the dam has a slope apparently of 40° or 50°; but on the
lower side, the water falls without obstruction the whole height
of the dam. The dam is built in the best manner, and was very
expensive. The rafters are covered entirely with plank carefully
jointed, and tight without gravel except at the bottom. - There
may be some gravel washed on, but there is none to be seen.
The water is now (Aug. 10, 1842) running over the dam to the
depth of about eight inches. .The most favorable time for vibra-
tions is when the water isa little lower, but I am told that it
requires nearly the present amount to produce them. Iwill now
describe the vibrations as intelligibly as I can. There is no wind
and the surface of the pond is very smooth, perfectly so appa
rently, but the sheet of water is in waves, and the inequalities
appear to commence immediately after the water leaves the dam,
Standing on the stone breastwork at the north end of the dam,
and looking south in the range of the dam, the top of it appears
like a long stick of timber under water with the ends fast, but
vibrating horizontally four or five inches in the middle. This

Vibrating Dams. 369

apparent vibration is no doubt caused by the shape of the surface
of the water. Standing on this breastwork, my clothes shook
and kept exact time with the vibrations. Standing on the canal
bank of earth a few rods below, the effect on my clothes was
perceptible, but much less. I was told that the vibrations were
about two per second, but I found them very different. Others
had not accurately observed the time, or the time is variable.
There are three distinct vibrations that appear to be equidistant
in time, and then a space nearly equal to two, and this in con-
stant succession as observed from my station at the north end of
the dam. ‘The three vibrations with the space, occupied a sec-
ond as near as I could measure. But then there appeared to be
a finer set of vibrations between these, but how many is past
human skill to ascertain with precision. But there is another
very curious phenomenon that I observed. Standing twenty or
thirty rods below (east of) the dam, where you look at the sheet
of water nearly at a right angle, it seems to flash like lightning
in dry clouds, or northern lights when there is a brilliant display
of electrical flashes. ‘This is evidently owing to the sheet of
water partially breaking, and consequently looking white, while
some part at the same time remained unbroken. I cannot de-
scribe this without a figure. = = apse

oy eee. on rE bed ddd hod abd re EE
AB represents the top of the sheet of water; C D the bottom ;
the curved line above E, akind of arch; that above F’, one some-
hat shorter, and at G, a part of an arch. Standing down the
tiver and looking at the sheet, that part at G tarns white or par-
tially breaks, and the change begins at the bottom and runs up
Nearly to the top of the sheet. ‘Then the part at F changes in
the same manner, running rapidly from the bottom to the top,
and then the part at E in the same manner. Then commencing
again at G, the same order is observed without the least apparent
Vatiation. There is some change observed in that part above
the-curved line, but small, especially in that part near the middle
of the dam, or between EandF. ‘The changes at G, F’, and E,
correspond in time precisely with the vibrations. YT mean by
this, that the water breaks or changes white once in a second at
Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 47 :

370 Vibrating Dams.

G, and the same at each of the other places, making three dis-
tinct vibrations in a little more than half a second, and thena
longer space as before observed. ‘The doors and windows shake
in Springfield, two and a half miles from the dam.

IV, V. Two dams in Northampton, Mass.

The following information was furnished by Professor Hitch-
cock. The vibrations and jarring have occurred at two dams in
Northampton, about a hundred rods apart on the same stream,
running along the south side of the village. Both of them are
built of wood; that is, of timber with planks pinned to them, and
the top is straight. . The upper one is two hundred feet long, and
twelve feet high; the lower one about the same length, and six
or seven feet high. Both of them rest on solid strata of red sand-
stone, which have an easterly dip of 15° or 20°. The vibrations
occur only at a particular height of the water. If the sheet is
not continuous they do not take place ; nor if it be quite thick at
high water. As the water was not at the proper pitch either
time when I visited the spot, I have not witnessed the effects.
I was assured that the jarring of houses was sensible through
the whole village, which must be over a distance of half a mile.
Some of the near neighbors found the effect so annoying from
the lower fall, that they threatened prosecution. ‘The proprie-
tors knew not what to do; when happily a log floated against
the dam and stopped the vibrations. The hint was improved,
and a piece of plank fastened to the top of the dam, so as to break
the sheet, and since that time they have not been noticed. They
are still common at the upper dam, and I was told by an intelli-
gent man who lived upon the bank, that the vibrations could be
distinctly seen, not only on the curve of the descending sheet, but
extending as waves a considerable way up stream. He informed
me also that he first noticed these vibrations in a mill-dam of a
‘similar kind, built upon a rock in Brattleborough, Vt. Your inqui-
ries have also quickened my own memory, so that I distinctly
recollect having frequently noticed a singular vibration in the
descending sheet of water over a dam, so that I can hardly doubt
but it iscommon. I regret that my time does not permit me to
hunt up other facts of a similar character. Sih ts

Aen ee ”
sii Bik "9 > ae Wes ie oe ie 5 : Ae

Vibrating Dams. STt

al VI. Dam at Gardiner, Maine.

_ The following is a letter from Mr. R. H. Gardiner. The Cob-.
bossee Contee river, a fine mill stream, empties into the Kenne-
beck at this village. In the last mile of its course it falls a hun-
dred and twenty seven feet. There are now six dams across the
stream, all of them built of stone, and make a fall of from twelve
to twenty two feet each. This however is not the height that the
water falls perpendicularly, which varies from eight to sixteen
feet. All the dams are of the same construction, that is, two
walls of split stone are laid and filled in between with small
stones and coarse gravel, and covered on the top with flat stones
seven or eight feet long, making that the width of the dam at
the top, which varies at the bottom from ten to fourteen feet ac-
cording to the height. ‘The upper side is filled with earth and .
gravel to within two feet of the top. The wall on the lower
side is nearly perpendicular, and the water falls from seven to
fifteen feet on a wooden apron of timber. 'These dams have
been erecting during the last twenty years ; but what is remark-
able, the vibrations were never observed until last year, although
the oldest dam, and the one which has the highest perpendicular
fall, is in the midst of the village. In all these dams, the portion
over which the water falls is a perfectly straight line, and varies
from eighty to a hundred and sixty feet in length, and the water
= it runs over the dam in freshets is from three to six feet
- We have had no freshet this year and no vibrations. I regret-
ted that I did not give mote attention to” them last year; but
living more than a mile from the village, and being particularly
occupied at the time, I omitted the opportunity. The vibrations
were seldom heard in the day time, but regularly in the night.

“The only circumstances that I am aware Eee
liar to the last season were, Ist, the dam immediately above the
lowest was built the summer preceding. The roll of this dam,
over which the water falls on the apron, is the shortest in the river.
Of course the water falls here with more violence. 2nd. The
freshet occurred when the frost was coming out of the ground,
and the earth was full of water. — 1 could not learn that the vi-
brations were felt when there was much wind. ‘The strongest
vibrations were felt not close to. the dams, but in some buildings

372 Vibrating Dams.

(and one of them a brick hotel) erected on boggy ground near
the river, but thirty rods below the lower dam, and ninety below
the one most recently built. I intended to have made careful
observations this season had the opportunity been afforded.

Vil. Dam at Hartford, Conn.

The following i is from Mr. J. P. Brace. About nine years ago, .
I lived near the mill-dam called Imlay’s dam, and was much an-
noyed by the rattling of the windows of my house, when any
quantity of water was passing over the dam. It was some time
before | ascertained the cause, but after some investigation was
fully satisfied it was produced by the passage of the water. The
reason of my hesitation at first was the variation in the noise
when the state of the dam was the same; but I soon discovered
that the direction of the wind would TROMONS for this variation.
The noise was produced by a rapid vibratory motion of the win-
dow sash, if slightly loose. Ihave stood by the dam and_per-
ceived that the impulse of the falling water gave the same motion
to the contiguous air, and that the noise of the waterfall was not
continuous. I never ascertained how much water was necessary
to produce the effect, but I have the impression left upon my
mind, that in a great Hiasbet the vibratory motion ceased. ‘Those
who lived nearer the dam than I did were often very much an-
noyed. Within a few years, the dam las been taken down and
built anew from its foundations. Whether -_ same effect now
takes place, I cannot inform you.
_ Besides the seven cases here described} and an nieighets alladed
to at Brattleborough, I have heard of a ninth at Putnam in Ohio,
and see also received vague intimations of several others.

Remarks.

vile all these. cases, it is euficiently: obvious ‘toes the ranning
water is the prime cause of the vibrations, for the vibrations in-
variably cease when the water ceases running. But how is the
effect produced? By friction upon the dam? by collision with
the air in its fall? by impulse upon. aha rock beneath? or in
some other way?

1. The damitself eiboatenie~"Tlhin oniiaions tied: at Coeyahinge
Falls admits Lapprehend of no other explanation, Last year when

/ dam was comparatively free, the rattling of windows was

Vibrating Dams. 373

very annoying. But after the dam was loaded with two hundred
and fifty additional tons of stone, all other circumstances remain-
ing the same, the vibrations ceased. Moreover, direct evidence
of the vibration of the dam is afforded at Scantic, (p. 367,) and at
Northampton, (p. 370,) by the tremulous motion of the water ex-
. tending a short distance back of the edge of the dam. The fact
mentioned at Springfield, (p. 368,) of the apparent vibrations of
_. the dam, is probably to be explained in the same way. Although
refraction through the undulating surface of the water would give
an apparent motion to the timbers of the dam, yet this undula-
ting surface itself indicates real vibrations in the dam.
2 These vibrations are excited in. the dam by the friction of
the running water-—Vibrations of the dam must be communica-
' ted to surrounding objects, the air, water, earth, ete. In which
of these are the vibrations first excited? Does the air communi-
cate vibrations to the dam, or the dam to the air?. ‘This question
is answered by the experiment at Cuyahoga Falls. When the
dam is so loaded that it cannot vibrate, the phenomenon ceases
entirely. Hence it is clearsthat the dam is the original vibrating
body; and those who have observed the vibrations excited in
elastic rods and plates by a bow, will probably have little hesita-
tion in admitting that the running water performs the office of a
bow... We may easily estimate the velocity requisite to produce
the greatest effect. The depth of water at the time of the great-
st vibrations is estimated at five or six inches for Cuyahoga
Falls ; four or five inches at Scantic ; a little less than eight inch-
es at Springfield; and at Gardiner, fora stone dam, about stx feet.

That is, a wooden dam requires a velocity of five or six feet per
second, and a stone dam about twenty feet. ‘The ordinary ve-
locity of the bow upon a bass viol is perhaps one foot per second.

