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AMERICAN JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, 
Proressors JAMES D. DANA anv B. SILLIMAN. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS, 


Prorrssors ASA GRAY ann WOLCOTT GIBBS, 
OF CAMBRIDGE, 


AND 
Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, S. W. JOHNSON, 
GEO. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL, 
OF NEW HAVEN. 


THIRD SERIES, 

VOL. IL—[WHOLE NUMBER, CII.| 
Nos. 7-12. 

JULY TO DECEMBER, 1871. 


WITH A PLATE AND A MAP. 


NEW HAVEN: EDITORS 
i871. 


ine 
PRINTED BY TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 221 STATE ST. 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. 
NUMBER VIL 


Art. 1—On some phenomena of Binocular Vision; by J. Le 


~ 


oe ee RY WV MA ee eek s ccs ee 10 
I1.—The Glacial Features of Green Bay of Lake ‘ae 
with some observations on a former outlet of Lake Supe- 


rior 
IV, Bat tet Se Cireuit of Generations ; by T. C. Hinearp,_- 
V.—On the application of Photograph ie hia determination 
of Astronomical data; by Asapn Hart, ----..-------- 25 

NE. 7 ae a new Fluoride idm: ‘Arkwat Ford ; by 


i) 
o 


v1 —Notes on in the Primordial Rocks in the vicinity of Troy, 
ys ONG oe Ss oa oe eee ea 33 

VIL. Note of. some nes Fossil Mammals from the Tertiary 
O. C. M 35 


IX. — Oonketuatiins to Chanieneg from the Laboratory of the 
awrence Scientific School. No. 16.—On the Atomic 
Weights of Cobalt and Nickel; by R. H. Les, --..---- 4h 
be —Note on the Spectrum of the Corona; by C. o Youne, 53 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
Chemistry and Physics.—-Note on Para-sulphobenzoic Acid, Ira REMSEN, 55. 


Geology and Natural History.—Mineral Rae g ts in Fossils, T. S. Hunt, 57.—Mas- 
todon Remains in seid New York, B. G. WILDER: Fucoids in the ‘Coa | Meas- 
ures of Iowa, Prof. Wu : Phosphatic Sands i in South Carolina, C. U. SHEPARD, 


58.—CovEs on Rakes peabeth fame incl ig pie to “Annélides ché- 
topodés an Goife du Naples,” 61-—-Diapensiacess, 62.—Form ead Sealpture’ of 
Seeds: Hypocotyledonary > heey 63. 

Astronomy.—A eee Meteor, R. H. Taurston, 63. 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—On the influence of a covering of Snow on 
Climate, A. Worms : ientific Expedition from s College: De- 
Seription of a Tide-Gauge for cold climates, J. M. Barc American 
Weather Note: ASE, 68.—European and American Rain-falls, P. 
Cuask, 69.—Discove: e Animal of the Spongiadse rs 
70.—A new attachment for Lan 71 —Report on iced cand — a 
tals, descriptions of Military Posts: Captain Hall’s 
The so-called ‘ Seawall 73.—Party of oration under cot "Hayden, a 
—Survey of the Great Lakes: Geological Survey of 


Tertiary, 75 viens: of Kilauea, Hawaian Islands, 76. 


Miscellaneous Bibliography.—Smitbsonian Contribution: , Vol. xvii: 
Manual of Geometrical and Infinitesimal Analysis, B eater: teats 7 6. 


Appenprx, Letter of B. A. Gould, 77; Expedition of Prof. Marsh, 80. 


1v CONTENTS, 


NUMBER VIC 
Page 


Arr. XI.—Historical Notes on the Systems of Weather Tel- 
egraphy, and especially their development in the United 
States ; by CLEVELAND AmB 2o75 oo eee 81 
.—Infusorial Circuit of Generations; by T. C. oe oe 88 
XIU.—Tornadoes of the Sohehaal Sa by H. 8. Warr 


Paps (eam rate Capt penrterpecae Ste uriget age ami Mates Fe oS 96 
XIV. —Preliminary Notice be New North American Phyl- 
lopodu; by A, 8: Packaun: Jr; 2202 so 52 ccci a 108 : 
V.—On a New Difference Siante by G..B. Grant. 113 


XVIL—A New Form of alvanometer ; by J. TROWBRIDGE, 118 
XVIL—N otice of some new Fossil Mammals and Birds, from 

the Tertiary Formation of the West; by O. C. Marsn, 120 
—Notes on the distribution of the Vegetation of 

santo Domingos by W. M. Gams, 2.105037 127 
XIX.—Brief Dobtsticless to Zodlogy from the Museum of 
Yale College. No. XV.—Descriptions of Starfishes and 
Ophiurians from the ace Coasts of America and 

Atriga 5 by ACI VY meen, <0 oem 2 130 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
— and pi, once the Spectrum of Uranus: On the application of the 


pe to the Measurement and comparison of the intensity of colored 
light, om pes quantitative d nie corset of Coloring Matters, VIERORDT, 138, 
—On th neutralization of organic and inorganic bases soluble in water, 


AY or 


Geology and eee al History.—Currents of the Oceans, J. eo 140.—On the 

“Benches,” or Valley Terraces, of British Columbia, M. G. rane sn —Note 
on River Terraces, J. D. DANA, 144,—Glaciers, A. Herm, 145.—On Sigillaria, 
Calamites and Calamodendron, J. W. Dawson, 147. —Lepidodendra aad aa 
ize, V ILLIAMSO i » ©. 


ne, N: Helderberg Corals in New Ha 

COCK, 148.—On Fossil Coal plants from the ial 5 Bo 3: Gatares 

Report on the Vertebrata discovered in Port Kennedy Bone Cave, HE. D 

CopE, — ite exite: erite: Arrangement for Cross-fertil- 

ization of the Flowers of Scrophularia nodosa, 150.—Transmu of Form i 

M. Jounson, 151.—Embryological Studies on Diplax, 

mis, and the Thysanurous genus Isos PACKARD, Studies in 
a ry, E. C. and A. Agassiz: Report on the Brachiopoda obtained by 

the U. 8. Coast Survey Expedition, in charge of L. F. De Pourtales, W. H. D. 

A the Families of. Mollusks, T. Git, 152.—Supplement to the 

Synopsis Extinct Batrachia and Re of North America, E. D. 


COPE 
of Spon, onges, H. J. CARTER Oe = — of some of the Cranial 
bones of the Reptilia, ete., E. D. Core, 
Miscellaneous Scientific Intellig ee. to the tn on a new attachmen 
the cate —Note to cm Article on the applicati on of Photography to ae 
_ determination of Astronomical data, A. Hau: On the C Color of fluorescent So- 
 Tutions, H. macnn: Indianapolis Meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, 154. 


CONTENTS. sd 


NUMBER IX. 
Page 
Arr. XXI.—On the Testimony of the se tag ee toh o the os 
truth of the Nebular Hypothesis; by D. Kir 155 


XXII.—On the time required to communicate AE essions ont 
the Sensorium, and the reverse; by T.C. MenpEnnALL, 156 
XXIL—On we amount of Time necessary for Vision ; by 


. Roo 

XXIV.—On the nature and duration of the discharge of 

a Leyden Jar connected with an Induction Coil, Part 
Sesond< by OF N-Roop... c,h ete 160 

X1V.—Memoranda concerning the introduction of the 
Manufacture of Spelter into the U.S.; by J. Wuarron, 168 

XXV.—The Daily Motion oh a Bie: ck Tower, caused by Solar 
Seat by Co GO ae Won ele as 177 

XXVI—On the destructive Distillation of Light Petroleum 
oN ep at low temperatures; by S. Dana Hayes, -. 184 


XVIL—The Paragenesis and Derivation of Copper and its 
associates on Lake Superior; by OMPRILY, 2205, 188 

xX aiinebregs oleteres on b Color of Fluorescent Solu- 
tone; ly Haney Moeron. °° 0S oso 198 

TX —-Doinposition OF hs Meteorie Stone that fell near 
geet Maine, May 21, 1871; by J. L. Sarrn,_-_--- 200 
XXX.—Discovery of a new Planet; by C. = o Seema 201 
XXXI.—A new Planet; by Jamxs C, Watson, .. 5-2-2: 201 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE 
Chemistry and Physies,—On the existence and formation of ieee of Nitrous Oxi 
On a group of Mercurial Colloids, REYNOLDS, 202.—A new Syn set = Acide 
Von Ricuter: Gallein, 203.—Decomposition of Chinasaites R. men 
Geology and Rares Seay —Address to the American Associ 


Botany, by E. BrerscHNEIDER: Plants killed ty F eee 
Astronomy.—Scintillation of the Stars, L. RESPIGHI, tee the recent Solar 
Eeli . N. Lockyer, 226.—Shooting § geste August 10th-11th: On = Matont 
seen at Wilmington, N. C., E. S. Mar 
} ] ius Dredging, under the direction of the 


can Naturalist, 229.— Obituary.—Edw. Claparéde: A. K. Johnston, 229. 
Bibliography.—Dr. Ellis’s A ra Sir Benjamin beam pono dl 


ie, Von 


va CONTENTS, 


NUMBER X. 
Page 


Arr, XX XIL—On the Connecticut River valley Glacier, and 
other examples of Glacier movement —S the valle eys 
of New England; by James D. Dana,-_------------- 233 
XX XIII.—The Paragenesis ~~ Derivation a Copper and its 
associates on Lake Superior; by Rapuarn PuMPELLY,. 243 
XXXIV.—On roa de spoke:  Hatclenes Preparations by 
Sunlight ; J. 3; Wo00pwakd, 3 425562 ae 258 
XX EV Baron ettioal Measurements in Ecuador; by W. 
Reiss and A. Sripet, :.....- 2-2-2 ee 267 
XXXVIL—Inaugural Aadieas before the British Association 
at Edinburgh; by Sir Wm11am THompson, ---------- 269 
XXXVIL—On some new Silurian Crinoids and Shells; by 


sl a Sal hogan rad ph i ai ie eee Seep Ba, Pa ee Tn Or Mae Meta th 


F. B. Meek, 
XXXVIIL—Disco overy of anew Planet, and the Elements 
of the 114th Asteroid; by C. H. F. PETERS, -. - - 2 es 303 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
Physics. Reiger in Electricity, Inaugural-Dissertation for the attainment of 

: the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the eee tee University Gottingen, 
by Taomas R. etn 303.—Water unfrozen at a temperature 8°C. Bous- 
SINGAULT, 304. 

Geology and Natural History. —Glaciers: Tine of the Glacial epoch, 304,—Das 
Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen, von Dr. Hanns Bruno GEINITZ: Sieboldtia Davidi- 
ana: Bivalve ae: On the early pens of Terebratulina septentrionalis, 
by Epw.S. Morse cial Scratches ne Seratly 305.—Anthers of Parnassia: 
Journal of epee FBaclety (Botany), 3 


Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Twentieth Meetin of the epee Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, held at Indianapolis, Ind., August 16-21, 
1871, 307.—On the relation of the Auroras to Gravitating Currents, by PLINY E. 
Case, 311 


Miscellaneous ‘Pidography _—War and the Weather, or the Artificial production of 
Rain, by KE. POWERS, 313. a Text-Book of Meteorology, A. BucHAN: 
Dominican Republic, Report of the Commission of Doane to Santo Domingo: 
Sun-Pictures of Rocky 5 salons eae ery, F. V. HAYDEN, 


NUMBER XI. 


Art. XXXTX.—On some Phenomena of Binsediar Vision ; 
by Josern LeConrEe 315 
_ XL.—On the position rie height of the elevated Plateau in 

which the Glacier of New eo cid n the Glacial era, 
_had its origin; by James D. Dana, ---------------- 

—Variations in the peed a “of the Human Body ; 
es BP. Cane a eee 
. XLUL.—Preliminary ” Catalogue of the bright lines in the 
— er of the Chromospher; by C. A. Youns, _---. 


CONTENTS. ~ vii 


Page 

XLII.—The eee Geographical position of the large & 
masses of meteoric iron in North Mexico, with the 
Genoription “of a new mass—The San- -Gregorio Meteor- 

i . LAWREN GB Beira, oi Se ee ae 335 


XLIV.—On the Iridium compounds analogous to the Ethylen 
and Protochloride of Platinum Salts; by 8. P.Saprier, 338 
XLV.—Directions for Constructing Lightning-Rods : by 5 


BEY eek da ari li ito Oe ete eere ee eoess 344 
XLVI.—The Paragenesis and Da = Piag ee sets a 
associates on Lake Superior: by Rapsarn Pump 347 
XLVIIL—Obse crauons on the color of Phisreiseht. pac 
tions— ; by H. Morron, «2222052252 222 S008 355 
XLVIIL—Brief Contributions to Zodlogy from the Museum . 
ot Yale College. No. XVI—On the Distribavion of 
Marine Animals on the southern coast of New w Eng- 
lgnds by Ai BCVmmReiy ss foetus ieee es ee 357 
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
Chemistry and Physies.—On nitro tf come itric acids, HASENBACH, 362.—- 
New method of separating aaahicie m potash and soda, SCHEERER, og 


On the methylation of the phenyl aioe in anilin, BERTHELOT, 364.— 
rene of “sage oe which correspond to ethylamin and eaytaanin, 
A. W. HorMany, 


Geology and Ne sine History.—Note on an Apparent Violation of the Law of 
eater Ae aermai deuitunntiinetion of the American Coal beds coming East, 
LESLEY, 366 n the Oil wells of Terre Haute, Tndiatia, Hunt, 369.—Surface 

Brunswick, MatTHEw, 371.—Remarks on Fossil Vertebrates 

x; re ing i i irection 0 

the U.S. Lake Survey, Suir —A. FEA ¥: Report of Botanical Sur- 
vey of Southern and Central g peltrso 374. oe ‘Dr. Rohrbach on Typha, 375. 


pro Nate ge teaber "estat 376.—Encke’s Comet, 380.—Discovery of new 
* Planet, Luruzr, 38 


entific Tatclijense —Midway merece te" be the North Pacific, 380.— 
Pee 1.—-The 


Eruption of the Volcano of Colima in June, Sartortus, 381.— 
Variations of in the Western puovigned of] R SAWITSCH 
ogical Results of the 1870 Dredging Expedition of the Yacht * Norna” 
off the coast of Sp Portugal, W. 8S. , 385. “ats truction of the 
vad the Chicago Academ ‘ga Sciences, 387. Sime ee in N. Jersey, Delaware 
Pennsylvania, W. WG ter D. Knieskern, Pati 


ale Edwards Holbrook, 389; Tr De Carle Snot. ae R I, Murchison, 3 
Miscellaneous grb a far — —_ ese of Weights, Measures 
and Money, Mann: Earthqua’ antain Building, WHITNEY : 

The Minerals and Gothtey of Denial? taka, 7% Danas 390. 


NUMBER XIL 
Art. XLIX. one the Geological History of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico; by E. W. Hina. With & Map. 0-2-5 391 


Space; by Asapu a Hat, PE 


Vili * CONTENTS. 


LI,—On a new Micrometic Goniometer eye-piece for the Mi- 
SECBCODG |. OY Vv. 2 + DOUTAWORITES oie eee bu caine 408 
LIJ.—On the bearing of Devonian Botany on Questions as to 
the Origin and Extinction of Species; by J. W. ae 410 
LII.—On some Phenomena of Sinadae Vision; by JosE 


MO Bae wir oe tae worse Gees wb Yes is oad 417 
LIV.—The American Spongilla, a craspedote, flagellate In- 
fusorian; by H. James-Crarx. With a Plate,..______ 426 


LV. = Deseription of a Printing Chronograph; by Ga W; 


LVL. —Longitu Determination across the Continent; by 
RGE oak LE ee a ae ae ee aa: 441 

LVII. ere of the Invertebrata dredged i in Lake Superior 

in 1871 oe ee U.S. Lake Survey; by S. I. Surra and 
dee MeV MAREN, oo i 448 
LVIIL—On Kilauea and Mauna Loa; by Trrus Coan, -... 454 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
Chemistry and Physics.—On the ee to light of the haloid salts of silver, 
and the connection ‘between optical and che cag absorption of light, og deena 
LLACK: On the proteine series, Tuaciwort d H. , 457.—On the pro- 
ducts of the reduction of silicic ether and some of its derivatives, 5 eieyy 458. 
Geology and Natural History.—Triassic Sandstone of the Palisade Range, 459 
Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, 460.—Baillon’s Histoire des Plantes, 461 —Ba tisk 


Acid by Foliage, 464.—-Herbarium for sale, 4 “a 

ag enn athonsee on the Spectrum of ee Aurora, Gro. F. BARKER, 465.—An 
Explos e Sun, C. A. Hho te 8.—November Meteors in 1871, 470.— 
Aaeeroid ( (ii 17): ured s Comet, 471 

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Plattner’s Manual of Qualitative and Quanti 
tive Analysis with the Blowpipe: Geological seen under ation: Ha ay aL. 
—-Madagascar, — abel: On Sea Wav pe ere 473. 
On a Meteor seen at Alexandria, Egypt, B. Kr bathers Kansa tee of Sci- 
ences: The Fossil Plants of the Saverion and Upper Pan ag oe pane 475. 

Inpex, 476. 


ERRATA. 


Page 20, 2d line of npoarerats for by yosen etc., read cellular or, etc. 
24. line 16, for represent, re 
“24, lines 4 and 10 from eeagee for ¢ Cacteria, read bacteria. 
* 62, line 31, for nassiform, read na apiforn. 
. 62, line 33, for -petaled, read -petioled. 
4 80, line 8 from bottom, for 1860, ss 1869. 
* 205, ine : >Re 7, the proportion of nitre referred to is that of fused nitre. 
a 227, line rom bottom, for vena read ten. 


eS ee ee ee 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, 


[THIRD SERIES] 


Art. L—On some phenomena of Binocular Vision ;* by JOSEPH 
LeConts, Prof of Geol. and Nat. Hist., Univ. of California. 


V. Stereoscopie phenomena. 


Ir isa familiar fact that in stereoscopic pictures, properly 
mounted, identical points in the foregrounds of the two pictures 
are always a little nearer together than identical points in the 
backgrounds. With a pair of compasses we can, by this means, 
easily test whether or not pictures are properly mounted. i 
evident therefore that it requires greater optic convergence to 
unite the foregrounds than the backgrounds of the two pict- 
ures, It is also evident that we cannot at the same time and 


Il respects to natural vigion of near and distant objects, instine- 
tively introduces the idea of depth of space. Or even looking 
steadily at any point, say in the middle ground, the depth of 
space is still perceived, as in nature under similar circumstances, 

for the same reason, viz: that the eye or the mind, istine- 

* For the preceding articles on this subject, see II, xlvii, 68, 153, and HI, 1, 33. 
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turep Sertes, Vou. II, No. 7.—Ju tyr, 1871. 

1 


2 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


tively distingu shes between homonymous and heteronymous images, 
referring the one to a position beyond, and the other to a position 
on this side the point of sight. 

This last point is so important in the theory of binocular 

rspective, and so at variance with the accepted view on this 
subject that I must dwell upon it a moment. It is now gener- 
ally admitted that Wheatstone’s idea of a complete mental com- 
bination of dissimilar pictures or ot. ws not true, hg in 
stereoscopic experiments or in ral vision ;* but the theory 


thorities on this subject, i siiat puckpeakive is aS ally the 
result of rapid changes of convergence, or what I have called 
ranging of the eyes back and forth from foreground to back- 

round and vice versa. 7 J think, however, close attention to 


jects while Abas steadily at one point, even in those cases in 


perspective. This is accounted for on the principle just an- 
Gonoct ¥ viz: that the eye instinctively distinguishes between 
homonymous and heteronymous images, referring the former to 
objects beyond and the latter to objects on this — _ point e 
aad, or in other words, each eye knows its own 1 

true we are not usually conscious of as kirg distinetion, 


* Mr. Townes in the elaborate paper “on the physiology of vision” already 
alluded to in my last paper, (III, 1, 33 ,) devotes much time and many experiments 
to the subversion of this view, under the impression that it is still the universally 
acce 

+ an admirable review of the wae Dh ates by Claparéde, Bib. Univ. 
~a es Sci. Nouv. Per., vol. iii, p, 138 seq. 

. 155. 


eee I give Wheatstone’s result on the authority of De la Rive, (vol. ii, p. 184, 
trans.) og of Daguin Seok iii, p. Is ——. we is somewhat remarkable that 
nearly e Whe s result as a little less than 


ee Hehe pet lew second. “Prof Mase i Gin seal + admirable 
researches on this ‘ene eahers ‘naforvanately ts fallen into the same mistake. The 
quodoon Of ase but it is the time 


orcupied by the electric current in in passing from oue interruption of the wire to 


SS ee ee ee a ee ae 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 8 


ments of Fedderson in 1858, and of Prof. O. N. Rood in 1869, 
give nearly the same results; the former ‘00004 of a second, 
and the latter from ‘000022 to -000050* depending upon the 


. . 


a second. Now it is obviously impossible that in s;}55 OF 
even in <=}, of a second the eye can change its convergence so 
as to adapt it consecutively to single visions of different objects 
at different distances. The perception of stereoscopic relief 
under these circumstances is therefore inexplicable on any other 
theory than that which I propose. The ¢rue theory of binocular 
perspective seems, therefore, to be this: the eye, even when fixed 
steadily on one point, perceives the relative distance of objects by 
means of double images, as already explained ; but this perception 
is made much clearer by the ranging of the eyes back and forth, 
uniting successively the images of near and distant objects. 

e pictures on a stereoscopic card be reversed, i. e. the 
right picture placed on the left side and the left picture on the 
right side, the binocular perspective is also reversed, the objects in 
the foregrounds being seen at a distance, and objects in_the 
backgrounds near at hand; in other words, the foregrounds of 


grounds of the pictures the foreground of the scene. The rea- 
son is obvious. By changing the pictures, identical points im 
the backgrounds become nearer together than those of the fore- 


ind, where aa and bd are seen. Fig. 1 represents the result 
where the pictures are properly mounted, and fig. 2 when 
reversed. By comparing the two figures the reverse perspective 
and its cause becomes evident. 

This inverse perspective was long ago pointed out and ex- 
plained by Wheatstone, and stereoscopic pictures are often made 
expressly to exhibit it. I am not aware, however, that any one 
has drawn attention to the beautiful, and in some respects 
another—the time between the occwrrence of the sparks and not the duration of the 

j t of the image of middle spark, 

I am indebted to my 


* This Jour., I, vol. xlviii, p. 153. + This Jour., III, vol. i, p. 15. 
} The italic a and 6 are underlined in the figures. 


4 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


peculiar, results both of natural and inverse perspective, pro- 
duced by the combination of stereoscopic pictures with the naked 
eye by squinting. I find that I am able to combine stereoscopic 
pictures in this way, quite as easily or even more easily than 
with the stereoscope. The results by this mode of combination 


differ from ordinary stereoscopic results in several respects. 
ist. In combining on és side a“ plane of the pictures by 
squinting the right-eye image of the left picture, combines with 


the lefi-eye image of the right pistes while in combining 
beyond the plane of the pictures as in ordinary stereoscopic 
ee ies it is the right-eye image of the ec picture, and 


the binocalar result. This 1 ident n comparing with 
fig. .d. Besides the entre result there are - course 
ec monocular pictures on the right and ; while 


in the stereoscope these monocular pictures (which, howe an in 
this case would be heteronymous) are cut off by the septum. 
3d. The onrneres result, instead of being magnified as in the 
stereose is seen in exquisite miniature and has all the charm 
of miniature nine 4th. The depth of perspective is pro- 
portionally less than in —— beyond the car th. 
he perspective is always the reverse of that given by the 
stereoscope, and hee in order to produce the same per- 
sg oe mounting must be reverse 
nary stereoscopic photogra raphs be reversed and the 
oats of then combined with the naked eye by squinting, 
the gehen effect is as perfect as can be imagined. Minia- 
ture houses, gardens, lawns, statuettes, fountains, &e., such as 
Gulliver pete have seen in the land of Lilliput, are presented 
in perfect perspective. I have often amused myself by changing 
the mounting of stereoscopic pictures in order to enjoy the 
nan effect. Of course in order that sents should be per- 
efinition of the objects, there must be complete dissocia- 
i of the focal and axial adjustments, as seats explained in 
my first paper.* If stereoscopic pictures are combined by 
squinting without reversing the mounting, then of course the 


* This Jour., II, vol. xlvii, p. 68. 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 5 


is not possible, to bring out the inverse perspective distinctly. — 

he reason is that it violates other kinds of perspective, and 
sometimes sets at defiance the known properties of bodies. It 
is most distinct when other kinds of perspective are least dis- 
tinct. In natural vision there are many kinds of perspective, 
or many modes of judging of the relative distance of objects ; 
viz. aertal perspective or increasing dimness with increasing dis- 
tance; mathematical perspective or decreasing size with increas- 
ing distance; change of focal adjustment necessary for distinct 
vision of near and distant objects; change of axial adjust- 
ment necessary for s’ngle vision of near and distant objects. 
The first three of these are monocular, the last is binocular. The 
painter can give only the first two. The stereoscope gives also 
the last, and its surprising effects are due to this cause. In 
natural vision alone all kinds concur. Now in reversing the 
binocular perspective we do not affect the other kinds. ere 
is therefore, a discordance between this and the other kinds, and 
when they exist it must overpower them. This it cannot do 
when the mathematical perspective is strongly marked. us 
the curious effects of inverse perspective is best seen when the 
other forms of perspective, particularly the mathematical, are 
least marked. It is impossible to see it in cases of long build- 
ings or long rows of buildings taken in perspective. In such 
cases the mathematical overpowers the binocular perspective. 
But in buildings and grounds seen directly in front it is very 
evident. I now combine with the naked eye stereoscopic 


8 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


houses above and nearer, and the larger farther away in the 
distance. 
On combining in a similar manner one of those skeleton 


of pees iution. In the first ara in most stereoscopic siokiies 
identical points. are farther apart than the eyes, and therefore, 
cannot be combined beyond the pictures without = aid of 
lenses or prisms. In the second place, even if the pictures are 
not farther apart than the eyes, and may therefore ie thus com- 
bined, the dissociation of the focal from the axial adjustment, 

as already explained in my first paper* is difficult and imperfect, 
aid the combined picture therefore is not clear. 

T wish now to apply the method proposed in my last article, 
in the representation of stereoscopic phenomena. The usua 
method, which I have used in figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, because it is 
familiar, represents pertectly the position of objects seen single 
and therefore their relative distance or the depth of space, 
when the eyes are directed upon them consecutively ; but can- 
not represent the position of double vmages in the stereoscope any 
more than it can in natural vision. Fig. 7, gives the mode of 
representing by the usual method. A R, A Lis the position of 
the optic axes when objects aa in the foregrounds are com- 
bined at A and bd’+ the position of the double images of bé, 
seen at the same distance as A; BR,BL the direction of the 
optic axes when objects bb in the backgrounds are combined 
and seen at B and aa’, the apparent position of aa at the same 
distance as B. Fig. 8 gives the same when pictures are com- 
bined by squinting. 

Now it is evident that this mode of representation is not 
true, for we do not refer bb’ to the same distance as A, when 
we look at A, nor aa’ to the same distance as B when we look at 
B. The whole stereoscopic effect would be lost if we did. On 
the other hand my method of representation gives the true 
chow positions of the double images as we now proceed to 
show. 

When we gaze through a stereoscope the two pictures seem 
to slide aaeed over each other until they unite to form a single 

* This Jour., IL, xlvii, pp. 73 and 76. 
t ee 


Le er ee ee MRP mE ES TT ee ee Ter 


Te eet Ae Oe SOS ee NG PER Ey Meee a eines ee Se ge ne” Py Rie aee oy =: 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 9 


median lines n S,n’S’. It will be observed that these double 
images occupy precisely the position of those of an object at 
A fig. 9. Fig. 11, gives the relation of parts and the direction 
of the optic axes, when objects aa in the foregrounds of the 

ictures are combined and seen at A, and fig. 12, the visual 
result. To combine aa (fig. 11), bd do not slide by each other, 


presentation (fig. 12) the exact position of bd’ of the scene, is 
determined as 5 

the ray lines. 

_ The phenomena of combination by squinting is represented 
in figs. 13,14, 15, of which fig. 13 represents the actual relation 


oe and the direction of the optic axes when foregrounds 


_ ease of combination by squinting, the two images of the card 


do not slide over each other inward, as in the stereoscope, but 
oo = 


10 J. W. Mallet on Meteorie Iron from Virginia. 


outward ; so that, as already stated, the right-eye image of the 
left picture covers the left-eye image of the right picture, to form — 
the binocular picture or scene; while homonymous images of — 
the right and left pictures are seen to the right and left. I have 
represented this in figs. 14 and 15, where 7 and i are right © 
and left pictures as seen by the rig ht eye, and r’ /’ the same as 
seen by the left eye. By careful St after what I have 
already said, the figures will explain themselves. It is true, 
this mode of representation is complex, and, for those unaccus- 
tomed to binocular experiments, perhaps ‘difficult to under- 
stand; but it has the advantage of truly representing the some- 
what complex visual phenomena. 
Oakland, Cal., March 20, 1871. 


Art. I1.—On % Masses of Meteoric Tron, from Augusta Co. 
Virginia ; by J. W. MALLET, Professor of Anal. and Applied T 
Chemistry, ae of Virginia. 


NEARLY two years ago [ learned that a lump of iron, which ~ 
from the description given of it I supposed to be meteoric, had 
been turned up by the plough in Augusta Co. in this State, . 
and soon afterwards I obtained possession of this specimen by 
the kind assistance of Hon. J. B. Baldwin of Staunton. It 
Sees to be beyond question a meteorite, weighing about — 
56 Ibs a 
A few months later, I saw at the Annual Fair of the State — 


Agricultural Society in Richmond, a second mass, of smaller — 


size, weighing about 36 Ibs., which had come from the same 
county, and was exhibited along with some iron ores by Maj. 


Jed. Hotchkiss of Staunton. Learning sien me that t wane 


about to examine and analyze my own specimen, and was — 


; No. 
ing my own specimen, ae ‘Nos. 2 and 3 those of Maj. 
Hotchkiss 
~All three’ present quite the same general appearance. They @ 
are oe a very irregular pear shape, one end of each mass being ~ 

and more mended ed than the other—the ania ene s 
each is somewhat flattened, but by concave surfaces, in 
oe No. 1 was more massive and rounded than the 


J. W. Mallet on Meteorite Iron from Virginia. 11 


others—No. 2 most flattened—the latter had some rude resem- 
blance in shape to a shoulder of mutton. The dimensions of 
the masses before cutting were as follows: 

No. 2. No. 3. 


meme tenets os oo cos ow or. 28 centimeters 27 ¢.m. 11 ¢. m. 
“ width, at large end,___21 es 5S alte 5 * 
= “at small end, -.17 a i. Be 
. thickness, at large end, _13 He 13 °° 3.3 
= 2: at small end, 11 5 as SE 
No. 1. 


Sheet 


A pretty good idea of the shape and size 
may.be obtained from the accompanying fig- 
ures, from photographs of the original speci- 
mens with attached scale. The exact weights 
before cutting were, 


No. 1. No. 2- No. 3. 
25,429 grams. 16,441 grams. 1,644 grams. 

the masses being entire, nothing having been previously de- 
tached from any one of 

The surface of each of the masses is rough and irregular. 
At some points, which have been rubbed, the iron exhibits its 
metallic luster, and traces of its crystalline character may be 
observed, but nearly the whole surface is covered with a dark 

rown crust, consisting essentially of hydrated ferric oxide, 


w 


which varies from about an eighth toa third of an inch in thick- 


he union of hardness and toughness in the iron makes it 
quite difficult to cut, and in attempting to obtain with the plan- 
ing machine a slice of considerable size the ordinary cutting 
tools were blunted and broken ; it was found necessary to drill 
a row of holes and connect these by a cut made with the planer. 


12 J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. 


e specific gravity was taken for Nos. 1 and 2 with solid 
pieces of about 140 grams and 95 grams, respectively, cut from 
the interior of the masses, and for No. 3 with about 10 grams 
of clean shavings (from the planer) in a specific gravity bottle. 
The results were, 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 

Specific gravity, at 15° C,  7°853 7°855 7°839 
he interior structure of the iron is compact and highly 
crystalline, of much the same general character throughout, 
ut a few small grains and streaks of a brownish yellow min- 
eral were noticed, which on being picked out and examined 
ved to be troilite. There are, however, minute fissures 


proach 90°; on the much smaller cut surface of No. 3, the 
fizures are somewhat more irregular, but the angles approach 
60°. By etching surfaces obtained in other planes it was ren- 
dered evident that the difference of appearance is merely due 
to looking at different projections of the same crystalline struc- 
ture. The accompanying engravings, taken from photographs, 
exhibit the results of etching these specimens. 

e metal soon rusts upon cut surfaces, especially where the 
exudation of chlorine occurs, and this renders more distinctly 
visible the slight fissures which penetrate the interior. 


No. 1. 


ee ee a ee ee a Se Pe 


J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Tron from Virginia. 13 


he iron is not passive, though very easily rendered so by 
nitric acid. It reduces copper rather slowly -from the sulphate, 


‘and if the whole surface be covered by the latter metal and 


then washed under a stream of — rubbing * poke with the 
hand or a cloth, a part of the copper comes ; off ry easily, 
leaving the remainder firmly attached and feprod sett very 
beautifully the Widmannstiittian figures ; obviously a case of 
galvanic deposition, the Schreibersite pee the electro-negative 
solid and receiving the coating of coppe 

y the rolonged action of acid Mole sate white lamine of 
Schreibersite are “brought into view, which if completely de- 
tached are found to be flexible and strongly magnetic. 

The following are the results of chemical analysis. 


Nor1:; No. 2. No. 3. 
ON eee. 88°706 88°365 89°007 
Deke oo 10163 10°242 9964 
tO SR ee Ee oe 396 “428 "387 
OPUOR oe 6255S “003 “004 *003 
Rs 002 002 00 
Man ganese, ....... trace ne ce trace 
Phosphorus, ee "341 "362 "375 
pee ‘019 008 026 
Chloring, een ce 003 002 004 


14 J. W. Mallet on Meteoric Iron from Virginia. — 


No, 1 No. 2, No. 3. 

ees ees 172 185 122 
Sits, 5 067 061 “056 
99872 99°659 99°947 


These numbers are so closely accordant that there can be no 
doubt of the masses being essentially identical in chemical 
composition. 

The nickel and iron were separated, in a cold and quite 
dilute solution, by means of carbonate of baryta, and the pre- 
cipitates obtained were carefully tested as to purity before the 
weights were finally accepted as correct. 

Considerable quantities of material were used for the deter- 
mination of the minor constituents. Particular attention was 
given to the identification of the minute quantity of tin present, 
as Professor J. Lawrence Smith has lately mentioned* the fact, 
that he has never found this metal in the course of numerous 
analyses of meteoric iron, The precipitate with sulphuretted 
hydrogen, which contained the tin and copper, was in each case 
obtained from a solution of more than a hundred grams of the 


ron. 

I feel satisfied that the chlorine is not of meteoric origin—not 
an essential constituent of the original masses—but has been 
derived from the soil in which the iron has lain imbedded. 
The exudation of watery drops containing metallic chlorides 
is observable only at points on the outside and on cut surfaces 
along the lines of fissures communicating with the outside. 
Although chlorine is mentioned above as found in the general 
analysis of the planing machine shavings, I failed altogether to 
detect it in a specially selected solid piece of some fifty grams 
taken from a part of No. 1 destitute of fissures or flaws. 

The siliceous residue is set down as silicic acid, but some of 
it seems to have in reality existed as silicide of iron. A part 
of this residue having been examined with the blowpipe to 
identify it as silicic acid, another portion was looked at with a 
magnifying power of 250 to 500 diameters, and in polarized 
ight was seen to consist of an amorphous powder, and rounded, 
transparent grains of very small dimensions, for the most part 
from ‘0025 to 0100 millimeter in diameter, of well-marked 


masses of meteoric iron a iris portions of a single fall from 
the heavens, agreeing so ¢ 
n 


chemical constitution ; having, moreover, all been found at but 
short distances from each other. The precise localities from 
which they came are as follows: 


* This Journal, I, xlix, 333, (May, 1870). 


N. H. Winchell on the Glacial features of Green Bay. 15 


No. 1, from a spot on the land of Mr. Robert Van Lear, 
about five miles (a Little age of) North from Staunton, in 
38° 14’ N. lat. and 79° O1’ W. long. 

No. 2, from the land of Mr. M. Fackler, about one mile to 
the San of the locality of No. 1. 

No. 8, about half a mile still further Southeast, or rather 
a little North of a N.W. and SE. line passing through the 
last named locality. 

It will be interesting to watch for the possible detection of 
other masses in the same neighborhood. 

This makes the fourth recorded instance of meteorites found 
within the State of Virginia, the three preceding having been, 

eteoric stone, which fell in Chesterfield Co., June 4th, 
1828, phe Jour. I, xv, 195 and xvi, 191). 

2. Meteoric iron, found in Grayson Co., described ce rof. 
Rogers of thee University i in 1842, ” Ghia Jour., I xlili, 169). 

3. Meteoric iron, found in Roanoke Co., and described by 
Prof. Houeres in 1842, (this Jour., I, xlin, 169). 

University of Virginia, March 27, 1871. 


Art. Il].—The Glacial Features of Green Bay of Lake Michigan, 
with some observations on a probable former outlet of Lake 
rato ae N. H. Wiscee, of the Geological Corps of 
Michiga 


THE topographical features of the region of Green Bay, are 
strikingly dependent on the geological structure as acted on by 
glacial forces. The west coast is low, and in but few places 
can the underlying rock be seen above the drift deposits. The 
immediate shore varies oie little from the rola trend - _ 


takes a direction nearly N. and &., an interesting fact, the special 
significance of which will be noticed further on. 

east coast is in the same way dependent on the line of 

piovien of the Niagara limestone; but, very unlike the west 

is frequent es indented by oa as fe LA Sees their great 

tiful ship hart ese real 


16 N. H. Winchell on the Glacial features of Green Bay. 


frequently uniting with the shore-line, the entrances to the little 
bays being uniformly very deep. ‘The passage through Port 
des Morts is 21 fathoms, north of Louse island 24 fathoms. 
The mouth of Eagle harbor is 11 fathoms, of Ellison’s bay 12 
fathoms, and of Hedgehog harbor 17 fathoms. The average 
depth of Green Bay is 16 to 18 fathoms. 3 

The uniformity in the direction of these bays is another 
remarkable fact. They indent the peninsula in a southerly or 
southeasterly direction. On the contrary the bays on the op- 
posite side of the peninsula, and opening into Lake Michigan, 
have a very uniform direction northerly or northwesterly, com- 
plementing those opening into Green Bay in such a way, that 
the peninsula is in several cases almost intersected by their near 
inosculation. 

The barrier of the Niagara limestone is broken through at 
each of these bays, and its broken off ends form perpendicular 
and bald bluffs which face each other across their entrances, 
and rise to the height of 75 to 175 feet. Government and Hib- 
bard’s bluffs enclose Sturgeon bay. The former has a height of 
115 feet, the latter about 80 feet. Eagle Bluff is on the south 
side of Kagle harbor and has a height of 149 feet 10 inches. 
Its counterpart on the north side is about 60 feet. Garden Bay 
in Great bay de Noc is another example of the same pheno- 
menon. The Niagara barrier is more broken down between 
Port des Morts and Pt. de Morts and Pt. de Tour than at any 
other place. Projecting southward, the peninsula which en- 
closes Great bay de Noc and terminates with Pt. de Tour, is a 
counterpart of that which encloses Green Bay ; and the whole 
interval between Door Bluff on the south and Sag Bluff in Great 
bay de Noe on the north, is but an enlarged illustration of the 
phenomena already described. In this case the Niagara lime- 
stone is so completely broken down as to admit the waters of 
Lake Michigan, the Potawatamie islands, which lie in that 
a being its only parts remaining above the level of the 
lake. : 


N. H. Winchell on the Glacial features of Green Bay. 17 


Glacial strize and polished surfaces at the head of Green Bay 
have a direction N. 34° E. coinciding with the axis of Green 
Bay. In the bay north of Sag and Burnt Blufts, in Great Bay 


de Noe, they run about N.W. and S.E. 


epost of the east shore of Green Bay and of Great Bay de Noe. 
Those deeply cut bays before mentioned must be regarded as 


again expose 

Another evidence of the more southward tendency of the 
main glacier consists in the fact that it actually broke through 
the Niagara barrier in numerous instances in a southerly direc- 
tion, but did not once encroach upon the Trenton, on the 
Opposite side of Green Bay, although it hardly rises above 
the water level. 


most demolished between Port des Morts and Pt. de Tour, and 
conclude that that interval must lie in the course of the original 
glacier. A course nothward thence carries us up the valley of 
Little Bay de Noe and the Whitefish river to the shore of Lake 
Superior. If we examine the south shore of Lake Superior, 
Am. Jour. Sct —Tuirp Seriss, Vow. II, No. 7—Juty, 1871. 

2 


18 N. H. Winchell on the Glacial features of Green Bay. 


we find that in a line directly north from the head of Little Bay — 
de Noe occurs the only break in the otherwise continuous rock 
barrier. Dr. D. Hemedtnis in his report to the Michigan Legis- 
lature in 1840, says that “an elevated range of hills,” or in @ 
another place, “an elevated and very regular chain of hills 
stretches from Point Iroquois to the Pictured Rocks,” from 
which place they “pass away from the shore southwesterly,” 
and Dr. Houghton adds that “the western prolongation of 
this rock has not been determined.” From the mouth of the 
Chocolate river, six or eight miles east of Marqtctté, to a point 
one-and-a-half ‘miles east of the mouth of Train river, the 
ore is low and occupied with drift, deposits, the usual roc 
barrier of sandstone is interrupted and entirely wanting. Both © 
he east and to the west from this interval the shore of the 


Oo 
cause the Falls of the aan, sce ane in Diner: and — 
oO Nenin in sek cliffs at or near Iroq 
m the mouth of Chocolate river of the falls of the 
upper mileabuiiaas occurs, in general, the strike of the Huronian, — 
from the latter place to the head of Keweenaw bay, a right 
line would pass some of the highest primary knobs an through 


the head waters of some of the principal rivers of the Upper : : 


Peninsula of Michigan. This rough and elevated character — 


continues westward to the Montreal river, near the western ~ 


_Desor says of te «The latter are distinesdy. seen ernie 
the others, and are therefore more recent. Some of them are 


besides distinctly curved, as if the body which produced them _ 


had been deflected in ascending the ene; a pn gin not yet 
observed elsewhere.” On an island east of Dead river (neat ~ 
Marquette) there are also two systems of furrows, ome ei ing = 
N. and S. and one N. 20° E., the latter being the more distinct 


N. H. Winchell on the Glacial features of Green Bay. 19 


and sometimes taking the form of troughs four feet wide and two 
feet deep.* These indicate that the continental glacier moved 
in a direction N.E. and S.W., forming the deepest furrows, but 
that the local glacier passed N. and 8. It was also, doubtless, 
“ deflected” from its course, and the opposition of the Huro- 


sand. 

Thus it appears that not only was the outlet of Lake Su- 
perior through Little Bay de Noc up to the close of the Ter- 
tiary, but that it continued to exist there after the stratification 
of the drift. e curious excavation and piling up of the 
drift on either side of the Whitefish valley could only have 
been done since the deposit of the same, and the water-worn 
surface of the Trenton limestone, on the top of the water-shed, 
must have been produced since the dawn of the Terrace Epoch. 


