THE ee EB
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AMERICAN JOURNAL 4
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
Proressors B. SILLIMAN anv B. SILLIMAN, Jr.,
AND
JAMES D. DANA.
i pn
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. 1X.<{MAY, 1850.
NEW HAVEN:
4
PRINTED FOR THE EDITORS BY B. L
Printer to Yale College.
1» HAMLEN,
md by L. hae big New Haven —Litrrie & Brown, — Fetrringr & Co., Boston.—
.S. Fra a Grorar P. Putnam, and Jounn Witey, New York —Canpy &
his Philadel —T. Derr, Pumam’s ioadiien an Agency, 49 Bow La i
side, London— _ Tor Bossancr & Co., Paris —Nestuer & MELuE, Hemburg
ETE er er a
id : 7
CONTENTS OF VOLUME Ix.
NUMBER XXV.
Page.
Art. I. Experiments on the Electricity of a Plate of Zinc buried
in the Earth; by Prof. Extas ss - -
II. Geology of aids, : iy eee 3
III. Ash Analyses; by Jno. A. Poses ee 20
IV. A Product of the action of Nitric Acid on Woody ‘Fibre; ;
by Jno. A. Porter, -
V. On the Navicula Spencerii ; by Winiite De LA Re, - 23
VI. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, -
VII. On a wees of Iron and some other Nitrates ; by i OHN M.
Orp
Vil. & ones of two additional Crags of tie Sit-enky
(Troglodytes gorilla, er from — — by
Jerrries Wyman, M.D., « es
IX. Notice of the cranium of the Nessie! a new species of
Manatee (Manatus nasutus) from W. Africa ; - JEFFRIES
Wyman, M.D., - - - - 45
X. On Denudation in the Pacific ; é py D. Dak - - 48
XI. Remarks on the Constitution of Leucine, with habits! observa-
tions upon the late Researches of M. Wutz; by T. S. Hunt, 63
XII. On Perfect Musical Intonation, and the fundamental Laws
of Music on which it depends, with remarks showing the
practicability of attaining this Perfect Intonation in the Or-
an; by Henry Warp Poors, ns
XIII. Analyses of several Minerals; by Wine Pinions -
XIV. Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, with
notices of their Botanical. — 7” Wm. Dar-
Lineton, M.D., LL.D., 85
XV. Vibrations of Dieeniyhs's bail by ‘he Galvanic Curtin,
by Prof. Cuas. G, Pace, :
XVI. On four new species of are of ae genus Ploiaria,
Chermes, and Aleurodes, and two new Hymoncne'ys para--
sitic in the last named genus; by S. S. Hatpeman, - 108
iv : CONTENTS.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics—On the comparative Cost of making various Voltaic Ar-
rangements, by Mr. W.S. Warp: Researches on Wax, by Bensamin Cox-
uins Bropre, 111.—On the Phosphoric Ethers, by F. Vocexi1, 113.—On the
Estimation of Niroge acid, by H. Scawarz+: New mode of preparing Nitrogen,
by B. CorenwinpeR: New Process for detecting Iodine and Bromine, by
phere, by M. Fresenius: On the varieties of Chloroform, by MM. Souserran
and Miauué, 115.—On the Composition of Shea Butter and » agen Vegetable
Tallow, by Dr. R. T. Taomson, and Mr. E. T. Woo On occurrence of
Butyric Acid in the Fruit of the Soap tree, b Dr. v ESANEZ, ae
—On the preparation of Hyposulphite of — , by M. Flom On the amo
of Lime in Lime Water, by M. Wirrste : On the preparation of Bcsints”
acid from Malate of lime, by Lirsie, 117. — Chemical oe of a Calculus
from the bladder of a whale, by Wrnt1am Keixier, M.D.: On the presence of
Fluorine in the Waters of the Firth of Forth, the Firth of Clyde, and the Ger-
man Ocean, by G. Witson, M.D., 118.—On the Artificial Production of cer-
_ tain Crystallized Minerals, particularly Oxyd of Tin, Oxyd of Titanium, and
Quartz,, by M. A. Davsrés, 120.—On the Origin of the Titaniferous veins of
the Alps, 122.
Mineralogy and Geology.—Analysis of Schuylkill Water, by M. H. Bov&: On
Acid and Alkaline Springs, by Prof. W. B. Rogers, 123.—On Reptilian foot-
marks in the gorge of the Sharp Mountain near Pottsville, Pa., by Isaac Lea,
24.—Gold on the farm of Samuel Elliot, Montgomery County) Md. : Gold of ©
California, 126.
Botany and Zoology.—Description of a Nut found in Eocene marl, by Epmunp
Rorrix, 127.—Synopsis Generum Crustaceorum Ordinis Schizopoda J. D.
sheen clepeaniins La —Eyes of Sapphirina, Coryceus, etc., by J.D, Dana: Con-
» Nos. 1-4; and Monograph of Sroasroma, a new genus
of new ‘pyavontated land shells, by Pet Cc. B. Apams, 133.—Eryx maculatus, a
- new species from Madras, by Enwarp Hatuowexn, M.D.: Descriptions of
four new species of North hutch Hahieeaatlice, and one new species of
Scink, by Prof. Spencer F’. Barrp, 137,—On Infusorial Deposits on the River
Chutes in Oregon, by . Secseatnn On the Fossil American Tapir, by
Joserx Lerpy, M_D.,
Astronomy.—On Nebule observed with Rosse’s Telescope, 140.—A. Model of the
Moon’s ao 143.
bg: Ce Intelligence. Bhegapng in North Carolina, 143.—Further Contri-
butions to Anemometry, by Prof. Partuips, 145.—Discovery of another huge
Heptilo. by Dr. Mantell: pensar Birds of New Zealand: Cabinet of Geology
and Mineralogy for sale: Correction, 147.
Bibliography.—Endlicher, Generum Plantarum Supplementum Quartum; Pars II,
148.—Contributions to the History of British Fossil Mammals (first series), by
IcHARD Owen, F.R.S., 149. we Encyclopedia, by C. Hecx,
translated and edited by Prof. 8S, F. Ba : The ‘A sivcincdilical Journal, edited
by Bensamin Apruorr Govxp, Jr.: "Footed Complete Geological Chart,
151. — Almanac and Repository of Useful ——— for the year
1850, 1
List of am 152. 2
4
;
r
:
4
j
4
CONTENTS. f
NUMBER XXVI.
Art. XVII. On the Phantascope; by Prof. J. Locxz, - - 153
XVIII. The condition of Trap dikes in New Hampshire an evi-
dence and measure of Erosion ; ; by Professor Oxiver P.
Hvussarp, M.D., - - 158
XIX. Conssiieationis to the Myéotory of North Riser by Rev.
M. J. Berkexey, of inate and Rev. M. A. Conais, of
South Carolina, - 171
XX. Connection between the Ramis inti ii dhe aa
and chemical properties of Barium, Strontium, Calcium and
Magnesium, and some of their Snail by Professor
E. N. Horsrorp, 176
XXI. On the American Prine: Meridtiid ey Prof J. a 184
XXII. On Perfect Musical Intonation, ee the fundamental Laws
of Music on which it depends ; with remarks showing the
aia of attaining this Perfect Intonation in the Or-
gan; by Henry Warp Poote, - - 199
XXIII. On the new American Mineral, Linseuiee - "a Pro-
fessor B. Situiman, Jr., - - - - - - 216
XXIV. Table of Atomic Weights, - - a ee
V. On the Isomorphism and Atomic ae of some Bs
erals; by James D. Dana, - 220
XXVI. Observations on the Size of the ‘Brain i in various are
and Families of Man; by Samvet Georce Morton, M.D., 246
XXVII. Remarks on the Aneroid Barometer ; by Professor
J. Lovertne of Harvard University, - 249
XXVIII. An account of some Fossil Bones found in asada in
making excavations for the Rutland and rer a Rail-
road; by Zapock THompson, 256
XXIX. idan of a Meteorological hosts ‘Negr at Mariette
Ohio, for the year 1849, by S.P. Hitpretn, M.D., - 264
. Chemical Examinations of the Waters of some Pie Min- -
eral Springs of Canada, by T.S. Hunt, - - - + 266
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics. ipa upon some derivatives of the Benzoic sonic
by G. Cuancen, 275.—On the Products of the dry distillation of Benzoate of
Lime, by G. Cusieoas. ys .—On the Action of Nitric Acid apon Butyrone
Laurent and Cuancei: On Sulphuretted Benzamid, by A A. Ca AHOUR n
the Composition of Chloropicrine, by A. Canours, 278.—Process for the use
of Tin Plate Scrap in the Manufacture of Malleable Iron, by Ev. Scuuncx:
Anisole, Salicylic Ether, and substances derived from them, by A. Canours,
the Compound Ammonias, by Apotpue Wurtz, 231.—On a Cop-
vi CONTENTS.
per Amalgam, by Dr. Perrenxorer, 282.—Benzole, by C. B. Mansrizip:
_ On the Separation of Phosphoric Acid from Alumina, by H. Roser, 283.—On
the Atomic Weight of Silica, by H. Kopp, 284.—On the Extraction of Man-
nite from the Dandelion, by Messrs. Suir, 285.
Mineralogy and Geology.—On Danburite, by J. D. Dawa, 286.—On the discov-
ery of Sulphuret of Nickel in Northern New York, by Dr. Franxuin B
Hoven, A.M., 287.—New Mineral Localities in New York, by Dr. F. B. Hoven,
gree fe of es Minerals associated with the Emery of Asia Minor, by
J. Lawrence Smitu: On the Degradation of the Rocks of New South Wales
and Pirbativs of Valleve: by J. D. Dawa, 289.
Zoology. Mm oe on Zoophytes, by James D. Dana, 294.—A new od of Or-
chestide, by J. D. Dawa: On the genus Astrea, by James D. Dana
Miscellaneous Intelligence—On the Extraction of Gold from the Ghiper Orde of
Chessy and Sain-Bel, by Messrs. ALuain and Barrensacn, 297.—The Table
Land of Thibet, 298.—On the Classification of Colors, Part II, by Prof. J. D.
Forses, 300.—New Process for extracting Sugar from the Sugar-cane, by M.
Mexsens, 301.—Anniversary of the Royal Society of London: Ray Society :
Poskogical Gardens: Mastodon angustidens: Development of Electricity by
Muscular Contraction, 304.—Influence of boracic acid in Vitrification, 305.—
Obituary —Dr. Martin Gay, 305.
gorges —Report of a Geological Reconnoissance of the Chippewa Land Dis-
of Wisconsin, and, incidentally, of a portion of the Kickapoo Country, and
et a part of Iowa and of the Minesota Territory, by Davipv Date Owen, 306.
—The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution, by CHARLEs foe 3
ErinG, M.D., 307.—Elements of Natural Philosophy, by Atonzo Gray, A
Sailing idles, by Lieut. M. F. Maury, U.S.N., 308.—The Plough, the
Loom and the Anvil, T. 8S. Skinner, Editor : Iconographic Encyclopedia of
Science, Literature and Art, by G. Heck, translated and edited by Prof. Spen-
_ cer F. Bairn: Foster's Geological Chart: The Annual of Scientific Discovery,
or Year Book of Facts in Science and Art, edited by Davin A. Weuts, and
Grorce Buss, Jr.; Agassiz’s Lake Superior: The Astronomical Journal, 309.
—Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 310.— Memoirs
of the American Academy of Arts and Rplencen; 311.—Boston Journal of Natu-
ral History, Vol. V1, No. 1, 312.
List of Works, 312.
NUMBER XXVIII.
Art. XXXI. A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger, of Nan-
tucket; by Witttam MitcHett,~ - 313
XIf, On the Application of Photography to he Self. ES eeiatehs
tion of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments ; my —
ree so insite, RA. FBS. 319
XXXII. Influence of the known Lect of Motion on * onary
sion of Elastic Fluids; by Ex1 W. Buaxz,~ - . 334
XXXIV. On the Rotation of the Plane of Polarization of Heat Ky
Magnetism; by MM. F. pe ua Provostaye and P. Desains, 344
XXXV. Historical account of the seein on Hawaii ; sh
James D. Dana, - 347
Z
&
CONTENTS. Vii
Page.
XXXVI. On the Chemical Equivalents and Notation of Laurent
and Gerhardt; by CuarLes GERHARDT, 364
XXXVII. The Natural Relations between shabenili ae the le.
ments in which they live; by L. Acassiz, - 369
XXXVIII. On a new Analogy in the Periods of Rotation of ihe
Primary Planets, discovered by Daniel Kirkwood, - : 5
XXXIX. On the so-called Biogen Liquid; by Cuartes Grrarp, 3899
XL. Note on Heteronomic Isomorphism; by James D. Dana, 407
XLI. On some atte ‘aad Mas ge by M. papel
by J. D. Dan 408
XLII. On the imerpretation of Masiotte’s ae : pees Lieut.
E. B. Hunt, - 412
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—On the Deportment of Crystalline Bodies between the
of a Magnet, by Joun Tynpaty and Hermann Kwoptavcn, 414.—Ar-
senic in the deposit from Mineral Waters, by M. J. L. Lassaicne: On the re-
duction of Chlorid of Silver, by M. Wirtsrrin, 418.—On the Chemical Com-
position of the Fluid in the Ascidia of Nepenthes, by Dr. A. VortcKker: Chlo-
rine and Oxygen from Chlorate of Potash, by Dr. Vocer: Action of Potash
Gas through solid bodies, by M. Lovyer: On the presence of Silver, Lead and
Copper in Sea-water, and in Plants and Animals, by MM. Matagurt1, Du-
ROCHER and SarsEav, 421.—Ruthenium, 422.
Mineralogy and Geology.—Description of the Vermiculite of Milbury, ps, by
Dr . Jackson, with an analysis by Mr. Ricnarp Crossteyv, 422.—On the
Bide pips characters of the “rng s from the roi identified with meanest by
J.E. Tes rrr wba . Hayes, 423.—On the Red Zine Ore of New
Jersey, by A. A. Havre Oe the existing Mineral oa of Lewis, Jeffer-
son, and St. Sek ecules: New York, by Dr. F. B. Hoven, 424.—Iso-
wee of Miargyrite and Augite: Analysis of the Schorlomite of Shepard,
C. RammetsBere, 429.—Large crystals of Sphene : On the Ozarkite of
“Dhl by J. D. Dana, 430.—The Lagoons of Tuscany, 431.—On the Great
Diamond in the possession of the Nizam, by Henry Pippineton, 434.—An
account of the Strata and Organic Remains exposed in the Cuttings of the Rail-
way from the Great Western line near Corsham, through Trowbridge to West-
bury in Wiltshire, by Rearnanp Nevinue Manteu, Esq., 436.—Notice of
the Remains of the Dinornis and other Birds, and of Fossil and Rock specimens
recently collected by Walter Mantell, Esq., from the Middle Island of New
Zealand, by G. A. Manretu, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., 437
Zoology.—Supplementary Observations on the Structure of the Belemnite and
Belemnoteuthis, by Gingon Anarrnon Masre.u, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.,
438.—On the Pelorosaurus; an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile, whose
remains are associated with those of the Iguanodon and other peng in the
Strata of Tilgate Forest, by Ginron ALGrRNon ManTe.t, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Vili CONTENTS.
&c., 439.—On Entophytes, by Dr. Lerpy, 441.—On Infusoria on the Teeth, by
H. I. Bownprrcu, 442.
Astronomy.—New Comet: Expected return of the great Comet of 1556, 442.
Miscellaneous Intelligence.—On the Gradual Production of Luminous Impressions
Ey
the ie atte of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments, 444.—Or
the Cause of the Diurnal Variations of the Magnetic Needle, by W. H. Bar-
Low, Esq., M.I.C.E., 445.—The Ruins of Nineveh, 447.—Oak Orchard Acid
' Spring Water, by H Erni, and Wn. I. Craw, 449.—On the Cause of Au-~
rore Boreales, by Aucuste pe LA Rive, 450.—Charleston aes of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 453.
Bibliography.—Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of i
Science: The Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year Book of Facts in Science
and Arts, &c.; edited by Davin A. Wetts and Groner Briss, Jr.: Th
Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, by AtexanpEeR Keiru Jonnston, 454.
—Lake Superior, its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared
with those of other and similar Regions, by Louis AcAssiz, with a narrativeof
the Tour, by J. Eruror Cazor, 455.—A Natural Scale of Heights, &c., con-
structed by Miss Corrnurst: The East; Sketches of Travel in Egypt and the
Holy Land, by Rev. J. A. Spencer, M.A.: Man Primeval, or the Constitution
and Primitive condition of the human being, &c., by Jouw Harris, D.D.: A
Systematic Treatise, Historical, Etiological and Practical, on the Principal dis-
eases of the Interior valley of North America; as they appear in the Caucasian,
African, Indian and Esquimaux varieties of its Population, by Dawret Drake,
M.D., 456.—Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1846-7 and 1847-8: A Uni-
versal Formulary, containing the Method of preparing and administering Eu
cinal and other Medicines, the whole adapted to Physicians and Pharmaceu
by R. Eacuesrexp Grirriru, M.D., 457
List of Works, 458.
Index, 459.
ERRATA.
Page 4, line 11 from bottom, for ‘ zinc,’ read ¢ wir
P. 20, 15 top, for ‘ acid in chlorine,’ read ‘acid and chlorine.’
top, for *‘ Wutz,’ read ‘ Wur
P.2 2 18, “ 6 “ bottom, for ‘ 1227-75,’ read * 1227-45,’ and erase first half of
next line
ee ae opt for Bigg! age 2957,
P. Bb, 17 Ps ‘ soda,’ read ‘ potash.’
£407, © 13 ee “Pecndonrphi read ¢ cs ed grea
Sag 419, bottom tine, for date read ‘soda, and t
Vol. Vill, PEs , line 15 from to op, for Chester oP read ‘ Delaware Co.” *
‘ in table, bee see for ‘ Emerylite, Pocueylvaniia? peer ‘Mar-
garite.’
‘ * a Loads read ‘ Emerylite. ag oe
“secon he! or the numbers of the analyses
4,5, mubstvate, 1,8, 4, 5,2 a Maer err
p. 387, in formula of Kyanite, for ye mite goad ae Biz.’
“ p- 387, line 23 from top, for ‘ 775°,’
Ve JANUARY, 1850. ENO 28
Published the first day of every second month, price $5 per year. 7
RICAN JOURNAL
OF
TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Twelve copies of every original communication, pu blished in this Journal, are if request
ed at the disposal of the author. Any larger number of copies will be furnished at cost,
- Aushors should: always specify at the head of their MSS. the number of extra copies —
they may vis! p ms are dapigcyirs up.
“Notice always to be given when communications sent to this Scientia have been, oF
are to be, published also in other Journals. i
Our Bish corespondent are requested to forward all Seana and prec to oe
GEOLOGICAL
AND
MINERALOGICAL SPECIMENS.
- KRANTZ, of Berlin, Prussia, begs ae to inform the scientific —
tions and private collectors in this country, that eeps constantly on e
= stock of minerals, fossils and rock-specime og enabling him to seuihas u
private cultivators of the mineralogical and oeeeet sciences among its custom-
ers ing twenty years, kept pace with oo rapid progress of
these branches of human knowledge; its travelers are constantly ‘en route’’ in
all countries of Europe (one of them is now in the United States) and all efforts
to secure the acquisition of every thing new or interesting to collectors.
latest date with its ree recent discoveries. ‘ esides this standard collection, oth-
lesirable extent, and arranged in one) snot system, can be fir :
ty at m7 ete as the "adj oined catalogs es t
arvignetion of minerals, color, e, lustre, composition, etc., etc. pilcenas
: useful. Seale of hardness, ontins iaree C.
> abinets m — in Farry oper mahogany cases with drawers, joa vnind ich
r case not larger than t et long by about one foot j in depth and breadth, gon one,
j but very characteristic specimens, (price er 0
Cabinet. ild
) Minerals s for Chemists, for the kage, % i chemical sohelanas
exercise of students in analyzin nium, Wolfra am, Tellaiom,
. tanium, Mellite, ete., = the lowest pri 1 Ssanemd’d are provi with |
3 Ba od labels, in English, German and Fr
: Orders for minerals and wakspoiailll should ia mention the size desired. —
Fossils.—The number of species of il : ins, amounts to
permits, an
the characteristic she
name ; Bi collections are generally arran
cial purposes zoological
aske
talogue eicine rices of casts of rare and interesting
aihabel the original and forming a valuable
n is s particularly called to Mr. K.’s ei aa
fw. "Sek in some pieces for beauty and completen
ms of Euro;
from : — fishes and Crinoidea of the same and
uf 1
one eciaad or varieties “Of ‘rock-specimens are on hand, forming
rima’ sedimentary rocks which form the known
specimens of ety eae are of the’ same size
of countries interesting to geologists, such as
PSs Italy, Hungary, Ramee and Sweden,
\ 2
CATALOGUE OF FOSSILS,
CASTS OF FOSSILS, ROCK-SPECIMENS AND MINERALS, ©
;
aa a Oe gr
FOR SALE BY
AUGUSTUS KRANTZ, Beruin, Prussia, 7
39 Briderstrasse. !
AMERICAN EDITION.
I. FOSSILS.
1. 30 species of fossil shells naa the modern rod fect, elevated on the |
Sweden apwards 2 of 160 $ 350 @
m the pried basin of
es a ties the tertiary formation.’ in Rhine and and Westpha -
es from the London clay of Hampshir hiteaid the Crag of Suffolk, 24 00
ate the tertiary of Maryland, Alabama and Virgini 18 00
es from the tert a ary deposits and the tertiary fivecstion of
26 00
cies from the pacts formation (Molasse) of Switzerland, 7 00
an a from the upper cretaceous formation of Belgium, . 20 00
i Bg 65 00
26 00
rom > cretaceous formation of ‘Booth ern France,
abs snl groupe halk: roca ectbiats or r povisgatl a in
sta, Cephalopoda, etc.
Beeoors formation eee - epee
8 00
0 |
9 00 :
er peainen nd of Hanover and
erat of Roem 14 00
es: Vile, ‘Prien, Hall-
i 38
wn
g
o
"@
aQ
5
=
8
~
bec}
°
5328
4
g
3
oO
24. 150 species from the Jurassic formation
Yorkshire,
25. 100 species from the Oxford clay of Moscow in Rt
26. 200 species from the Jurassic formati ie af — aria and’
27. 80 species from the Alpine limestone
28, 30s of fish-teeth, scales and bones, ot the the Tri
at Davee: and Wiirtemberg,
29. 30 different Saurian bones from the Muschelkalk of Ses
30. 40 ~ pein i: the Permian System of Thuringia ¢
Kupferschiefe
31. 100 species of foal plants (large size) from the coal-slates of
Bohemia, and i
32. 75 — from the ; Porsaiask System and earboniferous lim
and the Ural Mountains,
33. 50 ieaies fo fiom the Mountain limestone of Ireland,
34. 80 species from the same formation in Belgium
35. 100 species from the Devonian rocks of the Rhine and a
3
36. 100 species from the same formation in the Hartz Mountain $14 00
37. 300 species from the Paleozoic rocks of the United States of hpapion: 70 00
100 ies from the Silurian group of Sweden and Norway, * 8 00
39. 80 species from the Silurian group ley in a i
40. 200 species from the apes Silurian group of Bohemia ‘ . 2400
41. 100 species of Trilobites, 30 00
42, yt se oh of a ‘including the genera " Atrypa, Calecola,
Chonetes, Lepteena, Lingula, Orbicula, Orthis, Pentamerus,
Pr ada ctu us, Spinfer, Di tg arpa s, Terebratula and Thetis... . 4400
43. =e pee of Cephalopoda, including the ra “A ites, Ancy-
eras, so Polen ites, Clymenia, Conularia, Crioceras, Endo-
ceras, Gonioceras, Goniatites, Hamites, — Nautilus, Onycho
teuthis, Ortnoceratves, seaneumnid ay gr ites, Toxoceras “and
Turrilite 75 00
Il. CASTS.
Persons wishing to mae casts, can be furnished with two plates of engrav-
ings, representing t “them
1. Mastodon giganteum, PI. I
Lower jaw com gt 74 pte “long f from the = of the Mis-
souri Riv ver, : $6 00
4. ary itr Hyleosaurus — avia
: 4 different ve spk ty e Weald clay of ines: England,
‘ "The originals are in he, rae Museu
5. Pterodactylus erasirstrs Goldf., Pl. II, fig
gs ces fro = - ithographie alaie: of Bavaria er .
nal is is i pile —
ae
a 12 feet long, "Of the bestll
sai
cimen ever vate na
found " . e a af Bo oll, Waseem Tg,
inal belon
a Niyétrinsaurs longipes, Pl. i
eleton from the sam cality, .. - . :
e original in the tosperi seum at Vienna.
8. ener, species. Pl a
Head of a small sized en from the sam e place, - : 150
‘ i T Miser at Berlin.
extremities A same locality, . .
Pl. Il, fig. 2
eton ng, 9 00
specimen. PI i” fig. 3, 5 00
edius. , fig. 4.
——? and fins ey ge : : . ‘ 7 00
irostris. PI. II, fig. 9 ;
25
10-13 i in A. Krantz 8 cabinet.
Pl. I, fig. 10.
0 75
in the Imperial Museum . Vienna.
ached, Conyb. PI.
Skeleton ee 6 feet long, from the ‘Lis slates of ne
in Somersetshire . 25 00
original i is in the British Museum.
osaurus, new 8 Be |
Head, perfect from Boll, ietisahien, ‘ : . ‘ 1 00
The original in A. Krantz’s cabin net.
4 Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth.
This then constitutes a most convenient and economical bat-
tery. The first expense of the plates, without the connecting
wire is about two shillings. The battery requires no attention —
from day to day—involves no expenditure for acids—is perma-
nent in its action—and appears to possess every desirable quality
for a ag for short distances.
one of the preceding experiments was the wire which
formad the circuit wound into a coil, but was stretched out into
a long line.
Exp. 13. On the Ist of June, 1849, the galvanometer on the
long circuit, Exp. 7, settled at 619: on the short circuit, Exp. No.2, —
it settled at 66 6°. This is the same as was observed May 15th, ,
the day on which the zine plate was first buried; although in —
one instance after a rainy day, an observation of 70° had been —
recorded. The current during these seventeen days had been re-
markably uniform
I now buried a second zinc plate twenty inches square by the
side of the former one, at the depth of two feet beneath the sur-
' face of the earth, and connected the two plates by a short wire.
\
se he galva anometer on the long circuit settled at 664°; on the
short cireuit it settled at 72°. Thus it appeared that by the
_ addition of the second zine plate which was considerably larger
than the first, the strength of the electric current had been in-
creased about one-third.
The following experiments were performed to determine the
influence of the size of Bemeppper plate upon the intensity of the
current.
Exps. 14 to 29. I detached ‘copper plates Nos. 2 and 3 from
the long wire, and substituted for a a single copper plate forty-
eight inches ays fourteen immersed it ithe well. The galvanome-
ter stood a
I now divided the copper plate in
twenty-four inches by fourteen i immer
vanometer stood at 71
I thus proceeded to ‘vide the copper slate"
it to three inches by a half inch; after which
tirely rem ; then withdréw the zinc
th ae leaving a plate
ithe well. The gal-
1 I had reduced |
In the following table, column second shows the
of the copper plate employed; column third shows
surface of copper i mmersed, ineluding both sides of the p
and also the immersed wire; column fourth shows the observet
aoe of the galvanometer needle; and column fifth ~~
tangent of the angle of deviation.
Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth. 5
No. of Size of the Copper surface Deviation of |‘Tangent of
Experiment.,| | Copper Plate. | immersed. Galvanometer.| deviation
14 48 inches by 14 1354 square inches. 74§° 3°668
15 2 = 14 682 715 2°989
4 16 12 7 14 346 ” 684 2507
7 6 ¥ 14 178 * 664 2-300
18 6 “ 4 94 . 644 2120
19 3 . i! 52 “i 624 1-921 .
20 3 ij 84 31 . 604 1-786
21 3 i 2 22 2 59 1664
22 3 = 1 16 ag 57 1540
23 3 xt 4 13 564 1511
Length of wire immersed, 4
24 6 feet. 108 S 56 1-483
25 54 « 99 “ 554 1442
26 3 « B4 « 464 1-063
27 : 18 “ 324 6
28 6 inches. Q°9 * 19 “B44
29 Pies 0-45 Ls 11 194
The law which these numbers follow is exhibited by the fol-
lowing curve, in which the abscissas represent the amount of
copper surface immersed in the water, and the ordinates represent
the intensity of the electric current, maeailite the intensity to be —
proportioned to the tangent of the angle of deviation of the gal- —
vanometer.
wee
il
ger: f
u a lj
800 1000 1200 1400
ow the horizontal line represent the square inches of copper surface immersed :
es represent the corresponding intensity of the clectric current.
Thus it appears that for plates less than one square inch, the
tT 8)
$§
6 Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zine buried in the earth.
copper plate of three and one-third square inches, counting both
sides, the surface of the plate must be increased fourteen fold;
and in order to increase the current fourfold, the surface of the
plate must be increased four hundred and twenty fold. In order
to double the current again would probably require a copper plate
more than sixteen feet squa
The following camadiiente were performed to determine how
far the intensity of the current could be increased by multiplying —
the number of galvanic elements. 3
30. I buried a plate of zine six inches square in the —
earth at a distance of twelve feet from the well used in the pre-_
ceding experiments. The depth to the surface of the water in-
the well was also twelve feet. A plate of copper six inches —
square being attached to a wire and dropped into the well, the —
galvanometer settled at 45°.
Exp. 31. [ then buried a second copper plate of the same_
dimensions in the earth at a distance of one inch from the first
zine plate, and connected it by a wire with a second zinc plate
which was immersed in the well by the side of the copper plate
and separated from it to the distance of half an inch by interposed
ey ‘The galvanometer settled at 58°. The tangents of 45°
Or are in the ratio of ten to sixteen. In this ratio the in-—
‘ Hensity of the current had been increased by the addition of a—
second pair of plates. ‘
Exp. 32. I removed the second copper plate to the distance —
of fits inches from the zine plate which was buried in the earth. —
The galvanometer settled at 50°. _ I then interposed between the —
copper and zinc a third pair of plates of the same dimensions, —
when the galvanometer settled. at 58°. This experiment did not
afford much encouragement for inereasing the number of ee :
the soil was only eight inches deep, a flat s
With one zinc plate in the earth and one cop
the galvanometer settled at 26°.
Exp. 34, With a copper plate i in the earth”
from the zinc, and a pair of plates in the well,
31, the galvanometer settled at 44°. The tanger
44° are almost exactly in the ratio of one to tw
sity of the current was therefore doubled by the
second pair of plates.
Exp. 35. I removed the second copper plate to the:
twelve inches from the zinc which was buried in~
The galvanometer settled at 284°. I placed the copper pl
inches from the zinc, when the galvanometer settled at 30°
placed the copper plate five inches from the zinc when the
vanometer settled at 33°. I then interposed a third pair of pl
Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zine buried in the earth. 7
when the galvanometer settled at 403°. In this experiment the
three pairs of plates did not furnish the same intensity as two
pairs in Exp. 34. By bringing the plates a little closer together
some increase of effect would have been obtained; but although
the experiment was several times repeated, nearly the same ad-
vantage appeared to be lost in 5 ripen ag by the separation of
the second copper plate from the first zinc, as was gained by the
interposition of the third pair of sateas
Exp. 36. I took three pairs of plates six inches by seven, all
well secured at distances of one-third of an inch from each other,
The outer copper plate was connected by a wire with the zinc
plate buried in the earth, as in Exp. 30. The outer zinc plate
was connected with the copper plate buried one inch from the
zine, as in Exp. 31. pon lowering the battery into the well the
galvanometer stood at 62°.
Exp. I removed one pair of plates from the battery, the
interval between the remaining ones being still one-third of an
pee when the galvanometer stood at 6029.
. 38. I removed a second pair of plates from the hattery,
eiot only one pair separated by a distance of one-third of an
inch in the well; and one pair separated by an inch buried in
the earth, when the galvanometer stood at
Thus it appears that one pair of plates immersed i in the vey
fer ;
affords a stronger current than two or three pairs. ‘The di f
betyee — and three pairs is altogether trifling.
Exp. 39. I removed the copper plate from 1 prouhll aiid the
zinc ine from the well, when the galvanometer settled at 53°,
The tangents of 53° and 70° are almost exactly as one to two,
This experiment therefore ia ) the same conclusion as Exp.
34, that with one pair o mits buried in the earth and one
immersed in the well, t tensity of the current is double of
that furnished by a sin air.
Exp. 40-54. The following experiments were made to de-
termine the influ of the size of the zine plate upon the in-
WI I buried a plate of sheet zinc twelve
spot employed in Exp. A plate of
} hes by fourteen was attached to a wire and im-
mersed in ell. Upon connecting the two plates by a wire
the galva ster stood at 654°. I then er one-half of the
the galvanometer stood at °. I continued
» the zine plate and record i “Andiessions of the
s. Column second shows the dimensions of the zinc plate
: oye: column third shows the entire surface of zinc buried
in the earth, counting both sides of the plate; column fourth
_ shows the observed deviation of the galvanometer needle; and
column fifth shews the natural tangent of the angle of deviation.
8 Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth.
No. of Size of the Zine surface |: Deviation of (Tengen
Experiment. Zine Plate. buried. meter. de viation, |
40 12 inches by 12 288 square inches. 654° 2-194
41 12 ‘4 6 144 ” 645 2097
42 6 x 6 42 _ 634 1-984
43 6 . 8 36 * 61 1861
44 ee 3 18 “ 58! 1-648
45 3 “ 2 12 i 57 1540 19
46 $28 1 6 ¥ 534 1351
47 2 x uf 4 7 524 1:292
48 er 1 2 * 493 L171
49 cena 4 1 “ 45 1:000
50 Gate } 4 « 424 0-916
51 4 ss 4 4 he 374 0°767
52 4 > 4 $ 3 314 0615
53 — 4 1s 264 0504
54 oe t 35 ‘4 24 (445
Exp. 55. In several of the last experiments the solder with |
which the copper wire was attached to the zine plate covered a
considerable portion of the zinc surface and impaired the effect of
the plate. I therefore cut a strip one-tenth of an inch wide from: |
thin sheet zinc and soldered it to the end of acopper wire. When —
is was inserted two inches in the ground and connected writt
Ne the bes dsr settled at 174°.
i bers follow is exhibited by
the abscissas represent the
et
0 ae 150 200
numbers below the horizontal line represent the square inches of zinc surface b
the dotted vertical lines represent the corresponding intensity of the electric current.
Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth. 9
amount of zine surface buried in the earth, and the ordinates
represent the intensity of the electric current, assuming the inten-
sity to be proportioned to the tangent of the angle of deviation
of the galvanometer.
From these experiments it appears that a small wire of zinc
inserted half an inch in the ground affords a current half as strong
as a plate an inch square; and a plate one inch square affordsa
current more than half as strong as a plate one foot square; so
that even less advantage is gained by 1 a the surface of the
zinc plate than the surface of the copper
Exp. 58. I took a strip of sheet zinc feels of an inch
wide and twenty inches long, and having soldered to it a copper
wire sixty feet long, inserted it vertically in the ground near the
Philosophical Hall. Upon dropping the end of the copper wire,
Exp. 7, seven hundred and sixty feet in length, into the well
without any plate attached, the needle settled at 382°. This
current worked the telegraph with promptness ‘or, efficienc
The following experiments, No. 59 to 65, were tried with
the electricity of the common machine.
x . A Leyden jar having a Pian of one quart was
charged with the electricity of a common machine, and the
charge passed through the long nanan used in Exp. 7. The jar
rested upon a table with a wire attached to the zine plate under-
neath it. Upon bringing the wire attached to the copper
pi ‘.
near to the knob of the jar the charge pageedt apparently without
difficulty.
Exp. 60. Tapplied my left hand to the outside of the jar
which rested upon the zinc wire as before. Ou bringing the
other wire which I held in my right hand near the knob, the jar
was aeaeer and I receive da severe shock.
Exp. pe
circuit No. 2. I again received a shock, but much feebler than
a cirenit through which the jar was discharg-
> experinents, offered so much resistance to the
passage of the fiuid, that at least a portion of the charge preferred
rout e e through my body. In order to determine
earth, the follc wing experiments ware tried.
Exp I took a copper wire ,'; of an inch in diameter and
one hundred and twenty feet ional and arranged it round the
Philosophical Hall so that I could discharge ‘a jar through the
enti length or any portion of it at pleasure. When I discharg-
ed the jar through thirty feet of wire, I perceived not the slight-
shock, although I held one end of the wire in my right hand,
_» and with my left hand clasped the outside of the j Jat.
Ropgen Gxasae, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
-
*
10 Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth.
Exp. 63. When forty feet of wire were introduced, the shock
would not probably have been noticed, if it had not been a par-
ticular object of attention. Wit sixty fet of wire the shock
as so slight that it might have escaped notice under ordinary
circumstances, but when I clasped the wire very firmly in my
hand, the shock was quite decided. With one hundred and
twenty feet of wire ae shock was felt in both my wrists and
slightly up to my elbow
xp. 64. In order nie ‘obtain some measure of the amount of
resistance which this current was capable of overcoming, I took
two cat-skins prepared for electric experiments with their fur
upon them. One of them was lined with cotton cloth, cotton
batting and silk. I doubled each of the skins and laid them to-
gether so as to make four layers of fur, the whole being nearly
an inch thick when well cofnpressed. When I discharged the
jar through the short circuit, as in Exp. 61, my right hand being
protected by four thicknesses of fur, I perceived no shock. |
Exp. 65. When the jar was discharged through one hundred
and twenty feet of wire as in Exp. 63, my hand being protected
by four thicknesses of fur, I received a sensible shock. With
six thicknesses of fur I perceived no shock, except when some
part of my hand or wrist was allowed to come within an inch of
the unprotected wire, in which case I received a severe shock,
although I held eight or more thicknesses of fur in my han
Similar experiments were tried with from one to two hundred
folds = ny and with similar results.
ength of wire employed in Exp. 65 was but slightly
gibt than the wire employed in Exp. 64; and was considera-
bly less than the entire circuit employ ed in that experiment incelud-
ing the earth. Hence we must conclude that the twenty-seven
feet of earth included in the circuit of Exp. 64, offered no appre-
lectric fluid. It is infer-
red, therefore, that the resistance detect d in Exps. 60 and 61
was due mainly if not entirely to the lengtt of Wire in the
eireul "
It is remarkable that the electricity of a singlet zine plate should
traverse this long circuit so freely, while the electricity of a
eharged jar seeks in preference the circuit through the human
body, although protected by a considerable thickness of, the poor-
est conductors known. i
The following experiments were made to determi inte
ence of the length of the conducting wire upon the tay | of
the current.
Exp. 66. I attached a copper plate fourteen inches ihe twenty-
four to the end of the wire which was immersed in the well.
1 then added six hundred and thirty feet more of wire, Pane
the length of wire in the circuit felted hundred and fifty feet
esha
|
q
| Prof. Loomis on Electricity of Zinc buried in the earth. 11
so that the entire circuit, including the four hundred and seventy-
five feet of earth, was one thousand nine hundred and aranty:
five feet. The galvanometer settled at 694°.
Exp. 67. I united the zine wire, Eaxp. No. 58, instead of the
zine plates, to the long copper wire, making the length of circuit
P the same as in the last experiment; when the galvanometer
settled at 474°.
Exp. 68. I detached five hundred and ten feet of wire, leav-
ing the length of wire in the circuit nine hundred and forty feet.
hen this was connected with the zinc plates, the galvanometer
settled at 693°.
Exp. 69. I detached three hundred and seventy more feet of
wire, leaving the length of wire in the circuit five hundred and
seventy feet; when the galvanometer settled at 7
Thus it appears that when the length of the aa was doubled,
the intensity of the current was but slightly impaired, which
favors the conclusion that the current thus generated might be
employed for telegraphing to considerable distances. Mr. Vail
succeeded in telegraphing from Washington to Baltimore with
such a battery. The size of the plates employed in his experi-
Exp. 70. I substituted the zine wire for the zine plates on the ©
F same circuit as in Exp. 69, when the galvanometer settled
at “ame
eS SS = a =
A
. 71. Teconnected the zinc plates | with copper plate No
on the short circuit, Exp. No. 2, when the galvanometer ssi
at 724°.
Exp. 72. I substituted the zinc wire for the zinc plates on
the id circuit, when the ealgepometer settled at 4
The preceding experiments were all completed by the 25th of
June, and no further expe ” el were made until Peplemess
Seana:
rved to increase after a ce . It does not ap-
r however that on the whole the intensity I diminished dur-
ese five mouths, and it is remarkable that the last observa-
was the highest made during the entire period, but the ground
is at this time unusually wet in consequence ot a recent rain.
12 Geology of Canada.
Arr. I.— Geology of Canada.
From the Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Cambridge, August, 1849.
Mr. T. S. Hunt, of the Geological Commission of Canada,
made an oral communication upon the results of the geological
exploration of that country, and showed by the aid of a map, the
general distribution of the formations and their relation to the
rocks of New England. The following is a summary of his
remarks.
In presenting the report made by W. E. Logan, Esq. to the
Provincial government, embracing the results of the survey of
1847-8, I beg leave to offer a brief sketch of the results which
have been developed by himself and his assistants. The feature
which first claims our attention in looking at the geological struc-
ture of this country, is a formation of syenitic gneiss, often passing
into mica schist, and interstratified with crystalline limestone,
which forms a ridge of high land extending from the coast of
Labrador along the north side of the St. Lawrence, at a distance of
from twelve to twenty miles from the shore, until it crosses the
Ottawa, near Bytown, whence it is traced across lake Simeoe
to heichiies of Lake Huron, where its northern limit is observed
near the mouth of the French river, while it again appears at the
southeastern extremity upon Matchedash Bay. Resting upon
this are a series of rocks forming the whole north coast of the lake
and numerous small islands. It is made up of sandstones, often
coarse-grained, and sometimes becoming conglomerate from the
ese beds are ... with
slates, and one or more bands of limestone. ‘The slates are green-
ish, and highly chloritic, often coutaini
they assume the character of conglomerates, from the presence of
pebbles of syenite. The formation is much cut by greenstone
i 2d
ese
beds contain metalliferous quartz veins, of which t
of this region are examples. Resting unconforr
tilted edges of this formation, aud in other places direc
the sonthern limit of the syenitic gneiss, appear the sil irian rocks,
identical with thage which are found in New York, and cot
peninsula betwe ake Huron and Lake Ontario. #
with the rock designated in the New York no
Potsdam sandstone, we have upon the Manatoulin I a
the coast between the aludiieiteah Bay and Sarnia, a vellipline
posure of those formations known as the Trenton limestone, U
slates, Loraine Shales, Medina sandstones, and the Niagara |
Geology of Canada. 13
stones, with the rocks of the Clinton group. All of these are well
characterized by their respective fossils, and are spread out quite
undisturbed at a very gentle dip of about thirty-five feet in a mile.
The thickness of these rocks, as exhibited in a section across the —
Grand Manitoulin and La Cloche Islands, was found to be from
‘ the base of the Potsdam sandstone to the top of the Niagara lime-
stone, 1,273 feet.
Passing to the east, we find that the syenitic rocks have divid-
ed near where they cross the Ottawa, and taking a southward
course, are spread over a considerable extent of country between
the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence. Crossing this river below
Kingston, they constitute the greater part of the Thousand Isles,
and are extensively developed in the northern counties of New
York.
The country thus bounded on the west and north consists of a
broad valley of twelve to twenty miles on the north, and thirty to
forty miles on the south side of the St. Lawrence, which at its
southwestern extreme, includes the valley of the Richelieu and
the northern part of lake Champlain. On the southeastern side
of this is a mountain belt of from twenty-five to thirty miles in
width ; this is the prolongation of the Green Mountains of Ver-
and Notre
EE a PM nrcrcne ame | J “ Z 4 a
to mont, which further north constitute the Shickshock
Pr Dame mountains of Gaspé. This mountain range, coincident
| with the course of the river, is bounded at its southeastern base
| by a valley of gently undulating land, from twenty to thirty miles
an width, which may be traced from the upper part of the Con-
, necticut river to the upper portion of the St. Francis; thence by
the eastern branch of the Chaudiére to the Riviére de Famine, a
tributary of the Chaudiére, the valley is continued in the course of
the St. John’s until further on, it falls into the valley of the Risti-
2d quite into the Baie des Chaleurs. The
“mountain range, and the same geological
formations appear continuous without.
If a line be drawn from St. Scholastique, upon the north shore
of the Ottawa, passing forty miles S. E. to Montreal, and thence
‘the Connecticut river, in the north of Vermont, we
county of Beauharnois, where it spreads out toa cousidera-
€ width, and passing into the state of New York, divides against
the syenftic formation. Sweeping around its base, one portion
ses up the valley of the St. Lawrence, and the other is devel-
q
14 Geology of Canada.
oped in that of Lake Champlain, where it is recognized as the
Potsdam sandstone. ‘To the northeast it probably skirts the base
of the syenitic rocks, and has indeed been observed at the Falls
of the St. Maurice, but owing . the great anil of tertiary deposit
which fills the valley, the opportunities of examining it are but
few. The next rock upon the line of section is a limestone, very
silicious at the base, but pure and thick-bedded in the middle,
gradually becoming bituminous and shaly toward the top. This
formation, exposed at a very moderate dip, constitutes the greater
portion of the island ot Montreal, and crossing below to the north
side of the river, is lost beneath the tertiary sands and clays. 'To
the south, it sweeps around the extremity of a trough, until it
reaches St. John, where either turning over an anticlinal or affec-
ted by a dislocation, . turns up the west side of the Richelieu
and runs into New
This formation is Fs by its fossils to be referable in its lower
part to the calciferous sandstone, while the upper beds are the
Trenton limestone. It contains interstratified greenstone trap,
sometimes amygdaloidal, which constitutes the mountain of Mon-
treal. Resting upon this limestone is a set of black shales which
appear on both shores of the river before Montreal, and constitute
some islands in its bed. ‘To the south, these shales, which are
the Utica slates, follow the course of the limestone, keeping the
east shore of the Richelieu, and spreading out to a consider-
able breadth, constitute the region of country between the mouth
of Lake Champlain and Missisquoi Bay. To these succeed a
series of shales, bluish and grayish, arenacious, and more or less
calcareous, which are evidently from their fossils the Loraine
shales. These are seen upon the Richelieu at Chambly, upon
the Yamaska near St. Hyacinthe, and in several other points
along the line of strike. They present a considerable breadth,
and are not improbably kept at the saris by some little undula-
tions. Succeeding these, after tw
tertiary sands, appears a saiatisins of the '
which have been traced from Philipsburg, upon the line of Ver-
mont, through the Seigniory of St, Hyacinthe, to Deschaillons,
where they cross the St. Lawrence, -_ are exposed again upon
the northern shore. ‘These are follow ed by a repetition of the
Utica slates and Loraine sles 3 which flank the limestones upon
the St. Lawrence, and are exposed at various points along the
strike. Upon the Barbue river, in the Seigniory of St. Hyacinthe,
occurs what appears to be a small trough of higher rocks, consist-
ing of heavy greenish sandstones, interstratified with red and
chocolate-colored slates, sometimes mixed with green bands.
These red slates are highly ferruginous, and sometimes —_
traces of oxyd of titanium. Near the line of Vermon
succeeding the Trenton limestone, the extremity of a “similar |
Geology of Canada. 7
trough of slates and sandstones, more or less calcareous, which is
prolonged into Vermont. In Yamaska mountain a mass of trap
lies in the line of the St. Hyacinthe sandstones and red slates
and brings up on its flanks similar sandstenes and bluish and
greenish slates, with a crystalline yellow-weathering limestone.
The sandstones near the tra rap contain mica and plumbago.
These rocks, however, are not seen upon the line of section,
but in their strike occur the bluish and grayish calcareous and
arenaceous shales, which are followed by light greenish and ash-
gray slates, interstratified with gray sandstones. Following these
appear the réd slates with green bands and their accompanying
sandstones, which are sometimes finely conglomerate and more
or less calcareous, often containing mica and graphite. These
are associated with bands of a greenish chloritic Simian, hold-
ing small portions of oxyd of chromium in some form, and near
the base, with one or two beds of greyish limestones. South of
this section line, the strata on each side of this deposit converge,
but northwardly the breadth gradually increases, and seems to
show that these rocks form a trough more or less disturbed by
undulations. Following the western side of the trough, the slates
with their accompanying sandstones, crossing the St. Francis, are
seen at St. Nicholas on the St. Lawrence, and in the rear of Point
Levi near Quebec. On the eastern side, the slates are followed
to Roxton, where affected by an ee they sweep r
towards Shefford Mountain, and thence are traced to Inverness
on the Becancour, accompanied by hi He gir limestone, already
mentioned as associated with them at the base. Beyond these,
on the line of section, are a set of gray and black clay slates, with
thin-bedded sandstones and limestones, which although present-
those
efford, w
described as carrying” the sandstones to the east; thence upon
another anticlinal across the Nicolet, where the dark slates and
around into a narrow anticlinal valley which
vith the other anticlinals, and is continued to the
) the township of Sut
a contains two great masses of trap, which
e and Shefford mountains, and appear to have
disturbed and ijered the rocks to a considerable extent. South
of these. intrusive rocks we have first upon the section, greenish
aoa eke clay slates, followed by a belt of silicious and calcareous
which vary from a somewhat arenaceous limestone to a
feebly calcareous sandstone. ‘These are seen in some places divi-
three bands by the intervention of clay state, probably
lations, which produce repetitions.
The limestone is dolomitic, and is cut in all directions by great
numbers of quartz veins; it sometimes contains garnets, and is F
associated with iron and copper pyrites. At the distance of about }
a mile is another band of limestone precisely similar, and accom-
nied, like it, with slates and quartzose beds, which seem to be j
altered sandstones, and make the first high lands of the mountain
district. ‘This ridge, with its two bands of dolomite, appears to
be synclinal, and it is traced about ten miles from the province
line, where it dies out. Here another hill about half a mile to
the 8. E., apparently an anticlinal, takes up the same measures.
To these succeed a series of more or less quartzose chloritic
rocks, with an imperfect slaty cleavage. They seem to be alter-
ed sandstones, which upon their western border, where the alter-
ation has been less profound, still present their original structure.
Following these, appears a band of limestone resembling the last,
bi often divided into two or three belts by green chloritic or gray
ose slates, interstratified with beds of an impure specular iron .
ae more or less mixed with chlorite and often titaniferous.
limestones sometimes contain green and purplish tale and occa-
sional crystals of chromic iron; they are marked by the same
quartz veins as before. About two miles farther ron, a precisely
similar belt occurs, and the interval is filled with taleose, sblbeisia
and epidotic slates, associated with bands of magnetic and spec-
ular i rac The epidote forms little nodules, and is often associa-
th quartz ; rutile with specular iron .is sometimes found :
coyotallized 4 in quartz veins. From this, extending to the Sutton
valley, which is the su d prolongation of co —— is
about a mile of hard quartzose rocks slightly chlorit
Another section is presented pon the St. Seneetiel which cuts
the rocks nearly at right angles; it shows the dark colored slates
and limestone supporting greenish silicious slates, followed by
a belt of brown:-weatheting dolomite, ‘interstrati tified and accom-
panied with purple sandstones and red sl to which succeeds at
a distance of about a mile, another belt of li one, with quartzose
bands. e intermediate rocks are nines, and conglome- t
rates, often almost pure quartz; southeast of ae a are |
seen two or three miles of chloritic rocks, wit es of epidote
e, with veins
16 Geology of Canada.
pe
slate. ‘To this sneceeds an extent of heavy quartz rock, slightly
talcose, and another band of dolomite interstratified with talcose
slate, which is followed by the same fine greenish silicious slates
as were obeerved's n the western n side. — these are fou nd
Geology of Canada. it
lithological characters, shows that they are on opposite sides
of a syncelinal.
On the line of section, about a mile beyond where the Sutton
dolomites would cross, occurs another belt of dolomite associated
with soapstone and green chromiferous talc. In its strike we
while on the southeast is a narrow band of green serpentine.
Another dolomitic band occurs a little farther, associated with
green tale, serpentine and soapstone. It has been followed for a
considerable distance, and in one place consists of soapstone with
patches of dolomite, which in the distance of about three hundred
yards on the strike, passes into a band of dark green serpentine
with soapstone. At other places in the strike, the soapstone is
associated with chromic iron, and in one place a bed of magnesite
with chromiferous tale. ‘These appear to constitute a trough, and
the interval is filled with coarse quartzose chloritic slates, occa-
sionally epidotic, with imbedded crystals of magnetic and specular
iron; mica and feldspar are not unfrequently met with.
Following this, the rocks for the next five miles are coarse
chloritic micaceous schists, often feldspathic, passing into gneiss,
and in some places, very quartzose. About three miles on the
line of section, is a band containing tale and calcareous spar, the
latter making a considerable portion of the rock, which is staine¢
green with oxyd of chrome. East of this the rock is more feld-
spathic and contains small crystals of tourmaline. These meas-
feet above the St. Lawrence. A valley in the line of the chro-
miferous calcareous rocks divides the mass into two ridges, one
of which dies down very while the other crosses the line
of section and is lost miles farther north; this region still
of the western portion.
On the eastern side of this range occurs a belt of soapstone and
has been traced at intervals a distance of twen-
west borders of the Missisquoi. On the west
by a quartzose chloritic band, asseciated with a
licious rock of a corneous lustre and fracture. In
the strike of the serpentine further north, dolomite is found. On
the east side of the river, at the distance of a mileand a half from
the former, another serpentine band occurs; the interval is filled
With slates and gray quaitz rock, with some beds of chloritic and
epidotic rocks and a curious jaspery quartz rock containing epi-
This band of serpentine has been traced one hundred and
thirty-five miles from the province line across the Chaudiére, to
the township of Cranbourne. In some parts, it seems to pass into
cond Senres, Vol. IX, No. 25—Jan., 1850. 3
E
- eeous and associated with quartzose beds, and others very talcose
18 Geology of Canada.
or is associated with a diallage rock, and in others to be a mixture
of quartz and serpeutine. Like the western band, it is accom pa-
nied with soapstone and contaius veins and disseminated grains
of chromic iron. §
Beyond this occur clay slates with beds of white, compact ji
quartz of a scaly fracture and horny lustre, containing often im-
bedded diallage, hornblende, pyroxene or feldspar ; sometimes the
rock is nearly homogeneous, but at other times grains of angular, hi
transparent quartz show clearly its conglomerate character. This a
rock accompanies the serpentine throughout, and constitutes a |
range of mountain peaks, one of which, Orford Mountain, is more
than four thousand feet above the sea. Beyond this still, on the
ine of section is a band of impure dolomite, which farther north
in the strike is replaced by soapstone, magnesite, and serpentine ;
a similar band is seen again after an interval of a mile, filled with
gray slate and the corneous rock.
To these rocks follow gray fossiliferous limestones interstrati-
fied with calcareous slates, which form apparently two narrow par-
allel tronghs, one on each side of Lake Memphremagog. On the :
erst side, at Georgeville, they are followed by gray and black
glossy slates, and then by talcose and chloritic slates, often mica-
in the strike of ae upon the lake appears a band of serpentine,
ever hy fine: silicious talcose slates. From the position o
ese rocks, there appears evidence of a great dislocation which
se divided the fossiliferous troughs and brought up the corneous
rock in a mountain mass on the west side of the lake. Evidence
of an anticlinal in this line is found in the dip of the fossiliferous
limestones near the quartzose rocks farther on in the strike. Be- |
yond these rocks, east of Georgeville, highly crystalline limestones
appear, which however still display ~ that admit of identifi-
The remaining twenty miles of the section to the Connecticut
exhibit these crystalline micaceous limestones, interstratified with
suft micaceous slates; the calcareous beds predominate for a few
miles, but the calcareous matter finally gives . to silicious,
and the slates become stronger. Some of the prior argillaceous
rt contain chiastolite, and others exhibit hornblende and gar-
nets. ‘The limestones are more or less micaceous, and often very |
erystalline; some are quite white, while others are grayish or :
blackish, Even the most crystalline present on their weathered
surfaces the forms of eucrival dises and corals ; i in several
the Riviere de Famine, the rock, which is here less sol
i
i
:
;
Geology of Canada. 19
fossiliferous beds appear to be near the base of the formation.
The rocks of this valley, southeast of the corneous range, are
often pierced with masses of a fine-grained, beautiful granite,
which forms large dykes and often considerable areas, displacing
the caleareous formation. A range of granite-topped hills bounds
the valley on the southeast, to the sources of the Chaudiére, and
constitutes the height of land.
he facts which we have stated seem to show that the sand-
stones and red slates with their chromiferous chloritic bands, are
identical with the dolomitic, chloritic and quartzose rocks of Sut-
ton valley, and these with the serpentines and quartzose rocks of
the valley of the Missisquoi; so “that the whole of the Green
Mountain rocks, including those containing the auriferous quartz
veins, belong to the Hudson River group, with the possible addition
of a part of the Shawangunk conglomerates.” The fossiliferous
rocks of the St. Francis valley are evidently Upper Silurian and re-
ferable to the Niagara limestones; a similar formation has been met
with at Gaspé and traced one hundred and fifty miles 8.W.; and
from the similarity of the Notre Dame to the Green Mountains
and the fact that the Hudson River rocks are continuous along
the St. Lawrence to Cape Rosier, we may conclude that the Up-
per Silurian rocks will be found continuous, or nearly so, throngh-
out. They constitute the calcareo-micaceous formation of Prof,
Adams, which he has traced nearly to the southern line of Ver-
mont. Resting upon this formation in Gaspé is a body of arena-
ceous rocks, seven thousand feet thick, which apparently corres-
pond to the Chemung and Portage group of New York. with the
old red sandstones. As this formation is found extending quite
to the Mississippi, it is probable that it will accompany the Silu-
rian rocks through New England and surround the coal fields o
New Brunswick, of Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island. To
this may perhaps be referred in part the rocks of the White Moun-
tains, which may sweep around the Western border of the Massa-
chusetts anthracite formation until lost under the super-carbonifer-
ous rocks of the Connecticut River. The limestones of Western
New England seem to be no other than the metamorphic Tren-
ton limestones of Phillipsburg, while the chlorito-epidotie rocks
and serpentines of Sutton valley appear again in the rocks of
southern Connecticut between these limestones and the new red
sandstone. With such a key to the structure of the metamorphic
rocks of New England and of the great Appalachian chain of
which these form a part, we may regard the difficulties that have
long environed the subject as in a great degree removed, h
bold conjectures as to their metamorphic origin which have been
from time to time put forth, fully vindicated.
20 Ash Analyses.— Product of action of Nitric acid on Woody Fibre.
Arr. III.—Ash Analyses ; by Jno. A. Porter.
[Read before the Cambridge Scientific Association, Sept. 27, 1849.]
Tue following analyses of the ashes of hay, oats and the refuse
of the whiskey distillation from potatoes, were intended as the
starting point of an investigation which had for its object the cou-
sideration of the proportions and relations of the salts contained in
the food, and in the liquid and solid excrements of animals. This
investigation was interrupted by circumstances, but as the analyses
have a certain valne independent of the special object for which
they were intended, they are here made public. ‘The method
employed was, without material variation, that of Fresenius and
Will, (see Fresenius’s quantitative analysis). The alkalies were
determined by the indirect method, that 1s, weighed together either .
as sulphates or as chlorids, and the quantity of each calculated
from that of the sulphuric acid in chlorine found in the mass.
Potato refuse. Oats.
SiO, 2-84 53°97 30-01
so, 6°10 0:49 2-11
PO, 16:78 We de 15:43
co, 12-27 —— 0:68
KO 38:52 12:94 20 80
Na OQ. 4:47 2-02 10:85
Ca O 5°19 3-00 8:24
MgO 7:33 7:08 4-01
Fe, O, 50. 0 60 1:83
NaCl 400. “ing —. 5:09
9900 = 97-45 99-05
The hay was from the grass commonly known as bluetop.
4
Axr. IV.—A Product of the action of Ni ric Acid on Woody
Fibre; by Jno. A. Porter. ©
[Read before the Cambridge Scientific Association, Sept. 27, 1849.]
Tue occasion of the investigation, the results of which are here
giv pp in the Aunales de Chimie etde Physique,*
of an article by Prof. Sace of Neufchatel, Switzerland, on the fune-
tions of pectic acid in the vegetable kingdom. He supposes that
woody fibre is a product of its transformation, and that the retrans-
formation of woody fibre into pectic acid takes place in plants,
under certain circumstances. That the latter transformation is
en, wasth in
* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., [3], xxv, 219-230, -
Product of action of Nitric acid on. Woody Fibre. 21
possible he conceives himself to have proved, by subjecting woody
fibre to the action of nitric acid, the product of such action being a
substance which he regards as pectic acid. From this in connec-
tion with other circumstances, he infers the probability of the
same change under the influence of certain agencies in the living
plant. The grounds presented by Prof. Sace for believing that
the substance above mentioned was pectic acid, are scarcely suffi-
cient. The object of the present investigation, ane at
the suggestion of Prof. Liebig, was to decide this
Prof. Sace’s process was repeated, and the sie of the sub-
stance obtained were compared with those of the substance ac-
knowledged as pectic acid, obtained from aeenipa: The latter
was prepared according to the method of Chodnew
2UU grammes shavings of white pine were oe some hours
with 2 kilogrammes nitric acid of commerce and 400 grammes
distilled water, and the white pasty mass that resulted washed |
out with water, likewise distilled. Prot. Sace found a sample of
the mass thus obtained, perfectly soluble in dilute ammonia, and
it was this substance dried at 212° F. that he subjected to analy-
sis. ‘The mass obtained by myself was not perfectly soluble in
Water containing ammonia. A substance of syrupy consistence
remained in small quantity upon the filter. ‘The whole ayers
was therefore treated with ammonia and the solution filtere
afterwards precipitated by hydrochloric acid. The onaatileaia
was washed out, at first with slightly acidified water, then with
pure water and finally with alcohol. After pememy drying at
212°, this substance was of a reddish gray colo
Adi fference in its behavior and that of the ‘pecite acid from
turnips is observable on washing out with aleohol—the latter be-
comes fibrous on being primed with the hand ; the former retains
its slimy consistence.
The following are the felts of the comparison of the two
Substances dried at 21
The pectic acid is slightly soluble in boiling water and its solu-
tion coagulable by sugar or alcohol. The substance from w
is on the contrary insoluble 1 in water.
he pectic acid is easily soluble in alkalies and reprecipitable
by acids as a perfectly transparent jelly. The substance from
Wood is difficult of celsdch in alkalies, and the precipitate, at first
transparent, contracts rapidly to white translucent flocks. From
a solution more strongly alkaline it is pean as a light white
powder ; this was not the case with the acid.
The alkaline solutions of both i a Be are precipitable by
alcohol. Either substance boiled with excess of potas ash loses
after a time its property of being precipitated by acids.
* Annalen der Pharmacie, li, 355.
22 Product of action of Nitric acid on Woody Fibre.
The behavior of alkaline solutions of both substances toward
bases is, as far as observed, similar. The silver, lead and copper
salts, for instance, possess a similar appearance.
Hither substance treated with hydrochloric acid, imparts a red
color to the liquid. Sulphuric acid acts similarly, at the same
time blackening the substance and giving off the color of cara-
mel. ith moderately dilute nitric acid their action is different.
The pectic acid is partially transformed into mucic acid, which
separates on cooling as a white crystalline powder, and is further
recognizable by its insolubility in alcohol and its difficult solu-
bility in water. This action was observed by Frémy. Chod-
new obtained no mucic acid, probably because too concentrated
acid was employed. The substance from wood, boiled with acid
of the same concentration, is gradually transformed into oxalic
acid ; the solution yields no precipitate on cooling.
The substance employed in the following analyses was dried
at 212°, then p ilverized and afterward dried again at 212°, until
there was no farther loss of weight. It contained no trace of
. hitrogen.
Its per-centage of ash was determined in two portions.
I. 05390 grm. yielded ash, 00020 grm. =00-37 per cent.
If. 0-4768 “ e * 00018 “ =00-38 per cent.
Mean, - - - - ~ 00-375 per cent.
Three combustions of the substance were made with chromate
of lead. The results were as follows:
I. 0°5583 grm. yielded 0°3847, CO, and 0-2925, HO.
If. 03531 “ Wi eosO,. . “0-1 O
III. 0-4602 “ {ee §. OF
The composition in hundred parts, calculated from these anal-
yses, taking the ash into account, is as follows:
I. 1. % Il.
GC’. | B38 eee. 43-16
H : Son =. ‘o7 5:
a wre 50°39 ~~} 51-06
The formula C,, H,, O,, expresses very accurately this com-
ition : 3
Mean of analyses. Calculated from formula.
43:393 ; : 43°44
C
H . ‘ 5863 : : 5°88
O . : 50°744 ‘ ‘ 50°68
The only grounds presented in Prof. Sace’s paper for believing
that the substance analyzed by him was pectic acid, are its ap-
pearance, its ready solubility while yet moist in ammonia, and its
property of being precipitated from this solution by acids. Its
ye
A
he.
W. De la Rue on the Navicula Spencerii. 23
composition is not such, for the quantity of hydrogen it contains
is much greater than that found by any investigator in the sub-
stance acknowledged as pectic acid. The mean results of Chod-
new’s analyses of this acid, to which those of Prof. Sacc most
nearly approach, are as follows—for couvenience of comparison,
Prof. Sace’s results are given in the second column, my own in
the third:
C : 4222 = ave 9 43°39
H 521 593 5:86
O 52:55 52:14 50°75
Chadnew’s formula is C,, H,, O,,=C,, H,,0,;.
Prof. Sacc’s “ « Oca ses Wil aes
The results of my own analyses of the substance from wood
differ from those expressed by the latter formula, principally in
the larger amount of carbon found; they differ also as widely
from those obtained in any analysis of pectic acid. My further
reasons for believing that the substance is not such, are, first, its
different behavior on washing with alcohol ; second, its insolubil-
ity in boiling water; third, the form of the precipitate obtained
from a solution in excess of alkali; and finally, the fact that while
pectic acid is partially transformed into mucic acid on being
boiled with nitric acid, this is not the case with the substance
under consideration. 2 geo
My further conclusion from the investigation is that the real
formula of the new acid is J Rhy Dias
Arr. V.—On the Navicula Spencerii ; by Warren De va Roe.
(In a letter to the Editors, dated London, August 28, 1849.)
Some time since, my attention was called to an article, in your
Journal, for March, 1849, from the pen of Prof. J. W. Bailey, enti-
tled, “Some remarks on the Navicula Spencerii, and on a still
more difficult test object ;” as this article contains some strictures
on the description® of the markings on this Navicula observed by
Mr. Marshall and myself, I trust, you will allow me an opportu-
nity of replying to Prof, Bailey, in your valuable Journal.
I avail myself of this opportunity to correct Mr. Quekett, with
respect to the nature of the markings observed by us ;—he says,
“Mr. De la Rue has further made out that the dots are not pro-
jections from the surface, but are either perforations or depres-
sions ;”—now this is precisely the reverse of what I wished, but
apparently failed, to convey to Mr. Quekett, in a conversation
with him, respecting this and some others of the Navicula-
* See Quekett on the use of the Microscope, page 440 and plate ix.
i)
ie a
24 W. De la Rue on the Navicula Spencerii.
cee ; the markings of some I hold to be depressions, but those of
N. Spencerii to be wart-like prominences.
With this correction, | proceed to answer Prof. Bailey, first pre-
mising, that 1 bear most willing testimony to the strong feeling
of justice and absence of national prejudice, which pervades all
the letters written by that gentleman to my friend, Mr. Marshall,
whenever he speaks of the labors of English opticians ; likewise
the absence of any wish to eulogize Mr. Spencer’s productions,
at the expense of others. It is not, perhaps now, an unfitting
occasion, to state that English microscopists have, during a long
een much indebted to the kindness and zeal of Prof.
Bailey, furnishing them, through the medium of the gentlemen
favored by his correspondence, with any new objects, his inves-
tigations might have brought to light. I mention this, in order to
show that the highest esteem is entertained by the English micro-
scopist for Prof. Bailey, and that it is unlikely that he would be
charged directly or indirectly, “ with underrating the Euglish mi-
roscopes,” or with any wish to “ overrate the merits of Mr. Spen-
cer’s, or the difficulties of N. Spencerii as a test object ;’? more
especially by those who have, like myself, had an opportunity of
seeing portions of his correspondence relating to the subject.
As [ hold, that the difficulty of the N. Spencerii has been un-
willingly overrated, if the exhibition of its markings, as mere lines,
be the only test of the powers of an oct a I should be
wanting in candor, if I did not record my o
Not having taken part in the anvidapoiderits quoted by Prof.
Bailey, I do not, in any way, hold myself answerable for the oppo-
site impressions, it may tend to convey ; it is not however a ques-
tion, of what this or that observer is capable of showing with a
given object glass, but what the ‘glass can really be made to do.
With one exception, I believe that none of the object glasses, spo-
ken of by Prof. Bailey’s London correspondent, were incapable of
resolving the Navicula; the fairness of which reference I hope to
establish. The exception [ allude to, is Mr. Marshall’s own glass,
which, on careful examination, we found to be defective ; and,
in consequence, it was placed in the hands of the maker.
I will now as briefly as possible, state my acquaintance with
the N. Spencerii, in order to show that any difficulty in resolving
— posi was not due to the object glasses possessed by th
“ Lon
It was a A batquentiy to the rig dated 2nd June, 1848,
quoted by Prof. Bailey, that I heard of the Spencerii, when Mr.
object from America, which he would be glad of an opportunity
of examining with me, as he could make nothing of it; an mn Op yor
Inity soon presented itself and we met at my house. —
|
:
W. Dela Rue on the Navicula Spencerii. 25
The object alluded to, was a slide of the N. Spencerii mount-
ed in balsam, and sent over to Mr. Marshall by Prof. Bailey ; two
rings marked with a diamond, indicated two objects to be exam-
ined. The test having been illuminated with oblique light, from
a lamp with and without the use of the mirror, was examined
with a Ross’s ;;th having only an aperture of 90°; this ebject-
ive had been in m possession for some years, and was far infe-
rior to those Ross was furnishing, with an aperture from 115°
*
Very little difficulty was now experienced in bringing out sep-
arately both sets of lines most distinctly, by illuminating in two
different directions. We now attempted to examine the object
with a Ross’s ,';th, of 110°; but, owing to the thickness of the
4 coveriug-glass, we could not get it on the object ; as it was an
; only 2 gp we did not deem it advisable to change the cover-
ing-glass
In consequence, Mr. Marshall undertook to write to Prof. Bailey,
to request the favor of a little of the deposit, in order to mount
t fresh specimens, both dry and in balsam; the former with the
| view of studying the nature of the markings under the most fav-
orable circumstances.
I believe Iam right in saying that the first parcel which arrived
was lost by an accident; at all events, it was not until the 14th
of August. 1848, that Mr. Marshall had prepared specimens with
covering-glass sufficiently thin for our large aperture ;';ths. —
that day he wrote to me, “I have prepared two sides for you,
one in balsam and the other dry, they have,been both evaporated
on bi covering-glass which is exceedingly thin. * * * * I should
to go over the slides 1 have prepared, and particularly the
ios mounted one, for the purpose of resolving it, if we can, by
direct light. The Bank is so disturbed by the heavy omnibuses
that your own quiet room is the best place, and if you should be
disengaged some evening, I will go to your house, taking with
me se" slides and two or three others which I have for your
cabine
Reva to his Felting the above, we had succeeded in
owing the markings with a ~ aperture 4th inch objective of
Ross's make, having an aperture of 80°. This fact was com-
municated verbally to the vpeehinc 4 Society, on one of the
ordinary meetings, by Mr.
aving again met at iy eae we examined the dry and
Isamed specimens; as we were well acquainted with the
N. angulata, we at once proceeded with the view of ascertaining
= s Si ae St
a
*
* Mr. Ross, some time back, succeeded in making a coset with an cache of
_ 1359, in which the aberratio ns were well corrected. It is now in the possession of
Dr. Leeson,
Szconp Sznms, Vol, IX, No. 25.—Jan,, 1850. 4
26 W. Dela Rue on the Navicula Spencerii.
whether the N. Spencerii had similar dot-like markings ; to deter-
mine this was a matter of greater difficulty than to resolve them
into cross lines; but, after working for about an me the dry
specimen was most satisfactorily resolved; and the dots s exhib-
ited on that occasion we did not succeed so well in : ae in
the markings of the balsamed specimen. Direct illumination
was used on this occasion, the illuminator being a 4th inch object
glass of 60°.
It appears that Mr. Marshall communicated in his letter of the
18th August, 1849, quoted by Prof. Bailey, that the dry specimen
had been resolved into dots, and that ere long, he hoped to report
the resolution of the balsamed specimen ; this has been since re-
peatedly accomplished, but, whether recorded or not by Mr.
Marshall, I cannot sa
I feel I am warranted in pronouncing the markings of the
Navicula Spencerii shown as lines, not to have been a difficult
test for the object glasses of the ‘‘ Londoners” at the time of its
arrival. It appears it was so, however, for some observers, and
Prof. Bailey drew from his correspondents’ letters the. very fair in-
ference, that the instrument was at fault and not themselves ; he
supports, ererer my conclusion, when he states that the micro-
n the hands of their r possessors, had failed to show
the ai itees. sod resolved them in his.
With regard to the measurements of the distance of the marie
ings, fixed by Prof. Bailey at values so widely different from my
own, I have to remark, that I delayed answering his communica-
tion, in order to repeat my measurements with everypossible pre-
caution
Prof. Bailey states the distances of the markings to be from
rrvsasth tO g5y'sazth of an ineh, whilst I assign to them a
value of from ;;4,;,;th to ae 4 of an inch, (from centre
. — of the spots.) That the measurement given by me
t very wide of the truth, I will proceed to show, and I
Scliews that Prof. Bailey, on reference to his notes or on repeating
the measurement, will trace out the cause of the error he has
fallen into
My previous measurements were made with a ruled microm-
eter, used with a positive eye-piece, the value of whose divisions
had been rigorously estimated by comparison with a micrometer
of ;,';,th of an inch, placed on the stage of the microscope.
have now repeated the estimation by a different, and I believe
. ageeptd method to that I employed before, viz., by illumina-
ing the object to show alternately the markings as cross and
icmeendion lines, and then drawing them, by the aid of a small
toe reflector, shown at page 129 of Mr. ‘Quekett’s work. Re-
ing the microscope in exactly the same position, I removed
i object, and placed on the stage of the mi oe ig a mi-
W. Dela Rue on the Navicula Spencerii. 27
crometer of ;;',;th of an inch which I sketched on the paper ;
having by comparison roughly estimated the value of the mark-
ings, [ then selected two sets of lines from Nobert’s test. slide,
The drawing of the markings, that of the micrometer of
sa'ssth of an inch, and those of Nobert’s series, were compared
together by taking a sufficient number of lines in a pair of di-
viders, and the distance of the markings thus ascertained. This
Operation was repeated, first with an eye-piece, magnifying 1200
diameters, then with one magnifying 1900 diameters. The dis-
tances of the cross markings from two different sides of the shell,
estimated with the first eye-piece, was ;;!,,th and ;z!,,th res-
pectively, with the second eye-piece, the distances for the same
part of the shell, were ;<},;th and ;;3,,th respectively. The
longitudinal markings in both cases I found to be ;,4,;,th of an
inch. All these values are from centre to centre, and are suffi-
ciently concordant, amongst themselves and with those previously
given, to establish my measurements beyond doubt. The differ-
ence in distance between the cross and longitudinal lines, accounts
for the greater difficulty one experiences in resolving the latter.
Measurements of the markings of the hippocampus gave the
following values: for the distance of the centres of the cross
markings sath of an inch and for the longitudinal ;534,th
of an inch; these were fully confirmed by comparison with
Nobert’s lines of ;3/7;th and ,,1;;thof an inch,
In order that others may be able to judge of the reliance to be
placed on the values here given, I snbjoin the following measure-
ments of some of Nobert’s lines, and the real values assigned by
esc ; these were made without knowing at the time Nobert’s
values: °
73
ch;
Lines to the inch (English).
De la Rue Nobert. De la Rue Nobert.
eaeel 11261 32000 32175
13043 13056 37037 37537
15200 15426 408 16 40950
17647 18163 43103 42982
20454 20475 45045 45016
23666 | 23461 47468 47619
27272 28153 50000
I would wish here to record my admiration of the skill of Mr.
Nobert, who has ruled at my request a series of progressive lines,
fifteen in number, running from 11260 lines to 56300 lines to an
inch, and a separate band on the same slide of 112613 lines to the
inch, besides other series very useful to me in comparing with
ie cee
-
28 W. Dela Rue on the Navicula Spencerit.
pense ; these have some of the finer series crossed at angles
and 120° respectively, and afford a good control of the
i a one’s conclusions respecting the nature of their ———
All the straight bands, with the exception of the last, can
made out by “oblique light with my quarter of 80° before slluded
to. ‘The last series of Yeealve of an inch I can see to be lined,
on using a ;;th object glass of 110°, but up to the present mo-
ment, I have not satisfied myself that the lines I see do not com-
prise two of the real lines. It is, at all events, worthy of experi-
mental inquiry, to ascertain whether the physical properties of
light donot put a natural limit to our resolving lines so close as
the ;5;';;;th and the ;,,'s;;th of an inch, quoted by Prof. mers
the celebrated Fraunhofer maintained that this was the case
After what I have said, in the commencement of this commu-
nication, it is hardly necessary for me to state that I quite agree
with Prof. Bailey, that the markings on the Spencerii are due to the
allinement of prominences; I moreover concur in his views res-
pecting the difficulty of deciding on the real nature of the mark-
ings, on objects so minnte as ‘the Naviculacee. One thing is
owever quite certain, that a much inferior glass, provided it have
a sufficient angle of aperture, will suffice t o show even both sets
of lines at one time, than that required to ee them out as dis-
tinct dots without any blue or fuzziness. Bringing out both sets
of lines at once is to me a well know phenomenon and quite dif-
ferent from the exhibition of markings by the image of a lumin-
ous object brought to focus in the plane of the object.
I must not be understood to affirm positively that Mr. Spencer’s
glasses will not do this, for I have never had an opportunity of
examining one. On a late occasion a recent objective of Spen-
cer’s was however tried in my presence by the possessor on the
N. angulata, but, though very excellent, it did not equal our English
twelfths. Judging from Mr. Spencer's. roduction, I feel assured
that he is a man of too much merit to feel hurt at this criticism.
As [am unacquainted with Mr. a. new test, I cannot
speak as to its difficulry.
would recommend* Natchet’s condensing prism to the atten-
tion of all microscopists engaged in the examination of lined ob-
jects; it brings out the dot-like markings of the N. Spencerii with
remarkable force, even in balsamed specimens. It consists of a
prism, which, by two internal reflections and the inclined convex
surface of its summit, condenses light at an angle of 35° on to
the object. By mounting it in such a way that it may be tee
Cae as brought to a focus, it answers all the purpose
g’s stage.
* Mr. Natchet is an optician resident in Paris
Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 29
The feat with the hand tube mentioned by Dr. Bailey is surely
rather a tour de force for the observer, than for the objective o
the “ Yankee Backwoodsman ;” who, if report speaks truly, is a
highly educated American gentleman, with taleuts and acquire-
ments sufficient to remove any obstacles to the attainmeut of a
position amongst the first opticians of his day.
Art. VI.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey.
(Continued from vol. viii, p. 350.)
No. 241. C. lupuliformis, Sartwell, lupulina, Muh., var. polys-
tachya, Schw. and Tor. in Mon. Cyp. Tor., No. 132, p. 420.
Spicis staminiferis 1-3 ohlongis, snprema longo-pedunculata
squamas lanceolatas acutas habente, inferis perbrevibus sessilibus
subbracteatis: pistilliferis 3-5 longo-cylindraceis superne aggre-
gatis subsessilibus, infima nunc subdistante nunc remota exserte
ongo-pedunculata, folioso-bracteatis sublaxifloris; fructibus éi-
stigmaticis globoso-ovatis inflatis teretibus scabrostratis sessilibus
Striatis glabris bicornibus, squama ovata cuspidata plusquam duplo
longioribus. oe
Culm 2-3 feet high, erect, large, smooth on its angles, wit
long leafy bracts and with the lanceolate rough-edged and reticu-
late lsaves surpassing the culm; stamiuate spikes 1-3, cylindric,
slightly bracteate, with long lanceolate scales, the upper spike 2-4
inches Jong and pedunculate, the lewer short and sessile and
rarely androgynous; pistillate spikes 3-5, cylindric, 2-3 inches
long, clustered above and nearly sessile, erect or slightly diverging,
the lowest often quite remote and long exsertly pedunculate, all
with leafy bracts and the lower sheathing; stigmas three; fruit
globose-ovate, tapering into a long and serrulate and two forked
beak, quite sessile ; pistillate scale ovate, cuspidate, scarcely half
as long as ‘the fruit; achenium rhomboid with a prominent node
on the angles. F
Differs from C. lupulina, Muh., in its much longer and more
numerous spikes, its globose ovate fruit, closely sessile, with its
serrulate beak, its ovate scale, its rhomboid and nodose achenium,
its nearly bractless staminate spikes, its general and glabrous ap-
pearance, and its coming to maturity near a month later. It
Seems not to be U. gigantea, Rudge, which has been considered
another form cf C. lupulina. In several respects the plant now
described differs from these two like C. Grayit, Carey, from
C. intumescens, Rudge. ;
Found about lakes, ponds and marshes in the northern states
and Canada—not very common
30 On the Nitrates of Iron.
No. 242. C. torta, Boott. C. acuta, Schk. Tab. Ff, fig. 92 6.
Spica staminifera unica, interdum binis, cylindracea ; pistillife-
ris ternis vel pluribus longo-cylindraceis sublaxifloris, basin par-
vis et sparsifloris, apice substaminiferis, superne sessilibus, inferne
pedunculatis, divergentibus vel recurvatis; fructibus distio-mati-
cis ovatis utrinque convexis, superne teretibus acuminatis et inter-
dum recurvatis, squamam lanceolatam subobtusam interdum su-
he i seepe pears an
Culm near two feet high, erect, rather slender, eiqaetTone:
scarcely rough on the acts leafy towards the base ; leaves
ceolate, smooth or soft, shorter than the culm ; lower bract iii
as the culm, the upper shorter or nearly wanting ; pistillate spikes
usually three, sometimes four, long, slender, sometimes enlarging
upwards, very sparse-frnited towards the base of lower spikes,
recurved i in maturity, and the lower pedunculate, the upper ses-
sile; stigmas two; fruit ovate, convex on both sides, short or
long tapering upwards to a point and some recurved ; pistillate
scale lanceolate. obtusish, narrower than the fruit, black with a
green keel, sometimes longer, but more ‘commonly a little shorter
than the fruit; culm and leaves light
Grows in wet places over the United "States This plant dif-
fers poor from the European and American form of C. acuta, L.,
as properly described as a distinct species by Dr. Boott, the
Bistingt en secretary of the Linnean Society. It is probable
that Schk. derived his figure, No. 92 6, from American specimens,
and in his time he might reasonably consider the plant to be a
variety of C. acuta, L. It is not C. acuta var. sparsiflora, D.
Art. VII.—On the Nitrates of Tron and some other Nitrates ;
by Joun M. Orpway,* of the me ae Laboratory, Mass.
Sesquinirrate of iron may be easily obtained in the form of
crystais by taking advantage of the fact, that this salt is almost
insoluble in cold nitric acid.
When metallic iron is svexadoulty added to nitric acid of sp. gr.
1-29, copious red fumes are given off, and the liquid assumesa
greenish hue, till nearly ten per cent. ‘of iron has been taken up.
reach. Indeed, respecting the com
Fes is mportance in Aeriog the vd gps
us “azotate ferrique” is
mie et re Physique, as “ “dun brun
]
}
j
|
|
|
a > o
On the Nitrates of Iron. 31
A farther additioft changes the color to a dark red, and if the
action be continued still longer, a rusty precipitate forms. If we
stop short of this last point, and add to the product its own bulk
of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:43, an abundant crop of erystals will be
deposited on cooling below 60° F. The same result may be at-
tained by evaporating the greenish liquid, and adding acid enough
to insure a considerable excess, before setting the solution aside
to cool. If the first crystals are brown, they may be purified by
redissolving in nitric acid, with the aid of a gentle heat, and allow-
ing again to crystallize.
The crystals thus obtained, have the form of oblique rhombic
prisms, which are either colorless or of a delicate lavender color,
but when dissolved in water, yield a yellowish brown solution.
They are somewhat deliquescent and very soluble in water;
while ata temperature below 60° F., a weighed quantity was not
wholly taken up by over tweuty parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:37.
At about 117° F., this salt melts into a clear, deep red liquid,
which in one trial remained fiuid till cooled to 83° F., when the
heat developed by solidification, quickly raised the thermometer
to 116°.
The composition of this substance, as indicated below, affords.
reasons for supposing that by its admixture with a bicarbonate,
an intense cold might be produced. Such proved to be the case,
for when two ounces of the bruised crystals were stirred up with
one ounce of pulverulent bicarbonate of ammonia, the thermom-
eter introduced fell from 58° to —5° F. Previous cooling is at-
tended with an increase of effect. é
These experiments, being very tangible, would furnish excel-
lent illustrations of the principles o e
A small quantity of the melted nitrate kept hot for several
hours by means of a water bath, yielded a perfectly dry, dark
brown, deliquescent powder, containing some water and one half
the original amount of acid. More acid may be expelled by a
moderate heat, but to drive off the last portions, requires a tem-
perature approaching to redness. ne j
he well drained crystals afforded by precipitation with am-
monia 19-8 p. c. of peroxyd of iron, and 100 grs. boiled with
carbonate of baryta, gave a liquor which with’ sulphuric acid
smes rectan-
erhaps the rectangulaire was a mistake, for in several
‘ have obtained forms variously modified but all referable to the ob-
lique rhombic system. In one huge crystal which ha n many months in forming,
th a view to obtain more light on the subject, have
y not be altogether uninteresting, and are, I trust,
32 On the Nitrates of Iron.
* yielded 86:5 grs. of sulphate of baryta, indicatirlg 40-104 p. c. of
dry nitric acid. Hence the formula is probably N, Fe +18H,
which would give in 100 parts ;—nitric acid 40-095, peroxyd of
iron 19°819, water 40-086.
Basic nitrates —A liquid is used in cotton dyeing, which is
prepared by adding iron turnings to pe till the solution
assumes a very dark red color. A fair sample of this solution, of
sp. gr. 1-478, was found by analysis to contain five equivalents of
nitric acid to two equivalents of sesquioxyd of iron, A portion
of the same placed in contact with metallic iron, remained clear
until nearly enough iron had been taken up to form a sesquibasic
nitrate, ( N, Fe ,) when a —, precipitate began to appear, whose
exact nature it is difficult t
A full sesquibasic idtvaner was formed by adding crystals of the
nitrate to the proper quantity of freshly precipitated oxyd of iron.
And proceeding by the same means, but with slow and cautions
steps, as into an unknown region, I was successively astonished by
the discovery of soluble basic nitrates containing to three equiva-
lents of acid, two, three, six, eight, twelve, fifteen, eighteen and
pees on equivalents of base, respectively and then, from the
ith which the union took place in the last, I suppose
ants limit Riche: Yet this liquid was found to bear the addition
of a small quantity of lime water, without change.
On arriving at these remarkable results, the question naturally
came up, whether there were any chances of error. But on ex-
amination, no foreign substance was detected, and the analyses of
the six, twelve, fifteen, and twenty-four bagic compounds, agreed
so nearly with the syntheses as to remove all doubts
ich of these bodies have claims to be reg arded as true
titi compounds, there seems to be no clue but fansioay to de-
termine. hey all form intensely deep red liquids, which are
not altered by dilution, nor by brisk boiling, provided the evapo-
ration be not carried too far. By spontaneous evaporation they
leave a very dark red powder, perfectly soluble in water. That
left by the dodecabasic nitrate, was not deliqnescent, and lost
30 p. c. of its weight by ignition. Hence its empirical composi-
tion would be N Fe, +9H.
When cotton cloth is dipped in any of ides solutions, and
dried, the oxyd of iron becomes permanently attached. Indeed
the adhesion of the base to cotton fibre, renders filtration through
paper exceedingly slow
Since spring and river water, and the solutions of most salts,
are rar with the twenty-four basic nitrate, it was found
necessary to use an abundance of distilled water for washing the
oxyd used in its preparation. So intense was the color of this
.
*
On the Nitrates of Iron. 33
liquid that, though containing only 3-4 p. c. of oxyd of iron, two *
rops imparted. a perceptible tinge to a pint of distilled water.
In trying the reactions of various subtances with it, all the iron
appeared to be immediately thrown down by muriate of ammonia,
chlorid of sodium, iodid of potassium, chlorate of potash, sul-
phates of soda, lime, zine and copper, nitrates of potash and soda,
and the acetates of baryta and zinc. Precipitates formed more
slowly with the nitrates of ammonia, magnesia, baryta and lead.
Tartrate of soda furnished a precipitate soluble in ammonia.
Ferrocyanid of potassium gave a dark peat-brown precipitate
without the least tinge of blue. Ferrocyanid of potassium gave
likewise a rich peat-brown precipitate. Tincture of galls afford-
ed dark brown flocks, and on standing some time, the supernatant
liquor turned black. Alcohol, acetate of lead, acetate of coprer,
cyanid of mercury, nitrate of silver, and arsenious acid caused no
change.
With the tribasic nitrate, muriate of ammonia, chlorid of sodium
and nitrate of soda produ ced no effect ; while the sulphates threw
down all the iron, prussiate of potash struck a blue color, and
tincture of galls gave a black.
Nitrate of Alumina.—Nitrate of alumina crystallizes from a
concentrated and somewhat acid solution, in colorless oblique
rhombic prisms, whose height i is generally small in proportion to
their width. They are deliquescent, and very soluble both in
water and in nitric acid. The crystals, like those of the other
sesquinitrates, can be best dried by spreading them on an absorb-
ent surface, and placing the whole under a bell glass, along with
a shallow vessel containing on acid.
The salt was found to melt at 163° F., into a clear colorless
liquid, which began to ccyatal when eooled down to poet
the thermometer rapidly rising, at the same time, to 102°.
melted mass parts with its acid much less rapidly than the tee
of iron. One ounce of the powdered salt mixed with one-half
ounce of inceieinate of ammonia, lowered the thermometer from
51° to -
100 vt pretty dry crystals, yielded by ignition 13-7 grs. of
ainiices Distillation with sulphuric acid gave 42 p. c. of nitrie
acid, and by boiling with carbopate of baryta, 42:42 p. c. was
separated. The numbers corresponding to N, Al+18H, would
be in 100 parts :—nitric acid 43-17, alumina 13-68, water 43-25.
Nitrate of alumina appears to form with the hydrate, a series
of salts similar to the basic nitrates of iron. But they have not
as yet been fully examined.
Nitrate of Chrome.—Nitrate of chrome crystallizes with diffi-
culty in warm weather, but I have succeeded in obtaining two
crops, one of them presenting the form of the wae rhombic
Seconp Serres, Vol. Ix, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
34 J. Wyman on the Engeé-ena.
* prism, and the other a very deeply modified variety of the same.
These crystals have the changeable purple color peculiar to the
salts of chrome, and their solution in water is of the same hue
while cold, but becomes green when heated..
This salt fused at about 98° F. into a deep green fluid, which
began to assume the solid state when cooled to 75°, the ther-
mometer rising thereupon to 96°. If heated to redness, it under-
goes complete decomposition, leaving a bulky oxyd of a beauti-
ful nee color.
composition of nitrate of chrome was found by analysis
to rai nitric acid 39: 7 p.c., oxyd of chrome 19 p.c. Calculation
=!
>
from the formula N, C1+18H, gives: nitric acid 40-44, sesqui-
oxyd of chrome 19: 13, water 40-43.
No experiments have been made on the basic salts.
Roxbury, Mass., Oct. Ist, 1849.
Arr. VII[._—A description of two additional Crania, of the En-
gé-ena, ( Troglodytes gorilla, Savage,) from Gaboon, Africa ;
y Jerrries Wyman, M
“Rend before the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 8d, 1849.
ime evillenes now existing of a second and gigantic African
species of man-like ape, as appears from published reports, con-
sists of the following remains :—1. Four crania in the United
States, two males and two females, of a large portion of a male
skeleton, and of the pelvis and of some of the bones of a female.
hese were the first remains of this animal which had been
brought to the notice of naturalists, and were described in the
Boston Journal of Natural History.*—2. Three other crania sub-
sequently discovered exist in — ‘and have been made the
subject of an elaborate memoir by Prof. Owen, in the Transactions
of the Zoological Society of London.t—3. Quite recently, Dr.
George A. Perkins, for many years an able and devoted laborer in
the Missionary enterprise at Cape Palmas, W. Africa, has brought
to the United States, two additional crania, one of which is depos-
ited in the Museum of this Society, and the other i in that ao eo
* See Proceedings of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Aug. qs 1847 ‘ao a ele
scrip-
tion of characters and habits of stage are? gorilla, by Thom avage, M.D.,
ya Memb, Bost. Soc. Nat. His “ and 0 Ostoology of the oti by Jeffries
Wyman, M.D., Bostc nm Journ. Nat. ist., we
Osteologial nama to Re Natural | ikiory' ‘f ae Siete one ( Troglo-
a large s
off,) in cluding the description of the skull species, (7. gorilla,
nie discovered by Thomas 8. age, M.D, i “thy Gabon gy West
by Prof. Owen, F.RS., &e, Read Feb. 22, 1 Zoolog. Society of
25,
Vol. iii, p. 381, 1849,
\
J. Wyman on the Engé-ena. 35
Essex Institute in Salem. Both of these have been referred to
me for the purposes of description, and it is the object of this com-
munication to notice the more important anatomical features of
this the largest of African Quadrumana, with regard to whic
ne information is desire
Cranium I. Mate.—This belonged to an adult Engé-ena,* as is
sdaliian deci the fact that the teeth are all perfectly developed ;
yet not to an old one, as appears from the circumstances that the
Tap the crania of r sri of = be ot and of the cranium
of a cx abe a Pcaae in -sariohg ae tenths.—Nos. 2, 6, 7 an e in inches and —
‘Troglodytes g¢ ee i i ed
Males \Fe s. Male. |Female. Man
| L pat TT, VV 7 Vil.| Vill. | 1x.
(a ing of Peon mgt ai Pont to 11-2114 lio 0 10291090! 80 | 79 | 96
Greatest breath across post-audit- 6 * 6: eH 6: ‘ 5 ‘ 52:56) 50 | 46 | 6-4
Sma lest aineter behind orbits, 2° 5 3°3 29 27| 25/24) 26 | 28° | Sa]
across zygomatic } ie 66 nl 64 55/53) 60 | 48 | 57
Diameter thon outside the middle )
su mprecrten i dge,
|
From occiput to most proveihent L| ng « 65) 63'61| 54 | 58 | 72
i ve |
|
From sup. orb. ridge to edge of in- Bz .
thiive siventua dg | 48) | 57 60 40 | 44 | 85
Breadth of zygomatic fossa, L718 | 1-9, 1:8, 14/15) 13 | Ve | bl
Inter-orbitar ‘space, Fl] 13 [1-2 1:1) 10)1-1] 08 | 07 | 12
Trans erse diameter of orbits, 15) 19 | 18 16 14/16) 15 | 16 | 16
“hacer ea £16) 17 es 1-6) 14/17} 1g | 18 | 18
alate Pr ts) i
edge of inca alveols ute oy et ‘Shs Bion eto v4)
From anter r edge of foram: “
1 ara outer edge of i ‘abliive ; .
eolus, |
ioe L and V. were the ones bevtight by Dr. Savage to this country—II, V1,
VIL and VIIL are the crania described by Prof. Owen; IIL and IV. are the crania
ium 0
net, Specimen No.
a :
fae of the Boston Soc. for Med. iapeoetsict See Datalogie of Society's
61)
This cranium does not agree with that figured by Prof. Owen
in his memoir (Pl. Ixi.) i in the exclusion of the orbits from view
* Prof. Owen des ignates T. gorilla as the “Great Chimpanzée.” The M s
testa mu tubing the ona “4 the Gaboon 2 a this species the Engé-ena, a more
arabl as the: impanzée has been always associated with the black
36 J. Wyman on the Engé-ena.
by the prominent malar bones when the skull is seen in profile, but
as was the case in those discovered by Dr. Savage, the nasal bones
are wholly, and the orbit in part brought into view. In none
of them is it more excluded than in the first figures of our me-
moir. The great ridges above the orbits, which are so widely de-
veloped in 7. niger, are still more so in the present species, an
in the specimen now under consideration sustain the former state-
ments with regard to them. Prof. Owen remarks in connection
with them, “the prominence of the whole supra-orbitar ridge
reaches its maximum in the present species and forms the most
marked distinction in the comparison of its skull. with that of
man.” (Memoir, p. 405.
Aulinel —I have shown ina former communication from an
examination of several crania of the Chimpanzée, that nearly all
the sutures are completely obliterated early during the adult pe-
riod.* From acareful examination of the six crania of the Engé- .
ena to which I have had access, there is every reason to believe that
an early coosification takes place in them also. In the skull now
under consideration, which it is to be remembered, has not long
d the adult period, the frontal, the sagittal, the coronal, the
squamous portion of the temporal sutures, all those in the tempo-
ral fossa as well as the transverse portion of the lambdoidal are
no longs persistent. The crania which have been examined by
Pro or some of them at least, indicate an opposite state
of rime To ascertain, therefore, the value of cranial sutures
as specific signs, it is quite obvious, that a large number of crania
of different ages must be critically examined.
Inter-mazillaries. —T hese bones so important as zoological in-
dications are completely codssified with the maxillaries and with
each other. No indication of asuture exists between them and
the last mentioned bones either on the external surface below the
nasal opeuings, or in the roof of the mouth. I was not able to
find any indications of the ascending portion of the intermaxil-
lary bone which articulates with the nasals, until led by Prof.
Owen’s description to make a more careful search. Although
externally there was no mark which would lead an anatomist to
infer its existence, yet within the nasal cavity at a short distance
from its margiu, the edge of the process was easily detected, 1
not having become coéssified in that region with the adjoining
ne.
The extension of the intermaxillary upwards as far as the ossa
nasi, so as to fon the lateral walls of the external nasal orifice,
restate all caalanmteneeioeric EON ens cts aac nee
* * Boston Kosch of fe Tiel Ay
J. Wyman on the Engé-ena. 37
pointed process. The enlargement of this process in the En-
gé-ena,* so as to form an extensive articulation with the nasal
bones, inasmuch as it is a repetition of what exists in the lower
quadrumana and nearly all the mammalia, must be regarded as an
index of degradation.
Ossa Nasi.—Prof. Owen, in his memoir} on the Engé-ena, in
speaking of the sutures between the nasal maxillary and inter-
maxillary bones, says, ‘it is remarkable indeed since these sutures
remain so distinct in the adult female skull and the two adult
male skulls, in the Bristol Museum, that no trace of them should
have been detected in either of the four skulls taken to America
y Dr. Savage, in which the ossa nasi are described as being
firmly codssified with each other and the surrounding boues,” (the
concluding words of the above sentence he does not quote, viz.,
“but their outline is sufficiently distinct.”) In the cranium
brought by Dr. Perkins, the consolidation of these boues is
equally complete and their ontline is but indistinctly traceable.
In the crania formerly described, the ossa nasi form, on the
median line, a sharp elevation or crest; in the specimen figured
by Prof. Owen, (PI. Ixii,) this is represented by a more rounded
and convex ridge, “and thus offering a feature of approximation
to the human structure which is very faintly indicated, if at all,
in the skull of the 7’. niger.”{ In the cranium now under con-
eration, when compared with the Plate above referred to, the
convexity is still more remarkable, and will bear a more favorable
comparison with the “bridge” of the nose in some of the huma
races,
The expansion of the nasals above, where they are interposed
between the frontals, as described by Prof. Owen, was overlook-
ed in my former description, only very faint indications of sutures
tfemaining. Ona more careful examination, the outline of the
portion of bone interposed between the orbitar process of the
frontals js indistinctly traceable in the male skull discovered by
Dr. Savage, and in both of the crania bronght to this country by
Dr. Perkins; and in all of them, on a line with the upper extrem-
ity of the ascending process of the superior maxillary bone, at
the point where the nasal bones become the most contracted,
there exists an equally strong indication of a transverse suture,
which Separates the portion marked 15/ in Prof. Owen’s figure
from the true nasals, and equally distinct indications of this suture
exist in his figure just referred to. ‘Thus we have strong ground
or the supposition that the part marked 15’ by Prof. O. may not
the expanded portion of the nasals but an additional osseous
element intercalated between the frontals. In this event my orig-
Di ee
* This is very distinctly shown in PI. lxii. of Prof. Owen’s Memoir.
t Op. cit., p. 420, $ Op. cit., p. 393.
38 J. Wyman on the Engé-ena.
inal description of the ossa nasi, “as having a more triangular
form than in the Chimpanzée, the apex being more acute,” still
holds good. If, however, the bone referred to prove to be a por-
tion of the nasals, we shall have in this another index of inferi-
ority to the Chimpanzée, as it is a repetition of what is met with
in the lower quadrumana.
Teeth.—The molars alone remain, the incisors and canines
having been lost. The length of the grinding surface of the
molar teeth is 29 inches, the two rows being nearly parallel to
each other. This is true of the alveoli, though the crowns
slightly diverge from each other posteriorly in consequence of a
inclinatiom outwards. Nearly all of the cusps of the teeth are
rfect, those of the first molar being the most worn, as woul
naturally be expected, it being the first which is protruded. The
inner cusps of this tooth are worn nearly to the base; the outer
are but slightly abraded, and the same is the case with the mner
cusps of the second molar; with these exceptions the points of
the different crowns of the molars and premolars are entire.
In comparing their grinding surface with that of the human
jaw, one cannot but be struck with its greater extent, with the
much greater development of the outer row of cusps, and the
high ridge which on all three of the molars connects the outer
.
buried in its bony cavity, the roots not having as yet been de-
veloped. In the configuration of its grinding surface it did not
conform with either of the other teeth.
lute.—By reference to the table of measurements, it
will be seen that the space between the incisive alveoli and the
edge of the hard palate is much greater proportionally than in
the Chimpanzée. The median suture has disappeared and only
slight indications remain of a former suture between the maxil-
laries and the ossa palati. The emargination on the middle of
the edge of the palate is much less distinct than in either of the
other specimens which I have examined, or than in that figured
by Prof. Owen.
The Vomer has the same thin and delicate structure as in the
other crania and does not meet the ossa palati at the posterior edge.
Cranial capacity.—In studying the anatomical characters of
this and the allied quadrumana with reference to their zoological
position, nothing can be more desirable than to have accurate
knowledge with regard to the structure and dimensions of the
brain, for this may be regarded as one of st i of all
ae
i eT Ss
SPF Te ee ee:
ee ca ne ae
eee
J. Wyman on the Engé-ena. 39
the tests of elevation or degradation. The bodies of the adult an-
thropoid animals so seldom fall into the hands of the anatomist,
that it becomes extremely difficu}t to accumulate observations on
the actual condition of this organ. In the comparative study of hu-
man crania with reference to national peculiarities, much light has
been derived from accurate measurements of their internal capacity.
hese may be readily obtained and form a very important sub-
stitute for the actual dimensions of the brain itself. In the sub-
joined tables I have given the results of the measurements of all
the crania both of Engé-enas and Chimpanzées to which I have
had access while writing these remarks, and as they have been
repeated in each case several times over, they may be regarded as
nearly accurate. ‘The capacity of the third cranium is alone
doubtful; a portion of the occiput having been destroyed, render-
exact measurement impracticable, corer it is believed that
the result can differ but little from the tr
Taste IT—Cranial capacity of adult Sigal.
Cubic inches.
I. Male from Dr. Perkins, . : 34:5
II. Male from Dr. Savage, . : , 28:3
IIL. Male from Dr. Perkins, : j . 2802
IV. Female from Dr. Savage, é ‘ 250
Mean of the four crania, . i . SBOs
Taste I1].—Cranial capacity of adult Chimpanzées, Be
Cubic inches.
I. Female, . : ‘ ‘ . . 260
Il. Female, : : . tagals ‘ 24:0
Ill. Female, . : A : . 22:0
Mean capacity of three skulls, i 24:0
Cranial capacity of young Chimpanzées.
IV. First dentition complete, 200
V. First eae complete ‘but the sutures
obliterated to a less extent than in the
recadindl ; : 18-0
The above results clearly sitionks that ce exists a wide
Tange in the cranial capacity of the Engé-enas, oranee to nine
cubic inches, when both sexes are included in the observation,
While it would be desirable to have the Hedchsewietiss of a much
larger number, we still have evidence for concluding, that in the
gé-ena, as in man,* the capacity of the cranium of the male is
eral gathough re female brains exceed in we ight particular maki brains, the ewer
Is sufficie oe howl that the adult male <——* is heavier than that
of the female, th being from 5 to 6 0 rom the examination
of 278 male brains pees of 191 females, “an average vous } is deduced of ya * for
the oz. for the female.” Quain and Sharpey’s, Quain’s Anatomy ;
edited by Seay Leidy, M. LD, Vol. ii p. 185. Philadelphia, 1840.
AO F. Wyman on the Engé-ena.
larger than that of the female; the smallest male skull of the
Engé-ena measuring twenty- eight cubic inches, and the female
only twenty-five cubic inches.
In Table ILI, the three adults are females, and it is quite
worthy of notice, that the internal capacity of these differs so
little from that of the female Enge-ena, while at the same time
the body of the Chimpanzée is so much smaller than that of the
other species. By comparing the measurements given of the cor-
: responding portions of the skeleton of the Engé-ena and Chim-
panzée, it-will be seen that a much wider difference exists be-
tween them, than exists between the dimensions of their respec-
tive brains.*
It is interesting to ‘contrast the measurements of the cranial
capacity of these members of the Quadrumanous group with that
of some of the more prominent of the human races. ‘The fol-
lowing table which is extracted from the general summary of the
measurements of a vast number of erania, by Dr. S. G. Morton
of Philadelphia, gives in cubic inches the average cranial capacity
of the different races or groups there mentioned.t
Taste [V.
net Largest | Smallest M M.
Races. hes sees ed. | Capacity. | capacity. — pai
Teutonic Race M of CAUCASIANS.
APETTI e5 ooh so aime m0 92 18 114 50 90
fish, < 5 105 91 96 90
Anglo-Americans, ........-+- 7 82 90
Mazay Group.
Malayan family, ...... oe 20 97 68 86 t 85
Polynesian family, . 0.6. 0.00+ 3 84 82 83
American Group.
Toltecan Family.
ruvians, 155 101 58 45
Mexicans, 22) 92 67 19 81
uberis ese Seep a biwees 159 104 70 87
Negro Gro 4,
ate Arian Family, ..: > 62 99 65 83
S a plas Ae suL bag ce 3 83 68 45
A parte oe EME: BS Et 8 63 45
These results are derived from a table which Dr. Morton has
based upou the actual measurements of over 600 skulls. The
smallest mean capacity is that derived from the Hottentots and
Australians, which equals only seventy-five cubic inches, w while
that of the Teutonic races amounts to ninety cubic inches. The —
maximum capacity of the Engé-ena, is therefore con “tralian less
than one half of the mean of the Hottentots and Austra
who give us the minimum average for the human races.
* See Table of comparative measurements. Boston Journal of Natural History,
417.
vol. v, p. 4
+ Catalogue of Skulls of Man and the Inferior animals i in the collection of mel
George Morton, M.D., &c. 3d edition. Philadelphia, 18 9.
J. Wyman on the Engé-ena. 41
Cranium II. Mare.—This cranium belonged to an individual
much older than the one described in the preceding pages, the
ases. ‘The same obliteration of the sutures had taken place, the
malar bones are more tumid, rendering the edge of the lower and
outer part of the orbit more rounded. The floor of the nasal
tery exist on each side. ‘
Zoological position of the Engé-ena.
With the knowledge of the anthropoid animals of Asia and
Africa which now exist, derived from the critical examinations of
their osteology, their dentition, and the comparative size of their
brains by various observers, especially Geoffroy, Tiedemann, Vro-
lik, Cuvier, and Owen, it becomes quite easy to measure with an
approximation to accuracy, the hiatus which separates them from
the lowest of the human race. The existence of four hands in-
roots to the bicuspid teeth, the laryngeal pouches, the elongated
pelvis and its larger antero-posterior diameter, the flattened and
poluted coccyx, the small glutei, the smaller size of the lower
compared with the upper portion of the vertebral column, the
Stconp Serims, Vol. IX, No. 25—Jan,, 1850. 6
3
42 F Wyman on the E'ngé-ena.
long and straight spinous processes of the neck, these and many
other subordinate characters, are chant of the anthropoid
animals, and constitute a wide ween these and the most
de graded 0 of the human races, so wile see the greatest difference
between these last and the noblest specimen of a Caucasian is
inconsiderable in comparison
Whilst it is thus easy to demonstrate the wide separation be-
tween the anthropoid and the human races, to assign a true posi-
tion to the former among themselves is a more difficult task. Mr.
Owen in his earlier memoir, regarded the 7. niger as making the
hearest approach to man, but the more recently discovered T.
rete: he is now induced to believe approaches still nearer, and
regards it as “the most anthropoid of the known brutes.”* This
inference is derived from the study of crania alone, without any
reference to the rest of the skeleton.
After a careful examination of the memoir just referred to, I
am forced to the conclusion, that the preponderance of evidence
is unequivocally opposed to the opinion there recorded ; and after
placing side by side the different anatomical peculiarities of the
two species, there seems to be no alternative but to regard the
Chimpanzée as holding the highest place in the brute creation.
The more anthropoid characters of the 7. gorilla which are re-
referred to by Prof. O., are the following.
1. “ The coalesced central margins of the nasals are projected
forwards, thus offering a feature of approximation to the hu-
man structure, which is very faintly indicated, if at all in 7.
niger.”+ ‘This sa a is applicable to all the crania which I
have seen, and especially to the two crania described in this pa-
per. Nevertheless iis extension of the nasals between the fron-
tals, or the existence of an additional osseous element, is a mark
of greater deviation from man.
“The inferior or alveolar part of the premaxillaries, on the
other hand, is shorter and less prominent in 7". gori//a than in
T. niger, and in that respect the larger species deviates less from
man.”{ The statement in the first portion of this sentence is
certainly correct, but a question may be fairly raised on that in
the second. ‘The lower portion of the nasal opening in the En-
gé-ena is so much depressed, especially in the median line, that
the intermaxillary bone becomes almost horizontal, and the slop-
ing of the alveolar portion takes place so gradually that it is difficult
to determine where the latter commences and thesnasal opening
terminates, ane in this respect it devigies much farther from man
t . nig
4 Pea it next character which is ale a more anthropoid one,
pose explicable in relation to the greater weight of the skull
* Op. eit., vol. iii, p. 414.
eee.
i See
te.
J. Wyman on the Engé-ena. 43
to be poised on the altas, is the greater prominence of the mas-
toid processes in the 7’. gorilla, which are represented only by a
rough ridge in the 7. niger.’’*
4. The ridge which extends from the ecto-pterygoid along the
inner border of the foramen ovale, terminates in 7. gorilla by
an angle or process answering to that called “ styliform” or ‘“ spi-
nous” in man, but of which there is no trace in 7’. niger.t
. “The palate is narrower in proportion to the length in the
I. gorilla, but the premaxillary portion is relatively longer in
T. niger.’’t
These constitute the most important if not the only characters
given in Prof. Owen’s memoir, which would seem to indicate
that the Engé-ena is more anthropoid than the Chimpanzée, and
some of these it is seen must be received with some qualification.
If on the other hand we enumerate those conditions in which
the Engé-ena recedes farther from the human type than the Chim-
panzeée, they will be found far more numerous, and by no means
less important. The larger ridge over the eyes and the crest on
the top of the head and occiput, with the corresponding develop-
ment of the temporal muscles, form the most striking features.
The intermaxillary bones articulating with the nasals, as in the
other Quadrumana and most brutes, the expanded portion of the
nasals between the fiontals,—or an additional osseous element
if this prove an independent bone,—the vertically broader and
more arched zygomata, contrasting with the more slender a
horizontal ones of the Chimpanzée, the more quadrate foramen
lacerum of the orbit, the less perfect infra-orbitar canal, the orbits
less distinctly defined, the larger and more tumid cheek bones,
the more quadrangular orifice with its depressed floor, the greater
length of the ossa palati, the more widely expanded tympanic
cells, extending not only to the mastoid process, but to the squa-
mous portion of the temporal bones, these would of themselves
be sufficient to counterbalance all the anatomical characters stated
by Prof. Owen in support of the more anthropoid character of the —
gé-ena a
of the body, no reasonable ground for doubt remains, that the
Engé-ena occupies a lower position aud consequently recedes fur-
the ,
her from man than the Chimpanzée.
* Op. cit., p. 394, + p. 395. t p. 395.
44 J. Wyman on the Engé-ena.
It does not appear that any other bones of the skeleton have as
yet fallen into the hands of any European naturalist. A descri
tion of some of the more important of them will be found in the
memoir above referred to,* in which it will be seen that there are
two anthropoid features of some importance, which go to support
the view advanced by Prof. Owen, and these are the comparative
length of the humerus and ulna, the former being seventeen and
the latter only fourteen inches, and in the proportions of the pel-
vis. This last is of gigantic size, - is a little shorter in pro-
portion to its breadth than in 7". nig
While the proportions of the icine and the ulna are more
nearly human than in the Chimpanzée, those of the humerus and
femur recede much farther from the human proportions than they
do in the = as will be seen by the following meas-
urements
Humerus, Femur.
Man, ‘ ; 150 ;
Chimpanzée, . , 10°9 : ; ‘ 11-0
Engé-ena, ‘ i 17-0 ‘ . : 14:0
Thus in man the femur is three inches longer than the hume-
rus, in the Chimpanzée, these bones are nearly of the same length,
aud iu the Engé-ena the humerus is three inches longer than the
femur, indicating on the part of the Engé-ena a less perfect adapt-
ation to locomotion in the erect position than in the Chimpanzee.
Description of a canine tooth of a male E'n-
gé-ena.—In only one of the crania of the male
Engé-enas which I have seen were the canines
remaining ; and these were so much abraded
that they had lost to a great extent, their natural
outline, and a eae their most striking
and distineti tive marks. In the females, as in
sent to this cone by Dr. Savage, was the |
canine tooth represented in the annexed fig- |
ure, which [ was not able to identify, until an
opportunity occurred of comparing it with Prof.
escriptions of more perfect teeth.
The crown is laterally compressed, the poste-
rior edge being trenchant and its base provided
i a prominent tubercle, which is doubtless
red more conspicuous by the wear
the edge beneath it. On its inner surface the
crown is impressed with two strongly marked
poorest, which extend from the base r
Canine tooth of the En-
1y tO gé-ena—natural size.
* Boston Journal of Nat. Histor , p. 417.
J. Wyman on the Ne-hoo-le. 45
its apex ; and include between them a prominent rounded ridge.
The following table gives the comparative measurements of two
canines from the upper jaw of the Engé-ena, and one from thaty
of the Chimpanzée. The figures in the first column relate to
the tooth described above ; those in the second and third to the
measurements given by Prof. Owen,* the measurements being in
inches and lines.
T. gorilla. T. niger.
Panyih, Ps Seong Fp eats apy :
Length of crown, 1:34 eo < : 01te" ="
Breadth of base, 10 0-10. ‘ 07 .
Thickness of do. 0-73 0°73". , 0-53
The following note from Dr. G. A. Perkins to the author, dated
Salem, Oct. 15, 1849, confirms the statements made Sa
age, in his description of the habits of the Engé-ena, as to its fe-
rocity and the fact of its attacking human beings.
"The two crania were received from a person on board a ves-
sel trading in the Gaboon and Danger Rivers, W. Africa. The
were obtained from the natives on the banks of the latter, by
whom they had been preserved as trophies. [rom the gentle-
man who gave them to me, I learned that the killing of one of
these animals was by no means a common occurrence. He de-
scribes the animal as being remarkably ferocious, even attacking
the natives when found alone in the forests, and in one instance
which fell under his observation, horribly mutilating a man who
was out in the woods felling trees to burn. His shouts brought
to his aid several other natives, who after a severe contest, suc-
ceeded in killing the Engé-ena. ‘The man was afterwards in the
habit of exhibiting himself to foreigners who visited the river
and of receiving charity from them.”
—=
Arr. IX.— Notice of the cranium of the Ne-hoo-le, a new species of
Manatee (Manatus nasulus) from W, Africa; by Jerrries
Wyman, M.D.
Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, November 7th, 1849.
Tue species of the genus Manatus, Cuv. which have been
heretofore generally recognized, are only two in number, viz.,
i, . Awericanvs, Cuv. and Desm.; Trichechus manatus, Linn. ;
le grand Lamantin des Antilles, Buff. 2, the M. SENEGALENSIS,
G, Cuvier; M. Africanus, F. Cuvier; Trichechus australis,
Shaw.t The late Dr. Richard Harlan of Philadelphia, has indi-
™ Trans. Zoolo: 3. il Fea ee or aeaeke
. g. Soc. London, vol. iii, p. 895. :
+ Fred. Cuvier. Hist. Nat. des Catnotiee. 8vo. Paris: 1836, Also Cyclopedia
Physiology, Article Cetacea. Lond.: May, 1836.
46 J. Wyman on the Ne-hoo-le.
cated a third species from E. Florida, to which he has given the
name of M. Larirostris.* This species is recognized by Lesson
and Fischer, but has been more recently denied by Blainville,
who in referring to . in connection with two other species of the
same group, (Mana s, Lamantin, Blainville,) L. du tabernacle
and L. de olciociaas expresses himself, ‘‘ne regardaut nullement
comme suffisamment distinct.’
The existence of this third species has been within a short time
conclusively demonstrated by Prof. Agassiz, and the evidence on
which this conclusion rests will soon be published in a memoir
on those genera of Cetaceans whose remains have been found
in the United States
In the Proceedings of the Boston Society of oan —_
vol. ii, p. 198, is a notice by Dr. George A. Perkins of an animal
captured in the Cavalla River, W. Africa, agate to the regal
as Ne-hoo-le, and which Dr. Perkins referred to the genus Mana-
tus. Ina note to that communication I stated, that this animal
differed from all known species of Manatee, both in the number
of the teeth which was for the molars $ 3, and i in the absence of
nails on the paddles, as well as in other characters of subordinate
value. In the sequel it will be seen however that the formula
for the teeth was not correctly stated. The provisional name 0
anatus nasutus was given to this supposed species.
Quite recently, Dr. Perkins, on his return from Cape
brought with him and presented to the Boston Society of A i
History, an imperfect cranium of the same species, the lower jaw,
me intermaxillary, nasal and temporal bones having been broken
y the natives as they divided the carcass amongst themselves
for food. A sufficient number of characteristic parts, OSES
remain to demonstrate that the species, as formerly suspected, i
anew one. In establishing the following characters, the aan
in question has been compared with that of the Manatus senega-
lensis, M. Americanus and M. latirostris: the first belonging
to the Boston Society of Natural Eieory and the others to the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Tee olars +22; the first and second of the series
have been droppel and their alveoli are partly filled up; the five
following ones on each side, remain in use, but the last three still
remain in their alveolar cavities, the roots not having as yet been
developed. The enamel on all the teeth, on those ye. are
retained in their sockets as well as on those which are in use, is
perfectly smooth. The internal root of each molar op a distinct
On a species of Lamantin resembling the M. senegalensis, (Cuvier,) inhabiting the
rath of E. Florida, Bi Richard Harlan, M.D, — Journal Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila-
delphia. Vol. iii, p. 3
+ Osteographie e, Faseic. xv. Genus Manatus, p- 123.
J. Wyman on the Ne-hoo-le. AT
groove on its inner surface and all the roots are quite divergent.
The transverse diameters of the anterior and posterior ridges are
more nearly equal than in the other species.
M. Senegalensis.—Molars %%,; the enamel is rugous; the
inner root is not grooved, all of the roots nearly vertical, and
the teeth in use not more than four. .M. datirostris. Molars
t# +#, teeth in use four or five; enamel] rugous. M. Americanus,
Molars 11.41, Teeth much smaller than in the preceding spe-
cies; the number in action six. The crowns are higher, but the
inner root as in M. nasutus is grooved on its internal surface.
Il. Palate—The median ridge is flattened on its summit
and the palatine foramina are of variable sizes; the most ante-—
rior is the largest and perforates the bone nearly vertically and
with rounded edges. In the M. /atirostris they are ail more
minute; in the M. Senegalensis and M. Americanus, the ante-
rior are the largest, but perforate the bone obliquely and are pro-
tected for some distance after they assume the horizontal direction
by a thin sharp edge or shelf of bone. The yalatine foramina
are subject to so great variety in most animals, that the characters
Just enumerated must be regarded as of doubtful value unless veri-
€d on a large number of crania.
Ill. Malar bones.—These are readily distinguished from the
corresponding bones of all the other species in being very broad
in their zygomatic portion, measuring nearly an inch in breadth
at their free extremity. In M. Senegalensis, the zygomatic
Portion is slender, style-shaped, and terminated by a knob. This
is also the case in M. Americanus and latirostris, except that in
the last the part in question has no enlargement at its ‘end, is a
little broader than in the preceding, but forms a much closer union
with the zygomatic portion of the temporal bone, approaching a
Suture of the kind called “ harmonia.”
- Frontal region.—In this as well as in M. Americanus the
frontal region is quite narrow, but in the latter it is rounded,
“bombée,” while in the former it is depressed. The forehead
of the M. latirostris and Senegalensis is proportionally much
broader.
- Occipital foramen.—In all the species this foramen is more
or less triangular, the angles being rounded ; but in M. America-
nus, Senegalensis, and latirostris the apex is directed downwards,
While in that from the Cavalla river it is directed upwards.
The number of known species of the genus Manatus now
amounts to four, two from Africa, viz.: M. Senegalensis and
- nasutus, and two from the New World, viz. : M. Americanus
M. latirostris.
48 J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacifie.
Art. X.—On Denudation in the Pacific; by James D. Dana.
Tue following pages are extracted from different chapters in
the ere Report of the Exploring Expedition under Capt.
Wilkes
The valleys of the Pacific Islands have usually a course from
the interior of the island towards the shores; or when the island
consists of two or more distinct summits or ‘heights (like Mati)
they extend nearly radiately from the centre of each division of
the island. They are of three kinds:
w gorge, with barely a pathway for a streamlet at
bottom, the enclosing sides diverging upward at an angle of thirty
to sixty degrees. Such valleys have a rapid descent, and are
bounded by declivities Ha one hundred to two thousand feet or
more in elevation, which are covered with ications though
striped nearly horizontally by parallel lines of black roe. here
are frequent cascades along their course ; and at head: they often
abut against the sides of the central inaccessible heights of the
island. The streamlet has frequently its source in one or more
thready cascades that make an unbroken descent of one or two
thousand feet down the precipitous yet verdant walls of the am-
phitheatre around.
narrow gorge, having the walls vertical or nearly so, and
a flat strip of land at bottom more or less uneven, with a stream-
let sporting along, first on this side, and then on that, now in rap-
ids, and now with smoother and deeper waters. The walls may
be from one hundred to one thousand feet or more in height ; they
are richly overgrown, yet the rocks are often exposed, though
every where more than half concealed by the green drapery.
These gorges vary in character according to their position on
the island. here they cut through the lower plains, (as the
dividing plain of Oahu,) they are deep channels with a somewhat
even character to the nearly vertical walls, and an open riband 0
land at bottom. The depth is from one to three hundred feet, and
the breadth as many yards. Farther towards the interior, where
the mountain slopes and vegetation have begun, the walls are
deeply fluted or furrowed, the verdure is more varied and abund-
ant, and cascades are numerous.
This second kiud of gorge, still farther towards the interior,
changes in character, and becomes a gorge of the first kind, nat-
rowing at bottom to a torrent’s course, oes which are occasional
precipices rh only a torrent could descen
™
* U.S. Exploring — during the years 1838- ey under the command
of C. Wiixes, U. 8. N.—Geology by James D. Daya, A.M., Geologist of the Expedi
tion. 750 pp. 4to, with a folio Atlas of 21 a of fi coat ° Shiladel phia: 1849.
ae
alia: clit ia a a
ee ee ee
a
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 49
II. Valleys of the third kind have an extensive plain at bottom
quite unlike the strip of land just described. They sometimes
abut at head against vertical walls, but oftener terminate in a
wide break in the mountains.
The ridges of land which intervene between the valleys, have
a flat or barely undulated surface, where these valleys intersect
the lower plains or slopes; but in the mountains, they are narrow
at top, and sumetimes scarcely passable along their knife-edge
summits. Some of them as they extend inward, become more
and more narrow, and terminate in a thin wall, which runs up
to the central peaks. Others stop short of these central peaks,
and the valleys either side consequently coalesce at their head,
or are separated only by a low wall, into which the before lofty
ridge had dwindled. The crest is often jagged, or rises in sharp
serratures.
The main valleys, which we have more particularly alluded to
above, have their subordinate branches ; and so the ridges in ne-
cessary correspondence, have their subordinate spurs.
As examples of the valleys and ridges here described, we intro-
duce a brief account of an excursion in the Hanapepe valley on
Kauai, one of the Hawaiian Islands, and a second up the moun-
tains of Tahiti.
Hunapepe Valley, Kauai—We reached its enclosing walls,
about four miles from the sea, where the sloping plain of the
Coast was jist losing its smooth, undulating surface, and changing
into the broken and wooded declivities of the interior. The val-
ley, which had been a channel through the grassy plain, a few
hundred feet in depth, was becoming a narrow defile through the
mountains. A strip of land lay below, between the rocky walls,
Covered with deep-green garden-like patches of taro, through
which a small stream was hastening on to the sea.