8. The time of a vibration may be computed when we know
the dimensions of the dam.—F rom some-experiments made with
the largest beams I have been able to command, it is inferred that
asingle beam of white oak two feet thick and ninety feet long, vi-
brating as a whole, would make 1.5 single vibrations per second.
Vibrating in two segments, it would make 6.0 vibrations, and in
three segments 13.8 vibrations per second. — The time of vibra-
tion is independent of the width when the beam is free ; but if one

£1022 UA

‘edge of a long plate sidvacietinendsSts number of vibrations is in-

‘creased, while by loading it the number is diminished. Iam un-

374 Vibrating Dams.

able to compute these effects rigorously for the Cuyahoga Falls
dam, but presume that they nearly balance each other. ‘The
number of vibrations thus computed, on the supposition of three
vibrating segments, corresponds very closely with the estimate on
p. 365; it is hence inferred that this was the common, perhaps
the only mode of vibration of this dam. I much regret that I
had not the opportunity of measuring accurately the number of
vibrations, and of obtaining some direct evidence of the number
of nodes. At Springfield it appears pretty clear that there are
two and a half vibrating segments, the half segment at the north
end vibrating as if that extremity were entirely free. With a
rod.of uniform size and elasticity the first two segments would
be of one hundred and eighty feet each, and the remaining half
segment ninety feet. In adam, these conditions of perfectly
uniform thickness and elasticity could not be expected, and the
segments may be considerably unequal. A prismatic beam of oak
one hundred and eighty feet long and twenty two inches thick,
would make one vibration per second. It is remarkable that the

vibrations of the three segments appear not to be synchronous;

but succeed each other at intervals of about a quarter of a second.
If this observation was made while standing at the north end of
the dam, a part of the retardation might be ascribed to the velo-
city of sound, which travels one hundred and eighty feet in about
the sixth part of asecond. It would seem that the inter als

should be different when observed from one-end of the dam, and
from a station thirty rods below, though no mention is made of
any such difference. ‘This point deserves further examination.
_ The dam at Scantic is one hundred feet long, and makes five
vibrations per second. It may hence be conjectured to vibrate
in two segments. No direct evidence of this fact is furnished by
the preceding statement. It is not improbable however that pe-

culiarities may be detected in the falling sheet, similar to those at

Springfield, which would indicate the position of the nodes.
4. Why is the effect of the vibrations impaired by dividing the
sheet of water ?—T he facts stated on pp: 366, 370, may seem in-
consistent with the idea that the dam is itself the original vibra-
ting body. These facts do indeed indicate that the descending
sheet of water has an important office to perform. This office I
conceive to be that of a membrane vibrating in unison with the
dam and reinforcing the sound, Behind this sheet, is a confined

Vibrating Dams. 375

body of air. The dam vibrating before this air is like a tuning
fork before the open mouth of a tube or cubical box, the opposite
end of which is closed by a stretched membrane. The box does
not originate the vibrations, but reinforces them, so that effects
are produced upon distant objects to which the dam itself would
be entirely incompetent. This effect is impaired by every divis-
ion of the sheet of water. It is arent in the membrane. It is
“not to be supposed that the vibrations of this confined column of
air correspond to the fundamental note of a tube of the same
length. A segment of the dam at Springfield makes but one vi-
bration per second, which would require an open tube eleven
hundred feet in length to vibrate in unison with it. bs
~ 5. Are the vibrations transmitted to distant objects by the earth
or atmosphere ?—Air is the more common vehicle of sound, yet
as most of the dams here mentioned rest on solid rock, which is
a good conductor, it has been supposed that this might be the
principal conductor. There are some facts which seem to indi-
cate that these vibrations are transmitted chiefly by the atmos-
phere. (1.) The two buildings mentioned p. 367, at Scantic,
as being near the limit of this influence, both rest ona bed of
sand, which is a very poor conductor of musical vibrations. (2.)
The vibrations are chiefly heard on the side of buildings next the
dam. This is asserted of Scantic, p. 368, and has also been assert-
ed of Cuyahoga Falls. (3.) It is probable that the vibrations are
chiefly confined to the upper edge of the dam, where the friction
is applied and where the dam is more free. (4.) The facts men-
tioned at Springfield, pp. 368, 369, show that the stone breast work
vibrates, but the canal bank of earth a few rods below hardly at
all: . This shows how poor a conductor is sand, and renders it im-
probable that it should be the vehicle for transmitting the vibra-
tions to the buildings mentioned p. 367. (5.) The fact men-
tioned at Gardiner, p. 371, respecting the place where the strong-
est vibrations were felt, may seem inconsistent with my position ;
but it is presumed that this statement was derived not from Mr.
Gardiner’s own observation but from the testimony of others, and
it is possible that a general conclusion may have been drawn too
6: Why is not the rattling of windows continuous, instead of
being subject to frequent interruption ?—I do not understand that
the dam ceases to vibrate whenever the windows cease to rattle.

376 Vibrating Dams.

Thus it is mentioned, p. 364, that a window when apparently at
rest if put in motion by the hand, will continue to rattle; showing
that there was a power previously acting upon the window, but
not quite sufficient to overcome all the resistances; yet with a
little foreign assistance at starting, the vibrations are maintained.
The seemingly capricious motions of the window indicate to me
only slight changes of intensity in the moving force, or in the
amount of the resistances. Slight changes in the moving force
may atise from a change in the depth of water upon the dam,
due to the drain from the mills dependent upon it. Hence when
the water is low, the phenomenon would more frequently happen
by night than by day. Or it may be due toa real increase of
water in the river, owing to showers at a distance. A change in
the amount of the resistances may be due to the moisture of the
atmosphere, temperature of the room; ete. Or finally, a slight
change in the direction or foree of the wind may occasion an
appreciable difference in the strength of the transmitted vibra-
tions; and common impression would seem to ascribe nearly the
whole effect to this circumstance. ek RR ae

__ Hints to observers, pores

As this phenomenon is not known to have been particularly
studied hitherto, and as it seems intimately connected with an
important branch of science, it is hoped that it may receive some
attention. I therefore propose to direct observers to some points
which seem to merit particular examination. Kye Mayan
1. The number of vibrations per second. » This should be de-
termined with the utmost accuracy, and frequently verified to see
if the number is invariable. When the number does not much
exceed four or five vibrations per second, they may be directly
counted. With a seconds watch in your hand, count the number
for one minute. Repeat the process several times, and take the
mean result. Do the same every day for a long period, and pre-
serve the separate results. See if the discordances exceed the
unavoidable errors of observation. If they do not, it may be pre-
umed the time is constant. When the number of vibrations
amounts to ten or fifteen per second, some artifice must be resort
ed to, Compare’ the rattle of the windows with. that produced
by soma known movement; e. g. a wheel moving with a known
velocity; and having projecting teeth which strike upon some

Vibrating Dams. 377

light object, as a piece of paper held in the hand. The method
described on p. 365 might perhaps be available. |

2, A minute description of the dam is important. Its precise
length, breadth, and height; . material; form of construction ;
straight or curved; amount of embankment on the upper side,
perpendicular or not on the lower side. .

8. Peculiarities in the descending sheet of water, which indi-
cate the vibrating segments. It seems improbable that along
dam should vibrate in one segment. The depth of water on the
dam should be frequently measured, both during the occurrence

~ and cessation of the phenomenon. It should be preserved in a

A, The direction and force of the wind should be noted when-
ever the vibrations are suddenly interrupted or resumed. It is
also important to know what is the greatest distance at which
the vibrations are ever felt? Are they perceived on all sides of
the building ; and upon what foundation does the building rest,
rock, sand, clay or gravel. ee ae "¢
_ 5. It is desirable to get direct evidence of the vibrations of the
dam. If several rods of an inch diameter were inserted vertically
into the top of the dam, it-is not improbable that by taking care-
ful range with fixed objects the vibrations might _be sensible.
This method might detect not only the existence of eee
but the place of the nodes. In general, we might expect the ud
dle of a vibrating segment where the current is swiftest, which
is usually towards the middle of he dam. If any one should try
this experiment expecting to see an oscillation of the rods through
Several inches, he would probably be disappointed. I should not
however despair of being able to render the motion sensible.
The rods should obviously be sufficiently rigid not to have a Vi-
bratory. motion of their own independent of the dam.

- In the speculations in which I have here indulged, I have been
guided entirely by my own reflections, ‘except so far as the gen-
eral principles of musical vibrations are concerned. It is not 1m-
probable therefore that this article may contain various statements
which I shall hereafter see occasion to correct. If however it
should be the means of exciting the curiosity of scientific men,
My main object will be accomplished. Hie cae

| Vole-xev, No. 2—July-Sept. 1843. 48

378 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

Arr. XV.—Reply of J. P. Covrnovy, to the accusations of J. D.
Dana, Geologist to the Exploring Expedition, contained on
Pp. 130 and 145 of this Volume.

Messrs. E'ditors—I have only this day been windsi ro
that in the July number of your Journal, p. 130, are the fol-
lowing remarks, forming part of an article “‘on the temperature
limiting the distribution of corals, by J. D. Dana, geologist to
the U.S. Exploring Expedition.” “I have before stated to the
Association, ‘that the temperature limiting the distribution of co-
rals in the ocean is not far from 66° Fahr. On ascertaining the
influence of temperature on'the growth of corals, I was at once
enabled to explain the singular fact, that no coral occurs at the
Gallapagos although under the equator, while growing reefs have
formed the Bermudas in latitude 33°, four or five degrees beyond
the usual coral limits. In justice to myself I may state here,

* that this explanation, which was published some two years since
by another, was originally derived from my manuscripts, which
were laid open most confidingly for his perusal, while at the Sand-
wich Islands in 1840. The anomalies which the Gallapagos and
Bermudas seemed to present, were dwelt upon at some length in
the manuscript, and attributed in the latter case to the influence
of the warm waters of the Gulf’ Stream; in the former to the
southern current up the South American coast, whose cold waters
reduce the ocean temperature about the Gallapagos to 60° F. du-
ring some seasons, although twenty degrees to the west, the
waters stand at 84° F.” ‘To this passage, is appended the ensu-
ing editorial note of explanation. | ““'The publication here alluded
to we understand refers to an article by Mr. J. P. Couthouy,

which appeared last year in the Boston jqiuta of ‘Nataral =
tory.”

at cot am at a loss for'words that shall express the sblaosit feelings
and sorrow, excited in me by a peru-
sett the above most serious accusation, against which I claim
2 rivilege of defending myself through your pages. In doing
PE shall endeavor to be as calm and. dispassionate as the em
will permit. From the wording of the passage above cited, 1
am somewhat in doubt whether the idea intended’ to be convey-
ed by Mr. Dana, is that I am indebted to him for my views up?