Ann Arbor, Mich., August 20, 1870. 
* Foster and Whitney’s Report on L. Superior, Part I, p. 206. 


20 TL. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 


Art. I1V.—Infusorial Circuit of Generations; by THEoD. C. 
HILGARD. 


he 
are all evidently immature forms, subject to a vast cycle of oe 
gressive and retrograde developments and infinitely multiply- 
ing the molecular germs at every individual dissolution.+ A 
little salt, glycerine, or sugar destroys their present form; but 
they seem to be hardly affected by morphia or r atropia, even in 
strong solutio 

It is this feature of the non-endurance in nein up, which 
renders it at once certain, that no such sarcode bodies can 
continue to exist integro, when exposed to the full heat of 
summer, on a cracking dry tub, or on a roof, likewise as torrid 
as a blazing July sun can Paden it within four weeks. The same 
applies to all the confervaceous, palmellaceous, protoc occous, 
desmidiaceous, etc., fresh-water spawns, of true Mosses; which, 
once collapsed by drought, rarely continue growth in a progres: 
sive sense. ith the exception of their c “n 
Ea (specially adapted to endure even excessive Sepia they 


. e. exclusive of all the seve on tgabag rs ilica-coated, and oe 


Ree pees cau 


or featbaior cell-like sarcodic bodies and also the clear and vibrionic form 
to the algoid bryaceous prota ts. They are — classed =r green 
_ ia,” and also constitute the ‘“ Chloro ex” of ‘ 


rosperm 
+ The same doubtiess applies to a small ‘ Stentor Roe, is ue hovering up and 
down in water taken from ponds, aquaria, etc. It is of a hazy white color, 
ite oe to the naked Cys; and re maskabie for never touching the 
surfé When placed under the a drop e air, this 


expose nimal 

germ (in Shape resembling a Pie or a pis bean) is seen olny throwing 
“cloak ” or mantle, Berges bes intense ciliary (fingered) vibratory action, 

ae the interior surface It then throws out hyaline constitutive brood- balls of 
| with the same “ fingered” action—(a ed 


various sizes, 

sag — visible pentsy One ultimately entirely flows apart into such Sleshy 
cilia, the 

} This fo oe of ee muting “serial =. bead-strings enveloped in a 
foliaceous slime - mon to y the genus — and various 
brooding-phases of the algoid alate tiee Sp oscapa wie. With the ns, 
the internal ay wing ie of gee thallus often eon as is well known, in similar 
goid) tissue-fibers ; in @ manner 
giao repconmated bey - siatoaiy of Bldgettia pita sto ges in Harvey’s “Nereis.” 


| 


T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 21 


“revive” only by starting anew from very reduced, but im- 
mensely multitudinous constituent particles of their own, which 
perdure exsiccation. In the class of Fungi we meet with simi- 


the size of those didymous (érichothecitum) spores which pres- 
ently stand erect on pedicels, as a pink velvet, in the chinks 
of the bark and collapse at the first touch of the sun; while 
their ultimate subcortical development into a mature, “ black 
enamel” Spheeria again perdures in the hea 

Under the circumstances above mentioned, the rain water 


molecular condition, which adapts them to last and survive in 
a dry condition, as we find it not only with the Fungi, but also 
in the case of the pruinose-pulverulent, primitive moss-spawns, 
three agreeing in this feature of being “reducéd to dust,” 
out of which they are again resuscitated. This evanescent con- 
dition, however, where gelatinous particles of about z;';5 of a 
line diameter shrink alike to imperceptible dimensions, affords 
no pretext whatever for assuming identities, just because we 
ourselves lose the means of discrimination. Whenever the iden- 
tity of substance is preserved, each of these yarious molecular 
organisms preserves its cyclar developments distinct from simi- 
ar, corresponding ones as true species, so far as my observa- 
ions go. ge 
There being, at present, no comprehensive pictorial works 
available to fall back upon for reference, that are sufficiently 
correct, even in their designs, to identify the forms, allowance 
must be made for the liberties of comparison taken in the fol- 
lowing descriptive representation of the most frequent infusorial 
processes, : 


22 T. ©. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. | 


way, rather scantily ‘‘fructifies” in a “ sexual” fashion, 1. e. by 
the development of a theca ; but on clayey soils fills all the slug- 
gish and stagnant waters with its virescent uliginous spawns ; 
while it covers the surface of fields, by millions of acres, with 

minute crust, or “ brick red leprosy,”* whose fine, molecular 
dust is swept aloft by every wind. Immediately before the frost, 
the same fields are densely covered with a small crop of minute 


hese minute, but in this instance coated, swarming cells are 


(or vibratory lash) arises, a clear point of substance ; wherein, 
in a small percentage of these cells, a parasite is found to 
develop. 

This parasite is a perfectly colorless globule, apparent in the 
clear navel-point of the cell, and exhibits a faintly opalescent 
hue. As it grows, the cell which harbors the “ incubus ” loses 
its own individual vitality. It ceases to swarm about and 
dissect into living, chlorophylliferous and automatous progenies, 

e live ones do. Instead of spontaneously dissolving as 1m 
the living process the cell-coat remains firm; and as the para- 
sitic animal yol ws and occupies more space, executin 
tremulous and vibratory contractions, the chlorophyll is press 
into the rear, a lifeless mass. At last the cell is ruptured in 

* See St. Louis Med. Reporter, Jan. Ist, 1867, pp. 522, 527—528. Also Proc. 
St. Louis Ac. Se. (July, 1861), vol. ii, No. 1, p. 160; and vol. i, p. 156. For 
“ Chiorococcum ” read “ : ” (lately renamed ‘ Protuberans” Ag. 
its “ botrydium” progenies. The latter collapse and turn red. This pulverulent, 
mintate ‘* ‘a kermesina” Auct., must, however, by no means be confoun 
with the darkly purpureous, uliginous moss-spawns which cover, e. g. the hilly 
“ Orange-sand ” regions of the State of Mississippi. It is prevalent in winter 
41 - red i“ Mi OC le ¢ ” 


Ww , and ists of matted i 
moss-cells, each one containing a central brood-fiber which is medullary-dott 
li ing, and fascicularly surrounded by a stratum us, prore 
“« Qscillaria ”-fibrils. Not ouly the ultimately enlarged (chlorophylliferous) brond- 

also the undulating fiber, form brood-balls (terminally). Its 
gelatine forms a cement of the loose sandy clay, and a home or abode for the 
iae (or bright-green foliolate lichens) as well as for grasses, etc. 


T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 23 


front, and the cupular-compressed, dead, chlorophylline mass 
remains inert and void of life until devoured nfusoria or 
the zymotic fungus. The cell-coat, likewise, is effete, while the 
large globular and somewhat acicularly-granulated incubus, 
after a few very wry contractions, at once widely opens a large, 
ciliate mouth, gaping across the sphere’s surface ; and disengag- 
ing or displaying a girdle of cilia round the rear part of the 

y, it immediately represents the free-roving Vorticella in full 
equipment. 

Its subsequent “ encystment,” into a spherical cyst densely 
covered with short prickles (somewhat like the rim of a Helio- 
pelta) and containing entrail-like designs, is well known.* 
Also, that it eventually bursts—occasionally, at least—and dis- 
gorges a peculiar sort of wafer-shaped, elliptical (not ellipsoidal !) 
cells, or nuclei, whose ulterior fate and abode, however, hitherto 


t 
of their shape, they znhere, as an almost rage Ge pellicle 
or stratum, which to the microscopic observer is the instantane- 


clear granular nucleus or “germinal speck ” inside. 
The multiplication of the pedunculate Vorticelle, by fission, 
lengthwise, and by budding-out, sideways, at the rear end, is 


ng | gularly 
about, and ‘rebounding at head-long speed, within a few 
minutes it “settles” upon some suitable surface, with the 


* In fig. 215, Carp. “ Mier.” (p. 446), the short prickles are omitted, B. to E. 


24 T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 


As for its sable multiplications, when a Vorticella gets 
“sick,” for want of air or food (as when kept between glass- 
plates held sas and glued round about, or cemented, to pre- 
vent evaporation), the weeye contracts to a perfect globe, with 
a ig germinal are 6. - oF nucleus t in the middle; the 


densely punctuated cloud, ru dp like a cumulus ; its tips mostly 
warty as with (dotted) i awtercies a sort of primordial fram 
boésia.” It is to this form that I wish to call 
tion, sincé it presents the most minute phase of indvichaal ant- 
mate life visible at represent under the known powers of 
the aioroeOhe: being the ultimate retrograde development- 
phase, as well as the first manifestation, common to all such 
soft ora sarcode bodies, — the ‘“ Vorticellan” to the 
most bulky “ Paramecian” forms. And from each little dot 
in these “clouds of life” a ani Vorticella can be seen — 
to develop! It is here, indeed, at this first visible advent or — 
exordium of animate life, and the resurrection of millions of — 
germs through the spontaneous dissolution of a single one, that 
the last nubecular microscopic perceptions closely resemble the 
last nebular telescopic as well as the theoretic ones of Laplace’s 
cosmogony. ; 4 
For the —— = = col such often repeated forms of | retro- 
rade self-c a germin 
Such likewise occur in a ‘very closely analogous mae in ae 
self-maceration (of the engulfed pencil-beads and the enlarged 
“oidium”-joints) of the yeast or ‘“‘zymotic” fungus. The 


| ti | 

exists into bos iebees. Of the black or i ae nebula-form 
of the zymotic or yeast-fungus I have are aca in the 
St. Louis Medical Reporter, Jan. 1st, 1868, (Zymotic Condition, 
etc.) and Proc. A. A. A. S., 1870, e¢ anée. Neither the animal 
molecules nor the (coated) "& Cacte acteria” join into file, as do the 
fermentic — ae naked. 
The oh ee opportunity of witnessing 


A. Hall on the application of Photography, ete. 25 


with its “amoeba” or pseudopodial dissolution, when treating 
; relia.” 


of the so-called “* Paramecium Au 
(To be continued.] 


Art. V.—On the application of Photography to the determination 
of Astronomical data; by ASAPH HALL.* 


ANY one who has witnessed a total eclipse of the sun must 
have felt his utter inability to make a correct description of the 
various features of the phenomenon, and must have wished for 
some means by which all these features, so suddenly and so 
grandly displayed, might be portrayed impartially and truth- 
fully and in such a way that they could be subjected to a cool 
and leisurely examination. Such a means is furnished in a 
good degree by photography. A few photographs of the corona 
and protuberances of a total eclipse are far more trustworthy 
than all the hand sketches that have ever been made. It is 


aeeet does not yet appear to be clearly established. In the 

ope of provoking discussion and investigation of the subject a 

brief review of what has been done in this application of the 

photographic method seems opportune, especially so, consider- 

ing the extensive use that ma: be made of the method in observ- 
ing the transit of Venus now near at hand. 

SS # Read before the Washington Philosophical Society. 


26 A. Hall on the application of Photography 


The first photographs of double stars, made for the purpose 
of determining by micrometric measurement their relative an- 
gle of position and distance, were those of Mizar and its com- ~ 
panion, made at the Harvard College Observatory in April and — 
May, 1857, by Messrs. Whipple and Black of Boston. Professor — 

. P. Bond has given in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 
1105, the results of his measurements of the thirteen photo- — 
graphic images. The zero of the angle of position was foun 

y moving the telescope in right ascension after an impression — 
had been taken and taking a second one on the same plate. 
This process repeated gave a series of photographic images on — 
the same plate and the right line passing through the series — 
gave the son of the daily motion of the heavens. The 

robable error of a single measurement of the photographic 
distance of the images was found to be + 0°12, or somewhat — 
smaller than that of a direct measurement with the common 
filar micrometer. During the summer of 1857 many more 
photographs of this double star were taken, and in the journal — 
above mentioned, No. 1129, Prof. Bond has given an elaborate — 
account of the measurement of sixty-two photographic images. 
For this measurement of these images a new and improved micro- 
meter was employed, consisting of an achromatic microscope wit. 
a magnifying power of 2200. Under this microscope the star — 
images appeared as aggregations of minute drops of matter and 
looked like the result of a great number of vibrating and — 
momentary impressions. They were generally symmetrical with — 
a gradual condensation toward the center of the image, and 
the bisection of an image with the wire of the micrometer could _ 
be done with great exactness. The probable error of the center 
of an image was found to be 0-051, and hence that of the 
distance of two such centers to be +0°’072. Adopting the 
estimate of Struve, +0°”127, as the probable error of a single 
measurement of a double star of this class with a filar microme- 
ter, the measurement of the photographic images would have a 
relative value three times greater, or = (9:123). The accuracy 
of the measurement is better shown by the numerical results 
obtained by Prof. Bond, which are as follows: 


Mean Exposure. Distance. No, of images. 
13° 14°31 + 0°034 7 
16 14°19 + 0°035 7 
18 14 *18 + 0°033 8 
24 14 °23 + 0°035 8 
25 14°15 + 0°034 7 
30 14 °28 + 0°034 2 
33 14°19 + 0°033 8 
36 14 -20 + 0°032 10 


24-5 14-21 + 0-013 2 


to the determination of Astronomical data. 27 


proportionate increase in the time of exposure ; 


work of measuring the photographic images and in reducing 
the measurements, an i, i ivi ! 

labor performed, I take the liberty of stating my own estimate 
of the two methods of observing double stars, viz: the photo- 
graphic method and that of direct measurement with a filar 
micrometer or heliometer. In the case of double and triple 
stars I have no doubt that the better method is that of direct 
measurement. The labor of setting the circles and finding the 
star is common to both methods, but during the time required 


graphic images a practised observer would make and reduc 
series of direct measurements. It is thus possible by the direct 
method more easily to repeat the observation under varie 
conditions of atmosphere, observer and instrument, and in this 
way to render the final result less liable to systematic errors. 
Tt is true that according to Prof. Bond’s calculations, the photo- 
eraphic method is decidedly the more accurate, but some ex- 
os istrustful of inferences drawn 


to avoid systematic error, or to give it as much as possible the 
nature of those irregular errors which in the long run tend to 
eliminate themselves. Finally, it may be stated as a general 


28 A. Hall on the application of Photography 


rule that, other things being equal, the simpler and more direct 
the method of observing, the better. In order to justify the 
interposition of any new process it must be shown that this 
process gives greater accuracy or greater rapidity of observing 
or both. Thus the chronographic method of observing transits 
is justified on the ground that it gives greater ease and rapidity 
of observing, since the gain in accuracy is scarcely sensible. 

In the case of groups of stars like the Pleiades or Preesepe 
there would be a great advantage in using the photographic 
method provided the plates could be made sufficiently sensitive, 
so that images of stars of the ninth and tenth magnitudes could 
be obtained. Mr. Rutherfurd, who has done so much in as- 
tronomical photography, has made photographs of both the 
groups mentioned, and from his plates Dr. B. A. Gould has 
deduced positions of the stars. Dr. Gould’s memoir on the 
Pleiades was presented to the National Academy five years 
ago, and it is to be regretted that it is not yet published. 

The first application of photography to determine the times — 
of contact in a solar eclipse was made by Mr. Warren De la 


ES ts eee PN Ee NSS ER, 


to the Determination of Astronomical data. 29 


r. De la Rue speaks of having made some observations to 
iL avieine whether in the process of drying the images had un- 
dergone any distortion, sa says: ‘‘ The result, however, proved 
that there was no appreciable onteasthat. except in thickness, 
and that the soot jon film did not become di storted, rovided 


Rue in the solar eclipse of 1860, and their zero being seit 
mined in the same manner. This memoir contains a large 
amount of interesting information concerning the position and 
areas of the solar aes but the determinations of position are 
vitiated in some degree by the optical distortion of the instru- 
ment. The observers at Rew have made experiments to deter- 
mine the amount of distortion, but no definitive result has yet 
been reached. They say that the following facts may be re- 
peed: as established: “1st, that the image of any object pe 
tographically depicted is liable to a distortion, which varies at 
‘erent distances from the center of the field, and the amount 

of which may be determined for every instrument by methods 
similar to that employed by ourselves ; 2d, that in our case the 
ae of an object is larger when formed near the edge of the 
than at the center, and that the amount of elongation of a 

unit of length at the center increases with its distance from the 
center.” Their conclusion is that the ing is not sufficiently 
far advanced to justify any corrections of t itions of the 
Spots on account of the effect of distortion, but they express the 
al that at last they will be able to give thoroughly scone 

ga gaan for the effect of displacement in instrumen 

oe a ont of ae = eclipse of August, 1869, bare 


not yes so far as I know, but it is 


| pes | pee Put ee i teey i are affected by distortion 


will in a measure render the results dependent and un- 


trustworthy. It is to be hoped, however, that these pho- 


30 G. J. Brush on Ralstonite. 


tographic plates see Pie subjected - a careful examination in 
may be made of the extent of error to 
which they are liable. an the case of a solar eclipse, or of a 
transit of a planet over the sun’s disk the photographic method 
has very great advantages over the observations of contact in 
many respects, and the errors to which it is subject are worthy of 
the most thorough investigation. The observation of a contact — 
is uncertain on account of irradiation, and it is momentary a aleag 


as to the soeaibility of ais measuring and oT a the ’ 
photographic observations of the transit of Venus. 
Mar, 25, 1871. 


Art. VL—On Ralstonite, a new Fluoride hse Arksut-Fiord; by | 
Go. J. BrusH | 


THE recent exploitation of the Greenland cryolite has igi : ] 
only led to the discovery of crystallized cryolite, but has given 
to mineralogical science several new fluorides, two of which, 
thomsenolite and pachnolite, are found in beautiful crystallized 
fe 


rms. 
I now call attention to another fluoride observed, a few 
months ee by Rev. J. Grier Ralston of Norristown, 
ound a mineral in minute octahedrons associated with 
Begehate, and being unable to identify it, he sent it to Pro 
Dana, by whom. the specimens were passed over to me for é 
aminatio 


G. J. Brush on Ralstonite. 31 


planes alike in lustre I cannot doubt that they are isometric 
octahedrons, and hence that the small plane on the angles is a 
cubic plane. 

The mineral is colorless to white, with a vitreous luster, and 
has a hardness greater than fluorite, equal to about 4°. 
Specific gravity, taken on 25 milligrams, gave 2°4. 


32 S. W. Ford—Primordial Rocks of Troy, N. Y. 
Art. VIL.—WNotes on the Primordial Rocks = the vicinity of Troy, . 
N. Y.; by S. W. For 4 


In view of the prevailing uncertainty respecting the age of 
the rocks of that portion of the Taconic series of Professor | 
Emmons lying east of the Hudson river, I was led several years | 
ago to undertake the investigation of some of these rocks in my 
own neighborhood, though I had but few hopes of learning any- 
thing essentially new about them. It soon became apparent 
that much valuable information might be obtained from them; 
and from certain facts which early came under my observation — 
I was induced to continue their study. I propose here to. 
notice briefly some of the more noteworthy results thus far’ 
on te 


evidently eastward, and at a high angle. They extend eastward 
about half a mile, and form a hill of cokes forkcshe magnitude - 
within the city limits. Following the course of this hill north- 
ward, we find them frequently well exposed in railway cuttings, 7 
and before reaching Lansingburgh, which is — miles ci | 
in a bold elevation several hundred feet i in hei - 


noutherty, aid a pear to be all construe 
upon nuke same pattern, having on the west a steep, on the east 
a more gradual slope. lag. the western ges are naturally 
exposed. This uniformity of structure is very striking, 
there are reasons for believing that it has sented largely 
successive short, sharp folds in the — of which we have @ 
—— -east of Lansingburgh; but as near! 


eS er ae ee ae ee 


S. W. Ford—Primordial Rocks of Troy, N. Y. 33 


the whole district is covered with a thick sheet of drift, and the 
rocks bear evidence of extensive faulting, much further study 
will be necessary before it will be fully understood. 

These outcrops generally consist for the most part of coarse 
red and yellow weathering slates and shales, with occasional 
thin-bedded sandstones; but the most of them are supposed, 
and four of them are known, to hold subordinate limestone de- 
posits. Of these deposits the two western-most individually con- 
sist of a few courses of thick-bedded limestone, and of irregular, 
sometimes lenticular, sparry and frequently pebbly masses, vary- 
ing from one to several hundred pounds in weight, im ed 
in a coarse, dirty-looking arenaceous matrix; while the others 
form tolerably compact, even-bedded limestones, with an abun- 
dance of scattered black nodules, from twenty-five to thirty feet 
in thickness. 

So far as investigated, these limestones have been found to 
be highly fossiliferous, though the fossils are usually in a very 
fragmentary condition. From two of them—one of the con- 
glomerates and one of the even-bedded masses—the writer has 
made frequent collections during the last three years. Witha 
single exception the same species occur in both. Up to the 
present time they have yielded eighteen species, which are dis- 
tributed as follows: 


Protozoa (Archwocyathus) ..-~.---~---.----------- 1 species. 
Grachiopods 2. 2 ee 7 ie 
Lamellibranchiata: i222 2c 320 oe .8 1 e 
Gasteropoda......_----- oe Sine 
Pteropoda (Hyolithes)--. -- 2 zi 
Annelida ( Salterelia) 1 “ 


DeWRaiite e aes. eek eo 5 - 
Total, 18 “4 


of New York in 1848, from this locality; and two— Conoceph- 
alus (Atops) trilineatus (Emm.) and Olenellus (Olenus) asaphordes 
(H.), from Greenwich, Washington county. All the rest are new 
or undescribed.* : 

Desiring further information in regard to certain of these new 
species, I several months since wrote Mr. E. Billings, Paleon- 
tologist of the Geological Survey of Canada, at the same time 
giving him a list of the species in my possession from this 

* Unless one of them should prove identical with the species of Cypricardia 
figured by Emmons (American Geology, p. 113, plate |, fig. 1.) : 

Am. Jour. Scr.—Turp Serres, Vor. lI, No. 7.—Juzy, 1871. 
3 


34 S. W. Ford—Primordial Rocks of Troy, N. Y. 


quarter. In reply Mr. B. informed me that he was just then en- — 

aged upon a collection of new fossils from the Lower Potsdam ~ 
riauon below Quebec, which he strongly suspected to be — 
identical with my own; and on comparison it was found that 
fifteen out of the eighteen species from Troy were held by usin ~ 
common, and shown to be perfectly identical. Such an un- — 
looked for result of course surprised us greatly. That the Lower — 
Potsdam formation below Quebec, and the western portion o 
the Taconic series near hee are of the same age, there seems 
now but little room for 


cat 
4 
a 
e885 
é 
Fog 
3:3 
oi 
- 
=f 
=| 
oa-e-) 
5 8 
re) 
ef 
E. 
Eg 
g 
8." 
£R 
a, 
F 


its ala of lateral muscular impressions and two sm er, dor- 
diating from a point near one side;” the other as “larger, 
i The former occurs quite 
Sie aa a in the Troy limestones, and is a very beautiful little © 
object. It varies in size from a mere point to a diameter of © 
three lines. Perfect specimens have a rich, polished appear- | 
ance. The other occurs more rarely. As might naturally be 
expected, these rocks contain immense numbers of Hyolithes. 
Indeed, large —— of the limestone are often almost wholly 
composed of them. 
ithout scant this formation in New York will yet afford — 
_ new species. ‘The even-bedded limestones east of Troy, . 
to which especial attention has been given, as well as portions — 
of the Oe ent are literally loaded with fossils, and 
Sabi hly to repay idee ye for a long time to come. — 
heir associated slates, shales and sandstones lave as yet af 
forded no fossils. Near Tats ee, however, where what is 
at present regarded as a lower member of the formation, con-_ 
sisting of heavy and thin-bedded Bray sandstones with inter- 
stratified black slates, is exposed, a few obscure Fucoids have 
been found, but these rocks have been but imperfectly investi- 
ted. Neither the thickness nor precise eastern limit of this _ 
ormation has yet been ascertained. 
Troy, N. Y., May 24, 1871. 


* These rocks have hitherto been referred, though with some doubt, to the Cale z 
ciferous portion of the Quebec Group; but all modern investigations in our olde 
strata have steadily A gate to their higher antiquity; and it is simply justice t0 
state that, by several geologists besides those who have adopted Prof. Emmons’ 
views of their age, this has long been suspected. 


ere S eS ee ee 


0. C. Marsh—Notice of some new Fossil Mammals, ete. 85 


Art. VIIEL—WNotice of some new Fossil Mammals from the Tertiary 
Formation ; by Professor O. C. Marsu of Yale College. 


In association with the Reptilian fossils collected by the 
Yale College party last summer, and already described in this 
Journal,* numerous remains of Mammals were also discovered, 
and in the following article some of the more interesting new 
species are briefly characterized. A few species from the other 

ertiary lake-basins of the Rocky Mountains have been included, 
as they throw considerable light on the ancient sub-tropical fauna 
of that region, e€ present notice is merely preliminary to a 
full description, with illustrations, now in course of preparation. 


Titanotherium ? anceps, sp. nov. 


material clears up the question of its exact affinities 

I'he specimens discovered, which evidently pertained to three 
different individuals, mainly consist of several dorsal vertebra, 
the distal end of a humerus, the greater portion of a tibia, and 
some of the smaller bones of the extremities. They indicate a 
Pachyderm, much larger than any other known mammal from 
the same deposits, and about two thirds the size of Titanothe- 
rium Prouti, from the Tertiary basin east of the Rock Moun- | 
tains. The anterior dorsal vertebre preserved have both articu- 
lar faces slightly concave, thus distinguishing the species at once 
from 7. Prouti, which has in this part of the series the front ver 
tebral face very convex, and the posterior face concave. Another 
marked difference is seen in the tibia, which at its proximal end 
has the femoral articular surfaces contiguous, with no prominent 
elevation between them, resembling in this respect some of the 
Proboscidea. 


° 


Measurements. 
sich of anterior dorsal vertebra, on lower sur- 


, 2 inches 2 lines. 
Width of posterior face between rib cavities,.... 3 “ 
Height of posterior face, ee Ve eee aes 
Transverse diameter of tibia at proximalend,...4 “ 10 “ 
Fore and aft POR ene { 4.5 6 
Verse diameter at distal end, -_ ---------- tes > En 
Fore and i s « “ 


* Vol. i, 1871, pp. 192, 322, and 447. 


36 O. C. Marsh—Notice of some new Fossil Mammals 


The remains were found by Lieut. Wann, and the writer, in 
the ‘‘Mauvaises Terres” deposits, near Sage Creek, Western 
Wyoming. The geological horizon is lower Miocene, or per: — 
haps Hocene. 


eam minor, ne noy. 


Measurements. : 
Antero-posterior diameter of lower molar, 10 lines. © 
Transverse diameter of front lobe, at summit, . Ses, Bae 
Transverse diameter of posterior lobe, at summit, ot eae 53.9 


e only known specimens of this species were found by the 
writer at Grizzly Buttes, near Fort Bridger, Wyoming, in the — 
same deposits as the preceding species. 


Lophiodon Bairdianus, sp. nov. 


mains on which this species is based consist of portions 
of several skeletons, with numerous teeth which show consid- 


ime e iy 
moreover, by the enamel of the teeth, which, instead of beimg 
coarsely wrinkled, is _— smooth, or marked by very delicate, 
irregular striz. ; 


Measwremen 
eras sh —- of upper jaw, oie die the three gue 
| aaalam ano diameter of last upper molar, eewcds 
Transverse diameter of same a 1025 = 4 
Eee of fragment of lower jaw with three posterior : 
25 


—e— ee ee 


eedings Philadelphia Pete of Natural Sciences, 1870, p. 113. 
t Procestiags Philadelphia Acs ee 870, p. 109. 


_ 


ee ae 


| 


from the Tertiary Formation. 37 


The specimens now representing this : ecies, which is one of 
sil m 


the most common fossil mammals in the earlier Tertiary of 
Western Oe peins were found by G. B Grinnell, J. W. Gris- 
wold, C. W. Betts, A. H. Ewing, J. M. Russ ell, and the writer, 


at various year near Fort Bridger, and on the White River, 
in Kastern Utah. The species is named in honor of Professor 
S. F. Baird, of the Scateheonian Institution. 


Lophiodon affinis, is nov. 


a marked = differoes sr igrinand in the contour of the crown, 
which has a deep notch in the outer posterior margin of the base, 

between the external Genes in which the transverse ridges 
terminate. In the species just described, the margin is here 


proportions. The enamel, | is s similar to that in the noine 
ing species. 
Measurements. 

Antero-posterior diameter - last upper molar. - ------ 71 lines. 
Transverse diameter of same,_---- ------------------ Ne Bi 
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate upper molar, 8 
Transverse diameter of same,----.---------- -------- t2 

The principal specimens on which this species is established 
were found by H. D. Ziegler, in the Mauvaises Terres beds, near 
Marsh’s Fork, Wyoming 


Lophioton nanus, Sp. NOV. 


A small, col marked species, apparels a i poate 
don, is represented by a number of fossils coll 
at various localities. The arn e ee m4 ee 
specimens is a right upper jaw containing a series of four pre- 
molars, and three molars, and part of the corresponding left j 8m 
with several teeth of the same animal. The molars differ 
pecially from those of the two preceding species, in have? a 
much shallower valley between the two transverse rse ridges, and 
in having a strong basal ridge, or shelf, at the external posterior 
corner of the crown. The enamel of the whole series is very 
smooth. The species was probably about two thirds the size of 
estus. 


38 O. C. Marsh—Notice of some new Fossil Mammals 


Measurements. 
Length of portion of upper jaw, Spetaiuing seven pos- 


ee SOOGD a a ie 49 Sy oP ewe > sens ene ae 26° lines. 
Length of same, with three last molars,..........---- 138-7 “ 
Antero-pos arate ee a of last upper a eet as 5: 
Transverse diameter of same, ---- Soh = 


The remains now known to represent this species were dis- 
covered by C. W. Betts, H. B. Sargent, and the writer, in the 
Tertiary strata at Grizzly Buttes, near Fort Bridger. 


Lophiodon pumilus, sp. nov. 


A still more diminutive species, of the same, or a nearly re- 
lated, genus, is indicated by several specimens, including a frag- 
ment of a left upper jaw, containing three premolars and the two 
Rascenntiige molar teeth. The species may easily be ela 
from the small one above described, by the presence, on the out- 
side of the superior teeth, of a str ong, continuous, but frregrulas 
basal ridge, which, at the external angle of the crown, replaces 
the elevated tubercle present in all the molars of the species al- 
ready noticed. The present specimen may also be distinguished 

om L. nanus, by the form of the last two upper premolars, 
which in the latter have their greatest transverse diameter be- 
hind the center, while the reverse is true of these premolars in 
the species under consideration. 


Measuremenis. 
Length of portion of upper jaw, with three premolars, 
Faves Pe NGI oe Soe es ee, 14° lines. 
ro-posterior opened of penultimate upper molar, 3°25 

Transverse diameter of sa: is ee 4° 

The only specimens at present known to represent this species 
were found by C. T. Ballard, in the Tertiary beds near Marsh’s 
Fork, Western Wyoming. 


Anchitherium gracilis, sp. nov. 

The Green River Tertiary basin of Wyoming apparently con- 
tains very few extinct solipedal mammals, one or two fragments 
only being all our party secured during several weeks of explo- 
rations. Te the Uintah or southern basin, however, especially 
near the White River of Eastern Utah,* remains of this group 
are more abundant, and some characteristic specimens were ob- 
eerie Among these, were three lower jaws, with many of the 

preservation. They represent an animal less than 
one half the size of Anchitherium Bairdi Leidy, and sammie, 


belonging to the same genus. There are seven premolar and’ © 
molar teeth, with essentially the same constitution as in ial 4 


* This Journal, vol. i, p. 196, March, 1871. 


from the Tertiary Formation. 39 


species. The first premolar has but one fang, and between this 
and the symphysis there are no teeth. On the inner face of 
each ramus there is a shallow, sickle- -shaped impression, with the 
point directed forward, and terminating under the first premolar. 


Measurements. 

Length of portion of lower jaw, with six posterior teeth, “ps Z lines. 
Length of same with three posterior teeth, __._.---- 
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar, = 
Transverse diameter of same,..-..---------------- 2° 

The above specimens were discovered by C. T. Ballard and the 
writer, on the north side of the White River, in Eastern Utah. 
The geological horizon is upper Eocene, or lower Miocene. 


“ce 
“ce 


Lophiotherium Ballardi, sp. nov. 


A small Pachyderm, apparently nearly related to the genus 
Soap yale is indicated by a fragment of a right lower jaw, 
with the last two molars, and a few less important remains. 
ci species thus represented appears to have been about two 


Lo 
by Dr. Leidy from the same Terti ich these fos- 
sils were found,* and the teeth, so far as a a nearly the 
same composition. Those preserved in the present specimen 


are somewhat worn, showing that the — -_ fully adult. 
The enamel, especially on the sides of the crown, is muc 
wrinkled, and thus the external basal ridge is cided strongly 
serrated. 


Measurements. 

as —. of last lower molar, ‘4-4 lines. 

Transverse diameter of s Bie ew a5 = 

Antero-posterior Sane of. penultimate lower molar,. 3:2 

Transverse diameter of sa Wi oa 2°25 
The species is named for ‘se discoverer, Mr. C. T. Ballard, oo 

the Yale party, who obtained the specimens here deseri ibed a 
Grizzly Buttes, Western Wyoming. 


oe 
“ 


Elotherium lentus, sp. nov. 

sence of numerous Suilline Pachyderms in the Green 
ioe Y Perlar basin was clearly established during the inves- 
ge of our party by the discovery of _— extinct species, 

rent from any hitherto descri One of >: — 
evidently aes Oy to the genus Elotherium, is represented oS 
single fragm a left lower jaw, with the last molar in fine 
preservation. This, specimen indicates a species about one half 
the size of Elotherium Mortoni Leidy, which is comparatively 
abundant in the lower Tertiary deposits east of the Rocky Moun- 


* Proceedings Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 1870, 126. 


40 0. C. Marsh—Notice of some new Fossil Mammals 


tains. The upper surface of this last lower molar is composed | 
of two transverse pairs of conical lobes, with a single posterior 7 
one on the median line. The anterior inner cone is larger than 7 


Measurements. : 
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower molar,_ 9° lines. § 
Greatest transverse diameter of same,----------------- 5 oe 


Transverse diameter between first and second pair of cones, 4°4 “ 


specimen on which this species is established was found ] | 
by the writer, in October last, in the Tertiary beds, on Henry's 7 
Fork, Wyoming. 


Platygonus Ziegleri, sp. nov. 


_The species is named for H. D. Ziegler, of Yale College, who 
covered the specimens on which the present description 18 
_ based. Phe losicy was at Grizzly Buttes, near the base of the 


» 


Jrom the Tertiary Formation. 41 


Platygonus striatus, sp. nov. 

A third Suilline species, nearly related apparently to the 
last, and quite equaling it in size, is indicated by portions of 
two lower jaws, with a few of the anterior teeth, collected by 
our party in the Phocene strata of Northern Nebraska. In one 
of the specimens, the second left premolar is well preserved, and 
characteristic. It has the same general composition as the cor- 
responding tooth in Platygonus compressus, but, in addition to 
its much larger size, it is proportionally broader, and has the 
basal ridge in front less developed. The posterior basal ridge, 
moreover, is expanded into two rudimentary tubercles. The 
enamel is marked by delicate irregular strize, mostly parallel with 
the base of the crown, and to this ornamentation the specific 
name tfefers. 


| 
| 
| 
| 


Measurements. 
Length of portion of left lower jaw containing first four 
teeth ere 


te wkend - lines. 
Length of same, with first three teeth,._.-..-.--.---- Re eae: 
Antero-posterior diameter of second lower premolar,.. 62 “ 
Transverse diameter of same,.._...-------- ---------- ig Bae 


_ The above specimens were found by the writer, in July last, 
in the Pliocene sands, near the head-waters of the Loup Fork 
River, Nebraska. 


Platygonus ? Condoni, sp. nov. 


tially divided into three tubercles. The enamel is smooth, and 
there is no basal ridge on the sides of the teeth preserved. 


Length of jaw enclosing last three upper molars, --- --- 27 lines 
Antero-posterior extent of last molar, ----- Gaccsocs ss 12 Z 
Transve iameter of same, through anterior lobes,-.- 7° = 


_ This species is named for Rev. Thomas Condon, who discov- 
ered the specimen described, inthe Pliocene beds of Oregon. 


42 O. C. Marsh—Notice of some new Fossil Mammals 


* 


Dicotyles Hesperus, sp. nov. 


pair of cones. e basal ridge is also more strongly developed, 
especially on the outer margin, where it is continuous. In © 


Measurements. 
Length of part of upper jaw with four posterior teeth, 19° lines. 
Length of same, with three molars, - --- ------ ier tS he See 
tero-posterior diameter of last upper molar,_...---. 56 “ 


Transverse extent of same, 4° 
Antero-posterior diameter of penultimate upper molar, 54 “ 

This specimen, for which the writer is likewise indebted to 
Rev. Mr. Condon, is from the same locality and geological 
horizon as the species last described. 


Hypsodus gracilis, sp. nov. 


oming, and supposed by him to indicate an anl- 
r? allied to the suilline family.* It may readily be 


: * Proceedings Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Science, 1870, p. 109. 


From the Tertiary Formation. 48 


: Measurements. 
Length of part of lower jaw containing first molar and ~ 
two premolars, -....-.-.--- 5:1 lines. 
Ad cc 


lob “ 1°6 “ce 
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower premolar,.... 16 “ 
The specimens representing this species at present were 


found by the writer, at Grizzly Buttes, Wyoming. 


Limnotherium tyrannus, gen. et sp. nov. 


A somewhat larger pachyderm, but distantly allied appar- 
ently to the two small species last described, is represented by 
the anterior portions of two ynited lower jaws, with several 
teeth, and a few other fragmentary remains. These specimens 
appear to indicate a genus quite distinct from any hitherto 
known, but additional remains will probably be required to de- 
termine its exact affinities. The teeth of the lower jaws are 
twenty in number, and form an uninterrupted series, which 
may be divided as follows:—Incisors 2-2, canines 1-1, pre- 
molars 44, molars 8-8. The incisors are small, and crowded 
together. The canines are large, nearly round at the base, and 
evidently formed most. efficient weapons. The first and second 
premolars had but a single fang. ‘The two anterior molars 
are in excellent preservation, and have their crowns composed 


Measurements. 
Length of dental series of lower jaw,---------------- 18° lines 
Antero-posterior extent of three molars, . ------------- 75 z 
Transverse extent of four incisors, . - 
ngth of symphysis, _... ._.----- ioe a! 
Depth of lower jaw below last molar, ae IS . 
Depth below last premolar: 22.220 oes Sigs ee 
Antero-posterior extent of first lower molar, ---------- 2°5 zi 
TanSverse diameter of same, . i... ...---. +4: == +54 -<- 2 


The specimens here described were found by the writer near 
Dry Creek, Western Wyoming, in deposits which are probably 
of Upper Eocene age. 

: Limnotherium elegans, sp. nov. 
_. A diminutive mammal is represented in our collections by 
Portions of two lower jaws, with several teeth, which have so 


st Rk. H. Lee—Atomie Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 


a transverse pair, and are not oblique as in the larger species. — 
e posterior pair of tubercles, also, are nearly on a transverse 7 
ne. q 


Measurements. 
Length of fragment of lower jaw, enclosing last premo- 4 
ar and three molars, _------. 75 lines. 
Antero-posterior diameter 0 e second lower molar, ----- o-  6 oe 
Transverse duimeter of fanic,. <5. 5 a. css a ea 


The only ao Spo of this species now known were ~ 
found by the writer at Grizzly Buttes, near the base of the 
Uintah Mountains, in Wyoming. 4 

Yale College, New Haven, June 5th, 1871. 


Art. [X.—Contributions to Chemistry “aioe the Laboratory of the 
Lawrence Scientific School. No. 16.—On the Atomic Weights 
of Cobalt and Nickel; by RicHarp H. ee 


THE atomic weights df cobalt and nickel have long been sub- 
jects of controversy, but though much time and labor have been 
spent upon them, the results arrived at are not as satisfactory as_ 
could be desired. 

Under these circumstances Prof. Gibbs suggested to me a 
— ee of the subject. — 

oo and results, I wi 


on and as but a aes Pet at 
sions : neue can hardly be soumdoned as deserving 0 
confiden 


Ld Poses haaiee vol. viii, p. 194-5. 
— der Pharmacie, vol. xxxii, p. 76. 
} Poggendorff’s Annalen, ci, p. 387. : 


* 


£ 


R. H. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 45 


Pure metallic cobalt was prepared by igniting chloride of 
purpureocobalt in hydrogen. ‘The metal was then dissolved in 
chlorhydrie acid and precipitated by sodic carbonate. The 
carbonate was washed, and then digested with oxalic acid, the 
resulting oxalate again washed, burned in a current of oxygen 
and the oxide reduced by hydrogen. In other portions of the 
oxalate the carbon was decried by combustion with cupric 


oxide. 
The following table gives a summary of the results obtained : 


Oxalate taken. Cobalt found. Carbon found. Equivalent €o. 
Ae ase 32°552 pr.ct,  'B0?4P% — o9.998 
ered 32-619“ ee 30°015 
3. ae 32°528 aOO8: 30-014 
en 2 oe ee eee 
: Mean, 30-003 


Determinations of the atomic weights of cobalt and nickel 
were also made in 1 y Marignac.* Cobaltous sulphate 
was purified by repeated crystallization and a weighed quan- 
tity of the salt heated so as to expel the acid. The resulting 
oxide was then heated with a known weight of silicate of lead 
so as to expel the excess of oxygen over and above that re- 
quired to form cobaltous oxide €00. The results obtained 
varied between 29°32 and 29°38. 

Crystallized cobaltous chloride dried at 100° was found to 
retain one atom of water. Three determinations of the chlo- 
rine in this salt by means of silver, gave for the atomic weight 
of cobalt 29-42 to 2951. Anhydrous cobaltous chloride was 
obtained by heating the crystallized salt with sal-ammoniac, in 
a current of dry chlorine or dry chlorhydric acid gas. The salt 
almost always however left a slight residue insoluble in water. 
Five analyses of the anhydrous salt gave results varying from 
29°36 to 29-42. ; 

In 1859 Dumast turned his attention to the subject. Per- 
fectly pure metallic cobalt was dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, 
the solution evaporated to dryness with frequent additions of 
chlorhydric acid, and the cobaltous chloride submitted to a red 
heat. In a second preparation from a different sample of metal 
the chloride was dried in vacuo. In this manner the following 
results were obtained : 

* Bibliothique Universelle de Geneve, Nouvelle series, vol. i, p. 373. 
+ Ann. de Trae et de Physique, 3d series, vol. lv, p. 148. 