We found a place of descent, and three hundred feet down,
reached the banks of the stream, along which we pursued our
course. The mountains, as we proceeded, closed rapidly upon
Us, and we were soon in a narrow gorge, between walls one thou-
sand feet in height, and with a mere line of sky over head. ‘The
Stream dashed along by us, now on this side of the green strip of
land, and then on that ; occasionally compelling us to climb up,
and cling among the crevices of the walls to avoid its waters,
Where too deep or rapid to be conveniently forded. Its bed was
often rocky, but there was no slope of debris at the base of the
Walls on either side, and for the greater part of the distance it was
ered by plantations of taro. ‘The style of mountain archi-
tecture, observed on the island of Oahu, was exhibited in this
ded defile on a still grander scale. The mural surfaces en-
closing it had been wrought, in some places, into a series of semi-
Seconp Srrms, Vol, IX, No. 25, J n., 1850. 7
50 ~ J.D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific.
circular alcoves or recesses, which extended to the distant sum-
mits over head: more commonly, the walls were formed of a
series of i columns of vast size, collected together like
the clustered shafts of a Gothic structure, and terminating sev-
eral hundred feet above, in low conical summits. Although the
sides were erect or nearly so, there was a profuse decoration of
vines and flowers, ferns, and pacipbery ; and where more inclined,
forests covered densely the slo
These peculiar ree eatores proceed from the wear of
rills of waters, streaming down the bold sides of the gorge; they
channel the surface, leaving ny intermediate parts prominent,
The rock is uniformly stratified, and the layers consist of gray
basalt or basaltic lava, alternating with basaltic conglomerate.
Cascades were frequently met with; at one place, a dozen
were playing around us at the same time, pouring down the high
walls, appearing and disappearing, at intervals, amid the foliage, _
some in white foamy threads, and others in Bait strands im-
perfectly concealing the black surface of rock b :
A rough ramble of four miles brought us % the falls of the
Hanapepe. The precipice, sweeping around with a curve, ab-
ruptly closed the defile, and all farther progress was therefore
intercepted. We were in an amphitheatre of surpassing > ee
to which the long defile, with its Auted or Gothic walls, decorat
with leaves and flowers and living cascades, seemed a fit hich
or eutrance-way. ‘Ihe sides around were lofty, and the profuse
vegetation was almost as varied in its tints of green as in its
forms. On the left stood apart from the walls an inclined colum-
nar peak or leaning tower, overhanging the valley. Its abrupt
oT were bare, excepting some tufts of ferns and mosses, while
dant mountains above, where the basaltic recks stood out in
curved ascending columns on either side, as if about to meet in a
Gothic arch, a stream leaped the precipice and fell in dripping
foam to the depths below; where, ee its strength again,
it went ou its shaded way down the gorge
The mountains of Tahiti commence their slopes from the
sea or a narrow sea-shore plain, and gradually rise on all sides
towards the central peaks, the ridges of the north and west ter-
minating in the towering comiaiae of Orohet.a and Aorai, while
the eastern and southern, though reaching towards the pig
peaks, are partly intercepted by the valley of Papenoo. Aorai
seven thousand feet in height and Orohena not less than eight
ag apa feet.
commenced the ascent of Mount Aorai by the ridge on the
west oie of the Matavai Valley, and, by the skillfulness of our
guide, were generally, able to e the e levated parts of the ridge
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 51
without descending into the deep valleys which bordered our
path. An occasional descent, and a climb on the opposite side of
the valley were undertaken ; and although the sides were nearly
perpendicular, it was accomplished, without much difficulty, by
clinging from tree to tree, with the assistance of ropes, at times,
where the mural front was otherwise impassable. By noon of
the second day, we had reached an elevation of five thousand
feet and stood on an area twelve feet square, the summit of an
t
a a ee
isolated crest in the ridge on which we were travelling. ty)
east, we looked down two thousand feet into the Matavai Vailey ;
to the west a thousand feet into a branch of the Papaua Valley,
the slopes either way, being from sixty to eighty degrees, or
within thirty degrees of perpendicular. On the side of our
ascent, and beyond, on the opposite side, our peak was united
with the adjoining summit by a thin ridge, reached by a steep
| descent of three hundred feet. This ridge was described, by our
natives, as no wider at top than a man’s arm, and a fog coming
on, they refused to attempt it that day. The next morning being
clear, we pursued our course. For a hundred rods, the ridge on
which we walked was two to four feet wide, and from it, we
looked down, on either side a thousand feet or more, of almost
perpendicular descent. , Beyond this the ridge continued narrow,
though less dangerous, until we approached the high peak of
Aorai. This peak had appeared to be conical and equally access-
ible on different sides. but it proved to have but one place of ap-
proach, and that along a wall with precipices of two to three
thousand feet, and seldom exceeding two feet in width at top.
In one place we sat on it as on the back of a horse, for it was no
Wider, and pushed ourselves along till we reached a spot where its
Width was doubled to two feet, and numerous bushes again afford-
ing us some security, we dared to walk erect. We at last stood
us only by the Valley of Matavai, from whose profound depths
it rose with nearly erect sides. The
gged outline, stood
52 J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacifie.
melt away into ridgy hills “se —< and finally into the palm-
covered plains bordering the
On our descent, we Folhosed: ‘the western side of the Papaua
Valley, along a narrow ridge such as we have described, but two
or three feet wide at top, ‘aud enclosed by precipices of not less
than a thousand feet. Proceeding thus for two hours, holding to
the bushes which served as a kind of balustrade, though occasiou-
ally startled by a slip of the foot one side or the other—our path
suddeuly narrowed to a mere edge of naked rock, and, more-
over, the ridge was inclined a little to the east, like a tottering
wall. Taking the upper side of the sloping wall, and trusting
our feet to the bushes while clinging to the rocks above, carefully
dividing our weight lest we should precipitate the rocks and our-
selves to the depths below, we continued on till we came to an
abrupt break in the ridge of twenty feet, half of which was
perpendicular. By means of ropes doubled around the rocks
above, we in turn let ourselves down, and soon reached again a
width of three feet, where we could walk in safety. T’wo hours
more at — brought us to slopes and ridges where we could
breathe eely.
The pliant here described characterize all parts of the
_ island. ‘Towards the high peaks of the interior, the ridges which
radiate from, or connect with them, become mere nountain walls
with inaccessible slopes, and the valleys are from one to three
thousand feet in depth. The central peaks themselves have the
same wall-like character. It is thus with Orohena and Pitchiti, as
well as Aorai; and owing to the sharpness of the summit edge,
rather than the steepness of the assent, Orohena is said to be
quite inaccessible. Dr. Pickering and Mr. Couthouy, in an ex-
cursion to a height of five thousand feet on this ridge, met with
difficulties of the same character we have described.
Without citing other goon we continue with the author’s
remarks on the origin of these v
The causes operating in the Pacific, which may have contrib-
uted to valley-making, are the following:
1. Convulsions from internal forces, or ——- action.
2. Degradation from the action of the
3. Gradual wear from running water derived from the rains.
4, Gradual eine, si 5p throug the agency of the elements
and growing vegeta
The action of scion forces in the formation of valleys, is
finely illustrated 1 in the great rupture in the summit of Hale-a-kala
on Maui. ‘The two valleys formed by the eruption are as exten-
sive as any in the Hawaiian Group. being two thousand feet deep
at their highest part, and one to two miles wide. ‘They extend
the interior outward towards the sea. Above, they open into
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 53
acommon amphitheatre, the remains of the former crater, the
walls of which are two thousand feet high.
As other examples of volcanic action, we may refer to the pit
eraters of Mount Loa, among which Kilauea stands preéminent.
This great corral, if we may use a Madeira word, is a thousand
feet deep, one to two miles wide, and over three long, so that it
forms a cavity which may compare advantageously with many
valleys; and were the walls on one side removed, it might be-
come the head of a valley like that of Hale-a-kala on Maui.
As an example of this kind of valley upon islands which have
lost their original volcanic form, we venture to refer to the wide
Nananu, back of Honolulu, (island of Oahu,) which has at its
head on either side, a peak rising above it toa height of two
thousand four hundred feet, or four thousand feet above the sea.
é immense amphitheatre to the west of the lofty Orohena
and Aorai, on the island of ‘Tahiti, is remarkable for its great
breadth, and the towering summits which overhang it; and if not a
parallel case to that of Maui, that is, if the head was not originally
the great crater, there must have been a subsidence or removal of
a large tract by internal forces.
he precipice of the eastern mountain of Oahu, is another ex-
ample of the effect of convulsion in altering the features of islands,
Catising either a removal or subsidence.
‘The many fissures which are opened by the action of Kilanea,
might be looked upon as valleys on a smaller scale, and the germs
of more extensive ones. But with few exceptions, these fissures
as soon as made are closed by the ejected lava, and the mountain
is here no weaker than before. Those which remain open, may
be the means of determining the direction of valleys afterwards
formed.
Action of the sea.—The action of the sea in valley-making, is
posed to have been exerted during the rise of the land; and as
such changes of level have taken place in the Pacific, this cause
It would seem, must have had as extensive operation in this vast
Ocean as any where in the world, especially as the lands are small
and encircled by the sea, and there is, therefore, a large amount
of coast exposed, in proportion to the whole area
But in order to apprehend the full effect of this mode of degra-
dation, we should refer to its action on existing shores.* At the
outset we are surprised at finding little evidence of any such
action now in progress along lines of coast. The islands, and
the shores of continents have occasional bays, but none that are
pening by the action of the sea. The waves tend rather to
fill up the bays and remove by degradation the prominent capes,
thus rendering the coast more even, and at the same time, accu-
Baas te, Tiew here presented is sustained in De la Beche’s Geological Researches,
54 J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific.
mulating beaches that protect it from wear. If this is the case
on shores where there are deep bays, what should it be on sub-
marine slopes successively becoming the shores, in which the
surface is quite even compared with the present outline of the
islands? Instead of making bays and channels, it can only give :
greater regularity to the line of coast. |
Upon the North American coast, from Long Island to Florida .
there are no valleys in progress from the action of the sea. On
the contrary, we ascertain by soundings that the bottom is singu-
larly even; and the bays, as that of New York, are so acted upon
|
valleys. The valleys of the land are often two thousand feet |
deep; but they die out towards the shores. Thus over the
world, scarcely an instance can be pointed out of valley making"
_ from the action of the sea. During the slow rise of a country, the
» condition would not be more favorable for this effect than in a time
“of perfect quiet. If America were to be elevated, would the action
make valleys in the shores just referred to? If England were
slowly to rise, would this favor the scooping of valleys through
its beaches? Would not beach formations continue to be the legit-
imate production of the sea along its line of wave action; a
where the rocks should favor the opening of a deep cove, would
not the same action go on as now, causing a wear of the head-
lands and a filling up of the cove at its head?) Were Tahiti now
to continue rising, could the waves make valleys on the coast?
The increasing height of the mountains would give the streains
of the land greater eroding force, aud more copious waters ; but
the levelling waves would continue to act as at the present time.
The effects of the sea in making valleys have been much exag-
gerated, as is obvious from this appeal to existing operations, the
appropriate test of truth in geology.
‘The action of a rush of waters in a few great waves over the
land, such as might attend a convulsive elevation, though gen-
erally having a levelling effect, might produce some excavations,
as is readily conceived; yet it is obvious on a moment’s consider-
ation, that such waves could not make the deep valleys, miles
in length, that intersect the rocks and mountains of our globe.
Bat it is supposed that there may be fissures about volcanic
islands in which the sea could ply its force. Yet even in these
cases, unless the fissures were large, the seashore accumulations
would be most likely to fill and obstruct them. ‘To try this
hypothesis by facts, we remark that there are no such shore fissures
around Mount Loa, nor any of the other Hawaiian Islands. The
fissures formed by volcanic action immediately about a volcano,
are generally filled at once with lavas as we have stated, and the
a
“iy
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 55 -
vent is mended by the force which made it. It is, therefore, a
gratuitous assumption that such fissures have been common.
The existence, however, of large valleys such as have been attrib-
uted above to convulsions cannot be doubted; but the sea wonld
exert its power in such places, nearly as now in Fangaloa Bay,
Tutuila, and other bays in continents ;—a beach forms, and a
shore plain, and afterwards there is a little action from the sea
in these confined areas of water.
In the Illawarra district, New South Wales, there are several
places where dikes of basalt have been removed by the sea, and
channels one hundred yards in depth, of the width of the dike
(six feet), now exist, cutting straight into the rocky land. This
is an example of the action of the sea where everything is most
favorable for it. And we observe that there is little resemblance
in this narrow channel with but a trifling wear of the inclosing
rocks, to the valleys which are to be accounted for in the Pacific ;
and little authority to be derived from it for attributing much
efficacy to the sea in wearing out valleys. The reason of this .
is apparent in the fact that the sea rolls up a coast in great.
swells, and cannot parcel itself off, and act like a set of gouges:
this latter effect it leaves for the streams and streamlets of the
shores which are gouges of all dimensions.
Although the sea can accomplish little along coasts towards
excavating valleys, yet when the land is wholly submerged, or
only the mountain summits peer out as islands, the great oceanic
currents sweeping over the surface and through channels between
the islands, would wear away the rocks or earth beneath. From
the breadth and character of such marine sweepings, we learn
that the excavations formed would be very broad rounded valleys ;
aud their courses would correspond in some degree with the prob-
able direction which the currents of the ocean would have, over
the region in case of a submergence. Moreover where there are
different open channels for the ingress of the sea, having free
intercommunication, there are often strong currents connected
with the tides, and consequently much erosion. It is obvious
that the valleys of the Pacific islands have nothing in their fea-
tures or positions attributable to such a cause. ps
Running water of the land, and gradual decomposition.—Of
the causes of valleys mentioned in the outset we are forced to rely
for explanations principally upon runping streams: and they are
not only gouges of all dimensions, but of great power, and in
constant action. ‘There are several classes of facts which support
Us in this conclusion. :
a. We observe that Mount Loa, whose sides are still flooded
With lavas at intervals, has but one or two streamlets over all its
slopes, and the surface has none of the deep valleys common
about other summits. Here volcanic action has had a smoothing
56 J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pactfic.
effect, and by its continuation to this time, the Retin have had
scarcely a chance to make a beginning in denudat
Mount Kea, which has beeu extinct for a ae ea has a
succession of valleys on its windward or rainy side, which are
several hundred feet deep at the coast and gradually diminish |
bay extending in See about half or two-thirds of t
way to the summit. But to the westward it has dry declivities,
which are companiiincty even at base, with little running water.
A direct connection is thus evinced between a windward exposure,
and the existence of valleys: and we observe also that the time
since volcanic action ceased is approximately or relatively indica-
ted, for it has been long enough for the valleys to have advanced
only part way to the summit. Degradation from running water
would of course commence at the foot of the mountain, where
the waters are necessarily more abundant and more powerful in
denuding action, in consequence of their gradual accumulation on
their descent. ‘Mount Kea, like Mount Loa, is nearly 14,000
feet high, and the average slope i is 7 to 8 degrees.
Hale-a-kala on Maui offers the same facts as Mount Kea, indi-
cating the same relation between the features of the surface and
the climate of the different sides of the island. On Eastern
Oahu the valleys are still more extensive; yet the slopes of the
original mountains may be in part distinguished. And thus we
are gradually led to Kauai, the westernmost of the Hawaiian Isl-
ands, where the valleys are very profound and the former slopes
can hardly be made out. ‘The facts are so progressive in character,
that we must attribute all equally to the running waters of the land.
The valleys of Mount Kea alone, extending some thousands of
feet up its sides, sustain us in saying, that time only is required
or the formation of similar valleys elsewhere in the Pacific.
As in Tahiti, so in other islands. these valleys take the direction
of the former slopes ; and though they may be of great depth and
cominence even under the central summits, they terminate at the
sea level, instead of continuing beneath it.
The fluting of the walls of the Hanapepe Valley, a thousand feet
or more in height, has been described on a preceding page. It can-
not be doubted here that water was the agent ; for the rills are seen
at work. The contrast between the same valley near the sea, and
in the mountains, (the walls in the former case being nearly un-
worn vertically,) is explained on the same principle: for the
mountains are a region of frequent rains and almost constant
one, and therefore abound in streams and streamlets and threads
water; while below, there are grassy plains instead of forest
desir ities, and but little rain. These furrowings vary from a
few yards in width and depth to many furlongs.
The long and lofty precipice of Eastern Oahu, is an excellent
place for studying farther this action. It is fluted in the same
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 57
style as the Hanapepe Valley. In the distant view the vertical
channels appear very narrow; but when closely examined they
are found to be deep and often winding passages. The precipice
faces to the windward, and is directly under the whole line of
peaks in the mountain range, both of which facts account for an
abundance of water. Going to the westward along the range,
the precipice changes to a sloping declivity, and these passages
become déeper and longer, and more winding, just in proportion
to the increasing length of the slopes: moreover at the same
time they decrease in number. Where there is no slope to .col-
lect the waters, the rills act independently, and their furrowings
like themselves are small, narrow, and numerous ; but as the decliv-
ity becomes gradual, the rills flow on and collect into larger
streams, and the firrowings become deeper and more distant. Over
this region, no distinction can be drawu as regards origin between
these flutings and the gorges: and in respect to features, only this
difference appears, that the size of the excavations is less and the
number greater, the steeper the declivity. Ifa fissure be appealed
to as the commencement of the longer valleys, it should also be
admitted for each of the flutings. But this idea is wholly inad-
missible.
A brief review of the action of flowing waters with reference
~ “i different results described may place this subject in a clear
ight. net
a. Suppose a mountain, sloping around like one of the volcanic
domes of the Pacific—The excavating power at work proceeds
from the rains or condensed vapor, and depends upon the amount
of water and rapidity of slope.
_ 4. The transporting force of flowing water* increases as the
sixth power of the velocity,—double the velocity giving sixty-
four times the transporting power.—The eroding force will be
c. Hence, if the slopes are steep, the water gathering into rills
excavates so rapidly, that every growing streamlet ploughs out a
gorge or furrow ; and consequently the number of separate gorges
a ted large, and their sizes comparatively small, though of great
epth,
fifty-five tons; a current of twenty miles an hour would, according to the same law,
move a block of three hundred and twenty tons: again, according to the same law,
4 current of two miles an hour would move a pebble of similar form of only a few
ces “in weight.”—On the Transport of Erratic Blocks, Trans, Camb.
1844, viii, 291, 233.
Srconp Series, Vol. LX, No. 25,—Jan., -_ 8
58 J.D. Dana on Denuduation in the Pacific.
d. But if the slopes are gradual, the rills flow into one another
from a broad area, and enlarge a central trunk, which continues
on towards the sea, with frequent additions from either side. The
excavation above, for a while, is small; for the greater abundance
of water below, during the rainy seasons, causes the denudation
to be greatest there, and in this part the gorge or valley most
rapidly forms. In its progress, it enlarges from below upward,
though also increasing above; at the same time, the many tribu-
taries are making lateral branches.
e. Towards the foot of the mountain, the excavating power
ceases whenever the stream has no longer in this part a rapid de-
scent,—that is whenever the slope is not above one or two feet to
the mile. The stream then consists of two parts, the torrent of the
mountains and the slower waters below, and the latter is gradu-
ally lengthening at the expense of the former.
: the lower waters have nearly ceased excavation, a new
commences in this part,—that of widening the valley. ©
ess
The stream which here effects little change at low water, is
flooded in certain seasons, and the abundant waters act duterully
against the enclosing rocks. Gradually, through this undermin-
ing and deuuding operation, the narrow bed becomes a flat strip
of land, between lofty precipices, through which, in the rainy
season, the streamlet flows in a winding course. The streamlet,
as the flat bottom of the valley is made, deposits detritus on
its banks, which in some places so accumulates as to prevent an
overflow of the banks by any ordinary freshet. Such is the ori-
gin of the deep channels with a riband of land at bottom that cut
through the ‘dividing plain” of Oahu, and which are common
towards the shores of many of the Pacific islands.
g. The torrent part of the stream, as it goes on excavating, 1s
gradually becoming more and more steep. The rock-material
upon, consists of layers of unequal hardness, varying
but little from horizontality and dipping towards the sea, and this
occasions the formation of cascades, henever a softer layer
wears more rapidly than one above, it causes an abrupt fall in the
stream: it may be at first but a few feet in height; but the pro-
cess begun, it goes on with accumulating power. The descend-
ing waters in this spot add their whole weight, as well asa
greatly increased velocity, to their ordinary force, and the exca-
vation below goes on rapidly, removing even the harder layers.
The consequences are, a fall of increasing height, and a basin-
like excavation directly beneath the fall. Often, for a short dis-
tance below, the stream moves quietly before rushing again on
its torrent course, and when this result is attained by the action,
the height of the fall has nearly reached its limit as far as exca-
vation below is concerned ;—though it may continue to inerease
from the gradual wear and removal of the rocks over which it
descends :
ae
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 59
As the gorge increases in steepness, the excavations above
deepen rapidly,—the more rapid descent more than compensa-
ting, it may be, for any difference in the amount of water.
Moreover, as the rains are generally most frequent at the very
summits, the rills in this part are kept in almost constant action
through the year, while a few miles nearer the sea they are
often dried up or absorbed among the cavernous rocks. The
denudation is consequently at all times great about the higher
parts of the gorge, (especially after the slopes have become steep
by previous degradation ;) thus finally a steep precipice forms the
head of the valley.
t. The waters descending the ridges either side of the valley
or gorge, are also removing these barriers between adjacent val-
leys, and are producing as a first effect. a thinning of the ridge at
summit to a mere edge; and as a second, its partial or entire re-
moval, so that the two valleys may at last be separated only by a
low wall, or even terminate in a common head,—a wide amphi-
theatre enclosed by the lofty mountains. In one case, the ridge
between the two valleys, which towards the shores of the islaud
has rather a broad back, high up in the region of mists and fre-
quent rains becomes a narrow wall, and thus connects with the
central summit. Jn the second, the ridge finally terminates ab-
ruptly, and a deep valley separates it from the main mountain.
The following sketch may assist the mind in conceiving of the
action upon the Pacific mountains. It represents one o -
leys of Tahiti from the centre to the shore, excepting its irregu-
larities of direction and descent, and the uneven character of its
walls, arising from lateral valleys and minor denudations. The
height of Tahiti is about eight thousand feet; its radius ¢s is
ten geographical miles. ‘The head of the valley at a@ is three
thousand feet below the summit peak p. The descent along the
ascertained, ) it would still give four hundred feet to the mile.
This subject is beautifully illustrated in some of the tufa cones
of Odhu, where, on a smaller scale, we have the same kind o
sorge and valley; and in this case, there is no doubt that de-
Hudation was the cause by which they were preduced. ‘The
Valleys have the direction of the slopes, and are similar in form
and winding character to those of the mountains. The inter-
Vening ridges are also similar. Many of them become very
@
60 J.D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific.
thin at summit as they rise towards the crest of the volcanic
cone, and others have this upper part adjoining the crest want-
ing, owing to the extent of the degradation, so that two valleys
have a common head against the vertical bluff. A better model
of the mountain gorges could hardly be made, and it stands near
by, convenient for comparison. Diamond Hill, one of these
cones, is 800 feet high.
We need add little, in this place, on the 2 a of running
water, after the statement, based on mathematics, that the trans-
porting foree varies as the sixth power of the eeanieg if we
remember that these mountain streams at times increase their
violence a million fold when the rains swell the waters to a flood,
all iron on this point must be removed.
few thousand feet in depth, even in the solid rocks, is no
great aifair for an agent of such ceaseless activity, during the pe--
riods which have elapsed since the lauds became exposed to their
influence. And when we take into view the lofty heights of the
Pacific islands, their rapid declivities giving speed to the waters
aud transported stones and earth, we must admit that of all lauds,
these are especially fitted for denudation by torrents.
The nature of the rocks also favors wear and removal. They
are in sticcessive layers, soft conglomerates or tufas ‘vec ienale
alternating with the harder basalt or basaltic lava. oreover,
the rock is commonly much fissured, owing to a tendency toa
columnar structure ; besides, they are often cellular. The waters
thus find admission, promoting decomposition and also degrada-
tion. There are, also, frequent caverns between layers, which
contribute to the same e
There is every thing favorable for degradation which can ex-
ist in a land of perpetual suramer: and there is a full balance
against the frosts of colder regions in the exuberance of vegeta-
ble life, since it occasions rapid decomposition of the surface,
covering even the face of a precipice with a thick layer of altered
rock, and with spots of soil wherever there is a chink or shelf for
its lodgment, ‘The traveler on one of these islands ——— a
valley on a summer day, when the streams are re ted to a
creeping rill which half the time burrows out of sight, enol
the rich foliage around, vines and flowers in oratonien covering
the declivities and festooning the trees, and observing scarcely @
bare rock or stone excepting a few it may be along the bottom
of the gorge, might nesticallaal inquire with some degree of won-
der, where are the mighty agents which have channeled the lofty
mountains to their base? But though silent, the agents are still
on every side at work; decomposition is in slow, but constant
ene the percolating waters are acting internally, if not at
reover, at osc season, he would find the scene
nigel to one of wire rs, careering along over rocks and
a a
Pte ner es
—— TF ae
J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacific. 61
plunging down heights with frightful velocities, and then the
power of the stream would not be disputed.*
But if the waters have been thus efficient in causing denuda-
tion and opening valleys, may not fissures or dikes have deter-
mined their courses?) The only test of truth, an appeal to facts,
may answer the question. Mount Loa is a mountain yet un-
changed. It has its dikes in great numbers: but over these dikes
the country is more apt to be ‘raised a little from the overflow of
lavas than depressed, and this would turn off the water. Again,
we see no instances of dikes yielding, and offering a course for a
Stream. As to unfilled fissures, there are few of them, aud these,
With rare exceptions, are immediately about the active vents. _ Is
either supposition then sustained by the facts presented? We
know the tendency of water to take the lowest parts of a-snrface,
and will it not follow these parts, whether or not there be a dike
or fissure? It is obvious that whatever ravines or depressious the
floods of lava may have left, would be the courses of the waters ;
and these depressions sas be followed to the sea, and ultimately
become valleys. We may believe that the waters would not
wait till there was a convenient fissure; they would go where
tmcelination led, and make valleys with little difficulty, if there
Were no guiding or aiding fissures. Were the dikes filled by a
tock more decomposable or more easily eroded than those en-_
closing it, as is the case in some granitic regions, we should ex-
pect that they would frequeutly become water courses: but this
is seldom the fact in the Pacific islands.
The valleys in some of the Canary Islands, extend from the
Shores part way to the summit, as on Mount Kea and Hale-a-kala,
and Sranauy for the reason alread y explained. We can detect
se of the streams, from the rains of the mountains, is often so rapid that
in some instances, the native villages ra Amy coast become flooded, before they have
time even to move their pro perty.— erald. xxiii, 207.
an, who has often peedonee the. coast of Hawaii, north of Hilo, and during
the drier cae (which ver, are of short duration on this, the windward
Coast,) fords the sldlont Banca without difficulty, gives the fo slowing account of
his jo por a Sabri ga time of rains. “Great and conned ra. — fell during my ab-
the numerous rivers became so swollen an hat the Pgh sight me
them’ “9 fearful. These raging streams crossed my path ‘about 0 once in half a mile
a distance of about thirty miles, and I was com led ta weap to Pag aca
me. Most il
ost of t
course ave numerous cataracts from ten to a hundred pot fifty feet in hse
dicular Though the torrents were so fearful as to make one almost quail
at the t Co of strugg pling | with their fury, ropes were provided, and several men
employed for the adve us task. plow apo a 2 ipo of aa, and
energy and Be ‘effort, ess : n one’s grasp 0 rope,
and buffet with the foaming flood. We at last ts th though at ston peril.
At one of the rivers, we spent ae hue in pyle ie oa e we tA with
any degree of rage extend our co ara i. I party t to the a
Site bank. The streams are at s the bettie glee ravines, the banks
pris ‘rey tn and often perpendicular bluffs of Semitic pen "— Miss. Her.
62 J. D. Dana on Denudation in the Pacifie.
in regions of a similar kind, no evidence that the valleys have
depended for their origin on the mountain’s being a “crater of
elevation,” as von Buch urges.* The regular stratification of the
sides of these valleys; the ‘absence of all ‘tiltings ; their situation,
as related to the rains; and the absence of fisstires ready for mak-
ing valleys on the leeward declivities, are points which favor no
such theory: and, moreover, it is an unnecessary hypothesis.
We are thus led to conclude that between convulsions from
subterranean forces, and degradation from waters supplied by the
rains aud attending decomposition, a lofty volcanic dome ma
be changed to a skeleton island like Tahiti e have referred
to Mount Loa as still unfurrowed ; to Moiat Kea and Hale-a-kala
as having only the lower slopes deeply channeled with narrow
gorges; and to other islands, as exemplifying all gradations in these
effects to these in which the original features are no longer to be
traced: we have pointed out the difference in the windward and
leeward slopes, aud have shown a on between the quantity
of rain and the amount of degradation :—we have exhibited a
model of the mountains, an RM deninble result of denudation,
placed at their very base, as if for illustration :—and thus we have
traced out and elucidated all the steps in the valley-making pro-
cess, and have also ee them to be a necessary result from the
action of rauning w
Again, examples of soiluleidig from igneous forces have been
pointed out in the great gorges of Hale-a-kala, and in Kilanea and
other Hawaiian craters; in the mountain wall of Oahu, and simi-
lar scenes on other islands; in the wide am phitheatre of central
Tahiti: and the importance of this means of change has thus
been exhibited. Yet few such changes are apparent on any one
island, and these are marked by decided characters not often to be
mistaken. It has also been shown that although fissures made
by volcanic forces, may in some cases have given the direction
to valleys, yet they are by no means necessary in order that val-
leys should commence to form.
With literal truth may we speak of the valleys of the Pacific
Islands, as the furrowings of time, and read in them marks of age.
Our former conclusion with regard to the different periods which
have passed over the several Hawaiian Islands since the fires
ceased aud wear begun, is fully substantiated. We also learn
how completely the features of an island may be obliterated by
this simple process, and even a cluster of ee like Orohena, Pito-
hiti and Aorai of tere. be bere ved from a simple volcanic dome
or cone. Mount Loa, alone, contains within itself the material
from which an island like Tahiti might be modeled, that should
have near twice its height and four times its geographical extent.
* See eg Canaries, p. 285.
T’. S. Hunt on the Constitution of Leucine. 63
Art. XIl—Remarks on the Constitution of Leucine, with criti-
cal observations upon the late Researches of M. Wutz; by
S. Hun. .
In the American Journal for January, 1848, p. 123, I made some
suggestions as to the true composition of leucine and proposed a
correction of the formula which had been deduced by M. Mulder
from his analyses. After noticing the sulphuretted alkaloid thial-
dine, lately discovered by Wohler and Liebig, I remarked that
it corresponded to a normal species whose formula is C,, H, , NO,,
which would be a homologue of glycocoll, “and very probably
no other than leucine.” This correction I ventured upon with-
out having before me the analytical results of M. Mulder, be-
cause as I have stated, the formula deduced by that chemist,
oe ,> Was irreconcilable with the law which MM. Ger-
hardt and Laurent have announced as governing the composition
of all azotized bodies. My proposed formula on the contrary,
made this anomaly to disappear, and showing it a homologue of
glycocoll, a substance formed at the same time with it, by the ac-
tion of potash upon gelatine, at once explained the singular reac-
tions of lencine with nitric acid, already described by M. Brac-
connot. Not having it in my power to verify any farther my
view, I left the matter to the consideration of chemists.
In the Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. for Sept. 4th, 1848, there
appears a communication from M. Cahours, who had submitted
to analysis both leucine and aposepedine, (a product of the putre-
action of caseine which Mulder had supposed to be identical
With leucine,) and found the two substances to agree i compo-
sition and to have precisely the formula which I had previously
assigned. He has found that they form beautifully’crystalline
Compounds with nitric and hydrochloric acids, and gives to the
ormer the formula C,, H, , NO,, NO, M. Cahours has also
Pomted out the relation between this body and thialdine and
their homology with glycocoll. The sarcosine cbtaine :
The Annales de Chimie et de Physique for Nov., 1848, contains
amemoir on the same subject by MM. Laurent and Gerhardt,
Conclusions as to its composition ard homologous relations. None
of these gentlemen however have alluded to my observations
published ten months previous, which appear to have escaped
their notice,
My formula requires C 54-9, H 9°99, N107, 0245. The
analyses of Mulder show on comparison with this, a little defi-
64 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution of Leucine.
ciency in the H and N, but those of M. Cahours are ) very close
approximations. He obtained the no tn A number
Aposepedine. ei
Carbon, . . 5519 55:04 5486 55:12 54-79 |
Hydrogen,. . 986 10-11 10:06 1006 10-04
Azote,. . . 1063 10:85 1089 1089 |
The first analyses of MM. Laurent and Gerhardt made upon
aposepedine, showed a deficiency in the carbon, but by solution in
nitric acid and evaporation, the salt already deseribed was obtained
in beautiful erystalline needles, which, dried at 212° F’., corres-
ponded exactly with the numbers calculated from the formula
C,,H,,NO,, NO, HO, or in their notation, C,H,
This salt dissolved i in a little water, mixed with alcohol, and pre-
cipitated while hot by ammonia, gave leucine in fine white scales,
entirely inodorous ; the analysis of this gave C 54:6, H 9-9. ‘These
results establish beyond all doubt the new formula.
The hydrochloric compound gave Cl 20:6, which corresponds
to the formula C,H,,NO,, HCl. The nitrate, nitro-leucic
acid of M. Bracconnot, forms, as that chemist had shown, crys-
tallizable salts with lime aud magnesia, and the authors have
described a similar silver-salt. They remark moreover upon the
fact that the three known alkaloids of this series appear to be
derived from the same parent substance, for the sarcosine has been
obtained from creatine which is without doubt a product of the
transformation of the caaette tissues, and they suggest that
sarcosine and the two homologues yet unknown, between this
substance and leucine, may be detected in the products of these
Ae ace of the animal matters, which yield glyeocoll and
eucine
M. Laurent in a late memoir,* has shown that glycocoll may be
regarded as the amid of an acid which is C,H, O,, and differs”
from the acetate only by two equivalents of oxygen. For this
acid he proposes the name of glycocollic; glycocoll will then be
glycolamic acid. Mr. Horsford, by the action of chlorine upon
a solution of glycocoll, obtained a substance which gave with —
chlorid of barinm a ne salt, to which he aseribes the for-
mula C,H,0O,, BaO,+ but as M. Gerhardt has remarked, ap
equivalent of the carbon Said be retained by the baryta as é
a carbonate, and that making a correction for this, the numbers
obtained lead toC, H,O,, Bac =C, H, BaO, which is that of
the barytic salt of glycocollic acid.
This new genus is homologous with the carbonates, and sus-
tains the same relation to the acetate, as the carbonic C, H, O,
_ does to formic acid. Carbonic acid is the type of a series of
ewe
* Annal. de Chim. et de Phys, May, 1848, p. 111.
— Sui: ther 1847, p. 3 oT F
ee
T. S. Hunt on the Constitution of Leucine. 65
acids, including the glycocollic which are bibasic; the glycocolls
are then monamids of bibasic acids, and while they possess the
power of combining with acids, like alkaloids, have still an atom
of saline hydrogen so that they may combine alike with nitric
acid and nitrate of silver. The nitrate of glycocoll is indeed a
copulate of two monobasic compounds, and thus in accordance
with M. Gerhardt’s law of saturation necessarily bibasic.
The glycocolls are isomeric with urethane and urethylane, those
singular compounds discovered by M. Dumas by acting with am-
moni and upon the chlorocarbonic ethers of ethylic and methylic
cohol.
- Mate relations to these bodies. ve shown some time since
p]
that water is to be regarded as the homologue of the alcohols,
and that consequently the ethers are homologous with their parent
acids,t and M. Wurtz has found that as cyanic acid combines with
ammonia and produces urea C, H,N,O,, a body pertaining to
the formic series ; the cyanic ethers give rise by the same action to
two new compounds which have the formulas C,H, N, O, and
C,H, N, O, and are the ureas of the acetic and metacetic series.
The action of water upon the cyanic ethers is not less remark-
able; carbonic acid gas is disengaged and crystalline substances
are formed which are soluble in alcohol and water. The reac-
tion is dependent upon the assimilation of the elements of water
_ and is thus represented,
7 2C i
NO, +2HO=2C0,+C,H,N, 0,
O, +2HO=2C0, +C, /H,, N, 0,.
4 3
___ The first of these has the composition of metacetic urea, and
the second that of valerianic urea, but the substance thus obtained
from the cyanomethylic ether differs from the true metacetic urea
in its properties, and M. Wurtz hence regards these new bodies
as Constituting an isomeric group.
e have then in the urethanes and the glycocolls, the ureas
and the new compounds of Wurtz, two groups of isomeric bodies
which present some interesting relations. If the glycocolls are
the monamids of their peculiar acids, the new compounds of
Wurtz are equally their binamids.
| Acids, Glycocolls. |Comps. of Wurtz.) Urethanes. | Ureas.
Formic series Oz HH, Oa| unknown UH, 8.0.
series,| 6 ; —_—— — |CeHgN2V2
|Acetic “ , F 0, O4 H, O,4 unknown. O,H;NO40,H_N202
\Metacetic ie Cy He Osg Og H, NO, Cg Hg N202CgH,NOgCgHgN202!
Butyrie « Cg He Os unknown. unknown. unknown. unknown.
Valerianic “ |C) 9H 1006 . Cy0H12N202 ee .
Caproie « |C,5H;20¢/C,;2H,,NO,4} unknown. * «
* Chem. Gazette, Oct. 16th, from Comptes Rendus, Aug. 28th, 1848.
+ This Jour., March, 1848, p. 265.
Seconp Series, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850. 9
66 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution of Leucine.
The farther researches of Wurtz upon the decomposition of the
ureas will, I think, enable us to understand more clearly the
nature of these bodies. The formic urea, by the action of a
solution of potash, is resolved into carbonic acid and two equiva-
lents of ammonia; acetic urea, which differs from it by C,
is decomposed in a similar manner and yields one equivalent of
ammonia and one of a new alkaloid homologous with it, which
is represented by C,H,N. The transformation may be thus
represented :
Formic urea, C,H ,N,O, +2KHO,=C,K,0,+NH,+NH,,.
Acetic urea, C,H,N,O,+2KHO,=C,K,0,+NH,+C,H, N.
n the same way metacetic urea yields C, HH. N ; these aieiaile
Be to their respective alcohols the same relation that ammonia
does to water. The action of potash upon the cyanic ethers has
enabled M. Wurtz to obtain two new bodies in a state of purity ;
for as the ureas consist of these ethers with the addition of NH,,
we can easily see that the decomposition of the latter will give the
alkaloids unmixed with ammonia. The discoverer has described
them under the names a“ methylamid and ethylamid, but me-
thylamine and ethylamine are more consonant with the ‘nomen-
clature adopted for the cake, The first is a permanent gas,
and the second a very volatile liquid, both having a strong odor
of ammonia, powerfully alkaline and caustic ; they precipitate
metallic solutions, and form with acids, crystallizable salts, which
are distinguished by their ready solubility in hot absolute alcohol.*
. Dumas iegests that from their similarity of odor, they may
often be mistak en for ammonia, when evolved in organic trans-
formations.
t now nw Htogics important to consider what will be the results
of the action of alkalies upon the isomeres of the ureas, and the —
other bodies which we have placed beside them. M. Wurtz, at i
the time when he described the first, had not discovered these
new alkaloids, and in his subsequent memoir does not appear to
have submitted them to experiment. It will probably be found
that their neg ae yields ammonia ay and not the new
alkaloids, and that the difference between metacetic nen and
its isomere is that while the latter is he binamid of the acid
C,H,O,, the former (as appears from the results of its decom-
position) i is the amido-ethylamid of carbonic acid,
The urethanes will probably be found to yield methylamine and
ethylamine by the action of potash, but it is otherwise with their
isomeres, the glycocolls; Liebig has found that leucine evolves am-
monia and hydrogen by the action of hydrate of potash and forms
a valerianile. Horsford, on the other hand, peers the evolution
* Chem. Gaz ette, Marck 15th, from Compt. Rend., Feb. 12th, 1849.
T’.. S. Hunt on the Constitution of Leucine. 67
of ammonia and hydrogen by that agent from glycocoll, and
found in the residue an oxalate ; its analogy with leucine would
lead us to expect formic acid, but Peligot has shown that a formiate
when fused with excess 0 potash, is converted with the evolution
of hydrogen into an oxalate, so that the product of Mr. Horsford’s
experiment was the result of a secondary action.
When thus regarded, the isomerism of these two classes of
bodies is already explained ; it is precisely that which exists be-
tween the acetic methylic ether and the formic ethylic ether, two
bodies scarcely distinguishable but by the action of an alkali,
which converts the one into an acetate and methol, and the other
ions a formiate and alcohol; the number of these isomeres is only
limited by the want of the ‘higher alcohols. It follows then that
there does not exist a homologue of urea in the first family, for
here in this primitive species the two groups are confounded, and
i farther it appears, that as we rise in the scale the number of pos-
sible isomeres is greatly increased. In the third family we have
regarded the compound of Wurtz as the binamid of the acid of
that family, while the new urea is an amido-ethylamid of the acid
of the first family; there may equally exist a bimethylamid of
carbonic acid or an amido-ethylamid of glycocollie acid, all of
which will be isomeric with metacetic urea. The discovery of
in Various ways, to increase the number of homologues and iso-
meric substances to an extent which is almost inconceivable.
The action of nitrous acid upon urea is well known to result in
its conversion into nitrogen and carbonic acid, which is at once
composed into water and au anhydrid, and a similar process has
been adopted by Piria in his beautiful researches upon asparagine ;
he has demonstrated that in this way many amids are readily
aan into nitrogen and a non-azotized
- A similar process applied to glycocoll, sarcosine e and louieutie,
ie would probably enable us to eliminate the acids of that series,*
while the decomposition of the urethanes and higher ureas as
Well as the new alkaloids under its action, still presents a curious
subject for investigation.
oreeaima May 22d, 1849.
* M. Cahours has observed in the memoir — nones that when leucine is
treated Lg oxydiing agents or solution, it is decomposed with
the evolution of a ery disagree age ee r, and the forts ation ‘ot an acid which he sup-
may be a homologue of the yeocollie, and he su ggests that sarcosine by a
Similar process risen mrt the 24 ve Eis ere he ap} _* ae - ay é for the
neutral lactates are legge 0 vg e ACe erhardt )
ile j i Bley the fi at ic ‘a Mae pol-
ymert ic gH, Og. Lactic
= _ se been described ve monobasie, bk Busclbardt and Maddsell in their
arches upon its salts, (Liebig’s Annal, xiii, p. 83,) arrive at the conclusion
that iti tis bibasic, apparently a. ba VL "Gerhardt had long before announced
e thing, (Precis, tome ler, p. 596.)
*
*
68 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
Arr. XIL—On Perfect Musical Intonation, and the fundamen-
tal Laws of Music on which it depends, with remarks showing
the practicability of attaining this Perfect Intonation in the
Organ ; by Henry Warp Poor, Worcester, Massachusetts.
1. Tats paper will treat only of one department of the science
of music—the laws which fix the twne of all musical scales, and
determine all musical intervals. Any one, who is at all conversant
with the musical discussions of the last few centuries, will per-
ceive that this is but partly explored and disputed territory, where
eminent scientific writers have entertained different opinions,
while all have agreed in admitting the fact, that there ever have
been, and still are, difficulties and imperfections in the musical
scale, as executed on organs, piano fortes, d&c., which no one
has yet shown how to overcome. It is with the belief that
he has syaesiiy these difficulties and is able to throw light on
this abstruse and unsettled department of the science, in a prac-
tical point of view, that the writer proposes to discuss it. Very
little on this subject reaches the eye of the theoretical and prac-
tical musician. In our elementary musical works it is either
omitted, or if treated; is not understood ; indeed the writer is not
aware of a treatise in which it is fully or correctly .discussed.
2. It isa singular fact, that while the human ear delights in pure
harmon y, (as performed by voices, violins and other instruments
wwitlicest fied scales,) and while improvement has been made in
every other science and mechanical art, the organ of the present
day has all the imperfection of intonation which pertained to that
instrument, four centuries since. For so long a period has this
imperfection existed, that it has come to be considered as neces-
sary, not only in this instrument, but by many it is believed to be
inherent in all music. Instead of remedying the difficulty by
introducing the sounds requisite to form the several scales (played
in) perfect, and inventing such mechanism as would bring these
sounds under the ready control of the organist, resort has been
had to “ headiacy ” which allows but one sound for G# and
Ab, which makes the same note answer for A, the sixth of the
key of C, and A, the key note of three sharps, which flats every
fifth, sharps every major third, and leaves every musical interval
( with the exception of the octave) more or less out of tune.
. Various attempts have been made during the last three cen-
turies to remedy the above difficulty, and to yeduce the apparent
sn perfeceea of the musical scale to a scientific and prgner
is.
x
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 69
correct performance. In 1811, two patents were taken out in
England for “improvements in instruments with fixed scales,”
an account of which, with drawings, will be found in Lond.
hil. Mag., vols. 37, 38 and 39. These were improvements in
temperament only, without aiming at perfect intonation. Mr.
Hawkes’s system had seventeen sounds in the octave; Mr. Loesch-
man’s had twenty-four sounds. There were mechanical as well
as theoretical difficulties necessarily connected with these instru-
ments, which were fatal to their ever coming into practical use.
Rev. Henry Liston, the learned author of the article “ Music” in
the Edinburgh Encyclopeedia, has done more in this department
than any other writer. His ‘Essay on Perfect Intonation,” in
one volume quarto, was published in London in 1812. He also
invented an organ designed to give the diatonic scales in perfect
tune, which was built by the eminent organ-builders, Flight and
Robson, of London. This was an instrument of great ingenuity,
but as the inventor was a theorist rather than a mechanician, there
were mechanical difficulties which alone would have been fatal
to it as a practical instrument. ‘To enable one pipe to give dif-
ferent sounds, Mr. Liston employed “ shaders,” which, arranged
in classes and worked by pedals, were brought over the tops of
the open, and mouths of the stopped, pipes, to alter their pitch.
It is hardly necessary to remark that such mechanism was im-
practicable ; as its correct performance required an accuracy of
motion which was incompatible with the material and the nature
of the instrument. There were also other mechanical difficulties
in his instrument, as well as errors and omissions in his theory,
(of which we shall hereafter speak,) that interfere with its claim
of being an instrument of perfect intonation. Its harmony, how-
ever, was superior to that of the tempered organs, and is thus
spoken of by John Farey, Sen., in the London Phil. Mag., vol.
37, p. 273.
“Sir: In your 27th vol., 206 p., I endeavored to call the at-
tention of Lord Stanhope and other patrons of musical improve-
Ments, to the perfecting of an organ capable of performing in
perfect tune. * * * It gives me great pleasure, therefore, to be
- able to state that the above is no longer a matter of doubtful
Speculation ; but that myself and several others have heard an
organ thus perfected by the Rev. Henry Liston; the exquisite
effects of which, particularly in accompanying vocal music, far
exceeded all that Maxwell and myself had written or perhaps
edges the imperfections of his efforts, and concludes his essay
as follows :
*
70 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
“ After all, the subject is but just begun. I have been led to
ravel in some beautiful regions, unknown to such as had con-
fined themselves to the hi But larger discoveries remain
yet to be made by those who shall, with more zeal and better
qualifications, follow out the track in which it has fallen to my
lot to go a little way before them.”
e manner in which the subject of the musical scale and
discreditable to music, as claiming to be a science. It is evident
that the fundamental basis of music 1s not understood by those
who attempt to teach the science. If it were necessary to cor-
roborate this statement, we could refer to the blind and mysteri-
ous manner in which “temperament” is treated by modern theo-
retical writers. In this, which is simply an arbitrary ee
of a false note for two or more true notes, some writers have s
an “inexhaustible fountain of variety,” ‘awful grandeur,” ‘ol
“exquisite beauty,” while an a writer calls it an “‘inexplica-
ble difficulty which no one has attempted to solve; the Deity
seems to have left music in an eufieeived state, to show his in-
scrutable power’ !* Temperament is au arrangement of economy
by which a small number of sounds ( usually twelve to the oc-
tave) are made to answer (imperfectly of course) for the much
larger number which would be required to give music in tune in
the usual number of keys. This arrangement was originally
submitted to, merely for the accommodation of the instrument-
maker and the player. So lo ong as no mechanism had been in-
vented by which more than twelve sounds could be managed by
the organist, temperament was necessary in instruments of this
class, but this reason no longer exists, as we shall show further
on in this paper. ‘Temperament has always been considered, by
the great masters, as an evil attendant upon the “ present imper-
fect state of instrumentation,”+ and hence they preferred that their
instrumental music should be performed by skillful artists on vio-
lins and other instruments which admit of perfect intonation ; an
these have held, to the present day, their rank as the leading and
most important instruments in the orchestra. It would have in-
structed a composer like Beethoven, or an artist like Paganini, to .
have heard of the scale of a modern German theorist, Kollmann,
which he calls the “scale of nature,” consisting “of twelve sounds
in the octave placed at equal distances, ” on which “ wonderful
compound of twelve diatonic, chromatic, enharmonic scales in
one,” he declares “all modern music depends. * {Phe somewhat
voluminous treatise of Gottfried Weber, on ‘musical composition,”
has recently been translated in this country, and has been praise
as a scientific work. The basis from which Weber a to
- * Gardiner's Music of Nature, Pp 433, Bost. ed, 183'7. + Beethoven.
”
i
ae
ee pines mn. reaper
new
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 71
explain musical intervals is the key-board of a piano forte!
An interval is the distance of one piano-key from another. He
defines a fifth thus: ‘“a fifth is an interval of five places.”
had defined his intervals by reference to the horn or trumpet, as
thtis—that the interval between the lowest and the second notes
given by the horn is an octave—that the interval between the
second and third notes is a perfect fifth, and so on—his definitions
could have been depended on, as the horn will always (if prop-
erly blown) give its intervals eractly thus. But so far from attempt-
ting to establish his theory on any scientific or mathematical basis,
he distinctly declares, “that it is not susceptible of such an estab-
ishment, or at least, has thus far failed of proving itself to be so.”
5. The writer of this paper is of opinion that music is as sus-
ceptible of a systematic and mathematical basis as chemistry, as-
tronomy, or any other science—that what are called the “mys-
teries” and ‘ imperfections” of the musical scale contain in them
nothing that is mysterious or imperfect—that temperament is no
longer necessary, and would be as useful applied to a multiplica-
tion table as to a musical scale—that the same sound can no
shall express. Some further reference to this instrument will
be made in the latter part of this paper.
72 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
. The writer would remark as the conclusion of his introduc-
sin, that no one, in the present unsettled state of the musical sci-
ence, can expect to become thoroughly acquainted with its funda-
mental principles, unless he will experiment and think for himself.
He will constantly meet with the errors of the theorists, and if Z
he cannot detect these for himself, he will find himself in per- j
petual darkness. Reasoning on musical science is not different
from reasoning on any other science. We must interrogate na-
ture, and follow where she leads us, notwithstanding the time-
honored opinions of the theorists. As an illustration of this w
may refer to the “chord of the seventh,” which consists of a
common chord with a certain seventh added. If we inquire
what this seventh is, we are informed by all the theorists that it
is a fourth above the fourth, and that its ratio is 9:16. Upon
trial, this combination we find very discordant and disagreeable.
If we ask a good natural singer to give the note, he gives it most
readily and naturally 4:7, a little lower than the note laid down
in the books, and this note (4:7) we find most natural and har-
monious in the chord. <A theory should be made from the music
and not the music from the theory.
7. We find by experiment that if two or more sounds heard
together, are in the rapidity of their vibrations in a sufficiently ¢
simple ratio, their relations are perceived by the ear, producing 4
an agreeable sensation, and this effect we call HARMONY.
8. If we take a series of sounds, the ratios of whose vibrations |
are as the following numbers 2:3:4: : 10, &c., |
we have the notes which will produce a series of chords, which
commencing with the most simple, will gradually become more
and more complicated, until the ear can no longer perceive their _.
relations: when this point is reached they will cease to produce
chords and harmony. Any ratio, neither of whose terms, (when
reduced, ) is larger than 10, will ‘produce a chord appreciable by
the ear. The extent to which the relations of chords can
perceived, will vary of course in different persons according to
the delicacy of the ear, aud hence it may not strictly be said that
there is any absolute point where chords cease and discords com- |
mence, yet as our written music contains no chord whose ratio 1s
expressed in higher terms than ¢en, and as this last ratio 9: 10 is 7
certainly near the farthest limits of our perception, we may prop- pa
erly consider that all chords must have the terms of their ratios
within this limit. It may be added, that though one or both of
the terms be larger than 10, yet if by dividing either*or both by
2, the quotient is brought within the limit above mentioned, they
will still produce harmony: e.g. the chord 5:12 is 5:6 ora
minor third, the highest note of which is raised an oc ie
. We shall then consider any combination of sounds which
are, each to > every sian 4 of the combination, as the ratios eX-
-
~ ee
i
Rea ic, aes
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 73
pressed by the numbers above, (viz., 1:2: 3, &c., to 10,)as har-
monious. Here is the fountain head from which an abundant
which do not come within the class just named, we give the
name of discordant. Whether such combinations shall be used,
is left entirely to the taste of the composer; we only insist on
this, that we shall not call them harmony.
_10. To the chords produced by the above ratios have been
given names as follows:
1:2— Octave. By combining these numbers
2:3— Perfect Fifth. differently we obtain different
3:4 — Perfect Fourth. chords, e. g. :
4:5 — Major Third. 3: 5— Major Sixth.
5:6— Minor Third. 5: 8— Minor Sixth.
6:7 — 2 These twochords have| 4: 9 — Major(or Perfect) Ninth.
7:8— , not been named.* 4: 7 — Perfect Seventh.
8:9— Major Tone. 5:7 — )Chords derived from
9:10 — Minor Tone. 7:9 — fie Perfect Seventh,
7:10— )and not named.
11. All these chords are produced from four prime numbers,
viz., 2, 3, 5, an The prime 2 produces the octave, the prime
Jifths, can we obtain a major third, nor from either or both -
ae chords (thirds and fifths) can we produce a perfect sev-
— enth. Elach are original, prime chords, not resolvable one into
the other. From the neglect of these simple mathematical hat
it
ciples result much of the mystery and fallacy connect
€mperament. It is attempted in temperament to produce a
, major third from a series of four fifths, or what is the same thing,
“ an alternate series of ascending fifths and descending fourths,
7 * It is remarkable that scarcely any mention has been made in musical treatises of
: two beautiful and important chords. They are »
found in the chord of the Seventh. In this chord ap- om _
: , E, G, Bb, and C, whose vibrations are as these ah a pw
: numbers, viz. ih G bb C. Thus it will be seen eS.
that the ratios of G to Bb is as 6:7 and the ratio of
Bb to C is as 7 to 8. 4:7 we
_ Perfect Seventh, and for the same reason that the perfect fifth was so named.
, e have not called it the minor seventh, as the ratio of the minor seventh has
always n stated so far as we have seen to be 9:16.
Seconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850. 10
74 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
exg. that Lx2x4xix4=—4 or £494. Again it is supposed
that a similar series of tivelve ees wi end upon the octave:
&, that LxeX4x% $x2x4xX2Xi=1 or
213424. oF 524288 = IAL a ‘mathematics cannot be
musical scale, which is founded upon them. ‘The result of this
mutilation is, (as might. poerele be supposed, ) the destruction of
pee harmony and melody in the tempered music.
The question has been vie whether ratios which con-
tain the prime seven should be considered harmonic. A standard
elementary treatise before us contains the following: “ Higher
primes than 5 enter into no harmonic ratios: such co ombina-
tions for instance as 1:7, 5:7, or 6:7, are altogether discord-
nt. The ear will not endure them, and cannot rest
upon them.’’*
The most certain method of determining oo eyed of hess |
harmonic combination, is by an appeal to the The
binations must first be heard, and the ear eat “decide cae
them. Although combinations which contain the prime 7 are
continually occurring in the performances of good singers and
violin players, yet it might es difficult for one unfamiliar with
them to know when they occur, If it be proposed to try them
referred to. It is probable that the writer quoted above, never
eard (knowing when he heard them) the combinations he con-
demns. The writer of this paper has sysapr facilities for the
experiment in question, inasmuch as he has nd an instru-
ment of perfect intonation, upon which the ae of these, or any
other combinations can be tried. On the evidence of his own .
ears and those of every musician who has heard them, he must
pronounce them altogether harmonious and pleasing.t
* Prof. Benj. Peirce, “On Sound,”
+ We have admitted in our system ee prime age than seven. The question
may be asked, why the higher ey as 11, 18, 17, 19, 23, &e, should be exclu-
ng g e mg a ne that they produce ratios too com lated for the ear
appreciate. e primes, and the combinations produced by them, are ul-
Dea peal nar 8 belong to the extended science of i isn would be
vit were our ears sufficiently delicate e appreciate them. But “ig, natvels
3 are illimitable, there is a limit to human bore ion of them. If any on
is aetois rte o investigate this matter, ten can satisfy himself by atempting to sie
one of these remote primes, as the 11th, for instance, "which Il be the easiest of
the whole. As this cannot be obtained from the Athes ie (octaves,
fifths, thirds, or sevenths,) it must be tuned as an eleventh at once e in a chord as fol-
lows, 8:11, 9:11 or 10:11, de If it be — impossible to tune it, it cer-
be impossible to use it in harmony o imposible
y of of th oe
d
ears, and find that he can apprec nie i, (ie cikee voce
tune it, or how when its tune) we wil agree that it may be used by himself
and those w ho possess equally delicate ear
es f a
EE ns + rn ER
ee ee
ee
er re
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 75
13. A Scale is a series of sounds, obtained from the above har-
monic relations, arranged in the order of their acuteness, and it
contains the notes required for the melodies and harmonies of
the composition for which it is used.
14. The piaronic scaLe is composed of seven distinct notes,
(the eighth, being the octave, is regarded as a repetition of the
first.) It is formed by combining the chords of perfect fifth,
(2:3,) and major third, (4:5,) and it contains all the intervals
and chords which have been named, with the exception of those
derived from the perfect seventh. Assuming C as a key-note,
this scale, in the vibrations of its several notes, stands as follows:
C D E FW G
Key-note, Second. Third. Fourth. Fifth. Sixth, Seventh. Octave.
js Se 8: 230 Soe: | a6 2 40.» 45 : @&
Mpj. T. Min. T. s. Maj. T. Min.T. Maj. T. Ss.
15. On examining the relations of these numbers, we find
the intervals which separate the several notes of the scale. The
ratio of 24:27 or 8:9, gives the interval between the first and
second notes, which is called major tone. The ratio of 27:30
or 9:10, gives the interval between the second and third notes,
which is called minor tone. The interval by which the major
tone exceeds the minor is called comma, whose ratio is 80:81.
The ratio of 30:32 or 15: 16, expresses the interval between the
third and fourth of the scale, and it is called diatonic semitone or
simply semitone, diatonic being understood. From the fourth to
the fifth, and from the sixth to the seventh, is the same as from
the key-note to the second, i. e., major tone. From the fifth to
the sixth is the same as from the second to the third, i. e., minor
tone, and from the seventh to the eighth is the same as from the
third to the fourth, i. e., diatonic semitone.
_ 16. Besides the diatonic semitone, there are nsed in composi-
ion two others, resulting from taking the diatonic semitone from
either tone. If it be subtracted from the major tone, it leaves
What is called the chromatic semitone, and if taken from the minor
one, there remains the grave chromatic semitone, comma less
than the chromatic.
17. If from any note, as key-note, there be taken a perfect fifth
and major third, the three notes sounded together will produce a
common chord. These notes are, in their vibrations, as these num-
bers, viz.: 4:5:6. If to this, the perfect seventh (4:7) be added,
we have the chord of the seventh, expressed thus, 4:5:6:7.
Adding the octave, the chord becomes 4:5:6:7:8. To this
may be added the major ninth (4:9), producing this chord, viz. :
4:5:6:7:8:9. And finally, by adding the tenth, (or octave and
Major third ), we obtain this chord, viz.: 4:5:6:7:8:9: 10.
ding, below the key-note, the double-octave, its octave and
twelfth, we have what may be called the full chord of the tenth,
76 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
viz.: 1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8:9:10. All of these chords are per-
fectly harmonious, and in all respects appreciable by the ear.
The last contains within itself every musical chord and _har-
mony, that can be obtained from ratios whose terms do not ex-
ceed ten. Examples of these chords, as written, we here exhibit.
ggleghgeyelga at
= Se
Resolution.
nS
The vibrations in the various ratios of the full chord of the
tenth may be represented to the eye by the ADE diagram.
E.10 ‘ ’ ’ 1 0
} Mixon Tone,
D. 9 2 ‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ' 9
t Masor Tone.
Cc. 8 ‘ ’ A ' 8 ) Extenpep
§ Seconp(?)
Bb. 7 ‘ “ 2 : : 7 ! DIMINISHED
Trev (2)
G. 6 ’ ‘ 6 Be
THIRD.
Es : 5 es
as | ; THIRD.
Foourts
G8 8
t Firra
O..2 )
t Octave.
me 2 ; ies
Assuming any length of time,.for a single vibration of the lowest
note, it is evident that the other several notes of the chord will
in the same time perform Fivarbon equal in number to the num-
bers expressing their ratios respectively ; and that at the expira-
tion of this time, the vibrations of every note will coincide with
each other. There are also points within this assumed time in
which two, three, four or more of these notes will coincide in their
vibrations. These coincidences are represented in the diagram by
dotted lines. By means of the diagram, the vibrations of any other
chord, as the common chord, the chord of the seventh, ninth, &¢.,
may be examined, as they are all contained in the full chord of
the tenth. The difference i in the effect of the different chords is
seen in the less frequent coincidences in the more complicat
chords. tee seeare ie much more simple than the major
ee
;
§ :
f
~
;
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 17
tone, for the reason that every vibration of one of its notes, coin-
cides with every second vibration of the other, while in the
major tone it is necessary that that one note perform eight, and
the other we vibrations before there is any coincidence. And
from this, will appear the increased difficulty in tuning, as the
chords become more complicated.
18. From the introduction of the perfect seventh is obtained
appear.
At a, Bb is the fourth of the
scale of FE‘, while at 8, it is the
perfect seventh to C; and the © Oia
last Bb is lower than the first Gzpe -
by about a comma and a quar- |
ter. Consequently in singing
the melody with the accompa- ee iM te
niment as written, the voice will give the second BD lower than
the first by that interval. It will be found on experiment, that a
good natural singer, if asked to sing the melody with this accom-
paniment, will naturally, and no doubt unconsciously, make the
distinction referred to.
As it has been stated that musical ratios, in order to
be harmonious, must not exceed a certain limit of simplicity,
the question naturally arises, shall no other notes be heard to-
gether in music but those which have, each to every other,
these simple ratios? Abundant examples can be selected from
the best composers, in which notes are heard together, which
make more complicated ratios, and which cannot be rega
harmonious. To illustrate this we take the following
example. With the chord of the
dominant seventh as accompa-
niment, are heard at the same
time the notes D, C#, D and D#.
The melody in the first and third
hotes is in harmony with the
accompaniment. But though C# and DF appear, while the
chord is sounding, they can make no harmony with it. Neither
are they discordant. ‘The ear regards the progression of these
notes as parts of the melody, and only requires that the melodié
intervals (diatonic and chromatic semitones ) be given truly, with-
out regarding the ratios which the accidentals make with the
accompanying chord. In other words, these are PASSING NOTEs,
which have nothing to do with the harmony, and are to be
thrown out when we would find the notes which compose the
78 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
chord. Many apparently commence combinations may be made
ekg by attending to t epartment of passing notes.
. There is a certain saahenaen of sounds, which has occu-
pie = a separate department of most treatises. It is called the
“chord of the diminished seventh,” and is supposed to possess
some peculiar and extraordinary qualities. It would, of course,
tion hitherto, with proper respect, to pass it over in silence. It is
defined to be, and undoubtedly is, exactly like the chord of the
seventh, with the exception that the lowest note (of the chord of
the seventh) is in the “diminished seventh,” raised a chromatic
semitone. It is supposed that there exists in this combination a
* harmony” which is peculiar* Parana different from that
— in the , so yd 2,
—o—o--F o Z-
is the common chord of 6-2 eres =e: Et
It is intended t
pass from this to the: minor chord of A. Now, although we
might pass from the chord of G, directly to that of 'A, it is judged
expedient to have the melody of the lowest part, instead of as-
cending by a whole tone at once, ascend by two steps, viz., a
chromatic and diatonic semitone. The G# introduced, does not
belong to the harmony, but is merely a a note. The
matter is very easily understood in this first example. The sec-
ond example is precisely like the first, with the exception that
the seventh has been added to the chord, and it would have been
equally easy to understand, had not the subject been darkened me
the “words without knowledge,” of the theorists who hav
written on the “diminished seventh.” For if in the first oda
ple, G# isa passing note, why should its effect be changed by
the addition of the seventh to the chord? It is stated by the
theorists that the root of the chord at a is G, but that at 6 (when
G is changed to G#) the root changes to E. Now, as by the
root of a chord is meant a note with which the remaining notes
will be ina simple ratio, and will harmonize, we will inquire
_ how this root, E, major r third below G#, will harmonize with
the other several notes of the chord. The ratios of the vibra-
a of these several notes will be as follows:
rom these ratios we see that
E will be discordant with F, Fete Oe cage
(making the ratio 20: 42, 4
10:21), and G# will be dusts with D and F (25:36,
the se {n the firs
exanple, the cae me
* Wm. Gardiner, on hig Fania Nature,” gives the following as his idea
of this mer “Tf four minor thirds(!) be combined, they form the chord of the
extreme flat seventh, excites in us han ar and alarm, because it is a monn of
ines @3 escape us in the ebu
worst passions, and are heard in the nes murmurs of wild beasts.
semitone.
On Perfect Musical Intonation. 79
and 25:42), making altogether not very harmonious “har-
mony.” Indeed, the difficulty of treating the chord in this
manner has caused considerable discussion, which some have
endeavored to surmount, by calling it a ‘dissonant chord,” or
“dissonant harmony!” It is stated, (and with reason,) that
“this root E must not be heard in the chord, as it is discord-
ant.” It is certainly remarkable if, in this chord alone, the root
does not happen to be in harmony with the other members of the
chord. But if G¥ be considered as a passing note, we shall at
once be sure as to what the chord is. The root will be G, and every
note (with the exception of G#, the passing note, which must
be thrown out when we reckon the harmony,) is in perfect
tune with it, in a simple and harmonious chord, viz., 4:5:6:7.
And this G# appears to us as plainly to be a passing note, through
which the melody of the lowest part passes from G to A, (for
after this note we always have A,) as that D¥ is a passing note
from D to KE, in the example given in(19.) In this example, in
the chord at a, it would
h
: a rj
probably be admitted (> 4 6 ff
without dispute that G# ee mae dad se oad eG
was merely a_ passi sa PEA e—=r-|— —f
ng
note ; and why it should
be considered as any & .
@ | [wwe
eq
manifest. Weshall there-
fore consider that there is no different harmony, in what has
been called the “chord of the diminished seventh,” than exists
in the “chord of the seventh ;” and for this reason, that all the
harmony it contains is derived from, and found in, the chord of
the seventh. :
21. Among the many mistakes and incongruities into which
the theorists have been led by the temperament of the scale, and
their constant habit of referring all combinations to the key-boar
of the piano-forte or organ, is the following idea in regard to this
“diminished seventh.” . It is supposed that a chord of the di-
minished seventh contains the sounds which belong to four dif-
ferent and remote scales, and thus connects them together. Here
are examples of four of these chords in the keys of C, Eb, A,
and F'4; they are, as will be seen, the chords of the dominant
Sevenths of those keys, with the lowest notes raised a chromatic
a> aS a
ee
Rae 2 a | ta 5
6 ore Ere ety
ne 2 ee
Lis
80 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
It is supposed that each of these four chords contains ”
same identical sownds: and on the oe it is Impossi
to obtain any other than the same sounds, in the four different
keys. These four chords have therefore ein ‘shneel to be
one and the same thing. Mention is, mdeed, made of the
“ enharmonic change’ of G# to Ab, F to EF, D to C+, &e.;
but as on the piano forte it is impossible to make any change—
that instrument having but one sound to answer for the two or
more, which appear in the written music—the idea has preva ailed
that the change is merely imaginary, and that the alteration
in the mode of writing the note, is made only to prevent one
key from being mistaken for another, in the appearance of the
written music to the eye. But the truth is, that in perfect in-
tonation, an enharmonic change oper means the alteration
of a note by a small interval. And not only are enharmonie
changes made when the written music phen a sharp changed
to a flat, and vice versd, but changing the signature will often |
_ produce an enharmonic a This point will be more fully
illustrated when we have spoken of transposition and modulation,
and explained our system of notation.
As musical composition would be very limited in variety,
if confined to a single scale or key, other scales have been con-
structed on new key-notes, separated one from the other by inter-
vals of perfect fifths, and from these key-notes, the remaining
notes of each scale are placed at the same intervals which were
adopted in the construction of the original. If we take the fifth
of any scale as the key-note of a new scale, and complete it with
the same intervals as the first, we shall find that two sounds will
be introduced which were not found in the original scale. We
take for example the diatonic scale of C, and ne its fifth
G as key-note, complete the scale of G. The second of this
scale will be A, and from G to A, or the first to the nk must
be a major tone, (15.) On engine. the scale of C, (14) we find
that the A of that scale is but a minor tone, from G. We must
therefore introduce a new A, a comma higher than the first, and
a major tone from G. Every other note of the C scale is correct
for the G scale with the exception of F, which must be raised a
chromatic semitone to F'#, to form the seventh of the scale of G.
In general, the scale may be transposed to any extent by the fol-
lowing rules.
writer has been led into this digression on the subject of the “diminished
seventy from pa that it has been trea’ ted, as he considers erroneously, in all the
scien orks that have fallen under his observation, and it has been ae
an o ston 108 a hiherser of perfect intonation. Since the article was in t,
‘stay informs him, that po. views as Weber an oth-
hed seventh, have been rejected by V Vogler and the
bet Geral theoea ‘
On Perfect Musical Intonation. sl
23. To transpose the scale to the fifth above ; the sixru must
be raised a comma, and the rouRTH @ CHROMATIC sEMITONE to
Jorm the seconp and seventu of the new scale.
And . choy es it to the fifth below, the process must be re-
versed : : the seconp must be lowered a comma, and the srv-
\ ENTH @ eee SEMITONE, to form the sixTH and FOURTH of
; the new scale.
this system of transposition we obtain two or more
different notes expressed by the same letter—two A’s for in-
: Stance, as we have shown above. ‘To make it obvious to the
eye, which of several notes of the same letter belongs to any re-
quired scale, we have adopted the following system of notation.
Every note of the diatonic scale of o we mark with a figure 2;
as thus; C2, 2, E?, F2, G2, A?, en in wri x ;
tion one of these notes is raised a comma, enharmonically,*
is marked with the higher number 3; and when it is re a
comma it is marked with 1. Thus A® will signify a note a
comma higher than A2, the A of the C scale; and D', a note a
comma lower than D?.. The sharps and flats will also be marked
2, when they first pepe in transposing from C to the keys above
oct below. We now exhibit the scales of C, and of G and F,
whose Hale Rie are ah fifths above and below C, with the
hames of the notes of each, and their intervals. It will be —
that the order of the intervals from the key-note is made t
same in each, by the alteration of the two notes in each adjoin.
‘ing scale.
‘
4 5 6 7 Key ae
( es | Minor T, | MajorT. | 8. | Major. | Minor T. a 5. ie,
D? BK? Fe? G? A? C?
ale of
1#
FS Rn St ae ee ne
rs of — Lo Major T. [Minor T. | 8. | Major T. | Minor T.| MajorT. | S. |
oe Pe ee ee
Gs
i 6 aE e, S S
Fr © Ol TMinorT. | MajorT. |S. | Major. |MinorT.| S. | Major. |
1D Ga Din. BB « Ms bot Ebtan OF
n Enharr change ny interval smaller than a dlivcintls
or wn Hee eens as eis inti: fe the “erence between the major a — ogre
tones—between G# and Ab—the fourth of a scale e and its dominant seventh, dc.
enharmonic an are not usually expressed in tech excep > the
signature, but t they ar ecessary to perfect ect intonation, to brin, ring the “into
harmony,” which is Siblied in the derivation of the term, # and épyo'
Srconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
82 On Perfect Musical Intonation.
In addition to the diatonic scales, we have added three columns,
viz., the leading notes or sevenths of the minor scales—the perfect
sevenths—and the dominant sevenths, (or the perfect sevenths
upon the dominants. ) ,
| ea |g ioe i | a
Sigman [errs sua kG, EE Furie | ihe 3 MCE E| ER |
z wa 1 Sepa
5 Sharps. |B? C#9 |D#? lev ES (FHS r+! GH? jay |A#? BS
4 Sharps. |E3 F#% G#2 |a7 |A3 —_|B3 Be! CH? pz |D#? E3
3 Sharps. |A® BS (C#2 [pr (D2 |E3 n#1\/F#? \e7 |G#? |A®
2 Sharps. |D? E? |F#? |e7 G2 |A® |a#7B? cr |C#? |D?
1 Sharp. |G? |A® |B? [cr C? |D? p#t BE? rr |F#? G?
e
I Flat. _|F?G? A? [a7 Bp? (C2? oF! D? _ab7in? (FA
2 Flats. |Bh? C2 (D2 |eb? Ep? |F2 [r#1G1 [ab7/A? | (Bb?
3 Flats. /Ep?/F2 (G1 |ab7/Ah? |Bb? Bt (C2 pb7iD! |Eb?
4 Flats. |Ab?/Bb? (C1 |pb7)Dp? |Ep?|e! |F1 |cb7jG! Ab?
5 Flats. Dp? 9? |Eb? Fi |qb7 Gh? |Ab? la} Bb? |cb7|Ci Dh?
In the above table, the column marked “major oe ”” con-
tains also the key-notes of the minor scales. These key-notes,
as will be seen, are a comma lower than the notes of the same
letter, which are key-notes of major scales, e. g., the key-note of
minor (being the relative minor of ED, i n the scale of three
flats) is C', comma lower than C?, the Revere of C major, in
the natural scale. Consequently the leading notes of the minor
scales (which are diatonic semitone below their key-notes, and
major third above the major third of the relative major scale,) are
lower than = key-notes of the major scales by the same inter-
val, viz.,a comma. In the column of “ perfect sevenths,” and
« dominant becale? the figures are attached to the letters arbi-
(24.) Being derived from a prime different from the notes
of the diatonic scale, they will not vary from them by even com-
mas. ‘They are marked 7, and their pitch is about a comma an
a quarter* below that of the letters of the same name in the col-
umn of “ perfect fourths,” and each is always used (as a seventh
only) in one chord and no other.
6. Having explained our system of notation, and having before
us a table, which contains the exact relative pitch of every note,
in eleven major, and eleven minor scales, we are prepared to re-
cur to the illustration we gave concerning the “diminished sev-
enidacs utio of tis
80:81.
Analyses of several Minerals. 83
the notes, as given in the table. It will be seen that each of the
chords is entirely different—that not a note found in any one of
the chords, is found in any other.
| enth,” (21.) We again give the example, and also place below
tt 9 —9-7-p--- 3B +-## #2
6-42 5 Spe es
Cy Ge i eet +-6-
F7 Abz p7 B7
: p? ad Bs Ges
: B2 Dp GH2 E#2
t G#1 By! E#! C+1
27. We find it stated in certain theoretical ied lees “that the
major and minor keys of the same letter,” (as C major, and C
minor) “are nearly related, inasmuch as the two tonic chords are
alike, with the exception of the third, and both have the same
dominant chord.” We will write the tonic and dominant chords
of C major (in the natural scale,) and of C minor (in three flats, )
and from the table, ascertain the notes of each. We find the notes
of the two keys entire- -4
ly different, and conse- Pe — 3 eee
quently C major is not @=2 2 we tes!
related to C minor, ex- C Mason. C Minor.
cept in the fourth de- 2 2 Eb2 pi
gree, through the fol- ai ie C1 5B
lowing keys, viz.: F, ey ee Gi G!
Bb, Eb, and C minor.
As upon the keyed instruments, it has been necessary to use the
Same sounds in C major and C minor, the oe, referred to,
were led to make the statement we have quote
To be continued.)
Arr. XIIL.—Analyses of several Minerals ; by Wiuiu1am Fisuer.
d ae following analyses were performed in the Laboratory of
F Prof. Booth, whose guidance in their performance I cl
with pleasure
sand from New Jersey, a few miles southeast of Phila-
delphia. 8 is blueish green, soft and adhesive when moist, in
large and hard grains when dry, and containing a trifling admix-
ture of quartz sand. The analysis was performed in the usual
* A description of the Euharmonie Organ is necessarily postponed to the next
number of the Journal. The instrument however, in A on w doys, will be set up in
Boston, and will be ee with pleasure, to those interested in the pro-
Sress of musical scien re ym Ra 13, North Russell street,
84 Analyses of several Minerals.
manner of a soluble silicate, the soda and potassa being separated
by chlorid of platinum. Phosphoric acid was carefully sought
for by several processes and repeated trials without success.
The following are the result
sae Phe ie ey ey ae ,
Alum ‘ : ' : 3°85
Proictya of iron, . : : ; . 24:15
Magnesia, ; : 1:10
Lime, 1:73
Soda, 1:60
Potassa, ‘ ‘ ‘ . + ae
Water, ; : ‘ . ‘ : 10:12
101-12
2. Vivianite from the green sand of Delaware, about four miles
west of Cantwell’s Bridge. The beauty of the crystals, and the
similarity of some of the specimens with Thompson’s mullicite
induced me to investigate them. The mineral is perfectly crys-
tallized in oblique rhombic prisms, with several terminal planes,
and a brilliant cleavage parallel to a lateral end plane. Although
the prismatic planes reflect a good image, yet their intervening
es are rounded like the apatite from Rossie, N. Y. When f
first obtained from the green sand, the crystals were perfectly col-
orless, but in the course of some weeks changed to a light green
color, still, “Neate ae their transparency. ‘T'he phos-
Phosphoric oid, ‘ ; : é eo QFE
Protoxyd of i ou ‘ ‘ : : 44-10 eis
Water, . i. glk ene Be fiat
Silica, A : ; : ‘ ‘ 0-10 |
99:32
The analysis shows that the formula is that given to vivianite.
In a late number of his Annual Report, Berzelius calculated a differ-
ent formula from a partial peroxydation of the iron; but the above
well crystallized specimen indicated only a slight amount of oxy-
dation, and the change in color of the mineral after removal from
the green sand, indicated this oxydation. The true formula is
therefore 3Fe0, PO, +8HO.
3. Garnet, from ‘Franconia, New Hampshire. Part of the
specimen exhibited the usual characters of colophonite, but the
ge ee points of some of the coarse grains showed the bee
of garnet in a combination of the 24-hedron
Darlington’s Memorials, §c. 85
48-hedron. The analysis, performed like that of a silicate, fused
with carbonate of soda, gave :
Silica, . : : : : s » 38°85
Peroxyd of iron, : : : : 28°15
Lime, . ; ’ ‘ é . 32:00
99-00
It therefore agrees with the purest lime-iron-garnet, and its
formula is 3CaO, SiO, +Fe, O,, SiO,.
- Chondrodite, from New Jersey. Some very dark red speci-
mens appearing to indicate the presence of oxyd of zinc, which
occurs so abundantly in that mineral district, the analysis was
chiefly undertaken to determine this point. The fluohydric acid
was determined by fusion with carbonate of soda, and by subse-
quent treatment of the aqueous solution by oxyd of zinc, sal-am-
moniac, ammonia and chlorid of calcium. The results corres-
ponded with one of Rammelsberg’s analyses and the absence of
zine was fully proved. 'The analysis gave:
1 : ‘ :
Silica, ; ; é . 33°35
Magnesia, . ; ; ‘ : = 53°05
Protoxyd of iron, . : : ’ # J BIBD
Fluorine, . j : 760
99°50
The formula is therefore MgF+2 (3MgO, SiO,), in which a
Portion of the magnesia is replaced by protoxyd of iron.
Arr. XIV.— Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Mar-
shall, with notices of their Botanical Contemporaries, by Wu.
Darueron, M.D., LL.D., pp. 585, 8vo. Philad., 1849.
youth ; the leisure hours of the last year and more have been de-
Voted to collating, copying with his own hands, and editing the
86 Darlington’s Memorials
mouldering and often hardly legible correspondence of these
earliest cultivators of his favorite science in his native state, and,
we believe, the earliest indigenous botanists of the new world.
Instead of elaborating anew the materials for a biography of
the elder Bartram, Dr. Darlington has reproduced the meagre
sketch which was prepared by his son William, and published in
Barton’s Medical and Physical Journal in the year 1804, as in
the main more reliable than any other. Its incompleteness, how-
ever, may be gathered from the fact, that it does not, nor does
any other published biography, mention the name of Bartram’s
father, ‘‘nor could any of his descendants, enquired of by the
editor, furnish that name, neither could they give the exact date
of the botanist’s birth!” These desiderata are now supplied,
through Dr. Darlington’s diligence, and the kindness of a friend
_ who obtained them from the ancient records of Darby Monthly
Meeting. It appears that he was born “near the village of Darby,
in Delaware (then Chester) County, Pennsylvania, on the twenty-
third day of March, 1699; that his great-grandfather, Richard
rtram, lived and died in Derbyshire, England ; leaving an only
son, John, who married in Derby, lived for some years in the
town of Ashborn, and in 1682—the year in which the city of
Philadelphia was founded—emigrated to Darby, Pennsylvania,
with three sons, two of whom died unmarried. The third, Wil-
liam, was the father of John Bartram the botanist.
was developed, which, however, must have been early in life.
or he was stilla young man when he removed from the farm he
had inherited from his uncle, and purchased a piece of ground on
the Schuylkill, near Philadelphia, for the establishment of the
well known garden that bears his name, and built with his own
hands (A. D. 1731) the large and comfortable house of hewn
stone which is still standing, and which Dr. Darlington has de-
picted in a large wood-cut which forms the frontispiece of his
volume. T'o him is attributed, we believe justly, the credit of
having been “ the first Anglo-American who conceived the idea
of establishing a botanical garden for the reception of the various
vegetables, natives of the country as well as of exotics; and 0
travelling for the discovery and acquisition of them.” He cer-
tainly established the first garden of the kind in this country, and
filled it with our choicest plants and trees, then in great part novel
to botanists. It was not his fault that it was not the nucleus of
a public institution, endowed through the wealth and spirit of a
prosperous metropolis, instead of sinking into neglect and becom-
ing the site of a coal-yard.
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 87
“He began his travels at his own expense. His various ex-
cursions rewarded his labors with the possession of a great variety
of new, beautiful and useful trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants.
His garden at length attracting the visits and notice of many
virtuous and ingenious persons, he was encouraged to persist in
his labors.” This naturally led to a correspondence with the
naturalists of Europe. His earliest and his principal corres-
pondent was Peter Collinson, the London merchant, and member
of the Royal Society, a most amiable man, dear old gossip, who
loved above all things to receive novelties and accounts of curi-
ous things from distant parts and to share them with the savans
of the day. He is well known by his correspondence with
Linneeus, published by Sir James E. Smith, and with Franklin,
published in President Sparks’s ccllection of the philosopher’s
writings and correspondence; and a portion of his characteristic
letters to Cadwallader Colden may be remembered by the readers
of this Journal.* His letters to Bartram occupy more than half the
bulk of the correspondence now published, and exhibit the good
London merchant in a very pleasing light. They cover the
whole period from 1734 to Collinson’s death in 1768, a period of
thirty-four years; and the earliest of the series found among the
rtram papers evidently does not commence the correspondence.
The originals of the letters addressed by Bartram to Collinson are
probably not extant. Those here published are from copies or
original draughts preserved by the writer. The first of the series
is dated May, 1738; so that we have none in reply to those of
Collinson during the four earlier years, which is much to be re-
gretted.
In the second letter here published, the good Collinson initiates
John Bartram into the art and mystery of preparing dri ci-
mens of plants. The botanist of the present day may be some-
what surprised to learn that a “ quire of whited-brown paper” was
thought amply sufficient to hold a year’s collection.
“London, January 24th, 1735.
ceptance. Iam very sensible of the great pains, and many tiresome
'N proportion to thy trouble, I have sent thee a small token: a calico
gown for thy wife, and some odd little things that may be of use
amongst the children and family. They come ina box s to
my worthy friend, Joseph Breintnall, with another parcel of waste
Paper, which will serve to wrap up seeds, &c. But there is two quires
p eats from the scientific correspondence of Cadwallader Colden, vol. xliy,
» 80, 3. -
88 Darlington’s Memorials
of brown, and one of whited-brown paper, which I propose for this use
and purpose, and will save thee a great deal of trouble in writing: that
is, when thee observes a curious plant i in flower, or when thee gathers
seed of a plant thee has an intention to convey me a description of, on
h
branches or sprigs of the plants, then in flower, with their flowers on,
and with their seed-vessels fully formed; for by these two characteris-
tics, the genus is known that they belong to. Then take these, and
spread them between the sheets of brown paper, i the stems
h
and then thee observes a curious plant, thee may treat it in this manner,
by which thee will convey a more lively idea than the best description ;
and when thee gathers seeds, mark the same number on the seeds as
thee marks in the shen! bls the specimen is, only writing under it the
country name. So, once a year, return me the quire of whited-brown
paper, with the ares Pains lies tied fast between two broad boards ;
and will send some more in their room. en the sheet of
paper will hold it, put one, two, or three specimens of the same plant
in the same sheet, so they will but lie smooth by each other.
Mt Te what I have further to propose, per this method, is, thy
own improvement in the knowledge we habs, 3 for thou shalt send me
another quire of duplicates of the same specimens; I will get them :
named by our most knowing borates and then return them again, |
which will improve thee more than s; for it is impossible for any
author to give a general history of plants. Let the specimens be
of. the length of the paper
ee canst not think aa well the little case of plants came, being
put under the captain’s bed, and saw not the light till I went for it; but
* *
a | wieh, at a proper season, wi oad procure a strong box, tw
feet square, and about fifteen or eighteen inches deep,—but a foot se
in mould will be enough ; then collect half a doxen laurels, and half a
dozen shrub honeysuckles, and plant in this box ; but be sure make the
pros have taken good root, — made good shoots; but thee must be
careful to water it in dry w
*T wish that thee wid no ay il to put three or four specimens of
the sprigs of the laurel, with the flowers fully blown (for I long to see
it) in the paper, transferring them from one to another, as I have di-
- As my ae is not to. oe thee more trouble, so a few speci-
‘mens will conte
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 89
‘| have further to request thee to put up a little box of plants
(yearly) in earth, such as thou finds in the woods, that are odd and un-
common, .
** What thee observes of the frost, to be sure, had the effect thee de-
scribes. I once remember one like it in England ;,but the effects
were not so severe. I hope, next year, thee will be able to make some
selections that may make thee some returns.
“The White Flowering Bay [Magnolia glauca, L.} is a plant that
silver color on the back of the leaves. It bears a fine large white
flower, like the water lily, of a fine perfumed smell, which is succeeded
with a seed-vessel of a cone-like figure. 1 have a plant that flowers
finely, in my garden. It is in abundance of places, in Maryland; but
whether it is found more northward, I can’t say. It is a fine plant to
adorn thy own garden. But give thyself no trouble about it: and, as
the fir and cypress cones are not found near thee, we will wait for some
more favorable opportunity to collect them. Send first those seeds that
are near thee.
“The box of seeds came very safe, and in good order. Thy re-
marks on them are very curious; but I think take up too much of thy
time and thought. I would not make my correspondence burdensome ;
but must desire thee to continue the same collections over again; and
present of part of these seeds to a very curious person [Lord Petre, ]
I hope to procure thee some present for thy trouble of collecting. I
am thy very sincere friend. P. CotLinson.”—pp.
This letter proves that it was Collinson’s forethought and care
which suggested the plan for making Bartram’s collections afford
some reimbursement, and furnish the means for new journies and
explorations. A paragraph in a succeeding letter shows that he
had interested Lord Petre in the undertaking.
“ London, March Ist, 1735.
“Kind friend, Joan Bartram :—I am now just returned to town
rom paying a visit to a noble lord, my most valuable and intimate
friend. One of my proposals, I sent thee last year, to collect the seeds
good suii of clothes, for thy own wear, might be as acceptable as any-
ing, so have sent thee one, with all appurtenances necessary for its
making up, which I hope will meet with thy approbation, and help in
Some measure to compensate for thy loss of time.
Srcoxp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
90 Darlington’s Memorials
“‘My noble friend desires thee to continue the same collections.
Send the same sorts over again, and what new ones happens in thy
way, and sent at the same time o’ year, and in the same manner, will
do very well. — tg look in — other retler: for my heorerg remarks
* As our sb hd friend will be always edi I hope it wil encour-
age thee to go on; but yet I would have thee so proceed as not to in-
terfere with thy private business. Indeed, the foreitl tree seeds I hope
will bring money into thy pocket; so the me spent in making the col-
lection cannot be said to be lost or misspen
*T hope thee hath mine per Captain Dichcostid' with a parcel in the
Library Company’s trunk, and a box of seeds, in sand, per Richmond.
i heartily wish thee and thine health and prosperity, and am
Thy real frien P; NSON.
“Pray give nobody a hint, how thee or thy wife came by sh suit of
clothes. ‘There may be some, with you, may think they deserve some-
mine of that nature.
“If thee observes any curious insects, beetles, butterflies, é&c., they
re easily preserved, being pinned through the body to the inside of a
little box. When it is full, ae it nailed up, and put nothing within it,
and they will ve very safe. Display the wings of the butterflies with
pins, and rub off the down as little as possible. When thee goes
abroad, put a little box in thy pocket, and as thee meets with them put
them in, and then stick them in the other box when thee comes home.
1 want a Terrapin or two. Put them in a box with earth, and they
will come safe. They will live a long while without food.”—pp. 69, 70.
We must make room for a part of the preceding letter, evi-
dently in reply to one-in which Bartram had reproached his cor-
respondent for not sending him the English seeds and plants he
asked for.
T have procured from my knowing friend, Philip Miller, gardener
to the Physic Garden at Chelsea, belonging to the Company of Apothe-
caries, sixty-nine sorts of curious seeds, and some others of my own
my situation it is itipossible. Besides, most of the plants ies pre be
for, are not to be found in gardens, but growing spontaneously a many
miles off, and a many miles from one another. It is not to be expected
I can do as thou does. My inclination’s good, but I have affairs of
greater consequence to mind; and as I have observed to thee before,
affairs of this nature should not interfere with business, and I do request
thy business the preference ; but if, in the course of that, without me
rag it, thou can pick up what thou thinks will be acceptable, we
shall be obliged to thee, and study some requital. So for the future,
no more censure me for not sending the one-sixth part thee wrote for,
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 91
thoughts, and not suspect my care ; and then thee will deal kindly,
i friendly, and lovingly, by P. Cotiinson.”’—pp. 68, 69.
The next letter informs Bartram that his collection of seeds of
forest trees had brought £18 13s. 3d. from Lord Petre, who also
promised an annual subscription of ten guineas to aid him in
making further discoveries.
“Lord Petre is very willing to contribute very handsomely towards
it. He will be ten guineas, and we gre in hopes to raise ten more
This we think, will enable thee to s apart a month, two, or three, to
make an excursion on the banks of the Schaylkill, to trace it to its
fountain. But so great an undertaking may require two or three years,
and as many journeys, to effect it, so we must leave that wholly to
thee. But we do expect, that after harvest, and when the season is
that all the seeds of trees and shrubs are ripe, thou will set out; and
them that happen not to be ripe when thou goes, they may have at-
tained to maturity when thou comes back. We shall send thee paper
for specimens and writing, and a pocket ta thee’ll keep
a regular journal of what occurs every day, a xact observation
of the course of the river, which, with a wid phy may easily do,”
—p. 12.
Again, the next letter.
‘“‘T have now the pleasure to tell thee that I have got subscribed
twenty guineas, to encourage “a be undertake thy intended expedi-
tion; and as our gentlemen find encouragement, it will be continued
annually. This is a pretty sum in ‘aacling money, whic hope will
enable thee to supply thyself with necessaries from hence ; or, if more
for thy pre thou may draw for it when we have received thy ca
goes. This, I believe, thee “will think reasonable, that the ss Fhe
should fit see what they have for their money. This | can assur
thee, that thee has to do with people that are not unreasonable in their
expectations,” —p. 75.
An excursion to Maryland and Virginia being planned for the
succeeding autumn, Collinson sends him particular instructions,
and letters of introduction, “which letters come to J. Logan to
Save thee postage,” commending him to his friends in those parts,
to Robert ‘Gober Col. Custis, Col. Boyd, Isham Randolph, &c.
=. that his protégé should make a vo impression, he
a td words of scope as to dre
me therein; that thou make up that dragget clothes, to go to Virgin nia
92 Darlington’s Memorials
more at a man’s outside than his inside. For these and other reasons,
pray go very clean, neat, and handsomely dressed, ito Virginia. Never
mind thy clothes: I will send more another year.”—p. 8
The following postscript to a later letter leads one to infer that
the plant collector hardly needed this advice.
“One thing I forgot to mention before, and what very much surprises
me, to find thee, who art a philosopher, prouder than | am. y cap,
it is true, had a small hole or two on the border; but the lining was
new. Instead of giving it away, I wish thee had sent it to me back
again. i would have served me two or three years, to have worn in
the country, in rainy weather.”—p. 114.
The following reminds us of a similar and equally explicit let-
ter of Collinson’s to Linnzus himself, published in the Linnean
cal
embarrass and perplex the study of botany. As to his system, on
which they are founded, botanists are not agreed about it. few
like it. Be that as it will ha is certainly a very iat ee man, and a
great naturalist. As t were not in our mother tongue, was the
wu reason I did not wand. ‘tia to thee. I! hope not to be forgetful for
e future.”—p. 106.
It would seem oo” a was the first to send the Ameri-
can Ginseng to
“T sent some thokelif roots to China. If they sell well, a good
ronan Be ie may be carried on. In the mean time sow the seed,
raise a stalk to furnish my friend, when he returns. Keep that a
sabre and raise what thee canst: for I have an opinion it will turn to
Tae if my friend manages it rightly.”—p. 125.
well assured it will prove a profitable commodity to China,
who value it above acyihing: I have compared yen with the Chinese,
and find them in all respects the same. Your rietor was so ki
it is American; for if they know that, they are so fanciful it may not
be so good as their own.” —p. 127.
The next year brings Bartram another remittance.
“1 could not omit sending thee the above-mentioned £20 10s. by
Captain Wright, who is a most obliging man, and he knows thee, and
perhaps may give the carriage, though I shall not receive the money
this twelvemonth, nay, I have now some standing two years ; for it is
very hard getting money of great pes though [ give them my labor
and pains into the bargain. They are glad of the cargo, but are apt
to forget all the rest. They give good words, but that will not always
3 but for t thy sake, and if it will but contribute to keep thee in thy
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 93
aay I gladly vate do all, and much nits if it eat but. be of
service to thee, and encourage thy uniey
there is -owith you, as well as with us. I have sent mine down to the
Doctor, who admires at thy diligence. He observes paper is scanty,
comes in a parcel per Captain Wright, with some paper for specimens.
** The books, Tournefort, _ a present from Lord jeatas which | hope
will make thee easy. pp. 1 40, 141
Lord Petre was one of the most seal ag and successful
planters of that day. How largely s collections enabled
him to raise American trees, may be rennet from the following
extract.
“The trees and eyes raised from thy first seeds, are grown to
great maturity. Last year Lord Petre planted out about ten thousand
‘mericans, which, being at the same time mixed with about twenty
thousand Europeans, and some Asians, make a very beautiful appear-
ance ;—great art and skill being shown in consulting every one’s par-
ticular growth, and the well blending the variety of greens. Dark
green being a great foil to lighter ones, and bluish green to yellow ones,
and those trees that have their bark and back of their leaves of white,
or silver, make a beautiful contrast with the others.
he whole is planted in thickets and clumps, and with these mix-
tures are perfectly picturesque, and have a delightful effect. This
will just give thee a faint idea of the method Lord Petre plants in,
which has not been so happily executed by any: and, indeed, they want
me materials, whilst his lordship has them in plenty.
“‘ His nursery being fully stocked with flowering shrubs, of all sorts
that can be procured,—with these, he borders the outskirts of all his
plantations ; and he continues annually, raising from seed, and layer-
The next year, Hhowevse an cibisad letter of Collinson’s an-
nounces to Bartram the death of his noble patron, of the sm
pox, in the thirtieth year of his age; and, with a fine tribute to
his memory, adds :—* All our schemes are broke. Send no seeds
: for him nor the Duke of Norfolk; for now he that gave motion
; is motionless ;—all is at an end.” Other subscribers, however,
" were found, and Bartram’s operations were continued. In the
b following dictttet for Owegos read Oswego. Bartram had made
* a journey through the northern part of Pennsylvania and the
country of the Five Nations to Oswego, an account of which
| Was soon after published.
|
“IT thank thee for thy curious present of thy map, and thy draught
of the fall of the river Owegos [7]. I was really both delighted and
94 Darlington’s Memorials
think. A man of thy prudence will place this toa right account, to
encourage thee to proceed gently in these curious things, which belong
to a man of leisure, and not to a man of business. ‘The main chance
must be minded. Many an ingenious man has lost himself for want of
this regard,—by devoting too much of his time to these matters. A
hint thee will take in friendship: thy obliging, grateful disposition, may
carry thee too far. Iam glad, and delight much in all these things—
none more: but then I would not purchase them at the expense of my
friend’s precious time—to the detriment of his interest, and business
(now, dear John, take me right).—I showed them to Sir Hans. e
was much pleased. Lord Petre deservedly much admires them ; and,
indeed, does every one that sees them, when they are told who was the
thee R. Barclay’s Apology to replenish thy inward man. So farewell.
are all in fine order. I am_in hopes of some new beauties. I can now
add no more, but that I am thine.
P. Cotiinson.”’—pp. 152, 153.
Bartram was born, educated, and married in the Society of
Friends, and was, we believe, still a member of the Society at
this date (1742). His letters show a very independent and phi-
osophizing turn of mind, and we may have occasion to cite here-
ter some unquakerly remarks of his on the subject of war. It
is hardly to be wondered at, therefore, “that the views which he
entertained had led to his exclusion from the Society so early as
the year 1758.” ‘To take fully the point of his decidedly ungra-
cious reception of the Quaker’s text-book which the London
F'riend had so kindly presented, it should be mentioned that Bar-
tram had asked Collinson to purchase for him Tournefort, and
other botanical works; to which his considerate correspondent
had replied that they were rather costly.—‘‘ Now I shall be so
friendly to tell thee that I think this is too much to lay out.
Besides, now that thee has got Parkinson and Miller, I would not
have thee puzzle thyself with others; for they contain the an-
cient and modern knowledge of botany. Remember Solomon’s
advice: in reading (?) of many books there is noend.” Still the
good Collinson always contrived in the end to have all these
books sent to him, as presents.
. ic “ July the 6th, 1742.
‘* A few hours past, I received thy letters of March the 3d, and 20th,
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 95
‘Yesterday the ship arrived, which our dear friend Captain Wright
sailed in from London, but alas ! bath left her captain asleep in Nep-
tune’s bosom: and now, such a mortal sickness is on board, that “
is ordered to ride quarantine below the town. No goods can be got
“I heartily thank Sir Hans Sloane for his kind remembrance er
e. I long to see his History ; and particularly M. Catesby’s books, to
see what birds he hath figured, before I set out next week for a journey
along our sea-coast, where I believe there are many birds which he
omitted to draw— which I shall be very particular to observe their di-
mensions, shape and colors, if | can compel them, by the charms of
sulphur and nitre and lead, to let me dispose of them as I think most
Suitable,
‘[ shall endeavor to procure Lady Petre a humming-bird’s nest, and
ae as soon as possible. I have not heard of any being found this
tree, on the Kalskill ates delicate, fragrant liquor, as ane as
water.
“I design, next month, to go myself and gather some seed for you,
which I hope will be as much pleasure to os as fatigue and charge to
me to get them. There is no more trust in our Americans, than curi-
osity, Colonel. Salisbury, who lives near eat sent me last winter, a
very loving letter, affirming he did what he could to procure them,
eaving orders, when he went to ane ys ease pas: but at his re-
turn, there is none gathered. He se on purpose to the moun-
tains, to gather them ; but he said 1% birds had picked "al the seed out,
ing very fond of them
‘““lam glad my map and draught were “LL although ei
sily done,—having neither proper instruments nor convenient tim
being, most of them, in part of a first day, or by leah light pares
no whole original but ap gc nor time to take a copy,—being hurried,
—and sometimes Body 4 too ; but, dear Puce let us ‘sala the one
Almighty Power, in sincerity of heart, with resignation (o ia divine
will »—doing to others as we would have them do to us, if we were in
their circumstances. Living in love and innocency, we nxt die in
hope.”—pp. 158, 159.
Bartram, at Collinson’s request, had gathered some mosses, Pe
for Dillenius, who in turn sent him a copy of his Historia Mus-
corum. This is acknowledged by Bartram, in the following ex-
tract, and also to Dillenius himself, ina letter printed on pp. 310-11.
96 Darlington’s Memorials
* T received thy kind — of June the I6th, and the seeds and book
of Doctor Dillenius, last night. I take it to be the completest of that
as little of mosses, as he id of the plants that grew beyond Mount
Lebanon, or in America.”—p. 161.
The subjoined extracts are from a Jetter of Collinson, m 1743-4.
* Friend Joun :—The prices of microscopes are advanced to a guinea;
so | have only sent hee one, for thyself, and desire thy acceptance of
it, with a book. * At present, can give thee no assurance of any
new contributors, ine the Duke of Richmond and iller continue,
who love new things; but whether so small a subscription will coun-
tervail thy going Srreng | the Conte, in New England, I must submit to
thy consideration. Dr. Dillenius has writ thee a letter ;—is
greatly delighted with the rat seeds, they are so good ; says that thou
art the only man that ever did things to the purpose. The Ce
serving as the rest.”—p.
That is, to keep in mind a genus Bartramia. The genus
dedicated to him by Linneus, in the Flora Zeylanica, del
proved to be only a species of Triumfetta ; and the name was
subsequently given by Hedwig to a fine genus of mosses.
Bartram and Collinson occasionally make themselves merry at
the expense of Dr. Witt, of Germantown, a remarkable character
in his day, who dabbled in divination as well as botany, and was
a little touched with quasi-Swedenborgianism, as would seem
from the first part of the following extract. The latter part tes-
tifies to Bartram’s accuracy of observation about the pine-cones.
**T received the nails, calico, Russia linen, and the clothes for my
boys : all which are very good and well chosen, and g give great satisfac-
tion. The only thing that gives me any uneasiness, is, that thee hath
sent more than what is my due.
i =) ogee oracles be ceased, and thee hath not the spirit of di-
Histone Wal according to our friend Doctor Witt, we friends that
conversation at great distances one from another. Now, if this be fa
so,—if I love thee sincerely—and thy love and friendship be so to me
—thee must have a spiritual feeling and sense of what particular sorls
of things will give earns.) ; and doth not thy actions make it man-
oe for, what | send to thee for, thee hath chosen of just such sorts
colors as I wanted. Na , as my wife and | are one, so she is ini-
tiated into this spiritual union; for thee has sent her a piece of calico so
directly to her mind, that she saith that if she had been there ’
she « have pleased her fancy better. * fi
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 97
which it is not possible for me to gather any great quantities thereof, as
I wrote to thee, last year. 1 design to get what I can, yearly; but, as
time, I can’t procure great quantities; and if I depend upon others’
ived
** As our friend Miller seems to question my account of our pines, I
now tell thee I generally take care to speak truth—even to those that
I think will bestow no more pains of examination, than to tell me it is
have upon one branch all the cones of three, four, or five years’ growth,
at once.”"—pp. 174, 175.
_ An allusion to Franklin’s discovery occurs in a letter from Col-
linson, dated January 11th, 1753, while writing of the great dif-
erence between the climate of England and North America.
ent. * there
such a nosegay on Christmas day, would have delighted thee to have
Seen it. In England, vegetation may be said never to cease; for t
Spring flowers tread so on the heels of the autumn flowers, that the ring,
's carried on without intermission.”—p. 189.
_ Bartram is apt to complain, whenever his letters and commis-
Sions are not very promptly attended to. ‘This calls forth from
Collinson the following mild rejoinder.
Srconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
ee ere. eee
98 Darlington’s Memorials
bad a correspondent. And I dare venture, now I have given him these
friendly hints, he will not think me so again; but continue his friendly
and informing, as well as his entertaining correspondence.
thought he, had known me better than to Feats anything he aende me
either lost or neglecte
* The cranberry shrines wonder oi is in blossom 5 ; every way
aigresing ats ours, but much large
** Pray give my thanks to sew. for his two mar In e box,
with the other thing? I have sont we fine Coder of Lebanon cones, just
come from then
“ There isa little token, ina a for Billy, el pretty perfor-
mance pleases me m
“Thy account of the frogs is very humorous; but would it not be
ore so, to import a cargo of them? And had Ia park, or place in-
land, I would wish it. But as it is, strolling people and boys would
destroy them. A bull-frog would —— the whole village ; but then
it would be certainly killed. *—pp. 192,
On more than one occasion, sadieai altudes to a theory in re-
spect to petrifactions and the formation of limestone, which he
had communicated to Dr. Fothergill. Collinson seems not to
have quite sa tinged it; but Bartram writes,—‘ My dear
worthy friend, thee can’t bang me out of the notion that lime-
stone and marble were originally mud, impregnated by a marine
salt, which I take to be the original of all our terrestrial soils.”
0. And Collinson afterwards writes, ‘“‘ What shall we say
to the strata abounding with fossil sea-shells, &c.? Very prob-
“ig Ah as thou conceives, the sea flowed higher, or once overflowed
%— py, 237.
Quite characteristic are Bartram’s remarks in the subjoined ex-
tract from a letter in January, 1757.
** Many birds, in their migrations, are observed to go in flocks,—as
the geese, brants, pigeons, and blackbirds ; others flutter and hop about
from tree to tree, or upon the ground, feeding backwards and forwards,
interspersed so that their progressive movement is not commonly ob-
served. Our blue or rather ash-colored, great —_— and the white
ones, do not observe a direct i grt: but follow the banks of rivers
—sometimes flying from one side to the other, as a little back-
wards, but generally northward, ‘intl al aig be supplied sufficiently
where there is conveniency of food; for when some arrive at a partic-
ular place, and find as many there before them as can readily find food,
some of them move forward, and some stay behind. For all these wild
creatures, of one species, generally seem of one community; an
rather than quarrel, will move stilla farther distance, where there is
more plenty of food—like Abraham and Lot; but most of our domes-
tic animals are more like their masters: every one contends for his
own dunghill, and is for driving all off that come to encroach upon
the }1, 212.
S
O
7
”
moo—_— ‘
Here is a curious letter of Collinson’s; p. 229, in which he re-
eee: Bartram for “grumbling and complaining, making no
eis
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 99
allowances for accidents,” &c., and ending: “Really, friend
John, complain on. I am now so used to that I shall not mind it
or the future. But, as thou canst write diverting and curious
Collinson.” The very next letter from Bartram, despatched,
however, before he could have received his friend’s homily, suffi-
ciently illustrates the fault which poor Collinson so amusingly
deprecates:
“ August the 14th, 1761.
‘“ Dear Perer :—I have just now received two letters that came by
the packet.
*
ears withal; but, as I have traveled through most of these provinces,
and have specimens sent by the best hands, I know well what grows
there. Indeed, I have not yet been at the Ohio, but have many speci-
mens from there. But in about two weeks I hope to set out to search
myself, if the barbarous Indians don’t hinder me (and if I die a martyr
to botany, God’s will be done ;—His will be done in all things). They
domineer, threaten, and steal most of the best horses they can.
could have worse luck than I with your roots sent last fall and this
spring.”—pp. 231, 232
The following touches upon politics.
“London, May 22d, 1762.
‘Whilst my dear John is in a melancholy mood for the loss of Pitt, I
keep myself in equal poise; but the success in one ‘scale, and his two
rash French expeditions, on their coasts, in the other, in which he
& good peace; and Pitt is as well pleased with his mercenary pension
of £3000 per annum, and a title in reversion ; an has cleverly slipped
his neck out of the collar, when it most became him to keep in, to serve
his country, but he preferred serving himself before it.
100 Darlington’s Memorials
“From.one melancholy story we come to another ;—the loss of so
many fine plants, which affects me more than the loss of Pitt.
“Tt is a fair probation, how far the principles of vegetation may be
maintained when removed from a warmer latitude toa colder. Art
will assist nature. There are many fine plants that grow on this side
the Tropics, if we will bestow a south wall on them, will thrive and
flower well in our northern climate.
* * * ® #
“T cannot advise, for 1 am fearful thy grand expedition to the lakes
will be too much to undertake without suitable companions, for acci-
dents may happen in so long a journey. But if it was thy resolution,
my advice will come too late. So, my dear John, farewell.
P. Cottinson.”—pp. 235, 236,
There are three letters from Bartram, written in the autumn of
1763, after his visit to Carolina and Georgia, expressing a strong
desire to explore the country of Canada and Louisiana for natural
productions, adding, ‘But this would alarm the Indians to the
highest degree. All the discoverers would be exposed to the
treaty will make discovery safe.”—p. 224. And again—‘‘ The
most probable and only method to establish a lasting peace with
the barbarous Indians is to bang them stoutly, and make them
sensible that we are men, whom they for many years despised for
women. Until then it is only throwing away blood and treasure
to make peace with them.”—p. 255. And in the same strain is
the next letter.
“ November 11th, 1763.
“Dear worthy Perer:—I have received my dear friend’s letter of
August 23d, 1763.
‘“*] think most of our people here look upon all our boasted acquisi-
tions in North America to be titular, and that only of short duration, as
the French still claim all one side of the Mississippi, and part of our
side. They will draw the chief of their fur trade near them, and will
always be setting the Indians against us, suppose we do keep possession
of the lakes. But unless we bang the Indians stoutly, and make them
fear us, they will never love us, nor keep peace long with us. They .
are now got so cunning, they will not sell their land, and stand so to
their bargain as to let the people live quietly upon it. But when they
want goods, it is but rob the traders, steal horses, plunder and insult
the back inhabitants, and instead of us calling them to account for
their mischief, we sue to them for peace, and give them great presents
to kill no more white people for three or four years. By such pro-
ceedings, they have us in the greatest contempt, believing they may do
us all the mischief they please, and we are ready at any time to buy @
peace with them for a few years, under great insults. , <
“The variety of plants and flowers in our southwestern continent, is
yond expression. Is it not, dear Peter, the very palace garden of
»
IEEE A Ot ines a la ee TT a aS
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 101
old Madam Flora? Oh! if I could but spend six months on the Ohio,
Mississippi, and Florida, in health, I believe I could find more curiosi-
lies than the English, French and Spaniards have done in six score of
years. But the Indians, instigated by the French, will not let us look
at so much as a plant, or tree, in this great British empire.”—p. 256.
To all this the benevolent Collinson replies in a more Qua-
kerly way.
“Ridgeway House, December 6, 1763.
ing, the fire of friendship is blazing—warms my imagination with re-
flecting on the variety of incidents that hath attended our long and
agreeable correspondence. . g “ "
‘“‘My dear John, thou does not consider the law of right, and doing
to others as we would be done unto.
‘““ We, every manner of way, trick, cheat, and abuse these Indians
with impunity. They were notoriously jockeyed and cheated out of
their land in your province, by a man’s walking a track of ground in
one day, that was to be purchased of them
“Your Governor promised the Indians if they would not join the
“Let a person of power come and take five or ten acres of my
friend John’s land from him, and give him half price, or no price for it,
how easy and resigned he would be, and tamely submit to such usage !
But if an Indian resents it in his way, instead of doing him justice,
and making peace with him, nothing but fire and faggot will do wit
my friend John! He does not search into the bottom of these insur-
rections. They are smothered up, because we are the aggressors.
ut see my two proposals, in the October Gentleman’s Magazine, for a
Peace with the Indians.
‘‘ My dear John, I am glad thou art so happily recovered. from that
cruel complaint; and that our goo onel escaped those terrible fel-
lows. I hope such prudent measures will be taken as will put a stop to
their ravages, and establish a lasting peace. Be
“The peace that thou art so merry with, in your mock mourning, is
only glorious by comparison; I mean by comparing it with that peace
you are! for ever grumbling, never pleased. I refer thee to the pre-
liminary of Pitt’s peace, and Bute’s. Facts speak louder than fac-
tion. We all know here what Pitt’s peace would have been, and what
Bute’s is. * wi . . m .
102 Darlington’s Memorials
** What a glorious scene is opened in that rich country about Pensa-
cola—if that despised country is worthy thy visitation. But because
Pitt did not get it, thou canst not venture there on any pretence! All
beyond the Carolinas is forbidden ground. They are none of thy dar-
ling Pitt’s acquisition !
“ But thy son John may go muh a good, grace. Jam glad to find
the spirit of Elijah rests upon 7
‘“*] hope what I have writ will be ‘read with candor. Our long friend-
ship will allow us to rally one another, and crack a joke without offence,
as none was intended by thy sincere friend,
. CoLLinson.””—pp. 257-259,
Again. ‘don’t wonder they should be jealous of the invasion of
their property. Every man is tenacious of his native rights; and if
well banged,—I may say well hanged—that by their unjust proceed-
resentments.”
In 1765, when in his sixty-sixth year, Bartram was appointed
the King’s Botanist in America, to explore the newly acquired
country of Florida, &c. The appointment was announced by
Collinson, in a letter dated April 9th, 1765.
“T have the pleasure to inform my good friend, that my repeated
solicitations have not been in vain; for this day I received certain in-
I received thy first half-year’s payment of thy salary, being twenty-
five pounds to Lady day last, which I have carried to thy account.
‘** Now, dear John, thy wishes are in some cause senoaniaial to
range over Georgia and the Floridas. As this isa great work, an
must be accomplished by degrees, it must be left to thy own judgment
how to proceed.” —p. 268.
“John, thou knows nothing what it is to solicit at court any favor ;
nay, though it is for their own interest, they are so taken up with public
affairs, little things slip through their fingers. For all I can nea I can-
se get thee letters of recommendation to any of the Governors
“ All [ can at present do, is, our good friend Ellis, who is applied
to an office in the Floridas, has writ to the Governors in thy fav vor. I
send one here enclosed, and will send the other by next ship. i
So thou must make the best of it, and do what seems most sees
to thy own inclination. Thou vy gts the appointment not enough.
I did not expect any thing. So thou may use it, or refuse it, as thou
likes best, or search as far as pt ysrtin will go to support it. In this
case, I cannot advise thee.
“ As thou grows in years, thou will do well to consider if thy present
a and habit of body can wanetge the fatigue of Sach expe-
itions,
* Our good friend B. Franklin, 39 fat and jolly. There i is hope
+ accommodation.”—pp. 269, , |
of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall. 103
boll rambled in the intense heat of a midday sun. Perhaps it was to
procure thee a seasoning.””—p. 270
. lander is a strange, idle man. I cannot get thy spring spe-
cimens from him, is the reason thou hears nothing from me a
them.”—p. 271.
But there is no room to continue these extracts, nor to detail
the misfortunes of Billy, (William Bartram,) who would be a
planter upon the St. John’s River, and so get into trouble; nor
to advert to some curious bits of early information of “some v:
creatures, with the long teeth or tusks of elephants, but with
great grinders, belonging to some animal not yet known.”
Collinson’s last letter to John Bartram is dated July 6th, 1768.
There is one to his son, Wm. Bartram, relating his continued ex-
ertions for his benefit, dated the 18th of the same month; and
he died on the 11th of August, in the 75th year of his age.
Bartram himself nearly reached his 79th year, and died, as Dr.
Darlington has ascertained, on the 22d of September, 1777.
ere is a correspondence with Dr. Fothergill, beginning in
1744, and continued to 1774. This distinguished physician and
most benevolent man, took a lively interest in the Bartrams, father
and son, especially after the decease of Collinson. A single ex-
tract from a letter of his, in 1769, has some interest from its men-
tion of a name afterwards so distinguished.
‘This, perhaps, will be delivered by Dr. Rush, a young man, who
has employed his time with great diligence and success in prosecuting
his studies here ; who has led a blameless life, so far as I know; and
it seems but just that those who have endeavored to deserve Sy good
character, should have it when it may be of use to them.”’—p.
Two short letters to Linnaeus are printed from Bartram’s
draughts, one of which refers to a letter recently received from
the Swedish botanist. “The letters from Linnzeus to Bartram
are all missing.” a
In one of those addressed to the Rev. Jared Eliot, of Killing-
worth, Connecticut, Bartram gives him a detailed account of his
mode of splitting rocks, even seventeen feet long, with wedges ;
— in the very manner now practiced.
There are few letters from Franklin, between 1757 and 1777.
In one of them, dated January 7, 1769, he sensibly urges Bar-
tram to undertake no more long and dangerous peregrinations, at
his advanced age, but to devote his leisure hours to “‘a work that
18 much wanted, and which no one besides is so capable of per-'
forming—I mean the writing the natural history of our country.
104 Darlington’s Memoriais, §c.
I imagine it would prove profitable to you, and [ am sure it would
do you honor.”’—p. 403. Repeating the same advice in a later
letter, Franklin adds in the Poor Richard vein :—
“Tt is true, many people are fond of accounts of old buildings, mon-
uments, &c.; but there is a number who would be much better pleased
with such accounts as you could afford them; and for one I confess,
that, if I could find in any Italian travels, a receipt for making Parme-
san cheese, it would give me more satisfaction than a transcript of any
inscription from any old stone whatever.’”’-—p. 403.
The correspondence of Bartram occupying a greater number of
es than was expected, the editor felt obliged to restrict very
much his selections from the correspondence of Marshall, the au-
thor of Arbustum Americanum.
Humphry Marshall, the founder of the second botanic garden
in this country, and the author of “the first truly indigenous
botanical essay published in this western hemisphere,” was born
in West Bradford, Chester County, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of
October, 1722. His father was a native of Gratton, in Derby-
shire, England, who came to Pennsylvania about the year 1697,
and settled near Darby, but afterwards removed to the forks of
the Brandywine. Humphry, who was the eighth of nine chil-
dren, “used often to state, that he never went to school a day
after he was twelve years of age, and consequently he was in-
structed only in the rudiments of the plainest English education.
e was employed in agricultural labors until he was old enough
to be apprenticed to the business of a stone-mason, which trade
he followed for a few years, and until his marriage, after which
he took charge of his father’s farm. In 1764, he built with his
own hands a brick addition to the paternal dwelling, when he
also erected a green-house adjoining it, “doubtless the first con-
servatory of the kind ever seen, or thought of, in the county of
Chester.” From the second story he projected a little observa-
tory, in which to indulge his fondness for astronomical observa-
tions. From the letters of his correspondents, the good Dr. Foth-
ergill and Dr. Franklin, we find that the latter ordered a reflect-
ing telescope for Marshall, to which the former added a microscope
and a thermometer, and paid for the whole! And a later letter
from Franklin acknowledges the reception of Marshall’s “ obser-
vations on the spots of the sun,” which he communicated to the
Royal Society, where they were highly spoken of, and a portion
was printed in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. 64, p. 194.
In 1773, he purchased a tract of land adjoining the site of the
present village of Marshallton, where he built, like Bartram, with
his own hands the house, of which the editor has given a picto-
tial representation. At the same time he laid out the botanical
garden which he long sustained, and which “soon became the
Vibrations of Trevelyan’s bars by the Galvanic Current. 105
recipient of the most interesting trees and shrubs of our country,
together with many curious exotics, and also a numerous collec-
tion of herbaceous plants.” In 1785, his account of our forest
trees and shrubs, a 12mo volume of about 200 pages, was pub-
lished. He attained the age of 79 years, but with a partial loss
of sight during his later years; and died on the 5th of No-
vember, 1801. He was born in the Society of Friends, and lived
and died an exemplary member of that fraternity.
It was only while engaged in collecting and editing the bio-
graphical materials of this interesting volume, that Dr. Darling-
ton ascertained that our two botanical patriarchs were not only
men of kindred minds and pursuits, “ but that they were actually
cousins-german, the sons of two sisters. James Hunt of King-
sessing, in the county of Philadelphia, had the happiness to call
those ladies his daughters, and the rare privilege of enumerating
two of the earliest and most distinguished botanists of Pennsyl-
vania among his grandchildren.” His cousin Bartram probably
awakened his enthusiasm for horticulture and botany, and pro-
moted his efforts. Fitly are their names and memorials here as-
sociated, and heartily do we acknowledge our obligations to Dr.
Darlington for the unwearied editorial labors which have given
us the interesting volume that we have now so inadequately no-
ticed,—a_volume which every where abounds with curious and
important facts for the naturalist and the historian, and which Tes-
cues from oblivion so many memorable particulars of the lives
and times of our earliest devotees to science.
Besides the notes scattered through the work, the editor has
given, in a preface, a brief, but very accurate survey of the pro-
gress of botany in North America,—of which science he is him-
self one of the most sedulous and successful votaries. A. Gr.
Art. XV.—Vibrations of Trevelyan’s bars by the Galvanic
Current ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, Washington, D. C.
106 Vibrations of Trevelyan’s bars by the Galvanic Current.
continued at pleasure without the trouble of reheating the bars
for each trial. After various fruitless efforts I obtamed a most
beautiful result by using the heating power of a galvanic current.
Fig. 1 shews the mode of performing the experiment with the
of brass, and weighing from one to two pounds, and after being
sufficiently heated, are placed upon a cold block of lead as seen
in fig. 2. The two bars 2.
may be placed upon the
same block though the vi-
brations are apt to interfere
when two are used.
any kind of metal,—brass or
copper or iron, however, seeming to be most convenient. One
or both of the bars may be placed at once without reference to
temperature upon the stand, as in fig. 1, the bars resting upon me-
tallic rails, E, F', which latter are made to communicate each with
the poles of a galvanic battery of some considerable heating
power. ‘T'wo pairs of Daniell’s, of Smee’s, or of Grove’s battery
of large size are sufficient. The battery I employ consists of two
airs of Grove’s with platinum plates four inches square. The
vibration will proceed with great rapidity as long as the galvanic
current is sustained.
In fig. 2, one pole of the battery is connected with the metallic
block and the other pole with mercury in a little cavity in the
centre of the vibrating bar. The experiment succeeds much better
with the rails, as in fig. 1, and quite a number of bars may be
kept in motion by increasing the number of rails and passing the
current from one to the other through the bars resting a.
es
sai
ce SE Shey EN
_—
i _ Vibrations of Trevelyan’s bars by the Galvanic Current. 107
j
The rails are best made of brass wire ora strip of sheet brass,
though other metals will answer, the harder metals which do not
oxydate readily, however, being preferred. A soft metal like lead
is not so favorable to the vibrations in this experiment, although
in Trevelyan’s experiment lead seems to be almost the only
metal that will answer to support the bar which is usually made
of brass.
Prof. Graham and other authors have attributed the vibration
of 'T'revelyan’s bars to the repulsion between heated bodies, and
others have classed the phenomenon with the spheroidal state of
heated bodies. I do not consider that any repulsive action is
manifested or necessary in either of these cases, nor
any instance in which a repulsion has been proved between heat-
ed bodies. It is obvious some other solution is required for this
curious phenomenon, and it appears to me that the motion is due
to an expansion of the metallic block at the point of contact, and
upon this supposition, it appears plainly why a block of lead is
required. That is, a metal of low conducting power and high
expansibility is necessary, and lead answers these conditions best.
na future communication I will anlayze this matter and explain
more fully.
The size of the bars may be very much increased when the
galvanic current is employed, and some curious motions are ob-
served when long and large cylinders of metal are used. If they
are not exactly balanced, which is almost always the case, they
commence a slow rolling back and forth until finally they roll
entirely over, and if the rails were made very long they would
go on over the whole length. An inclination of the rails is re-
quired in this case, but it may be so slight as not to be percepti-
ble to the eye.
+
3.
et J
If along rod of some weight be placed across one of the bars,
a8 shown in fig. 3, the vibrations will become longer, and by way
of amusement, I have illustrated this with a galvanic see saw as
it may be termed.
108 S. S. Haldeman on new Insects.
It is well known that where mere contact (without metallic
nt
the current be frequently broken, the heat at these points is still
more augmented. It is for this reason we are able to use various
kinds of metals for the experiment, without reference to their
conducting powers and expansibilities.
Washington, D. ©., Dee. 3d, 1849.
Art. XVI.—On four new species of Hemiptera of the genera
Ploiaria, Chermes, and Aleurodes, and two new Hymenoptera,
parasitic in the last named genus ; by S. S. Haupeman.
Prosarta macu.ata, Hald. 1847. Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sc. 3, 151.
Brown, darker beneath, above whitish sericeous ; head subglobu-
lar posteriorly, eyes black and prominent, a transverse impression
between them: antenne and feet annulate with brown and white:
mesonotum fulvo-sericeous, with an oblong marginal dark brown
pale ea elongated spine directed backwards between the
closed wings: superior wings pale gray covered with whitish
Me i am and pale brown macule ; apex and a larger marginal
triangle towards the base, dark brown, divided by pale reticula-
tions, which leave a series of large spots around the apex.—
lines long. Pennsylvania in June and July: rare. This species
is the analogue of the Kuropean P. vagabunda, to which it bears
a close resemblance. ‘The first description was taken from a mu-
tilated specimen.
Cuermes Castanex. F'lavous, thorax, pectus, and eyes black ;
wings translucent, inner half of the stigma scarcely discolored ;
Ist and 3d transverse nervure normal ; 2d arising from the middle
wingless individuals are entirely flavous, with the eyes ‘rufous.