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 379

temperature as connected with the growth of corals, taken as a
whole, or merely for the application of those views to the anom-
alies presented by the Gallapagos and Bermudas. ‘To avoid any
possibility of evasion however, I shall consider his charge as em-
bracing both these points, since in another place he certainly af-
firms the former of them, as will be shown before: I conclude.
The broad meaning of the charge is, that I am guilty of THEFT,
literary larceny; of a treacherous and most dishonorable aBuUSE
OF conripeNcer, in having appropriated the ideas developed by
Mr. Dana in his MSS. “confidingly laid open for my perusal.””
The imputations it contains are so gross, that if substantiated,
they would richly warrant my ignominious expulsion, not only
from the Association before which they were made, but from
every other scientific body of which I have the honor to bea
member... It stands Mr. Dana inneed to be very sure that he.
can make good his assertion, since if he fails to do so, he must
appear before the public in no enviable position, as guilty of hav-
ing cast a foul blot upon the escutcheon of another on insufficient
grounds, It must be borne in mind, that in the distribution of
the various departments of natural history among the naturalists
attached to the expedition, the corals were specially assigned to
me. ‘Their habits, growth, distribution and all else connecte
With their history, were consequently the objects of my particu-
lar attention. ‘Traversing the same ground with Mr. Dana, | pos-
sessed of equal facilities for observing the phenomena present
ed by corals, with the same facts presented to my notice, (and I
believe all. my associates, not excepting: Mr. D. himself, will do
me the justice to acknowledge that I neglected no occasion for
investigating either,) it must I think be admitted that something
more than Mr. D.’s unsupported assertion is requisite, to prove
that I could only arrive at similar conclusions with himself, by
meanly purloining his MS. statements. Until it could be made
manifest that Mr. D. enjoyed an exclusive monopoly of the ability
to. deduce the views under discussion, from a study of phenome-
na simultaneously observed by both; I might content myself
With claiming that my simple denial should be taken as an equiv-
alent for his bare assertion, and casting (as is my undoubted
right) the onus probandi upon his shoulders, challenge him to
produce the proof of his charge. » It will not suffice for him to
show that the views referred to, were contained in his MSS., and

380 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

that these latter were perused by or read to me at Oahu in 1840,
He must prove beyond a question, that I then and there, from
that source and no other, derived as he affirms, the views set forth
by me in the article to which your note alludes. I have no in-
tention however of resting satisfied with this alone. In answer
then, to the accusation of Mr. Dana, I solemnly declare on my
faith and honor as a man, that it is utterly and unqualifiedly des-
titute of the slightest foundation in truth, with the exception of
the mere fact of his having laid open his MSS. for my perusal,
in relation to which I cannot speak positively. At the next
meeting of the Association, and in the presence, I trust, of every
one who heard the remarks of Mr. Dana, this denial shall be sub-
stantiated by the most unequivocal testimony, personally should I
live, and should I not, the proof shall be entrusted to others who
will vindicate my memory. I will simply state at present, that
so far from my having derived the opinions in question, as Mr.
D. alleges, from his MSS. at the Sandwich Islands in 1840, they
had at that period been several months in the possession of my
friends in the United States, having been communicated from
Sydney, New South Wales, in December, 1839, in substantially
the same form as to facts, so far as the influence of temperature
on corals is concerned, as that of their publication in January,
1842, At the time this was done, I was confined to my room by
severe illness, the result of exposure, from which the physicians
had pronounced recovery more than doubtful. The squadron
was about sailing on a cruise whence it might never return. In
the event of an unfavorable termination to either, my manuscripts
might be lost, and with them whatever of new or important they
contained, either of facts or suggestions. 'T'o guard against this
contingency, I transmitted, by sure hand, to some friends in Bos-
ton, duplicate minutes of the most important of my observations
from the time of our leaving the United States, to our arrival at
Upolu in the Samoan group. These minutes were accompani
bya rigid injunction to allow no portion of them to be made pub-
__ He‘or to be perused, excepting by a few intimate friends of those
~ to whom they were addressed, which injunction I may here add
Was faithfully observed. Events have proved that I acted wise-
tY In adopting this course, since when at the trial by court mar-
tial of Lieut. Wilkes, a year ago, my journals and notes (deposited
ith ‘him on my separation from the squadron at Oahu in 1840)

Dec

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 381

were called for in evidence, they could no where be discovered
among the other archives of the expedition, deposited at the Navy
Department, and Mr. Wilkes professed entire ignorance of their
fate. Neither am I aware that up to the present hour, they have
been found or even sought for. But for the documents referred
to, I might therefore, at this moment, stand comparatively pow-
erless to repel the accusations of Mr. Dana.
These documents are not at present in my possession, but I
pledge myself to obtain and produce them in evidence at the next
meeting of the American Association of Geologists and Natural-
ists, before whom it appears the charge of Mr. D. was first made.
~The publication of my article on coral formations in the Boston
Journal of Natural History, for January, 1842, was first induced by
certain statements of Mr. Lyell, in one of his lectures before the
Lowell Institute, which caused considerable misapprehension as
to the features of some of the Polynesian islands visited by me.
- Looking upon the suggestions which had presented themselves
tomy mind, upon the influence of temperature on the growth
of corals, as of some importance, and having learned from Mr.
Lyell that Mr. Darwin was about publishing an elaborate work
on the subject of their distribution, &c., 1 concluded, after con-
sultation with my friends, to embrace this opportunity for a brief
expression of my views, and thereby avoid being forestalled by
him, in case his observations had led him to similar conclusions.
Unlike Mr. Dana, I deemed it highly probable that another per-
son, observing the same facts as myself, might draw precisely the
same inferences. 'This was my sole motive for publication.
~ I will now pass to the fact of my instancing the Gallapagos
and Bermudas as deviations from: the general limit of coral for-
mations, From the manner of Mr. Dana’s mention of Ais re-
‘marks on these groups, one would naturally infer that they were
‘the only anomalous cases cited by me, as well as by himself, and
therefore to be viewed in the light of collateral evidence of my
having purloined his notes. But this is far from a fair statement
of the case. The former are spoken of, simply as#h lnstangs
oceurring in the equatorial Pacific of the same singular destitu-—
tion of corals characterizing a number of the intertropical islands
of the Atlantic, such as Trinidad, Martin Vas, Fernando Noronha,
the Cape Verds, and Canaries, and Mr. Dana will not, I pre-
“sume, include these also, among those whose anomalies “* were

382 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

dwelt upon at some length in the manuscript.” The simple
truth is, my information that the Gallapagos, and the three first
named Atlantic islands, were destitute of coral, was derived on
my passage from Sydney to Tahiti, in the spring of 1840, from
Dr: Brown, the surgeon of the vessel, and Capt. Rugg, the com-
mander, the latter of whom, especially had spent many months
among the Gallapagos, and though utterly unacquainted with
natural history, had been struck, nevertheless, with this peculiar
feature, as something curious, and different from any of the other
tropical islands of the Pacific, among which he had been cruising
for several years. He attributed it to the sulphurous salts with
which the earth: at these islands is every where impregnated, af-
fecting the water to such a degree, that corals could not live init.
I was at first inclined to coincide with him, but reflecting that
this explanation could not apply to the like absence of corals in
the Atlantic islands, was led to suspect that it would be found
owing to the low temperature of the ocean. | . ae
This suspicion, however, I only verified while the sheets of
my article were passing through the press, by an examination of
the meteorological tables in the appendix to King and Fitzroy’s
voyage, for a knowledge of which I was indebted to my friend,
Dr. A. A. Gould. From the same work, and at the same time,
were derived all the local temperatures of the Pacific, specified in
my article.* On the other hand, the fact of coral reefs existing
at Bermuda, so far beyond their general limits, is a fact in itself
so remarkable, that the most casual observer would scarcely fail
to have his attention drawn to it, in connection with this subject
of temperature; and I think it will be conceded, that to have
passed over them in silence would have been far more extra-
ordinary, than that I should have remarked concerning them,
‘though unable to speak positively from having no data; as to
the Bermudas, I have no doubt from their proximity to the Gulf
Stream, that they are washed by an equally warm sea.”+ This
the extent of my observations upon “ anomalies,” which were
1pon at some length in the manuscript” of Mr. D., “laid
st confidingly” for my perusal at the Sandwich Islands,
auch, I trust, it has been shown I had other means of
thout abusing the confidence of Mr. D. But I

oston Journal Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, p. 160. t Op. cit. p. 160.

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 383

must now proceed to notice another, and very important mis-state-
ment of Mr. Dana’s.. On page 145 of your last number, I find
the following among the “ proceedings of the American Associa-
tion of Geologists and Naturalists,” at Albany, in April last.
“ Mr. Dana alluded to a statement made by Mr. Couthouy, at the
meeting of the Association at Boston, that the limiting tempera-
ture of corals was 76°: Fahrenheit, and took occasion to remark,
that Mr. Couthouy was indebted to him (Mr. D.) for the views
there advanced by him,. with regard to the temperature limiting
corals; and added, that the. temperature 76° Fahr. was a mis-
take by Mr. Couthouy for 70°, the limit fixed upon by Mr. Dana
when the views were communicated by him to Mr. Couthouy.”
. It must be admitted that the language of this accusation is
sufficiently clear and explicit, as to time, place and circumstance.
There seems to have been especial care taken to prevent any
possibility of misapprehension as to the precise nature of the
charge, and also to fix it distinctly upon me, by the frequent it-
eration of my name. It is open but to the solitary objection that
there is not one syllable of truth in the passage from beginning
to end, so far as Mr. Dana is concerned. Both the statement al-
luded to, and the views he represents me as having expressed in
it, are entirely the creation of Mr. D.’s singularly imaginative
brain. 'The facts set forth in the indictment on which lam
thus arraigned at the bar of public opinion, are altogether ficti-
tious. The opinions which Mr. Dana therein alleges were de-
tived by me from his manuscript, I have never expressed either
orally or in print! Incredible as this may seem, I shall now pro-
ceed to place it beyond the shadow of a doubt. |
- First, then, I deny that I made any statement, advanced any
views or expressed any opinions whatever to the Association,
upon the subject of temperature limiting corals, or upon their ~
growth, their distribution, or in short, upon any topic connected
with corals directly or indirectly.* For the evidence of this as-
Sertion, I refer to the proceedings of the Association, aan
ed in your Journal, and in the first volume of its ‘Transactions. —

o* Perha s ' hei ee ing a denial, to except the remarks allud onal
_.* Perhaps I ought in sosweeping a deni; et Pe ee
Page 153, Am. Jour. for July, 1842, (p- = ets of the Association 3) on

: i iehoay 38 1 ne. nr

?
the evidences of succe

pared

, presented by one of the uplifted
coral islands visited by aS 49839; though these had not the slightest bearing on
the question here at issue. —

384 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

Omitting for the present farther comment on his assertion that the
opinions here falsely quoted as mine were derived from him, 1
affirm in the next place, that Mr. Dana is guilty of gross and in-
excusable misrepresentation of my actual views in regard to tem-
perature limiting the growth of corals. I have never named,
either directly, or otherwise, any particular standard of tem-
perature as limiting such growth, but on the contrary, have de-
clared that we were not yet possessed of sufficient data to estab-
lish that point, and Mr. Dana betrays that he feels the weakness
of his cause, by thus ascribing to me opinions I have never en-
tertained. I leave others to pass judgment on his motives for
doing this, merely remarking, that could it be made to appear
that I had named, or intended to name, as a limiting temperature,
that designated by himself, it weld give a coloring of ae
to his charge.