46 R. H. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 


CoCl,. Silver. Equivalent. 
1 ( 2°352 3°9035 
2 4°210 6°990 29°54 
3 3°592 5°960 29°59 
4 | 2°492 4°1405 29°50 
5 } 4°2295 7°0255 29°51 


The mean of these five determinations is 29°54. In all cases | 
the chloride was dissolved in boiling water and the solution al- _ 
lowed to cool before precipitating with AgNO,. The argentic _ 
chloride was reduced in hydrogen. The method employed for _ 
the eke less of pure cobalt is not stat - 

* determined the atomic weights of cobalt and nickel | 
in 1863. Pure metallic cobalt was prepared by igniting chloride _ 
of purpureocobalt in hydrogen. ‘The metal was dissolved in 
nitric acid and the solution evaporated and strongly heated. — 
The black oxide obtained was ignited in a current of carbonic © 
di-oxide, by which it was converted into light brown cobaltous — 
oxide €00, which was then reduced by pure hydrogen. Omit- 7 
ting two trial experiments, the results obtained were as ‘follows: t 


€o00. Cobalt. Cobalt pr. ct. 
First sample, 1 2°1211 1°6670 78°591 
2 2°0241 15907 78°588 
3 2°1226 1°6673 _ 78°550 
4 1°9947 15678 78°598 
5 3°0628 2°4078 78614 


First ce twice purified— 
1 2°1167 16688 78°603 
2 i Sab G 1°3924 78°591 
S 17852 1°4030 78°591 


First specimen three times purified — 


1 1°6&78 1°3264 78°588 
2 2°2076 1°7350 78°592 
Mean, 78°590 
Second specimen—- 
1 2°6851 2°1104 78°597 
2 2°1461 1°6868 78°598 . 
Mean, 78°597 
Third specimen-— 
1 3°4038 2°6752 78°595 
2 2°2778 1°7901 78°589 
3 2°1837 1°7163 78°596 
Mean, 78°593 


* Annalen der Pharmacie, vol. exxvi, pp. 322-336. 


R. H. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel, 47 


The mean of all the results is 785926, from which we find 
for the equivalent of cobalt on the old system 29°37. 

I the subject was taken up by Sommaruga,* who de- 
termined the amount of metallic cobalt in chloride of purpureo- 
cobalt by reduction in a bulb tube with hydrogen. His results 
were as follows: 


Salt taken. Cobalt found. Equivalent. 

1 0°665 0°1588 0°002 

1:0918 2600 29°929 
3 0°9058 2160 29°982 
4 1°5895 3785 29°926 
5 2°9167 6957 29°992 
6 1°8390 "4378 29°916 
7 275010 5968 9 


: Mean, 29°965 
Winkler,+ in 1867, determined the atomic weight of cobalt by 


heating a known weight of the metal with perfectly neutral so- 
lution of double chloride of gold and sodium. The cobalt was 


obtained by the reduction of chloride of purpureocobalt. 


Salt taken. Gold found. Equivalent of €o(/Au=196.) 
i, 0°589 1°3045 29°497 
2 0°3147 0°6981 29°451 
3 0°5829 12913 29°492 
4, 05111 1:1312 29°518 
5 0°5821 1°2848 29°522 


Mean, 29-496 
Finally, in 1869, esos 6: made a new determination of 
the atomic weight of cobalt by finding the quantity of metallic 
cobalt in weighed quantities of cobalticyanide of aniline-am- 
monium and of ammonium. The results were as follows: 


Cobalt salt. Cobalt found. Equivalent. 

1. 08529¢r, ——01010 29°44 

rae OCit: — 0°0723 29°38 

3. 0°7140 “ 0°0850 29°59 

4 0°9420 “ 0°1120 29°54 

‘io 0°7575 “ 0°1160 29°46 

2. 0°5143 071130 29°55 

3 Mean, 29°48 
The first four analyses were made with the anilin, the last 
two with the ammonium salt. These are the only determina- 


tions of the atomic weight of cobalt which I have been able to 
find, and I will therefore pass to my own analyses. 
* Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad., vol. liv, p. 50. 
Zeitschrift fir Anal. . 1B. 
¢ Berichte der Deutcshen Chem. Gesellschaft, 1870. 


48 R.A. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 


Commercial cobaltic oxide was treated in a large porcelain | 
crucible with enough strong sulphuric acid to make it into a 
stiff paste. The crucible was then placed in a muffle furnace © 
and heated for some time, at first gently and afterwards to low 
redness. The sulphate obtained was dissolved, filtered and sub- 
mitted for some time to a current of sulphydric acid gas, by © 
which copper, arsenic, &c., were removed. The filtrate was 7 


Weselsky and Sommaruga. I first formed cobalti-cyanides of | 
alkaloids having high atomic weights and formin 


it by the walls of the crucible. The hydrogen was int 
duced by a tube passing into the bored cover and the eruct 


kh. H. Lee—Atomie Weights of Cobalt and Nickel: 49 


In my first series of experiments I employed only the cobalti- 
cyanides of brucine and strychnine, the corresponding salts of 
morphine, narcotine, chinine and cinchonine having been found 
difficult to prepare in a state of purity by recrystallization. 
The brucine and strychnine salts were prepared by decompos- 
ing the sulphates of these bases with cobalti-cyanide of barium, 
and repeatedly recrystallizing the salts formed. The brucine 
salt crystallized in beautiful white, barb-shaped crystals with a 
high luster. It was but slightly soluble in cold water, and erys- 
tallized with remarkable facility. The strychnine salt was in 
beautiful, nearly colorless needles, and like the brucine salt erys- 
tallized almost completely from its solution on cooling. Six 
analyses: were made with each of these salts. 

Of the strychnine salt— 

0°7084 gr. dried at 115°C. lost 0°0392 gr. of water = 5°53 p. c. 
The formula, €o,Cy , (Cy, H,2N202),H,+80H2, 
requires 557 p. ec. water of crystallization. : 

he following are the results of my determinations of the 
amount of cobalt in this salt: 


No. Salt taken. Cobalt. Cobalt, p.c. At. weight. 
i& 0°4255 or. 0°0195 gr, 4°583 59°22 
0°4025 “ 0°0185 “ 4°596 59°36 
3 0°3733. “ 0°0170 “ 4°554 58°83 
4 0°4535 “ 0°6207 “ 4°564 58°96 
5 0°2753 “ 0°0126 “ 4°57 59°14 
6 071429 “ 00065 “ 4°549 58°76 
Mean, 4°5705 59°05 


The probable error of the mean is +-0-012, and the atomic 
weight of cobalt 59-05, with a probable error of +156. In the 
- case of the brucine salt, three determinations of the water of 
crystallization were made. 

0°4097 gr. gave 0°0465 gr. water at 117°C. = 1135 p.e 

0°3951 gr. “ 0°0453 gr, “ - 110° C, 2. 20s6 p. 6. 

06653 or, “ 00752 gr. “198° GC. Se 1400 pp. «. 

The mean of these three determinations is 11:37 p. ¢. 

The formula €0,Cy , o(Cs3H2_.N20,)¢He+200H, 
os igs 11°39 p. c. water of crystallization. 

€ results of my determinations of the amount of metal in 
this salt are as follows: 


t taken. Cobalt. Cobalt, p.c. At. weight. 
I, 0°4097 gr. 0°0154 gr. 3°759 “41 
2. 03951 “ 00147 “ 3°720 58°76 
3. 0°5456 * 00204 3°739 59°08 
4, 0°4402 “ 070165 “ 3°748 59°22 
5 0°4644 * 0°0174 “ 3°747 59°21 
6 04027 * 00151 “ 59°24 


74 
Mean, 3°7437 59°15 
Am. Jour. Sct —Tuirp Serres, Vor. II, No. %.—JuLy, 1871. 
: 3 


50 R. H. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 


The probable error of the mean is here -+-0°0088, and the 


sgt weight of cobalt 59°15, with a probable error of +'146. 
method of analyzing the chloride of purpureocobalt has 


already been described. The results of my analyses are as — 
follow 


No, Salt taken. Cobalt. Cobalt, p.c. At. weight. 
0°9472 gr. 0°2233 gr. 23°575 59°07 

2. 078903 “ 0°2100 * 23°587 59°11 

3 06084 ‘ 071435 “ ' 23°586 59°11 

£ 0°6561 “ 071547 “ 23°579 59°08 

5 0°6988 “ 0°1647 “ 23 ed 59°05 

6 07010 “ 0°1653 “ 23°5 59°09 


Mean, 23° S708 59°09 
The probable error of the mean is here +0°004, and the cal- 
culated atomic weight 59°09, with a probable error of +0146. 


The mean of my eighteen determinations of the atomic atcha 
of cobalt is 59°10. For the sake of comparison I give here the — 
results obtained by other observers, in tabular form, reduced to 


the modern scale of atomic weights : 


Rothhoff, 59°10 Dumas, 59°08 Winkler, 58°99 §& 
Schneider, 60°00 Russell, 58°74 Weselsky, 58°96 F 


. 58°84 to 59°02 
Marignac, 


58°72 to 58°84 Sommaruga, 59°93 Lee, 59°10 F 


EI) 


Nickel—The atomic weight of nickel was also first deter- 7 
82 


mined by Rothhoff* in 1826, by determining the amount of 
chlorine in a weighed quantity of nickelous chioride. A single 


ex _ gave for the equivalent 29-60, a number which is _ 


probably too high, in consequence of the imperfection of the 
processes known at that time for the separation of nickel from 


cobalt. Erdmann and Marchand ees up the subject in 1852.¢ — 
Nickelous oxide prepared by various processes was reduced in — 


a current of hydrogen and the sdb weighed. No data are 
given, but the authors state that their results varied between 


was obtained by reducing ‘the oxide with pure hydrogen. In this 

manner Schneider obtained as the mean of four analyses the 

number 29-02. 

Marignac,§ in ath determined the atomic weight of nickel 
facials precisely 'similar to those employed by him in the 


Pogg. Amn., ci, p. 387. 
Bibliothique Universelle de Geneve, Nouvelle Series, vol. i, p. 373. 


R. H. Lee—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 51 


ease of cobalt already cited. His analyses of the sulphate of 
nickel gave results varying from 29-2 to 29°5, while those of the 
chloride gave results varying between 29-4 and 29°64. Marignac 
does not give his method of obtaining pure salts of nickel. 

The subject was next investigated by Dumas,* who deter- 
mined the quantity of chlorine in nickelous chloride, and ob- 
tained for the equivalent of nickel as a mean of five analyses 
the number 29514. The author does not give the process by 
which the nickel was obtained free from cobalt. 

Russell+ took up the subject of the atomic weight of nickel, 
together with that of cobalt, in 1868. Pure nickelous oxide 
was first ignited in a current of carbonic di-oxide, and after- 
ward in pure hydrogen. His results were as follows: 


lst specimen, mean of 3 determinations 100 parts of oxide, gave 78°596 Ni. 

> ee “ “ “ “ “ 78584 

3. “ “e ts ‘“ “ 78598 “ 

4.4 ‘“ “ “ “ “ 78592 * 

The mean of all the determinations gave for the quantity of 
nickel in 100 parts of the oxide 78°5925, and for the atomic 
weight of. ni¢kel 58-74. : 

In 1866, Sommaruga§ determined the atomic weight of nickel 
by ascertaining the quantity of sulphuric acid in pure crys- 
tallized double sulphate of nickel and potassium. The mean of 
Six analyses gave for the equivalent of nickel the number 

-29°018, with a probable error of +0-079. 

Winkler,| in 1867, employed the method of reduction already 

~ described. The mean of four analyses gave for the equivalent 

____ 29°527, with a probable error of 0-056. 

_ With these preliminary statements I pass to an account of 

ty own methods and results. Metallic nickel of commerce was 

issolved in nitro-sulphuric acid, and the nitric acid eee by 
e traces 

of copper and arsenic removed by a long continued current of 

sulphydric acid gas. The iron in the filtrate was then oxydized 


; € vy I 
nickelous sulphate then converted into nickel-cyanide of potas- 


* Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, 3d series, vol. lv, p. 148. 
+ Ann. der Pharmacie, vol. exxvi, p. to 336. 
Second purification. : 
' Sitzungsberichte der Weinen Akad., vol. liv, p. 50. 
| Zeitschrift fiir Analyt. Chemie, 1867, p. 18. 


52 R. H. Lee-—Atomic Weights of Cobalt and Nickel. 


the quantity of water in each of these salts, and afterward the 7 
percentage of metallic nickel. This last determination was ef- 
fected by first carefully heating the salt in a platinum crucible, 
employing the ring-burner of Dr. Gibbs so as to apply the heat 
at the rim of the crucible first, and afterward in successive zones _ 


until the bottom of the crucible was reached. The remaining ; 


carbon was then burned off in a current of pure oxygen, and | 
the oxide of nickel finally reduced by igniting it in carefully | 
purified hydrogen. The f 
strychnine were prepared by double decomposition, the salts 
being but slightly soluble in cold water. They were then re- 
peatedly recrystallized, and when tested by the spectroscope | 
were found to be absolutely free from potassium. All of these 7 
salts crystallized in very pale yellow needles. : : 
My analyses of the brucine salt led to the following results: | 
0-4496 gr. dried at 120° C. lost 0°0258 gr. OH,=5°738 p.c. | 


water. | 
The formula Ni,Cy,.(C.,H,,N,0,),H,+100H,, requires — 
5°929 p. c. 


No. Salt taken. Nickel. Nickel, p. e. At. weight. 

ss 0°3966 0°0227 5°724 7°92 

8 0°5638 0°0323 5°729 57°98 

3. 0°4000 070230 5:750 58°20 

4, 0°3131 0°01795 5733 58°02 

5. 0°4412 0°0252 ye 24 57°79 

6. 0°4346 0°0249 5°729 57°98 vi 
Mean, 5°7295 57-98 


The probable error of the mean percentage of nickel is 
+0°008, and the atomic weight of nickel 57-98, with a probable 
error of +0°089. 

Six analyses of the strychnine salt were then made: 

0°3399 gr. dried at 112° C. lost 00178 gr. water = 5-24 p. c 

The formula Ni,Cy,,(C,,H,.N,0O2),H,+80H,, requires 
5°45 p. 


No. Salt taken. Nickel. Nickel, p. c. At. weight. 

1 0°5358 0°0354 6°607 1 

2 0°5489 0°0363 6°613 58°21 

3 0°3551 0°0234 6°589 57°98 

4 0°4495 0°0297 6°607 58°15 

5. 0°2530 070166 6°561 57°72 

6. 0°1956 0°0129 6595 58°04 
Mean, 6°595 58-04 


The probable error of the mean percentage of nickel is 
+0018, and the atomic weight 58-038, with a probable error 
of +0°119. 


The mean of all my determinations of the atomic weight of 


uble cyanides of nickel, brucineand | - 


C. A. Young—Spectrum of the Corona. 53 


nickel is 58-01. The following table gives all the determina- 
tions made : 


Rothhoff, 59°20 Dumas, 59-028 
Hrdmann and { 58°20 to Russell, 58°74 
Marchand, | 58°60 Sommaruga, 58°026 
Schneider, 58°04 Winkler, 9-054 
Marignae, 58°40 to 59 Lee, 58°01 


In conclusion, my thanks are due to Dr. Gibbs for the selec- 
tion of the subject of my work, and for his advice during the 
course of my investigation. 

Cambridge, May, 1871. 


Art. X.—WNote on the Spectrum of the Corona; by Prof. C. A. 
Youne. 


Ty an article upon the Solar Corona, which appeared in the 
May number of this Journal, I wrote, “very perplexing also 
1s the fact that the faint continuous spectrum, which must be in 
part produced by this polarized component of the corona’s light, 
shows no discoverable traces of the dark lines of the ordinary 
sunlight-spectrum. Probably they exist, but are in some way 
masked so that they are not easily detected.” : : 

On further reflection, however, I believe the matter is readily 
explained, and that on the other hand it would have been re- 
markable if we had been able to bring out the Fraunhofer lines. 

The truth is that the reflected photospheric sunlight forms 
only one small fraction of the total coronal radiance, the other 
Constituents of which so far preponderate that it becomes very 
difficult to detect in the general spectrum the characteristics of 
this reflected light. ; 

The spectrum of the corona is, in all probability, composed of 
at least four superposed elements. : 

Ist. A continuous spectrum, without lines either bright or 
dark, due to ineandescent dust—that is, to particles of solid or 
liquid meteoric matter near the sun. For although I am not 
able to admit with Mr. Proctor that the whole explanation of 
the corona is involved in the presence of such meteoric particles, 


must: become incandescent and give such a spectrum as de- 
scribed. 


2nd. A true gaseous spectrum of the second order, consisting, 
like all such spectra, of a more or less bright continuous back- 
gro ith well marked maxima or bright lines. In this 


one bright line (1474) certainly exists, and perhaps several. So 


54 C. A. Young—wSpectrum of the Corona. 


exposed to illumination from the prominences and upper _ 
_ portions of the chromosphere. This hight from the terrestrial — 
atmosphere, like that reflected by particles near the sun, is evi- 
dently partially polarized in radial planes. 
nd if there is between us and the moon, at the moment of © 
eclipse, any cloud of cosmical dust, the light reflected by this 
would come in as a /i/th element. It would, however, only dif- 
fer from that reflected by our own atmosphere by including a — 
greater or less modicum of photospherie sunlight. 
urthermore, in instruments like those employed by Messrs. 
Abbay and Pye, the chromosphere spectrum overlies that of the — 
corona, and increases the complication. 
+ would seem, therefore, that only a small percentage of the — 
light which falls upon the slit of the spectroscope during a total — 
eclipse contains the Fraunhofer lines at all, and it ought not to 
be considered strange that they are not readily observed. 3 


Chemistry and Physics. 55 


In the same article I have stated that the photographs, taken 
by the American party in Spain, appear to differ essentially 


fessor Winlock and myself, between a copy of the American 
photograph and a drawing* of Mr. Brothers’ photograph, which 
(drawing) he had himself sent to Mr. Lockyer. 

ere was a general and even striking agreement between 
the two in respect to the position of the ‘gaps’ and the distri- 
bution of the luminosity, yet there certainly were, as Mr 
pointed out, very noticeable and important differences, and of 
a character to suggest that the extensive outside radiance might 
probably be of a less permanent character than the leucosphere, 
and of a different origin. 

But I understand that when photographic copies of Mr. 
Brothers’ and the American negatives are made to a common 
scale then these differences disappear and the agreement becomes 
nearly absolute in respect to all essential particulars. If this be 
so, it certainly bears very strongly in favor of those theories 
which assign a purely solar origin to the whole phenomenon. 

Dartmouth College, May 10, 1871. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


IL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 


1 M y 
Ph.D., Assistant in the University laboratory, Tibingen, Germany. 
—In my former note, (volume i, page 462), I stated that when or- 


tassium salt that had been made use of for the first exper- 
: c : is was accomplished 


red an ac 

izing with carbonate of barium, dividing the solution into two 
equal parts, precipitating the barium from the one exactly with 
‘Sulphuric acid and then mixing the two again. On evaporating 
this solution, it became filled with beautiful needles on cooling. 


*TIam not sure but we had a photographic copy of Mr. Brothers’ drawi a 
fad of the drawing itself; but we did not have a photographic copy of the 
original negative. No such copies had then been made, 


oe 
ee 
Pigs 


56 Scientific Intelligence. 


These did not possess the pre resemblance to the crystals of the 
known acid barium salt of sulphobenzoic acid. They were filtered 


driven of at a temperature lower than 250-2 "The salt has the — 
Hien (x H,,5,0,,) Ba+3H,0. The ee gave the fol- 
lowin bers : 
a H,O 8°95 pr. ct. and 9°38 pr. ct. 
B 25°34 pr. ct. and 25°38 pr. ct. 
Calculated, H,O 9°10 pr. ct. Ba 25°41 pr. ct. 

The mother louse ‘from these needles now evaporated, and 
in this way a salt of entirely different Soponrai ce was obtaine 
After being recr ystallized it formed very regular, beautiful mono- 
clinic er ysta als a resembled the known acid sulphobenzoate of 

arium in every respect.. This salt was also analyzed and the 
e formula Spe ‘for it as forthe needles. The water of crystal- 
estion escaped at 


o) a 9°34 pr. ct. Ba 25°56 pr. ct. t 
Calculated, H,O 9°10 pr. ct. Ba 25°41 pr. ct. 
Although the decided difference in the solubility of the salts and 
in their crystalline form, which constantly presented itself, made 
it exceedingly i improbable, it was still possible that two different 
conditions of the same salt were here under observation and not t 
isomeric salts, parila as Poe seals had shown them to oot 


ek rystalline form was the same. It contained water 
of Sy uiliestioe which was given off at 100°. Its melting point 
was exactly 210°. The cope were very regularly formed and 
possessed a rhother-of-pearl lu 
The nature of the salt that erytalizs in needles is thus ex- 
plained. It is a salt of para-s ni acid. 
Acid para-sulphobenzoate of g ee ett: is difficultly soluble in hot 
water (much more so than the known med Ser salt of meta- 
sulphobenzoic acid), and almost insoluble in cold water. When 
aa it crystallizes from a hot solution Bava the process of filter- 
If it be now redissolved and allowed to stand quietly, beau- 
ned needles are found*in the solution, which fill the en-— 
ee rel on op to tom, 


Geology and Natural History. 57 


The newtral potassium salt is very easily soluble in hot, as well 
as in cold water, and crystallizes from its concentrated solution in 
needles, Owing to a want of material it was not analyzed. 

The potassium salt, obtained from the monoclinic barium salt, 
on being fused with hydrate of potassium, yielded only oxybenzoiec 
acid, as anticipated. 


f t r 
s may be seen from the experiments described, there are condi- 
para 


succeeded in meeting these conditions, notwithstanding the fact 
that a large number of experiments were made with this object. I 


the properties of para-sulphobenzoic acid better. Although its 


and these may be recrystallized repeatedly without effecting their 
Separation into their components. : ‘ 
ntinuing my experiments with the object of discovering 

i e same time 


properties more exhaustively. 
Tiibi 16. 


7 


r. 
SA eTONE many limestones from different localities, 
to obtain further facts which might serve to throw light 


of Eozoon. A remarkable example of a similar pheno- 

menon has been found by him ina limestone from the collection of 
he late Dr. Holmer, marked Llangedoe (Wales), and preserved in 
= Museum of McGill College. The rock is granular erystalline, 
had made up of i i i 
west Sex infiltrated by a silicate similar to that from Pole Hill, 
New Brunswick. The only perfect fossil detected by Dr. Dawson 

* Meta=1°3. ' 


58 Scientific Intelligence. 


is a small coral-like —s referable to the genus Verticillopora, 
an Upper Silurian form, The limestone includes besides, a ae ry 


fragments of brachiopods and of a sponge-like asec: with 
square meshes. All of these fossils are more or less penetrated 
with a greenish sweat — fills = cavities of the oe 


of ee are solid and calcareous throughout, in which respect the 
specim n differs from that from New Brunswick, described in this 


Pee SI a eo 


. Dawson, to” 
whom we owe thane observations, supposes that in both cases ae 
infiltration took place while the remains were still recent. 

Decalcified surfaces of the limestone show similar oo 
to those presented by the New Brunswick specimens ; the casts of — 
small fae like Mirschisonia, two millimeters in length, are in 

s perfect. The limestone is nearly pure, with the excep- 
tion fe a Tittle fine valldw ochreous mud, which is insoluble in dilute 
ydrochloric acid, and remains suspended in the solution, but is 


= 


This equals about three per cent = the weight of the limestone. 
n 


Is analysis by Mr. Sterry Hunt in the manner described for the 

ew Brunswick mineral shows that it scarcely differs from this 
pike in being more hydrated and almost identical with jollyte. 
It gave, after deducting 21-0 per cent of insoluble sand, the fol- — 
lowing composition for one bundred parts: Silica 35°32, alumina 
22°66, protoxide of iron 21°42, magnesia 6°98, potash 1 ‘49, soda 
0°67, water 11°46 = 100-0 00. 


teeth already ‘Abate is sidejasine of two or more individuals; — 
little hope is entertained, however, of finding a perfect skeleton. 
3. Fucoids in the Coal measures of Towa.—Prof. Wurre, in his 
“ Geology of Towa” (vol. i, p. es notices the occurrence of forms — 
identical with or allied to Cau ulerpites marginatus, in the Lower — 
Coal-measures of Wapello county, Lowa, and of other forms, more — 
- i indistinct, in the higher portions of the series (see p. 281, _ 


F. H. B. 

4. Phosphatic Sand in South Carolina.—Prof. C. U. SHEPARD — 

= described a deposit of sand over the phosphatic nodular bed — 
f£ Stone River, which has resulted from the wear of the latter by 
angie waters, and in some places is at least six feet thick. A portion 3 


Geology and Natural History. 59 


of it, after drying in the air, was found to contain 27 p. ¢. of th 
phosphate of lime, with 63°5 of fine er sepa oN and coarse 
sand, 3°0 of carbonate and sulphate of lime, 6°5 moisture an 
— satis: By agitation in water the lighter floceulent 
art may be napa off, and the phosphatic portion thus 
saa tented to 37 cent of the remainder. Prof Shepard 
observes that this pry deposit appears to be very extensive. He 
suggests that it may require, after washing, to be treated with 
sulphuric acid, at the rate perhaps of 100 pounds to the ton; the 


* 
Ee 
vA 
a 
° 
a. 
fon) 
& 
Qf 
_ 
=). 
4 
° 
o 
— 
for) 
et 
eo 
S 
mn 
= 
® 
orf 
ia") 
io) 
5 
® 
~ 
i95) 
4 
go 
os 
Ss 
2 
= 
m 
2. 
= 
om 
— 
i") 
= 
® 


5, CouEs on Antéerpodecior pclae Tha t ey anterior 
and posterior limbs of vertebrates are homologous is now ad- 


tropy,” the latter, ‘ ‘Antitropy3” a nd the advocates of these ideas, 
Sh ropists ”” and “ Antitropists » respectively. 

latter have lately been joined by a vigorous ally, to whose 
work attention has already been called ;{ and the accession is the 


and the primus of os (little finger). The propriety of this 
view is a admirably presented by Wyman,§ together wit the ob- 
vious objections thereto and the grounds upon which these objec- 
tions may be removed.% 


by * Ante sterior ial refi to the Museles of the Bee) 
Euuiorr Cour ae ‘Assist, Surg. U.8. A.; New York Medical 
18, ke pp. 149-152, se Sane 999-294 272-274, 297-299, 370-372, 390- 


tone “Danis Foltz, Wyman and the writer. 
t American area 5 1871. 


Symmetry an and Homology in Limbs, Piet . Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., June 5th, 18 

The general and special questions here —— roa pes discussed ot by me 
at Several times since ig a re first sug o me erbal communication 
ones oie ‘aoa t Soc. Nat. Hist, Jone ty 1900: and I <r shall shortly 

a nati nod pape er upon the subject (Proc . Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
a 19th, Isnt) containing th g: ie 
: = torical sketch of the prot a A eee of Ano fs sai 
phical Trevislo! of ideas. 4. Evide = 
ical incons seme var poreanah on. 5. Indication of general problems. 
- “nme of special problems. 7. Chronological list of 76 ee works upon 
‘termembral homologies. 8, Alphabetical list of 227 collateral wor 


60 Scientific Intelligence. 


Dr. Coues spool Bo in the footsteps of his distinguished — 
predecessor, “not blindly, but unable not to see the validity of his 
arguments, ” (195) om a — a few minor — or @ 


ences.” In respect to these se scr De Coue es is ‘Ted to 


first ae he has “no acknowledgments to make” excepting to — 

Sirsa and therefore, whatever satisfaction may be derived — 
om having so taken up the s subject fresh, he has also lost the — 
benefit of ‘the checks which an acquai intance with many and dif- — 


ferent and en ponderous expressions for the same idea “in 

order to eioid monotony,”’+ whereas, in homologies, as in mathe- 

matics, each object and Sin should be now wn by a —, a 
, at 


. 


ns > attention, and the absence of all secondary sonaideldl 


es Coues has accepted roe oleh the view of the normal posi- 
tion of the membra for comparison which was first proposed by 
Wyman, and adopted by Foltz, Folsom and or ag this view is 
based 


fring position ee it is quite potable that ae and. en 
might have followed ay in the a that it is their normal 


change in my n t int was one of the chief mo- 
tives for the preparation o ie the bare pats referred to, since do- 


* Owen, Wyman and the Pe 
©} Ae for ra sale = ag ebirg i * is ined with “‘ biarticulated creat toe,” 
p. 193; and in a few cases there is seta, to in “ morphologically homologous” — 


and “ teleologically analogous,” p. 194. 


Geology and Natural History. 61 


ing so involves a concession, though not essential one to the idea 


of syntropy. 
inally, Dr. Coues has accepted from the writer a nomenclature 
of ideas, (Antitypy, &c.,) which was itself based upon ian 


‘ . GW. 
. Supplement to “ Annélides chétopodes du Goife de Naples.” 
—Claparéde has published a Supplement to the Annelids of the 


b] 
pelasgica and Heteronereis grandi wing ¥ 
lute identity, with the exception of the peculiar foliaceous append- 


eggs in this presumed agamous Heteronereis stock, he came to the 
conclusion that, 
herels were onl orms in series of generations still un- 


hereis were only sexual forms ‘ 
Nereis, and interprets these facts in favor of a metamorphosis of 
N ereis into Heteronereis. 

This was the condition of the problem when Claparéde resumed 
the subject and showed conclusively (from the study of living 
Annelids) that there is a genetic relation between Nereis and 


: ms) we have first a sexual form as Nere ‘ 
forms as eteronereis, and a fourth hemaphrodite form discovered 


= Scientific Intelligence. 


= Meeznikow. Lage full grown specimens of Nereis Dumerillit 


Pe 
are all transformed into Heter onereis, while the small diminutive — 
individuals alone become matured as Nereis: Of the two sexual — 


can arrive at maturity in all stages of growth, may subsequently : 


lose all traces of its sexuality, increase in size and in number 0: 


segments, to take on late again sexual characters and be trans 
formed into Hetéronereis, Absolute certainty of the sequence of — 


these — can only be obtained by tracing them in an 
aquari 


he worked so » long and so sterner re 

7. Diapensiacew.—To the account of this small aD of plant 
as given paper entitled: “ Reconstructio 
Diapensiacee, presented to the American Aeihign 


on, and which exhibits the peed Rg sii, meer! son 
i Ja 


ate 
the same publication Dr. Maximowicz characterizes a re 
bis new Japanese genus, Ellisiophyllum he named from 


jp RES 


Astronomy. 63 


r. Maximowicz, moreover, has ascertained that our Huodia 
ramiflora is Thunberg’s Orixa Japonica, of which only male 
owers were known; and he restores that genus, referring it to 

the neighborhood of Huodia. A. G. 
culpture of Seeds,—Prof. Lange of Copenhagen 


Species. He treats here of Pyrolacew, Droseracece, Cerastium, and 
Ww 


them ; consequently the primary axis is here arrested. Soon a 
nassiform thickening is formed underground at the junction of the 


IIL Astronomy. 


1. A remarkable Meteor ; by R. H. Tuursron, U.S. N. (Com- 
mMunicated.)— While standing on the deck of the steamer “ Electra,” 


ning, m-Providence to New York, I was 
led by a sudden flash of bright blue light which illuminated the 
Whole heavens and was instantaneous! by an equally 


intense red flash which again gave pines to blue. Turning sud- 
denly, I saw a falling meteor, which was, so far as my knowledge 
extends, unique. 

_,it exhibited a nucleus of blue, with a long flame-like train also 
blue in color except on the south side where a portion, equal to 
perhaps one-third of the whole, was of a brilliant red. 


64 Scientific Intelligence. 


The height of the meteor, at disappearance, was about 29° above | 
the horizon, its bearing nearly due east from Watch Hill Light, 


Stevens’ Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., June 15th, 1871. 
IV. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


On the —— a, a —_—- sa Snow on Climate ; Py = 
enon Member the Imp. s. Geogr. Society. (Co 
municated).— he santo of a os er of snow, resting on the 
earth’s surface in the colder a of the earth during winter, — 
has, to my knowledge, never been considered in its general bear- — 
ing on the climate and the epuiiaue! of the population living in ~ 
these countries 

The first and most apparent influence of snow is the protection — 
it affords to our crops from the cold of winter. Where the snow- | 
mantle appears emer sieannie hoa are always sure, ie the cold — 
ever so intense. In the steppes of south and east Russia, where § 
little snow falls in waster; and this small quantity is often blown — 
away by the strong winds, w inter crops are — Ss at 

all. On the northern coasts of the Black Sea, summer wheat a 
tndinn corn are very good, but winter wheat is a servi pee 
while to the north, in “Podolia, it is the principal crop. There the — 
_ forests afford a protection against the wind, the snow falls more | 
caradperd and cannot be blown aw : 

s a bad conductor of heat, its snow isolates the warmer soil 
from the cold air ote and there is no doubt that it renders also 
paths winter cold more intense, as the air cannot receive heat from 

lov he 


— and a cold, dry wind is more severely felt than a cold | 
nae 

The : phat relative ee of the air is a most ap ieny fou 4 
ture of the countries covered with snow in winter. It i eas 

to account for it as for the humidity of an island in the middle of 

the ocean or of a place situated in an extensive swamp-tract. — 

The wind may come from every side ; it has always to pass over 3 — 

rie evaporating surface, and absorbs moisture if it was originally — 

In co oe where nr — winds predominate, as in the 

f N, Americ: d Eastern Asia, this will be less — 

the ca od winds, expidly passing over the land, have not the 

_ time for teaiog mueb 1m moisture, and the dryness of the air in 

the United States is felt by Europeans going there. But - 

- countries situated like —— and Western Asia, where the cold 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 65 


winds are usually weak, and only the warm southerly winds 
strong, the air will be always nearly saturated, when the soil 
hasa snow-covering, as the cold winds, in their slow progress, 
have the time for absorbing moisture. This feature of climate is 
extremely important in the examination of storms. It was one of 


vapor in the origin and progress of storms, and this is now gene- 


coast of Europe into the interior of the continent, but the baro- 
metric minima rise even more, so that for example, in Nertschinsk, 


ric minima are 
the other seasons. This shows that the storms of the Atlantic 
take their course over our country. Speaking generally, the path 
of storms is from N.W. to S.E. in winter, because they cannot 
advance in an eastward direction as they began, being arre 


must turn to the southward, and th e more the case 
in January than in November and March, when the storms of 
urope § imes advance into the interior of Sibert 


above, the heat is employed in melting the snow, or im the lan- 


Barnaul, in Western Siberia, has a winter temperature lower than 
St. Petersburg, by nearly 18° F. Yet the thermometer sometimes 
rises as high as in this last place in winter, because Barnaul has 
the Kirghi-steppes to the southwest. As they are seldom covered 
with snow, warm winds can across them and without losing 
Am. Jour. Scr—Tutrp Serres, Vou. II, No. 7.—JULY, 1871. 

5 


66 Scientific Intelligence. 


their heat, while before arriving at St. Petersburg, they must lose — 
much of their heat in melting the snow over an extensive track. 
The result is, “that seldom a winter month passes without tempera- 


thermometer does not rise above 39°, while at Barnaul a tempera- 
ture of 42° may occur at that time, (for example on the 4th, 5th 
and 6th of February, 1855). 
have mentioned alread pe — of the snow in checking 
the rise of temperature, and employing more abundant heat in 
melting. This is most felt in pee and lowers much the tem- 
perature of this time of the year, as for example, while in Central 
urope, at some reat of the sea, April has nearly the same 
temperature as October, in the same latitude; in Russia the 
warmth of the sun’s faye cannot raise the temperature of the air 
so much, and April is generally 4° F. colder than October, while 
May has the same temperature as September. As soon as the 
snow is melted our climate assumes its true continental character. 


mber. 
I ante now state a last point, the neseeseet of forests in equaliz- 
ing the layer of snow and giving to it all its beneficial effects. 
Wichowt the Serene a a great mass of snow is often a check to all 
munication, as for example, at this moment in South Russia, 
“are most of the e railways are stopped. The u alana great m 


round. Geneity speaking, 
effecta of a thver of snow are beneficent té man. The pr ‘opor- 
tion of the crops is of enormous economical worth. The greater 

at of the air is also good, and even the = of spring 
aused by the melting of snow, has its good s The 

rapid advance of vegetation in early spring is botkak by it, at 
pro ed to a time when the vegeta les have less to fear from 
night frosts. Northern Europe, for example, suffers much less | 
from this curse than the south, where the returns of cold in — 
cause great damage every year. are 
sometimes felt, the interruption of communication in snow oad 
and the great floods of spring. But both of these drawbacks can 
be avoided by the foresight of man, as forests arrest the progress 
of winds and cause a slow melting in sprin ring, 0-08 to store s grt 

quantity of water to supply our rivers. 
St. Petersburg, 20th February, 1871. 
t 


| 
| 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 67 


2. Scientific Expedition from Williams _College.—The scientific 
expedition from Williams College, consisting of five members o 
the present senior class, under the charge of H. M. Myers, which 


to the museums by the expedition to South America, in 1867, give 
the college a most valuable collection of tropical birds. Amon 

the additions to the archeological department are two interesting 
Statues exhumed at Corosal, in British ae ninety miles 
south of Belize. The work upon these ima om limestone 


ck. 
preservation, they are valuable and interesting relics, marking the 
advances in civilization made prior to the occupation of the country 
by the Spaniards. Although the table-lands and the Pacific coast 
of these Central American States have been frequently visited by 
collectors, the low coast-lands of the northern slope have been al- 
most entirely passed by on account of their unhealthfulness. Col- 
= from these comparatively new fields 4 eager Be valua- 
i i n 


of the tube being sufficient to allow the elastic bag to be always 
submerged at the lowest stage of the tide. 

e bag is supported by a suitable shelf, or cage, and is filled 
with elycering, which is poured in ge the top of the tube. When 


insure protection from — ice, and Se Sacelatan within 
ie =~ tube, 


Seg 
in the pe Bt if left fe 


~ level of this liquid. The length of the central tube is a little 
er than tide. 


the whole range of the ti 


68 Screntifie Intelligence. 


Near the upper end of the outer tube, there are three spiral 
Soeligs: fixed at the top and united at the bottom by a plate or 
disk, from which the central copper tube is suspended. Froma 
stem fixed to the center tube or float, and moving with it, a string 
or chain leads over a single pulle ind ewes horizontal motion to 
the pencil carriage of the recording apparatus. 

The distance that the central tube is to move, vertically, is ad- 
justed to agree with the required range of the pencil upon the 
record Rogen ab placing within it suitable weights. 

As the glycerine falls or rises in the annular space between the 
iron tube and the central float, the spiral spring at the top is more 
or less extended, the extension being uniform on account of the 
cylindrical form ‘of thre floa 

It is not necessary that the India-rubber bag be enclosed in a 
perforated box for the purpose of preventing oscillation: as it is 

always submerged, and the pressure upon it is equal to the weight 
of a column of water, having —- ~ at the bag, and its summit 
at the mean level of the surface 

This instrument has been opabeeadted by the United States 
Coast Survey, and is now in operation at the tidal station in the 
Boston vat ard, 

4, American Weather Notes ; by Puy Harte Cuase. (Read 
before the pete rican Philosophical Society, March 3, 1871.—The 
signal service observations of o Tar Department have already 
shown the value both of Buys Ballot’s law and of Capt. Toynbee’s 
Somes in predicting changes of wind, page if due regard 

| pa e barometric variations of the t o previous days. 


thers seem to be explicable by natural c 8 of position 
and - sical configuration, which must be seerative at all seasons. 
inds varying like the land and sea arena, are often trac 


differences of tem mperature in the n neighborhood of the great lakes, 
and of mountain peaks and ridges, 

(2.) The wind, especially in the Southern States, often blows di- 
rectly in the line of the greatest barometric gradient. But even 
- in such cases, after a few hours continuance, it tends toward the 
acinnuth i indicated by Buys Ballot’s law. 

(3.) The isobaric lines are, jaacte ie —— of less relative impor- 


hye Currents with an coset Breer wang’ controlled by areas 
of high barometer, are notably common. Keversals of wind, as 
from N.E. to S.W., are, therefore, frequent after the passage of 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 69 


an anti-cyclonic rilge or center, as well as after the passage of a 
cyclone. 
(6.) Our recent storms have been anti-cyclonic, and there seems 
some reason for supposing that “— clones are the usual 
“weather-breeders,” even of such of our land storms as become 
loped. 


-) 
clones, which, however, may be easily ied peily overborne by 
the e grand anti-cyclonic whirls of a half million miles or more in 


(8 .) These and other peculiarities, point to a probable origin of 
storms in the blending of polar and equatorial currents, near the 
latitudes at which the general tendency of the winds changes its 

ection 

(9.) Mr. Scott has observed that when polar (E.) currents are 
blowing at the North, and equatorial (W.) currents at the South, 


(10.) iF the progress of a northerly or agente! current toward 
the equator is impede by an intervening southerly or ete 
current, the disturbance not only speedily follows, as indicated by 
Mr. Scott, but it is also, commonly, like most shower s, S.E. storms, 
and other marked cyclonic ee” of briefer Aation than 
those eins are primarily oe cloni 

5. European and Am paler me by Prny Eare 
Cuase, “(Bead before the ! amerlost Philosophical Society March 
3, 1871.)—There is still a a te Sl skepticism on the part of some 
skeptic wh regarding the moon’s influence on the weaned a 
Skepticism which i 


Seen has 
eli r. Scott, the Di- 
rector of the British Matentels ical Office, has mioticed an opposi- 
tion — the solar (or temperature rain-falls in Western Europe 

vaste: i 


ts of my previous investigations, strengthens the presumption 
; In our Atlantic States, si signs of fair weather may be most 
confidently trusted duri ring the ten er | pee , signs of rain 


70 Scientific Intelligence. 


record of the quarterly rains at Lisbon for sixté€n years, which is 
have embodied, together with the observations at eat 


Hospital for the same pee = — following tables. 
urements are given in millim: 


I.— Quarterly Rain-fall at Lisbon. 


Years. Winter. Spring. Summer. Aw 
7 


870 305°7 
hand 275°2 
It 


197 2 


the lightest at Philad 


8'5 
a 


for) 
= 


27-9 


tumn. Total 


5 
104274 


599°1 


599° 


6769118 
557-2 
550° ‘91869 
753° 4 ‘Mean Q14°6 


appears, therefore, that the heaviest rain-falls 
elphia, are usually in 


Il.— Quarterly Rain-fall at Philadelphia. 


Years. Winter. 


1 

1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 225 


870 


the Autumn and “Win 


at 


The m 


Autumn. 


Lisbon 


Total. 
1056" 
925'1 
1160°3 
1038:9° 9 
15016 
11245 
12076 
54:1 
1173°6 
115073 


ter semester ; the heaviest at Philadelphia and the lightest at Lis a 


bon, in 


station, it was below the average at t T. 
6. Discovery of the Animal of the Spongiade confirmed ; By — 
J. Carter, FR. C. n. ce oe | 45). Just 


S. 
a line to tell you what 


e Spring and Summer 


t you will 


the sponge-cell, and much m 


It is, 
: ‘Anuals’ 


now all confi 


a — 

I have not only fed the sponge with snipe, 
so fed w 
ow shows all the cells “(onociiated) with the 
cilium pico id the indigo still in the 4 

This, I think, will break gis Sastre on which is a8 
inative and incorrect as it i 
“ Magosphera,” 


the moment, 
afterward, an 


Ima 


in. 1857. 


rmed 


ut the 


In ten years out of the aixtea s 
when ‘the rain-fall of the entire year was above the average at on 


be 


d I am astonished n 


sponge 


too, is an 


put int 


spirit 


g lad to learn, viz. that I have 
confirmed all that Prof. James Catt of Boston, has stated about — 


too. 
after all, onl what was published ~~ illustrated in the 
n at the accuracy 
and detail of that porct ree Ultimate Structure of "Spongilla, ” &e.)s 
by an examination of a marine caleare 


and bears ee all at 
directly 


in the ‘ Annals’ (808), and 


o a8 the ameeboid cell which inhabits th 


ous 


ucus” 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. , 71 


7. A new attachment for the Lantern.—It is often desirable to 
throw upon a screen the images of objects which must be preserved 
in a horizontal position; such for example as liquids, or solids im- 
mersed in liquids. Various devices have been tried for securing 
this end: all of them more or less imperfect. Recently, however, 
President Morion, of the Stevens Technological Institute at Hobo- 
ken, has devised a form of apparatus for this purpose which is 
an 


quite simple and ingenious, and whic 


This beam enters the apparatus a 
A, is received upon a mirror in- 
clined 45°, which reflects it verti- 
cally through the third lens placed 
horizontally at C. This lens con- 


back in the ordinary way with pure 
silver, yet there is no want of defi- 
nition in the images produced, and 
the color is too slight to be appre- 
ciable by an audience. We wit- 
nessed the performance of the in- 
strument a short time ago 


tr 
be red by Messrs. Hawkins & Wale 
of Hoboken. It is exceedingly creditable to them in the excel- 
i G. F. B 


of its construction and finish. 