Inhabits both riage of the leaf of the chestnut, forming lines
along the midrib, and Sibel the leaf to curl. Pennsylvania
in August and Septast mber
ALEURODES ABUTILONEA. White, body pale flavous, with a tinge
of greenish: wings each with a single nervure, the superior ones
with two irregular obscure bands across them, and a circular
apical spot: eyes black, double upon each side, inferior ones large
and prominent : thorax above, with large irregular fuscous spots ;
as long as the head, 2-articulate, apex black: antenne with the
ean articulation robust : feet with short hairs, slender, dimerous.
long.
5
a
S. S. Haldeman on new Insects. 109
Larva oval, plane above and beneath, elevation about one
third the length, periphery vertical; pale flavous, the larger indi-
viduals with a conspicuous dark dorsal vitta.
Found upon the lower surface of the leaves of Sida (Abutilon)
abutilon, to which the larva is immovably attached. | It is some-
times so abundant that there are from 50 to 100 in half an inch
square, causing the leaf to curl and die. The perfect insect is
very active, walking and flying readily, and leaping from 1 to 14
inches. It seems nearest allied to A. bifasciatus, Steph. When
the imago first appears the wings are more translucent and the
dark fascie: are entirely wanting, so that it might be taken for a
distinct species.
Burmeister’s figure of A. proletella, Zin., exhibits 2 nervures,
probably because the wings were in contact when drawn, which,
on account of their translucency, would allow the nervures of
oth to be seen at the same time. Found in Pennsylvania from
August to the middle of October.
corni. Size and general appearance of A. abutilonea: body
pale flavous: eyes black; wings pure white, without bands.
Pennsylvania in September and October ; the larva and imago on
the inferior surface. of the leaves of Cornus sericea.
arva flavous, the dise of the larger individuals dark brown:
the margin is ciliate with white. A great many are destroyed in
the larva state by Amitus corni, Ha/d., a minute parasitic hyme-
nopterous insect.
Amitus, (a new genus.) Minute, robust, head transverse, eyes
with distinct facets; palpi 0. Antenne shorter than the body,
Verse impression. Wings covered with scattered hairs; about as
long as the entire body, the greatest width of the anterior ones
equalling one-third their length; widely ciliate from the apex to
their middle on the posterior side: entirely without nervures ;
110 S. S. Haldeman on new Insects.
fully as wide as the thorax, but longer, basal segment composing
3 of the whole, besides which there are 4 small segments (?):
OVipositor not exserted. Feet ($2) slender elongate, pentame-
rous, posterior femora incrassated, anterior tibiae with an inferior
apical bifid spine curved beneath the basal artic. of the tarsus,
which is concave beneath, oe armed with a dense pectiniform
series of bristles as in Cinetus.
e chief sexual Avec is that (in addition to the scapus)
in che! g@ the 2d and 4th articulations of the antenne are incras-
sated, and in the 2 only the 2d, which is moreover one of the
longest i in the @ and one of the shortest in the &. Their cloth-
ing is also distinct, being long, rigid, and curved forward in the 2,
and short and straight in the g. The antenne have no pedi-
cellus, a from their translucency at the joints, the round
e 2d articulation moving in the first, bears some re-
saint: to one
The want of palpi zand the ciliate wings would place this genus
in Mr. Westwood’s subfamily Mymarides, the wings however,
are not narrowed, and there is no vestige of a nervure, so that I
prefer considering it as a distinct type under the name Amitides.
The name, from «, wero: (a thread,) is in allusion to the absence
of naan
A. ateuropinus. Polished back, eae with minute white —
hairs; a transverse impression above t mouth ; antenne rufous,
apex brownish ; anterior teet and all the trochanters and tarsi, pale
rufous ; posterior tarsi, the final joint of the others, and the base
of the anterior femora, discolored. # millim. long, or 1} to the
end of the wings in repose.
Parasitic in the larva of Aleurodes corni, Hald., of which it
destroys a great many. I found it with that insect beneath the
leaves of Cornus sericea, on the margin of a water course. It
leaps, walks and flies with facility, and when touched, simulates
death. The antenne are kept in a constant state of vibration.
I have kept them a week or more, living in confinement. The
ova (crushed from the ovaries) are fusiform, rounded at one eXx-
tremity and produced at the other like the neck of a flask.
T'wo mutilated specimens of another species of parasite were
raised with ie preceding and imperfectly examined. The color
is pale flavous; the wings have a subcostal nerve not quite
straight, ending in a short stigmal branch about the middle, the
wings in all other respects as in Amitus; feet slender and ap-
parently pentamerous ; eyes black, covered with numerous short
erect bristles, more distinct than in Chelonus : head, thorax and
abdomen closely united, thorax large, abdomen with the ‘pide
parallel and the apex obtusely rounded, in one specimen (¢ ) the
abdomen seems but half the width. of the thorax, and in the
other its sides form straight lines with it; antennae (see omnes
—— oe oe
é
|
Scientific Intelligence. Itl
figure) 5-articulate, shorter than the body, scapus narrowed to-
wards its apex, articulation obconic, 3d and 4th very short,
5th oar-shaped, (whence
generic name,) longer than all
the preceding united, widened
towards the apex, which is ob-
tusely rounded. It may possibly be parasitic in the larva of the
Amitus described above, as it is somewhat less in size. I pro-
pose to name the genus Eretmocervs, and the species E. cornt.
Columbia, Pa., Dec., 1849.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHemistry AND Paysics.
1. Onthe comparative Cost of making various Voltaic Arrangements ;
by Mr. W. S. Warp, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1849, in Athen., No. 1142.
—The author stated that a series of calculations founded on data, pro-
duced to the Chemical Section at Swansea, showed the efficient power
of three generally used forms of battery known as Smee’s, Daniell’s,
and Grove’s, would be equal when 100 pairs of Smee’s, 55 pairs of
Daniell’s or 34 pairs of Grove’s were used, and that the expense of
i
d. Dr. Far-
ADAY remarked on the imperfect character of the electric light, and its
7 Inapplicability for the purposes of general illumination ; all objects ap-
F pearing dark when the eye was embarrassed by the intensity of the
sing cell, had the property of precipitating the silver perfectly bright,
lead as it is when thrown down from
*
112 Scientific Intelligence.
it will be remembered he has described cerine, the part of ordinary
wax soluble in boiling alcohol; which consists essentially of cerotic
acid ina free state. ‘The chinese wax was found to be a compound
ether, analogous to spermaceti, which by fusion with rotates is i i
into a cerotate and cerotol, the latter the alcohol of this series (C,
The portion of ordinary wax which remains afier repeated ar al
with boiling alcohol, is generally designated as myricine ; it is greenish,
unerystalline, and melts at 64° C, Dilute potash has no action upon it, but
it is saponified by boiling with a concentrated solution, or fusion with hy-
drate of potash. The result is a mixture of potash salts with neutral
bodies avalogous to cerotol ; but the — of these is very difficult
and tedious ; by decomposing the soap by an acid, and treating the
mixture with alcohol, the greater solubility of the acids effects a par-
tial separation. The neutral waxy matter thus obtained, yields by re-
peated crystallizations from ether, or better from coal naphtha, a highly
crystalline body of a satiny lustre and a fixed melting point of 85° C.
This substance which constitutes the greater portion of the myricine is
a new alcohol which yields by analysis the formula C., fe Os (G..
0,(C,, Hy. 0, . which resembles the preceding wax acid but
fuses at 88°—89° C. The action of chlorine upon melissol, a chlorin-
ized aldehyde, chlor-melal (melissal) ; its action with sulphuric acid is
also precisely similar to cerotol, a coupled acid being formed. By heat,
part distils unchanged, and part is converted into water and a hydro-
on.
The principal acid resulting from the saponification of myricine, is
one which when purified from accompanying acids still more fusible,
has a fixed melting point of 62°C. his was found by its analysis
nr by a of its silver salt, to be the palmitic or ethalic acid C2 Hg2
Op, (ip Hs,0,
The se of myricine gives a mixture of acids and hydro-car-
bons ; the first part of the ‘eect herpes almost entirely of acids
and the final portions of the hydrocarbons ; an odor of butyric acid is
observed during the process. The whole product was saponified, and
the acids resulting, when purified te repeated crystallization, gave pure
palmitic aci
Among the hydrocarbons is one which from the examination of Ett-
ling, was sup to be identical with the parafine of Reichenbach
and isomeric with olefi r. Brodie’s analyses confirm ieay:
analyses of this iiteireaiene show that it is one of ihe hea Pale rep-
resented by (C, H,)n, (Rin M. Gerhardt’s notation,) and as the differ-
ence between its fusing point and that of melissol is the same as exists
between cerotene and its corresponding alcohol, the author regards this
as the bt 0,8 (Cs, Heo) and designates it as melene
(better melissene).
Daeke ed
Chenustry and Physics. 113
myricine, (fusing at 64 has a melting point of 72°C. The
numbers obtained by its combustion correspond very closely with the
formula which is that of the palmitic ether of melissol ;
uble and of a low melting point; but its separation from the palmitic
ee is very difficult. A specimen of beeswax from Ceylon, fusing at
nification melissol and palmitic acid. .S. Hunt.
3. On the Phosphoric Ethers; by F. Vocer1.—(Compt. Rend. des
Trav. de Chemie, March, 1849, p. 85, from Pogg. Anal., t. Ixxv, p. 282.)
When phosphoric anhydrid is exposed to the vapor of ether, it absorbs
it and becomes liquid ; this liquid diluted with water and saturated with
carbonate of lead, yields a precipitate of phosphate of lead with the
sparingly soluble phosphovinate P O,,C, H, O, 2PbQ; the solution
*, and at a higher temperature is decomposed into phosphate
and phosphovinate of lead, with the evolution of white vapors which
condense into a neutral colorless liquid, miscible with ether, alcohol,
and even with water. This M. Vogeli regards as the phosphoric ether
H,O. Phosphoric anhydrid with absolute alcohol likewise
furnishes the two acids; and ether dissolves in syrupy phosphoric acid,
but produces only the ordinary phosphovinate.
[These new vinids illustrate beautifully M. Gerhardt’s views of the
functions of polybasic acids, and his law of basicity.* The phosphoric
acid, which is tribasic, bas hitherto been known to yield but one com-
new acid may be appropriately called the p:
tral ether, phosphoivnil or phosphovinid. Their fo
menclature of M. Gerhardt will be ‘
* Précis de Chim. Org, tom. ler, p. 102, Also this Journal, Sept. 1847, p. 177,
and July, 1849, p. 89, et seq. .
Sxconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850. 15
rmulas in the no-
114 Scientific Intelligence.
Phosphate, . . ‘ : P-(Hg).0,
Phosphovinate, ‘ ‘ ‘ - (a3 C, H, O) O, 3
Phosphodivinate, . . ‘ H, 2C, H. , 0) O,4
Phosphotrivinid, : ‘ ‘ P (ac, H. 0) O, ae
On the Estimation of Nitrous acid; by H. Rae Lae ee
Annalen, April, 1849.)— ‘This process is founded on the decomposition
of urea by nitrous acid into carbonic acid and nitrogen, noticed by
Millon, and so by him in the estimation of urea. (See this
our., vol. v -)
The well wok ane twin flask apparatus of Will and Fresenius is used ;
in one flask sulphuric acid is employed as usual—in the other a solu:
tion of urea and the nitrite to be analyzed. The apparatus is weighed,
sulphuric acid is drawn over, and when the reaction is finished, a suffi-
cient quantity of air is passed through the flasks, and a second weighing
gives the loss of CO, and N. A loss of 1:00 answers to “76 of nitrous
acid. G. C. ScHAFFER.
5. New mode of preparing Nitrogen; by B. Cornenwinper.—(Ann.
de Chim. et de Phys., July, 1849.)—No former process for obtaining
pure nitrogen is both easy and expeditious. The author employs t
remarkable decomposition of nitrite of ammonia by heat, into nitrogen
and water—but instead of the salt formally prepared, he makes use of
solution of nitrite of potash and parca nines of ammonia. Through
a solution of caustic potash, sp. gr. 1°28, is passed nitrous gas (obtain-
ed from the reaction of starch 1 pt. and “—_ acid 10 pts.) uotil the
product is acid, the solution is then made alkaline by caustic potash,
and may be preserved in this state without change. ‘To prepare nitro-
gen, add to 1 vol. of this solution 3 vols. of very strong solution of hy-
drochlorate of ammonia, and heat moderately in a small flask—the gas
is disengaged very soon, and the decomposition goes on very regularly.
To remove the small quantity of ammonia set free by the slight excess
of caustic potash, the gas must be passed through water acidulated with
sulphuric acid. The nitrogen thus obtained is said to be perfectly pure.
An economical substitute for the solution of the nitrite prepared
as described above, would be found in the nitrite of potash obtained
by cautiously heating nitre—in this case there would be sufficient excess
of alkali to ensure the stability of the salt in solution. | G.C.
ew — for detecting — and Bromine ; by M. A. Rey-
so.—(Comptes Rendus, April, 1849.)—To ie ‘the well known
difficulties i in the use of chlorine, it is proposed to employ peroxyd of
hydrogen to set free the iodine or bromine. A fragment of binoxyd
of barium is put into atest tube, and water, hydrochloric acid and
starch paste are added—when we wish to test for iodine, as soon as bub-
bles arise, the liquid to be tested is poured in. In testing for bromine,
ether must be substituted for starch paste,
When sulphurets, sulphites, or hyposulphites are present, on account
of the absorption of oxygen to form sulphates, &c., more than the
usual quantity of peroxyd of hydrogen is required. The sulphate of
baryta for retards the action unless the mixture is agitated, and in
fact it is better ia all cases to do so to hasten the evolution of the peroxyd
of hydrogen. This process is said to indicate — e of less than
1 part of iodide of potassium in 100,000 of w G.C
a
Chemistry and Physics. 115
On the amount of Ammonia contained in the Atmosphere; by M.
Fresenius.—The quantitative determination of the ammonia in the at-
mosphere, by M. Grager, gave 0°323 grms. ammonia or 0:938 carb.
amm. in 1,000, grm. of air. In this determination, the quantity of
ammonia already existing in the chlorid of platinum, (used to precipi-
‘ate the ammonia collected from the air,) was not determined. In an
experiment made by Dr. Kemp, 3°68 grms. of ammonia, or 10°37 car-
bonate of ammonia were obtained. In this case the ammonia was ab-
tres (610 cub. in. or about 11 qts.) each, were arranged so as to fill
one in the day, the other at night. To each of these there was at-
tached a collecting apparatus of two small flasks connected together
and containing dilute hydrochloric acid (1 pt. acid sp. gr. 1°12, and 20
pts. water). For forty days the air was passed through the apparatus.
The quantity passed by day was 345,250 cub. cent., (about 12-2 cub.
ft.) by night 344,250 cub. cent. (about 12°1 cub. ft.)
The usual precautions in estimating ammonia by chlorid of platinum
Were observed. ‘The ammonia already existing in the chlorid of plati-
num was estimated, making use of the same quantity as that employed
in the two experiments. ‘I'he ash of the filters was also very carefully
determined.
The air which passed during the day and night gave respectively
0027 and -0029 of platinum and ash, from which ‘00064 and ° 7
Were to be deducted for the ash, and ‘00182 for platinum, from deter-
mination of ammonia previously existing in the chlorid. The remain-
ders were d ‘00041 platinum. From this it would result that
The author presents these results as an approximation, the quantity
of ammonia obtained being too small for accurate results, as any error
in weighing or determining the ash, would produce an enormous differ-
€nce in the results. G.C.S.
- On the varieties of Chloroform; by MM. Sovserran and Mt-
ALHé.—(Journ. de Pharm., July, 1849.)—Chloroform is obtained, as is
known, both from common and methylic alcohol (pyroxylic spirits)—
the produets although generally considered as identical in composition,
ie such different properties as to render an investigation very de-
Sirab]
Pyreumatic odor. Chlorine is a constituent. Sul] hurie acid was found
t the most suitable substance for destroying this impurity of the
1160 Scientific Intelligence.
chloroform, which was then found to be in every respect identical with
that obtained from common alcohol
This impurity amounted in some commercial chloroforms to 6 per
cent. Chloroform om common alcohol, furnished a very small quan-
tity of an oil containing chlorine, but differing from that before de-
scribed.
The authors peeeitas these oils as chlorinated compounds intermedi-
ate between chloroform and one of the chlorids of carbon. They also
advise that the cei from methylic alcohol should not be used
for inhalation, even that from common alcohol needing a redistillation,
as the residue obtained will be found to produce in a remarkable degree
headache and giddiness
The authors have also noticed the curious fact that, when chloroform
is poured upon a double filter, part runs through and part is congeale
by rapid evaporation, into silky scales. G.C.5.
. On the Composition of Shea Butter and oe Vegetable Tal-
low; by Dr. R. T. Tomson, and Mr. E. T. Woon, (Phil. Mag., May,
1849, )—The Shea butter first noticed by Senge Park, appears to
very abundant in the regions along the Gambia and Niger, and consti-
tutes one of the principal articles of commerce among the African na-
tives. It is apparently identical “te the Galam butter, and is obtained
from a species of Bassia. The fruit of this tree is about the size of a
pigeon’s ona wi a shell about as po and “the kernel when new is
nearly all but
The fat as aaa by crushing the nut and boiling with water, is
white with a shade of green—solid at common temperatures, like soft
butter at 25°, and a clear liquid oil at 110°.
When saponified, this oil yields a fat acid, which when purified from
a small aunty of oleic acid, fuses at 142°, and on analysis proves to
be margaric
Chinese nig tP tallow has been long known as derived from the
fruit of the Stillingia sebifera, it is hard and white, with a shade of
green. It fuses at about 80°. Saponified it yields an acid which soft-
ens at 143°, but only becomes quite fluid at 154°. “gid — suppose
it to be principally margaric acid with a mixture of s
From the apparently unlimited supply, it is ama ‘sit both of
these oils might be advantageously employed in soap makin G.C.5.
0. On the occurrence of Butyric Acid in the Fruits of the ‘Soap tree 5
by Dr. von Gorur Besanez, (Journ. fur Prakt. Chem. in Chem. Gaz.
—The seeds of the Sapindus saponaria, when pounded and softened in
water, are used for washing linen. The peculiar odor led to an exam-
ination. On distilling with water combining the distillate with soda,
and again distilling with sulphuric acid, a quantity of pure butyric acid
was obtained.
The fruit of the tamarind by the same treatment furnished formic
and acetic acids, the odor of butyric acid was at the same time devel-
oped. As formic acid was also obtained from the fruit of the soap tree,
and as tartaric acid exists in both fruits, the author is disposed to think
that the butyric, acetic, and formic acids are derived from the oxydation
of tartaric acids. With this opinion, as far as butyric acid is con-
cerned, few chemists will agree. : G.C.S.
ee oe a on
Chemistry and Physics. 117
11. Ou the preparation of Hyposulphite of Soda; by M. Facer,
(Journ. de Pharm., May, 1849.)—The salt of commerce contains more
or less of sulphate; if prepared from bisulphite of soda and sulphur,
the product contains a large quantity of sulphate and but little hypo-
sulphate. The neutral sulphite should therefore be used. It is best
prepared by the following process.
A solution of carbonate of soda is divided into two equal portions,
one of them is saturated with sulphurous acid to form the bisulphite,
which is then rendered neutral by the second portion. There is pres-
ent however, an excess of sulphuric acid, owing to the solvent action of
the water. This is to be expelled by boiling before adding the sulphur,
which may be added afterwards and the solution boiled without risk.
G.C.8
2. On the amount of Lime in Lime Water; by M. Witrstein,
(Buchner’s Report in Chem. Gaz.)—Of cold water, 732 parts dissolve
1 part of anhydrous lime. The solution in boiling water gave uncer-
tain results—1311, 1495 and 1579 parts of boiling water dissolving 1
ime.
asparagine in solution ferments and furnishes succinate of ammonia.
(See this Journal, vol. vi, p. 421.) Now asparagine is simply the amid
periment. Neutral malate of lime was exposed under water for about
3 minutes—at the end of which time besides carbonate of lime, muci-
laginous matter, &c., there was obtained a crop of crystals which afford-
ed succinic acid. Liebig has fouud that a fermentation got up with
yeast or putrefying cheese, produces the same result in a far shorter
The following proportions are recommended,—3 pounds crude
malate of lime are mixed wit bs. water at 104° and 4 oz. putrid
cheese previously rubbed up with water. At 86° to 104° the fermenta-
tion is over in five or six days. The heavy granular crystalline deposit
formed, is a double salt of succinate and carbonate of lime. This is to
be well washed with cold water, and dilute sulphuric acid added until
effervescence ceases: an eq
added and the whole boiled until the granular form of the deposit
M
experiments were undertaken with direct relation to those of Piria
Which are much older, as shown by the above reference to the pages
of this Journal. ] 6.c.s.
118 Scientific Intelligence.
14. Chemical Analysis of a Calculus from the bladder of a Whale ;
ote hegre Keiter, M. D., (Proc . Acad. Nat. Sci. Settee tee
85.)—Whalers report that it is not unusual to Bn a number of cal-
he in the bladder of the whale. These calculi are about the size of
a hen’s egg, on the surface very smooth, and of a white color.
breaking them they are seen to be for med of concentric layers, from
the thickness of a sheet of paper to that of a quarter of an inch; the
chemical composition throughout being very nearly the same. Mr.
ul Muller and myself t ook for analysis different layers, and found
them of the same composition. The chief constituent of the caleu-
lus is the double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia. ‘The quantity
magnesia found, will answer to the quantity of ammonia and water
found necessary ‘for the formation of the double phosphate.
um was silicic acid. The quantity of magnesia was ascertained as am-
moniaco-magnesian phosphate, the phosphoric acid as phosphate of iron.
The carbonic acid, the quantity of which was very small, was found
by the apparatus of Will and Fresenius. The rest of the component
parts were in such small quantities that they could not be weighed ;
they were iron, lime, chlorine and soda. The ammonia and water
were ascertained by calculation.
Found. Caleulated.
P.O, 27-21 AA 27-21
MgO 15°75 MgG 15°75
Fat 0°39 NH,
0 2°66 HO 44:59
SiO, 2°18 Fat 0:89
HO 32°17 Li 2°66
CO, 0-05 SiO, 2:18
—- co, 0:05
80:41 -_——
Traces of NaO, CaO, FeO, Ci. 98°91
the presence of Fluorine in the Waters - o - Firth of rh jot
the Birth “i tes” and the German James by G. Witson, M.D.,
obtained the mo ther-liquor or bittern st, the pans of a salt work ‘there,
and soyey es it by nitrate of bar The precipitate after being
washed and dried was warmed with vr of vitriol in a lead basin, cover-
Chemistry and Physics. 119
ed with waxed glass having designs on it. The latter were etched in
two hours, as deeply as they could have been by fluor-spar treated in
thé same way, the lines being filled up with the white silica, separated
from the glass. The author has recently examined in the same wa
bittern from the salt-works at Saltcoats, in the Firth of Clyde, but the
indications of fluorine were much less distinct than in the waters on the
East Coast. On procuring, however, from the same place, the hard
crust which collects at the bottom and sides of the boilers used in the
wax. A sin
slightly, but by replenishing the basin with successive quantities of these
materials, whilst the same plate of engraved glass was used as the cover,
are periodically removed from the boilers of the ocean steame
t of the sea. He made application, accordingly, at Glasgow and
Leith for the deposits in question. It appears, however, that the deep-
Sea steamers which leave the former have their boilers cleaned out at
other ports, so that he has as yet been unsuccessful in procuring crusts
from the west coast of Scotland. He has obtained at Leith the crust
once yielded hydrofluoric acid. A single charge, indeed, of the mate-
rials marked the glass distinctly, and four charges deeply. We may
tained fluorine pretty equally diffused through it. From what is known
of the comparative uniformity in composition of sea-water, it may safely
120 Scientific Intelligence.
be inferred that if fluorine be present in the waters of the Firths of
Forth and Clyde, and in the German Ocean, it will be found universal-
ly present in the sea. Mr. Middleton, before 1846, came to the con-
clusion that fluorine must be present in sea-water, since it occurred, as
he had ascertained, in the shells of marine mollusca. Silliman, —
by the United States expedition from the Pacific Ocean. he author
has found fluorine abundantly ete in the teeth of the Walrus, which
points to its existence in the Are cean; and it seems so invariably to
associate itself with phosphate of nuan that it may be expected to occur
in the bones of all animals marine and terrestrial. The author has
found fluorine likewise in kelp from the Shetlands, but much less dis-
tinctly than he anticipated. Glass plates were only corroded so far as
to show marks when breathed upon. Prof. Voelker, also, was kind
enough at the author’s request to search for fluorine when analyzing the
ashes of specimens of the sea pink (Statice Armeria), which had grown
close to the sea shore, and contained iodine, and found fluorine in the
plant. When all these facts are considered, it is not too much, the au-
thor thinks, to urge that fluorine should now take its place among the
acknowledged constituents of sea-water. He has entered at length into
the consideration of the ne ag distribution of this element, and into
other details connected with it, in a paper in the * Transactions of. the
Royal ere of Edinburgh, vk xvi, part 7, and in a communication
made to the Association at its Southampton meeting. The Statice Ar-
meria oti veceualaly be added to the list of plants containing fluorine,
and so may the Cochlearia Anglica, in specimens of which obtain
from the Bass Rock, and analyzed in Dr. Wilson’s laboratory, Dr. Voel-
_ker has also detected this element
Specimens of ae glass were e shown to the Section in illustration
of this communicatio
Prof. Forchammer eat eee the results of Dr. Wilson. He had
instance. He had also examined man ls and marine products
from various localities, and they all gave the same body—the ss
of which was always greater in sea than in land animals. Mr. Pearsall
thought he had detected fluorine in many waters from springs and pss
16. On the Artificial Production a certain Crystallized ince
oc one Pte hs of iy Oxyd gs itanium, and Quartz ; by =
UBR
apparatus, suitable for the production of the stannic vom he em-
ployed in its place the chlorid of that metal—the great analogy ©X-
isting between the fluorids and chlorids ssi this prc of the
results obtained on the last to the correspo flu
nl reee
Nee eee
Chemistry and Physics. 121
The method —— vast in bringing at the same time in a red
hot ieineinis ape o currents, one of chlorid of tin and one of vapor
of water. ~ wie of tin whigh results from the decomposition of the
he
a inet rhombic prism, while the natural mineral has the form of a
Square prism. ‘The artificial crystals always have the two 6 meted stag
cating faces greatly extended, so as to present forms much resembling
Brookite artificial tin crystals have the same Lengivudioal striz,
parallel. to the vere es of the primary. The angle of the two
Ping: faces (13 s the same as in brookite—(e? on e°=
Levy): thus the wae rhombic oxyd of tin is isomorphous with
brookite.
The natural oxyd of tin has for a long time been recognized as iso-
morphous with rutile. It appears from these results that the two pri-
rhom
Bec use the artificial oxyd of tin has a form different from that of
the e'entive mineral, we are not at liberty to conclude that the two crys-
talline systems correspond to modes of production which are very dif-
ferent from each other; for in the Oisans and in Switzerland, the same
veins and often the same specimens contain at least two of the species
of titanic acid, anatase and brookite. The conditions are iharefore
very similar, which decide the change of molecular equilibrium, pro-
ducing the two forms of titanic a
vapor of perchlorid of etanfasn treated by the same methods to
Which the chlorid of tin was submitted, gave titanic acid in little brist-
ling mammillary masses, the mapa points perfectly sharp, but
be microscopic dimensions. These little crystals have the form 0
rookite
The chlorid and fluorid of silicon, treated in the same manner in a
here and there very small crystalline faces, among which are visible
triangular faces like those in qua
Srconp Seems, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850. 16
122 Scientific Intelligence.
ck which contains them. ‘These veins, however, are injected inti-
into the interior of crystals of specular iron and of quartz, proves that
these three minerals have been precipitated, if not simultaneously, at
least under the same conditions. Now the specular iron of these veins
recalls by its brilliancy and peculiar form the specular iron of volcanic
regions, which as has been shown by Gay Lussac and Mitscherlich,
has been produced from the decomposition of chlorid of iron by the
vapor of water.
We seem authorized in assigning a similar origin to the specular iron
ous condition by methods heretofore known, disposes itself in crystals
when its chlorid is treated at an elevated temperature by the vapor of
water; so it is the same with silicic acid. us by a threefold réason
with the three species of titanic acid—the fl
frequent, the fluo-silicates (mica rich in fluor
il Te
Mineralogy and Geology. 123
II. MineraLocy anp GEoLoey.
1. Analysis % a Sa Water; by M. H. Bové, (Proc. Amer.
23.)—The following a a is published by M. Boyé,
pl
with fall details of the process he adopte e here cite his results.*
S Grains in 1 vite! In 100 residue.
: Alkaline chlorids, é : i 0°153 3°75 .
Alkaline sulphates, é é é 0°560 13°74
Alkaline pnt aah : ; ‘ 0°185 4-53
Carbonate of lim : d ; 2-190 53°67
Carbonate of magnesi, : : 0-484 11-87
’ Alumina and ws of iron (phosphates ?) 0-077 1:88
ik Silica, : : : 0°395 9°68
Organic matter, 3 : : : 0036 0-88
4-080 100-00
Total residue
rt a separate experiment, total residue, 4°42]
above numerical results reduced to 10,000 parts of water, and
combined in the water, will stand thus :—
In 10,000 parts.
Sulphuric acid, .. ; é j : 3 0:051775
Chlorohydrie acid, we, ‘ ; ; 0:016275
Carbonic acid, é : ; i é i 0°220195
Potassa and ote ( i : ; : F 0:076723
Lime, — Bb gre Rg Oe foaicy 41%) 905 81 18H
Magnes ‘ 0:040095
Alaial and ony of iron n (phosphates ‘) : 0-013200
Silica ; ; 0067710
Oran matter, ; é ; i 3 ; 0-006170
‘ 07:03493
Deduct water in chlorohydrates, . : ; 0:004022
Total residue in 10,000, 0°699471
The following exhibits a tabular view of the different amounts of
ae fixed, and insoluble residue obtained by Prof. Silliman and M.
epee
Boy SrLLIMAN,
g sin] vatiai - oe in star
olid senile, - "080 cS gti irene, at
Fixed at a zn heat, 3°794 calculated | 4:26
from the above. 3°69 by direct experiment.
meet in ere 2896 “ 2°145
On Acid and eee, Springs; by Prof. W. B. Roczrs, (Proc.
Riser Assoc., 1848, p. 94.)—In this Pe Bets Eh after referring to
* For Prof. B, Silliman’s, Jr. examination of the same water, see this Journal, [2],
ii, 218,
Rees ee es ee
re ' =
124 Scientific Intelligence.
the principal classes of mineral springs, thermal and of ordinary tem-
perature, and comprehended under the terms acidulous, saline, sulphu-
retted and chalybeate, Prof. R. entered into a particular account,
logical and chemical, of two very distinct classes of springs of fre-
springs which occur belong to the former of the two classes, Such,
for example, are the celebrated Alum springs and Brinkley’s springs
pores of the slate with this substance, which, in virtue of its large ex-
cess, would have power to decompose the sulphuret of sodium, and per-
haps other salts present, and thus give origin to the smal] amount of
carbonate of soda, which imparts alkalinity to these waters, The great
proportion of silica, in the solid residuum of these springs, may doubt-
less be ascribed to the solvent power of the alkaline carbonate.
3. On Reptilian foot-marks in the gorge of the Sharp Mountain near
Pottsville, Pa. ; by Isaac Lea, (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1849, p. 91-)
—The object of this communication is to announce to the Society, that
cps Fi i dape’
Mineralogy and Geology. 125
I have discovered the foot-prints, in bas-relief, of a reptilian quadru-
ped, lower in the series than has yet been observed. On the 5th of
April last, in the examination of the strata in the gorge of the Sharp
Mountain, near Pottsville, Pa., where the Schuylkill breaks through it,
a large mass of remarkably fine old red sandstone attracted my atten-
tion. Imprinted upon it, | was surprised to find six distinct impressions
of foot-marks, in a double row of tracks, each mark being duplicated
by the hind foot falling i into the impression of the fore foot, but a little
more advanced. The strata here are tilted a little over the vertical,
and the surface of rock exposed was about twelve feet by six, the
whole of which surface was covered with ripple marks and the pits of
rain bid aa Lmaemibis displayed in the very fine texture of the deep
red sandst
The six ecaeh impressions distinctly show, in the two parallel rows
formed by the left feet on the one side and the right feet on the other,
that the animal had five
tues on the fore feet,
three of which toes were
unguinal endages.
The length aie double
my
The mark of the drag- ae. : ~ 5.
ging of the tail is dis- —~e&. SS a” wae
tinct, and occasionally et
slightly obliterates we
AN
‘
Nang
aN
Ae
Ate
marks. The ripple
marksare seven toeight 4
x
in
se
Similate remarkab!
those of the recent fas tc a and are diets some-
what analogous to the Cheirotheriu
The geological position of this copii pa Te is of great inter-
est, from the fact that no such animal remains have heretofore been
discovered so low in the series. Those deieiliad by Dr. King, in the
great western coal field, are only eight hundred feet below the surface
of the coal cena -(No. 13, of Prof. Rogers, the State Geologist.)
* The figure is rather more than half the natural size of the impression.
126 Scientific Intelligence.
The position of the Pottsville “ foot-marks” is about 8500 feet below
the upper part of the coal formation there, which is 6750 feet thick,
according to Prof. Rogers, and they are in the ‘red shale,” (his No.
11,) the intermediate siliceous conglomerate (No. 12) being stated by
him to be 1031 feet thick at Pottsville. ‘These measurements would
bring these foot-marks about seven hundred feet below the upper sur-
face of the old red sandstone.
mass of coal plants exists immediately on the northern face of the
heavy conglomerate, here tilted ten degrees over the vertical, and form-
ing the crest and “ back-bone” of Sharp Mountain. This conglomerate
the road below Pottsville. On the same road side, about 1735 feet
from these coal plants, is the face of the rock, tilted slightly over the
yeas and facing the north. lt is proper to state, that the limestone
of the old red sandstone exists here, about two feet thick, and underlies
thea: ** foot-marks” sixty-five feet. I was fortunate enough to obtain
these 1 impressions in a large and heavy slab, which is now in my pos-
session
On the slab there are obscure remains of other organized matter
small spots, with ate nege: radiations, and a small bone or reed- like
mark, which is difficult to make out.
4. Gold on the farm of Sautel Elliot, Montgomery per Md.,
thirty miles from Baltimore, (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1849, p. 85.)—
The Jocality has been known but a few months s, and appears to be val-
uable. Three samples examined at the mint, yielded as follows :—
No. 1 yielded at the rate of 744 grains per ewt. of ore, or $610 00 per ton.
No, 2 . 960 “ 78720 “
No. 3 xg 206 r 168 80 “
Average, 636 522
The quartz which forms the matrix of the gold, crops out amidst a
decomposed talcose slate, so that quarrying is very easy. Ores of cop-
per and iron are also presen
Messrs. Bowman & Ebbett, of New York, state that much gold ap-
pears to be disseminated throughout the gangue; in so minute a state
of division, as to be invisible to the naked e
5. Gold of California, (from a letter to one of the editors from Rev.
C. S. Lyman, dated, San Francisco, Oct. 29th, 1849.)—The gold the
past season has turned out much better than was expected. Many rich
deposits, in all parts of the mines, have been opened. On the middle
fork of the Rio de los Americanos, two men recently dug $28, 000 in
two months. saw a portion of it in lumps of the size of hens’ eggs
as the Mokelemnes. But for these few fortunate diggers, there are
thousands who scarce earn a dollar a day. From the best pgp
I can get, Asean workers have not averaged more than eight or
ten dollars a —some estimate it much lower; multitudes do not pay
expenses, seeticilanky clerks, professional men and others unaccus-
‘tomed to hard work.
The gold has at last been discovered in place—in veins penta
quartz beds—on the Mokelemnes and in the vicinity of the Marip
Botany and Zoology. 127
and one or two other places. I have this from gentlemen who have
seen the veins and who are reliable witnesses. These veins are of
veins, which undoubtedly will be opened in the mountains, will consti-
tute an immense and profitable mining business for centuries. I have
no fear that the gold, as many imagine, will all be dug out ina year
or two.
lll. Botany anp Zoo.oey.
(Communicated for this Journal.)—About two months ago, one of my
laborers, employed in excavating marl, brought to me the shell of a
ower beds, as to make the marl very compact an he over-
lying earth (sand, gravel, and clay) there had been six feet thick. The
calcareous marl i t feet; and this lies on green-sand earth, of
great depth, and containing very little shelly or calcareous matter.
s in my long experience in the excavation of marl, and much more
Possible object for the negro to attempt a deception. And even if there
had been sucha design, he could not have provided such means as he
here produced, in an unknown if not a unique fossil specimen, in a
remarkably good state of preservation. ‘This is the principal and all-
Sufficient evidence of the good faith of the laborer. e could not pos-
sibly have been himself deceived. He had been for years accustomed
hollow impression of the nut in the lump of marl, which would have
been conclusive evidence of the locality of the relic.
When brought to me, the nut had been washed very nearly clean of
all the adhering marl. The distension by moisture was very great, (as
was learned afterwards by the great shrinking,) and consequently the
128 Scientific Intelligence.
freshness of appearance, as shown in color, to the touch, and by flexi-
bility, was so much the greater. The perfection of the preservation
was indeed wonderful—and scarcely less than I should have expected
of any like nut, as an acorn or horse-chestnut, similarly buried for but
a few years,
The shell of the nut was almost perfect. The only erentce were
that by compression it was (apparently) flattened ; and i
compressed, a crack had been made and kept open at the — (or
germ) end. The shell while distended by moisture, in color, smooth-
ness of surface, and in partial elasticity, appeared much like old teas
softened by being water-soaked. The color was dark brown, approach-
ing to black. The mark of oo Bok BAG snort though small, was as
distinct as if the nut had been
the distension then was may be seen by comparing the then size with
fig. 4, which is the same view as fig. 1, but marked since the thorough
ie 3.
drying and shrinking of the shell. The dutlines were a by tra-
ger around the object with a pencil, and using every care to preserve
meee profile of size, as closely as possible. Since ines the
Botany and Zoology. 129
cracks are more ested in length, but less open. ‘The shell is about
the twelfth of an inch thick; and now appears more like lignite than
any more recent vege matter. -Of course nothing of the kernel,
or true seed, remained. In its place there are some particles of black
vegetable be pias is with some powdery marl—all which do
not near fill the present cavity.
Though my labors in excavating marl of different kinds during many
years, and sive much more ex xtended personal examinations elsewhere,
ave giv € opportunities rarely enjoyed by others for seeing and
gubering fossil specimens from their localities, I. make no claim to the
character of a scientitic investigator of pe subject, Therefore, I do
not Sa whether (as I infer it is) this nut is an extinct species—or
whether the like has been found befor
This marl, bordering the Pamunkey river, has peculiar characteris-
ties, and also has tare value asa manure. ‘The fossil remains are gen-
erally much decayed. Among the kinds Ss most common, are shells of
Ostrea selleformis and Cardita planicosta, either of which sufficiently
identifies the marl with the eocene. Some other fossils are either new,
or very rare, at least to my observation. Among the most rare isa
fragment of a spine of an extinct Echinus, which is eight inches long,
and more than three quarters of an inch in diameter, where thickest. y
Comparison of the size with the species of the largest spatttliens known
to me of recent Echini, this extinct species must have had a very large
body, beset with spine 33 feet long. Ihave also found smaller fragments
of these species in the eocene marls of Coggin’s Point, James river, Va.,
and of the Santee in South Carolina. ‘The flutings of the surface of
these spines are beautifully regular ; so as to seem like delicate artifi-
cial carved work.
Lignite is often found in this eocene marl, I have two specimens of
impure amber which were found in this kind of marl, though not in my
own diggings. One of these was broken from a solid mass which was
Said by the person who found it to have been nearly a foot in diameter.
Marlbourne, Va., July 4, 1849.
2. Synopsis Generum Crustaceorum Ordinis ‘*Schizopoda” J. D. Dan
elaboratus, et Descriptiones specierum hujus ordinis que in Orbis erra-
tum circumnavigatione, Carolo Wilkes e Classe Reipublicee Faederate:
Duce, auctore lecta:.—(Pars |.
Orpo II. CRUSTACEA SCHIZOPODA.
Crustacea Macrourorum pullos affiliantia, branchiis sive extern
—- thoracis abdominisve pertinentibus, sive obsole etis; pedibus eee
irameis palpo valde elongato; agitlipedibon pedes sequentes spe
italeaitantibiie
Tribus I, DIPLOGPODA.
Pedes thoracis biramei, palpo natatorio, nulli prehensiles. Cara-
pax Sephateroeadieth plerumque 4 segmento ote non Fass
discreto, ;
VW
F 3 ie
Seconp Serms, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan,, 1850.
130 Scientific Intelligence.
Subtribus I. Mysipacea.
Corpus elongatum, subcylindricum. Basis pedum thoracicorum brevis.
1. Pedes thoracis branchigeri.
m. I. Evprausipz.—Antenne prime biramez. [In speciebus scru-
tatis poison abdominis Pf barba nuda ad extremitatem utri
que armatum
Genus 1. Taysanoropa, (M. Hdwards).—Oculi pneu breves. Pedes thoracis
quatordein, duobus posticis obsoletis branchiis exceptis. aeare duo antennarum
* Genus 2. _Eoruausu, AE seed grip uli symmetrici, bre Pedes thoracis non un-
Part ero duodecim, quatuor =< obsoletis branch yore Flagella
aru primarum © elo gata. entum abdom is posti icum acuminatum.
pecan 3. Cyrtorta, (Dana). blongi, apicem ache gibbosi,
lenticulis ‘oti in 2 ew cigs versis. anny antennarum primarem primus anh
cem tnferiorem productus. Segmentum abdominis posticum Reese, aut truncatum
°
2. Pedes thoracis abdominisve non branchigeri.
_ Fam. Il. Mysipz.—Antenne prime biramee, secundz lamina basali
instructe. [Pedes thorn pouel nunquam obsoleti
74. vS-4 p rey
1. Pedwm rami ambo thoracicor extremitatem
Genus 1. Mysis, pee ip a, Mlglana thoracis duodecim, maxillipedes <r ¥8iga sex.
Antenne prime flagellis duobus -confectz. Pedes abdominis parvuli, debil
2. Pedum ramus internus thoracicorum non wovtiartonlatig. bene pith
Oculi symmetric
Genus 2. Promysis, (Dana)—Pedes thoracis ie He maxillipedes sex. Anten-
foe ai flagellis duobus beaver oblon — confecte. Pedes abdominis oblongi,
tatorii, longitudinem fere zqui. [Segmentum abdominis posticum emarginatum
Pe bilobatum.
Genus 3. — ey ag thoracis sexdecim, inter sese similes, toti bene
att Ant w flagellis duobus lamindque oblonga co confecte. Pedes ab-
arti valde Seagal (an reste ee xualis tantum). [Segmentum abdom-
inis posts emarginatum vel bilobatu
Pi neg oo Goodsir. Hoe pn pee “voeabulum generis Amphipodum auctori-
m
Be: re “‘Smmzta, (Dana).—Pedes thoracis sexdecim, toti bene Leia posti-
rum duodecim ramo pediformi apicem setis brevibus mobilibus (instar digitorum rum)
jx it to. Antenne prime flagellis duobus confecte, Taantok entes.
edes abdominis toti Pros Eiesehare her vissimum. Segmentum abdominis
icum apicem rotundatum et spinulis ornatu ay
aa. Myro, (Kroyer, Tids. -K Rei i, 470) —I edes thoracis omen im
ndices caudales
erlcaiocss caudali connati, Hue ake laté triangulata, ae postico longo.
Flage arum primarum non articulata.
8. Oculi e latere neieih externo site eepeetenten lenticulis totis parce obli-
Genus 6. Loxors {Pana —Oculi e fee “Abb # prime flagellis duobus con-
fecte, lamina yee endices abdominis rudiment [Segmentum abdomi-
nis posticum Sena vel obtusum, extremitate spinuloso.}*
incerte sedis videtu
gg bebe Pedes al ce Pedes duo longissimi, art seein te tenui annulato pons ;
podum ; generibus ilie et Calyptopes forsan pulli Decapodum aut quorundam Schizo-
“—— umeratie hoe hoc discrepant: Ape. inferior articwli antenna-
nilatne) nome , Thompson, craig ag ra - tab. 59, fig. 1,) pie Nee
otis
4
| F Botany and Zoology. 131
Fam. Il. nap ep Ne prime simplices, elongate ; se-
} og biram
Genus 1. Racmirta, (Dana)—Carapax anticé pr aoe at: s, post fron
non odacteisbun--Ovnll i lon _ sn $e Segmentum abdominis sextum valde aap.
tum, [segmentis in specie ser ta anticis simul sumti is non longioribus, utroque spi-
nam longam dorsalem om
& Bae f 2. Sorrerina, (Da na). —Carapas antice acuto- -tricuspidatus, paulo por § fron-
; tem instar colli constrictus Resi atus p nici.
Pedes wrohers elongati duodecim, beet pe © Pediformi 4-5 ‘articulato, ater
(palpo) parce none alii “nn breves quar, “anteriore es abdominis rudi-
um.]
3. Pedes abdominis sea itis branchiiformibus instructi.
a WV. —— —Antenne prime biramee, secunde lamina
| basali { instruct
if Genus Cyn er (Phamgon — thoracis quatuordecim, biramei; maxillipedes
quatuor. Oculi breves symmet
if Sibi Il. Ampnionacea.*
Corpus depressum, carapace foliaceo. Basis pedum thoracicorum
elongatus, palpo a eee remoto
Fam. I. Ampuionip —Corpus: elongatum, abdomine longitudinem
mediocri, thorace per at ini ecto
Genus Ampunion, (Jf, Edwards.)
Fam. II. Payttosomipz. Corpus latus et breve, abdomine perbrev
aut rudimentario, thorace per carapacem plerumque non tecto
PuyLiosoma, (Leach.) yf
Tribus IT. BPLOOTODA.
Pedes thoracis nec biramei nec prehensiles. Corpus gracile, longum.
m. I. Lucrrer1p£.—Cephalothorax valde elongatus, segmento ce-
phalico (oculos Sees pertinente) longé attenuato. Oculi tenuiter
se elon on
— a
us Luc ue ® prime simplices, secunde lamina basali instructe.
ae thoraci quasar poneael (ct. xiii, xiv,) hppa Let ecedentes (ct ix, x, xi, a
longati, setigeri; deinde duo antici i (ct. vili,) in ipedum flexi.
duo (ct. sii); maxille quatuor (ct. v, vi); Renababe: (ets iv,) due non palpigere.
Tribus III. STOMATOPODA.
Os mandibulis duobus maxillisque duobus instructum, membris se-
qreatibun pediformibus. Pedes antici (ct. vi) vergiformes, elongati ;
8 sequentes chelati; 6 postici aliis remoti, seepius bifidi. i
rum YA arum primi long? acutdque productus, Animalia scrutata tota immatura,
| pedi lus minus rudimentariis.
4 Gen. Furcttta, (Dana).—Carapax plus minus rostratus. Oculi aj
+ dominis slag -natatorii. Antenne prime furcate ramis (immaturis sree nents. bw
. articulate ; segment ominis posticum truncatum, extremitatem sepius spinu-
um abdo:
a Animalia in mari alto lecta.
oculos omnino tegens. Anten-
~2 articulate.
[Segmentum abdom-
0,
Macroura affiliat. Forsan Ordo
carapacem celati: Pedes
icé furcati.
ti sub
tyliformes et posticé furcati—M., a:
Pidsk. ii, 503 3 and ib. N. R., ii, 123;
y
. Sept. 1
132 | Scientific Intelligence.
‘ — ern elamaictiain paampnte per articulationem discretum.
QU nta
ti190
dentatur
inom. pa nH minor angustus,
nus 2, Gonopactyiys,—Digitus manus maxime integer. Ramus pedum thoracis
sex :postearan minor angustus,
3. Coroyis—Ramus pedum thoracis sex posticorum minor lamellatus.
es it apts .—Rostrum carapace non discretum. Branchice
seepius rudimentaric, aut obsolete
Genus 1, Santadbeeintientncs inialdain affinis, Digitus manus maxime intus den-
tatus.
Genus 2. Ertcuravs.—Corpus latus. Pars soe Bigitee, antica os fre see
breviog Carapax thoracem sepius ompino tegens. itus manus
non d
noe 8. Arita — Corpus angustus, Pars cephalothoracis autica os precedens
longior. Carapax thoracem sepius non omnino tegens, Digitus manus maxime
@ptus non dentatus,*
fribus I. DIPLOGPODA.—Subtribus 1. Mysepacea.
Familia 1. EupHavsip2.
Genus Luphausia. ;
. EvpHavsia peLLUcrpa.—Gracilis. Carapax brevissimé rostratus.
eon abdominis margines laterales integra, arcuata. Articulus
antennarum primarum primus apicem non productus. Lamina anten-
marum 2n basalis basi paululo ewe — uissimi, ar-
ticulo ultimo brevissimo, palpo fere triplo brevior
agntum caudale lamellis ‘candalibus a longius, shoes subapicalibus
salientibus. Branchize postica subdigitate.—Long. 6’. Incolorata.
oe n mari Pacifico, prope insulas * Rngemills: >? Lecta Ap. 1841.
AUSIA SPLENDENS. eb ity ax brevissime rstratis segmenta
é obt
lis tribus ultimis longitudine subseqnis, setis longis breviter plumosis,~
palpo plus duplo breviore quam ramus alter. Segmentum caudale
Jamellis caudalibus longius, barbis uate salientibus. Branchie
postice ramosz.—Long. 6’”.—Paulo rubescen
ab. in mari Atanticn, lat. bor. 1°-2°, ie. oce. 17°-18°. Lecta
.diebus 29, 30, 1838.
Evupnavsta seek —Carapax brevissimé rostratus. Segmenta ab-
dominis margines laterales subeequé rotundata. Articulus antennarum
Imarum primus apicem parce productus et acutus. Lamina antenna-
tum 2ndarum basalis basin multo superans. Pedes tenuissimi, articu-
lis tribus ultimis longitudine subsequis, setis longiusculis, palpo parvulo,
quadruplo breviore quam ramus alter. Segmentum caudale lamellis
caudalibus non longius. Branchize posticse ramose.—Long. 6. Parce
rubescens.
wo mari Pacifico, lat. aust. 155°, long. occ. 148°; lecta die
*
Brichthi et Alima non semper valet ; ni
partic eyo’ as aida rita, as
a ae
Botany and Zoology. 133
we
Star rote paulo involute, ramis subradiatis, arcuiformibus, ramulis
seriatis setiformibus. Segmentum caudale lamina caudali proxima
paululo brevius.—Long. 2’. Rubra. |
eyes are simple, and of extremely large size for the animals. ‘ he
lens is a prolate spheroid, situated internally within the thorax, far re-
mote from the cornea; the cornea is a broad oblate lens, perfectly
pellucid and colorless, and connected with the exterior shell. e di-
ameter of each of the latter in many Corycai is nearly balf the breadth of
the thorax, and the two stand in the front like a pair of spectacles, huge
for the minute animais so provided. in the same animal the prolate
lens may be situated as far back nearly, as the middle of the thorax,
so that a long space intervenes between it and the cornea. The ob-
late form of the spectacle-like cornea, (we have called them in Lating
conspicilla,) is fitted to compensate for the too great convexity or prolate
ellipticity of the lens, and it serves the same purpose as glasses for a
near-sighted person. f.
he genus Sapphirina is closely related to Corycwus, and has the
same peculiar eyes. ‘The only mention of these conspicilla, which has
been made by any previous author, is to be found in a memoir i
Meyenio in ista Expeditione collectorum; from the 16th vol. Nova Acta
Ces. Leop. Car. Nat. Cur., page 156, pl. 27.—The species (probably
a true Sapphirina) is called Carcinium opalinum. The conspicilla, by
a mistake of observation (and it is not the only one in the description
and much magnified figure ), are spoken of as dimples (Grubchen). They
are not noticed by Thompson who established the genus Sapphirina.
Similar eyes occur in some of the Caligus group, and the writer has
established one genus, Specilligus, on this ground, which otherwise
is identical with Nogagus.
A cornea of lenticular form is by no means peculiar to these spe-
cies of Crustacea ; but they have hitherto been observed only in com-
pound eyes, in which case the lens and cornea are minute and not far
distant
4. Contributions to Conchology, Nos. 1-4: and Monograph of Sro-
ASTOMA, a new genus of new operculated land shells, by Prof. C. B.
*See last volume, p. 280; also, Proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Sci, Philadelphia,
1845, ii, 235.
4
134 Sctentific Intelligence.
more particularly true as regards the ar he of mollusca, and es-
pecially the tribe of air-breathing or land mollus
A few only of the larger species of this tribe eas their way at an
early date into European cabinets, and were described and figured by
the conchological writers of the last century. Ata later period, through
French cabinets were enriched with many species from Hayti, Martin-
ique and Gaudaloupe, which adorn the great monograph commenced by
Baron Ferussac. The Rev. Lansdowne aig an accomplished
English naturalist, resident for many years upon the island of St.
added something to our knowledge of the land conchology of their
Vicinities,
The monograph of the genera Helicina and Cyclostoma in Sowerby’s
Thesaurus Conchyliorum, contained many new West India species,
The first volume of the * Mellicagune’ was published | in Paris in 1841,
and is yet little known in this countr
ch are the sources of our knowledge of the West India land shells,
aside from that supplied by Prof. Adams’s labors in Jamaica. A visit to
that island in the winter of 1843-4, enabled him to ascertain just enough
of its zoological and especially its conchological riches, to excite a de-
sire in lovers of science that this field might be more thoroughly ex-
plored. A hasty examination of but a small portion of mee island on
that occasion, enriched our catalogues with about 120:n w species,
which about 70 were marine, and 50 were land-shells.
n the winter of 1848-9, Prof. Adams made a second visit to this
named at the head of this article. We see with surprise how rich @
field has been lying neglected almost at our doors. The * Contribu-
tions to Conchology” contain descriptions of 137 supposed new species
of land and fresh-water shells; and these added:to those found in the
first visit, make a total o 187 s species contributed to science by Prof.
ms. The extent of this a will be appreciated, when
it is observed that the whole number of land and fresh-water species
yet known to inhabit the island is only 286.
The operculated species constitute a large share of this increase ; of
101 species from Jamaica, 66 were discovered by Prof. Adams. Among
Botany and Zoology. 135
them there is a new genus called Stoastoma, characterized by a semi-
circular aperture and projecting labrum, embracing as far as known,
worthy of note—the latter forming a connecting link between the
typical species of the genus and that most elegant of land-shells, the
T. pagoda Velasquez, from the Isle of Pines.
Of the 157 species of Jamaica Helicide, Prof. A. et Pesan
more than 100, many of them of unusual beauty, and o ich we in-
stance Cylindrella Agnesiana, Achatina elegans and the ttle it rep-
resents, Helix peracutissima, H. fluctuata, H. virginea, &c.
Professor Adams has also contributed much, price upon the import-
ant subject of geographical distribution. ‘The most striking result pre-
sented, is that while the marine species of the "West Indies are widely
distributed, some few extending to Brazil, to our Southern States, and
even to West Africa bam the Mediterranean, and not more than ten or
fifteen per cent. bei liar to Jamaic a,—the case is quite the re-
verse with the terrestrial shells, not more than six to nine per cent. of the
Jamaica specie mmon probably to this and any other island
will | ipeisaee os number of new and seoiitlay aie in at inate as
great a proportion as of those common to other islands. These facts
show that the field open to the conchologist in the tropical archipelagos
is far wider than was ever su d. For if an examination of one
tenth of ike surface of Jamaica has led to such results, how will our
future catalogues be swelled with the lists of species still undiscovered
on that island and the other great islands of Cuba, Hayti, a beget
besides the many of smaller extent. And if this law holds true of
different islands of the same group, how much more in regar hy proeye
which are widely separated? It renders almost certain, what at one
time would have been thought impossible—that the existing species of
pt ei may far outnumber the marine spec ies.
marks upon the different proportion in which certain genera
of land shells are distributed i in the eastern and western hemispheres,
136 Scientific Intelligence.
may not be out of place here. Of the genus Clausilia, so abundant
in the old world, and especially in the southeastern parts of Europe,
oe continent. One species only is known in the West Indies, and this
no aberrant form, quite different in aspect from those of Europe.
But the place of this genus is well supplied in tropical America by
Cylindrella, of which about 70 species are already known, more t
them existing in Jamaica. On the other hand, the Philippine
melania and Stoasloma, are, as far as known, confine ei th pall
hemisphere, while with only one or two exceptions, Vitrina has been
found only on the eastern. Achatinella and Pupina are mubiel to
the islands of “4 — and Yornatellina as yet contains but one
West India spec
y folloviog perl ee based on data necessarily imperfect i in
the present state of our knowledge, may have some interest in showing
the proportion which the known terrestrial species of Jamaica, bear to
those of the West Indies,—and also the proportion which the latter bear
to the known terrestrial species of the glo
Total No, No, of known No. of known Proportion of oportion
ofknown West India ss W.I. species Jamaica spec’s
i to the whole.
species, species, cies, to the whole.
Fam. Cyctostomipz.
Truncatella, 15 4 3 27 percent. 20 per cent.
P 10 0 0 le ——
Cyclostoma, 300 82 63 Dy Pio
toastoma, ll ll li 100 * 20057"
Helicina, 160 54 24 YY ee Ly so
496 151 101 376 ° 20
Fam. Heticripx.
Daudebardia, 3 0 0 Ree. Pe.
itrina, 60 0 0 0 “ | pal sake
_ Succinea, 7 14 4 wes or
Helix, 1,250 151 61 1g. 54" at
Anosto 0 ft) 0 “ 0
Tomig ; 0 0 0 “ 0 “
Streptaxis, 26 0 0 y . ¢ ioe
Pruserpina, 6 4 2 o_o oo
Bulimus, 700 39 16 bf 8“ Rice
Achatinella, 30 0 Vien fs ait wF
Achatina, 192 51 28 96.2: 4% LB i
ibbus, 2 0 0 oe Ga
Gesmelania, 4 4 4 100 2 bg gE:
Cylindrella, 69 57 35 liad atuspete
Bale 9 0 0 Q al% Oi
a came 11 1 0 O.5.-% D x08
Clau 225 1 0 rai Eee -
Pu “yg 75 28 9 1t fgg Bs
2,842 345 159 1S tne: * Se i*
The a of Auriculide has not been worked out with seis Ae :
the whole amber of !
curacy to institute . * similar comparison, but
wi Be age, contained in it does not probably exceed 100.
Botany and Zoology. 137
The following table, which is made up from such data as are fur-
nished in Pfeiffer’s Monographia Heliceorum :
Cuba, 92 species. bia tes
Jamaica, 145 « Granada, 7 species.
Hayti, 1a Trinidad,
Porto Rico, At Oe Bahamas, Soe
St. Thomas, Bermuda, ow
Tortola, io” General, 5 “
St. Croix, e 14 a
‘e Vincents, Bait ie
uadaloupe, " ) 344
Mortars, t "
-The table is of use only to show how little we yet know of the other
West India islands. In this estimate, which is confined to the Helicide,
senting species is referred to the island or group, supposed to be its proper
a
e happy to say that Prof. Adams is engaged upon an extended
ecngriph of the shells of Jamaica, in which his labors will be pre-
sented to the world in a more complete fo eee — it will no doubt be
ne awaited by the lovers of natural scie dee Rr,
. Eryx maculatus, a new species from Ma sina by Epwarp Hat-
oa M.D., (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., July, 1849, p. 184. cae
Head of moderate size, depressed, covered with sca ales, larger i in front ;
rostral plate large, triangular ; a single nasal plate on each side ; nos-
tril small; thirteen labial plates margin the upper jaw; pupil vertical,
oo surrounded by a circular series of plates ; iris brownish red ; nec ck
same size as head posteriorly ; body thicker in si middle, becoming
itteaia slender towards the tail; scales small, carinated; a row of
single plates under the tail, followed by others which are bifid; tail
short, truncate, (mutilated ? )
olor.—Light brown above, with numerous spots of the same tint
but darker; abdomen light slate color
Observations.—This beautiful reptile was pointed out to me so long
ago as 1840, by the late Dr. Harlan. It was brought from Madras, in
the neighborhood of which it was found upon a sandy soil. It appear-
ed to be perfectly harmless. The drawing was taken during life by
Mr. Richard, and is remarkable for me a e above short de-
et mah, — ventured to present it to the aot with
the e I have
ote Descriptions po F four new species of North American Salamanders,
w species of Scink ; by Prof. Spencer F. Barrp, (Jour. Acad.
Nek ‘Sei ‘i “Philad., [2], i, 292.) —The following descriptions conclude a
memoir exhibiting great research, which presents a revision (without
ND Serres, Vol. [X, No. 25.—Jan., 1850. 18
138 Scientific Intelligence.
descriptions) of all the North American Tailed-Batrachia. The author
gives a thorough review of the synonymy, with references to all orig-
inal authorities, and a notice of localities
AMB MA MACRODACTYLA, Baird. Scull longer than broad. Toe
long, unwebbed. broad dorsal reddish brown stripe. Beneath dex
otted.
Specimens in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Brought from rossi Oregon, by J. K. Townsend, M.D.
Body rather more slender than in the other species of Ambystoma;
the rh jet thi —_ . ae age ae fuscus, (Raf.) The colors
it is rabable, of a chestnut brown color, now very obscure.
sprinkled with grayish. The brown of the sides becomes more con-
centrated towards the vertebral line. Tail sub-round, not compressed.
a i — about 22 inches. From the snout to the insertion of
the hind legs 14 inches
AmBysToMA peice atone Scull broader than long. Toes short.
and broad. Tail much compressed. Color dark brown, with several
large ailiamiah blotches eit and transverse bands of the same on
sides of body and tail.
One specimen seaside in New Mexico by Dr. Wislizenus while at-
tached to Col. Doniphan’s expedition.
Body thick and clumsy, more so than in Ambystoma punctata. Feet
aie & (2 toes broad. Tail slightly wei em longer than the head
lowish m markings are confluent with the dark brown on the back. x-
tremities blotched like the body. Total length eight inches.
This species comes nearest to Triton ensatus, Esch. ; it differs from
it in color, and in the arrangement of the palatine teet th.
MBYSTOMA EPiscoPpuS, Baird. Head wedge-shaped. Scull longer
than broad. Tail much compressed, shorter than the body. Body
plow with dark mottlings and darker spots.
One specimen sent by Clinton Lloyd, Esq., from Kemper County,
Mississippi.
Proportions of the body nearly those of Ambystoma a ¥
The specimen much corrugated, and its colors obscured sleobd
The general color appears to have been a shade of aaa over the
whole body, obscured on the back by very minute dusky mottlings:
this mottling less evident on the feet and tail; abdomen and tail be-
neath almost entirely free from it. Head, berth gee sides of the tail
with numerous spots of a darker mottling than that just described.
T base are aeaenaienls distributed rather uniformly on the head and
3 they are larger, and more irregular on the sides of the tail;
eT
i i
eae
Botany and Zoology. 139
their average size is that of the iris. On the sides, between the fore
and hind legs, the dark mottling is concentrated into an obscure broad
dark band. Length about five inches.
PseuDoTRITON MonTANUS, Baird. Similar to P. ruber, (Daud.) Tail
as long as the body. Iris dark, without the longitudinal bar.
wo specimens obtained in the South Mountain, near Carlisle, Penn-
sylvania.
Ground color of all the upper parts reddish brown, with sparse circu-
jar spots of well defined black or dark brown. Beneath deep salmon
color: spots few on the sides and the outside of the limbs. Iris dark
chestnut brown almost black, with faint mottlings of bronze on the
inner border, and without the dark bar of P. ruber. In this latter spe-
cies the iris is brassy yellow with a dark longitudinal bar. Proportions
of body most like those of P. salmonea, (Storer.) ‘The insertion of the
hind legs is just half way between the snout and tip of tail. In P. ru-
ber it is considerably nearer the tail, which thus becomes shorter than
the head and body. The crown of the head is more elevated, and the
-OcCiput more convex in P. montanus than in P. ruber, the scull also is
ed, indistinct, and confluent with the ground tint. Costal furrows’ in
monat 7; but 16 in P. ruber.
Of the two specimens obtained, one was six inches long, the other
three. The latter was even more characteristically marked than the
former. Both were described when living.
PLEsTIODON ANTHRACcINUS, Baird. Size between Lygosoma lateralis
and Plestiodon-fasciatus, without any indication of a vertebral line.
Four narrow longitudinal yellow lines, and on each side a broad stripe
of anthracite black.
Found quite abundantly about old logs, in the North Mountain near
Carlisle, Pennsylvania. More common than either Plestiodon fascia-
tus, or P. quinquelineatus.
140 Scientific Intelligence.
infusorial forms of Oregon and California being wholly different from
those of the east side of the mountains, while they are partly identical
with Siberian species. This fact is confirmed by his examinations of
earth from the gold region of California, and from the Chutes river of
Oregon, obtained by Fremont. ‘The latter deposit is situated at an ele-
vation of seven to eight hundred feet, and constitutes a bed five hundred
feet thick of porcelain clay. It is overlaid by a layer of basalt one
hundred feet thick.
Prof. Bailey who examined this material for Fremont, reported that
it consisted of fresh water infusoria, and many species were distinguish-
ed.* Ehrenberg on farther investigation has made out seventy-two
species of polygastrica with siliceous shells, sixteen species of phytoli-
thuriens, and three of crystalline forms. e more
from the Falls of the Willammet.
. On the Fossil American Tapir ; by Josern Leipy, M. D., (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., June, 1849, p. 180.)—Dr. Leidy in his memoir
describes portions of the fossil Tapirus americanus, and sustains the
view that it is identical with the recent T. americanus.
IV. Astronomy.
1, On Nebule observed with Rosse’s Telescope, (Proc. Brit. Assoc.,
1849, Athen., No. 1143.)—At the meeting of the British Association
at York, in 1844, it was announced that a reflecting telescope of six
feet aperture, which had been about two years in progress, was nearly
completed, and some slight account was at the same time given of the
means which had been taken to render the instrument convenient and
effective. A short notice of the principal results which have since
been obtained may perhaps not be uninteresting to the present meeting.
In the beginning of February, , the instrument was so far finished
as to be useable, and in the first instance it was directed to some of the
Astronomy. 141
was dismounted, as it was desirable to take the earliest opportunity of
completing certain portions of the mechanism which had been put to-
gether in a temporary way ina rough state, and it was not till the close of
the year that it was again in working order. During the year 1846, the
examination of the nebule in Herschel’s Catalogue was continued, many
sketches were made, and another spiral nebula was discovered, 99 Mes-
sier. The moon was observed occasionally, and the superiority of the
to the present notice. The succeeding year, 1847, there was but little
done. Unprovided at that time with an assistant capable of making
trustworthy use of the pencil and micrometer, and being almost wholly
occupied with the duties incidental to a year of famine, it was impossi-
ble to do more than re-examine a few of the objects of the previous
year. From the beginning, however, of the year 1848 till the present
time, the instrument has been constantly employed whenever the season
and weather permitted it, and the following are some of the results :—
604 was found in some degree to resemble the great spiral nebula
51 Messier, but it is a much fainter object, and appears to be made up
of elliptic streaks disposed rather irregularly with a tendency to spi-
rality, but without that distinct symmetrical spiral arragement which is
so marked a feature of 51 Messier. If H 51 Messier were seen some-
losely resemble it as an arrangement of very elliptic annuli
and is apparently a system of the same class seen very obliquely. H
38
» M 97 is a very extraordinary object, with a dark hollow centre
somewhat in the shape of a figure 8 easily seen; and with a disc
irregularly shaded, but showing in the shading a decided tendency to
spirality when seen under favorable circumstances ; two stars are placed
in a remarkable manner in the central opening. e may conceive it
to be a spiral system greatly compressed ; the edges are filamentous.
05 has a faint but large spiral appendage, to which the ray as
ured by Herschel is in some measure a tangent. Several other nebulze
are recorded in our note-books as belonging to the class of spirals.
The well-known planetary nebula in Aquarius, H 2098, which, in for-
r years, had been often examined with a telescope of three fe
_
like Saturn. Many have since seen it, and the resemblance to Saturn
out of focus has usually suggested itself. It is aeons globular sys-
tem surrounded by a ring seen edgeways; while H 450—whic turns
a
improbably a system of the same characters seen directly. H 84 an
142 Scientific Intelligence.
86 is a remarkable group of nebul. It consists of eight, two of them
pretty bright. Such groups are not uncommon, but in this instance there
we have noticed. It was observed by Mr. Stoney. The nebule were
not connected by any sig aa but there are cases where
nebulous connection was distin ctly traced ; several minute nebulz, or
takable nebulosity. The nebule of Andromeda and Orion have of
course been observed. As to Andromeda, there seems to be little doubt
that the companion is resolvable, and the nucleus of the great nebula
has that granular appearance which indicates resolvability. It has how-
ever, not been seen as yet under very favorable circumstances, and we
have not commenced a sketch of it. e nucleus was examined on
did not receive the drawing till the nebula was out of reach, otherwise
of course more attention would have been directed to it. Subsequent
to the receipt of the drawing, the nebula was seen by Mr. Stoney in my
absence with the instrument of three feet vices ~~ at a distance
from the meridian. The appearance was a much as in Mr. Bond’s
rawing, except that the contrast between the prec ae portion as
th
o
pay portion of the a, was much greater he question, how-
ever most interest is, what do these streaks indicate? With the
great pees a dark streaks have been observed in many of the neb-
ulee—sometimes almost straight as in Andromeda ; for instance, H 887,
1909
> H 1041, H 1149, are cases in point, sie streaks being nearly
— H 1357, to which Mr. Bond refers, is if possible a wi stronger
se than it appears to be by Herschel’s drawing, as I fin sketch in
1925, and others. Also H.1496,.H 464, H 2241, besides the well-
known annular nebula and the little annular nebula, figure 48, sketched
by Herschel, are some of the examples of nebule with comparatively
dark centres; the darkness being apparently of the same quality as
the dark streaks but of a different sha ape.
With these facts therefore | think it not improbable that the dark lines
noticed by Mr. Bond in the nebula of Andromeda, and which with ule
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143
very elongated elliptic annular nebule where the minor axis is some-
times almost evanescent, shew us pretty clearly the nature of the slight,
confused streakiness we have observed in several of the nebula. This,
however unsatisfactory it may appear, is the best explanation our work-
prematurely, in anticipation of more numerous sketches and measure-
ments, which will probably throw additional light on the subject, ven-
tured to lay before the Association the very little which is at present
known to us. It was in the spring of 1846 that we first perceived the
ced there is no optical illusion. Last season my attention-was directed
by Mr. Stoney to Orionis, which is on the edge of a dark spot ; the
dark spot includes the companion, and is about 12” diameter; we have
not yet had an opportunity of examining it with the great instrument.
few copies from our collection of sketches accompany this notice ; they
scale to make them more suitable for exhibition in the Section. In
sketching we employ solely the black lead pencil, black representing
light, and the eye by habit makes transposition without effo
copies are not quite accurate, but they are sufficiently exact for the
ur
e.
2. A Model of the Moon's surface—Mr. Blunt exhibited a model of
part of the moon’s surface, at the recent session of the British Associ-
ation. It represented the moon as it appeared through a Newtonian
telescope of 7 ft. focus and 9 in. aperture, under a magnifying power
% 250.
V. MiscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
1. Meteorite in North Carolina.—On the authority of a communi-
cation from J. H. Gibbon, Esq., of the Branch Mint of the United States
at Charlotte, North Carolina, we give a condensed view of facts re-
garding a fall of meteoric masses in that state, not having room for the
less important details. ;
On Wednesday, the 3lst of October, 1849, at 8 o’clock, p.m., several
Persons in the town of Charlotte were astonished, and not a ew were
exceedingly terrified, by a sudden explosion, followed at short intervals
by two other reports, and by a rumbling in the air to the east and south.
144 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The sounds were distinct, and continued more than half a minute ;
they were imputed by some to thunder—but there were no clouds, the
evening was calm and mild like the Indian summer, and only a mist
was seen in the eastern horizon; nor were the impression of others
better founded that the explosions were due to the blasting of rocks on
a railroad; but sheriff Alexander having once before witnessed the ex-
plosion of a meteor, justly traced the detonation to that cause.
The negroes, who are very acute observers of sounds in the open
air, denied the thunder, and an old fisherman said that the reports were
like those of three pieces of heavy artillery followed by the base drum.
Horses both in harness and under the saddle started with alarm.
Enquiry began to be made for fallen stones, and on Monday a serv-
ant of the mint brought in a report from the county of Cabaras, twenty-
five miles distant, that there were notices stuck up on the trees, inviting
people to come and see “a wonderful rock that had fallen from the
skies on the plantation of Mr. Hiram x
Mr. Gibbon of the mint, with Dr. Andrews, travelled twenty-one
smoke, the black color being relieved where the crust had been
broken, and a little of the clayey soil in which it was buried in its de-
scent still adhered to it. It had the curved indentations usual in mete-
orites, as if it had been soft and had yielded to impressions, and, lus-
trous metallic points appeared through the ground color, which had
generally a bluish slaty appearance, but no such rock was known in
the neighborhood. Mr. Post took the travelers by torch-light to see
pine tree east of them, they heard the stone strike “ with a dull, heavy
jar of the ground,” while the dog, in terror, crouched at his master’s
eet.
had been “ driven about by the percussion, aided in discovering the
spot, about three hundred yards from the place where Mr. Post had
* With laudable liberality and caution joined, the worthy proprietor of the boon
which had fallen on his land—had annexed a written ner be Gentlemen, sirs—
please not to break this rock, which fell from the skies and weighs 19} —
Hiram Post.”
alii mi cae
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145
stood at the moment of the fall, ie was in the woods, but there were
no marks on the trees—althou ugh the impression was that numerous
small bodies had fallen, ‘ a a noise like hot rocks thrown into
water.”
war, or some other dire calamity, and a militia colonel, in a spirit quite
professional, said that “there must be war in heaven, for they were
throwing r
At the request of Dr. Andrews, the stone was diverted from another
destination, in favor of Prof. Charles U. Shepard, of the Medical Col-
lege of South Carolina at Charleston—from whom we learn that at a
recent date the specimen had not yet reached h
In due time we shall — the result of his Anal examination ;
but from the circumstan have no hesitation in admitting this case
a8 genuine: the facts are oD werhady epi to hundreds on record, and
in many particulars are in accordance with the er post pices ~
this nature which happened in Weston, Genicom in Dee
807, and with which the senior editor of this fouls ‘with his me
colleague, Prof. Kingsley, was at the time familiar. There is no room
to discuss theories, but we feel fully assured — aerolites are not formed
ia our atmosphere, are not projected from terrestrial or lunar volca-
noes, but have a foreign origin, giving us the cae reports of the phys-
ical constitution of other worlds which have ever reached our earth.
By an additional communication from J. H. Gibb bon, Esq., dated No-
vember 29, 1 9, it is rendered probable, that “luminous materials
common centre, where a solid mass of heated metal (materials) ex-
ploded and was violently projected in different directions to the earth.”
It is stated also that there was a distinct appearance of a single fiery
elongated body, like iron advanced to a white heat, sparkling in its
e from west to east, rising like a rocket but not vertically, and
posing through the air with a long white streak or tail foll ving a
dense t body in the form of a ball of fire
Still it is to be observed that neither nd fire ball nor ete light was
bills at ne this is no way extraordinary, as it was day time, with a
clear sky, and those only wig Bee the fire ball who were looking i in
Proper direction at the tim when it was in its most ardent
ll At the explosion, the elaies was about 45° high.
te daheinietetinenteese.
* “The true flaming sword of antiquity.”
+ This was the very comparison used at Weston, in December, —— » by the peo-
ple there, in describing a portion of the reports on that
Szconp Srriss, Vol. IX, No. 25.—Jan., 1850.
146 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The estimation of time between the disappearance of the light and
the arrival of the sound was very different, as made by different per-
sons, at several minutes, even as high as five. The latter supposition
would make the meteor almost extra-atmospheric, but doubtless the
period of five minutes is much too high, and we infer that the meteor,
like that at Weston, was fully within the atmosphere, and probably not
over fifteen or twenty miles from the earth when it exploded. It was
seen through 250 miles from the line of Virginia, to Sumpter district
i uth Carolina, and from east to west it was seen through oimty
miles.
Further Contributions to Anemometry ; by Prof. Patiuips, (Proc. .
2.
Brit. Assoc., in ae No. aboot ah to his former reports on
] 88, ;
should be independent of mechanical movements, momentum and fric-
tion. e wished to register the wind by one of the effects of the dis-
thi
placement of its molecules, not the movement of its mass. [Tor
purpose only one method has occurred to him as sufficiently oh is
viz., the evaporation of a liquid. He had experimented on water, sa
fine solutions and alcoholic mixtures, and he found reason to think shat
with pr = these liquids an rae really indicating the move-
ment of wind by the registration of the evaporatton which the wind
causes, is west cible. Such an rinsing need so but a very
small space, and will have the desirable quality of bei ost accurate
in those very low velocities of wind which elude exiirely Lind’s Ane-
eet and are scarcely sensible by any registering machinery. It
only an Hebei or iadionior the momentary velocity. vapo"
ration from the wet bulb may itetine be abandoned ; the common
thermometer with its bulb clear of the frame will answer the purpose
of experiment, in every conceivable instance.*
* It appears from Prof. Forbes’s ‘ —— on aera to the —— Associa-
tion in 1882, that the idea of ESeekrins thermometer ————— velocity
of wind was entertained by Prof.
\
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147
uralist, and which is now in the British Museum. e present collec-
g-shells described by Prof. Owen in the Zoological Transactions.
from a bed of marl and volcanic sand. The other series is from a
tertiary deposit, on the coast of the south island, at a place called
Waikonaiti. These bones belong principally to the colossal Dinornis,
the D. giganteus, &c. The gems of this collection are two entire legs
and feet (that is, the tarso-metatarsal, phalangeal, and ungueal bones)
2
g
@
=.
=
=
>
Z.
nD
°
sa |
&
>
=.
&
§
=:
°
=.
ae
>
®
z
o
relative position, &c. ‘This collection, for teaching the geology An
palzontology of the United States, is superior to any other collection
whi .
Bridges, it is stated that the work was published by the “ Engineer De-
partment” of government. There are strictly two Engineer Bureaus,
and that which receives the general title, is the Bureau of the Engineers
of Fortifications. ‘The other, the Bureau of Topographical Engineers,
has in charge a series of publications, No. 4 of which is Capt, Cullum’s
able work.
148 Bibliography.
VI. BistiocRrapPHy.
. Endlicher, Generum Plantarum Supplementum Quartum: Pars
a Vienna, 1847.—This second part of the 4th supplement was made
to anticipate the first, which, we believe, remained unpublished at the
untimely death of the accomplished Endlicher, in March last. Begin-
ning with the Coniferze, which the author had recently made the subject
of a special] study, the present a goes on through the Exoge-
nous Apetalous orders only. er several of the orders, such as the
Betulacee, Cupulifere, Polygonce, Daphnoidee, and Proteaceae, a
complete systematic enumeration of species is given. R.
ndlicher, Synopsis Coniferarum. Saint Gall. 1847. Syo: pp-
368.—This interesting monograph of a small, but most important fam-
ily or class of trees, bears the marks of the vast learning and untiring
industry of its lamented author. It treats, Ist, the Cupressinea, which
are divided into five groups. genus Libocedrus, is established for
one New Zealandian and two Chilian trees, formerly referred to Thuja ;
and Biota, a section of Thuja of Donn is raised to the rank of a genus,
including the oriental Thuja ey mae L., and T. pendula, Lamb.
Thuja proper is thus left as a N. American genus, including T. occi-
dentalis, L., T. plicata, Donn, and T. gigantea, Nuit. yar 3 genus
Chamecyparis (Chammpence, Zucc., Retinospora, Sieb. and Zucc.) is
adopted for our Cupressus thyoides, the C. Natkate: ensis of Geanai and
the Mexican C. thurifera, ie three Japanese species, which form @
rate section. In Taxodium, T. microphyllum, Brongn., and
adscendens, Brongn., are hepre as specifically distinct from T. distichum.
The genus Glyptostrobus is established for the Chinese Taxodium Si-
nense or Thuja pensilis, Lamb. The dubious evergreen species ©}
where the author has established for them a genus, under the oak
and unexplained name of Sequoia, S. sempervirens, Endl.=Taxodium
sempervirens, Lamb. Pin.t. 64. S. gigantea, Endl.=T. eneeyerrisiee:
Hook. § Arn. Hook. Ie, Pl. t. 379. Much still remains to be n
plied to him by Col. Fremont. The true Abietinez are all resolved
into the old Linn@an genus Pinus, on “Endlicher arranges under the
sections :—
A. Sapinus.
(1.) Tsuga, ba ae the Japanese Pinus Tsuga, the Himala-
yan P. Brunonia r Hemlock Spruce (P. Canadensis), and the
Oregon P. Doug!
(2.) Abies, sommprining our two species of Balsam Fir, five Oregon
and Californian, two Mexican, te we te and Caucasian, two Him-
alayan, and three Japanese spec
(3.) Picea, including our White, Black and Red Spruce (the latter
still maintained as a species), two from our North West Coast, the Nor-
way Spruce of Europe, one Oriental, two Siberian, one Himalayan,
and two Japances Species
. comprising one European, two Siberian, one Japanese,
and two North American Larches, one of the latter very doubtful.
ae a ee
Bibliography. 149
(5.) Cedrus, the Cedar of Lebanon, and the Deodar of Nepal and
Thibet.
B. Pinus.
(6.) Cembra, embracing the P. Cembra of Europe and Siberia,
P. Peuce of Rumelia, with P. sparsiflora and P. Koraiensis of Japan,
the Kurile Islands, and Kamtschatka.
robus, for our White es the allied Lambert Pine and P. mon-
ticola, of Oregon and the Rocky Mountains, a Mexican species, and
the P. excelsa of Him
(8.) Pseudo-Strobus, for fifteen igh or Central American species,
of which P. Montezume is an exam
(9.) Teda, comprising our Sbtig! Vested: Loblolly, and Pitch Pines,
eight Oregon and Californian, two Sea D, or Chinese, two Himala-
ot one Philippine, and one ‘Persian spec
0.) Pinaster, comprising the P. Piao and eight other European
wai it Asiatic species, two Chino-Japanese, and one Sumatran spe-
cies, with one from N. W. America, and six natives of Eastern North
merica.
(11.) Pinea, met eda the Stone Pine of the Mediterranean region,
the Mexican P. cembroides, and the Californian P. Fremontiana, Endl.,
which is Dr, Torrey? s P. monophyllus, Endlicher having unjustifiably
changed the specific name on the assumption that each leaf consists of
a pair unite
The e Podocarpea, &e., mo Sh i representations in our part of the
world, need not be here enumera
Of the Taxinee, we have reprspvihitfond of two out of the five gen-
era, namely, Torreya (of which the writer in 1839 had occasion to
point out the original specimens of Taxus nucifera, Kempfer, as be-
longing to a second species of the genus) and Jarus. One Yew be-
longs to Europe and Caucasus, one to bi Himalayas, one to Japan,
one to Mexico, and one to North Amer
Of the Gnetacew, one genus, elcara: has a 2 Hacer in West-
ern N. America
Our geologists will be pleased to know that the litter pas of this
volume is occupied by a complete synopsis of fossil Coniferze
- Contributions to the eet _ British Fossil Mammals ( ‘frst
sorte ; by Ricnarp Owen, F.R.S., &c. London, 1848.—This me-
Moir is one of the many evidences which have been presented within
a short period to the scientific world, of the soa activity with which
the labors of the most eminent of English naturalists are pursued. It
comprises a description of the remains of s everal era of extinct
animals, under the eeu e heads. I. Deecription of the teeth of a
mr sage II, II, 1V. On the teeth and cranium of the Paloplo-
ther V. On the dentition of Dichodon cuspidatus. VI. On Mega-
bine ibetuicus and Castor Europeus. VII. On the genus Hyopota-
‘Mus, and the species H. vectianus and H. bovinus, with remarks on the
liieifieation of the ulata.
= a et a will be most interested in the last of these,
which pre an important modification of the classification of
val rite: i Here sce by which the natural affinities of the
members of these groups are more perfectly preserved than by the
150 Bibliography.
classification adopted by Cuvier in the Animal Kingdom, or by that of
any succeeding paturalist. The basis of this change, however, is de-
i been re-
rived from Cuvier himself. The group of Ruminants has
garded as quite distinct, and characterized by the absence of
in the upper jaw, by the absence of canines, by their complex stom-
s. These a
ist in a rudimentary condition, and of Prof. Owen, that it has
terior premolar which does not appear in the adult, we sha
abundant evidence that ‘no very well defined line of separation exisis
perwee nthe Ruminants and Pachyderms. In all the members of the
ast group whose toes are in even numbers the stomach is more
complex, while in the Musks the third stomach, the psalterium, or
maniplies is deficient, and this is the last portion of the stomach devel-
will place all the animals with complex stomachs in one (the even-toed)
group, and those with simple stomachs in another (the odd-toed) group.
OrDER UNGULATA.
incisors
ll have
or less
ARTIO-DACTYLA. PERISSO-DACTYLA.
(Number of toes even, (Number of toes odd.
Complex stomachs.) Simple stomachs.)
( Anoplotherium, Palzotherium.
Moschus, Tapirus
Antilope, Equus.
Ruminating. . Bos, Rhinoceros, &c.
Ovis,
Cervus,
| Camelopardalis, &c.
PROBOSCIDIA.
Hippopotamus, Mastodon.
Non-ruminating. {Die Dicotyles, Elephas.
s, &e.
cannot close this notice without quoting the pease. parRErn ie
Ww
the justice of which ail who have noticed the course of Cuv
cessor in. th
ir of comparative anatomy, will uesitatingly ac-
relatior
kyowledge In pata ti of one of the illustrations of the
parts discovered by Cuvier, but which Borie did ae Diets the
pac 285 acknowledge, Prof. Owen says: “in a work of high merit but
*s suc ae
vi
bl,
Bibliography. 151
the tone of which, towards the memory and discoveries of Cuvier
every lover of science must deplore, we look in vain for any acknowl-
edgment for the source of the beautiful generalization of the relation
of the particular forms of the astragalus, to the parity or imparity of
the hinder digits, or any ascription of the credit due to a prevision,
which it had been the good fortune of the author of the ‘ Osteographie’
to verify.” M. de Blainville both in his published works and public
lectures, has not only treated the memory of Cuvier with neglect, but
seems to have been actuated by a worse spirit than that of a a.
some detail in our last. Part third, sustains all that we observed with
regard to the elegant character of the engravings and their finished
accuracy and fullness of detail. The plates of this part illustrate Ge-
ology, Physical Geography and Botany. ‘The principles of geology
are well brought out by drawings that speak to the eye. Stratification,
horizontal and disturbed, and structure of various kinds, are illustrated
bald outline, but in pleasing landscapes an nes, executed in the
best style of the art. The botanical department is illustrated with like
beauty and fullness. On 55, we recognize the magnificent sketch
tion by Captain Wilkes, volume v, p. 26; on plate 56, a Palm grove on
the Island of Fakaafo, from the same volume, p. 14, though with some
added shrubs and trees that are never found on Coral Islands ; on plate
47, a view of the Antarctic continent from amid the icebergs, from the
same work, volume ii, p. 325, besides reduced copies ofthe sketches of
some of the craters of the Sandwich Islands, from volume 4, of Cap-
tain Wilkes’s Narrative
velocity of the Electrical Wave or current through a metallic circuit,
by O. M. Mitchell. | ,
6. Foster's Complete Geological Chart.—A_ large geological chart
under this title, some six feet or more square, largely lettered and well
_ Yarnished, has recently been seen by us. [It emanates from Albany,
- Y., and appears to have been intended to illustrate geology to the
schools of that state. Strange to say, there is not one word of New
York geology to be detected in it, and not even a hint with regard to
American rocks. With some truth (in lineal descent from a well
known French chart), it combines much that was formerly supposed to
*
152 Bibliography.
be true, with much that is now known to be false, and is a caricature
un
rench origin that are not found in English or American works. High
up in one corner stands the funniest sort of volcano spitting red streaks
f fire, down whose sides are pieces of bitumen in squirming shapes,
following one another in tee lines from top to bottom—a locality
for bitumen not hitherto kno e whole thing is below criticism,
and however sand: or inproved, its adoption would be a disgrace to
a state that stands so i. for its oe be researches.
7. American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, for
the year 1850.—This cashed sustains its high character for fullness
of statistical details and thorough science. ‘T he number for 1850 con-
tains, besides its usual range of information, an article by Prof, Lover-
ing, on Melloni’s researches in Radiant Heat.
G. A. Manrtett, Esq., F.R.S., th —Observations on the Osteology of the Iguano-
aud | Hyleosaurus; 36 pp. 4to, with 7 pate, 2g 08 aa Phil. oe for 1849.
DING & AMER ica eeacecre CAL No. vol. vy, April to
September, 1849 OY ‘84 Gold in Mar 91, Povtrts arks fe Pottsville, ab
—New ry in relation to ie nd of rotation of the primary plan
OCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY oF NATURAL ere or Putiapeiputa, 1849, vol.
Ae June, . 180. Pk i Americanus fossilis ; J. Zeit dy.—July, p- 184, Er ryx = maui S
; E. Hallowell—Chemical analysis of a calla of a Whale; W. Keller—Au
pod Aa leg _ ee Cecidomyia ; Riess H. Morris.—The Driver Ants of Western Af-
page
specie - iculata
J. Leidy.—On the odoriferous glands of the Invertebrata ; J. Lei <a — October, 7.236,
New epecies of birds of the Family of Caprimulgide ; J. Cas.
Arrep Suez, F.R.S: Elements of Electro-biology, or the hae mechanism of
Sv 9.
U. our perk Arserren und Verinderungen der Sehlesischen Gesellschaft fiir
Brean. 188, Kultur in Jahre, 1847; mit 6 Tafeln, 400 pp. 4to, Abbildungen.
res
Synchronisch soommeste Ephemeride aller Himmelserscheinungen des
Jahres 1§ 1849, erstes und zweites Quartal, zuniichst a ee den Horizont der —
ita
ater pec zu Breslau; Vievter Jahrgang. 8vo. eslau
r Maexérique et Météorologique du Corps des ial eurs des Mines
published a order of His Majesty, Emperor Ni ite os — ie auspices of his
—— ency, M. de Wrontchenko, Ministre des Chef des ingenieur des
es, by A. Rs _ Année, 1845, ‘St. Pacer Tee 1000 pp. 4to, with
paras de s plat
Resumés tim Observitifite Météorologiques faites dans I’étendue de L’ Empire
ussie; par A. T. Kupffer. ler Cahier, 4to, St. Petersburg, 1846
Anxates prs Scrences Narorenyes, RCH 1849 te ckethen on Annelida
ee, FE. Blanchard—On Ferns ; -A. oa the genera Quiina and
jueiba ; L. R. Tulasne—Conspectus generis A nie Se Spach—A PRL.
nthide, continued; E. Bla nehard—Es br ology of Teredo ; A. de Quatre
fages—Three species of the genus xubkce a i "Dufou
3 LE. Dufour. “ Pol oben, 3,” Fam. seed dee ; Mt
On the felis ipecacuanha; H, A. Weddell—On the genus Ulex and a new spe-
cies ; J. Pincha sate ar species of plants from the Berlin Garden; Kunth —
Sixth century of vascular plants; J. Berkely and C. Montagne—Descriptions of
new |
—Note on op gene pul sah’
Kaiten ds and J. He
Sore
s
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY,
AND
LABORATORY ee CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
DR. ALFRED L. KENNEDY, having resigned the Professorship of
Chemistry in thé Philadelphia College of Medicine, with the design of
i devoting increased attention to Practical Chemistry, continues his Labo-
Fatory for instruction in that department, and for Mineral Analysis, in his
ebuilding on Haines’ Street above Sixth, west of Odd Fellows’ Hall.—
Haines s’ Street, runs west from Sixth, between Arch and Race
The Plan of a
having been matured during many years’ experience in teaching this
Science, has proved upon trial to be the best calculated, to facilitate the
Solid progress of the Student. It includes
1. Courses of Lectures, illustrated by Sapeieee specimens and
diagrams
2 Mathontion of the facts, and repetition of the experiments, after
each ecture, by the Student hismself, in the Laboratory, under the advice
of the Lecturer. cat a
3. Instruction in manipulation, testing, and analysis.
lar Examinations on all the points taught here, and if desired,
on all those taught from the Chemical chairs in the Medical Colleges,
The Location of the Building
is remarkably eligible and central, being about midway between the
thickly settled Northern and Southern districts, and contiguous to Frank-
lin Square, and to main business thoroughfares,
The Lecture Room
on the first floor, is comfortably arranged and furnished.
The Laboratory
is spacious, well lighted and ventilated. It contains a full aésoriment of
carefully selected, pure chemical tests, and re-agents; also apparatus of
approved European model and construction, part of which was imported
expressly for this School, whereby the most delicate analytical processes
may be performed, and the student be made acquainted with the best
methods.
The Laboratory will be open for instruction throughout the year; the
usual Summer vacation during July and August, excepted.
Courses of Instruction
may be prosecuted, adapted to
The Chemical Student proper, who pursues the Science thoroughly
in its connexion with Experimental Research, with Analysis, the liberal
Arts, Mining, Mineralogy, Geology, Agriculture, &c. Such students may
enter at any time. They will be afforded all the privileges of the Insti-
tution during the entire daily session.
Medical Student, who desires practical familiarity with, the in-
compatibilities of Medicines, Toxicology, Medico-legal testing, Analysis
of the Animal fluids in health and disease, and the putting up of Pre-
scriptions.
The Manufacturer, who would possess a knowledge of the purity of
the substances he employs, the chemical changes upon which his art
depends, and the means of discovering more economical plans of working.
The Teacher, and others, who require facility of manipulation in the
generation of gases, and the performance of illustrative experiments,
generally.
Analytic Chemistry.
The advertiser possesses superior facilities for the analysis of Ores,
Coals, Limestones, Soils, Mineral Waters and the products of Art. Or-
ders, personally or by mail, from Geologists, Mining Companies, Engi-
neers, Agriculturists and others, will be executed with accuracy, and
upon without unnecessary dela,
ALFRED L. KENNEDY, M. Dd.
Laborato » Hai
ry sine’ St Street, —e
i
Gi
bi
Bix
cm
by B. er New Picaun for detecting iodine and Bromine, by
Oe: the amount of Ammonia contained in the Atmos-
; 1h ELLER, ¥ ence
of the Firt} cf Porth, the Firth of Clyde, and the Ger
.D., 118.—On the Artificial Production of cer-
ly Oxyd of Tin, gs of Titanium, and
the Origin of the Titaniferous veins of
el
-
The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of March.
CONTENTS.
Pag
Art. I. Experiments'on the Electricity of a Plate of Zinc buried
in the Earth ; by Prof. Exias — ee te 1
IL. Geology of Canada, fee ae
TIL Ash Analyses ; By Jno. A. Posie: - 20
IV. A Product of the action of Nitric Acid on Woody “Fibre; -
by Jno. A. Porter, . 20
_V. On the Navicula Spencerii ; by Wanass De LA Res, ee
VL Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dew 29
Vit. — rot of Iron and some a Nit itrates ; by er M.
VIL. ay dacciption of ise sdditional Seattle of the Engé: per
(Troglodytes ae Daves) from _— — by
Jerrries Wyman,
IX. Notice of the cranium of the Ne. Be @ new species é
_ Manatee (Manatus nasutus) from W. Africa ; by JEFFRIES
Wyman, M.D., — - : ae
os On Denudation i in the Pacific ; by aes D. Duss, oe
ie! marks on the ‘Canesten of Leucine, with hiead steers
tions upon the late Researches of M. Wutz; by T. S. Hunt, 68
XI. On Perfect Musical Intonation, and the fcadgiiantal Laws
of Music on which it depends, with remarks showing the
"practicability of attaining this Perfect Intonation i in the Or-
gan; by Henry Warp Poors, - oe
XIII. Analyses of several Minerals; by Wiss Pinion
XIV. Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, ith
notices of their Botanical paint cater ud Ww. Di AR a
LINGTON, M.D., LL.D., - ree.
XV. Vibrations of oa s bry by the Galvanic: ‘ur
by Prof. Cuas. G. Pag ee ee 10
‘VI. On four new species = Hemiptera of ihe sens Pier
Chermes, and Aleurodes, and two new HRA 0
_‘Sitic in | the last named cam by S. S. es
scanners nin fn ete nhineh
“SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
ie 76111
Vou. IX. MARCH, 1850. pee No. 26.
Published the first day of every second month, price $5 per year.
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
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1850.
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PUBLICATION S OF THE RAY SOCIETY.
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*
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FOR THE FirsT YEAR, 1844,
I. Rerorts on tHe Progress or Zoouocy anp Borany, con-
sisting of — ?
1. Observations on the state of Zoology in Europe, by Charles
Lucien Buonaparte, translated by Hugh E. Strickland, Jr.,
M.A., F.G,S,
2. Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology, by Dr.
H. F. Link, translated by E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S.
3. Report on the Progress of Zoology, for the year 1842, by
~_ Wagner and others, translated by W. B. Macdonald, B.A.
Il. Memorials of John Ray: consisting of the Life of John Ray,
Derham: the Biographical Notice of Ray by Baron Cuvier
and M. Dupetit Thouars, in the Biographie Universelle ; Life
of Ray, by Sir J. E. Smith; the Itineraries of Ray, with Notes
by Messrs. Babington and Yarrel; edited by HE. Lankester,
Ss
.D., F.R.S,
IIL. A Monograph (with Colored Drawings of every Species) of
the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, by Messrs. Alder and
Hancock. Part 1. ,
FOR THE sEconD YEAR, 1845.
I. Steenstrup on the Alternation of Generations, translated from
the German, by Geo. Busk, F.L.S. '
I. A Monograph of the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, with
12 colored illustrations in lithotint, by Messrs. Alder and Han-
cock. Part IL. :
III. Reports and Papers on Botany, consisting of translations
from the German :— : '
lL. Zuccarini on the Morphology of the Conifers, with 5 plates,
translated by G. Busk, F.L.S.
2. Griesbach Reports on the Progress of Geographical Botany,
for 1842, 3, 4, translated by W. B. Macdonald, B.A., and
S
4 . G. Busk, F.R.S. ves
- 3. Nageli Memoir on the nuclei, formation, and é€*, of veg-
j . etable cells, translated by Arthur Henfrey, F'.L.S.
4
4, Link: Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology for
1842, 3, translated by J. Hudson, B.M.
FOR THE THIRD year, 1846,
I, Meyers i BOOS FePhy of Plants, translated by Miss Margaret
Johns
II. Buentisier on the Organization of Trilobites, with 6 plates ;
translated from the German, and edited by Professors Bell and
K. Forbes
If. Alder and Hancock British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, Part 3,
with 11 colored plates in lithotint.
FOR THE FouRTH year, 1847.
I. Oken’s Elements of Physio-Philosophy, translated by Alfred
Tulk, Es
il. Reports o on the Progress of Prey translated from the Ger-
man, by George Busk, F.L.S., A. H. Halliday, Esq., and
Alfred Tulk, Esq.
Ill. A Synopsis of the British Naked-eyed Palmigrade Meduse,
with colored —— of all the species, by Prof. E. Forbes,
F.R.S., F.L
. FOR THE FIFTH Year, 1848,
I. Bibliographia Zoologiw et Geologie, by Professor Agassiz of
_ Nenfchatel, edited by Hugh E. Strickland, M.A.,
I. we Letters of Johu Ray, edited by E. Lankester, MD.,
Bustdeg Fosse
Ill. alder and Hancock on the Nudibranchiate Mollusca. Part 1V.
The following Works are either printing or in a state of great
Sorwardness.
1. Reports and Papers on Vegetable Het and Botanical
Geography, edited by A. Henfrey,
2. A Monograph, with illustrations of “ail the species of British
Entomostracous Crustacea, by Dr. Baird.
3, Vol. II. of the Bibliographia Zoologia et Geologie
4. A continuation of Alder and Hancock’s Nudibranchiate Mol-
usca.
5. The travels of Linneus in West Gothland, translated by G. B.
Lewin, Esq., M.A
6. Reports on the Progress of Zoology, edited by George Busk, Esq.
7. A Monograph, with colored illustrations of the British Rubi,
by Dr. Bell Salter.
» A Monograph, with colored Hh i of the British I'resh-
water Zoophytes, by Prof. A
9. A Monograph, with colored Naa aks of the Family Cirrhi-
Merch, oy ©, Pe tadalee M.A., F.R py
sealed
a
ESSE Te aN Ti FIST en OAS | lo
oe
GEOLOGICAL
AND
MINERALOGICAL SPECIMENS.
Cet ae
aoa of sade, fossile and ro eiaiineets i 1
ent and complete existing o ! establisbinent,
dinibherin aes first cabinets in all parts of the world, and the most “dist h
private cultivators of Jogical and geological sciences among its
rs, has constantly, during twenty years, kept pace with the rapid progress of
these branches of human knowledge; its travelers are con ly “en route”
all countries of Europe (one of them is no the ed States,) and all efforts
a! to secure the acquisition of every thing new or int to collectors
The list of minera ains now abo ies col t more
For Lecturers the instructive collections for ti he demonstration of the physical
properties of minerals Drse.agy fracture, lustre, composition, etc., etc., are particularly
useful. Scale of hardness, blowpipe miner ae
inets fo lies, in elegant mahogany c with drawers, containing, in a
ae not larger than two feet long by about one foot in depth and breadth, 300 small
ul very characteristic specimens, (price ; smaller ones to order.) |
Cabinets for aaron in fine paste-board cases, at from
iner
exercise of amdamng i in analyz ing them m, suc y Drinieey Wolfram, Tellurium,
itanium, Mellite, ete., at the lowest prices. mall specimens are provided with
Printed labels, i in English, German and French
or minerals and rock
—The number of s speci ies of — organic remains, amounts to about
8000, vats in all the principal localities of Europe and the United States.
All the ese species are carefully on ey as far as the vabicia state of the science
Id always mention the size desired.
$s, an lle ’
the characteristic shells of all formations, can be furnished to any extent within
the above number. Each specimen is fi — with a printed label |
the locality, geological formation, and name ; the éollettidne are gener ay alist
according to the relative age of the ieamiainnes for special purposes zoological
temifications are ome if asked for.
rices of casts of rare and interesting
mu the original and forming a valuable
: ¢ men is particularly called to Mr. K.’s collection of
urtans from the — of Wartemberg. mucpecsing in some pieces for beauty and
hose of Museums rope. ,
ehthyosauri at fiom 30-200 igo, fishes and Crinoidea of the same and
oust formations $ at equally moderate pric
S —About one thousand varieties of rock- -spe — are on hand, forming
ary roc which form the known
a lete series of all the primary and sedime
Solid part of our globe. he specimens of each c Saeene are of the same size
and s +» 80 as to admit of being arr rranged in an elegant manner, without un-
necessary waste of room in drawers or cases
A few fl xe raphical collections of gneuswien interesting to geologists, such as
we » Mt. Vesuvius, ane Al ps, Italy, Hungary, Norway and Sweden,
Mex and some ‘cular are still o}
6 -
CATALOGUE OF FOSSILS,
CASTS OF FOSSILS, ROCK-SPECIMENS AND MINERALS,
ates CIAME WO A
FOR SALE BY
AUGUSTUS | KRANTZ, Bonn, Prussta, FORMERLY OF BrER.tv.
AMERICAN EDITION.
I. FOSSILS.
30 species of fossil shells from the modern ree feet re on the
coasts of Norway and Sweden upwards of 150 fee . $3 50
100 species from the trie basin of Vienna, 1
130 species from the London clay of er second the Crag of Suffolk, a 00
100 species from the ceuay of Marylan dian ma and Virgin 8 00
150 species fr nt deposits aaa tertiary formation of ie
rus, Persia g t, 26 00
species from the tertiary formation (Molasse) of Switzerland, 7 00
- 100 species from the upper cretaceous ha - Belgium, . 20 00
species from the cretaceous format Southern France er 4
. 130 spec “4 from the s same formation of | Northern France
Of bot
only single groups oie pore Néocomien) or eat at foc
ilies (Rudista, Cephalopoda
te.)
3. 150 species from = creiaceous formation (Plaener and Quadersand-
1
stein) of Saxony a 18 00
14. 100s apse from the sean seat (Unterer Kreidemerge of Roemer) o of
Westphalia, 2 00
15. 60 speci m the greensand of Blackdown in Devons 00
16. 100 species “fro e upper and lower greensand ¥ Hanover and
Westphalia, (Hilsthon and Hilsconglomerat of R 14 00
17. 100 species from the Alpine limestone of Gosau, Vile, Trent, Hall- 7
stadt, ete., including the Cephalopod described by von Hauer, 18.00
18. 50 species from the Wealden formation of Germany ae eee 9 00
19. 150 species from the Oolite and Giet of Southern Fra 30 00
20. species from the sa rmation in Northern Ap rn ot 26 00
21. 100 spec om the same formation o hern 10 00
22. 30 species from the om oolite of ae (lithographic: Jate), 6 00
23. 20 species Crustacea from the same ibys 12 00
24. 150 species from the Jurassic hicheaehe of England, mostly from
orkshire, 26 00
25. 100 species from the Oxford clay of Moscow in Russia 18 00
26. species from the Jurassic formations of ——— sha Wartemberg, 22 00
27. 80 species from the Alpine wo of St. Cassian, Tyro 14 00
28. 30 species of fish-teeth, scales bones from the eee formation
avaria and Wartemberg, 7 00
29. 30 different Saurian bones from the Muschelkalk of Bava 9 00
30. 40 spec ~ _ the Permian System of Thuringia pas and
Kupferse 9 00
31. 100 spevies ret fi plants (large size) from the coal-slates of Silesia,
Bohemia, an 20 00
32. 75 ame ay from the Permian System and carboniferous limestone of
and the Ural Mountains, ; 20 00
33. teecies, fiom the + Hopson "Thesteiy i Ireland, . 9 00
34. i m the same fi i 15 00
35. 100 species from the Devonian rocks 0 a Rhine and Eifel, ‘ 12 00
36. 100 species from the same formation in the Hartz Mountain gl4 00
37. 300 species from the Paleozoic rocks of = — States of America, 70 00
33. 100 athe from the Silurian group of Sweden and Norway, » 1800
~ bot Pate wep Silurian a of Dudle in England, . 24 00
the upper Silurian Bohemia :
41. 100 shockes of Taleb wats ts aabiize 30 00
oe
SaaS pn
7
2. 250 species of Brahiopds including the genera Atrypa, Calceola,
Crania, Chonetes, Leptena, Lingula, Orbicula, Orthis, Pentamerus,
Productus, Spirifer, rigoce phalus, Terebratula and 1 _ sane a, 44 00
43. 300 species of tegen poda, including the genera Amm s, Ancy-
eras, Baculites, Belemnites, Clymenia, Cam aria, pee Endo-
ceras, Gonio ct Goniatites, Hamites, Lituites, Nautilus s, Onycho-
theutis, sicpaeinesege Fiychonsnnas Scaphites, Toxoceras pe
Turrilites, . / re * 7 00
IL. CASTS.
Persons wishing to porshew casts, can be furnished with two plates of engrav-
ings, representing them
pase se akiaen, Pll, fig. 6:
Goo per rege: 24 feet long; from the diluvium of the Mis-
souri ri Riv : $6 00
obkinal is in the Royal Museum at Berlin.
Megalony Jeffersoni, Harlan
Four pi erent bones ; fernurs, phalanges, etc., from the same
—
id
it 2 00
3. Zeughiadis iewrdes, es, Owen; Basilosaurus Harlani ; ; Hydrarebés, Kot
Two teeth, from the tertiary group of Alabam » 00 75
4. eestrodon n, Hyleosaurus an
44 giterent bones from the Weald i clay “| eames” England, +. 2 00
iginals are in the British Muser
5. Plerodacty ls crassirostris, Goldf., ; mg
es from the lithographic slate ot Bavaria, ‘ . Ja0
The ori inal is in the Museum of
6. Myetiosaurus spec. ( Teleosaurtis.) Pl.d tr.
Cast in 4 parts, 12 feet long, of the best specimen ever ones
found i in the Lias-slates of Boll, potosag - 26 00
“he original be
7. Mystriosaurus jongipes , Pl
Perfect st on from He same locali ‘ ; 9 00
oO
ie 2)
ity,
nal in the Imperial Moar at Vienna.
. caadores, species. I, fig.
ead of a small sized apecimen obi the same — ; : 1 50
The original is in the Royal Museum at Ber
ral spine with extremities, same ‘locality, ¢ 3 é 6 00
10. Séhthyoewurus j erate - II, fig. 2.
Perfect hea — a skeleton 60 feet lo ong, ; ‘ viet OO
11. Perfect fin of the e specimen. PI. fig. ey . . : 5 00
12, Ich yovanras. intermedius Pi. Tl, fig. 4
1% Ban and fins pe ret a ». . : . 7 00
- Icht saiuraa tonbirdbirie
Pe feck h r. ; 1 2%
ee of Nos. 10-13 i in A, Krantz! é cabinet.
14. Ichthyosaurus communis. PI. H, fig. 10
Fin pert ict, ‘ i 0 75
riginal i is in the Imperial Museum at Vienna.
15. Piesicaitives dolichodeirus, Conyb. g.
on soreng e: feet ong fom, the Lias slates of oe
riginal in A. Krantz’s a
17. Pentacrinus subangularis. “Pl. Il, fig.
The best knows specimen ; stem 7 feet long; same locality, - 5 00
from a os uper coal beds at Gaildorf in Wartemberg, 7 00
rdt.
19. Pistosaurus longevus, H. von Meyer. Pl. I, fig. 12.
“Head; from the Muschelkalk at Bayreuth, Bavaria, ie
The he original i in the Royal Museum at Berlin
8
20, Proterosaurus Speneri. PAH fig. 11.
Ver te and extremities; from the ie MEER slate of .
genes j
nal in the Royal Misewm at Berlin.
21, Holopyehi raobifiee' rite
e Old Red Sundstone of Scotland, : 5 00
oniginal is in the British Museum.
22. Several pa of Trilobites, remarkable for ae or mes such
as represented on PI. II, figs. 13 and 14, each pie 0 2
Ill. SYSTEMATIC COLLECTIONS.
A. Fossils.
100 different species, . ' . : 2. 9.00
aeted _ ae : F , : 22 00
ea 4 ' , . ‘ «ae Ue
O00..." eles , é ‘ > 70 00
1000. - ‘ ‘ : ‘ . 150 00
2000 —* eee : . ‘ ; 350 00
3000. * by : . ‘ ‘ - 560 00
B. Rock-specimens.
Size 3 by 8 inches. ize 3 by 4 inches.
per different si nies . $5 00 + differen eects $ 9 00
‘ 9 00 . 15 00
200 a8 @ . took a nn 200 * ~ 27 00
wen. ih 00; 300 * eT. an ee
Oe ...8 5400; 500 “ ~ 100. 00
1000... we ax 135 00| 1000“ Cs, oe Oe
C: Minerals
ize 2 by 2 inches. Size 3 by 3 inches.
100 different i - $5 50; 100 diff i 9
- ifferen em < cae erent apne § . on
oe 8 Reine + ee Bas Ve ” ‘ 35 00
500 Picnics 4200; 500 « a ee
1000s FT Aitgy ty A A. es . 155 00
2000“ Soa ie Oe eT ee be . 375 00
References given by Prof. B. Sintiman, Jr., New Haven, J. D. Dana of New
Haven, Conn., Prof. Acassiz of Cambridge, Mass., Prof, Troost of Nash
ville, Ten
November, 1849. f3t]
Recuuary on the first of every saree Price 2s. 6d., the
Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia.
Published at Singapore, and affording the most recent and au-
‘thentic accounts of every matter of interest connected with these
parts. Vol. Ill, No. 9 just received.
NTS,
Tour in phi by Jonathan ine ion ., member of the Batavian Society of
Arts and Scien
Account of Sul
The Z ology © ¢ Singap
Phaghesecs colonies in the vhedion Archipelago.
Subscription in advance 24s. per annum. Single No. 2s. 6d.
A few only of the back Nos. on hand.
-M. RICHARDSON, 23 Cornhill, a,
March, 1850.
ee
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
Art. XVIL—On the Phantascope ; by Prof. J. Locxe. (Ina_
Letter to the Editors. )
As many persons find it difficult if not impossible to converge
the optical axes, (or in common phrase to look “cross-eyed,”) for
the purpose of making the experiments lately described by me,
under the head of “ binocular vision,” I have invented an instru-
ment which enables all persons to succeed in obtaining the chief
results. It is very simple, having neither lenses, prisms nor reflec-
tors, the object being in general the same as holding the finger or
other object near the eyes and concentrating the attention upon
it for the purpose of optical convergence.
It consists of a flat base-board about nine by eleven inches,
With an upright rod at one end bearing two sliding sockets to be
clamped at any elevation like those of a retort stand, or adjusta-
ble by stiff sliding springs. ‘The upper socket supports horizon-
tally a small vane or card, having a slit or sight hole one fourth
{ an inch wide and three inches long from right to left. This
slit has its middle directly over the center of t rd, and
18 intended to have the eyes directly over it, one eye at one end
and the other at the other ;—two small holes, say one fourth of an
ch, occupying the place of the ends of this slit would answer,
except for the unequal distances between the eyes of different ob-
Servers. The lower of the two sockets bears horizontally a mova-
ble screen of pasteboard or thin wood, having a slit at least three
inches wide Ms left to right, and about one inch in the other
Stconn Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 20
154 On the Phantascope.
direction, with its center also perpendicular over the center of the
base-board. ‘This screen has marked vertically across its middle
an index, shown by two arrows in the figures marked I.
E
eas
I
bi
2
a | e ’
SS i rd
UL.
|
E. Eye screen—I. Index screen—B. Base-board.
Evxperiments.—In experimenting with the Phantascope, the
operator places whatever is to be tried upon the lower tabular base-
board, looks downward through the upper slit and slides the
screen up or down until he attains the adjustment required.
On the Phantascope. 155
double AA AA ; continuing to raise the screen and to regard
the index, the double images will recede more and more until
their position will be thus A Act A A; continuing
still to raise the screen, the two internal images approach until
they are optically superimposed and coalesce into one, thus;
A A
This middle or superimposed figure, is the phantom or image
where there is really no object. Cease to look at the index I,
and turn the attention to the base-board itself, and this phantom
figure instantly vanishes. If the two letters be placed on the base-
oard at the same distance as the eyes are apart, say two and a
half inches, then this normal position of the screen will be just
all way between the eyes and the base-board. If they are pla-
ced further apart, the screen must be raised higher; the distance
from the eyes to the index screen being in all cases, to the dis-
tance from that screen to the base-board, as the distance between
the eyes is to the distance between the objects viewed. In the
case above, the phantom image is formed exactly as if there were
@ letter in the area of the index screen of half the size of the prir-
itive letters on the base-board, and optically the letter should ap-
pear then, but the knowledge of the observer that there is nothing
at that place, will often prevent the deception.
. 2.—Lay upon the base board a card having letters or
other figures which are identical in size and form set in regular
Tows and at equal distances all over, thus:
Avsvter Ae Biody od
te. Gee ae as wae
AO] a BO!
and proceed to raise the screen as before; you will form phantom
mages as before between each of these figures, or possibly you
Will superimpose the first object upon the third, when you will
nave, not a single phantom but a whole plane of them, each pair
resenting a phantom between. This phantom surface will be
ikely to eflect a complete deception, and will rise from the base-
board and coincide with the index plane, when it may be con-
templated with the same deliberation and ease to the eyes, as if
it were a real object. This would be sure to be the case if the
index plane were figured over in the same manner, but with
figures properly reduced in size.
156 On the Phantascope.
Exp. 3.—Place two identical pictures of the same flower on
the base-board, say they are an inch in diameter, and two and a
half inches apart ; place also on the edge of the index area, a pic-
ture of a small flower pot or vase, with flower stems as an index;
then form the phantom image as before, and the flowers will ap-
pear in the vase so long as you contemplate the stems at the in-
dex screen, but the moment the eyes are directed to the flowers
themselves, the phantom vanishes. ;
4,—Let one of the above flowers be red and the other
in the other is contemplated. If this be true, then the two eyes
serve in the first place to fix the distance of an object by the
amount of convergence, and in the next place to relieve each
other by turns.
Exp. 5.—Let there be a horizontal heavy line placed to the left
and a vertical one to the right on the base-board, thus: — )
then adjust the screen and superimpose the images to forma
phantom. That phantom will be a cross and the whole will ap-
pear thus: —
Exp. 6.—Do the same with any other parts of a figure of
which one shall be the complement of the other; the phantom
will be the complete figure. Thus take the picture of a person,
cut it out of the paper, and cutting off the head, place the body
on one side of the base-board, and the head upon the other, the
converged phantom will be the complete figure, the head com-
ing in from one side and the body from the other. It is per-
haps unnecessary to say that each part must be placed in its true
elevation, though displaced horizontally. It was in repeating this
experiment, that I discovered that my eyes did not appear to be
mates, for I saw the body clearly but the head obscurely. After
a little time however, these conditions interchanged, and I saw
the head clearly and the body obscurely. Nor did I seem to
have any voluntary control over these conditions, but my eyes
continued to relieve guard according to some rule of their own.
This is rather an amusing experiment: the figure being beheaded,
the phantom ghost appears between the two parts of the body,
and from a little unsteadiness of the optical convergence, the
ghost’s head is inclined to attitudinize, and will sometimes start
off a little from the body, and in returning, will go a little too far
and will break the neck in the opposite direction. If the head
of the experimenter be a little inclined, then the head of the
phantom will come on too high or too low. '
On the Phantascope. 157
Exp.
lines about two inches in length and three inches apar
converging them in an attempt at superposition, I found the con-
verged lines were not parallel but came in contact at the upper
end first, and diverged a ‘little downward. Standing with my
head erect, I repeated this experiment by converging voluntarily
7—I placed a card having two perpendicular parallel
head back ward and looking horizontally over my cheeks, the con-
verged perpendiculars coincided throughout. I learned by this
that both of my eyes do not rotate in one and the same horizon-
tal plane. I got another person to repeat the same experiment,
and he found the error of his eyes to be in the opposite direction,
the converged perpendiculars meeting first at the bottoms. This
hy a moral adage to be physically true, “we don’t all see
1kKe,”’
This instrument and the researches into binocular vision, serve
to extend considerably our knowledge of the anatomy and physi-
ology of vision, nor is the subject by any means exhausted. I
have not time to investigate the matter fully, and shall be happy
to see fair and honorable competitors enter the field. e verifi-
cations and variations of the experiments by your correspondent,
Dr. Lathrop, were gratifying to me.
This apparatus will illustrate many important points in optics,
and especially the physiological point of “single vision by two
eyes.” It shows also that we do not see an object in itself, but
the mind contemplates an image on the retina, and always asso-
ciates an object of such a figure, attitude, distance, and color as
will produce that image by rectilinear pencils of light. If this
image on the retina can be produced without the object, as in the
Phantascope, then there is a perfect optical illusion, and an object
18 Seen where it is not. Nay, more, the mind does not contem-
plate a mere luminous image, but that image produces an un-
known physiological impression on the brain. It follows that if
the nerves can, by disease or by the force of imagination, take on
this action, a palpable impression is made without either object
or picture. As this would be most likely to occur when actual
objects are excluded, as in the night, we have an explanation of
the scenery of dreams, and the occasional “ apparitions” to waking
persons. ‘The murderer, too, has a picture stamped on the sen-
-Sorium by the sight of his victim, which ever wakes into vibra-
tion when actual pictures are excluded by darkness.
158 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
Arr. XVIII.— The condition of Trap ected in ee ea pie
an evidence and measure of Erosion; by Ouiver P. Huspa
M.D., Prof. Chem., Min. and Geol., in Derunsouth Gollegeds
In New pe ote geology is characterized chiefly by
primary rocks and metamorphic slates—trap dikes are exceed-
ingly numerous, and ree have an evident relation both in posi-
tion and character to those of the adjoining states. Among them
as to indicate a center of elevation, or greater resistance to ero-
sion, than in the adjacent rock. This is the most northern of the
peaks of Ossipee Mouutain, east of Leki Winnipisiogee ; it is de-
scribed as “an isolated, bare, precipitous range of bluish green-
stone rock,” and abundant fragments are found on the adjoining
peak, covering the gneiss. From this . as a center, series of
Hill, near Squam ale eu one inch to aaa feet wide, ranging
east and west. ‘These dikes are distinctly marked over the
surface of she granite including them. They have been worn and
polished by the action of diluvial currents, so that a level and
smooth surface, ng ace many thousand square feet, lies en-
tirely bare of so
In volume xxxiv. of this Journal, (p. 105,) I have described a
number of trap dikes, presenting the same relations to the en-
closing rock, and withont doubt there are hundreds of instances
of the kind in New Hampshire and Vermont; and they are found
at all levels, and continuons for considerable distances. The
present condition of these dikes is, obviously, evidence of more
or less erosion. I propose to cite in this paper, examples of trap
dikes in New Hampshire and vicinity, which shall show how fat
they are evidences and measures of erosion, whether ancient or
recent
The trap in New Hampshire occurs in relation to the surround-
ing rocks either—1. Worn off smooth and plane with the adja-
cent rock, whether the surface be horizontal or inclined—2. Be-
low the surface, when in a state of decomposition and forming, it.
may be, the channel of a stream—3. Prominent above, as at the
Peak of Ossipee, and when forming an occasional barrier of a
stream, where the surrounding rock has been remove
There are believed to be very few instances of the third con-
dition. Bear Camp river is crossed by a dike one to two feet
* Geology of New Hampshire, p. 72.
-
Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 159
wide which forms a barrier, the granite having decayed away.
There may possibly be an instance in Red Hill, where the dike
is exposed on one (the lower?) side by the removal of the
ite.* ;
(a.) Of the second kind, there is an example in the rear of ¢ the
Willey house, referred to by Mr. Lyell in his second tour, and de-
scribed by me previously in volume xxxiv. of this Journal. The
trap is the bed of a small mountain torrent, in some parts decom-
posing, in others very hard. This dike was traced this season by
some members of our party,{ along a continuous and deep channel
far up the mountain, and it is there found to divide into two parts,
which again meet a considerable distance above, and thus enclose
a large elliptical area. This area is distinctly observable from the
direction of the channel is north 80° east. At its lower end on
the right hand is a trap dike, in several distinct lines each a few
inches wide, mounting high in curved plates in the side of the
cliff ; farther on they decline and coalesce into one dike twenty
inches wide, which passes under the water.
_ The dike crosses the fissure obliquely at about N. 75° E., and
1S Seen some rods farther up the stream in a vertical section ex-
tending to the top of the opposite bank. 2
"he trap where constantly wet is softened and decomposing,
and above on the sides, is compact, very much fissured and stained
deep with oxyd of iron. ‘This fissure, like the former, must be
admitted to have been filled by the intrusion of trap, and to have
ome a water channel by the removal of the dike; the chan-
“hel, therefore, is some measure of the erosion of the trap and its
rocky enclosures by existing agency.
¢ description given in the Geology of New Hampshire
of the beautiful Dixville Notch, in the northern part of the state,
Suggests sitnilar conclusions.
ans eR
* Am. Jour. Sei, vol. XXxiv, p: 113. + Thid, p. 1It.
+ Members of the Senior Class in Dartmouth College.
160 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
“The summit of the (new) road (passing through the Notch
to Portland, Maine,) is 835 feet above the plain of Colebrook.
The direction of the pass is N.E. and 8.W., and it is walled on
1600 feet above Colebrook ; and the Notch is parallel to the di-
rection of the strata, which clearly have been removed on this
line. Can we discover any disturbing agency or predisposing
cause for this depression, from the summit of which the streams
flow either way into the Androscoggin and the Connecticut?
We learn that “dikes of basaltiform trap intersect the strata near
the middle (summit ?) of the Notch, and large loose blocks of it
are seen in abundance on its northwest side. It contains very
large crystals of basaltic hornblende and glassy white feldspar.”
The course of these dikes is not given. “On the north side of
this road, forty or fifty rods back in the forest, is a ravine called
‘the Flume.’ It was formed by the decay of a large trap dike.”
“The chasm is twenty feet deep and from ten to twenty feet
wide, and is the channel of a stream of water, from whence it
received its name. The trap dike runs N. 30° E., and 8. 30° W.,
and is six feet wide. It is slightly porphyritic with feldspar crys-
tals, and is of a dark brown color. It divides into large cubical
blocks which form a, series of steps, so that when there is but
little water a person may walk a considerable distance up the
ume upon them. The principal ledge at this spot is granite,
which protrudes through the mica slate.”
Here we find a gorge through a mica slate range parallel with
its direction N.B. and S.W., the slate dipping N.W. 80°, inter-
sected by trap dikes—and near, another trap dike in a fissure,
having the course N. 30° E., which is a variation of only 15°
from the direction of the Notch, and all coincide in direction with
the slate. But whether the different dikes are connected or not,
erosion would seem to be indicated, down to the present level of
the dikes, to the amount of 800 feet.
(d.) Tocite one more case where the agent is still acting. The
Waterqueechy river at Queechy village, (Hartford, Vt.,) makes a
high fall of twenty feet over a dam of ten feet, and its rocky
channel and sides are covered with pot-holes, and the gravel banks
are here some eighty feet above with several terraces extending
down a mile or more, where the narrow valley becomes a cul de sac
from which the water could not have escaped before the present
outlet existed, except at a much higher level.* At this point the
* I am informed by the Rev. Mr. Dudley of the village, that between the gulf and
the village there are two distinct eeartad channels parallel to the present one, but
much higher, where in all probability, the river once ran.
Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 161
river enters a rocky channel, called “The Gulf,” at a large angle
with its previous course, and runs S.S.W. with a rapid descent for
nearly a mile. The left bank (in the descent) is nearly vertical,
though receding at top, and by estimate one hundred feet high,
and the opposite bank, with various irregularities, is in part and
in some places entirely made up of a trap dike from three to six
and ten feet thick, whose course is N.N.E. and dip 58° south-
easterly, and coincident in these respects with the mica slate en-
closing and underlying it and parallel of course to the stream.