_ Moreover, so far Seo coeilisee 76° Fahrenheit as such limit,
hele mistake, as he asserts, for 70° Fahrenheit, the limit assigned
by him, I have in my published views expressly stated my con-
viction, that wherever this temperature of 76° exists, there corals
will be found to flourish in their utmost profusion. In proof of
this, I adduce the following extracts from my article on coral for-
mations in the Pacific. Speaking of a reef near Tutuila, one of
the Samoan group, on which were thirteen fathoms water, I re-
mark, “'This ledge, distant about two and a half miles from the
coast, which was very steep, was profusely covered with coral.
The surface temperature was here 819, and that of the boé-
tom 76° Fahrenheit. Throughout the Corel Archipelago to the
eastward of Tahiti, the surface temperature ranges from 78° to
81°. The same may be said of that in the neighborhood of
the detached islets, between Tahiti and Samoa, to the west.
Throughout this region, I observed all kinds of corals flourish-
ing in perfection on the outer plateau of the reefs, at a depth of
Seven, eight, and in some cases, as that just cited, twelve or thir-

teen fathoms.”’* That I here intended to prove, that as through
— ee; where corals flourish in such perfection, the
1 ture is the same as at the reef off Tutuila; so also
‘ ist the temperature of the bottom, i. e, 76° Fahrenheit,—is surely
obv: even without what here follows. “Tt is my belief that
a segment

* Boston Jour. Nat, Hist. Vol. Iv, pp 74,75. ae

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 385

to a certain extent, the corals are limited in their range of growth
by temperature rather than depth, and that wherever this is not
below 76° Fahrenheit, there, ceteris paribus, they will be found to
flourish as in the Polynesian seas ;’* and again, ‘among ‘the
Paumotus, the field of their most lavish display, the temperature
varies from 77° to 83°. At Tahiti, from 77° to 80°, and about
the same at the large groups to the west of it. At the Hawaiian
Islands, laying between 19° and 22° north latitude, it is some-
times as high as 81°. In our own hemisphere, among the An-
tilles, Bahamas, and southern coasts of Florida, I have found the
temperature of the water near the shore, at different seasons,
from 78° to 82°, and in all these regions coral reefs abound.”+
I have italicised in the preceding quotations, the passages proving
most clearly the falsity of Mr. Dana’s representation of my opin-
ions in regard to a limiting temperature, and I appeal with con-
fidence to every candid and honorable mind, whether they do
not completely disprove his assertion, that I named 76° Fahren-
heit as the temperature limiting the growth of corals? whether,
on the contrary, I have not specially designated it as the temper-
ature suited for their utmost development ?

~ Certainly, no unprejudiced person will attempt to deny, that
there is a wide difference between affirming, that wherever the
temperature is not below 76° Fahrenheit, there corals will be
found to flourish in perfection—that where that exists, is “the
field of their most lavish display,” and stating that when it és be-
low that, they will not grow at all. ‘To deny this, would involve
the utter absurdity of assuming that there were no intermediate
grades of temperature, between the one suited to their most lavish
growth, and that in which they become extinct. In this matter
I claim only to be allowed to mean what I have said, in regard to
temperature as limiting the growth of corals, and protest against
its being assumed that I mean any thing more. I ask that the
language of my article on coral formations be taken in its strict
literal import, and I challenge Mr. Dana to point to a single pas-

* Boston Jour. Nat, Hist. Vol. IV, ‘p. 76. — reelt ee ie

t Ibid. p. 160. Although it is perhaps unnecessary, I will here remark, that the
temperatures here given.are unless the contrary is expressly mentioned, those of
the surface, as shown by a common thermometer placed ina bucket of freshly
drawn water, or held in the sea by hand, while sailing or pulling along the reefs

Vol. xxv, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 49

386, Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

sage therein, which by any construction can be made to imply
that I considered 76° Fahrenheit as the limiting temperature of
corals. Unless he can do this, I maintain his affirmation that 1
named 76° by mistake for 70°, the limit named by him, to be
wholly unfounded.

- "There can be no excuse or palliation offered for the conduct of
Mr. Dana on this point. He was bound in honor, and by every
principle of justice, to possess himself fully of my real opinions,
before bringing against me an accusation of so serious import as
that contained in the record. It matters not whence my views
were derived, [hada right to claim at his hands a fair presenta-
tion of them to the public. It was especially incumbent on Mr.
Dana while accusing me of behavior the most dishonorable, not
to show any thing like an approach to unfairness himself: how
much more then, to avoid attributing to me in support of his
charges, in an imaginary statement, opinions which 1 have never

an pre shes os
- The records of the Association were upon the table before him ~
at the time his remarks were offered; he had but to open them
and ascertain that I had made no such statement as he alluded to.
My published views were within his reach. A slight examina-
tion would have sufficed to convince him that I had never ad-
vanced those he attributed to me, and accused me of borrowing
from his MSS. Between the time of his making the charge
against me before the Association, and that of its publication in
your Journal, nearly if not quite three months elapsed, and yet
he made no attempt to correct his misrepresentations. How far
these will strengthen belief in, or cast discredit upon the similar
charge against me in the article first alluded to in this reply; it is
not my province to determine. |
- A few words as to the mere fact of Mr. Dana’s having show®
me his MSS. at Oahu, in 1840. Although I have not the slight-
est recollection of the fact, I am perfectly willing to concede that
itis very possible he did so. taped ttn: ty
‘That he exhibited his portfolio of drawings I distinctly te-
member, and how much I was struck in a cursory examination
of them, with their wonderful beauty of coloring and minute-
ness of detail. During the few days we passed in company, we
were both very much occupied by other matters, and what con
Versation or comparison of observations took place between US

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 387

was of necessity very brief and hurried. My own personal rela-
tions with the commander of the Expedition were in a painfully
unsettled state, and engrossed almost my entire thoughts and at-
tention. by veel slg
If I really saw Mr. Dana’s notes, it will not be considered
strange, that the circumstance should have escaped my memory
amid the excitement and: distractions of the occurrences which
led to my separation from the squadron; especially when it is
understood that saving my official correspondence, J am without
note or memorandum of any description, relative to the Expedi-
tion, or aught that transpired at the island, subsequent to the ar-
rival of the first of the squadron.
- Had I remembered any such expression of Mr. Dana’s views as
he refers to, I should gladly and unhesitatingly have cited a wit-
ness so competent, in support of my own, whose priority I had
abundant means of establishing. We certainly conversed freely
together on all subjects so far as we had opportunity, as was natur
ral for persons engaged in kindred pursuits, just meeting after a
year of separation. If Mr. Dana, as he alleges, (and I have no
objection to admit,) submitted his MSS. to my perusal, assuredly
he had as free access to mine. 5 cls
» I may hereafter take occasion to show that he has availed him-
self of them in a manner that leaves him, fo say the least, equally
open with myself to the charge of having misused confidence.
My first duty will be to fully vindicate myself from the accusa-
tions he has brought against me. When this shall be accom-
plished, it may then be Mr. D.’s turn to act upon the defensive.
[trust that I may be pardoned for here observing, that during
the whole period of my connection with the Expedition, I neg-
lected no opportunity for noting facts, and making collections in
Mr. Dana’s departments, both of which were always freely turned
over to him, without other return being made or sought than the
satisfaction it afforded me to add my contribution to the general
stock. In no solitary instance did I return from an excursion
without some addition to his collections. The additions thus

D.’s departments—a large proportio
visited by him. received in exchange, at the extent, some three
ot four dozen specimens in my departments, and the unmerited
charge of having abused his confidence. At the very time he

388 Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana.

accuses me of having done this, besides freely submitting to him
all my notes on the geology of Hawaii, made during a resi-
dence of nearly six months, I placed in his hands a set of over
four hundred specimens, forming a complete suite of all the for-
mations in the group, from its northwestern to its southeastern
extremity, illustrative of the facts noted, and collected along the
whole course of journies over more than three hundred and fifty
miles, with great care and labor, and in some instances at no
slight peril to life and limb.

I have hastily drawn up this selina defence with feelings
akin to those excited by a first perusal of the charge, not more in
anger than in sorrow. I confess that after the peculiar intimacy
which subsisted between us during the whole of our connection
in the Expedition, after the warm expressions of regard and in-
debtedness on his part at the time of our separation, I was wholly
unprepared for his adopting so violent a course, without a word of
remonstrance or request for explanation. Had he proffered either,
in lieu of assailing me unawares, while I was not present to de-
fend myself, and leaving me to arrive at a knowledge of the fact
by mere accident, I could readily have proved to him that he was
under an erroneous impression, have spared much pain to one, and
I cannot but hope to both of us, and prevented an act of great
injustice, which he will hereafter regret no less than myself.

_ That he saw fit to proceed as-he has done, must ever be tome
a source of deep regret—but this cannot be recalled. In self de-
fence, I am compelled to prove, that Mr. Dana is virtually a tra-
ducer, or become myself an object of scorn to all true men. I
am content to abide the issue. The grounds of my defence are
now before your readers. It only remains for me to assure those
friends to whom the charges not herein fully disproved, have
given pain, that if at the next meeting of the Association before
which they were originally preferred, I fail to prove their entire
groundlessness, I will consent not only to forfeit that esteem
which is dearer than life, but to be branded with the full igno-
miny which should justly attach to conduct so priest *
they attribute to me.

Statement of Mr. Couthouy t in “relation to Prof. H. D. “Rogers.

Permit me before concluding, to correct an erroneous state
ment in the proceedings of the Association in Boston, published

Mr. Couthouy’s Reply to Mr. Dana. 389

in your Journal for July, 1842, which by implication conflicts
with the claims of another to originality in conceiving a great
theory. On page 183, (page 75 also of Transactions,) it is
stated, that “Mr. Couthouy read some extracts from his journal,
‘on the wave-like undulations of the earth’s crust, at all periods
of disturbance from the most ancient date to the present time.’ ”
I am ignorant how this came to be so worded, but it conveys an
_ entirely erroneous idea. The extract read by me referred exclu-
sively to results produced by recent volcanic action in Hawaii,
strikingly illustrative on a minor scale of those grand undulations
of the earth’s crust, so eloquently accounted for by Prof. H. D.
Rogers, on the principle of a tremendous billowy movement of
the ignifluous mass beneath, at some remote period. I read noth-
ing referring to undulations of this description as observed by
myself. My remarks were introduced at the request of Prof. R.
‘on account of their bearing on his theory, as proving that effects
similar to those described by him, were produced on a diminu-
tive scale, by a less activity of the same agent, and also to
prove the singular coincidence of expression between two observ-
ers of like phenomena, placed thousands of miles apart, occur-
ring in his notes and my own; the same comparison of the
undulations to the march of ocean waves, having been made by
both in terms almost verbatim the same. ’

T request you to make this correction, that it may not be here-
after surmised from the record as it now stands, that any thing
advanced by me, conflicted with the claim of Prof. Rogers to en-
tire originality in the views then presented by him. Allow me
to add, that the coincidence above referred to, is not without —
value for its bearings on the question raised by Mr. Dana, be- —
tween whom and myself the similarity of expression is far less
Striking than this, which was assuredly the result of mere ac-
cident. Spies }
- Respectfully, your obedient servant,

Josern P. Cournovy,
Sng Late Mem. Scien. Corps U.S. Expl. Exped.
341 Broadway, New York, August 28, 1843.

390 Experiments with Grove's Battery.

Arr. XVI.—Experiments made with one hundred pairs of
Grove’s Battery, passing through one hundred and sixty miles
of insulated wire ;—in a letter from Prof. S. F. B. Morss, to
the Editors, dated New York, Sept. 4th, 1843.