72 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


8. Report on Barracks and Hospitals, with descriptions of Mili- — 
tary Posts. 4to, pp. 494.—Under the modest heading of “ Circular 
No. 4,” the Surgeon General’s office of the U. 8. War Department 
at Washington has issued a valuable document with the above 
title, containing a great amount of valuable information respecting 
distant outposts but little known, geographical, topographical, 
meteorological, sanitary, &c. 

an appendix are “ Reports on Examination of Air in Barrack 

rooms,” giving the results of chemical analysis of the air at night 
Tabular Statement of four Analyses of Air in Military Barracks, made by Capt. Lorenzo — 
Louvain, assisted by Lieut. John Pitman, and reported by Surgeon V. B. Hubbard. 


EB FI Contents: | Betination of carbonic) ne cia rea 
=| Time of ob- | =| Apart- et Ae 
3 servation. | 3'| ‘ment. Cubic feet | Volume of recon eae on a000” bf op . 4 
# & Men.} ofair. | airexam-| foundin | amined | c.c. of the time — 
S ined in c.c.} 10,000 vols.| inc.c. | air. | infeet. 7 
1 ze rtillery a 
1) July 22, 70.|81°| barrack.| 19/13,016-25| 3700 9°58 34:091| 00440) 131°75 
3 ALM., Cavalry 
2) July 22, 70./78°| barrack.) 16/16,803°36| 4340 9:30 | 34°092| 00292) 111 
12 AS M., ngineer 
3 July 26,’70..85°) barrack. 9} 6,296 fee 9:37 ....| °00343| 63 
AM, ade 5°68 4 
4\ July 28,’70..77°| hospital.) 4! 4,480 es 552 _.-.|°00187| 73°35 © 


in barracks occupied by sleeping soldiers. Assistant Surgeon V. 
- Hussarp reports four analyses of air from the apartments of 
the U. 8. Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., made by the 
Captain and his assistant, which we have arranged in a tabular 
form for convenience of comparison. B. S. 
9. Captain Hall’s Arctic Expedition The Polaris, the vessel 
for the Arctie Expedition under Captain Hall, is now in New 
York (June 15), at the Navy Yard in Brooklyn, where she will 


results warrant, the voyage may be still farther prolonged. From 
Disco — i : 


_ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 73 


one flde to the other whilst among the field ice. The chief of the 
scientific corps attached to the expedition is Dr. Emil Bissels, who 
was a member of the recent Prussian expedition to the Nort 
ole. He is a young man with a high reputation as a scientific 
— and is a graduate of the famous University of Heidel- 


expedition, are the Esquimaux man and woman, who have been 

with Capt. Hall since his first essay in Arctic explorations.—Vew 
ork Times, June 15. 

10. The so-called “ Cardiff Giant.” —It will be remembered that, 

two or three years since, a considerable excitement was created b 

the alleged accidental discovery upon the farm of a Mr. Newell, 


had the matter brought home to our own doors through a visit of 
ve to New Haven, and although we had sup- 
posed the fraud had long since ceased to be capable of exciting 


74 : Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


telligent witness who was cognizant of the origin and progress of | 


the statue 


The block of gypsum, from which the Cardiff Giant was carved, — 
was quarried near — - Dodge, in Iowa, where — is an inex- | 
haustible supply of massive gypsum of Mesozoic ag It was — 
aoe to Giese o in : Tikinoss, where it was sg in he work- | 


. Burckhardt, a well-known marble-worker of that city, 
who retalsi with the oviginatons of the scheme for a not very 


considerable sum of money, to produce a gigantic recumbent figure — 
of aman. His position, resting with the left arm under the body, — 
the right : arm thrown across the body over the pelvis, and with the — 
legs slightly flexed at the knees, was measurably a necessity of the ” 


form of the block of stone at the artist’s comm 


and, Th 
was first modeled in clay by or under ra diveesion of Mr. Burek- — 


hardt, and was then transferred to the stone. Our informant states 


a 
4 
aa 
4 

a 

i 

a 


that he saw the gure more than once during its preparation. The — 
appearance of age was given partly by treating the surface with — 
; look 


acids to remove the tool marks and the raw of a recently 
tooled ee and this effect was subsequently heightened by the 
grime and soil of a seven months’ interment. epared, the 
new srl ae antique was transported by rail point near th 


engaged in the work of removal and interment were taken —_ 4 


furtively, and thus no one at or near Syracuse but those engage 


in the sues knew of its existence. By a singular accident, : 


une 8th. The part g an astron- 
raphical engineer, ete “)s five wagons, two ambulances, 
mateeiohe mules and horse @ proposes to connect with the 


belt under arphinstisn he fi eerie ing, and then spend the 7 
remainder of the season about the sources of the Yellow Stone — 


* 


Missouri rivers. He has a boat and sounding apparatus for 
making a ay ae # the Yellow Stone, etc. A company 
of cavalry is ordered as an escort from Fort Ellis. He expects to 


return to ones ane: the 1st of ihackr Congress made 


an appropriation of $40,000 for the explorations of the season. 
* See Dr. White’s report on the Geology of Iowa, vol. ii, p. 299. 


Hipdowcat under Dr. Hayden.—Dr. iasa onan 4 
sa fe a etter from him in orms us) were at Ogden, Utah, on 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 75 


12. Survey of the Great Lakes.—We take the following notes 
on this survey from Harper’s Weekly of June 10th, a periodical 
which has in each number one or two columns of recent scientific 


the 
very first rank. The work is at present under the charge of General 


“The data already collected have been of great value, and have 
done much toward supplying accurate information.” 
13. Geological Survey of Canada: Atrrep R. C, SELWYN, 
Director —Report of Progress from 1866 to 1869. 476 pages 8vo. | 
Accompanied by Geological and Topographical Maps. (Dawson 
Bros., Montreal ; B. Westermann & Co., N. York).—This volume 
contains a report of Sir Wm. E. Logan on a part of the Pictou 
Coal-field, 50 pages; of E. Hartley on a part of the same coal-field, 
52 pp.; of R. Bell, on the Manitoulin Islands, 9 PP. : o J. Richard- 

P- 3 


o _ Robb of N. 
27 pp.; of T, Sterry Hunt, on the Goderich Salt Region and Notes 
: ich ; 
? 


Ores, . : 
of R. Bell, on Lakes Superior and 2 eee 52 pp.; of E. Hartley, 
pring: 


Greenville, N. C., mentioned in this Journal, last volume, on page 
+768, is, according to Dr. Leidy, the Z complicatus, a Miocene 
ea that lived with the Z fraternus. The Mastodon from 
hg aa (p. 469) is the MZ Americanus, and was from Quaternary 
Stavel overlying the Miocene mar 


76 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


4 
4 
15. Voleano of Kilauea, Hawaian Islands.—A recent letter 
from Rev. T. Coan states that the crater is at present in an un- 
usually ene state. Even the region of the great South lake, 


4 
fo 
i) 
foot 
te 
5 
= 
a 
€t 
= 
oO 
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6 
ce) 
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3 
a 2 
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pe) 
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VI. MiIsceELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


1. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. xvii. 4to, 
pp. 590, with 14 plates.—This volume is devoted to an elaborate a 


American Oriental Society, consisting of Messrs. Hadley, Trum- 
Se and recs ary apitord a critical examination, re orted that 


2. Manual of Geometrical and In ssfeniteotindit es by Prof. 
B. Sesrm. (Murphy & Co., Baltimore.)—In th e brief space of © 


reached in the study of Physical science. 
AD "Noe ta on the Principles and Science of Geometry. By Lawrence S. Ben- 
son. New OL 3 le %y chalet cig gos 8vo 
ay <i tatoire Magastione des liquides, par M. le 
Professeur A. De La Rive. igs 
The Mineral and other mamas of the Argentine Republic. Published by 
special manner of the National Government, by Major J. Rickard, F.G.S. 1870. 
London : (Longmans & Co.) 
Sag liber das central Nerven-System der Wirbelthiere, by Dr. L. Stieder, of 


Billetn of the Museum of ame ve Zoology at Harvard oe en! 
- Vol. ii, No. 3. eect ammals and Winter Birds of East Fl. 

examinatio on 0} certain assumed specific characters in gio a sketch of the 

peso 7ad Faune of Eastern North America, by J. A. Allen. 0 pp. 


: ; ournal of Microscopy, devoted to eae of scientific and popular : 
Microscopy ; B. M. Hale, M.D., Editor tor, Chicago. No. 1 of this mon Micro- 
Scopy containing 32 pages, appeared in April last. It aims to distribute i in a po 
lar Way interesting information on Microsco roscopic yaacen throughout the pia 

: vies ieanbind 


Introductory Text-book of Mete sloey: by Alexander Buchan, M. Z F-R.S.E, 
Sec. of tons Scottish Meteorolog. oe. 218 pp. 12mo, with several m Edin- 
burgh and London, (Wm. Blackwood & & Sons). A good work. 


Appendix. 77 
AP PEN DIX: 


Letter to the Editors from Dr. B. A. Goutp, Director of the 
— “ ba Observatory, dated Cordoba, April 26, 1871. 


even now as I write, the portion of the building ign was first ee Adel is 
not finished. sithongh a very few days will enable in all pro bability to 
begin the mounting of the instruments. So far as ‘elays ey: caged arate ns of 
every sort are concerned, the enterprise has met wit ery exceptional 
amount of obstacles, and ov three days ago so laaksienenta arrived from 
sety after ten months of delay from war, ice, storms and quaran het. 

m s 


tron-bound boxes. Should no iinexoecied soatcls es arise, we shall be able 
'o put up some bookcases, and unpack the boxes within eek, 


been s 
As Sara ge age former letter, I baste as soon as the delays ee 
est, to turn our attention to the formation of a Uranometry of the South- 
em sky :—in other hg to - eget aie of a oar gia of all stars ga 
Pole 


Ke T have not yet undertaken to determine ; but we det stg one-third of all 
recorded by Lacaille as of the 7th iageitude, a and we have a dozen 
°T more of cases where Lalande has aed the star 


2 are ma 3 sceed b 
tween 5° and 15° of N. pg since this zone has the same meridian 
altitude at Cordoba and at Bonn, and the light of me included stars is thus 
Similarly affected by atmospheric absorption 

The establishment of standards of magnitude within this belt has been by 
«Means the least laborious and troublesome portion of the | 1s i gs 


“4 Be a sede an excellent measure of the transparency of the sky of 


78 Appendix. 


For constellations farther South the tte pean is of course not so fair,on | 
account of their superior altitude here, still you may form some idea of us 
work in hand when [ tell you that in Orion we have twice the number of stars — 
given by Argelander, and that in Canis Major, the whole of which is visible 
at Bonn, though to be sure its Southern boundary has only an altitude of a 
little more than 6}°, we have 200 stars, while age Sei saw b ; 

A good deal more than half the work is now “done; pe erhaps 4 two-thirds of 
the hemisphere have been Basie 8 well serainized, and the work of re ucing 
the ee places to the mean equinox adopted is very well advanced. The 

total number of stars reocded thus fie is shoe 4100, exclusive of those ob-_ 
Serie 3 in wine type-belt. 
ays of our instruments and of the See ike building, though ia 
thelsieetves am have thus been compensated by the opportunity of pre-_ 
paring the Uranometry which ought to be essentially completed e first 

of Octebens unless this should in its turn be too much delayed by the new ‘i : 
undertaken, in conformity with my original plan. An cece 
feature of is present scheme for the Uranometry consists in carefu ] m 


i 


itude, and for he 

course, the greater part of a year must elapse after the photometer shall have 
been ang in order by repairing the smal] damages which it has suffered on the 
voyag 

Dar: ‘observations have greatly impressed me with the ree and 
excellence with which Lacaille mente ed his work at the f Good 
Hope with the poor means at his disposal nearly a century and a ae ago. 
This devoted astronomer, having onty a telescope half an inch in aperture and | 

mi 


regi 
South of the i opic of Capric Like those of sundry other astronomers, — 
most of his observations remained unreduced for the = part of a century; 
but the Ssighactis computed fr — observations e expense ofsthe 
ritish Association = the adennioms of Science, ee published ig that 
body in 1847, contains the places of aa 10,000 stars, which experience 
shows to have been peleniae’ vith a degree e of pr ecision decidedly greater | 
than ra himself had supposed. And although his zones = pped but little | 
a their margins, so that only a small proportion of the oni shanti poner t 


‘Tropic, which we have detected, and which ar in his catalogue, is ' 
latively quite insignificant, so that the task of identification hoc been by ee 
less difficult than I was prepared to expect 
he recent publication, by Admiral Sands of the Washington O 
atory, of Gilliss’s Southern Catalogue of about 2000 stars affords a val 
supplement to Lacaille, since it gives observations of many stars for w. 
— _— reason to suspec i 
recent letters from home give reason to hope, this is to be followed 
Gilliss’s scant series of zone observations, comprising some 23; 
within 24° of the South Pole, observed in Chile — years 6 the So 
ern observer will receive a trul n his lab 


2x stralia w 
ready receiving, thanks to the industry and ability of Mr. Bilery, an an 


with the most exact which are furnished b the first observatories 
Northern Hemisphere. 


Appendix, 79 


ing itself in an especial manner upon my attention, in connection with the 
Uranometry. What constellations to retain, and what to disregard among 
the various suggestions of various astronomers, has been a less difficult ques- 
tion than the assignment of boundaries or the — ed a definite and con- 
sistent notation from out the chaos which rules in sundry portions of the 
These matters, comparatively ‘iespuaiieset in many ree 

acquire a supreme importance when questions of nomenclature become pro 
in t k now in hand er i 


of Argo Navis, where the practical and effective ore adopted by Baily, 
in the three catalogues of the British na ttapaa of dividing this huge and 
unwieldy — into four smaller ones correspon ndi ing to the parts of the 

, 88 indicated by Lacaille, is more than counterbalanced by the other re- 
commendation, likewise aidopeo d by Baily, that so far as the Greek alphabet 


stellations has its own special n r e two series of letters of the 
Latin alphabet. Nor are the three catalogues didited by Baily for the British 
Association altogether accordant as regards either the constellation-bounda- 


nes, or the notation of the stars, notwithstanding his efforts to furnish some 
relief for the existing confusion. ‘The same Greek letter occurs twice in the 
Same constellation in m more than one Siataned in these catalogues, while other 
et ; 


€ give you an illustration of the confusion encountered in a study of 
prominent Southern stars. Take the constellation Telescopium, one which has 
every i ° 


"Ya, Scorpius, and o is in Corona Australis. 
Austrinus and follow the erat ps Here Br cba’ e is Baily’ 


r hee ve tongue was English, and who 


Lp arran ib to be assigned 
os gement is n oa ht matter, when every visible star is gned 
; Bane definite io ait This implies the establishment of boundar 


80 Appendix. 


and one needs but to glance at ran celestial globe or atlas to convince him- 
I 


self that this is a process more easily spoken of than accomplished. If per- . 
ormed i 


a manner Spore eto * astronomers it will find prompt adoption 


t 
prescribed in advance, and not to be transgressed = any pretext; if such 
can ys judiciously laid down, and yet found upon trial not to be inco 


mpatible — 
with an arrangement of boundaries easy of reco gnition and of description, I 
eans 


see no reason to doubt their glad reception by astronomers, as a simple m 


for substituting for the existing confusion a well ordain and unmistakeable : 


sy 
Notwithstanding some misgivings, J am at present occupied in the ay 


to arrange the Southern constellations in such a way that the changes may 
regarded nomers as only 


uring the last week we have unpacked the equatorial, and have mounted — 
the fo 


its bed-plate upon a pier of white marble, from Sierra four leagues away. 


are already m 
gi coutigion than ri had been led to ores for the summer rains here 


re sudden and vehement. The theory of an eternal summer is thoroughly — . 
had a doz 


dis isposed of; "fe a the las t thre ree months awe have not zen per- 


al al 
character of the weather during a considerable at 4 March goer Apel the 
autumn Bonen ushered by a long cloudy se I wr ou before that 


ey 
had kno o rain here without abun dant thunder = ightning 


I have seen no r ange my 7 sation | eaeeeiin, The rainless season 
is now said to oe oa - a 


me. 4 
It is to be expected that in the course of our work we may encounis he 


sanihet of variable stars sufficient to make the number in the Southern Hem 

sphere approximately —_ to that of those already known north vat 

Equator. As yet however we have not followed pees wd very dec 
umber of sta 


and 35 in. focal len ngth, it is a conspicuous object, and prominent oe its ruddy : 
ich it forms a part, agai i 


color among the cluster of which it forms against the bright nebula a8 
a bac With this teles the same one which I employed for ob- 

total -eclipse of 1860, I have been examining the whole group; 
and have found to tonishment that it exhibits with distinctness a coD- 


es : 
siderable number of stars, which are recorded in Sir J. Herschel’s catalogue | 
ed.) . 


this cluster, as being of the 14th See —(T'o be continu 


Party of Geological Exploration under Prof. 0.C. Marsx.—Prof. Marsh, with ® | 
party of twelve, i is about leavi ing fs the Rocky ena region and the Pacific — 
sc to continue his investigations with reference to the Cretaceous and Tertialy — 

rates of the region. onths. - 


He will be absent about six mon 


It will assuredly find with us a cordial wel- | 


/- 


THE 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES] 


eee, See 


Art, XI.—Mistorical Notes on the Systems of Weather Telegraphy, 
and especially their Development in the United States; by 
CLEVELAND ABBE, A.M. 


82 Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 


tin International. Already in 1854 he had urged the impor — 
; 55 


— 
a 
pele 
pe 
a 
j=) 
ol 
B 
=] 
Pe, 

: 
ta) 
<q 
be 
° 
S 
is] 
et 
ro) 
E- 
nm 
ere 
Ce 
@ 
ef 
2. 
ig?) 

E 

2 
E. 

a 
ix 3 

3 

es 


begins the series of quarterly volumes of the “Atlas Généraux 
des Mouvemens de l’Atmosphére.” To the preface of this vol 
ume we must refer for the fullest detail of Teves under 


The storm 
Netherlands, and those of “prey # (died, May, 1865), and Bab- | 


success was given by the labors of our own countrymen. 4 q 
Franklin® is said to have been the first who strictly defined ’ 
and published the general law that the storms of our Southern | 
‘States move off to the northeastward over the Middle and 
* Earlier than Franklin must have been Lewis Evans, who, according to Hon. 7. _ 
Pownal, M. P., lished in 1749 at Philadelphia, the brief statement of this ge0- _ 
_ eral law. (See 8 yp 879). 


Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 83 


Eastern States, preceded by northeastern wind and rain, and 
these latter followed necessarily by low barometer and westerly 


, p. 18). 
_ To Sir Wm. Reid and W. C. Redfield, (this Journal, 1881) 
is due a clear analysis of the elements of storms and the deduc- 


Western Atlantic, Espy (Philosophy of Storms, 1841, and Re- 
ports, 1854), and Loomis (on the Storms of 1836, 1842, ) 
i i i the 


b 
labors of this noble Institution, and from the very beginning 
feasibility of 


mis, in the following extracts from the annual Smithsonian 
ports of the respective years. 

* Meteorological studies were actively carried on by the Joint Committee of the 

American Phil’ Soc. and of the Franklin Institute, from 1834 to 1838, Professor 

Espy being chairman, and were furthered by the Franklin Kite Club in the latter 


See Vienna Acad. Sitzungsberichte. 
ais first published suggestion that I have found is by the lamented Redfield; 
ournal, Sept. 1846. 
“Tn the Atlantic ports, the approach of a gale may be made known by means 
= the electric telegraph, which probably will soon extend from Maine to the 
: i pi &e.” 


even in the present imperfect state of our knowledge of storms, &c.” 
the “ Rotel Hex Yorker” of the following year; also the “ Boston Cou- 


84 Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 


1847. ‘The extended lines of telegraph will furnish a ready — 
means of warning the more northern and eastern observers to 
be on the watch for the first appearance of an advancing storm.” — 

1848. “Asa part of the system of meteorology, it is pro- — 
posed to employ, as far as our funds will permit, the magnetic — 
telegraph in the investigation of atmospherical phenomena.... 
The advantage to agriculture and commerce to be derived from | 
a knowledge of the approach of a storm by means of the tele _ 
graph, has been frequently referred to of late in the public jour- — 
nals; and this we think is a subject deserving the attention of | 
the Government.” © | 

1849. “Successful applications have been made to the pres: | 
idents of a number of telegraph lines to allow us at a certain — 
period of the day the use of the wires for the transmission of | 
meteorological intelligence... ... as soon as they [certain 
instruments, &c.,] are completed, the transmission of observa- — 
tions will commence.” / 4 

[It was contemplated to constitute the telegraph operators 
the observers]. : 

1850. “This map [an outline wall map] is intended to be 
used for presenting the successive phases of the sky over the 
whole country at different points of time, as far as reported.” | 

1851. “Since the date of the last report the system partic: | 
ularly intended to investigate the nature of American storms | 
immediately under the care of the Institution, has been con- — 
tinued and improved.” a 

The system of weather reports thus inaugurated continued in | 
regular operation until 1861, when the disturbed condition of | 
the country rendered impogsible its further continuance. Mean- 
while however the study of these daily morning reports had | 
led to such a knowledge of the progress of our storms, that in | 
the Report for 1857, Prof. Henry writes : t 

1857. “We are indebted to the National Telegraph Line for 
a series of observations from New Orleans to New York and as 


daily 
the North 


Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 85 


Report of Proceedings), a paper was presented by Professor 
Baird, on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, requesting the 
privilege of the use of the telegraph lines, and more especially 
in order to enable Professor Henry “to resume and extend the 
Weather Bulletin, and to give warning of important atmos- 
pheric changes to our seaboard.” In response to this commu- 
nication it was resolved, ‘That this Association recommend 
an to pass free of charge, .. . brief meteorological reports, 
... for the use and benefit of the Institution.” 

On the communication of this generous response, prepara- 


Having been absent from the United’ States in 1864-66, it so 
ate that I was not acquainted with the more recent plans 
0 


tember Ist, 1869, the previous summer having been wed 

_ Sccupied with preparations for this duty as well as with t e 
labors incident to the “ eclipse expedition ’ of the Observatory. 

— . * Accompani seupied the site of old Fort 
Dar companied b amateur assistants, I occupied ' : 

— Dakotah, (now Sioux Falls City), Dakotah Territory. A very complete series of 


86 Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 


an 
‘Rogers Manifold Bulletin Process,” appearing daily (Sundays 
d a brief forecast of the | 


jo 
wa 
ay 
> & 
+ 


to the value of and interest in the reports. Copies of this map 
were regularly sent to the telegraph offices in Chicago and New 
York and elsewhere, everywhere meeting with favor. In May, 


observations was secured, but the subsequent year was incessantly occupied with 
the Weather Bulletin and a subsequent absence 6 
ine 


tion and publication of our observations. By means of a very fine six-inch achro- — 
matic and favored by a remarkably clear atmosphere, interesting and novel obser- 
vations were made upon the corona, of which a brief notice was at once commu 


Abbe on Weather Telegraphy in the United States. 87 


of a more extended and ultimately of a national system, such 
as those that had long been known in op o this end 
I, in August, 1869, in behalf of the Cincinnati Chamber of 
Commerce, had proposed to the Board of Trade of Chicago a | 
general plan of codperation by which both organizations would 
share in the advantages expected to result from the Weather 
Bulletin. That body, however, through a special committee, 
preferred not to engage in such an enterprise, alone sensible 
of its feasibility, unless the Dearborn Observatory should give 
it the weight of its authority and name; but the other duties 
of Professor Safford seemed to forbid this, and I was forced to 
forego the advantage of such codperation. An editorial in the 
Chicago Evening Journal of August 13-17, served, however, to 
call attention to the Cincinnati enterpri 

_ In November, 1869, occurred at Richmond the annual meet- 
ing of the National Board of Trade. Several of the Cincinnati 
delegates (and especially Mr. John A. Gano, President of the 

in 


ever, anticipated by that of the Hon. C. D. Holton of Milwau- 
kee, who preeniad: 
Lapham. This distinguished observer, to whom I had for some 


of Trade and Commerce and by eminent scientific authorities. 


To M 


of Professor Lapham, “papers and maps in reference to the 


88 T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 


the continent, and at other points in the States and Territories — 
of the United States, and for giving notice on the northern | 
akes and on the sea coast by magnetic telegraph and marine | 
signals, of the approach and force of storms.” < 
By a general order of March 15th, Brevet Brig. Gen. Albert 
J. Myer, the Chief Signal Officer of the army, was charged with 
the duty of the execution of the preceding law, and has there- 
fore organized in connection with the Army Signal Office, the | 
“Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Com- 
eree;" 


m . 
4 
Washington, May 1, 1871. 


Art. XIL—Injusorial Circuit of Generations ; by Turon. 0. 
HILGARD. 


[Continued from page 25.] 


A DIRECT onward evolution of Vorticella I had occasion to 
realize on the fetid scum cuticle of a putrescent aquarium. 
All the Vorticellae which, in dense clusters, lined thé under sur- 
face of that membrane, or animal pellicle, were found to elongate — 
into a sort of roughish, but very hyaline, cucumber-shaped — 
form; each “ cucumber ” at first crowned with a true vorticellan 


limpid, empty and now entirely flattened, ligulate or sandal- 
shaped body tears loose as a young fluttering, pallescent Oxy- 
tricha (Pelionella), or so-called “hackle-animalcule:” darting by 
the jerks of its stiffish marginal bristles, and by the constant 
“plying” of the long-barbed, ciliate slit effecting its slower 
progress. It never revolves, but often crawls; (both in con- 
tradistinction to the fleeced, revolving and vacuole-propelled — 
“Paramecium ” form. 
This is probably the “ short-line” development, of Oxytricha, 
directly from the germinal clouds or the parasite of Chlamydo- 
coccus, through Vorticel I have no good figures to refer to, 
since even the detailed ones of Ehrenberg, in Trans. Berlin Acad. 


ey oe 
5 


1 >, a great ma ecies 
Sap. sat. We have naturally to reject all, of which the mode of developm 
remains unknown, as indicating a false standpoint. 


T. 0. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 89 


Se., 1833, Tab. III, figs. 11, 1, and Iv, which belong here (as 
well as Tab, XXIV and XXV of os Pritchard’s Hist. Inf. 
1861), are too onto to serve as a guide, or to be rea dily 
identifiable even by those see with the real, natural 
object- aiaiseiat 3 itself. 

At first the bristles of the (tongue-shaped, flat and elongate- 
_ — Oxytricha are fluttering and tremulous; - as - 

and rapidly increases in bulk, all the well- known 

of the complete ‘Oxytri richa,” its stiffish darting- beissiae 
its grumose, obscured body, irregularly replete with granular 

olks, and very frequently cross-dividing, become typified. 

en thus cross-divided (a process well-known and abundantly 

figured) the front part alone retains the barbed mouth, which, 
from the apex, switches down like a moustache on a longitudi- 
nal slit about a quarter of the whole length. The blunt rear- 
part, on the contrary, separates with an incurrent angle which 
Soon contracts into a new mouth; whereby the rear-animal 
takes a blunter “ge (like the cetydideai of an almond, the flat 
side downw ard). 


Seen to “copulate” or adhere lengthwise, or in any other 

fashion, to one another, except in the process of self-division. 

Nor does it readily divide by longitudinal fission, in this state. 

T have seen this scan once. Crawling, and darting by an ay 
rly 


’ coos cape in the rear - portion, sr a great number of 
an and smaller granular Law its body So a e 
dle a large, clear and granulate ‘“ germinal spec 
cleus, which j se ’ often observed to swell, protruding globalary 
over th the pair ae below and above, when seen crawling, in 
pro: 


Oceasion nally it is seen to extrude, suddenly, that turgid 
germinal nucleus or yolk (vitellus), which, as in all these cases, 
Is itself coatless, but hung around with divers jerking molecular 
fragments, torn loose from the parental body a ch is rup- 

ed on the spot, but readily “ re-cemented,” as it were. 

* The transformation of the “rear-part” of Oxytricha, as given by J. Haime 

m Ann. Sci. ee ee tom. Gua ie (and So erage in C: Micr,. p. 447 
oe I have not been able to verify myself; it m y pd 
means be confounded with the encystoncats ( ) of ‘rorticela, “producing wafer- 

; (2) of the non-pulsating, “Paramecium I grub, 
pa ducing tree Oxytricha; nor (3) with "thal ot the “ oyster” or porte manne 
er, producing paramecium-like gregarina-fashion ; nor either (4), wi 
Some large Oxytricha “ currants,” containing the revolving “ crucible. 


90 T. C Milgard—Infusorial Cirewit of Generations. 


The larger of these coatless, granular yolks—(constituting the 
original pseudo-genus, and species “ Zooglaea Termo ” jar ard.” 
mostly consist of two parts, viz: a general “albumen” of a — 
granular and evidently trabecular texture, enclosing one or two 
distinctly coated, quite hyaline and perfectly globular vesiolel 
The latter resemble in $ ape a very clear white currant, as 
it were, by having a sharply defined sc pA inscribed near 
one side, that is caused by a local inversion of contents (some- 
what like the air-vesicle within a hen’s eg; 

These “currant ”-yolks enlarge in size “and soon at. the | 
(darkening) circlet, or rim of the introversion, reveal a rapid — 
rotation and “ciliary motion ; "and, still la ter, a contortion | 
and volubility of contents, really perplexing to the attentive 
beholder, who in vain attempts to determine its form, or at least 
to detect it in the moment of hatching, “ anxiously wasting 
whole nights and half days” veers as Hhrenberg has ex- 
— himself on a similar subject. At last the membrane 

ursts and extrudes a globe or halo of gelatine, containing 4 
crucible-shaped body, gently moving, which, when finally set 
free by the rupture of that gelatinous halo, at once elastically 
extruding the inverted part, takes a pune resembling a rice-palea 
or the fore-wing of a thunder-fly (Thrips) ; traveling broad- end 
foremost with great velocity, and steady as an arrow. er a 
while a somewhat ludicrous scene ensues, when the little ani- 
mal, b ees its feeomed skin or scabbard, is seen violently 

to disentangle its large jerking bristles hidden in the 
veins of the sheath, and its small body. It thus appears like a 
little dwarf, frantically floundering about in a Spanish cloak, 
spurs and sword too large for their owner. It now represents 
a very small Oxytricha with comparatively very long, stout, but 
as yet softish bristles 

This formed the more direct evolution, from the Oxytricha 
pellet, viz: out of its circular “‘ currant-vesicles.” Its envelop- 

ing ose mass of “trabeculated albumen,” however, keeps — 
still increasing to the pie ge of a loose snow-ball, as it were} _ 
and each single trabecular joint assumi 
§-form, and a jerking penne commotion, they at last tear 
loose singly, and escape each as a lanceolate, warped and finely- 
tailed “ Vibrio Termo Dujard.”+ In consequence of its twisted — 

* As represented by Cohn in “ Nov. Act. cas Curios.” 1854, Vol. I, Tab. XV; _ 
fig. rx. In se sana researches on Cholera, the term is rnd : 
engorged join ae pe corruptive fibrils (or, Oidium lactis ”) re’ with 
bacterial daushitorc 


: 


” (repuev, a boundary-pole or — probably reteriee d 
seipticaly. a father ws the robe Ma “ battering-rams,” extrude m diffuent “cur 
rant ”-vesicles (or ame@ba) of the paramecian cloud- senchicens, b as : talon hor : 
The albuminous Oxytricha-pellet is pretty well ‘represented in A. Pritchard’s “A 
History of Infusoria,” tab. xvi, fig. 69. The indistinct §-shaped ipeverensge 2 

; icles, ; i ; y shading w! 


, conveying a false impression of their shape and 


T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 91 


in likeness of ‘‘ginned” cotton-seed. This feature is absolutely 
overlooked in most of the figures from Ehrenberg up to the 
present day; otherwise, the former's ‘ Paramecium Kolpoda”* 
would seem to represent a few of its onward developments. 
2 body now commences to disect, at first crosswise ; becom- 
Ing waisted, across the mouth, so that each half has a part of the 
old one. After assuming the form of an 8, they, after long 
struggling and toiling, bisect, often spinning out a long gelatin- 
ous thread (as of a limpid gum) and jerking each other most 
lustily ; but after disruption, they presently round off. 

In this condition, and the following, the bodies contain one 
larger and a great many smaller granular pellets,—“ yolks” or 

germinal specks,” which I have not distinctly seen discharged. 
But now the surface of the water becomes clouded with such 


aed amorphous, most delicate but cohesive pellicle (as of 


become hquid (like fusing lead), with an immense Int 
he of parts, and bodily dissolve into such cloud-molecules. 


* Abhandl. Berlin Acad. Wiss., 1834, Tab. IIT, fig. 3. 


92 T. C. HMilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 


thin but chemically homogeneous organic substances being im- 
permeable to certain gases, while permeable to others, a good | 
deal of physiological interest is involved in the study of this 
protoplasm-membrane, and its relation to the swamp-gases. 
The particles of the nubecula are uniformly globular. 4 
_ After repeated cross-segmentations, these undulate fimbriate — 
bodies, always revolving about the long axis (while evidently 
traveling onward by the action of the ciliate mouth) divide 
lengthwise, from below upward; thereby becoming somewhat 
urse or tear-shaped; the mouth being split in two, so that 
th stand “plying” mouth-to-mouth, while yet connected at 
. as it were. ese finally tear asunder by 
indentures, after which each has the shape of a crooked glass- 
te en more adult, and about ;'; of a line long, the im- 
ternal yolks and designs have disappeared ; the sarcode assumes 
a uniform yellowish tinge; its mouth forms deep cavities, while 
its front is toppling over like the hood of an Indian turnip — 
(Arum triphyllum) or of a Sarracenia leaf. It now contracts — 
to a globe and encysts. When a smooth, transparent crust 1s 
formed, gradually an inward gyration of cilia (as of an enclosed 
centipede) which ultimately becomes very violent, is observ- 
able; and at last the excessive fatigue of watching this tanta- 
izing gyration may be rewarded by seeing the inmate emerge, — 
either as quite a large but excessively limber, fluttering and 
transparent, full-size, single Oxytricha; or else several smaller, 
mostly narrow, triangular slips)* escape, with the same exceed- | 
ingly restless volubility ; the marginal bristles not yet bemg | 
stiffly extended in a plane, but ruffled up and down like the | 
bristles on the undulating borders of a thistle-leaf. As they — 
feed and the tissues become scatent, the entire form of an 
Oxytricha is presently acquired. 7 
I have observed still another development of Oxytricha; 18 
first source, however, being as yet unknown to me. ere 
appear on the field of action numbers of quaint-looking, big- 
eyed balls, about ;3; line thick, snouted, as it were, with @ 
rt of “hair-lip” resembling a duck’s bill; the stiff bristles 
within the bill-shaped mouth quivering with a sort of expres 
sive smirk, and looking aopdtand odd. : 
hey come full-sized and booming upon the stage, and m 


-* The figures L and M, p. 447, in Carp. “ Micr.” seem to belong here. 


T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 93 


it dropsically flattens out into a pretty well-sized Oxytricha,* 
Y asimilar sort of internal fluxile commotion of particles as 
when the animals dissolve into molecular “ sauce.” 

But Oxytricha is not a perfect animal. It has no mem- 
branes, an evidently no fibrous tissues at all. The entire tex- 
ture apparently remains in an embryonic, vitelline condition, 
as yet. 


have in a single instance witnessed what appeared to be 
the moulting of a perfect Oxytricha. The front border was 
somewhat removed from the body, which it crowned like the 
crest of an ancient helmet, and within each rigid bristle (“style”) 
as within the fingers of a glove, was containe 


but thicker, upper flap (‘lorica”) containmg one clear germinal 
speck. is animal opens like a book, undoubling its flaps; 
re ~ is thus that it devours its prey (such as conferval spawns. 


This somewhat resembles fig. F, turning, by fiuid expansion, into fig. E, (Carp. 

mages ibid), Fig. F, avers, Raclfiee to be duck-billed, as it were, and fig. E 

be lop-sided and the nucleus more central. _ ions and figures, however, 

“ ee ; 

| Perhaps the “ Euplotes” of authors. Their ae ot wb ey 
tifiable, : 


94 T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 


copulation, seeing that in the first place they neither develop 

=a eggs; nor, in the second place, do they even extrude | 

yolks; but their onward development is by encystment. 
Within a few minutes such a full-grown “oyster-grub” is — 


seen contracting its big flap, so as to present the shape ofa | 
at with a warped rim and hemispherical crown, the latter | 


lar is exuded. The speck or “eye” itself now becomes dusky 
and granular. It increases. It bisects “Gregarina-” fashion. — 

ach pear-shaped segment again acquires a clear speck oF — 
* eye.” 


They elongate, being connected by the blunt ends — 


each one tapering toa very soft apex; and these very large — 


germs or pseudo-Gregarinas at last become liberated, probably 
as “ Paramecium Aurelia,” which now appears full-grown on the — 
scene. | 
It is about the length of the Oxytricha, about three times — 

the length of the revolving wool-fringed grubs of the Oxy _ 
tricha, and by all means more complexly organized than either. 
It has the shape of the (shoemaker’s) /ast for a very elegant — 


ladies’ shoe. From one side it therefore gives the figure as of 8 | 


foot-print (without the toes); but viewed on edge has a poin 

rear end, and in this profile it “takes the name” of Parame 
cium caudatum! The ankle of that “last,” however, is beveled — 
away leaving the instep a ridge. Its oral aperture, not clearly — 
distinguishable, is in the middle, slanting almost longitudinally — 
for about one quarter of the length of the body. It seems 


circular a 
pulsatory vesicle, wherewith it — itself, and around which — 
= it is often seen spinning li os eB 

rm or bulbous vessels radiating around the pulsatory vesicle; | 
— as the vesicle expands, and vice versd, as is well-knowD; 
an av we 
body is turgid with rather small germinal yolks. These att | 
mals I have never seen bisecting either lengthwiset+ or across; 7 
nor copulating sexually. The latter, however, seems to 
(tween else, sewn bell apr) qn preserve ron ezncaton. 
betwe ips, somewh: 7 iccation. 

t Barasbergs Rguiaay Mowueds, show it in that process (if not a mistake). 


© The Aacz 


T. C. Hilgard—Infusorial Circuit of Generations. 95 


some of the smaller ones are being propelled by adherent 
motile granules (probably the “ Acineta” Auet.), the larger 


” 


Its contents are a visibly and rapidly circulating so-called ‘‘ rotat- 


ing protoplasm,” composed of mostly very transparent individ- 
jie “ie 


onie particles, partly bulky, but mostly very small. 
on (red or ‘ssenah) vibrionie dots are also dis- 
cernible, 


It now takes the form which has been called “ Ameeba.” 
This form, however, likewise occurs, when similar yolks or “aci- 
hetee,” are expelled from vorticellan bodies. In either case the 

tumbling-sac ” lastly attains a versatile-campanulate star-shape 
oe odia,” from which break forth volumes of mini- 
mal vibrios, and quite large, cylindric bits of rods, or ( pseudo)- 

bacteria.” The latter here are thicker than fungine bacteria, 
and are neither coated nor ellipsoidally shuttle-shaped, but 
qluntly cylindric, like cartridges or butting rams. They possess 

ta 2 


96 4H. S Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 


and the Vorticello Oxy-trichans (through the mediation of the 7 
“oyster” or ‘ porte-monnaie-grub”), there occur frequently | 
some analogous forms, such as “ Kerona” and “'Trachelium. t 
The last form of all to appear in infusions, etc., seems to be | 
the well-known Rotifer, the developments whereof are perhaps — 
related to some of those above detailed. It is, however, most — 
robable, according to the observations of Prof. L. Agassiz 


Art. XIIL—Tornadoes of the Southern States; by HAMPTON 
WHITFIELD, Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
Alabama. 


Tur tornado is a storm which has two distinct movements, 
the one progressive along the surface of the earth, the other 
gyratory, like that of a top spinning on its axis. It whirls a 
it goes and its force is so great that no structure of wood, brick 


in this country is very narrow. I have not yet found traces 
any one exceeding two hundred yards in breadth 


_* This is no doubt what g d describe as the “adult Parameciv? 
the impression that which I had formerly frequently observed 


: it was this fc 


a 


H. S. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 97 


up to a considerable elevation. I have seen a pine tree, six- 
teen inches in diameter and sixty feet long, float out from the 
black -vortex of one, at the height of a quarter of a mile, and 
sail round, to all appearance, as light as a feather. 

In May, 1868, a very destructive tornado originated in the 
extensive flats on the Bigbee river, south of Columbus, Miss., 
and crossed Pickens and Tuscaloosa counties, Ala. A few 
days after its passage I visited the wreck of a large, two-story, 
framed house which had stood in its way, twelve miles east of 
Columbus. The timbers were soaiterel? for miles along its 
9 and all the family, five in number, were killed. Thei 

ies were found at some distance from the site of the house, 


Weighing sixty pounds. It was transported more than a hun- 
dred yards. 


Jy 
To produce such results required a pressure of at least one 
poun every square inch, a force fearful to contemplate as 
possible for the wind. Some idea can be formed of it when we 
reflect that this house, being fifty feet long by twenty-five in 


. ary O J direc- 
ton of gyration coincides with that of progression. Should the 
\dvancing speed of the storm just equal the velocity of rotation, 
then on one side the effect would correspond with the sum of 


as the tornado would go forward. 
ble Sesmestiue accurately the average speed of 


__ ‘Me to fix upon forty miles per hour as very near the truth. 
Am. Jour. 8c1.—Tu ep Series, VoL, II, No. 8—Aveust, 1871. 
7 


8 AS Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 


This must have been about the rate of one whose formation and 

rogress for several miles I witnessed, but the spectacle was so 
absorbing that I entirely forgot to time it by the watch. 
another occasion, in the night, I listened, in company with 
several others, to the roar of one passing at the distance of two 
miles, and we all agreed upon forty miles as about its rate. 