It has here and there been crossed by the stream and extensively
removed with the slate below it, and a channel has been made
on both sides which is filled at high water; and again the dike is
found enclosing the slate and is extremely hard and compact.
Passing off at right angles to this dike, as lateral branches, and
crossing under the stream, are two other large vertical dikes which
Srconp Serizs, Vol. IX, No, 26.—Feb.,, 1850. 21
+
162 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
The direction of the dike is about N.N.E. in a line with the
bridge across the river, and it is quite probable the dike extends
along distance either way and was once a barrier to the river.
The Connecticut river is here bounded on the east by a high
rocky mountain, and the position and appearances of the dike in
relation to the river, suggest the inference that the removal of the
trap is a fair measure of the erosion at this place, and, at least in
part, of that produced by the action of the river (sixty feet).
A small stream from the west ina deep rocky channel just
north of the bluff removed, seems to have had its course deflect-
so as to empty into the Connecticut river just north of the in-
tersection of the latter river and the dike, and their joint force
has continued to reduce the level of the latter so as to afford the
ree passage of the river.
(f.) We'may mention here, before proceeding, a few facts
brought to light by the different railroad surveys in New Hamp-
shire and Vermont. The Rutland and Burlington Railroad crosses
the Green Mountains at Mount Holly gap, at a level of 1350 feet
above the Connecticut river.* In this place a cut was made
through a muck swamp, which exhumed some remarkable ele-
phantine remains. The White Mountain Railroad survey from
the Connecticut up the Ammonoosuck, passes the summit in or
near Whitefield, at six hundred and fifty feet above the Connecti-
cut, and this within twelve miles of Fabyan’s in the White Moun-
tains. ‘The Passumpsic Railroad overcomes the summit in Sutton
at about nine hundred feet above the Connecticut at West Leba-
non. The Central Railroad of Vermont passes the summit be-
streams to be the effect of water, we shall be justified in refer-
ring them to a similar agency, i. e. rin motion. Should we
observe phenomena like what are frequently seen, in the less rapid
* See profiles and reports of these roads.
Zn Am. Assoc. for Ady. Science, held at Cambrid
tinier 4: Ane8: soc. for Ady. Science, held at Cambridge, Sep-
a ia oe
a ai
a ee
«
Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 163
parts of a river and above dams ina rapid stream, we may refer
their production to a similar cause.
The original features of this Orange summit were remarkable
but they have been very much altered by the cut for the railroad,
which has however added, by the new features developed, very
much to its geological interest. The facts have an important
bearing on problems which are now arising with reference to the
geological history of New England, and are therefore worthy of
record. A description in part, is given by Dr. C. T. Jackson in
the Geology of New Hampshire, p. 113.
The turnpike from Canaan on the northwest, passes some
miles along the edge and on the sides of sand and gravel hills
on the borders of an extensive swampy, peaty meadow, with a
sandy bottom, which has long ramifications into the lateral valleys,
then near a shallow pond of a few acres, which is fed by a rivulet
coming from the hackmatae swamp at the base of the summit.
The valley narrows rapidly, and towards the summit we find nu-
merous long sand and gravel hills, shaped like an inverted boat,
twenty to thirty feet high, parallel nearly to each other and to the
general trend of the valley, with channels for surface water be-
tween them.
he depression or gap is several hundred feet below the gen-
eral height of the range, and the old road formerly passed the
summit at an elevation about forty feet above the swamp, and
was made in the lowest channel cut by the waters formerly
running here, and directly by the side of the “well”* made a
slight descent across soft ground on a log causeway, then over
a rocky ridge and down into Grafton valley.
This well or pot-hole, as figured, appears worn down on the
side next the road three feet lower than on the opposite ; its depth
is eight feet; its diameter is between four and five feet at top,
and about two feet at bottom. A large number of small, smooth
rounded stones from this well, are in my possession, and in the
Dartmouth cabinet is a plum shaped smooth mass of granite,
which weighs two hundred and ninety pounds.
The surface of the rock wherever seen, even high above the
road track is water-worn into cavities and channels descending to
the southward, and great numbers of pot-holes have been uncov-
ered, which have a tendency to a linear direction nearly north
and south. In laying out the railroad, soundings were made be-
pe 3) - .
laying the track about north and south, and obliterating wholly
or in part many pot-holes of large and small size. ‘I hrough the
kindness of my friend, R. Bakewell, Esq., I refer to his drawing
of the section made by the railroad on its west side. j
ec eae e e
* Figured, Geol. N. H, p. 114.
164 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
The cut is north and south about 1600 feet long, and thirty-
five feet deep; the railroad is at the base, an >
the former carriage road at the top.
A, granite, presenting two rocky barriers s, s’,
the latter somewhat the highest :—these to the
prea rise more rapidly into ridges than on
the west. The course of the channels in the
ponent is diagonal from the east side and de-
scends south, showing certainly the direction of
the stream. ( Qua rtz veins from one to
four inches thick, dipping from 35° to 42°S.E.,
intersecting the gramite. ‘These are cut off in
barrier (s’) by two ie veins (f) (/’), of whit-
ish green feldspar with mica, and in some parts
is handsome praipliie granite, and all much
harder and more difficult to excavate than the
granite ;—(f) is fifty-six feet wide and (/’)
twenty-one feet. Their course is N. 18° E.,
and dip westerly 66°, and by the light color of
the feldspar, they may be traced by the eye in
a tortuous course far up the hills. BB’ B” are
deposits without stratification, of fine and
coarse gravel with large and small rounded
pebbles oa Ses the odie and extending
somewhat lower than the track of the railroad :
the portion Br was made up chiefly of pebb bles
of the — size, even one foot by one and one
half foot. C is a bed or deposit of swamp
muck, filling to the brim the excavation in the
gravel and covering it from s tos’. This ex-
tends below the track, and east and west, and
is some two hundred feet wide, in the line of
section between B/B’. The draining of this
swamp on the south, caused it to settle and tear
apart in large patches, and to prevent its filling the
track as fast as the excavations went on, a close
row of piles thirty feet long was driven on each
side and braced apart at top. Coniferous trees
of considerable size, eighteen inches diameter,
are found in this at all levels, prostrate and with
roots attached, and also ae on stumps that
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Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 165
the road, for a distance of near half a mile, where it is only one
foot wide; it may also be traced some way on the eastward side
of the road.
In my note-book are memoranda of pot-holes measured here,
some of which (the last three) have been since in part removed,
1. 16 inches diameter and 4 feet
C..,0mnd yA ot
2, 4A feet
3. 3hand4ft. “ and10 “ «
A. Ad feet &
e008: 83 ty. @
5. *3 “ and 12 “ now less than a semicircle.
ee eee 46 and 8 “ “a semicircle.
ce ff “ and10 “ “in two curves, as if two
holes had been worn into one
No. 1, was filled with peat, and discovered by sounding with
an iron bar; at a single blow the bar struck on the bottom a flat-
tened, rounded smooth stone, of about four pounds weight, which
was the last agent in the excavation of the hole. ‘There is also
a rocky channel some rods in length, oblique from the northeast,
which is cut off by the railroad at its lower end; it is twelve feet
wide and eleven feet deep, and contains near its mouth large
Tounded granite boulders from one to seven feet diameter. Such
masses as these, with the great number of similar ones, large and
cess, some may have escaped from the excavations and were car-
ried over the south summit (s), or were lodged on its north side.
levels, while this erosion was in progress. ‘The well” beside
the road has been lowered three feet on one side, so as to form a
channel in which the early road was made, while below this level
it was perfect and eight feet deep. We may suppose, with rea-
Son, that these wells had been of similar dimensions through a
long period while the action was’ going on, and that excavation
below kept pace with the removal of the upper portion.
Between these two remarkable barriers on the north and south,
the excavation in granite of this longitudinal valley is more than
forty feet deep and six hundred feet wide; it has a very uneven
Surface, with rounded hummocks rising from the bottom, as
shown on the E. and W. side of the railroad, in a section from eight
’
166 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
to eighteen feet high above the track. On the north side it is,
filled with the accumulations of gravel, and on the south side the
basin in this gravel is filled with a deposit of peat, containing
abundance of prostrate trees apparently of successive generations.
The configuration of the excavated gravel shows the last result
of moving water; the accumulation of the swamp muck and the
growth of trees in this cavity are of course of subsequent date.
The violence of the current which has here acted, may be infer-
red from the wearing effects exhibited on the rocks of the valley,
S. and E., where they are smoothed and rounded at elevations
far above the stream now flowing there; also from the great
depth of Tewksbury Pond, and from the extensive beds of peb-
bles washed clean of all fine materials, sand and soil, in Danbury,
about ten miles southeast.
Again—we see no evidence at present that these excavations
and irregularities were produced by water falling from a very
eight ; they are rather the effect of a uniform though vio-
lent current; the same marks are seen in the slate and hard trap
of the bed of the Queechy, where pot-holes and channels and
capacious excavations long and deep are abundant as the effects
of a rapid stream.
If we may safely conclude that where numerous dikes, and
these it may be in groups of six or eight, are found crossing
in a valley a river channel, as at Campton Falls, N. H., and re-
duced to a level with its bed, with occasionally one harder than
the rest forming a barrier of slight elevation, we have before
us a present agency which in time past, may have been sufli-
cient for the production of the degradation indicated by the ex-
tent of the valley. So when there are large, elevated areas yet far
below the peaks and ridges of the country intersected in many
directions by trap dikes and the whole surface worn smooth, we
hesitate not to admit that a general denuding or erosive force has
acted with energy and during a long period. When we find a
mountain ridge cut at right angles by one or more trap dikes, and
these reduced to an even surface with the crest and sides of the
mountain, and continuous across the valleys, it is not easy
or the mind to forbear concluding that the valleys are valleys
of erosion, although they may be narrow and some thousands of
feet deep. This is illustrated by the following cases.
* In connection with these effects of larger currents, and in proof of their forme
existence in the channel of our present streams, I mention that a eut was made in
West Hartford, Vt., on the Central Railroad, across the angle of a slate spur, about
sixty feet above the White River, that opened a pot-hole to its bottom, seventeen
feet deep and between three and four feet diameter. this were found two beau-
in the track, and the other, almost a perfect sphere, two feet four inches in diameter,
weighing over nine hundred pounds, is preserved for science at the University
ur. n. ¢ »
hy
Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 167
_ (g.) Moose Mountain is a part of a north and south range of
mica and hornblende slates with quartzite. It is situated about
eight miles east of Dartmouth College, and may be 1000 feet
high. Between the granite knobs just east of the College and
the range, there is a synclinal valley and axis, and the slates on
Moose Mountain dip westerly at a high angle. In passing along
the ridge some years since, I observed a depression eighteen feet
wide with perpendicular sides twelve feet high, and this singular
interruption of the line of the ridge led to an examination of the
rock in this space. It proved to bea dike of columnar porphyritic
trap running east and west, which was traceable some way down
the declivity, but of a uniform surface with the sides of the
mountain. ;
On the opposite side of the valley, and crossing it and the road
obliquely and following exactly the undulating and channeled
surface of the slate, is another very compact, hard, blue trap dike,
with crystals of glassy feldspar, and fourteen feet wide. These
dikes if produced must intersect each other, and the latter is cut
own many feet by a small stream.
A few miles south where this ridge is interrupted by the valley
of the Mascomey River or Enfield Pond, the precipitous bluff
presents a dike some feet in width which is made up of flattened
and rounded masses of trap in columns side by side, and rapidly
decomposing. ‘This is one hundred feet and more above the
level of the lake, which is at the base of the ridge, and whose
bed must be intersected by the dike.
(h.) Mount Washington, as I showed in the American Journal,
XXXiv, in 1838, is covered or capped with mica slate i place—
and as there is no evidence from diluvial scratches, boulders or
rounded and smooth surfaces, of erosion or denuding forces, we
infer that its peak ever has been above the reach of those agen-
cies which have operated upon its flanks and upon the surround-
Ing peaks.
If a fissure should occur through one of these granitic peaks
from valley to valley, (it would probably be much farther ex-
tended, ) and if molten lava were to fill this fissure, it could never
teach the apex or remain consolidated there, unless it were sup-
ported at the dimits of the fissure on the flanks of the mountain.
It is contrary to physical laws that as the lava rose in the fissure,
it should not gravitate and run into the lower places, the valleys
on the sides of the mountain, and only as these were filled would
it rise in the fissure, and equally in both. This must follow
whether the surface be submarine or subaerial.
1. If the existing valleys were filled to the height of the peak
With diluvium or drift, like the conglomerate hardpan of this re-
8ion, which is so consolidated that when excavated it must be
sted, this would seem sufficient to repress or hold up the col-
168 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
umn of lava and secure a uniform dike to the full height of the
ak. e hardpan would be fissured and the dike found con-
tinuous through it; but this supposition implies a previous exrcava-
tion or erosion of the valleys.
2. If existing valleys were formerly filled with trap by an over-
flow from the fissure, they are now clear of it and have been re-
duced to their former condition, i. e., they have been excavated a
second time as in the former case.
3. If the present valleys were formerly occupied by continu-
ous rock, such as constitutes the mountains, then a support is had
for the molten lava when injected to the height of the peak, so as
to allow the filling of the fissure and to form a dike; and the pres-
ent configuration is the result of a subsequent erosion or excava-
tion. Whether these valleys, therefore, were ever filled with
diluvium or trap, need not be shown, as we must in that case, at
a previous time introduce the latter supposition, involving as it
does only a single excavation.
There is a possible supposition that the valleys of the White
Mountains are the result of fracture and subsidence of their areas
—or of fracture and elevation of the ridges—but I know of no
evidence of this, and where the rock can be traced across from
side to side of a valley, the continuity is complete. To sustain the
third view above, I cite the following facts.
Mount Pleasant, the third peak south of Mount Washington,
is about 4500 feet high. Its top is a plain of five or six acres, So
trap three feet wide, whose course is east and west, which 1s
worn off entirely smooth and level with the enclosing rock, and
may be traced entirely across the top. Circumstances did not
where the sides of the mountain are covered; but by telescopic
examination from Fabyan’s, which showed distinctly the little
column of trap fragments piled upon the dike of two feet in
height, I was led to infer a probable relation between the dike
and the slides on the west side of Mount Pleasant, which seemed
to be in the range with it. However this may be, the dike must
be considered for the reasons already given, as of much greater
length than the crest of the mountain and of course extending
down into or across the valleys.
Though the positive evidence may be wanting of this latter
point, yet from a party of our students who, in the autumn 0
1848, descended into the valley on the east side of Mount Pleas-
ant, from directly opposite the “Lake of the Clouds,” and fol-
lowed the mountain stream throughout its course of falls and
rapids, &c., to the valley of Dry river, and down this to its june-
tion with the Saco in the Notch, two or three miles below the
Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire. 169
Willey House, and some twelve miles from where they began the
descent—I learn that “two or three miles above the mouth of
Dry river there are several remarkable trap dikes at right angles
“even with the rock enclosing it, and the stream makes a nearly
perpendicular plunge at this point, of eight or ten feet,”—thus
presenting such phenomena as are common in other similar places,
r
cess of excavating a valley by a running stream.
The facts which I have recorded, showing the relations be-
tween trap dikes, which have been denuded and eroded to con-
siderable depths by running streams, will need no comment or
illustration.
In regard, however, to such cases as Mount Pleasant and Moose
Mountain, where no running water is found, we must recur to
the periods when the relations of land and water were very dif-
ferent from the present.
We are too much disposed to look upon the great features of
this group of mountains as fixed so long ago as to have no con-
nection with the minor ones now presented, and which are in
process of increase. ‘The agencies of decomposition are now at
in a generation, and the accumulation of debris since August,
1826, at the gorge back of the Willey House, and in the outlets
of the two below it, if we could add also the large amount of
fine materials carried down stream by the Saco from these sour-
ces, are well calculated to prevent our underestimating their
time when it has become a separating valley two or three thou-
valleys of erosion.
Srconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 22
170 Prof. O. P. Hubbard on Erosion in New Hampshire.
The examination of the valleys of the state of New York, as
at the Little Falls, &c., and of its lakes in different parts, shows a
difference ¢ level and a depth of erosion of 1200 feet to 2000
fe o the observations on the sandstone of the Connecti-
cut ss i in > Maneataleks and Connecticut, indicate its erosion
to the extent of 1200 feet. This erosion of the sandstone is only
consistent with a similar one in the northern portigns of New
England, and requires its occurrence if we would provide the
constituents of the sandstone in the first place and its continu-
nee and increase subsequently. Whether this result is refera-
ble to one period or another is not now a question
The following facts are cited from the Report of the Geology
of New Hampshire, to sustain the general proposition, and which
is also strengthened by the evidence afforded by metallic veins in
positions similar to that of the trap.
The Lower Patuccoway Mountain of syenite in Notting-.
ham is cut, through its summit, into two nearly equal parts by a
dike of columnar greenstone trap from six to twelve inches wide,
and which can be traced for a quarter of a mile till conaeales by
the soil. This mountain is 780 feet high above the s
2. In Piermont the mica slate is intersected by numerous dikes
of greenstone trap; and from Piermont to Haverhill Corner, nine
dikes are found, some of them porphyritic, and one so filled with
magnetic iron pyrites as to affect the compass.
3. Red Hill, of syenite, and 2000 feet above the level of the
sea, is crossed at abont one-third its height by a large dike of
porphyritic trap, N. 30° W.
4. On the declivity of the westerly peak of Gunstock Moun-
tain, which is 1561 feet above lake Winipissiogee, is a vein of
magnetic oxyd of iron, the pieces of which have polarity, and
arge dikes of trap occur on the southerly pea
5. Baldface Mountain, in Jackson, of granite, is cut through its
midst by a few trap dikes, and ata height of 1404 feet above its
base, and in other places is cut by veins of peroxyd of iron of
great width, which are traced down its flanks.
6. Several trap dikes in Jackson contain carbonate of lime, and
cut through mica slate, granite and a granite vein, one of which
is fifty feet wide.
. At Aaigaayed Falls, and on to the sea, the hard flinty rock is
cut by dikes of t
8. In Eaton, dikes of porphyritic trap from ten to sixteen feet
wide cut through a hill of granite, and sgn in another place a
ae ike four feet wide cuts a hill of gran
n the east flank of the White oan on the Pinkha
Soa in Jackson, the mountain ledge of mica and chiastolite Hp
1. p.50. os Wands pe Tekh, 78, 79 —6. p.80.—7. p. 93.—
8. on 96, Gouge a? P- p. pp. p- i. p
a oe
Contributions to the Mycology of North America. 171
is cut by two large trap dikes, and Town’s hill in Lancaster, is
intersected by trap dikes in limestone.
0. Trap dikes, porphyritic and dark brown compact, occur
at Berlin Falls, and are also found in passing from Berlin to
Lancaster.
11. In Littleton are trap dikes cutting mica slate.
12. Thorn Mountain, in Jackson, consisting of a porphyry, is
cut through at top by veins of magnetic oxyd of iron descending
its flanks, and by a dike of basalt.
These examples of trap are at very various heights above the
Sea, and are a fair illustration of the amount of erosion of the
rocks in their several localities. 1 know of no more valid objec-
tion to the conclusions based on the evidence afforded by the re-
those derived from the trap in other formations, whether in the
mountains of northern New York or in the coal formation, or in
the sandstones of all countries; and future examination in the
Very instructive geological field of the White Mountains will
doubtless furnish much more similar evidence.
Art. XIX.—Contributions to the Mycology of North America ;
by Rev. M. J. Berxecey, of England, and Rev. M. A. Curtis,
of South Carolina,
61. Acaricus Antituarum, Fries.—In fimetis. May-—Nov.
Society Hill, S. Carolina.
62. Coprinus reraiversans, F'r.—Ad terram. Dec: Santee
Canal, S.C. Mr. Ravenel.
63. Paxittus porosvs, Berk.! in Lea’s Catalogue.—Ohio! Mr.
S. Car.! In sylvis humidis. Aug.—Oct.
64. Hycropuorvs mucriacrnosus, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo valde
Mucilaginoso letecolori convexo demum plano Striato ; stipite
tagili sabconcolori fistuloso; lamellis d tibus crassis carnels
In paludosis. July. Society Hill. . :
Cap 6-9 lines broad, of a bright pale reddish yellow, darker in
the centre. Stem 4 inch high, a line or more thick, composed
of longitudinal fibres, subpellucid, pale yellow or carneous. Gills
istant, unequal, fleshy. Allied to H. Cantharellus, Fr., from
Which it is readily distinguished by its very mucilaginous pileus
and thick gills ; and from H. letus, Fr., by its brittle stem.
65. H. Luripus, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo campanulato umbo-
Nato pallide fusco viscosissimo; margine striato crenato; stipite
Reena rasaesemees ee ee
10, p.104—11, p. 109—12. p. 145.
172 Contributions to the Mycology of North America.
fistuloso concolori; lamellis crassis venoso-connexis adnexis albis.
In paludosis. July. Society Hill.
Cap 7-9 lines broad, pale brown, darker in the centre. Stipe
13 in. long, about a line in thickness, composed of longitudinal
fibres. Gills ventricose, shortly adnate. Not very closely allied
to any species described, except perhaps to H. unguinosus, whic
is however more robust and of different habit.
66. H. coccinewuus, F'r,—In terra arenosa humida. Aug. So-
ciety Hill.
67. H. cutoropuanus, F'r.—Ad terram inter folia. June. Hills-
per N. Car
Lactarius insutsus, Fr.—Ad terram in ayivis. Aestate.
Hillsborongh, N. C.
_ Agaricus fuliginosus, vellereus, and Asie ees, enumerated
in a previous paper, belong to this gen
69. CaNTHARELLUS UMBONATUS, Fr—In sylvis. Oct. R. Isl-
and. Mr. Olney.
70. Marasmivs opacus, Berk. and Curt. ;—gracilis; pileo con-
vexo ruguloso opaco pulverulento albido ; stipite insititio elongato
pulverulento-subfurfuraceo pallido ; lamellis ventricosis- istanti-
busadnexis. Ad ramulos et folia dejecta in sylvis. Aestate. So-
ciety Hill and Santee Canal,
Cap about 2 lines broad, iaiaistroen slightly depressed around
a central umbo, dirty-white, scarcely striate or sulca Stem
1-14 inch. high, 4 of a line thick, of the same color with the
cap, furfuraceous toward the base. Gills moderately broad,
— fo with the prone Asie even. Nearly allied
. M. pirayvopuinus, Berk. and Curt. :—pileo e convexo pla-
dhotrtbiliiato sulcato-striato brunneolo; stipite insititio solido
concolore pulverulento-furfuraceo ; lamellis fusco-carneis subde-
currentibus. Ad folia Pinea dejecta. July. Society Hill.
Cap 4 lines broad, impressed-striate, dry, submembranaceous,
whitish-brown, Stipe 4 in. long, scarcely $ line thick, firm, sub-
equal, pale or brownish pulverulent, clothed toward the base
with minute furfuraceous scales, Gills unequal, forked, undu-
lated. Agrees in habit with M. fetens, but the stem is more
opake, and the gills are by no means annulato-adnexed.
sponciosus, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo plano albido-fusco ;
stipite pulverulento basi incrassato spongioso fulvo-villoso; lamel-
lis albidis subconfertis. Inter folia poate ao in bamidis June,
July. Hillsborough, N. C. and Society Hill, S
ap 4-6 lines broad, darker in the centre, il Stem 13
in. long, brown, often ‘much twisted, thickened toward the base
Contributions to the Mycology of North America. 173
and clothed with a tawny villus. Has much the aspect of
M. plancus-:
3. M. stmits, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo membranaceo plicato
opaco albido ; stipite gracili elongato nitido fusco ; lamellis pancis
latis adnexis venoso-connexis albidis. Ad terram. July, Aug.
ill.
Gregarious. Cap 2-3 lines broad, dull white, smooth, covered
with minute wrinkles. Stem 2 in. long, very slender, hardly
pulverulent. Gills ventricose. Allied to M. hematocephalus, F'r.,
rom which it is easily distinguished, at least by color
Soule pena (No. 2 of these ae ibe ) I find also
at Society Hill, S. C.; sometimes having a stem ong with
acap 12-15 lines broad. Mr. Olney has also sent it ious Rhode
Island.
74. M. Graminum, Berk. !—Ad folia graminum, herbas, etc. in
hortis. June. Society Hill.
75. M. Vattuantu, F'r.—Ad cortices emortuos, e. g. Vitis. Aug.
N. and S. Car
76. Me piancus, F'r.—In sylvis acerosis. R. Island; Mr. Olney.
Tinus Raveneu, Berk. and Curt, ;—pileo umbilicato
subm n O striato squarnuloso maculato ; stipite curto tenui
SetiaG aivaomcon, lamellis tenuibus subdistantibus dente-de
currentibus venoso-connexis. Ad lignum putridum in humidis.
pril. Santee Canal, S.C. Mr. Ravenel.
Scattered. Cap 1-14 in. broad, plano-corvex, ni clothed
with minute rufous oly scales which are crowded and conflu-
ent inthe centre. Ster in. long, 1 line shige solid, white,
with rufous scales. Gills a slightly erose. A very pretty
Species allied to L. tigrinus, but much more delicate. The pileus
is thin, and in consequence when dry it has an hygrophanous
t.
78. L. cesprrosus, Berk.! in Lea’s Catalogue.—Very abundant
in N. and S. Car: from July to Nov. ; at the base of stumps a
on buried roots. When dry it has a "Icind of acid-sweetish odor
not unlike that about a cider-press.
79. Panus porsauis, Fr.—Ad lignum mortuum Pini [et Liqui-
dambaris ; Autumno, ‘Hieme. N. and S. Car
80. Xerorus peeener, Fr.—Ad terram sneitinceas inter mus-
cos. June. Hillsborough, N. C.
81. Lenzires uncuuzrormis, Berk. and Curt. ;—albida lignea
Subtriquetra inzequabilis glabrata nitida; lamellis ligneis latis po-
Toso-ramosis.—Ad lignum aridum. Wilmington, N. Car.
ap 2 in. broad, lk in. long, } thick, rather elongated, villous
when young but becoming smooth and ‘shining ; : surface unequal,
174. = Contributions to the Mycology of North America.
once or twice sulcate, with some trace of almost obliterated vil-
losity towards the margin. Gills broad, thin but woody, branch-
ed, and here and there forming sinuous pores.—Allied to L. betu-
lina, but more rigid. It also resembles L. aspera, but has not
the scabrous surface of that species, nor has it the same habit.
82. L. rricotor, F'r.—Ad ramos dejectos in sylvis humidis.—
N.and S.C. Item, R. Island. Mr. Metcalf.
83. L. Kidiedtie’ Berk. !—Ad truncos cee Oct.—March.
N. and 8. Car. Item, R. Island. Mr. Ben
84. L. srriata, Fr.—Ad lignum cr Beis Hill and
Santee Canal, S. Car
85. L. corrueata, & —Ad ramos Castaneee. R. Island. Mr.
Metcalf; Mr. Bennett.
86. Boterus execans, Schum.—Ad terram. Aestate. Hills-
borough,
87. B. versireuis, F'r.—Ad terram. Aug. Hillsborough, N. C.
88. B. ae mae Retz.—Ad terram in sylvis. bee Hills-
ts N. "
. Potyporus arcutarius, F'r.—Ad ramos dejectoutl
di “May. aleigh, N. C. ee
90. P. Boucueanus, Fr.—Ad ligna. July, Aug. Hills boroug
N.C. Item, Ohio! Mr. Lea; and Penn Yan, N. Y.! Dr. Sartwell.
91. P. Curtisit, Berk. jason excentrico molli-suberoso sul-
cato zonato ochroleuco hic illic sanguineo-laccato ; stipite elonga-
to rugoso sanguineo-laccato; hymenio ex albo ochraceo ; poris
punetiformibus —Ad basin truncorum. N. and 8. Car.
Ca n. broad, convex, more or less grooved and zoned, of
a rather ae corky texture, covered with an ochraceous often
humi-
zoned, traversed with laccate lines parallel to the surface. Mar-
gin obtuse. Stipe 2-5 in. long, 4-1 in. thick, uneven, shining.
Hymenium white becoming ochraceous and brownish-cinnamon,
sometimes partly laccate. Pores not angular, cinnamon colored,
stratose within.—This fine species is closely allied to P. lucidus,
but differs as above. It has also some resemblance to P. ochreo-
ee as Mont.
2. P. evecans, Fr—Ad terram. Aug. R. Island. Messrs.
Motealf and Bennett
93. P. Pes-carns, Pers.—Ad terram in montosis. Hillsbo-
rough,
94. P, tig Logatus, F'r—Ad lignum in terra. Hillsborough, N. C.
Item, Santee Canal! S.C. et in Georgia! Mr. Ravenel.—Habet
odorem fortem farinee recentis.
'
#
ee eee
eg
Contributions to the Mycology of North America. 175
" 95. P. (Anodermei) Caro.iniensis, Berk. and Curt: ;—pileo
molli-suberoso reflexo postice effuso ineequabili ochraceo-albido
subsericeo strigis innatis asperulo subzonato; poris mediis denta-
tis acie plus minus lacerata.—Ad truncos emortuos Quercus [et
Liriodendri?] Autumno, Hieme. §. Car.
Pileus 2-5 in. oe 4-2 in. long, much effused behind, some-
times nearly resupinate, of a soft corky texture, rugose, slightly
silky with innate or raised strige which sometimes project from
the surface, sometimes nearly smooth with innate fibrilla ; mar-
gin acute. Pores of the same color with the cap, middle ‘sized,
a of an inch broad, pean: thin and often broken up; some-
times the edge of t e pores is obtuse.—Resembling P. borealis,
Fr., and P. Sym hs ton, Schwein., of a looser texture than either,
and with larger pores than the former.
96. P. (Placodermei) patustris, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo car-
noso-suberoso dimidiato obtusissimo cute tenui rivulosa nitidius-
cula vestito ; poris niveis non stratosis minutis angulatis.—Ad Pi-
num palustrem. Santee Canal. Ravenel.
Pileus 2 in. broad, 1 long, $ thick, subungulate, clothed witha
thin rather shining cracked ochraceous cuticle. Substance white
Pores about two lines long, minute, white within and
jot at all stratose, slightly angular, gig Pie dissepi-
ts and rather irregular edge.—Nearly allied to P. officinalis,
but the pores are’smaller, pure white, and not at al stratose ; nor
is the flesh bitter when dry or easily reduced to powder.
P. saticinus, F'r.—Ad truncos putridos. Santee Canal.
el.
97.
Raven
98. P. carneus, Nees.—Ad palos. June. Society Hill.
9. P. (Placodermei) curutmrormis, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo
pezizeeformi e vertice elongato stipitato albido cinnamomeo pu-
berulo; hymenio plano-excavato cinnamomeo; poris minus
—Ad corticem Rhois copalline ; S. Car. Castanee ; R. Island!
Mr. O Olney. Vere.
Gregarious. Cap 1-14 line broad, attached by the vertex
which j is elongated into a short stem, cinnamon clouded with grey,
slightly dow wny. Hymenium sunk below the swollen margin.
Pores very minute.—Allied to P. pullus. Mont. and Berk.
100. P. (Incdermei) Xavarensts, Berk. ;—pileo flabelliformi
membranaceo zonato sericeo glabrescente ; poris parvis par
mentis tenuibus membranaceis hydnoideo-laceratis. —A
dejectos cariosos. Oct, Socie ty pag
Cap thin, variously lobed, 2-4 in. long, pale, silky, at length
nearly smooth and shining, sells but delicately zoned. Hy-
menium white ; dissepiments becoming soon torn and toothed
so as to give the appearance of a Hydnum. —Closely allied to
sf din Sal Berk.—This species was first discovered in Xalapa
by Mr. Har
*
176. ~——~Prof. Horsford on the Relations of
ee
-
Art. XX.—Connection between the Atomic weights and the
physical and chemical propertics of Barium, Strontium, Cal-
cium and Magnesium, and some of their Compounds; by
E. N. Horsrorp, Rumford Professor in the University at
Cambridge.
Read before the Cambridge Scientific Association.*
Tue great discovery of isomorphism by Mitscherlich,t and the
affiliated one by Kopp,t of the identity of the specific volumes of
isomorphous bodies are among the brilliant points in the progress
of the chemistry of this century.
The latter seems to have had its origin in a conviction that in —
the atomic weight of a body—all its attributes have what may be
denominated a product expression. 'The factors are form, volume
and density. ach may vary, and with it the atomic weight
will vary; for example:—the volume and form being constant,
increase of density will be accompanied*by increase of atomic
weight: or form being constant, increase of density will be accom-
panied by increase of atomic weight, or, density and volume being
constant, modification of form will influence the atomic weight.
ties of the metals, barium, strontium, calcium and magnesium,
the fourth.§
The signification of the term intensity, as used above, may be
thus illustrated. Sulphate of baryta requires 43000 parts of water
or its solution. Sulphate of strontia 15029 parts at 11° C.||
Sulphate of lime (CaO, SO,, 2HO) in 380 parts of cold water,
and 388 parts of hot water,{I and sulphate of magnesia with seven
atoms of water, 0:799 parts at 18-75°.**
Solubility. At. W.
MsO,80,-.. 4. ... sB00000 1165
nn A 58, 8 15029-00 91-7
a0; 805°. ; : 460-00 68°
Me, SO.) 4 P 0-79 60-7
* A summary of some of the conclusions arrived at by the author were commu-
nicated to the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists, at their meeting
in Boston in 1849. 3s
+ Ann. Chim. Phys., xiv, 172; xix, 350; xxiv, 264, 265. Pogg. Ann. xil, 137;
xxv, 300; xlix, 401.
é Pogg. Ann., xlvii, 132; lii, 248-262. Ann. Chem. u. Phar., xxxvi, 1. ds
is to be regretted that so little is known of the properties of the compouncs
of magnesia, Their eminent solubility in water, and the difficulty with which an
of the salts of this base may be made to crystallize, haye made this field of invest
gation less inviting than many others.
| des u. Silber, Br. Arch., iii
Accordi
xxxill, 61.
a Giese. ig to Bucholz, 480 parts cold or hot.
* Gay Lussac, _ The anhydrous sulphate is soluble at 0° C, in 3°885 parts of water.
<
.
:
Se ee ae
¥ a
ap
4
ae
el
Barium, ajar Calcium fet Magnesium 177
"ile ere intensity is the same as degree of solubility. In other
words, the solubilities of the above salts are in the order of their
“atomic weights.
truth of the general er will be apparent from
seclidecing the following fac
I. Barium unites with two aie of oxygen, and is stable in
this state of combination at ordinary temperatures.
Strontium and calcium peroxyds are only known in combina-
tion with water.
Magnesium combined with two atoms of oxygen is unknown.
II. Barium, gt or em and calcium all oxydate at ordinary tem-
peratures in the air.
Magnesium deus not.
III. Barium thrown into water causes decomposition with a
stormy evolution of hydrogen gas
Strontium and calcium are both dissolved with escape of hy-
rogen.
Magnesium may be washed in water that has been money
freed from air by boiling, without diminution of its lus
- Baryta moistened with water enters into “a with
rane attended by such evolution of heat as melts the hydrate
a falls with water to a white pulverulent hydrate, with
the production of intense heat. Lime similarly treated yields a
heat that will fire sulphur.$
Magnesia in uniting with water is but slightly heated. ||
— Hydrate of baryta loses none of its water under intense
re t.7
5 Fines, of strontia, by long continued red heat, melts, and by
higher heat loses all its water.
Hydrate of lime, by moderate red heat without meing, leas
its water
iieste of magnesia loses its water below the red heat.
VI. Carbonate of baryta, an hour and a half exposed to the
_ Most effective blast furnace heat, loses its carbonic aci
Carbonate of strontia, loses its carbonic acid in the strong heat
of an open fire.
Carbonate of lime is decomposed at a
gue of magnesia loses its priors rite at a moderate
hea’
_ VIL felanise of baryta and selenite of strontia are insoluble
In water.
enard. Ann. Chem. Phys,, viii, 308. Rammelsberg, Pogg., xliv, 558.
+ Thenard. Ann. Chem. Phys viii, 313. + Dobereiner. Schw., vi, 367.
3 Ann. Chem. Phys., xxiii, | H. Davy.
qi Bucholz u. Gehlen, te 258, eee
enham Smit! ix, OES, SEs;
tt Abich, Poge tktiog 814 — rc Ibid a 4
Szconp Szrres, Vol, IX, No. 26,—March, 1850.
as
rahe
De Mie
178 Prof. Horsford on the Relations of
Selenite of lime and selenite of magnesia are slightly soluble
in water.
VILL. Biselenite of baryta dissolves with difficulty in water.
The same is true of the corresponding salts of strontia and
ime.
Biselenite of magnesia is a doughy deliquescent uncrystalliza-
le salt
IX. Selenate of baryta is as little soluble as the sulphate.*
Selenate ial magnesia is equal in est ap to the sulphate.t
odi barium crystallized with an atom of water, is
readily sclnbie in water, but does not ieccmins upon exposure to
the air.{ It is deliquescent.¢ It is not fusible.
Iodid of strontium is readily soluble in water.|| It is fusible
below red heat.
ssbeape iodid of calcium may be crystallized. m deli-
quesces on exposure to the air,1 and fuses below red hea
Hydrated iodid of magnesium crystallizes with difficulty, and
deliquesces readily.
Il Retiiaisnwiiti when heated by access of air, into metallic
oxyds
XI. “Todate of baryta with one atom of water is soluble in 1746
parts of water at 15° C. and in 600 of boiling water.** —
Todate of strontia with six atoms of water is soluble in 342
parts of water at 15° and in 110 of boiling water.tt
Iodate of lime with five atoms of water Soecluenl in 253 parts
of water at 15° C. and in one hundred and ten parts of boiling
ater.
Iodate of magnesia is soluble in water, but has not been further
examin
XIL a mf barium with two atoms of water is unaffected
by exposure
Bromid of ae with six atoms of water loses its water at
a feeble heat.¢
Anhydrous bromid of calcium deliquesces rapidly in the air.
That with one atom of water crystallizes with difficulty from the
solution of bromid of calcium
XIII. Bromates of baryta, strontia, lime and magnesia crystal-
lize with water, the first three with a single atom
Bromate of baryta loses its atom of water not below 200° C.
Bromate of strontia by 120° C., bromate of lime by 180° C.
and bromate of magnesia at ordinary temperatures.
XIV. Bromate of baryta dissolves in 130 parts of cold water.
* Berz. Pogg., xxxii, 11. + Berz. Schw., xxiii, 454.
pes Leos Lussac, § O. Henry. | Gay Lussae.
Berthemot. J. Pharm., xiii, 416.
ie _ ++ Ibid. tt Ibid. $$ Léwig.
+
Barium, Strontium, Calcium and Magnesium. 179
Bromate of strontia in three parts; bromate of lime in 1-1 parts,
and bromate of magnesia in 1:4 parts.
XV. When chlorid of barium is formed by leading the vapor
of hydrochloric acid over heated baryta, the decomposition is at-
tended with the evolution of heat anda red light. The same
phenomena occur in the similar production of chlorid of stron-
ium.
That of chlorid of calcium is attended with heat only.
Chlorid of magnesium cannot be formed in this manner.
XVI. The specific gravity of anhydrous chlorid of barium is
37037, of chlorid of strontium 2°8033, of chlorid of calcium
2-0401.+ |
XVII. When heated in dry air, chlorids of barium, strontium
and calcium become alkaline; while chlorid of magnesium re-
mains unchanged.
XVUL Crystallized chlorids of barium and strontium do not
change upon exposure to the air.
he chlorids of calcium and magnesium deliquesce rapidly
upon exposure to the air.
XIX. Chlorid of barium is soluble in from 8108-6885 parts
of nit alcohol, of 99-3 per ct., and in 4875 parts of boiling al-
coho
Chlorid of strontium is soluble in from 116-4-111°6 parts of
cold and in 262 parts of boiling alcohol of 99:3 per ct.t
; XX. Chlorate of baryta requires four parts of water for its so-
ution. -
Chlorates of strontia, lime and magnesia deliquesce in the air.
XI. Chlorate of baryta is insoluble in alcohol.
Chlorates of strontia, lime and magnesia are soluble in alcohol.
XIL Fluorid of barium is readily soluble in hydrochloric
and nitric acids.
Fluorid of calcium is slightly soluble in boiling acids, and
fluorid of magnesium scarcely at all in cold or hot acids. :
XXIII. Fluorid of barium is soluble in aqueous hydrofluoric
acid ; fluorid of strontium less; fluorid of calcium a mere trace,
and fluorid of magnesium not at all. ss
XXIV. Nitrites of baryta and strontia do not change in air.
Noseciees of lime and magnesia deliquesce upon exposure to
e air.§
XY. Nitrate of baryta requires 20 parts of water at 0° for
solution. Nitrate of strontia 5 parts of cold water. Nitrates of
lime and magnesia deliquesce most rapidly in the air.
XVI. Nitrates of baryta and strontia are not soluble in alco-
hol. Nitrates of lime and magnesia are soluble.
* Rammelsbere. Pogg. Ann., lii, 81. + Karsten.
+ Fresenius, Licbign Ann., Bd. lix. 117-128. $ Mitscherlich.
180 Prof. Horsford on the Relations of
XXVII. Carbonate of baryta is soluble in 14137 parts of cold,
in 15421 of boiling water. Carbonate of strontia in 18045 parts
cold water. Carbonate of lime in 10601 of cold and 8834 of
boiling water.*
XXVIIL Oxalate of baryta with one atom of water is soluble
in 200 parts of cold or boiling water.t
Oxalate of strontia with one atom of water is insoluble in wa-
tert—even in boiling water.$
xalate of magnesia with two atoms of water only very slight-
ly soluble in water.|| ,
X XIX. Formiate of baryta is soluble in 4 parts of cold water.1
Formiate of lime in 8 parts of cold and in 10 parts at 19° C.**
Formiate of magnesia is soluble in 13 parts of cold water.tT
XXX. Sulphovinate of baryta is soluble in 0-92 parts of water
at 17° C.tt
_ Sulphovinate of lime is soluble in 0:8 parts of water at 17° C.$$
XXXI. Acid urate of baryta is insoluble in water. That of
strontia somewhat soluble in hot water. That of lime of diffi-
cult solubility. That of magnesia, is soluble in 3500-4000 parts
of cold. and 150-170 parts of boiling water.||||
XXXII. Neutral alloxanate of baryta is less soluble than the
corresponding salts of lime and magnesia.
XXXIIL The above salts of lime and magnesia are somewhat
soluble in alcohol. - The salt of baryta-is not.
IV. Ferrocyanid of barium (Ba,Fe Cy,) dissolves in
xXx
584 parts cold,*** 1800,++ and in 116 parts of boiling water.{tt
Ferrocyanid of strontium dissolves in 2 parts of cold and 1 of
boiling water.$$$
Ferrocyanid of calcium deliquesces in the air.|\||||
Ferrocyanid of magnesium with 12 atoms of water dissolves
in 3 parts of water.119
It is to be regretted that other properties, including specific
gravity, specific heat and light-refracting and heat-conducting
power have been so little studied. Still, enough of correspondence
and gradation among the properties of the compounds 0 this
group has been shown to establish the general proposition that
the intensities of their chemical attributes are in the order of
the atomic weights of the metals, and lead to the conviction
_ that other attributes might be found to be in similar gradation ©
intensity.
i sakileeiaeieclo
i
* Fresenius. Liebig’s Ann., Bd. lix, s. 117-128.
8. 3
Bucholz. Taschenbuch, 18. 1 t Scheele. § Wackenroder.
Graham. € Arvidson. ** Gobel. ++ Arvidson.
$$ Marchand. || Bensch, Liebig’s Ann., liv, 189-208.
_ §§ Schlieper, Liebig’s Ann, Bd. ly, s. 272-279. *#** Duflos. +++ Porret.
43+ Duffos, $88 Bette. Ann. Pharm, xxviii, s. 54, ||| tttner.
- |FF Bette. Ann. Pharm., xxii, 8,152; xxiii,s.115.
-
’
Barium, Strontium, Calcium and Magnesium. 181
The resistance to the passage of an electric current through the
fluid solutions of these bodies might, it was conceived, be in the
order of their atomic weights. ) |
To ascertain if this supposition were founded, an apparatus
was employed an account of which has been published in my
paper upon the resistance of fluids to electric conduction,* and
may be referred to here, as a perusal of this description will
ss necessary in order to the appreciation of the application of
the law
The fluids employed were nitrates, hydrochlorates and acetates
of baryta, strontia, lime and magnesia.
The baryta and strontia salts were prepared from the sulphids
(derived from the native sulphates by reduction with charcoal
and rye meal); the lime salts from the hydrate, and the magnesia
salts from magnesia alba.
he barium and strontium sulphids were dissolved in the
several acids with slight excess of acid filtered, neutralized by
addition of hydrates of baryta and strontia to the respective so-
lutions, concentrated by evaporation, crystallized, and the crystals
washed and dissolved.
The hydrate of lime was dissolved in the several acids, the
solutions kept alkaline by excess of lime to precipitate the iron,
filtered, and accurately neutralized. :
The magnesia alba, with the aid of heat, was dissolved in the
several acids and carefully neutralized.
A saturated solution of chlorid of barium, the least soluble of
the salts employed, at 16° C., had a specific gravity of 1-042.
he solutions of the other chlorids and remaining salts were with
great care brought to the same degree of dilution. 'T'wo series of
results were obtained with the solutions of chlorid of barium and
water, presenting in an equal length and breadth of liquid, twice
the depth. It will be seen that the resistance was very nearly
The solutions of 1-042 specific gravity were then successively
Placed within the galvanic-circuit, and a constant length, breadth
and depth of the liquid maintained, and the obstruction they pre-
sented to the electric current replaced by windings of German
ee
182 Prof. Horsford on the Relations of
Specific gravity of liquid, . é ,
Cross section of liquid
Length of layer, : ; . ‘
Strength of battery, 5 Bunsen’s pairs.
> ° * *
1-042
0-:00172 M.
04M.
The exceptions in relation to the results under II. and III. have
already been alluded to.
Column A contains the number of experiments ; column B, the
degrees of deflection of the magnetic needle as indicated by the
galvanometer; column C, the windings and decimal fractions of
‘windings of German silver wire, as indicated by Wheatstone’s
Regulator.
Tasie I.
BaO, HCI BaO,HCl ‘[SrO, HCl SO, HCl CaO, HCI MgO, HC!
r IL I IL.
BiB c Bj @ B B B C B ©
1| 14° | 87-42 [14° 86:04 [14°] 24:07 |15°} 28-68 (16°13) 299-98 |16°15" 93-18
2/11 | 8960 [12 | 3810 13 | 27°91 (12 | 27-04 22-90 119 | 21°87
3| 12 | 8550 |.. | .... 15 | 2662 [12 | 26-78 15 30| 22-95 |16 22-80
4/18 | 3400 |. wees {13 | 2688 |..°} .... [15 30] 23°84 [14 93-71
5 ae Se Wi a Oe Deeg 7 21-75 |....| 22°89
Average,| 36:63 87-07 |.. | 2656 2750 | .... | 2288 |....| 2289
The subsequent experiments were made with the platinum
diaphragms “25 M asunder, the specific gravity 1042 and the
remaining conditions the same as in the experiments above re-
corded.
It will be observed that the resistance is pretty nearly in the
tio of the diminished length of the layer of liquid in the case
of the hydrochlorates. The want of precise correspondence was
ascribed to the presence of chlorine upon the platinum plates pro-
ducing the effect of so-called polarization. The odor of'chlorine
was remarked in the experiments with the hydrochlorates.
Taste II,
’ feet ery BaO, HCl SrO, HC] | CaO, HCI
| No, of |p ig..,; | Windings |... | Wind “Windi :
» |Deflection 8° | Deflection N88 | Deflection! Wimdings | nefection
| <@Xperi- f Ger n f Germar eee | scree
sad t. of needle, silv a cine. of needle. pe then wite sé of needle,| of German of needle,|*" *
ee ee 20°3 42° 17-09 16° 15°12 18°
2 bas 20°73 4 7:38 ii 15°19 Ns
3 | - 21°93 14 ‘30! 17°36 . 515 _
4 - 20°45 - 17°81 = 470 ”
5 ws 20°98 14 17-97 < 15°10 re
6 " 21°75 4 17:89 * 15°30 i
7 7 20°75 ” 17°65 = 14°54 i
8 “ 9028 “ 17°10 “ ] 503 “
2-29 « 20°04 A 16°93 bad 3
10 ” 20°18 * 17-00 bi "
ll “ 20°94 e 17-03 fr *
wh? +“
eed |
20-76 | 1784 15-01
Barium, Strontium, Calcium and Magnesium. 183
Taste III.
(BuO NOs BaONOs) | Sr0,NO5|______ CaO, NOg|______|Mg0, NOs
No, of Windings |_ ._.. _| Windings 5, , ...__| Windings cd Wind
Refedion| 83 Inefection| ‘Y'™@!988 Deflection is gene mgs
experi- f G (Gs f Ge f
‘nent. les Siver wire, Of needle. or er wire, OF Needle! Civ er wire. lf Heedle.| Of German
1 4° 31-25 14° = 81 17 20:29 16° 17°66
115 29°47 16 21:41 17:97
8 “ 30:25 “ 29°26 “ 20°47 “ 17-90
4 « 31-78 “ 28-90 “ 21:10 “ 84
5 “ 30:00 “ 29:10 15 21°39 “ 17-99
6 S 31-20 4 28°7 i 20°81 7 17°72
7 y 30°28 4 28°50 . 20°02 « 17-28
8 s 80°07 | “ 28:12 4 21:57 as 17°85
9 « 30°37 “ 29°29 es 20°45 “ 17°01
10 ee 30-00 “ 28-40 . 20:20 % 1
11 « 30-08 “ « 20°10 “ 17-21
“ 20°00 “ 17°62
“ 20°01 « 17-57
“ 20°15
“ 20°58
Average | 3058 28-90 20°57 17°62:
Taste LY.
a erate *BaO, A SrO,A | CaO, A MgO, A
ae Le | Wisdings Ee A | Ng eR dings
:_ |Deflection| "Y ™4!88 Deflection 8 Defioetians Deflection!
experi- f Ge f Ge
ment. of needle. tama 0 of needle, a of n dle. Civer pon of needle. Bets wire
1 9°30! | 3448 | 12° 86°33 | 12°30! | 36-42 12° 35°26
« 402 | * 36°00 | 11 3612 « 34-60
3 . 34:00 | 12 30] 36°97 9 30 | 3662 “ 35°08
4 :* 34:50 m 36:00 00 “ 35°29
5 i“ 34.90 " 36°55 8 30 | 35°31 “ 35°69
6 . 34:26 - 37°39 - 35-00 “ 35°45
7 “ 36°18 « 35-25 « 35°04
8 “ 37-25 “ 35°39 “ 35°09
9 “ 36°27 “ 35°60
10 «“ 37-02
11 “ 37° ‘
12 “ 36-08
13 “ 36°
14 “« 8T15
Average! $42:95 36:50 35°63 35:18
SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
Salts. Atomic weights. Results
I. Il. lll.
BaO, HCl, ; 152-0 36°63. 37:07 20°76
Sr0, HCl. . 88:3 26°56 27:50 17:34
CaO, HCl, . 64:5 22:88 — 15-01
MgO,HCi, . 56:7 BO cen, 14:54
IL
BaO, NO, nan ‘ i 130°5 30-58
SrO, NO ‘3 a . 1068 28°90
CaO, NO acu 82-0 20°57
yNO,; 742
* Length of liquid section ‘20 M. ¢ 20 gave 34:36, ‘25 would give 42°95.
/
184 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
III. ae
Rav, Aes ee TS 42-95
SrO, A, ne ea Se 3650 ~
000, Ao ge ees ee ERO 3563 +
MgO, A, 712 35:18 =
The above results led to the conviction that all the attributes
of these metallic bases and their compounds would probably be
found intense in the order of their atomic weights, a conviction
which I expressed after presenting a summary of the foregoing
results, to the meeting of the American Association in 1847.
I then projected the scheme of decomposing the several
salts of these bases by transmitting steam over them while sub-
jected to heat. Circumstances prevented my realizing this inten-
tion, and in the following year, Mr. Tilghman of Philadelphia, to
whom my researches could not have been known, as they had
not been published, announced the results of a series of most
important experiments—under the head of ‘* Decomposing power
of water at high temperatures.”* ioe
Mr. Tilghman found that, while a moderate heat was required
to decompose sulphate of magnesia with the aid of steam, a higher
one was necessary for sulphate of lime, a still higher one for sul-
phate of strontia, and the highest of all for sulphate of baryta.
‘Thus, their susceptibility to decomposition is in the order of
their solubility, viz.—
1. MgO, SO, S. BeO, e,.
2. Ca0,8O, 4. BaO,SO,
This research fulfilled my expectations, and it would seem
that there can be little hazard in considering the above facts as
7 soe of a natural law applying to the group of the alkaline
earths.
Art. XXI.—On the American Prime Meridian ; by Professor
J. Lovertne, of Harvard University.
As extensive circulation has been given in the pages of this
valuable Journal and otherwise to the views and arguments of
those who advocate the adoption of an American prime merid-
jan, it is incumbent on those who entertain serious objections to
this important measure to state them fully and frankly; and, 1
possible, in season to prevent the consummation of a change
which they consider uncalled for by the necessities of science and
( iS to commerce. The remarks which I propose to make,
at this time, are substantially the same as were prepared in reply
* Chem, Gaz., 1848, p. 181.
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 185
toa printed circular addressed to me; which, as it expresses the
history of the measure so far as it has yet proceeded, more felici-
tously than I can hope to do, I take the liberty of introducing
here as the preface to what I have to say.
step in my progress.
Mr. Preston, in his reply (dated August 7) to this communica-
tion, directed me “to bring the subject of an ‘American Prime
Meridian’ before the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, to convene at Cambridge, Mass., on the 14th instant,
for the purpose of soliciting the opinions of the principal mathe-
maticians and astronomers upon that highly interesting subject.”
In compliance with these instructions, I submitted to the Asso-
ciation a paper,* the same in substance as my letter to the Hon.
Secretary, which, upon motion of Professor A. D. Bache, Super-
intendent of the U. 8S. Coast Survey, was referred to a committee,
consisting of twenty-two members, (whose names are subjoined, )
with instructions ‘to send a copy of their Report to the Hon.
William Ballard Preston, Secretary of the Navy.’
A meeting of as many of this committee as were then present
was held, and a sub-committee, consisting of Lieut. Davis, Prof.
Bache, and Lieut. Maury, was appointed to conduct the corres-
pondence, and to execute the instructions of the Association.
The persons composing the whole of this committee are so
remote from each other as to preclude the possibility of a general
Meeting to discuss this question, and agree upon any common
report; it has been determined, therefore, as the best means of
obtaining their views, to address each member of the committee
Separate]
Accordingly, I have the honor, as chairman of the sub-commit-
tee, to transmit to you a copy of the paper presented to the Asso-
ciation by myself, and also of another paper on the Prime Meri-
dian, by Professor Holton, referred to the committee, and to as
Your earl y attention to this communication. #
* See this Journal, viii, 394, November, 1849.
Srconp Sxries, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 24
186 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
These papers will serve to suggest the principal topics to which
your attention is invited, and will, I hope, lead to a free commu-
nication of your views and reflections. It is not impossible that
the letters of the committee may be hereafter officially called for ;
you are requested to state, therefore, whether you object to hav-
ing your letter printed, and, if no objection is given, I shall feel
authorized to make it public, if required.
Very respectfully, Your obedient servant,
HARLES Henry Davis,
Lieut. U.S. Navy, Sup’t Nautical Almanac.
Prof. Joseru Loverine, University at Cambridge, Cambridge.
List of the Committee on the Prime Meridian.
Prof. A. D. Bacue, Sup’t U.S. Coast Surv’y.| Prof. Josern Lovertne, Cambridge
Lieut. M. F. Maury, Sup’t Nat. Observat’y. Prof. Winu1 mytx, Bowdoin College
Prof. F ARNARD, Univ. te of Ala. Prof, Josep Wintock, Shelby Coll. Ky
Prof. Lewis R. Grippers, Charleston, S.C. | .Gro. W.C ry, St.James’s Coll, K
Prof. Epwar Cou AY, Univ. of Prof. Cur.ry, Georg n Colleg
SrerpHen ALEXANDER, Princeton Coll. Prof. J. 8. rn, Franklin Coll, Tenn
Prof. Joun F. Frazer, Univ. of Penn. \Prof. James Pures, Univ. of N
of. H. J. Anperson, New York. ‘Prof. Wu. H. C. Bartierr, West Point.
Prof. O. M. Mircuett, Cincinnati. \Prof. Enenezer 8. Sveti, Amherst Coll.
Prof. A. D, Srantey, Yale College. 'Prof. A.exis Caswet1, Brown University.
Hon. Wm. Mironett, Nantucket. ‘Lieut. C.H. Davis, Sup’t Nauti’l Almanac.”
In reply to this circular, I addressed the following remarks, in
substance, to Lieut. C. H. Davis, the chairman of the sub-com-
mittee of the Committee of the American Scientific Association
on the American prime meridian.
Engagements which could not be postponed have prevented
me from giving a more prompt reply to the circular addressed to
the committee of the American Scientific Association to whom
Ing seems to me to compare in practical importance with this.
he real question I have to consider is whether, after having
continued to count our longitudes from Greenwich since we have
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 187
had a political existence, we shall now abandon that prime me-
ridian and substitute an American one in its place. 'The Com-
mittee of Congress to whom was referred, on the 25th January,
1810, the memorial of William Lambert, recommended that “in
order,” as they say, “to lay a foundation for the establishment
of a first meridian in this western hemisphere,” it is expedient to
make provision by law for determining the longitude of Wash-
ington and procuring the necessary instruments for this purpose.
No action appears to have been taken by Congress on this report
of the committee. Although the subject for many sessions was
pressed upon the two houses and various reports were made upon
it, it was not until the 3d March, 1821, that a joint resolution
g _
time which committed it on the latter question. After the reso-
we generally find on the opposite side of the map the corres-
ponding longitudes as measured from Greenwich. In more im-
portant matters, as the regulation of chronometers, the construc-
tion of sea-charts and whatever relates to geography and astron-
omy as well as to navigation, the custom is universal of counting
our longitudes from Greenwich. Lieut. Maury has followed this
custom in his charts of winds and currents, and Professor A. D.
che has done the same in his maps of the coast, although he
also gives the longitudes as measured from some one of the
American meridians.
In 1810, the late Dr. Bowditch declared the meditated change
ject to a Nautical Almanac or a National Observatory, but he con-
Sidered a good survey of the coast more necessary than either.
bility for want of a National Observatory and an American Nau-
tical
188 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
an Almanac and such an Observatory to be the only effectual
way of bringing an American meridian into use even by our own
countrymen, advantage has been taken of this language to prove
that, at the present day, this high authority must be considered
in favor of an American prime meridian. Such an inference is
do
practicable it is therefore to be desired; and
at least, it is wholly unwarrantable. Whoever will consult the pa-
pers of ‘Dr. Bowditch on this subject in the ninth and tenth vol-
umes of the Monthly Anthology, will be convinced that the prin-
cipal force of his argument against an American prime meridian,
is just as pertinent in 1850 as it was in 1810. With or without
an American Nautical Almanac, Dr. Bowditch condemned an
American prime meridian as an innovation which would not be
“ attended with one real advantage.”
In a Nautical oom: the preins object of which is to give
the places of the sun and moon among the stars and planets, at
frequent intervals iat the whole day, it becomes necessary to
select some spot on the earth as the origin of absolute time and
the first meridian for longitudes. The superintendent of the
American Nautical Almanac is now called on to make his selec-
tion. But the establishment and perfect success of an American
Nautical Almanac will in no degree be promoted by the selection
of an American first meridian, as the basis of its calculations.
Lieut. Davis observes: “Our National Observatory at Washing-
ton must have existed half a century before it will be able to
furnish independent observations sufficient for the, determination
hese
=
==)
a
a
oO
eo
oO
ive)
@
5
ee
fe)
gg
utility.”
Thus it appears that the materials and whatever is most valuable
and spp for the calculation of an American Nautical Al-
will be and must be borrowed from Europe for many years.
I see no reason why we should scruple to reckon from our 0
prime meridian, even if it do intersect countries to which we lie
under such heavy scientific obligations. Certainly, if the British
Nautical Almanac is calculated for Greenwich, the American may
be also. If both are based on the same identical —— it
ean make no difference, either in the dispatch or accuracy of the
work, whether the calculations are made at Greenwich or at
Washin ngton. Indeed, I think it will appear hereafter that @
Nautical Almanac, wherever calculated, which relies on Euro-
pean observations, can be calculated more accurately for an Eu-
ropean prime meridian than for an American meridian.
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 189
Let us next consider the chief aim contemplated in the estab-
lishment of a Nautical Almanac. ‘here can be uo doubt that
the British Nautical Almanac, at least, was designed for the benefit
of seamen exclusively. Before its foundation in 1767, each navi-
gator calculated the places of those bodies which he used in his
reckoning for longitude directly from the tables. Thus he was
liable to an error of a degree or about sixty geographical miles,
in assigning his position at sea. Then it was proposed that the
places of the moon and other useful bodies should be calculated
from the tables by able astronomers: that these places, corres-
ponding to short intervals during the day, should be published ;
tested in manifold ways by expert computers, must vastly trans-
cend in accuracy the best that could be made by the most skilful
sailor amid the other duties, vexations and perils incident to his
profession. Such I believe to have been the design of Nautical
Almanacs, whenever and wherever they have been instituted.
he same considerations dictate that no innovations, such as
the change of an established prime meridian, whereby fresh per-
Plexities and dangers may be entailed on a profession already too
much exposed to uncertainty in every form, should be made with-
Out the most clear exhibition of their necessity. I do not sup-
pose that an American sea-captain, qualified to navigate a ship
across the Atlantic, is incapable of understanding the relations of
different meridians, and of allowing, whenever he compares his
reckoning with that kept on board a British vessel, for any differ-
€nce which may hereafter exist in the established prime meri
lans of Great Britain and the United States. I only say that this
labor, which might generally be done with accuracy, would occa-
Sionally lead to mistakes and ought not to be required of the
havigator, unless there is some uncontrollable necessity for it.
Otherwise, the very class of men for whose benefit an American
Nautical Almanac should be designed, will be the most injured by
it. I object, therefore, to any change in the prime meridian to
Sources and their science, have estab a prime meridian in
190 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
their own territories: why should not the United States? The
example of the European governments can have little value for
us in a nautical point of view. Their commerce on the ocean is
comparatively circumscribed ; and even did they adopt the prime
meridian of Greenwich, they are debarred from a free intercourse
with each a and with British and American vessels by a
strange langua Besides, in countries where the people, from
their habits or <n landlocked position, are so much more with-
drawn from maritime pursuits than we are, we should expect that
their almanacs would consult more the want of astronomers and
less the convenience of navigators. There is not one of these
rts
learned by experience the folly of an assumed independence
which worked for them real mischief, have already begun to re-
trace their steps back to Greenwich.
own experience and judgment are worth more than
the example of any foreign nations. We speak the same lan-
guage as the British navigator: why should we be at pains to
learn a different scientific dialect? Why should we endeavor to
forego all the innumerable advantages we derive from our com-
mon origin, and discard an existing : agreement in regard to scien-
tific standards which other nations have striven so long and
hopelessly to consummate? The communication of Lieut. Davis
does ample justice to the importance of an universal prime me-
ridian. There is no reason to believe that a single first meridian
can ever be established by the common consent “of nations. Al
desire it, but how many will agree u pon the choice? Let us not,
in the pursuit of this chimera, “adopt the temporary expedient of
an American prime meridian, and thus renounce an inheritance
to which we were born; throw the whole of this great good to
the winds: and postpone, as we must for centuries, the realization
of the grand desire of all hearts for a universal meridian. So
long as America and Great Britain continue to use a single prime
meridian, they alone can make that meridian, for all oo
nautical purposes, a universal prime meridian, and we at least
shall enjoy, not in prospect but in ery fruition, all te sub-
stantial wea of such a meridia
The foregoing remarks are Evers to show that the adoption
of an American prime meridian will violate the spirit in whic
other governments have established Nautical Almanacs, and will
entail upon the commerce of the c country, for several os
if not forever, an amount of daily inconvenience and danger
which, in the aggregate, cannot be overestimated.
I now propose to consider the reasons that are urged in favor
of an American prime meridian. ‘The only reason of a scientific
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 191
character which has been given for the proposed change 1s
founded upon the slight error which still affects the best deter-
mined American longitudes as reckoned from Greenwich, arising
from our ignorance of the exact breadth of the Atlantic ocean.
Assuming the uncertainty which still exists in the corrected lon-
gitude of Boston to amount to two seconds of time, as stated by
Lieut Davis, this is equivalent to an error of about half a mile in
longitude. Half a mile, under the circumstances, is a large error
for the astronomer; but to the navigator, who will compare it
with other errors to which he is exposed, it will appear quite in-
significant. 'The best chronometers, transported in the Britis
teamers between Liverpool and Boston, are liable to vary four
seconds. The errors incidental to the lunar method of calcula-
Sea. hether the error is large or small, important or unimpor-
tant, the proposed change of the prime meridian from Greenwich
age with its chronometers arranged to an American prime merid-
‘an. The same difficulties will reappear, though in an inverted
order. ‘The captain leaves home with his chronometers set to
true American time, but he cannot tell within two seconds the
longitude of his European port, and on this account, when he is
Omeward bound, his chronometers must be stamped by the same
error of two seconds. In other words, if we do not know the
€xact distance from Liverpool to Boston, neither do we know any
192 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
counted from an American prime meridian. The importation of
a prime meridian from Europe to our own territories will not, I
conclude, operate for the improvement of our navigation.
Neither do I believe that our knowledge of American geogra-
phy will be advanced by an American prime meridian. ‘The
longitudes of a large number of places in the United States have
already been determined with great accuracy by the usual astro-
nomical methods or by the transportation of chronometers; and
the relative differences of longitude between the principal spots
on our coast and those cities and observatories whose longitudes
are best known will be assigned through the operations conducted
by the excellent superintendent of the U. States Coast Survey.
Were all our longitudes to be calculated from observations of
eclipses, occultations or transits, so rapidly is the number of o
servatories and observers increasing over the whole country, there
is reason to believe that the capital places in all the states and ter-
ritories would be determined in this way, if not with absolute
precision, with all the accuracy that is wanted for the construction
of a correct geographical map of the United States. In this case,
owever, not only might the absolute distances from Greenwich
slightly fluctuate, but the relative distances from each other also.
For we could hardly expect that the longitudes of all these places,
as measured independently from Greenwich, would be determin
with equal precision. We should rather suppose that the meridi-
ans most remote from Greenwich and less crowded by population
would not, in general, be projected so carefully as the nearer an
older meridians. But the transportation of chronometers from
place to place will give our relative longitudes independently of
any uncertainty as to the exact distance between the eastern and
e permanent. Moreover, the superintendent of the U. States
coast survey has applied with triumphant success the admirable
telegraph of Professor Morse to the determination of the long!
tudes of places intersected by the telegraphic wires. The coun-
try is already traversed, in every direction, by the grand tele-
graphic lines, and these will be crossed in a few years, at a mul
titude of points, by a finer network. If we wait this short time,
our relative longitudes will be ascertained with a precision, @
simplicity and an economy wholly unprecedented as yet in the
scientific history of any country in the world ; and without any
reference to our first meridian, whatever it may be. ‘The map
and the meridians upon it will never fluctuate. The floating
error to the extent of half a mile in regard to the exact distance
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 193
between Greenwich and Washington, or any other spot in Amer-
ica, this error or uncertainty in regard to the breadth of the At-
lantic ocean on which so much stress is laid, can produce no more
derangement in a map of the whole or any part of the United
States, than when we push a map from one side to the other of
our table. If we desire to unite a map of the United States with
a map of Europe so as to form a map of the world, then the un-
certainty in question will manifest itself. But no alteration in
our prime meridian from one place to another will remove or di-
minish it; it is absolutely insurmountable. After we have made
our map of the United States and drawn the meridians upon it,
the selection of numbers to describe these meridians is a question
of convenience rather than of scientific accuracy. If we count
these meridians from Greenwich, the difference of two numbers
will give the relative difference of longitude between the two
meridians to which they are affixed. These differences will be
permanent, though the absolute numbers may change by some
constant quantity, and the differences as well as the absolute
numbers may be placed upon our maps and charts if the conven-
lence of those who use them requires it.
I am not able to see that any other scientific operations will be
materially affected by the substitution of an American prime me-
ridian for that of Greenwich. I do not see that the details of the
American Nautical Almanac or the calculations of those who use
it, whether astronomers, navigators or engiveers, will be ensured
any greater accuracy by the establishment of an American prime
n
meridian,
extent, all our calculations for practical and scientific purposes,
until either the uncertainty itself is removed, or we are prepared
to make American science in spirit as wel] as in form, wholly in-
dependent of those precious results which centuries of labor have
garnered up at the venerable observatories of Europe. If we
¥ i ated i
I speak, though it does not
ns. An astronomical epheme-
long series of American observ-
ations would, I doubt not, be better adapted to the wants of
merican astronomers and serve more effectually the purposes of
Serigs, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 25
194. Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
American science than any arrangement which can be made under
existing circumstances. No one looks more confidently to the
future to realize this maturity of American astronomy than I do;
and no one, certainly, will more gladly hail it when it shall have
arrived. Long before the advent of that happy day, the princi-
pal difficulty which American astronomers now experience will
have vanished of itself. For it cannot be that the costly and
elaborate operations which the government are now conducting
under the supervision of the superintendent of the coast survey,
with the object of ascertaining with greater nicety the difference
of longitude between Cambridge, U.S. and Greenwich, will be
il.
I am aware that an American prime meridian would he of
some convenience to the single observatory through which it
might pass. It is possible that an ephemeris, calculated for that
observatory, could be corrected for other observatories on neigh-
boring meridians with a little more dispatch than an ephemeris
calculated for so distant a meridian as that of Greenwich. I pre-
sume, however, that a little more time and care will ensure as
much accuracy in the latter case as in the former.’ At any rate,
if it should appear that the astronomers of the country and oth-
ers whose pursuits, scientific or practical, require them to handle
such an ephemeris, would be essentially accommodated by one
which is calculated for an American first meridian, or if it should
appear that, in the opinion of those who have charge of our prin-
cipal observatories or are otherwise most competent to judge, the
interests of astronomical science would be materially advanced
by such an ephemeris, it may deserve consideration whether one
ought not to be provided for their peculiar benefit and that of the
science which they cultivate. But, in our desire to promote the
science of astronomy, let us not lose sight of the grand aim con-
templated in every nautical almanac ; but let us make that in fact
what it professes to be in name, a manual for the advantage and
security of seamen.
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 195
ence. By the encouragement which we give to the cultivation
of true science in this land, and by the bright example which we
hold up to the world of a just as well as a free government, we
may hope to pay back a part of the great obligation under which
we Stand to the older nations of the world and the time-hallowed
institutions of Europe.
An American prime meridian will make American science in-
dependent in name only, and such an independence can deceive
no one but. ourselves. Certainly, we shall not be so blind as to
be deceived by it. Every thing around us must remind us of
our relations with the old world. Our ships are furnished with \
the chronometers and sextants of Great Britain and France. ur
a century before we shall have created a fund of observations at
our own observatories which will make us independent of similar
institutions abroad. How much longer must we wait before we
shall have American observations made by American instruments?
This is a real dependence. Let us not be humiliated by it, but
rather let us take courage from it to imitate, in due season, the
honorable achievements in science of the older nations of the
But the use of a foreign meridian involves no dependence what-
ever. We do not hesitate to reckon our latitudes from the equa-
tor, though this great circle does not, at present, lie within our
Own territories. Why should we refuse to count our longitudes
from the meridian of Greenwich, even if it be a line intersecting
some foreign country? We borrow nothing from Great Britain
or any other country when we count our longitudes from Green-
wich. It belongs to us and to whoever chooses to use it for this
purpose, as much as to them. It belongs to us as much as the
Kuglish language belongs to us and whatever else that is valua-
ble which we have inherited from our parent of the old world.
It belongs to us, for all scientific purposes, as much as the earth’s
magnetism or the sun’s light and heat; as much as the moon,
planets and stars; as much as the common atmosphere which
warms and feeds us all. There is no property in any of these
things. They are the common property of all who think, all
over the world; and he most possesses who most uses them.
Should Great Britain and America ever agree to adopt an
American prime meridian, it would be a misfortune to us. Should
the nations ever agree upon a universal first meridian, the prayer
of these United States ought to be that it might not pass across
this western continent. Of all nations in the world, we can least
afford to sacrifice our coasters to the perpetual annoyance they
must experience in crossing it. The meridian of New Orleans,
Which is recommended by Lieut. Davis as the first meridian of
196 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
this country, will only furnish a partial remedy for this incon-
venience, especially when we consider the new channels opened
to our commerce by our enlarged sea-coast on the Pacific. The
old maritime nations of the world shifted their first meridian far-
ther and farther westward as their geography and navigation en-
larged, that all their commerce might be conducted on one side
of it. In this respect also, the meridian of Great Britain is better
adapted to the wants of this country than an American prime
meridian.
But we cannot expect that Great Britain or any other foreign
nation will adopt the American prime meridian. Indeed, it is to
be feared that American navigators will not adopt it. They will
prefer the British Almanac, calculated for the meridian of Green-
wich, to an American Almanac calculated for any other meridian.
change is confessedly an advantage to those who adopt it. The
change of the prime meridian from Greenwich to America prom-
ises no good to any class in the community ; it certainly will be
attended by great sacrifices and can contribute nothing to our
honor or our independence.
The following memorial to Congress, has obtained a large num-
ber of signatures in Boston and other seaports of the United
States, and been transmitted to Washington.
“The subscribers, merchants, underwriters, and shipmasters of
Boston and its vicinity, understanding that a communication has
been made by Lieut. Charles H. Davis, of the United States
Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian. 197
Davis. In no single case will the labor of the navigator be abridg-
ed, or his knowledge of his place upon the ocean rendered more
certain; but, on the contrary, the confusion, incident to the intro-
duction of a new meridian into his books, his charts, and his
memory, will be attended with constant perplexity, miscalcula-
tion, and mistake, which must cause a serious increase in the
hazard of all the lives and property under the American flag.
‘Permit us to specify a few of the evils thus predicted :—Ist,
We shall have introduced upon our own coast the east and west
reckoning ; and although, by making the first meridian at New
tleans, most of the coasting trade will be upon one side of the
meridian, yet all vessels passing to the coast of Texas must change
their longitude from east to west, and be subject to all the per-
plexities of that change. 2nd, It is now the common practice
for navigators at sea to communicate to each other their longitude.
This practice is exceedingly useful, and has often led to the cor-
rection of errors which must otherwise have been fatal. But
this is done in the haste of passing, often in storms and partial
darkness,—conditions very unfavorable to hearing and under-
standing with accuracy even the simple numbers that express the
degrees and minutes of longitude. But, if the proposed change
of meridian is adopted, another element must be introduced in all
communications between English and American vessels, and for
a long time between American vessels with each other; and the
failure to give the reckoning as from Greenwich or New Orleans,
or to hear and understand it rightly when given, may involve
ship, cargo, and navigators in one common ruin. , A portion
of the charts used by United States navigators are, and must con-
tinue to be for an indefinite period, of English construction, and
consequently marked with the longitude of Greenwich. To
reduce this to the American standard upon a sudden emergency,
and when perhaps surrounded by danger, cannot be effected, how-
ever simple the operation, by all persons, without occasional
siderations in some way connected with our national independence,
“ Waiving all observations upon the assumed scientific neces-
sity, save the single one that we are unable to perceive that it is
198 Prof. Lovering on the American Prime Meridian.
affected in the least degree by the proposed change, we beg leave
to add a few words regarding an American meridian, as connected
with our national honor or independence. Did we believe it true
that the honor or independence of the United States were in the
least degree affected by counting our longitude from a meridian
line passing through an English Observatory, we would readily
encounter all the evils of a change; but we do not believe that
any such taint rests upon this practice. We received this mode
of counting our longitude, as we received our language, our arts,
our names, our very blood, from England, our parent state. "
meridian of Greenwich belongs to us, in common with the Eng-
lish nation, by right of inheritance from our fathers, who helped
to rear and support the observatory first established there. Our
property in this is more clear than in the compass, the chronometer,
and many other instruments of navigation; and the same pfinci-
ple of an ideal independence, which shall. require us to abandon
the meridian of Greenwich, must require us to abandon most of
our instruments of art, science, literature, and even our language,
for we hold them all by the same tenure; and the question will
come to be, not what we shall resign, but what we shall have
left. Permit us further to observe, that this state of ideal inde-
pendence, in marking the longitude, will not be at all attained
by the change proposed. It is intended by Lieut. Davis to make
the prime meridian completely dependent upon Greenwich. It is
not to be the meridian of any point arbitrarily assumed at New
Orleans, but a line as near as possible to 90 degrees west of Green-
wich, which, by a coincidence purely accidental, passes through
or near New Orleans. Indeed, the necessities for a continued
dependence upon foreign observatories for observations for half a
century is distinctly avowed. Without this foreign aid, the pro-
posed almanac could not be prepared. The change, then, will
be merely nominal. We shall not reckon our longitude really
from New Orleans, but from a point 90 degrees west of Green-
wich ; and the longitude of Washington, for example, will not be
so completely described by saying that it is 12 degrees 56 minutes
east of New Orleans, as by calling it 12 degrees 56 minutes east
of a meridian 90 degrees west of Greenwich.
“In conclusion, and after a review of the whole subject, we can
rceive no reason for abandoning the meridian of Greenwich, or
any other of the common property of civilization. If the use of
the instruments of art or the methods of science, introduced by
other nations, be beneficial to us, the most high-minded and truly
independent and national spirit would seem to dictate, not that
our practice and usages should be changed, but that we should,
by the cultivation and advancement of branches of knowledge,
where our efforts can be useful, repay to mankind the advantages
which we have received from the common stock of civilization.”
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 199
Arr. XXIL—On Perfect Musical Intonation, and the funda-
mental Laws of Music on which it depends ; with remarks show-
ing the practicability of attaining this Perfect Intonation in the
ts Organ ; by Henry Warp Poorer, Worcester, Massachusetts.
(Concluded from page 83.)*
28. Tue opinion has been very generally entertained among
musicians, that there is a peculiar character belonging to each of
e keys. We should not have considered this opinion worthy of
notice in this connection, but for the reason that many have at-
tributed this real, or supposed, peculiar character to temperament ;
for if this peculiarity exists in nature, and is inherent in music
: itself, it\will be especially manifest in a system, or on an instru-
e. ment, of Perfect Intonation. If, however, temperament is the
source of a variety which is so highly appreciated by some, it is
certainly an argument in favor of temperament, and against Per-
fect Intonation.
2 e have before us a musical w
from which we copy the characters, or “complexions,” of severa
tt
sunny. Ab, The most lovely of the tribe ; unassuming, gentle,
pal delicate and tender, having none of the pertness of A in
sha
thority, “the common consent of musicians.” It is not so much
our purpose to oppose this beautiful theory, as to show, that no ar-
§ument can be drawn from it to sustain temperament. If tem-
Perament be assigned as the cause why the key of A differs in
character from the key of Ab, the difference must be found in the
fact that one is tempered differently from the other. If tempera-
* In our article in the last No. of the Journal, we gave a brief account, so far as
We were informed, of all the attempts that have been made to attain Perfect Into-
nation. Since the January No. was issued, our attention has been called, with no little
i a recent No. of the Westminster Review, vol. 50, page 253, Am. ed., in
j to an improvement in the organ, similar to ours, which
i .P. Thompson. Of the details of Col.
bee etly for fort years—the parties being so remote
ing of what the ola was iingit the history of itty ge
, it will illustrate this simple truth, that, in the course of
Perfect Intonation has arrived.
200 H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
ment was adjusted in any uniform manner, through the different
classes of instruments, and by different tuners, there would be a
show of argument, in the fact, for temperament. But we find no
such em Se different instruments are tempered in a widely
ifferent manner ; and on one instrument the key of A is tempered
like the key of Ab on another. If an instrument be tuned in the
equal temperament—which is the more common and popular—
every key is tempered precisely ois and consequently all peculi-
arity from the cause assigned will ar. If an alteration of
pitch, either, be the cause, as some hws supposed, of this peculiar-
ity in the different keys, as instruments often vary from one an-
other, in pitch, a semitone, it will often be difficult to decide which
is the “soft and tender” key of Ab, and the “ pert” key of A. If an
organ be tuned correctly in the key of Ab, (or four flats,) and the
temperature of the room rise a few degrees, the relative pitch of
the whole organ will rise a comma, aud the music played in the
key of four flats will have the character (if this theory be correct)
of the key of eight sharps !*
30. Undo oubtedly, in pees intonation, a certain key is fre-
quently more appropriate for a given composition than any other
key ; but that a certain oe gives to music performed in it, any
such scsi! as we have quoted, is (in our opinion) as fanciful
as to suppose that the size of the canvas determines the character
of the painting. We will suppose a composer has an idea which
he would express in a soft and gentle air; thinking that the char-
acter of Ab, renders it the most appropriate key for the expres-
sion of his idea, he writes his music in that key and arranges It
for a quartette. He executes the music, thus arranged, on his
piano-forte, and the soft and gentle effect desired is produced.
a then gives it to a quartette to perform, without any accompa-
ment. ‘They take their pitch a semitone higher than his Ab,
wee is, exactly i in his * pert” key of A. Would the composer
bE aac is something so very i f the different keys having
different characters, se one tied deny, romans a dot whether pi a the oy had any
aie uch however, we are compelled to s s the fact—it is found in the
books, and is ‘ancl at ba: ni pEn day, by ens teacher of reputation . fog ch one
still doubts the fact, we would refer him umber of the London Quar-
pom Review, vol. 83, p. 21 4 Am. ae wher ind an ele sa ty ten paca ge on “ Mu-
the cha pee yeas complexions of te er pe keys ford the ak a theme
for many sublim arks, as if the theo a, hag nen « A whole
ewa
rt
minor, as in Schubert’s Erl King, and all the Erl kings that we
have Patel A very proper reply to this writer in the Quarterly, can be foun
1 aa Wade rn Notation of Music 0 volume of the West
minster, te lili we Feat ninaaly referred in a previo
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 201
on the flute have different qualities; the high E, for instance, has
a different quality from the Eb; but this is admitted to be an im-
perfection in that instrument, which art has endeavored to ob-
viate. The character of music depends on other things than
the key in which it is written in. Many “soft and tender” com-
positions have been written in Ab, and many of an opposite char-
er.
One key is more appropriate for a composition than another,
-for the reason that there will be employed in that key, a range of
sounds which are best adapted to the quality and compass of the
Voices, or instruments, for which the music was composed. ‘Thus
if a melody of this compass, (an oetave and a fifth,) were written
n
vi
Voice, it would not proba- | e A
bly be placed in the key ma ee
of C, as in that key the x.y oc eae ws cae hee
highest notes would be too EN A VO TO °
high, and the lowest notes rarr€s
too low for convenient ex- iio Meal aveso ga
— Such a melod | ab wail eM “
Would more appropriately Key or F/{()—’—___ ] —
placed ina beac the | seer
Vicinity of F. Assuming
F to be the best key for it, we believe that the nearer the key is
brought to F', the better will be its effect; that is, the key of D
will be better than C, Eb than D, and E better than Eb. Mel-
odies of small compass may be adapted to several keys. In
different collections of musie before us, the Hundredth Psalm—
whose melody is contained in the compass of an octave—is writ-
ten in four different keys, viz., F, G, Ab and A.
- 31. It is necessary to examine more particularly than we have
yet done in this paper, the subject of TEMPERAMENT, if we would
fully understand how far the scale of the common organ, with
twelve notes in the octave, when arranged in the best possible
_ Manner, falls short of fulfilling the requirements of music. As we
shall have frequent occasion to refer to a table we gave in the Janu-
ary No. of the Journal, (25.) we reinsert that table, (see next page,)
for the convenience of those who may not have that No. at hand,
It was shown in (11.) that four prime intervals are employed in
music, viz., the octave, fifth, major third and perfect seventh. It
Szconn Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 26
202 H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
appears from the table that notes which vary by smaller rnc
than a semitone, result from combining these four prime chords.
In temperament, these four chords are disposed of in the follow-
ng manner. ‘The octave is tuned perfect. For the perfect sev-
nth, no provision is made, and it is rejected altogether. ‘The
thirds and fifths remain, to which alone temperament is applied.
ig notes,
inor scales.
Perfect | Perfect
fourths. Fifths.
Key | Major | Major Major
Sixths,
7 Signatures, Nores ‘Seconds Thirds.
Perfect
Sevenths,
Octaves,
Dominant
Sevenths.
Leadin.
M
5 Sharps. |B C#3 |D#2 [e7 |E3 |Fe#3
4 Sharps. |E? FH? (GH? |az (AS |B? [pet E
3 Sharps. |A? B? |C#2 \p7 D? |E? |es1|F#? G7 |G#? |A%
2 Sharps. |D | D
1 Sharp. |G? |A% |B? |c7 C2 (D? (p#1|E? |r7 |F#? G?
Natural, [C2 D2 |B? Fr F2 |G? |g#/A2 |p>7|B? |C?
Flat. |F r 7
2 Flats. |Bh? C2 |D1 jBPM}? |F2 jr#1|G1 |ab7)A2 |Bh?
8 Flats. |Eh? F2 (Gi lab7/Ap? (Bh? [pt IC? 'pb7/D1 |b?
4 Flas. |Ab? Bp? (C? (ob? Dp? |Bp?is! Fi cb7iGt /Ab?
5 Flats, \Dp? |Ep? |F? (cb? Gh? |Ap? (at [Bp lcbz|Ci (Dp?
= exetivie on which it is applied will be seen by the follow-
xainple. In the table there appear two E’s, one obtaine
ey ag a major third from C?, viz., E?, and the other, ES, a
comma higher than the first, obtained by tuning a series of fifths
from the same C?. It is roposed i in tem perament to use one E for
these two. It is anident that if E be tuned rey as a major third
it will be a comma too flat, in a series of fifths; and also, if it be
tuned truly in a series of fifths, it will be a comma too sharp, as
Le >|
|
NN] we
clr
a)
| &
eS cat
jes)
eo
a major third. As the error of a comma is intolerable,* if occur-
ring in one place, it is usually divided among the four fifths, and
correcting opinions on this Prof Pek which, wi e think, are erroneous, we have
already. and shall a again secs ne Peirce’s oktiek “on Sound ;” not because the
which we ta to, or o ith him. hey are
seo: fo ey in other works of f the kind do high authority. We — referred to Prof.
pai eee because it is more common, and the learned Professor is at hand to
us if we err. In treating teageuneas in § 108, he says, “ “The principle on
Wich the ban ction of notes is made, is, that if the notes differ from each other by
only one vibration in eighty, [or a comma,] the ear can hardly perceive the difference
between them, and the substitution of one of them for ng es ty will not ne fatal
Oe
to harmony.” This is another point which the ear must e, and we must se
against the Professors woes Ae vt “onl our own, but the experience of every
tuner. —_ tea ne error of a in me | an inte aap so small that “the ear
can scarcely entach . the einen,” ¥ s twelfth a comma:can be, and is, perceived
core geese tun “a ny hag iat 5 by hich’ es ie a the fifth fiat, in
— rament. ta afth a whole comma fiat, or sharp, is probably +
F fatal to icdammny” as any possible interval.
Pr sae en
a ae ae ot ee =:
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 203
the major third. By flatting the fifths, the third is prevented
from being so sharp, as it would otherwise be; and sharping the
third, will, in like manner, benefit the fifths. Temperament,
therefore, is a compromise between the thirds and the fifths, in
which each gives up more or less of its purity, in order to favor
the other series of intervals.
32. Although temperament may be adjusted in many different
Ways, yet every possible adjustment can be classified under one, or
both, of two general systems, called the meaNn-roNe sysTEmM and
EQUAL TEMPERAMENT. ‘I'he first aims to preserve the perfection
of the thirds; while the latter sacrifices the thirds, and gives
preference to the fifths.
33. The first is called the mean-rone system, for the reason
that, instead of preserving the distinction between the major tone
this temperament, it is tuned a perfect major third from C, or E?,
as we express it, in the table. This E not being high enough,
octave. In this system, a sharp cannot be used as a flat, as it
will be false by the enharmonic diésis, or about two commas. ’
This is the interval by which three major thirds fall short of the
octave, and it is obtained in this manner. Commencing with C, we
tune E,a perfect major third, from this E, tune G#, a major third ;
and from C, an octave above the first, tune downward a major third
to Ab. This Ab is not as low as G#, by the déésis, and GF will
Hot answer at all for Ab. When -q———
common organs, which have but SPO a - EZ
™Many respects, more resemblance than any other temperament,
to the perfect scale. It recognizes a distinction between sharps
and flats, diatonic and chromatic semitones, has perfect major
thirds, and has its minor thirds nearer to perfection, than in any
204 H, W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
other temperament. With these advantages, however, it is justly
censured for its discordant fifths, and its “ wolfishness” when the
modulation is carried into keys, where it is not prepared to play.
. The equal TempeRAMeNT preserves the fifths nearer to
perfection than the mean-tone system, and consequently throws
the discord, or ‘‘ wolf,” (as it is termed by tuners, ) into the thirds.
The fifths, however, although they are favored, are yet not given
in perfect tune. It is found in perfect tuning, that a series of
twelve fifths will end a comma* higher than the note commence
with. In equal temperament, it is designed to make the series
meet, and consequently this comma is equally divided among the
twelve fifths, leaving each a twelfth of a comma flat. If this be
accurately done, the octave will be divided into twelve equal
rts, and one fifth will be equally as good (or bad) as‘another.
To set this temperament, it is only necessary to temper the fifths
carefully, as has been stated, without regarding the thirds at
all. ‘The major thirds will be found sharp, by an interval eight
times as large as the error in the fifths, that is, two thirds of a
comma. The minor thirds will be flat three fourths of a comma,
or the sum of the temperament of the fifth and the major third.
As it is designed, in the equal temperament, to have every chord
of the same name, equally tempered, the necessity of leaving the
thirds in this condition will be further made obvious. The third
part of the octave must be used asa major third, and as three
perfect major thirds do not equal the octave by the diésis, each
third must be sharped, by one third of the diésis, or two thirds of
acomma. Again, the minor thirds must be each, one fourth of
three commas ; this excess therefore is equally divided among
the four minor thirds, and each is left flat, by three fourths of a
comma.
35. The Equal Temperament has this great advantage over
from a better to a worse chord. It can also be demonstrated that
in equal temperament, the swum of the temperament of all the
chords—if the instrument be used in the twelve keys—will be
less than in any other. Any other than the equal system, is sim-
ply an attempt to improve part of the thirds, by sacrificing, not
only the fifths, but the remaining thirds,
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 205
36. The following table will exhibit the temperament of the
principal chords and intervals in the two systems.
EQUAL TEMPERAMENT, SYSTEM,
coca +4 of comma Flat. | } of comma Flat.
Fourths, dy Ta “© Sharp. oc «Sharp.
a” een. «© Sharp Perfect.
Minor Sixths, $d igo i Baas: Perfect.
Minor Thirds, fea: “ Flat. | $ of comma Flat.
Major Sixths, ats “ Sharp} 3 ‘ “© Sharp.
Perfect Sevenths, LA “ “ Sharp.j12 “ “© Sharp.
Major tones and Ninths, 2“ S Blabe dud oF “Flat.
Minor ones, 2 6 “c Sharp 4 66 “ Shar
Diatonic Semitones, | 4 “ “ Flat. | 3 “ “ Sharp
Chromatic Semitones, * “ Sharp. 14 “ “« Flat
Grave chro. Semitones, 155 “ «© Sharp.| ¢ “ Pa
37. If we extend the science of music and musical ratios be-
yond the limits referred to in (8.) the errors from temperament,
in the mean-tone system, will be increased by the addition of the
diésis. As no provision is made in either system of temperament
38. In whatever manner the temperament is set, the best chords
are given imperfect, and this imperfection is so obvious that the
common ear, entirely unskilled in music, can most readily distin-
guish between chords that are tempered, and those that are tuned
Perfectly. We are so constituted, however, (and wisely so, of
It is for the natural and uncontaminated, as well as for the culti-
vated, ear to appreciate fully the beauty and perfection of pure
armony. The best tuners, in our large manufactories are free
to confess that there is but little musical satisfaction in leaving
206 i. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
an instrument, Which has been een carefully in all its pouty
out of tune. —
Notwithstanding the evidence 3 our senses, that the paces
scale is most pleasing to the ear—notwithstanding the sure deduc-
tions from the mathematics, there are those who speak and write
against ere intonation. ‘Why,’ it is asked, ‘if it was in-
tended, in nature, that music should be in perfect tune, “ a tem-
scale been used for so many centuries?” Admit such an
Shjedliae. and there is an end of all invention and diccoter'y, in
this, and every other science. Against the greatest invention of t
age—the ae 3 telegraph—the same objection has equal ied
2 as no mechanism had been invented, by which more than
twelve | iitheds-¢ ea be conveniently managed by the performer,
we should naturally suppose that organ-builders would manufac-
ture such instruments as we have, and give to them the best tune
they could, even if it was somewhat imperfect ; but we might
not have expected, that learned and professedly scientific writers
should have attempted to prove, from this fact, that the nature of
music does not permit its chords to be in perfect tune.* It has
not been customary, so far as our information extends, for those
* Prof. Peirce again says, $115, “It isa aoe to suppose, as pare vd have oat
that temperament applies only to instruments with ke eys and fix =— Sing’
violin-players and all others who can pass throug gh every gradat nof t eae mus
4
ow s
till he could at as ph ree nor = oe : or resi iolin- player accompanying each
other and arriving at the same note by different intervals, would find a continual
want of agreemen
With regard to the meme in the first paragraph, we shall now take occasion
only to say, that the reverse we believe to be true; and it appears to us contradic-
ly #s
the original number ; for this reason, nevertheless, the Professor does not advocate a
temperament in the mathematics, The supposed trou uble with the peso Segoe who
arrive at the same note, by different intervals, is, that they will not arrive at the
ne.
It was perfectly proper to treat of temperament, in a scientific se of this kind,
as showing the best that could be done with twelve pons but we think it is to be
regretted that imperfections should _ been attributed to sasledé as a science,
which pertain only to the construction of musical instruments.
*
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intoi
who profess to treat the natural sciences, to charge mn
imperfections, but rather, if possible, to discover order and system,
where only apparent imperfections were visible. Per
tific writers on music are the only exception to this rule. These
imperfections, however, belong entirely to their theories, and have
no existence in the nature of music. No science—not even the
mathematics—can be more perfect and harmonious than music, in
the department which relates to intonation. ©
39. But melody and harmony do not produce all the effect of
music, for much depends on the quality of tone, rhythm, expression,
¢. Itis therefore possible that tempered music may be ple
ing, if good in these last particulars, although its melody and
harmony be imperfect. But it is certain that, eeleris paribus, the
more perfect the intonation, the more pleasing will be the music.
The importance of absolutely perfect harmony is not equally felt
in all kinds of music. In dance music, for example, the rhythm
stands prominent, and although even here the music would be
best if performed in tune, still, in quick movements, and in the
rapid flight of notes, the attention is diverted from the imperfec-
tion in the intervals.
_ 40. Church ‘music, perhaps more than any other, depends, for
its excellence, almost entirely upon its harmony. From church
beyond the power of the organist to improve it ; in this respect,
in the organ and instruments of this class. In the tempered organ,
the tuner leaves no chord, except the octave, in perfect tune, and
208 5 S, W. Poole.on Perfect Musical Intonation.
ie )
ever the best organist attempts, must be imperfectly
done. So long “adhe organ is used only as a solo instrument, as
for a voluntary, a skillful performer is able in some degree to
cover up the great imperfection in its tune. By great rapidity of
movement, and incessant and startling transitions from key to key,
he may divert the ear from criticising the imperfection of the
chords. ‘Temperament has doubtless done much to form a style,
so prevalent at present among organ players and composers for
that instrument—a style neither dignified nor scientific. Or-
ganists and composers are not to be blamed for this faulty style,
(ora style which would be faulty, if their instruments could play
in tune ;) for being unable to obtain legitimate harmony, and sat-
isfy themselves, or their hearers, with dignified compositions—
which show most conspicuously the defects of a tempered instru-
ment—they resort to other expedients to please, and they astonish
their hearers with remote and wonderful modulations, and feats o
execution. -
42. When played with the choir the defects of the organ are
most perceptible. As the organ usually plays the same parts which
the choir sing, the singers must temper exactly like the organ—
which probably no choir was ever trained to do accurately—or
there will be a continued want of agreement between them.
perfect major third, a child, who has had no musical instruction,
will strike most readily and almost unconsciously, for it is in the
simple ratio of 4: 5, and the ear instantly detects the coincidence
of the vibrations; but a ¢empered major third, two-thirds of @
comms sharp, he knows nothing about; it requires the skill of a
scientific and well-drilled musician, to give it correctly. If the
singers could learn to temper with the organ, it would be at the
sacrifice of that pure harmony which they would make if they
sung in tune without a tempered accompaniment. The ordina-
ry agreement, (or rather disagreement, ) between a choir and organ
accompaniment, can be illustrated to the eye by the following ex-
ample. We will suppose that an organ, tuned in the equal tem-
perament, 1s accompanying a choir, when it is singing the com-
mon chord of C.
Choir, © E fel Bb
| : | | a
Organ, OC I & ee
The key-note of C will, of course, be the same in the organ
and the choir. The fifth G, of the organ will be slightly, but
percetibly, flat, viz., one twelfth of acomma. ‘The third E, of the
organ, will be very discordant with the choir, being two-thirds of
acomma sharp. If Bb, in the chord of the seventh, be added,
the discord will be much greater than in either the fifth or the
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical In
third, the organ being a comma and a quarter to rp.* The
discord is more conspicuous when the organ plays the voce
as above, than when it plays a separate a paniment, as is
sometimes done. A tempered instrument, as a piano-forte, may
properly used in this manner, as an accompaniment y, with-
out impairing materially the perfection of a melody, which is
sung by a voice. *
r many reasons, some of which we have oni. has
long been believed by musicians, that if the organ could be con-
structed to play in perfect tune, and could be managed by the
organist, it would be exceedingly valuable for aiding the songs of
Sacred praise in our churches. It would afford to singers: er-
tain guide and test, and would harmonize perfectly with their
voices, when they sing in a manner most satisfactorily to them-
selves and to all who hear. Having ascertained the notes which
This
ae by Joseph Alley of Newburyport, Mass., and the writer of
is
pleasure, to all who may take an interest in the progress of musi-
Cal science. It plays perfectly within the limits of five s
* Any one, who will notice the singing of a good quartette with a tempered organ,
may perceive the variation and discord of the organ upon these thirds and sevenths,
Particularly the last. For this reason these notes are oftentimes omitted, as in
chants, to the great improvement in the general effect. sood natural singers, who
Sive their thirds and sevenths correctly, on first singing with an organ, have been
d by organists and conductors ignorant of the matter, of singing fat, because
; temperament these notes on the organ were too sharp
Stconn Series, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850.
27
the common tempered organ, and the only addition to the play-
er’s duties, is the management of certain pedals which must occa-
sionally be pressed, when the music modulates into a different
key. he object of these pedals is to enable one finger-key to
open either of two or more valves. For example, if the C# (or
Db) finger-key be pressed when the music is in the scale of one
flat, the note wanted is C#' the leading note to D minor, (see
the table ;) but if the music is in the scale of four flats, a differ-
ent note, Db?, is wanted and is given by the same finger-key.
The A finger-key opens, in the scale of C, the valve to A*, and
the same finger-key opens, in the scale of G, the valve to the pipe
A*. ‘These pedals are equal in number to the scales or signa-
tures in which the organ is designed to play—each pedal belongs
to a certain signature, and they are arranged in their natural or-
der, as follows:
MODULATION PEDALS,
&e., 5b, Ab, 3b, 2b, 1p, 5, 1#, 24, 34, 4#, 5#, &c.
By pressing any one of these pedals, the action is brought into
such a position, that the finger-keys will act on those valves (an
no others,) which are required in the scale to which the pedal be-
on The act of putting down any pedal will always draw up
any other which may be down at the time, and will detach from
the finger-keys every valve not wanted in the scale required.
5. 'To illustrate the practical operation of the organ, we will
take a tune, which is entirely in one diatonic scale, as the “ Hun-
dredth Psalm” in the key of G. On putting down the 1# pedal,
the organ is in readiness to play. The valves of the pipes be-
longing to the scale of G, are connected with the proper finger-
keys, and all others are detached ; consequently, the playing of
this composition on the euharmonic, will be the same as on the
common organ. This however isa simple illustration, and before
we explain a more complicated one, we must speak further of the
plan of the instrument.
46. As but seven, of the twelve, finger-keys are employed to
play the diatonic scale in each key, to the remaining five finger-
keys are brought on and attached, by the same pedal and at the
same time, five other notes, which are set down in the table as
“leading notes of the minor scales” and “ perfect sevenths,” and
three others which belong to the adjoining scales. In each pedal
will be found the following chords, viz., the tonic, the dominant,
and subdominant—the chord of the relative minor (the sixth of
the scale, )—the chord of the mediant (the third, )—the major chor
of the dominant of the relative minor—and the chord of the sev-
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 211
enth upon thestonic. So long as a composition uses no other
chords than these, there will be no necessity, of course, to change
the pedal. But most compositions either modulate into the ad-
joming key, (usually the dominant,) or at least pass into an ad-
Joming scale, by using chords which belong to that scale. When
a complete modulation is made, it is so apparent in the written
music, that no musician of ordinary intelligence can fail to know
it. But as certain chords are borrowed from an adjoining scale,
without a complete modulation being made, and without the
change being indicated by accidentals, the whole difficulty in
playing the organ, will be in not understanding when these chords
occur. A little attention to this point will make it perfectly clear.
47. The chords referred to are only two, viz., the chord of the
relative minor of the subdominant, and the chord of the dominant
seventh. 'The first chord will be found in the subdominant
pedal—the first pedal to the left; the second will be found in the
dominant pedal—the first pedal to the right. Examples of the
chords we will write in the key of C, including the two last,
which would be likely to occur in a composition in that key;
we will write also the notes, which compose each chord, and the
ound. The chord of the relative
pedals in which each are f
2 Sei eri a a
fe i] — = bh -| ia
me Om 4 A — 8 AR a ea Oe
ihe Ald Rass oO eo 7S ee
~@p+ co oS ac aii
C PEDAL | - + « im =. “<2. se. F pep G PED.
Bb7 F7
G2} D? | Cc? | BE? | B2] B? G2 || A? D?
E2| B2. | A?.| C2 | G2]. G#1] E? |} F2 |} B?
C2 | G2 F2 | A2 | B2] E2 C2 Di G2
minor of the subdominant, is founded, mot upon the second of the
Scale, but upon the sixth of the subdominate scale, which note is
4 comma lower than the second of the scale, and is called the
Srave second ; and this chord is called, for brevity, the chord o
grave second. In the example, it will be seen that the only
Teason for pressing the F' pedal is to change the second of the
Seale of C, viz., D2, into the grave second, D', the sixth of the
Scale of F’, Again, in the chord of the dominant seventh, the G
pedal is put down to change the fourth of the C scale, F'*, into
the perfect seventh of the G scale, F'’. !
48. All other chords, than these two, occurring in music, which
require a change of pedal, are indicated in notation by chromatics :
and it is believed that what has already been said is sufficient
to enable any one, who possesses sufficient knowledge to play
the common organ understandingly, to play the euharmonic organ.
/
212 H.W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
hat many who now assume to play the organ im our churches,
would find difficulty in playing their music and making the requi-
site changes with the pedals, we have not the shadow of a doubt.
To such we would recomend a course of study, on the scientific
principles of music; but that any intelligent organist can readily
make these changes, after a few hours’ practice, has now been
the first key below the one which gives the second. It can
obtained also by the usual fingering—if the player prefers—by
changing the pedal as before directed. To obtain the grave
Ss scale, viz., D', we either touch the DD finger-
key, which is first below the second, D2, or we put down the
F pedal and touch the D finger-key. Each scale is furnished, in
like manner, with its grave second.
49. The action—which is the chief mechanical peculiarity in
the construction of the organ, and on which the patent is found-
ed—is of such a nature, that it operates as perfectly in practice
as we designed it in theory, and it is so substantial in its con-
struction, that it will bear almost any amouut of use, and stand
almost any number of years, without getting out of order, or
needing repairs. Tt can be applied to the largest instruments, as
those which contain the four organs, viz., the Great, the Swell,
the Choir, and the Pedal Organs; a single set of pedals will ope-
rate, as described, upon the whole at once.
uch of this paper we have devoted to considering, what
sounds are necessary to a certain number of perfect scales? On
these points we have asked not so much, what is authority? as,
what is truth? We have been compelled to differ from teachers
in this science, to whom we look up with veneration and respect.
So far as our views on these points are original, we commit them,
without anxiety, to the world, to share such a fate as their
merits deserve. But a distinction must be made between our
theory, and our invention. The value of our invention will not
be endangered even if our theory of the musical scale should fail.
Our instrument plays the scale which we believe to be correct.
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation. 213
Our mechanism, however, is as well adapted to play any other
scale, as the one we have adopted. igo we Pe
The ostensible design of our invention is to produce harmony ;
but even those who delight in discord, can find, in our instru-
ment, a source of attraction. By putting down the modulation
pedal belonging, for instance, to the scale of E, and playing in
the scale of Ab, they will be furnished with an amount of dis-
cord, to which our common tempered instruments bear but a
faint approximation. ‘'T'o express the effect, the ordinary term of
“wolf” is weak. If this effect be too severe, any less amount of
discord, or temperament, can be obtained by putting down a less
remote modulation pedal. Discords have their appropriate place
in music, but their place is no¢ in a common chord, or where the
composer désigned a concord. In such combinations many love
pure Harmony, and we are among that number; this can be ob-
tained by putting down the modulation pedal belonging to the
scale in which the music is written.
50. As reference has been made to the organ of the Rev.
Henry Liston, and also to errors (as we consider them,) in his
anes
* We take this opportunity to express our acknowled
Ses, Musical Director of Trinity Ch 0
forwarding to us Mr, Liston’s Essay, W
a few copies were printed.
so to Prof. i T. Fitch, of Yal
and encouragement, when our plans had
ery rare; as it was published by sub-
We would moreover express to Dr,
e College, our thanks for their sym-
not so many friends as at present.
214 H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation.
there is scarcely a point of resemblance, either in its internal struc-
ture or its management by the player. We cannot be expected
here to give a description of our machinery, further than is nec-
essary to understand the method of playing it, as it would require
drawings to make it intelligible; and besides, we have already,
we fear, exhausted the patience of our readers. On our organ, a
single pedal will bring on an entire scale, extending through every
set of pipes in the instrument, and the operation of the pedals 1s
the same in every key. On Mr. Liston’s organ, different keys re-
quired different combinations of pedals, with different degrees of
difficulty. All the notes of some diatonic scales could not be
brought on together by any combination of pedals, as for in-
stance, in the scale of G, the organist could not obtain its second,
A?, and its sixth, E?, at the same time ; for when A* was brought
on, E? always came with it, and A? always accompanied E?.
51. The practicability, therefore, of building an organ which
will give its chords in perfect tune, and can be easily managed for
all music that is proper for the services of the church, is no longer
a matter of speculation and doubt. he organ we have spoken
of, has been in constant use for nine months, and has kept in per-
fect order. Good singers, whose ears have not been accustomed
to a tempered accompaniment, agree with it perfectly, giving read-
ily and naturally, all the intervals necessary to Perfect Intonation.
H. W. Poole on Perfect Musical Intonation, 215
53: We should not be treating the whole subject, if we did
not speak of the relative expense of building the euharmonic or-
gan. It can truly be said to be more expensive, at the same time,
gan, yet each set or stop is more effective, in power, than the same
stop would be if tempered; for it is well known that musical
sounds, which are in harmony, assist and strengthen each other,
while discordant sounds neutralize and destroy each other. -
sides, a great quantity of mere sound will no more afford musical
pleasure, than mere painted canvas will satisfy the lover of paint-
ing. Church committees, who purchase organs, are not aware
(as we organ-builders coudd inform them) that much which they
pay for, is mere trickery and trumpery. There is, however, a
desire, in the church, as well as out of it, to boast of an organ
aving as large a number of stops as possible, even if many of
these furniture and reed stops, (having foreign names, which they
do not understand, ) are as inappropriate for the legitimate purposes
of church music as a set of Chinese gongs. So long, however,
as such a rivalry exists, and such instruments are ordered and paid
for, they will be built ; for this is the business of organ-builders,
It is probable that any one who loves music at all, would pre-
er the music of a quartette of good singers, to a noisy chorus
of fifty, singing no nearer in tune than the tempered organs
play. As has been before stated, the theory of the instrument
admits it to be of any size and power—the expense to be ap-
pPropriated, must alone decide that point. This, however, can
Stated with certainty, that a euharmonic organ in perfect tune
and of sufficient size and power to perform satisfactorily the pe
poses of an organ in church, can be built for the expense whi
18 usually appropriated to the larger class of instruments of tm-
perfect tune. :
. 54. Until it had been shown to be practicable by experiment,
it Was to be expected that a conservative portion of the public
would view, with caution, a plan like the present, which proposes
such a radical reformation in a system of so long standing as the
organ scale. his feeling certainly operated against the plan
when we proposed to undertake it two years since. — It is with no
little gratification that, since the completion of the instrument, it
ad the favorable and unanimous opinion of the musical peo-
ple who have examined it, and the scientific principles on which it
is built. We believe it is certain that public musical opinion,
216 On the American Mineral, Lancasterite.
will ere long, among other improvements in the music of our
churches, demand that it be given in pure harmony, and in ac-
cordance with the fixed and demonstrable principles of music.
That music may be investigated with something of the same
learning and research which is bestowed upon almost every other
science, isan end much to be desired. It will be gratifying to
the writer—even if some of his opinions are shown to be incor-
rect—if his labors in this department of science, shall have the
effect of calling to this subject the attention of those who are bet-
ter qualified to make further investigations, and who can lay them
before the public in a more interesting manner.
Note.—In the music example in (18.) page 77, the second
lower note in the base clef, should be Bb instead of D; and the
also should have been placed on the second, instead of the third
line. We would here also state that this and several other music
examples in this paper were intended as theoretical illustrations,
rather than as examples for actual execution.
Art. XXIIL—On the new American Mineral, Lancasteriie ;
by Prof. B. Sittiman, Jr. |
Amone the minerals associated with the Serpentine of Texas,
Lancaster Co., Pennsylvania, received through the kindness of
Mr. L. White Williams of Westchester, one has close resemblance
to Brucite. On chemical examination it has proved to. be a new
hydrous carbonate of magnesia, for which I propose the name
Lancasterite. The following are its characters :—
_ Foliated like Brucite, affording thin pearly lamine, inelastic
and somewhat flexible. Also small crystals, which appear to be
monoclinic (?) with an eminent pearly diagonal cleavage, H=2'9.
G =2-33 according to my determinations; 2°35, according to H.
Erni. Translucent. According to two analyses by H. Erni, it
contains,
1. 2. Mean. Oxygen.
Carbonic acid, 27-07 2685 26:96 19-61
Magnesia, 001 ©5072 5036 19°79
Protoxyd of iron, 1-01 0:96 0-99 0-21 :
Water, 21-60
99:69 100-00
This gives the formula Mg 6+Mg H? = carbonic acid 27-11,
magnesia 50-78, water 22°11=100. In two other trials the #
and 6 together equaled 49-83 and 49°86 after 14 days drying 1
the water bath. Ina matrass the mineral yields much water.
We AS ea
Table of Atomic Weights. 217
Before the blowpipe it exfoliates and becomes a little yellowish
or brownish, and gives the reaction of magnesia. Dissolves with
effervescence in acids.
We observe that Hermann has made a new mineral—which
he calls Pennite—of the white and greenish incrustation of car-
bonate of magnesia accompanying Emerald nickel at Texas, Pa.,
and which, as we have remarked, appears to graduate into the Em-
erald nickel. He finds for its composition, carbonic acid 44-54,
lime 20:10, magnesia 27-02, nickel 1-25, protoxyd of manga-
nese (40, alumina 0:15, water 5-84 = 100, giving the formula
3(Mg, Ca, Ni)6+H, H=3'5. G.=2-86.
e have not yet had opportunity for trials to ascertain how
far the water is a constant ingredient.
Art. XXIV.— Table of Atomic Weights.
Tue recent investigations of science, while evincing the con-
summate skill of the Swedish chemist, are introducing changes
rom time to time in the Berzelian atomic weig
chahges are in part the result of direct experiment on the particu-
lar substances, and in part an indirect consequence of these new
determinations ;—a change of one element involving necessarily
a change in those other elements which were determined by
using that one in the data. The following table is here inserted
Son and choice to such as would use them, and especially for
Comparison with the new determinations that may hereafter be
made.
_ The number of elements as now recognized is sixty-two, forty-
nine of which are metals. J. D. D.
Szconp Srnies, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 28
218 Table of Atomic Weights. ’
Avumintium, Al, 170°9 Curomium, Cr, ot Berlin:
Alumina, Al, 6418 (0, 46°74) Onrd yd of Chrome 48 8 (0, 81:35)
; 2 Al 12836". Chrom: tow id, C 6284 (0, 47°74)
3 Al 19954 / Coltate, ¢ 3
441 2567-2 Oxyd of Cobalt, Go, 468°65 (0, 21°34)
; a 3209°0 poate aia um)Ta, 1148°
Columbic , ee, ae (O, 11°55)
‘Stibiam), Sb, 16129 Correr (Cuprum), Cu;
suo a pee By nial 9 (S,27:12)| Oxyd of Copper, €u, 3082 (O, 11'2)
ae yoy r. bathe of C pe Cu, ae (O, 20°14)
ARSENIC, ® tt a Pelouze. 2 MIUM. ? Marignac.
Arsenic cts 5 (O, 84°78) | Erp
ent of A, hs $%, ee 5 (8, 39-0) Fnac (Fe) see Lron.
Aurum (Au) see oRINE, F, 5 Louyet.
Baryow, Ba, 856'8+ nt drcfldacie Acid, FH, 2 ash) ff 95)
Bary ta, Ba, 9568 (O, 10:45)| Givcinum (Beryllium), Be, 58°084** Awd.
2 Ba 1913°6 Giases; ie, 158°084(0,63°26)
3 Ba 2870°4 | Gotp (Au m), Au, 248 5+t
4 Ba 8827-2 Leeper 4 (Hg) see Quicksilver.
Beryiium (Be) see Glucinum, Hyprogen, H, 125
Bismurs, Bi, ater, TI, 1125 (0, 88°89)
pg of Bismuth, i, 20608 (O, 10°13) 2H 225'0
n, B, 136 8H 3875
Woracke Acid, B, 436° 2 (0, 68°78) 4if 4500
Brominr, Br, 1000} 5H 5625
Capmium, Cd, 6968 6H 6750
Catctum, Ca, 5 4 TH 1875
e, Ca, 851-49 (O, 2845) 8H 900°0
20a 702-98 9H - 10195 *
3 Ca 1054-47 Iopig, I, 1586
40a 1405-96 Trivium, le 1282
5 1757-45 Inow (Ferru 35088
6 2108-94 Protoxyd of ‘andl Fe, 450 (O, 22:22)
Cargo, C, _ 75 Dumas. 2 Fe 900
Carbonic Acid, 6, 275 (0, 72°78) 8 Fe 1350
2 550 4 Fe 1800
8 825 5 Fe 2250
4 1100 6 Fe 2700
5 1375 Peroxyd of Iron, #e, 1000 (0, 80)
6 1650 Kattum (K) see Potassium. :
Crrtum, Ce, 575] He Lantaanum, La, 588|| | Marignac.
Preerd of C, Oe, 675 (0.1 ve 82) . Protoxyd of L., La, 688 (0, 14°55)
Peroxyd of Cerium, Ge, a (0, 20 69) ae L, fa. 1476 (0, 2033)
Cutorivg, Cl. eo (mb Pb, 12946
Hydrochlor. Acid, HCl, ‘56% Ss of Lead, Pb. 13946 (0, 717)
* 938-8, Berzeliu
+ 854 en Borsitiss, taking chlorine at 443-20, and silver at 1849°01.—858'08, Pelouze ;
856°77, gf el
i Mari
5728, Rammelsberg 3 576°97. Fsdewoe is more recen raat 49), 5908, Marignae,
which gives for Oe 690'8 (O, 1448), and for Ge, 1481°6 (0,
i es recently 334, Moberg, which gives for €r nr "O 31); and for Or 634
3).
** Accor eee ¢ to Kobell and Awdejew, glucina is a Le Yet some distinguish-
ed chemists still consider it a a peroxyd, like alum making gianig um (Be) 331-26,
and eli (Be) 96252 (0, 31:17); or a 87°12 ed Be 474°24, Ber
++ 1227-75, Berz., corrected by Pelo e for the new pel i of quicksilver.
ere hom — ly obtained 1227-45. Most chemists now double this number as above:
&% 350'527, Berzelius; more recentl ys bad 8, ger Be: io A
| 554-88, ‘Ramamelsberg ; 600, Herm > 680, Mosand last is a mean of the
different rent determinations,
sia gioun tor La 060 (0, 147), oni tee x 1460 (O, 20°55).
- a,
: _ Table of Atomic Weights. 219
Luz, see Calcium. Rotuentum, Ru, undetermined.
Liraom, Li, 81°66 Setenium, Se, 495 3%
Lithia, Li, 18166 (O, 5505) | Sruicrem, Si, 7781** Berz,
Macyestum, Mg, 1545* Svanb, | Silica, Si, 57731 (O, 51-98)
Magnesia, Mg, 2545 (0, 39°3) 2 Si 1154-62
2Mg 509-0 3 Si 1731-93
3 Mg 463°5 4 Si 2309-24
4 Mg 10180 5 Si 2886-55
5 Mg 12725 6 Si 3463°86 —
6 Mg 1527-0 1 Si 4041°17
Mancavesr, Mn, 344-7 8 Si 461848
Pevioa, of M, Mn, 4447 (0, 22-47) 9 Si 5195-79
2Mn 889°4 Sitver (Argentum), Ag, 1350}+
3 Mn 1384-1 ©. Sulphuret of S., AgS, ne (S, 129)
4Mn : 17788 Sopium (Natrium), Na, = 287°
Peroxyd of M., Mn, rhe (O, 30°32)| Soda, Na, 387° ; (O, 25°88)
2 Mn 1978: 2Na 1144
: ee 296s? 2 3.Na 11616
9576 4Na 15488
CURY cies see Quicker Srannum (Sn) see Jin,
oe YBDENUM, Mo, 83+ Svand.| Srisium, (Sb) see Antimon
Molybdie Aci, Mo. 878 83 (O, 343) | Srroyrrum, Sr, Bragg Pelouze.
Narriom ag see um. Stronti, Sr, 648 (0, 15°43)
IOKE) Sut R, 8S,
Pritoxyl of Nickel, Ni, 18933 (O, 21°3) _Sulphi re aca, 8, 500s (0, 60)
Nto a ‘ANTALUM (Ta) se © On
noces, N 175°0 romans Te,
Nitric Agi, &, 67506 (0, 74)| Texsivm, Tb,
135012 Tuortvm, Th, 743'86
5 2025°18 Thoria, Th, 843-9 (0, 11°84)
N 2700°24 sr (Stannum), Sn, ,
Oxlum, as — n, Sn, 935'3 | {9 2138)
Coutum, Os, 12426
la id O, Ons of Titanium, Fi, 929 “i 10, 32-28)
Yao ae54s Titanic Acid, Ti, 5147 (0, 38°86)
P — TunGsTEen “(Wolfram mi-
_ P, 892t . um 88-4
hosphoric Acid, £, 892 (0, 56°05) Siteaatio ‘Acid, W, 1488-4 (O, 20-16)
2f 1784 NIUM, ‘e : T50ttt Pel igot.
: 5 2676 rotoxyd of U.U, 850 (0, iV 76
Ain, 8568 hie of U.f, 1800 (0,
P 123208 Protoperox. of U, Ue, a (0, 15-10)
Pownox UPR) cod Toad Vatentek
i SIUM «(atin 488'86$ Warer, see Hydrog
=r tr (O, 16°98) | Wotrramium (wy see ce Tanger
5 e 1788 is —
ia, 3 sae ; O, 19:90
4K 2355-44 joe Bs gs eg
Quicksinver (Hydrargy- Oxyd of Zine, Zn, 5008 (0, 19°74)
Ruop: ), Hg, 1250} Zirconium, Zr,
ag Br, 11395 (0,26°3)
Bes hema Se i eis sais de leet etisibaaletesscaeaediaaonerny
od 14, Bovina; 18 15133. 33, Scheorér. + 59 1, Berzelius, revised.
Te 0°10, Pelow $4 488 856, Berzins: ; aj 004, Maume
124733, 1249. ‘3t, 1249°27, Svanberg ; 12506, one. Aaiend : 1250,
“aye mean illon; | 1951-
~~ rah “init more reverit : O77 78, Berzelius revised.
i aoe ——— 134901, Marignac ; 1350°32, — vené,
todd ‘Paies 2; 3909, pas later a 289-73, Berzel $§ 545°93. Berz.
ant 20° Berzelins, making « acid 500-75 (0, 509); $6008, Brdaome
Marchand orton, 12506, t e equivalents for quicksilver.
Stared 3033, H. Rose; 295°8, Mosander ; 31469, Pierre.
ttt 46 34, Wertheim; the earlier results give 27114, making G=5722'72 (0, 5-24),
220 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and ,
Art. XXV.—On the Isomorphism and Atomic. Volume at some
Minerals ; by James D. Dana
oe perused recent statements by Prof. G. Rose respecting
some anomalous cases of isomorphism, and also having remarked
that ie “dlidiakeally unlike minerals chrysoberyl and chrysolite
were essentially alike in form, I was led to a farther search for
such singular anomalies among minerals in order to elicit the prin-
ciple upon which they depend. ‘The results of the investigation
have proved interesting beyond what was expected, and are de-
tailed in the following pages
Before proceeding with them, the facts observed by Prof. Rose
should re mentioned. He points out the relations of bismuth,
arsenic and some other metals,+ and also shows that specular iron
and alumina are isomorphous with them, as seen in the following
ta
.
Osmium, R: R=84°52’ | Bismuth, R: R=87°40!
Iridium, 84 52 | Palladium, undetermined.
Arsenic, 85 04
Tellurium, 86 57 rundum (alumina) Al R:R=86 4
_ Antimony, 87 35 Specular i iron (Fe 85 58
Titanic iron (#e, Pi) 85 59
Prof. Rose also gives the following parallel groups of iso-
morphs.{
1. Form that of Cale Spar.
R:R
Cale spar and isomorphs RG 105° — 107940"
b. Nitrate of soda Naf 106 33
ee | Dark red silver ore + 8AgS+SbS3 108 18
Light red silver ore 3AgS+AsS3 107 36
2. Form that of Arragonite (dimorph with the preceding).
M:M
Arragonite, — lead ore, de. RO 116° —118°80’
5 Nitrate of potas 119
ce. Bournonite 8(€u, Pb)S+SbS3 115 16
Many examples of this kind of isomorphism have come to light
in the course of the research ; and moreover an ae is
at hand in the relations of atomic volume—the same principle
mage to by Kopp for explaining the cases of ordinary is0-
mor
* The atomic numbers adopted in the body of the opines’, table have in a few
instances ion slightly changed, since this article in such canes , the
numbers employed i in the follo owing noses will be found i in pomp a to the table.
t e rhombohedral metals. natsb. der Kénigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissen-
sok a
» AL
+ In an article “on a remarkable analogy of form between certain sulphur
en salts,” Monatsbericht der Kéingl. 9g Akad. d. Wissenschaften zu eri,
Jan., 1849, p. 18. Pogg. Annal, lexvi, p. 2
\.
: Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 221
of form and volume. The relations between the aggregate
atomic volume of isomorphous compounds is in many cases nec-
essarily complex ; for we find that this relation is expressed most
nearly by the proportional number of molecules of elements in
thase compounds. Between ryacolite and loxoclase, for example,
ing the atomic volume will thus be clearly shown: and while
not underrating the ratios ascertained by the first, we think that
an additional value will be found in the relations developed by
the third method ; and also that some importance may attach to
the second. In some cases the (B) relation is singularly close and
of interest. The atomic volumes of alumina and arsenic are al-
most identical (161-7 and 163); while if we divided by 5, the
number of atoms in alumina, it gives, instead of a ratio of equality,
the ratio of 1: 5. These modes of viewing the subject of atomic
Volume appear to open the way for important conclusions bearing
Upon some of the most recondite points in chemical science. —
Hermann has written at considerable length upon isomorphism
among compounds of unlike atomic constitution.| He has con-
fined himself almost exclusively to pointing out such well known
cases as the chemically unlike varieties of epidote, scapolite, etc.,
(which the erystallographer has often united and the chemist as
often pulled asunder)—besides some acknowledged instances of
‘isomorphism. He has introduced for such cases the new term
heteromerism, a term of indefinite signification, since all com-
* Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1849, No. 1, lxxvi, p. 80.
+ Erdmann und cers Journal fir Praktischen Chemie, xliii, 35,
222 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
pounds of unlike atomic proportions are heteromerous, whether
isomorphous or no
Without farther introduction I proceed with the details of the
isomorphism among unlike compounds; and then giving the
researches into the atomic volume of these and other species.
I, CHRYSOBERYL, Be AI—CHRYSOLITE, (Mg Fe)? Si-SERPENTINE,
2Meg* §i?-+3Mg H?—EPSOM SALT, Mg 8+7H—VILLARSITE,
4(Fe, Mg)* Sit+-3H—PICROSMINE, 2Mg? Si?-+-3H.