_ Dear Sirs,—On the 8th of August having completed my pre-
parations of one hundred and sixty miles of copper wire for the
wenn telegraph which I am constructing for the gov-
ernment, I invited several scientific friends to witness some ex-
periments in verification of the law of Lenz, of the action of

galvanic electricity through wires of great lengths.

I put in action a cup battery of one hundred pairs, which I had
constructed, based on the excellent plan of Prof. Grove, but with
some SicdiGinctions of my own, economizing the platinum.

The wire was reeled upon eighty reels, containing two miles
upon each reel, so that any length from two to one hundred and
sixty miles could be made at pleasure to constitute the circuit.»

My first trial of the battery was through the entire length of
one hundred and sixty miles, making of course a circuit of eighty
miles, and the magnetism induced in my electro-magnet, which
formed a part of the-cirenit, was sufficient to move with great
strength my telegraphic. lever. Even forty-eight ane pradenet
action in the lever, but not so. promptly or surely. —

We then commenced a series of experiments upon decompile
tion at various distances. The battery alone (one hundred pairs)
gave in the measuring guage in one minnte, 5.20 inches of gas.
When four miles of wire were interposed, the result was 1.20
inches—ten miles of wire, .57 inch—twenty miles, 30 etl
fifty miles, .094.

The results obtained from a battery of one hundred prs oid
weenie in the following curve.

E'xperiments with Grove’s Battery. 391

SOeDInws

Table constructed from the Curve.

; Inches.
4 Batteryalone = = = = 5.20
20 | Onewmile /+) es = wees 885
Two miles oS eS Baee omy ROR
Three * r nm ie - 1.Bhes
Four. ‘i « sen Se ELSE
Five “ ‘ - ~ - 105°
— Six * a) “a - 92
30. Seven “ “ ” . - .80
f Hight * - - “ melt
i Nine a % - - 64
; Pets." . i" ” - 57
} Twenty “ * - i 4s 7D
of, Thirty “ ay ee Pea BO
re orty «* - gat ae ee C4
Fifty. “ etna 098

i a
During the previous summer I made the following experiments
upon a line of thirty-three miles, of number 17 copper wire, with
a battery of fifty pairs. In this case, I — * = -stagap eee
with weights, with which I was enabled to weigh with a good
degree of accuracy the greater magnetic ee ee”
yet sufficiently approximating the recent ee °°. ciemee e
w in question. sie aca

’

392 Experiments with Grove’s Battery.

Table of Results.
uy pairs oe 2 _ ve and — 9 =
A 4
oc tc 6 “ec ce 14 3 “
“c a4 8 te c ce 24 cc
6c te 10 74 6c 74 24 “

ait each successive addition of two miles up to thirty-three, still
eave an attractive and lifting power of one-eighth of an ounce.

Curve ee e a:

Og PN Sed ee 8 9
i al. su | i. | 1 te ra By i fe 4 t ‘ Ps ia 2 i | i ‘ 1 | 1 | 1 a
& os -F tt Ses hee Sahat face. d L
2 NR OS :
d

A great irregularity is seen between
the 10th and 12th mile, which is due
undoubtedly to a deficiency of accura-
20 cy in the weighing apparatus. Os
99 I take pleasure in sending you the
on following calculation of the law of the
s conducting power of wires, for which

. I am indebted to my friend Prof. Dra-
_— * per, of the New York City University.
1 a r
32
33

On ihdiniul the weeding ane alus as te towe Dae
ona, M. D., &e.dcen.

It has often been objected, thar if the conducting power of
wires for electricity was inversely as their length, and directly aS
as their section, the transmission of telegraphic signals through

Experiments with Grove’s Battery. — 393

long wires, could not be carried into effect, and even the galvanic
multiplier, which consists essentially of a wire making several
convolutions round a needle, could have no existence.

This last objection was first brought forward by Prof. Ritchie,
of the University of London, as an absolute proof that the law
referred to is incorrect. There is, however, an exceedingly sim-
ple method of proving that signals may be despatched through
very long wires, and that the galvanic multiplier, so far from
controverting the law in question, depends for its very existence.

it.
~ Assuming the truth of the law of Lenz, the quantities of elec-
tricity which can be urged by a constant electromotoric source
through a series of wires, the lengths of which constitute an
arithmetical ratio, will always be in a geometrical ratio. Now
the curve whose ordinates and abscissas bear this relation to each
other is the logarithmic curve whose equation is a¥=z.

Ist. If we suppose the base of the system which the curve
under discussion represents be greater than unity, the values of
y taken between e=0 and #= 1, must be all negative.

2nd. By taking y=0 we find that the curve will intersect the
axis of the 2’s at a distance from the origin equal to unity.

3rd. By making c=0 we find y to be infinite and negative.

Now these are the properties of the logarithmic curve which
furnish an explanation of the case in hand. Assuming that the
2’s represent the quantities of electricity; and the y’s the lengths
of the wires, we perceive at once that those parts of the curve
which we have to consider lie wholly in the fourth quadrant,
where the abscissas are positive and the ordinates negative.

When, therefore, the battery current passes without the inter-
vention of any obstructing wire, its value is equal to unity.

But as successive lengths of wire are continually added, the
quantities of electricity passing, undergo a diminution at first
rapid and then more and more slow. And it is not until the wire
becomes infinitely long that it ceases to conduct at all; for the
ordinate snag when z==0, is an asymptote to the eect :

In point of practice, therefore, when a certain limit is reached
the diminution of the intensity of the forces becomes very small,
whilst the increase in the lengths of the wire is vastly great. Tt
is, therefore, possible to conceive a wire to be a million times as
long as another, and yet the two shall transmit quantities of elec-

Vol. XLY, No. 2,—July-Sept. 1843. 50 5

394 Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops.

tricity not perceptibly different, when measured by a delicate
galvanometer. ns nu

But under these circumstances if the long wire be coiled so as
to act as a multiplier, its influence on the needle will be inexpres-
sibly greater than the one so much shorter than it.

Further, from this we gather that for telegraphic despatches,
with a battery of given electromotoric power, when a certain
distance is reached the diminution of effect for an increased dis-
tance becomes inappreciable, b

Ant. XVII.—On the Fossil Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of
» Rain-drops in the Valley of the Connecticut; by Cuartzs LyzuL,
% Esq., Ni P, G.S* se yay: hte ARE EA EES % : Fo
_ Tue deposit in which these impressions, long known on account of
the researches of Prof. Hitchcock, occur, is situated in a trough of hy-
pogene rocks, about five miles broad, the strata, which consist of sand-
stone, shale and conglomerate, dipping uniformly to the east at angles
that vary from 5° to 30°. Mr. Lyell first examined the red sandstone
at Rocky Hill, three miles south of Hartford, in Connecticut, where it
is associated with red shale and capped by twenty feet of greenstone.
Many of the beds are*tippled, and cracks in the shale are filled by the
materials of the superincumbent sandy layer, showing, the author ob-
serves, a drying and shrinking of the mud while the accumulation of
the strata was in progress. The next quarries he examined were at
Newark, in New Jersey, about ten miles west from New York city.
The excavations are extensive, and the strata dip, as is usual in New
Jersey, to the northwest, or in an opposite direction to the inclination
in the valley of Connecticut, a ridge of hypogene rocks intervening.
The angle is about 35° near Newark. The beds exhibited ripple-marks
and casts of cracks, also impressions of rain-drops on the upper surface
of the fine red shales. Mr. Lyell states, that he felt some hesitation
respecting the impressions first assigned to the action of rain by Mr.
Cunningham of Liverpool, but he is now convinced of the justness of
the inference, having observed similar markings produced on very soft
mud by rain at Brooklyn, in Long Island, N.Y. On the same mud
were the foot-prints of fowls, some of which had been made before the
rain and some after it. ee

of Communicated to the Geological Society of London, and extréciad from Vol.
i, No. °1, of their Proceedings. We had not seen this abstract of Mr. Lyell’s
paper when the article on the Ornithichnites appeared in our last number, or We
should have united it with the other matter of that paper—Eds.

Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops. 395

~ Mr. Lyell next visited the red and green shales of Cabotville, north
of Springfield in Massachusetts, where some of the best Ornithichnites
have been procured, chiefly in the green shale. ‘The dip of the beds is
20° to the east, a higher inclination, the author says, than could have
belonged to a sea-beach. He observed in the same quarries ripples
marks as well as casts of cracks, and he was informed that the impres-
sions of rain-drops have likewise been found. — ll
~ In company with Prof. Hitchcock, Mr. Lyell afterwards examined a
natural section near Smith’s Ferry, on the right bank of the Connecti-
cut, about eleven miles north of Springfield. The rock consists of thin-
bedded sandstone with red-colored shale. Some of the flags are dis-
tinctly ripple-marked, and the dip of the layers on which the Ornithich-
nites are imprinted, in great abundance, varies from eleven to fifteen
degrees. Many superimposed ‘beds must have been successively trod-
den upon, as different sets of tracks are traced through a thickness of
sandstone exceeding ten feet; and Prof. Hitchcock pointed out to the
author that some of the beds exposed several yards farther down the
river, and containing Ornithichnites, would, if prolonged, pass under
those of the principal locality, and make the entire thickness through-
out which the impressions prevail, at intervals, perhaps twenty or thirty
feet. Mr. Lyell, therefore, conceives that a continued subsidence of
the ground took place during the deposition of the layers on which the
birds walked. é cid
It has been suggested, but the opinion has not been adopted by Prof.
Hitchcock, that the eastward slope of the beds represents that of the
riginal beach. With a view to this question, Mr. Lyell examined the
direction of the ripple-marks, and found that it agreed with the dip, or
was at right angles to the supposed line of beach; but he adds, though
this agreement presents a formidable objection to the suggestion above
alluded to, if the ripples were produced by waves, yet It does not dis-
prove the opinion, as the ripples do not exceed in dimensions those
which are produced by sand blown over a muddy beach, and often dis-
tributed at right angles to the coast-line. Instances of this effect of the
wind Mr. Lyell has remarked along the shores of Massachusetts. Nev-
ertheless he is of opinion that the rippled layer of sandstone im question
contains too much clay to have resulted from blown sand, and he is dis-
posed to think that in most of these localities the strata have been tilted,
instances of such disturbance having been pointed out to him by Prof.
Hitchcock in the state of Massachusetts, and by Dr. Percival near New
Haven, in Connecticut. In reference to this subject, he says, that a
few miles fori Smith’s Ferry, a conglomerate, several hundred feet
thick, containing angular and rounded fragments of trap and red sand-
stone, the base being sometimes a vesicular trap and trap tuff, passes.

396 Foot-prints of Birds and Impressions of Rain-drops.

upwards into the very flags on which Ornithichnites occur; and from
this he infers, that there were eruptions of trap, accompanied by up-
heaval and partial denudation, during the deposition of the red sandstone.