In May, 1840, a part of Natchez was destroyed by a tornado, 
the most dreadful that has ever passed through the Gulf States. 
It crossed the river at two o’clock, P. M., and at 9 o’clock burst — 
upon west Alabama in the shape of a rain storm, pouring un- 


stationary objects, would be one hundred and sixty miles per 
hour. Subtract forty on the north side and it would be eighty. 
Now, wind moving eighty miles an hour will not nece y 
throw down trees and wreck buildings, but at a speed of one 
hundred and twenty or one hundred and sixty miles, it will level 
all obstructions. The most destructive energy, then, is devel 2 
in the south semi-cireumference of the whirl, and the diameter — 
of the gyration must be, in most cases, much greater than the 

parent path. The aspect of the wreck along the path of 
these storms is in conformity with the above analysis of forces. 
Where they traverse forests, by far the greater number of trees 


is the black column or spout, extending from the cloud dow? — 


ra ——— 


! 
| 


H. &. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 99 


to the surface. It precisely resembles a column of black smoke, 
such as pours from the pipes of a steamer burning pine wood ; 
it isin fact condensed vapor or cloud, intensified in blackness 
by the dust and rubbish carried up from the ground. The 
tornado is a shell or hollow cylinder of air, and all its energy 
lies in its rotating rim which is powerfully ee by two 
antagonistic forces, centrifugal and centripetal. The rapid 
whirl draws the air from the center toward the circumference 
where it is met and opposed by the in-rushing winds. re 
is, consequently, a rarefaction, a great reduction of temperature 
by expansion, and condensation of vapor within the shell. 

e spout does not hug the earth continuously, but rebounds 
or ricochets along the uneven surface, often skipping the valleys 
but generally desolating the hills. It is disposed, however, at 
every recurrence to strike at the same points. It is not an 
established fact, but it is commonly believed, and with some rea- 
son, that the tornado does, in the course of years, return along its 
beaten path, and that it is unsafe to build where one has ever 
passed. The house in Pickens county stood on a hill from 


. Which a log cabin had been blown away some thirty years be- 


ore. I witnessed the last of three, which have passed along 
the same track. Near Hernando, Miss., three have followed an 
unvarying line. It is probable that there are some localities 
more favorable than others to the generation of these storms, 
and if this is true, then the law of direction, hereafter explained, 
accounts for their progress along the indicated path. _ 

uch an opportunity, as fell to my lot, of witnessing the 
formation and course of a tornado is rarely enjoyed, and the 
phenomena observed on that occasion are of great value in 
illustrating the origin of these whirlwinds. On the 29th of Apmil, 
1867, at 10 o'clock a. m., I was approaching Tuscaloosa, on the 

yton road, the general direction being east and west. | 

Weather was hot and —— while a perfect calm prevailed 


slight angular projection, like an inverted cone, at its lower 

I St saies 4 ascertained that it was at this time about 
five miles distant from me, and a calculation, based upon the 
estimated angles, fixed the elevation of its base above the sur- 


100 HS. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States, 


face at about fifteen hundred yards, and its diameter, consider- 
ing it a sphere, at about six hundred. It was entirely at rest. 
e first view of this cloud suggested to me the possibility 
of a tornado, and I watched it closely as I drove along in my 
buggy. While I was driving, leisurely, more than a quarter of 
a mile, it maintained its position and outline unchanged. At 
length a farm house with its shade trees intercepted the view 
for about a minute, and when I came again in sight of it, the 
projection beneath the cloud appeared in violent commotion. 
There was now no longer any doubt of the character of the 
ibited, and satisfied, from a knowl- 


near me, I leaped from the buggy and released the horse as 
quickly as possible, in order to give him a chance for his life. 
This did not occupy more than a half a minute, and when I 
turned to look again, the black column was formed, reaching 
from the cloud to the ground. A few moments showed that it 
was rapidly approaching. I remember noticing small frag- 
ments of cloud moving toward it from the north, but there 
was no perceptible breeze where I stood. When about a mile | 
distant I saw that it would go south of me, and at this time I 


1. The gyratory motion was distinctly visible. When a little 
farther on, it became so enveloped in douse as to be no longer 
distinguishable, but I knew, by the now frequent peals 0 
thunder, that it was increasing in violence and levelling all 
things in its path. 

is tornado was formed about a mile and a half southwest 


cen refuge within on its approach. 
e are other like instances well au- 


H. S. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 101 


thenticated, and it is commonly believed that a log house is the 
| safest retreat. The direction of this tornado was east by 20 
| degrees north. After its passage the air was cool and pleasant, 
. and, at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, heavy rain came from the 
north, followed, for the next few days, by clear weather with 
| northwest winds. 

| he most remarkable fact, disclosed by the phenomena of 
| this storm, is the inherent power of progression which it un- 
| questionably possessed. After the gyration was established it 
) began at once to travel eastward, not driven by any wind, but 
| ploughing its own way through the tranquil ciao with 
; 

j 

; 


tremendous speed. Here is presented a problem, which, so far 
as I know, has not heretofore been propounded. Its solution 
1s important to the science of meteorology. The fact that tor- 
nadoes invariably move from the southwest to the northeast is 
Well established,'as also the fact that, by an impulse acquired 
from the earth’s rotation on its axis, they gyrate from nort 
west to south. This backward gyration is thus explained: A 
parallels of latitude decrease in diameter, and therefore in cir- 
cumference, as we go toward the poles of the earth. As they 
all revolve in twenty-four hours, it follows that every one, ap- 
proaching the pole on either side of the equator, moves around 
more slowly than the one preceding it. Therefore, a current 
moving southward, to the vortex of a tornado in the northern 
emisphere, finds that vortex rotating eastward with a superior 
Velocity, and is left behind, or, projected to the west, while, for 


eminent writer on the subject, maintained it. 
ox I believe, long been settled in favor of the latter. 


from west to east is effected by the earth’s rotation on its axis. 


ch 


102 =. S Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 


the earth without heating, except slightly, the atmosphere 
through which they pass. The surface warms the air near it, 
while, at the same time, radiation more easily takes place from 
the superior strata, thus reducing the temperature of the upper 
regions. Since air expands and grows lighter with increase of 
temperature, and contracts and becomes heavier from diminished 
heat, it follows that, under this influence, “the atmosphere is | 
in a state of unstable equilibrium, and the lower strata tend con- 
tinually to rise and take the place of the upper.” The ascending — 
air, coming under diminished pressure, expands, and therefore — 
cools, t a variable height, depending on the dew point, or the 

quantity of vapor, the cooling causes condensation or cloud. 
Condensation of vapor sets free latent heat. This liberated 


Owmg og 

to the “ unstable equilibrium,” caused by surface heat and rad | 
‘The lower strata tend continually to rst — 
and take the place of the upper.” Here he has stated the effect 
for the cause. The fact is, that the upper strata tend continually 
to descend and take the place of the lower. : 
Espy, endeavoring to establish a favorite theory, makes the 
quite untenable assertion “that the air of the upper regions 
specifically hotter than the air at the surface ;” which means 
f it means anything, that a pound of air in the upper regions 
contains absolutely more heat at a given pc oleae than 4 
‘Sap at the surface. All this belongs to a philosophy which 
as been long since exploded; and in fact, every sound philoso” 


) 
| 


EH. §. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 108 


pher must at once perceive that, under such conditions, no cur- 
rents could either ascend or descend ; the “ specifically ” hotter, 
and therefore lighter air, at the top, could not possibly come 
down, because it would become sensibly hotter, and therefore 
lighter than the air below; and the “ specifically ” colder air at 
the surface could never rise, for a corresponding reason. 


€xpansion in the vortex, its temperature is reduced ten fold, so 
that the vapor of the air rushing in from below is mstantane- 
ously frozen, 


storms and secondary tornadoes many leagues distant from its 
Path. Its hodissitnin force is due to the concentrated momen- 
of all the currents moving to the common center; is the 


104 HLS Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 


sum of the Ree of all the centripetal streams set freeina | 
contracted are : 
It is a well- catablish ed fact that tornadoes are translated from 
west to east. It is also admitted that they are generated in a 
calm atmosphere. It 18, os surprising that Espy and | 
other advocates of the cending column” theory, did not — 
perceive that their Piectga. ae cial. be translated in 
the opposite direction, or from east to west. As the earth 
rotates to the east, carrying the atmosphere along, it follows — 
that the greater the elevation or distance from the axis, Z 
greater must = : e velocity eastward. Hence, an ascending — 
column, penetrating the upper and more rapid strata, is left — 
behind or Sepsis! to the west. Overlooking this principle, — 
however, they assign as the cause of the direction of tornadoes _ 
an elevated and constant eastward wind, maintaining that he 
seizes the top of the tornado and drags it as a ship 
anchor. But there is no cohesion in eriform columns, as iD 
cables, and it is, therefore, raat for a force applied at 7 af 
summit to pull the base along. Espy contradicts his 
theory frequently by asserting that the tops of rising colomal 
where cumuli, are “shaved off” by upper currents. Itis — 
evident that if a strong wind from the southwest should — 


3 


‘a way easily explained, cause a deflection. 

t has been shown that a column of air ascending in a calm 
must be deflected to the west by the earth’s rotation. For the 
same reason one descending must be bo abel eastward. bis a 


tel a fh ura 
at the surface, - 


H. S. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 105 


above. The descending stream, fed by oblique tributaries from 
all points of the compass, begins to gyrate. From centrifugal 
force result rarefaction, cooling, and further condensation. The 
center of the vortex is a partial vacuum, and from below a 


e two columns meeting, vas mi 
thrown off by centrifugal force in all directions, and the cloud 


this is the termination of all these storms. They are of varia- 
ble duration and extent, continuing until the equilibrium of 

the atmosphere is restore 
Loomis has explained, but not to entire satisfaction, the 
cause of the northward inclination of tornadoes. He nightly 
ascribes it, however, to the decreasing diameters of the succes- 
Sive parallels of latitude. If a tornado should form on a par- 
lel of 45 degrees, its vertical axis would make an angle of 45 
degrees with the earth’s axis of rotation. It follows, then, as 
Would readily appear from adiagram, that the currents descend- 
Ing obliquely to the vortex on the south side, would approach 
: axis 


be greater than that of the latter, and, consequently, velocities 
_ Corresponding, there would result a greater centrifugal tendency 
bag northeast than on the southwest of the vortex; and the 


: = lect Increases with the latitude. 


106 A. S. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 


This will plainly appear from a diagram. Let a circle be de 
scribed representing the rim of a tornado. Then let two lines — 
be drawn, one representing the resultant of the forces of the 
southern currents, and the other the resultant of the forces of 
the northern currents, each deflected as it approaches the vortex, — 
but the former more than the latter. Each will maintain its 


owes a 
TE gee ee 


cloud-formation. In the Tuscaloosa tornado the gyration had | 
formed and travelled three-and-a-half miles when the first flash | 
occurred, | 


n is due, at any time before June, to the effect of the solar 
rays in our own latitude, and therefore answer the necessary 
condition of a stratum heated uniformly over a large are& 
Our tornadoes consequently do not grow out of the heat ray 
that penetrate our latitude, but ceili from the heat of 
tropics, transported hither in the winds; and this is the reason 
of their appearance either in the daytime or night. We never 
witness them in the hot summer, because then the lower atmos 
phere is warmed by direct rays, and a uniform temperature — 
over a wide extent, is impossible, from the fact that the cleared 
lands and forests, hills and valleys, are heated unequally, giv 
ing rise to ascending columns and moderate storms. If the 
theory of Espy were true, then July, August, and September 


* 


H. &. Whitfield on Tornadoes in the Southern States. 107 


would be the tornado season with us, for in these months moist 
ful 


top of the atmosphere sinks freely into the stream. The case 
is precisely that of a heavy body descending an inclined plane ; 
but the heavy body is here a great ocean of air superimposed 
upon another abnormally elevated in temperature, and there- 
fore abnormally rarefied. The tornado is a process by which the 
one seeks to settle beneath the other, and is not unlike what 
would occur should an opening be made through the bottom of 
some great reservoir of water. 

On the other hand, when the transposition begins in conse- 
quence of the movement of a definite column, ascending from 

elow, the earth’s surface presents a limit, and the tributaries 
cannot, as in the other case, flow obliquely in straight lines 
without leaving a vacuum beneath, and that is impossible. 
They must, therefore, though ever seeking to mount upward, 
still trail along the surface until they converge at the center. 
An impediment of this nature would find adjustment in many 
uprising columns of limited power, capped with cumuli and 
resulting in showers, but no one vast, absorbing vortex, could 
ot ad es whole movement, and shake the firmament 

1 t. 


the front and rear of the mm, 


gyrating at a right angle with the row, and every house must 
wer of resistance. Or, 


is is not so remarkable 
gyration is three hundred 
ond—and it may go far beyond that—which is greater 

On the track of 


Ww. 
ens county tornado a rafter of a house was found driven 


108 A. S. Packard—New North American Phyllopoda. 


The whirling sand storms of the desert are probabl torna- _ 
does without the accompaniment of clouds with thunder and 
lightning. .The great desert of Africa presents an uninte: | 
rupted surface of sand to the sun’s rays. The lower strata over 
its broad expanse are heated uniformly, and this first requisite | 
is answered. But the dryness of the air fixes the dew point at | 
an extremely low degree, and there can consequently be no — 
condensation or cloud. Yet the vortices may form as in other 
localities, and vast quantities of sand take the place of cloud. | 

y information is too limited, however, to justify any post © 
tive theory in regard to these desert storms. 1 merely conjet | 
ture that they are formed like the tornadoes of our States, but | 
that, unlike them, they are generated from direct heat rays _ 
absorbed by the surfaces immediately under them, and there ~ 
fore appear generally in the daytime, and in the summer months, | 
as well as at any other period. : 


a . 


Art. XIV.—Preliminary Notice of New North American Phyl , 
lopoda; by A. S. Pacxarp, Jr., M.D. ‘ 


7 APODID#. 
The known species of Apus may be for convenience divided 


into three sections, im part by the length of 


A. S. Packard—New North American Phyllopoda. 109 


shield, or carapace, the highest forms having the shortest cara- 
pace, ‘those with the longest shields, as the European Apus 
cancriformis, a in this and other characters to the 
genus Lepiduru 
ction a lite tock fe longicaudatus, Lucasanus, Newberryi, 
and probably Domin 
ection 6 comprises sign equalis, and Gurldi: 

ion ¢ comprises A. caneriformis and porate rt 

Apus longicaudatus Leconte, Ann. N. Y. Lyceum. 

Prof. Dana’s type specimen, which is now very imperfect, was 
labelled ‘Rocky Mountains, near Long’s Peak.” Four speci- 
mens from ‘Texas, J. H. Clark, No. 3.” Three specimens from 

“pools near Yellowstone river. Dr. Hayden, No. 6.” ag 
Chicago Acad. Both sexes occurred, the females having e. 
James's A. obtusatus (Long’s Expedition) is probably this ome 
A. Numidicus Lucas, from Algeria, in the form of the carapace 
= to be avet. to A, longicaudatus. 

us Lucas n. sp.— 6 closely allied to A. longicaudatus. 
Thee: funtal 4 cout rather longer than in longicaudatus, and 
hy ostoma a little smaller. Maxillipeds shorter and smaller, 
telson longer than in the preceding species, with three 
ss Fak pe above. Anal stylets less spi ny, 
segme ae behind posterior r edge o shield 33; no. 


hea Y spined. 
sie 29; no. based oui air of ‘feet il; Seth th of P bol ay 
3 carapace along the middle 80; total length of carapace, “40 

length of te as peataeyS distance from front end of carina to 
a mene” of carapace ‘16 (stylet broken); diameter of egg-sacs 


One € specimen from “Cape St. Lucas, John Xanthus, No. 4,” 
o Acad. 
Apus Ralenn n. § —tThis fine species agar seer we 
A, ca maxillipeds 
nee smooth telson with 3 instead of 4 eee ae sand in 


110 A. S Packard—New North American Phyllopoda. 


carapace along the middle -75; total length, 1-00; length of ter 
gal carina, ‘50; distance from front end to front edge of cara 
pace ‘80; length of caudal stylets, 1-05 inch. ; 
Two specimens from “ Utah, J. S. Newberry, No. 1.” Mus — 
Chicago Acad. : 
. equals, n. sp. 6.—In this species the carapace is much — 
longer than in the preceding species, the eyes are larger, the t 
ae behind them is smaller, and the gills reach much nearer 
the telson. 


: 
2 
e° 
=] 
3B 
S 
B 
mn 
> 
° 
B 
= 
= 
% 
8 
: 
ey 
5 
s, 
S 
5 
a 
B 


pace, the smaller eyes, and round “eee ene tr the less 
styiets, and the 


ma, 
A. Himalayanus, n. sp. ¢.—Frontal doublure and hypostom 
merifora illipeds are of about 


as in A. cancriformis; the first pair of maxi 
as 1 : 


e are 50. The iS | 
number and arrangement of the spines is the same, as is the 


A. 8. Packard—New North American Phyllopoda. 111 


under side. The stylets are scarcely as long as the body, while 
in cancriformis they are considerably longer, and the fine spines 
are a little stouter. No. of segments beyond the hind edge of 
carapace 19 (in cancriformis 19); no. behind last pair of feet 7 
in cancriformis 6); length of body 1:00; length of carapace 
along the middle 64; length of carina, 45; distance from end 
of carina to front edge of carapace 86; length of caudal stylets 
95; diameter of ovisac ‘15 inch, ovisacs situated on the 11th 
air of maxillipeds as in all the other species of the genus 
to m 


own to 

“Collected from a stagnant pool in a jungle four days after a 
shower of rain had fallen. For five months previous to this 
rain there had been no rain upon the earth. imalaya Moun- 
tains, North India, near where the Sutlege river debouches into 
the plains. April, 1870.” Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge. Two 
specimens, 

BRANCHIPODIDA. 

Streptocephalus Texanus, n. sp.—The male differs from S. sim- 
ils Baird, from St. Domingo, to which it is otherwise set 
allied, in the longer branch of the inferior antennz being muc 


teaches to the penultimate segment of the abdomen, while ac- 
cording to Baird’s figure it scarcely reaches to the end of the 
4th segment from the end, and the second antenne are repre- 
sented as being much larger than in our species. The male 
organs arise from the 8th segment from the telson, and the 15th 
of the body; and are sim le, unarmed, slender, cylindrical, very 
long, and curled around (in aleoholic specimens) so as to touch 
at their insertion. Total length, male, 65; length of longer 


See stead, including the telson; 15 pairs of feet. Antenne 
th 8 joints on sh branch, the 7th and 8th joints subdivided 
fach into two subjoints; the sete slightly plumose on the basal 


112) A. S. Packard—New North American Phyllopoda. 


joints. Telson with 16 fine teeth, not including the terminal — 
acute spine. Caudal lamelle long and slender, cultriform; 
under edge slightly curved, fringed with long hairs, those at the — 
base slightly plumose; the upper edge straight; end blunt 
Carapace valves rounded oval, pure white; 5 lines of growth; 
shells minutely dotted, the markings being coarser at the pos 
terior end of the shell, and about the region of the adductor — 


o 
me 
5 
ie) 
> 
| 
@ 
= 
o 
Ler } 
S 
. 
3 
S 
= 
=, 
5, 
e 3) 
5 
rE 
: 
(=) 
0g 
o 
> 
® 
4 
= 
ma 


_ One specimen, Waco, Texas. ‘Quite common in many places 
in western Texas in the early spring. It occurs in mudd 


s are redu 
. single row on the edge. Length 30; breadth -23; thicknes 
15 ine 

It differs from E. Mexicana Claus (Grube’s figure) from Zima 
pan, Mexico, in the umbones being much more prominent; 


G. B. Grant on a new Difference Engine. 113 


and in front of the umbones, instead of being straight and sud- 
enly curved downward, is regularly rounded as in E. Dunkeri. 
Behind the umbones the shell is narrower than either in Cald- 
welli or Dunkeri; the dorsal edge sloping rapidly downward, 
without the well marked angle of Caldwell, or the continuous, 

curve of Dunkeri. Coarse punctures between the ribs, 
rather coarser than in Caldwelli, there being on an average 
between the ribs in the center of the valve. Length 50; 

th ‘33 ; thickness -24 inch. Six specimens from Dubuque, 
Towa, collected by Rev. A. B. Kendig. Dedicated to Prof. 
E. S. Morse, who ‘has indicated to me that the species was un- 
described, 


Lymnetis gracilcornis, n. sp.—This interesting form may at 
Once be known from L. Gouldiz Baird, recently found by Mr. E. 


the front edge, while in Gouldi it does. Shell of the same 
form but much larger than in Gouldiz. Length of shell 17, 
breadth -16 inch. 

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., May 20, 1871. 


Ant. XV.—On a New Difference Engine; by Guo. B. Grant. 


THE great labor and expense involved in the construction of 
teliable astronomical and veaeial tables by mental computa- 


i mee . . 
| he English government appropriated eighty-five 
AM. Jour S$ct—Tutrp Serres, Vor. II, No. 8—Aveust, 1971. 
8 


114 G. B. Grant on a new Difference Engine. 


thousand dollars for its construction, on the strong recommen- 
ation of a committee of the Royal Society, containing some of | 
the most eminent men of the time, but after years of study and — 
labor had been spent on it, the appropriations were stopped on | 
account of the indefinite expense. Though never completed — 
as a working machine, it proved the feasibility of the scheme. — 
Babbage’s idea was ‘carried out more successfully by Edward — 
Scheutz, and the two machines constructed on his plan are the 
only ones ever built for this purpose. One of these was bought — 
for the Dudley Observatory at Albany, but has been but little — 
used. The other was built by the British government in 1862, — 
and has since been extensively used in the calculation of life 
insurance tables.* 
he idea of contriving a machine for ae tables first — 
occurred to myself while laboriously computing a table for — 
excavation and embankment. Having never heard of either — 
Babbage’s or Scheutz’s engines, I imagined it an easy matter, — 
oe gave it a in disgust after some study. Last yea Ss heard 
f Babbage’s engine, became interested or and d ed a 


ss 


i Ne i i 


th 
lam indebted to Mr. John N. Bachelder of Cambridge, %& 
well as to Professors Eustis, Winlock and Whitney, of Harvard 


College, for encouragement and help — _ ~_ 

had charge of the Scheutz engine when 

owe and is one of AY few who have had dpc experi 
ine or this ¢ 


third, 
sage Pe the first order of differences In the same 


Accounts of Babbage’s engine may be found in the Edinburg Review, J 
1804 ees Fae Memoirs, v. 3, and in the inventor's work, “ Pa ssages 
from the Life of a Philosopher ;” short articles on the same in Tomlinson’s 

the ny iences ; ag! a Mag., 1865; Manufacturer and Builder, 
Timb’s Stories of Inventors, &e. Scheutz’s engine is described in “The Swedish 
Machine,” by Charles Babbage, in ‘The Manufacturer and Builds? 
ae 1870, and in detail in the British patent specifications, Oct. 17, 185 


G. B. Grant on a new Difference Engine. 115 


a second order can be formed from the first, a third from the 

second, and ultimately an order of differences will be reached, 

which is: constant or nearly so. For example, take a table of 

the cubes of the natural numbers, and forming the several 

orders of difference, it is found that the third order is invaria- 
Six. 


Table. 1st order, 2nd order. 3rd order. 
l 7 12 6 
8 19 18 6 
27 a 24 
64 61 
125 


It is plain that with nothing but the first terms 1, 7, 12 and 
6, the table might be constructed to any extent by simple addi- 
hon. A difference engine is nothing but a machine to operate 
this method, using several orders of differences, and a large 
number of decimal places. 

In logarithmic, trigonometrical, and in fact in the greater 


n 
h start must then be taken, and the table completed by a 
number of such operations, _ 
This engine, like both the others, consists of a calculating 
and a printing part. In the printing part, the calculated results 
are stamped into a sheet of lead, wax or other plastic substance, 
from which a stereotype plate is taken for printing the table, 
thus avoiding constant error in copying the numbers and set- 
Ung them up in type from manuscript. No description of this 
Part is given, as it contains nothing new of importance. 
; , The calculating part consists of the main wheels, A, on which 
the first terms are set up, the additions made, and from which the 


five inches in diameter, all turning on the sam ), in t 
a direction independently of each other, the axis being 
0 
They ‘are arranged in sets of two, three or more, according 
as the first, snehal ca higher order is designed to be constant. 
There are as many of these sets as there are decimal places in 
the largest number to be used. Hach wheel is furnished 
one edge with twenty teeth, and on the other with two cams, 
2 and a’, which project a little farther from the wheel than the 
ps e spaces between the teeth are stamped with the ten 
Tumerals, zero to nine, twice in succession. 


116 G. B. Grant on a new Difference Engine. : 


opposite each wheel ae the constant ones. They consist of | 
a catch 6 and hook c. ‘ 


the teeth of the wheel and — 


. 


carries it along. The catch prices over its wheel far enouge 4 


to strike the cam on the next wheel when it gets to it, and De — 
lifted out of the teeth by it, having added to its wheel the num 
ber of spaces that the cam is distant from F. As it is 2 
up, the back catches in the nick h, and prevents it falling back — 
on the wheel, so that it moves the rest of the stroke an : 
without moving the wheel. As the carriage comes back, the 
jection on the hook strikes the rod e and the hook is lifted 
out of the catch, letting it onto the wheel again. 2 
It is n that while one wheel is being added to, the © 
next wheel should not move. For this purpose the first stroke 
adds the first, third and odd orders to the numbers on the table, 
second, fourth and even orders, the odd orders being held firm by 
a clamp not shown. Meanwhile the rod e has been moved, 


G. B. Grant on anew Difference Engine. 117 


that the drivers belonging to the even orders are not released 
as the carriage comes back, but those belonging to the od 
orders, so that at the next stroke the even orders are added to 


draw it out when it springs back. As each nine on the wheel 
1 E the slip fis pushed out, and the catch 
P to the next place B drawn; and as the zero comes to E, the 


searing, ete., are omitted from the accompanying sketch, whic 
'S Meant merely as an outline drawing showing the principal 
arts only. 


_ The size of a completed machine would v with the capa- 
city. An engine of the sane capacity as that of Scheutz, 
Would be three feet long, twelve inches high, and eight inches 
Wide. The cost is estimated at from two to three thousand 


Cambridge, June 5, 1871. 


118 J. Trowbridge on a new form of Galvanometer. 


Art. XVI—A New Form of Galvanometer ; by Joun Trow- 
BRIDGE, Assistant Professor of Physics, Harvard College. 


of I=tan 9, or = sec?S. When the ratio of the length of 


the needle to the diameter of the coil is a very small fraction, 
the tangents, however, are closely proportional to the corres- 
ponding intensities. 


In Gaugain’s galvanometer 
where the plane of the cur 
rent is placed at a short dis 
tance from the axis of the 
needle, the intensities are di 


ne ae 


this position the needle is un 
sg affected by the current, and 1s 

acted upon merely by the earth’s magnetism. We now turn t 

plane of the current about a horizontal axis passing through 


_ the center of the needle as in the figure; A B representing the 


od. Trowbridge on a new form of Galvanometer. 119 


plane of the coil in its new position, inclined at an angle of 
90° —S% to the horizon. 
It will be readily seen that if A O represents the intensity of 
the current passing through the coil, OC will be the component 
& that will deflect the needle; but OC= 
3 AOcos$=Icos $. The intensities 
@ will therefore be proportional to the co- 
sines of the inclination of the plane of 
the current, measuring the angle from 
the vertical OC. 

he instrument with which I experi- 
mented had the following dimensions: 
The diameter of the circle around which 
the current passed was twelve inches, 
and the length of the needle 1-4 inches; 

; it was provided with long aluminum 
pointers. The inclinations of the plane of the current were 
tead from a vertical scale perpendicular to both the plane of 
the current and to the plane in which the needle moved. 

The manner of experimenting was as follows: The resist- 
ance of the battery—one Daniell’s cell—having been determined 
with care, and also the resistance of the circuit, the instrument 
Was used as a tangent galvanometer with the plane of the 
current vertical. . 


ae ee 


s a 090 | -014 oe 078 | -002 
at =; 158 | -016 a 139 | -003 
sage 16° - 226 | -026 al 195 | ‘005 
Se ree, 354. | 021 4 342 | -009 
ne = 428 | 028. | ak 422 | -022 
ee ° a 542 | 013 os 544 | “O15 
bias = a 701 009 aS 672 | -020 
eae 3 ee 325 | -015 a 785 | ‘025 


120 0. C. Marsh—Fossil Mammals and Birds 


Tt will be noticed that with large deflections the ratio of the 
cosines is nearer the ratio of the intensities than the ratio of the 
tangents. With smaller deflections, however, the ratio of the 
tangents is nearer that of the intensities than the ratio of the 
cosines. In the expression Icos $=CO=tan 9’, 

CO _ tan 9’ 
cos3~ cosS’ 
tiate I with respect to S we obtain 

dl _ 9 d. tan $’+sin $ tan S’ 
asa Tae 
cos? S 

It will be seen that the delicacy varies inversely as the cosine 
of the inclination decreases, or in other words, as the angle 
of the plane of the current with the vertical increases; the ver- 
tical component of the intensity increases whi orizontal 
component decreases. This vertical component thus renders 
the needle less sensitive to the horizontal component and dips 


or. I= if we differen- 


it. By diminishing the length of the needle, and providing it’ 


with long pointers, and also increasing the diameter of the cur 
cle around which the current passes, the effect of the vertical 
eye ee can be lessened. 

ith large deflections, therefore, this instrument appears to 
give closer results than the tangent galvanometer ; and therefore 
pa Es a deficiency in the latter instrument. By the cosine 


galvanometer many determinations of the intensity of the same — 


current can be made by forming a table of the values of the 
cosines of different angles of inclinations in terms of the deflee- 
tions of the needle, which currents, with a known resistance in- 


terposed produce. In the tangent galvanometer but one deter ~ 


mination can be made. 
Irrespective of the accuracy of this method, the instrument 
can be viewed as supplying a break in the literature of the 


subject. We have now in addition to the tangent galvanome 


ter and the sine galvanometer, a cosine galvanomete 
My thanks are due to Prof. Cooke, of Harvard 
the generous use of his apparatus for electrical measurem 


= 


Art. XVIL—WNotice of some new Fossil Mammals and Birds, 
Jrom the Tertiary Formation of the West; by O. C. MARSH. 


r. : 
College, for 
ents. 


rae Sea ae a. ay 


Jrom the Tertiary Formation. 121 


preliminary notice of the more important specimens is included 
in the present article. 


Arctomys vetus, sp. DOV. 


Fork river. This species was only about one-third the size of 
the modern Arctomys monaz Gm., and may at once be distin- 


Measurements. 
Length of lower jaw from condyle to base of incisor, 17°75 lines. 
Antero-posterior extent of four lower molars, - ------ 6G 
Depth of lower jaw below first molar, ee eee 2 4°5 se 
The specimens on which the species is based, were found by 
. J. W. Wadsworth and the writer, in the Pliocene beds, on 
the Loup Fork, in northern Nebraska. 


Meisor, there is a second, very fine, sharp groove. The external 
front angle is rounded, and the lateral face but slightly convex. 

he premaxillary suture forms externally an obtuse angie, with 
the apex forward, near the posterior face of the incisor. 


both jaws, the incisors are deeper than wide. 

Measurements. : 
qransverse diameter of upper incisor, ---------------- 1°6 lines. 
D Mte-posterior extent, ©. <2. 2222. - =. -=++-=--- 2° . 
en ~ of skull at premaxillary suture, .-------------- sa 
Tran h of lower incisor on are of curve,---------~---- 7. = 
y verse diameter at apex, ----- Fs a wie vues one * = 

Depth of lower jaw below first molar,....---.-------- 50: ¢ 


Antero-posterior extent of first three lower molars, - - -- - 3°5 


422 O. C. Marsh—Fossil Mammals and Birds 


The only known specimens representing this species were 
found by the writer in the Pliocene strata, near Camp Thomas, 
on the Loup Fork river. 


Sciuravus nitidus, gen. et sp. nov. 


vuride, and hence the present fossil may be referred pro- 
visionally to that group. The genus is apparently distinct from 
any known, and will be more completely defined in the 
description. The upper molars are composed essentially of two 
pairs of tubercles, with a minute intermediate cone on the outer 
edge. ere is a strong basal ridge in front, and the inner 
margin is bifid. The species was about the size of the common 
brown rat, Mus decumanus. 


' Sciuravus undans, sp. nov. 
The present species was somewhat larger than the preced- 
ing, but probably a near ally. A single specimen only can now 
oh ot Ag J. 4 Bing: 
c 


fo 
in question is part of a right lower jaw containing the incisors 
and nce 


smooth, and somewhat, convex, and the inner face, where ine 
two teeth meet, is mar y a succession of delicate wave-like — 
impressions. The tubercles of the molars are more prominent 

than in those of the last species. : 


Measurements. 
Length of portion of lower jaw, containing first three 
molars. 


Transverse diameter of third lower molar,......__---- ae 

Transverse diameter of lower incisor, 6 

This specimen was found by the writer at the same geological 
the same locality 


Johan: and near the same that afforded the species 


from the Tertiary Formation. 123 


Triacodon fallax, gen. et sp. nov. 


less be necessary to determine its true zoological position. The 
resent species was probably about two thirds the size of the 


Measurements. . 

Antero-posterior diameter of lower premolar, . ---- ---- 2°25 lines. 
Sverse diameter of same, -- - ; Fe oe) eas 
Height of anterior tubercle, ERE GE oy, 
Height of posterior tibercle,....cs0- conse- Seocen--- 16. * 
Height of inner tubercle, ce aR OS 


All the specimens supposed to pertain to this species were 
found by J. M. Russell and the writer, at Grizzly Buttes, near 
the base of the Uintah Mountains. 

Canis montanus, sp. NOV. 

The presence of a large Carnivore in the fossil fauna of the 

Green iver Tertiary basin, which could with comparative 


Viduals, differing somewhat in size. These various remains 


Species is robust, has a short compressed crown. The principal 
cusp is conical, with sub-acute edges, the anterior being about 
twice the length of the posterior, Behind the main cusp there 
18 a large triangular tubercle, with its apex exterior to the fore 


124 0. C. Marsh—Fossil Mammals and Birds 


g 
ei 
ip 4 
ie 4 
| 


and aft axis of the crown. In the canine tooth, the base of the 
crown forms a broader oval than in most of the recent Canide. 
Measurements. 


Antero-posterior diameter of last upper premolar, . --- --- 9° lines. 
Greatest transverse diameter of same,..-._...-.-.----- = iF 
Seetoe GF PINT CUED no enna te he ss Cee ‘ 
weGrgns OF postenor tulela. 3: 75 “ 
Antero-posterior diameter of canine at base of crown,--- E ‘ o-. 
Transverse diameter of same, .--. a 


e above sposimens were eionnd by H. B. dere a the 
Bes at Grizzly Buttes, Western Wyoming 


one palustris, gen. et Sp. Nov. 


Qu 
hee 
S 
a 
B 
ct 
® 
2 
7 
. 
40 
'S 
ty 
* et 
5 
= 
° 
4 
5 
Pha 
eS 
o 
ao 
A 
eS 
fa) 
ie 
om 
iq?) 
i. 
° 
La | 
wm 
hte 
ay 


Measurements. 
Length of portion of jaw containing last three upper mo- 
TER oo ae Sa had a .--- 10°5 lines. 
Antero-posterior es a second upper molar,.... 2°35 “ 
Transverse diameter of same,._.___.._.........---- 4° e 


The ore now fiutodiiing this species were discovered 
by Dr. J. V. A. Carter, and the writer, near Fort Bridger, 
Wr yensag 

Amphicyon angustidens, sp. nov. 

Another extinct carnivore, about as large as the nso a a 
species, and perhaps related to the same group, is represen 
by the anterior portion of a right lower jaw, containing the — 

ree premolars, and the canine. The ramus is slender, but — 
rather deep. The premolar teeth are low, and unusually com- — 


the posterior tee oe core developed het | in that species. 


From the Tertiary Formation. 125 


ements. 
Length of part of lower jaw containing four premolars,. 9°5 lines. 
Depth of jaw below last premolar Bisset 


2 


Width of jaw below last premolar, . 21." 
Antero-posterior diameter of last lower premolar, - - - - - - Mees 
Transverse diameter of same, -------- -- 1-25.“ 
ORL 0 C1OWi 6 iron ca di ke enn eek ani ee ree is 


is species was found by the writer, in the Miocene Shale, 
at Scott’s Bluff, on the North Platte river, Nebraska. 


Fosstn REMAINS OF BIRDS. 


Aquila Dananus, sp. nov. 

An extinct species of Eagle, nearly as large as the modern 
Golden Eagle (Aquila Canadensis Cass.), is indicated by the 
d portion of a left tibia, discovered during our explorations 
in the Pliocene beds of the Loup Fork river. The specimen 
shows, at its lower extremity, the peculiar fore and aft flatten- 
ing, and the oblique, tapering supra-tendinal bridge over a deep 


canal, so characteristic of the recent birds of prey belo to 
this genus. From the tibia of the Golden Lagle, eg raee a 
1 istin- 


hearly related species, the present fossil may » disti 
guished, aside from its inferior size, by the less concave inferior 
and posterior trochlear surfaces, and by the more prominent 
me well defined tubercle at the center of the ento-condyloid 

ace, 


Measurements. : 
Width of condyles in POM coca os swear nero 8° lines. 
Antero-posterior diameter of inner condyle,---------- 525 
Antero-posterior diameter between condyles,-.-- ---- 3°3 f 
Verse extent of outlet of canal below bridge,---- 2° 
* This . 
ee i Shiladelrbes peg Sciences, 1870, p. 11, and American 


: Philadel J 
Naturalist, vol. iv, p. 317. $ Synopsis of Extinct Batrachia, &c., p. 236. 


126 0. C. Marsh— Fossil Mammals and Birds. 


This unique specimen was discovered in July last by Mr. A | 
H. ing, in a Pliocene bluff on the Loup Fork river. The tt 


species is named in honor of Professor James D. Dana. 


Meleagris antiquus, sp. nov. 


species is at present represented only by a few fragments of the | 
ong 


skeleton, but am 


Measurements. 
Greatest diameter of humerus at distal end, 12° lines. 
Transverse diameter of ulnar condyle,_.........__-_- Ks 
Vertical diameter of same,....________. Ae sa 
Transverse diameter of radical condyle, 4:25 © 


The specimens on which this species is based were discovered a 
by Mr. G. B. Grinnell, of the Yale party, in the Miocene clay | 
ie : | 


y : 
deposits, of Northern Colorado. 


oo to the same bone in the Strigide, or Ow! family. 

he near resemblance is rendered es cially striking by the et 
dinal bridge, which is want | 

in this group, and in a few other birds with eo a 


tire absence of the osseous supra-ten 


W. M. Gabb.on the Vegetation of Santo Domingo. 127 


Measurements. 
Length of portion of tibia preserved, 15° lines 
meee 06nd vies in fronts. xcwscashnmbane~ ino ben 
Transverse anterior diameter of inner condyle, yee 
Transverse anterior diameter of outer condyle, --- ---- Se: ee 


This specimen, the only known representative of the species, 
was found by the writer last autumn at Grizzly Buttes, near 
Fort Bridger, Wyoming. 

Yale College, New Haven, June 12th, 1871. 


Art. XVIIL—WNotes on the distribution of the Vegetation of Santo 
Domingo; by W. M. Gass. 

Mucu has been said and written on the singular phenomenon, 
exhibited on a grand scale in our western prairies as we 
South America and elsewhere, of large treeless areas, strongly 
circumscribed, and covered with grass. Innumerable theories 
have been advanced to account for the absence of forest 
growths over these tracts, and the entire absence of even isolated 


ay tered savannas, as will be de- 
scribed thier ie Third, the south side of the island, outside 


The ea 
half of the valley is covered in part with a very deep black 


ley, lignum vite (Guayacan) abounds, and logwood (Campeachy) 4 
frequents the moist bottom. Throughout the Cactus and Acacia — 
ts, grass grows sparsely. : 
The mountains approach the coast, west of Santo Doming® — 
city, leaving small sinine only, until near the great bay of Oco® 
Kast of this broad spur is a strip of plains nearly thirty miles — 
wide extending to the eastern end of the island. The underly: | 


than at present. This stream runs rough a region of h 
rocks; and its débris, now spread over the country like a fan, 


ee a ee a ee 


W. M. Gabb on the Vegetation of Santo Domingo. 129 


is consequently a coarse gravel, gradually changing into a clay 
or sand, as the distance from the old mouth and coast line in- 
creases. Still further, where shore influences fade out, the same 
strata are continued, but instead of appearing as a loose gravel, 
they become calcareous, and, in the then deep sea, change to 
beds of coral limestone. 


puntia, a small Echinocactus is most common here. _ Here 
— reappears the lignum-vite with considerable quantities of 
Stic. 


130 A. E. Verrill on Starfishes and Ophiurians. 


Art. XIX.—Brief Contributions to Zotlogy from the Museum of 
Yale College. No. XV.—Descriptions of Starfishes and Oph — 
urvans from the Atlantic coasts of America and Africa; by 
A. HK. VERRILL. 


HE genus, (foniasier, as restricted by Dr. J. E. Gray in 1840, 
includes several beautiful species of starfishes, which are stil 
very rare and imperfectly known. Dr. Gray named three spe- 
cies, without giving descriptions sufficient for their identifica- 
tion, all of which were from unknown localities, and two of them 
were apparently known to him only from the rude figures of | 
Linck and Seba. I am unable to refer the two following species — 
to either of the species named by him. : 

Goniaster Americanus, sp. nov. 

Form pentagonal with deeply and regularly concave edges 
Radii as 1:1°8. Rays considerably less than half the diameter 
of the disk, triangular, tapering, with slightly incurved sides 
The disk is somewhat convex, especially at center, and covered — 
with rather large, polygonal plates, which are separated by lines 
of pores, and on the rays by small groups and circular clusters 
of granules. The plates, unless supporting a spine, are closely 
covered with small polygonal granules, with a well-marked lar 
ger series around the edge; those that bear spines have t 

arginal granules and two or more series of the smaller ones | 
around the base of the spine. In the center of the disk is 
single spine, around this are five larger ones, each of which 8 | 
the first in a row of 4 to 8 spines extending along the middle | 
of the ray, but usually interrupted by plates destitute of spines; — 
bordering the middle of the central row, on each side, there#® | 
a row of 5 or 6 similar spines; outside of these a row of 3 or? — 
smaller spines; and beyond these usually 1 or 2 spines; thus 4 
the middle region of each ray has a broad-oval group of spines; | 
broadest toward the center of the disk. -t 


Sai 


madreporic i 
takes the place of these. The upper marginal asa are 1410 — 


aa 


A. E. Verrill on Starfishes and Ophiurians. 131 


ginal plates 22 to each margin, the median ones smooth, con- 
vex, nearly twice as high as wide, the lateral edges straight and 
im contact; those toward the ends of the rays become rounded, 
about as broad as high, and the last four or five plates bear sin- 
gle, stout, blunt tubercles. The marginal plates are surroun 

y either one or two rows of granules. The plates of the 
lower surface are closely covered with polygonal, round-topped 
granules, smallest toward the edges of the plates; a few plates 
near the mouth bear one or two stout central tubercles; others 


have a smooth central area, perforated by one or more small 


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Similar pedicellarize of smaller size exist at the base of many — 


of the dorsal spine 


Mangular, obtuse, the last upper marginal plates larger than the 
others and more swollen. Plates of the upper surface smaller 


nd more numerous than in the p , and more coarsely 
and j arly granulated. Spines smaller, but much more 
humerous, the clusters scarcely separated covering most of 


the central part much larger than the others, in the form of small 
Tound Sibercive, No pthc re observed. Interambulacral 


132 A, E. Verrill on Starfishes and Ophiurians. 


spines arranged much as in the preceding, but more slender and 
less numerous, the outer ones forming two or three rows. 
Radius of disk 1:06; of rays 1°70; length of jongest spines 
‘17; diameter 12 of an inch. Color of dried specimens light 
orange-re | 
West Coast of Africa ,—Capt. W. W. Hall. Received from — 
the Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. 
Amphipholis abdita, sp. nov. — 
Disk small; arms much elongated, about 12 times the diam- 
eter of the disk, of nearly uniform diameter throughout the — | 
greater ~~ of their len ngt . | 
Six mouth-papille in each angle of the mouth, and two to | 
four miditions! small rounded papillee, or tentacle scales, nearthe | 
extreme outer angle. Two of the mouth-papille on each side — 
are aie close together, at about the middle of the edge of the | 
jaw; ter of these, which is about twice as wide asthe | 
inner, is flat, scarcely longer than wide, with the end obtusely 
rounded or truncate ; the inner one is scarcely wider than thick, 
oblong, rounded at the end; in one case these two papille are 
united ‘together. The third mouth- apilla is stout and rounded, 
obtuse, larger and longer than either of the others, separated 
front them m by a considerable interval, and brought close to the 
tooth at the end of the jaw, beyond which it projects inwardly 
or 


\ 


Sie eee f 


nae pinta the surface finely granulated. The lower arm-plates 
are separated by the side plates; the two first are longer that 
broad, pentagonal, the inner end forming an obtuse angle, the 
outer edge straight; the two next are about as wide as long; 
ones with the corners rounded or truncate; the followmg — 
nes are broader than long, somewhat octagonal, the outer and a 
bake edges longest and sae straight; beyond the middle ot 
e arm they are ntagon with an inner angle. 
the first five T uccialae tes is usually only a single — of tentacle: 
scales, which are small and rounded; on the succeedin. ng Jom mts | 
there are generally two pairs, one of them rar considerably 
smaller than the other, 
rae es three, on all the ead except the first, which has 
we Me aati blog 
ward 


C. U. Shepard—Meteorie Stone of Searsmont, Me. 138 


the middle, and a little concave to either side, so that the lateral 
portions are somewhat narrowed; the plates generally touch 
each other, but scarcely overlap, unless close to the base of the 
arms. The upper surface of the disk has been destroyed in 
the only specimens seen. Diameter of disk about 8 of an 
inch; length of longest arms (broken at the ends) 4 inches. 