The magnesian minerals, Chrysolite, Serpentine and Villarsite,
are well known to be isomorphous, and have been the subject of
recent remarks by Hermann.* We now add the totally unlike
mi se Chrysoberyl and Epsom salt.
A brachydiagonal prism in Chrysolite has the angle 80° 53’,
a corresponding one in mere inag 6% 119° 46’. The tangents of
half these angles are nearly as 1:2; and a vertical prism ofthe
former has the angle 49° 50’ and one of Chrysobery! 70° 40’, giv-
ing the relation of 1: 14. The former planes, referred to the same
fundamental form, are om Px and 2P x, and the latter
2. sf pein a axes of these species as
given by von Kobell a are as follows:
: b. ;
iy pmemereeryl, ge! gteey eat oof ache . 088 ts ott
Chrysolite, 5 ‘ 723. cd. : Oe
The -93 of Chrysolite it is seen is 's double of -A7 in Chrysobetie
and 1:1733 is double of 0:58 showing a simple ratio. If w
take for eeyen the vertical prism above roted to ( “49° 50’)
as the prism o P, it gives b:c=1:0-465; which is almost identical
with that ‘for chrysoberyl. We add farther, though other evi-
dence is unnecessary, that the angles of the corresponding rhom-
- octahedrons in each of the above Species, are given as fol-
Chrysolite, ‘ * : 4 189955! 85°15! 108°31’
Serpentine, . ; : ‘ 189 34 88 26 105 26
Villarsite, : é - 139 45 86 56 106 52
Chrysobery], 139 53 86
In Picrosmine, a brachydiagonal prism has the angle 117949”,
which is near that of Chrysoberyl, and a vertical prism the angle
53° U8’, the corresponding angle in Chrysolite being 49° 50’.
pag prism being the prism cP, it gives b:c=1:0'5, while it
s 1: 0:47 in Chrysoberyl, and 1: 0-465 in Chrysolite
Epsom salt has the same axes as Chrysolite, except that for the
assumed cemomontal form,+ the vertical axis is about one-half ei
* J, f Pr. Chem., 1849, xIvi, 229.
+ It may not be ‘understood by all my = that the axes of ES beac are not
pon of fixed length for each erystal, vs only the axes ea peo a form ax
in the crystal assumed as the fundamental form—a form of freque
_ Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 223
above in length. The numbers given are 0-5703:1: 0:9089,
which on doubling the first term becomes 1:1406: 1 : 0-9089.
IL QUARTZ, Si—CHABAZITE, (Ca, Na, K)3Si2+841 Si2+1st.
R:R in Quartz =94° 15’; in Chabazite =94° 46’.
Il. CORUNDUM, AI—PHENACITE, Bes §i, together with Arsenic and others
of the group on page 220.
Taking the angle of the rhombohedron of phenacite at 115°
25’, the axis a=0°6958. The axis a of Corundum = 1°3617,
which is nearly double that of phenacite (2 x 06958 = 1:3916),
The angle of the rhombohedron 2R of phenacite is 83° 12’;
while R: R in corundum is 86° 4’; in Iridium 84° 52’; in Ar-
senic 85° 04’,
IV. SCHEELITE, Ga W—(with TUNGSTATE OF LEAD, Pb W and MOLYB-
DATE OF LEAD, Pb Mo)=FERGUSONITE, Y6 a.
Tungstate of lime and Fergusonite crystallize in square octa~
hedrons which are hemihedrally modified in the same manner.
In the former the angle of the octahedron is 100° 8’; in the latter
a corresponding octahedron has the pyramidal angle 100° 28’.
he axis of Tungsten is given at 1-05, and that of Fergusonite,
(another pyramid being assumed as fundamental,) at 150; the
latter is 14 times the former—a simple relation. Tungstate of
lead, a recognized pseudomorph of Tungsten, has A: A= 99° 43’,
and Molybdate of lead, also so recognized, has A: A= 99° 40’.
e also observe that the vertical axis of Zdocrase is about half
that of Tungstate of lime.
V. ZIRCON, Zr Si—RUTILE, Ti—TIN ORE, Sn.
Rutile and Tin ore are recognized isomorphs; the basal angle
of the octahedral fundamental forms are 84° 40/ for the former
and 87° 5/ for the latter. In Zircon, the same angle is 84° 20’.
The axes of rutile, tin ore and zircon are respectively 0-655,
06743, 0-6405.
VIL. CINNABAR, Hg S—EUDIALYTE, 283 Si2+2r Si.
Cinnabar and Eudialyte are rhombohedral. In the former
R:R=71° 47’; in the latter, =73° 40’.
VII. BORAX, Na 62+10H—PYROXENE, Rk? Sig—GLAUBER
SALT, (Na 8+10H).
In Pyroxene M: M=8796’; OP: P «=106°6! axes 02867 : 1: 0°9506
In Borax « gio “« — 106°35" 0-2978 : 1: 09489
Glauber salt is also near pyroxene. It has M: M=86° 31’ and
7a Pr ow =104° 41’,
< rring forms.
Sumed for Epsom salt, would be the form $P of Chrysolite. And if the plan
in Epsom salt were taken for the fundamental
(nearly) as for Chrysolite.
224 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
VIIL ANATASE, Ti~HORN QUICKSILVER, Hg Cl.
A pyramid in Horn quicksilver has the basal angle 136° ; and
the corresponding angle of anatase is 136° 22’.
IX. SULPHUR, 8, and SCORODITE, #e As+4¥f.
The axes of sulphur are 19043: 1:0°8108; and those of Sco-
rodite 0°9539: 1: 0°8527. The vertical axis of sulphur is hence
double that of ecw (2 x0-9539=1-9078), while the other
axes are nearly equal. (The planes of the vertical rhombic prism
common on crystals of scorodite, belong to the form «P2.)
X. CELESTINE, Sr S—WHITE IRON Eke Fe S2—GRAPHIO TEL-
URIUM, Ag Te+2Au
The angle M: M of Celestine is pre a White Iron Pyrites
106° 2’; a brachydiagonal prism of the former has the side angle
103° 58’ ; ; of the latter 99° 58’. Graphic Tellurium has M:M
= 107° 44’; a macrodiagonal prism in Celestine is 101° ss in
Graphic Tellurium 103°.
XI. CHROMATE OF LEAD, Pb Gr—MONAZITE, (Ge, Th, La)3 6.
The forms are monoclinic. In Chromate of Lead, M:M =93° 40’
and P:M=99° 11’. In Monazite, M: M= 93° 10’ and P: M= 100°
— 100° 25’. The forms of the crystals are similar in the occur-
ring secondary planes.—Compare figure 2 of Chromate of Lea
in the author’s Mineralogy* with 2 of Monazite in the same
work ;+ og general form is similar; and the planes M, é, €, 4, €,
a, a’, ary eres P, - Pa, aP’ a, P’ x, 2P’ x) are the ne ip
the two. €:é in the former is 1199, i in the latter 119° 22’;
in a former is 107° 40’, in the latter 106° 36’.
XIL BERYL, Be Sit+-241 Siz, or a = +1 Siz—NEPHELINE, R2 si
+24
em
=f q
In Nepheline, P on two fii on the basal edges is 134° 3
and 154° 27’; in beryl, the corresponding angles are 130° 59’
and 150° 6’. 'The vertical axis of nepheline is 0:4629, of beryl
0-4993. These species are only approximately isomorphous.
The axis of quartz is a little more than double that of beryl,
it being 1-0996 and 2 x 0-4993 =0-9996.
We mention also, without particular remark, some of the ad-
mitted cases of isomorphism, among species that are alike in gen-
eral constitution but different in atomic proportions.
1, Pyroxene, Acmite, Hornblende and varieties.
2. Scapolite, Meionite, Wernerite, Dipyre, Gehleni
3. Tale, containing magnesia and silica in different vioriitanil
ae
4, pl. x, Mohs’s itr des Min.,
alee + Alo Ses copies Jour. fig. 1, but with different reset and the
in: Dukoney’> Se BT vol. iv, pl. 228, fig. 476
rhe
=
%
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 225
4, Epidote, Zoisite, Orthite.
5. The Feldspar family.
cholzite, Kyanite.
7. Different groups among the monometric or tesseral species.
It is not my object in this place to mention the cases of iso-
morphism that conform to the ordinary law on this subject.
With this brief enumeration of some of the groups, I proceed to
the consideration of the atomic volumes of the species. The
atomic volume is obtained by dividing the atomic weight by the
specific gravity.
I present first an example of the atomic volumes of a group of
acknowledged isomorphous minerals, as a measure of the degree
of discrepancy to be expected. The carbonates of lime, lime
nad magnesia, manganese, iron, magnesia, and zinc, increase in
the angle R:R from 105° 5’ to 107° 40’, and the atomic vol-
umes, as determined by Kopp, are respectively as follows:
231-20, 202:36, 202-29, 188-50, 181-25, 175-33.
The range of numbers is quite wide in this series, amounting to
4 the larger number, and exceeds what usually occurs among iso-
morphous species. Yet the extent of the variation, here shown
to be possible, should be kept in mind, or we may be led into
error by expecting too close coincidences.
In the following calculations, either the mean specific gravity,
as nearly as it could be determined, has been taken, or the specific
gravity corresponding to some analysis selected for comparison.
he atomic weights used are from the table on pages 218, 219, of
fhis volume. By way of distinction as well as brevity in the fol-
Owing enunciations, we number the statement of the aggregate
atomic volume by A; that in which the aggregate atomic volume is
divided by the number of atoms of bases and acid, by B; and that
of the same divided by the number of atoms of the elements, by C.
L Chrysoberyl, Chrysolite, Serpentine, Villarsite, Picrosmine, Epsom Salt.
1 Be=158-084 . atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 7.
141 641-80 A. 799°884-+3°7 (sp. gr.)=21618
a. At. weight, 799:884 B, 216:18+2=1089 CO. 216:18-+-7=30°9
With the old atomic weight of Glucinum, making glucina 96252, we have the
formula He ‘A16, which gives
1#e 96252 6. atoms of acid and base, 7. « atoms of elements, 35.
6Al 38508 A. 4813°324-3°7 (sp. gr.)}=1800°9
@. At. volume, 4813°32 B. 1300°9-+7==185°8 ©. 1800°9-+-35==3716
A=433°7; B= 144-6; O—36-14.
np Series, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 29
*
226 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and ‘
lite =
1 Si=577-31 8. atoms of acid and bases, 4. ¢. atoms of elements,
2%;Mg 694-1 A. 139413-+8°35 (sp. gr)=416
C. 416-+10=416
salle age
a, At, weight, 139418 ; oe
3, Serpentine, bias
9 Mg 2290:50 A. 5274°62+-2°55 (sp. gr.)=2068°5
6H 674-88 B. 20685-+-19=109 C. 2068'5-+-46=44-9
Fr Fe 12272 B. 416+4=104 Ex
ery
4 Si= 2309-24 . atoms of acid and bases, 19. ¢. atoms of elements, 46.
a. At. weight, 5274°62
4, Villarsite.
4 Six 2809-24 6, atoms of acid and bases, 19. c, atoms of elements, 46.
12 Mg 3054-0 A. 5700°68+-2-975 (sp. gr.)==19163
8H 33744 B. 19163+19=10086 C. 19163-+-46=41°65
a. At. weight, 5700-68 *
5. Picrosmine.
4 Si 2309-24 2. atoms of acid and bases, 13. ¢. atoms of elements, 34.
6 Mg 15270 A. 4173°68+-2°63 (sp. gr.)=1587
8H 337-44 B, 1587+-138=122 C. 1587-+84==46'68
a, At. weight, 4173°68
6. Epsom Salt,
18= 500 6. atoms of acid and bases, 9. ¢. atoms of elements, 20.
1Mg 2545 A, 1541:'86+1°75 (sp. gr.)=881
7H 787-36 B. 881-+-9=98 C, 881-+-20=44
a. At. weight, 1541:86
The result shows that these different substances have: for atomic
volume C, Chrysolite 416, Villarsite 41-65, Epsom salt 44, Ser-
pentine 44-9, Picrosmine 46-7; and for Chrysoberyl 309, (adopting
Awdejew’s atomic weight,) which is to that of Chrysolite as 2:3;
or with the old atomic weight 37°15, a little below that of Chrys-
olite. The B results are also nearly uniform; they are for Chrys-
olite 104, for Villarsite 100-86, Epsom salt 98, Serpentine 109,
Picrosmine 122, Chrysoberyl 108-9, or with the old atomic weight,
185:77. It would seem from the result with Epsom salt, that it
is more correct to consider the hydrogen in water as a single
rather than a double atom. _
e pass on with the other examples without special remark,
the results being tabulated on a subsequent page.
IL. Quartz, Chabazite. ,
1. Quartz. =
*__ keh, 212 OBR aia —2-4==54'5.
: bat ee 57731 A. 57731+-2°65 (sp. gr.}=218. C. 218-+4=5
8 Si=4618-48 5. atoms of acid and bases, 32. ¢. atoms of elements, 89.
3 Al 1925-4 A. 9622'99-+-2°1 (sp. gr.)=45824
3 Ca 105447 B, 45824+329=143, ©. 45824+89=515
18H 2024-64
a. At. weight, 9622-99
™
omic Volume of some Minerals. 227
A1=6418-+3:07 (@ gr.=161- 1 “ 161-7-4-5==32°3
m. #e==1000+5'212 (sp. gr.)=192 C. 192+5=—38-4
As, 940°08-+-5°75 (sp. gr.}=163, which equals 5X 826, The spe-
38 gives for atomic volume 160.
1 Si 57731 0. atoms of acid and base, 4. ¢. atoms of elements, 10.
3 Be 474-25 A. 105156-+-2°97 (sp. gr.)—=354
a. At. weight, 105156 B. 854-+-4—885 ©. 354-+10—=85-4
With te old atomic weight for glucinum, Phenacite has the formula Be Si2,
which giv
A. ai: ge 97 (sp. gr.)=713 C. 7138-+13==55, which is 1} times that
of specular ir
Antimony, pain Tellurium and Osmium are isomorphous with Arsenic.
. Antimony, Sb, 1612-8-+6°702 (sp. gr.)}=240°65
6. Bismuth, Bi, 1330:4-+-9°8 (sp. gr.)—=135°75
7. Tellurium, Te, 802--+6-2 (sp. gr.)—=129°36
8. Osmium, Os, 1242°6-+10 (sp. gr.}=124-26
The atomic volume of Corundum is to that of Arsenic as 1:5, to that of Antimony
nearly as 1:8, and to that of each of the other metals following nearly as 1:4. The
discrepancies, if ene te such, it will be observed are among acknowledged iso-
morphs; and a more exact knowledge of the atomic weight may remove them.
nae eremeye Tungstate of Lead, Fergusonite.
i,
1 W 1488-4 6, atoms of acid and base, 2, c¢, atoms of elements, 6.
10a 3515 A. 1889-9-+6'1 (sp. gr.)==801
a. At. weight, 18399 B. 301-6-+-2—150°8 ©. 801:6+6=50°3
2. Tungstate of Lead.
1 W —1488-4 A. 2889:9--8'1 (sp. ees
1Pb 13945 B, 355°9-+2—177-9 355-946-593
a, At, weight, 2882-9
8. Fergusonite. b. atoms of acid and base, 7. —_¢. atoms of elements, 7.
1 fa . 25968 A. 5611:8+-5'8 (sp. gr.)-—=9675
6 Y 30150 B, 967:5-+-7—=1382 C. 967° 5117570.
3 a. At. weight, 56118
We have introduced here the acknowledged isomorph of Scheelite, Tungstate of
Lead, in order to afford a more satisfactory comparison with Fergusonite.
r V. Zircon, Rutile, Tin Ore (acknowledged isomorph of rutile).
1. Zircon.
1 Sim 577-31 3. atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of "a 9.
1 Zr 1139-50 A. 17168144636 ae gr.)=370
a, At. weight, 171681 B. 3703-+2—185-15 ©. 870°3-+9—_41°15,
* tile, Pi—514-7-+-4-21 (ap. gr.) — 1223. —«O.:122.3-+ 840-7
8. Tin Ore. §n—935:3-+-6:96 (sp. gr) 1844. 0. «1344+ 3-—44'8
= ' f
228 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
VI. Cinnabar, Eudialyte. pre
1. Cinnabar. Hg S—1450 1450-8'1 (sp. gr.) —=180. ©. 180-2990,
2, Eudialyte. ae oe
6 Si 346386 6. atoms of acid and bases ¢. ee 3 41.
1 Zr 113950 A. Siti gr) 2088 :
1 Fe 45000 B. 2382+-13—183-2 82441581
24 0a 878-72
24.Na 977-25
a. At. weight, 690933
The relation of 58:90, is nearly as 2:3 (60:90.); of 180 :183°2=1:1
VIL Borax, Glauber Sait, Pyroxene.
1. Borax.
2B = 8724 46. atoms of acid and bases, 13. c. atoms of elements, 30.
1Na 390°9 A. 2388°1+-1°716==-1391°6
10 H 11248 B. 1391°6--18=107-0 C. 1391°6-+-30—46'38.
a. At.weight, 2388-1
2. Glauber Salt.
18 = 500 5. atoms of -_ and bases, 12. ¢. atoms af ee 26.
1Na 3909 A. 2015°7-+1'562 (sp. cea
10H 11248 3B. 12905+1 A Pa 290° Ace 6
a, At.weight, 2015-7
8. Pyroxene—lIst. var. (}0a+4Mg)? Si2. Color white.
2 Si—~1154-62 %. atoms of acid and bases, 5. ¢. atoms of elements, 14.
1¢Ca 527-23 A. 2068-60-+-3°24 (sp. Br) =637
14Mg 381-75 B. 687+5—1274 637+-14—=45'5
a. pee 2063
4. Pyroxen aati var. - Get aited 9 Si2. Color green or black.
2 Fi =
1} Ca aes A. rine 35-+3°35 (sp. ee
1 Mg 254: 6 B. 645°2—5==12 ide sessile 1
Fe 225 ; j
a. At. weight, 2161:
5. Pyroxene—8d var. ‘Gcetafoe § Siz. Hedenbergite. 4
Si 11546 a
14Ca 527: : A. 2356:85-8°5 (sp. gr.) =673'4
1} Fe 67500 B, 673451347 CO. 673'4—14—=48'1
a. At. weight, 2356: 85
6. Pyroxene—var. Hudson A recent analysis in the Yale Laboratory, New Ha-
ven, by Mr. W. H. Pawlet gorda nearly the results of Beck for this mineral, but makes
omranraanaetr De: “>
* Mr, Brewer ent the following for the composition of the Hudsonite; we Pa
add also Beck’s resul ‘4
ain Oxygen. Il. TL. Beck. i
oo 36°94 19°13 ) ogy 36°06 se78 37°90
Alum 11-22 5-04 10°47 ee 12°70
Panieyd of iron, trace trace rere
otoxyd of iron, = 03 "80 36°57 enuwr ts 36 0
manganese, 2:24 050 1212 110 ane g
Lime, 19. 71 3°62 sank ave
—— ae
99°14
Beck Sat We tain oxyd of iron; but we infer from his accompanying
that he meant protoxyd. hint Soe Brewer; 3°5, Beck.
10072
remarks
a. of some Minerals. 229
the i iron peotoxyd, with but a trace of — It affords very closely the formula
* ' 35 3 (6°33 1°66 Z
Ro Gi, 2, or more precisely (= fet Mn += ; Ga) bees Bie x1)
’M x by 4 throughout, the relation “ial RE ae * eda
which w e adopt, without farther reducing it, as the result will be
8. ey Si 36563 4. atomsof acids and bases, 20. ¢. atoms of cae 57}.
; 1341 10696 =A. 97'78:-4--3-463 (mean sp. Ary and 2824-4706
| 8 Fe 36000 B. 2824+20=141:2 C. 2824+573—=48-9
4Mn 299°3
84 Ca 12302
a, At. weight, 97784 \
7. Pyroxene—var. Fe3 §i2, Asbestiform, analyzed by Griiner, (Comp. Rend. xxiv, 794.)
e ==1850 b. atoms of acid and bases, 5. ¢. pipet we element 14.
2Si 1154-62 A. 2504°62+-3-712 (sp. gr.) =674
a. At. weight, 250462 B. 674-°7-+5=135 C. 674-7--14=48-2
8. Pyroxene—var. Mns Siz, Manganese S
38 Mn =13341 6. atoms of acid and base, 5. c. atoms of ee 14,
28i 115462 A. 2488°72-3'634 (sp. gr.) =684
a. At.weight, 248872 B. 6848-51369 C. 684°8-—-14=48'9
VIL. Anatase, Horn Quicksilver.
1. Anatase. Ti 514-7+3°84 (sp. periate C. 1340-34466
2. Horn Quicksilver, Hg Cl, 16933648 (sp. gr.) =261'3 C. 261:3+2—=130°62
130°62 : 44-66, nearly as 3:1; and 130-62: fae. (nearly) 1:1.
IX. eg Selenium (acknowledged isomorph with Sulphur), Scorodite.
1. Sulphur. S, 200+2-088 (sp. gr.) —98'4
2. Selenium. Se, 495°3—4°3 (sp. gr.) 115
3. Scorodite,
1 As —1440-:08 4. atoms of acid and bases, 6. c. atoms of elements, 19.
1¥#e 1000-00 A. 2890+3'23 (sp. gr.) 804 13
4H 44992 B. 894-°73—6—~149'12 CO. 894°73+19—=47'1
a. At. weight, 2890-00
47-1, is very nearly $ the atomic volume of Sulphur; and 149: 9843: 2
| X. Celestine, White Iron Pyrites, Graphic Tellurium,
I 1, Celestine,
1 = 500° }. atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 6.
| 1 Sr 647°3 A. 11473+3°9 (sp. gr.) 294-2
' a. oy —- uae B, 294:2—-2—=147'1 O. 2942—6=—49'0
7 Hable A. 150476 (sp. gr.J—=15756 — C. 15756-35252
: 8. Graphic Tellurium. __
e =—=5612'6 atoms * elements, 10.
LAg 1350: A. 9418-18-28 (sp. = 75
29Au 2455-5 1137 ee 75
: @. At. weight, “94181
The atomic Poury C of se papaie Tellurium is consequently double of that of White
230 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
XI. Monazite, Chromate of Lead.
er tao
1. Monazite. ze ,
18 — 8923 5. atoms of acid and bases, 4. ¢. atoms of elements, 1
2Ce 13500 A. 30862—5 (sp. oF) oA 25: ee
1Th 8439 B, 617-25—4~—154:3 O. 617-2 SH 12—6:
a, At. weight, 3086-2 ae at. wt. of Cerium, gives for 0, 52 i
1Gr — 6284 4. uli of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of i ate, 6.
1Pb = 13945 A. 2022:9—6:06 (sp. gr.) =333'8
a, At. weights, 20229 B. 333:8—2—~1669 C. 333°8—6=55'6
There is some uncertainty as to Monazite, as the exact iit of its bases are
not ly kno
XIL Beryl, Nepheline.
1. Beryl— ah the old sidhis weight :—
mars . 6. atoms « acid ne bases, 11. ¢. atoms of elements, 47.
: Be A. 68646—2°732 (sp. & a mes a7
2 Al os = B. 25127—11=228-4 51274 7=53'46
a. At. Pi 6864-60 Awdejew’s atomic weight gives for C, 46°44.
2. Nephelin
8 re =1731:93 6, atoms . ge and bases, 7. c¢, atoms oh elements, 26.
2 Al 12836 830°32—2'6 (sp. et) =147
18Na 71665 B. 1473: Pewuatvs 1473: 2 ile 66
kK = 9814
a. At. weight, 383032
XIII. Pyroxene, R2 Si2—Acmite, Na Si+#e Si2—Hornblende, R4 Sis
Acmite, as is well known, has the crystalline form of Pyroxene, although different
1. Pyroxene. As above deduced, A=638'77—706 ; B=12755-141'2 ; C==-46'1-48°9
2. Acmite,
3 Si= 1781-93 8. atoms of acid and bases, 5. c. atoms =f elements, 19.
1¥e 1000-00 A. 3122:83—3°4 (sp. - =918
1 Na 390°9 =B. 918:5+5—=183-7 918 secrete 34
a. At. weight, 3122°83
3. Hornblende.
3 Si= 1781-93 6. atoms of acid and bases, 7. ¢. atoms of elements, 20-
8Mg 1635 A. 2846-92—2°93 (sp. =) = =971-
10a = 351-49 -B, 971-6+7==1383 971: eames
a, At. weight, 2846-92
4. Hornblende, aluminous varieti
a. Var. From Wolfsberg in Sith, analysed by Gischen—The analysis corres:
ponds to the ratio 2414-14 ¥e+7 Sip4 Ca+5 Mg. We attempt no formula.
7 $i=4041-17 6. atoms of bases and acids, 20, ¢, atoms of elements, 66.
24 Al 16045 A. 9824:13—3°15 (sp. gr.) =311
14 ¥e 15000 B, 3119--20=155-95 ©. 3119+66=-4725
4 Ca 1405-96
5 Mg 12725 If sp. gr. =3'167, then C=470
a, At. weight, 9824°13
A
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 231
b. Var. Carinthine. Analysis by Clausbruch (Pogg., lviii, 168), corresponding to
8 Si+144- 24 Ca +74 Mg+4 Fe.
:% =461848 &. atomsof acid and bases, 23}. ¢. atoms of elements, 66}.
B: 855°73 A. 10096°27—3°127 (sp. gr.) =3229
Fe 180000 B, 3229—23}-—=-1884 C. 3229+663—=48-43
¢ 96
a. fren % 1009627
c. Grammatite of Aker, Bonsdorff. The analysis gives 8:17 Si+217 Al+-3°6 Ca
+86 Mg+0-6 Fe. As above, we take the analysis as it is, without attempting to
reduce it to the limits of a formula.
817 Si= 47166 6. atoms of acid and bases, 23°13, ¢. atoms of > ais 1.
==3333
217 Al 13997 A. 9888-42-95 (sp. gr
36 Ca 12654 B, 33883+23-14—=144 C. 3838 ated 1==48-24
86 Mg 2188
a. At. weight, 9833-4
TV. Scapolite, (Oa, Na)3 Si2+-21 Si— Meionite, Gas Si+-2A1 Si— Wernerite,
das 8 Si+-3Al Si—Dipyre, 4(Oa, Na) Si+-341 Si.
These several compounds crystallize alike.
1. Scapolite.
4 Si =2309-24 9%, atoms of acid and bases, 9. ¢. atoms of aia 82.
2Al 12836 A. 4686°72—2°71 (sp. Lipari
1Na 3909 B, 17294+9==1921 1729: jhe tiat
20a 702-98
a. At, weight, 4686°72
2. Meionite.
3 Si =1731-98 4. atoms of acid and bases, 8. ¢. atoms of elements, 28.
2Al 12836 A. 4070+2°612 (sp. gr.) =155
30a 105447 B. 15582+8==194'8 C. 1558:°2+28=55-65
a, At. weight, 4070-00
3. Wernerite—From Tunaberg and Ersby, as analysed by Walmstedt and Norden-
skidld.
4 Si =2309-24 8. atoms of acid and bases, 10. ¢. nem = elements, 37.
8Al 1995-4 A. 5289°11+2°77 (sp. = =]
30a 105447 B, 1909+10=1909 es: hae 6
a. At. weight, 5289-11
4. Dipyre,
"Si —4041-:17 8. atoms of acid and bases, 14. ¢. atoms of elements, 51.
8Al 1995-4 A. 7451°35-2°646 (sp. gr.) =2816
2Na 7818 B, 2816+14=2011 O. 2816+51=55-21
20a 702-98
a. At, weight, 7451
—(Oa, ~ee $i2+3418i. This scapolite-like mineral has A = 2133,
B=1094; C=62.
232 _ J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
6. Wernerite—W olff’s analysis of a Pargas variety pet very closely with
bus Si+-241 Si (although referred to the above Wernerite formula by Rammelsberg.)
3 Si 1731-93 6. atoms of acid and bases,7. ¢. atoms of a 26.
2X1 12836 A. 871851+2°712 P er) — 2
20a 70298 B. 13711+7=196 11-+26=527
a. At. weight, 3718°51
Idocrase has its vertical axis to that of Scapolite as 5: 4, and
Zircon to that of Idocrase as 6:5. For comparison we here in-
sert the atomic volume of Idocrase
2 Si=1154-62 4%. atoms of acid and bases, 6. c. atoms of elements, 19.
Al 16
1 6418 A. 2883" saat (sp. eee
3a 9373 3B. 848 16-6=141° 848'16+19==44'64
Fe 150
a. At. weight, 2883-72
The atomic volumes of Conetine, Idocrase and Zircon, are as 54: 44°64: 41°05.
XV. Tale—Different gi ga ise F Sit, Mg Sis, Mg Si.
1. 48i 230924 ba of acid and base, 7. ¢. —_ + elements, 22.
3Mg 7635 A. 8072°74+2°7 (sp. gr.) =1
B. 1138—7—=162°57 C: ease
a, At. weight, 3072-74 E
2. 5 Si 2886-55 6. atoms of acid and base, 9. c. atoms . elements, 28.
4Mg 1018-0 A. 3904°55-+2"7 (sp. er) =144
B. 1446—+-9=160°7 ee 64
a. At. weight, 3904-55 e
8. 1 Si = 57731 6. atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 6.
1Mg 2545 A. 831°81+2-7 (sp. gr) =308'1
—— B. 3081+2=154 308:1+6=51'35
a. At. weight, 831-81
XVL_ Epidote R2 a - anh 2(R3 8i+#8 Si) +H of the Ural;
i+# SiH, of Hitteroe.
Orthite has been shown . Kokscharoy (Min. Ges. St. Petersb, 1847, p. 147, and
this Sora [2], viii, ~_ to have the crystallization of Epidote. M:T in Epidote
==)j4° 9 os in Ural e 114° 55’ Kokscharov; in Cerine 116° Rose. The above
formulas o f Orthite + are Yh peg by Rancnale berg, (Boggpendostf! s Annalen,
Ixxvi, 98, 1849.) This author also calculates the atomic yolume corresponding to
he specimens analyzed, and obtains for Epidote having the formula 0 Si)+
2(¢A1+4-4¥e) Si, the atomic weight 4309°53, and 4309°53--3°4 (sp. gr.)}=1268
For Orthite of the Urals (in which 6R=1-2 Fre-f9- 4(Ge, La)+2-4 ba: and of=1: ‘Al
+05 Pe), the atomic weight 691182; and 6911-°82-—-3598=1921.
For the Orthite of Hitteroe, in which 3R=0°6 Pe41- 2 Ge+12 Ca; and H=07
A1+0°3 Fe, the atomic weight 3513-72; and 3513°72--3'459 (sp. gr.) =1017.
Rammelsberg thence abe that the atomic volumes of these minerals are as
1:1°5:0°8, “ or perhaps” as
If, however, as iclitocs we divide the aggregate atomic volume obtained by
Rammelsberg by the number of atoms of the elements, we 0
1. For Epidote 1268——-28=15°285
For Orthite of the Urals 19214048025
8. For the Orthite of Hitteroe ‘ 1017--21=48'43
Atomic. Volume of some.Minerats. 233
serh cine relation, exhibiting, satisfactorily the intimate relations of f the or
: ry £} 4 oe gi I +5 1 58 85,
1921+13—= =147-4, 1017+7=14
4. We eins, Weiaii, from Rothlaue analyzed by Rammelsberg,
(Pegs, leviii, 509
Si a 73193 6. atoms of acid and bases, 8. ¢. atoms of cc 28.
13 Al 1069-7 A. 4189°43+-3°387 ( gr.) =12
+¥Pe 33333 B, 1237+8=1546 1237> anu
8 Oa 105447
a. At. weight, 4189:
Here 44:2 is but little sil the determination for Bpidota,
XVII. The Feldspar Family.—In Orthoclase and Albite, Pe and Labrador-
ite, Loxoclase and Oligoclase, we have three examples of dimorphis
i 1, Orthoclase, R Si+A1 Sis —Form monoclinic.
Si 2309-24 6. atoms of acid and bases, 6. c¢. atoms of elements, 23.
1 Al 641-80 A. 3539°90—-2:55 (sp. gr.) =1388
1K 58886 B. 1388—6—2313 C. 1888 —238==60'4
a. At. weight, 3539-90
2. Albite, R RSi+AI 8 Si3.—Form triclinic.
==2309-24 6. atoms of acid and bases, 6. ¢. atoms i! — 238.
1 Al 641-80 A. 3341-94+2°61 (sp. gr.) =12
1Na 3909 B. 1280-4+6=2184 ©. 1280: pi 67
a, At. weight, 3341-94
8. Ryacolite, R Si+A1 Si—Monoclinic.
2 Si ==1154-62 5. atoms of acid and base es, 4. ¢. atoms of el ts, 15.
1 Al 641:80 A. 223683+-2°58 (as fr): =s0t
3 Na 2932 B, 86742167 er
4K 147-21
a. At. weight, 223683
4. Labradorite, RBiTAIS Si. _tviclinie.
=1154'62 &. atoms of acid and bases,4. c¢. atoms a 15.
1 Al 641-80 A. 2147 Tr (sp. gr.) =795
1 Ga $5149 B, 795 pngritcde C. 795° plese pt
a, At. weight, "214791
5. Loxoclase, R Si +41 Si2—Monoclinic.
3 Si =1731-93 6. atoms of acid and bases, 5. ¢ atoms of ore
141 = 641-80 A. 2779°52+2°615 (sp. &) =106
§Na 24431 B. 1068-+-5=212°6 ‘dasnades
}K
4 Ca 87-87
a. At. weight, 2779:
6. Oligoclase, R Si--a1 8 Si2 —Triclinie.
3 Si 1731-93 4%. atoms of acid and bases, 5. «. ssn of elements, 19,
14l C¢641-80 A. 275149265 (sp. gr.) =10883
@Na 2606 8B. 1038'3-+-5==207°66 ©. 1038°3-+19==54647
$Ca =: 11716
a. At. weight, "2751-49 51-4 im
Szconp § oe 1850.
‘. ERtEs, Vol. re. No, 26.—March,
234 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
We observe that the triclinic form in each of these three cases
of dimorphism has the highest specific gravity, and the lowest
atomic weight, and therefore the lowest atomic volume.
4. Anorthite, Re 8i+341 Si—Triclinic.
==2309: P b. atoms of acid and bases, 10. ¢, atoms of elements, 37.
3Al =: 1925-4 A. 5289°11—-2°7=1959
3 Ca ates B. 1959--10==195-9 ©. 1959-+-37==52-95
a. At. weight, 528911
8. Baulite, R Si24-A1 Sie —Monoclinic. “
8 Si 4618-48 6. atoms of acid and bases, 10. ¢. atoms ener, 89,
1% 641:80 A. 5760: ster 64 (sp. gr) =217
4+Na 195: ” B. 2178: pea Pana 2178- ce 85
3K 294-4
a At. weight, 5750-16
9, vente ty Si2+3A1 Si—triclinic.
=2886 se 6. atoms of acid and bases, 11. . ae 2 meiagigs 41.
; 2 1925-4 A. 592966—-2°787 (sp. “iF =
220. 848: is B. 21665-11197 G secu 84
2Na 15636
1K 117-77
a, At. weight, 5929°66 .
10. Andesine, Rs Si2 + 341 Si2.—Triclinic.
8 Si 461848 4. atoms of shee and bases, 14. c. atoms of elements, 53.
3A 1925-40 A. 7776 ia 67 (sp. gr) ==29124
14Na 586" rs B. 2912-4+-14—20 2912:4—-53==55°0
1 Ca 351°
4K 294 re
a. At. weight, 777615
VY ame , Rs Si2 +3Al Sie ——Monometric.
=4618'48 4, atoms of acid and bases, 14. ¢. atoms of elements, 53.
; Als. 1925-40 A. 8810-46—+2-486—=3343'15
3K 176658 B. 3848+14—938-8 C. 3348--58=63°08
a, At. weight, 8310-46
As Andesine and Leucite have essentially the same composition
and the compound is therefore dimorphons, we here observe again
that the triclinic form has the highest specific gravity and lowest
atomic weight, and asa consequence, the lowest atomic volume.
XVII. “—_ (Li, Na)3 Sis + 441 Sit —Spodumene, (Li, Na) Bi4+-4Al Si2,
—Andalusite, X13 $2,
1. Petalite
20 Bi =11546-20 4. atoms of we and bases, 27. ¢. atoms — 106.
4 Al _ 2667-20 A. 14815°31+2-44 (sp. gr.) ==607
st ad im B. 60718-~-27==224'96 C. 607 cet
a
+ a. At. weight, 14815°31
¢
“
PEA
ay SY
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 235
2, Spodumene.
==6927 sid 6. atoms of acid and bases, 19. ¢. atoms of elements, 74.
10196°838—3:17=3216-7
ee Li 408- a B. 3216-7-19=169°3 C. 8216°7+74==43'47
z Na 293°18
a, At. weight, 10196-83
Petalite has the structure of a feldspar, although not conform-
ing to the general rule for the fe eldspar family in having the oxy-
gen J the peroxyds to that of the protoxyds as 3: 1, but instead
as 4: It also approaches Orthoclase in its atomic volume, B
aealling 224-9 and C 57°31, while in Orthoclase B=231-3 and
=60°4. Spodumene, on the contrary, although a lithia species
like petalite, and having also the above ratio 4: 1, differs in its
cleavage and in: its crystalline form, and is also widely removed
from the feldspars in its atomic volume.
~
to
“
3. Andalusite,
28i 1154-62 6. atoms of acid and base,5. ¢. atoms of elements, 23.
3Al 1925-40 A. 3080:02-+-3°2 (sp. gr.) =962'5
a. At. volume, 308002 B. 962°5-5==192°5 C. 962°5--23==11°85
Andalusite has therefore the atomic volume of Spodumene, for
C equals 41:85, while in the above it equals 43°47. Moreover
the angle of the rhombic prism is nearly the same, it being in
Andalusite 91° 33’, in Spodumene 93°. We may hence con-
clude that the crystallization of Spodumene is not oblique like
the Feldspars and Petalite (although often so ok re
trimetric like Andalusite, and that the two species are isomorp
XIX, Analcime, 341 Si2+Nas Si2+6H,—Sodalite, Na aoe Sisal re
Haiiyne 20a 8+Na3 $i+341 Si,—Nosean Na 8+Nas Si+34
These species are introduced here for comparison with Leucite. They seem to
show that the monometric form in these silicates is connected with a high atomic
Volume, the amount exceeding that of the monoclinic as well as triclinic feldspars.
1. Analcime.
8 Si wit hy 8. atoms of bases and acid, 20. ¢. atoms of elements, 65.
SAL 1925 A. 8391-46+2°068 (sp. bowel
8 Na nt B. 4057°7-+20=202'88 C. 4057°7-+65-=62'48
6H
a. At. weight, 8391-46
2. Sodalite,
48i 9309-24 4, atomsof bases and acid, 11. ¢, atoms of elements, 39.
A. 6141°54-+2-29 (sp. gr. of Vesuvian var.) ==2682
8 Al 1925-4
8Na 11727 B, 2682-11244 0, 2682—-39==68'77
1 Na
"9
1c 4433 Sp.gr. of Greenland Sodalite, 237. Thence C==66°45.
a. At. weight, 6141-54
, die
236 J.D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
8. Haiiyne.
2§ '-=51000- 6. atoms of bases and acid, 14. c¢. atoms of elements, 49.
48i 230924 A. 7110°32-+2-45 (sp. gr.)=2902°2
38Al 19954 B. 29022+14—207°3 C. 2902°2—-49—=59-23
3 Na 1172°7
a, At. weight, 7110-32
4. Nosean.
4 Si ==2309-24 5b. atoms of acids and bases, 12. ¢. atoms of elements, 43.
1925-4 . 6298:24-—-9'3 (sp. gr.) =2738 36
4Na 15636 B. 2788-36+12=228-2 0. 27
18:
a. At. weight, 6298-24
XX. Kyanite, X13 Si2—Bucholzite, XSi
3
2738-36--43=63°68
. Kyanite.
Atomic weight as for Andalusite, 3080°02. A. 3080-02+-3-62 (sp. gr.) =850°83
B. 850°83—~-5==170165 C. 850: 88—23=37°0
1Si = 57731 6. atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 9.
1 Al 641-80 A=1219'11+3'4 (mean sp. gr.) =358°56
a, At. weight, 121911 B. 358:56~—2—179-28 C. 358°56+9=39°84
26 Sis (from Bowen's and Hayes’s analyses of Sillimanite) gives (@=3'41, Bow-
en), A==1915'8; B=174-2; C=—=38-32.
XXI. Lencopyrite, Fe As—Mispickel, Fe S24-Fe As,— White Iron Pyrites, Fe 82.
1. Leucopyrite.
1 As
=94 c. atoms of elements, 2.
1Fe 350 A. 1290-+7-228 (sp. gr.) =178"
a. At. weight, 1290 CO. 178°47—-2==89'24
[If As is a double atom, then 178°47-+-38=59'49]
2. Mispickel.
1 As =940 e. atoms of elements, 5.
28. 400 A. 2040+6:127 (sp. gr.)=3
2 Fe 700 C. 833-5666
' a. At weight, 2040 [Considering As a double atom, 333--6==55'5]
i mh
‘ ee
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 237
3. White Iron i
28 — of elements, 3.
1 Fe er A. 750-476 (sp. de =157-
a, At. weight, 750 C. 15756+3=5 2°52
The atomic volumes of these minerals are,
If As isa single atom, 89°24 66°6 52°52
If As is a double atom, 59°49 555 52°52
These species have each arhombic form; but as Prof. G. Rose
has observed, they appear to differ too wide ely to be considered
isomorphous. The angles M: M are respectively 122926’, 111953’
and 10630’. This chemist also remarks that the elements arsenic
and sulphur are very different in crystallization, and therefore we
have no good authority for assuming them to be isomorphous. If
we admit As to be a single atom the atomic volumes are widely
different ; but if a double atom, they approximate rather closely.
n this connection, the atomic volume of olivenite (with which
Libethenite is isomorphous) may be stated. ‘The rhombic prism
has M:M ( «P)=109°10/, Pc=84°45’; while in white iron
pyrites cP = 106°30/and P «=81°50’, in Mispickel «P= 111953’
and P o; = 80°89’ ;
1. Olivenite.
§ As meee 06 6. atoms of — and bases, 6. ¢. atoms o f el its, 16.
4 31 A. oraepe o, w= 14
4 Ou ate B. 822° eae aes 2°74—~-16==5 1°42
1 112-48 [If As is a double atom, then seutt and C==48'4.]
a. At. volume, 3402°04
2. Libethenite.
1 = 8923 6. atoms of acid and bases, 6. c. atoms of elements, 16.
4Cu 1986-4 A. 2991 gists (sp. gr.) =808'4
1H 11248 B, 808:48+-6==134°7 CO. 808:48+16=50°53
a. At. volume, 2991-18
XXIL Nitrate of ee ee of Manganese—Carbonate of Zine—Light
Reed Silver Ore. (see p
1. Nitrate of Soda, 8. R: R=106° 33’,
Na = 3909 5. atoms of sneein nd base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 8.
1N 675-06 A. 1065-96-21 (sp. gr.) =507°6
@ At. weight, 106596 B. 507-6+-2==253'8 C. 507-6--8=68-45
2. Carbonate of a Mn G; R:R=106°51’.
1 Mn = 4447 8, atoms S ree and base, a ec. atoms of elements, 5.
16 oe 9°1--8-599=='
a. At. weight, 7197 B, 2004+2=100°2 C. 200°4—+-5==40'1
8. Carbonate of Zine, Zin G, R: R=107°40’.
Mm = 5066 6, atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 5.
16 275° A. 781°6+-4°4 (sp. gr.) =177°6
4. At. weight, 7816 B, 177°6--2==88°8 C. 1776+5=35°5
y
+f
238 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
4, Light = segs! Ore, 3AgS8+As 83; R: R=107°36’.
0°00 6. atoms of hens and acid, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 10.
: Ps Panes A. 6190:08-—5°5=1125
658 1200°00 B, 1125—+-2—=562°5. C. 1125+10==112°5.
a. At. weight, 6190-08 0’, 1125-11 (if As is fou pont 8
5. Dark Red ee be 3AgS-+S8b 83.
A. 6362'80+5'8 (sp. er) =118
gb agen ap eS 3
a. At. weight, 6862°8
C in nitrate of soda and carbonate of manganese (which are
nearly alike in angle) isas 2:3. Carbonate of 3 zinc, isomorphous
with carbonate of manganese, has C =35°5, the angle R: R being
a degree larger. The relation between Ci in carbonate of zine
and light red silver ore (in which the angle is nearly the same )
approaches closely 1: 3, three times C of zinc being 106°5,
while C in the silver ore is 11
XXII. Arragonite, M:M, 116°10’—White Lead ore, 117°13’—Strontiamite,
117°19’—~ Witherite, 118°30'——Nitrate of Potash, 119°—Bournonite, 115°16’.
1. Arragonite.
1 Ga = 35149 6. atoms of acid and base, 2. ¢. atoms of elements, 5.
6
16 275° A. 626°99--2-93 (sp. gr.) =21
a. At. weight, 62649 B. 216+2—108 O. 216-5132
2. White Lead ore
1Pb =13945 A. 1669:5-—~6°6 (sp. er.) oo
2 2750 B, 258+2=126%5 53-+-6=50°6
a. At. weight, 1669-5
3. Strontianite.
18
care A. 922°3~3-66 (sp, i a 27
16 215 = B, 259-9196 Sion sdlclee
922°3
4, Witherite.
1 Ba = 9565 A, 12315+43 (sp. ey ==286'4
1 275° ~=—-B. 286-4+2—=143-9 286°4—-5=57'8
12315
5. Nitrate of Potash.
== 58886 6. atoms of acid and base. ec. atomsof ae 8 [or 9].
25
18 675-06 A. 1263-92~1-937 (sp. gr.) =6
a. At. weight, 1263°92 B, 652°5—-2-—=-326-2 ©. 6525-88156
6. Bournonite
6 Cu =2370- c. atoms of elements, 33.
6Pb 7767: A. 18585:-4+5°766 (sp. gr.) =3223°3
3Sb 4848-4 C. 8223°3-+33=97°5
18S 3600 =————s«[8298°3-+36 (Sb being double) =89°5]
a. At. weight, 185854
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 239
We have added several acknowledged isomorphs that the na-
ture of the series may be understood, preparatory for comparison
with the other species. This series is,
116° 10’ 117°13’ 117°19 118°30/
43 506 50°54 57°3
In the above series there is a change of 14:3 in atomic volume
for a change of 2° 20’ (or 140’) of angle. This is equivalent very
nearly to 0-1 for 1’. The differences between the first and second
in this series and between the third and fourth correspond nearly
with this rate.
To appreciate the relation of atomic volume between nitrate of
potash, and the other species of the series, we compare it with
witherite which is nearest it in angle, and find the ratio nearly of
3: With reference to bournonite, we should compare with
arragonite, which is nearest it in angle; or perhaps more correctly
with a number still smaller than the atomic volume of arragonite,
since the angle is nearly a degree less. The true ratio we cannot
decide upon without further investigation.
We observe that the atomic volume in the arragonite series in-
creases with the angle while, as shown by Kopp, it diminishes in
the calc series. Moreover the species with a prismatic form have
a higher atomic volume than the rhombohedral; and in the
Species calc spar the two series overlap.
Zn 6 Mg Mn tad Poe Sr 6 Ba
107946’ 107925’ 10790’ 106951’ 105°15’
35°65 86°25 37°70 40°1 46°24
43° 506 5054 573
116°10’ 117918’ 117919’ 118°30/
We should hence expect that if either of these species were
dimorphous like cale spar, it would be those nearest to calc spar.
The species chrysolite and those of that series differ from ar-
ragonite in havin : M=119° — 120°, and as the angle of the
arragonite series enlarges, the erystallization of the two approxi-
mates. The atomic volume of the chrysolite series varies from
40 to 46, and this is near arragonite.
e add here the calculations for two species, one of which
approaches chrysoberyl and the other arragonite.
Copper glance (€u8) has M:M=119°85’, and a brachydiagonal prism =125°40’,
while chrysobery] has M : M=119°51’ and a brachydiagonal prism ==130°.
€u = 793-2 A. 993°2+5°7 (sp. gr.) =174
200: C. 174—8=58
9932 [or if €u is a single atom, 174-267]
As 2Cu is isomorphous with 1Ag and other metals, the last value
of the atomic volume appears to be most correct. This gives
240 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and 4
the ratio to the oy sie series of 3:2. Serpentine has 44, to
which if one-half be added, it becomes the atomic volume very
aauiy of copper Ahan
Brittle Silver Ore (Sprédglaserz=6 Ag S+Sb $3) has M: M=115°39’, and one
of its brachydiagonal prisms 72°32’; while arragonite has the corresponding angles J.
116°10/ and 69°22 : |
6 Ag =8100° A. 115128651771 .
1Sb 16128 : C 1771+-16=1107
9S 1800 :
115128
This result gives the ratio of 3: 1.
We do not decide here whether these minerals are proper iso- |
morphs or ig of the groups with which they are compared. |
‘opaz one position has nearly the axes of chrysoberyl.
They are oe by von Kobell as follows—
For Chrysoberyl, 0°5800 : 1: 0-4702
or Topaz 0:4745 : 1: 0°5281
and the latter is the same approximately as the former reversed.
Calculating the atomic volume of topaz (Al shale off on Si2, we find
4Si = 2309-24 ms of elements, 55.
6Al 3850°80 A, 8204:15+3: he, gr,) =2344-0
2 Al 3418 CO, 2344+55=42%
6F 1425-0
1 Si 27731
8204-15
The atomic volume thus corresponds with that of the chrysolite series.
The following are some comparisons of dimetric and hexagonal
species, alike in the length of the vertical axis. 'The coincidences
of atomic volume cannot be deemed scoters
Axis. Atomic volume.
5 Vesuvian, dimetric, 0-5345 ‘64
Dioptase, ‘rhombohedral, 0:5295 45°44
; Rutile, dimetric, 06555 40-7
Arsenic, rhombohedral, 06938 163(=4x 40-75)
Scapolite, dimetric, 0:44 54:
Nepheline, rhombohedral, 0:4629 56°66
ryl, 0:4993 53°46 —
Tungsten, dimetric, 10488 50°3
Chabazite, rhombohedral, 1:0798 515
It is obvious that these observations are but the introduction
to a subject of great extent, and of the widest interest to
science.
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 241
I defer for another occasion what had been prepared upon the
monometric species, and conclude with a table of the results here
published, and a brief enunciation of some of the conclusions
flowing from the facts detailed.
A TABULAR VIEW OF THE RESULTS,
The relations of atomic volume will be at once apparent from
the following table; 1, as exhibited in the column of aggregate
atomic volumes (column A),—2, in that of the aggregate divided
by the number of atoms of acids and bases (column B),—3, that of
the eEproeue divided by the number of atoms of the elements
(column
1. Crystallization clinometric.
x. B. C.
in ame monoclinic, Ist var., (Ca, Mg)3 Siz, 637° 127-4 45°5
(Ca, Mg, Fe)3 Si2, 6452 129% 46°1
i var., (Hedenbergite,) 673'4 1384-7 48-1
4th var., (Hudsonite,) 7060 141-2 48-9
5th var., Fe3 Si2, 6747 135 48°2
6th var., Mn3 §i2, 6848 1369 48-9
2. Acmite, monoclinic, 9185 183°7 48°34
8. Hornblende, “ 1st var., 9716 1388 48°58
2d var., aporger mary 155°95 47°25
8d var Og ik 1384 48°43
4th var. oe 1440 48°04
4. Borax, sanaactbals 189176 107°0 46°38
5. Glauber salt, “ 1290 10754 49°6
1. Epidote, monoclinic, 1268 1585 45°285
2. Zoisite, 1237 1546 44-2
3. Orthite of the bday, - amo 1921: 1478 48-025
4, Orthite of Hitte 1017° 145°3 48°43
1, Orthoclase, sce 1388° 231°3 604
2. Ryacolite 867° 2167 578
8. Lox ashi “ 1063" 2126 560
4, Bauli Ms 21781 21781 55°85
5. Albite, triclinic, 12804 2134 55°67
6. Labradorite, « 7955 1989 08
7. Oligoclase, « 1038°3 20766 54°647
8. Anorthite, “ 1959 1959 52°95
9. Vosgit 21665 «197° 52°84
10. Andesine, « 29124 208 55°0
ll. Petalite, “ ‘ 6071°8 224°96 57°83
1. Kyanite, teiclinn 4 Biz, 85083 170165 870
2. Bucholzite, « 35856 17928 39°84
8. Sillimanite, X16 ae Abe analysis), 1915°8 1742 38°32
1. Chromate of lead, monoclinic, 333°8 1669 556
2. Monazi « 61725 =164°3 5144
?
Srconp Szries, Vol. [X, No. 26.—March, 1850. $1
panes
242 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism and
2. Hexagonal or Rhombohedral.
A:
i. or iron, 85°58’, 192°
2. Alumin ae 86°04’, 1617 -
8. Phenmciia, 83°12 354°
4. Arsenic, 85°04’, ae
5. Antinengs 87°35!
6. Bismuth, 87°40’,
7. Tellurium, 86°57’,
8. Osmium, 84°52’, iis
1. Quartz, 94°15’, 218:
2. Chabazite, 94°46’, 4582°4
1. Cinnabar, 71°47’, 180°
2. Eudialyte, 73°40’, 2382°
1. Beryl, (old at, wt. of Glucina,) 2512°7
2. Nepheline, ~ 1473°2
1. Tale, Mg3 Sis, 1188
2 Meg‘ Sis, 1446:
8 “ MgSi, 308'1
pS et of oe 105°05’, (from K 231-2
2. and magnesia vabited 106°15/, aa a
3. = sian, 106°51’, 0-4
4. Nitrate of soda, 106°33’, hs 6
5. eae of i iron, Of 188°50
6. iron and See som es 107°14’, 186-26
1. « magnesia, 107°2 181-25
8. vk zine, 107°40/, 1776
9. Light red silver ore, 107°36’, 1125°
10. Dark red silver ore, 108°18’, 1183:
. Crystallization trimetric.
i. ge mgr on ve weight,) 21618
weight, 1300°9
" von aa s at. wt., 433°7
2. Chrysolite, 416°
3. Villarsite, 1916°3
4. Serpentine, 20685
5. Epsom salt, 881-
6. Picrosmine, 1587°
1. Topaz, 2344°
1, Sulphur,
rodite, ‘ 894-7
8. Selenium, (acknowledged isomorphous with sulphur,) 115°
i. Lent hag pyrites, (dimorph with common pyrites,)
157°56
2. Gra mth lied 107°44’, 1 5
8. Celestine, 104°, 294°2
spar, 101°40’, 823-64
5. Anglesite, 103°49, 301-67
B.
88°5
149°12
_ 1471
16182
150°83
la Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 243
i
: A. B. 0
: ’ 1. Andalusite, 962°5 1925 41°85
2. Spodumene, 32167 1693 43°47
1, Leucopyrite—As, a single atom, 17847 see 89°24
& As, a double atom, ie ‘ 59°49
2. Mispickel —As, a single atom, 333 ‘ 666
As, a double atom, a Ag 555
8. White iron pyrites, (as above,) loTee ss 52°52
4. Olivenite, 829°%4 = «187-12 51-42
5. Libethenite, 80848 13474 5053
1. Arragonite, 116°10’, 216° 108 43-2
2. White lead ore, 117918’, 253 1265 50°6
3 Strontianite, 117°19/ 252 126 50°54
4 Witherite, 118°30/, 2864 143°2 57°3
5. Nitrate of potash, 119°, 652°5 826°2 81°56
6. Bournonite, 115°16’ 8223°3 5; ay 975
1. Copper glance, 19°36), 174° ca Ses
1. Brittle silver ore, 1771 a 110°7
4. Crystallization dimetric.
1, Scheelite, Sr rag of lime,) 301°6 150°8 503
2. Tungstate of lead, 8559 =177°9 59°3
3. F 967°5 1382 57-0
1. Zircon, 87038 18515 4115
2. Rutile, ine Pr, 40°7
3. Tin ore, : 134-4 Ba 44°8
1. Scapolite, 17294 «1921
2. Meionite, 15582 194'8 55°65
3. Wernerite, 1909 =: 190°9 516
4. Dipyre, 2816 «2011 55-21
5. “eden 2133 194° 52
6. Werneri 13711 196° 52-7
7. Gehlenite iecanaianiiy analysis), 25053 1566 5118
I. aa 84816 14136 4464
1. A 134-0 44°66
2. ea. cnielavies 2613 130°65
5. Crystallization monometric.
: 1. Leucite, 3348 2388 «= 6308
2. Analcime, 40577 20288 62:48
j 3. Haiiyne, 29022 2073 59°23
4.N 2738-36 2282 63°68
5. Sodalite—Sp. gr.—=2-29, 2682: 244: 68°77
Sp. gr.—=2'37, —_
Conclusions from the ake nae facts.
I. The law of Isomorphism, in view of the facts detailed, has
Sreatly widened limits. It includes the received law—Like or
homologous compounds of isomorphous elements are isomorph-
244 J. D. Dana on the Tsomorphism and
ous; and also the more general law,—Unlike compounds, of the
same or different elements, may be isomorphous, and when so,
they are alike or proportional in atomic volume.
. Cleavage may differ among substances, and yet the species
be isomorphous. Thus angite and hornblende have different
cleavage; anatase and horn quicksilver; sulphur and scorodite.
This is a point, however, which requires much more investigation.
II. The relations of atomic volume shown in the three columns
are all of interest, but especially those in the third or C column.
The C relation is seen to be in general a relation of approximate
equality, while the A relation when simple is usually one of mul-
tiple ratio; and sometimes it is far from simple. The C relation
exhibits the comparative character of the monoclinic, triclinic and
monometric feldspars, in a simple and obvious manner, while from
the A relation, no deduction could be made: and so in other
cases where general principles are concerned. The C relations
often show a consistent difference between a substance with its
allies and others unlike, when no such difference is apparent in
the A relations. The C relation moreover exhibits the differences
which are compatible with a ratio of equality, and hence enables
us to compare more correctly the A relations. It is unnecessary
to review here the ratios in the C column. We mention only a
few cases of the ratios (approximate) apparent in the A column
which in many cases are simple and deserve full consideration.
We take the number for the species first mentioned in each para-
graph as the unit for comparison with the others.
1, Pyroxene, dif. var., 1; acmite 14; hornblende 1}; borax 2; glauber salt 2.
2. Epidote 1; zoisite 1; Ural orthite 14; Hitteroe orthite 4.
8. Orthoclase 1; ryacolite %; loxoclase 2; baulite 14; albite 1; labradorite t;
anorthite 1}; vosgite 14; andesine 1}; petalite 44.
4, Kyanite 1; bucholzite 74,2; ; sillimanite (one var.) 24.
5. Quartz 1; chabazite 20. In deducing the ratio here as in other cases, we have
some reference necessarily to the difference observed in the C ratios.
6. Talc, 1st var, 1; 2d var. 1}; 8d var. soy. In the C column the numbers are
nearly equal.
_7. Chrysolite 1; chrysoberyl 4 (or 1); villarsite 4°6 ; serpentine 5; Epsom salt 2;
picrosmine 34,
8. Rutile 1; zircon 3—9. Scheelite 1; fergusonite 3.
We do not pursue this further, as the ratios are readily deduci-
ble from the table.
IV. The view of Scheerer, that three of water may replace
one of magnesia, if true, is only true for a special case or set of
eases, and is subordinate to the more general law of atomic vol-
ume. If true, we should expect, in dividing the aggregate atomic
volume by the number of atoms of the elements, that it wou
be right to reckon three atoms of water as eqivalent to one of
magnesia, instead of counting each element as equal to one ; but
the facts observed are opposed to this course.
iby
pee i
sign Saeie
an
—
Atomic Volume of some Minerals. 245
4
The Gerhardtian principle that protoxyd bases replace per-
oxyds, is also, when true, only a special case. The relations of
the feldspars do not appear to be explicable on Gerhardt’s princi-
ple; nor the relations of the varieties of scapolite or horublende.
V. Species of the same atomic volume may be wholly unlike
in crystallization, and hence volume alone does not seem to de-
termine the form. Quartz has the atomic volume (C) of the feld-
Spars—an interesting fact in view of their frequent association—
and the A relation between it and albite is 1:6; yet there is no
isomorphism between them. The fact that the two forms of a
dimorphous substance differ but little in the calculated atomic vol-
ume, (often much less than one of the forms differs from another
isomorphous with it,) appears to be a case in point. Yet if in-
stances of dimorphism are also instances of isomerism, it is pos-
sible that the volume may actually be double that which is de-
uced. We have much therefore, to ascertain on this point,
before we can determine the true relation of form to volume.
VI. There are difficulties in the way of applying these princi-
ples to some compounds, arising from doubts with regard to the
atomic weights. But, as in the case of hydrogen, (which is
doubled by the Berzelian school,) these investigations seem to
afford data for arriving at the truth.
VIL. Since the relations of atomic volume are exhibited through
the volume of the elemental molecules of compounds, it may be
inferred that the elemental molecules are not combined together
or united with one another in a compound ; but that, under their
mutual influence, each is changed alike and becomes a mean re-
sult of the molecular forces in action. If the elemental mole-
cules were actually combined, as is usually supposed, the atomic
volume of the aggregate should be the atomic volume of the com-
pound ; so that in all comparisons between different substances,
these aggregate results should present the true relation. ut, i
appears that the true atomic volume relation is found in the ele-
mental molecules of compounds, and much less clearly or uDi-
formly in the aggregate results. This inference is at variance with
received ideas on chemical combination; yet if our premises are
Correct—we admit they need farther investigation—we see not
how to avoid it. :
_ We add an additional word upon the name applied to isomorph-
ism among unlike compounds. Heleromerism, as stated, is un-
meaning, this term being the correlative of isomerism, which has
no relation to isomorphism. Heteromerous isomorphism is in
itself applicable ; but the word isomerous is in use, and heterome-
tous, if employed at all, should correspond in signification. As
he above terms are therefore objectionable, we suggest as appro-
priate and significant, the expressions isonomic and heteronomic
tsomorphism ; the isomorphism being 1n one case between homol-
©g0us substances, or those of like law or proportion in constitu-
tion,—and in the other between substances unlike in constitution.
°
246 SS. G. Morton on the Size of the Brain in Man.
Arr. XXVI.—Observations on the Size of the Brain in va-
rious Races and Families of Man; by Samvue, Grorce
Morton, M.D.* —
I nave great pleasure in submitting to the Academy the results
of the internal measurements of six hundred and twenty-three
human crania, made with a view to ascertain the relative size of
the brain in various races and families of man. ‘
These measurements have been made by the process invented
by my friend, Mr. J. 8. Phillips, and described in my Crania
Americana, p. 253, merely substituting leaden shot, one-eighth of
an inch in diameter, in place of the white mustard-seed originally
used. I thus obtain the absolute capacity of the cranium, or bul
of the brain, in cubic inches ; and the results are annexed in all
those instances in which I have had leisure to put this revised
mode of measurement in practice. I have restricted it, at least
for the purpose of my inferential conclusions, to the crania of
persons of sixteen years of age and upwards, ‘at which period the
brain is believed to possess the adult size. Under this age, the
revise all that part of the series that had not been previously
measured by myself. I can now, therefore, vouch for the accu-
racy of these multitudinous data, which I cannot but regard as
a novel and important contribution to Ethnological science. :
I am now engaged in a memoir which will embrace in detail
the conclusions that result from these data ; and meanwhile I sub-
mit the following tabular view of the prominent facts. (See op-
posite page.
The measurements of children, idiots and mixed races are omit-
ted from this table, excepting only in the instance of the Fellahs
of Egypt, who, however, are a blended stock of two Caucasian
nations,—the true Egyptian and the intrusive Arab, in which the
characteristics of the former greatly predominate. :
o mean has been taken of the Caucasian racet collectively,
because of the very great preponderance of Hindu, Egyptian and
Tse ne RSS APC One RE Ce On SAPO Wiseel aI eae
* From the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Oc-
tober, 1849.
_ + It is necessary to, explain what is here meant by the word race. Further re-
searches into Ethnographic affinities will probably demonstrate that what are now
termed the jive races of men, would be more appropriately called groups; that
~
:
|
i
BL ii eee
ms i
sree sce er ee
ee ae ee yee os Pees ieee
ee
S. G. Morton on the Size of the Brainin Man. 247
Table apsitied the Sizes of the Brain in cubic inches, as obtained gig on the internal
asurement of 623 Crania of various Races and Families
Races and Families. ae 8 oe — Mean. | Mean.
MODERN CAUCASIAN GROUP.
TEUTONIC sees
Getmanas: oie ses sateen 18 114 S70 90
ee ee ied 8S & 5 105 91 96 92
An mericans, ........ “4 97 82 90
Perascic Famity.
Rotsiabey 266 A ores, 10 o4 | 45 84
enians,
ssians, ;
Seema edis ck aid ei .m |, ie 8
Inpostanic Famity, } 32 91 67 80
Bengalees, de. §°°°°""**
ca paca FOO RN 3 98 84 89
Nimorte ey: etett Ag 17 96 66 80
ANCIENT CAUCASIAN GROUP.
o @ ( Petaseic Fant 88
oe Gree Reypiisna tS": is |. 97 | .%4
ed g Nitortc Fay. " 80
Fey & Egyptians, t ven sas 55 96 68
MONGOLIAN GROUP.
Cainess FPiaoters 75. ec 6 91 40 86
MALAY GROUP.
MUS kc cs eee 20 97 68 86 185
Feiteanss Pasir, [cic See y 84 82 83
AMERICAN GROUP.
Toirecan Famity.
Portivisid, 2. ch nw snes 155 101 58 "5
Oe ae 22 92 67 79
—— TRIBES 19
nos
oon 161 | 104 | 70 | 84
Cherokee,
oshon
NEGRO GROUP.
Native Arrican FamiLy. ....-- 62 99 Me o tes
AMERICAN-BoRN NEGROES. ....-- 12 89 a "5
Horrenror FAMILY. .....-.+0+ 3 83
ALForIAN Famity. si 8 83 68 45
‘Sidi Ch
248 SS. G. Morton on the Size of the Brain in Man.
Fellah skulls over those of the Germanic, Pelasgic and Celtic
families. Nor could any st Nee collective comparison be instituted
average to about 87 cubic inches, and the Negro to 78 at most,
perhaps even to 75, and thus confirmatively establish the differ-
ence of at least nine cubic inches between the mean of the two
ces.
Large as this collection already is, a glance at the Table will
show that it is very deficient in some divisions of the human
. The Teutonic or German race, embracing, as it does, the
Ankle Anglo-Americans, Anglo-Irish, é&c., possesses the
largest brain of any other people
2. The nations hg the smallest heads, are the ancient Pe-
ruvians and Aust
3. The iclieee.. sels of America oes a much larger
brain than the demi-civilized Peruvians or Mex
4. e ancient Egyptians, whose Sordination gereniy Se that
- all other people, and whose co untry has been justly called “the
le of the arts and sciences,” have the least-sized brain of any
feamaae nation, excepting the Hindoos; for the very few Semi-
. these groups is = divisible ah a greater or smaller number of primary races,
ach of which has — Se toy anes nucleus centre Thus I conceive
that there were several centres for peers merican gro up of races, of gy a0 es
est in the scale are . Toltee can nations, the lowest the fue
view conflict with the general precple, ‘that all these nations and tribes hae had,
as Th ne a this term eant
only an seri relation to gy cou ey a 1ey inhabits an * a colletive iden:
tity of physical traits, mental and moral sh pce gad
i . The same
man ra ACES ; bu in the present infant stat if Bthn oaaph ience, the des gnation 0
le «
ea
Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer. 249
tic heads will hardly permit them to be admitted into the com-
parison.
5. The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teutonic,
and three cubic inches larger than the ancient Egyptian.
6. The largest brain in the series is that of a Dutch gentleman,
and gives 114 cubic inches; the smallest head is an old Peruvian,
of 58 cnbic inches ; the difference between these two extremes is
no less than 56 cubic inches.
7. The brain of the Australian and Hottentot falls far below
the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the ancient Peru-
vian.
8. This extended series of measurements fully confirms the
fact stated by me in the Crania Americana, that the various arti-
ficial modes of distorting the cranium, occasion no diminution of
its internal capacity, and consequently do not aflect the size of
the brain.
Arr. XXVIL—Remarks on the Aneroid Barometer ; by Pro-
essor J. Loverine of Harvard University.
Mosr of the scientific journals of Europe and America have
published descriptions of the new French barometer, as it is
called. For the construction of the instrument and the history
of its invention I may refer to them, particularly to that con-
tained in this Journal, September,
The two ordinary statical ways of measuring forces are, Ist, by
means of gravity, and 2d, by elasticity. Our common balances
to measure weight employ either the gravity of a known coun-
terpoise or the elasticity of a spring. In like manner the weight
of a column of the atmosphere is determined when we know the
height of a similar column of some known fluid which it 1s able
to support or the elasticity of some familiar substance with which
it is in equilibrium. The barometer with which all have Jong
been familiar employs the first method. The aneroid barometer,
which, as its name implies, excludes all liquids from its conte
tion, is based on the last principle, viz., that of measuring weig
by elasticity. i
_ This new instrument is already manufactured in large numbers
in France and Great Britain. Its adoption is recommended on
the ground of accuracy as well as its great strength and compact-
hess. Barometers are now extensively used, not only for tracing
out the grand laws of meteorology, but also as a practical guide
to the mariner to forewarn him of approaching storms, and an
indispensable instrument of research to the physical geographer
and geologist. It is highly important that the mineralogist, the
Srconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26—March, 1850. 32
250 Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer.
navigator and the student of general science should know what
degree of accuracy may be claimed for the new barometer and
how far they are allowed to trust themselves to its indications.
With the hope of assisting those who desire to form an opinion
on this subject, [ present the following experiments and observa-
tions, undertaken originally at the suggestion of Prof. A. D. Bache,
Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey. The instrument em-
ployed in this research was furnished by Prof. Bache, and bears
the mark 1265, Lerebours and Secretan, Paris.
A series of experiments was first made with this aneroid ba-
rometer to determine the whole range of the instrument. For
this purpose, it was placed first under the receiver of an exhaust-
ing pump, and afterwards under the receiver of a condensing
engine. In this way, it was found capable of indicating a change
of atmospheric pressure which would move the column of mer-
cury in acommon barometer from about twenty inches up to
thirty-one inches. From the nature of its construction, the index
cannot go beyond the point which corresponds to twenty inches
of the mercurial barometer on one side, or that which corresponds
to thirty-one inches of the same on the other. How accurately
its march between these limits agrees with that of the mercurial
moves farther than the column of mercury under the same change
atmospheric pressure. As it approaches its lower limit, how-
ever, it will begin of course to be restrained in the amplitude of
its motion, until, at length, the difference between the two instru-
ments changes its sign. It is obvious that, in the partitular in-
those of the pump-gauge to within ‘Ol of an inch. Such is the
statement in the London Atheneum, although I find no mention
pues
ere
Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer. 251
made of the subject in the Report of the.Association for that
year. As the reader is not informed to what amount of dimin-
ished pressure the aneroid barometer was subjected in this case,
and whether the difference above mentioned was the result of a
single observation or the mean residuum of many, he is not able
to decide how far the experiments to which Mr. Lloyd refers are
at variance with those here published. I cannot say how much
of the error manifested in my comparison of the two barometers
is fairly to be charged to the general character of the new barom-
eter, and how much is peculiar to the single instrument with
which [ experimented. As soon as an opportunity offers, I desire
to submit other specimens of the aneroid barometer of English
and French construction to the same trial.
My next series of experiments consisted in a comparison of
the aneroid barometer, day by day, with the common barometer,
Jones, London, and is the same as that employed by Prof. Farrar
in his barometric observations published in Volume IIL. of the Me-
moirs of the American Academy, Boston. This instrument is
furnished with an adjustment for level, an attached thermometer
and a scale of corrections for temperature. This correction as
cate the exact temperature of the working parts of the instrument.
The slowness with which the index returned to its old mark, after
252 Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer.
the barometer had been subjected to excessive heat or cold and
was then restored to a medium temperature, manifests the impor-
tance of having the thermometer inclosed as the rest of the instru-
ment. ‘The standard of temperature adopted was 55° Fah. to ac-
commodate the scale of the mercurial barometer.
‘he result of this series of comparisons is contained in Table
II. Although the agreement is much closer than with the low
ranges, it falls far below the requirements of nice scientific inves-
tigations. Mr. David Purdie Thompson in his very recent “ In-
troduction to Meteorology,” has the following paragraph. ‘‘ Upon
comparison of indications made with the aneroid barometer—not
corrected for the particular temperatfire—and a very perfect mer-
curial barometer, given by Mr. Dent, we find that from forty-nine
observations made between the 6th of January and 23d of Feb-
ruary, 1848, the mean difference was 0-037 of an inch, the aneroid
being in excess; and from sixty similar observations made wit
a standard barometer, during December, 1848, and between the
3d and 31st of January, 1849, the mean difference amounted to
0-026 of an inch, the mercurial being, in this case, in excess over
the aneroid barometer. Combining these observations (109 in
number) a mean difference amounting to 0-0025 of an inch is
found to exist, the indications of the aneroid being in excess.
For general use the instrument is thus shown to be well suited;
for the measurement of heights it is peculiarly adapted, from its
portability and comparative strength; and for nautical purposes
we know of no better instrument.”—p. 448
Now it will be observed that the mean difference in the twenty-
eight comparisons of the two barometers which I have given
amounts to only -040 of an inch. So far as can be inferred
from the value of the mean differences, the comparisons were as
satisfactory as in the first set given by Mr. Thompson. Still the
single differences are large; whether larger or smaller than in
Mr. Dent’s observations Iam not able to say, as Mr. Thompson
has not given the individual differences. Provision has been
made in the construction of the instrament for diminishing the
“mean difference as we alter the general rate of a chronometer.
If the mean difference is eliminated from the comparisons an
the remaining differences are placed in a column as in ‘Table I,
they manifest by the signs of plus and minus the irregularities of
the instrument in small ranges and the errors to be expected from
these irregularities in single observations. I have arranged the
same observations in Table III, according to the sign and the
value of these remaining differences. From the sign of the dif-
ferences it appears that when the barometers fall the aneroid falls
most, and when the barometers rise the aneroid rises most.
other words, the aneroid index moving on either side of the point
where it agrees with the mercurial barometer moves too fi
Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer. 253
The experiments with the air-pump indicate the same tendency
more unequivocally and to about the same proportional amount.
in these experiments, where the barometer and the pump-
atige were indicating the effect of diminished pressure, the ane-
roid stood at the lowest point; so that when the elevation of the
mercury in the pump-gauge is subtracted from the backward mo-
tion of the index in the aneroid the sign is always plus: at least,
until the lower limit of range is approached. Although this is
the general character of the differences, a nice examination of the
observations shows that here as well as in the experiments with
the air-pump there are errors and fluctuations which cannot
traced to any law of the instrument, and against which no pro-
vision can be made.
able IV. contains a series of observations made with the view
of ascertaining the stability in the levers of the aneroid barome-
ter and the firmness of other parts of the instrument. The in-
strument was read off before being exposed to diminished pres-
sure: it was then noticed with what fidelity and dispatch the in-
dex returned to its original position when the original pressure
was restored, 1
In estimating the merits of the aneroid barometer, it must not
be forgotten that it is single observations, indicating momentary
changes of the atmospheric pressure, on which the navigator most
relies. In some of the hurricanes to which he is exposed, the
barometer occasionally sinks so low as to come within the range
of the experiments made with the air-pump. And yet here if
any where the aneroid barometer finds its appropriate sphere. In
meteorology, the barometer is the most important instrument of
research. The barometer alone of all the instruments in the
greater force to the application of the aneroid barometer to the
measurement of heights above the level of the sea. An elevation
of eighty-seven feet depresses the mercury by about -1 of an inch
only; hence a small error in the barometer will entail a large
error on the estimated elevation. Moreover, a very long series of
observations will, in this case, be generally impracticable. I
would suggest one farther consideration. ‘The mercurial barom-
254 Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer.
eter is in danger of being broken when exposed to the perils of
mountain-travel. In this case, the damage, however great, is
known, and no error is introduced into science. Unless the tube
is broken, the instrument is so simple in its construction that it
is not liable to be injured at all. It is otherwise with the aneroid
barometer. ‘'T'o appearance it is stronger than the old barometer
and can bear a greater strain without being broken. On the
other hand, we can easily foresee that it may be materially injured
without attracting the notice of the observer at the time, and
in this way may conceal its own infirmities under its apparent
strength.
Taste I. ,
ge |ses 25 cee ]
“$o.| 5 3E_ § <3e, 5 + g |
1849 £s=s 83 Eas § rt A 3: BS E
he, 6 oe lye ote 2 -ao09 wrt oe Ay
SmaSsgi ce ,3s c=] SAS S.E p =
see "|ephes| & =es*| op A
a= mom mF 5 fh
Sept. 24.) 4.27 4.258 -0124+ |Sept. 27. 10.42 20.721 10,.301-
78 7.673 -107-4+ 10.40 19.338 8.938-
3 0.10 | 15.830 730- 10.38 236 7-856-
2 0.07 | 16.030 5.960- 0.38 7.294 6.914-
IS 978 | 10.150 370- | os 10.36;{ 16.382 $.992~
ez 9-44 268 172+ | ©F 10.30 15,030 4.730-
2 46 216 2444 8s 10 02 10.140 120-
Zu 95 7.264 2564 > 4, 9 60 268 332+
Be | 648| 6.232 24841 83 8.68 246 434+
: = 5.48 4.240 240+ FI g 7.72 7.224
4.45 4.388 062+ o 6.79 6.332 458+
Bib 3.256 m4+] og 5.61 5.270 340+
3 2.32} 2.214 I 4.49 .208 282+
& 3.50 3.256 244+
9.56 2.254 I
Sept. 26.) 10.13} 18.537 8.407- |Sept. 29,| 10.63 23.035 12.405-
10.11] 17.294 7.184- 10.5 16.262 5.672+
= 1o 11} 16.382 6,272— 10.2 10.220 Or
aS 10.07 5.280 5.210— 6S 9-95 328 422+
| 22 9-75 | 10.220 470- | S| 9.02 8496 594+
ao 36 .268 .092+ wo | ee 7.294 636+
| ee 71 316 394+ | BE | 6.93 6.332 :
$s 7:67| 7.274 396+ | BS - 5.270 530+
2 5 667} 6.262 4084 = F |. . 4.63 4.238 392+
Es 5.53| 5.120 410+ i E
s 3 4.238 432+ = 5 | 2.45 2.224 2264
& 3.34] 3.206 134+
2.30] 2.154 146+ { |
Dec. 4. The Aneroid barometer was placed under the receiver
of a condensing pump and it was observed that the index only
moved forward to 31, which corresponds to 31 of the mercurial
barometer.
.
Prof. J. Lovering on the Aneroid Barometer. 255
Tasre IL. Taste III.
$2 a S$ 83
fa £3. NBS ago) SREB
ae 5 Es a.bs 2 ese g Observations in Table II, arranged
1849. ses ees 3 é re according to the amount and the
‘ hd 635 § 4 2 sign of their differences,
5s SSe8) A | eee
43 mg e* 5 gs
Dec. 10 | 29.932 29.977 | .045- | -005- | 29.597
Il PEs ae .o18— 022+ 30.31 058—
12 10.439 30.507 .068— 028— 29.447 054
13 30.267 30.237 .030+ 070+ 29.787 | .044-
14 30.122 30.117 .005+4 045+ 30.1 033
15 30.378 30.397 .019- oO21+ 29.667 | .032-
16 30.148 30.147 — o41+ re a 8
17 29.870 29.907 037~ 0. -
18 3035 32.305 .000 040+ 30.067 or
19 30.5 30.537 .018— 0224 30.517 | .o13-
20 29.70. 9-787 084- 44—- = 207 | .O11-
21 30.119 30.127. | .008- | .032+ 0.407 | .007-
22 30.012 30.067 .055— o015- 29.937
23 29.353 29.447 .094- | .054- 29.977 | .005
24 29.595 29.667 .072- | .o32- Mean, | 30.048 | .029-
25 29.488 29.597 1o9— | .060- 30335
26 30,212 30.310 0g8- ef prick ibaa toe
27 30.087 30.160 073- | .033- ao so7 | make
28 30.407 30.447 .040- 000 Moiey are
2 30,025 30.090 .065— 025- 3o.3ay'} 0g
30 30.200 30.197 .003+ 043+ oa “tae
85 30.115 30.147 | .032- + ae ig pada
1590
Jan. 2 30.360 30.407 .047- 07 - shined ae
3 30.156 30.207 .o51- OlI- Sep. baat
; rae 4 ae 8 Kann : 30.367 | .013+
5 30,125 30.137 .O12- 028+ Maggot a:
6 64 30.517 .053- | .o13- woes Lt Me
7 30.340 30.367 027- 013+ os?
Mean, . Mean, | 30.212 | .029+
“ eos 30.098 « "| 30.048
Diff nee. .040-= Difference,| .164
1849. Sept. 10. The Aneroid stood at 30-39. It was placed
under the Hecuiver of an air pump and the atmospheric pressure
diminished by 5 inches. When the air was admitted, the index
moved forward to 30°35. It rose to 30°375 in two or three min-
utes. The following table embraces similar experiments with
their results,
Taste IV.
Ee az 2 Pl os cen See
sis| G2 |g (Els ; “3411 af
S2e| Ge | 8 jeab a. | fed oe H
222) 23 | € lees g gaz =
Som | SF 5 35 : a3
5S | es é seit deel <a
Sept. 10. 302 - inch | Sept. 24) 29.760 | 29.720 | .o40-|16 inch.)
|e sok) Shoe Bw |” Baa | pte | cre hs
-o15- ‘ 29.940 .930 | .o10- |
art po oS ? - 32. 30.050 | .170-193° °* |
30.480) 30.500) °020+ e
le 30.530) 30.530, 000 [9 *
*
256 Fossil Bones found in Vermont.
Art. XXVIII.—An account of some Fossil Bones found in Ver-
mont, in making excavations for the Rutland and ile
Railroad ; by Zavock 'THompson.
In addition to the benefits derived directly from sre as in
the business of travel and sige ne the cause of scie
and particularly the science of geology is deriving saireeltyr no
small advantage from their consteeebin The deep cuttings
which these works often require, expose the various strata o
rocks where they have not been affected by the weather for the
examination of the geologist, and the vast excavations in stratified
sand and clay, and in the confused beds of drift materials; exhibit
not only the relations of these to each other, but frequently dis-
close organic remains which shed new light upon the early his-
tory of our eart
Only about four years have elapsed since the construction of
railroads was commenced in Vermont, and at this time, nearly
three hundred miles of railroad are so far completed as to be in
use within the state; and, while the excavations for these roads
have conduced to a more accurate eee of the position, hy
and lithological character of the rock formations, they hav
the same time very mhexpectedly disclosed organic renstial
which are of much scientific interest and importance. In grading
the line of the Rutland and Burlington Railroad, portions of the
skeletons of two large animals, both belonging to the class mam-
malia, and to families which no longer exist here in a living state,
were found deeply buried in the earth, and - bones were for
the most part in a very good state of preservatio
Fossil Elephant.—The Rutland and Burlington Railroad passes
over the range of Green Mountains in the township of Mount
Holly, at an elevation of 1360 feet above the level of the sea.
In the notch through which the railroad passes, and very near
the dividing point between the waters which flow westward into
was resting upon Sava at the bottom of the muck, which was
there about nine feet deep. It was in a very good state of pres-
ervation, weighed eight pounds, and measured about eight inches
tran nsversely across the crown. It was pronounced by spies
Agassiz to be a grinder of an extinct species of elephan
sequently, as the excavation was continued, the two Gaks and
several of the bones of this elephaht were found, and it is not
improbable that the ne parts of the skeleton are still buried
beneath the same muck-
Fossil Bones found in Vermont. 257
Fossil Cetacean.—The fossil bones, which it is more particu-
larly the object of. this paper to describe, were found on the line
of the Rutland and Burlington Railroad in the month of August,
1849, in the township of Charlotte, about twelve miles south of
Burlington, and a little more than one mile eastward from the
shore of Lake Champlain. In widening a deep and extensive
cut through stratified sand and clay, the workmen there struck
upon a mass of bones. They were between eight and nine feet
below the natural surface of the ground, and were very compactly
bedded in fine adhesive blue clay. Little notice was taken of
them at first, until some of the overseers, thinking that they
observed peculiarities in the form of several of the bones, were
induced to commence an examination. They soon found that
the skeleton. 'T'o recover these if possible, I immediately visited
the locality ; and at this and a subsequent visit, I succeeded in
obtaining most of the anterior portion of the head, nine of the
teeth, and thirteen additional vertebree, together with the bones
my doubt was soon removed by a careful examination of the cau-
dal vertebra. These I found to have their articulating surfaces
convex and rounded in such a manner as to allow of very exten-
Sive vertical motion of the tail, and but very little lateral motion.
his circumstance plainly indicated that the movements of the
animal in the water were effected by means of a horizontal
caudal fin, and that it, therefore, belonged to the family of
elacea.,
Fig. { represents the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth ver-
tebre of the tail, showing the manner in which they move upon
Seconp Sentss, Vol, IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 33
258 Fossil Bones found in Vermont.
each other—a, as viewed from above—6, as seen laterally.—
[The fraction after the No. of the figure, denotes the linear pro-
portion of the figure to the object which it represents.
But, if there had still remained any doubt with regard to the
general character of the animal, it would have been entirely re-
moved, when I succeeded afterwards in reconstructing out of the
fragments of bones which I had procured, so much of the upper
anterior portion of the head, as to exhibit distinctly its spiracles,
or blow-holes, showing unequivocally that it belonged to the
Whale family. My next object was to ascertain, if possible,
whether it belonged to an extinct, or to a living species or genus
of this family. By a careful examination of Cuvier’s great work
on Fossil Bones, I became satisfied that, in the osteology of the
ead, it bore a strong resemblance to a small arctic cetacean,
called the Beluga, or white whale, ( Delphinus leucas, Cuv. Oss.
Foss., v, p. 297, pl. xxii, fig. 5 and 6, Paris ed., 1825,) and that
it therefore belonged rather to the living than to the éxtinct
types; and this opinion was confirmed by Prof. Agassiz, to whose
unrivaled skill and kind assistance in the investigation of these
fossils I am deeply indebted.
The head of the skeleton, as already remarked, was broken
into a great number of pieces, but enough of these have been
recovered and matched to determine very nearly the form and
entire length of the head and of one side of the lower jaw, an
of its symphysis with the other side. The fragments of the an-
terior portion of the upper jaw were found and matched, with the
exception of so much of the maxillary bone as formed the alveo-
Jar margin of the left side. The alveolar margin on the right
side measures 6°85 inches in length and contains eight alveoli.
In the corresponding side of the lower jaw there are seven alveoli
in a length of 5:5 inches, the alveolar margin extending three
inches farther backward, but not perforated for teeth. Fig. 2 rep-
resents the head, viewed from above, so far as reconstructed,
and fig. 3, a side view with the lower jaw dropped a little below
its true place.
It appears, from what has been said above, that the animal had
seven teeth in the lower jaw and eight in the upper, on each side,
making thirty teeth in the whole. The teeth are all of one kind,
being conical with flat or rounded crowns, and their substance 1s
very dense and firm. They vary in length from one to nearly
two inches, with a diameter of about half an inch. Fig. 4 rep-
resents their different forms. Only nine of the teeth have been
recovered, and none of these were in their places in the Jaws
when I obtained them; but that they were in their places up t©
the time the bones were first discovered by the workmen, appears
evident from the fact, that, while every other cavity in the bones
was filled with clay, the alveoli were all empty.
260 Fossil Bones found in Vermont.
Of the vertebre I have secured forty-one, of which four are
cervical, eleven dorsal, ten lumbar and sixteen caudal. Three of
the cervical vertebra, the first, fifth and sixth, are evidently miss-
ing, which, with those obtained, would make seven, the usua
number. These vertebre are all free, not being soldered together
as in the common dolphin and some other cetaceans. Fig. 5
represents the third cervical vertebra.
Of the dorsal vertebrae, the second and twelfth are missing,
making their whole number thirteen. Fig. 6 represents the sev-
enth dorsal vertebra—a, as seen from behind—2, as seen laterally.
‘Two of the lumbar vertebrae, the sixth and twelfth, are miss-
ing, making twelve in the whole. Fig. 7 represents the seventh
lumbar vertebra. They-all have the same general form, but the
lateral winged processes are more decayed and broken in some of
them than in the one represented. ‘The eleventh and seventeenth
caudal vertebree are missing, and perhaps a nineteenth and twen-
tieth, making their probable whole number twenty. Fig. 8 rep-
resents the fourth caudal vertebra. The form of those towards
the extremity of the tail may be seen in fig. 1.
rom these statements it appears, that the whole number of
vertebre in the skeleton was fifty-two. Eleven of these are
surfaces on the under sides of the caudal vertebree, indicate five
chevron bones, of which I have all but one, only the fourth being
one. Fig. 9 represents the second chevron bone.
The total length of the vertebral column, (due allowance being
made for the eleven missing vertebrae, but none for intervertebral
cartilages, ) is just ten feet, or one hundred and twenty inches.
Of this Jength the cervical vertebrae occupy eight inches, the
dorsal thirty-six, the lumbar forty-two, and the caudal thirty-four.
The lumbar vertebre are largest, having an average length of
about four inches and a diameter of three inches. The total
length of the animal, including the head and caudal fin, must
have been at least thirteen feet. The hyoid bone, fig. 10, and
the sternum, fig. 11, are both very large and strong in proportion
to the size of the skeleton. The former measures eight and a
half inches in a straight line from point to point, and the latter is
fifteen inches long, from three to seven inches wide, and on an
average nearly one inch thick. ‘There are four articulating cavi-
ties for ribs on each side
‘he ribs are considerably decayed and much broken. The
longest rib, in one piece, measures just twenty-four inches along
the curve. The ribs which form the anterior pair are very strong,
and unbroken, and consist, on each side, of two parts of solid bone
as represented in fig. 12.
262 Fossil Bones found in Vermont. ..
Of the limbs, the two scapula, one humerus, and the two fore-
arm bones on one side, and the ulna of the other side, are secured ;
all the other bones of the fins are missing. Fig. 13 represents
the recovered bones of the left fin, in their places. The height
of thé scapula is seven inches, the length of the humerus five, and
of the forearm four inches.
here are several of the recovered bones, whose places are not
yet ascertained. Some of these may be appendages to the hyoid
bone and others may belong to a rudimentary pelvis. Professor
Agassiz who has manifested, as already stated, a deep interest 1n
these fossils, has kindly consented to give them that further care-
ful investigation, and illustration, which their importance demands,
and for which he is most ably qualified ; I have, therefore, placed
them in his hands for that purpose.
The following measurements of the head, are all that I have
been able to make, which admit of direct comparison with Cu-
vier’s measurements of the head of the Beluga, J). leucas. (Oss.
Foss., v, p. 392. ) ;
Lovigl tf the bead? pare Fossil. D. leucas.
ngth of the he ipital condyles 2 . = 20-9 ine.
to the end of the snout, 21:2 inches,” S83 .ae om ®
“ — of one side of the lower jaw, 165 “ ‘408 “ = 16:5 “
“ of the alveolar margin, “ ie 198 * == Ts"
“ of the symphysis = Six * ‘080 “ = 3-1 *
From these measurements it might be inferred that the foss¢
and the D. leucas were identical in species, as well as in genus;
.but, at the same time, so many points of disagreement have been
observed, as to render it highly probable that they are specifically
different. In the number of teeth, they differ, as expressed below.
Fossil. D. leueas.
Dental Formule : 7= ud . 5 =36.
They also differ much in the relative width of the maxillary
and intermaxillary bones, as developed on the upper side of the
snout, the intermaxillary being wider than the maxillary in Cu-
vier’s figure, while in the fossil, the latter is twice the width of the
former. The lines of the face appear also to be straighter, and the
coronal process less elevated, making the upper portion of the
head flatter in the foss#/ than in the D. leucas.
That this fossil cetacean belongs to the genus Delphinus of
Linneus, and to Lacepede’s subgenus, Delphinapterus, 1 have
little doubt; but, as already stated, it is highly probable that it
belongs to a different species from Gmelin’s Jeucas. would,
therefore, propose Delphinus Vermontanus for its provisional
specific name, until its identity with the D. leucas, or some other
known species, shall be established.
The locality, where these fossil bones were found, is situa-
ted a little more than one mile to the eastward of lake Chan
and 60 feet above the meau level of the lake, as ascertained
— ss CC
. Fossil Bones found in Vermont. 263
the railroad survey. The mean height of the lake is 90 feet
above the level of the sea, making the height of the point, where
the fossils were imbedded, 150 feet above the sea. The geolog-
ical formation, in which they were found, is very clearly character-
ized. It belongs to that portion of the Post-tertiary, which has
sometimes been denominated the Pleistocene formation. This
formation extends along the whole length of lake Champlain, and
throughout the valley of the St. Lawrence. On the east side of
the lake, in Vermont, it frequently attains a width of several miles,
and, in places, exceeds 100 feet in depth. It consists, for the
most part, of regularly stratified clay and sand, resting upon the
Champlain rocks, or upon unstratified drift, and portions of it a-
bound in marine bivalve fossil shells. These shells are of several
Species, nearly, or quite all of which are now found in a living
State, on the Atlantic shores of New England: and it is common
to find them with their valves united, with their epidermis un-
disturbed, and buried in such a position as to show, unequivocally,
that they lived, propagated and died, in the places where they are
found. The most abundant species is the Sanguinolaria Jusca,
The Mya arenaria, Saricava rugosa and Mytilus edulis are quite
common. Some other species are occasionally found.
The cut for the railroad, in which these fossil bones were ob-
tained, is nearly half a mile in length, extending from north to
south, and its greatest depth is about eighteen feet. The depth
of the cut, at the place where the skeleton was found, is ten feet.
About four feet of this depth, reckoning from the natural surface
of the ground, consists of sand, showing no signs of stratification.
Next below this is a mixture of sand and clay, which is regularly
and distinctly stratified, for a depth of two and a half feet, below
which is a vast bed of fine blue clay, in which I observed no
signs of stratification, and which appears to have been, previous to
the deposit of the sand and clay above it, a kind of quagmire.
In the lower part of the stratified sand and clay, and nearly in
y of lake Champlain
Burlington, Vt. Jan. 1, 1850.
*
264 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio.
Art. XXIX.—Abstract of a Meteorological Jougpal, kept at Ma-
rietta, Ohio, for the year 1849, Lat. 39° 25’, Long. 4° 28’ west
of Washington city; by S. P. Hitprera, M.D.
THERMOMETER. t's BAROMETER.
Es
28
4 .
MONTHS. wee a 3 | Prevailing winds. :
Sie¢isigs § |
5 m |S |_
B\ 83/3/32 E : Z
di Slaishss S18 ho
2 |) F (ZF ROSES = | = | &
January, = = - (30-46) 5 9224-09 ow. & ww. 30-1012
February, - 21) 63) 2 16) 2-58 w.s. w. &S.E )-B5)| 29-5
March, i - (4) 72: 21) 14) 17) 4-37) s.s.w. &s. 5 1.60/28:
April, - - |50-57) #4) 21) 20/10, 2:50) s.w. & s. E. -60 28
ay, «+ (61-40) 86 38) 201 11/ 5-92; ss. & 8. we. 70) 29
June, - c : 50} 4 4-42 s.& s. w. 65,29 4
July, - - |72: 48) $ 21 s. & 8. E. 7029-30) 4
August, - - |69¢ 5Q| 3:50) os. n. QE. 1-50/29-15) *
September, - (62% 40) § 2-63 s.,N.&s. 8. [29-75 28-90)
October, - ~ 3 30 12} 3-92 s.w. & w. 29-70) 28:88) °€
November, - |47°5 20) § 58, os. s. E. & w. (29:58)29-10) 4
December - 9 19} 5-17) w.,n. &s.B. 14410.28% 1-05
Mean for year, |52:09, 43:18 |
Tue mean temperature for the year 1849, is fifty-two degrees
of the summer months. It goes, however, to prove that the mean
heat for this locality lies between fifty-two and fifty-three degrees
of Fahrenheit.
' The amount of rain and melted snow for the year is forty-two
inches and eighty-nine hundredths, being over an inch less than
in 1848, and ten inches less than in 1847. The rain has been
about two degrees less than that of 1848. Of snow, there fe
about fourteen inches on six different periods; the largest amoun
at one time being six inches. é.
oy .
Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. 265
The mean of the spring months is 52° 33’; being rather below
that of the previous year. ring frosts continued to harass us
as late as May, While on the 15th, 16th, and 17th of April, the frost
Was severe, sinking the temperature to 23°, It happened after a
week of quite warm weather, and at a time when the pear, peach
and plum were in bloom—killing nearly all these fruits. The
apple did not bloom until the 27th of the month, but the germs
were so much injured that the crop was almost entirely destroyed.
One of the serious evils attached to our climate, is the frequent
occurrence of late spring frosts at a time when fruit trees are most
liable to injury. The beginning of May was marked by excess
sive rains, there falling nearly six inches during that month.
he mean temperature of the summer months is seventy-one
degrees and five hundredths, which is about two degrees above
that of 1848, and exactly that of 1846.
At two o’clock, on the morning of the 15th of June, a tre-
mendous storm of electric fluid passed over this region, continu-
ing for nearly two hours to discharge a continual stream of light-
ning, accompanied by terrific peals of thunder ; several dwelling
houses were struck, and trees demolished in the town. [t ran
along the telegraph wires into the office at Marietta, and ruined
the magnetic machine. There fell two inches of rain, attended
with little or no wind. The latter part of June was quite wet,
rain falling almost daily, with a hot moist atmosphere, accompa-
nied near the rivers with fogs. This state of the weather has
this year prevailed throughout all the southern portions of Ohio,
of these states, being later in ripening, suffered but little.
the progress of the reapers, covering the garments of the work-
men with a red powder, as if colored by adye. The same red
fungus attacked the leaves of the common blackberry bushes,
near the wheat, and was seen on the earth in divers places in the
fields and in some gardens. Its effects were ruinous to the wheat
crops, shrinking the grain in the most favored fields fifteen or
twenty pounds in the bushel, destroying its farina so that mer-
chantable flour could not be made from it, and causing a loss to
the farming interest of several millions of dollars. ‘Thousands of
acres were entifely ruined and not harvested atall. Rye suffered
more than wheat, being somewhat earlier in its growth. Grapes
were attacked in the same manner, the mould on them being
e, attaching itself to the stems, causing the fruit to blight
onD Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 34
‘se
266 Mineral Waters of Canada.
and fall to the ground. Potatoes were generally good and free
from “the rot.” Indian corn was a fair yield, while the hay
crop was never better. Our soil and climate aré so constituted
that if one of the staples fails, some other will supply its place ;
and it is not probable we shall goiter from famme, as they do in
many parts of the earth. a
e mean of the autumnal months is fifty-four degrees and
thirty-two hundredths, being nearly five degrees warmer than
that of 1848. Frost did not materially injure vegetation and
garden plants until the first of November, when the cold destroyed
the bloom of the Dahlia.
Floral Calendar.—March 7, White maple in bloom; 8th,
Robin appears ; 17, Hepatica triloba in bloom. Red elm, garden
crocus
April 4th, Apricot, Sanguinaria canadensis; 7th, Peach; 8th,
Sugar tree quite green on side-hills; 11th, Green gage and cherry
in bloom; 12, Pear; 15th, thermometer at 24° this morning,
froze hard; 16th, thermometer 23°, some snow fell; the fruit
blossoms to a large extent killed, and early garden vegetables;
25th, Tulip in bloom; 27th, Apple; Late cherry ; 29th, Judas
tree and Service berry.
May Ist, Ranunculus; 2d, Quince tree; 5th, Black haw; 7th,
Cornus florida; 11th, Frost on fences back of town; 19th, frost
s; 24th, Locust tree; 29th, Hudson strawberry ripe.
June 3d, Early peas fit for table; 15th, Russian cucumber,
ised in open air; 19th, thermometer 121° in the sun’s rays at
2p.m.; 22d, the Rust noticed on the wheat, but began as early
as the 15th in some places.
July 2d, Wheat harvest begins; 3d, Catalpa in bloom.
Marietta, January 23, 1850.
Art. XXX.—Chemical Examinations of the Waters of some
of the Mineral Springs of Canada; by T. 8. Hunt, Chemist
and Mineralogist to the Geological Commission of Canada.
In the course of my official duties it has devolved upon me
to examine the various mineral waters of the province and to
submit the more important of them to accurate analyses. ‘The
first part of the results of these inquiries have already appeared
in the Report of Progress for 1847, 1848, which was submitted
to his excellency the Governor General on the Ist of May, 1849,
from which I extract the analyses that follow. Some remarks as
to the mode of collecting the waters may not be out of place here,
as showing the precautions taken to prevent errors and to trans-
port the waters unchanged to the place of analysis. Unless ott
it
Mineral Waters of Canada. 267
have conformed to the general practice of chemists, rather be-
cause the results are more intelligible to the unscientific, and at
the same time more readily compared with those of other analysts,
than because the compounds thus calculated can be supposed to
represent the real constitution of the water; for in the present
state of our knowledge, we must, I think, be led to adopt the
idea of a partition of bases among the different radicals, so that
the bromine in a saline water instead of being, as it is here repre-
sented, in conformity with general custom, combined as a bromid
of magnesium, is divided between the four metals usually present,
in proportions which we have not yet the means of determining.
_ The analyses were performed upon weighed portions of water
m preference to using measures; and the weights, including the
Specific gravities, were determined by a delicate balance made to
order by Deleuil of Paris, and sensible to the demi-milligramme,
when loaded with two hundred grammes.
The Caledonia Springs.—T hese springs which are well known
as a place of resort during the warm season, are situated a few
miles south of the Ottawa River, about forty miles from Montreal ;
the fountains which are four in number rise through strata of
post-pliocene clay which overlie a rock equivalent to the Trenton
limestone. Three of them, known as the Gas Spring, the Saline
Spring, and the White Sulphur Spring, are situated within a dis-
tance of four or five rods, and the mouths of the latter two are
not more than four feet apart. The fourth, known as the Inter-
mitting Spring, is situated about two miles distant, and is much
more saline than the others. The first three are alkaline, the
sulphur spring strongly so, while the fourth contains in solution
a great quantity of earthy chlorids. : ;
None of these waters are what are called “acidulous saline,” a
aia which is due to the presence of large quantities of car-
268 Mineral Waters of Canada.
bonic acid, the quantity of this acid found, being in no case more
than is required to form bicarbonates with the bases present.
. The Gas Spring.—The waters of this spring were collect-
ed on the 27th of September, 1847. *'The temperature of the
air being 617° Fahrenheit, that of the spring was 44:4. The
discharge was ascertained by careful measurement to be four gal-
lons per minute, a quantity which is little subject to variation.
‘The water in the well is kept in constant agitation by the escape
of carburetted hydrogen gas, which is evolved in considerable
quantity. It was roughly estimated at the time, to be three hun-
dred cubie inches a minute, but the discharge as I was informed,
is often much more abundant.
The specific gravity of the water was found to be 1006-2. It
is pleasantly saline to the taste, but not at all bitter; by exposure
to the air it gradually deposits a white sediment of earthy carbon~
ates. Its reaction is distinctly alkaline to test papers.
e examination of the unconcentrated water shewed the pres~
ence of chlorine, calcium and magnesium, but when the liquid is
concentrated by boiling, these bases are wholly precipitated as
carbonates, and the clear liquid is alkaline, yielding with a solu-
tion of chlorid of barium, a copious precipitate of carbonate which
is dissolved by hydrochloric acid, leaving ouly a small quantity
of sulphate of baryta. The alkaline liquid being evaporated to
dryness, and the residue digested with alcohol, the solution gave
evidence of the presence of both bromine and iodine; the saline
residue was found to consist of salts of sodium with a small por-
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salts were precipitated, the respective amounts of the calcium and
magnesium, both in the precipitate and filtrate, were determined,
and those in the latter, regarded as corresponding to the chlorids
and sulphates of those bases, in the recent water. The alkalies
were separated by successive treatment with baryta and carbonate
of ammonia, and the amount of potassium in the mixed chlorids
‘vas then determined by converting them into the platino-chlorids,
and separating the sodium salt by alcohol.
Ye ee
Begs ns
Mineral Waters of Canada. 269
The bromine and iodine were determined by evaporating fifty
pounds of the water to a small bulk, separating the earthy precip-
itate, and finally evaporating the residue to dryness. This was
treated with alcohol of sp. gr. 835 until all traces of iodids and
bromids were removed. The alcoholic solution was then evapo-
rated to dryness, and the treatment renewed with alcohol of -820;
this process was repeated a third time, having previously ignited
the residue to destroy any organic matters, and the solution being —
again evaporated to dryness,, was dissolved in water, and the
amount of iodfne determined after the admirable method of Las-
saigne, which consists in precipitating it as an iodid of palladium.
_ The bromids and chlorids remaining in the solution, were de-
composed by a solution of nitrate of silver, and the mixed pre-
cipitate of chlorid and bromid of silver, after being fused and care-
fully weighed, was submitted in a state of fusion to the action of
a current of dry chlorine gas, until the whole was converted into
chlorid ; from the loss, the amount of bromine was by
calenlation.
he total amount of carbonic acid was determined by mixing
measured portions of the water at the source, with caustic am-
monia and a solution of chlorid of calcium; the proportion of
carbonic acid in the precipitate thus obtained, was determined in
the usual manner. The amount of carbonic acid required by
those bases which were known to exist as carbonates in the water,
Was then deducted. The quantity of carbonate of soda was cal-
culated from the excess of sodium over that required for the sat-
uration of the chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphuric acid, con-
trolled by the amount of carbonate of baryta obtained by treating
a solution of the solid residue of 1000 grammes of the water
with chlorid of barium; the two results closely agreeing.
1000 parts of the water of the Gas Spring gave—
Chlorine, . : i é ‘ . 4-242810
Bromine, i 5 : ‘ . 011730
lodine, i ; ‘ : : . °000461
Sulphuric acid (SO*), ‘ ‘ 002400
Soda, . ; : ‘ : 3726400
Potash, . al ‘ : ; 022 100
i ; ; ‘0828380
Magnesia, 254600
Ajumina, 004400
Sies, . ; : i. 031000
Iron and manganese, races,
Carbonic oid, ‘ 705000
These may be combined to form the following compounds—
Chlorid of sodium . : . . 6°967500
of poekmiin 030940
270 Mineral Waters of Canada.
Bromid of sodium, . F ‘ » 016077
Iodid of sodium, ' ; P . 000530
Sulphate of potash, . ‘ : . 005280
Carbonate of soda, . , ‘ . . *048570
eee lime, JE. shagee A
nL of magnesia, ~ ‘526200
it of iron and manganese, traces,
Alumina, ‘ ‘5 ‘004400
Silica, : pid es @ odeKOS1008
Carbonic acid, ha . , ; ‘ *349000
ter, : : ; — 991873503
1000:000000
Saline ingredients in 1000 parts, 7-775.
Carbonic acid in 100 cubic inches, 17:5.
IL. The Babies Spring.—The spring thus named, is very sim-
ilar to the last, but in reality less strongly saline. Tits tempera-
ture was 45° F., that of the air being at the same time 60° F.
The specific gravity 1005-824. Its reaction is more strongly
alkaline, but otherwise the results of its qualitative examination
are similar to those given under the head of the ‘Gas Spring.”
It contains no sulphuretted hydrogen whatever; some few bub-
bles of carburetted hydrogen are evolved, but the quantity is very
small. ‘The discharge from this spring is about ten gallons per
minute.
1000 parts of the water gave—
Chlorine, : ‘ } . 393830
Bromine, . 3 : 3 go i8g ‘01317
Iodi 00123
Sulphuric acid (SO?) ‘00220
= ‘ 352246
Potash, . ‘04100
ae 06580
Magnesia, . 25020
Silica, . : 04250
Alumina, iron and manganese traces,
Carbonic aci id, i : . 64800
These may be siesbindd in the following manner :—
Chlorid of sodium, . ‘ ; . 644090
. of potassium, . ‘ j 02960
Bromid of sodium, ‘ ‘ , . *01696
Iodid of sodium, . ; ‘ : ‘00146
Sulphate of potash, . . . . 00480 .
Cc of stds,“ . ‘ 2 : -17620
ime, *11750
a of magnesia, senion ro -ONTHA
Mineral Waters of Canada. 271
Carbonate of iron and manganese,
Meisins traces,
a : i , :
Silica, . : ‘ ‘ : ‘ . 04250
Carbonic acid, . ; i : ; 29200
Water, : ‘ i 992°36084
1000-00000
The amount of solid matter in 1000 parts of the water is by
calculation 7-347 ; experiment gave 7°280, which is a close ap-
proximation. The carbonate of magnesia loses a part of its car-
bonic acid during the evaporation, and exists in the residue as a
basic carbonate; hence the slight deficiency in the result of ex-
periment.
The quantity of carbonic acid, above what is represented as
combined with the bases, equals 14:7 cubic inches in 100 cubic
inches of the water.
If. The Sulphur Spring.—This spring is situated very near
to the last; the openings of the two wells being not more than
four feet apart. Although it bears the name of a sulphur water,
its claim to that title is very small. It has a feebly sulphurous
taste and odor, and darkens slightly salts of lead and silver, but
the quantity of sulphur existing either as sulphuretted hydrogen
or as alkaline sulphuret is very inconsiderable, and cannot be
quantitatively estimated by the ordinary processes.
everal bottles of the water were mixed with a solution of
arsenic at the spring, but the precipitate of sulphuret of arsenic
was scarcely perceptible ; the quantity of the sulphuretted hydro-
gen was not equal to a cubic inch toa gallon. It is still, how-
ever sufficient to impart medicinal powers to the water, for the
eflicacy of this spring over all the others in rheumatic and cuta-
neous affections is well attested. According to Dr. Stirling, who
as been for many years a resident at the springs, and is a careful
Observer, the water was formerly much more sulphurous than at
present; a thing not at all improbable, as it is well known that
Springs often change their character materially in the course of a
few years.
The supply from this spring is apparently about the same as
that of the “Gas Spring ;” its waters flow into the same reser-
Voir as those of the saline springs, and the two are used for hot
ths. The mixture, after being heated for use, is without any
odor of sulphur.
‘he temperature of the spring was found to be 46° F*., that of
the air being 60° F. The specific gravity of the water at 60° F.
is 1003-7; its reaction is strongly alkaline, and the results of its
qualitative examination show that it closely resembled the two
ets waters, except that only traces of iodine were detected
it.
272 Mineral Waters of Canada.
1000 parts of the water of the sulphur spring gave :—
‘ ; ; «Al
Chlorine, . , 2500
Bromine, . ‘ : , ‘ = ORTSS
Iodine, i ae eee
Sulphuric acid, . : ‘ ‘ . 01030
Potash, : ; : ' (ae “Obie
Soda, : : j 3 ; .- = 2-12370
Limes oe ena es ‘ : : . ‘11760
Magnesia, : a a oa 14230
lron, . ‘ j tert, iettaces; ,
Alumina, . ‘ ' . 3 ‘ 00265
ilica, . 7 ’ ; : 08400
Carbonic acid, . , ; : i “59000
These combined in the usual manner, give as the composition
of 1000 parts of the water :—
Chlorid of sodium, |. inhi . 3°84300
“ of potassium, ; : ; 02300
Bromid of sodium, s ; , . 01004
lodid of sodium, , ‘ ; traces,
Sulphate of soda, . . ‘ ‘ ‘01833
Carbonate of soda, _ . ‘ F . ‘A5580 ©
a of lime, ; ; ‘ . ‘21000
“ of magnesia, . " ‘ 29400
ie of iron, : . . traces,
Alumina, é Aen : 00265
ili ‘ ‘08400
Carbonic acid, . ; ‘14100
‘ ; 994-91818
1000-00000
The amount of solid matters in 1000 parts of the water 1s
4:9406. &
The quantity of carbonic acid over that required to form neu-
tral carbonates, would in a gaseous state equal 7:2 cubie inches
in 100 of the water. The amount required to form the above
carbonates is ‘449, and an equal quantity of carbonic acid would
be necessary to enable them to exist as bicarbonates, a condition
in which these earthy bases are generally regarded as being dis-
solved in mineral waters. The whole of these alkaline waters
have shown, it will be observed, a deficiency in the quantity of
earbonic acid, and this is particularly marked in this last and
most strongly alkaline of them all. This apparent difficulty 3s
at once explained by the fact that the whole, or a part of the
carbonate of magnesia, exists in the form of a double carbonate
magnesia, a compound which is readily soluble 12
water and much more permanent than the bicarbonate os
Mineral Waters of Canada. 273
The large amount of silica which it contains, is an interesting
peculiarity, and naturally connects itself with the strongly alke-
line character of the water. _As silica is capable of decomposing
a solution of carbonate of soda, it is probable that a portion of the
soda must really exist in the condition of a silicate. From the
uncertainty which still remains as to the composition of these sol-
uble silicates, it is impossible to calculate the portion of the soda
which should be deducted from that represented as existing as
carbonate, but an indirect experiment throws some light upon the
question. 1000 grammes of the water were evaporated to perfect
ryness, to render all the magnesia insoluble. The residue being
then dissolved in distilled water, was mixed with a solution of
chlorid of barium, and yielded a precipitate of carbonate, with a
little sulphate, which contained an amount of carbonic acid cor-
responding to ‘2540 of carbonate of soda, while the excess of
soda above that required for saturating the chlorine, bromine and
sulphuric acid, equalled -4558 parts of carbonate. The difference
“2018 corresponds to -1179 of pure soda, which may be regarded
as forming a silicate with the -0840 of silica. With our imper-
fect knowledge of silicates, especially the soluble ones, it is obvi-
_ ously useless to speculate farther upon the mode of combination
in which these substances exist.*
IV. The Intermitting Spring —This spring has been already
described as situated about two miles distant from the others.
It rises out of a bank of clay near the edge of a brook; a well
has been sunk nearly thirty feet through the clay, and the water
rises near to the surface. It is kept in almost constant agitation
by the evolution of large quantities of carburetted hydrogen gas;
the water from this cause, is kept constantly turbid by the quan-
tity of clay diffused through it, and it is only after being allowed
to stand for several hours in a quiet place, that it becomes trans-
parent. ‘The discharge of gas is not regular, some minutes often
elapsing, during which only a few bubbles escape from time to
time, after which a copious evolution oceurs for a few moments,
followed by another period of quiescence ; from this peculiarity it
1s Damed the intermitting spring.
The temperature was found to be 50° F. at the bottom of the
well ; that of the air being 61°. The amount of water furnished
y the spring could not be easily determined, as part of it escapes
through the bank, but it is not large. At the time of my visit,
the recent rains had diluted the spring with a good deal of surface
that Mr. O. Henry in his fine researches
eady shown that the
Seconp Series, Vol. IX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 35
274 Mineral Waters of Canada.
water, and I accordingly availed myself of the politeness of the
proprietor, Mr. Wilkinson, who allowed me to take as much as I
required, from a supply which had been brought from the spring
a month previous, and preserved in well covered puncheons.
This was sensibly stronger to the taste than the water at the
spring, and unlike the previously described waters, was disagreea-
bly bitter, as well as saline. Its specific gravity was 1010 939.
A qualitative examination shewed the presence of chlorine,
bromine and iodine, with potassium, sodium, calcium, and mag-
nesium ; a large portion of the latter two exist in the condition of
chlorids. No sulphuric acid was detected ; but traces of iron and
alumina. Baryta, strontia, fluorine and phosphates were sought
for; but with the exception of slight traces of the latter, the re-
sults were altogether negative.
1000 parts "4 the water of the mek get: sf: afforded,
| . 836979
Chlorin
Shoinine ‘02059
odine . 00187
Potash ‘01930
Soda . 6-49360
Lime : ‘ : : , 1-44930
Magnesia , : ‘ ; . 65467
Alumina and iron. : . traces.
Silica ‘ i > 02250
These may be so combined as to give the following composi-
tion for 1000 parts of the water :—
Chiorid of sodium ' ' 12-250000
“ of potassium : ‘ i 030500
“of calcium ‘ ‘ ‘ . 287050
“ _ of magnesium 1033840
Bromid of magnesium 023840
Iodid of magnesium 002057
Carbonate o lime ‘ ‘ ‘ 126460
of magnesia. ; . 863230
* of iron, ‘ ‘
Alumina . : ‘ ‘ : pba i
Silica ‘ ) ‘ ; . 022500
a acid , . . ' 501350
Wat ; ‘ 984-859173
1000:000000
The solid matter in 1000 parts, as determined by calculation,
is 14-639 parts; the result obtained by directly cid nears a
weighed quantity, and drying the residue at 300° F., was 14 500,
the difference being probably due to a — decomposition of
the magnesian chlorid during the evaporatio
Scientific Intelligence. 275
ey rise.
Montreal, May 15, 1849.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
[. CHEmMIsTRY AND Puysics.
1. Researches upon some derivatives of the Benzoic Series; by G.
Cuancex, (Compies Rend. des Travaux de Chimie, Juin, 1849, p. 177.)
—The author has prepared the nitrobenzoic ethers of alcohol and
wood-spirit, and confirmed their composition by analyses. He has
found that they crystallize in right rhombic prisms of about 120°, and
are consequently isomorphous. By the action of ammonia upon the
vinic ether he obtained the nitrobenzamid which Mr. Field had before
found by decomposing the nitrobenzoate of ammonia by heat. This
body is sparingly soluble in water, above all in the cold, but dissolves
readily in alcohol and ether, and crystallizes from them by slow evapo-
ration in tables like gypsum. By a solution of potash it is decomposed
with the evolution of ammonia, and yields nitrobenzoate of potash.
When nitrobenzamid is dissolved in boiling water and hydrosulphuret
of ammonia added in sufficient quantity, not the least trace of the amid
Separates on cooling. The liquid deposits a large amount of sulphur
after standing a few hours, and by evaporation in a water bath to sepa-
rate the last traces, the residue dissolved in water and filtered, gives by
slow evaporation beautiful crystals which give on analysis the formula
7 H,, N, O, (notation of Gerhardt). It loses an equivalent of water
at 100° to 120° C., without undergoing any apparent alteration, so that
its real formula, as is established by its compounds, is 1, N, 0.
This new substance no longer belongs to the benzoic series (C,), but
has disceded into the formic (C) and phenic (C,) series, as will be
seen by the results of its decomposition. It is a double carbonate of
ammonia and aniline, minus the elements of two equivalents of water,
CH, O,,C,H,N, H,N=C, H, Nz 0,+2H, O.
The author has therefore called it carbonilamid. When gently heated
with a mixture of lime and potash, it evolves in the form of ammonia
exactly one half its nitrogren: if now the heat be considerably raised,
Pure aniline distils over and carbonate of potash remains. In the first
Stage of the process there is evidently the formation of a salt which if
».
276 Chemistry and Physics.
ch
i
is then by an elevation of temperature decomposed into a carbonate
and aniline. The action of sulphuric acid is equally characteristic ;
sulphanilic acid and sulphate of ammonia are formed with the evolution
carbonic acid ga
C, H, N, 04+2SH,0,=CO,+C, H, NSO,-++8(H, H, N) O,
This body sustains a close relation to urea which is truly carbamid ;
carbonilamid is urea in which the residue of an equivalent of aniline
replaces that of one of ammonia. To represent this by the abbreviated
formulas of M. Laurent —
Am=(H, N+-H Am-?=(H, N+H)—H,
An=(C, H, N++H) An~?=(C, H, N+H)—H,
Urea, (carbamid) ...... C Am~? A~? O=C, H, N,O
Carbonilamid, ............ C An-? Am~? 0—C, H, N,O
Like urea the new substance is readily soluble in water, alcohol and
ether; the alcoholic solution decomposes spontaneously, but the watery
solution gives fine colorless prisms of a fresh taste like nitre. The
very sparingly soluble. It combines also with the nitrate of silver and
the bichlorid of mercury ; the chloroplatinate crystallizes in beautiful
orange colored prisms. T. S. Hunt...
2. On the Products of the dry distillation of Benzoate of Limes
‘by G. Cuancet, (Compt. Rend. des Trav. de Chim., March, 1849, p.87.
—According to the researches of M. Peligot, the result of this distilla-
tion is a liquid, which he named benzone, and which corresponds to
acetene, while carbonate of lime remains as a residue ; he also recog-
nized a portion of benzene and a hydrocarbon which he regarded as
po thing aud which seemed to be secondary products of the decom-
position.
whole process. When the dried salt is heated, the decomposition is
complete at a temperature near low redness; along with the inflamma-
ble gases is obtained a brown liquid heavier than water. By distilla-
tion, a small quantity of benzene is separated ; but the purification of
the residue by this process was found impracticable. When submitted
to the aetion of strong nitric acid, it evolves red vapors and ignites ; if
the action is now earried too far, a brown viscid mass results, insoluble
Chemistry and Physics. 277
{notation of ——- which is exactly the composition that theory
assigns to be
°C, H, CaO, =CO, Cate. H.,. 2
Its claim to be considered as the acetonid of benzoic acid is shown
by the fact that under the influence of potash-lime, it discedes at about
into benzoate of potash and pure eg abi eo evolving a
trace of hydrogen gas or any other foreign substa
C, Hy) O+KHO=C, H, KO “46, i,
M. Chancel has given it the name of benzophenone, to show at once
its relation to the befenic and: phenic seas while the termination re-
calls its place among the acetonids. It is insoluble in water but soluble
in alcohol and ether; from a mixture of ies bo it is obtained by spon-
taneous evaporation in large tra tiga monoclinic prisms, of a slight
amber tint. It fuses at 46° and boils at 315° C., erie without al-
teration ; its odor is fragrant, Aeon be resembling benzoic ether.
Neither nitric nor sulphuric acids affect it in the cold ; i leeging nitric
acid by heat converts it into an oily liquid, which is dissolved by ether
and deposited again almost immediately as a yellowish crystalline pow-
er. This is binitric benzophenone, C,, H,(N,.0,)
several hours with fuming nitric acid and then diluted with water. e
oily residue is mixed with ether, and after a time deposits a crystalline
matter which was washed with a mixture of alcohol and ether. Itisa
mixture of binitrie benzophenone, with some foreign matters which are
very difficultly separable. By digestion in the cold with a mixture of
hydrosulphuret of ammonia, alcohol and ether, the principal part is
dissolved, and after twenty-four hours the vessel is filled with needles
gages an oil possessing the properties of an alkaloid.
oe ngfor and crystallizable ; the chloro-
platinate i is Cys eh and Cl), a compound with two
the aoe being the substance intermediate between flavine and urea.
alkaline product prewrne by the action of potash upon this new
kao will then be no other than aniline.
ong the — found in the crude liquid which yields the ben-
scelneenes. are two solid carbonates of hydrogen isomeric with naptha-
lene, one fusing a 92° and the other at 65° C.; the latter is obtained
z
278 Scientific Intelligence.
with benzonitryl when - vapor of benzoate of ammonia is passed
over ignited caustic bar
M. Chancel refers to ae analogy pointed out by Gerhardt pagina
the ethers atid the products of the action of the mineral acids upon
hydrocarbons ;* as between nitrobenzene and nitromethol, silehoes
zenic and sulphomethylic acids. He has extended this view still far-
acid and benzene, minus H, O, so benzophenone is — from the
benzoic acid and nzene, minus the same elemen C, Hy
+C, H,=C,,H,,O+H,0O. As the name of oatab has “already
been to benzene, which in reality does not “i to the benzoic
series, M. Chancel observes that it will be well t sly to its deriva-
tives We names of nitrophenone and abe Nikzoune, which will have
the advantage = recalling their relations to . enone. ‘TT.
n the Action of Nitric Acid upon Butyrone, Laver and
Cu HANCEL, (Compt. Rend. des Trav. de pis 1848, p. 174.)—The
acid obtained some years since by M. Chancel, by the action of nitric
acid upon butyrone, and by him named baty ronitric acid, has been sub-
mitted to a new examination, from which it results that its nicew: is
C,H,NO,=C,H,X0O,; it is consequently nitrometacetonic acid.
The normel acid being C,H, O,. It is insoluble in, and more heavy
than water; has a ver sweat t aste and an aromatic odor. _ Its salts are
erystallzable and explode by heat; that of potash forms yelian scales
ra iodofor ia
On Sulphate’ Benzamid ; by A. Canours, (Compt. Rend. des
Tiaw. de Chim., Avril, 1849, de Comp. Rend. del’ Acad., 1. xxvil, p- 239.)
—As the nitryls by fixing H, O or 2H, O yield: asiae or ammoniacal
salts, M. Cahours was iasirone to dewrmnin’ whether from the analogy
between water and sulphuretted hydrogen, it might be possible to pro-
duce the corresponding sulphuretted compounds. On dissolving benzoni-
tryl in slightly ammoniacal alcohol and saturating with H, 5, the solution
became discolored, and after some time on concentratin by evaporation,
~ Potassium decomposes it with the formation of a sulphuret and
cyanid. M. Cahours proposes to pursue this interesting inquiry.
Tes.