With respect to the impressions having been made by birds, Mr. Ly-
ell states, that until he examined the whole of the evidence he enter-
tained some scepticism, notwithstanding the luminous account given by
Prof. Hitchcock. In proof of their being the foot-prints of some crea-
ture walking on mud or sand, he mentions, Ist, the fact of Prof. Hitch-
cock’s having seen two thousand impressions, all, like those he had
himself examined, indented in the upper surface of the layer, the casts
in relief being always on the lower surface ; and 2dly, that where there
is a single line of impressions, the marks are uniform in size, and near-
ly uniform in distance from each other, the toes in the successive steps,
turning alternately right and left. Such single lines, Mr. Lyell says,
indicate that the animal was a biped, and the trifid marks resemble those
which a bird leaves, there being generally a deviation from a straight
line in any three successive prints ; and his attention having been call-
ed to indications of joints in the different toes, he afterwards clearly re-
cognized similar markings in the recent steps of coots and other birds

m the sands of the shores of Massachusetts. Prof. Hitchcock has
shown, that the same impression extends through several lamin, de-
ereasing in distinctness in proportion as the layer recedes from that in
which it is most strongly marked, or in proportion as the sediment fill
ed up the hollows and restored the surface to a level; and Mr. Lyell
States, that he has observed a great number of instances of this fact. —
He also says, that he can searcely doubt that some of the impres-
sions on the red sandstone of Connecticut are not referable to birds,
but he believes that the gigantic ones described by Prof. Hitchcock are
Ornithichnites. At Smith’s Ferry they are so numerous that a bed of
shale many yards square is trodden into a most irregular and jagged
surface, so that there is not a trace of a distinct footsteps but on with-
drawing from this area to spots where the same tracks are fewer, the
observer, Mr. Lyell says, is forced to admit that the effect in each case
has been produced by this cause, 5 dus oe 8
On examining the shores on some small islands about fifteen miles
southeast from Savannah, the author was struck with the number as.
well as the clearness of the tracks of raccoons and. opossums imprinted
in the mud during the four preceding hours, or after the tide had begun
toebb. Atone spot, where the raceoons had been attracted by the oys-
ters, the impressions were as confused as when a flock of sheep has
passed over a muddy road; and in consequence of a gentle breeze
blowing parallel to the line of cliffs composed of quartzose sand, the

tacks had in many places already become half filled with blown sand,

Bibliography. 397
and in others were entirely obliterated ; so that if the coast should sub-
side, the consolidation of this sand would afford casts analogous to those
of Storeton Hill in Cheshire, yet the impressions had been made and
filled in a few hours.

When considering the broad question whether the fossil foot-prints
were made by creatures walking on mud or sand after the ebbing of
the tide, Mr. Lyell reminds his readers of the fact that in the United
States, as in Saxony and Cheshire, the tracks in sandstone and shale
are accompanied by littoral appearances, as ripple-marks, the casts of
cracks in the clay, and often by the marks of rain. Ayiies

In regard to the age of the red sandstone of the valley of the Con-
necticut and New Jersey, the author states he has nothing to add to ©
what had been previously advanced, by which its position had been
shown to be between the carboniferous and cretaceous series. In the
neighborhood of Durham, Connecticut, he had collected in the sand-
stone, fishes of the genera Palzeoniscus and Catopterus, but no other or-
ganic remains, except fossil wood.

In conclusion, Mr. Lyell remarks, Ist, that the Ornithichnites of Con-

necticut should teach extreme caution in inferring the non-existence of
land animals from the absence of their remains in contemporancous ma-
rine strata; 2dly, that when this red sandstone of Connecticut was de-
posited, there was land in the immediate vicinity of the places where
the Ornithichnites occur; and that but for them it might naturally be
inferred that the nearest land was several miles distant, namely, that of
the hypogene rocks which bound the basin of the Connecticut. Now,
the land that caused the sea-beach, Mr. Lyell says, must have been
formed of the same sandstone which was then in the act of accumula-
ting, in the same manner as where deltas are advancing upon the sea.
_ Ina postscript, Mr. Lyell states, that subsequently to writing the pa-
per, he had read the luminous report of Mr. Vanuxem* on the Ornithich-
nites described by Prof. Hitchcock, and though it agrees In substance
with his own account in some particulars, yet that he has left his notice
as it stood. , ‘ '

aes ee

Arr, XVIUL—Bibliographical Notices.
wa Zoology of New York, or the New York Fauna, comprising de-

tailed descriptions of all the Animals hitherto observed within the State
of New York, with brief notices of those occasionally found near its
borders, and accompanied by appropriate éllustrations ; by James E.

De Kay. Part I, Mammalia. pp. 146, 4to, plates—The mammiferous
: war wT Ree :

+ See this Journal, Vol. x11, p. 165.

398 Bibliography.

animals found within the limits of the state of New York, as well as
of the other eastern and middle states, had been already, for the most
part, described previous to the commencement of the survey of which
the present volume forms the first of a series of reports, published un-
der the direction and at the expense of the state government. Many
of the descriptions were drawn up by foreign naturalists, and in conse-
quence of having been frequently made from stuffed skins and the in-
correct information of travelers, were oftentimes erroneous. Within
a few years, our own naturalists have turned their attention to the sub-
ject, and although but comparatively few additions have been made to
the number of species, yet our knowledge is based upon a much more
certain foundation. In the present work, the whole subject as regards
the Mammalia has been gone over anew, the descriptions re-examined
or rewritten, and such information added as the author, from his extend
-ed observations and long familiarity with the subject, was enabled to do.
A copious synonymy has been made out, and many interesting obser-
vations brought together on the habits and geographical distribution of
the different species. wera
The state of New York covers a large tract of territory, extending
over eight degrees of longitude, and from 40° 30’ to 45° north latitude,
and having an area of about 46,000 square miles. Of Mammalia in-
habiting the State and indigenous to it, there are, according to Dr. De
Kay, about seventy-four species, belonging te the following orders and
natural families : hia fies oeetix ¢ am
Order Marsurtata.—Didelphide, 1 species. it

Order Carnivora.—Vespertilionide, 5 species; Sorecide, 8; Ursi-
de, 3; Mustelide, 7; Lutride, 1; Canide,4; Felide, 3; Phocide, 2-
Total, 33. ieee j

Order Ropent1a.—Sciuride, 6; Arctomide, 1; Gerbillide, 1; Cas-
toride, 2; Hystricide, 1; Muride, 11; Leporide, 2. Total, 24.

Order Uneviata.—Elephantide, (fossil,) 3; Cervide:, 5. Total, 8.

Order Ceracea.—Balenide, 4; Delphinide, 4. Total, 8.
As regards the geographical distribution, the following instances are
interesting, as showing the great extent of territory over which some of
the species inhabiting the State are found. The Vespertilio Noveboracen-
sis is found throughout the territory lying between Massachusetts and
the Rocky Mountains, and between the twenty-third and forty-second pat-
allels of north latitude. Vespertilio pruinosus, Say, is found in nearly
every state of the Union, on the Columbia River, and as far north as
the fifty-third degree, Scalops aquaticus, or shrew mole, extends from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Carolina to 50° north latitude.
The Procyon lotor, or raccoon, is found throughout nearly the whole of
North America, its highest range as yet known being 60° north. Me-

Bibliography. 399

phitis Americana, or skunk, is found in both Americas, extending from
the frozen regions of the northern, to Chili and Paraguay in the south-
ern hemisphere. Lutra Canadensis and Braziliensis, which Dr. De Kay
regards as identical species, there being no essential differences, extends
over the immense tract of country lying between the Arctic seas and
Brazil. ree i
The number of extinct mammifers whose remains haye as yet been
discovered within the limits of the state, is very small, and even these
have been detected more abundantly elsewhere. The fossil elephant,
E. primigenius, has been found in one locality only. The remains of
the Mastodon giganteum, Cuvier, have been detected in several locali-
ties; but since they haye not as yet been detected in Massachusetts or
other eastern states, excepting ‘Connecticut, New York may be regard-
ed as enclosing a portion of the eastern limit.
The only other fossil mammiferous remains indicated by Dr. De Kay,
are those of the fossil stag, Elaphus Americanus, which haye not been
detected except in one or two instances. J. W.

2. Monographies D’ Echinodermes Vivans et Fossiles; par Louis

including what has been for the most part overlooked by previous nat-

and Dysasters, by Desor; and the fourth, the anatomy of the Echini,
by G. Valentin. Of the Scutella there are described thirtecn gentrs
and seventy-four species, illustrated by twenty-five quarto plates, inclu-

400 Bibliography.

ding several hundred figures. These descriptions are preceded by a
notice of the external and internal organization, mode of growth, rela-
tions to other Clypeastroides, and their geological position and distribu-
tion. On comparing the fossil and existing species, well marked diffe-
rences have been found to exist, and of the genera Mellita, Rotula and
Encope, all the species belong to the actual epoch. It is also interest-
ing to notice the fact, that among the Scutella, as well as some of the
other Echinodermata, the species beome larger and larger as we ap~
proach the present period, precisely the reverse of what is true with
regard to some of the Vertebrata, Mollusca, &c. 4
- Previous to the labors of Valentin, Tiedemann, Meckel and Delle
Chiaje had already investigated the general anatomy of the Echini,
but the microscopical examinations of the former into the minute struc-
ture 6f the different organs, are almost entirely new. In many of the
soft parts, such as the ambulacral tubes, buccal membrane, external
branchise, &c. Valentin has discovered small caleareous bodies, assu-
ming various shapes, resembling somewhat the spicula described by
many recent microscopists, as existing in the Sponges, Alcyonias, Acti-
nias, &c.* “ Why,” asks M. Valentin, ‘may not these minute parts
bé preserved in a fossil state, as well as the shell, the lantern, the teeth,
and other organs? Tam convinced that the microscopic paleontology
of the Echinodermata will become a vast field for research.” The gen-
eral organization of the shell, its microscopic structure, its mechanism,
its appendages, and mode of increase, are all treated of in full detail,
as are also the digestive, respiratory, circulating, nervous, and genera-
tive systems. Scarcely any thing is as yet known with regard to the
mode of copulation, although the duality of the sexes has long ‘since
been determined. Nearly every thing relating to the embryology of
the Echini, yet remains a desideratum. oee

The series of monographs of which those just noticed form a part,
constitute one of the most important additions which have been made
to modern zoology, no less in consequence of the completeness of the
plan upon which they have been conceived, than the fidelity with which
they have been executed. ee Hea OW.

eo ae eet ee

ae uf ‘
onening and d
Bing, tect

chs

no mention i made of ‘its contents, situated at the extremity of the appendage,
1 . il 5 a Dates iter : ty

wg eee Sack Nig Bib’ * we :
ree ER ae a a fa ye ip a wepciyeag > : F :
a < Sa i Se ye Se wt is 1 bein oe * a. bet

oe ete kD eet tars ee pe ee oS

Saar ee eae es ee ee Ee ee ee ee ee Vea |

Miscellanies. AOL

- 3. Description of New Fresh-water and Land Shells; by Isaac
Lea.*—In the: present paper Mr. Lea describes fifty four species of
Unio, two of Margaritana, nine of Anadonta, one of Caracolla, one of
Cyclostoma, and sixty of Melania, in all one hundred and twenty seven
new species of land and fresh-water shells, described and figured by this
indefatigable naturalist since the appearance of his last extended me-
moir on this subject, on the appearance of which it was supposed that
this prolific subject was exhausted ; as least so far, as that few new
species of Naiades were to be looked for hereafter, and that future re-
searches must bear mainly to the investigation of the anatomy and
habits of the species already described. Some valuable light is thrown
on this department of the subject in the present memoir, by the obser-
vations of Mr. Thomas G. Lea of Cincinnati, brother to our author,
carried on during the years 1838, °9, and °40, on some of the species
in the Ohio River, particularly in reference to the times of their partu-
rition, which he finds to differ very much in the different species. Mr.