Color in alcohol uniform light yellowish, when living tinged 
with greenish. 

Off Thimble Islands and Savin Rock, near New Haven, in 8 
to 6 fathoms, muddy bottom, living buried in the mud with one 
arm thrust out of its burrow. 

I have been aware of the existence of this species for several 
years, having on several occasions dredged a single detached 
am, but it was not until last autumn that I succeeded in obtain- 
ing a specimen with the disk, and even in this the covering of 
the dorsal side was destroyed. 

_ It is somewhat allied to A. gracillima (Stimpson), of S. Caro- 
lina, and has similar habits. The latter has more slender arms, 
four or five arm-spines, and different mouth parts. 


Ophiophragmus Wurdemanni Lyman, Catalogue, p. 132. 


lighter below. 

The arms are very long and slender. One of the largest has 
the arms 6 inches long, and the disk 4 im diameter Th 
sealing of the disk is variable, and generally coarser than in 

- Lyman’s type specimens. The radial shields are usually in 
contact. The under arm-plates, near the base of the arms, are 
emarginate and slightly bilobed. 


— 


ArT. XX.— Notice of the Meteoric Stone of Searsmont, Mame ; 
by CHARLES es SHEPARD, Mass. Prof. of Natural His- 
tory in Amherst College. 


For the particulars concerning the fall of the Searsmout 

meteorite I am indebted to Mr. E. B. Sheldon, postmaster of the 

f Searsport, and to the Republican Journal 
3 | 


134 C. U. Shepard-—Meteoric Stone of Searsmont, Me. 


ion, like the report of a heavy gun, followed by a rushing | 
ound resembling the escape of steam from a halen The 


gravel; and the shattering of the stone was produced by its : 


finally meeting three large pebbles, (each about four pounds in| 
weight) in the course of its descent. “Mrs. Buck, who saw it 
fall, or rather saw the scattering of the soil on its entering 
the ground, was reading at the time in the house, distant 
about thirty rods from the spot. The time was 15 minutes past | 
eight. She first noticed a report about as loud as that of a — 
heavy gun, or of a rock-blast, such as they hear from a lime 
quarry situated about a quarter of a mile distant. This was | 
followed by a rumbling noise, as of a number of carriages — 
rp. Beton a bridge. She rose and looked out from a back — 
en re-crossed the room to the front door, where, after the §— 


Through the kind assistance of Mr. Sheldon, I am in posses 4 
sion of the largest remaining mass of this meteorite. Its weight 
is two pounds. Fully one-half of its surface is coated with - 
the original crust. Its shape would seem to denote an ov: 
subconical figure in the original mass, with a flattish base, 50 
as on the whole to have approached the shape of the famous 
Duralla (India) stone, (Feb. 18, 1815), now preserved in the 
British Museum.* The coated part of my specimen, which 
__ * Of which I possess an excellent model, presented me while that stone was 

still in the collection of the East India House. 


* 


C. U. Shepard—Meteorie Stone of Searsmont, Me. 135 


are wholly without luster. 
he thickness of the crust is more than double that found in 
any stone belonging to my collection,—amounting at least to 
one-sixteenth of an inch. ‘The stone is rather below the average 
In respect to frangibility. The coloris bluish-white, and remark- 
ably uniform, except from feeble stains of peroxide of iron, 
and from silvery white, metallic points, produced by the meteoric 
iron. ore than half the stone is in the form of rounde 
grains, mostly with roughened or drusy surfaces, and of a size 


rather loosely coherent, and without visible crystalline structure. 
Indeed, as seen by the microscope, it is often porous, reminding 
one of the siliceous skeletons obtained in fluxing certain sili- 
cates in blowpipe experiments. This white mineral may form 
& quarter or more of the stone. ‘ : 
__, the rounded globules are bluish-gray, rarely with a faint 
tnge of yellow, vitreous in luster and translucent, with two 
imperfect oblique cleavages. On the whole, they resemble the 
unaltered grains of boltonite more than any of our terrestrial 
minerals ; and differ only in their greater tendency to assume 
rend Sp thickly scat- 
ute points of bright meteoric iron are very thickly 
tered Seta the Ban A few grains of troilite, the largest 
of the size of small kernels of Indian corn (maize), likewise 
Present themselves; together with a single blackish mass of 
Similar dimensions, which on being touched with the point of 


Traife was found to be soft, and left a bright metallic streak 
4tis probably a plumbaginous aggregate. Sp. gr. of the agere- 
gte=3e¢ 5 


136 Letter from Dr. B. A. Gould. 


9, 1858; but the latter has a much thinner crust, a dar ‘i 
colored general basis or gangue, much larger globules, and at 3 
the same time, it is a firmer stone. 7 

There is even an internal similarity between the Searsmont 
meteorite and that of Duralla. They approach each other im — 
the thickness and general character of the crust; but the whole — 
of the latter is darker, and the regularity in the shape of its | 
globules is less marked. ; ES 

Should I succeed in recovering a portion of the now widely 
scattered fragments of this interesting stone, I shall enter upol 
a more detailed examination of its character. 


Letter to the Editors from Dr. B. A. Gouin, Director of the 
Cordoba Observatory, dated Cordoba, April 26, 1871. 

(Concluded from page 80.] 

The magnificence of the Milky Way in this vicinity is indescribable, sur 


m 2 

whether with or without astronomical information. en as was my oe 
for a photographic equipment before leaving home, it has been a hundred-fold 
increased since I began the survey of this geous of all the regions 


cts. i 
e news from the Kclipes-observang 60 long and anxiously expected— — 
just beginning to arrive; our mail facilities having been sadly interfered with : 
by the quarantine, established at Rosario, which has for more than two months — 
Slacod an absolute interdiction upon all personal communication wi 


posite character, although this idea met with suc 
hi 


cut off this part of the exhibition at those few stations 
have been received here. You may imagine with what eager interest we. 
awaiting the arrival of more detailed accounts from Europe or the 
Sennen 7 : 
You have unq d of the fearfu 


ye unquestionably hear I pestilence which has bee 
: ecm: ag capital of this republic. The yellow fever, which broke oul 
_ there at the close of January, has made such ravages that al] commerce ha 


Letter from Dr. B. A. Gould. . 187 


been suspended, banks and public offices are closed, and not less than 3ths of 
the population have fled to the beg i The gates of the only practicable 
road to the interior of the country have been closed by a absolute interdic- 
tion of travel which the Bec agt hs auchar ities of Rosario have succeeded in 
ee, otwiths standing the fever appears to hav e bast purely loval, and 
there is no authentic accoun nt of the di sease being wenicnasented | ina single 
ea f fi ter of the city. A few fatal cases 
have occurred where the patient left the city after contracting the infection, 
but the great majority in such cases have recovered. Within the city limits 
of Buenos Aires, ie mo talit ity has been terrific, reaching at one time a daily 
average of 500 in Sopalation reduced, by the flight of all who could escape, 
to a number pcthably te not much, if at all, exceeding 50,000.—T he official re- 
ports give a total of more than 15 .000 s from yellow fever since the 
middle of February up to which time re feta, pala es a restricted to a single 
ward and seldom amounted to more eight or tena day. At first, too, 


the bet e€ at 
criminately, and in all parts of the city. The disease is at present on the 
ane quite rapndly, and che ieeeel jain are a to their posts, so 
that we are in daily receipt of more encouraging a 
ong the minor evils of this fearful “Seiler tate been the financial ir- 
regularities from ns ch not only all government institutions, but likewise all 
commercial and social elation , have suffered. Even the Observatory has not 
— aped its share of these, although all public officers have done = r best in 


its behalf, and have shown a most gratifying and sweet interest. The 
citizens and = of Cordoba, too, have shown themselves np nee of 
aiding us on all occasions and in ev ery way, and the : Olan has suffered 


decidedly te ine other public institutions in this exceptional condition of 


A scientific faculty is now rasa ing in this ancient university ; a the 

professors of Chemistry, Botany, and Mineralogy have arrived from Germany 

and are already engaged in “the ir respective researches. The flora of 
Tegion seems to be a characteristic one, but to contain a pecu uliarly smal] num- 
The professor of botany is s making exte ay collections, from 

ums will doubtless profit in good ti 

Before this reaches you, I trust that not only will the a have been 
completed 'by the erection of the portion which left the United States in Jan- 

ary . * 


; yo a of any good man who has a few thousand dollars which he i 
wal zouk to contribute to the advancement of Astronomy, please tell him that 
w if any ways in which they could be so effectively bestowed, 


a 
& 
a 
2 
a 
4 
5 
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y- tronomical material 

Sort, to which the photographic eto is specially adapted Sob ew toe be 

out it i e * 

ured, can sd elaborated at any eubsequent time and the work repeated ri 
tors. 


138 Scientific Intelligence. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysics. 


was less refrangible than F'; that in the green was near E. a 
Huggins has observed the spectrum of this planet with a 15-inch — 


=r 
=] 
o 
° 
Laur) 
= 
_ 
q 
io) 
rs 
5B 
n 
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° 
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5 
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2 
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3 
act 


ng Matters—Vierorpr has sue 
roscope to erminy | 
To determine the |_ 


Chemistry and Physics. 139 


cial use in examining faint positive* spectral lines. : 
In another paper the author points out a method of applying 


one of the slits, for example the upper, has a colored glass or 
ese absorbing medium placed in front of it, the spectrum 


of the light will gradually diminish until it becomes exactly equal 
for the two halves of the spectrum at a given part or region of 


once for all. The author promises hereafter a work on the appli- 
cation of the spectroscope to quantitative chemical analysis.—Die 
Anwendung des Spectral-Apparates fir Messung und Vergleich- 
ung der Starke des farbigen Lichtes, Tubingen, 1871; Berichte 
der Deutschen Chem. Gesellschaft, 4ter Jahrgang, No. 6, Pp. a. 


* To avoid cireumlocution, it seems desirable to employ the terms positive and 
negative, to denote respectively bright or dark lines or bands.—w. 6. 


140 Scientific Intelligence. 


3. On the heat of neutralization of organic and inorganic | 
bases soluble in water.—J. Tuomsen in Copenhagen, has published | 
the principal results of a recent investigation of the quantities of 7 
heat evolved in the neutralization, of different bases of the same | 
acid. ‘These researches have led to the remarkable result that the | 


is 18750°; that of Ag,O 14040°. The author infers from this 

result that the chemical character of the process of neutralization — 

is different in different cases. Thus the first named eight bases 
with 


am 
analogous to an alkaline hydrate. In conclusion, the author prom 
ises an investigation of the thermic relations of the organic base® 
— Berichte der Deutschen Chem. Gesellschaft, 4ter Jahrgang, P 
308. we 


Il Grotocgy anp Natura. History. 


1, Currents o the Oceans,—Mr. James Crott, in the Philosopht 
eal Magazine for 1870, volume xxxix, sustains the view that the 


o L. 
think rightly, that the superficial action of the trades is not 
cient cause for v 


rent year by the Royal Geographical Society. from which we «ite 
his Bho fee Fig after stating 4 siggest it principles on which be 


Geology and Natural History. 141 


A vertical circulation is maintained in the Strait of Gibraltar 
by the excess of evaporation ‘in the Mediterranean over the 
t 


a) 
the two, so that a deep inflow must take place to restore the equi- 
ae assumed to be the case in the Bo 


sam 
phorus and Dardanelles. 

A vertical circulation must, on the same principles, be main- 
tained between polar and equatorial waters by the difference of 
their temperatures; the level of polar water being reduced, and 

Ww 


lve, since it extends to the whole depth ot the water, while the sec- 
ond effects, in any considerable degree, only the superficial stra- 
tum.) Thus a movement will be imparted to the upper stratum of 
Oceanic water from the equator toward the poles, while a move- 


ead 


not m 
Which cannot be accounted for in any other way than by an under- 
= of polar water toward the equator. Further, under particu- 
br circumstances, a yet greater degree of cold is brought by gla- 
Cial currents into the Temperate zone: thus giving ‘inet indi- 
Cation of a general movement of deep water from the poles toward 
ua 


oO . 
toward it being not so much propelled into it by the Gulf Stream, 
48 drawn into it from an area of which the or ; 

oo. if at all, above the normal. On the other hand, the Gulf 


142 Scientific Intelligence. 


North Atlantic, of which the Trade Wind constitutes the primum : 
mobile: a large part of its flow returns directly backward into — 


The view which Dr. nrncerest phi that the movement of — 
the ocean affects the whole body of dei to its very bottom, is 
recognized by the writer in his Report on Crustacea of the Wilkes 7 
Exploring Expedition, (4to, -1618 pp., 1852, this Journ., Il, xv, 7 
sere and the general system in this circulation is there pointed i 3 

—this system according with the views previously held by the — 
Getic meteorologist, W. C. Redfield. The conclusions are 7 
sustained by facts relating to the temperature of the ocean ob | 
served in the course of the cruise of the of i 
mentioned, and others from various sae presented on an isother- 


on 
S) 
i} 
Q 
e 
= 
et 
o 
® 
ii 
5 
. 
Qo 
+o 
—_ 
Be 
QO 
ag, 
a8 
las] 


y Dr. Carpenter. Giv 4 
and south movement, advoonted ay fs nd ter” the revolution 


secondly, whenever, in the flow of sa ee they approach the 
continents, where the de epth diminishes, the rate of flow will be F- 
Seana in abetted (approximately) to the decrease % depth; . = 

mes the stream east not only of Nort rica and q 


and of Australia; and also that in the higher lat: 
nose west ‘of South America. ae Gulf — and all these 


is an Indian ocean current the origin of ¢ t in the South 
Atlantic up the west side of Africa, though contributing to It 
r. Carpenter also combats Mr. 8 n, with regard @ 
the “thermal work of the Gulf Stream.” J. D. D. 
2. On the“ Benches,” or Valley Terraces, of British Cote 


by Marr. B. Beecstz, Chief Justice of British Columbia,— 

lowing extracts from this paper are selected from the Proce 
of the Roy. Geogr. Soc. for Feb. 27, 1871.—It is perhaps scart 

possible for any person who has never seen Fraser River, or ob 


Geology and Natural History. 143 


tained an accurate description of it, if any verbal description can 


be accurate, to form an idea o 


ser River so soon as the delta is left, as far as I have traveled up 
it, i, e, full 400 miles, and then the benches are seen running on, 
miles ahead. Wherever the formation has a chance of showing it- 
self from Hope upward, i. e. wherever it is not interrupted by 


Thave traveled, viz: Fort Shepherd to Fort Colville, the formation 
18 Just as distinct and striking as on Fraser River, an am in- 


€ benc 
the direction of the nei hboring stream, But I suspect that they 
. h rm- 


oy its general inclination—it mi id, incline * confo 
1 wi stream, as a general rule. For instance, it 1s very 


l ru 
eae for ditches—which, of course, always have some fall, 
. oe their fall varies extremely from an — in a mile to an 


144 Scientific Intelligence. 


striking. Speaking from memory, I should say there were at least 
five or six different benches, apparently as level, green, and well 
defined as billiard tables, on the east bank, and a still greater 


neighborhood, which I should say is on the east side, and which I 
should judge to be 500 or 600 feet above the Fraser. : 
There are, I should think, on the fort side (west bank of the 


and from their regularity and contiguity—being generally narrow, 
and differing only a few feet i 
and striking appearance : 
the hillside gradually. 


* . 


of the continent,” raisin 
s and mountain: 


Da al ie i ba i aa ae alu Ss 


Se ee Le ES AER ery se ae 


n 
excavating force of the stream 


Geology and Natural History. 145 


covers a large part of North America, north of the Ohio, and exist- 
ing i i 


ar 
ornot); and thus such flats, while the sea has its present level, 
a single river at all heights, from a few feet above 


Stream and being such very nearly as actually exist between flood 
level and low-water level. 

art of the continent be raised 50 feet, the abrading or 

s would be increased; the low- 

Water channel would be accordingly deepened by abrasion, and a 

Ww ground or lower flat would also be produced with the 


t the nature of the bottom, etc.; thus with a single eleva- 
tion of 50 feet, terraces may be made at all heights above the se 
50 feet to or more, according to the height of the head- 


j Incidental to such a system of river changes. They are evi- 
shees that the stream has excavated its bed to a lower level 


Team in its diferent parts, an : : 
a have put a limit to omaiaten or occasioned intervals of 
on, 
Glaciers,—The Philosophical Magazine for June, (pp. 485- 
8) contains a translation of a valuable paper on Glaciers from 
ne oendorii’s Annalen, by Arserr Hum of Zurich. T he follow- 
"8 Paragraphs are from pages 495, 496. 


AM. Jour, Sci.—Turrp Serres, Vor. 1, No. 8.—Aveust, 1871. 
& 10 


* 


146 : Scientific Intelligence. 


M. Grad ascribes to the freezing of the infiltrated water in the 
capillary fissures, not only the enlargement, but also the “ crys- 
tallographic orientation” of glacier-ice, discovered by Bertin, and 

by MI 


crystalline structure; amorphous glass can yield the same phenom- 
enon through strains forced upon it by external pressure. It 


sophical Magazine Sir John Herschel conjectured a parallel pier 
ment of the optic axes, but not on grounds corresponding with M. 


en sufficiently considered in the calculation. One of these ree 
inary britt 


Geology and Natural History. 147 


i 


: gree perfectly. : 
planation of glacier-motion given by Mr. Moseley (Phil. Mag., Jan. 


Ney eRe a a Tele Pe NEES aN Ne ee fos ae 
ae e 
et 
=. B 
: = B 
ee 
ag 
bo] 
<_ 
oOo 
m 
oO 
9°] 
=) 


Sit 8 aaa eemirg: GA Fae, 1a ed Ie eee Res A= ee ages 


ion. 
vm ave not the remotest intention to summarily reject Mr. Mose- 
€y’s views; but I thought it admissible to state what at present 


yents of the interior temperature of glaciers, give his views 
better foundation. 

8 On Sigillaria, Calamites and Calamodendron.—Dr. J. W. 
eon, in the Q. J. Geol. Soc. for May, 1871, discusses the 


pon. e tissues of the Sigillarie, and the character of the 
8 (Trigonocarpum and Cardiocarpum) which very often 
pa 


“ (8) Mm: ‘ el 
ing over the interval between the higher Acrogens ai 
mites on one side and the Lepidodendron on the other) an 


148 Scventifie Intelligence. 

the Gymnosperms. The Calamites, according to Dr. Dawson, are 

face of the stems. . But other fossils marked externally like Cala- 
: : ‘ jong 


Calamodendron. The Calamoden often have a considerable 
thickness of woody sg about the pee? jointed internal 
axis, consisting of woody tissue in wedges separated by interven 
ing tracts of eilgiant tissue (medullary rays according to William- 
son); and they are therefore classed by Dr. Dawson with Gymnos- 
perms. 
Padi makes the line from Sigillaria to Lepidodendron to 
order, Lepido ees. Syringodendron, Clathraria, 
Seek Rhytidolepis ; y and the line from Sigi illaria to Equi- 
setum to in — er Calamopitus (of Williamson), 
Bornia, Calami 
6. Le piedene and Sigillarie.—In a paper read before the 
Royal Society, June 15, Blinc W. C. Wi. LIAMSON es the 


structure of specimens of. nd appears to 
make good the conclusion ri it has an imperfect exogenous struc- 
ture. He observes that it has a a — a axis, which is 


vessels, but of smaller size, and arran me vertical radiatin g lami 
which are separated by short vertical piles of cells believed 2 
be medullary rays. In a transverse s section the intersected mouths 
of the vessels form radiating lines,” and the structure is pro 
nounced an early type of an exogenous cylinder. rom 
ae alone the vascular bundles going to the leaves are given 


He describes Stigmaria (“ well-known,” he says, “ to be a root 
of Sigillaria,”) as having “a cellular pith without any trace of a 


two distinct sets o rimary and secon ars medullar rays.” 

Other facts stated tend to show that these plants are of the Lepr 
dodendroid type, and Prof. Williamson therefore includes t 

Lepidodendroid and Sigillarian plants in acommon family, making 
them, along with the Calamitee, to constitute an Zeogenous divr 
sion of the vascular Cryptogams, while the Ferns belong to > 
Endogenous division, “the former uniting “the ee with 
the Exogens, through the Cycadex and other Gymn ; and 


of He sdererg corals in Littleton, N. H. New ampshire 


of a peauieis character. Professors H. D. and W. B. Rogers sup- 
Kroon at one time they had found Silurian fossils in the 
ountain Notch, but afterward withdrew the opinion. 


Geology and Natural History. 149 


The limestone containing these corals has been traced for about 
cis the and appears to be duplicated by a Si, aed fold. It 


— the Fuvosites a and a poser sater4 The wal 


phremaog and its supposed continuation into The 
ew Hampshire gen is fifty-five miles southeasterly from the 
Canadian. As the associated rocks are somewhat similar, it is 
om that the two iabetonea are of the same age. Mr. Billings 


ponds with the — Hteterbeng series 0 fossil 
m Owl’s Head, wn to Professor Hall by the writer sev- 
eral years since, _ sree to be the peculiar Atrypa reticularis 


of the Upper Helderber erg. With our present information it is 
om 3. to say that Helderberg fossils have been pe ~ in 
+ 
maps 
Fossil Coal plants from the Aliat ; by Dr. res 
Gan ee om Cotta’s “ Der Altai,” in course of publication).— 
The coal plants here noticed were brought by Dr. Cotta from the 
Museum of Barnaoul, They are mostly of described species al- 
teady recognized there by Eichwald and others. The species 
ous d ec are Equisitites Socolowski Eichwald, Anarthro- 
a delig ns Gipp., Cyatheites Miltoni Artis, An wlaria 
longifolia Bist, Cyclopteris orbicularis Brgt., Sphenopteris an- 
a Sa hon Lepidodendron Serlii Brgt.; fa Pterophylium 


species is not a solitary case. — 1 
trated by three Tishogtaphie plates. Dr. genre remarks in 
ing that the 22 names are not Permian, and that they belong to the 


i Feliminan ner ort on the Vertebrata discovered in the Port 
Kenne dy Baus Cece by. Prof. E. D. Core, (Proce. Am. Phil. sep 
Pril 7, 1871). —This p r, mention of which is made in vol. i, 

Page 384, of this J a7 Chee 1871), contains descriptions ‘of 
8 agg of Megalonyx, MM. loxodon, M. Wheatleyi, M. dissimilis 
cays; M. sphenodon , M. tortulus, aan 2 Hirani, bards 
cinus Cope, Juculus? Hudsonius Zimm., Hesperomys ——— 

= Arvicola Giccthon Cope, A. tetradelta id., A. didelta id., A. in- 
(Pluie id. A, pacdee id ; A. hiatidens id. ; Brethizon cloacinum 


150 Scientific Intelligence. 


id. ; Lepus sylvaticus a poe esha (a genus near Lepus, 
Cope) palatinum ; Sealo ?; ? Vespertilio : 
Americanus ; me "Us Americans, , T. Haysii Leidy; Equus 

; Bos } In al 


can tropical fri 3 Nort erican ‘Arctic, 11 are common to 
both hemispheres; and 9 are of uncertain regional relations. Prof. 
Cope concludes with a discussion of the relation of the species to 
the earlier American fauna, the geographical and other changes of 
a 1. Winknoort and the origin of the cave. 
orthite ; Prof. How.—Winkworthite is a borate oc- 
ink 


H 18:00, whence the ratio, 88, i, 4B, 11¢ 
Ulexite has been found in Nova Bent tia, in gypsum, at Clifton 


rry, Windsor ; acne Trecothick’s Qua Three Mile 
Plains; Winkworth ; Newport "Station. Cryptomorphite, in Y Glan 
ber salt in gypsum ae Clinton n Qua arry. eee) in ne m al 


Sora, and Noel.— Phil. 7 on April, 1871. 

Trinkerite.—A fossil resin, described by TscHERMAK, CoD 
crtis over 4 p. c. of bem oh from an Eocene coal be d, at Car- 
pano in Istria. This sulphur-bearing resin has been sbeerval also, 
by T. Niedzwiedski, at Gams, near Hieflau in Styria, imbedded in 
a dark colored rock of the eae pSareege formation.— Bulletin 
of the K. Akad. Wien. a 87. 

12, Arran _— ment Jor ©: Toss  artzntion of the es wers = 
able 


ened so as to pater 2 to the gorge of the peor 


at the base of the ext ps: jee back of the now withering stigma; _ 
the t 1 The 


transve sana dehiscent anthers are now widely open. 


Geology and Natural History. 151 


of Chlorococcus has 
surface of a liquid, 

name of Huglena; a third, ormin 

slime upon old walls, 

fth, Vaucheria ; a sixth, Sehid- 


rie products, and a study of their life-history, leads to 
some a that they are all (more or less) stag 
“a "te common source, which it is the object of the present 
Which ha; ss as the monad, or pin-point, source of life, 
Test ag .been pointed out by Dr. Bastian and others as the ear- 
Test. which we recognize living matter. : 
bservati r to commence this investigation I will append a few 
‘vations I have made on various forms of Paramecium, and 
A deayor to show that it constantly transforms to Vorticella, 
0 passes to Callidina elegans, thus tracing 
Some ¢ growth by development from the simp 
me of the more complicated animaleule or Entomostraca. 


152 Scientific Intelligence. 


sects may be considered as composed of but four segments. This 

memoir is illustrated by two plates and several wood-cuts. __ V- 
15. Seaside Studies in Natural History ; by Exzzazetu ©. A 

assiz and ALEXA Agassiz. Second edition, 1871. (James R. 


of the subject. , moreover, the only popular work 
many of the most interesting marine animals of our shores afe 
described and It is, therefore, gratifying to s at 


work has been so we 
In this edition but few changes have been introduced. These are 


names have been added. , 
16. Keport on the Brachiopoda obtained by the U. 8, Coast 
Survey Hep of L. F. De Pourtales, with a Re 
vision of the Craniide and Discinide ; by W. H. Datt.—Bulle- 
tin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. iii, No. 1, Cam 


paper. v. 
1%. Arrangement of the Families of Mollusks ; e THEODORE 
Gitt. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, February, 187 1,—In 


? * 
view of the wide diversity of opinion among zodlogists concerning 
t t an 


scheme that can be proposed at present will be generally adop 
Yet we are constantly approximating to a true natural classifica- 


_ gations that have recently been undertaken. The author of the 


Se the Tee from the condensers u: 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 153 


— work fully acknowledges the provisional character of the 
angement which he has adopted, and anticipates many changes 
ft 


some six months before its actual publication. It is; never- 


has been published hitherto. It gives in a very convenient form 


has been followed. But suc imperfections are of compa ratively 

small i importance i in view of the uses for which this “ arrangement” 

is intended. It is accompanied by a useful list of authors ak an 

alphabetical index to the names of the classes, orders, and ree! 
ill admits 27 orders and 356 6 families 


New, (Proc. Ac. N. ‘So. Philad., 18 ae. Liodon perc Cope 
(a oe d from the N. Jersey Cretaceous) ; Zygorapha micro- 
9ypha id., (of the family Adocide) from the New Jersey Cretace- 
nisi atapleur a ponderosa Cope, Cretaceous of N. Jersey ; the 
bed of Grote er estan macrorhynchus Harlan, from the upper 


19, ie oe a Fron ges.—Mr. H. J. Carter, whose researches 

on Sponges, confirming the observations of Prof. ames-Clark, 
hed ny ean on Bee e 70, has an extended art. rticle on the sub- 
ject in the Annal d Magazine of Natural History, for July, 
sah (LV, so = iustrated by two plates 

a omologies of some of the Cranial bones of the 
Da, ti on the systematic arrangement or the class ; by E. 
D.Corx. (Proc. Amer. Acad., xix, 194-247.) 


II. MISCELLANEOUS ScrENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Note to the Article on a new attachment to the Lanteri, 
on page 71, From a letter to the Editors dated, Hoboken, N. J. 


—s the rays to the screen ee a silver A enenadag 


154 | Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


summer, aie in the instrument which you have des ribed I have 


ours, &e, ENRY Morro 
Note to the Article on the he of rhe fice? to the 
detterniss Steen of Astronomical data; by Asapa Havi.—Mr. Da- 

vid Trowbridge of Waterburgh, New York, hae called my atten- 


the photographic method t o determine the times of contact ina 
solar eclipse as early as 15 854. Professor Bartlett’s observations 
were published in Gould’s Astronomical Journal, vol. iv, p. 33. 

. HL 


3. On the Color of Fluorescent Solutions ; by Henry Morrox, 
-D.—We have from Dr. Morton a pa per for the next number 
this —- describing experiments of his which — the 


nium, e 
oo Soa blue, identical with that developed by acid 
Salts of qui 
Indianapolis Meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Seience, Aug. 16, 1871.—According to a circular 
issued by the Local Committee, the first session will be ‘held at 
the Academy of ay at 10 o'clock a. m., when a reception will 
= to ie by his Excellency, Conrad Baker, ‘Governor of 


upon their arrival, egister pie names at the office of t Psat at 
the State House, where th be furnished with member’s tickets, and such 
beri ime eng y be desired in regard to a modations, e e citizens 

their desire to extend hospitality to the members re are like- 
wise ample hotel accommodations, and sial arrangem' be made with 
hotel and boar house — sige for reduced rates. It is therefore pecan 
aga eg that persons ing to be present, will notify the 


J 
te is wes rman tics. oe as pie as practicable, and when possible, soe 


ae iiber die Fortschritte der Chemie, ete. Unter Mitwirkung yon 
= 7. Bh Al Naumann, F. Nice, F. Rose, herausgegeben von Adolph 
a — i - Erstes Heft. Giessen, 1 871. 3 


AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[THIRD SERIES] 


eee 


Ant. XXI.—On the Testimon 

: ‘mony of the Spectroscope to the truth of 
the Nebular Hypothesis; by Professor DANIEL Kirkwoop, of 
Bloomington, Indiana. 


ere and that of Andromeda have been the last stronghold 
a os nebular theory ; that is, the idea, first thrown out by the 
et Herschel, of masses of nebulous matter in process of con- 


pe. The. Ww 
tury would have been bold enough to fe 
: physical constitution of the heavenly 


ination of the elements of which they are composed, d 
€ med a scientific enthusiast. This, how- 
‘ver, and more than n actually accomplished. In 


AM. Jour Sct.—Turep Serres, Vor. II, No. 9.—SePr., 1871. 
il 


156 T. C. Mendenhall on the Sensorium. 


the hands of Huggins, Secchi, Young, and others, the spectro- 
scope, that marvel of modern science, has yielded satisfactory 
testimony not only in regard to such stars as are reached by our 
unassisted vision, but even respecting the ete nebule, 
apparently on the outskirts of the visible crea A detailed 
account of these wonderful achievements ae not compat 
our present purpose. Such results, however, as bear 


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was but recently believed, oe remote sidereal clusters; 
but their light undoubtedly emanates from matter in a gaseous form. 


orm. 

4. The spectroscopic analysis of the light of several comets 
reveals a constitution similar to that of the gaseous nebule. 

The spectroscope, then, has demonstrated the present existence 

of immense nebulous masses, such as that from which La 

supposed the solar system to have been derived. It has shown, 
moreover, @ progressive change in their sires structure, 2 
accordance with the views of the same astronom In short, 
the evidence afforded by spectrum analysis in Padé of the neb- 
ular hypothesis is cumulative, and of itself sufficient to givé 
this celebrated theory a high degree of probability. 


tienen i % 


XXII.— Experiments on the time required to communieale : 
grein ref to the Sensorium, and the reverse; by T. ©. MEN 
DENHALL, Columbus, Ohio. 


I PRoposE in this paper to give : few of the results of somé 
experiments, carried bur during the last fall and winter, i 


Us 


* Monthly Notices of the R. A. S, yol. xxv, p. 156. 


T. C. Mendenhall on the Sensorium. 157 


to watch this opening, and to close the circuit, by preae pe a 
e card. € 


Sponse are registered upon the band of paper by two dots, sep- 
arated by an interval approximating perhaps to one-fifth of an 
meh, Now by carefully measuring this interval and comparing 
r the time occupied by the somewhat complex operation of 
S perceiving the object and acting in response to that per- 
on. I introduce the exercise of judgment by giving 1m 


wa hand, and when a red ecard appears he is to close with his 
+ Dan 


figures, ; in 
. 1 a8 much as possible, as a circle and a triangle, operating 
: with them in the same manner as in case of two colors. To 
os eg the time intervening between the appea 


. . . b 
which if they exist, however, are destroyed by 
in z determinations concerning the exercise of 


158 T. O. Mendenhall on the Sensorium. : 


blow upon the head, face or hand, as I might desire. The 
of the instrument which came in contact with the skin consisted 


example following, that it required less ti 
the blow was received upon the forehead than when it was t& 


than usual; that in his occupation—that of a chemist—he cor 
tinually used it as a means of testing the fineness of powders 
With different persons as many as two thousand individual 
trials have been made and the errors of experiment eliminated; 
as far as possible, by the method of averages. I give below? 
table of the reduced results in one case, in which each number 
is the mean of the results of from forty to eighty trials. As 
was anticipated, different individuals furnished in some case 
strikingly different results, but with the one exception give? 
above, they all followed, I believe, the order of the following 


0. N. Rood—Amount of Time necessary for Vision. 159 


Case of A. G. F. Time in seconds. 


Response to appearance of a white card, ia gO 
voles = electric spark, . -- 203 
bee & ROUNd. ka cows ee ee 138 

“ “ touch upon the forehead,. - -- Pag 
tee ie ee 17 


anid sce eer ee 

when required to decide between white and red,.. °443 

nape aia Seas circle and triangle, -494 

: Se “ tones C and E,..- 3 

* 5 a oe ve “ CandCabove, *428 

pe penmente of a similar nature to those which I have here 
recorded have been made by several European experimentalists, 
but none, I believe, in exactly the same manner; and as 
subject seems worthy of attention I hope to pursue it further. 
Columbus, Ohio, May, 1871. 


Arr. XXIIL.—On the amount of Time necessary for Vision ; by 
Ocpen N. Roop, Prof. of Physics in Columbia College. 


’ssume, in optical and physiological experiments, that the dis- 
charge of a Leyden jar is an instantaneous act; but at the same 
ume, by the determination of the greatest suitable resistance, it 
"ul be possible to limit the discharge to its least possible dura- 
fon."* Th d 


= Subjective optical phenomena: for example, for the 

_ Meognition of Loewe’s rings (using cobalt glass); also the _— 
lhe Stucture of the crystalline lens can be detected when the 
: tis suitably presented to the eye. 


* Pogg. Annalen, Band exiii, p. 453. 


160 O. N. Rood-—Nature and Duration of 


Hence it is plain that forty billionths of a second is quite 
sufficient for the production on the retina of a strong and dis- 
tinct impression ; and as the obliteration of the micrometric lines 
in the experiment referred to, could only take place from the 
circumstance that the retina retains and combines a whole series 
of impressions, whose joint duration is forty billionths of a 
second, it follows that a much smaller interval of time will 
suffice for vision. If we limit the number of views of the lines 
presented to the eye in a single case to ten, it would result that 
four billionths of a second is sufficient for human vision, thoug 
the probability is that a far shorter time would answer as well, 
or nearly as well. All of which is not so wonderful, if we ac 
cept the doctrines of the Undulatory Theory of light; for ac- 
cording to it, in four billionths of a second, nearly two and 4 
half millions of the mean undulations of light reach and act on 
the eye. 

New York, June 30th, 1871. 


Art. XXIV.—On the nature and duration of’ the discharge of 4 
Leyden Jar connected with an Induction Coil; by OGDEN N. 
Roop, Prof. of Physics in Columbia College. 


PART SECOND. 


In the first part of this paper* I described certain results 
obtained with a Leyden jar of moderate size connected with at 
induction coil; measurements of the total duration of its dis 
charge were given, and it was shown that the luminous effects 
were mainly concentrated in the first act, which was found 80 
short as to be quite immeasurable with the means then at my 

sposa s one main object in these experiments was the 
production of an illumination as nearly instantaneous as poss! 
ble—the intention being to employ it hereafter in a totaly 
different investigation—it occurred to me that the desired end 
might be still more perfectly attained by the use of a quite 
small electrical surface. In the set of experiments above meh — 
tioned, the coating of the jar was 114-4 square inches, so this 
was now replaced by a jar with a coating of only eleven square — 
inches. The sparks it furnished, when connected with the same — 
induction coil, were perfectly satisfactory as regards illuminat 
ing power; and I at once proceeded to measure their duratio? 
employing the means and apparatus already described. For : 
the mirror I used silvered glass, the polished silver side reflect 
ae light; its size was half an inch square. The rod fi 


removed, with of course great advantage to the ¥© 
* See this Journal, vol. xlviii, Sept. 1869. 


the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 161 


locity ; and as several discharges occurred in a second, it was 
seldom that the weight ran down without at least one good 
observation being obtained. 

ith this mirror making not less than 800 turns in a second, 
I was greatly surprised to find that the image of the spark on 
the ground glass, as viewed by the naked eye, was quite un- 
aifected in appearance, looking about the same as though the 
muror had been stationary. This experiment, which was re- 

daily, gave uniformly the same result, and proved that 

the total duration of the discharge was incomparably shorter 

in the case of the larger jar. When the paper with the 
black lines ruled on it was used, they were seen equally distinct 
with the highest as well as with the lowest velocities; and all 
the evidence went to show that the discharge of this small jar 
consisted of a single act, whose duration was immeasurably short. 
Knowing well the inestimable value in certain physical inqui- 
nes of a source of illumination of this character, a series of mo 
deliberate experiments were now instituted for the purpose of 
examining in detail its nature, and, if possible, duration. 
_ The mirror was made to revolve 300 times in a second, the 
mage received on the ground glass, and viewed with the naked 
eye, platinum wires ,', of an inch in diameter being used, with 
a striking distance of five millimeters. The result was as above 
given, the spark-image being totally unaffected—once only at 
one of its ends a very small and faint streak was noticed. Re- 


is Previously employed. The platinum wires were replaced 
+ ot 


assum by th p } s 
though for practical purposes the duration of this faint gs or 


of iny : ve the mi- 
int to be gained was 

Someter always eR. to the object to be measured; the 

‘Park. must carry its own micrometer—must In some way 


“<-Image 
be made as it were to measure itself. 


162 0. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of 


Micrometer.—Let the spark be generated at S, fig. 1; its light, 
fallmg on the stationary mirror M, wi 
oe form a spark-image at I, in the plane of the 
observing plate. If at the same instant a 
s second spark be generated at S’, its im 
will fall at I’. Let us suppose that during 
e simultaneous production of the two 
sparks, the mirror is rotating so rapidly as to be able to draw 
2. artially out into streaks, then we 


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This paper was supported by a 
moved till the right distance had been attained. 
Total duration of the discharge. 
As was to be expected, this was found subject to some varia- 


. * 
the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 163 


Although with the improved micrometric method above de- 
scribed an interval of time as small as one millionth, or half a 
millionth, of a second could, as has been seen, be directly meas- 

still with its aid I never detected any sign that the dura- 
tion of the great body of the spark was other than absolutely instan- 
taneous ; as, however, all the light of the spark is due to incan- 
descent material particles, we must suppose that an infinitesimal 
portion of time is required for attaining its maximum bright- 
Rees, owing to the same reason its disappearance demands 
another distinct period however excessively minute. Hence, 
We may represent the luminous effects of the discharge by a 


A 7 2 


curve conforming more or less to that here figured, in which 
intensity of light is measured in a vertical, time im a horizontal, 
tion. This curve then, (the unbroken line), serves to give 


“harge practically separates it from what follows, practically 
*onstitutes it a first distinct act, and renders its measurement 


aK os : 'e cr, 3 > 

- Show that the curve really has a form substantially like that 
dott May instead of some such one as is indicated by the 
: ine, a 
_ For the ose of measuring, or at least setting, a limit at 
— side o de ininitctnal ae of time involved, I employed 


164 O. N. Rood—Nature and Duration of 


neous spark. If, however, the illumination of the ‘spark last 


to the left till superposition has been attained), then, owing to 


4 e retention of impressions on the retina, the 
ES distinction between the black and white lines 
[aes will be exactly obliterated, and a tint of gray 


¢ _ produced, as can be shown by a construction. 
Be In fig. 4 the first and last views only are ee 
B 


but as the action is an unbroken one, we mu 


reverse. nd in general, if we set the number 
of views equal to some odd number greater 
than unity, we shall obtain for the interior por 
acs pt of white, 


tions parts of black, with 


the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 165 


tors, inclosing between them a white sector of equal breadth, 
are painted on a white circular dise of card-board, and viewed 
in a mirror through an uperture cut in the same disc, when it 


sh 
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Instead of using only two lines, the same result can far more 
easily be attained by ruling paper with a large number of fine 
black lines, equidistant, and inclosing white spaces of their own 


oth 
i d a glass plate with lamp- 
ecordingly I covered a gla oa a nebo 
like a slight cement, enabled me to rule lines on 
i i Afte trials and micro- 


magn : 
ed that the breadth of the 
zs of a millimeter. 


time required for their obliteration, with a velocity 


166 O. N. Rood— Nature and Duration of 


_ of 840 per second, was ninety-four billionths of a second 
(000000094) ; still, on experimenting, it was evident that the 

duration of the discharge was less than this quantity, as the 

lines were always plainly to be seen. 


Duration of the first act of the discharge. 


Before finally abandoning the attempt to determine the ac- 
tual duration of the discharge, another effort was made; a 
second lamp-black plate was prepared, in which the breadth of 
the image of a line, black or white, on the observing plate was 
zz Of a millimeter. These lines were viewed with the terres- 


was between forty-one and forty-eight billionths; and when the 
striking distance was increased to ten millimeters, it was be- 


ti 

discharges take place in a given time as with points; hence, the 
: The evidence from 

twenty-six observations, gathered in not less than three hours, _ 


went to show that the duration with a striking distance of five 
millimeters was between forty-eight and fifty-five billionths of 
a second. 