May, 1849, p. 430, anew substance was (pT) as dicenvarte by Dr.
of lime. To this the discoverer assigned the formula C, Cl, Nz Oro:
As this seemed quite anomalous, I proposed in it ts place, assuming, the
quantities of carbon and chlorine fans to be slerct, C, HCI, N, Ojo
and the more readily as his analysis actually gave a quantity ‘of hydro-
gen amounting to one equivalent. M. Gerhardt remarking upon this
1849, =" imie Organique, tom. ler, p. 154. See also this Journal for July,
P-
s
Chemistry and Physics. 279
substance (Compt. Rend. des Trav. de Chimie, Fevrier, p. 34), sugges-
ted that its real formula is CCl, NO, (corresponding to C, Cl, NO, in
formula which requires carbon lorine 65, and azote 8-4, has
been verified by analyses made by M. Cahours upon a pure s
has
vented hitherto by the presence of the tin; the present process is pro-
posed for its removal.
hot solution of alkaline persulphuret, for instance, persulphuret of
sodium, obtained by fusing sulphur with carbonate of soda, converts the
tin into sulphuret which is retained in solution, leaving the iron per-
fectly free from tin.
he same end is attained, although in a less perfect manner, by a
Solution of oxyd of lead in caustic alkali, or by alkaline chromate in
the caustic alkali. The former, however, produced a deposit of me-
tallic lead, the latter of chromic oxyd, and the removal of either of
these is attended with inconvenience; the first process is therefore
preferred.
verberatory furnace ; carbonaceous matter with dry carbonate of soda
or quicklime is then added and the tin reduced. The slag resulting
may be added to form again the solution for stripping the tin plate.
in has been removed are was
p n, A
7. Anisole, Salicylic Ether, and substances derived from
C
show its extension to compounds originally containing oxygen. This
remark applies to the researches before us, The value of this exten-
nearer than ever to the fulfilment of the promise long since made, of
the artificial formation of quinine, morphine, &c.
~
280 Scientific Intelligence.
From the distillation of balsam of Tolu, Deville ae a hydro-
carbon C,, which has been named a toluole; it is a homologue
of benzole. This substance furnished Drs. Mesoises no Hofmann “by
the process of Zinin, a new organic base, toluidine, a homologue of
well deserves reading, and is particularly valuable for a tabular view
of the parallel anisic and phenic series. Most of the compounds i in the
i
of the phenic series, and in some cases, furnishes compounds without a
parallel in the latter series. Still more, in the paper above mentioned,
Drs, Muspratt and Hofmann announce a new base, nitraniline, being
— in which one equiv. of H, is replaced by NO,—a most re-
markable discovery, for the entrance of the elements “of nent of
sees without effect upon the basic properties of the original sub-
We shall presently see that three new bases of this singular
kind have
toluole that phenole does to benzole, has already furnished bi- and tri-
nitric species, in which 2H and 3H are replaced by 2NO, and 3NO,.
By acting eon anisole with fuming se acid and keeping the mixture
cold, M. Cahours has succeeded in forming the mono-nitric anisole—
an amber odlabed aromatic, heavy Said boiling at about 505° F. This
substance is readily decomposed by an alcoholic solution of hydrosul-
hate of ammonia; empires is deposited and a new i ats *
it may be called, C,, H, , crystallizes in he reddish brown lus-
trous needles, insoluble in water; but readily soluble in boiling alcohol.
Some of its salts are colorless when quite pur
nitric acid forms with toluole a liquid mono-nitric, and a
crystalline bi-nitric species. The former furnished with oe
of ammonia, toluidine, to Drs. Muspratt and Hofmann. ‘The latter by
the same reagent has given M. Cahours a new alkaloid, the nitric tolu-
idine, C,, H, N, Oy, being toluidine with H replaced by NO,.
Anisic acid with fuming nitric acid is found to form among other
products, a new acid isomeric with tri-nitric anisole, and a perce oo
of picric acid. This substance, chrysanisic acid, C,, H,
crystallizes from alcohol in beautiful golden yellow rhombohedral plates.
It is distinguished from similar acids by giving a very soluble salt with
potas
om The salycilic ether of wood-spirit -_ of wintergreen) forms a cryS-
til
line compound with bases, which furnishes on distillation, anisole.
n like manner, Cahours has found pee the salycilic ether of alcohol,
a crystalline compounds, and that of baryta on distillation gives @
new substance, phenetole, 16 Hyo Og, a homologue of aniso ole. This:
when acted upon by strong nitric acid, forms a binitric species, resem-
bling — anisole, and probably also a trinitric species.
coholic solution of the former with sulphuretted hydrogen -
sdesoaia,: forms nitric pease’ the OO of nitric anisidine.
ay
Chemistry and Physics. 281
-As the mono-nitrie phenetole has not yet been obtained, we are with-
Out the original alkaloid phenetidine, of which the above isa derivative.
To render the relation of these remarkable substances more clear,
we subjoin a table, containing also the previously known homologues.
I. Phenole Ci, 8,0;
Nitrophenesic acid
L Biulicic pilates °C. {Hg ko
I-nitric pnenole 12 { 2NO, 2
{ Picric acid. H
Trinitric phenole C,, { 3NO, 0,
Il. Anisole C.i,H,).
Nitric anisole aR NO, ne
C H
Bi-nitric {
(Chrysanisic ac.)
Tri-nitric anisole C,, { 3NO, O,
C
Anisidine,
Nitric anisidine C,,
- Phenetole Oi, Hig
Bi-nitric phenetole C,,
Tri-nitric phenetole C, { 3NO,
(
Phenetidine,
O,
IV. Benzole CH V. Toluole C,,H,
Aniline see H, N Toluidine Crs H, N
Nitric aniline C,, / He ; N Nitric toluidine C, 4 { NO } os
: +? Uy : “ as
Compounds. Since that paper was written, M. Wurtz has more fully
described the properties of Methylamine and Ethylamine, and a. :
added a new ammonia to the series Valeramine. tives s ie
Methylamine, as well as the other new alkaloid, may be o — ro . a
its hydrochlorate by the action of zinc, just as ammonia is obtaine
rom sal-ammoniac. Thus prepared, methylamine is — ammo-
niacal odor, condensing into a liquid at about 32 F. Its — ive
little greater than that of ammonia. It is the most soluble of all gases ;
at 53
° F., one vol. of water dissolves 1040 vols. ; at 77°, 959 vols.
Stconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 26—March, 1850, 36
ee
282. Scientific Intelligence.
ol.
Ethylamine, by a freezing mixture is obtained as a caustic fluid, of
ammoniacal odor, and boiling at 62° F. Its reactions are very similar
to those of methylamine, but it does not form a precipitate with chlorid
| of platinum. It burns with a. bluish flame.
Valeramine, the new alkalaid is obtained by the action of potash on
cyanate of amylene (cyanic ether of fousel oil), the latter being pre-
it redissolves the precipitate of salts of copper with more difficulty
than the other ammonias; the same may be said of the solution of the
chlorid of silver. The formula isC,, H,, N. :
The strong resemblance of these new alkaloids to ammonia has un-
doubtedly caused their presence to be overlooked in many decompost-
m
petinine, C, H,, N, which in all probability is butyramine. We have
then the following homologous series.
Ammonia, H,N
_Methylamine, C,H,N
Ethylamine, C, He
Butyramine, C, H,,N (Petinine, Anderson.)
Valeramine, Coty
9. On a Copper Amalgam; by Dr. Petrenxorer, (Ann. der
Chem. u. Pharm., June, 1849, in Chem. Gaz.)—This remarkable com-
e. Its density in the two conditions is so nearly the same, that if
ressed into a glass tube while in the soft state, it becomes an air-tight
stopper when hard. Many useful and less hazardous applications than
filling teeth may be made of this curious substance.
Of several modes of preparation, the following appears to be the
easiest and best. Finely divided copper obtained by precipitation by
iron, is triturated in a porcelain mortar with protoxyd of mercury,
Chemistry and Physics. 283
tallic mercury and boiling hot water. The mass from brittle becomes
soft and plastic when enough mercury is taken up. The excess o
mercury should be pressed out, and the cake allowed to haiden: which
ap more time, than after the iain sofiening. G.-C S,
nzole; by C. B. MansFiE.p, (Chem. Gaz., June, 9.)
: asefi ‘escent of coal sent which is mainly benzo le, was noticed
p.
for obtaining pure benzole in large re from coal tar. The -—
the head of which is surrounded b nae rising to 212° and no
higher, suffers the volatile. Saas of higher boiling point to p" 3
back into the vessel, while the more volatile benzole passes over a wil
condensed as usual. By a eee rectificalign, keeping the still heal
ata temperature of 176°, the benzole is obtained still purer. [tis next
agitated with one-tenth its bulk of strong nitric acid, poured off and
again agitated with sulphuric acid. When redistilled, it may be further
purified by cooling to 4° F. ; the crystals prema and afterwards treuted
with chlorid of calcium, furnish a pure article.
As benzole dissolves India rubber, gutta percha and most —— it
may be valuable for these purposes, for which, however, the rude
coal naphtha is generally used. Its solvent power renders it, font
ing to the author, a cheap and less volatile substitute for ether in the
ca
_ labo ‘alory.
ier, number of most interesting compounds, aniline, nitraniline,
i: o ts Ba - obtained from this substance in great quan arte
: oO
das Separation LA Phosphoric Acid from ee, ; 1 H.
Rowe ike der K. P. . Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1849, 220;
Chem. Gaz.; No. 173. ste author —? published a method* upon
Separating Whosphoric acid from bases by means of mercury, whic
admits of the en one acid being separated from most of the bases
in such a manner, that not onl its uantity can be determined with
great accuracy, “a that after its separation the bases can be dimen
examined and accurately estimated, without being contaminated by 1
he pr ne Ae
esa heed for separating the phosphoric acid.
etho
modification ; but with the presence of cies the abou increase
to such = extent that the method becomes inapplicable.
It is however often of importance to be able to aikimine the phos-
era hoses with accuracy in complex compounds which also contain
alumina. In several rocks, especially in the basalts, salts of phospho-
ric esis occur, principally apatite ; and undoubtedly the great fertility
of a soil consisting of decomposed basalt is owing to the a
apati Ite
When basalt is treated in the pulverized state with a dilute acid,
dissolves the apatite, together with the con nstituents of the decomposed
: zeolitic mineral soluble in acids, among which alumina is almost always
’ present. Now by means of the molybdate of ammonia, the acid solu-
acerca Si lca
* See this Journal, viii, 181, Sept. 1549.
284 Scientific Intelligence.
tion can easily be tested for a small quantity of phosphoric acid, in
order that when present, even in minute quantity, it may not be over-
looked in the analysis.
‘Z.
®
Ps
a)
g
a=)
=
=
=
e
}
S
a
6
S
S
2.
w
rel
°
5
2
=
eS,
5
co)
S.
S
3.
5
=
b=)
-
®
a
P
*
a.
°
5
co
S
a
Ss
x
S
ane
a
2
&.
B
=
n
fe}
3
®
3
>
~
-
a
S
—
=
=
©
5
5
S
3
o
=|
o
a
de Bh
resent. In the filtered solution the bases are determined according to
the usual methods.
The insoluble residue contains the whole amount of phosphoric acid
which was present in the compound, as well as the alumina and the
peroxyd of iron. It is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, and the
baryta removed by sulphuric acid. The filtered solution is saturated
with carbonate of soda, and evaporated to dryness ; the dry mass 1s
mixed with silica and carbonate of soda, and heated to redness. The
calcined mass is digested in water, and carbonate of ammonia added
o it, when a considerable amount of silica is precipitated ; itis filtered.
ire ee
Chemistry and Physics. 285
rises or falls when, in any compound, chlorine is replaced by bro-
mine, or vice versd, bromine by chlorine. After determining the num-
ber of degrees which express this difference for the substitution of each
atom of chlorine or bromine, it is possible, on the other hand, to con-
clude, from the difference between the boiling-points of a chlorid and
* the corresponding bromid, as to the number of atoms replaced, Now
it results, from the comparison of the boiling-points of several bromids
and c is, that the substitution of 1Cl by IBr raises the boiling-
point 32° Cent. ; of 2Cl by 2Br, 2X 32=64°; of 3Ci by 3B, 3x 32—96";
while the boiling-point falls in the same proportion when, on the con-
trary, bromine is replaced by chlorine. Compare, for example, the
boiling point of the following substances :— *
Boiling-point.
C,H,Cl — Chlorethyle, . . . . . -F1I°, Pierre.
C,H,Cl —Chloracetyle, . . . . . —18° to 15°, Regnault.
Cl, Chlorid of phosphorus . . 78°, Dumas, Pierre.
Boiling-point found. Calculated.
Br —_ Bromethyle » «Mls APR Sy See
Br Bromacetyle . . . . . Ord.temp. 14° to17°.
PBr, Bromid of phosphorus. . . 175°, Pierre. 174°.
Several other comparisons enumerated by Kopp lead to the law above
- announced respecting the change in the boiling-point in substitutions of
r and chlorine. It consequently follows, as above stated, that
according as the boiling-point of a bromid, on comparison with that of
ils corresponding chlorid, is situated at 32, 64 or 96 degrees higher
than in the chlorine compound, this latter must be regarded as contain-
ing 1, 2, 3 atoms of chlorine replaced by bromine. ‘The boiling-points
of the chlorid of silicon and of the bromid of silicon have been deter-
mined by Pierre, a most accurate observer, the first to be 59°, the lat-
ter to be 153°; the difference is 94°; whence it follows that in the
bromid of silicon 3 atoms of bromine are substituted for 3 atoms of
chlorine in the chlorid of silicon; that the first is SiBr,, the latter
SiCI,, and that silica is therefore SiO, ; and consequently we must ad-
mit the atomic weight of silicon to be 21°3, H being assumed —I.
13. On the Extraction of Mannite from the. Dandelion; by Messrs.
Smiru; with an Analysis of the Mannite, by Dr. Srennouss. Com-
municated by Dr. Georce Witson, (Proc. R. Soc. Edinb., ti, 223. )—
essrs. Smith stated that they had extracted from the dandelion, a large
«Amount of a crystalline sweet substance, having all the physical char-
‘hae acters of mannite. It was analysed by Dr. Stenhouse, and foun
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the proportions which char-
acterize the accepted formula for mannite ; viz.,C,H,O,, so that it
Certainly was the substance it was supposed to be. ..
Messrs. Widumann and Frickhinger, it is stated, had anticipat
a
Messrs. Smith in the separation of mannite from the dandelion juice,
and were led to believe that the mannite did not preéxist ready formed
a
286 Scientific Intelligence.
and found that even from quantities of the fresh root, so large as 40 lbs.,
no mannite could be extracted, if the expressed juice were prevented
from fermenting; whilst, if fermentation were permitted, the same
weight of roots yielded a large quantity of mannite, which appears *
be derived from the sugar, inulin, &e., of the dandelion, which wa
converted into mannite, gum, and lactic aci $
t rs. Smith stated, in conclusion, that they had not been able
to confirm’ ihe statement of Polex: that the dandelion contains a bitter
erystallizable substance, such as he had described under the name of
taraxacine
* Il. MineraLocy anp GEOLOGY. ~
1. On Danburite ; a J. D. Dana.—The species Danburite, from
Danbury, Conn., has recently been fotind, through the explorations of
Mr. G. J. Brush, in crystallized specimens, which ave afforded the
following eryillograpic and chemical characte
Triclinic; P:M=110° and 70°; M: raved ae
and 126°; P: T=93° nearly; P: e=135°. Cleav- f
age distinct parallel to M and P, less so parallel
to T. Crystals imbedded in feldspar, associated
with dolomite, and often an inch ac Occurs
also ores massive without eptia form.
=7—7°5, G.=2-95, Silliman, Jr.; 2-97, pone
Color pale valine or whitish. Lustre vitre
Translucent to subtranslucent. Exceedingly “hiltile: The mineral
resembles chondrodite somewhat, but differs in form and in its distinct
pai as well as chemical characters.
hem
by Mr.
H. Erni, in the Yale Laboratory, New Haven. Before the tisk pipe
it fuses rather easily, and in the dark it is seen to give the flame a
green color, especially afier mate heated the mineral with sulphuric
acid. With bisulphate of soda and fluor spar the green color (a color
due to boracic acid) is as distinct and strong as with borax. With bo-
rax or soda, a transparent glassy globule is easily obtained. The
amount of the mineral under examination was so small that the bone
acid could be estimated only from the loss. Mr. Erni obtained— ~
Ts It. Oxygen ratio for I.
Silica, 49-74 49-71 584 12
~ me, 22:80 22°38 48
agnesia, 1:98 1:30 0-78
da, 9-82 ia j png 1059,
cal 4°31 UT 6 0-73
_ Perox. iron and : :
Mawhe: port 1-65
Boracic acid (loss), 9°24 ‘ 6°35 Boy
100 00 ,
The ratio gives the formula RB+448 Si, The alumina is probably due
to some feldspar, whee | is often detected penetrating the crystals.
Mineralogy and Geology. 287
Prof, Shepard, who aan ~ mineral in this Journal, vol. xxxv,
p- 137, obtained for its compos
Si 56-00, Ga 28-38, 411-70, ¥? 0°85, an Na?) and loss 5-12, H 8:0=100,
king it essentially a hydrous silicate of lime, a composition incom-
patible with the “ degree of hardness. The presence of boracic :
acid accounts for th s peculiarity.
. On the discovery ar gee of Nickel in Northern New York
by Dr. Pidlecx H, A.M., with additional observations by
S. W, Jou iat: ahal ana e for this Journal.)—Io January of the
resent year, while visiting i friend Dr. Hough at his residence in *
Somerville, St. Lawrence . Y., he showed me specimens of a
mineral which from its yale characters he had decided to be sul-
phuret of nickel
As its existence in the United States has not been SS report:
ed, I communicate the substance of a notice he furnished me, in his
own words—* This mineral has been found in limited aitsntities at the
Sterling i iron mine, in Antwerp, Jefferson Co. Eig af It was first no-
ticed by the writer about two years since and" a acted his attention
from its delicate capillary appearance, brilliant iat and the difference
of its crystalline form from that of sulphuret of iron, which in color
— association it so nearly resembles.
“It occurs mostly in radiating tufts of exceedingly minute and slender
‘crys' Ae a brass-yellow color, and very aa lustre, which when
highly nified present the appearance of flattened sehate prisms
with emacs _ the strive being parallel oie the principal faces of
the pri ae
“No cleavage was observed, nor could the ere planes of the
prisms (f they possess any) be determined. hen moderately mag-
nified, the minute Bil Bat ac abies to gradually narrow toa
are composed of several covets of unequal length united by one or
_— of ne lateral faces,
hey occur in geode-like cavities of the iron ore, which are lined
ih crytalizations of spathic i iron, specular iron, quartz, ae ae ca-
coxene, and sul et of iron; from among these crystals e tufts
Proceed, attached neoially to the spathic iron, more rarely to the crys
tals of iron. It is not an abundant mineral ; only po one or two
dozen specimens have been eee since its discover
inch in diameter is "ihuverséd by six eee somewhat
ea crystals af poy nei size than any ie vat ise Thei
tani
a the beating of the abide: led a ae observation of minute crys-
tals apparently springing from the iron, and traversing the spathic iron.
Tn two instances a crystal was found completely transfixing a rhomb of
Spathic iron, and supporting it in air, at a distance of { inch above the
288 Scientific Intelligence.
thus — another needle of sul phuret of nickel projected up-
wards. e penetrating erysials are not in the least distorted.
The larger ones of this specimen would admit of goniometrical meas-
ement.
Chemical Examination—A small fragment of one of the larger
serystals heated in an open tube, er a strong odor of su/phurous
= . The roasted mineral which was black, but unaltered in form,
s treated with hydrochloric acid, no action was ma nifest upon addi-
a pure salt of nickel. a reaction is chiefly valuable as proving the
absence of iron and
above rk nomena with a certain rather slight degree of satura
The small quantity of mineral has prec uded a more sae de
amination. Hereafter the associated specular iron, and spathic tae
will be examined for nickel.
New Mineral Localities in New York; by Dr. F. B. Hoven,
(communicated for this Journal. )—Pearl Spar, has been discovered of
a fine quality, in the town of Rossie, St. Lawrence count t occurs
in seams and crevices of white limestone, in a precipitous bank on the
gan ae nit the Oswegatchie river, and can be procured in considera-
e quan
As Pes the with _— is calcareous spar, crystallized in the forms
most common in the vicinity, viz., the scalene dodecahedron with ee
summits of the pyramids replaced by three rhombic faces. Anothe
forms, occurs about a mile south of the village of Gouverneur, St. Law-
rence county, in white limestone and associated with scapolite
i crystals attain a diameter of one or two ald but the specimens
which are best characterized are much smal
Iphuret of copper, in limited neu nik, ‘has lately been “discov
ered near Vrooman’s Lake, in Antwerp, Jefferson county. Associ iated
with this was fluor spar, and beautifully crystallized calcareous spar.
Sulphate of barytes, on the farm of Judge E. Dodge, in Gouverneur,
St. Lawrence county, of a highly crystalline structure, and assoc ociated
with fluor and calcareous pee: This locality is in the northwest part
Mineralogy and Geology. 289
of the town, about four miles from the village, and has been known
about two years, although no account of it has (to the writer’s knowl-
edge) ever been published. It appears to ae in great abundance, in
cimens which have been asst to decay, pres p t
unlike that of a mass of nails, which have been partially fused, and.
melted together. Color when recently broken, pure
Same mineral has been discovered on the farm of Mr. R n,
in Antwerp, Jefferson county, about one mile east of the village of
Ox-Bow, It occupies cavities in a coarse half decayed white limestone,
is of low specific gravity, in consequence of numerous vermicular cavi-
ties with which it abou nds, and oe te presents botryoidal sur
nie studded with crystalline faces. From the presence of iron pyrites
n small quantities, it can quickly stained with oxyd of iron, when
ceeds to the weal
Stalactitic quartz, a been found in limited quantities at a newly
opened pit at the Parish iron mine, in the town of Rossie , St. aenetes
county. The same has been found at the Sterling iron mine
Antwerp, Jefferson county, with the surfaces beautifully encrusted vith
cacoxenite.
by J. hae — (in a letter to one nal the editors. Dr. 8 mith
observes : nd associated with emery,—ealc spar; iron pyrites 5
oe and massive protoxyd of iron; magnetic iron ores peroxy
of iron; hydrous peroxyd of iron; emerylite and other micas; sismon-
dine or chloritoid (they evidently being the same mineral) ; diaspore } ;
@ mineral of waxy aspect having a similar composi ition to mica, being
Probably a kind of amorphous mica ; a beautiful emerald green mineral,
unalterable by heat and of considerable hardness, quantity in my pos-
mation of Valleys, (om the Geol. ca ‘Exp. Exped., by J. D. Dana. Sou
pe pe
study of their origin. In some of these sandstone nite a the gorges
: - *. . i
le precipices of one, two, or three thousand feet. They are deep
gulfs, with walled sides composed of horizontal layers of sandstone.
Th ayers seem once to have been continuous: and what is the
force which has thus channelled the mountain structure ? Are they
stern rents in the bosom of the earth?”* Are they regions of
subsidenc nee? Can it be that they were never filled, but were depres-
sions left between the heaps | of accumulating deniitnent that constitute
the sandstone, which depressions were afterwards enlarged by the sea
during the elevations of Ae land?+ Or may we adopt the “ —
* Strzelecki’s New South peas “i Van Diemens Land, p. 57.
+ Darwin’s Volcanic Islands,
Srconp Srries, Vol. LX, No. . 1850, 37
290 _ Scientific Intelligence.
ous” idea, that simple ee water has been the agent; and if so,
was it fr oe water, or the
The forms of these er are as remarkable as their extent. Major
Mitchell ann that Cox’s River rises in the Vale of Clywd, 2150 feet
above the sea, and leaves this expanded basin through a gorge 2200
yards wide, flanked on each side by rocks of horizontally stratified
__ seateageea eight hundred feet high: here it joins the Warragamba.
of its tributaries rise * a height of 3500 feet above the sea, —
the ravines they occu ver an area of 1212 square miles. m
this he calculates that one ieee and thirty-four cubic miles of dom r .
have been removed from the valley of the Cox.* The facts observed |
by us are sufficient to substantiate the general result, allhough we can- P
not add definite estimates of our own. ‘The Kangaroo Valley is another
example of a valley, two to three miles in width, and a thousand feet
to eighteen hundred deep, opening outwar through a comparatively
narrow gap: and by a rough calculation from our own examinations,
and the map of Major Mitchell, the amount of rock necessary to fill the
valley is a toa pe mek twelve miles long, two miles .
length. This is but a small sonst helene; sions! with those J
of the interior, Mr. Darwin remarks upon this peculiarity of form,— {
bays along the c
In studying he nie of these valleys, we have then to consider the
following particulars :—
1. Their high, precipitous, or vertical walls of stratified sandstone,
and ~_ — areas at bottom—excepting where the descent of the
stream i
2. Their frequent great breadth towards their head, ie bape they
are often very narrow, like a large bay with a small e
3. absence of all traces of the hingeuniia siaesstel which
could have filled these valleys.
culty with one who admits time te ‘be an element which a roctegil has
indefinitely at command. But the subject admits of full a
as we believe, without making any improbable te nm on this point.
We need but refer to a former page, in which we have discussed the
~ subject of valley-making by denudation among the Pacific islands,? to
show that New Holland, after all, is not the most remarkable land in
the world for valleys of denuda tion.
should consider that the rock material is far more yielding than
that of basaltic Tahiti. Indeed the whole rock, from the uppermost
layer to the deposits below the coal, is remarkably fragile, considering
* Expedition into Australia, ii, 352, "+ See this volume, p. 48.
bat
Mineralogy and Geology. 291
difficulty in the fingers; and besides, it is much fissured. Even t
‘harder fossiliferous Wollongong rock has been described as sometimes
failing to pieces of itself when exposed to the air. Moreover there are
occasional clayey or argillaceous layers which are still softer; and
many of those of the coal formation are not firmer than the material
of a common clay bank. The denudation of such material requires.
no preparatory decomposition, as with many igneous rocks, but takes
place from wear alone, and with but slight force in the agent.
It is obvious for the same reason that the material carried off by de-
the age of the deposits,—crumbling readily, and often breaking without
he
A short journey along a rapid stream would reduce even large masses
to powder. The plains of the Kangaroo Valley are covered in places
with basaltic pebbles or boulders; but the sandstone, which is the pre-
vailing rock along the bed of the stream and in the enclosing hills, has
scarcely a representative fragment among the debris. The sandstone
blecks are worn to sand or earth by the torrent, while the harder basalt
ts slowly rounded. On the plains of Puenbuen, similar facts were ap-
parent. The hills contain sandstone and basalt, but only the latter
a as boulders or pebbles over the plains, or along the strea
elow, ;
stances of this along the coves of Port Jackson, where the crystalliza-
tion of the saline spray reduces the rock to its original sand; and in
the interior of the country there are large caves, formed apparently by
this same process, though probably from the crystallization of nitrates.
Near Puenbuen, these caves are from six to twenty feet deep, and
from four to forty long. e roof is arched, and appears to be con-
stantly crumbling, while the bottom is covered with a fine dry ash-lik
sand, into which the feet sink several inches. The Same operation is
going on along the summits of the Illawarra range ; and one huge block
as found so hollowed out in this way as to a mere shell, which
sounded under the hammer like a metallic vessel. "
These various facts bring before us some idea of the yielding nature”
of the rock which the waters have to contend with in the denudation of
this country, and they also illustrate the various processes at work,
allude toa single other mode of degradation before passing: it is the
action of growing trees and their roots, both in opening fissures and |
tumbling blocks down the precipices. It is a cause influencing very
decidedly the characters of cliffs, and at the same time preparing the
rock for decomposition and wear. ;
The credibility of the view we favor is farther sustained by the char-
acter of the streams. We have alluded to the great extent of the floods,
and the rapid rise of the rivers attending them. e stream of the
Kangaroo Grounds, when visited by the writer, was a mere brook, ford.
able in any part, and it flowed along with quiet murmurings. How
different when the brook becomes a river thirty feet deep, driving on in
@ broad torrent, and flooding the valley; and this had been its condi.
tion but a few weeks before. If, as has been shown, the transporting
ol
292. _ Scientific Intelligence.
Tr;
inadequate must be the conceptions of this force which we derive from
viewing a stream at low water.
. This rise in the Kangaroo Grounds is an index of what takes place
every few years over the whole country. Our surprise at the amount
of degradation subsides before such facts; and we rather wonder that
sandstones so soft and fragile, which have been exposed probably from
the Oolitic period, still cover the surface to so great an extent as they
do at the present time.
Mr. Darwin derives his principal argument against the hypothesis of :
denudation from the forms of the valleys,—their width, extent and rami- ‘
fications, and yet narrow embouchures. But we find on consideration
that this form is a necessary result of the mode of denudation under ‘i
m0 circumstances suppose |
°
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s
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has also been explained. The same cause should produce a like effect
in Australia. Though it be a repetition, we add in this place a brief
explanation of the process. stream, in making a descent of two or $
b r
S
i)
i=
|
@
al
°
&
<
5
roi
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oo
or
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finally become a series of cascades, or, as it happens at times in the
Pacific, it may be reduced mostly to a single cascade of a thousand
feet or more.
The progress of this change may be better understood from the a
given.
' in Nabe Lonnie On the Transport of Erratic Blocks, Trans. Camb, Phil. Boc., vill,
) pe S21.
_ | p. 879 of this Report; also this volume, p. 57.
Mineralogy and Geology. 293
commonly the case, by lateral channels and rills down the sides of the
gorge, as well as by the main source ; and the amount er depth of water
is thus in constant increase, as it flows onward. Denudation is conse-
quently most rapid the farthest from the head, or towards n! ; the valley,
therefore, increases in depth in this part till the slope has become so
n1n? becomes the bottom of the lower valley, and Cn? the steeper
portion above it. In the same manner the valley bottom continues to
prolong at nearly the same slope, and Cn°, Cn*, Cn® become suc-
cessively the course of the stream descending into it. And even
n°, is no exaggeration of possibilities; for many examples of it are
met with.
But the results explained are but a part of the actual course of things
in these regions of horizontally stratified rock. As on Oahu and else-
where, when the denudation at bottom has reached its limit, the waters
necessary result of the action.
produce below a flat-bottomed valley. The consequence is, that they
increase the width and extent of the main valley-plain ; for whenever
they become thus flat-bottomed, they contribute to its lateral enlarge-
ment. At the same time, the bluffs at the lower extremity or embou-
chure of the main valley remain without much change, as the denuda-
tion is mostly confined to the vicinity of the streamlets alluded to, and
these streamlets are most abundant above, since they are produce
=
294 Scientific Intelligence.
these fissures, or by faults which have the same origin. e ha
marked that the rock has not the same dip in the two Heads of Port
Jackson, a fact indicating the existence of one or more intermediate
faults.
Ill. ZooLoey.
ploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes, U.S.N. 740 pp. 4to, 1846;
with an Atlas of 61 plates in folio, mostly colored, 1849.—The pub-
lication of this work has been briefly announced in this Journal. The
number of species of corals collected in the course of the voyage of
tion with the mention of the locality; and moreover, in the catalogue
of species accompanying the remarks upon each genus, the new an
has thus been a complete revision of the synonymy of the science,
besides a corrected identification of the species described or figured by
former writers.
Out of the 444 known species of coral zoophytes, (excluding the
Alcyonaria,) 233 are new species first described by the author ; and of
the remaining 211, 122 are redescribed from specimens. To the genus
Zoology. 295
naked character of the tentacles and their number, siz, being widely
different from the same in the Gorgonie and other Alcyonaria, in
which the tentacles are fringed with papilla, and the number is eight.
The Actinie usually separated widely from coral zoophytes, have re-
ceived their true place, in close affiliation with the Astreide.
2. A new genus of Orchestide ; by J. D. Dana.—In a synopsis of the
genera of Gammaracea, in this Journal, volume viii, p. 185, three
era of Orchestide are mentioned, Talitrus, Orchestia and Allorchestes.
We here add a fourth; and for the purpose of giving a fuller compar-
ative view of the four, and correcting a misprinted word, we insert
the generic characters for the group.
1. Pedes primi non cheliformes nec subcheliformes,
articulo styliformi confecti; secundi sepe subcheli-
formes, manu sive parvula et debili sive nulla, -
tenn superiores basi inferio reviores.
2. Talitro pedes primos antennasque similis, Pedes
maris pt valde subcheliformes, manu grandi, Talitronus (Dana).
3
Talitrus (Latreille).
F S
formes. Antennz superiores basi inferiorum brevi-
ores. Maxilli i i
des apicem obtusi. ‘ Orchestia (Leach).
4. Pedes primi secundique plus minusve subcheli-
formes. Ant peri brevi , basi inferiorum
longiores. Maxillipedes apicem unguiculati. Allorchestes (Dana).
mipore is essentially different from thut of the Astreoid species
alluded to—in the former, the buds being Jateral from towards the base
of the polyps, while in the latter (as in Astreas) the summit of the
polyps gradually widens or extends and produces buds. The corals of
is differ
‘tained the Astreoid species in the genus Astrea a
subdivisions, corresponding, of Orbicellat and Fissicella, the latter in-
cluding the species which increase by a subdivision or fission of disks,
and the former those whose buds were marginal or interstitial.
* See this Journal [2], iii, 16, 18. le ait
t Corresponds to oil's subdivision Tubastreea, a name of hybrid origin,
296 Scientific Intelligence.
Professor Agassiz has made some recent observations on the ova
and development of a species of Actinia, and has shown that the num-
ber of tentacles in the young animal is at firs, five; and he has conse-
quently inferred that this is a typical or normal number for the true
Actinie. The Actiniv, it should be observed, are identical with the
ordinary coral polyps in all points of structure, and this number should
therefore be expected to occur among them.
But the author has elsewhere shown* that in the Orbicellz the num-
ber of tentacles is a multiple of 6 or 4. In the Orb. argus, glaucopis,
six; in the pleiades, hyades, excelsa, annularis, stedlulata, microph-
thalma, ocellina, twenty-four ; in the stelligera, eighteen. The number
six is likewise characteristic (perhaps sometimes four and not six) of
tacles, and the consequent fission that takes place. While those of the
six series, as far as direct observation has gone, have a fixed limit to the
number of tentacles,—the even number siz being a limit-number, while
five may or may not be so.. The multiplication of tentacles as growth
proceeds, has been shown by the writer to be quite analogous to the
spiral development of the leaves or petals of a plant; and ‘it is there-
fore an interesting fact that five should be the number for the unlimited
spiral, while six is a limited spiral. This is a point, however, which
direct observation on the young of the fissiparous zoophytes alone can
fully establish.
n absence of fission. The former in-
cludes the Actinide (excluding the Orbicelle, Echinopore, and Phy I.
lastree), with the Fungide; while the latter embraces—l. the Orbi-
cellida (the species of the three genera just mentioned) ; 2. the Cyatho-
phyllide; 3. the Caryophyllide ; 4. the Gemmiporida ; 5. the Zoan-
thide ; 6. the Madreporide ; 7. the Antipathide.
The subgenus Orbicella should therefore take the rank of a genus.
We shall probably find that there are Actinie of both kinds, although
hitherto not distinguished.
* See Report on Zoophytes, p. 49, and this Journal [2], iii, 9.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. ' 297
As far as the writer has observed, none of the Paleozoic corals, or
Cyathophyllidze, bud by subdivision of disks. Some species have sum-
mit or disk buds; but these buds grow out from the disk, like those
which grow from the sides; and are not a consequence of a gradual
and successive multiplication of the tentacles and widening of the orig-
inal disk, ending ina progressive subdivision. The nearest representa-
tives of the ancient Cyathophyllide are to be found in the Orbicelle
and Caryophylli. But the transverse horizontal septa of many of the
ancient species have nothing corresponding in these groups though rep-
resented among the Pocillopore and some other genera of recent Mad-
reporidee.
IV. Miscettangous INTELLIGENCE.
1. On the Extraction of Gold from the Copper Ores of Chessy and
Sain- Bel ; by Messrs. Attain and Bartensacu, (Comptes Rendus,
Nov. 19, 1849; Chem. Gaz., Jan. 1, 1850, p. 17.)—It results from our
by the air or at the expense of the oxygen of its compound, furnishes
and 1 part of nitric acid of 36°. This is an important point. The
liquid containing the chlorids of iron, gold (and even of copper, for it
is difficult to remove this metal entirely by a single ebullition with sul-
Phuric acid), is placed in contact with iron, which precipitates the gold
and copper; the precipitate is collected, washed, dried and calcined,
to oxydize the copper. The gold may be separated from the oxyd of
Copper and oxyd of iron (for there is always a little of the latter pre-
Cipitated in the cementation) by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid; but
the separation, either by fusion or by chlorine or mercury, is prefera-
Secon Sxnzes, Vol. IX, No. 26—Mareb, 1850. 38
298 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
ble. With the chlorid the metal is reduced by heat, with amalgam the
- mercury is volatilized. The process above described is applicable to
all pyrites which contain gold. The expenses attending the extraction
of 2 Ibs. of gold from the Chessy ores, after deducting the value of the
copper obtained, do not exceed four hundred francs.
2. The Table Land of Thibet, (Athen., No. 1146.)—In April last
we had occasion to speak of the first fruits of Dr. Hooker’s mission to
explore the botanical and physical character of the Himalaya. He had
the frontiers are guarded by the Chinese and Sikkim tribes, and the
difficulty of obtaining provisions and guides, it was some months before
Dr. Hooker could make the pass. This, however, has been effected :—
as the following letter describes.
Tartare ; but | walked a considerable part of the way, collecting many
new plants. The Thibetans come over the frontier in summer to feed
their Yaks, and reside in horse-hair tents. I entered one and was
much amused with a fine Chinese-looking girl, a jolly laughing wench,
who presented me with a slice of curd. These people eat curd with
the cream is enclosed and beaten, stam
t
is an oblong box, a yard in length, full of rhododendron twigs, froste
of the Soubah made tea, adding salt and butter, and each produced our
Bhotea cup, which was always kept full. Curd, parched rice, ap
Presently a tremendous peal, like thunder, echoed down the
glen. My companions started to their feet, and cried for me to be off,
= dans le — méme, est un objet digne de recherche. * * Eclaircir le prob-
: uteur des neiges perpétuelles 4 la pente méridionale et 4 la pente se
tentrionale de 'Himalayah en — rappellant a ies
troisiéme yolume de mon Asie Centrale:
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299
of range afier range of inosculating stony terraces, with a little herbage,
amongst which the Lachen river meanders ive hundred feet farther
we found ourselves at the top of a long flat ridge, connecting the north-
West extreme of Kinchin-jow with Chomoimo,—at stood the
Indian face of the Himalayan range, at below 15,000 feet,—on the
Thibetan (northern) slope at above 16,000! I felt greatly delighted,
and made a hasty sketch of the surrounding scenery :—somewhat
rude, for at this great elevation my temples throb, and I retch with
sickness.
Just above 15,000 feet all the plants are new; but the moment you
reach the table-land nine-tenths of them disappear. Plants that are
ly, and the views of the great mountains already named rising perpe ndic-
ularly exceeded any that I ever beheld. For 6,000 feet they rise sheer
up and loom through the mist overhead ; their black wall-like faces patch-
ed with ice, and their tabular tops capped with a bed of green snow, prob-
ably from 200 to 300 feet thick. Southerly down the glen the moun-
tains sunk to low hills, to rise again in the parallel of the great chain,
twenty miles south, to perpetual snow, in rugged peaks. We stopped
again at Peppin’s tent for refreshment, and | again took horse. My
30 CO Miscellaneous Intelligence.
' stubborn, intractable, unshod Tartar pony never missed a foot. Sharp
rocks, deep stony torrents, slippery paths, or pitch darkness, were all the
same to him. ‘These ponies are sorry looking beasts; but the Soubah,
who weighs sixteen stone, rode his down the whole thirty miles of rocks,
stones, streams, and mountains; and except to stop and shake them-
selves like a dog, with a violence that nearly unhorsed me, neither his
steed nor mine exhibited any symptoms of fatigue. Fever rages below
from Choontam to Darjeeling. My people behave admirably, and I
never hear a complaint; but I find it very hard to see a poor fellow
come in, his load left behind, staggering with fever, which he has caught
by sleeping in the valleys, eyes sunk, temples.throbbing, pulse at 120,
and utterly disabled from calling up the merry smile with which the
kind creatures always greet me. We have little rain, but much mist;
and I find great difficulty in keeping my plants in order. Do not be
alarmed for me about fever, for I shall not descend below 6,000 feet.
I have not been below 10,000 feet for the last two months. 1 lead a
hard, but healthy life; and know not what it is to spend a lonely-feeling
hour, though without a soul to converse with. Arranging and labelling
plants, and writing up my journal, are no trifling occupation, and lam
incessantly at work, Josep Darton Hooker.
. On the Classification of Colors. Part Il. By Professor J. D.
Forses, (Proc. R: Soc. Edinb., ii i
co
scribing with precision the innumerable hues which occu
and in art; and which it is equally desirable for the optical philosopher,
the artist, and the manufacturer, to be able to refer to in a clear and
nite manner. But such a nomenclature or classification must pro-
ceed upon some admission as to the manner of compounding complex
hues out of simple ones; and, therefore, the author first treats of the
yellow light, we not only change the color, but we increase the illu-
mination; whereas, by adding a blue to a yellow pigment, whilst we
change the color, we at the same time reduce the luminousness of the
surface, the blue particles being far less reflective than the yellow ones.
Inferring from Newton’s empirical rule, the quantities of red, yellow,
and blue light, which should combine to make white light 5 and adopt-
ing Lambert’s results as to the reflective powers of the brightest p'g-
ments, the author concludes, that the mean illumination of a disk put
in rapid revolution, and containing colored sectors, will be 4°57 times
less than if it reflected the whole incident light, or it will reflect only
about half the light which white paper does under the same illumina-
tion, therefore it will appear relatively grey under any given external
illumination.
The author then states, that the triangular arrangement of colors first
proposed by Mayer, and farther carried out by Lambert, appears !0
an a
2
Miscellaneous Intelligence. —. 4a
afford the clearest and truest mode of displaying at a glance the modi-
fication of color due to the varying proportion of the three primary
neutra grey.
_ Hence it will appear, that any hue not purposely diluted with black
or white, is composed of a compound of a binary color with neutral
gray. Hence a convenient nomenclature suggests itself as follows:
the first column containing the binary colors.
|Ren. _Greyish Red. Grey Red. (RedGrey. (Reddish Grey. |Grey,
Orangish Red, * £
Red Orange, % * %
eddish Or ange, x *
- pacer cd a Wi ts ag pe ae
Yellow re, " > _ bs
Orangish Yello
Yetro
Ww, * #
‘Greyish Yellow.|Grey Yellow | Yellow Grey, Yellowish Grey|Grey.
| &e. ce. &e. 3 &e, &e.
These colors are supposed to be of the standard or maximum attain-
able intensity.
They may be diluted with white on the one hand, forming tints; or
with black, forming shades. :
Mayer’s triangle may be repeated with these modifications; but as
the color tends to extinction, either in the direction of perfect blackness
Or perfect whiteness, the number of compartments in the triangles may
be diminished as the dilution of the colors increases. Thus, the whole
may be formed into a double pyramid of color, converging to white
above and to black below. ‘
The author has been much indebted to Mr. D. R. Hay, the ingenious
author of the ** Nomenclature of Colors,” and other works, not only
for specimens of colored papers formed by the actual mixture of the
three primary colors, but also for many valuable suggestions, of which,
in the course of this paper, he has freely availed himself.
t is the author’s wish to be able to obtain a series of colored enamels
e he
es a
short description,) and he hopes to render it more complete,
4 from the Sugar-cane ; by M.
Gard. Chron., Dec. 15, 1849.)
u
hich has been experienced up to the present
en owing to the rapidity with
exposure to the air in hot
302 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
are themselves full of sugar dissolved in water, and this solution can be
kept for a long time in them, without undergoing any alteration at all,
that if the same conditions which exist in nature could only be obtained
in — there is no reason why an artificial solution of sugar may
e kept unaltered for a considerable space of time; or in other
eee why water should not be used for the purpose of iene the
sugar out of the crude juice expressed from the cane.
The difficulties, indeed, are not owing to the sugar or to the water,
but to the air, and the a produced by its action on the crude sap
of the sugar-cane. The object of M. Melsens was then, to exclude the
air — the sap when mare from the cane, and to prevent the forma-
tion of any a = might change the character of the saccha-
rine matter. This he has succeeded in doing by availing himself of:
the well-known affinity of sulphurous acid for oxygen gas. Sulphurous
acid, however, alone was found not to answer the purpose ; the sulphu-
tic acid, produced by the absorption of oxygen by sulphurous acid,
acting on the sugar, converts it into grape-sugar. This difficulty has
been overcome by using sulphurous acid combined with a powerful
base, which, as the sulphurous acid is converted into sulphuric wees
combines with the latter and forms an insoluble salt.
The acid sulphites, and more especially the hisulphite of lime, were
tas a by M. Melsens for the double purpose of preventing ferment-
ation by the action of the sulphurous acid, and of neutralizing the sul-
phuric acid as fast as it formed by mean s of the lime.
Sugar-candy dissolved in cold water containing bisulphite of lime,
even in excess, a entirely, and without undergoing any change,
by spontaneo us evaporation, at a low temperature. Several other exper-
iments of the same suniine but differing in their details, always gave the
same result; in each the sugar crystallized out by spontaneous evapo-
ri sat any loss either i in quantity or in quality, and without any
appea of molasses. In these ce i the sugar dissolved in
wane pohiealabecs bisul phite of lime in excess, was boiled, and then left
to evaporate, sometimes afier being filtered, veenilinden without any fil-
-
FS]
=,
5
From the experiments which M. Melsens has made with bisulphite of
lime, it is probable that if a cold solution of this salt were to be poured
on the sugar-cane grinder, so as to mix with the ae the moment
it is expressed from the cane, the sugar might be kept for some time
might be exposed to the heat necessary for its clarification without any
eye loss or dubeticnatiots
Bisulphite of lime, moreover, —_ y and tolerab! y —— bleach-
es the colored substances found in the su ugar-cane ; il p the for-
mation of other colored matters ‘alia ed by the action vee air aie ashe pulp
of the cane; it also stops the production of those which are for
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303
during evaporation, and above all, of those which require for their de-
velopment the joint action of air and a free alkali.
t seems that colored substances which, under ordinary gircumstan-
mixed with—1, a common solution of sugar; 2, the crude sap of the .
Sugar-cane; 3, the juice of beet-root; no coloration was produced. By
an evaporation of the same substances at a high temperature, the colora-
tion was scarcely visible; indeed, with red beet-root the color was com-
pletely destroyed, and the sugar obtained was perfectly white.
It seems, then, that bisu!phite of lime can be employed in the extrac-
‘tion of sugar :—Ist, as an antiseptic, preventing the production and ace
tion of any ferment; 2nd, as a substance greedy of oxygen, opposing
any alteration that might be caused by its action on the juice; 3rd, as
a clarifier, coagulating at a temperature of 212° all aibuminous and
other coagulable matters; 4th, as a body bleaching all pre-existing col-
ored products; 5th, as a body opposing itself in a very high degree to
the formation of colored substances; 6th, as a base capable of neutral.
izing any hurtful acids which might exist or be formed in the juice,
and substituting in their place a weak inactive acid, namely, sulphur-
ous acid.
M. Melsens is of opinion that sugar can be obtained from the sugar-
y
adopting bisulphite of lime, as above recommended, is at least double
that obtained by the usual processes.
In consequence of M. Melsens having made all his experiments on
the sugar-cane at Paris, and therefore ona small scale, he is not able
to state how bisulphite of lime can best be used in the large colonial:
Sugar manufactories, but is compelled to leave the application of the
Principles on which his method depends to the intelligence of the man-
ufacturers themselves.
304 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
In the preparation of beet-root sugar bisulphite of lime is quite as
useful as in the extraction of cane-sugar; the way in which it is to be
employed in the former is fully explained in the second article publish-
ed in the 507th number of the Courier de [ Europe, to which we must
refer those among our readers who desire any further information on
- Somerset House, the Earl of Rosse, President, in the chair. An able
review of the progress of astronomical and physical science was de-
livered by the President, the obituaries of deceased fellows read, and
and the other as a Paleontologist: both Sir G. Murchison and Dr. Man-
tell were also elected into the new council of the Royal Society.
6. Ray Society, (Athen., No. 1142.)—The Sixth Anniversary of the
in 1847.
- Mastodon angustidens.—A nearly perfect specimen of this mas-
todon has been found about six leagues from Turin, in a bed of plastic
clay containing fresh water shells and covered with sand. The skele-
ton is preserved in the Royal Museum at Turin and is one of the most
perfect hitherto found in Europe.
). Development of Electricity by Muscular Contraction.—The ex-
periments of Du Bois Reymond have been repeated by Prof. Buff of
‘ with apparent success. In one trial, sixteen persons held each
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 305
other by moistened hands, and on all contracting simultaneously by the
right, or the left arm, they formed as it were, a circuit of increased elec-
tromotive power. The effect on the needle was evident, and it was op-
posite according as the right or left arm was contracted: the direction
of the current was always from the hand to the shoulder. _ It is essential
that the muscular contraction should be increased or at least continued
until the needle begins to return and then suddenly discontinued. The
greatest deflection amounted to ten or twelve degrees.
- Influence of boracic acid in Vitrification, (Comptes Rend., Oct.
22, 1849; Phil. Mag., Dec., 1849.)—MM. Mags and Ciemanpor have
studied the effect of boracic acid in the manufacture of glass, and con-
clude that before long this material will be considered essential to
the best glass for optical purposes. They have formed the glasses
consisting of the borosilicate of potash and lime—of potash and zinc—
of potash and barytes—of soda and zinc. These borosilicates are re-
markable for their transparency and hardness.
OBITUARY.
He was educated at Harvard Universit
tion, he prosecuted his professional studies under the instruction of Dr.
George C. Shattuck, an eminent practitioner in this city, and was grad-
uated Doctor in Medicine on the 25th of August, 18
e was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences on the 14th of November, 1838.
In August, 1841, he received the degree of Master of Arts from
Harvard University.
e was one of the original members of the Boston Society of Natural
History, and filled successively the offices of Curator in Mineralogy
and of Recording Secretary for several years.
In October, 1844, he was married to Miss Eleanor Allen, daughter
of Frederic Allen, Esq., of Gardiner, Maine. —__ Sapa:
y was a successful practitioner of medicine, and occupied his
d in the cultivation of the
Szcoyn Serres, Vol. LX, No. 26.—March, 1850. 39
306 Bibliography.
His moral character was held in the highest estimation by all who
knew him. It wa a SONNE by integrity, kindness, courtesy, and a high
sense of truth and hap
His admiration of x ttue and beautiful in science, literature and the
u
his indignation. Independent in his character, and relying on his own
acute perceptions of truth, he cared tate ~ the authority of others,
e was satisfied that they were i
devotion to the cause of science and of truth.
V. BipLtiocRAPHy.
Bee of — sin, — inci — of a portion ms the Kickapoo
0 Je of
-D P.
vo, with numerous lithographs and geological sections.—This valua-
ble document is occupied by the Reports of Dr. Owen, and his assistant,
along the Mississippi ; and second, the interior and Lake Superior dis-
tricis. The results, though only preliminary to a complete survey, are
of great interest, both geologically and economically, as is true of what-
on: are full of life and character. We cite the following facts.
1e Kickapoo mines are situated between the Macnee and Kicka-
seis are connected with a magnesian limestone of the same charac-
ter with that of the Mineral Point district, The ore is a peculiar one.
It is of a light green color, waxy lustre and fracture, and we brittle,
n
stone ; but by decaying and rake itiosaien the wall on one side
opper
ith ‘regard to tbe physical features of the country of the Lower
Magnesian Limestone, Dr. Owen observes :—‘t ‘The con cat theme of
remark, pe ale a in the zee of. ny nn hi ssippi occur”
pied t ower magnesian limeston s the sbi character
of the Se e, and especially the siking simian which the rock
exposure presents to that of ruined structure:
dys
Bibliography. 307
“The scenery on the Rhine, with its castellated heights, has been
the frequent theme of remark and admiration by European travellers.
Yet it is doubtful whether it is not equalled in actual beauty of land-
Scape, by that of some of the streams that water this region of the far
west. It is certain that though the rock formations essentially differ,
nature has here fashioned, on an extensive scale, and in advance of all
civilization, remarkable and curious counterparts to the artificial land-
Scape which has given celebrity to that part of the European continent.
“The features of the scenery are not, indeed, of the lofiiest and most
impressive character. There are no elevated peaks, rising in majestic
grandeur; no mountain torrents, shrouded in foam and chafing in their
rocky channels; no deep and narrow valleys hemmed in on every side
ges giving exit to pent up waters; no contorted and twisted strata,
affurding evidence of gigantic uplift and violent throes. But the fea-
tures of the scene, though less grand and bold than those of mountain-
ous regions, are yet impressive and strongly marked. We find the
luxuriant sward, clothing the hill slope even down to the water’s edge.
Crosses it, broken up into a small romantic cascade. have clumps
of trees, disposed with an effect that might baffle the landscape gard-
ener g the grassy height, now dotting the green slope with
ock
summits around. This latter feature especialiy aids the delusion; for
the peculiar aspect of the exposed limestone and its manner of weath-
ering cause it to assume a resemblance somewhat fantastic indeed, but
yet wonderfully close and faithful, to the dilapidated wall, with its crown-
ing parapet and its projecting butresses and its flanking towers, and
even the lesser details that mark the fortress of olden time.
‘* Bold exposures of rock, with a grassy bank beneath, such as are
represented by the sketches, are, for the most part, only on the south
and western sides of the hills; the northern and eastern declivities
are more rounded and most generally overgrown with trees and
Shrubberv,” LO i
2. The races of Man and their Geographical Distribution ; by
Cuartes Picxertnc, M.D., of the Scientific Corps of the Exploring
308 _ Bibliography.
Expedition under C. Wilkes, U.S.N., Commander ; forming volume IX.
of the Reports of the Expedition. 450 pp. 4to.—This volume is the
result of a vast amount of research by one peculiarly well fitted for
observation by his habitual accuracy and his experience as a Naturalist.
r. Pickering, after four years exploration in the Expedition around the
world, made a journey to Egypt, Persia and Hindoostan to complete
his observations. The range of the work will be gathered from the
subjects of the chapters which we here mention. 1. On the Races of
n; 2. Explanation of the Map, illustrating their distribution ; 3. the
Races of America; 4. the Malayan Race, including the Polynesian ;
5. the Australian Race; 6. the Papuan, including the Feejees; 7. the
Negrillo Race of the East Indies, New Hebrides, &c.; 8. the Telingan
or Indian Race in Hindoostan, &c.; 9. the Negro Race, Africa; 10.
the Ethiopian Race, Nubia, &c.; 11. the Hottentot Race; 12. the
Abyssinian Race; 13. the White or Arabian Race; 14. the Associa-
tions of the Races and Numerical Proportions; 15. Relations between
the Races; 16. The Geographical Progress of Knowledge; 17, 18.
Migrations by sea and by land; 19. Origin of Agriculture ; 20. Zoolog-
ical deductions; 21 to 24. Introduced Animals and Plants of America—
of the Islands of the Pacific—of Equatorial Africa—of Southern Arabia;
5. Antiquities and introduced Plants and Animals of Hindoostan ; 26.
Introduced Plants and Animals of Egypt, enumerated in chronological
often mistranslated in our Lexicons, and which in some cases were mis-
un ood by the translators of the Bible.
3. Elements of Natural Philosophy, designed as a Text-Book for
Academies, High Schools and Colleges ; by ALonzo Gray, A.M., Prof.
Chem. and Nat. Phil. in the Brooklyn Female Academy, and Author of
Elements of Chemistry, &c. 406 pp. 12mo, with 360 wood-cuts.
ork. Harper & Brothers. 1850.—The author of the work be-
fore us has prepared a very convenient and well arranged work on the
different departments of Natural Philosophy. He has condensed a
widely extended subject into a small compass well fitted for the stu-
he work commences with the general properties of matter,
and the forces which govern it, and then passes to the subject of motion,
the mechanical powers, hydrodynamics, pneumatics including meteor-
ology, sound, heat, steam, electricity, galvanism, magnetism and light
or optics. Galvanism is here in its right place with other branches of
physics.
Bibliography. 309
5. The Plough, the Loom and the Anvil; T. S. Sxuvner, Editor.—
This monthly periodical of practical and economical science, comes to
mon
United States, and is by H. C. Carey. It surveys the products of the
country in these different departments with much valuable statistical
detail, stating in tables the productions for successive years, of iron, coal,
lead, woollens, &c., &c., and also illustrating the same by means of
diagrams ; and exhibiting a wide comprehension of the interests of the
Country in its various economical departments. Cotton Mills by Cotton
Growers, Irish Peat, Charcoal and Sanitary Reform, are the subjects
of other papers; and besides these, there are many shorter articles of -
Practical value to the farmer and mechanic.
6. Iconographic Encyclopedia of Science, Literature and Art; by
G. Heck, translated and edited by Prof. Spencer F. Bairp.-—Rudolph
Garrigue, New York.—The plates of Part V. of this Encyclopedia,
the last which has reached us; are devoted to iliustrations of the de-
partments of Reptiles and Birds. The sketches are forcible and char-
acteristic, illustrating the habits and haunts of the animals as well as
orms.
7. Foster’s Geological Chart.—It has been represented to us that
the Geological Chart noticed in our last number had not been finished,
—although the copy received was varnished and mounted in the usual
finished style ; and that therefore it was not a fair subject for criticism.
A revise copy, as now ready for publication, having the signatures of
Professors E. Emmons and V as been shown us by the
author. It has undergone important changes, though not all we should
Wish to see made. Figures of American fossils have been substituted
to a considerable extent for foreign ; misplaced fossils in the formations
and the succession of rocks have been set right, and the names of the
New York series of Rocks have been introduced,—together with the
Taconic formation of Professor Emmons.
8. The Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year Book of Facts in
¥
310 Bibliography.
Heliocentric place of Neptune, by George W. Coaklay.—Note on
the parallelogram of Forces, by Prof. Peirce—On the orbit of the
Great Comet of 1843, by Prof. J. S. Hubbard, (continued).—Devel-
opment ts the Perturbative Function of Planet tary Motion, by Prof.
B. Peir
10. Pout! of the Academy of Natural Sciences o Philadelphia.—
ew
Part IV, which is just issued, completes the Ist volume of the n
series in ~ (PP 356.) We give here the contents of the volume.
art I. . 1847.—1. Roser W. Gisse es, M.D., on the fossil ge-
nus y lbatii Harlan, (Zeuglodon, Owen,) with a notice of speci-
mens from the Eocene Green Sand of South Carolina
2. M. Tuomey, State — of South Carolina.—Notice of the
discovery of a Cranium of the Zeuglodon, (Basilosaurus.)
3. Richarp Owen, Esq. Wan bservations on certain fossil
bones from the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Too
. Joun Cassin.—Description of a new rapacious Bird in the Museum
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of ‘Philadelphia
Wivviam GamBet.—Remarks on 8 Birds obsetved in Upper
California, with descriptions of New Spe
erpy, M.D.—(1.) History me ae of the Hemipte-
rous Genus Belostoma. (2.) Miscellanea Zoolo gic
7. J. L. Le Conte, M.D.—Fragmenta Bricesaiesie.
Part Il, August, 1848.—8. S. S. Harpeman.—Descriptions of North
American Coleoptera, chiefly i in Cabinet of J. L. Le Conte, M.D.,
with reference to described speci
. T. A. Conran. nt Giiereilies on the Eocene formation, and de-
scriptions oF one hundred and five new fossils of that period, from the
vicinity of Vicksburg, Mississippi ; i an Appendix.
Joun Cassin.— — Description of a new Buceros, and a notice of
=
oun Cassin pista of aecava new species of the genus
Icterus, (Briss.,) specimens of which are in the Museum of the Acad-
emy of Natural — of Philadelphia.
12. Rosert W. Gisses, M.D.—Monograph of the Fossil Squalide
of the United States
13. Tomas Norrat. —Descriptions of Plants collected by William
Gambel, M.D., in the Rocky og ene: and Upper California.
Part It. August, 1849. 14. Rosert W. Gispes. — Monograph of
= Spe Squalide of the United ae
j' ONRAD.—Descriptions of New Fossil and Recent Shells
of ihe United States.
16. 'T. A. Conrap.—Notes on Shells, with descriptions of new Gen-
era and Species.
17. Witcbise Gamset, M.D.—Remarks on the Birds of Upper Cali-
fornia, with Pore no: of new species
18. Samuet Georce Morron, M M.D.—Additional Observations on &
new Sites species of Hippopotamus.
nN Cas
_ 19. Joun Cassix.—Descriptions of new species of Birds of the
genera
he Cuvier, Euplectes, Swainson, and Pyrenestes, Swainson,
Bibliography. 311
‘specimens of which are in the collection of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia.
8. S. Harpeman.—Cryptocephalinarum Boreali-americe diag-
noses cum speciebus novis musci lecontiani
HARLES D. Mees, M.D.—Observations on the Reproductive
Organs, and on the Fetus of the Delphinus Nesarnak.
_ Part IV. January, 1850. 22. T, A. Conrav.—Description of new
Fresh Water and Marine Shells.
3. Spencer F. Bairp, Carlisle, Pa—Revision of the North Ameri-
can Tailed-Batrachia, with descriptions of new genera and species.
24. —Descriptions of new species of the Genera Mi-
crastur, G. R. Gray, Tanagra, Linn., and Sycobius, Vieill.
25. Rozert W. Gisses, M.D.—New species of Myliobates from the
Eocene of South Carolina, with other genera not heretofore observed
in the United States. ;
Joserpn Leipy, M.D.—Descriptions of two species of Distoma,
with the partial history of one of :
Joun L. Le Contre, M.D.—An attempt to classify the Longicorn
Coleoptera of the part of America north of Mexico.
11. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, New
Series, vol iv, Part I, 220 pp., 4to, with twenty-six plates. Cambridge.
1849. The following are the titles of the papers berein contained.
Gray, M.D.—Plante Fendleriane Novi-Mexicane : An Ac-
count of a Collection of plants made chiefly in the Vicinity of Santa
*é, New Mexico, by Avcustus Fenpter; with Descriptions of the
New Species, &c. ;
2. Cuartes Henry Davts, A.M., U.S.N.—Upon the Geological Ac-
tion of the Tidal and other Currents of the Ocean. (With three
lates.)
3. S. S. Harpeman, A.M.—History and Transformations of Cory-
dalus’cornutus. (With a Plate.) P
_ 4. Josep Letpy, M.D.—Internal Anatomy of Corydalus cornutus,
In its three stages of existence. (With two Plates.)
Wituiam 8. Suttivant, A.M.—Contributions to the Bryology and
Hepaticology of North America. . Part II. (With five Plates.)
6. Wittiam Crancu Bonn, A.M.—Description of the Observatory
at Cambridge, Massachusetts. (With six Plates.
7. Georce P. Bonp.—On some Applications of the Method of Me-
chanical Quadratures.
8. James Deane, M.D.—lIllustrations of Fossil Footprints of the
Valley of the Connecticut. (With nine Plates. ;
The plates are of the first order of excellence. Those illustrating
the transformations and anatomy of the Corydalus cornutus are of un-
rivalled delicacy, and the dissections by Mr. Leidy, who is distinguished
for his skill in microscopic anatomy, are no where surpassed,
plates of fossil footprints by Mr. Deane are ina good style of lithog-
raphy, and accurately represent the character of the impressions.
author figures some new species but without giving names. The article
isan interesting sequel, if we tay so consider it, to Pres. Hitchcock’s
elaborate paper in the preceding volume.
312 Bibliography.
. Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. V1, No. 1.—The fol-
vite 3 is a list of the memoirs in this number:
I> Bi Desor. Embryology of Nemertes and Embryonic Develop-
._M. Hentz. Araneides of the United States, with cer
Ill. J. D. Wuirney. Chemical Examination of some Minerals. —
IV. J.D. Wuirney. Examination of the Arkansite, Schiorltiils
and Ozarkite of Shepard.
. 8, L. Bicetow, M.D. Habits of Salmo fontinalis
VI. W.O. Ayres. Deseription of a new genus of ‘Fishes, Mala-
costeus.
Vil. J. L. Le Conte, M.D. On the Pselaphide of the United States.
VII. Samvet Kneetanp, Jr. Dissection of Crocodilus lucius.
IX. T.S. Hunt. Chemical eset of the new mineral Alger-
ite, with a sels Sip by F.
ae rR. Examination of a + Happit re from Cherokee Co., Georgia.
XI. Jerrriges Wyman, M.D, On the Cancellated Structure of the
Bones of ibe Human Body.
+
Smirusonian Contrisutions to Kyowrepcr.—Occultations visible in the yaa
States during the year 1850. Computed by John Downes. 26 pp. 4to. Washing-
Pror. Bett: A History #; zee Reptiles, 2nd edition, with 50 wood engrav-
ings. 8vo. London, 1849.
L. L. Boscawen Ipperson Rois otes on the Geology and Chemical Composition of
the various strata of af Tele of Wight, with a map in relief colored geologically. -
6
8yo. —— 1849. 8. 6d.
Pror. 9 pega as - ny Ae apse of Procreating In-
avid Ras a single Ovum
E. Kxox: Ornitho ological Rambles in Rae ith 4 lithographs. Post 8vo.
Loniton, 1849. os 6d.
E. Forpes and 8. Hayter: A History of — Mollusca; parts 18 to 24. 8vo.
London. 2x. = — royal 8vo, colored,
H. bees A Synonymic list of Dit seas tera. aoe rast 1849. 2s.
QUARTERLY Jorn AL OF THE GEOLOGICA it es urnal is o¢cu-
pied with a memoir by Murchison on t ‘ Se. ve ennines oc Carpathians, 160
: es. No i ire re; on
a
; J. Thomson.—88. On the
impressions on the Eye and other Wosaaaue of V ision ; . Swan
AKERSTOUN MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL Ossunvarions yon: 1845 and 1846.
420 and Ixxii pages, 4to, wih ws Charts ; forming volume xix, ae 1, ll bei
Transactions of ibs th Royal Society of eainburgh ve by John Allan
Esq., director of the Observatory of Edinburgh.
fe
9 Plate Scrap in the Manufactar e Tron, by E.
Anisole, eh Ether, and ulmanos cited from them, by
n Ne w « York, by Dr. eb s
988.—A list of the Minerals associated with the Emery of Asia Minor, by
Sa te Sek me ae Degradation of the Rocks at eer South _—
Zo tes, ty nes. Dawa, 294.—A new gennsof Or
the genus
Astrea, , by Sanne D. pinta
ie
The nett No. of this Journal will be published on the first of May.
CONTENTS.
% ; Page.
On the ee ; by Prof. J. Locka - -« 153
‘he eee of Trap dikes: in ran” ie alge an evi-
bs 158 |
oe es, of f North Asiatic: by der.
Be EXKELEY, of — and Rey. M. A. Curtis, of
South Carolina, = - ae
X. Connection between the Riseale weight ‘tail thé shies . on
and chemical properties of Barium, Strontium, Calcium and . 9
Magnesium, and some of their a : by Professor eg
E. N. Horsrorp, 176 :
XXI. On the American ela Meridian : ; by Prof "J Teen 184
XXII. On Perfect Musical Intonation, and the fundamental Laws
of Music on which it depends ; with remarks showing the —
areas of attaining this Perfect Intonation in the Or-
gan; by Henry Warp Poot, - - 199
| XXL On the new American Mineral, Piseaenic ; by Pro-
fessor B. Sizuiman, Jr., - ‘ é ‘ 16
XXIV. Table of Atomic Weights, -- . - 21
XV. On the Isomorphism and Atomic Volare of some . Min-
étals; by James D. Dana, — - - 20
XXVI., _ Observations on the Size of the ‘Brain j in various "Races
and sao of Man ; by Samvet Geonrce MorronyM.D., 246
XXVIL. Remarks on he. Aneroid Barometer ; Py Professor ee,
J. Loverine of Harvard University, : 249
XXVUUI. An account of some Fossil Bones found in Vern ia in
ee excavations for the Rutland and rea Rail-
; by Zapock THompson, _ 256
XNIK. Rohe of a Meteorological Sauce one at Maxie, 3
Ohio, for the year 1849, by S. P. Hinprern, M_D., = 264
XXX. Chemical Examinations moe Waiters of some of ihe Min- ae
‘eral Springs of Canada, by T. S. Hunt, - + 266
SCIENTIFIC INT REESE SSE:
CONDUCTED BY
: : AND
JAMES D. DANA.
SECOND SERIES.
No. 27.—MAY, 1850.
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AMERICAN °
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.,}
Art. XXXI.—A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger, of
Nantucket ; by Wiuiam MrrcHety.
Mie Amone men of genius, those who have shared largely of natnre’s
gifis, and manifested a high order of intellect in reference to those
Inquiries which are hidden from ordinary minds, the late Walter
Folger of Nantucket, is entitled to a prominent rank. He was born
in the 6th month, (June,) 1765. His father, also named Walter,
was among the wealthier class of that day, and one of the first
who engaged in the manufacture of sperm candles, since become
So extensively the business of the place. He was descended from
Peter Folger, one of the earlier-settlers of the island, the maternal
grandfather of Franklin, and the poet whose memory the Doctor
80 fondly cherished. Walter, seuior, was much distinguished in
early life for mechanical and mathematical talent, and at a later
period when withdrawn from business, though eclipsed in every
department by his son, he was sure to be found wherever any
mechanical operation was in progress, that involved novelty of
art or excellence of execution. On his mother’s side the subject
Secoyp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 40
314 A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger.
woman, well read in scripture and not attached to any sect; but
in great reputation throughout the island for knowledge in mat-
ters of religion, and an oracle among them on that account, iso-
much that they would not do any thing without her advice and
consent therein.”
Although his family were numerous, the means of the father
@vere quite adequate to furnish his son with liberal instruction ;
but education in that day, was but lightly esteemed by the island-
ers, a state of things forming a striking contrast with the agree-
able circumstances of the present day, and his youth, with the
exception of a few weeks occasionally spent in very indifferent
schools, mostly tanght by females, was suffered to pass away
without that instruction which, with such materials to work
upon, would have been of so much value to science.
In these schools he soon comprehended all that was taught,
and spert most of his time in alternately assisting the pupils and
instructing the teachers. The first study, in those branches in
which he became distinguished, to which he directed his atten-
tion, was that of land surveying, in which, without the least per-
sonal assistance, he became exceedingly skillful. In the winter of
1782-3, he attended an evening school, in which he studied nav-
igation and gauging, and readily acquainted himself with these
bran ing of a mathematical character seemed ever to
present any difficulty to his mind. He mastered Algebya and
F luxions, without assistance, and while in his teens he read Eu-
clid, as he would read a narrative, no problem arresting his pro-
gress; and yet so little did he know of language, or of any thing
appertaining to it, that he had reached the years of manhood, as
he often confessed, before he knew the definition of the word
grammar. He afterwards accidentally met with an old volume
of La Lande’s large astronomical work, in the hands of a cast-
away sailor and purchased it, and to enable him to read it, he stud-
ied the French language, and with it the English, and was there-
fore able to read the French authors with ease. From this time
he applied himself with great assiduity to the principal depart-
ments of physical science. Asa practical mechanic and optician,
e had few superiors, and in his own town certainly no equal.
Every species of machinery on which he placed his eye, he seem-
ed at once to comprehend. During most of the year 1783, he
was afflicted with ill health, and much of the time confined to
his bed begging constantly for books, which seemed the only
needful opiate. There were few books at hand adapted to his
taste; but his father finally succeeded in obtaining for him @
work on Navigation, to which for the first time, was appended
Dr. Maskelyne’s method of obtaining the longitude at sea by
means of Junar distances. This delighted him, and at the age of
n, prostrated with sickness, he familiarized himself with
A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger. 315
the problem, and the engagement so diverted his mind from his
infirmities that he speedily regained his strength. He immedi-
ately applied all his influence to the encouragement of the use of
this method among his fellow-townsmen, then universally en-
gaged in the prosecution of whaling voyages. 'To numbers he
gave personal instruction, and the first American ship-master who
determined his longitude by lunar observations, is said to have
been one of his pupils.
Soon after this period, he busied his mind in designing a clock,
which, while answering the ordinary purposes of time-keeping,
should exhibit various phenomena connected with the solar and
unar motions. Having completed the plan, he submitted it to
his father, for whose judgment in mechanics he had the highest
regard, and receiving his sanction, he commenced the work at the
age of twenty-two, and devoting only his leisure amid other en-
gagements, finished it in the course of the second year. This
clock now stands in the family parlor a monument of mechanical
ingenuity ;—brown with age and now somewhat antiquated in its
appearance, it is still a wonder. Nothing but the glass which
covers its face, owes its construction to another hand, and its me-
chanical execution would be creditable to a professed workman.
But its chief excellence is in the phenomena which it exhibits.
The diurnal motion of the sun is represented by a circular metallic
plate, so adjusted that it is seen through a slit in the dial plate,
at a greater or less meridian altitude, as the declination changes ;
rising and setting as in nature, and changing the time in conform-
ity to the latitude, change of declination and equation on each
day, giving also through the entire day, the time of his rising
and setting and place in the ecliptic. ‘The moon is represented
by a spherule exhibited to the eye in the same manner; but by
having one hemisphere colored, and ocess much more
complicated, shows with great faithfulness, not only the rising,
Setting and sonthing of the moon, with the time of full sea at
Nantucket ; but also the chief phenomena dependent on the obli-
quity of the moon’s path to the ecliptic, and the revolution “
her nodes, such as the hunter’s and harvest moon, d&c.
these involve a motion of the works through a period of eighteen
years and two hundred and twenty-five days, and the wheel by
of that year, the formation of the ring occurring precisely at sun-
rise ; but these he never published.
316 A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger.
In concert with several observers on the continent, among
whom were Bowditch and Jefferson, he made special preparation,
to observe the beginning and end of the solar eclipse of 1806,
total in Boston and nearly so at Nantucket. 'The day was cloud-
less and the results satisfactory.
Probably the most valuable observations that he ever made
were those on the comet of 1807—the first comet he had ever
seen. On the first appearance of this body, he commenced tak-
ing a series of angular distances to the various fixed stars near
which it passed. Then angles were taken with a sextant, in the
use of which he was very skillful. Having been in the habit for
many years of adjusting this instrument for the seamen of his na-
tive town, no one could use it more dexterously. His application
to this work, as to every undertaking, was unremitting; he fol-
lowed it through the whole period of its visibility, and in the lat-
ter part of autumn, while the comet was circumpolar, by obtain-
ing angles through the whole night above and below the pole, he
was able to detect its parallax, as well as its motion and position.
These observations were never published, and it now may
well doubted whether a vestige of his notes remain, the labor
having been performed chiefly for his own gratification. ‘The
great comet of 1811 did not escape his attention, and his observa-
tions met with a better fate. He was induced to publish them
in detail, and they were so numerous that the angles alone, when
reduced, occupied an entire page of a Boston newspaper. With
his expertness in the use of the sextaut, and the sharp nucleus of
that beautiful comet, his results were exceedingly accurate, and
were so esteemed by Dr. Bowditch who used them in calculating
its elements.
In earlier life he had constructed a number of small telescopes ;
but at the age of fifty-four he undertook the construction of a re-
flector of considerable size, and finished it in the succeeding year.
This telescope is a Gregorian, the larger speculum is five inches,
and the smaller, one inch in diameter. Its focal length is five
feet, with one eye-piece magnifying not less than three hundred.
It is not mounted equatorially, nor has it any arrangement for’
measures; but it is furnished with rack work for slow azimuth and
altitude movement. The stand is of oak and has four legs on the
plan recommended by the elder Tulley, and it is exceedingly
steady— illustrating the advantage of this method for firmness no
less than safety. ‘The tube is of sheet iron and very neatly fin-
ished. The stand, which was made by his son, is the only part
which was not formed by his own hands. In grinding the large
speculum he dispensed entirely with the bed of hones, using the
grinding powder after it was worn very fine on the pewter tool.
In reference to its figure, there is doubt whether its curve is pat-
abolic. He objected to that form and demonstrated that it is not
a OeEEEeEeEeEeEeEeeee
&
A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger. 317
the best except for objects whose distance is infinite. When the
specula were finished, they were placed for trial in a rude tube of
deal board mounted on a temporary support and directed to the
planet Jupiter; and whatever may have been its subsequent per-
formances, which were certainly no better than what might have
been anticipated,—in this first trial its performance was astonish-
ing. For light, distinctness of vision, and clearness of outline, it
is scarcely surpassed by the larger and far more expensive instru-
ments of the present day. While in this tube and with this tem-
porary adjustment, he viewed the moon under favorable circum-
Stances of weather, three days after the change, and detected that
delicate thread of corpuscular light which was seen by Schréter
in the early part of the year 1792 with a reflector of nearly the
same size, and he described it almost in the words of the German
astronomer, though he had never seen the paper of Schréter and
knew nothing of the discovery. When the telescope was com-
pleted and mounted, his neighbors thronged his house to obtain
a sight of the moon or other celestial objects, and although a se-
vere tax upon him, he at all times gratified their wishes with the
most enduring patience.
a the occasion of the return of the Encke comet in 1829,
when the theory of Encke was so strikingly verified, he became
interested in the subject of a resisting medium, and for his own
Satisfaction constructed a set of tables for the determination of the
place of the comet for any period past or future within the limit
of a thousand years. ‘The labor in the construction of these ta-
bles was immense ; but with his usual untiring zeal and applica-
tion, he accomplished it, before the comet was beyond the reach
of the telescope. The figures made in this work were so numer-
ous that he often exhibited the sheets containing the rough com-
putations asa curiosity. ‘These tables he always declined pub-
lishing though often solicited to do so, and they remain to t
y among the fragments of his industry. a
He kept for many years a meteorological journal, using a ba-
rometer and thermometer of his own construction, both o which
were remarkable for their accuracy. Indeed he was never satis-
fied with the use of any instruments unless he was entirely confi-
dent of their utmost aceuracy, and to be certain of this, he was
compelled to form them with his own hand. In the prosecution
of his meteorological inquiries he convinced himself of the truth
of the gyratory theory of d and defended it with energy.
In the more vigorous period of his life, he was a contributor to the
mathematical periodicals of the day, solving the more difficult
problems and proposing others. Among his correspondents in
Science, were Doctors Bowditch, Prince aud Oliver, and President
elferson.
318 A brief Memoir of the late Walter Folger.
Having at different periods engaged in the study of the law
and acted some years as an attorney, he received the appointment
He interested himself also in the politics of the day; was a
member of the legislature of his native state several years during
the period of the most rabid party divisions. As in science so in
politics, he was a friend of Jefferson, and belonged to the old
democratic party, and was twice elected to Congress. While at
Washington he was not unmindful of his favorite themes, and it
was proverbial among his colleagues, that in the recess of the sit-
tings or when his seat was vacant, he could always be found at
the Patent Office.
While his conscientiousness was a sufficient guaranty that no
item of duty would for a moment, under any circumstances, be
neglected, we are not among those who believe that the square
and dividers are adapted to political purposes, however desirable a
measure of the exact may be in the government of men and
policy of the state; andthe history of La Place is not the only
comment upon this philosophy.
Folger than to comment upon his moral qualities. In reference
to the latter, however, much might be said of his rigid virtnes
aud abstemious habits; and although like Count Rumfo' _ he
seemed at times soured and disappointed that men did not col
duct themselves more in conformity with his own exact views,
et it was easy amid all this to perceive traces of good and be-
nevolent impulses. He died on the 8th of the 9th month, 1849,
at the age of 84. ;
&
Application of Photography, &¢. 319
Art, XXXII.—On the Application of Photography to the Self-
registration of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments ;
by Captain J. H. Lerroy, R.A., F.R.S., Director H. M. Magnet-
ical and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto, Canada.
Tue successful application of the principle of self-registration
y means of the action of light upon sensitive paper, or upon
silvered plates, to observations in magnetism and meteorology
by
may be instanced as one of the most important indirect results of
Magnetism, more particularly, it has been brought to perfection
at a peculiarly appropriate time. From eight to ten years of la
observations upon all magnetical disturbances detec d, and of term
days designed to detect them but on which they seem to have
made it a point not to occur; in spite of the extraordinary pa-
hence of Colonel Boileau in observing at Simla, not every hour,
but every fifteen. minutes, and of the perseverance with which
Ur. Bache, at Philadelphia, multiplied his observations at the crit-
ical hours of each of the elements, in spite, in short, of all the
efforts which have been made to obtain a full knowledge of the
fluctuations of these most inconstant objects, it cannot be doubt-
ed that by far the greater, and perhaps the more instructive por-
tion of all their changes, eluded the vigilance of the observers.
In this state of things, therefore, a method which secures a minute
and continuous graphieal record of every change, and which
can be put in practice with comparatively little difficulty or ex-
pense, is an acquisition to the science, seco perhaps only to
the invention by Gauss and Lloyd of the instrumental means
upon which its previous rapid progress has been so largely based.
The following description of the Photographical Instrument of
Mr. Brooke, is. based principally upon that gentleman’s communi-
320 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
cation to the Royal Society in 1847,* and the advice and instruc-
tions with which the writer has been favored by him from
time to time, in the establishment of one at Toronto. The vari-
ous changes in detail which have been suggested by experience
since the date of the paper referred to, and the possibility that
the present communication may promote the establishment of
other registers on this continent, will afford, it is hoped, a sufficient
apology for its want of originality.
“In order to render any method of photographic registration
practically useful, it is essential that the three following indica-
tions should be fu
“First, to obtain an easily managed artificial light of sufficient
intensity to affect photographic paper, especially at those periods
when it is of most consequence to obtain a continuous register,
namely, when the position of the magnet is undergoing great and
rapid variations.
‘Secondly, to prepare by a ready process a photographic paper
sufficiently sensitive to receive the feeble impressions of artificial
light, and at the same time sufficiently durable to retain those
impressions during a period of at least twelve hours, as a more
frequent attention to the apparatus would probably interfere with
the ordinary arrangements of an observatory.
“Thirdly, to magnify the movements of the magnet by some
optical arrangement, so that the variations may be indicated with
sufficient minuteness and accuracy.”
The union of the three conditions is represented by a suspended
of the fluid, and is calculated, with perfectly good camphine, to
burn twelve hours without requiring attention—in general it will
be necessary to attend to it every six hours, by cutting off the
charred end of the wick and refilling. A circular opening about
1-2 inch in diameter is made at the top near the centre of the
side which is presented in front, this is stopped with a bone or
ag ai aed
* “Description of an a tus for the Automatic Registration of Magnetometers
and other Metoortiagiaat tents by Photoiraphy.” By Charles Brooke, MB.,
F.R.S., &. Philos, Trans. 1847.
_to slide in a groove
light, the burner is
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 321
ivory disk, and through the latter passes, by a narrow ent, made
for the purpose, the burner or support for the wick, which is flat,
half an inch wide and one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Com-
mou ball cotton may be used for the wick, by drawing as many
lengths through the burner as fill it closely, but not tightly. A
movable ring or collar with a set screw, allows the burner to be
fixed at any required height, while, the stopper being movable,
it can also be turned to form any required angle with the face of
the lamp. Let us then suppose the lamp to be placed behind a
Screen containing a
harrow vertical slit
through which the
light is to pass, and
So as to be always
presented in precise-
y the same _posi-
tion; let us suppose
so the screen in
question to be fixed
supports the lamp.
0 begin, then, with
the regulation of the
first to be fixed at
such a height that
the top of the wick a. Lamps and chimney.—. Ring placed under the chim-
shall be exactly lev- ney to cut off strong light.—e. Section of lamps, shewing the
el with the bottom burner (e) and the diaphragm in the chimney.
of MM slit; it is then to be turned in azimuth so as to be pre-
sented edzewise at an angle of about 80° with the screen, or
at such an angle as to give a cone of rays very slightly wider
than the mirror. The support of the chimney of the lamp is
then to be applied, and its height regulated so that the dia-
phragm by which the combustion is promoted, sha be about —
0:10 inch below the top of the wick. Lastly, the chimney is
added to the support, and the adjustments of the lamp are com-
pleted by applying the short cylindrical shade which fits under
the legs of the chimney, and prevents all lateral diffusion of
the light. ‘The employment of camphine, although desirable on
grounds of economy, as well as for the brilliancy and whiteness
of its light, is atteuded with serious inconveniences. The fluid
deteriorates very rapidly at summer temperatures ‘by the absorp-
tion of oxygen, which converts a portion of the camphine into
resin, which is held in solution in the remainder, and is deposited
on the wick,’ in fact it becomes perfectly useless ; unless, therefore,
Srconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 41
322 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
the position of the observer enables him to procure constantly,
fresh supplies of newly distilled fluid, he must expect trouble
from this source. It has more than once happened that the resin
about the wick and surface of the lamp has conducted the flame
to the whole body of the camphine, which then burns with vio-
lence, but this ought not to occur if the lamp is kept clean ; a
more common inconvenience is its smoking, which occurs when
the wick is too long, or the burner too high or too low relatively
to the fixed diaphragm; great nicety is required in these points;
but with bad camphine the utmost care can scarcely give security
from the annoyance. Upon these grounds, Mr. Brooke, as already
remarked, has recently turned his attention to devising a substi- _
tute, and by heightening the sensibility of the paper, has succeed-
ed in producing good results with oil lamps. Gas, it is believed,
has not been tried; where at command, it will probably prove
by far the most convenient and effectual source of light.
The paper at present used for the register is prepared expressly
for the purpose, the pulp being carefully freed from acid, alkaline,
or saline substances. Where this cannot be procured, it should
be the best highly glazed paper, not recently made, of the ordinary
letter size before doubling, free from lime and other impurities, and
of fine fibre. A r called Whatman’s yellow wove folio post
procurable from importers in Canada, and bearing the date 1842,
been found to answer remarkably well. It is prepared as
follows.
(1.) Dissolve five grains of fine isinglass in one fluid ounce of
distilled water; the water should be poured boiling on the isin-
glass, and then set before the fire, and stirred occasionally until
the latter is dissolved ;_ perhaps this will require ten or fifteen min-
utes. Asa portion is lost by evaporation, and afterwards in filter-
ing, It Is convenient to increase the quantity of both by one half,
that is, to take an ounce and a half of water, and seven or eight
grains of isinglass: while this is dissolving, weigh out twelve
grains of the bromid and eight of the iodid of potassium, put
both salts into a deep glass, such as a large wine glass. Extreme
nicety in the quantities is not required, the effects having been
the bromid, and from two to eight grains of the iodid. ‘The
isinglass being sufficiently dissolved, filter one fluid ounce
quantity on the salts, through white blotting paper or filtering
paper. . The salts may be stirred with a glass stick, and the solu-
tion then set aside until cold.
inches long, by four and three-quarters wide: if two os
vin
marked one side, for distinction secure the paper, with the un-
marked side upwards, by a pin at each comer, toa clear pine
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 323
board, rather larger than itself, and with a soft wide camel’s hair
brush kept exclusively for this purpose, apply the above solution
uniformly and somewhat sparingly to its surface, taking care not
to leave on it enough to run when the board is held to the fire, in
which case yellow stains will be produced in consequence of a
determination of the sulphuret of silver to parts which were too
much wetted. Hold the paper on the board promptly to the
fire so as to dry the solution uniformly and rapidly, and leave
the salts very much on the surface ; care must be taken not to
scorch the paper. In brushing the paper, in this, as in all subse-
quent processes, it is well to take pains not to allow any of it to
run over the edge, to the reverse side, where it leaves unsightly
Stains. Paper thus prepared, is not affected by light, and will
keep a considerable length of time, but as it performs best when
fresh, the inventor recommends the preparation of ouly a week’s
supply at once. An ounce of solution is sufficient for twelve or
fifteen slips ; on one occasion a paper of three months old at To-
ronto, yielded a good curve, but in general they present neutral
patches to a greater or less extent, if kept too long.
The next step is to render the paper sensitive. For this pur-
pose, prepare another slip of wood; secure a slip of the prepared
paper to this, in the same way as before; exclude daylight, and
make use of a lantern glazed with red or yellow glass, then
pour into a capsule about a teaspoonful of the following solution.
_(2.) Dissolve fifty grains of nitrate of silver in one ounce of dis-
tilled water; apply it to the paper lightly and carefully, brushing
first longitudinally, then across ; it is scarcely necessary to say that
each solution must have its own brush, its own cup, and even its
Own cloth for drying the cup and brush.* The paper being uni-
water pressed out of it, by passing a glass rod or piece of tube two
or three times over it, with gentle pressure. (‘T’o avoid the contact
of organic matter with the prepared surface.) About half a tea-
Spoonful of the nitrate of silver solution is then poured on the paper,
* A small covered box having a place for each cup, each bottle, and each brush,
Will be found convenient. The cups should be further distinguishable by some differ-
ence of shape or color, and the brushes marked.
324 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
and the glass rod again passed lightly over it, which diffuses the
solution over it; after which it is applied to the cylinder as be-
fore; by this process the sensibility of the paper is said to be much
increased, and it keeps acleaner surface. ‘To present at one view
the different chemical processes, we will suppose the cylinder to
be now left to complete one revolution (of twelve hours) or two,
as the case may be, the paper has then to be removed, the impres-
sion to be developed, and then fixed. For this purpose a common
large dish is required, which should be placed before a fire until
moderately warm. Excluding daylight as before, remove the
cylinder carefully from its supports, take off the paper with as
little fingering as possible, and lay it on the dish; no indication
of the trace will be perceived, unless the disk be more than duly
heated, in this case the lines sometimes appear faintly without
farther treatment, but the paper darkens too much afterwards. It
has to be now brushed with
(3.) Twenty grains of crystallized gallic acid, dissolved in
one ounce of distilled water* when it appears in a minute or two.
When the impression is sufficiently distinct, which will generally
be in the space of five minutes, the gallic acid must be washed
off by repeated sluicings with soft water, assisted by a soft brush.
In a cold place, or with a cold dish, a longer time is required ; in
short the whole process seems to succeed best, like most photo-
graphic processes, at a high temperature, although the trace has
been developed at a temperature low enough to convert the solu-
tion into a film of ice. When the uncombined nitrate of silver
and gallic acid are thoroughly washed off, the light may be ad-
mitted without danger ; it then remains to fix the impression by
transferring the paper toa clean dish or board, and brushing it
with about one table spoonful of the usual solution, namely, .
(4) Twelve grains of hyposulphite of soda to one ounce of
distilled water. It will be observed that rather a larger quantity
of this solution is laid on the paper than of the previous ones.
If an insufficient quantity be applied, or it be not uniformly dis-
tributed, the paper is apt to acquire a dirty brown stain, in patches,
passing into black, which latter it ultimately becomes when no
hyposulphite is applied ; in this case, the margin of the previously
dark lines becomes the lightest portion ; after allowing the hypo-
sulphite a few minutes to act, it must be thoroughly washed off,
by repeated sluicings of water, assisted as before, with a soft brush,
otherwise it enters into a new combination which spoils the spe-
cimen: the paper may then be placed between the folds of clean
white blotting paper until dry, when the process is completed.
We may now return to the mechanical details. The mag-
net employed is about two feet long, one inch and a quarter
Pe sieNe apy a eth cael thialilinaa allie PT er
_* One ounce of water will not hold twenty grains of gallic acid in solution at or-
dinary temperatures; it: is necessary to dip the bottle in boiling water, or heat @
small of surcharged solution, in a test tube.
aK
a
7
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 325
wide, and a quarter of an inch in thickness: it is suspended with
the broad side vertical, in a brass stirrup carrying a divided circle
(a) by which the position of detorsion of the thread is made to
coincide with the meridian, and two keepers (4, b) capable of
of about sixteen inches focus; it can be set to any required height
on the stem (d) and be made to form any required angle with
the axis of the magnet. The whole suspended weight amounts
bly in different hygrometric states of the atmosphere, thereby disturbing the adjust-
ment of light sufficiently in some cases to make it ineffective. fine metallic
Suspension, as was originally used by M. Gauss, for his declinometer, if very long,
Would probably be preferable to silk.
326 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
nothing but extreme care, in cutting off every source of external
or mechanical agitation, will give security to them Mr. Brooke
has given a curious lithograph of a trace produced under extreme
“local disturbance,” namely, a quadrille party in the house ad-
joining, which is sufficient to shew that if the tremor communi-
cated from such sources does not altogether annul the magnetical
movements, it materially modifies them. It will also be found
necessary to adopt some means of rapidly reducing the natural
movements of the magnet, of which by far the best, is the applica-
tion of a heavy copper ring or damper, as shown in the preceding
diagram (f); if the bar * ce strongly magnetized, a fine wire
dipping into mercury may be attached to it, ‘but where the mag-
netism of the bar is feeble, or the horizontal component of the
force has a low value, this method seems objectionable.
We have already described the lamp. It will be seen that when
placed before the mirror an image of the vertical slit through
which the light passes will be formed in the conjugate focus:
this image being condensed to a point, by the intervention of a
lens of any kind, any angular movement of the magnet and mirror
will cause a movement of that point through a space equal to
twice the tangent of the angle, to radius the distance of the image
from the mirror; the trace can therefore be made upon any requir-
ed scale, by varying that distance. At 7 ft. 2 in. it will be 20’ to
Linch, at 9 ft. 64 in. it will be 15’, and at 11 ft. 11} in. it will be 12’
tol ary the Panes. to be selected must be determined by the
probable range of the element in ordinary magnetic disturbances,
for since very great ranges are of rare occurrence and seldom
more than momentary, it does not seem expedient to reduce the
scale sufficient to include them, at the sacrifice of cnmenees in
the more usual movements.* The scale at present in use at
* The width of the half sheet of paper is sufficient for a range of 40/ of declina-
tion and ‘008 of horizontal force, upon the largest scales likely, under any cireum-
stances, to be adopted, namely 10’ ae declination and -002 of horizontal force, to one
inch. It appears from observations at Toronto, from 1840 to 1849 inclusive, embrac-
ing altogether about s, and including 1 ions of rvations,
d that great ranges may be expected at that station in the llow
Range of Declination. Range of Horizontal Force.
Less than 40’ bk avis days.| Less than 008 . . 2974 days.
From 0° 40’ to 0°50’ , From ‘008 to ‘010 oe hes
0° 50’ to 1° 0 : : ‘OLO to OIE iy ven ke
1°0’ to 1°10/ he ‘015 to 020 a ate
1° 10’ to 1° 20/ q 020 to 025 9
° 20’ to 1° 30 2 025 to 030 i 3
1° 80’ to 1° 40/ 2 030 to 035 7
1° 40’ to 1°50 1 035 to ‘040 3
1° 50’ to 2° 0" 4 040 to 045 2
F< ee 6 045 to ‘050 1
8° st 4° 2 050 to -055 2
ore than 4° “ ue More than ‘055 11
On 211 of the term ‘i and bances, the of Seclinassoh fell within the
ve s Walls (GP ead OT oo tases the ac ntal force fell within the
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 327
ronto is 20’ to an inch, the light being thrown in such a Way as
to divide the space unequally, and allow the greatest range to the
east, the direction in which the principal movements occur.
The lamp is supported by a tripod stand about three feet high,
with an elevating lever for raising the. top, 3.
which consists of three distinct parts; the
lowest of these (a) turns in azimuth round
a pivot, the second ( b) slides by a slow mo-
tion screw, in a groove, on the face of the
first, the third (c) slides in like manner on
the second, but transversely: by these ar-
Tangements, first, the luminous slit can be
uare to a tripod s
Similar to that of the lamp, the feet of which should rest on a
solid support.
imi i isturbances in
limit allowed for that element. It is to be expected that many more distur’
proportion will be recorded by the ee ic process than were pte not
of the more extreme degrees, or such as to alter materially the above scale of relative
fir
"© The position of the stand for the lamp pe Be such that the cone of rays re-
i ite clear the chimney, w
flected from the mirror shall not qui imum is cut off by a screen slipped a little
centre of the cylinder, the chimney should
imilar segment on
328 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
The cylinder consists of an ordinary French glass shade, black-
ened on the inside, about fourteen and a half inches in cireumfer-
ence and ten inches high. One end is closed by a metal cap pro-
vided with a concentric axis, three inches long, a bent arm or
crank is attached to the axis ei4
by a set screw, and engages ;
with a slit in the hour hand
of the time piece, by which
the whole is made to revoive.
The weight of the cylinder is
borne upon five friction rollers
set in a light frame; two of
er size at the opposite end{ ,
of the frame, are sufficiently ©
separated for the body of the
cylinder to rest upon them,
near its hemispherical eid ;
the other is set horizontally, Cylinder and Copper case. _
and works against a small
brass plate at the base of the axis; the whole should be carefully
turned and truly pivoted. In the arrangement of the inventor,
after placing the paper on the cylinder as here described, a secon
cylinder very slightly larger is slipped over it, and retained in a
concentric position, by pressure upon a few coils of tape wound
round the capped end of the inner cylinder and kept wet; the
object is to protect the paper aud keep it damp, for which pur-
pose, also, a piece of wet lint is placed between the cylinders
at the point. An accident to the external cylinder led to the
adoption of a different plan at Toronto, which has been found so
convenient that the former one has not been reverted to.
fore darker; the paper may be applied, and removed with great
expedition, and without exposure to stains from contact with
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 329
wet edges of the external glass cylinder; lastly, we are enabled,
by the employment of the sliding screens described below,
make use of nearly the whole width of the paper for barometric
changes, instead of being restricted to about one-half of it. It
should be added that by making a shallow well in the fixed half
of the cylinder, a large surface of wet lint may be exposed imme-
diately under the paper, which is found to keep it damp enough
under all circumstances, even when the slits are open.
The barometer employed, isa syphon, “constructed with a
column of mercury of a little more than one inch in diameter. As
the weight of an entire column of this size would be inconven-
ient, and as it would be difficult to obtain a tube more than
three feet long of so large a bore, both ends of which were of the
same internal area, two adjacent short pieces of a very nearly cyl-
indrical tube, have been united to the extremities of a tube of small
bore, and form the ends of the instrument which contain the sur-
faces of the mercury,” thus shewing the variations of pressure by
an equal change of half the amount in either tube. These
changes are communicated to a long and slender index or lever
by means of a float, attached to a short arm at right angles to it,
both being centred on a light wheel of metal, carefully pivoted,
and both being counterpoised. The float actually employed is
the bulb of a mereury thermometer, the stem of which passes
through a cap adapted to the open end of the syphon, and is gnid-
ed by three small friction rollers.* A screen of card or very thin
metal, provided with a narrow slit exactly thirty inches frem
the centre of motion, is attached to the upper end of the long
index, covering an opening in the copper case of the cylinder; a
lamp being then fixed behind the screen, the pencil of light which
falls on the paper through the slit left for the purpese, will, it is
evident, follow every change in the position of the index, or of the
Surface of mercury in the syphon. A lens similar to that which
_ Is used to bring the elongated image of the slit reflected from the
mirror of the magnet to a point, is also nsed here to bring the
Image of a horizontal slit in a corresponding screen before this
lamp, to a focus on the paper. It forms a bright line across its
whole width, which is however intercepted by the barometer
Screen on one side, and by an independent screen on the other,
allowing to reach the paper, only the variable pencil passing
through the former and an invariable one, rpose of
tracing a base line through a fixed opening in the latter.
The tube of the barometer has a vertical movement, to allow
an adjustment of the level of the mercury at the foot of the sy-
phon, to the same horizontal plane, so that whatever be the pres-
* These have been generally dispensed with, at Toronto, and the end of the
Syphon left open : unless very truly turned, and perfectly centred, they are apt to
impede rather than assist the motion of the stem of the float.
Srconp Serms, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850.
330 Application of Photography to the Self-registering
sure at the time of commencing a trace, the long index is set ver-
tically. By varying the ratio of the lengths of the two levers we
may enlarge the scale of the trace to any extent; for this purpcse
there are distances marked on the short arm, corresponding to a
scale of three, four, and five times the actual change, and the axis
to which the arms are fixed can be moved nearer to, or further
from the float as required. The nature of the scale must in general
depend upon the probable extent of the barometric changes in
during the progress of the register. Not to interfere with the
magnetical curve, the barometer should be so placed as to form
its trace rather on one side of the paper, thus reducing the space
available in that direction to about one-third of its width; but by
a particular contrivance connected with the copper case already
described, we are enabled, without liability to exposure, to com-
mand nearly the entire width in the other direction. This con-
trivance consists of a set of twelve. narrow parallel ———
sliders, occupying in width about 14 inch, moving ver- a
tically in a frame attached to the upper half of the cyl- iiiliil
inder, and capable of being raised or lowered at pleas-
ure. At the commencement of a trace, we may suppose half of-
them to be raised; the remainder being down, the screen at the
top of the index completely excludes all other light from the pa-
per than the pencil passing through its own slit; but if the barom-
eter falls beyond a certain amount, the edge of the screen will at
length pass beyond the last slider, leaving a portion of the paper
fully exposed ; in sucha case, one or more sliders are put down:
if on the other hand the barometer rises to a certain amount, the
light will at length fall on the space covered by the sliders, and
it becomes necessary to raise some of them; in this way, the
black bands caused by the accidental exposure of the paper,
under extreme movements of the barometer, may be avoided.
The cylinder, with the two. fixed lenses, the time piece, an
the upper end of the barometer index, are all included under a
second or external case, provided with apertures for the admission
of the rays of light, and with a lid at the top to allow access to the
sliding screens of the barometer. The apertures are of the same
width as the fixed lenses, and each provided with double sliders
by which they can be contracted at pleasure ; that appropriated to
the magnetical trace is protected by a long rectangular tube, the
effect of which is so complete, that “uot the slightest difference
can be perceived on the paper whether bright daylight is freely
admitted into the room or wholly excluded.”
i mae.
WD ee
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 331
Every part of the apparatus from which light can be reflected,
directly or indirectly, to the paper, is carefully blackened.
have described the apparatus at some length, because with
the exception of the speculum, the cylinder itself, the time piece,
and the tube of the barometer, all of which must, at present, prob-
ably, be procured from Europe, there is nothing which an ingen-
ious mechanic might not execute at a small cost ; the fixed lenses
should perhaps be added ; but a simple substitute for them may be
found iu a well blown cylinder of thin glass filled with alcohol,
as was indeed employed by Mr. Brooke in his first instrament.
The more expensive leuses at present in use are manufactured by
Lerebours of Paris, and may be described as lenticular prisms
having a double convex section, but forming a flat bar, which is
from seven to eight inches long and one inch and a quarter wide
for the magnetical curve, and about five inches long for that of the
barometer and base line. Each lens is mounted on a light frame
which slides in a groove so as to admit of adjustment of focus.
The focus is rather improved by covering a portion of the margin
of the lens.
It is advisable on the first adjustment to bring the centre of the
mirror, of the cylinder, and of the slit before the lamp, into the
same horizontal plane, and to establish some marks for its recov-
ery in successive adjustments, as much of the perfection of the
focus depends upon this circumstance. If it is found that the
mirror when thus adjusted, throws the image of the slit too high,
or too low, its own inclination must be altered by introducing a
small wedge of cork behind it. Small derangements produced
Y spontaneous alterations in the length of the suspension silk
may be corrected by raising or lowering the lamp, and must be
carefully attended to.
tion of iodid of potassium employed, the object of which is, to in-
sure the permanence of the effect for the long period of twenty-four
hours, during which a part of it, at least, is to be maintained upon
332 Application of Photography to the Self-registration
the surface of the paper; when a less quantity of iodid is used,
the paper appears to have a neutral tint: in this case, the beginning
of the trace can sometimes be with difficulty developed. The
greatest care must be taken not only to prevent the least inter-
mixture of substances, and to confine each vessel, and each cloth,
as well as each brush strictly to one use, but also to wash all the
brushes very carefully in pure water after use, not only for their
preservation, but because the presence of deposit from old solu-
tions, even of the same kind, has an injurious effect.
A room of 12 x 15 feet is all that is absolutely needed for a sin-
gle instrument. It will be found very desirable to have a small
cistern of soft water in it, provided with a stop cock, and witha
sink and waste water pipe attached; the sink should have a lid
to allow the paper to be kept in darkness, when convenient, with-
out darkening the room: if to this we add two or three broad
shelves, or small tables and conveniences for washing the hands,
its equipment will be complete.
he future comparison of traces will be greatly facilitated if
they all include the same period of absolute time. Each register
at Toronto begins at 2U’ after 6° of Géttingen mean time, and
terminates at 6° 0@ of the following day, being nearly at Toronto
n.
“ A continuous registration of the variations of the thermome-
ter has been obtained by intercepting the focal line of light formed
on the paper, by the stem of a thermometer having a wide flat
bore, a sufficient quantity of light passes through the empty por-*
tion of the bore to darken the paper, but it is entirely excluded
from the portion occupied by the mercury. The register, there-
fore, consists of alight and dark space, separated by a well de-
fined boundary line the distance of which from the base line will
furnish the required indication. This particular application of the
apparatus, prefers no claim to novelty, as a very similar means of
registering the variations of the thermometer has been already
published, (Engineer’s Magazine, Nov., 1845,) and is here intro-
duced merely as forming a necessary part of a complete automa-
tic meteorological registration.”
Allusion has been made at the commencement of this article,
to the action of light upon silvered plates, as one of the modes 0
effecting the self-registration of magnetical instruments. The
apparatus referred to is the invention of Mr. Ronalds, and al-
though capable of employing either paper or metallic surfaces, 18
properly designed for the latter, and is essentially a daguerreoty pe-
An instrument on this principle was sent from England for the
agnetic Observatory in August last, but by accident to the ves-
sel, has not yet been received there, and cannot now be brought
into operation before June, 1850. It is intended to register the hor-
izontal force, and differs essentially in many respects from the ap-
scanned
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments. 333
or five feet. It acts therefore by refraction, instead of reflection.
The ray which passes through the screen is received upon a sil-
vered plate prepared by the common daguerreotype process, some-
what modified to adapt it toa slow and long continned action.
The plate is made to travel slowly before the light in a vertical
plane, by the action of a time piece: the distance of its surface
rom the centre of the magnet being about thirty-four inches, a
sufficiently large scale is allowed to render sensible very stall
movements of the horizontal force, provided a due degree of sen-
sibility is given to the balance of forces by which the magnet it-
Self is held in equilibrium. In other words, provided the ratio @
in the common notation, is made to approach nearly to unity. Mr.
Ronalds has succeeded, in the climate of London, in producing
effects by natural light so late as 8 p.m. in the s:mmer. For the
nocturnal portion of the curve a powerful argand lamp is employed.
_ The relative merits, in practice, of the two valuable and ingen-
1ous inventions now described, can scarcely be stated at present.
That of Mr. Brooke has probably the advantage in economy and
facility ; that of Mr. Ronalds will, it is expected, prove capable of
a higher degree of precision, and it offers a convenience of which
_the inventor has already availed himself. Any trace of unnsual
terest can at once be engraved on the plate, thus giving the ut-
Most possible accuracy and facility to graphical comparisons. It
1S Not intended however under ordinary circumstances to retain
the impressions, but after recording every particular of interest,
and tabulating the hourly or other ordinates, or taking a copy of
the traces, to clean them off and make use of the plate again as
long as the silvering lasts.
In conclusion the writer begs leave to add that shonld the fore-
S0ing account lead to the establishment of any instruments of the
kind, he will have pleasure in giving any further information in
is power in answer to personal enquiry. Without presenting
facsimiles, it is difficult to convey an idea of the interest attaching
to many of the movements which have been registered, but the
important information which such records are calculated to afford
as to the periodicity of certain movements, the nature and degree
of local anomalies in disturbances of the magnetical elements,
the effect of Aurora, and many other enquiries, will occur imme-
diately to any one interested in terrestrial magnetism, and it is
' hoped secure the adoption of a register upon one or the other
Principle, by more than one of the numerous scientific establish-
ments in the United States.
Toronto, January 21, 1850.
334 On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids,
FPostscript.—In the foregoing account of the instrument of Mr.
Brooke, it has been assumed that the arm of the cylinder is con-
nected directly with the hour hand of the time piece, making it
therefore revolve once in twelve hours. The effect of this arrange-
ment is, that when the paper is left on for twenty-four hours, we
have two traces, which sometimes intersect in such a manner, as
to make it difficult to distinguish to which revolution portions of
them are due. ~The writer has recently succeeded, by a very
simple arrangement, in making the cylinder revolve but once in
twenty hours, and thus remedying this inconvenience. ‘T'wo
small grooved wheels mounted on a light frame, one having a di-
ameter exactly double that of the other, are connected by a piece
of fine silk twist. ‘The smaller one being then connected with
the hour hand, by a crank, and the larger one with the cylinder,
it is evident that the object is effected.
is reduces the time scale to six-tenths of an inch for one
hour, which is fully equal to the scale that has been generally
adopted in the engraved diagrams of term day and other move-
ments, and is considered large enough for almost every purpose
to which diagrams can be applied, while it gives great facility to
comparisons, and a much more distinct representation of the di-
urnal curves.
Arr. XX XIIL.—Jnfluence of the known Laws of Motion on the
Expansion of Elustic Fluids ; by Eur W. Buaxe.
Tar under the controlling influence of the known laws of
motion, elastic fluids must expand according to some definite and
invariable law, is an obvious truth and one which has often been
recognized by mathematicians. But the determination of that
law isa problem which hitherto, it is believed, has not been
solved. There are many interesting points in mechanics and
physics, in relation to which the present state of knowledge 1s
imperfect, which depend for their correct and complete develop-
ment, in part at least, on a solution of this problem. It is there-
fore a poiut of some interest to science. It is our purpose in this
article to solve this problem ; and we shall do so by employing @
method similar in part to that employed in solving the problem
of the propagation of pulses in elastic media, ii ser., vol. v, p. 37;
of this Journal.
On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids. 335
When a finid passes by free expansion from one state of density
to another, we should naturally suppose that it must pass throngh
all the intermediate states of density that can be assigned between
the two. Such appears to have been the notion of every writer
who has made reference to this point; and at first view it would
seem absurd to suppose that the fact could be otherwise. But
such is not the way in which elastic fluids expand. On the con-
trary the parts of the fluid successively and instantaneously change
their density, to the extent of one half (when free to expand to
that extent) without passing into the intermediate states. As
vapor is thrown off from the surface of water in a tenuious state
ab initio, and without having first passed into those states 0
sity which are intermediate between the density of the water
and that of the vapor, so a column of rarefied fluid is thrown off
from the front of a denser column; each infinitesimal element of
the highest order of the denser column, being successively and
instantaneonsly transformed to the more rare state. And as the*
change of density is instantaneous, so likewise the entire velocity
due to that change is imparted instantaneously to each element
successively.
that we may be able to assign the precise state of the fluid, in
Sent both the density and the elastic force. The force D acts
during the first instant in every part of the column, and in every
direction; and therefore during that instant every part of the
column is kept in equilibrio except’ the first element. Conse-
of motion in the second element ; also that motion will not com-
mence in the second element until the density in front of it has
been to some extent reduced. Let the ratio in which it is re-
duced before motion begins in the second element be represented
336 On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids.
1 . ;
by 5, Then the density of the posterior part of the expanded
D
element at the end of the first instant is > ° Now for reasons
which will soon be apparent, all the other parts of the expanded
element, whatever may be their present state of density, may be
considered as having passed first into the density 7° But at the
D
same time that the grade =a began to form in front of the column,
that grade itself must have begun to expand again in the same
ratio, forming another grade is And at the same time that the
D
‘ grade ~ began to form, that likewise must have begun to expand
in the same ratio forming a grade A and so on ad infinitum.
The grades therefore will correspond to the terms of an infinite
series in decreasing geometrical progression. All of them origin-
ate simultaneously in the first element; and yet every grade
respectively may be considered as having passed into and out of ¥
all the grades which precede it ; inasmuch as each in its origin Is
aconstituent part of that which precedes it. The fluid which
all of it pass into the next in the same time; for equal quantities
by measure expand in equal ratios in equal times; and since @
distributed into portions or grades, having their respective den-
sities corresponding to the terms of the infinite series
DD: D:*D. DP
Zghath pee
If we extend this series backward one term we obtain the series
DDDD
D, my zr Pry Pri, &e. (B)
_ Since equal quantities by measure pass out of each of these states
in a given time, if s be the space occupied by the original element,
and if we multiply each of the terms of the series (B) by s, then
: Ds Ds Ds Ds
the terms of the resulting series Ds, - aa? De &e. (C).
will severally express the quantities of fluid that expand from
On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids. 337
each grade respectively into the next. Now since fluids expand-
ing in equal ratios acquire equal velocities, equal velocities are
acquired in each of these expansions. If then we find that ve-
locity and by it multiply the sum of the series (C), the product
will be the sum of the momenta generated in, or imparted to, the
parts of the first element in the time in which the point of expan-
sion recedes through s.
the quantity Ds be expanded from the density D to the den-
sity 7’ the space it will occupy will be increased in the inverse
. * D
ratio of these densities; and therefore e :D::s:sz. Hence s and
S& are respectively the spaces occupied by the element before and
after the first expansion. Now the velocity which the mass Ds
eaves in this expansion, is obviously that which would carry it
over the difference between these spaces in the time in which
the expansion takes place; that is, the velocity imparted in the
first ex pansion is str—s=s.r-1; ‘and the same velocity is im-
parted in every other expansion. If then we multiply the sum
of the series (C) by s.z—1, the product will he equal to the sum
of all the momenta generated in the parts of the element. This
product is Ds’x. Therefore Ds?z is the entire amount of mo-
mentum which the force D is competent ? Ds cae in the time
in mk the point of expansion recedes through s.
will now proceed to find another wheel for the mo-
wenitie, which the force D is competent to generate in the same
time, in order that by SOMPRIDE it with that just found, we
may ascertain the value of z.
et H be the height of a column of fluid of the density D,
d let H-A be
Weces weight is equal to the elastic foree D; an
the height of another column of the same density whose weight
is equal to the elastic force 2 Then D: t 2H: H—h. Let
n be the space occupied yo the first Bich aat m ne
7 the density D, and ms that which ii oepupics
when expanded to the density = Since the spaces occupied
by the element in these states are inversely as the densities,
mn ims: as D::H—A:H, and therefore
, x ms
ms—~sn:ms':H-—h:H; whence we obtain H= suit
In the time in which the point of expansion recedes through
mn, the element Ds receives a velocity which will carry it over
$n in the same.time. If then mn represent the velocity of the
Szconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 43
*
338 On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids.
point of expansion, sn will represent the velocity imparted to the
fluid by the first expansion. Consequently, the retrogressive ve-
locity of the point of expansion must be such that in the time in
which it passes over any space, the force Lhe may give to all
the fluid in that space the velocity sn. Hence the point of ex-
pansion will run over A in the time in which the foree D— -
will give to all the fluid in & the velocity sm. But the force
D. ; Bh
D- 7 is equal to the weighf of all the fluid ink. Therefore the
point of expansion runs over / in the time in which the mass h
would in falling by its own gravity acquire the velocity sn. The
time in which a falling body acquires the velocity sm is to that
in which it would acquire the velocity of the point of expansion,
or mn as sn to mn; and the spaces over which the point of ex-
pansion would run in these times are in the same ratio. 'There-
fore putting S for the space which the point of expansion would
run over while a falling body would acquire the velocity of the
point of expansion, we have sn: mn::h:S, or, sn:ms—sn::hi8;
hx
whence we obtain S= eh But we have before found
hxms :
H= ‘sn Therefore S=H -h; that is, the point of expan-
sion will run over H —A in the time in which a falling body will
acquire the same velocity. Consequently the velocity of the
point of expansion is that which a body will acquire by falling
through sm
If the force D act on the mass H during the time that mass
would fall through H, it would give that mass a velocity which
would carry it over 2H in the same time, because the force D is
equal to the weight of the mass. The mean velocity of a body
falling through H is thag which will be acquired by falling
through 7- If then the point of expansion moved with the ve-
locity acquired by a body in falling through 7 in the time of
passing over H, the force D would be competent to give to all
the fluid in H a velocity which would carry it over 2H in the
same time; and consequently in the time of passing over $ it
would give to the mass Ds a velocity which would in the same
time carry it over 2s. But the point of expansion as before
shown, moves with the velocity acquired by falling through
ss ais
i ae q 3
tangent ;
On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids. 339
H-h H “
3. Now the velocity due to q 38 to that due to a a as
H H-h ig 4
VY 7 to / %} and the times in which the point of ex-
pansion would move over s with these velocities, are inversely as
1
1
a H-h D
these velocities, or as Mie to 3 ages But D: > ::H:H—-A,
1 1
D D
and therefore these times are as if q to g,' oF as 2 to
22. 'The velocity which the force D can impart in these times
1s as the times respectively. And since it has been shown that
in the former of these times the velocity 2s will be imparted by
2x.
: 2s :
the force D, we have 2: ./2r::2s: ¥ = 8/22. That is,
the velocity which the force D is competent to impart to the mass
Ds in the time in which the point of expansion recedes through
$, 18 s\/2r. Consequently the momentum which the force D can
impart in the same time is Ds?./2z. But we have before found
this momentum to be Ds2z. Therefore Ds?z=Ds? 4/22; wheuce
t=/2r and r=2.
Having thus found the absolute value of z, if we substitute
this value for x in the series (A) we shall have, for the densities
of the several parts or grades into which the first element will
have been distributed at the end of the first instant, the respective
: Bee ot. Dy D
terms of the following series, viz., 34 8 ig'es &
We found the velocity of the point of expansion to be that
which a body will acquire by falling through —g—j the value
of h being dependent on the value of z. But when 7=2,
h
ae. Therefore the absolute velocity of the point of ex-
: asimaaea” |
‘ H
pansion is that which a body will acquire by falling through vu
or one fourth of the subtangent of the fluid. ; :
Since the extent of the element is doubled by the first expan-
sion, the velocity of the first grade will be equal to the velocity
of the point of expansion, or that due to one fourth of the snb-
aad an sed additional velocity is imparted in each
; expansi If then v represent the velocity due to
340 On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids.
one fourth the subtangent of the fluid, the absolute velocities of
the several grades respectively will be expressed by the respective
terms of the series v, 2v, 3v, 4v, 5v, €c.
Since one element =s by measure*passes from each grade into
the next, and becomes = 2s in the next, the length of each grade
at the end of the first instant =2s—s=s. That is, the length
of each grade is equal to that of the original element; and the
place of the first grade is that which was occupied by the original
element ; the other grades succeeding it in continuous order.
Having now ascertained the state of things at the end of the
first instant, let us inquire what takes place in the second instant.
It is obvious that during the second instant the front of the
second element of the column, and also the front of each grade
respectively is a point of expansion from which one element =s
by measure passes into the next grade. ‘Thus in the second
instant each grade receives an addition of 2s to its rear and loses
s from its front. The same takes place in every succeeding
instant. Since the increment of the length of the grades for each
‘instant is s, the velocity of the increase is v. The length of the
grades is therefore always equal to the space through which the
point of expansion has receded in the column. Thus while the
length of the grades increases with the uniform velocity v, their
number, velocity and density remain unchanged. Consequently
no other gradations of density can exist in front of a column ex-
panding into a vacuum, but those which correspond to the terms
of the infinite geometrical series - 1°38’ 16 &3 and no other
gradations of velocity but those which correspond to the terms of
the infinite arithmetical series v, 2v, 3v, 4v, &c.
_ The point of expansion in the column recedes with the velo-
city v; and since the length of the first grade is always equal to
the space throngh which that point of expansion has moved, it
follows that the point of expansion from the first into the second
grade is stationary. And since the second grade increases 12
length with the velocity v, the third point of expansion moves
forward with the velocity v; and since all the other g
increase in length with the same velocity v, the velocities of the
several points of expansion will be expressed by the following
series —v, 0, v, 2v, 3v, 4v, &e.
In order to give a synopsis of the results to which we have
come, let AB be acolumn of fluid of the density D, expanding
into a vacunm toward C. Let the velocity due to a height equal
to one fourth of the subtangent of the fluid be v. Suppose ex-
pansion to have commenced at B, and the point of expansion to
have receded to any distance m. Set off from B an infinite num-
ser of spaces Ba, ab, bc, ed, &c., each equal to Bn. Then the
points 7, B, a, b, c, d, &c., are the places of the points of expan-
On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids. 341
sion, and the boundaries of the several grades, or parts having
different degrees of density and velocity, into which the original
mass Bn has been distributed.
t 24
A a% n B a b é d
——_—+ =f : ‘ ‘ + ee.
3 C
Between these points respect- |
“ns Dork Ve ioe
ively the densities are 3" 2 ABu ie 6a
The velocities are v .2v.3v. 4v. bv. &e.
These points move toward C
with the velocities ~v 0 v “20 By 4v&e.
and relatively to each other, and
to the fluid, with the velocities 02D 2. D
As corollaries from the preceding investigation we may state
the following propositions. :
1. No other gradations of density can exist in front of a column »
of fluid which is expanding towards a vacuum except those
which are found by successive divisions of the original density
by 2 :
2. The change of density in the fluid in passing from one of
these grades to the next is not gradual, but instantaneous ; so
that the grades are constantly separated from each other by a
mere imaginary plane.
3. No other velocities can exist among the parts of a fluid
which is expanding toward a vacuum but such as are multiples
of the velocity which a body will acquire by falling through one
fourth of the subtangent of the fluid.
A. The velocity imparted to the particles of an expanding
fluid is not the result of a continual and gradual acceleration,
but of successive instantaneous increments equal to that whic
a body will acquire by falling through one fourth of the subtan-
gent of the fluid.
It now remains to consider the mode of expansion when the
fluid is not free to expand indefinitely, but has its expansion arrest-
d at some given density d. ,
It is obvious that if d correspond in value to any of the terms
of the series, the manner of expansion up to that point will be
the same as if the expansion were continued indefinitely. There
will therefore be in the expanding flnid, in such case, so many
grades corresponding to the terms of the series, as there are of
complete terms intervening between Dandd. But let us inquire
what takes place when d does not correspond to any of the terms
the series. First, suppose d to be greater than the first term,
sn from what has been before shown, the velocity of the point
342 On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids.
of expansion is that which a body will acquire by falling through
a when H -/ is the height of a column whose weight is
equal to the elastic force of the expanded fluid; also that the
velocity of the point of expansion is that due to the height 7
a D re
when the expansion is from D to 5° These velocities are as
eo eh e "
q to \’ —g~ and since H : H—A::D : d, those velocities
D d D
are as / q to gh 5° The velocity due to g isv. Hence we
D d 2d
have Vi : NA : v\/ Fy =Vvelocity of the point of ex-
pansion in this case.
Let us next find the velocity of the fluid. The times of run-
: D
ning over s by the point of expansion, with the velocities V7
*
q : . . *.
and g are inversely as these velocities; and the velocities 1m-
parted tothe mass Ds in these times are as the products of the times
by the respective forces. When the velocity of the point of ex-
' D D ae
pansion was / q the force was 5 and the velocity of the fluid
wasv. The force in the present case is D-—d. Hence we have
D
2 D-d ~ :
a ge ; Wis 1ViV/2 ° ae = velocity of the fluid in this case.
4 2
Secondly, suppose the value of d to fall between any two con-
secutive terms of the series. It is obvious that we have now only
to substitute in the expression last found that term of the series
which is next greater than d for D, and it will then express the
acceleration due to expansion from the last complete term into the
fractional grade.
o find the retrogressive velocity of the point of expansion,
relatively to the fluid, in the grade which precedes the fractional
grade, we must make the like substitution of the last complete
term for D in the quantity Ng found above. The retro-
gressive velocity of the point of expansion in the grade which
> fractional grade i er than in the o' 8,
precedes tl is great ther 3!
and of course that grade will be shorter than the others 1m the.
On the Expansion of Elastic Fluids. 343
same ratio. This is the only modification which a fractional
grade produces in those that precede it. In all other respects the
mode of expansion, up to the fractional grade, corresponds to the
view presented in the foregoing synopsis.
We are now prepared to construct a formula for the final ve-
locity of a fluid which expands from any density D to any other
nsity d.
Let V be the final velocity; v the velocity due to a height
equal to one fourth the subtangent of the fluid; » the number of
zed ae sige
complete terms of the series 22’ ®’ 16’ &c., which intervene
between D and d.
Then vn is obviously the velocity of the grade which precedes
the fractional grade, if there be a fractional grade. When the
first grade is fractional we found its velocity to be v/2° Td}
and we also found that to suit this expression to the case of a
fractional grade occurring elsewhere in the range of the series,
we are to substitute for D that term of the series which is
next greater than d. Now the value of that term will be ane
Making the substitution accordingly, the expression for the addi-
tional velocity due to expansion into the fractional grade becomes,
- 2nd ° ‘
after reducing, 7/2 - ST By adding this quantity to vm we
obtain the final velocity of the fluid, resulting from its expansion
from any density D to any other density d. Hence the formula is
PS ay ee
V=v.nt+V/2: “WanDg .
When there is no complete term of the series between D and d,
n=0 and the above formula becomes V = 71/2 ° Da
When there is no fractional grade, that is, when d is equal to
some term of the series, that part of the formula beyond n equals
0, and then the above formula becomes Veen. | ‘
From the general principles here developed it is obvious that,
as in expansion, so likewise in condensation, the transition of an
elastic fluid from one density to another is not by gradations
which may be represented by a curve, but abrupt, mstantaneous,
per saltum vel saltus. Pulses, therefore, which are propagated
in elastic fluids partake of the same character ; that is, the con-
densation and subsequent reéxpansion of the successive elements
through which the wave moves is instantaneous. This fact was
not known when the article on the propagation of pulses, referred
to at the commencement of this article, was written. It however
does not affect the validity of the reasoning in that article.
344 On the Rotation of the Plane of
i Hi mre, bs lutea a
XXXIV.—On* the Rotation of the*Plane of Polarization of
® Heat by Magnetism; by MM.°F. pe wa Provosrayve and
P, Desains.* gu : ;
Suorrry after the brilliant discovery of Prof. Faraday of the
rotation of the plane of polarization of light by magnetism, M.
Wartmann announcedt that he had tried the same experiment
with radiant heat. He employed the heat of a lamp, which he
partially polarized by making it pass through two piles of mica
crossed at right angles. The electro-magnets and a cylinder of
rock-salt were placed between these piles, and consequently very
near the thermo-electric apparatus. The galvanometer, on the -
contrary, to be preserved from the action of the electro-magnets,
was removed to a great distance; but the result was a considera-
ble increase in the length of the circuit, and a diminution of sen-
sitiveness,
Notwithstanding all these inconveniences, which he clearly
_ pointed out, and which he was not able to overcome, M. Wart-
mann thought he observed that the needle of the galvanometer,
after having attained a fixed deviation under the influence of the
adiation not intercepted by the piles of mica, was again displaced
and took a fixed position different from the first when the current
was established, which seemed to indicate a rotation of the plane
of polarization of heat. sd
At Paris, some persons having vainly attempted to reproduce
these phenomena, we have considered that it would be useful to
revert to these experiments, and to point out a method which
permits of making them succeed with facility.
e have introduced into M. Wartmann’s process three prinei-
pal modifications :—Ist, we employ solar heat; 2ndly, we take
for polarizing apparatus two prisms of achromatic spar; 3rdly, and
this appears to us indispensable, instead of placing the principal
sections at 90°, we arrange them so that they make an angle of
nearly 45°.