Lea has tabulated his observations made on at least twenty five different
species during rms of the four years, but it will require careful and
long extended obser vati ns to arrive at valuable results.

4. Graham’s Chieniniry. +—Prof. Glonen! s ocak is one of the best, if
not the best, of all English text-books, on the difficult science of chem-
istry, and is of such recent date as to embrace the latest discoveries.
The appearance of a correct and amended American edition under the
care of Dr. Bridges, will prove an wins thing to both teachers
and students of chemistry in this eee

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1, Fossil Fruits described by Dr. Gideon Algernon Mantell. —Dr.
Mantell has recently read to the Geological Society of London, a
memoir on three undescribed fossil fruits, from the chalk formation
in the southeast of England.

(1.) Zamia Sussexiensis—a cone peony to a plant allied to the
Zamia, and found associated with J at Selmestown in Sus-

* * etance of the Americah Philosophical Coctoty held at Philadelphia for
promoting useful knowled , Vol. VII, n ew series, Part If, 1842. 250), 4to.
"including the applications of the science to the arts,
Foils illustrations; by Taos. Granam, F.R. 8. Lond. & Ed., Professor
lege, London, &c. &e. With notes and edditions,; by
Rozerr Bringes, M. D. Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, 1843. pp. 749, Svo.

Vol. xiv, No, 2.—July-Sept. 1843. 51

402 Miscellanies.

sex, in the bed described in Dr. Mantell’s Fossils of the South Downs ;
this fruit is 55 inches long.

(2.) Abies Benstedi—a fir cone found with coniferous wood in the
Iguanodon quarry near Maidstone, and described in Dr. Mantell’s me-
moir on the Molluskite, (see page 243 of the present volume.) — This
fossil contains numerous seeds in a fine state of preservation.

(3.) Carpolithes Smithie—a most remarkable fruit; it is the same
that i is described in Dr. Mantell’s Fossils of the South Downs, from the
white chalk near Lewes, as resembling a compressed nut of Areca.
It was evidently a spurious compound berry, like the mulberry, the
seeds imbedded in a pulpy substance. It was found by Mr. Smith, of
Tunbridge Wells, in the white chalk of Kent.—(Letter from Dr. Man-
tell to the senior: — — Seen — near London, March
30, —

O lcanlie: ois rinks iors = res of Eremite and Mona-
zite, appears to indicate that these species are identical. They agree

also in hardness, color, and lustre; the discrepancy i in specific gravity
may arise from imperfect determination, as error is scarcely avoidable
in crystals so minute. The following are a few of the angles of Ere-
‘mite. (See Am. Foun, Vol. picaana p. 71.)

mirage . ‘ Eremite.

M : e=136° 35’, M:é=140° 40’, M: ieee 8’, P:e=131° 52".
For the corresponding inclinations, Monazite gives Am. Jour. xxx,
p. 203) 136° 30’ (€:M), 140° 10’ (6:4), 126° 25/ (€:&), 131° 22’
(é:a). Ina late article on the foreign Monazite by Delvoiseaux, in
the Annales des Mines, t. 11, 1842, p. 362, these angles are given as
follows: 136° 30’, 141° 5’, 126°, 131°. By calculation, M:T in
‘Eremite' gave the writer, 103° 46’, and in Monazité, 103° 42’. A spe-
“cimen of Eremite in the hands of Mr. Thomas Dutton, shows a cleavage
similar to that of Monazite. When first described, only three or four
erage egress te somarge: mma was de-

G2 Bs pat

Miscellanies. 403

8. Meeting of the British Association at Dublin.—This meeting
of the Association was held during the month of August. It was a
small meeting,—we do not learn that any thing very important came
before it, and we are informed that party politics interfered somewhat
with its success. One fact of great interest was announced. An w
right trunk of /a large Sigillaria has been discovered in the coal-field
near Liverpool, with roots eight or nine feet long, spreading in every
direction and with the radicles radiating from the main roots, and these
roots and radicles are the Stigmaria ficoides and its leaves. This dis-
covery must modify some existing theories on coal.* :

. 4, Animal of the Belemnite-—Lord Northampton has recently ob-
tained from the oolite of Chippenham, (Eng.) a specimen of a Belem-
nite with the impression of the soft paris of the animal on the sur-
rounding clay! Even the little hooks with which the creature was
furnished remain! Dr. Buckland’s figure from D’Orbigny must there-
fore be modified; Prof, Owen, in the admirable volume of lectures on
the Invertebrata, (the Hunterian lectures for this year, just published,)
has given a restored outline of the animal of the Belemnite, and which
must be correct.—(Extract from a letter to Prof. Silliman from Dr.
Mantell, dated Aug. 28th.) é;

5. Meteoric Epoch of August.—In consequence of cloudy weather at
this place for several days about the 10th of August, 1843, it was im-
practicable here to determine whether the meteoric sprinkle of August
recurred the present year. ieee Es ft

6. Death of Mr. Bakewell.—Robert Bakewell, Esq. died at his
residence at Hampstead, near London, on the 15th of August, at the
age of 75. He had long been an invalid, and his death was the result
of gradual decline, rather than acute disease. Mr. Bakewell was one
of the oldest of the present school of English geologists, and was the
author of the first good treatise on geology in the English language,
which went through five editions in England and three in this country,
before the author’s death; and it still holds a place among the best
elementary works on the subject. Mr. Bakewell also published in 1823
two interesting and valuable volumes of travels among the Alps in
Switzerland. : a ele Boe Ay
_ Mr. Bakewell’s mind was distinguished for vigor, acuteness, and in-
dependence ; his Geology was indeed much in advance of the science
‘at the time he wrote, but his sagacious views have been fully confirm-
ed. In the abso an epistolary correspondence of many years, we

* We hope to begin our usual abstract in our next number.

404 Miscellanies.

have found his letters rich in thought, and vivid and attractive in style,
while a warm and true philanthropy imparted a living moral interest to
his epistles.

A great degree of modest retirement characterized Mr. Bakewell’s
intercourse with society, and he carried it to such an extent as rarely
to visit the sessions of any of the scientific bodies in London. This
may serve to explain the fact that his treatise on geology was at first
received with more favor in — country than in England. .

7. Death of Prof. Hall. -_ Profoutie F. Hall, whose name has often
appeared in our pages as a contributor of valuable matter, died du-
ring a journey at the west, in the month of August last. We have
no information of the exact time of his death, nor his age, which how-
ever was not far from sixty. Prof. Hall was a zealous cultivator of
mineralogy ; he collected a large and valuable cabinet, which a few
years since he generously gave to Dartmouth College, at Hanover,
N. H., and at the same time he placed the chair of mineralogy in that
institution on a permanent foundation, by the contribution of five thou-
sand dollars in money.

“8, Death of Mr. J. N. Nicollet.—It is also our painful task to re-
cord the decease of Mr. Nicollet, who died at Washington, D. C., on
Monday morning, the 11th of September, a little after six o’clock, aged
it is supposed about forty eight. Mr. Nicollet’s labors in the depart-
ments of physical astronomy and geography are well known. He was
the favorite pupil and friend of La Place; and the frequent occur-
rence of his name in the Mécanique Celeste, shows in what estimation
he was held by his teacher.

Mr. Nicollet came to this country about ten years since, and has
been engaged principally in carrying out a survey—geographical, topo-
graphical, astronomical, and geological—of the vast region embrac
by the sources of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.

His map of this important labor was completed before his death, and
was shown by him at the Association of American Geologists in April
last, at Albany, and referred to in explanation of an interesting paper
on the geology of the region in question, an abstract of which is con-
tained in their proceedings, in the present volume of this Journal.

Mr. Nicollet also devoted much effort to the collection and preserva-
~ tion of the various Indian dialects, and in fact every thing which could
illustrate the history of this interesting race. It is said his collections
of MS. notes on this subject are quite voluminons.

All who had the pleasure of knowing him, and enjoying his fine
social and moral qualities, will hear of his premature loss with deep

INDEX TO V

OLUME XLV.

A.
Raverbiel enitive case in English, 96

mes, 399.

ig EES d’Echinoder-

Nomenclator_ Zoologicus no-

ced, 11.
ost Picken a new plant,
xa
rome
Alexander, 5, "letter on t

1843,

Pomc: n Geologists and Naturalists

eege water Fishes of Central

42...
on a new forat of ba-

he comet of

Blind fish, description of, 94,
9g, | Botanical collections,
Bra ,on a vibrating dam, 372.
Br rail Endlicher and Martius’ Flora of,
\Bri ih “Asapatativa, meeting of at Dub-
|Buckley, 8. B., on new species of plants,
AEM.
Cc.
awe differential, first principles of,

Caloric theory of winds objected to, 303.
ns

proceedings of, 135, 310 mbridge observatory,
e Transactions. , ampenale rotundifolia, 27.

American Philosophical Society, hun- Carhoute acid, disengagement of by the
dredth anniversary of, 231. _ roots of plants,

Aa e salts, e existence of radicals in| Carex Careliniana, a new ples: 173.
disprove ts re species,

Pies 5, metamorphosis is of, 335. stylo pon Sa ls acias, 12.
ndromeda m pate a’ new plant, 172. Carices, Tucker s Enumeration of,

pecies,

a 172.
Angelica Conia a new ks :
Antediluvian climate,

temperatures 147.
Apoerenic acid, aglges
Arum polymorphum, a
spidiam ss gies

f, 338.
mabe fd 173.

Bailey, J. W., on pee in the tissu
of oatyledonons pies 149.

opic fossils from

é inhaaaat siredlia o! oF Vingin ia 313.

, Robert, decease , 403.

new form of,
H.C.,

he en ‘antediluvian climate, 144. (
nic}
New York limestones

"on bituminous or OF
jmattel, ‘in the

and san

neous action 1
n the influence of pressure
aglty § e Tawi 49,
Bek Sinaia ni ;
Bibliographical rosie, 2 211, , 397.
She arénote; BS,
gah
Birds, fossil foot. -prints
iattiaces ‘or organic
York limestones an

‘of, 316,

d sandstone

nts! ‘of, 295.
ig currents of, 302. Chro

letter on ‘the comet

in phenomena: of ig-
Riv

; ceoiene z

"Logarithms,

304.
matter in the New
8, 330.

er jie table of tides in Lake Michi-
Ceraurue " erosotus, supplementary no-

Cetraria Tuckermanii 48.