Tt has thus been shown that the duration of the first act of 
the electric discharge is in certain cases only forty billionths of @ 


the Discharge of a Leyden Jar. 167 


AB, fig. 8, which has been measured; and as we are ignorant 
of the true curve, it might be objected that the real curve might 
just as well’ be supposed to be like that given with dotted line. 
There is, however, experimental evidence to show that this is 
not the case ; for on this supposition, the blurring of the image 
would begin to be visbile far earlier, i. e., with lower velocities 
than has been observed. In point of fact, the image remains 
visibly as distinct as with a stationary mirror till a certain stage, 


a8 much time. 


Duration of the first act, with a Leyden jar having a coating of 
114-4 square inches. 


ers were employed in connecti 
coarsest of the three lamp-black’ plates; but when the mirror 
urns i 


= duration of this first act was 000000175 of a second, or sees 


nd the same striking 


our times as great as with the small jar a 
distance 


New York, June 29th, 1871. 


168 J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 


Art. XXIV.—Memoranda concerning the introduction of the 
Manufacture of Spelter into the United States ;*by JOSEPH 
WHARTON. 


SPELTER, as crude metallic zinc is called in commerce, had 
never before the year 1859, been produced in America upon 
such terms as to give hope of its manufacture becoming a set 
tled industry in this country. 

Mr. John Hitz in 1838 made enough zine from the ores of 
the New Jersey Zinc Co., to supply material for a set of stan- 
dard U. S. weights and measures in brass, but the quantity pro 
duced was small, and the cost extremely high, 

The Lehigh Zinc Co. caused to be erected in 1856 a spelter 
furnace at their mine near Friedensville, Pa., upon the Silesian 
plan ; this furnace, though apparently well constructed, failed to 
yield any zinc, mainly because its builder, Mr. Charles Hoof 


The present paper proposes to give some particulars, which 
even at this late day may possess interest, concerning that at 
ich rea 


ufactures in their struggle against European competition. | ee 
Having acquired some practical knowledge of the properties 

zinc, by several years experience as general manager of the 
Lehigh Zinc Co's. mines and zine oxide works, and having 48° — 
gathered such information as was possible from books and 
other sources, I made various trials during 1857 and 1858, ® — 
invent some form of furnace which should effect the evolutio? — 
and condensation of zinc vapor in a larger and more conti — 
ous way than was practised in Europe, and which should thts 
_* The first sheet zine made in America was rolled by Alan Wood ~& Sons 
Philadelphia, from an ingot of Mr. Wetherill’s spelter. oe 


: . . 


J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 169 


single 1 ae furnace of about 45 retorts, upon the Belgian 


only conveniently accessible and cheap American materials 
should be used, the fuel employed was exclusively Pennsyl- 
Vania anthracite, the retorts and condensers were made by our- 
selves, mainly from the fire clay of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, 
and the ore was hydrous silicate of zine, from the Lehigh Zinc 
Co.’s mine near Friedensville, four miles south from Bethlehem, 
Pennsylvania. 


results of the last three of those periods, and show the expen- 


The price of ore was here assumed at rather more than the 
Cost of mining and hauling to the furnace; the price of coal 
Was that actually paid for the small sizes employed, then rela- 
tively less valued than now ; the wages were of course high, 
Pecause but a single furnace was operated, and we were learn- 
4304 Ibs. raw zinc ore at $2.50 per 2,240 Ibs.,------------ $ 4.80 
7,813 Ibs. anthracite coal be $1.75 per 2,240 Ibs.,---------- 6.11 

ages, including manufacture of retorts, &c.,------------ sated 

Clay, &e., and the preparation thereof,------------------ 1.75 

Repairs of furnace and tools,....-.--------------------~ 6.00 
a re ee ae 1.00 
~ Rent ao eerie 60 


ee ee 


nt of buildings, 
(Superintendance, office expenses, &c., not counted), 


170 J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 


The entire cost of this experiment, including the importation 
of workmen, construction of furnace and tools, and all collateral 
expenses was $3,795.89. The quantity of spelter produced was 
34,063 Ibs. 

That report naturally excited in the minds of the Lehigh 
Zine Company, a strong desire to engage at once in the manu- 
facture of spelter, since not only were the technical difficulties 
in the way of this great prize overcome, and the product of 
excellent quality, but the cost was within the market price, 
and there were apparent margins for economizing in several 
particulars. On the other hand doubts naturally lingered as to 
the possibility of attaining the expected results upon a large 
scale, and the financial position of the Company was at that 
time such as to enforce caution. Both funds aac 


Ultimately, however, an agreement was entered into betweel 
that Company and myself, on the 18th of December, 1859, by 
which I engaged for the sum of $80,000, to convey to them a 
suitable piece of ground in South Bethlehem, Penn., and 10 
erect thereupon by July 1, 1860, a complete Spelter W orks, of 
sixteen Belgian furnaces, each containing fifty-four working 
retorts ; the furnaces to be enclosed in a suitable stone or brick 
building with slate roof, 155 feet long and 40 feet wide; the 
establishment to be provided with steam engine and boilers — 
steam pump drawing water from the Lehigh river, blowers, oF 
crushing mill and store room—all these latter to be enclosed 12 
a suitable stone building with slate roof—also to be provid | 
with pottery fully equipped with clay mills and apparatus @ | 
make all fire bricks, retorts, condensers, etc., needed in the 


business, ore-roasting furnaces, air flues and water pipes, Tal 
road into yard, coal bins, etc., and to be in all respects capable 
of making from the Lehigh Zinc Co.’s selected or lump ore — 


average price which had been theretofore received for se 


considerable lots of similar ore, sent by the Company to Eng 


J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 171 


This arrangement offered to the Company as nearly absolute 
certainty as the nature of the case permitted, that they should 
at small expense and without risk or trouble to themselves 
te into possession, after two and a half years, of a complete 
actory and an established business, while meanwhile deriving 
a fair profit from the sale of ore, which at that time cost about 
$2 per ton delivered in the factory yard.* 
pon my side, relying upon the correctness of my own esti- 
mates and upon my ability to establish the business, and assum- 
ing that the average price of spelter in this country for the 
Es twenty-five years (viz: about 6} cts. per lb.) would 
be about maintained for the ensuing two or three years, I could 
fairly count upon a reasonable profit even after making some 
allowance for mischances. ; 
A severe winter prevented much progress in building until 
the spring of 1860, though one block of furnaces was actually 
put up under cover of a tight temporary wooden building; a 
freshet in the spring destroyed the foundations of some of the 


Which I had taken of importing a number of train 


works were completed. As the factory worked irregularly in 
the year 1860, and the furnaces were brought into use gednely 
one block after another, as they were finished, I give no detai 
of the operations for that vear. ae : 

To indicate what manner of difficulties lie in wait for the 
Tansplanter of an industry into this country, I may here re- 
mark that though the factory as at first planned and built was 

‘Substantially right in all important points, and my estimates of 
°est of production were justified in practice, yet a number of 

Adaptations to circumstances or partial changes proved to be 
iinet e Lehi: i any, as General Manager of their 
. Ferny cha T td aoe oat ciarubecdetvteed in the yard of — Zine 

: for the m*s in South Bethlehem, which adjoined the Spelter ae som bea 

and fo year ending April 1, 1859, $1.66 9-10 per ton of 2,24 hes ee ae 

tote year ending April 1, 1860, $1.72 3-10 per similar a cake 
at. smalyses tative specimens of the ore delivered to 

~ Farlous times, shows 26°60 per cent zinc oxide. 

Aan Jour, Scr—Turp Series, Vou. 1I, No. 9 —SEpr., 1871. 

: 12 


172 J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 


facture became very scarce. 
e factory was, however, driven unremittingly, 
operations during the year 1861 were as follows: 


Days work of 1 furnace, 41414 

Days work of 1 retort, 223,548 

Retorts consumed in 1861, ~ 12,986 3:14 "085 

Condensers “ - 34,425 8°31 "154 

Rawore “| ut 11,994,794 Ibs. 2,897Ibs. 53°66 bs. 

Roasted ore “ “ 9,879,000 “ 2,386“ 4419 

lcoal “ (including steam power, - 

pottery, &c.,) 18,948,273 “© 4,577 * 84°76 © 

Charge coal consumed in 1861, 3,709,350 “ 896 “ 16°59 © 

Spelter produced, “ 3,158,630 * 763% 1417" 

Per centage yield of ore counted as raw, 26°33 p. 

Per centage yi f ore counted as roasted, Ed tes 

Loss in weight of Raw ore by ng. 7 

I of Coal consumed to Spelter made, T1T tol 

Average duration of Retorts in days, 172 

Average duration of Condensers in days, 


The total amount of wages paid for the year, for all pe 
except the office expenses, a $44,113.54 or per 1000 lbs. of 
spelter produced $18.96. 

The total cost of spelter in 1861, including not only ore, coal, 

materials and wages, but also rent, repairs, contingett 


tenet Z 
and office ex outlay in fact except selling &” 


penses—every 
pense—was $34.70 per 1000 lbs. at the factory. e net average 
price received for spelter sold in 1861 was $42.97 


per 1000 Ibs. 


J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 173 


In the year 1862 the supply of ore was of somewhat inferior 
quality, yet by the sliding scale of price payable under the 
contract it cost more per ton than in 1861; these disadvantages 
nearly neutralizing those economies which greater experience 
and continual diligence rendered possible. 

The cost of spelter in 1862, including as in 1861 all items of 
expense except interest on working capital, but excluding sell- 
ing expenses or any allowance for my own exertions, was 
$34.55 per 1000 Ibs. at the factory. 

The particulars of operations for 1862 were as follows: 


Perdiem Per diem 
per furnace. per retort, 


Days work of 1 furnace, 4,705 
Days work of 1 retort, 258,509 

torts consumed in 1862, 13,614 2°89 “053 
Condensers «“ 47,870 10-17 185 

= . 14,209,169 lbs. 3,020Ibs. 54°91 lbs. 
ore ve 12,532,130 * 2,664 “ 48-44 “ 

Fuelcoal « (including steam engine, 

pottery, &c., 26,451,844 “ 56,622 “ 10222 “ 
Fuel coal“ (in Spelter furnaces alone,) 22,236,164 “ 4,726 * 86-02 “ 
Charge coal 5,296,256 “ 1,126 * 20-47 “ 
New refracting material consumed, 1,974,919 “ 439-8 Pe * 
Old do. 4“ (b 
g, retorts, &e.,) 1,090,199 “2 99, 400." 
Spelter produced in 1862, 3,704,676 “© = 787 * 1431 
Li tage yield of ore counted as raw, 26°07 p. c 
Per centage yield of ore counted as r 956 “ 
Loss in weight of Raw or by roasting, "3 
Ratio of C dto Spelter made, 8.57 to 1 
Average duration of Retorts in days, 18-99 
= uration of Condensers in days, 5°40 


The total amount of wages paid in 1862 for all purposes ex- 
vy office expenses (and for brick-making as below stated) was 
| P 


oe ry 
» fd by roasting but water. 

Apri} lease of the factory was extended from January 1, to 
_ “Pr 1, 1868, in order to compensate for certain deficient de- 


174 J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 


liveries of ore. On the latter date I surrendered possession to 
the Lehigh Zinc Co., and have consequently no later statistics 
than those above given except for the months of January, Feb- 
ruary and March, 1863, whose details resemble those of the 
preceding periods so closely that I will give here only the lead- 
ing figures, viz: 

Raw ore consumed in first three months of 1863, 4,184,544 Ibs. 
Charge coal “ ¥f do. . 1,349,880 “ 


Fuel coal, = - do. - 7,083,798 “ 
Spelter produced = 986,080 “ 
A 


it to have been in the fraction o 1,100,580 Ibs. 
ing the year 1861, 3,158,630 “ 
“6 
8 


[w) 
7 
<> 
oo 
“ 
for) 
~-I 
for) 
a 


1862, 

“ $ months of 1863, 986,080 “ 

Total, 8,949,966 “ 
This weight being not that shown by the daily furnace state- 
ments, but the weight actually sold and detiversd to purchasers. 
m aware that to give the details here presented their full 
scientific or technical value, they should be accompanied be! 
reliable statements of the composition of the ores treated, 
and of the s thrown out, but no continuous series of 
analyses was made of either ores or slags, since my duties as 
superintendent, bookkeeper, and business manager of the estab- 
lishment prevented a very close attention to its chemistry. 
Among my analyses, however, are those of 5 specimens of ore 
at various times in 1859 and 1860, which were of such a nature 
as to be fairly presentable for samples of the ore treated in the 


u ' do. 7 
resumé of the spelter produced during the entire term shows 
i 1860, yl 
spelter works: these five specimens show an average of 36°07 


h 
present, particularly in the year 1861 and the spring of 1862. 
Nine specimens examined for moisture at various times, and 


8, 

Of slags, I find only two reliable analyses; one made in No 
Jesbae enc one in Dee aA i imi 
each other in time, an m 

working of the establishment, they can hardly be presented 2 
representative specimens. It i doubte 
that the slags were always tolerably rich in zine, since of the ore 
treated probably at least { was silicate of zinc, only the remaly 
ing fraction being carbonate of zinc. 


J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelter. 175 


Ordinary red bricks, 13,000 
9 inch fire bricks, 11,000 
Fire bricks of special patterns, 71,364 Ibs. 


Cast iron for furnace fronts, doors, braces, &c., 37,320 : 
Wrought iron for straps, bolts, &c., 1,138 “ 
Wrought iron for tools (plus 22 Ibs. cast steel) 1,267 


1863, and this not only nor principally because I con- 
ducted the business with asin senate and maintained a 
h standard of efficiency and discipline among the workmen, 
t mainly because labor is now much higher than it then was, 
and because no ore of equal quality can now be obtained so 
cheaply in a spot so favorable for its manufacture. _ a 
The quality of the spelter made in this establishment has 
always been excellent, and has caused it to be Pe aaueane ¢ 


oth es, . 

4 /°t8; the sample No. 4 there mentioned was made by me in 

‘he year 1859, in the trial furnace spoken of in the earlier part 
paper. : 


& 


176 J. Wharton on the Manufacture of Spelier. 


The Lehigh Zinc Co., since taking possession of the — 
have maintained the hig character of its product, and the zin 
rolling mill which they have added to it turns ome sheet we 
of the very choicest Nae such as could only be made from 
spelter of the highest 

s excellence saalia mainly of course from the unusual 
purity of the ores of Saucon Valley; the silicate particularly, 
which has always been the predominant ore there, being notably 
freer from impurities, not o than most ores from other 
localities, but also than the carbonate which abounded in the 


pee after roasting, all pieces which from disoolneatiele or 


rejecting all the first and last products of distillation from eac 
charge in each retort. The zinc thus made, amounting to seve 
ral tons, went mostly to various chemists, ‘and is doubtless all 
consumed except a few ingots which I still retain. It was, 
however, no purer than that examined by Drs. Eliot and Storer, 
nor is this surprising, since the latter was made in a new fur- 
nace from silicate of zinc which had been weathered for a long 
time, and was thus freed from the ee clay which 
otherwise might have yielded some impuri 

The establishment whose origin is a. eat is still im 
apenas Ne idag ie and Pe its activity is now limited by 
reason 0 ah ges Hs OPP of ore, there is good reason t0 
believe hat this difficulty will be overcome when the magnifi- 
cent pumping wpparetis now being erected by we eign Zine 
Company shall enable them to mine at greater 

The entire spelter and ober | zine manufacture ee the United 
States, now a large and growi ay: 2 may fairly be said to 
have sprung from this tector for not only was it the pce 
in point of time by at least two years, but I believe that neither 
of the others succeeded until it availed itself of = services of 
men procured from this establishment. 


C. G. Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 177 


Art. XXV.—The Daily Motion of a Brick Tower, caused by Solar 
Heat ; by Prof. C. G. Rockwoop, Ph.D., Bowdoin College. 


THE observations which form the subject of the following 
re made in the spring of 1866. Some recent 


The walls were, however, made unusually heavy, and in order 
to have as firm a base as ible for the telescope, the upper 
Story was arched with brick, forming a solid and pretty firm bric 

floor, upon which now rests the stone pier of an equatorial. 

: t. e story below th tory, : 
beneath the brisk” arches, is occupied by the works of the 
tower clock, 

He dimensions of the tower are as follows: 


Side of the square at ground, ..-- ------------ 164 feet. 
we “  * top of brickwork, ------- 15 : 
Thickness of walls at first story,------------- 27 incl es. 
: «" & top of brickwork, .------ 6 f 
os “ where the arches spring,--- 20 — 
. Height to top of turret, _-. ~~. =---~----4---- ¥ eet. 
: “ a 


brickwork, ---- - 


“ floor of observatory room, -- -- ------ 75 


178 =. G. Rockwood— Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 


The tower is connected by its north side with the main build- 
ing for an altitude of about 45 feet. Projecting from the south 
side of the main building, it has its north wall in a line with, 
and forming part of, the south wall ef the building. The whole 
edifice stands in a position inclined to the meridian, the sides 
of the building, and consequently those of the tower, having 
the direction N. 28° 30’ E. ‘ 

revious observations elsewhere (at Bunker Hill Monument) 
had led to the apprehension that such a tower, besides being 
subject to tremors communicated from the ground, would have 
a definite and somewhat regular daily motion, dependent upon 
the influence of the sun’s heat in expanding the materials of 
which it was composed. The object for which this investige- 
tion was undertaken was to ascertain whether this motion 
would affect the use of the telescope or not. 

In order to investigate the motion in the present case, two 


some of the records being afterward rej 


upon 59 days, included between April.24th and Jul 
Tt will be 1 oe i is peri 


C. G. Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 179 


A third level placed with the others upon the stone floor, 
and also the levels of a zenith telescope, which was temporarily 
mounted on a brick pier in the room, were recorded during a 
part of this time, but as their results were not employed in the 
discussion, it is not necessary to notice them farther than to 
say, that in general they confirmed the indications of the prin- 
cipal levels. 
et us now examine briefly what would be the probable 
motion of a tower thus situated, and then compare this theoret- 
leal result with that given by the recorded level readings 
First : suppose an isolated symmetrical tower of homogene- 
ous material, situated at the equator of the earth, and the sun 
at the equinox. The diurnal circle of the sun then passes 
through the east and west points of the horizon and the zenith 
of the tower. In the morning the heat of the sun’s rays would 
expand the east side of the tower, and cause it to lean toward 
the west. As the sun rose toward the zenith, and warmed 


Rormal position. 
t any station intermediate between the equator and the 
Pole, the figure described by the tower would be neither a 
ht line nor a circle, but between the two, i. e, an ellipse, 
Whose excentricity diminishes as the latitude of the place 
creases, 


In the case under discussion, the tower is in N. lat. 41° 19’, 
4nd the sun was near the summer solstice. The sun therefore 
Tose about 80° north of the east point, culminated south of 

“€ zenith, and set north of west. 

The inclination of the tower, being opposite the sun, would 
.-1 1 the morning southwest and west, at noon north, at even- 
‘ng east and southeast, and during the night it might be sup- 
to return in a straight line to its mean position. Since 


Melination would be less than the westward or eastward, and 
_ the curye described would resemble an ellipse, with its wept 
Pat the meridian, and probably somewhat flattened on the 


180 € G. Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 


incorporate them in this discussion. 
The recorded observations give a series of level-readings at 
certain hours upon 59 days. e most obvious method of 


any one day. Thus combined, the means are as follows, the 
levels being designated by the numerals I and II, and the level 
readings having been reduced to seconds. 


Mean Level Readings. 
+East. 48 
rT -8""6§ 095 = 157 — 762 10/87 = — 10 
+North. 1136 
IL +5/"64 +5/1-03 +2/'-97 —0/-37 — 0/78 +S 


If now we let these numbers be the abscissas and ordinates 
of a plane curve, referred to rectangular axes in the direction 


the normal to the plane of the levels or by om vertical line gs 
the tower. It should also be borne in mind that a south lev : 
reading indicates a north inclination of the tower, and vice versa, 


1, 2, 3, ete., in order, beginning with the ere 
ing observation. It is seen to be an imperfect fen with 
i an 
7 


minor axis coincides nearly with the meridian. It thus pe 
sponds tolerabl 
minor axis of the 


ing has checked the north and south motion, and so 


C. G, Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 181 


somewhat the extreme ordinates; as we see that by simply 
lengthening the hee i 

ordinates on the Psi ee: oN 
Dene BRE er SIN et } 


axis be brought / : = 


into the merid- { i 4 
ian. 2 ee 
. . ‘ 2 pee 2 
But it is evi- seo cee 1 a ae 


y: 
of observation, were as follow: 


Mean Level Readings—Clear Days. 
+East, “2 50ma.M. 10h88ma.m. Oh59mP.M. 8h 32m P.M. 558m P.M. 10h 39m P.M 
ot ea ee ee Se 
46/520 garages = — 855 — 886 tT EL 


Mean Level Readings— Cloudy Days. 

r M. Oh59mP.M. Sh33mP.M. 6hSmP.™M. 10h 47m P. M. 
T  —9'-94 geo 8/65 = —10"15 11/43 11798 
TL +592 4676 4.559 + ANA + BOT + BI GS 

These averages, with the signs changed, being made erage od 
om ordinates, give the two curves oo B and OC, the obser- 
ons being indi numerals as before. 

. 2 epee result was the 


Separation into two series. The two curves have indeed = 


_, ls excessive departur : “14: 
attributed solely 0th connection with the main building, for 


182) CG. Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 


any such retarding effect as has been supposed should be greater 
when the absolute amount of motion was greater, and therefore, 
should be more evident on the curve for clear days. 


morning observation (marked 1), may be found upon a curve 
nearly similar to the one for clear days. And the distorted 


day. Consequently, when the effect begins to be bet the 


tained out of its normal position by a considerable amount. 


ellipse should be to each other as sin 21° to sin 90°, or ass 
to 100. Now the minor axis is about 7” hence the major 


would probably also affect this element. : oo 
The curve deduced from the observations is thus seen 
exhibit a sufficient degree of correspondence, with what had 
been anticipated from theoretical considerations, to co firm the 
truth of the reasoning ; the departures from the perfect ellipse 
can etrical 


be ascribed to the unsymm 


C. G. Rockwood—Motion of a Tower by Solar Heat. 188 


powers of absorption, radiation and conduction of the materials 
of the tower have been left entirely unnoticed. They would 
undoubtedly have their place in a complete investigation, but 
no data were at hand for estimating their influence. 

we may suppose the tower to be equally expanded in all 
parts of its height, the vertical side would be changed ¢ 
into a uniform curve, as AB in the figure; and since the | & 
deviation from a vertical is small, the tangent at 
would cut the vertical line BC nearly at the middle 
int between Band ©. Therefore CD is nearly one- 


major axis of the ayes should be proportionately diminished. 


Contraction of that side upon which it blew was thus plainly 
recorded hy the level, na a good illustration afforded of the 


duct of the observations. 
_ Brunswick, Me., July 11th, 1871. 


184 SD. Hayes on the Distillation of Petroleum Naphthas. 


Art. XX VL—On the destructive Distillation of Light — 
Naphthas, at comparatively low srg by S. Dan. 
Hayes, State Assayer of Massachuse 


Unper the generic term naphtha, as applied to some of the 
i eey obtained in the arts from petroleum, is inclu 
series of hydrocarbons having specific gravities above 0°742, 
or ecesi 0°625 (rhigolene) and 0°742 (heavy per is - 
boiling — varying with the densities from 
F, These naphthas have distinguishing aeent al re! 
which slicy are easily recognized and which place them in 4 
class by themselves; and aside from their odors, densities, boil- 
ing points, volatility, and solvent powers, a noticeable peculiarity 
is the absence of oly bodies: they do not leave any Agee 
stain on common writing paper that has been dipped in them, 
as do all the heavier and oily distillates obtaine aa f from. petro- 
leum. The redistillation of these naphthas under different con- 
ditions produces other hydrocarbons, in which the proportions 
of hydrogen and carbon are not only changed, but som e of 
these products are ois that will stain asitien - per like ats 

and it is possible to produce crystallizable paraffine from these 
volatile naphthas by properly conducted distillations. 

the summer of 1861, the writer had occasion to 


ie Sr ae 


observed that besides the gases, pew vapors, es a pa di 
minished volume of naphtha, an unexpectedly ne proportion 


were finished, large masses of separated carbon noms found in 
the ae as in — mga esapegestoin distillations of erud@ | 


wie 
© 
| 
BE 
*9 
ee 
& 


ea oe en examining a sample of “ Keroelen,” a iat ot 

naphthe, that had a ‘specific gravity of 0°640 a 72° Fy 
and when heated in a flask containing scraps of vlstinw foil, 
it began to boil at about 85° F. As the more voles 


three-quarters of the liquid had e evaporated. It co: continuel a 
boil freely, but the whole was not converted into vapor wy 
the Boa Soar had risen considerably above 300°. It is ¥ 


| * This Journal, Sop, 1052 


S. D. Hayes on the Distillation of Petroleum Naphthas. 185 


in two and a half and three and a half minutes respectively ; 
and the former evaporated completely in about two-thirds o 
the time required for the other.” 

This peculiarity of petroleum naphtha has been so often ob- 


Within the past year an apparatus has been erected in Boston, 
Zh: Wi i 


bottom of each cylinder, ending there and starting out from the 
top of each again to connect with the bottom of the next; it 1s 


The cylinders are provided with glass tube guages, so that the 
changes occurring inside may be watched, and the whole appa- 
matus and contents are maintained under a pressure of about 
fifty pounds to the inch when in operation. oe 
getl this apparatus the steam and naphtha vapors are he ~ 
sielleny the upper part of the cylinders, above the liquid, 
— ressure, and at a temperature of about 212 ae re 
much above the boiling point of the naphtha, but never so Aig: 
& 300° F.; and the decompositions occur in the vapors 
Sather than in the liquid, light uncondensable gases and va : - 
ng upward, and heavy oil falling down into the naphtha 
‘teataak The apparatus was operal continuously by pum : 
Mg in naphtha at intervals as it was consumed, and after 


186 S. D. Hayes on the Distillation of Petroleum Naphthas. 


heavy oil had accumulated it was drawn off at the bottom, the 
largest quantity being found in the first cylinder. It was 
found that the longer the vapors were held together in the 
apparatus, heated and under pressure, the more perfect were 
compositions; and Mr. Willard obtained at different 
times from two to ten per cent. of the naphtha as heavy oil. 
The heavy hydrocarbon oil obtained in this way has a dark 
yellowish-brown color, and smells of the adhering naphtha when 
fresh ; but after standing exposed to the air for a few days, it 
loses this odor and becomes nearly neutral, or comparatively 
free from offensive odor. Its specific gravity varies from 0850 
to 0°860, and its boiling point, after it is freed from the adher- 
ing naphtha, is above 400° F. 
It does not evaporate at common temperatures, leaves 4 
permanent greas i ood lubricator for 


» 


pears are decomposed or “cracked,” first into burning oil an¢ — 
eavy products, and ultimately into burning oil entirely. Bub — 
Mr. Willard’s 


sources, may “cracked” at a temperature below 300° B 


= 
Be) 
os 
- 
BB 
g 
= 
pa] 
S 
fon 
é=| 
ES 
ro) 
Bb 
a 
+ Ou 
in 
ct 
ae 
oO 
ae 
2 Oo 
B oe 
ae a 
Ee 
o 
5 
eS 
@ 
pes) 
er 
o 
= 
A 
ok 
a 
KS 


It is a memoir that has never been published in any scientifi¢ : 
journal, containing the results of an extended investigation made 


troleum are not simply bodies previously existing in the pet” 
* Report on the Rock Oil or Petroleum from Venango county. Penneylvania ri 

_ With special reference to its use for illuminating and other purposes. By Prof. # 

_ Silliman, Jr. New Haven, 1855. 


- 


S D. Hayes on the Distillation of Petroleum Naphthas. 187 


leam, but that they are new substances formed by heat and 
distillation. 

The author says: ‘The uncertainty of the boiling points in- 
dicates that the products obtained at the temperatures named 
above were still mixtures of others, and the question forces itself 


x 


farther on in the report: “The paraffine, with which this portion 
of the oil abounds, does not exist ready-formed in the original 


ployed in the Sarr of distillation, by which the elements are 


° 


the result of an experiment as follows: “Exposed for many 
°, the o1 


ma 
never exceeding 200°, gradually and slowly diminished, grew 
oid and finally left a’small residue of dark brown, lustrous- 
Coking resin, or pitchy substance, which in the cold was hard 
and brittle. e samples of oil employed were very nearly 
colorless. This is remarkable when we remember that the tem- 
perature of the distillation was above 500° F.” : ee 
Tt is remarkable that in this early laboratory investigation 
Prof. Silliman should have noted the production of entirely new 
aye by the destructive distillation of aelaape es such as are 
W only produced in large quantities in manufacturing opera- 
tions. The “cracking” of siblaut as a necessary Pa of 
its distillations in the large way, was not generally recognized 
or admitted for several years after this report was written, and 
“ven now there are many chemists who consider these as a 
Fractional distillations ; but it is only necessary to mix the dis- 
tillates together again and try to reproduce petroleum, to satis- 
s rily prove how different the products are from the original 
bstance, 


The 


_doiling poi it had been float- 
A point above 400° F., probably because 1t een Hoa 
. water exposed to the sia or because it was thick “sur- 


188 R. Pumpelly—The Paragenesis of Copper 


face oil.” Most of the petroleum, as now obtained from wells in 
apap Shoes yields by the first distillation, either by steam- 
heat or otherwise, about fifteen per cent of nen naphtha, such 
as is miaseiolse called gasolene, benzine, &c., which is entirely 
free from any greasy or oily constituent ; ae this light naphtha, 
by distillation at comparatively low temperatures as describ 
above, yields about ten per cent of its volume of heavy parafiine 
oil, a new substance produced by heating the vapors sas the 
boiling points of the naphtha, and not simply an educt. 


Art. XXVIL—The Paragenesis and Derivation of Copper and 


its associates on Lake Superior ; by RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. 


BELIEVING that we can arrive at a knowledge of the laws 
1 rough @ 


IL The e paragenesis, etc., of the mineral associates of coppel 
tL Conclusions from the facts observed. 

The second part is the result of a careful study of several 
thousand specimens. No series was admitted to the list whet 
there was any doubt as to the succession, except where 
doubt is indicated by an interrogation point. 


I. Lithology of the Trappean Series. 


In the immediate neighborhood of Portage Lake, the a 
com the “Mineral Range” have a uniform trend of J 


e eas rm : 
ie and aay vertical ie of demarkation betwee! — 
the nes y inclined cupriferous series of rocks and the sand- 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 189 


same age as the sandstone beds, which are comformably super- 
5 egg over the trappean series on the west side of Keweenaw 
oint. 


hanging wall 
. 
to this brown and dirty red. Light and dark green, mottled or 


speckled with brown ; dirty brownish-green; reddish-gray ; and 
ark green, almost black, are the usual colors. 


The fracture is enerally uneven, or hackly, to imperfectly 
Conchoidal, but in the freshest, and especially in the compact 
Varieties, it is often highly conchoidal. They have an earthy 
odor often even without having been breathed upon. | 


Ms Magnet, while others contain very little of this mineral. 
parently labradori 
£ 


f a ¥ 
ferent shades of green, while the magnet reveals a very varia- 
ble percentage of a magnetic iron; and in some of the coarser- 


190 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


grained varieties small jet black crystals apparently of augite 
or ernest are occasionally visible. The accessory mine 

ed, many or all of which are probably products of the 
i nan of the iene constituents, are : 


A brick-red foliaceous ee earit had rubellan, occurring as very minute specks 
some fine-grained v it lends a soft = nk -brown appearance to the 
weathered surface, and ai nie s the interio! 
Specular-iron in minute rh seco ation aes ee in the coarser-grained vari- 
eties. 
Calcite in seams, and more frequently in grains and amygdules, especially in the 
f 


amygdaloidal portion of the beds. 
Epidote rarely crystallized; most common in the amygdaloidal 1 serienien fre- 
que : : q 
which occurs in joey and seams, and also as an indurating medium near 
the hanging wall of many beds. : 
ee: in supa ules sai seams, mostly confined to the amygdaloidal portion of 
beds. ‘4 
A inte te mineral, soft, compact, amorphous, greenish- oto sometimes altered 
to oe ee in grains from pin-head to walnut 
A yellowish-green soft earthy mineral, ws ipassid a green cities 
Tauncene and leovbandie in seams and amygdules. 
Analcite in amygdule: 
esse in small c ee and mers in amygdaloidal cavities. 
Nati @ copper sometimes in fine im regnations in the fine-grained rock, Page in thin 
shoots | in scene geen oe chiefly i m the amygdules, masses, shee 
ich form the metalliferous deposits in the rE where it 
en with native saver 


onally a 
Datholite 1 massive in the amygdaloidal portion of some a and also in small 
aggregations of microscopical crystals in the same position! 


_ We have iba cones several recent analyses of different 
and ical vari of these rocks, made by Mr. Thomas 
Macfarlane.* 

Of one of the coarser-grained varieties which forms vey 
thick bits several hundred feet west of the Quincy “vel 
Mr. Macfarlane says: “It is gene 24 a compound nature, 
but all its constituent minerals are not large enough to be 
ree! determined. Conspicuotis’ among them is a dark 

oritic mineral, the grains of which vary from the 
Sviallbat size to one-fourth of an inch in diameter. In the lattet 
case they are irregularly shaped, ites on angles, but t 
are never quite round or amygdalo at They frequet Z 
consist in the center of dark green ae The mineral ® 


in seams and impregnations, ee nearly always ass quarts 
| 
| 


* taapia mee Report of Progress, 1863-1866, p. 149. 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 191 


gray. 

When ignited it loses 3-09 per cent of its weight, and changes 
toa light brown color. When digested with nitric acid, and 
afterwards with a weak solution of caustic potash (to remove 
free silica), it experiences, including the loss Vy ignition, a loss 
of 46°36 per cent. This consists of 


WENA oper scr ccereverie tae eros 14°73 
: Alumina, 717 
PeOTNO OF WOH Dae pics cee ue - 14°87 
: ime, 4°47 
: Magnesia, _..-_.. 2°03 
| ate 3°09 
46°36 


5 In the undecomposed residue light-red and dark-colored 
Particles are discernible. On digesting it with hydrochloric 
acid, and subsequently with a weak solution of potash, it sus- 
tains a further loss of 10-6 per cent, which consists of 


| Joe eee 3-48 
lng 3°03 
: Peroxide of iron, ..------ 1-98 
: _ ee eoepe Bere: 1°76 
: Moepness, ...5. 5 “35 


10°60 
_ The ‘undecomposed residue was still found to consist of a 
light red and a dark-colored constituent. The latter was the 


tuent, fused readily to a dark brown glass. To judge from its 
Sravity and fusibility, it would not appear unreasonable to 
"egard it as either pyroxene or hornblende. In quantity it did 
rade mrever, exceed one-eighth of the feldspar. The latter 


Hor xe magnetite, are : 
acid, it aoe reasonably be concluded that the constituents 
temoved by the nitric acid are those of the chloritic mineral. 
On treating the rock previous to ignition, much of the iron 1s 
_ Temoved as protoxide. 3 


ee os eenish-gray feldspar, and reddish-brown mica, some of # 


192 ft. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Oopper 


Although some peroxide is also possibly present, I have cal- 
culated the whole of the iron as protoxide, and have moreover, 
added the difference of the weight between it and the iron 
estimated as peroxide to the loss sustained by ignition, and put 
it dow ater. In this way the composition of the chloritic 
mineral, calculated to 100 parts, would be 


Silica, 31°78 
Adami oS eee. MA a I 15°47 
Protoxide of iron, = 98°87 
ime, peeuoe cies 9°64 
Magnesia, -- -- 4°37 
Water, .... 9°87 
100°00 


Delessite, ---- 46°36 
Labradorite, . ......_. 47°43 
xene or hornblende, 5°26 
agnetite, 0°95 
100°00 


By the same method of analysis, Mr. Macfarlane found the 
rock underlying the copper-bearing bed of the Quincy mine ® — 
consist of . 


Delessite in amygdules and grains,__ _- -- 38°00 
Labradorite, 62°00 
100°00 


This rock is distinctly amygdaloidal. ‘The matrix is fn® 
grained, but it is crystalline, and is seen to consist of differed! 
constituents. Its color is dark reddish-gray.” Its cavitil@ 
rarely the size of a pea, are filled with what seems to be the 
same chloritic mineral which occurs as a constituent of the’ 
rock above described. 

Mr. Macfarlane also examined the rock which overlies th? 


Albany and Boston conglomerate at the Albany and Bost? 
mine. “Tt is a fine grained mixture of dark green delessité, 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 193 


lamin of the latter showing ruby-red reflections. Its specific 
gravity is 2°81, and the smallest trace only of its powder is 
attracted by the magnet.” He considers the mineralogical com- 
position of this rock to be 


Delessite, eS AO'UD 
Tee ss ..- 20°00 
Labradorite, -------- 40°00 
100°00 


The rocks, to which the above given analyses refer, are repre- 
sentatives of the three predominating types of the trap of 


2°65 
Although the name melaphyr is an unfortunate one, having 
been first used to designate an entirely different rock, an hav- 


under consideration. “All the trap rocks and associated amyg- 
daloids of Portage Lake are varieties of melaphyr. 


tphism, in which the chlorite resulted, largely or wholly, 
m the alteration of hornblende or pyroxene. In the more 


ish-gray. It contains generally grains 0 
Small tabular crystals of specular iron. aes 

2 inée-grained ; the constituents, light-green or see vie 
clinic feldspar and dark-green delessite, are nage ania stp 
= le, but more generally they are not so. The usu “to “a 
q <j grayish-creen, but it sometimes is speckled with brown 


194 Rk. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


through the presence of small flakes of rubellan; or mixed green q 
and brown, from the oxide of iron produced in the decomposi- 
tion of some of the constituents. As a rule, the greater the 
amount of rubellan the less there seems to be of magnetite 
In some instances, especially in some of the beds east of the 
Isle Royale copper-bearing bed, the rock is fine grained and sub- 
erystralline, brilliant black-green, sometimes purplish; slightl 
shimmering; easily scratched with the knife; contains consid- 
erable magnetite, small pieces of rock adhering to the magnet. 
lt weathers rusty gray. 

3. Melaphyr-porphyry ; dark-green, often nearly black; com- 
pact with perfect conchoidal fracture; very hard; contaims 
minute crystals of triclinic feldspar. 


Amygdaloids. 


a 
co) 
B 
ye} 
S 
= 
et 
aD 
2 
oO 
fe) 
= 
re 
pe 
=) 
OQ 
& 
ie 
be 
B 
4 
E. 
Q 
a 
2 
B 
La) 
° 
e 
Bp 
4 
14°) 
i) 
P 


Tee = 


Amygdaloidal Melaphyr. ao 
All the varieties of melaphyr on Portage Lake are subjett 
to this modification, but there is a considerable variation among 
different beds in regard to the nature of the minerals im the 
amygdaloidal cavities. In all the varieties, amygdules of deless. 
ite, or calcite or quartz coated with delessite, or again spots © 
epidote, occur here and there in the body of the rock. In — , 
beds the rock is characterized throughout by the presence ® 
laumonite in small amygdules and minute seams. _ aoe 
In the belt occupying 1,000 feet or more on either side 
the Isle Royale copper-bearing bed, many of the beds aus 
towards the top amygdules of delessite and of a green flinty 
are gradually succeeded nearer the top by ovoidal, lenticular s 
eet ame 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 195 


in diameter of prehnite, greenish-white, or tinged with pink 
generally amorphous, but often with a radiating structure, and 
sometimes slightly impregnated with native copper. 

The portion of the bed nearest the hanging wall is often 

highly amygdaloidal, while the matrix has at the same time a 
different degree of hardness, texture and color, and often a 
different mineralogical constitution from the parent trap. These 
varieties form the 
Amygdaloids proper. 
The amygdaloids are the most highly altered form of the 
melaphyr, and present themselves under a variety of characters 
in different beds and in different parts of the same The 
colors of the matrix are different shades of brown or red, and 
of green, or of these mixed; its texture varies from fine grained 
or sometimes subcrystalline to compact; and its hardness ranges 
from that of limestone to that of quartz. 

Two quite different kinds of amygdaloid occur on Portage 
Lake, both separately, and intimately associated in the same 

, and are easily distinguished by their different colors, the 
one being brown and the other green. ee, 
_The brown, which exhibits the amygdaloidal character in Its 
ighest development, has a chocolate-brown to dirty red matrix, 
which general]: is easily scratched with the knife, but 1s some- 

€s indurated and hard; it has a fine grained to subcrystalline 
texture, and now and then contains minute reddish crystals of 
feldspar, and fuses easily to a dark-green and somewhat mag- 
hetic glass, 


tarely empty, are laumontite, leonhardite, calcite, quartz, a 
steen mineral, apparently green-earth, delessite (more rarely), 
native copper. eplnts prehnite, analcite, orthoclase. In places 


green variety is a very fine grained to compact oy ie 
‘green rock. It is generally very hard, s - fire 


under the steel. Its constituents are V' ely free silica, 
green mineral which has been generally taken for epidote, 
1 ina er it cult 


toa dark enamel which gelatinizes with acids. These 
are called epidote “ wea aed they are probably in ord 
ates, at least, an intimate mixture of ae and epidote, 
ough in otherwise nearly similar beds, the green ninest 
S soft, and is probably either a green-earth or a chiorils: 


t 


196 ft. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


The cavities in this variety are often less regularly defined in 
shape than in the brown amygdaloid. The enclosed mine 
are quartz, epidote, calcite, delessite, prehnite, laamonite, green- 
earth, analcite, native copper, orthoclase. These two varieties of 
amygdaloids often occur together without any well defined 
lines of separation, the bed being made up of irregular masses 
of the two rocks. In places, however, the brown amygdaloid 
forms a band one to two feet thick on the hanging wall, with a 
rather abrupt transition into the green amygdaloid underlying 
it; I have never observed the reverse. 


ple e “Ancient pit” bed on the | 
Shelden and Columbian property. | 
Conglomerates. 


The conglomerates of Portage Lake differ from each other 7 
but little, if at all, in lithological characteristics. The pebbles 


to minutely crystalline matrix, in which lie crystals, $-3 ™° 
long, of a flesh-colored triclinic feldspar. 
In some beds there appear pebbles of a flesh-red rock, com 
posed almost entirely of granular feldspar, containing small 
specks of a black undetermined mineral. In some instance’ 
the feldspar is wholly triclinic, in others the twin-striation ® 
aac aan absent. is variety of pebble is altogether absett 
in some beds, at least where they are opened, while in othe® 
ae ‘ “gor manent as in — ——. = — Conglomerate 
ebbles compact melaphyr and of melaphyr amygdaao" 
also occur, | ronueae cubeidinate in saieaber ethos already 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 197 


The normal form of cement is a fine grained sandstone, com- 
posed apparently of the same material as the pebbles. Often 
the cement is very subordinate in volume, the pebbles touching 
each other. Frequently, however, the reverse is the case, and 
often the sandstone forms layers from less than an inch to many 
feet in thickness. 

_ The original character of the cement is often entirely lost; the 
interstices between the pebbles are sometimes, thoug rarely, 
empty ; in places the sand is associated with oxide of iron, chlo- 
rite, a white talc-like mineral, carbonate of lime, or it is entirely 
replaced by calcite, chlorite, epidote or even native copper. 

t is a remarkable fact that while all the conglomerate beds 
near Portage Lake are free from pebbles of quartz-porphyry, 
those in the neighborhood of Calumet are characterized by 
pebbles rich in grains of quartz. This abrupt change takes 
place about six miles N.E. from the lake. 