The employment of spars and solar light permits of removing
the electro-magnets to a great distance from the thermo-electric
pile. With respect to the arrangement of the prisms, the law of
Malus shows all the advantages which it presents. In fact, let
us take for unity the deviation which the solar ray transmitted
through the principal parallel sections would produce. ‘The de-
viation, when the prisms form an angle of 45°, will be cos? 45°
3a. If the current is set in action, and it produces a rotation of
ies pa a mali
x, From the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, October, 1849,—cited from. Phil
4) XXXv, 481. ay?
fe teh May 6th, 1846, No. 644. eae
a
4
|
Ros
Ee
Polarization of Heat by Magnetism. 345 .
the plane of polarization equal to 4, the deviation will be, accord-
ing to the direction of the @urrent, cos” (45° - 9) or cos?(45°+ 9),
and we shall then have, for the difference of the effects observed
when the current is madé to pass in a contrary direction,
cos? (45° — 5) —cos? (459+) =sin 26.
On placing the principal sections at 90°, the difference of the
deviations would be on =
cos? (90° — 5) —cos? 90° =sin? 4,
or
cos? (90°-+-0)—cos? 90°=sin? 6.
Now sin? 4 is considerably less than sin 20. If, for example, we
Suppose d=8°, sin? 6 is equal to more than fourteen times sin 20.
The eye, it is true, appreciates readily the transition from dark-
hess to light, but not so the difference in brightness of two lumi-
nous images. This is not the case with the thermoscopic appa-
t There is therefore, when heat is concerned, a great ad-
vantage in proceeding as above directed.
‘The following are the details of the experiment: the solar ray, -
reflected by a heliostat, traverses at first a doubly-refracting achro-
matic prism. ‘The extraordinary bundle was intercepted ; the or-
dinary bundle traverses the electro-magnet of M. Ruhmkorfl’s ap-
paratus, and a flint-glass of 38 millimetres in thickness between
the poles of the electro-magnet. It afterwards encounters, at
about 3™-50, the second prism of spar, bifurcates again, aud gives
two images, one of which may be received on the thermo-electric
pile placed at four metres from the electro-magnet. ve galvan-
ometer was still a little further removed from this disturbing force.
It was ascertained, by direct and repeated experiments, that on es-
tablishing the current there were no phenomena of induction, and
that the electro-magnets had no appreciable action on the mag-
hetic needle which, under their infiuence, remained at zero in a
State of perfect rest. In order to understand this, it must he borne
in mind that the two opposite poles are very close together, and
that they act simultaneously upon a system already very distant
and almost completely astatic. It might be feared that the elec-
tro-magnet, without action on the needle at zero, acted on the nee-
dle already displaced by the action of the calorific radiation. This
would be possible in fact, if, in its first position, the needle had
the same direction as the line which joins its centre to the elec-
tro-magnet, and if, when it deviates, it made a notable angle in
that direction. In our experiments, precisely the inverse condi-
tion was realized ; so that the component of the magnetic action
diminished more and more during the movement of the needle,
and became perfectly null when it attained its greatest deviation.
If therefore it had no action in the first case, such ought for a
Stronger reason to be the case in the second.
Szconp Serms, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 44
oa
346 On the Rotation of the Plane of Polarization of Heat, &c.
By means of a commutator the electric current could be made
to pass, now in one direction, now in another, through the wires
of the electric magnet. We shall deSigriate the two currents by .
the abridged expressions Current A, Current B
The following are the deviations observed :—
Experiments of September 22.
(A Muncke’s battery of 50 elements with large surfaces, but al-
ready worn, was employed. )
FIRST SERIES.
Deviations.
Current A, . 21:0
Without current, ; Se Piping. Boge
Current A, ‘ : : : 21:4
Without current, , . ‘ s 18:6
SECOND SERIES.
eine was added. bb
Without current, : 20°5—
Without current, . Pee, . 20-6" °
Current B, ; i ; : : 186 ‘
Without current, : ; : ; 209 }
Current A, ; : ; ‘ . 23°6
Current B, , ‘ , ‘ ‘ 18:8
Current A, 22-0
Current B, : i : ‘ ? 18:0
Without current, i i é ; 19-9
THIRD SERIES.
Current B, ; : ; ; 17-4
Current B, : ‘ : ; : 17:1
Current A, ' ‘ : ‘ ‘ 19°5
Without current, 18:3
Wise tulene of sevetiter'® 29,
(A Bunsen’s battery of 30 elements, well-cleaned and | amalgam
ted, was employed.)
FIRST SERIES.
Deviations.
Without current, : ‘ : ‘ 12-0.
Current. A, ; : ‘: ‘ - 14:9
Current B, ‘ ‘ ; : ; 86
Pros current, ‘ . phe Wd 117
urrent ; 885%
Se
Whboat current, meets ta solbead 118
® Yaanc Rropins om Howat, =
‘SECOND SERIES.
2 estates
Without current, » . itt Ah pha ba
Current B, : i ‘ ’ ; 14:9
Current A, . 4 ; @ ‘ ; 21:7
* _ It is to be remarked, that here, if the principal sections of the
made to act.
Lastly, to obviate every objection, a third series of experiments
was made by taking away the prism of flint-glass, and observing
‘the deviations produced by the solar ray, when, as before, the
electric current was made to in the wires of the electro-mag-
net, now in one direction, now in another.
Fs } Deviations.
Current A... .16°5 As should be the case, the deviations are
Current B. .. 16-8 ¢ equal, which proves that the electric cur-
Current A... 16:8 ) rent and the magnet change the deviations
in acting on the flint-glass and not in acting on the needle of the
galvanometer.
he above experiments establish, we believe, in an irrefragable
manner, the rotation of the plane of polarization of heat under the
It Influence of magnetism.
=
a3
Arr. XX XV.—RHistorical account of the Eruptions on Hawaii ;
ames D. Dana.* :
be
Tue island of Hawaii has a nearly triangular outline with the
three sides fronting severally, west, southeast, and northeast.
The western side is about 85 geographical miles in length, the
southeast 65, and the northeast 75 miles. The whole surface
pertains to the slopes of three lofty volcanic summits, Mount (or
Mauna) Loat constituting its southern portion, 13,760 feet in
height, Mount Kea, long extinct, covering the northern portion,
13,950 feet in height, and Hualalai towards the western shores,
estimated at 10,000. be ee
Palins. er approaching Hawaii, while admiring the snblim-
. ity of its swelling heights, is struck with the unbroken surface of
the island. Lofty peaks and alternating valleys and ridges are
SO geuerally characteristic of mountain scenery, that he views the
even and gentle slope of the summits Loa and Kea with a degree
* Extracted and condensed from the Author's Exp. Expd. Geological Report.
+ This name is often written Roa. L and r are interchangeable letters in the
Hawaiian alect. The | sound is most common, andds adopted in the written lan-
‘Guage of the islands.
348 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii.
of amazement. The former rises with a scarcely per-
ceptible inclination, (see annexed cut,) without a break
in the surface appareut in the distant view ; then grad-
ually rounds over, and declines on the opposite side
with the same. gentle declivity. ‘The eye following
along, up and down the sides of Mount Kea, meets
with the same slopes, and only few traces of indenta-
tions. Mount Loa is a flat dome.. Mount Kea rises
to the same altitude, and differs only in having the
summit somewhat pointed.
From these descriptions the statement will be ap-
preciated that the heights of Hawaii are not peaks in
mountain range, but three isolated domes or lo
PA
cones, united by a confluence of lavas at base. ‘lhe =
surface of the island is not a mass of broken moun- g 3
tains, but the simple slopes of these elevations. Yet & 4
on an actual scramble over the sides, there are found 5 =
exteusive ravines and ridges of lava which impede the §
progress; and numerous craters form large elevations *
usually ranging between three and nine hundred feet in ©
height. There are also numerous gorges on the eastern &
aud northern foot of Kea, which extend from the sea =
half-way up the mountain, and are from three hundred =
to a thousand feet in depth. The Kohala range on 2
the north, which is the only part not conformable to *
this system, faces the interior of the island with a E
nearly vertical front, while northward the slopes are &
less abrupt and are profoundly intersected by valleys. |
Mount Kea has an average slope of 7° 46’. The % =
slope of Mount Loa on the south averages 7° 33’; * 5
on the west 5° 28’; on the east, to Kilauea, (a distance A.
of 19°8 miles from the axis,) 6° 42’: making 6° 30’ cP
the average for the dome. From Kilauea to the sea,
the slope averages but 1°28’, equivalent to 135 feet
tothe mile. The following map of a part of Hawaii*
will assist in conveying an idea of the form of Mount
Loa, the position of the crater at summit, and of Ki-
lauiea on its east-southeastern flank, 3970 feet above
he sea.
We may hence assume 6° 30/ as the average incli-
nation of the great dome. This gives for the base
of the dome a breadth of forty-five and three-fourths
miles. This however is only the central portion of
the mountain: for the slopes spread very much below,
sinnniviillnidinistnaiiicslog saan
* This map is reduced from the chart published with the Narrative of the Expe-
dition.
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 349
diminishing eastward to a single degree, so’ that the region of vol-
canic action subordinate to Mount Loa, is about seventy miles in
width, or includes the entire breadth of the island, from east to
west. ‘The main part of the mountain, if considered a portion of
a great sphere,* will correspond to a segment 13,760 feet deep,
Uy Me Y, Wi
g YF) Wty re
WH
=—- ——_
a
he dome, consequently, instead of having slender walls at top,
has a horizontal thickness of full twenty miles, eighteen hundred
feet Vertically below its summit. ‘
>
* It varies a little from a segment of a sphere, the upper parts being slightly more
prominent. ite Gai
_+ For comparison with other lofty volcanic mountains we here mention a few
other inclinations, mama rent instances, ying oh poe
, rhe peak of Teneriffe has an average inclination of 12°30’, the proportion of
eight to eter being given as 1 to 9. ene tis igs
“ , according to Elie de Beaumont, has an average inclination of 8degrees. M.
Von. Buch makes the ratio of height to circumference as 1 to 34, giving ang! dots
x
n ier beiageaho seats
degrees e Chimborazo dome, aceording to Humboldt, is only 673 toises through
a level of 153 toises (or 978 feet) below the centre of top.
At is much to be t artists, when sketching mountains, are not content
i ion nod thaveeat thei its, Even in works of science, the
ening up their sides, and sharpening their summits, Ey work ve, th
€ errors are common. We never seé a drawing of Jorullo, which does not give
Same erro
the peak actually impossible slopes, taking Humboldt’s own facts as a criterion
awin : ; s 3
are al gives reli
. A simple outline, if correct, I
ble to science, than one improved to suit the fancy, though
350 Volcanic Hruptions on Hawait.
The two craters of Mount Loa are still active. The summit
crater, called Mokua-weo-weo, measuring 13,000 and 8000 feet —
in its diameters, has a depth of 784 feet along its western
precipice. Kilauea, the crater of most renown, is marked by no
conical elevation; and the declivities of the parent mountain
hardly vary in this part froma plain. Like Mokua-weo-weo it
is a pit-crater, with vertical sides of horizontally stratified basal-
tic rock or lava. is
The traveller first perceives his approach to the crater in a few
small. clouds of steam rising from fissures not far from his
path. While gazing for a second indication he stands unexpect-
edly upon the brink of the pit. A vast amphitheatre seven miles
and a half in circuit has opened to view. Beneath a gray rocky
precipice of 650 feet, forming the bold contour, a narrow plain ©
hardened lava, (the ‘black ledge,’”’) extends like a vast gallery
around the whole interior. Within this gallery, below another
similar precipice of 340 feet, lies the bottom, a wide plain of bare
rock more than two miles in length. os
The eye naturally ranged over the whole area. for something
place, excepting certain spots of a blood-red color which appeared
be in constant yet gentle agitation. Instead of a sea of inolten
lava ‘rolling to and fro its fiery surge and flaming billows,” we
were surprised at the stillness of the scene. The incessant mo-
tion in the blood-red pools was like that of a cauldron in constant
ebullition. The lava in each boiled with such activity as to cause
a rapid play of jets over its surface. One pool, the largest of the
_three then in action, was afterwards ascertained by survey to
measure one thousand five hundred feet in one diameter, and a
thousand in the other: and this whole area, into which the Capi-
tol grounds at Washington might be sunk entire, was boiling, as
tom above, with nearly the mobility of water. Still all
went on quietly. Not a whisper was heard from the fires be-
low. White vapors rose in fleecy wreaths from the pools and
numerous fissures, and above the large lake they collected into a
broad canopy of clouds, not unlike the snowy heaps or cumull
that lie near the horizon in a clear day, though changing more
rapidly their fanciful shapes. On descending afterwards to the
black ledge, at the verge of the lower pit, a half-smothered gurg-
ling sound was all that could be heard from the pools of lava.
Occasionally there was a report like musketry which died away,
and left the same murmuring sound, the stifled mutterings of @
boiling fluid. : 3 .
Such was the general appearance of Pélé’s pit in a day view,
at the time it was visited by the author.* : ibe wescean
* In November, 1840.
Sen
ee
Voleanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 351
And over this scene of restless fires and fiery vapors the
heavens by contrast seemed unnaturally black, with only here
and there a star like a dim point of light.
‘The next night streams of lava boiled over from the lake,
and formed several glowing lines diverging over the bottom
of the crater. Towards morning, there was a dese mist, and
change.
We have endeavored to describe these views, with literal cor-
rectness. We are not responsible for any disappointment the ac-
count may create, as we could see only what was actually before us.
Pele was in one of her sober moods. Yet we have reason to believe
that this is her usual state, and assuredly there is a terrible grand-
eur even in her quiet. The action when most roused has been
much exaggerated in its character; for boiling and overflowing,
With occasional detonating explosions, constitute in every condi-
tion the characteristic features: in its greatest violence, the caul-
drons are more numerous and extensive, the spouting cones m
tiply in number, the explosions are loud and frequent, and the
Sheets of lava at each overflow spread through the whole crater.
ch a scene over an area seven and a half miles in circuit, must
be terrific beyond description, although the “ sea” be no sea; and
the “ waves” but the agitations of violent ebullition and frequent
overflowings.
The accompanying bird’s-eye view of Kilauea, reduced from
the surveys of the Expedition, shows its oblong-ovate form and
‘general features, though giving no adequate idea of its magnitude.
"he longest diameter lies nearly northeast and southwest, and is
Sixteen thousand feet in length; the average breadth is seven
thousand five hundred feet. The pit includes, therefore, an area
352 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawait.
of nearly four square
miles,* thus exceeding in
ex
one hundred thousand in-
habitants. Yet on look-
ing into it from above, it
is difficult to realize its
size, as there is no ene =
within or about it which =
structures as St. Peter’s at Rome could be Mtoneninandaeid within
its walls, or that the lofty dome of this cathedral would stand
with its pinnacle but little above the black ledge. The great lake
of boiling lava (a), 1000 feet by 1500, as above mentioned, is a
small object i in such an area,
A better idea of the internal form of the pit will be obtained
from a transverse section here represented. It is taken in the
line of the shorter diameter ; a section through the longer diame-
ter on the same scale (a third of an inch to.a thousand feet) would
not have room on the page; mmm’ is the whole breadth of the
crater; on,o'n’, the black ledge ; pp’ the bottom of the lower
pit; n p, n’ p’ the walls of the lower pit, 342 feet in pete og wnt
mo’, the walls above the black ledge, 650 feet in —
‘ VERTICAL SECTION OF KILAUEA.
The walls of the crater (m 0) are vertical, or nearly so, through
the most of their circuit. There 1 is a break with several fissures
in the northeast corner, (in the figure above, the wpper side is
north,) where is the usual place of descent; and on the south-
east side (0) there are two or three sloping declivities, on nian
one of the famous sulphur banks is situate
Without ipa with these details silts to the crater ét Q
Kilatiea, we proceed to an account of the eruptions of whic t
we have Ehowledge.
The first eruption of this crater of which tradition gives: ony
definite knowledge, occurred about the year 1789, during the
wars and conquests of Ka- meha-meha. It took place ‘between Ki-
lauea and the sea in a-southeasterly Wirection. It is said to we
been accompanied by violent earthquakes and rendings of the
earth: and au ale of cinders and stones from the opened fis-
* As neat as can be ascertained Gon he apy of the tr cho asa tre
square miles, or 100,000,000 ical
pe ae
*
A
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 353
su) It was so violent and extensive that the heavens were
completely darkened; and one hundred lives are supposed to
have been lost. here are now, over a large area near Kilauea a
few miles distant to the south and southeast, great quantities of a
light pumice-like scoria, with stones and sand, which are believed
to have been thrown out at this time.
The famous outbreak of lavas, in 1823, and the features of the
crater after it, are described by Mr. Ellis in his Polynesian Re-
Searches.t A large tract of country in Kau, the southern district
a,
of Hawaii, was flooded, and the stream, where it reached the
_ as Lam informed by Rev. Mr. Coan, was five to eight miles wide.
The earth is said to have been rent in several places, and the
lavas were ejected through the fissures, commencing their course
above ground some miles south of Kilauea. There was no visible
communication with the lavas of this crater at the time; but the
fact of their subsiding some hundred feet simultaneously with the
eruption is satisfactory evidence of a counection. The crater af-
ter the eruption, as described by Mr. Ellis,j had the same general
was taken by the author from the lips of those who were part of the company,
i ‘ing pursued by
. For two preceding nights, there had
een eruptions, with ejections of stones and cinders. “The army
i ifferent compani
heavens, ightning to flash. It co! to around until
the whole region es enveloped, and the light of day was entirely excluded. The
darkness was the more ter ing made visible by an awful glare fro ; of
red and blue light, variously combine h the action of the fires of the pit and
the flashes of 1 bo immens and ein-
ich
rest, and it was not until th d come up to tl
i im detect their mistake.” Mtr Dibble aa “h — of sulpl
of f heated steam, wo’ lor
den death" Sue of the mratre who sae the corpses afin, hat Bough i no
place deeply burnt, yet they were thorough at ‘ ; ne
Polynesian R hes, VOL BATE ae eee
> Mr. Ellis, and many that have followed him in describing Kilauea,
use of “ flames,” as houg flames we : ‘ lly
mistake, ihge the souaie are ie ye hey i ay far beyond deseription. “An =
: ‘ . 5 int at Hi tt, riv' } }
eet mf hich * scot imal in to give vividness to the description. It is
needless to say that none were seen there by the was
the same as for the month previous.
Seconp Seazes, Vol. [X, No. 27.—May, 1850. 45
354 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii.
features as when visited by the Expedition. The black ledge
continued completely around the crater, and was “three or four
hundred feet’ above the bottom. The pit was, however, in a more
active > ne for the southwest and northern parts are represented
as vast floods of lava, and there were fifty-one small cones with
craters, seth two of which gave out vapors, and some ejected
lavas. Ellis remarks that the crater appeared as if, a short time
before, the lavas had been as high as the black le
In June, 1832, an eruption took place both froti Kilanes and
the summit crater of Mt. Loa. ‘The only eruption, at this time,
of the lavas of Kilanea to the surface, of which we have definite
account, occurred in the east wall of the crater. A deep fissure
was opened i in the wall, (near p, figure on page 352,) from which
streams flowed out, part back into Kilauea down the steep slope,
part across into the “Old Crater” (r), which, at the time,
was overgrown with wood. It is important to trace out, as far
a we are able, the changes which preceded it.
. The first published account of the crater subsequent to EI-
lis’s 5, is that of the Rev. C. S. Stewart, who visited it in July,
1825.* He states that it was nearly in the condition represented
by Ellis in 1823. The bottom was several hundred feet below
the level of the black ledge. Fifty-six conical craters were coun-
ted, and the action was violent and noisy... A plan of the crater
at this time, by Lieutenant Malden, is given by Byrone The
black ledge is represented as very much narrower than at present,
so that the lower pit occupied nearly the whole width of the cra-
ter: the height of the ledge is stated at four hundred feet. - The
lan represents numerous cones over the bottom, and the two
argest occupy together the whole transverse diameter of the cra-
ter, which _ give for each a diameter of three thousand feat
or more at
* Journal of a Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, ‘and Residence at the Sandwich Isl-
ands, in the years 1822-1825, by O. 8. Ste tewart ; 12mo, 1828. New York. p.
tA reduced copy of Lieutenant
Malden’s plan is annexed, as it will
give increased interest to the facts
observed by the iti i
er 5 65%
deep fissure ; 7, deepest. and most precipitous. part of éemnden The whole crater is
not represented, ine termed pone ib) 38.39 (5) is nearly half the diameter ter of the lower Pi
and taust have been three in breadth,
a3 wigs? & ie
a a es
Stee «= So —
ca
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 355
' 6. In December of the same year, Rev. A. Bishop observed that
the crater had filled up much since the visit he made with Mr.
Ellis, and he estimates the amount of change as four hundred (?)
feet. There were a large number of cones “ fifty to one hundred
- feet high,” besides lakes boiling with much agitation, “every now.
and then sending forth a gust of vapor and smoke, with great
noise.” He adds, ‘the natives remarked that after rising a little
higher the lava will discharge itself, as formerly, towards the sea
through some aperture under ground.”*
~é. In October of 1829, Rev. C. S. Stewart made a second visit
to the crater, and found, as he states, that the lower pit, instead
of being four or five hundred feet deep, as when he before saw it,
was but two hundred feet. . He remarked that it had filled up at
east two hundred feet. It was more quiet than in 1825, but
there were still several boiling lakes of lava, and some cones in
great activity.t i
_d. In September of 1832, when the Rev. J. Goodrich visited
Kilauea, the eruption had taken place.t He says that every thing
had changed: 'The lavas, which previously had increased so as
to fill up to the black ledge, and fifty feet above, about nine hund-
red [four hundred ?] feet in all, had sunk down again nearly to
the same depth, leaving, as usual, a boiling cauldron at the south
id. The earthquake of January preceding had rent in twain
the walls of the crater, on the east side, from top to bottom, pro-
ducing seams from a few inches to several yards in width, from
which the region between the two craters was deluged with lava.
Abont half way up the precipice there was a rent a quarter of a
mile in length, from which immense quantities of lava boiled
out directly underneath the hut formerly occupied by the party of
Byron. The position of Byron’s hut is seen at C, on the
figure at the foot of the preceding page, and near p, on the figure
On page 352. ceil aarti ipa
_ From these accounts, it is probable that in addition to the ejec-
tions from the east wall, which are insufficient to account for the
subsidence in the lower pit, there must also have been a subterra-
nean outlet béneath the sea, as the native with Mr. Bi had
predicted... This elevation of the lava a thousand feet above the
lower pit, with its discharge from the very wall of the crater, 1s
worthy of special note. | rad .
diPhevnext eruption to. that of 1832, was the one already refer-
red to, that eal on the 30th of May, 1840, the lavas of
which, where they reached the sea, were in some places still hot
when visited by the author in the November following.
est
© ionary Herald, xxiii, 53. es, Or ae i
FT) Visit - , 2 vols, 12mo. New York, 1831.—ii, 78.
2D fosate te ee eee cee ao
356 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii
The only published accounts of the crater subsequent to that
just mentioned by Mr. Goodrich, and previous to this ernption,
are those of Mr. Douglass,* Captain E. G. Kelley, (from state-
ments by Captains Chase and Parker, )f Count Strzelecki,t and
mae John Shepherd.
a. Mr. Douglass was at Kilauea in January, 1834. ‘The pit,
by his meastrements was one thousand feet deep, and the black
ledge and lower pit te to have been in the same condition as
when seen by “Me. Bishop. ‘There was a lake of boiling lava in
the north end, three seis and nineteen yards in diameter, be-
sides the large one in the south end. The movement of the lavas
to the southward (a consequence of the ebullition) was estimated
to have a velocity of three andone-fourth miles per hour.
6. Captains Chase and Parker visited the crater in 1838, four
years after Mr. Douglas. At that time, as the sketch made by
them on the spot indicates, the lavas had so increased that the
lower pit was almost obliterated, the bottom having risen nearly
to a level with the biack ledge. This will be understood from
the figure on page 352: all the bottom pit between pm and p’n’
had become filled up, by the successive overflowings, to within
forty feet of the top, and over the four square miles of area, the
res were in great activity. There were six boiling lakes of lava,
and twenty-six cones from twenty to sixty feet high, eight of
which were throwing out cinders and red hot lava. Standing
by the side of one of these lakes, they looked down more: than
three hundred feet upon its agitated surface: “after a few min-
utes the see sauBare ceased, and the whole surface of the lake
lack mass of scoria; but the pause was only
to renew its skdrinns for while they were gazing at the change,
suddenly the entire crust which had been formed commen
eracking, and the burning lava soon rolled across the lake, heaving
the coating on its surface like cakes of ice upon the ocean surge.
Not far from the centre of the lake was an island which the lava
was never seen to overflow.” ‘These interesting facts gomee
several points of special importance in volcanoes, viz. (1) The:
pidity with which lava cools; (2) The freqrent rise of vases
ture that takes place even iu “boiling me arising from a new
gushing from the source below; (3) th e formation of cliukers,
well compared to the breaking up of ice. From the account of
Captain Kelley, it appears that the ite bottom of the crater
was not in fusion. On the contrary, the greater part was black
lava, over which they travelled to the briuk of some of the pools;
eee ee ee mera Bl
* Jour. of the Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. iv
American Journal of stony ze 117; ; with a tig of the crater, whi
had that the ob'iteration of the lower pit was nearly ;
A bs ames re Sec: of Lee. Shep-
A eee ere ideas ae Bice Pe sited “captain
~
ho Ss
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 357
yet at times floods of lava covered a large portion of the whole
area. ‘I'he pools were in violent agitation, and “hissing, ram-
bling, agonizing sounds, came from the depths of the dread abyss.”
c seen by Count Strzelecki in the same year, it was
still in the condition above described. ‘There were six lakes, one,
as he states, of 300,000 square yards area, and five of about 5,700
Square yards each. ‘The great lake was in violent action.
d. Captain Shepherd was at the crater, Sept. 16, 1839. There
were “numerous small cones, twenty to thirty feet high,” “ lakes
of molten matter in violent agitation,” besides a “great lake,”
one mile long and half a mile broad. The party, (notwithstand-
ing the activity, be it observed,) descended into the crater, and
visited several of the cones and sinall lakes on their way tot
great lake. This lake was in “violent ebullition,” underwent
Constant changes of brightness, and in some places flowed on,
“leaving ridges of scoria on the northern shore.”
_@ We learn from the natives, that, fora week previous to the
outbreak, the whole interior was a fearful scene of fiery deluges
and ejections. There was no black ledge ; for the lavas, by their
overfluwings, since 1832, had not only filled up the central pit,
but accumulated over the ledge, and all was one vast theatre of
intense action. 'The mountain was thus charged. The pressure
on the sides below from the lavas and confined vapors had be-
‘come immetse. Asa natural consequence fissures opened, and
the lavas were drawn off; the centre of the great pit consequenit-
ly sunk down three hundred and fifty or four hundred feet, which
Was its condition when visited by us.
_ There was no great earthquake, no shaking of Mount Loa. At
Hilo not the faintest rambling was heard or felt ; and only slight
quiverings to the south. It was a simple tapping of the great
cauldron, Kilauea; and after it, the crater became comparatively
inactive. Its black hardened surface, and the one or two boiling
pools which remained over the vast area, exhibited the subdued
quiet of exhaustion. |
a j erald, 1841, volume xxxvyiii, p. 283. The author was over the por-
tion a preepstl towards the sea in November. Subsequently it was examined
by Captain Wilkes, Mr. J. Drayton, and Dr. ©. Pickering ; and by means of their in-
vestigations a map of the region was made out.
358 Voleanic Eruptions on Hawaii.
that formed a continuous stream to the sea, which it reached on
the third of June, destroying the small village of Nanawale. This
at a point twenty-seven miles distant from Kilauea, twenty-two
miles from the first outbreak, and twelve from the shores. The
interval between the first appearance of the lavas and this flood
presents a few patches of ejections, and some steam fissures.
The extent of these patches was not accurately ascertained.
Dr. Pickering mentions one small one, just before the last out-
break ; and another, much larger, (7) covering probably three or
four square miles, was observed im a short distance above.
A still larger patch, (2) according to a native report, exists about
half way from the ‘“ Big Crater” (C) and the last outbreak ; while
still another, on the same authority, was seen just north of the
“Big Crater.” It is very remarkable, as stated by Dr. Pickering,
that the line of fracture and lava patches should have cut through
a high hill just north of the “ Deep Crater” (B), and thus avoided
this large pit where it might have been supposed there would
have been the least resistance to fracture. The natives state that
the lavas rose to a height of three hundred feet in the pit-crater
Arare, the first point of outbreak, and then sunk again when the
next outbreak took place; and the appearance of scoria within
the crater satisfied Dr. Pickering that the lavas had risen at the
time to the height mentioned.
~ The scene of the flowing lavas, as affirmed by those who ob-
served it, beggars description. As we learn from an eye-witness,
the lavas rolled on, sometimes sluggishly, and sometimes violent-
ly, receiving at times fresh force from new accessions to the fiery
stream, and then almost ceasing its motion. It swept away for-
ests In its course, at times parting and enclosing islets of earth
and shrubbery, and at other times undermining and bearing along
masses of rock and vegetation on its surface. Finally it plunged
into the sea with loud detonations. The burning lava, on meet-
ing the waters, as Mr. Coan states, was shivered, like melted glass,
into millions of particles, which were thrown up in clouds that
darkened the sky, and fell like a storm of hail over the surround-
ing country. ‘ Vast columns of steam and vapors rolled off be-
fore the wind, whirling in ceaseless agitation, and the reflected
glare of the lavas formed a fiery firmanent overhead. For three
weeks this terrific river disgorged itself into the sea with little
abatement. Night was converted into day on all eastern Hawai.
The light rose and spread like the morning upon the mountains,
and its glare was seen on the opposite side of the island. It was dis-
tinctly visible for more than one hundred miles at sea; and at
he distance of forty miles fine print could be read at. -
Volcanic Eruptions on Haaaii. 359
At three spots on the coast, probably over three opened fissures
whence lavas issued, the sands continued to be thrown up, until
as many rounded or nearly conical elevations were formed, the
largest of which was found to be 250 feet in height, and t
smallest about 150 feet. They consist of a finely laminated tufa,
like tufa craters. The coast is said to have been extended nearly
a quarter of a mile beyond its former limits.
TUFA HILLS, NANAWALE.
e stream, as it appeared ijn November, consisted in its differ-
ent portions of all the kinds of lava tracts elsewhere observed. In
Some portions, especially the upper, there were fields of the
smoother variety, (the pahoihoi,) with the usual ropings and
twistings of the surface; and there were some miniature cones,
a few yards in height, out of which the lavas spouted for a while
after the rest had become quiet. Large tracts were covered. with
sand; and walking over them, the feet often broke through into
steaming chambers, suggesting eaution to the traveller. _ Other
rtious consisted of clinkers, a fact which might have been
inferred fro om the description given of the varying rate of the
moving lavas. In some portions they were in huge angular
blocks; in others in slabs laid with ‘much regularity against one
another. There were numerous caverns and fissures still sending
up clonds of steam ; and in many, the rocks were yet glowing
Within a few feet of the surface. A piece of paper was instantly
ignited. Small snlphur-banks, with deposits of alum and other
anita, were met with in several places.
mathe islets of forest trees in the midst of the. stream of lava
re from one to fifty acres in extent, and the trees still stood
net were sometimes living. Captain Wilkes describes a copse
‘of bamboo which the lava had divided and surrounded; yet
many of the stems were alive, and a part of the my remained
uninjured.* Near the lower part of the flood, the fores we anaes
destroyed for a breadth of half a mile either side, pe
With the volcanic sand; but in the upper part, Dr. fotki found
the line of dead trees only twenty feet wide. The pea some-
as the tree was grad-
times flowed around nls of treesp
ally. consumed, it left a deep cylindri ical hole, sometimes two
iti in diameter, inher empty or filled with charcoal.t ‘Towards
*N, Expd., iv,
+ Similar arratire Avena a hae iar stated were observed ee Bory de ce Oca at
the Isle of A Bot aoaes Voyage aux Isles ¢ Afrique, 3 vols., 4to, Paris, 1
360 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii.
the margin of the stream, these stump-holes were innumerable,
and in many instances the fallen top lay near by, dead but not
burnt. Dr. Pickering also states that some epiphytic plants upon
these fallen trees had begun again to sprout. The rapidity with
which lava cools is still more remarkably shown in the fact that
it was found sometimes hanging in stalactites from the branches
of trees; and although so fluid when thrown off from the stream
as to clasp the branch, the heat had barely secrched the bark.
The waters of the sea were so much heated that the shores for
twenty miles were strewed with dead fish.
From the period, thirty-six hours, which the lavas required to
reach the sea, an average velocity of four hundred feet an hour is
readily deduced, as stated by Captain Wilkes. Yet, as the lavas
issued from various fissures along the course,* the result cannot
add for the previous ejections of the same eruption three more
square miles it gives 6,023,000,000 of cubic feet for the whole
amount of lavas which reached the surface.t
We have a:still more accurate means of estimating the amount
of lavas which passed from Kilauea, in the actual cubic contents
is two and a half times the amount obtained from the estimated
extent of the eruptions. The difference may be accounted for
partly on the ground that fissures were filled as well as surfaces
overflowed, and also that there may have been eruptions beneath
the sea not estimated. This amount is equivalent to a triangular
ridge eight hundred feet high, two miles long, and over a mile
wide at base.
aD OL TN TaN aed
* On this point we cite the following passage from the Narrative by Captain
Wilkes, (iv, 184):—* There are nll fissures along the whole line, as will be per-
ceive the dark places on the map, I feel confident that from each of these an
ejection had taken place, and that the lava had in some cases flowed in a contrary
irection to the general course of the stream.” rt
+ Allowing an average depth of but ten feet, the calculation would give for the
whole amount 5,000,000,000 cubic feet.
¢ As the measurements of the Beton were made eight months after the
eruption, we have somewhat for the increase during that time, and also for
cavities emptied beneath the ledge.
a
=—_
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 361
The lava of the eruption is remarkable for the large proportion
of chrysolite, amounting in some parts to nearly one half, and oc-
curring in coarse grains often a fourth of an inch thick. It is
Consequently very brittle, slabs being easily shattered to pieces
y a tap of the hammer. the seashore produced
by the eruption, consist largely of this mineral mixed with black
grains of the comminuted lavas. In the abundance of chrysolite
river. ‘Thus three “Monte Nuovos” instead of one were thrown
up at a single eruption. ‘The yellow color of the tufa is owing
to the action of the steam and water on the ferruginous cinders,
teducing some part of the iron to a hydrate.
Since leaving the Sandwich Islands, I learn from the Rev. Mr.
Coan that the crater has again been gradually filling up. In No-
vember, 1841, there was little action except in the great lake. In
Sxconp Szrres, Vol. [X, No. 27.—May, 1850.
362 Volcanic Eruptions on Hawait.
vated than the black ledge.” In a letter written in the next
month to a friend from Rev. Mr. Lyman, the crater is described
as having the whole interior filled, with some parts of the centre
standing 100 to 150 feet above the black ledge. The large lake
was still the centre of greatest activity.
It appears then at the last mentioned date to have been nearly
in the condition sketched and described by Captain Kelley in
1839, previous to the eruption of 1840, except that the action had
not reached the same degree of intensity.
Through a letter from Lieut. Henry Eld, U.S.N., we learn that
in the spring of 1849, the bottom of the erater was still as last
reported, but more raised. Yet instead of an increase of action,
the crater was unusually quiet. 'The lavas had subsided in the
great lake and it seemed as if the fires were in process of extinc-
tion. The action was far less than in 1840, when Lieut. Eld was
at the crater with the officers of the Exploring Expedition.*
We conclude at this time with a mention of one or two deduc-
tions from the facts mentioned.
1. Frequency of Eruptions —The last three eruptions of Ki-
lauea have taken place in a period of nineteen years, or with in-
tervals of eight or nine years. Between the years 1789 and 1823,
there may have been a season of comparative quiet, as we learn
from the natives of no great eruption. This evidence, however,
is by no means decisive. They say, in general terms, that erup-
tions have taken place during all their kings, and assert that the
erater has been in action from time immemorial. _ It is quite pos-
sible that in the above mentioned interval, there were submarine
eruptions, if not subaérial; and very probably, the latter also may
have taken place. The statement of the native to Mr. Bishop
that the lavas, after reaching a certain height, would flow out as
they had formerly done under the sea, is evidence that they were
aware of this mode of emptying Kilauea of its lavas. In six
years after 1840, the lower pit was again filled, and since then
an eruption has been looked for.
2. Phases of Volcanic Action.—There can be no truth, at least
as regards Mount Loa, in the principle reasoned out at length, in
an able article on volcanoes, by Bischof,+ that the phases of vol-
canic action depend on water gaining access to the central fires of
e globe; for the evidence is certainly conclusive that the main
action of waters is comparatively near the surface.}
The phases of volcanic action at Kilauea are as follows :—
_ The centres of action, when most quiet, are reduced to @
single one, which occasionally overflows. This overflowing
ae papers have since reported an eruption, but I have not seen the report con-
{Natural History of Volcanoes, by G. Bischof Jameson's Edinburgh Jomreel,
xxvi, 1839; American Journal of Science, xxxvi, 249, 250. f
e omit here the arguments on this point.
Pa ee
4
Volcanic Eruptions on Hawaii. 363
raises the bottom of the crater; the lavas continue to boil over,
and go on accumulating, and elevating the area of action ; the
pressure is consequently gradually increasing ; the action becomes
after a while more intense, perhaps in part from the ‘increasing
pressure, and the increasing height to which vapors ascend be-
fore escaping ; new centres of ebullition add to the effect ; finally,
after the bottom is raised 400 or 500 feet above its lower level,
these centres are numerous, the ebullition is violent, the overflow-
ings almost incessant ;—at last the increased pressure, in addition
to the force of rising vapors proceeding from the increased ac-
tion, cause a rupture through the mountain’s sides and the lavas
flow out.
This is the history from a period of quiet to one of greatest
activity. If the larger pool, after an eruption, should become
a
consequence of it. With this principle in view, we may trans-
late the language of Kilauea into that of Vesuvius or Etna. The
of the greater or less viscidity of the lavas.
same seontiion of effects with the same results ; and periods of
quiet and violent action may have the same mutual relations and
dependence. We need look to no extraordinary influx of waters
to occasion an eruption, as the eruption is a result of a progres-
Sive state of things, perhaps long in action. I do not here itd
that such a paroxysmal influx of waters may at times take p ace,
and has produced results. I urge only that they are exceptions’;
and that phases of quiet and violent activity would necessarily
Succeed one another without such intervention.
364 Chemical Notation of Laurent and Gerhardt.
he same gradually acting cause will also produce occasional
violent ruptures. E'or where the waters for a period find slow
access to any centre of heat within the volcanic mountain
neath its cover of rocks, the vapors will gradually accumulate til
the pressure breaks a way through the mountain, to give exit to
the vapors together with the compressed lavas. The: starting of
a‘cork from a bottle of soda water and the escape of the liquid
ell as carbonic acid gas, though a familiar incident, depends
ona pate principle, with regard to pressure, to which even the
lavas of a volcano must be obedient. The sudden outburst of
lavas through fissures in the very summit of the walls about
Kilauea may be of this character. In many cases violent earth-
quakes should attend this mode of action.
Arr. XXXVI.—On the Chemical Equivalents and Notation of
_ Laurent and Gerhardt; by Cuarutes GreRHARDT
(Translated for this shscig: from the Comptes, Rendus des Travaux de Chimie,
1849, by T. 8. Hunt.)
In commencing the fifth year of these Comptes Rendus, in
which T shall have for the future, the collaboration of M. Laurent,
I wish to recall the principal features of the notation which we
adopt in our system, and which appears to us at the same aime
more simple and more precise than the dualistic method.
The numerical value of our symbols is for the metadloids, Pr
same as in the notation of Berzelius, but for the Pa it is only
one half.» Thus we write, H20, $02, SO, P, O,, CO, CO?,
etc.; HCl, HBr, NH,, have likewise the same significance, as in
the ordinary notation: but in the metallic combinations, the sym-
bol of the metal has but one half the value assigned to it in the
Berzelian formulas.+
* Except for arsenic, antimony, bismuth and uranium, which have the same value
as in the Berzelian formulas.
be rocolleetéit — the a of Berzelius as followed by the French
and German
+ It will
chemists differs a little from that generally employed by the English
Alina from a d bohaldaentiok of their combining volumes, was led to ad-
‘aha oxyge d oge te to form water he pro of 1:2, and
consequently to write the formula of the compound, In aceor
he diy 0 the equivalents of the so-called ments, chlorine, bromine
and iodine, and design: d the atom of hydrochloric acid, corresponding to water,
, and thus made Hy equivalent with K,
haye divided in the ons way the equivalents te of the metals proper, making H the
equivalent of K, Zn, etc.—TZyranslator,
a
acti Si
Chemical Notation of Laurent and Gerhardt. 365
: Examples, Notation of Berzelius. - Our notation.
Sulphuret of hydrogen, H,S S (H,)
Sulphuret of potassium, KS $(K,)
Chlorid of hydrogen, H, Cl, Cl (H)
Chlorid of potassium, KCl, Cl (K)
Sulphuric acid, 80,,H,0 SO, (H,)
Sulphate of potash, SO,, KO S0,(K,) |.
Bisulphate of potash, SO,,KO+S0,,H,O SO, (HK) —
Sulphate of zine and potash, SO,, KO-+S0,,ZnO SO, (ZK)
Nitric acid, N,0,,H,0 NO, (H)
Nitrate of potash, N,O,, KO NO, (K)
The principal difference consists in the notation of salts, which
we regard as unital in their constitution, as systems in which the
metal may be exchanged for another, without affecting the ar-
rangment of the molecular structure. (We write generally the
metal in parentheses.) According to this view, the acids, prop-
erly called, (the hydrated oxacids, and the hydracids,) are salts,
in which the metal is represented by hydrogen; the oxyds and
sulphurets have the same claim to the title of salts as the sul-
phates and nitrates. The so-called anhydrous acids we loo
upon as a peculiar class of bodies, (anhydrids,) which become
acids by the fixation of the elements of water.
We farther assume that one and the same body may have two
or several equivalents. According to us the idea of an equivalent
implies that of a similarity of function, and it is known that one
and the same element is often capable of playing the part of two
or of several other very different elements; it may then happen
that each one of these different functions corresponds to different
proportions of the first element. On the other hand, we some-
tim Ss see different weights of the same metal, as, for example,
iron, copper or mercury, replace the hydrogen of acids to form
salts, which although containing the same metal, are different in
their properties. The metals have then different equivalents.
Ferrous sulphate, SO, Fe
Ferric sulphate, SO, Fe} = 3S0,,Fe,0,
Thus in the ferric sulphate there are but two-thirds the quantity of
iron which exists in the ferrous sulphate ; but these two-thirds of
Fe are the equivalent of H, K, Na, Zn, ete., and also of the Fe
in the ferrous salts; but when two-thirds of Fe replace H in
sulphuric acid, or K in the sulphate of potash, we obtain a salt
Which without ceasing to be a neutral sulphate, possesses proper-
ties very different from those of the ferrous sulphate where Fe
=. §0,,; FeO Berzelian
formulas,
366 Chemical Notation of Laurent and Gerhardt.
entire, replaces H, K, Zn. ‘The equivalent Fe% then communi-
cates to the sulphatic system properties as different from those of
the ferrous sulphate, as would be those of a sulphate containing
any other metal.
Again, in the mercurous and mercuric chlorids we have the
same amount of chlorine united to different quantities of the
metal.
Mercurous chlorid, Hg, re
Mercuric chlorid, Hg rf
Hg, in the mercurous salts is the ae of H, K, Na, Pb, etc.,
and equally of Hg in the mercuric salts. Mercury has then ac-
cording to our view, two equivalents (mercuricum and mercuro-
sum), as compared. with other metals, which are to set other
as 1 ; 2, and each one of these has its peculiar propert
To show in the formulas that Fe, Hg., represent scjuivalel
of H, K, Na, etc., we often replace the exponents by certain signs,
employing the Greek letters «, 8, 7, and 3, in place of the num-
bers 2, $, 4,4. The equivalents of H in ‘the following salts are
then thus represented.
Berzelian formulas.
2-6
Cu in the cupric salts. | Cu, or Cua in the cuprous salts.
Hg omerduric:* Hg, or Hge “ mercurous “
3=8
Fe in the ferrous salts. rig or Fe? in the ferric salts.
Aw. © nai _
Cr “ chromous salts. ore orCr8 “ chromic “
Mn “ manganous “ MnorMnég « sapacacte °
~
Sn “ stannous salts. Sng or ard in the stannic salts.
“ platinous “ Pt or ve “* platinic “
+=
Bik or hee in the eae salts.
Sb4 or Sbé timo
Autor Aud “ ic
Ata this plan of notation we write the formulas of these salts
as fo
Berzelian n notation.
KO + Al "0,3 "980 24 aq. SO “KbA 6a
Sulphate of potash, 50” shi ee Sletatat S04 K, BE }+6 89.
Phosphate of soda P.O. 2Na0, H,0+424 aq. PO, (Na H)+12 aq.
Riots pisoie Ps 50,, Na0, 2H,0-42 aq. PO, (Na H,)+a9.
Ox;
Phosphate of alumina, P, 0. ,Al,O, PO«(Al3 )
ois simplicity of the new notation is especially evident when
to t i
ural silicates. Take ion an example the clare of the chlorite
Chemical Notation of Laurent and Gerhardt. 367
3Mg O, Si0,+Al, O0,,SiO,+2(Mg 0, 4H, 0).
This we write,
Si O, (Al?3 Mgs H3),
and this formula reminds us at once that chlorite belongs to the
silicates of the form SiO, (M,),* for 3+4+4=4.
he advantage of our notation consists then principally in this,
that it expresses all the salts of the same genus in the same man-
her; each symbol appears but once in a formula. Consequently
we denote similar compounds in a similar manner
_ In the notation of organic substances, we take their volumes
into consideration, when they are bodies which are volatile with-
out decomposition. We denote these always by the same num-
rt of volumes, and the non-volatile compounds derived from
them by similar formulas. Thus for the monobasic acids, we
take as an equivalent the quantity which contains (H) one equiv-
alent of basic hydrogen; this corresponds to two volumes o
vapor. The derivatives (non binémes,) which do not perform
the functions of salts, are represented by the same number of
volumes ; in case these derivatives are fixed, we take as an equiv-
alent the quantity produced by one equivalent or yielding one
equivalent, of the monobasic acid. For example,
Berzelian notation. "H_0.(H)
Acetic acid 2 Se On C, 3Ve
Acetate of potash, C,H.O,, KO 0, H,0,(K)
Ferric acetate, . 3C,H,O,, Fe,0O, C,H,0,(Fe#)
Chloracetic acid, . ©,0,,C,Cl,,H,O C,C1,0,(H)
ua of 2 - ,0,,C,C1,, KO 0,1,0,(K)
Ferric chloracetate, 3(C,0,,C,Cl,),Fe,0, C,Cl,0,(Fe?)
Mend, gs. GAO C,H,O
Aldehyde, . . . C,H,0, C,H,0
C,H,
Olefiant gas, . . ‘ CH,
The bibasic acids not being volatile without decomposition, the
law of volumes cannot be applied to them directly, but these
acids give by decomposition, volatile anhydrids. We re then
as the formula the quantity which yields two volumes of an an-
hydrid. These acids are therefore represented with two equiva-
lents of basic hydrogen (H, ). Examples.
Berzelian notation. notati
Stale st yout, COED. C.0.(K:)
ate of potash, C,O, $
Binoxalate Sf potiah, 6.0,, KO+C,9,, H,0O C,0,(HK)
deaeee << : C,0,,K0+3(C,0,,H,0) C,0,(H} Ky)
3 s .
* We write silica SiO; (SiO, 2Mz O=Si 0, (M¢).)
*,
368 Chemical Notation of Laurent and Giyprharlt,
n the same manner the tribasic acids are deffoted with ites
seaieiiniie of basic hydrogen, (H,,) as in the féltowing ex-
amples.
Berzelian notation.
‘ 3C ,H,0,,2H,O
Acid citrate of potash, 3C, o ‘0, /KO+H,0
aan oe of ‘ 30 ,H,0,,2KO
3KO
Citric acid,
Third citrate of
eh bee H, ,O
11)
Pd
Our atti: “sn
C,H,O,(H,)-
C,H,0.(KH,)
C,H,O,(K,H)
C,H,0,(K;)
By me sods we represent the mineral acids also with H, H, or
H,, according as they are monobasic, bibasic, or tribasic.
ost chemists denote organic substances by formulas which
all these formulas, when they
are exact, may be divided by two and represented in our notation.
finish this introduction by a table of the proportional numbers
of the principal simple bodies, with the numerical value that is
are double those adopted by us, but
ascribed to them in our notation,
Hat; :
H Hydrogen, . 1: 6:25
Li — . 64 40°16
Bo
Magnesium, 12: + 75-00
C
Mg
Al
N
Si
Fl
Ca
Na
Cr Chromium, » 26> 162°50
Fe 2
Mn
Ni
Co
Cu
Ss
6g
Zn
Chlorine,
Potassium, .
Strontium, .
mo
Apthipony, .
Tellurium,
oid,
Bismuth,
Agassiz on the Relations between Animals, &c. 369
*
Art. XXXVII.—The Natural Relations between Animals and
© the Elements in which they live; by L. Acasstz.
*Amone the early attempts to arrange animals in a systematic
order, we find almost universally, that the natural elements in
which their different tribes live are introduced as the fundamen-
tal principle of their classification. During the sixteenth and
stances in which they dwell, had been introduced into our systems,
we still find a prevailing influence of such considerations upon
the circumstances of the natural subdivisions of animals. As
soon however as the study of comparative anatomy had shed its
brilliant light upon this question, those views were entirely aban-
doned, and the whole animal kingdom was finally arranged ac-
cording to its internal structure. The introduction of this prin-
ciple was hailed as a new era in the history of our science; and,
after Cuvier had applied it to a general revision of the whole an-
mal kingdom, it was and has been universally acknowledged as
the only safe foundation of a natural classification of animals.
The recent progress in zoology, and of the various branches of
natural history connected with it, has however opened the pros-
pect of further improvements, even upon the basis on which our
classification at present rests. For embryology is already display-
ing its vast influence upon zoological questions, and the time is
not far distant, when its share in the natural arrangement of ani-
mals will be as large as that of comparative anatomy itself, and
hen information derived from. all possible quarters shall have
ma.
and functions of all animals. For though it is plain that the mere
‘Stconp Serres, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 47
370 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
with the terrestrial or aérial animals. For instance, all those
which live upon dry land breathe directly the atmospheric air,
and have a respiratory apparatus adapted for direct introduction of
this element into their systems, while aquatic animals breathe
through apparatus of a different structure adapted to a permanent
contact with aérated water. This circumstance alone would suf-
fice to show that the natural relations of animals with the ele-
ments in which they naturally dwell, is in direct connection with
at least some of their structural peculiarities. But there are other
circumstances which may lead to the conviction that this connec-
tion has not merely reference to the structure of their respiratory
apparatus, but influences their whole organization. 'The greater
pressure under which aquatic animals are maintained throughout
_ their life modifies, in many other respects, their organization. In
many of them the surrounding element has largely a direct access
into the cavities of the body or even into their tissues; so that a
irect and universal influence of the surrounding media must be
acknowledged throughout the animal kingdom as soon as we take
into consideration all their peculiarities. 'This influence will be
appreciated more correctly, if we consider it separately in each
great group of the animal kingdom as established upon anatomical
ence. cis
After removing the Whales from the Fishes, it will be plain
that the Cetacea must be considered simply as an aquatic type of
the class of Mammalia, and that the connection which exists be-
tween them and the element in which they live will not affect at
all the views which we shall entertain about that class, and only
allow us to consider within more natural limits, the true relation
which exists between fishes and the natural element in whicl
they are found. The circumstance that so many birds are aquatic
in their habits will no longer prevent us from considering the
class of Birds as a most natural group in the animal kingdom, the
limits of which are well defined by anatomical evidence ; and the
relations of aquatic birds to the waters upon which they alight
or in which they dive, will only be considered within the limits
of a well circumscribed natural group. The same may be said
of Reptiles; and the circumstance that so many of their types
are almost entirely aquatic, while others are terrestrial, will by no
means prevent us from viewing them as @ natural class, in which
the connection with either main land or the water shall appear as
a subordinate feature.
Again the-class of Insects, which is so thoroughly aérial through-
out almost all its types, at least in their perfect state of develop-
ment, circumscribed as it is within natural limits upon anatomical
evidence, will appear to us as a type which shall bear no relation
in our mind to the class of Birds, although their movement through
the atmosphere be apparently so similar. a
and the E'lements in which they live. 371
But, although we remove in this manner almost completely the
circumstance of animals dwelling either in water or upon main
land as influencing in any way our general classification of the
animal kingdom, it were a great mistake to lose sight entirely of
this most intimate relation among the natural secondary groups
of animals under their different types.
The value of these considerations has become more apparent,
since the outlines of the leading divisions in the animal kingdom
have been made in detail by allowing the results of embryology
to have their due share of influence upon our classification; and
the object of these remarks is chiefly to show that there is a
universal relation throughout the animal kingdom between their
structure and gradation and the elements in which they live; that,
in all the four great types of the animal kingdom, the aquatic
groups stand, in natural classification, lower than the terrestrial,
and that this connection is so intimate as to extend even to the
subdivisions, and so much so, that I have arrived at the conviction
that in an otherwise well defined natural division, the aquatic
tribes should be placed below the terrestrial ones; that even in
narrowly circumscribed families the aquatic genera rank below
the terrestrial, and that even in natural genera the aquatic species
are inferior to the terrestrial ones. But before considering those
minor divisions let us take a general glance at the four great types
of the animal kingdom beginning with the Radiata. e5
If we consider the type of Radiata as it is still cireumscribed in
some of our most recent works upon the animal kingdom in gen-
ral, we may fail to discover this intimate connection between
their natural types and the media in which they live. But if we
reduce the type of Radiata to those classes which I consider as
alone truly representing that type, we shall be at once struck with
the remarkable result, that all these animals are aquatic, nay, that,
with one single exception, they are all marine. But before this
ean be acknowledged, it must be shown that the type of Radiata
should be reduced to the three classes of Polypi, Jelly-fishes and
Echinoderms; and that, among Polypi, there are large numbers
of animals now united which do not all belong to that class.
The most extensive range acknowledged by some zoologists in
the type of Radiata includes Infusoria with the Rotifera and also
intestinal worms. . Without entering for the present into a full
discussion of the natural character of all the animals which have
been included in the class of Infusoria, I may limit my remarks
to a few critical points, in order to show that the Polygastrica,
and even the Rotifera cannot be ranked among Radiata.
In the first place Rotifera constitute a particular group among
Infusoria as Ehrenberg himself has acknowledged. . ‘They differ
80 completely from the Polygastrica as to forbid entirely their
union in a natural classification. The only question is whether
372 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
among Entomostraca, while others have considered them as more
closely allied to worms. But I may say that all, or almost all,
naturalists at present understand the necessity of removing them
from among Radiata into the great type of Articulata.
This point is no longer in question; the only remaining doubt
respecting them is whether they should rank among the lower
Crustacea, or among the worms in the wider sense. As for the Pol-
ygastrica, we meet with greater difficulties in attempting to classify
them ; for this group, as understood by Ehrenberg, consists still
of most heterogeneous beings which do not even all belong to the
animal kingdom. Recent investigations upon the so-called An-
entera, including the families of Baccillaria and Volvocine Infu-
soria, have satisfactorily shown, in my opinion, and in that of most
competent observers, that this type of Ehrenberg’s Polygastrica
without gastric cavities, and without an alimentary tube, are really
plants belonging to the order of Alge in the widest extension of
this group; while most of the Monas tribe are mérely movable
erms of various kinds of other Algee. As for the other Polygas-
trica which Ehrenberg combines in this division of Enterodela, I
am satisfied that they also constitute still a heterogeneous group
belonging to different types of the animal kingdom; and that
most of them, far from being perfect animals, are only germs in
an early state of development. The family of Vorticellee exhibits
so close a relation with the Bryozoa, and especially with the genus
Pedicellina, that I have no doubt that wherever Bryozoa should
be placed, Vorticella should follow, and be ranked in the same
division with them. ;
The last group of Infusoria, Bursaria, Paramecium and the like,
are, as I have satisfied myself by direct investigation, germs of
fresh water worms, some of which I have seen hatched from eggs
of Planaria laid under my eyes. This being the case, we see that,
without exception, the whole class of so-called Infusoria must be
dissolved into its various elements and divided partly among the
Articulata, and partly among Mollusca in the widest extension of
those groups, (if it can be shown that Bryozoa belongs also to the
type of Mollusea,) that large numbers of them belong to the veg-
etable kingdom, and others are simply germs of other types, and
at no single one of them belongs to the type of Radiata. —
weet ae
&
Pe
we
and the Elements in which they live. 373
If we next consider the Polypi we find them constituting an-
other main group and most natural class, to which indeed some
heterogeneous types have been annexed; upon the removal of
these however that class constitutes a very natural division of
the type of Radiata among which they form the lowest class.
The natural groups which require to be removed from Polypi are,
—first, the so-called Hydroid Polypi, which, though truly radiated
animals, do not belong to this class, but are, as I have shown from
their structure, and as might long ago have been inferred from
their development, true members of the class of Meduse, among
which they constitute a type of stalk animals, as crinoids among
star-fishes.*
The Bryozoa also are not constructed upon the plan of Radiata,
as has long been shown by Milne Edwards and others. Their
true position is among Mollusca, and embryonic investigations
upon Ascidia have satisfied me that Bryozoa, compound, and sim-
ple Ascidia, form a natural series of well connected types leading .
to'the true Acephala among ordinary Mollusca, among which Bry-
ozoa will form a natural group of compound animals, bearing the
same relation to the ordinary bivalve shells, that common corals
ar to the simple Actinie and Fungie. Though the doubts en-
tertained about the Foraminifera among Bryozoa, would not affect
at all the points under discussion, I may as well state at once,
that I have arrived at the conclusion that Foraminifera constitute
the lowest type of Gasteropoda, and exemplify under permanent
rms the state of division of their germs in their embryonic de-
velopment. Thus circumscribed, the class of Polypi constitutes
a very natural group containing only animals of an identical radi-
ated structure, the organization of which is at present very satis-
factorily known.
The class of oe has been from the beginning so well
‘characterized, and circumscribed within so natural limits, that it
has undergone since its establishment only slight modifications by
the removal of some few genera: and after the position of the
so-called Hydroid Polypi among them shall have been generally
_ acknowledged, I believe it will undergo scarcely any new changes
In its extension, though we may still expect extensive improve-
ments, which are indeed very much heeded, in the characteristics
and internal arrangement of their natural families. Considering
their structure, the Medusxe rank immediately above Polypi.
The Intestinal Worms have long been placed among Radiata,
and considered as a natural class in this great type of the animal
ie
lypi, read before the American Association
, Science, held in Cambridge, August, 1849; also my lectures
Fa comparative embryology, delivered before the Lowell Institute, Dec. 1848, and
374 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
kingdom, notwithstanding so many striking differences in the plan
of their structure. This position was assigned to them upon the
ground of the radiated arrangement of parts around the head, and
the vascular form of some of their genera, and also upon the sup-
posed want of a nervous system in all of them. But since the
discovery of nerves in all of their types, and since the most. inti-
mate relations have been discovered between them and so many
other external worms, their complete separation from Annelides as
a distinct class is hardly recognized now by any modern investi-
gator. And the necessity of combining the intestinal parasitic
worms into one great natural group with the other external free
worms is becoming daily more evident to all, so that whatever po-
sition be assigned to Annelides in the great type of Articulata,
Helminths have to follow them, and must therefore be removed
from the type of Radiata. This point is undisputed now, though
there may be a difference of opinion as to the propriety of admit-
ting, to one great class, all Worms, or of subdividing them into
minor natural groups.
he third class among Radiata is that of Echinoderms, which
has been circumscribed within most natural limits since the r
union of Holothurize and Crinoids, with the common star-fishes
and true Echini. Whoever is familiar with the embryonic devel-
opment of Echinoderms, which has been extensively investiga-
ted of late, will acknowledge an intimate relation between them
and the other two classes of Radiata, and not be willing to assent
the proposed separation of Echinoderms as one great type in
the animal kingdom, placed upon an equal footing with Mollusca,
and will consider their separation from Polypi and Meduse, as
proposed by Dr. Leuckardt, rather as a retrograde step, than as an
improvement upon the general classification of animals, ‘To me
‘e-
the type of Radiata, embracing the three classes of Echinoderms,
Meduse and Polypi, constitutes, in its circumscription illustrated
above, a most natural group of the animal kingdom, all the mem-
bers of which are intimately connected by a close uniformity in
the plan of their structure, but present a remarkable gradation
of their types in the manner in which this structure is developed
in each of their classes. And the circumstance that even in the
higher ones, which contain chiefly free movable animals, we have
some few representatives attached permanently to the soil upon a
Polyp-like stalk bearing the radiated animal crown, shows further
the intimate connection which exists between them all. Radiata
consist therefore of three classes only, which in their natural gra-
dation rank as follows: Polypi, lowest, next, Meduse, and high-
est, Echinoderms.
As soon as we have removed in this way all the classes or fam-
ilies which do not strictly belong to the type of Radiata, we cau-
not fail to perceive at once that all the remaining animals which
and the Elements in which they live. 375
must be considered as truly radiate are not only all aquatic, but,
with a single exception of the genus Hydra, all strictly marine;
from which we are allowed to infer that, in the plan of the crea-
tion, the radiated structure is incompatible with a terrestrial mode
of life. We see that the lowest degree of development of the
whole animal kingdom is entirely marine ; and that it has been so
throughout all ages in the history of our globe, is shown by the
large numbers of Radiata found from the earliest periods through
all geological epochs up to the most recent, and the entire absence
of radiated animals in any of the fresh water deposits. The cir-
cumstance that no single genus among Radiata contains fresh wa-
ter animals, further shows that this type in its main features is not
better adapted for a fluviatile existence ; or, we may say in other
words, that the plan involved in the structure of radiated animals
is chiefly adapted to the sea. We might perhaps even say, if, in
this stage of the investigation, it would not seem premature to
go so far, that the lower types of animals are not only entirely
aquatic, but exclusively marine. The fact of so large a number
of aquatic animals as Radiata being so exclusively marine, un-
doubtedly shows that the connection of organic structure with the
Ocean, involves peculiar circumstances, which fresh waters by
no means afford to a similar extent. Whether this is especially
connected with the greater density of the medium or not, lam
not fully prepared to say, though [ am inclined to believe that it
is so, from the circumstance that Radiata are so constantly killed
by the contact of fresh water, as I have ascertained by direct ex-
periment upon Polypi, Meduse and Echinoderms, some of which
are struck with almost instantaneous death, when brought into
fresh water, and decompose with astonishing rapidity. I have
seen on dropping an Ophiura into fresh water, all the articulations
ismembered and entirely separated within a few minutes.
_ No one of the three other great types of the animal kingdom
Is either so exclusively marine, or even so exclusively aquatic as
that of Radiata. For among Mollusca we have quite a number of
terrestrial genera, and even a large number of fresh water genera
and families.
Among Articulata we notice also large numbers of fresh water
ation be
live, and whether the gradation of this structure has any refer-
ence to the surrounding media as it unquestionably has among
iata. }
_ Let us first consider Mollusca, and perhaps revise their classes
in a zoological point of view before undertaking the investigation
‘
376 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
of their relations to the media in which they dwell, allowing in
this revision, a due influence to embryology as far as it can influ-
e
cea, we have five classes of Mollusca left, if we follow Cuvier’s,
arrangement of these animals, as he distinguishes Cephalopoda,
Foraminifera bear to a still earlier period of their embryonic
growth, when the yolk is undergoing its process of gradual succes-
sive division, which seems to me to be exemplified in a perma-
nent form in the numerous cells into which the body of Polythal-
amia or Foraminifera is naturally divided. If this view be cor-
rect, the class of Gasteropoda would therefore consist of the three
types of Foraminifera, Pteropoda and true Gasteropoda, among
which we would place the Heteropoda, lowest, and the Pulmonata
highest, both on account of their structure, and on the ground of
the peculiar mode of development of Pulmonata.
eee a paper upon the homologies of Gasteropoda and Acephala ihe Biyoee
0 systematic position of Pteropoda, Foraminifi Brachio and oz0a,
and the Elements in which they live. 377
The third class is that of Cephalopoda, which has always been
circumscribed within natural limits, since Foraminifera have been
removed from it. The position which I ascribe here to Foram-
inifera will appear very natural to those who are equally conver-
sant with the succession of fossil types in geological periods, and
with embryology, and who know, as we have seen it to be the
-case also among Radiata, that the higher classes reproduce in their
lower forms, types analogous to the lower ones. F'or the great
number of fossil chambered shells, existing in earlier geological
riods, is very striking when we compare those old representa-
‘tives of the class of Cephalopoda with their condition in the pres-
ent period of the creation, and the natural gradation and analogy
between Bryozoa as the lowest type of Acephala, with the For-
aminiféra as the lowest type of Gasteropoda, and the chambered
shells of old ages as lower types of Cephalopoda will remind us
of similar relations between Polypi as the lowest type of the ani-
mal kingdom, the so-called Hydroid Polypi as the lowest type of
Acalephze, and Crinoids as the lowest type of Echinoderms, which
are strictly parallel cases in two of the great types of the animal
kingdom.
If we now start from these modifications in the classification of
Mollusca which rest entirely upon anatomical and embryological
considerations, to appreciate the relations between the three classes
of this type, and the media in which they naturally live, we can-
not fail to be struck with the circumstance, that all Acephala, with
one single exception, are aquatic, as are also Cephalopoda; and that
we have only terrestrial representatives among Gasteropoda. Next
it must be obvious, that among Acephala we have fewer fresh
water representatives, than among Gasteropoda, as the fresh water
types of Acephala belong truly to two groups one of which has
very few fresh water families, whilst among Gasteropoda we have
quite a variety of fluviatile and terrestrial types.
The first thing which must strike us in this type, when con-
trasting it with the Radiata, is the circumstance of a far larger
proportion of fresh water forms and of the introduction of a num-
ber of terrestrial ones. This simple fact in itself would go to sus-
tain the hint thrown out above, that a higher organization in
the animal kingdom is better adapted to the fluviatile and terres-
trial life, than a lower structure; as among Radiata we have not
one single terrestrial type, and only a single fluviatile one ; whilst
the Mollusca, the structure of which is formed upon a plan deci-
dedly higher than that of Radiata, present already a large increase
of fluviatile types, with the addition of very many terrestrial
ones. But this view will at once be sustained to a most unex-
pected extent if we consider which of the Mollusca are aquatic,
marine, which are fluviatile, and which are terrestrial. Be-
ginning with the Acephala, we have then, in the first place, all the
Srconp Series, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 48
378 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals —
Polyp-like Bryozoa, and Tunicata, and the compound Tunicata,
entirely marine, with the exception of a few genera of fresh water
Bryozoa. And it is very interesting to notice that fresh water ani-
mals among Mollusca are of the lowest type of their class, as also
was the first and only fresh-water Radiate,—showing thus that the
types to which they belong are not adapted to rise into any of their
higher developments into the forms best fitted for other elements.
Next we notice the Brachiopoda which are all, without excep-
tion, marine. Next Lamellibranchiata, mostly marine, though
some of their types are fluviatile. So the entire class of Acephala
is aquatic and chiefly marine, and its fluviatile types belong to its
lowest group, and to its highest. This circumstance has raised
the question with me, what is the proper position to assign to the
Naiades among the Lamellibranchiata, and upon due consideration
of their peculiar characters, and especially of the circumstance
that their mantle is entirely open, that they have no prolonged
syphons whilst there are such even among Ascidia, I am inclined
to suppose that they rank highest among Lamellibranchiata and
that Monomyarians should rank between Brachiopoda and Dimya-
rians. The reason for assigning to Naiades this higher rank rests
upon the homology traced between the foot of Gasteropoda and
that of Acephala, and between the reduction of the mantle upon
the sides of the foot which it no longer encloses in Gasteropoda,
and also the higher position of the gills under the margins of the
mantle, all peculiarities in which Naiades bear closer resemblance
to common Gasteropoda, than any other of the Acephala. Thus
this class of Acephala, though chiefly marine, with a few repre-
sentatives of its lowest types in fresh water, would reach its
highest degree of development in one family, which is entirely
fluviatile.
Among Gasteropoda we have again Foraminifera as the lowest
type entirely and without exception marine; Pteropoda, which
rank next, entirely and without exception marine; Heteropoda .
which follow, equally marine; and among true Gasteropoda, whic
in their class are decidedly the highest, we find first, fluviatile and
then terrestrial families. And now the question is, among these,
what is the respective position of the marine families, of the flu-
viatile families, and of the terrestrial families. "There are among
them such structural peculiarities as will decidedly settle the ques-
tion. If we set aside fora moment the few branchiate fresh
water Gasteropoda, we have a large number left which are pul-
monate, and which live in fresh water and upon land, and which
as a whole we may contrast with the branchiate true Gasteropoda,
which are almost all marine, with the few exceptions of Valvata
and Paludina and Ampullaria. Now which of these two types
rank highest will not be a matter of doubt as soon as it is remem-
bered that Phlebenterata are among branchiate Gasteropoda, and
and the Elements in which they live. 379
that the natural gradation established by their structure among
the upper groups in the class of Gasteropoda, agrees with their
natural connection with the elements in which they live in the
order which I have assigned to these, the types of Gasteropoda
which are lowest being exclusively marine; the highest, equally
fluviatile and terrestrial; and among these the fluviatile ranking
immediately above the marine, and the terrestrial ranking highest,
and the proportion of the fluviatile in the whole class being still
larger than in the class of Acephala, inasmuch as the structure
of Gasteropoda is also a higher degree of development of Mollusca
than that of Acephala, and the first terrestrial type in the animal
kingdom in the gradation of its structure making its appearance
4m the class of Gasteropoda.
The Cephalopoda are highest among Mollusca as aclass. They
rank so high as to rival in the complication and development
of their structure even some of the Vertebrata, and strange to
Say, we have among them only marine types, not a single flu-
Viatile representative, nor a single terrestrial one. This fact
would at first seem to be in direct contradiction with the state-
ments made before, if it were not for the circumstance that this
class in itself as represented in our days does not seem altogether
‘Teduced in comparison with the other two, if we could not be
Satisfied that its perfect period of development were the former
geological ages when its numbers were far greater than at present,
a circumstance which places the whole class in peculiar relations
to its type, which must be rather appreciated under the point of
View of the conditions which prevailed in former ages, when
the ocean covered more extensively the whole surface of the
globe than at present; so that the type with its high organization
Must be considered more with reference to its development in
former ages, than to what it 1s now, as at present the class is pro-
Portionally reduced, and it is well known, and it will be further
Mentioned with reference to other types, that in earlier periods
however high animals might have ranked by their structure, they
Were all marine, as we know fishes to have been the only repre-
Sentatives of Vertebrata in earlier periods.
380 Agassiz on the Relations between. Animals
At this stage of the investigation, a comparison between Mol-
lusca and Radiata shows that, though the former advance farther
in their fluviatile development, and even reach with some few of
their types a terrestrial mode of existence, there is not yet a single
family among them which is entirely terrestrial, nor a single class
which is either entirely fluviatile or terrestrial, this connection
with the higher conditions of existence being only introduced
among some few of their representatives, which we are allowed
from other data to consider as the highest in their respective
groups.
If we now pass to the great group of Articulata and begin as
before by revising their zoological arrangements as based upon
anatomical and embryonic data, we shall have at the outset to
settle the limits of their classes, and their relative positions.
The first point which we have here to investigate is the ques-
tion whether Articulata in the widest extension of this group con-
stitute one single natural type, or whether they should be subdi-
vided into two equivalent groups, as has been proposed by those
who would restore the division of worms, in its widest sense, as a
great division equal in zoological importance to the type of Mol-
lusca, and unite the Arthropoda, Crustacea, and Insects to form
another group of equal value.
The great diversity among worms, seems at first to warrant in
some degree, such an arrangement. But as soon as we consider
the metamorphosis which insects undergo, and compare their
earliest stages of growth with the structure and forms of worms,
we cannot fail to perceive, that notwithstanding the many pecu-
liarities which characterize worms, they are, after all, only one of
the permanent modifications of the same type as Crustacea and
insects, among which last the characters and forms of a large num-
ber of worms are reproduced as transient states of growth ; so
that upon the most natural view, and especially if we allow embry-
ology to have its due weight in fixing our opinion, we must con-
sider worms with all their diversified forms, Crustacea in all their
diversity, and Lepades, Arachnid and Insects, to constitute one
single undivided natural type in the animal kingdom. Assuming
upon the foundation alluded to, and without entering into a de-
tailed argument upon this question, that this is the right view of
this subject, the next question is about the number of classes into
which these Articulata should be subdivided. T'aking here again
anatomical and embryological evidence as our guide, and remem-
ring what was said above of intestinal worms we shall find that
the most natural combination of the different groups of Articulata
will bring them all into three classes, one containing those in
which the body is either more or less distinetly articulated, or 0
which indications of transverse wrinkles in the skin are scarcely
marked, or wholly wanting, but in which, however developed these
and the Elements in which they live. 381
joints may be, they never combine in such a manner as to divide
the body into distinct ridges, in which the form is always elonga-
ted and vermiform, never provided with articulated rings, however
humerous and diversified the locomotive appendages may be, and
in which the foremost joints hardly ever assume a peculiar struc-
ture with the appearance of a head. This class for which the
name of Worms is best retained, will contain the Helminths and
Annelides exclusive however of the vermiform parasitic Crusta-
cea, which embryology has taught us to refer unhesitatingly, to
the class of Crustacea. The extraordinary diversity which exists
among these animals renders it rather difficult to subdivide them
into natural groups, and to assign to these groups a natural suc-
cession agreeing with the gradation of their structure, as there
are so many the development of which is as yet very imperfectly
known, and others which undergo so complicated metamorphoses
as to leave great doubt respecting their natural relations to each
other. However, there can be no doubt that Helminths rank
lower than Annelides, for their structure indicates plainly their
inferiority, and their mode of existence within other animals
Shows that they do not even reach that degree of independence
which might allow them a free existence.
to which we refer also the Cirripeda notwithstanding their trans-
formations, also the Lernean parasites, though they may assume
382 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
in their parasitic mode of existence so extravagant forms, and an -
to the relative position of Crustacea among Articulata ; they rank
higher than worms; though they must be placed below the in-
sects notwithstanding their perfect circulation and their otherwise
highly developed structure ; for, in every respect, insects consid-
ered as a whole class, are more highly organized, their higher
types assuming a division of the body into three distinct regions ;
—undergoing also far more extensive metamorphosis, and assum-
ing finally an aérial mode of respiration, to which the Crustacea
do not reach. For these reasons, which I have illustrated more
fully on another occasion, I have no hesitation in placing the
class of insects highest among Articulata, and in comprising in one
class the true insects with Arachnida and Myriopoda, which are
only lower degrees of development of the more special types of
true insects; the Myriopoda representing in a permanent state of
development, and with the structure of true insects, the form of
their caterpillars ; the spiders with their cephalic and thoracic rings
united into a cephalo-thorax representing their chrysalis in a
permanent state of development; and the true insects with their
three distinct regions, the so-called head, thorax and abdomen,
ranking highest among them, as well for their more extensive
metamorphosis as for the characteristic division of the body, the
reduction of their locomotive appendages to a peculiar region, the
complication of their chewing apparatus, and the development of
their wings. The true arrangement of the different. members of
this class however is readily indicated by the remarks already
made upon this class, and we shall not hesitate to consider Myri-
opoda as their lowest type, and to place Arachnida next above
them, and then true Insects, among which the sucking tribes
rank highest.
If we now consider the connection of these three classes with
the elements in which they are developed, and in which they
permanently live, we cannot fail to be struck with the fact that
two of their classes are either parasites or entirely aquatic, for
even the terrestrial worms live in moist ground or on the bark
where moisture is constantly accufmulating ; and these two classes
we have seen to be the lowest of the type, while the class of
insects, which, in their perfect development, are all terrestrial or
aérial, constitute the highest type.
“
Ret, an ee eee ie ee
ee a
and the Elements in which they live. 383
that the ine worms are probably lower than the fluviatile, and
terrestrial,—at least, if the view expressed above respecting the
relative position of Lumbrici and branchiate Annelides be correct.
In the class of Crustacea we have exclusively aquatic animals,
and we, find that among them those which live as parasites upon
other animals rank lowest. The distinction however between
fluviatile and marine types in this class does not seem to be in
Strict accordance with their gradation, for we have fluviatile De-
“9
which are in the habit of leaving the water to dwell upon the
main land. The occurrence of parasitic Crustacea upon fresh-
water fishes, again, seems to indicate that here the parasitism pre-
vails over the influence of the surrounding media ; and we should
not wonder at this circumstance, as a parasitic mode of develop-
ment dependent upon the prior existence of organized beings, is
not only a prominent feature in the mode of existence of so man
orms and Crustacea, but also even of many of the Insects, espe-
cially of the tribe of Arachnida and Diptera, at least in some
earlier periods of their existence. In this connection it is an in-
teresting fact to notice that the American fresh water Crustacea,
the craw fishes, have fewer pairs of gills than the other represen-
tatives of the class.
Again, it may be, that to appreciate truly natural relations of
this type of animals, it will be necessary to consider se I
each of their minor divisions rather than the whole class as a
unit ; as we shall have to do also among the reptiles where the
peculiarities of the primary divisions overrule the influence of the
ia in which they are developed.
However obseure theserelations may be among Crustacea owing
to the parasitism of some of their types, or the peculiar meta-
morphosis of others, if we now cofisider the insects proper we
ll find here again a strict accordance with the results we have
already derived from the investigation of the lower classes. Hav-
ing acknowledged the superiority of the sucking insects over the
chewing tribes, we cannot fail to perceive that Neuroptera, which
must be considered as the lowé@st, inasmuch as their body still
Preserves the elongated form of worms, are aquatic in their larval
condition and have even external gills, as their respiratory organs
during that period. Néxt, Coleoptera among which also we find
384 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
aquatic larve, and a number of terrestrial types, and highest the
Orthoptera which undergo a less extensive, but entirely terrestrial,
development, whilst Hymenoptera have a more diversified meta-
morphosis, and assume even in their larval condition in some of
their types, the higher forms which characterize the larves of
epidoptera. Se ,
Among the sucking insects we begin again with various aquatic _
types, or aquatic larval forms,—next rise to Diptera with other”
aquatic larval conditions but a constant aérial mode of- life in the’
perfect state, and finally to the type Lepidoptera in which all farvee
are terrestrial, and even highly organized in their earliest state in
_ growth, these larve are chiefly fluviatile and not marine, so that
we may conclude from: zoological evidence that the more inti-
mate connection with the main land and aérial mode of existence
oderms, which for so long time prevailed to the almost en-
winged families, among which thé Neuroptera seem to be the first
to increase in number, and the late ear ate of the sucking .
ae
ele a
cf
and the Elements in which they live. 385
tribes in tertiary beds; and there will be no doubt left that the
gradation of structure is intimately connected with the extension
of continental lands, and that the present connection of animals
with the surrounding media in which they live agrees also with
their natural gradation. If we would study the natural relations
between animals.and the media in which they live, we could not
begin with better prospect of success than by investigating mi-
“
“nutely the different families of Vertebrata separately, rather than
“the whole classes of this great type. For though it is at once
apparent that the class of Fishes as a whole is entirely aquatic, and
stands at the same time lowest among Vertebrata, as soon as we
pass to the investigation of the Reptiles we find aquatic and even
marine types among ‘Turtles, which rank much higher than the
whole order of Batrachians, which are almost entirely fluviatile ;
and we find again marine and fluviatile types among Birds an
Mammalia, the highest of all Vertebrata. These facts show most
, conclusively that an organization aS-high as that of the Vertebrata
Ba thee] 2 peered a, Neen, ie as sd
rd
_ Introducing a mode of exi
f ae ee
the seasons throughout the. year, so durable as to last for numbers
of years, (whilst among Invertebrata, and especially among Insects,
but also among many other animals of lower type, there exists
the most:intimate connection between their development and the .
course of the seasons); we say these facts show that with such ani-
mals which are placed so far above the influerice of physical con-
ditions, their connection with the circumstances under which they
live is much weaker, so much so that internak stracture overrules
greatly the foundation of thoge conneetions Which are so intimate
in lower animals, and reduces their limits ‘to subordinate connec-
tions between members of the minor groups; while in the ¢
of Fishes—the lowest—the whole type is orgahized in such a
manner as to make it uniformly dependent upon one»of the
natural elements in which animals live,*¢he three other classes
present most. diversified combinations, *there being marine, flu-
Viatile, and: terrestrial or aérial types in these classes, under the
development of as many structural types, differing almost in the
ree when contrasted with each other and so much
that the aquatic Mammatia even in their marine types, or the ma-
tine Turtles, differ as much from each other or from Birds as they
agree with their respective fresh water or terrestrial types. ‘These
discrepancies between the great types may be owing to other
motives in the plan of creation than those to which they are
here ascribed. ‘The apparent anomalies between some of the
articulated types may also be the results of combinations different
from those with which they aré¢onnected above. But whether
views are correct or not, have no doubt that the study of
the phenomena which I am now contrasting, cannot fail to lead
y to a more correct appreciation of the natural relations
Szcoxp Series, Vol. IX, ‘No. 27.—May, 1850. 9
*
386 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
which exist between animals and the media in which they live,
than the vague views which have prevailed lately from want o
investigation of the subject rather than from an especial view
taken of it; Iam far from supposing that in every instance I
have hit at the outset the true view. I shall be satisfied to have
called forth direct investigation upon this question, and led the
way in a field which promises so ample reward.
Before entering into a special investigation of the natural rela-
tions of Vertebrata and the surrounding media, it may not be out
of place to call attention to some collateral facts which will appear
particularly prominent in the type of Vertebrata, but which have
already their value in the study of the lower types. I allude to
the relative bulk of animals of the same type living in different
di e can derive no impression upon this point from the
investigation of Radiata, as they are all aquatic, and almost en-
tirely marine. But the difference is already marked between
Mollusca if we contrast their marine and their fluviatile and ter-
restrial types within the limits of their natural secondary groups.
Among Articulata the same rule obtains, and here we may
compare classes with classes, even in their different stages of
wth. Are not the Worms, taken as a whole, larger animals than
the Caterpillars? Do we not find among, marine Worms by far
the largest types? We need only remember the gigantic Eunice,
or even the parasitic Tape Worms'to be satisfied of the fact. Are
not the Crustacea as a class composed of types exceeding far the
aan ot Insects even with their wings spread? Are not the
Lobsters many times larger than the fresh water Craw
and the Elements in which they live. 387
Fishes? A minute investigation of the details of this numerous
class might lead to very interesting comparisons which however
would be out of the way in this general sketch.
_ Ishall mention only a few facts to show that these comparisons
might even be traced between the different stages of growth of
* these animals. It must be, for instance, a matter of surprise to
see that the body of so many Insects is smaller in their perfect
state of development than as a pupa; and that again this is
smaller than that of the larva, thongh the larva be after all only
the younger state of the pupa, and the pupa the younger state of
the perfect Insect. But in the same ratio as we find so frequently
throughout the animal kingdom that the lower condition of struc-
ture and development of a type is manifested in a more bulky
body, so we find among Insects, that their earlier state of met-
amorphosis which is developed under inferior circumstances,
teaches its final growth in a more bulky body than that of follow-
ing periods during which their successive moultings and the trans-
formations of the substance of the body takes place; the greatest
size which the larva acquires is first reduced in its transition into
a chrysalis, and this. again is reduced in its transition into a per-
fect Insect,—the development of wings only leaving them seem-
ingly of greater size when their surface is extended, though
the bulk as a whole be reduced. Weighing these animals in
these different states of development will satisfy the most incred-
ulous of the reality of what is here stated, should the appearance
have deceived him before. A Sill Worm when it begipe to spin is
much heavier than the chrysalis, and this heavier than the perfect
Without directly weighing these animals, we might
Satisfied about this fact if we should consider the amount of silk
Which is thrown out by the latter, and the amount of fluid which
1s discharged by the Moth even before it rids itself of its load
of eggs and sperm, to enjoy the last moments of its complete
maturity. | : en Fats
If we now allude to the Vertebrata we shall find very similar
facts, and perhaps in the animals to be mentioned, inducements
for the discovery of‘ curious unnoticed connections. And here
again we should be cautious for reasons alluded to already above,
Not to take the classes ‘as such, but rather to consider their differ-
€nt types separately ; for the class of Fishes as a whole cannot be
Said to contain the largest Vertebrates, nor even to afford any
Support to the view that aquatic animals in general are larger than
terrestrial, for we find proportionably a much greater number of
tge species among Mammalia than among Fishes; we find a
peer number of large terrestrial Reptiles than of aquatic ones.
ut if we review the classes separately, and consider their second-
ary groups by themselves, we find that the rule holds good, but
bears, at the same time, most interesting reference to the order of
re
388 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
succession in geological times, as the respective types of any
given group are the larger in the present period, whether terres-
trial or aquatic, for being representatives of families which had
humerous representatives in older periods. Among Fishes, we
find the largest in the family of Sharks and Skates, Sturgeons
and Garpikes, the first of which are exclusively marine, the sec- ~
ond marine and fluviatile, the third entirely fluviatile ; but the
three types are either exclusively representatives of families largely
developed in former geological periods, or so connected with ex-
tinct types as to show that this connection has influenced their
development.
Among Reptiles we find the largest in the family of Turtles
among their marine representatives; among the Lizard-like, in
the fluviatile Crocodiles; among Batrachians, in their aquatic
families.
In Birds, the aquatic families, Pelicans, Geese, Ducks, &e., bear
out the animal kingdom, are constructed within limits of size,
which do not admit of great differences. A comparison of Ceta-
ceans with Rodents, of Ruminants with Bats, of Passerine with
Gallinaceous Birds, of Sharks with Herrings, of Cod-fishes with
natural connection of the secondary groups.of Vertebrata, with
the elements in which they live.
_ Though the class of Fishes is entirely aquatic, we have among
these animals a greater number of marine types, and some which
are partly marine and partly fluviatile, or, at periods, marine, or,
at periods, fluviatile; and others which are entirely fluviatile or
almost so. And though, at present, it is not plain that fluviatile
types on the whole are superior to the marine types, we shoul
not lose sight of the circumstance that the only living Sauroids,
which have so many characters by which they may be connected
with the class of Reptiles, and considered as the highest among
shes, are entirely fluviatile; both Lepidosteus and Palypterus
occur only in fresh waters; some of the Lepidostei only are
en
and the Elements in which they live. 389
known to reach the mouths of rivers emptying into the sea. And
though the families of Sharks and Skates are chiefly marine, num-
bers of them, especially of those types of Skates which have
numerous fossil representatives during the tertiary period, such as
Myliobatis, are known to ascend freely the rivers in tropical re-
gions. Among Cyclostomes, the lowest type Branchiostoma is ma-
rine, Petrostoma proper being both marine and fluviatile, the higher
type of Ammoceetes (for we must consider Ammoceetes as higher,
inasmuch as the division of the lips indicates a tendency towards
a formation of a distinct upper and lower jaw), is exclusively flu-
viatile. The Goniodonts which from their affinities to Stur-
geons rank higher than the Siluride, are exclusively fluviatile,
whilst there are some marine types among the latter. Among
Percoids we find in fresh water a larger number of those in which
the two dorsals are distinct, acharacter making them eminently
Superior to the forms with undivided fins. or the same rea-
son we should consider the Sparoids inferior to the Percoids,
their dorsals being not only generally undivided, but even cov-
ered with scales. Among the Eels, those destitute of all ffs
are exclusively marine, those without pectorals also exclusively
marine, and we may fairly consider the fresh water Eels as the
higher type of the family on this ground. If there is any natural
connection, as I have attempted elsewhere to show that there
1s, between Scombroids and Scomberesoces, and Esoces proper,
it becomes plain at once that the latter are the higher from the
abdominal position of their ventrals, and they are a fluviatile fam-
ily. Even taking the Cycloids as a whole, we find among them
the lower families of Thoracici and Jugulares, as the families of
Scombrides, chiefly marine, whilst the family of Salmo-
hide, and Cyprinide are chiefly fluviatile. Among the Gadoids
we have those with many vertical fins, as the true Cod, marine,
while those in which the dorsals and anals are reduced such as
the genus Lota are fluviatile. Even among the Salmonide in the
widest extension which this family had formerly, we find the
Scopelidae with the inferior structure of their jaws chiefly marine,
while the Coracini and true Salmonide are chiefly fluviatile.
Everywhere, in fact, in each minor group, the fluviatile represen-
tatives show characters indicating their superiority over their ma-
tine representatives. Whatever exceptions might be found to
this law, which in the outset appears so general, I have no doubt
will lead at some future time to the discovery of some other prin-
ciple as yet unknown. 4 ee
The class of Reptiles is one of the most interesting in the point
of view under consideration, and each of their types exemplifies
In itself the law of the intimate connection between animal types
and the media in which they live in the most striking manner,
ch as here the gradation, which might be inferred from
390 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
structural and embryological evidence, agrees most fully with the
gradation of the eleinents in which they live. Among Batrachi-
ans we have chiefly fluviatile and terrestrial families. The Ich-
thyodes, or Batrachians with permanent branchie, are all aquatic,
and acknowledged the lowest in the class. Some of their lowest
representatives occur even in brackish swamps, and, as soon as
attention is called to this subject, it cannot fail to be perceived
that the Frogs with their more or less palmate fingers, and their
more aquatic habits, rank lower than the Toads with their divided
fingers and terrestrial mode of life. Among Ophidians we have
chiefly terrestrial. families, and only a few marine and aquatic
ones; but who can fail to perceive that the marine serpents with
their flattened tail, are inferior to the terrestrial genera, and that
among these it is a well known fact there are some with rudi-
mentary posterior extremities which assigns them a superior rank.
Some objections might be drawn from the consideration of the
Saurians, among which, the highest type, the Crocodiles, are chief-
ly fluviatile ; but it has elsewhere been shown that Crocodiles are
n@ truly Saurians of the same type with our Lizards, but modern
representatives of a large family which was very numerous in
former geological periods, when their first representatives were
marine types provided with fins instead of distinct fingers; so
that, far from being an exception, the Crocodiles of our days which
are either fluviatile or terrestrial, must be considered as the high-
est representatives of that almost extinct type of Reptiles, the
earliest forms of which were marine, followed by fresh water.
inally, among Chelonians the gradation in connection with the
natural elements in which they live is most striking, for the infe-
riority of marine Turtles is as plain as it can be, not only in the
form of their organs of locomotion, but even in the peculiarity of
many of their internal organs especially of their ovaries, which
contain eggs almost as numergus as those of Fishes.~ Next we
place the fresh water Turtles with palmate fingers, and highest,
terrestrial Testudines with their short undivided fingers. So that
we have in this class with its various marine and fresh water and
terrestrial types, not only a full illustration of these laws, but so
intimate a connection between gradation of structure and mode o
living in various elements, as to lead to the conviction that the
mere mode of living might in many instances be almost as safe a
uide to ascertain the natural gradation of types, as the study of
their internal structure. . w
Ever since the class of Birds has been the object of regular
investigation, their aquatic types have been considered as inferior
to the terrestrial ones, and among the former, those which live
entirely an aquatic life are decidedly the lowest. They are s0,
not only on account of the more imperfect development of their
_ which preserve throughout their embryonic form, but
a’
Pe
7
{)
and the Elements in which they live. 391
in the less extensive development of their wings, in the more
scale-like form of their feathers, and the greater number of eggs
they lay, and the less care they take of their young, which are
hatched in a state of development in which they are already
prepared to provide for their own food. The same is the case
with the Gallinaceous and the Wading Birds, which, though more
advanced in many respects, are still inferior to the climbing and
Passerine Birds in this respect, having a heavier flight, if they fly
at all, and living a more terrestrial, and even aquatic life; the
Wading Birds coming nearer in this respect, to those with palmate
fingers, and the Gallinaceous Birds, as well as the Ostriches hav-
ing a more terrestrial mode of life, whilst the Passerine Birds rank
higher in all these respects, feed their young, and take care of
them for a longer time, and live almost exclusively an aérial life,
few of them having aquatic habits, and those being in their
respective families by their form as well as by their mode of life,
decidedly inferior to their loftier relations.
_ The classification of Birds as a whole is still so imperfect,
though their minor groups are well understood, that many impér-
tant relations in these respects must necessarily be more or less
concealed as long as their primary divisions are not better known ;
So that we may expect many interesting hints from further inves-
tigations in this view. .
_ The class of Mammalia is not only the most diversified in
the forms of its members, but also in the diversity of their mode
of life; nevertheless this diversity is connected by the most in-
timate relations of structure. ‘The Whales are as much Mam-
malian by their internal organization as the most exclusively ter-
restrial quadrupeds. T'rue Cetaceans constitute a natural family,
all the members of which are exclusively marine, and no one
of them even fluviatile—for the Sirenidee must be considered as
entirely distinct from true Cetaceans; and these Cetaceans, at the
same time that they are so exclusively marine, are also the low-
est type of Mammalia, not only from the imperfection of their
extremities, of which there is only one anterior pair, and from the
Want of hind-legs, but also from the extraordinary development
and bulk of their muscular tail, and the development of a caudal
n, and sometimes even a fin-like fold of the skin upon the back.
If it can be shown that the Sirenide are an aquatic type of a
larger group embracing Pachyderms, the direct relation of their
Structure and mode of life will be at once obvious, since Sirenidee
are either marine or fluviatile, while trae Pachyderms are terres-
trial ; and should we not be justified in considering the subaquatic
ippopotamus as inferior to its more terrestrial relatives of the
genera Rhinoceros, Elephant, and Horse? Are we not to consider
the Ornithorhynchus, with its palmate hind-legs and spur, as infe-
tior to Echidna? Are not the palmate Rodentia inferior to the ter-
392 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals
restrial and arboreal types? Are not the aquatic Shrews inferior
to the arboreal Insectivora? All these secondary questions will
receive, in future, due attention and will no doubt he satisfacto-
rily settled. But ‘there are families in which we can already see
our way and arrive at precise conclusions. Among Carnivorous
Mammalia we have three very distinct types, the Pinnipoda or
Seals; the Plantigrada or Bears, and the Digitigrada, Dogs and
Cats. Now even if objections were raised against the association
of the Walrus with the common Seals, there can be no doubt of
the inferiority of the latter when contrasted with Plantigrada and
Digitigrada. ‘Their short fin-like legs, their clumsy body in con-
nection with their aquatic marine life, assign them a lower position,
and the Plantigrada must be cons sidered as intermediate between
them and the Digitigrada. Now among Digitigrades, even if we
take isolated genera, we are led to assign to the species with
aquatic habits, an inferior position among their nearest relatives.
‘The polar Bear comes decidedly nearer the Seals in all its habit id
than any other species of that genus, and on sane hair sage
bé considered as inferior to the terrestrial speci Again
others, with their palmate fingers, rank lower em their —
relatives: and we may even find that such considerations will
hold good among the varieties of one and the same species ; or
we have varieties among the Digitigrade Dogs in which the fin-
gers are palmate, a character which is derived from the imperfect
development of their legs, preserving throughout life their em-
onic form; and these varieties among Dogs are the most play-
ful and at the same time, most aquatic in their habits, preserving
in their adult state eharacters of ‘the young and. habits of the
lower types,—this playful tigpootiog andy universal even among
the most ferocious of the Cat tribes J shall abstain purposely
from tracing these compari§gns = highe? up ameng Monkeys, and
in the human families, from ‘fear of alluding to exciting topics;
but leave it to the philosophic observer to consider how far t
idea of an aquatic Monkey is compatible with the high position
which these animals hold in ¢he class of Mammalia; and how
curious it is that in the human family there are races which differ
so much in their natural dispositions, mode of life, habits and
adaptation to higher civilization; and how closely these natural
dispositions are connected with apparently th et peculiar-
ities of structure
pon reviewing the facts mentioned above, and the inferences
derived from the facts, no impartial observer can in future deny
the importance of the study of the natural relations between ani-
mals and the media in which they live ; and the close connection
which exists between them and the gradation of their structure.
But this being the case, it must be a matter a po Re a the
views so long entertained of the importance of this connection,
a}
SS ee
rp ee
and the Elements in which they live. 393
which led earlier naturalists, generally, to the classification of
animals according to the media in which they live, should have
been so completely abandoned, and even considered of no value
at all in systematic classification. For my own part I have no
doubt that this negative result has arisen from the circumstance
that all aquatic animals were brought together, in these earlier
attempts, without reference to their structure or organic develop~
_ nent, while we have found that structure is the ruling principle,
ary
and that natural connection with the element, is the second
motive by which these connections are influenced. Indeed,
aquatic animals, though agreeing in many respects, and though
provided with analogous apparatus to perform the same functions,
have, in different types of the animal kingdom, a very different
plan of structure, and very different organs to perform the same
functions. Isshall not enter into a detailed illustration of these
differences, as I have alluded to these facts in other papers, but
only recall here, the great difference which exists in these connec-
tons between the different types. ;
Among Radiata, which are all-aquatic, we find even that the
adaptation to the liquid element is introduced in a plan of struc-
ture which is widely different from the plan of structure pre-
_Vailing in Mollusca, though they also are chiefly aquatic; and
that even the terrestrial types of Mollusca present, for adaptation
to an aérial mode of life, only a modification of their aquatic
ypes. The same may be said of Insects, in which the structure is
mainly that of the Crustacea and Worms, which are permanently
aquatic types, presenting simply a transformation of those peculi-
arities of Structure which efiable the lowef classes to live under
er, such as -will.enable theny to rise in their adult state into an
wat
aérial condition of e Among Vertebrata the case is very
different. The type is coristructed for a terrestrial and aérial
with common Articulata. They have a pulmonary mode of life
as much as man ; they have the same mode of reproduction ; only
their form enables them to dive under water and to dwell perma-
hently in the Sea; but, for all their structure, they are truly aérial
animals. And this is equally the case with Birds and Reptiles ;
and with the Fishes I am prepared to show that there is uo differ-
ence in this respect. For, though in their perfect state, Fishes are
exclusively aquatic, they are completely built upon the same plan
With those aérial classes of Vertebrata. The difference here is
Only this that the branchial apparatus, which exists simultane-
ously in Reptiles, Birds, and Mammalia, in their imperfect condi-
Srconp Sens, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 50
394 Agassiz on the Relations between Animals, §c. ‘
tion, is developed to be a permanent organ of respiration, while
it is reduced and disappears in the higher classes in proportion as
the lungs acquire a greater development. In Fishes, on the con-
trary, the homologue of the lung remains functionally and organ-
ically in a rudimentary state, as an air bladder. But all classes
have both apparatuses in an inverse state of development, and thus
Fishes are as fully constructed on the plan of the higher Verte-
brata as the aérial Invertebrata are on the plan of their aquatic
types.. But the circumstances that Fishes have the double type
of respiratory organs, and that the pulmonary one which by no
means exists in any Invertebrates as I have shown elsewhere, but
throughout the Vertebrata including Fishes, show that the whole
type of the Fishes, haye to be viewed in the same light as Rep-
tiles, Birds and Mammalia, and must therefore be only considered
as a lower condition of these aérial types, and not the latter as a
higher degree of the former. For tracheze of Insects, and lungs
of Spiders, are only modified branchie of the type of Articulata,
just as much as lungs of Pulmonata are modified branchie of the
type of Mollusca, while gills and lungs in Vertebrata are paral-
lel systems both coéxisting in all of them and only acquiring re-
spectively a different degree of development in each of their
classes. 'These facts which I have traced in other papers through
a special comparison of all the homologies of the different types
of respiratory organs in Vertebrata, Articulata, Mollusca, and Radi-
ata, show plainly, that the aquatic, marine, or fluviatile, and ter-
restrial mode of life ave introduced throughout the animal king-
dom by special adaptations of peculiar different systems of organs
performing analogous functions; and that the failure of intro-
ducing the consideration ‘ef the adaptation of animals to the
media in which they live, in the plan of their classification, must
be ascribed to the fact that these analogous structures were in
the beginning considered as identical features in the organiza-
tion. But taking in future into consideration all these peculiari-
able types of Invertebrated animals; and we have seen that this
agreement is as close and as complete throughout the types of
Radiata, Mollusca and Articulata, as it is plain among Vertebrata,
and the slight difficulties to which we have alluded, must proba-
bly be referred to the present state of our knowledge respecting
some of them, rather than to a departure from this law in any of
their types. . : ais
Kirkwood’s Analogy in the Periods of Rotation, §c. 395
Art. XX XVIIL.—On a new Analogy in the Periods of Rota-
tion of the Primary Planets, discovered by Daniel Kirkwood,
of Pottsville, Pennsylvania.
(From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, 2nd meeting, held at Cambridge, 1849. p. 207.)
Mr. Sears C. Waxxer addressed the Association on the sub-
ject of a new analogy in the periods of rotation of the primary
planets, discovered by Daniel Kirkwood, Esq., of Pottsville, Pen
sylvania.
The subject of my present communication is contained in a
letter of Mr. Daniel Kirkwood, of Pottsville, Pennsylvania, dated
July 4th, of this year.
The Secretary then read Mr. Kirkwood’s letter, as follows :—
e Pottsville, Pa., July 4th, 1849.
Sears C. Warxer, Esq., ’ :
Sir,—Knowing the great interest you feel in astronomi-
had little doubt of the existence of such a law in nature, an
have been engaged, as circumstances would permit, in attempting
its development. I have arrived at results, which, if they do
Not justify me in announcing the solution of this important and
nce problem, must at least be regarded as astonishing co-
neide
_ Let P be the point of equal attraction between any planet and
the one next interior, the two being in conjunction: P’, that be-
tween the same and the one next exterior.
Let also D=the sum of the distances of the points P, P’, from
the orbit of the planet; which I shall call the diameter of the
Sphere of the planet’s attraction; - :
D’=the diameter of any other planet’s sphere of. attraction
found in like manner;
n=the number of sidereal rotations performed by the former
during one sidereal revolution round the sun ;
396 Kirkwood’s Analogy in the Periods of
n’=the number performed by the latter; then it will be found
3
that n? 3 n/?::D* : D’?; or n=n’ (B®
For,the sake of convenient reference, I subjoin the following
tables. The masses of Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Sat-
urn, are taken from your edition (1845) of Sir John Herschel’s
Treatise on Astronomy. Those of Mercury and Uranus corres-.
pond with my hypothesis, and are nearly identical with the most
recent and reliable determinations of astronomers. In other
words, the mass of Mercury is very nearly a medium between
the two estimates of Encke,* while that of Uranus is more than
4iths of Struve’s mass, ;;4;,; found by observations on the sat-
ellites.+ The mean distances not being given in miles in Hers-
chel’s Treatise, I have used the table of distances in the Astron-
omy of Professor Norton. For Mars’s period of rotation (245 37™
20%. 6.) Ihave adopted the recent determination of Prof. O. M.
Mitchel, (Sid. Mess., vol. i, p. 52)
TABLE IL.
, : No, rotations
Frat? Pigs Diner fond ain” aryl ene | © Toe
Mereury,| 36,814,000 277,000) 5263 87-63) 1-942653
Venus, :787,000| 2,463,836) 1569-6, 230-9 |2°363424
Earth, 95 10d. po0 2,817,409 1678°5
144,908,000 392,735, 626-7, 669-6 |2825815
upiter, | 494,797,000 953,570,222 30879:8 10471: |4-:019988
Saturn, | 907,162,000 284,738,000 16874:124620- |4:391288
Uranus, |1,824,290,000| 35,186,000, 5931-5
The points of equal attraction between the planets severally
(when in conjunction) are situated as follows:— »
TABLE Y.
Miles from the 1 tg the
Between Mercnry and Venus, 8,029,600 23,943,400)
«Venus and Earth, 12,716,600, 13,599,400
« Barth and Mars, 36,264,600 13,540,400
« Jupiter and Saturn, 266,655,000 145,710,000)
ing to my empirical law, will be found to be as follows :—
* See Prof. Encke’s letter to Mr. Airy, dated Dee, 20, 1841.
¢ Edinburgh Phil. Journal, for July, i848.
Rotation of the Primary Planets. 397
Diam. of Sphere of Attr. Log.
Mercury, . ? . 19,238,000 1-283704
Venus, , ‘ ‘ 36,660,000 1564218
Mars, . ; ‘ . 74,560,000 1:872479
Jupiter, . ‘ , 466,200,000 2°668594
Saturn, ' . 824,300,000 2°916127
Remarks.—The volumes of the sphere of attraction of Venus,
Mars, and Saturn, in this table, correspond with those obtained
from Table II; that of Mars extending sixty-one million miles
beyond his orbit, or to the distance of two hundred and six mil-
lion miles from the sun. This is about two or three million miles
less than the mean distance of Flora, the nearest discovered aste-
roid. ‘That of Mercury extends about eleven million miles with-
in the orbit; consequently, if there be an undiscovered planet in-
terior to Mercury, its distance from the sun, according to my hy-
pothesis, must be less than twenty-six million miles. Jupiter’s
sphere of attraction extends only about two hundred million miles
_ Within its orbit, leaving eighty-nine million miles for the asteroids.
It is only in the most distant portion of this space, where small
bodies would be less likely to be detected, that none have yet
been discovered.* a"
The foregoing is submitted to your inspection with much diffi-
dence. An author, you know, can hardly be expected to form a
a8 estimate of his own performance. When it is considered,
wever, that my formula involves the distances, masses annual
revolutions, and axial rotations, of all the primary planets in the
system, I must confess, I find it difficult to resist the conclusion
that the law is founded in nature.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
Danie Kirxwoop.
We annex the following Letter, dated Pottsville, January 23,
1850, from Mr. Kirkwood containing a brief history of his very
Important discovery.—Ebs.
Wt emark that one planet between Mars and Jupiter, with a
Saneniand 5 sare oe sa about double of the former, would perfectly satis-
fy the conditions of my theory.
398 Kirkwood’s Analogy in the Periods of Rotation, §c.
The following is a very brief history of the astronomical dis-
covery communicated to the American -Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, at its session in Cambridge, Mass., in Au-
gust, 1849, by Sears C. Walker, Esq. .
My dirst notions in regard to the existence of an unknown law
regulating the revolutions of the planets on their axes, date some
time previous to the commencement of 1839. No investigation
of the subject, however, was undertaken until the spring or sum-
mer of that year, when, in reading Young’s Mechanics, I was
struck by the remarks at the 204th page in support of the con-
' jecture that both the progressive and rotary motions of the heav-
enly bodies were originally communicated by the same impulse.
While reflecting upon the subject it occurred to my mind that an
examination of this theory, in case it were founded in truth, might
possibly develop that harmony, of which I had for some time en-
tertained a vague conception. Having determined to give the
subject my earnest attention, I commenced by calculating the
distance from the centre of each planet to the point at which, ac-
cording to the known laws of dynamics, the projectile force must
have been impressed.* These distances I compared with each
other in a great variety of ways. Failing thus, however, to de-
tect any relationship between the different members of the sys-
tem, I abandoned this hypothesis as hopeless.
After this, my leisure hours were spent for several years, with,
no better success, in comparing the masses, volumes, densities, dis-
tances, é&c. At length, as the only remaining source of hope, I
took up the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. This was in 1846.
Here I soon found that a proper discussion of the questions which
presented themselves required an analysis beyond my reach, and
that consequently there was little prospect of attaining my object
by any direct process of mathematical reasoning. Still, however,
I could not persuade myself utterly to abandon my laborious
though hitherto unavailing pursuit.
ad not been long engaged in my researches on the nebular
hypothesis when the diameter of the sphere of attraction present-
ed itself to my mind as a probable element of the law sought.
Further consideration of the subject led to the conjecture that
the ratio of the angular velocity of translation to that of rotation,
or, which is the same thing, the number of a planet’s days in its
year, might be another element. Finally, on the 12th of August,
1848, I obtained the simple analogy announced a few months
since in my letter to Mr. S. C. Walker. My delight as I applied
it to the different planets in succession and found its wonderful
agreement with the known elements of the system, may wel
imagined.
* In these calculations I was, of course, under the necessity of making certain as-
sumptions in regard to the variation of density from centre to surface.
ee
On the so-called Biogen Liquid. 399
Some time previous to the date of my discovery, I learned that
the nebular hypothesis .had been abandoned by some of its most
distinguished advocates in consequence of the revelations of Lord
Rosse’s telescope. ‘This fact, together with several other conside-
rations, prevented me from at once making the result of my in-
vestigations public. Having, however, again and again revised
my calculations, and having found that according to the theory
of probabilities there are many millions of chances to one against
the accidental coincidence of so many independent variable quan-
tities, I ventured to submit the subject to the inspection of as- ——
tronomers. ‘The interest it appears to have excited, and the favor. —
with which it has been received, have exceeded my most enthu-
Siastic anticipations. If it be indeed the expression of a physical
law and not a mere harmony; it undoubtedly opens to men of
science a vast field for cultivation. .
Arr. XXXIX.—On the so-called Biogen Liquid ; by Cuar.es
traRD, Member of the Boston Natural History Society.
Tue following pages are devoted to an examination of a letter
published in the American Journal of Science and Arts,* also of
a communication read before the Boston Natural History So-
ety in December, 1848.+ poe wt
The letter consisted of an exposé of three facts and one the-
ory, Viz. :
First fact. The formation of the egg in the ovary, as observed
in a soft-shelled mollusk (Ascidia) and in a worm (Sigalion).
econd fact. 'The germinative vesicle does not always and
necessarily disappear before the division of the yolk. 1
Third fact. There exists in the centre of the germinative
spot, a transparent vesicle.
heory. What embryologists have called albumen in the egg
of invertebrated animals, has nothing in common with the albu-
men of the egg of Vertebrata. This liquid is the mother liquid
of the yolk, that is to say, of the elements from which a new
individual originates; therefore it is called Biogen.
These facts which have been added to science were not first
made known by Mr. Desor. The theory is really his own. We
shall presently see on what it rests. are :
n the communication read before the Boston Natural History
Society, besides a brief account of the letter just mentioned, we
find introduced some comparisons between certain pretended phe-
nomena which are said to take place in the earlier age of the egg
and the merely conjectural phenomena of the nebular hypothesis.
bE
* Second Series, vol. vi, No. 21, (May, 1849,) p. 395.
+ See Journal of that Society, vol. iii, p. 85.
400 On the so-called Biogen Liquid.
Without further prefatory remarks, I proceed directly to take
up one by one the facts, the theory, and the speculations.
I. The primitive egg has been made the subject of much re-
search by Prof. Agassiz, especially in the department of Mollusca.
Ascending even beyond the first existence of the egg, he has
shown us the ovary itself in the process of development. This is
composed of sacks or pouches varying in form and size, in which
the eggs are formed. The sacks are filled with an homogeneous
and transparent liquid. Soon this liquid becomes granular, that
is, consists of cells, and the cells becoming more and more nu-
merous, give birth to a little opaque sphere, which is the vitellus.
The germinative vesicle and the germinative spot have appeare
during the formation of the yolk, and sometimes even prior to
this period ; but at the moment when the phase of division com-
mences, both the spot and the vesicle generally disappear, and in
the interior of each of the spheres produced by the division, is
seen a clear space.
A Résumé of these observations has been published.* Since
then, Mr. Desor has observed analogous phases in other animals.
He published them, as he had a right to do, but he should have at
least declared at the outset, that he was doing nothing more than.
repeating the observations which another had made before him.
II. When an egg has reached that point of its history which
is called its maturity, it is distinguished by the following charac-
ters :—a spherical mass, more or less opaque, which is the yolk ;
in the center of this is found a much smaller sphere, the germina-
tive vesicle, containing another substance, usually transparent ;
then in the interior of this last, a sphere or spheres still smaller,
the germinative spot or spots. .
The epoch of the appearance of the germinative spot varies as
it would seem within very considerable limits. This is not the
place to discuss this question. Let it be observed, however, that
they exist in every egg when it is mature, and that they disappear
from every egg when it enters upon the period of division.
But among the Nemertes a curious phenomenon is observed.
Generally as we have just said, the vesicle and spot disappear be-
fore the division of the yolk, or, at least, at the moment when it
divides in halves. The secondary spheres resulting from the sub-
divisions of the vitelline mass, have then, each one in its interior,
a clear space. The question has been raised, what part the ger-
minative vesicle plays in the history of the eggs? Is the division
the consequence of its disappearance? in other words, is its con-
tent necessary to effect the division. The germinative vesicle
has been considered as containing the primitive elements of the
* Lectures on Comparative Embryology, by Louis Agassiz. Boston. January, 1849.
On the so-called Biogen Liquid. 401
new being, or an element indispensable to its formation. Now
here, among the Nemertes we meet with a case where the yolk
is already divided into four parts, while the germinative vesicle
still exists. 'The division of the yolk, then, can take place with-
out the previous bursting of the germihative vesicle.
his fact is set forth and illustrated fully in the Lectures on
Comprehensive Embryology,* and what appears strange to us, is,
that Mr. D. now takes for his own, an observation to which he
strongly objected when it was first communicated to him. Hav-
ing made his observations upon a species different from that in
which the fact was originally*observed, there was, it seems to me,
flicient merit in pointing it out in another species, without
claiming for himself the absolute priority.
If. In 1840, Mr. Martin Barry and Prof. Valentin, simultaneous-
ly observed, the one in England in the egg of the Rabbit ; the other
upon the shores of the Mediterranean, in the egg of a sea Urchin,
(E'chinus lividus,) that the germinative spot is not so simple as
had been previously supposed. 'The observations of Mr. Barry
were published during the same year ;t those of Prof. Valentin,
written in 1840, did not appear till 1842, and at this time he was
Still unacquainted with those of the English micrographer, for he
would not have failed to mention observations so curious and a
€oincidence so remarkable. Prof. Valentin merely says that a
round opaque body is often discerned in the center of the germi-
native spot.{ In 1841, Van Beneden$ observed a granule in the
germinative spot of the Hydractinia rosea, and in 1844,|| when
reconsidering the same species, he detected an opaque corpuscle
Within the germinative spot. This fact I have verified in 1848,
in the case of the common sea Urchin (or sea egg) of Massachu-
setts Bay.
More recently Mr. D. says, that he has observed in a worm
(Sigalion), and a sea anemone (Actinia), that the germinative
*Spot contains a clear transparent vesicle. Comparing then this
clear vesicle with the opaque nucleus observed by Prof. Valentin,
é calls it Vesicula Valentini.
We honor the homage rendered to Prof. Valentin :—but Mr. D.
has failed to explain how it happens that a transparent vesicle in
the worms and sea anemone, is the same thing with the opaque
nucleus of the sea Urchins; and moreover he ought not to have
overlooked two points of its history, those which belong to Mr.
* Pages 70, 71. + Researches in Embryology: Third Series,
Anatomie du genre Echinus, p. 105, Pl. viii, fig. 167.
Bulletin de ! Académie de Bruxelles. we
P) Recherches sur 'embryogénie des Tubulaires.—Mém. Acad. Brux., vol. xvii, p. 62,
+ vi, fig. 6.
Srconp Serms, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 51
402 ' On the so-called Biogen Liquid.
Barry and Van Beneden. By examining more closely, and study-
ing more intimately the contents of the germinative vesicle and
of the germinative spot, he might have satisfied himself that the
presence of a clear vesicle, or of an opaque nucleus, indicates only
two states of one and the same phenomenon, since they are obe
served alternately in the same species. This is the case with the
eggs of Ascidie, of Meduse, of Echini, and probably the eggs of
many others.
merely reading the paper of Mr. Barry, he might have been
convinced that this observer had seen much deeper than any of
my object. I had only to point out a fact, to correct an oversight.
1 now return to my subject.
IV. The researches of Mr. D. upon the development of the eggs
of Ascidie, have led him to imagine a theory. This theory rests
upon a false fact. According to this theory, the primitive state
of the egé isa little sphere containing a transparent homogeneous
liquid, in the midst of which sphere, may be already seen the
outline of the germinative vesicle and spot. By degrees this
iquid becomes turbid, and the germinative vesicle appears sur-
rounded by a slight cloud which increases in extent until it fills
the sphere of the egg. Then finally there is a retreat of the mat-
ter from the circumference towards the centre of the egg where
it is condensed and forms the yolk. A free space remains between
this last and the external membrane. This space is filled by a
liquid ; this liquid is the Biogen.
aving examined during many weeks and continuously each
day the eggs of the same Ascidia which was the subject of his
observation, I have never witnessed this phenomenon. And yet
I examined them in individuals of very different sizes, and in
most diverse conditions, taking care always that the egg should
remain in its natural state; never, I repeat it, did I see this phe-
nomenon of gradual condensation and of the retreat of the vitel-
lus. Having tried all the good methods of which we can avail
ourselves in the use of the microscope, the idea occurred to me
to compress strongly a fragment of ovary. What was my surprise,
at seeing living copies of the figures published upon this subject.
It could even have been easy to make a more complete series
of them. The eggs were no longer in their natural state; they
were pressed down or crushed, their natural state destroyed,
and this was the foundation upon which was built the theory
ERS Ney ae gee ee
apie
On the so-called Biogen Liquid. 403
€ a liquid, which was to apply to the whole animal king-
ne then i + the liquid, and what part does it play in the his-
tory of the egg? ‘This liquid is albumen, the albumen which is
‘formed in the ovary, and to judge rightly of the part which it
takes in the formation of the egg, some aint considerations
upon the primitive state of eggs are here necessary.
Prof. Agassiz} has already reminded us that the point of depart-
ure of the egg is the same as that of the cells of the organic tis-
sues. ‘There is a period when the ovule is only a minute cell.
More recent observations confirm these first results. To know
the origin of the egg, we must then ascend to the origin of cells.
There are primordial cells, and derived cells. The experiments
of Dr. Ascherson,{ have taught us that primordial cells are formed
of two substances; of an oily substance and of albumen. Cells
perfectly like rimordial organic cells can be made artificially by
bringing an os liquid into contact with albumen, although the
albumen and the oil or oily matter show a perfect continuity of
substance when we examine them separately. But bring them
in contact, and cells are formed immediately. Every physiologist
can repeat these experiments, and ought to do it.
Primordial cells once formed in the manner above indicated,
another phenomenon presents itself. They become nucleated,
and these nuclei enlarging, give birth to derived cells.
Thus derived cells are malishien by the growth of the nuclei,
according to wr researches of Mr. Martin Barry,$ of Prof. Agas-
siz and my o and whenever the third generation appears, the
parent cell ‘al ns allows its contents to escape ; it is in this
Way that they increase in number
vw the only difference there is between the cells of the tis-
and eggs, is that in these last the parent cell never bursts,||
the pamcaial cell preserves within itself all the subsequent gen-
erations of derived cells; which by their paper eer form the
substance out of which the new individual is
Applying now this knowledge in a more sposin! manner to the
development of eggs, we can reply to the question asked above
Viz., what part does the albumen play?
* If the Biogen is so general, I sb ask ai it was not shown in the Sigalion
and the Sabella of w vest Desot also spei
tures o Sy eotniee as
} Ueber den cf Saar path Niitzen der att und iiber eine neue auf deren
mitwirkung be, e und durch mehrere neue hen unterstiitzte Theorie
der Zellen —. Miiller’s Archiv. fur Anatomie Physiologie, re. ——
pt lus de l'Institut, vol. vii, 1838, p. 837. (Sur Cusage ph gique de
corps
1 Third Series.
iF mean, at eieuason aga the new individual is not ready to escape out of
ge.
404 On the so-called Biogen Liquid.
At a determinate epoch, for each species, the ovarian sacks are
filled with primordial cells. It would be premature to raise the
question whether they are formed in the ovary itself, or are
brought there already formed. Let us take them, as they exist
in the ovary. There under the influence of the organism, they
pass through that course of development which we have pointed
out as proper to cells destined to become eggs. They contain at
first oil. By endosmosis albumen passes through the envelop or
membrane, and coming in contact with the oil, cells are formed,
the constituent cells of the vitellus (the granules of the yolk).
When the oil is exhausted, no more cells are formed. he mass
of the vitellus then increases, after the ordinary method of mul-
tiplication by the growth of nuclei. The albumen itself contin-
ues to penetrate through the membrane of the cell, which has
now become an egg. It remains under the form of albumen, and
surrounds the vitelline globe with a concentric zone more or less
thick which increases as the egg. grows larger. The intermedi-
ate space between the yolk and the external envelop (chorion)
being increased, one would be tempted to acknowledge a with-
drawing of the vitellus from the circumference towards the cen-
tre, if it were not known that all parts of the egg enlarge in the
same proportions. Besides, a yolk which retreats, which is con-
densed, ought to occupy a less space, while the contrary is the
fact, even as shown by the drawings made by Mr. Desor himself.
The conclusion is doubtless, already anticipated, that the pre-
tended biogen liquid is found to be nothing more than an accu-
mulation of albumen, the albumen formed in the ovary. An em-
bryologist would have known that the yolk of the egg of all an-
imals is composed of albumen and of an oily substance, and that
no one has ever supposed the first of these two substances to be
formed in the oviduct. When the albumen deposited in the ovi-
duct 1s spoken of, it is the white which surrounds the yolk of the
egg of certain animals that is referred to, and it is altogether gra-
tuitous to attribute to embryologists doubts on this subject. I
think Mr. Desor is the only person who has ever confounded the
albumen of the vitellus, with the albumen which surrounds the
essential parts of the eggs common to all animals. ia
When mature eggs are to be referred to a uniform type, it is
necessary to distinguish between the essential parts (the vitellus
or yolk, the germinative vesicle and the germinative spot), an
the accessory and protective parts (the external albumen or white,
the shell-membrane and the shell itself). The former are identi-
cal throughout the animal kingdom, they are never wanting ;
they are therefore necessary. The latter are not absolutely neces-
sary, and as a proof of this, they are modified according to-cir-
cumstances, and, in an infinite number of cases, are entirely
wanting.
ae oe
es
On the so-called Biogen Liquid. 405
Starting now from the structure of the egg and knowing it to
be identical in its constituent elements throughout the whole ani-
mal kingdom, the doctrine of its crystallization from a mother-
liquid refutes itself. The idea that the vitellus is precipitated, or
is crystallized, is indeed very strange. Is not this the distinction
which we make between the inorganic kingdom and the organic
kingdom, that the former is crystallized, while the latter is or-
ganized.
And then as to the physical characters of this biogen liquid,
and the method of distinguishing it from albumen, not a word i
said. All that has been done is the substitution of a name, the
thing newly named is hidden from the eyes of physiologists. To
explain the formation of eggs in the animal kingdom, Mr. D.
thus finds himself obliged to procure the intervention of a liquid
of which he knows nothing,—a liquid which would make the
function of the ovary of secondary importance,—a liquid which
would substitute itself for the vital action of the organism, an ac-
tion which physiology explains,—in fine, an occult liquid, which
sound philosophy disowns. eden
'o oppose such a liquid to the vital action of the organism in
the procreation of the substance, from which new individuals
arise, is to go out of the domain of science. Mr. D. moreover
has found that his biogen liquid runs through various modifi-
cations. This liquid then has no permanent character, it Is under
the influence of something beyond it, which produces it in its turn.
Anatomy and physiology are our guides in our embryological
researches ;—one confirms the other. Remaining within these
limits, it was not necessary to go beyond the bounds of sound phi-
osophy, and to fancy a theory which rests upon nothing, which
teaches nothing new, which explains nothing, and which stands
apart, isolated from physiology. see
Thus the theory of biogen, applied to the egg of Ascidia, is not
€ven probable ; applied to the animal kingdom it is absurd.
V. § 1. Prepossessed by the false notion that the vitellus is
formed by condensation, Mr. D. compares the formation of eggs to
that of the celestial bodies, according to the nebular hypothesis.
t in order that a comparison of one phenomenon with some
other phenomenon may be established, it is necessary that the one
With which the comparison is made, should be perfectly demon-
ted,—it must be a law ora principle. — ;
Now the author forgets that the question of the condensation
of the heavenly bodies according to the nebular hypothesis, is
road of the most controverted questions. ‘eo 7 is ate
now nothin itively respecting the origin of the stars. Has
€ matter of ahah ihe ge eoeapoeed. been diffused through-
Out space under the form of what has been called nebule, and
406 On the so-called Biogen Liquid.
has it been gradually condensed around a nucleus to acquire its
sphericity under the power of universal attraction, and to assume
then a given movement and. a determined direction ?_
There is no astronomer who can answer this question in the
affirmative. From the study of our globe we arrive at the idea
that it has had a beginning, and that it was originally in a fluid
state. Beyond this, all is conjecture. Reasoning from the earth
to the stars, we acknowledge, for all, a beginning of which “we
are 1gnorant.
It is then a false generalization to compare the phenomena of ovu-
lation with the theory of the condensation of the sidereal bodies.
But let it be fora moment granted that the stars have been
formed by the condensation of matter at first diffused. Where is
the analogy between what ought then to take place, and what
we witness in the formation of the egg?
The point of departure of organized beings is a sphere—the
sphere is the figure of the celestial bodies; this is the whole of the
analogy! In that sphere which constitutes the egg, two liquids
are brought in contact and having an affinity for each other,
they combine and form the vitellus which, from the first, is dis-
tributed equally throughout the whole sphere, less dense, it is
true, at the beginning; but never showing the least tendency to
centripetal motion, the least disposition to be precipitated around
the germinative vesicle. There is never any retreat of the vitel-
lus from the periphery towards the centre; there is no gravitation ;
there isa molecular attraction in the interior of a sphere, there
are two liquids which are associated together, and not one liquid
creating another out of itself.
hus then should the theory of the condensation of the heav-
enly bodies be true, that of the eggs arising from biogen would
not even be its analogue. Where is the biogen of the stars? No
astronomer has had the hardihood to imagine a mother liquid, a
gas, or any substance whatever preéxisting in space to create mat-
ter, and to disappear after having undergone various modifications.