‘Chauvenet’s Binomial Theory and Log-
elt 2
,, errors of, 83.
sins ante, 144.
‘oal n of Nova Scotia, 356.

io Neve Beatin, fossil trees

\
Colors ae for geological classifica-
ies

tion
Comet, great of 1843, 188, 229.
ond, of 1843

‘ 930).
Co ompensation ‘balance, new construction
Corel islands gt Ma 4 areas of subsi-
n the Pacifi
* tiatribution i
y; ee a se to he accusations
of Mr
crsen-rmed fe kes of trap, 334.
wes ormation of the Missouri
the rocks of New York, 349.
rrents a the Atlantic
the Southern and Pacific

olar, geological agencies of,

prevailing, of the atmosphere,

406

Cuscuta hispidula, a new species, 75.
neuropetala, 75.
Cuscutinee, North American, mono-
graphy of,

Dams, vibrating, 363.
na, J. D., charges against Mr. Cou-
thouy 130, 145.
Mr. Couthouy het
notice of ce Sprage 2.
s on analogies between the
modern igneous rocks and the primary
formations, 104.

on n the
; Mpcific, as ssdiosaa og me talende
on the Sag tacborytinees of the

Anatifa, cage
; rature limitin
the ienibdeed of rcomeda tao £
Orni tern of t

York noticed, 275.
Zool

Dent, E. J., on the errors of chrondme-

ters, and the compensation balance, 83.

Dicotyledonous pl plants, crystals in their

tissues,
Diervilla se: ssilifolia, a new plant, 174.
Differential calculus, first principles of,

Dinornis of New Zealand, remains of,
186.

of icebergs u
phenomena of, 320,

Earth ca oan tart theory of, 341.

eedaties a, Agas ssiz’s monographs
or,

Electro-may netic telegraph, ex eriments
with, 390° graph, exp

Elevations in Ohio.

Endlicher

sis,

Engelmann, G., on North American Cus-
cutine
Fiesiie « wat Monazite identical, 402,

, &e., 12.
and Martins’ Flora Brasilien-

INDEX,

Fossil trees in the coal strata of Nova

Scotia
Fossils, geographical distribution of, 157.
microse: e infusorial

stratum
Fruits, fossil, dice undeseibed, 401.
, 220.

Fulgurites, notice of

G.
ie R. H., on Meri dams, 371.
Genitive case, adverbial, in English, 96.

iteatoeicnt oe and symbols, system
of, 351.

ings and ree een 136.

Geologists | snd Naturalists

ae:

verbial genitive
case in nglis
on. Greek verbal roots in

English,
4 Glacial ‘theory, | ures upon, 324
Gould, A. A.,

n the. nomenclature of

Y
orphie > 108.
ay, A. bibliographical notes, 214.
cal collections, 225.

Greek verbal root in English, 284.

Grove? s battery, experiments with, 390.
Gypsiferous Rbaaton of Nova Scotia,

457,

Hall, Prof. F., death of, —
'|}Hall, J., on diluvial pheno a, 329.
on the oa dea of | the rocks of

New ay
aioe distribution
of fossils in eit older rocks of the Uni- .
ted oe 157.
n the strata and arift of Lake
Erie,
on bs lines and casts of mud

radi al he Gaphide salts, ey 247.
Harlan, R., remarks o f. ’s let-
ter on new fossil mammalia in. Vol.

_&LIV, 208.
Hayden, C. B., on the ice mountain of
ounty, Virgin ia, 78.

n the influence of ice-
i A317.

n the great comet of
meteoric observations,
April, 20, 1843,
Hite cock, E., on the glacial theory of
iz, 324.

vibrating dams, 370.
m, 368.

Holco cai: A, was Vhts ting dam
. || Hooker’s Icones Plantarum noti ced, 214.
y ud pa a new plant, 174.

INDEX,

Icebergs, influence upon drift, 317.
Ice mountain of Hampshire County, Vir-

inia,
Igneous action, phenomena of, 143.
and pr Loom formations,
nalogies betwelin
Tafeoral stratum of Virginia, limits of,

Todine i in phanerogamic plants and moss-
€s, 227.
Tris Duerinckii, a new plant, 176.

er sae. on the organic. matters} *

on the phenomena 0

drift, 320. .
Juncus Greenei, a new plant, 37.
Justicia ce a new plant, 176.

sig rod 8
Méser,

Rosde, E. O., on the om comet 0
1843, 188.

ssperimeni on the images 0

ee analos eo their tee
" with thos
‘ tints Seal wuter an
land shells noticed, 401.
Lepidanche adpress species, 77.
Lepidostei, eiatsohic structure of their
ae

alogy with those of th

Labyrinthodonts, 361.

ime, carbonate of, in calcareous sub-

_ stane so
pho sphate of, in the Virginia me-

teoric stone, 1

— density of, influenced by pres-

49.

Socket 3 s supplemeata? notice of the
— raurus ¢
mis, ‘ig % ~ibrali ce 3, 363.
Lye, C., on fossil trees in the coal strata
of ova Wty
e coal and coo for-
mations 0 Nova §
ont re Foosil “foot: ‘prints i“ birds
d impressions of rain n the
yallay of the Caknebtient,

Malva eee a new plant, 176.

Mammalia, ossil, ag hee 's re-
‘marks o 5, 208,

oe e A,, letter of Dr. Deane

407
hcine and Endlicher’s Flora Brasilien-
Metamorph changes produced by heat,

och of August, 403.
rvations, April 20, 1843,

Meteotie o e
lim

Minwoari, Sonat region of, 340.
River, cretaceous formation of,

ef one of Virginia, phosphate of

153.
Molluskite, Dr. Mantell’s ee of, 243,
Monazite ore! bet ere e, 402,
orse, 8S. F. B en vi elec-
tro-magnetic ‘alee raph,
ms images, arsten’s espe
Mud "furrows, casts teil
Murchison, : Sa
and Dinornis, jez

aif “Ouniitichattes

Nicollet, J. N., on the preteetaes forma-
tion of the Missouri River, 1

e glacial theory of

Agassiz, 323.

Missoari, 340.

obitu:
Nitrogen

on the mineral region of

ary of, 404
nic compounds, "267.
aba la of zoology, 1
Nova haps coal and gypsiferous for-

” fossil trees in the coal stra-
ta of, 353.

Obituary of Robert eva Bi Esq. ., 403.
of Prof. F. Hall, 404.

of J.N. Nicollet , Esq., 404.
\ omnithichaites of the Connecticut River

Osborn, M. WwW. and N.S., on a vibrating
dam,
wen, D. ma on fossil palm trees in In-
diana,
on geological paintings and
illustrations, 136.
on er geology of the west-
ern states, sea
niversal vee of geolo-

gical coloring and symbol
Owen, r. Ha wad s reply to his let-
ter on new fos i} ma a, 208.

Oraithichnte of the
Chiisaetiont: ladies and the Dinornis
of New Zealand, 185.

reply of, 184.
lh of Molluskite
243.

as on fossil
chalk formation, 401.

fruits in the}

BR;
Paintings and illustrations, geological,
te
Palm trees, fossil, 336.
Phacelia nbrevistyls, a new plant, 172.
shii, a new species, 171.
pusilla, a new species, 172.

408

Phlox glutinosa, a age plant, 177.
Phosphate of lime in the Virginia mete-

oric stone, 1
Plants of New Englan ‘
Poa modesta, a botanical species, 4
Primary cas a and — rock

Peina. ‘Aiabarnensid a new plant, 177.

Radicals in the iiainide salts, their ex-
ipetee refuted, 52, 247.
ossil impressions of, 315,

Redfield, W W.C., on fishes and other fos-|

me emoriale i in y new red sandstone|

INDEX.

St ay T., on the differential pee
new investigation. of Taylor’
ets em, 269.

Subsidence, areas of in the Pacific, 131.
2.

Symbols, proposed geological, 35
8,

T.
Taylor’s theorem, investigation of, 272.

eeth of Lepi idostei, microscopic struc-
~ of, 359,
thei r analog with
those of the 2 Labyrinthodonts, hs
Telegraph, electro-magnetic, experi-
ments ie
sora, 19 ‘limiting the distribution of
orals, 130.

mperatures, peter vian, 147,
Thaler m debile, a new plant, 175.
Tides in tbe orth rine merican lakes, 18,

of New Jerse ie of ,
a ar
currents, 326. 2 Be:

ing currents of the ocean
phere, |

. Reizet’s. ‘method of fi
in organic epgres

finding the nitrogen
nds,
Rogers, a crescent-formed dykes

of trap,
n hydrated minerals and
antediluvian temperatures, 147.
: ory of earthquake mo-
tion,
Rogers, W. e limits 4 shes in-

fusoria ( radliiess in "Ving! inia
Roots, sheaed kc verbal, i oat le om
Rotary action of stor 3, 65°
Ruggles, D. oc deel in the North Amer-
ican lakes
8.
Salts, amphide, existence of radicals in
disproved, 52, 247.
sap oy dary a new plant, 175,
Shells i -water and land, 4 401.
Shepard, C. v. n phosphate of lime in
e Virginia Msashets stone,
Sigillaria, discovery of a large species,

Siliceous — (Fulgurites) formed in
the , 220.

Sistas gradi a new plant,

Smith,

new instrument for es-
timating the « “carbonate of lime in cal-

on Varrent rapp and Will’s
method of nding nitrogen in organic
ila, or gat igi of, 337.
; egal matters
Storer, D. H., notice of Dr. Dekay’
port) on the "Fishes of New York,
on a new species

sire, 165,

8 ng
of Ter:

on tided and the prevail areey ;

Redfield’s remarks on, 4.
‘\Lorpedo occidentalis, a new species, 165.
i action o 8, 69.
a ‘med dykes of, 334.
mr Prees, foot, in the coal strata of Nova
Tuckerman, 5. ;on some ¢ plants of New
England, 7.
his Enumeration of the
Carices noticed, 216.
V.
Vaccinium hirsutum, a new plant, 175.
Varrentrapp and Will’s method He esti-
mating the nitrogen in organic com-
ounds
ibrating dams, 363.
vens Embryologie des Salmones noti-

w.
Walker, S. C., on the great comet of
1843, 188.

will a vai on nitrogen in or-
ganic compound 3. 67.
ues as, calorific qnbbey of, controverted,

Wir ires, conducting power of, 392.
‘i n, J. “Piblieephical | notices, ai,

secon of a blind, fish
from Kentuck
pos Ste teeth of the those of

tei, and seis analogies of

the —— thodont 8, 359."° ae. Be

ees pinnatifida, a new species, 175.
ology, nomenclature of,
of New

iiveran ition of, 65, 307
eptopus maculatus, a new laa 170.

York, Dr. Dekay's 's Re-
port on, nglicad 397.

Eat er Eee ee ae 2

PERO ee Ce Ne ee oe

ee Ee eee Nee) ete Ss eee

PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS.
JOSEPH M. WIGHTMAN,

No. 33, Cornutt, Boston, ;
Manufacturer of Philosophical, Mechanical, and Chemical Appa-
- ratus

Among which, are Apparatus for illustrating Inertia, Attraction,
and other Laws of Matter. eet

Morion.—Laws of Falling Bodies, Compound Motion Sets, for
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Mxpat, 1841. Smver Mepat, ‘

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