§ 2. But Mr. D. stops not here.. After having found the great
law of attraction at the bottom of the formation of organic bod-
ges, he comes to the question of movement. ‘“ As soon,” he says,
“as the egg enters upon its organic life, it begins to revolve.”
‘There are, indeed, a few invertebrated animals in which the em-
bryo is subjected to a rotatory movement within the envelop of
* the egg. When one witnesses this for the first time, his thoughts
naturally revert to the rotatory movement of the celestial bodies.
But on looking deeper into the subject, he soon perceives the dif-
ference. I have described the movements which take place 1m
the embryo of a marine Planaria.* Ihave shown that there 1s
*® Proc. of the ‘Amer. Assoe. for the Adv. of Sciences, Second meeting, held at
i August, 1849. Cambridge, 1850. 8vo, p. 400. ;
Note on Heteronomic Isomorphism. 407
nothing regular about them, no subjection tolaw. The young
animal itself regulates and controls them. There are vibratory
cilia, that is to say, organs of locomotion, and where these do
not exist, vibratory cells. There is not an external force under
the dominion of which it is caused to move.
The egg possesses organic life from the moment when it ap-
pears under any form whatever, therefore it cannot be said to ac-
quire it when it begins to move. Besides eggs, as eggs, move not ;
when: they move they are no longer eggs; they are embryos.
For when movement occurs it does not take place till after the
division of the yolk; and after that division, the embryo exists.
So that in this view also, the comparison is false.
Arr. XL..— Note on Heteronomic Isomorphism ; by J. D. Dans.
Iy the table on page 241, of this volume, the mineral Petalite
is placed with the triclinic feldspars. ‘The cleavages appear to
as how understood, not wholly analogous to the ordinary feldspars
in direction. In the C atomic volume, as determined, it is iden-
tical with the monoclinic feldspars. 'The atomic volumes of the
feldspars will then stand as follows: -
‘at . I) MONOCLINIC.
e A ‘ x
fete B. 0.
Orthoclase, eae ‘ ; 1888 2313 604
Ryacolite, Bie a Bie Weare 867 216°7 578
~ Loxoclase, ; : ; ‘ 1063 2126 56"
Baulite, . ‘ : - : 21781 21781 5585
we Pitta go ee 224-98 573
; Il. TRICLINIC.
Thites 2 a om 1280: 213-4 55°67
Labradorite, . ; ‘ ‘ 795° 198°9 53°03
Oligoclase, hase) : 10383 20766 54-647
Andesine, . ; é 2912-4 208 55"
Anorthite, . : i . ‘ 1959 195-9 52-94
Vosgite, . . . 22665 197 5284
Topaz and Andalusite approximately ?somorphous.—T he an-
gle of the vertical prism of Andalusite is 91° 20’, and in Topaz
a8 Written out in full,
6[3A12 0342803] + [SAl2 F3-+2Si F3]. 7
As this, excluding the fluorine, is the formula of Andalusite, the iso-
morphism here pointed out may be a case of ordinary isomorphism.
Manganocaicite.—This species is a trimetric carbonate of man-
ng
ganese, illustrating the remark on page 239.
a
?
408 Minerals recently investigated by M. Hermann.
Art. XLI.—On some Minerals recently investigated by
M. Hermann ;* by James D. Dana. “
1. GrppsiTE.
Tue analyses of Gibbsite by Hermann, according to which
Gibbsite is a phosphate instead of a hydrate of alumina,* are al-
luded to by Prof. Silliman, Jr., in his memoir, in volume vii, of
this Journal, page 411, where this chemist, by several analyses,
sustains the original view with regard to this species, his results
giving much less than one per cent. of phosphoric acid. Her-_
mann in a late memoirt publishes the following as his recent
conclusions upon the Richmond mineral. ;
la, 16. 2. he,
Phosphoric acid, . . 87-62 26°30 15°30 19
Alomina;. >). +. 96-66 38:29 50-20 53-92
gee ere ae 35:41 3450 34:18
Nos. la and 14 were two specimens somewhat foliated on limo-
nite; G.=2-21. No.2 was a stalactitic mass; G.=2-44. No.3
was porous with an earthy fracture; G.=2-20. The phosphoric
acid is here made a very varying constituent.
This species, from Richmond, has recently been analyzed by
Mr. Crossley in the Laboratory of Dr. C. 'T’. Jackson, with direct
reference to the occurrence of phosphoric acid (as in Prof. Silli-
man’s investigations), and he has found that his specimens con-
tained no phosphoric acid, and were a true hydrate. ‘The mineral
is therefore identical with Rose’s hydrargillite and includes that
" species, as has been before suggested.
2. Wittemitr, or Annyprous Suicate or ZINe.
The anhydrous silicate of zinc was first recognized as a species
by Vanuxem and Keating, who published a full and accurate de-
scription both physical and chemical, in 1824, in the Journal of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, volume iv,
Surling, New Jersey, and give the angle R: R, 118°, which was
offered as only an approximation, the faces being irregular and
rough.
Subsequently, Dr. Thomson of Glasgow received specimens.
He described the mineral physically nearly as done by Vanuxem
and Keating,t mentioning the hexagonally prismatic form with
trihedral summits, though giving the angle 124° instead of 118°,
observing however that it was “impossible to measure the an-
gles,” as the planes were so very uneven. He states that the
Leer
* Jour. fir Prakt. Chem, xl, 32. + Ibid, xlvii, 1.
- $ Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist, N.Y, iii, 1828, and Mineralogy, 1836, i, 519.
=
- >
biplane
ae ;
i
Minerals recently investigated by M. Hermann. 409
* above-mentioned authors had made it out a silicate of zinc. His
Investigations transformed it into a silicate of manganese with
the composition
Si 30650 Mn46215 ¥e15-450 moisture and carbonic acid 7-300=99°615.
Dr. Thomson’s reputation at that time served to put the blun-
der on Vanuxem and Keating. The mineral was named Troos-
tite, and Thomson’s analysis assumed as the correct one.
cently the so-called Troostite has been examined by Hermann,*
who has confirmed the original analyses, both results giving the
formula Zn Si = Silica 72-47, oxyd of zinc 27-53, or the consti-
tution of Willemite. The analyses hitherto made of the Ameri-
can and foreign Willemite are as follows :—
* 1, 2, Vanuxem and Keating (loc. cit.) ; 3, Hermann (loc. cit.) ;
4, Thomson (Min. i, 545) ; 5, Levy (Ann. des Mines, [4], iv, 515);
6, Rosengarten (Rammelsberg’s 3d Supplement to his Handwér-
terbuch,°65) ; 7, 8, Monheim (Verh. Nat. Vereins. Rheinl., 1848,
and Rammelsberg’s 4th Supplement, 114); 9, 10, Delesse (Ann.
des Mines, [4], x, 211).
2, “ 25:00. 7183 Be 0-67, Mn 26699:
“« 26°80 60°07 Mn 9:22, Mg 2-91, Fe trace, loss by ignition 1:0=100 Herm.
4,Moresnet,2697 68°77 Fe 1:48, 410-66, ib. & trace Zn, Pe 0°78, H 1:25=99'91, Thom.
5, “ 27-05 68:40 #e 0-75, loss by ignition 0°30 = 96°50, Levy.
6, Silesia, 27°34 70:82 Fe 1:81 99-97, Rosengarten.
7, Stolberg, 26-90 72:91 Fe 0:35 = 100°16, Monheim.
: 2653 69:06 * 436, Ca 0-41, Mg 0-13, 6 0:04 = 10053, Monheim.
Si J
1, Stirling, 25-44 68:06 ¥e, Mn 65010000, Vanuxem and Keating.
66 “ “
9, “ 27-28 72:37 Fe 0°35 =100, Delesse.
10, Stirling, 27-40 68°83 0:87, Mn 2°90 = 100, Delesse.
Hermann gives the specific gravity of the Stirling ore 4-02;
Vanuxem and Keating 389-4; Thomson for the Willemite
3°935, and Levy 4:16-4:18. No. 7 (from Stolberg near Aix la
Chapelle) was crystallized; G. = 4:18. o. 8 massive; G. =
4:02-4:16. No. 10, the Stirling mineral, according to Delesse,
has G. = 4°154.
The crystals of Troostite have besides the primary rnombohe-
dron (115°) another truncating its terminal edges, (-3 R) with
R:R=142° 52’. The crystals of Willemite are quite small, be-
ing but 2 or 3 millimeters long and 1 thick. They are hexa-
gonal prisms, but the prism is intermediate to that of T'roostite ;
and the trihedral summit has according -to Levy the angle of
128° 30’ nearly, the planes not admitting of very accurate
measurement,—corresponding possibly to the rhombohedron #R,
which has this angle 127° 33’.
—
* Jour. fiir prakt. Chem. of Erdmann and Marchand, xlvii,"11.
Szconp Series, Vol, [X, No. 27.—May, 1850. 52
410 Minerals recently investigated by M. Hermann.
3. Ruoponrre, on Manganese: Spar.
Rhodonite was long since shown to be a manganese augite,
and the Fowlerite of Shepard is recognized by Hermann as giv-
ing the angle of augite; M:M=87°6’. Hermann has analyzed
the Stirling, N. J., mineral with the following result,
Si Fe Mn 2 Ca Meg
4648 723 81°52 585 450 3:09 loss by ignition, 1:00=99°67
Oxygen, 2413 1°60 R06: Oba 2998) 88 ;
giving for the oxygen ratio for protoxyds and silica 12°31;
24:13, or very nearly 1:2, as in the received formula Mn: Siz.
He obtained the specific gravity 3°63.
Hermann has also analysed the manganese spar of Cumming+
ton, Massachusetts, and has concluded that the mineral instead of
being a manganese augite is a manganese hornblende, that is,
has the oxygen ratio 4:9 and formula Mns Sis. x;
His analysis gave
Si Mn, trace of Fe Oa Mg
48-91 46°74 2-00 235=100-00
Oxygen, 25°38 10°37 0-57 0-91
The result affords the oxygen ratio for protoxyds and silica
11-85 : 25-38 or very closely 4: 84, which is as near augite as the
hornblende ratio. He unites with his mangan-amphibol, Thom-
son’s sesquisilicate of manganese from Stirling, which according
to Thomson has the angle 123°30’, which is nearly that of horn-
blende. But Thomson’s analysis proves the crystallographic
measurement of little value, since it makes the species a man-
gan-augite—it giving
Si 42-40 Mn 50°72 Fe 6-76
or even less silica than required for an augite, instead of the ex-
cess which would make it a hornblende.
he mineral of Cummington often contains disseminated
through it visible points or grains of silica, and if in visible grains,
there will be also invisible silica, and enough to account probably
for the hornblende composition. M. Adolph Schlieper, now of
Lowell, Mass., has examined and analyzed the Cummington min-
eral, from specimens placed in his hands by the writer, and he at-
tributes the excess of silica to this source. His analysis gives the
oxygen proportion 11-36 to 26-6, or quite closely 4:9. He found
the mineral to be partly soluble in acids and by this means sep-
arated it into an insoluble portion 90:15 per cent., a soluble 9°85.
The insoluble part afforded :
i Mn Oa Mg Fe
51-21 42°65 2-93 trace 43410118
Oxygen, 26.6 9°56 0-84 096
The soluble part consisted of carbonates as follows
~ Mn e ‘a Mg 6 H and loss.
5052 8°60 8717 2°44 1:27=100
|
|
|
|
|
Minerals recently investigated by M. Hermann. 11
1en. If the uncombined silica bears any proportion to the in-
ee ones the excess of this ingredient is sufficiently ex-
4. Lepourre anp LinpsayIteE.
The Lepolite of Hermann* is a feldspathic mineral from Fin-
land, identical in chemical formula with anorthite, but differing
in having its crystals oblique or inclined to the deft, (when the
edge T': T’ is in front) instead of to the right. He gives for
se A 120°30’, P:M 93°, which is the angle between two
cleavage planes. H=6. G=2-75-2-77. Vitreous and transpa-
rent; colorless, grayish, greenish, often brownish externally.
Crystals often large, and sometimes two inches long. Composition
Re Si+sa1 i
Si Al #e Oa Mg Na loss by ignition.
1. From Lojo, 4280 38512 150 1414 227 150 156=9969
2. From Orrijervi, 42°50 33:11 400 400 587 169 150=9954
_ It fuses with difficulty on the edges before the blowpipe, and
is decomposed by concentrated acids.
Hermann has also published a description of a new feldspar
which he calls Lindsayitet in the same memoir with the Lep-
olite. The following are its characters:
Monoclinic or triclinic, 'T’ : T’=120°, P on the axis 65°. Crys-
tals often of large size. . = 4, G, = 2°83. Color, black ex-
ternally, internally gray, bluish-gray, dull reddish. Subtranslu-
cent. In a matrass yields water. Before the blowpipe fuses with
difficulty on the edges. With the fluxes, the reaction of iron and
Silica. Analysis afforded,
Si Al Fe Fe Me K Na
4222 9755 698 200 885 3:00 253 7-00 B trace =10013
Oxygen ratio 21:90 12°84 209 044 349 050 064 6-22
whence he deduces for the oxygen of the water, protoxyds, per-
oxyds and silica, the ratio 1: 1:3: 4, and the formulat
R? §i+3A1 5i+3H,
which, excluding the water, represents the composition of anor-
thite and also Hermann’s lepolite.
Breithaupt, in volume xlvii, p. 236, of the Journal fir praktische
Chemie, stated that the Lindsayite was properly a pseudomorph,
after lepolite. ‘To this view Hermann objects in volume xlviii,
254, (Nov. 1849,) mentioning that lepolite contains 10 to 15 per
cent. of lime and lindsayite none.
* Jour. f. i : Jour. f. prakt. Chem., xlvi, 396.
t This ie Be ek dopeicicadld ; for the ger of ihe peroxyds and silica has
more nearly the ratio 2:3 than 3:4.
A12 Interpretation of Mariotte’s Law.
The constitution of the mineral, so different from all known
feldspars—its 8 per cent. of magnesia, 7 per cent. of oxyd of iron,
and 7 percent. of water—entirely favor the opinion that the crys-
tals are actually pseudomorphs of some feldspar mineral as Brei-
thaupt suggested. Changes through pseudomorphism of the ex-
tent this would imply, and even far greater, are abundantly exem-
plified.
Art. XLIIT—On the Interpretation of Mariotte’s Law ; by
Lieut. E. B. Hunt, U. 8. Corps of Engineers.
medium, the component parts of which act*on each other by
forces varying as any function of the distance, Mariotte’s law
must prevail. Both elastic tension and cohesive force will neces-
sarily vary as the density, in a medium assumed as homogeneous,
quite irrespective of the law of force, the variation being expressed
in terms of distance between the component parts of the me-
dium. Whether the force be attractive or repulsive, varying in-
versely with the first or hundredth power of the distance, the
result is the same; that entire homogeneousness makes Mariotte’s
w necessary. i
To prove this: assume a perfectly homogeneous medium whose
parts exert forces varying as any function of the distance. As-
sume in this an origin of coérdinates, three coordinate axes, X, Y
and Z, and three constant elementary distances, dz, dy,dz. Con-
ceive each axis graduated by laying off its element successively
from the origin outward. Through each point of graduation on
either axis pass a plane parallel to the other axes: do this for each
axis. The space around the origin is thus divided into element-
ary parallelopipeds, each of which contains a like portion of the
omogeneous medium.
The force of elastic tension or of cohesion is measured by the
resultant action on a unit of surface of the plane X, Y, by all the
forces acting in the positive direction of the axis Z, between the
parts on opposite sides of the plane X, Y. This resultant is bal-
ance by an equal one acting in the negative direction of the
axis Z. To make up this resultant, a certain number of the ele-
mentary portions of the medium conspire. It may therefore be
equated with a series, each term of which expresses the positive
component along the axis Z, of the force exerted between two
elementary portions of the medium on opposite sides of the
plane X,
If now the density of the medium be varied, each term of this
series will vary in the same ratio, since the quantity of matter in
Ir is readily demonstrated that in any entirely homogeneous
hich
Interpretation of Mariotte’s Law. 413
each elementary volume varies as the density. The density thus
goveins each term of the series, by fixing the quantity of matter
in each elementary volume. If we call the ratio of the varying
density to a standard density N, each term of the series contains
Nas a simple factor: or the whole series varies as NV. ence the
resultant or entire elastic tension or cohesion varies as J, or as the
density. This result is entirely independent of any particular law
of relation between the forces and distances: and will always be
true so long as the elementary volumes can be assumed as homo-~
geneous. As dz, dy, dz, can always be taken indefinitely less
than the radius of sensible activity of any assumed force, the dem-
onstration can only fail by the parts failing to be homogeneous.
It will be seen by the above that any inference of the law of
repulsive force between ultimate atoms or molecules, cannot be
correctly drawn from Mariotte’s law, for this leaves the primary
forces involved, wholly indeterminate. We are by no means au-
thorized to conclude that in elastic fluids where the pressure varies
as the density, the molecules repel each other directly as the dis-
tance.
The demonstration now given, has a singular bearing on the
atomic theory of material constitution. We know experimen-
tally that Mariotte’s law does not prevail uniformly in elastic
media, while in liquids and solids it. has no show of application.
Hence we are bound to infer non-homogeneousness. Now how
can homogeneousness be interrupted, except through something
like an atomic constitution of media? A laminated, filamental, or
parts would produce that homogeneousness from which Mariotte’s
law becomes an inevitable inference. Such an inference, as ap-
plied to media in general, being contrary to the fact, a limit to
actual division of parts must be admitted. Any other theory
than one of ultimate molecules, separated by spaces, seems to inn
Pose inferences conflicting with facts, throwing us back irresistt-
bly into the theory of true molecular structure.
ton, April, 1850.
Al4 Scientific Intelligence.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.
1. On the Deportment of Crystalline Bodies between the poles of @
Magnet ; by Joun Tynpatt and Hermann Knosravcn; (Phil. Mag.,
xxxvi, 178, March, 1850.)—The results obtained by Professor Pliicker of
Bonn, in his investigations upon crystals, induced us early in the month
of November last to commence a series of researches in connection
with this subject. Our inquiries, so far as they at present reach, form
the subject of this paper.
After a long series of trials, not necessary to be recapitulated here,
we arrived at the persuasion that no safe inference could be drawn from
experiments made with full crystals. It appeared necessary to examine
the forces attributed to crystalline bodies in detail, one at a time, re-
moving as far as possible all influences likely to interfere with the sim-
ple action of this one.
o attain this object we experimented with cubes: we had one cut
from tourmaline, in such a manner that the optical axis of the crystal
ran parallel to four sides of the cube ; on suspending it between the
poles and closing the circuit, the optical axis set itself strongly equato-
rial; thus corroborating the law of Plicker, which affirms that the op-
tical axes of negative crystals are repelled. When, however, the same
cube was hung with the optical axis vertical, the influence of that axis
destroyed, a preference was shown to one of the diagonals
onal chanced to lie from pole to pole, the latter seemed to experience
a repulsive shock, sufficient to make the cube spin several times round
upon its axis.
We do not see any possibility of referring this election of a partic-
ular diagonal to the influence exerted by the optical axis, at least in the
case of beryl.
To ascertain the exact nature of this influence, we had recourse to
discs, cut so that the optical axis of the crystal lay as a diameter in the
plane of each. In this way the influence of mere form was totally an-
nulled, and the pure action of the optical axis, if such existed, might
be observed.
O t discs, five in number, were taken from a semi-transparent
crystal of Iceland spar, and lay at various angles to the sides thereof.
In all these cases the law of Pliicker was strictly verified, the optical
axis being always repelled.
-
Chemistry and Physics. A15
Four discs and one square were next taken from two transparent
crystals of the spar, and suspended successively between the poles.
e were by no means prepared for the reply given to these experi-
= in each of the five cases the optical axis set itself distinctly
axial,
—
The balance sheet of our inquiries up to the present time is this; out
Projection of the optical axis lies in the same direction as the bar; both
therefore work together, and both strive, in virtue of the two properties
mentioned, to attain the equatorial position; they do not attain it, how-
ever; the bar stands almost axial.
Structure, we thought it might be destroyed by reducing the mass to
powd
4 straw horizontally, into each end of which a bit of crystal was thr
d nosafe conclusion. Co
te
exactly suited to our purpose ;
A16 Scientific Intelligence.
it must, however, be handled with clean fingers, and even thus very
with a diamagnetic body ; hung vertically, however, it could be dis-
submitted them to chemical analysis. n experienced mineralogist
was unable to detect the slightest visible difference between these crys-
tals; the analysis, however, showed t se whose optical axes were
and this without in the slightest degree interfering with the optical prop-
erties of the crystal. It is even likely that Nature, as in the case be-
result remained specifically constant ; further, on being hung edgeways,
the parallelogram stood strongly magnetic ; and when one pole was re-
moved, the whole mass was attracted by the other.
hence, then, this apparent diamagnetism of the gutta percha? The
answer to this question will perhaps throw a light upon the complicated
phenomena exhibited by crystals generally. The equatorial position of
the gutta percha is manifestly due to the comparative facility with
hich the magnetic force can act in the direction of the fibre. Let us
ee ee
Chemistry and Physics. — 417
ed; and the necessity of
; y of the parallelogram, when hung ed
set itself axial, is also mani Si sy a
S may be expected, when the parallelogram is made very long in
comparison to its width, the long diameter of our hypothetical egg, is
overpowered by the united action of a aumber of short ones, and the
oblong stands axial.
aa percha and ivory, to imitate almost all the experiments which we
ve made with both classes of crystals.
negative or positive, as asserted by Professor Pliicker.
eroid will be of a
: Faraday* to the optical axis,
inverts the right course of proceeding ; the attraction or repulsion of
this axis being a secondary result, depending first of all upon the mag-
a EI ea aS een
# Phil. Mag., Jan., 1849, p. 75.
Szconp Szries, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850.
418 Scientific Intelligence.
netism or diamagnetism of the substance, and secondly upon the manner
in which either force is modified by the th iehe structure of the crystal.
a of wih vite: If these views be correct, the optical axis can no
regarded as the prime agent in the production of the phe-
nomena which we have been cons idering ; ; we shall no longer seek the
explanation of new facts in the hypotheses of new forces, but rather
in rape oom of old.
Marburg, January,
2. a8 senic in he ‘sepivi from Mineral Waters; by M. J. L. Las-
SAIGNE, (Journ. de Chem. Med., Sept., 1849; Phil. Mag., Dec., 1849.)
—The large quantities of arsenic recently discovered in certain ‘chalyb-
ate waters, have made it a matter of much interest to determine the
state in which the arsenic exists, and its effects upon the animal
y-
The deposit from the waters of Warevitliet (Haut Rhine) yielded 4°42
r cent. of arsenic acid, equivalent to per cent. metallic arsenic.
orty grammes (about 600 grains) of this deposit were administered to
a dog in two doses, the animal showed not the slightest uneasiness, ate
as usual, and, in short, was hae by a dose equivalent to 26° 52
grains arsenic acid or 16°8 grains metallic arsenic.
rom this and another Siiievichecth of similar character, the author
infers, that the poisonous property of the arsenic is destroyed in these
freshly sisi tated oxyd and the dry could be svat:
. C. SCHAEFFER.
to appear. The outside of the crucible being cleaned it is to be in-
verted over a sheet of paper, and if any of the contents adhere they
may be removed with a feather. The carbonaceous mass is then grad-
ually added to 3 parts nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:20, ina convenient flask,
and the solution is completed by a gentle heat.
Chemistry and Physics. 419
As it is not easy to extract the whole of the silver, the mass need
not be washed very long and the residuum may again be employed i
examined eight different samples from various gardens and in most
cases from unopened pitcher plants. In all the cases litmus paper gave
an acid reaction. The same odor as that mentioned by Dr. Turner
was observed during evaporation. The quantity of solid matter, as
might be expected, varied considerably—from -27 to 1 per cent. No
volatile acids were present and no oxalic acid.
_ The dry residue from several samples united, contained about 38 per
cent. of malic and a little citric acid, 50 p. c. chlorid of potassium; the
remainder consisted of soda, lime and magnesia.
_ These experiments show this to be, as botanists have already demon-
Strated, a true secretion, containing some of the inorganic materials of
the plant; but it is remarkable that not a trace of sulphuric acid could
be detected, and yet it is hardly possible that sulphates are entirely
wanting in the plant. &, &. 5,
©. Chlorine and Oxygen from Chlorate of Potash; by Dr. Vocet,
(Buch. Rep., vol. iii, in Chem. Gaz.)—The author states that chlorate
of potash repeatedly crystallized furnishes a pure gas, and ascribes the
impurity to the presence of some perchlorate (hyperchlorite ?).
[It is generally understood that oxygen from the mixture of peroxyd
of manganese and chlorate of potash, is always contaminated with more
or less chlorine, in which case the above precaution would be of no use.
The supposed easy preparation of pure chlorate is at the foundation
of numerous determinations of chemical equivalents, and in particular
that of chlorine. G.C.S.
6. Action of Potash upon Caffeine; by A. Wurtz, (Comptes Ren-
dus, Jan., 1850.)—A boiling concentrated solution of potash dissolves
caffeine and disengages a considerable quantity of methylamine.
This confirms the supposition made in the last No. of this Journal, p.
282, that the base formed by Rochleder in the decomposition of caffeine
by chlorine was methylamine. M. Wurtz also notices that the com-
i s identical with that of the Poreyipong ne
Position of the platinum salt i
platinum salt of methylamine. : ;
_ 1. Separation of "taeate. Valerianic and Acetic Acids; by J.
Lizzic, (Liebig’s Annalen, Sept., 1849; Chem. Gaz., Jan., 1850.)—
The simultaneous occurrence of these acids renders an easy and eco-
homical process for their separation exceedingly desirable. This desid-
eratum is fully answered by the plan proposed by Prof, Liebig. A part
of the mixture of acids is saturated with potash and soda, or the re-
420 Scientific Intelligence.
mainder added to it and distilled.- If butyric and valerianic acids only
are present, a portion of one or the other is at once obtained pure. If
the alkali added is not sufficient to neutralize the whole of the valeri-
anic acid, the distillate is a mixture, and the residue is a pure valeria-
nate. Ifthe alkali is more than sufficient to neutralize the valerianic
acid, the residue is a mixture of yalerianic and butyrate, but the distillate
is pure butyric acid. :
The mixtures remaining may be treated in the same way, and a new
portion obtained pure.
Acetic acid, although more volatile than the other two, is not expelled
by them from a partially saturated solution, owing to the formation of
an acid acetate. Either valerianic or butyric acid may be distilled from
this salt without intermixture with acetic acid. Where all these acids
are present, the partially saturated mixture is to be distilled, and if any
acetic acid is found in the distillate the process is to be repeated. Ac
tic acid is thus removed and the other two may be separated as above.
8. On the Production of Organic bases from Vegetable substances
containing Nitrogen; by Dr. J. Stennovse, (Liebig’s Ann., May, 1849 ;
Chem. Gaz., Oct. and Nov., 1849.)—Reasoning upon the fact that fossil
to contain most of the nitrogen of plants. A large quantity of common
beans was distilled in an iron retort. The product resembled that from
animal matters, containing acetone, acetic acid, &c., with tarry matter
and a large quantity of ammonia and oily bases. These latter were,
with some difficulty, obtained in a state of purity, but the result was an
evident mixture, the boiling point rising from 226° F. to 428°. The
larger portion passing over between 302° and 311”, a tolerable quantity
of an oil of constant boiling point was obtained.
Notwithstanding the difference in the bases indicated above—their
readily in alcohol and ether. The alkaline reaction upon test paper is
very strong, and a rod moistened with hydrochloric acid held over them
roduces white fumes. The salts are generally crystalline ; the double
platinum, gold and mercury chlorids are readily obtained ; not a trace
of aniline could be detected.
The analysis of the oil boiling between 302° and 311°, gave the for-
mula C,, H, N, but this must be considered only as an approximation.
The formula is nearest to that of nicotine ; but the properties are rather
An examination of oils boiling at very different temperatures, gave
almost the same per-centage of carbon and hydrogen. May not som«
of these be merely polymeric modifications of the less volatile bases?
Oil cake required a higher heat for its distillation than the bean,
and a smaller quantity of bases was obtained; wheat furnished a still
smaller quantity, but the product was more volatile. Peat gave a larger
Chemistry and Physics. 421
—— but the products of the distillation of solid wood furnished
7 SRY.
To avoid the high heat necessary in distillation, by which the bases
are decomposed, and the quantity of ammonia increased—experiments
fi
guano were ee tried, and the action of sulphuric acid upon beans,
with ae resu
ier, proposes bacteiastion as a still more eligible process for
Is alksioics, as the action is less energetic. ‘The fact that beans and
_ bones do not yield the same products by distillation, is adduced as ev-
_ idence that the vegetable and animal substances having the same com-
position are yet not identical. oe bag - 3
9. Preparation of Hydrobromic and Hydriodic Acids; by E. H.
Meng, sa eas Rendus, April. 1849 ; Chem. Gaz., July, 1849).—The
ss now proposed for these two acids is free from alte being
-heither costly, difficult nor dangerous, as are the usual modes
In this procegs, crystallized hypophosphite of lime, obtained i in prepar-
ing phosphuretted hydrogen from phosphuret of calcium, may be used,
but from its being more readily obtained, sulphite of soda is to be pre-
ferred. The crystallized sulphite is to be first dipped in water and the
iodine or bromine added to it in a suitable vessel. The reaction is aid-
‘ed by heat, and the gases are obtained pure, if a cotton or asbestus
plug is placed in the neck of the vessel to intercept vapors of bromine
or iodine
The sulphite aids the decomposition of water by a iodine or bro-
mine, the latter taking the hydrogen, the former the o
proportions for the above bec are 1 water, 3 iodine or bro-
mine, 6 crystallized sulphite of soda. 23
0. Passage of Hydrogen Gas hen solid bodies ; by M. ‘Lov -,
(Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Sept., 1849. )—M. Louyet, finds that a hoe
op current of hydrogen from a capillary jet under a pressure of 40
to 45 inches of water, will pass through a sheet of paper, continuing as
a sirion on the other side, inflaming o or igniting spongy platinum, as if
no obstacle existed.
Gold, tin and silver leaf, even when double, exhibit the same prop-
erty, as also a thin film of gutta peri 3 but the thinnest glass which
oes lown was found impermea G. C.
On t 5 abt of Silver, Lead aba Copper in Sea-water, and in
Plants and Animals; by MM. Matacutt, DurocHer and Sarsgav,
(Comptes Rendus, Dec., 1849; Phil. Mag., Feb., 1850.)—MM. Malaguti
and Durocher having proved the wide diffusion of silver in metallic
minerals, particularly in the sulphurets, ete are converted by salt
water into chlorids, the present research was undertaken with a view to
ascertain the extent of the distribution.
Sea-water taken at a distance of some leagues from St. Malo, was
found to contain -000,000,001 of silver; the ash of Fucus serratus and
‘Ceramoides contained ‘000,001. Rock salt of Lorraine was found to
Contain silver, indicating its presence in the ancient ocean
This wide distribution of the metal induced a search “for it in the
ashes of terrestrial plants and in animals, the blood of them being satu-
«
x
.
422 Scientific Intelligence. »
rated for the experiment. In both cases silver was found. Its presence
could not be distinctly proved in the ashes of coal.
Lead an copper could not be detected in sea-water, but the ashes of
oi 8 species of Fucus contained 000,018, .C.8.
Ruthenium.—The atomic volume of Ruthenium has been found
by jaa to be identical, or nearly so, with that of Rhodium, or 651-96,
see table, page 220.
Il. MineraLocy AND eens
1. Description of the Vermiculite of Milbury, mae ; by Dr.
Jackson, with an analysis by Mr. Ricnarp Crossi v, (sbenmuenian
by Dr. Jackson.)—This mineral was first sitet in ilbury by Dr.
Thomas H. Webb of Providence, R. I., and was described by him in
the American Journal of Science in 1824, yol. vii, p. 55. Dr. Webb
gave it the name it bears, eae is very descriptive of its remarkable
action under the influence of heat. It occurs in small scales resembling
green talc disseminated throughout a mealy magnesian mineral of an
ash grey color, and resembling a decomposed talcose rock. The ver-
miculite occurs in small scales, rarely more than one- uiuth of an inch
in diameter, and having no well defined lateral crystalline edges; but
still they are obviously imperfect crystals and probably hexagonal
prisms. They split peat into thin lamine, like talc, and are flexible,
but not elastic. Hardness 1°; sp. gr. according to Mr. R. Crossley, 2°756,
the mineral having been Sada dry previous to being weighed. Color
dark olive green by reflected light, with a pearly and greasy lustre ; b
transmitted light, color apple green. ‘Translucent, and sub-transparent
in thin scales. Before the blowpipe a thin scale of the mineral sud-
denly exfoliates and swells into a cylinder or prism nearly one hundred
times its original length! This exfoliation takes place at a temperature
between 500° and 600° F., and not at a temperature of 300° F., hence
it is mat wholly due to interposition of water between the laminw of the
crysta
Ina ee tube closed at one end, on heating until exfoliation takes
lace, a certain portion of water is given off, but on raising the heat to
redness a still larger quantity is obtained. This water restores the
blue color to litmus paper, that had been reddened by acids, and is
therefore slightly alkaline. The expansion of vermiculite by heat Is
so sudden and powerful as to burst a glass tube filled with it, producing
an audible oe heen and scattering the glass to a distance
In the platina forceps a scale of the vermiculite melts” readily into a
yellowish green glass. With carbonate of soda it fuses to an opaque
brown bead. With borax it dissolves rena giving a yellow glass
while hot, which becomes colorless when cold.
’ ith salt of phosphorus, it dissolves Tivibg a transparent glass, i
is yellow while hot, and colorless when cold, and becomes som what
milky white. It is decomposed by chlorbydrie and sulpburic wie.
Mr. Crossley used a mixture of these two acids in decomposing t e
mineral Fad separation of its pperecieniag % ering previously ascertain ned
that its its decomposition by acids was comple : es
Mineralogy and Geology. 423
Clean scales of the mineral were selected with great care by Mr.
Silica, . 35°74 containing oxygen 18°56 ratios —6-
Alumina, : 16-4 : Yt
Protoxyd of iron, . 10-02 2:28 ,
Magnesia, . . 27-44 10-62 j 4
mer.” . 10-30 9°15 3
99-92
Which gives approximately the following formula,*
; 2X1 Si+4Mg3 Si-+-oH
which is the formula given by von Kobell for Pyrosclerite.
_ Vermiculite therefore does not approach Pyrophyllite, which, accord-
ing to the analysis of Hermann, gives the formula, |
Mg3s Si2+-9A1 Si2--oH
Mr. Crossley has devoted much time and attention to this analysis, and
Tam satisfied that it has been correctly made. The only subject for
farther research is the cause of the very remarkable exfoliation of this
mineral when exposed to heat. I ascertained the temperature at whic
the exfoliation takes place by heating the mineral on paper and on lead.
It fully exfoliates below the fusing point of sheet lead, but not ona
paper card, until it takes fire.
- 2. On the Blowpipe characters of the Mineral from the Azores iden-
tified with Pyrrhite by J. E. Teschemacher ; by A. A. Haves, (com-
municated.)—I received enough of the Pyrrhite from Mr. Tesehemacher
for the following trials. It proves to be a (columbate) niobate of zir-
_conia, colored apparently by oxyds of iron, uranium and manganese,
The following are its characters in the blowpipe flame. On the first
impulse of heat, the assay becomes darker colored, its fine red color
returning as the mineral cools; and this character may be observed,
even after it has been highly heated fora longtime. At the melting
point of cast iron in the reducing flame, it becomes permanently darker
but on cooling, opa : |
When by continued reduction, the soda is partly evaporated, a gray
Considering #1 and Si as replacing one another, the analysis gives very exactly
the formula 4Mg° (Si, 41)2-+91.—J. D. D.
424 Scientific Antetiigenas.
Decomposed by much soda and the resulting mass treated wil nitric
acid, a heavy white insoluble powder remains. Boiling water causes
the heavy powder to take a flocctilent form, which is porn This
powder exhibits with tests, all the characters of (columbic) pe acid.
The acid solution when mixed with carbonate of ammonia remains
clear ; heated, some iron oxyd falls, while a light yellow tint is Risttied
by the fluid ; oxalic acid causes the separation of a white earth, which,
fluid, forming with potash before complete neutralization, a white cuble
salt, which has the characters of that from zirconia, but may contain oxyd
of ceriumalso. The oxalate as first formed does not afford, when heat-
ed, the cinnamon irbien color, characteristic of deutoxyd of cerium.
The ex tremely small portion of the mineral operated on forbids the
expression of certainty respecting the bases, and although inclining to
the opinion of the existence of cerium from ‘he red color o the crys-
tals, I am not in possession of any facts proving this point
. On the Red Zinc Ore of New Jersey; by A. A. Hayes, (com-
municated to one of the Editors. )—Some recent trials on the red oxyd
of zinc, confirm my earlier statement that the manganese is in a pro-
toxyd state, mixed with the oxyd of zinc. The object was however to
separate the —, of iron, so as to show that its power of coloring
confers on the oxyd of zinc the blood red color seen in fine specimens.
In the ones that variety of scaly peroxyd of i — which is produced
when chlorid of iron is decomposed by vapor of water, a —
and this oxyd, being transparent and blood-red, gives, by being inter-
leaved with os crusts of zinc sublimate, the red color: “he evidence
was conclusi
the pac eh Mineral est of Lewis, Jafersn, and St.
Lawrence counties, New York; by Hoveu.—F rom the great
number and variety of mineral sceaien: ile were discovered during
the course of the State Geological Survey, in the northern part of New
York, in addition to those that were known before, and have been dis-
co overed since, the mineral localities of that section have attained a mer-
ited comnts among amateur collectors, and scientific mineralogists.
of the localities have become exhausted, and others have been
one while there are yet others which have been attributed to
these counties through mistake. A concise account of existing locali-
ties seems to be especially desirable.
Lewis County.—Magnetic iron ore, associated with sulphuret of
iron, occurs in Greig; bog i iron ore, in Watson, Diana, and New bre-
men; ema iron ore in Diana, and iron sand on the sandy margins
of most of the streams and lakes, throughout the primary regions in
the soliany Calcareous tufa, abounds in many of the springs that issue
from the limestone formation ; particularly in Low — Trem —_ oc-
curs frequently in boulders but not én situ, in the c
weighing about a ton occurs a mile southeast of the silane of Collins:
ville, in West Turin.
d occurs is the southwestern part of the town of Martinsburg,
in nodules ——- through the soil of a swamp. ‘The masses are
from one to three inches in diameter ; pulverulent externally, but ex-
hibiting a glossy Sabine when broken. It soon crum mbles on exposure.
Seay and Geology. 425 ©
In the town of Diana, the ie minerals occur abundantly. Tab-
ular spar, with green coccolite, nuttallite, variegated serpentine, rens-
Selaerite, black pyroxene, feldspar, in crystals variously modified, and
8 singular cog apparently of graphite, chlorite, and specular iron
ore, which has been strangely considered an ‘ore of silver.”” Asso-
ciated with the foregoing, but in less quantities, are sales, crystals of
‘sulphuret of iron, and very rarely zircon.
The vicinity also affords surfaces spangled with minute meee of
riz, upon.a coarse variety of agate, and calcedony: an rystal-
that specimens can be n o longer peas None of these mines will
ever in a probability be reopene
occurred in the lead mines three-fourths of a mile N.W. of
iron, as to be rapidly essa by the efflorescence of the latter. It
may be possible to procure more of this mineral, but the expense would
be great, and success very uncertain
With the exception of an occasional boulder, containing epidote, co-
lophonite, tourmaline, garnet, &c., the foregoing is a complete list of the
minerals foun in es county. Fora more particular account of the
Pameli
Cacoxenite. Sterling i iron mine, Antwerp.
Calcareous spar appears in numerous and peculiar forms of crystal-
lization in the town of Antwerp, particularly in ee etd of Oxbow
a and on the shores of Vroman and other
ear the Natural Bridge, a ridge, a few years 3 ago, was opened a a mine a of copper r pyrite,
which occurred thinly disseminated through — 2 was unpromising, and after
some S. Speeations were suspended. f the excavations were foun
traces of uch resembling anthracite WJ.
sian. iain Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 54
:
426 Scientific Intelligence.
Saccharine limestone forms immense ledges in paves &c.
Theresa affords several localities of calcareous spar
Calcareous tufa. Pamelia, Adams, &c., along the range of transi-
tion limestones
Carbonate of iron crystallized at the Sterling iron mine, Antwerp.
Feldspar. In Alexandria, in great abundance. Antwerp, &c
Fluor spar. Theresa, in several localities. The celebrated locality
at Muscolongue lake, in this town, is nearly or quite exhausted. In
ams, associated with sulphate of barytes. It occurs here in delicate
shades of pink and green.
Hornblende. Theresa. Alexandria
Idocrase, in minute crystals, on ae banks of Vroman’s lake, in
Antwerp near the village of Oxbow. It occurs in an impure lime-
stone, be agai
ron, (bog ore.) Wilna Antwerp, &c. In the latter town, it occurs
a vs tae in which an immense variety of organic substances are
Sineretiend by it. It is near the village of Oxbo
ron, (specular ore.) Theresa, Antwerp, and Philadelphia. It fnr-
nishes a vast amount cit iron annual y-
Mica, in Antwerp, t Vroman’s lake crystallized in hexagonal
sa
Most “ mineralogists” refer to , Henderson, in this county, as a fine
locality. After many inquiries L am forced to believe that none occurs
in the town. This town as well as most of the adjoining ones, ts un-
derlaid by transition a and no primary rock can occur in it,
larger than common bowlde
Pargasite. Antwerp, near Muscolongue lake.
Pyrowene, of a light color, near iene 5 s lake, in Antwerp, asso-
ciated with crystals of mica, ‘and sphe
riz. Antwerp and Theresa, seevat ta with a iron. Near
Vroman, and other lakes, in the northern part of the county.
apolite. Rarely in slender crystals in Antwerp, on the farm of
eson
Serpentine. Theresa, Antwerp, of various shade of white and black.
opiate ?
he brecciated or porphyritic variety, is a constant associate of
specular iron, in Antwerp, Theresa, &c.
Sphene. In Antwerp near Vroman’s lake.
Oxbow. It is filled with vermicular cavities, and stained wi
Sulphate of strontia. Theresa, or Alosatlitessi in 4 honntilal ceil
line masses; of a snow-white color.
Sulphuret of copper and iron. In Antwerp, on banks of Vroman’s
ake.
Sulphuret of iron. Antwerp, associated with specular ores of iron.
ceokeet of nickel. Sterling mine, Antwerp, in brilliant capillary
crystals
Tourmaline. In large crystals. Alexandria
Tiubaaline. (yellow.) Antwerp, in limited quantites.
Mineralogy and Geology. 427
seb has been attributed to this county, (Antwerp,) but its lo-
cality is los
Tremolite, occurs in hep Fannin occasionally in cavities of
Black river and ‘l'renton limes
Ia addition to the foregoing roe usual variety of minerals, occur scat-
fered i in detached pions over the country.
tv. Lawrence Coun he uncommon splendor and Hirai of
minerals brought to fae ree the mania for mining speculations, which
prevailed throughout the county about ten or twelve years ‘ince, has
rendered St. Bawrence county proverbial for its mineral localitie
Most of these enterprises having proved unprofitable, and me ruin-
_ ous, to those engaged in them, have been abandoned, and the iron mines
_ are the only ones that are now wro ught. No probability exists of any
of them oe ever resumed, and consequently many minerals formerly
an be no longer procured at their localities. This applies
Bécially pn the dead mines of Rossie, which were discontinued about
ten years since.
__ A vein of spar was often the only inducement to engaging in a po
ing operation, and many elegant specimens were obtained in these
terprises, which can no longer be procured. The following minal
Occur at present in the county, being all of them more or less accessi-
ble, and abundant, with the exceptions gps tio
pert mineral, in a calcareous spring, Governeur.
Apatite, Ressio, Hammond, &c. ood i Se readily prognted
with litle labor and expense. A new ‘s ocality was acciden tally di dise
S. in Rossie, about two miles from the village of Oxbow, in the fall
‘LF
Albite, Governeur, Fowler, &c., in granite.
Agate.. A coarse variety in com er.
do ubtful. ani oko
Morristown, DeKalb, Fontan Macomb. Several of i its lo-
elites are now inaccessible ;
Calcareous spar. Gaverienr, Rossie, Russel, &c. The large lim-
pid crystals from Rossie, are no longer proc e.
Calcareous ah frequently met with in calcareous springs.
Eecetony. wler.
Carbonate ‘bg tron. Iron mines, Rossie, i ari specimens occa-
sionally. athe ; those of ordinary quality frequen
Chondrodite. ‘*Governeur near Somerv ville.” "This locality was a
boulder, and has been carried off. Frequent in Rossie, near Yellow
lake, in detached masses.
Dolomite. Hammond.
ond, ea
428 Scientific Intelligence.
Graphite. Rossie, Governeur, Dekalb, &c.
Hematite. lron mines, Rossie, Governeur, &c.
Hornblende. Dekalb, Rossie, ‘Governeuy; Potsdam, Pierrepont, ie.
Hyalite. Quartz, with the appearance of hyalite, is associated with
apatite and zircon, in Hammond and Rossie.
Idocrase. Governeur.
Tron, (bog ore.) Hermon, Brasher, Fowler, Governeur, Canton, &c.
Iron, (magnetic. ) Edwards, Russel, Pierrepont.
Iron, (specular.) Hermon, Rossie, Governeur, Edwagds, Canton,
Pierrepont and Fowler. Often beautifully crystallized fad associated
with interesting minerals. It is the most important iron ore in the county. |
ica. Governeur, near A eepesdon in serpentine. Edwards, Ma-
comb, Potsdam, Rossie,
Pargasite. Rossie, pteinsd: Russel, Hermon, &c.
*
decahedron with triangular faces. Spongy quartz occurs in DeKalb.
Rutile, — to Governeur. No locality known in that town,
or in the
Sca otkte,” Governeur, in great abundance, in primary limestone, as-
ooaire with — pargasite, and formerly with apatite. The latter
eral od
" Rotsie, Fowler, Pitcairn. In each of its localities it is.
iiiedéied with serpentine.
Serpentine. Governeur, near the tremolite locality. Edwards,
Pitcairn, pape DeKalb, Hermon, Fowler, Russel, Canton, Fine, Col-
o of the abov es ne serpentine occurs in ledges, a and is
pies 8g wit primitive limestone.
Renss ite, occurs in ps all the above mentioned towns, it is of
every ada of white, black, green, &c., and occurs crystallized, ra-
diated, fibrous, laminated, and cleavable. The brecciated variety, is a
*
2
oO in some
at Kearney mine, near Somerville, it is beautifully variegated. e
texture of this variety is so fragile, as to fall to pieces upon receiving
a slight blow from a hammer. Varieties which have received the name
of soapstone, and have been wrought into various ornamental articles,
occur in Fowler, Edwards and Russel. It is often of a snowy white-
ness, ~ nig by —— gradations into tale, and tremolite
ossie, n pale re an brow n crystals, with apatite, at
gate "Aeneid with mica, in serpentine, in the town of Gu
one near the ee of Somerville. Crystals of a large size, (one
two inches on a side,) have _ found oere but they are rare.
Sinall brilliant crystals are comm The small crystals are very
perfect, but the larger ones are mak ‘blended = the matrix. Color
pink and reddish brown.
sa of barytes. Governeur, in highly crystalline and fibrous
Siecces owler, Rossie, DeKalb.
cote strontia formerly found in lead mines, Rossie. Local-
ity Garscuaaih le.
Mineralogy and Geology. 429
ee angela of iron. Rossie and Governeur, in iron mines. Fowler,
anto
ap i of copper and iron. Canton, Fowler, Macomb, &c.
Tourmaline. Rossie, Governeur, Hermon, &c. Often of a brown
and yellow color.
Tremolite. Governeur, in splendid crystalline and fibrous masses
b.
Zir Hammond and Rossie. Coarse opake specimens may be
Sbiained with facility. Beautifully crystatlined and very perfect speci-
Mens often procured. It occurs in primary limestone, associated with
apatite, feldspar, loxoclase (?) hyalite, graphite, &c. The pr cipal
ocality is on the farm of Mr. Hardy. It has been improperly attribu-
0 the farm of Mr. Robinson.
Isomorphism of Miargyrite and Augite. —Miargyrite crystalizzes
Augite has M: M==87° 6’, P: M=100° 25’.
fhe augite group of isomorphs with this addition includes, augite,
yroxene, glauber salt, acmite, hornblende and miargyrite.* Calcula-
ng the atomic volume of miargyr - we have
A = 3762'8 — 5-234 (sp. gr.) =718 C= 7189 —6=1198. «
The result 119-8 divided by 24, ne va rs which is very near the
atomic volume of the augite series. If antimony is taken as a double
atom, it gives 718°9-—-7—102-7, which is a tle more than double
number for the augite series. Moreover, the whole number 718°9 i
not much above the number for Hudsonite. We repeat the snthets
here for comparison.
A. B. 0.
Pyroxene, Ist var, (Ca, Mg) 3 §i2 637° 127-4 45°5
2nd var. (Oa,Mg, Fe)? Si2 645-2 129° 46:1
var., Hedenbergite, 6734 1384°7 481
4th var. Fes Si2 6747 185 48-2
5th var, Mn3 Si2 6848 1369 48°9
6th var, « Hoientia, 1060 1412 489
iy - : - 718°9 119°8 (or 1027)
Acmi . . 9185 1837 48°34
Ba 3 Ist var. - 9716: 1388 48°58
nd var., a, alumiow, - 15595 47-25
3d . 138'4 48:48
ngs var. . 144-0 48°24
Borax, f . 13916 1070 638
Glauber alt. 12905 10754 496 3D. D
nalysis of the Sclorlomite Ag Sp tele ; by C. Rammetspere,
(Poggendorf's Annalen, Ixxvii, 1 849). —Rammelsberg finds this
Ark
mineral from ansas to cons bag Bi
. i d Li Protoxyd of iron. Magnesia.
1, 36-09 ae rr a9 22-83 155 9845
2. 27:85 15°32 32°01 23°75 152 = 10045
The results give the formula
oks Si2+3k2 Ti
In the 2nd analysis some titanic acid still remained with the silica.
a Oc
* See pages 223, 228, 280, of this volume.
430 : . Scientific Intelligence.
7. Large crystals of Sphene.-—The accompanying figures of sphene
are by Win . 8. Vaux of Philadelphia, from specimens in his cabinet,
obiained at iene near Natural Bridge, Lewis Co., N. Y. The color
is dark brown. The form is that of the so-called Lederite, which
comes from the same locality ; the narrow plane is the plane n, and
the large one below to the right y
the Ozarkite of Shepard; by J. D. Dana.—The Ozarkite
On
(is Journal [2], ii, p. 251), after an imperfect examination was tee
unced by Prof. Shepard, as probably a silicious hydrate of ime
viria, with possibly traces of thorina. It has since heen aap, 5
J. D. Whitney, who obtained the blowpipe penstioes of scolecite. 4
| specimens from Arkansas have been examined by Mr. G. J. Brus F
: Yale Laboratory, New Haven, and inane to consist eae o
phosphate of lime. They have often the radiated appearance of a zeolite
“-
| _ Mineralogy and Geology. 431
with acicular crystallizations ; but after Mr. Brush’s discovery of phos-
phoric acid, the writer found by means of a glass that the acicular prisms
were in fact hexagonal prisms of apatite. Other large prisms were also
found in some specimens. The acicular mesotype-like mineral is asso-
‘ ciated with another of a mealy character and in part sub-lamellar, which
may be a zeolite as observed by Whitney
Ce
9. The Lagoons of Tuscany, (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, Dec., 1848,
47.)—The Tuscan Lagoons are, properly speaking, natural depres-
sion
8
s of the soil ordinarily filled with water from which hot vapors are
ted. They are situated within a space of ten or twelve miles, lying
een 28° 27’ and 28° 40’ of longitude, and between 48° 10’ and
‘overed by analysis, that they contained boracic acid.
ty, followed by farther explorations, has bestowed upon the la-
bons an unrivalled industrial importance, and has brought into the
tion. Under the Grand Duke Leopold Ist, the chemist Heefer
This dis-
| who fell into the scalding baths,—the disruptions of the ground occasion-
ed by the appearance of new Soffiont,—and above all the superstitious
terror with regard to them, had made the people consider the lagoons
aS a scourge from which they sought deliverance by public prayers ;
tiches than the mines of Peru, or of Mexico, and certainly more relia-
ble. After the discovery of Hofer, Paul Mascagni, a noted chemist,
i t '
issue from these lakes keep their waters constantly at a boiling te pe-
“ 2
of the highest lake, they draw off the waters into the second lake to
432 Scientific Intelligence.
per cent. of boracic are then led into the reservoir from
which they are conducted into lead reservoirs for evaporation, to pro-
duce concentration ; and to hasten that operation, 1 appy idea was
the Soffioni. This improvement decided the success of the enterprise, .
It is surprising that it was introduced at so late a day, since this method na
was not new and had been long practi
boilers. Thus the fabrication is exceedingly simple, the locality itself
furnishing the means of carrying it on. single discharge of the va-
Tuscan pounds. From 1839 to 1845 the mean quantity has been two
millions and a half of pounds.
Thus in estimating the product at 7,500 pounds per day; the quan-
tity of saturated water upon which they operate daily is 1,500,000 Ibs.
daily, and annually 547,500,000 Ibs.
This labor brings to Tuscany 12 millions of pounds (10 millions of
francs), and it is surprising that it should have remained unproductive
during so many ages, and that it should have been reserved for the skill
of M. Larderel, now Count of Monte Cerboli, and before 1818 a simple
wandering merchant, entirely unacquainted with scientific researches, to
discover the fugitive vapors and render them a source of inexhaustible
wealth, :
The violence with which the burning vapors escape gives rise to
ddy explosions, when a lake has been drained by turning its waters
into another lake. The mud is then thrown out, as solid matters are
ejected from volcanos, and there forms in the bottom of the lake a crow
* ee
f 4
”
e
= Se
Mineralogy and Geology. «433
of those little cones of eruption whose activity and play recall exactly
' under another form the hornitos of Malpays. Their temperature va-
nds by gyp-
the lagoons
common to see towards the limits where the metamorphic influ-
sum, by con-
rich waters had
Szoonp Series, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 55
ma
434 » Scientific Intelligence. .
lakes, are thus changed into sulphate of lime and constitute, with the
clays in which they sink, brecciated argillo- gy pseous beds without strat-
ification. That this fact should be equally apparent in the ancient beds
under analogous circumstances, is at least what might be inka from
the examination of that which passes in the lagoons. We should also
observe the analogous positions of the boracite of Luneburg, Shae is
found in — ppeanuariog | in gypsum intercalated in the midst of a
These different facts well confirmed, establish in my view an intimate
resemblance between the gypsum of the lagoons and the ab normal
gypsum beds of secondary regions.
If the silicification of the Macigno which we have noticed in th
In pagent with this we ierva imbedded in a silicious coqient: nu-
clei of a ite micaceous sandstone una a d at centre, causing @
breccia Dace his kind of breccia is finally, by the complete
times the solution is more rapid, and then the rock is formed of an ag-
glutination of little grains analogous to those of an ancient quartz rock
and possessing its tenacity and hardne ess. Examined with a gia ea ach
manent 5 pagans of silica effected at the expense of the macigno,
are carr “ on upon a vast scale and over a space of great ener.
a. Curator, Museum Economic Geokigy <-d te November
meeting of the Asiatic Society, Captain Fitzgerald, B.A., resented for
the inspection of the Society a model in lead of this remarkable stone
and gave a brief note of its history, which will be found in my report
pethes month. He has since favored me with a more detailed one,
is as follows :—
|
:
|
4
:
Mineralogy and Geology. 435
Note by Captain Peskerkgeoh rnc pens. | attached to i
Nizam’s Service, on the m’s t December, 18:
Nizam’s country under circumstances of rather a curious nature. The
odel of a part only, a piece having been
hipped off, which, after passing throm many hands, was purchased
ya em banker for 70,000 rupee
sidered interesting. It was first seen in the hands of a native child,
was playing with it, of course ignorant of its vats: On eight annas
ng offered for what the poor people considered as a mere stone, their
ond.
form and size is shown below. This stone, hitherto unknown,
w be classed among the larger description of diamonds which
of, but seldom see.
Base. °
“The size of the stone exactly taken by callper ons from be
model, is as follows Inches.
2.
Length ‘sate ltigiegnig sheng aneet
5 Pitt BED A
Greatest breadth, . : ; 0-92
mae thickness,
ad now exact ates os in aa me the leaden one ex-
d th
eer the meeting, and I fin vais
Their absolute weight is, ; pa grb
Their specific gravity, -
436 Scientific Intelligence.
Now er to various authorities we have for the specific gravity
of the diamond
Ure, ; : ‘ ‘ ; : : 3°53
Brewster, colorless, : : ; : : 3°52
orange, . ° : ‘ : 355 f
Jameson, twelve authorities, mean, : Z 302 eI
Mean, . : . : ‘ ‘ j . eb
And hence assuming our model to be exact, (and it is very nearly
so,) we have by a simple perenne not quite 1108 grains for the ac-
tual weight of the Nizam’s diam
This is equal to 277 carats of gomeey of the rough diamond, and as
the rough stones are usually taken to ne, but one half of their wel
when cut and polished, it would allow 1384 carats, or a wei
tween the Pitt (or Regent) diamond (1363 carats), and that of th
Grand Duke of Tuscany (139 carats), for it in its prese si? co
and if we take it that Sa of what it would be w
was taken off with the splinter sold to the native, as esr oy Captain
Fitzgerald, we shall then have 1553 carats for the possible weight of
of pure water, which can, only be ascertained by cute! it, thor
we know that the natives of India, and particularly of the Deccan,
too good judges of diamonds to mistake a topaz for one, and it is state
that 70,000 rupees have been paid for the fragment. . It therefore cer-
tainly adds one cone fact more to the history of this most won-
— of the gem
An account er the Strata and Organic Remains exposed in the
Gasitncs of the Railway from the Great Western + 66 near Corsham,
through Trowbridge to Westbury in Wiltshire; by RecinaLp NEVILLE
Manrett, Esq., Civil Engineer, (Proceedings of the Genlogiaal Society
of London, Feb. 27, Sir C. Lyell, President, in the Chai iy ta —This line
ing promiscuously intermingled. ome of the finest examples of
Belemnites and Belemnoteuthis hitherto known, were found in these de-
posi
have been described by Dr. G. A. Mantell [the author’s
ee ee
Mineralogy and Geology. 437
father] in the Philosophical Transactions. With these remains, were
ound teeth and bones of fishes and of four or five genera of reptiles. In
the strata of Oxford clay lignite occurs abundantly, and in some places
Very large trunks and branches of coniferous trees, the wood retaining
{s structure and tenacity. The whole deposit resembled a mud-bank of
a deep sea to which trees and other terrestrial plants, and littoral shells,
had been drifted and mixed up with the relics of the mollusca of the
Middle Island of New Zealand ; by G. A. Mantett, Esq.,
F.R.S., &c., (Ibid.)—This memoir consisted, Ist, of a descrip-
Middle Island, extending from northwest of Bank’s Peninsula
ago, a distance of about two hundred and sixty miles. 2dly,a
ic schists, these are traversed by dykes of basalt, amygdaloids, &c.
Obsidian, vesicular lava, and voleanic grits, in many places flank the
sides of the great mountain chains which reach above the line of per-
petual snow; and along the base of the range and over the adjacent
plains are thick deposits of conglomerates and rich alluvial loam.
ce)
chalk of England; even the soft parts of the bodies of these minute
animals are in many instances preserved. The deposit next in age is
a blue upper tertiary clay full of marine shells of species still existing
in the South Pacific Ocean.
Lastly, a ferruginous sandy grit with shells of recent marine species
the whole are spread, uncon-
Low hills of marly sand occur
rn drift; this
Of the fossil
438 Scientific Intelligence.
W. Mantell, and now in the British Museum, were from the ~~
iron-sand near the mouth of the river Wain ngongoro. e from
Waikouaiti in the Middle Island, were imbedded in a morass “of small
extent, and which is exposed only at low water. This swamp is com-
posed of vegetable fibres, sand and animal matter ; it seems to hay
been originally a morass in which the Phormium tenax, or New
land flax, grew luxuriantly. ‘The bones are literally a and so.
7
The most extraordinary relics are the entire series of bones (twenty-
six in number) of the feet and shanks of the same individual Dinornis:
robustus, found standing erect, the one about a yard in advance of tk
other, as if the bird had been thiked; and unable to oie a had
perished on the spot. They were dug up and carefully nu ;
seriatim, and are now articulated like a recent cleus! This | is the
ell: of Ireland, the last of the Moas was exterminated by human agenc y
yet it is probable that a ah in physical conditions, had prepared for
their final annihilation. Of the organic law ee ch determines the
Ill. Zoonoey.
1. Supplementary ie en on the Structure of the Belemnite and
Belemnot euthis; by Gipron Atcernon Manrett, Esq., LL.D., F.
Vice President of the Geological Society, dc. (Proc. Royal Society,
February 14, 1850.)—In this communication the author describes his :
recent investigations on the structure of the two genera of fossil Ceph-
alopoda, whose remains occur so abundantly in the Oxford clay of Wilt-
shire, namely, the Belemnite and Belemnoteuthis, as supplementary to
his memoir on the same subject, published in the Phil. Trans., 1
In that paper evidence was adduced to show the correctness of the
opinion of the late Mr. Channing Pierce, as to the generic distinction of
these two extinct forms of Cephalopoda.
Zoology. 439
As however several eminent a have expressed doubts as to
some of the opinions advance by the author in his former memoir, fig-
ures and descriptions are given in the — resent notice, of beautiful and
uctive specimens lately discovered in Wiltshire, and which he con-
es establish his previous conclusions. Dr. Mantell states as the re-
of his praca of several hundred examples, that our actual
edge of the organization of the a of the Lelearnite is at
present limited to the following parts, v
1.) An external Capsule or i oe m which invested the osselet
sepiostaire, and extending upwards, constituted the external sheath
the receptacle.
(2.) The Osselet, characterized by its fibrous radiated structure, ter-
nating distally in a solid rostrum or guard, having an alveolus, or
cal hollow, to receive the apical portion of the chambered phrag-
one ; and expanding proximally, into a thin cup, which became
nfluent with the capsule, and formed the receptacle for the viscera.
(3.) The Phragmocone, or chambered, siphunculated, internal shell ;
ipex of which occupied the alveolus of the guard, and the upper
‘constituted a ce ea chamber, from the basilar margin of which
seded two long, flat, testaceous oeaises: These structures com-
all that are at present known of the animal to which the fossil’
paly called ** The Belemnite,” belonge
the Belemnoteuthis (the fossil caehalaned which Prof. Owen re-
as identical with the Be lemnite) many examples of the body with
258
of the Belemnite, has a fibro-radiated structure, investing a coni-
hambered shell; this organ, for reasons fully detailed in the m
, the author affirms could never have been contained within the b
olus of a Belemnite ; the soft parts of the animal of the Belemnite are
therefore wholly unknown.
Many beautiful specimens of Belemnites and Belemnoteuthis were
xhibited by pi Mantell to the Society, in peeof of the statements con-
tained in the m
2. On the Scan: ; an undescribed gigantic terrestrial -—
whose remains are oo et those of the Iguanodon and o
e humerus above mentioned was foun
ed Mr. Peter "Faller of Lewes, at about twenty feet below the surface ;
Presents the usual mineralized condition of the fossil bones from the
440 , Scientific Intelligence.
arenaceous strata of the Wealden. It is four and a half feet in
length, and the circumference of its distal extremity is thirty-two inches !
gigantic Iguanodon; the name of Pelorosaurus (from emg, mon-
ster) is therefore proposed for the genus, with the specific term Compe
beari, in honor of the paleontological labors of the present Dean of —
Llandaff, the Rev. W. D. Conybeare.
o bones have been found in such contiguity with this humerus, as
to ada: it certain that they belonged to the same gigantic reptile ; but
together with some distal caudals of the same type, are figure
described by the author.
ertain femora and other bones from the oolite of Oxfordahivas
; ee
possessing characters more alliéd to those of the Pelo
some unknown — gee: than to the pata wit
they have been confo d.
As to the magnitu Pm of the aa to which ‘ee juivorde bale
Dr. Mantell, — disclaiming the idea of atriving at any certain c
clusions from a's ingle — Stated that ina Gavial eighteen feet lo
the humerus is one foot in length; i. e. one-eighteenth part of
length of the animal, frei the end of the muzzle to the tip of the tail. _
According to these Sdincasopementa the Pelorosaurus would be eighty-
one feet long, and its body twenty feet in circumference. Even if we
assumed the length and probable number of thé vertebra as the scale,
although we should have a reptile of relatively abbreviated propos
yet in “this ¢ case, the original vonroai would surpass in magnitude the
most collossal of reptilian for
In conclusion, Dr. Mantell ociinial on the probable physical conde z
tions of the countries inhabited by the terrestrial reptiles of the secon-
dary ages of geology. The highly organized land saurians appear to
have occupied the same position in those soars te pe as the large
mammalia in those of modern times. he trees and plants whose re-
mains are associated with the fossil bones, sahtolk by their close affin-
ity to living types, that the islands or continents on which they aie
o-
n
clouded a as those of our tropical climes. There are therefor no |
ion can only have originated from a partial view of all the phenomena
which these problems embrace ; for there is as great a discrepancy be-
_ Boology. : 441
tween the existing faunas of different readings, as in the extinct groups
of animals and plants which geological researches have revealed. The
moir was illustrated by numerous drawings, and the gigantic hume-
of the Pelorosaurus and other bones were placed before the Society.
0.; 1850, v, p. 8.)—Dr Leidy presented to the examination of the
ety a colored and several other drawings of what he termed an en-
serpents of such a forest. Me ;
\ somewhat similar drawing he exhibited, taken from the small in-
tine of Julus marginatus. :
Other drawings were also presented. Dr. L. stated that among his
tion of Julides, he had a number of times observed individuals
become dull in color, and almost motionless, which phenomena
followed by the death of the animal. It occurred to him that, in
h a state, there might be exhibited some change in the character of
tophyta, as usually found in the active. condition of the anitnal.
‘removing the intestine of an individual which had just died, he
d that the entozoa which usuatly occupied the small intestine, had
resenting, when viewed by transmitted light, some resemblance to a
‘Minute bleached shell of an Echinus; by reflected light, it resembled
8 minute, white Lycoperdon. ‘This plant was strewed all over the mu-
m rew in greatest quantity along the course of fila-
he case. :
he had discovered a fourth species of Enterobrus
in Polydesmus virginiensis, and another entophyte analogous to Entero-
brus growing in Polydesmus granulatus. The latter differs from Ente-
‘Yobrus in having numerous globular cells at the free extremity of the
Szconp Series, Vol. IX, No. 27—May, 1850.
4
442 Scientific Intelligence.
aor cell. He adverted to the several theories of cell meoeee st
said that in the last mentioned plant, in the development of the
a bular terminal cells, ~* division of the permanent cell wall followed
the division * the cell contents. In conclusion, he observed, that these
matters would be more ful ee of hereafter, in a memoir whe, ¢
he meee fcona on the
n Infusoria on nn Te i by Dr. H. 1. peu Ae
roe of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Dec., 1849, p. 183.)—Dr. H. HL
Bowditch gave the result of the microscopic ie 8 of the accu-
mulations on the tenth: of healthy persons, near the gums, in forty-nine
individuals, most o om were very particular in their care of the
teeth. Aieosiaples a vegetable products were found in every in-
stance except two. In those cases the brush was used three times a
sk and especially of tobacco, by which — seemed to be in no
wise incommoded. Soap-suds and the chlorine tooth-wash ave
destroy them.
IV. Astronomy. ooo
its return is not yet to be teeiees of, Mr. J
in a letter to the Editor of the London Times, dated March
that Mr. J. T. Barber of Etwell, has computed the effect of the pertu
bations due chiefly to Jupiter's attraction wee the last revolution. —
Mr. B. finds that ** between the years 1556 and 1592, the united atirac- —
tion of Jupiter and Saturn would diminish the period 263 days, but that
between 1592 and 1806, it would be increased by the action of Jupiter
alone no less than 751 days, so that a retardation of 488 days must take
place. How much longer Saturn, Urn ald Neptune may detain it
ae
of 1851, and that on the supposition “ - is within four or five mo
of its return to perihelion, the region e heavens about the come
tion Hydra should at this time be pumcakesty examine
a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443
V. Miscettaneous In TELLIGENCE.
*
; On the Gradual Production of Luminous inpresiiinci on the Eye,
nd other erage of Vision; by Wiut1am Swan, F.R.S.E. (Proc.
Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1849, ii, 230. )—The object of this communication
was to toca the relation between the apparent brightness of a light,
he time during which it acts on the eye. In order to examine the
intensity of luminous impressions of short duration, the author made use
f dises, having sectors of known angles cut out of their circumferences,
which were made to revolve at known velocities between the eye and
aperture in it is visible at each revolution of the disc throughout the
apertures are illuminated by gas flames behind them,
iS ectangular
n of glass is placed half way. between the apertures, with its faces
ed at angles of 45° té the line joinipg their mea so that they
Seen in apparent contact by reflecti from the faces of the prism,
their relative brightness can thus be compared wit ca great nicety.
es other light from its sc When the disc is put in the
parent brightness of ee pm behind it is instantly diminished
the equality of the apparent brightness of the apertures i the
ens is restored, by increasing the distance of the light from the
he ratio of the brightness of the impression produced
‘i light —s the revolution of the disc, to the brightness of its
Pression, when seen by uninterrupted vision, is that of the squares of
: Pianos of the other light from the aperture in its screen.
The copied are the principal results obtained by means of this
‘appara
(1) ‘When the eye receives, from a light of common intensity, a
‘succession of flashes of ~~ duration, which succeed each other so
Een as to produce a uniform impression, this impression will also
é a constant aint, ceeded s the number = flashes in a given
time se inversely with the duration of each
(2. nT e brightness ia the impression Sokeand by flashes of light of
a given neni, — h succeed each other so rapidly as to produce a
n the eye, is proportional to the number of flashes
in a given re
*
AAA Miscellaneous Intelligence.
(3.) When light 7 a _— intensity acts on the eye for a short space
of time, the brightne the luminous impression on the retina is
brightness of the light when seen by plas vision; and it is |
also ascertained that light a pena about the tenth part of a second to |
avee its full effect on the
4.) It is found that lights. of “different intensity act on the eye with
equal rapidity, so that even ‘the light of the sun produces an inpromiae
with no greater rapidity than that 7 comimon gas flame,
(6. ) Since Professor Wheatstone’s exporiene me ton proved that the
light of the electric spark of high tension continues for less than the
millionth part of a second, and it has been shewn that the brightness of
the impression, — by light on the eye, increases in the arithmet- —
ical proportion e time during which it continues to act on si Bed
na, it follows om ae apparent brightness of the electric spark is
zo0lso0 Of what it would become if the duration of the spark cou
_ prolonged to sth of a second. "F rom the great apparent eis 2
the nearly instantaneous electri¢ spark of high tension, when c ompared
with the sénsibly continuous light of Voltaic electricity, it is inferred
that the _brightne ss of electrical light increases with the tension of
electricit tee
2, Foster’s Geological Chart, —The following announcement ul
been received for r publication In this Journal. It affords us pleasure
know that the Chast’ alluded to has not the sanction of Prof, Mz
name.
Ja ékson C, H., Ohio, March 28th, 18
To the Editors of the American Journal of Science.
GENTLEMEN,—I received a few days since the March No. of ithe
Am. Jour. of Science, in which is a notice of Foster’s Geological Chet
{vide p. 309, vol ix, new series,) saying “+ A revised copy, as a
for publietion, having the signatures of sarees E. Emmo
W. Wz. r, has been showmetus by the a
My name on that Chart is a forgery. ane never seen the C
have never authorized my name to be put on and pronounce the
tempt to palm off that production under my signature or recomm
tion, a base imposition on the public, and a still baser imposition on me.
[Sign
3. Lefroy y on the Application , Photography to the Self: registration
of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments, (see page 319.)—Mr.
eka i sent us the following account of bis method of treating his
mirrors when tarnished.—The mirror will probably be found in course
of time, to get tarnished and to require cleaning, this may be done with
soft leather, from which all the dust has been beaten out, and which has
been well washed in soap and water, and dried before use. If a turning
lathe is at hand, a convex buff, fitting the mirror, and well covered with
two or three thicknesses of leather, may be centered on it, and the mirror
held against it in a support of some kind, while it is made to revolve, but
=
a
i
;
;
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445
> least a of _— powders, however fine, will endanger
teration in the form of the mirror, and destroy the sharpness of
us aaiable of aig produced ~ it. The greatest care must be
to keep the peatber eo and dr
mp
In the sai ah of this shoes mention is made of a remarkable
ffect observed Ma
ph wires, which are found to have a direction more or less approach-
to that of the declination needle, in order to make with them, when
are not in use for ordinary purposes, some observations "which
enable us to “ett and to measure. the electric currents
probably travetse them.”
My object in addressing you:is to state, ‘hal in the aa part of ea
was led to undertake extensive aloneraiiony on this subject, in ¢ons
of the peculiar disturbances occasionally visible on the fate:
h instruments of the Midland Railway (on which line the telegraph
erected under my superintendence as the company’s engineer).
disturbances were at first attributed to atmospheric electricity
to jo explain th e éffects, it is necessary to State that the Midland
aoele coosisis of four principal lines centering in Derby,
. From m Darky northwards to Leeds. -*
From Derby northeast to Lincoln, °
From Derby southwards to Rugby.
From Derby southwest to Birmingham
disturbances on these four telegraphs were observed to occur
with rare exceptions ; and the direction of the current
9 say, when the deflection was such as to indicate that the current
owards Derby on the first two, it was from Derby on the last two ;
when it changed in one, it changed in all. It was also observed
that on the 19th of March 1847, there was - unusual degree of dis-
a set of experimenis on the subject.
ving obtained delicate galvanometers, I first ascertained that cur-
rents are at all times perceptible in the telegraph wires to a ernie or
446 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
less extent when the galvanometer is applied on a sufficient length of
wire, and between two earth connections; but that wires having | no
earth connection, or only one, exhibited no currents.
I also found by simultaneous observations on two alvanometets, ap-_
plied one at each extremity of a wire forty-one miles long, that the
But the most interesting fact which appeared during.these observations,
and that which bears immediately on the remarks contained in the let-
ter of M. de la Rive, is that there is a daily movement of the galvanom-
eter needle, similar to that of the horizontal magnetic needle, produced _
and vary from 7 to 10 o’clock both in the morning and evening ;
the greatest regularity is observable in the morning, and the mean rev
t to disturbances of greater r less force and duration, which a
found to be of greatest energy during magnetic storms, and
ssages.
xt experiments were madé with a view to ascertain the a
tion in nee these- ee srr ; and the result, as determ
from numerous gbservations, ‘denotes it to be from northeast to
west. The nearer this eneaa appfoached, the more decided is t
fect on the galvanometer ; but between east and south, and b
of the morning (at which time the currents trave —
Seriation is easterly ; also, that the large disturbances called n
storms are simultaneous on both instruments.
But although there is this resemblance in the general features 0!
movements of both needles, the wees described are not similar. +
movements of the galvanometer needle are more frequent and rapi¢
than the declinometer, and the deflection frequently chides over from
right to left without a corresponding movement of the declinometer.
on reading M. de la Rive’s letter, because it rather curiously happens,
that the unusual delay which has arisen in the publication of my p®
Se Intelligence. 447
the Royal Society is attributable to the fact, en a arrived from these
ments at the same conclusion as M. de la as fe iy electric
of the diurnal variation of the magnetic oncile hich I consid-
the “pos of the alternating electric pce exhibited ae
‘tions occur similar to those before, described; while wires sus-
d in the air exhibit no deflections, unless t they are connected with
rth in two places, and then the pi 9 em in which the current
Is d depends on the relative positions of the earth connections, how-
rcuitous per be the route of the wire sel.
yy, April 12, 184
The Ruins of Wek. (London Lit. Gaz., March 9, 1850, from
Times).—A correspendent has favored v 3 with the subjoined ex-
from the letter of Mr. Stewart Erskine Rolland, late of the 69th
ent, who is now at Nimroud with Captain Layard, assisting him
endeavors to bring to light the hidden antiquarian treasures of
eh. The difficulties which the gallant and enterprising diecuverey
DO/. it is stated), materially encroach on the harvest of antiquilies
would fall to the lot of the English nation, were Capt. Layard’s
backed by more ample means :—
e I was there, at the entrance of the city gates ; and the pave-
he gateway, marked with ruts by the chariot wheels, was also
I left my wife under Mrs. Rassam’s care, and accompa-
» and to _ mound rsabad. We took sessroniese with us
unting, ee seven antelopes. After our return,
Charts otte, an I,a servants, embark d aft
glass en ag a the: and some — and made it as comfortable as
Circumstances will admit. Layard has placed a party of the workmen
under my control, and allowed me to sr where I please. Iam sinking
448 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
wells in all eines, and am not without hopes of discovering subter-
ranean chambers, which I am convinced must exist. In one place con-
siderably below the level of any of the hitherto discovers monuments, —
a brick arch between two walls of brick has been uncovered: it isa
poral ss us all. Another great discovery is an immense stone wall of
yet made since - ia was first turned remains to be told. I will give
it you in due o
“ January 3. 1850. —On the 28th of December, Layard and I, with
our aggre! and two or three Arab Sheikhs, started off to pay a visit —
to the * Tai,’ on the other side of the ‘Zab.’ We were the first Euro-
peans whe ay ever visited that country. Three hours’ galloping from
Nimroud brought us to the banks of the stream, which is as rapid an
broad as the Tigris, and nearly as deep, but here, being divided into
four oe agar is fordable. With some difficulty we swam our horse
ross it, getting of course very wet in the operation. Our visit here
ound f Abou ee
which we came, and dined in the tent ona capital stew ton,
pumpkins, rice, and sour milk. After we ‘had partaken, the ja of the
tribe made their repast, a certain number sitting down pee each
man rising when he was satisfied, and a sort of master of the ceremo-
nies calling out the name of the man who was to sein him “There
was no bustle or indecorum. After dinner they all said their prayers.
We set on our tents, which, by the way, got very wet in crossing
the river, and we pitched them close to that of the Sheikh. next
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449
day the niger aaa changed its quarters. I have seldom seen a more
u sight. The Shei es prog was struck first, and sh long
on rig laden camels, hors n, donkeys, and cattle, stretched
far as the eye could reach. [ mp that there were about 2,000
ersons with their camels, horses, and cattle. We paid our ioe to
eras, the rival Sheikh, taking with us the brother of Haw We
were well received, though not with the same dignified coudely. While
@ were away the workmen had opened a trench, by Layard’s direc-
lon, to show my wife a certain slab which he had buried; in doing so
they uncovered three copper cauldrons of immense size, and some
h i carefully removed the earth from one
cauldron, which was partially ie with it, and discovered an immense
variety of ivory ornaments, an iron axe-head, and innumerable other
articles, which for the present | ak forbear to mention, having prom-
re
02
oy
a.
R
>
®
wm
+o
=
5
a)
rest with earth. It is by far the most important discovery that has yet
n made. He has placed them under my charge, and es me the
ction of the workmen, as he is obliged to go to Mossul to make
Preparations for the removal of the two finest colossal lions Foe have
ret been discovered, which will, I trust, be on their way to eer in
month or two. After that we shall cross the Zab with our tents,
d with, or the energy, talent, perseverance, and shrewdness with
he surmounts them, or the exquisite tact and good humor with
h
place he hes nothing but oe to guide him in his researches ;
literally groping in the dark, an sorts of buried treasures may
‘ithin his reach, while from the very small amount of funds pla-
t his disposal, he is unable to make anything like a proper search,
contents himself with sinking trenches almost at hazard as it were.
saucers, most beautifully embossed and engraved, some shields
at of which the handles alone remain, the iron blades being
, and a small marble vase. The cups and bowls and other
s are of some unknown alloy of metals, but they are all so
with decomposed and crystallized copper, and so fragile,
eannot be handled without great danger, and Mr. Layard is
them home in the state in which he found them, without at-
ohh in packing them. We may now congratulate the British
in being possessed of an entirely unique collection, the value of
v hich i is seni Be ornaments and sculptures on the vases de-
hote a very ad stage of civilization. Not the least curious of
the discovaties a are ecteal hundred mother-o’-pear] studs, in form ex-
Secoxp aoe “igi Lx, No. 27,—May, 1850. 57
:
.
450 . Miscellaneous Intelligence.
rent and without smell. It contained always a small wedinan. of ore
ganic matter, and tasted ener side iuipet ng the teeth ;
as found by Mr. Erni, 100482 °C. 1000 pts. of the. water E
yielded—
ait Erni: Craw.
; 8 35706 é & Sega
- Fe 02065 =. : : ‘2258
ae Al 01111 0966
Oa 0°4557 4596
Mg 01562 1805 |,
K 00571
Na 00522 0412
Me me setae 0148
+ AAEM dae ake Seach 0220
Si 0 5 h : 0684
_ Chlorine and organic Mintbers, “Wale traces : ; eas
“46750 46848
position of 1000 pts. of wat
2
8 20122 20070
FeS 04856 4266
AlSs 03702 : 3232
8 11065 11161
8 * 04592 ‘5805
kK 1061 0822
NaS 01196 094
Ma Olt ae. Ve 0363
0:0656 0684
_. Chlorine, organic matter, trace |
Yale Laboratory, April 18, 1850.
7. On the Cause of Aurore Boreales ; by Avcuste DE LA
being an extract from a letter to M. Pep ult, (Comptes Rendus, Oc
1849; Phil. Mag., xxxv, Dec., 1849.)—I have just read, in a mi
Mr Motlet.oo the Aaron oreales, inserted-in the Annales de
et de Physique, 3d series, vol xxvii, the following passage :—
_ With regard to the origin of this luminous matter (that
aurora borealis), it seems s natural to attribute it to the electric flu
tained in the atmosphere, and which at great heights where
rarefied, must become luminous as under the receiver of the air-
and in the barometric vacuum : this hypothesis would acquire a
probability if we succeeded in proving by direct experiments, that
—— — an influence on electric light.’
comma the emy of Stanek an papa which
Thad advanced of the aurora borealis , the influence ex
pantie magnetism upon the light which is produced i in ordinary elec-
ee
.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451
tric discharges. Hitherto this influence has only been shown in the
case of the luminous arc which escapes between two conducting points,
which is at its base,a more or less regular fascicle of light. But if
external extremity of the iron bar is placed in contact with one of
les of a strong electro-magnet, taking good care to preserve the
tion, the electric light takes a very different aspect. Instead of issu-
as before, from the different points of the surface of the terminal
art of the iron bar, it is emitted only from the points which form the
tour of this part, so as to constitute. a continuous luminous ring.
an
ischarges and the direction of the magnetization. Lastl
brilliant jets appea from this luminous circumference
founded with those which terminate on the ring, and
I s as the magnetization ceases, the
enon be
in the experiment known by the name of the electrical egg.
ying any powerful machine at my disposal, I used for my exper-
2 to communicate with the copper ring, and the isolated conductor
h receives the vapor with the iron bar, or vice versa when I wishe
hange the direction of the discharges. ‘The experiment succeeded
y well in this manner.
_ The experiment which I have just described appears to me to account
very satisfactorily for what passes in the phenomenon of the aurora
borealis; in fact, the light which results from the union of the two elec-
tricities in the part of the atmosphere which covers the polar regions,
instead of remaining vaguely distributed, is carried by the action of the
ial magnetism round the magnetic pole of the globe, whence
Paet d
¥
#
.
A52 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
it seems to rise in a revolving column, of which it is the base. We
thus understand why the magnetic pole is always the apparent centre
whence issues the light constituting the aurora borealis, or toward which
it appears to converge. I shall not recur to the other circumstances
which accompany this meteorological phenomenon, the agreement of
which I have shown with the explanation I have given in @ letter ad-
dressed to M. Arago, which was communicated to the is and
inserted in the Philosophical Magazine for April, 1849, p. 286. :
But, having referred to this letter, in which the question was also
raised respecting the explanation of, the diurnal variations of the mag-
netic needle, permit me to add, that I have had occasion to prove, In
ngland, both by my own observations, and still better by the more
extensive ones of several physicists,* the existence of electric currents
having a direction from the northwest to the southeast on the surface of
the fast ’ resence of these a can be eerily proved .
Now, the temperature of the base of the column must vary
with the season, with the time of the day, and with the latitude
place where it is observed, but also with the nature of the surfé
the globe on which it reposes. When, therefore, this we se is
sea, the hours of maxima and minima of temperature are not the same
i ol lea a
Rip eeeapaeR@ ier emerge hetine gma. 9p Phil. Mag., Sew
p. 344. - + Phil, Mag., vol. xxxiv, p. 466.
e
Miscellaneous Intelligence. . 453
which they give rise, must be equally different. Now, St. Helena and
ape of Good Hope may be considered as places enveloped i in at-
mospheric columns, which have almost their entire base resting on the
and not on the land; thence the anomalies pointed out by “Colonel
bine are very easily explained, and, in particular, it is easily under-
how there is no AETSSEEN Ss in direction which must in every case
i ape
Hope and those shcmats at Algiers, which is avails pa from
ihe equator, but to the north. An excellent paper by M. Aimé on ter-
restrial magnetism, inserted in the Annales de Chimie et de Pasmaee
8d series, vol. xvii, in which he discusses comparatively the observa-
tions made at St. Helena, the Cape, and Algiers, has singularly facilitated
a explanation of the anomalies presented as objections by Mr. Sabine.
however, do not pretend that there does not exist any anomaly ;
nation of the magnetic needle, and with the absolute intensity of
errestrial magnetism. But this subject would require, for elucidas
to be treated more at length than can be done in a letter; I shall
re stop, and beg to refer those persons who may tel sR
jon to a memoir which I am on the point of completing, ale
h will be published forthwith.
es 5 asa Meeting of the American Association for the Advance-
Science.—'The semi-annual session of the American Association
That the papers w were numerous and of apaniea =
from the testimony of those who were at the meeting.
iche presided at this asian and the greatest Pt aor gek public
oie was e njo e bot fre rom the city and in s. ith a
of pete next. The Local Ot ae will soon
their circulars of invitation.
i
A54 Bibliography.
VI. Bretiocrarny.
1. Proceedings of the eh mae a for the Advancement of
Science, second meeting. Held at Cambridge, August 9. Bostor
1850. H. Flanders & Co. 8vo, fa 459.—This voltime ig ed poe
mainly from the reports made at the time and printed in the Boston
Traveler, which have since been corrected by the several authors and
are now issued under the sanction of the publishing committee. It is
a volume of abstracts rather than one of full papers, sid be many of
the shorter papers ure given in full detail. ‘The volume covers a wide
range of subjects in all departments of science and vitioad a high de-
gree of activity in physical ties much greater pie than
has existed at any former period of American history. Many o of the
most important articles it contains sir already appeared in this Jour-
are and others will find their way into it.
. The Annual of Scientific pisees: or Year Book of Facts in Sci-
on and Arts, &c.; edited by Davin A. Wetts (of the Lawrence Sci-
en — School, Fc tap and Grorce Briss, Jr. Boston: Goul
. hanics
useful arts, natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology,
zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology, geography, pbk ro yether —
with a list of recent scientific publications, a classi list o
e
bel! journals and reports.” This volume is properly a boo
selections from the various scientific discoveries of the year past pei
than os complete registry of them, and as such it is a work of gr
daily newspapers, e. g., those regarding the copper mines at
and in Litchfield, in Sannsatieet It is our wish to encourage a
in the main so excellent, by suggesting imperfections that may her
be avoided. We are glad to learn that a large edition of the book as
eget been exhausted.
The Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena; for the use of ¢ a
tha Academies and Families; by Atexanper Keita JoHN
F.R.G.S., F:G.8., American edition, Lea & Blanchard, Philadelphia,
containing 26 maps in 4to, with interleaved text—This atlas is an ot
cyclopzedia of knowledge relating to the physical character and p
nomena of our globe, presented in a series of — with full descrip-
%
Bibliography. 455
; le anda ee ape of added detail in the accompanying pages of
hg press. ‘I'he maps have been prepared with the skill and knowl-
cisively and intelligibly to the eye. The subject of geology is first pre-
sented, and the distribution over the earth of rock formations, includi
; ‘volcanoes, i is seen ina general manneron Pl. 1. An elegant geological
map of the British Isles is added. Another map or plate shows the dis-
tribution of mountain ranges, their exact courses and relations. The ac-
companying text treats of the mean heights and features of continents,
i 8g peaks and
: tot
the courses 0 pe sie besa, hurricanes ; others, the
vegetation _— regions, disisibutiog of plants and anirseli and of
of m
_ 4. Lake aera, its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals,
compared with those of other and similar Regions ; by Lovis Acassiz
: nf pie
. ether eons gentlemen, with appropriate illustrations; pp. 428,
: Gould, aay: & Lincoln. 1850.
and ele egances inters steed among the pages of t
scientific remarks by Prof. Agassiz, on the various chess which
led themselves in the progress of the tour which was included
by the naturalists and pupils and amateurs in a party of sixteen,
intelligently and si 28 ander their ais vag and accom-
leader
most important scientific a are given separately in an
to the narrative, and are included under the following heads.
e Superior—Physical arene Vegetation and Animals, com-
with those of other and similar regions.
The northern vegetation compared with that of the Jura and the Alps.
bservations on the vegetation of the northern shores of Lake
AIL. Classifications of animals from Embryonic and Paleozoic data.
Iv. ee sa upon the Coleoptera of Lake Superior, by Dr.
John L. Le C
A he ey of Shells, with descriptions of new species, by Dr. A.
_ VI. Fishes of Lake Superior compared with those of the other great
Canadian Lakes.
456 Bibliography.
Vil. acetate of some new species of Reptiles from the region of
Lake Superio
Vill. Repor on the Birds collected and observed at Lake Superior,
by J. E..C
IX. Ronse: of some species of Lepidoptera Hie: ne northera -
shores of Lake Superior, by Dr. Thaddeus William
X. The Erratic Phenomena _ pe Superior.
XI. The outlines of Lake Superi
Geological relations of the various Copper deposits of Lake ‘Su-
perio
5. "A natural Scale of Heights by the application of which the pee
ures of different countries are reduced to a common measure to
all Geographers, constructed by Miss CottrHurst.—Presented to os
Royal cepa eat Society, by G. B. Greenover, V. P., [and by him
forwarded to us.]—The standard is an equatorial, geographical mile, @
fixed quantity suiversaly known and derived from the figure of the
earth 6086-78 English feet. Five of these miles being divided each |
into 100 parts or degrees, give a scale of 500 degrees each of which
is equal to 603 English feet.
The measures of different countries are arranged separately in pars
allel vertical columns, each with its own caption; and adjoining each
on the left, is the scale derived from the centesimal division of the geo-
graphical miles, and the co be ered numbers. or lines eae _
values of the different me :
the Rev. J. A. Spencer, MA. With illustrations from origina
ings. G. P. Putnam, New York. pp. 503, 8vo, in cloth, gilt. 1850 #
As the physical features of these countries form a prominent topic in
this agreeable and instructive volume of travels, it may be proper,
mentioned in this Journal. It follows with advantage after the more
pleasure and useful infeoetlik from the perusal, and can
ee it,
Man Primeval, or the Constitution and Primitive condition @
hth being, §c.; by Joun Harris, D.D., President of Cheshunt
480, cloth. 1850.—Although this new work of Dr. Harris is a c¢
tion to theological science, it has like its predecessor, “ 'T
amite Earth,” by the same author, such intimate relations to geo
and like that work, it presents such enlarged and just views of s
wer it is entitled to respectful mention in this Journal.
. A Systematic Treatise, Historical, Etiological and Practical,
North Am
the "Principal diseases of the Interior valley 0 t erica; ast
appear in the Caucasian, —o Indian and Esquimaus varieties
its Population; by Dante. Drake, M.D. 878 pp. 8vo: Cincinnati,”
Ohio, 1850. Winthrop B. ‘Smith & Co., Publishers, Philadelphia.—This
very elaborate work treats first, of G General Etiology, pp. 701; an
secondly, of the Febrile diseases of the region, pp. 703-863. In Book I,
Bibliography. 457
there are chapters on the topography, hydrography, and geological out-
line of the great western valley ; on the hydrographical basin of the Gulf
__ of Mexico, its currents, tides, temperature, &c.; on the special medi-
_ ¢al topography of places along the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico; the
_ delta of the Mississippi, and river above, with the regions east and west
_ Of the river, and the basin of the Ohio, Alleghany and other tributary
_ Streams, the basins of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes, and the Hud-
_ son and Arctic hydrographical basins. Next the author treats at length
of the temperature of the different basins, barometrical character, winds,
rain, electrical phenomena, and whatever can have a bearing upon
health. He then passes to the subject of population, its distribution and
character, modes of life, diet, use of alcohol and tobacco, clothing, oc-
cupations or pursuits. Book second contains full descriptions of the
various diseases, as to their many forms and symptoms and modes of
reatment.
__ Dr, Drake is undoubtedly the most able man in America for so
difficult a task. It is well known, he has for many years investigated
the subject with characteristic ardor, and in the research has personally
Visited all parts of the West and South, making at many places anxious
and laborious observations—medical, statistical and physical.
9. Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1846-7 and 1847-8
i 84
1849.—The Society of Arts commenced in 1 , @ new series
rs are valuable contributions to the Arts. They treat of carving,
cameo making, steam boilers and locomotives, atmospheric electricity,
of beauty, artificial lava for ornaments, ancien eek vases, steam
avigation, lighthouses and beacons, lithography, ancient and modern
kbinding, photography, cotton of Honduras, and various other sub-
d Pharmaceutists; by R. Ecauesrerp Grirritx, M.D.,
rm
Tms in use, with observations on the management of the sick
d rules for the administration of medicines. The formulary
eutical signs. r ;
, but of the diseases for which they are advised.
: ; ipti f ww Cretaceous and seven new Eocene Fossils
Sieg “f TA. Conrad, groing the Journal of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
ii, part 1, p. 39. March, 1850. 7 species are Echinoderms and the rest
Szcoxp Szarss, Vol. IX, No. 27.—May, 1850. 58
458 Bibliography.
o. B. Apams: a enero of Jew, a new genus of Teen de, with new spe-
cies; by C. B 0 pp. 8vo. Ambherst. : a [Generic description, “Tes esta,
paar aaa ore “tred apertura maxima, orbiculari, sobs valde indentats vel
umbilicata. "_—Distinguis hed by the vitreous texture of the shell, and t e yapid en-
—— ” of the whorls, ptodueing a large aperture. Species ote Jamaica. 2
5 pp. 8vo.
2.5 er wi
anew genus of H zw, Spiraxis ; and notes on certain species of h
bd —- and desertion of supposed new species. Ba ric a is deseri
ie G. a, turritd ; columella medio in laminam spiralem producta:
torts eee in sip partim diyisé: labro simplice.” The “Achating aberrans of
Pei is i suppoced ud e eee with the author's Spiraxis aberr
Joun W. Her of Scientific Enquiry, prepare ed for t e use of her —
Majesty’ sN. ‘vy, i aid Sppina' for Ng ob in eer a by the Lords Com-
missioners of the Admiralty ; 4 peel
L.
AInD, M.D., F.LS.: The Nad ‘History of Br ish Entomostrat, 364 pp. —
8y0, with 36 lithographed stead ible by the e Ray So Soc
A Sketch at hy Medical tls Chay olina ; being Report made to the
erican- cm ot bi Beda in Baltim and Boston ; ee —
vt bei Porcher, MD. (From the st of the Amer. Med. Aion vol. IL) P
delphia, 1849.
8. Cuasr, Prof. Math. Dart. Goth A: Treatise on Algebra, 336 pp. 12mo. ew
York, 1849; D. Appleton & C _
Tue AsrroNomtoaL JOURNAL. wig . 5,6. March—These numbers contain—Devel-
opment of the Perturbati a Punetion of Paneary Motion n, by B. Peirce, continued.
Hubba: n unlimited S f
tio f
Triangles and their solu cn. ¥ yw ff faseaaie t-—Hiphemeris of Neptune; 8. ¢.
Walker.—Observations of pee by Mr. James Fer ’
ar. Hist, MA *1849.—p. 150. On Algerite,
anew mineral; Dr. Bacon.—p. 151. <yded shells of the “A bo Exploring Ex
genera JUNE
velopment of esor. IU LY.—p.1
cida, a new AU T 166. On the e
—p.168. Animalcules in blood; Burnett—New s
dition (genera Col Conus); A oul
the Esox lucius of Richardson; 4 yres. 175. A new species of Helix, a
found ne; ; Stimpson. OCT —p. 178
the C 179. On the Cranium of the Troglodytes gorilla; J.
: yman.
—p. 18 1. New species of fish of the genus Polypterus, from West Africa ;
sth si 9 ‘Tooth of Troglodytes gorilla; J. Wyman.—p. 182. 50
Wr
BER—p. 190. On some peculiarities of Annel ids; yea ri 191. On
cies of paces Agassiz—p. 192. Skulls of female Eel; Ayres, bar
e nan,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILosoPHtcat Socrery, v, No.
1850.—p. 108. Observations on the radiation of heat by air; Haas
: of th :
ROCEEDINGS OF tke rps Se: or Naruran Bivins OF \
ii, vol. iv—p. 146. Letter on the “ Snow-bug,”—p. 247. a article on
of Distoma, by J. Leidy, read and to appear in the Journal—p. 248. A
Le Conte, on the Longicorn oe erie of ue part of Amerie nid cake ae
1—
in excha’
Conrad, (10 species of the genera hie, Paindina, Physa, Melania, L
*s
A.
ae of Natural gre aie
proceedi ings of, 152, 3
Acid, bora pe Dna nbs Tending, 431.
—_, —., influence in vitrification, 305.
EME butyric, in ae ve the soap tree, 116.
é actio’ re, 20.
—, nitric, a
—, 0a jsatratr 9M of, 14.
a, orter's new, resembling one: 23.
pepe ion of hydro-bromic and hydri-
—_, Me separation of butyric, valerianic and
acetic, Ald,
— ings, analyses of water of, 123.
“ eaceinio,. preparation of, from
“Adams, C.B., “contributions to Cone
malate
—
=
hology,
oie Lake Superior, noticed, 309, 4
n the relations econ animals Sod
ts ms —— they live, 369
on the’ ee of
andj|, _..
» eae a, nitrate of, 33.
anny panabariiriol from phosp horic acid, a
“Ambystoma actyla, A, mavortia, A
episcopus, 133.
— Academy of Arts and Sciences,
i alaeose 1859, noticed, 151.
: ‘or the Advancement of
e, Charleston meeting of, 453.
roceedings of, 453.
Philosophical & Society, proceedings of,
“prime meridian, 184.
diseases, ange sey on, 456,
5, on at ge
ood’s, in the | petal of plan-
the ash of potatoes, oats and
“g calculus from the bladder of aj|
ncasterite, 216.
manganese spar, 410.
ral spring ong
f Anew
INDEX TO VOLUME IX.
nalysis of Schorlomite, 4
— athe huylki ig by MI. H. Boyé, 123.
e Venaica lite,
Ph contri ae to, 146.
Aneroid barometer, examined by Lovering,
Animals, the relation between them and the
elements in which they live,
Anes and salicylic ether, by A. ” Cahours,
Annual of Scientific Discovery, by Geo.
Bliss, Jr., and David A. Wells, 309, 454,
meres in the deposit from mineral waters,
Associations American, for the Advancement
of Science, Waagcantse meeting of, 453,
—, —_, — eedings of 454.
Astriea,a genus sofz ytes, J. D. Dana,
Astronomical Journal, by B. A. Go wld, 31,
of natural phenomena,
pop
0.
Atlas, sat ogre
Johnston’
Sere volun
eight ‘of silted, by. ree Bin 284.
— 0
of oe on he
eights, table of, by J. ?. Dana, 217.
Augite, faomorpbiana of, with Lavereyiem 429.
urora Borealis, cause of, 4
Rnaualie, denudation in, 089,
B.
J. W., on Navicula Spence
lex., discovery of the pee ape a
the earth, 1.
ription of new rep-
ang
Bain, A
late of wine pres =
Baird, Spencer F., des
tiles, 137, 309.
— ea tor of the Iconographie Eneyclope-
~ dia, 1
Barium, strontium, calcium and magnesium,
relations of, 176.
arlow, W. H., cause of a variation of
the magnetic needle, 44
arometer, aneroid, 249.
Bartenbach and Allain, on the extraction of
d from the copper clingy Cheay and
Sain-Bel,
Bartram, Is of, 85
Belemnite, structure of, 438
Belemnoteuthis,
ees on sulphuretted, by A. Cahours,
Benzote es a the products of dry distil-
aa series, researches on, by G. Chan-
ocr i c. B Menai 8
, Mycology o North Ameri-
a
anada,
Orchard ey spring water,
e Co., N. Y., 449.
teri
Biogen, on the so-called liquid, 399,
460
Birds, ra of “poet Zealand
Blowin characters of Pyrrhite, 423.
Blunt,
History
., infusoria on the teeth, 442.
ee . MM. H, analysis of Schuylkill water,
Brain, size of, in various races of men, 24
Brewer, Wm. H., anal = = Hudsonite, 228.
British’ fossil matnnals,
searc nee on wax, 1
raction, 304.
Te on ‘butyric acid in fruits
composition
uttyrone, action of nitric Suse on, 278.
i of Geology sas Mineralogy for sale,
oR set narrative of tour to Lake Supe-
Galtene: action of potash on, 419.
Carte , A., on anisole, and ‘salicylic ether,
——, on sulphuretted Keay gee 278.
chloropicrine,
Calculus analysis of, from the bladder of a
INDEX. °
Crania of the human race, comparative ca-
pacity,
of ‘roglodytes gorilla 34.
Craw, Wm. Ee ysis of Oak Orchard
PP sey water, 4
Crossley, R., ‘aaa of Vermiculite, 423.
Crustacea of the American Exploring Expe-
dition, 129, 13: oe
Crystalline bodies, deportment of, between
the poles of a magnet,
Cur oy M. A., Mycology of North America,
1
D.
a, J. D., Cr —- - - American Ex-
plate Expedition
——., on Danburite,
—. enna of rocks and formation of
Dan
valle ys, 2
—, rie te nin the Pacific, 48.
—-, eyes sopeowins 133.
—, on Orchestide, %
—, on the us Astr
—, —- account tof er eruptions in
Hawai ie 5
—, on
minerals, 20
n minerals investigated by Hermann,
——, note on heteronomic isomorphism, 407.
——, on the — kite of Shepard, 430.
——, Report on zoophytes, noticed, 294.
Riacrs table of pate weights, 217.
Danburite, 286.
Pita, Wm., memorials of Bartram and
r
comorphism and atomic volume of
e, 118, avis, Chas
a ’s Report on, 12, rime meridia critic:
+ Mineral waters of, 266. Daubrée, M. A, rtificial passer of min-
Carex lupul is, 2 erals
—— torta, Denudasion . the Pacific, 48.
Caricogra hy, C. Dewey, 29. De La Riv on the cause of the aurora
Chancel, G., on the benzoic series 8s, 275, boreatls, 4
a urent, action of nitric acid on De La nan Warren, on the Navicula Spen-
re Ae. 278. cerii, 23.
——, on the products of dry distillation of — P., on rotation of the plene of
benzoate of fine, 276. arizatio n by y magnetism,
Chemical equivalents, 368, , Memoir of, on biogen, ri
— not 364,
Chermes Castane Dewey, Chest er, Carinae 29, |
Chimpa anial capacity of, 39. Diamond, large, i n the possession
Chinese cama ible tallow eee izam,
loroform, ~~ | Dinornis, remains of, 4
Chloropicrine, on lasik of, by A.|| Drake, D., ay atise on oc
Cahours, 723. noticed, 4
Chondrodite, pes of, 85. Dykes of rap in New Hampshire,
; ©, nitrate poral Hubbard, 1
Clemandot and n the ee of bo- E
os cic te - Vtication, 90 :
ors, classification o met Forbes, 300.|| Ehrenberg, on infusoria from m Oregon, a
Colthurst, scale ¢ of heights by, 456. Eleewicis of a buried plate of area :
Comet, an pre yelopment of, by mus cular
of 1 556, e Srened return rs 442, ti
Sonbbolngs; eoutributions to C. B, Adams, Elephant, fossil, 2
“lhot, Samuel, a9 on om — 126.
Corenwinder B., new mode of preparing ni-| End dlicher, Generum P un, 148,
trogen, 114, ——, Synopsis Coniferar nian, "148,
rycseus, ar of, J. D, Dana, 133. Enge-ena, crania of,
Coppe: sper amalgam, 282. es -——, zoological position of, 41.
—— ores, cacinn of gold from, 297, Engineer Bureaus,
Cost of voltaic arrange ements, 111. UEntophytes, J. Leidy on,
INDEX. 461
peeelonts, chemical, of Gerhardt and Lau-;} H. ,
— S. S., on new species of Hemip-
Tea, H, analysis of Danberi er baer os
—, analysis of Lancas ll, dy B :
—, analysis of Oak Gecherd te water, fat Mito ia Mo ee a aa
~ 449. awaii, accoun tof: the sraptions of 347,
ion seme pte by trap dikes in New eu, analysis of the ash, 20,
Hampshire, Hay ., blowpipe "characters of Pyr-
ass psa ag anew reptile, 137. nage ve
; ed stig, 27 oric, researches on, 113, —, on red zinc ore rad New Jersey, 424,
? 1 He at, f plane of
Eye, Pcien I production of luminous eer ak aca polarization eo
impressions on, ky ar I hic E
Expansion of elastic fluids, how influenced ir, comnograp ‘a neyelopedia, er
by laws of motion, 334. He che: "Miss pannel “ge of, 456.
Expedition, oe Exploring, crustacea | Hemiptera, new spec 108.
ning oe, | dks Herman — = — _— ey a se mineral, 217.
ee meblaaiodl report of, cited,|___ no
Hildreth, gob at se: ‘journal kept at Ma-
a sisitiCd iment 3 rton races of ma _y rietta,
—— ——, Report on zoophytes, by J. Hooker, J. D. aoe of the table land
Dp Dana, 294. of Thibet,
F. Ho suger E. N. ‘on the relations of Barium,
Fisher, Wm. , analysis of minerals, 83. How ook f B, awn localities in northern
Fluids, elastic expansion of, 334. N. Y. .» 288, 424.
: ine in Firth of Forth, &e., 118. on raphe of nickel, 287.
‘er, Walter, memoir of, 313. Hubirard, O. P., on erosion in New Hamp-
atmarks, J. Lea, on reptilian, 124. 153.
orb nea the classification of colors,300. Homeee analysis of, 228.
Forchium: : , on ely in Sein 120. || Hunt, ee none interpretation of Mari-
‘ormul ey; ‘iver th’s, 457. otte’s law ~
‘Fossil Bones in Ver it, ey Hunt, T. S., chemical ees of min-
ae eral waters from Canada, 266.
nadonhe, (British) Aeegg td of, 149. —, constitution of pi 63.
‘Mastodon angu s, 304. ——, on the Geology of Canada, 12
—., notice of Chancel’s researches, 276.
8 geological chart, 1, 309, ws Sed Fe gas, passage of, through solid bod-
— Ma soe 8 leseevel of, 444.
ius, on the amount of ammonia in the By ireniopieet, new species of, 108,
I.
G.
I hic Encycloped G. Heck, 151,
siaiginal, otied 304. — ic Encyclopedia by ec!
net, composition of, 84 Inf el deposits in Oregon, 140.
E “oaaiy in, obituary notice ¢ of, 305, Infusoria on t th e teeth, 44 2. ;
a a eine 8), 151, 309. Instruments, self or Sener of magnetical
avOW _ iby Mather, 444.) and meteorological, 8 319.
‘Socie ety’s ie facial, 3 seorintiont, —_— musical, 68, 1
y of Canada, 12. lodine, new mode of detecting, ih
on the chemical equivalents and Iron, nitrates on 80
Laurent and himself, 364. Isomorphism - miar - = augite, 429.
., on meteorite oni North Caro-||___ of minerals, J. a, 220, 407.
408, 5
Chas., on the so-called biogen liquid, Jackson, C. T., description of Vermiculité,
453,
California, 12 :
of. at ia cated guano georgian, W., observations on sulphu-
sy and -nped 297. at Johnston’ s, ak, Physical Atlas, 454.
126,
3. A., Astronomical Journal by, 151,
K.
458,
Alonzo, elements of Natural Philoso-||Keller, Wm., analysis of a calculus from the
bladder of a whale, 118.
Asa, ‘notice of Darlington’s memorials, || Kirkwood, D., on a a new analogy in the peri-
= of a. C dongs . :
| notice of Endlich , 148. noblauch, H., on the deportment of crys-
Gree: d, com sition oy 83, talline bodies between the poles of a mag-
Grif » niversal Formulary of, no- no Pet A . ey
284,
462
L.
Lagoons of laggy , 431,
Lake Superio: r, Agassiz’ s, noticed, 309, 455,
Lanca casterite, a new mineral, 216
ne, on arsenic in mineral wa-
ters, 418.
Laurent and Sia action of nitric acid on||
butyrone
3 a, yreratoat Si and notation of,
Laws of Mariotte, E. B. Hunt on, —
self-registration of in-
strum: ments by photography, 3 , 444,
41,
ucine, constitu tio
3. bi
Liebig, J., on the eaoaratioh of succinic acid
]
ene malate of lime,
separation of butyric, valerianic, and|___
“Sweetie acid, 419.
Fennel so 411,
Locke, John, on the phantascope, 153.
Logan, W. £.,
anada, na
seat
ce buri aes in Ho ea
Lovering, on Melloni’s researches
ae merican prime median, 184,
e aneroid banune Le
pdrogen oe through
e
br
.
mC: ‘on the a of California, 126.
M.
d Clemandot.
asin aaie | in vitrification
er Pg needle, cause of "diurnal variations
seine instruments, self-registration of,
Magnetism, causing eviaton of the plane of
ate ation of heat, 3
Durocher, Ha: Sarseau, on silver,
in sea-water, 421.
Malate of lime, paagabaiied of succinic acid
from, 117.
Manefild, C - B, on benzole, 283.
an Primeval, wo work on, noticed, 456.
, Fac
size of brain
INDEX.
reports on the geology of
came tf of a plate of
on the influence of bo- y
{Mastodon angustidens, 304."
ue" x ens, M.,n or ce for extracting sugar
he su ane, 301.
orn of Walter Folger, 313,
Memorials of Bartram and Marshall, 85.
Metals, silver, lead and copper in sea-water,
cnarie; in North Carolina, 143.
wings oe instruments, self-registration
ol, >
— precaeeg kept at Marietta, 264 ‘
Meéve, E. H., on penparstioty of hydrobromic
and hydriodic acids, 4
Mialhé, on varieties of ict pee form, 115.
arEyrie, isomorphous with Phos nts 429,
Micrometric measurements by the micro-
scope,
‘Minerals, artificial prateetios of, 120.
sociate mery, Smith, 289.
ibacign e rmann, 4 :
—, eae and cor alan of, 220.
—., localities of, in N. Y., 288, 424.
——, =, Chondeodie, Sh Danbu rite, 286 ; Gar-
, 408 ; Gr reen' nsand, 83;
onan
Moon’ . narlaot, model of, 143.
pide, meusurements
a, a 0.
—, of the human brain, 246.
Mo witng laws Neg a
elastic flui
uscular pir development of ¢
tricity 304,
Mt salt apse bere 68, 199.2
gh a of N. America, "Berkley and
%, 7
N.
Natural pedemeiped | ot 8 deciles
Navicula Spe
i — Be sedan ails Rosse’s
Pasi nthes, —— of the
ascidia of, 4
New w Hanpsre trap dikes in,
erosion,
Manatus nasutus, eooe) 45.
, senegalensis, 4
anganese spar, 410
Mannite aren of, by Smith, analysis by||?
Stenhous
Mantell, n Dinornis, 437.
—. on srr og the bobeienile and be-
lemnoteut
—, on peloowaurts, 147, 439,
Mantell, R. N., on the strata and o organic re
mains in the Great Visttove railway cut-
ere had W. B. D., fossil birds of New Zea-
—, on sit sbi the Dinornis, 437.
Mariotte’s law, interpretation of, 412.
Marshall, memorials of, 85.
New ‘Holland, on denudation in, 289.
= anatus nasutus, 45.
Nickel, sulpburet of, in Northern New
ic 0
Nitre itrogen, new mode
oberts’ micrometer, 27
‘No —— od, reports on the geology of
Notation, ‘chemical, Gerhardt and 1
Nut, fossil, in the eocene, 127,
oO.
Oak Orchard spring water, analysis of, 449-
Oats, analysis of the ash, 20.
Obituary of Martin Gay, 305
Onkeey, ok 295,
Ordwa n M., on nitrates of iron, <,
of, for perfect ste — 199.
_ Organic bases, production of, 4
Owen, D, D., Geological report of Wisconsin,
: Owen, Richard, British fossil mammals, 149.
Onsen ter 130 chlorate of potassium, 419.
Ps
Pacific, ~sorepiaenl in, 4
age, Chas, G. 5 Thesciyan’ s bars vibra-
105.
32
INDEX,
Se
spar,
Se
ting qatvenion :
Pelorosaurus, 439.
Pennite, a new mi yal
: Petter, . H.,on Engé-ena, 45. =
. Pettenkofer, on a ag amalgam 2.
Philioe : , Locke se :
Gar eneinomet ry, 1
Phosthsorie acid, sonst Hey en from alumi-|ls
Phosphoric eer phe Seat 113.
Photography, Lefroy’s nppication = bo self-
: registration of pongo ae 319,
Pickering, Chas., on races of man, OO7
n act on : large diamond, 434.
Bian anal y of gee I Scag of, 365.
| m antac
“108.
hb perfect musical intonation,
ash a aiubysie by
ali of = yell 20.
nan
aw rotation of the plane
lacie tion of heat by magnetism, 344,
lotriton montanus, 139,
hite, blowpipe characters of, 423.
R
analysis of schorlomite, 429.
* ase ersary of, noticed, 304.
ation of instruments by photogra hy,
yy, 319, 444. ’
iy ipeiween a animals and the elements
y liv
geological, of Wisconsin, by D. a
American Association, proceedings of,
the bia “toy one ‘ope
es
a, * phytes, 294.
discovery of a ites fossil “aria 439,
w species of, S. F. Baird,
e, M. A., new ‘mode of Toacdas got
ine, 114
ra
SEP
dation of, 289.
42 the separation of pee
acid from calnmion, 283.
Rotation, Kirkwood’s analogy of, i h F
Tele aetion of nitric. acid on|
aor Wm, on
ey
‘m. B., on acid and alkaline springs,
463
R
pales i Niawes 7,
Ruthenium, atomic volume of, 422.
8.
— Prof., on the functions of pectic acid,
Salam
nders, four new species of, 137.
ee ine. ‘analysis of, 429
Schunck, Edward, use of tin ‘plate scrap in
the a aeegsi iron, 27
H. — ation of nitrous acid, 114,
ica, cit c we
wha Age pide of Schuylkill wa-
ion of Lancasterite, 216.
Bova a
Silver, aon of a gr, of, 418,
Skinner, F. S., the
1, the loom, and the
anvil notic ce i;
Sm hy J. Pa minerals associated’ with em-
Smith, Messrs. ., extraction of mannite from
the da ndelion, 235.
mithsonian con ntribut
s, 312
= tree, ped ric perry in Waits of, Ta
, transactions gis:
y; scumreriatt of, no
—, = Royal al, of London, Uasaianes of, no-
ticed, 304.
aa vei on weretne of chloroform, 115.
a vels in Holy Land, no-
Spe:
tice
Sphiene, pe e —— of, by Vauz, 4
Stenhouse, fee sis of mannite, 235°
Pan production organic bases from veg-
Ponomiggenrad. a of ’ shells, Adams
‘Sugar,
133.
ode of extracting from sugar
cane 301.
gradual of lumin-
s impressions on the
Byaapis Coniferarum,
T.
able of atomic weights, J. a Popa 217.
Tallow, Chinese vegetable,
apir, fossil, American,” Lid
Thibet, description of the table hand of,
Thomson, R. Don ea butter and vegeta-
ble tallow, 1
Thompson, Yadock, fossil bones in Vermont,
Tindal John, on the deportment of crystal-
ae es between the poles of a mag-
no scrap, use of, in the manufacture
able iron, 279.
Titaniferous veins “g the Alps, origin of, —
gener ctio! 312. yal Society of Edin
ib i 105
ode ot planets, 365,
Mvoplelytes ent crania es a “
*
464
INDEX.
Troostite, 409. noes coal sai of Schuylkill, 123.
Tuscany, boracic acid, lagoons of, 431. irth of Forth, fluorine i pone 118.
Wax, researches on, by B.C. rodie, WIL,
he wes — A,, annual ie ane ‘discov. ‘
mete arvana j
rages a Whale analysis of a calculus from the hae
, large erat of aphene, 430. gist ;
Veldu: tmeroun in the Willem e,
Vermiculite, analysis of, 2 ba ce. n fluorine in sea-water, 118.
Vibration of Trevelyan’s bars, 105. Wisconsin, geclinica r
of boticia acid in,
Vi aon influence
Vivianite, connate n of,
Voelcker, M., on the chew
@ a2.
Srrangenionta: cost of, 111.
Ww.
bag New South, rocks and valleys of,
Ward on the cost of voltaic arrangements,
Water, Orne Sr of mineral spring water from
of Oak ink 2 spring, 449,
—, alkane z apengt
g boracic acid, 431,
84.
cal eames pt of
e€ of, 306.
Bie. ap uction of chlorid of .
Wo ey E, oe on Shea butter and vegetable
tallow, 116.
WwW cid on, 20.
— on nein, 419.
Wittate ein, M., on the
silve r, 418.
y fbr re, action of a
Warts, A., nie
,on com nd -
vesentonas es 0 seiieaea crit ad 63, -
Wi man, J., on nek dan or Troglodytes go- ;
ri villa
Seca on Ne-hoo-l e, or Manatus nasutus, 45.
——,, notice of Owen’s contributions, 149, —
Zz.
a Te eed of, when buried in:
earth.
‘Zine, i
Zoological Ga vena London, Deis:
_Zoophytes, Dana’s Report o
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With Notes by J. JAY SMITH, Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, &c.
This Work is of the highest standard value, with or without the Su n-
tary Volumes by Nuttall,
‘ new and splendid edition of this work of the trees most commonly
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2 ROBERT P. SMITH, Publisher,
15 Minor St., eee a
| Specimens will be forwarded on application Post paid.
[ie ]
THE
NORTH AMERICAN SYLVA
OR
A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED
STATES, CANADA AND NOVA SCOTIA.
NOT DESCRIBED IN THE WORK
OF
F. ANDREW MICHAUX,
CONTAINING ALL THE FOREST TREES DISCOVERED IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS,
THE TERRITORY OF OREGON, DOWN TO THE SHORES OFeTHE pen
AND INTO THE CONFINES OF CALIFORNIA, AS WELL AS I
VARIOUS PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
ILLUSTRATED BY 121 FINELY COLOURED PLATES,
In three Volumes, Royal Octavo.
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Member of the American Sean Society, and of the Academy of Natural
aces of Philadelphia, &c. §-c.
a, _ [The whole aren in Six Volumes, Royal Octavo, with 278 Plates.]
The figures in these three additional — comprise one hundred and twerty-one plates,
finaly oe mostly of new subjeets, or such as have not been before pee in the Sylva,
executed with the strictest fidelity to nature, se the eye of the Aut Additional remarks
on t economy of the Forest of the United States will ‘aso be given, so as to
ear ¥e as far as possible the requisite tafennalion on this im 1por rtant s
8 qui ite wuspcensaty to say anything in praise of Micnaux’s magni: uk on the Forest
Tr the well established reputation o of Nurraut, the Author of the additional
tof the work, i is a sufficient guarantee for its accuracy and the s tyle of its execution.
Plates are in Are and ay coloured ; Bg the two works form the most splendid series ever
ished
oe
Nort. Aap thea now completed, with 121 finely coloured plates, in 3 vols. Royal Bv0y _
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The persons who possess the former edition o f Micnavx’s s work can procats the three addi-
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“LATELY PUBLISHED.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF MEDICAL BOTANY,
CONSISTING OF COLOURED FIGURES OF THE PLANTS AFFORDING THE IMPORTANF
ARTICLES OF MATERIA MEDICA, AND : ei
DESCRIPTIVE TEXT,
BY JOSEPH CARSON, M.D.
Professor of Materia Medica.
This work consists of one hundred plates large quarto, very finely coloured ; with accom pany-
ing descriptions, In 2 Vols. cloth gilt. Price $25.00. It ranks as the best standard a of
ite ae, en ise count
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eid yr it eon acl. “ Read ie pe wn to be appreciate, It is t up’ in a very superior
style, | and _ a muc ce, than books imilar at 2 from the pene
press.”—
ROBERT. P, SMITH, Publisher
15 Wade:
son, and St. Lawrence counties, New York, by Dr. F. B. Hoven, 424.—Iso-
RE Ie 2 of Miargyrite and Augite: Analysis of the Schorlomite of Shepard,
by C. Rammetssere, 429.—Large crystals of Sphene: On the Ozarkite of
Shepard, by J. D. Dana, 430.-—The Lagoons of Tuscan y, 431 —On the ea
way from the Great gree near Corsham, through Trowbridge to West-
bury in Wiltshire, by Reetvatp Nevinrue Manteuu, Esq., 436. ne. tf
the Remains of the Dinornis eo other Birds, and of Fossil ad Rock
a collected by Walter Mantell, Esq., from the Middle Island sf we
Zealand, by G. A. Manretu, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., 437.
Zoology. ee Observations on the Erductars of the Belemnite and
nat emnoteuthis, by Gipzon ALGERNon Manreuu, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.,
—On the 8. Raat an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile, whose
ns-are associated with those of the Iguanodon and other Saurians, in the
Steaks of Tilgate Viren by Giprox ALGERNon MantTeE.u, Esq., LL.D., By
c., 439.— St pps es, by Dr. Leipy, 441.—On Infusoria on the Teeth, by
HI. Bow 442,
pees coe : Expected return of the great Comet of 1556, 442
Miscellaneous Intelligence—On the Gradual Production of Luminous Impressions
on the Eye; and other phenomena of Vision, by Wiiiiam Swan, F.R.S.E.,
443.—Foster’s Geological Chart: Lefroy on the Application of espa aa to
De
the
oS
ie
S
tama
eh |
te
ij
‘
Spring Water, by H. Erni, and Wm. I. Craw
rore Boreales, by AvGustE DE LA a Rive E, vente arleston Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 453.
es Py rctvadings of = se baa Association for the Advancement of |
Science: The Annual of Scient iscovery, or Year Book of Facts in Science
ited
the Tour, by J. Ex. or Cazor, 455.—A Natural Seale of Heights, &e., con-
structed by Miss Contitinae’: The East; Sketches of Travel in Egypt and the
Holy Land, by Rev. J. A, Spexcer, Wk Maa Pie yal, or the Conesinton
and Primdivewsndition of the human being, &e., by Jonw Harris, D.D.: A
Systematic Treatise, Historical, Eee! and Practical, on the Panel i.
eases of the sonar alley of America; as they appear in the Caucasian,
Caples Indian a omnes varieties of i its ee 2S — taar®
‘M D., 456 r 1846-7 and 18:
aU
. The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of July.
CONTENTS.
Ant. XXXI. A brief Memoir of the late Walter cee of Nan-
tucket; by Wititam MitcHeELL,~— - 313
If. Qn the Application of Photography to ihe Self. alee,
tion of Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments ; : by pias
J. H. Lerroy, R.A., FRE +. - 319
XXXL Influence of the known Laws of Motion on Fike sree
“sion of Elastic Fluids; by Exr1 W. Buaxe, — - 334
XXXIV. On the Rotation of the Plane of Polarization ofyHeat by
Magnetism; by MM. F. pe na Provostave and P.Desains, 344
: = Historical account of the Eruptions on Hawaii; by
s D. Dana, ee . - : - B47
XXXVI. On the Chemical Basiesions and Notation of Laurent
_- and Gerhardt; by Cuartes GerwarpT, - 364
XXXVII. The Natural Relations between Animals and the Ele.
ments in which they live; by L. Acas 369
XXXVIH. On a new Analogy in the osiade: oF Roiation of the
Primary Planets, discovered by Daniel Kirkwood, - 395.
-XXXIX. On the so-called Biogen Liquid ; by (CuaRLes Sais” 399
XL. Note on Heteronomic Isomorphism; by James D. Dana, — 407
XLIL On some a peee'Y Prestignied ay M. Been ee 5
fae Reene HN Pin tt and icansii Kwsosraven, 414.—Ar-
genic in't the deposit froin Mier Waters, by M. J. L. Lassaiane: On the re--
duction of Chlorid of Silver, y M. Wirrtsreix, 418.—On the Chemical Com-
- position of the Fluid in the see of Nepenthes, by Dr. A. Voricxer: Chlo-
rine and Oxygen from Chlorate of Potash, by Dr. Voaet: Action of Potash
upon Caffeine, by A. Wurtz: Separation of vipig An beasbimpn = ‘Acetic
by 4. ‘Liesre, 419: On the Productio of hed and bases Veget table
; aes ‘ation of
: ba bodiea; by | M. oe tT: On the presence
Cepbe 3 in Sea- heen and in Plan nts. ae Animals, oF MM
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