Different horizons of the Portage Lake series of rocks are 


Royale co rtion of very many of 
per-bearing bed, the upper portion of ve 
ape beds tate the many rdaliidal cavities filled with a light- 


gree : 
Width of 2 to 6 feet, form from 10 to 40 per cent of the rock, 


ized triclinic feldspar, delessite, prehnite and specular iro 


traps through a portion of this distance are frequently impreg- 
nated with e bgt, as is also the cement of the conglomerate beds. 
Stet ae ” property we come to a belt of the forma- 
ton in which many beds have a tendency to a eee cae 
stalline texture, and in some the character is highly se 
veloped, giving the rock, at a distance, almost the oe side : 
: ofa chloritic granite. Still farther west, on the ‘‘ Souths! eH 
a berty, the brown amygdaloids often present a scorlaceo 
-“Ppearance which is quite characteristic. 


198 Hf. Morton on the Color of Fluorescent Solutions. i 

Some, at least, of these features, are traceable for miles in 
the longitudinal extension of the zones in which they occur 
Thus the prehnitic amygdaloid of the Isle Royale series, is 
found in the N.E. extension of this zone, near where the road 
to Hagle river crosses the line between Townships 55 and 56 
N., or about 7 miles from Portage Lake. 

The coarse-grained melaphyr of the “ Dacotah,” is found 
extensively developed in the extension of the same zone on 
the South-Pewabic, Quincy and St. Mary’s properties. The 
brown amygdaloids of the “Southside” reappear with their 
peculiar scoriacious structure in the South-Pewabic and Han- 
cock beds, and in the trenches on the St. Mary’s, and have been 
considered the equivalents of the “ Ash-bed” rocks of Kewee- 
naw county, which they resemble. 

[To be continued.] 


Art. XXVIIL— Observations on the Color of Fluorescent Sol 
tions ; by Henry Morton, Ph.D., President of the Stevens 
Institute of Technology. 


familiar fluorescent solutions, such as the tincture of turmelt, 


of agaric, of chlorophy], and the solution of nitrate of uraniull, 


a specimen of mixed asphalt, which is here largely used in - 
aration of pavements, a a light-yellow solution me 
lue, and 


spectrum, as compared with the blue fluorescence, but only 
absorption of the red and violet ends. When, however, a ple® 
rescing canary glass or solid nitrate of uranium 

1, the green light was (as is well known) largely au 
I also found that when, by filtration through animal char 
aoe in turpentine was reduced in color, the gree 


a fluorescence dis _— in a corresponding 
_ This alone would, however, have proved ithe as a 


H. Morton on the Color of Fluorescent Solutions. 199 


fluorescing matter might have been absorbed by the charcoal, 
1 i t. 


duced to a rich yellow, the fluorescence appears green. The 
same result follows from filtration through bone black, with a 
marked increase in the amount of fluorescence visible, as the 
light-absorbing coloring matter is removed. By continuing the 
decoloration until the liquid is colorless or of a very light tint, 
its fluorescence is distinctly blue. 3 : 

The results with the spectroscope when it was applied to this 
substance, were the same as with the solution of asphalt. 
Such also is the case with tinctures of chloro hyl, which, when 
fresh and green, gives apparently a green light, and, when old 
and brown, a gray color. 


uite differently, as in the case of nitrate of uranium, and pos- 
sibly the fluorescent material in the asphalt, which may be rela- 
ted to the solid hydro-carbon fluoreseing green, which Becque- 
tel mentions (La Luminere, tome i, p. 3 : 
In this general connection let me mention that I have 
observed that while the acid salts of quinine generally are fluo- 
the chloride is not, and that hydrochloric acid will de- 
Compose the acid sulphate so as to destroy its fluorescence. 
ere are several other points in connection with this and 
one foregoing subject, which I must leave for a subsequent dis- 
Ussion, 


July, 1871, a 
ey S—Aug. 1st. I have just obtained results with turmeric 
Which seem to indicate that its Auorescence is due to the pee 
®nce of a substance not yet observed, soluble in water, an 
“Rout any color. 


200. od. L. Smith—Composition of the Searsmont Stone. 


Art. XXIX.—WMineralogical and Chemical Composition of the 
Meteorie Stone that fell near Searsmont, Maine, May 21, 1871; 
y J. LAWRENCE SMITH. 


IMMEDIATELY after the fall of this meteoric stone a portion 
of it was placed in my hands for examination. The circum- 
stances accompanying its fall, as well as its physical characters, 
have been described in the last number of this Journal by Prof. 
Shepard (p. 183). 

It resembles very closely the Mauerkirchen stone that fell in 
1768, the crust of the specimens corresponding quite closely to 
that in thickness and appearance; the Mauerkirchen stone, 
however, has not well-marked globules like that of Searsmont; 
in this respect it corresponds more nearly with the Aussun, a 
already stated by Prof. Shepard. 

e specific gravity of the specimen examined was 3-701. 

The nickeliferous iron and stony matter were separated me 
chanically for analysis. One hundred parts of the meteorite gave 

Stony matter (including a little sulphuret of iron) 85°38 
. PE MIRRSLOPONIE EPUNE 50S so eas a on ce 14°62 


The iron afforded: 
Tron 90°02 
Nickel 9°05 
ODMH oy a “43 


Phosphorus and copper were not estimated. The stony pat 
treated with a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, gave: 


Orion an tie MG a a a ce 52°3 
Insoluble “ 4 47°7 
The soluble portion afforded : 
HOR CaS Se 40°61 
Protoxide of iron 19°21 
haanesis Pee SS Sees 36°34 
Sulphuret of iron 3°06 ft 
Leaving out the sulphuret, which is obviously only ame 


— 


chanical mixture, this soluble part is evidently an olivine ' 
which is almost invariably the case with soluble portions ° 


meteoric stones. 
The insoluble part was composed as follows: 


. 


Alkalies, NaO, KO with trace of LiO ._...-- 
Chrome iron, small black specks --.-- sees ee 


Peters and Watson—Discovery of new Planets. 201 


The above analyses give for the composition of the stone: 


Nickeliferous iron -.-. - 14°63 
Magnetic pyrites 3°06 
Olivi “04 


sie 48 
Bronzite, a hornblende, with a little albite or 
orthoclase, and chrome iron 39°27 
With the bronzite there may also be enstatite, which would be 
confounded with the former, if existing in the stone. 


Slap oa tL hs dec alee 


Art. XXX.—Discovery of a new Planet; by Prof. C. H. F. 
Perers. From a letter to one of the editors, dated Litchfield 
Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, Oneida Co., N. Y., 
July 27, 1871. 


A small planet, the 114th of the group of asteroids, was dis- 
covered here in the night from the 23d to the 24th inst., and the 
following accurate positions hitherto have been obtained of it: 

187), 


Ham.Coll. m.t.|App. a (114)| App. 6 (114) 
aim. 6 m FW s : 
July 24.) 15 14 45 |21 43 27-85|—10 12 16-8\(by 6 comp’sons with Schj. 8925) 
26.112 18 4 121 42 «835/10 20 26-0 (by12 “ * W. 21h. 954) 


very fine sky to be 12°3. As it is still about a month yet until 

PPosition, it will become considerably brighter. The planet 
riuna (19) runs nearly parallel to it, distant only one degree, 
ng, however, of the 9th magnitude. 


Pies 


AR. XXXI—On a new Planet; by James C. Watson. From 
a letter to one of the editors, dated Observatory, Ann Arbor, 
August 7, 1871. 

T noticed last ni ght a star of the tenth magnitude near Weisse 

XX], 462, and a single comparison gave the following place: 

An 7. A 
1871, Aug Hagin Re 912 gym 95-90 —12 30"71 
A subsequent comparison showed that it had moved, and the 
following o rvations were made: 


Ann Arbor M. T. 115) 115)6 Comp. 
1871) Aug, 6. 12" 94" 4% 21 21" 4°64 12° 30°63. 4 
14 3 361 21 20 59°77 12 29576 7 
Eo 14 50 .14.:91.86 S710 +12 90 693" 6 
_ Daily motion, aa=—69"'5 Ad=+1' 59". 
. The planet shines like a star of the tenth magnitude. 


202 Scientific Intelligence. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE: 
I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysiIcs. 


1. On the existence and Phe teenga of Salts of Nitrous Oxide 
—The reduction of an alkaline nitrate to nitrite means 
of sodium was observed by Schdnbein, but the further action of 
the metal upon the nitrite itself has not hitherto been studied. 
Drvers finds that an amalgam of sodium reduces the nitrite to 4 

salt of nitrous oxide, the —— stages of the reaction being 
mamta by the eeasiny 

©, 4+Na,—Na N6,+Na,9, 
Na Ne! +Na,=Na NO +Na, e, 
So that four atoms of sodium are required for the reduction of one 
molecule of the nitrate. The reduction of the nitrite is accom 
panied by the evolution of pure nitrous oxide, and the author 
explains this by the mutual ee of two molecules of the new 
salt according 2 s equatio 
NO4Na NO=N 20+Na,0. 

After jek a by acetic acid, the alkaline liquid gives 4 
ellow pulverulent precipitate with argentic nitrate. This pr 
cipitate has the formula, AgN©: it is almost as insoluble 


la iat anit 


cipitate the.salt unchanged. It is instantly oxi dized by concelr 
trated nitric acid, with production of — red fumes. a 3 
ble chlorides and sulphuric acid also decompose it. When heatel 
to redness, pure silver finally remains, ite oxide, metallic ee 
and a little argentic nitrate being at first formed. When Z 

alkaline liquid containing the sodic salt is neutralized with dilu 
nitric acid, it gives precipitates with various other —— salts. 
The author promises a farther hing ee of this very OH, 
ing subject, and meantime purposes to call the new si oN hé 
either hypo-nitrous or hydro-nitroxylie acid.— Proc. R al Soci : 
ms p. 425. _ 

On a remarkable group of Mercurial Colloids Ne 

sok on of mercuric chloride upon an alkaline solution a acetonty 
and submission of the mixture to dialysis, ReyNoips h ral 
a ene of mercuric oxide with acetone, having the "fo 


dissolve the salt without immediate ian deny alkalies pre | 


ihe eat ea 


tial colloid or gelatinous ' character. A solution of the acetom® 
ers containing five ~~ cent., remains fluid, if pure 
twelve th 


Chemistry and Physics. 203 


ne 
$3 95. Elthylic aldehyde forms with mercuric oxide a white 
non-crystalline compound, but does not give a colloid liquid.— 

oc. Royal Society, xix, p. 431. W. G. 

- On a new Synthesis of Acids.—Von Ricuter has given a 
new method of forming organic acids likely to be fertile in inter- 
&sting results. This method consists in acting upon N®, com- 

ds with potassic cyanide so as to produce the correspon 
tyanides, which are then to be boiled with an alcoholic solution of 


a 
®ontains an organic salt of potassium, from which the acid may 
ee, be obtained. Thus, in the case of bromo-nitrobenzol we 

ve 


: €,H,Br NO0,+KON=€,H,€y Br+KN9®,, 
this being the Only part of the process which is really new. 
nen treated in this manner, ortho-bromonitrobenzol (fusing point 
)» yields ortho-bromobenzoic acid, o€ 5B, 902. eta- 
monitrobenzol (fusing point 56° C.), in like manner yields meta- 
i 


7 5 


“orresponding chloronitrobenzols were also studied. ochloro- 
fusing point 84° C.) yields orthochlorobenzoie acid, 
ipteer ©8,. On the other hand, a chloronitrobenzol at 
“> ©.) gave chlorosalylic acid, which, when fused with potash, 
Spi salicylic acid.— Berichte der Deutschen Chem. Gesell., iv, 


W. G. 
4. On Gallein.—When pyrogallic acid is fused with phthalic 
ad, hydrous, or better ‘ak pdfs the fused mass dissolved in 
Water yields a new coloring matter in small 


edad it with a magnificent blue color, whi 
- JOUR. Sct.—Tumep Serres, VoL, II, No. 9.—SEPT., 1871. 
14 


204 Scientific Intelligence. 


becomes dirty; ammonia gives a violet solution, The author | 

oo that ‘gallein closely resembles hematein, which by 
on with caustic potash yields pyrogallic acid. In like manner, 

i ith reduci 

may again be oxidized to hematin, so gallein may educed 
to gallin, a Npiriaaed crystallized substance, which, when moist: | 
ened with ammonia, again yields gallein. Stuffs mordanted with — 
ina or "fern ic oxide are dyed red by gallein, the color being fF 
intermediate between that of logwood and brazilwood. The cor — : 
3 


Pee | 
hedrons and prisms. It dyes mordanted stuffs like When 
gallein is heated with 20 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid to 
200° C., a new substance is formed, whic ule urified, pre 
sents a bluish-black mass, and which Baeyer terms ceerulein. 
This body dissolves in hot anilin with a magnificent indigo-blue 
color. The s olution, after adding a little acetic acid, dyes wool 
indigo-blue. The formula of cerulein is y reduc 
ion, it passes into rane which dissolves jin ether with 


——e 


4 
oO 
m 
i] 
e 
a) 
pod 
X) 
al 
o 

=, 2. 
es 
See 
a 
j= a 
fae) 
oO 
os 
mm 


ky 
Se 
3 > 
ge. 
fe} 
8. 
Qu 
re 
= 
oO 
4 
z., 
Ps 
4g 
m 
3 
oS. 
ty 
ory 
ou 
son 
| 
no 
a 
ee: 
= 
i= 
45 
23 
> 


5. Decomposition of ieigear ia > by R. mecca 
is one of the pect Hs t minerals to decompose, , altho h 
there have been ocesses given to effect its analysis, t ey 
have generally socomplished the purpose rather unsat: tisfactoriy. 

F. W. Clarke, and published some time ee 
ago in this Journal, wherein potassic di-sulphate and cryolite 
meat, undoubtedly effects the decomposition of the or? but an 

sulphate and cryolite require ired is so great ane t 
chrculiees ap erate in such a form, that I have never been able 
obtain tolerable results Py, this method. 

A number of experiments have cca a me that the ber 
given below is equal, if not superior, to any I have yet he 
in accuracy as well as rapidit a Set manipulation. e pro 

this: place about 0°3 grm. of ina capacious pla 


Geology and Natural History. 205 


poeible, add a piece of ammonic-fluoride about the size of a pea; 
oisten the whole with a few drops uf se ig ee _sulphurie 
Ad 


given. Sometimes this second fusion requires to be repeated, but 
for practical purposes this is unnecessary if the previous operations 
have been well conducted. The bulk of all three filtrates need 
hot be over 200 c.c. The chromium may be estimated by geonnen | 
acidifying the solution, reducing the chremium to the state o 
sesquioxide by means of s sulphurous acid solution, and oii 
by ammonic hydrate. If the Bunsen method of filtration is use ed, 
the ] moun 


angan 
from the alkaline solution. One advantage of this method is, that 
there i is no troublesome SyAperNe required to separate silicon. 
sults of parallet analyses 
1. C mite = —-2888 per cent Cr,0, 50°450 
2868 per cent Cr,0, 50°627 


Tam confident that with more experience still better results may 
tained. 


be ob 


II. Gronogy anp Natural History. 


1. Address to the American Association for the Advancement 
A pe soience, by Tuomas Srerry Hunt, LL.D., on retiring from the 

ce of President of the Association, "Indianapolis, Aug, 16, 1871. 
ta bp. 8vo.—Dr. Hunt takes for the themes of his address, first the 
ae, of the Appalachians, especially the history of researches 


ers in connection wi 4 own, and also the Ame 
Which he has been led. He first oe the crystalline rocks of 
the chain into hak series, draws out the distinctive chological 
‘teristics of each, pcs aintains sre they belong to differ- 
®at geological eras, 
a Adirondack me Lada Series, = is marked by 
granitic gneisses, e 


eddi eisses, often coarse-grain generally 
— or grayish in "color, . “often — and little —- 
_ CeOus, » and including reat eds of magne etic re, and tie 

Raphite but a argillites, or slates caine staurolite, 
andalusite or cyani 


206 Screntific Intelligence. 


IL The Green Mountain Series, characterized, he observes, pe 


mica schists and nenereened micaceou 8 gneisses, the latter often 
light-colored, fine or coarse-grained and sometimes porphyritie; 
ae mica Ae ie ae in mica than those of the Green Mountain 
us quartzite ; hornblendic gneisses and schists; 

aK’ or yatale’ ffitiewtoinds accompani nied by boston Se ido- 
crase, sphene and graphite, like the limestones of t urentian, 
ut t often intimately associated with highly eer schists. 

aining staurolite, andalusite, cyanite and garnet, and some 

sha highly plum mbaginous. The rocks are ‘ated ed by granite 
veins containing tourmaline, beryl, lepidolite, and occasionally 
tinstone and moaned only the ak i ip minerals occurring; 


as far as known the bau rentian ¢ 
After thus dividing Lithologie aly ae ack into these t 
series, Dr. Hunt endeavors to trace them southwestward along the 


Appalachians, through the ddittiptions of other geologists 5 and 


is not where upon; neither is the value of lithological a 
amon stalline rocks in the determination of geolog! 
equivalency diacnsved, beyond making an affirmation on the oe 
and citing the opinions of one or two authors 
he history of the discoveries and views of geologists La 7 


with them in the Green Mountain > is next ably ae 


rg eye pera “Green Mountain Series,” he 84 10 
“ Although I have, in poeined with most other American ge 
i t 


eastern North Americs are not only pre-Silurian but ‘pre-Cambrias | 

in age”—a conelusion which all will say should be thorough 

tested by reference to stratigraphical facts before it is gen@ 
accepted. 


Geology and Natural History. 207 


The * Origin of Crystalline Rocks,” the subject of the second 
d. Facts are to 


part of the address, is next discussed. brought 


not b oO 
review of recent observations, and mainly his own, connected with 
the origin of the minerals constituting and associated with the 
Specimens of Eozoon; and finally treats briefly of the origin of 
estones and dolomites, making some great formations of them 
of chemical origin. 
€ conclusions throughout Dr. Hunt’s address are open to 
doubts and objections; but their discussion would require as many 
pages as he has found necessary for presenting them. 
2. The distribution of Maritime Plants in North America a 
Cha 


BSA a ai 


No 
Properly belong to sea-shores, and draws from them the conclu- 
‘lon expressed in the title of his paper above given. The argu- 
went is an important one. But still it may be queried, consider- 
ing the much greater number of shells and of other kinds of 
marine animal life that must have existed in those Champlain 
“eas, whether their absence from the same regions all over the Uni- 
ted States, beyond a height of 300 to 600 feet above tide-level in 
““ More northeastern portions, is not better proof that the sea 


ste i 


B 
&. 
wR 
fae) 
° 
fe ad 
& 
et 
S 
B 
= 
9 
= 
mS 
Su 
© 
5 
er 
@ 
cao 
a 
~S 
5 
Bu 
ta 
@ 
co 


al —with the exceptions along the borders of the Atlantic, along 
€ River (then Gulf of) St. Lawrence, and on Lake Champlain 
oe an arm of that Gulf )—without any traces of marine animal 


shore 
oe of the continent, in the supposed case, would be b 


a 
__* Waters of a great interior sea, having only the very feeble 


208 ; Scientific Intelligence. 


movement that might en from the tides setting in by the south 
and the northeast, so that the necessities of the iceberg theory 


but the waters bearin g them must have been fresh wate ers—vit., 
those of the much ‘expanded Great Lakes, and those of the flood 
(first appealed to oe this connection by Prof, Hilgard) which pro- 
ceeded from the melting continental glacier over “the vast funnel 
shaped Mississippi iter aching from the ee on the 
east to the far distant Rocky Mountains on the w 

In a geological paper on the New Haven region » (Connecti) 
recently piiblished by the writer, it is stated that the Champlain 
beds of sand and gravel which underlie the plain about the bay, 
show, by the character of the stratification, that they were deposi- 


these tipper twenty feet nearly to the top bear unquestionable eve 
dence of ne tet by the outflowing flooded river. This 


: ow ocean ahs ng the Champlain era. 

Some of the Results of the Latest Researches in the Water of 
dhe ‘Atlantic and Mediterranean.—These results, as set forth in 4 
lecture by Dr. Wm. CarPEeNTER, before the Royal ince 
are fattes > as follow 

1.) The waters ‘of ‘the Atlantic between Falmouth and Lisboa 
are most salt and dense at the surface, as first observed by Forel 
hammer. The specific gravity ranged from 1°0269 to 1°0268, the 


by volumetric etic averaged at surface 19°94, at bottom 19° 7 
intermediate region 19°85. The maximum at surface was 20° 
In waters taken on ais same vertical line the chlorine was at st 
face 20°013, at 10 to 50 fathoms 19-909, at 100 f. 19°805. er 
excess of saltness at surface is attributed to evaporation. But a 
consequent aie density is ae to be neutralized by * 
effects of colder temperature belo at . 
(2.) The saltness in the Moditerrdtiean ' is greatest below pe a 
face. In the shallower parts, it is greatest at bottom In “ 
shallower parts of the western basin (which basin includes all ‘a 
od Malta, ara a at non fe fe rosses the sea, and which 5% 


pa “at 

c gravit ity ‘08 chlorine at surface were 1°0278 and 20°87; at et! 
tom 1°0285 and 21°38. But the salinity does not increase wit pr 
be An average of results shows that at 200 to 400 ie : 

onde 38 ific gravity and chlorine were 1-0287 and 21°53; at 4 a 
800 hom, 1-085, “i a at 1,300 to 1,700 f., 1°0283, 21 ‘21. . 
increase 0 boca ie me distance downward is attributed to * 


Geology and Natural History. 209 


sinking of the surface layer as it becomes more dense by evapora- 
tion, an effect not apparent in the Atlantic, because the difference 
of salinity above and below is so slight. 

(3.) The temperature of the North Atlantic waters near the mar- 


gin of the basin decreases downward toward 35°, but with an 


? 
perature at 81 fathoms was 53°°5; from which it gradually sunk 
to 51°-5 at 300 fath.; 50°-5 at 600; 49°3 at 800; and then fell off 


aters of the Mediterranean 
Very Nearly uniform, being between 54° and 56°°5, and nowhere 
lo . and . 
> 


e@ te 
at lot, 71°. ©. at 40 £, 5773; at 50 f, 
, at 20 £, 61°; at 30 £, 60°; at ade # 
“'T; at 100 £, ae 54° was found at a depth in one case of 


210 Seventific Intelligence. 


790 f.; 56° in another at 1,743 f.; 55° at 1,456 and 1,508 f, thee 
being merely local variations. Hence “whatever the temperature 
was at 100 fathoms, that was the temperature of the whole mass of 
water beneath down to the greatest depth explored.” Between Gib- 
raltar and Sardinia the bottom temperature ranged between 54° 

and 55°°5, average 54°°9; toward Sicily, between 55° and 56°. 
Dr. Carpenter concludes that “no amount of surface-heat has 
ater 


general 
temperature at the western extremity of the basin. d the ur 
orm permanent temperature of the mass of Mediterranean water 
may thus be considered as representing the mean temperature of 


deep caves gives another set of data of the like kind, 
clo i i Thus. 


orquay, which is farthest from its entrance, varies but little iron 
. There is a cave in the island of Pantel 
laria, lying between Sicily and the African coast, which is repated 
| ss i f Newport, 


very hot sunshine, its actual temperature, taken by thermomete — 
was 54°, 


deposition of this finest silt going forward, as it tends to cover the - 
surface of the animal and prevent aeration. Thus oyster beds ¥™ 


Geology and Natural History. 211 


not flourish in the range of river deposits. The facts correspond 
with those observed by Tyndal, who detected the particles in the 
sirface-water of the Mediterranean by electric light, and attrib- 
uted the deep blue color of the waters, as well as of those of Lake 
Geneva, to their presence. 

e facts are stated to explain to geologists how non-fossilif 


essrs. King and Rowney is considered in detail, and in closing, 
the following recapitulation is given of the points they consider as 
established :— 


‘ pass in 
ariously subdivided states, and etching out the resulting portions 
ins an 


2) 7h ch we hol 
be the calcareous matrix of the above lobulated grains, &e.) 1s 
“ompletely paralleled in various crystalline rocks—notably marble 
Containing i 


the pre-cited marbles. i 
i) The “chamber caata” being composed occasionally of 
loganite and malacolite, besides serpentine, is a fact ore a WO 
of favoring their organic origin, as supposed, must be held as a 
z n produce 


Prescribed order, 
(5.) Dr. Giimbel, observing rounded, cylindrical, or igri 195 
of coccolite and pargasite in crystalline calcareous marbles, 


212 Scientific Intelligence. 


tureless abide 
(7.) The a Wainainhias layer,” in its typical condition, unmis- 
takably occurs in cracks or fissures, both in Canadian and 
Connemara ophite 
(8.) The “nummuline layer” is paralleled by the fibrous coat 
vot is occasionally present on the surface of grains of chor 
drodite. 


ut 1 on irom 
another, to the exclusion of the *“intermediate skeleto on ae 
totally incompatible with the idea of the “nummuline layer” hav 


10.) The so-called “stolons,” and “ pass ages of communication % 
exactly sin, Sepa with those described in Cyeclocly ypeusy” 
have been shown to be tabular crystals and eatoualy formed : 
bodies, belon ak to different minerals, wedged cross-way8 % — 
obliquely i in the calcareous interspaces between the grains s and 


(11.) The « ‘canal system” is composed of serpentine, or er 
. : o traced 


e solvent. 
2; “canal system” in its remarkable branching gine 
is completely paralleled by crystalline e configurations i in the 
li len; an crevices of a ¢ 
of ge ashame in a calcitic matrix per Amity, New i. 
(13. 3.) T he configurations, presum — to so rn the “canal sy 


eis a pene 26 the argumen nt that as all pe foreeeig 
£ eoevonal features ” are occasionally found get in 1 ophite, 


Geology and Natural History. . 213 


combination must be considered a conclusive evidence of their 
organic origin, we have shown, from the composition, physical 
characters and circumstances of occurrence and association of 


is paralleled to a remarkable extent in chondrodite and its calcitic 
rix, 

15.) The “regular alternation of lamelle of calcareous and 

“ intermediate 


nside to be a “fundamental fact” evidencing an organic 
ae grt is proved to be a mineralogical pheno he 
et ar ion oceurs in amphiboline-calcitic marbles 


and gneissose rocks. ; 
(16.) In order to account for certain wntoward difficulties pre- 
gurations forming the “canal system,” and the 

muline la 


bundles of the pseudopodia that have emerged from the chamber 
wall”)—«by a process of chemical substitution before their 
nd showed this quasi- 


(17.) The “siliceous mineral ” (serpentine) has been analogued 
ni 


&e.) of recent and fossil foraminifers. We have shown that t 
tes of “Eozoon” have no relation whatever to the 


sts. ; 
Dr. Hunt, in order to account for the serpentine, loganite 
i ling 


Pe malacolite, bein he presumed in-fil substances of 
0z0on,” has co ed the “novel doctrine” that such mineral 
i is “ fossil” 


(19.) Having i i £ “chambers” and 
g investigated the alleged cases of ~ cham 
occurring “ filled with valeite,” and presumed to be “a 

ions,” we have shown that there 
th 


Dnadense ” in rocks that are ina “ hig. . 
ge 4} must be accepted as a fact utterly fatal to its organic 


* Dr. Ca F : lard Reade’s 
. Dr. Carpenter, unable to defend himself against Mr. T. Me 
Objection that “ Fozoon ppethirs only metamorphosed rocks (Nature, No. 60), 


214 | Scientific Intelligence. 


(21.) The occurrence of “ eozoonal features ” solely in crystalline 
or metamorphosed rocks, belonging to the Laurentian, the Lower 
Silurian, and the Liassic systems—never in ordinary unaltered 
deposits of these and the intermediate systems—must be assumed 
as completely demonstrating their purely mineral origin. 


g apt. 
The reading of the foregoing paper was followed by a short 
communication from Dr. Dawson, on “two points,” which it is now 
necessary to notice :— 


The authors add to the paper the following postseri 
i ol 


&e. The case esting : , ne 
established fact that foraminiferal shells, corals, and other 
organisms occur with siliceous in-fillings of the kind—and having 


and some othe ade known last year by Dr enter) into 
the present discussion sides, it is altogether gratuitous, 
Inconsistent with scientific reasoning, to assume that the crinoidal 


in-filling “is similar to that effected by the ancient serpentine of 
the Laurentian” (Dawson) ; or, that it is “allied in the mode of 


n 
essential “ eozoonal feature” in connexion with a crystal of spinel, 
from ity. We now learn that Dr. Dawson has had under ex- 


anadense.” the inference that the specimens “ are po™ 
tions of a bedded rock, and not a vein stone ”--without taking 
into consideration that it is suppositional, and based on an examil 
natio specimens preserved tn collections—it cannot set aside 


i 
the plain fact, that in our specimen arborescent configurations— 
formed of groups of decreted erystals of malacolite, and identical 


takes refuge under the ad captandum argument, that its ‘ caleareous | ele 
(‘intermediate skeleton ”) “ show less departure from the shelly texture pire 
grea ij i le a. 


rocks of any geological period” (Natwe, No. 62); forgetting that, as the sub- 
Stance of such fossils has undergone so much cha 4 
aa eee 4 pl . ‘ ert +} 1 containing them—“ least altered had 
they may be—into the “highly crystalline condition” of “ eozoonal ” ophite. 
But Dr. Carpenter seems to misunderstand the objection altogether; as it is nt 
based so much on the mineral structure of the “ fe 

aed occur best preserved in “ highly crystalline ” or metamo 


er; 
1 features,” as on the fact 
rphosed an. 


Geology and Natural History. 215 


with perfect and the finest examples of what are presumed to be 
“casts of the canal system ”—are present in calcite, occupying the 
crevices of a large crystal of spinel. The fact of itself conclusively 
settles their purely mineral origin. 
the Oil-bearing Rocks of Ohio and West Virginia; b 
A. J. Warner. (Communicated.)—In an article on the “Oil- 
bearing Limestones of Chicago,” in the June number of this Jour- 
nal, by Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, this author remarks that. “much of 
the petroleum of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the adjacent regions, is 
Indigenous to certain sandstones in the Devonian and Carbonifer- 
rocks,” 


It is now well ascertained that the heavier lubricating oils, pro- 
duced along the well known uplift in West Virginia, are found 
s of th i 


same district is principally found about three hundred and fift 
feet below the Coal-measure conglomerate, or in the Upper Devo- 
f S$ 


gravity, is found phage get the sandstone stratum, which forms 
in 


emp) contain Calamites 
e 


A 
Why is it limited strictly to these sharp anticlinal belts ? The evi- 
ence seems abundant, that, at least in the dist 


lime- 
t Genesee and Marcellus slates, or the deeper Silurian 
Stones, may, perhaps, be yet a question ; but facts which Loeercl 
quire too much space to ask for here, favor the view of the ne 
Source in the bituminous shales. 

Marietta, Ohio, July 12. 


216 Scientific Intelligence. 


Notes on some porn in the Mineralogy and ee of 
Tah: te W. P. Brake. (From a letter to Prof, B. Smiimay, 
dated Salt a City, J ‘dg 27, 1871.)—I left New Haven hurriedly 
to reach t mma Mine and examine it. It is a remarkable mine, 


quartzite, and rest upon th mense masses of syenitic grani 
which form the picturesque peat peaks of the Wahsatch. 
These strata are all much uplifted and con torted, some of the harder 


Pp 
in color, while the syenite is light gray, and they show the 
peculiar scale-like crusts seen on the aul weathered Via 
surfaces ehove the Yosemite. 


the limestone fo rmation, I have seen ee peculiar and snitercaling 
= from other parts of the Terri tory. Sal Ammoniae 8 


Meader in the southern part of the Territory. It is associated 
a ain brown dodecahedral garnets, and considerable hort- 
ote on Coal-measure Fucoids ; by G. C. BroapHEAD.— 
(Communication dated pets Hill, Mo. July 14th, 1871.) 
e 


p. 302, Lesquereux reports the occurrence of Ficoides Cauda 
gall, in a sandstone of Crawford Co., Arkansas, in the nei, nee 
hood of the coal-fields. Considering it Devonian, he is puzzled at 
its occurrence there, and suggests the possibility that it has ~ * 

i cers than had till now hoon 


eastern coal- bean of ens aky. the pmeuenerste is sometimes 
auda-galli.” It 


Geology and Natural History. 217 


that further investigation deta show this Crawford Co, sandstone 
to belong to the Coal-measur 

I observed the Ca dulerpites first, about the year 1859, in Ran- 
dolph Co., Mo., occurring in hard sandstone and sandy limestone 
of the Coal-measures, and not very remote from the base of the 
Lower series: it was there about five feet below a four-foot bed 
of coal. I have observed traces of the same, here at Pleasant Hill, 
er Coal-measure sandstone and sandy limestone, and at one 
— locality in Missouri—I think probably in Lafayette Co. In 

1868, I discovered Cawlerpites in a shaly sandstone of the Upper 
iscasarcs in Montgomery Co., Illinois, above the horizon of 

13, 


8 On oe and Subcarboniferous Fossils in Monon- 

galia Co., West Virginia ; by F. B. Murex (Report Regents of 
University, Ww. Virg ini ne aes Meek describes in this paper some 
hew species, viz Ms omen obsoletus, of the Lower Coal-measures, 
Nuewla anodonto ides, Yoldia pie sont and Y, a the Che of 


the Coal-measures, showing, as rema 
lived on through a great elie of t time, and scene ct that the 
= ate and other physical conditions of the era must have 
ne markably uniform 
the — atigraphie Relation of the Orders of Reptilia 
Prot Epwarp D, Corr.*—The stra ———. relation of the aes 
- Reptiles is is shown in the following table: 
Present—Rhynchocephalia: Crocodilia; Testu - Lacertilia; Ophidia. 
_ Pliocene—Crocodilias Testa idinata Lacertilia ;  Ophiaia, 
ilia ; Ophidia. 
"La rtilia; Ophidia. Z : 
sar seh anergy sare Cocmodiin: Sauropterygia; Testudinata ; 
Lacertilia ; Pythonomorpha. 


* 


th 
From a Memoir on the ate ac < — road the sags page wii : 


Reptilia and the 
the app a 194, “oe preceding page of the memoir the author argues that 
posed Lacertilia of the Permian are all Rhynchocephalia. 


218 Seventific Intelligence, 


Jurassic—Ornithosauria; Dinosauria; Ichthyopterygia; Crocodilia; Saurop- 
terygia; Testudinata; Lacertilia. 

Triassic—Dinosauria; Anomodontia; Rhynchocephalia; Ichthyopterygia; Croc : 
odilia; Sauropterygia; ? Testudinata. ? ; 

Permian— ? Rhynchocephalia. 

It will be observed, by this table, that the most specialized Rep- 
tilian order, the Ophidia, appeared last in time in the Eocene 
period ; and that those which constitute the line of connection with 
the generalized reptiles appeared earlier as they approached the 
latter,—the Pythonomorpha in Cretaceous, and Lacertilia in 
sic times. The Reptilian groups most specialized in bird charac 
ters (Ornithosauria and Dinosauria) appear on the other hand very 
early ; the first andjmost mammalian also,—the latter of the two, ' 
in Jurassic beds. The Trias gives us in the Anomodontia and | 

: 


derma allied to Sphargis, without carapace, and thus the most 
lizard-like of the order. The Lacertilia of European Jurassic strata 
are, some of them at least, acrodont, apparently Pachyglossa (¢ 9» 
Acrosaurus), and, as such, nearer the Rh chocephalia, which pre 

hem in time. € position of Homorosaurus an . 


ay 


of Wagner. 
mesosternum of the former refers it to either the Pachyglossa % 


e Crocodilia of the Jurassic do not possess the ball-and- 
socket-jointed vertebra of the recent genera, and exhibit the a 
articular faces of all the Jurassic and Triassic Reptilia. 

* The identity of these two propositions has not always been noticed by author. 


Geology and Natural History. 219 


re, an approach to the long sacrum of the same orders. The 

lodon) is a Sauropterygian feature. In the Sauropterygia the 

shortened vertebral column, and long muzzle (Pistosaurus) in the 

hosauria display an increasingly Crocodilian character as we 
The 2208 


tylus) loses the bird-like head, and assumes the ill-defined convexity 
f the Crocodiles; the tibia (Plateosaurus) loses the bird-like 


ria, of the Trias, than those of the Cretaceous. There are 
oubtful, owing to the generalized character of the parts we pos- 


Sess. Thus the Rhynchosaurus of the Trias of England is allied 
to that order, and to the Anomodontia. The Rhopalodon of the 
ik es 


lar 
ones derived from the study of the Mammalia, that the successional 


g' 
ely exhibited by the subordinate contents of the orders than 


decide that we must look for the origin of the orders in periods 
Prior to those in which we now know them, if, as some supp 
they originated in still more generalized t saccords with 


Huxley’s view of the period of origin of the mammalian orders. 
It must also be remembered that the above deduction as to 
Geological distribution is precisely that of geographical distribu- 


ch ; 

. Ey a; by F.C CALVERT. 
(Am, Ma . N. H., IV, viii, 129).—A solution of sugar in which 
infusoria had appeared, when subjected to 212° F., still contained 


bod 
Oo 

5 
Bees 
e-8-4 
S 

S 
a 


4 or5 small black Vibrios quite active, and 2 or 3 energetic o 
of igin of Genera, 1868; Hypothesis of Evolution, 1870. 
AM. Jour. Sor—Tuep Series, VoL. II, No. 9.—Sepr., 1871. 
15 


220 Scientific Intelligence. 


Vibrios. The same, heated to 300° F., was os to contain 2 
ordinary Vibrios and 1 or 2 black Vibrios. At 400° F. the sugar 
was mostly decomposed sie all life had disappea 

An infusion of hay was similarly treated ; after foutieg to 212°F., 
there were present a few small black Vibrios ; cscs even. after 
heating to 300° F., though a less number. None was found after 
heating to 400°. 212° F, a all the lime matter that 
was before present in the tu 
e life in an infusion of guia ne was slightly decreased * 
100° ae , very largely at 212° F. and had wholly disappeared at 
300 

The infusoria in putrid meat fluid were but slightly affected at 
100° F. ; at 212° F. a small part remained alive but inactive, the 
liquor becoming turbid and coagulated ; at 300° F., a few Vibrios 
were alive, the small — ones the most numerous ; at 400° F. 
all ag had ang 

In each case the Ellie were examined 24 days after the 
heatin ss The ‘Sapalte show that infusorial vegetable life of some 

i ae Mey survive a temperature of even 300° F., but not of 


At 15° F. the infusoria became languid, but with an increase of 
aerperamre ane they were as active as ever. 

schnikoff on the affinities of Crinoids.—Metschnikot, 

to ae we owe so many valuable embryological investigations, 

has published preliminary notices* of the early stages of Coma 

tula which are of the utmost importance, as they throw an ei 


had been previously written by Busch, Allman and Thomson, °? 
the early a sh of Comatula, giving no data whatever bearing 


has always been homologised with the water-system 0 
Echinoderms is Gevslooad in a Sig 5 different manner. In the free 


omatula larva the bag-like digestive sac is the 0 
organ developed, it omes the digestive cavit the adult 
after the larva attaches itself to the ground. He noticed the 
tentacles as diverticula of the digestive sac in th rior of 
arva ; these subsequently force their way through to the exter! 
at the time when the di ve ba further 
tiated, and is preriien with a mouth opening in the center of 
oval disk, and an anus opening not far from it on the or 


* Bulletin Acad. St. Per tad Xv, p. 508, amas 1871. 


Geology and Natural History. 221 


tentacles at their base, forms the so-called circular canal, while 
ow it, and connecti ing with it, we have a large cavity form- 


cular ring and of the perivisceral cavity Mec ie that ob- 
served in Ophiurans, Starfishes, sh bys and Holot 


the Seay and position of the digestive organs and tentacles 


with similar organs of Bryozoa. However that ma 
th conclusively that the larva of Comatula has apparently 
nothin ommon with other Echinoderm | 


Wait for his figures on this intricate subject before we can decide 
if the position he assigns to Crinoids is true to natur A. AG. 

12. Chinese Botany.--W e have received, through fe kind atten- 

= of the author, a curious pamphlet, of ’50 pages, On the Study 

: Value of Chinese Botanical Works, with Notes on the History 

of Plants and Geographical Botany from Chinese Sources ; by 

Physician of the Russian Legation at 


chow. The preface bears the date of Dec. 17, 1870. In it the 
author declares that he is “neither a Sinologue nor a Botanist ;” 
his “knowledge in Chinese as well as in botany being very lim- 
ited.” ut his enquiries on the spot under advantageous condi- 
Hons, and the use he has made of “the splendid library 0 of the 
Russian Ecclesiastical Mission at Pekin ng, where are to be found 
hot only all Chinese works of importance, ais also most European 
fruit 


or the source of introduction is treated of by the aid of Chinese 
ents, some of th high antiquity. Cotton appears to 


e of a or of ea rly in ne n, and the question of nativi 
: 
| 


me 
Cane ie) not pass — China to India, but the reverse, and as 
 farly as the second century B, C., although it was several centuries 
- later ¢ that a native of India taught the Chinese to make — 
‘Sar, or “stone ho oney.” A. 
18. Plants killed by Frost : do they die in Freezing or n Thaw 
ing? That. in certain cases plants die in freezing, is a Ag 


pyeerehide, notably the milk-white blossoms of Calanthe vera- 
ia, produce ably th but only upon a chemical reaction, which 


- 


222 . Scventifie Intelligence. 


takes effect upon the death of the parts. When crushed, or the cells 
in ne way destroyed as to vitality, they turn blue immediately. 
N xpo t 


III. Astronomy. 


Scintillation of the Stars.—Prof. L. Respraut has published 
an extended and very interesting paper upon this subject, it being 
an extract from the proceedings of the Accademia Pontificia de 

uovi Lincei, at the session held Febr. 14, 1869. It gives the 
results of a great number of observations made with the spectro- 
a 


the like. The first portion of the paper is a reswmé of an earlier 
one giving the results of a series of observations made previously 
to May 1868. The conclusions arrived at, although incomplete, 
were ‘so important, that Prof. Respighi made a more extend 

series of over 700 observations, which were continued from October, 
1868, to February, 1869. The corey eee employed was an equa 
torial by Merz, with an aperture of 44 inches, and provided with 
a oe th prism i Hoffmann, with a oplindvioal lens betweeD 
the prism and ed e 0¢ 


other, passing from the violet to the red, when the a. — in the 
east, and in the opposite direction when it was in the 
characteristic phenomena, as summed up by Prof. Respight are a8 

(1.) In normal atmospheric tee the motion of the bands #8 
from the red to the violet for stars in the west, and from the 
violet to the red for stars in the oon 


5 a 
fae) 
=) 
et 
26 
oO 
ae 
oO 
te 
(@>) 
nm 
eS 
Sas 
4s 
p] 
mR 
; Oa 
—e 
Lar | 
2O 
Sf 
oO 
Qu 
ae 
a 
® 4 
Ps] 
= 
oe 
“9 
'm 
> 
7H 
5 
2 
~ 
e 
| a 
oOo 
oe 
: 
- 


rav 
(3.) The motion of the bands is more piesa and less rapid nea! 


ra r 

4 ) When the instrument is so placed that the spectrum is vertl 
eal, es motion of the bands is the same as when it is horizontal 
but th nds are less definite, and nearly transversal, up . 
altitude of “a | while - eater ee they become sncee 


imes fits mere movi ing masses either bright or obscure; 

not rarely resulting in mere changes of poe genes : 

ie ome bright bands are more rare and less regular than the 
occur only near the horizon. 


fake? Se in Be ee ee ee eee ee ae ee 


FR he Sonn: aL yee aR been ee cee ae ity 


Astronomy, 223 


(6.) Not unfrequently, in the case of stars of low altitude, besides 
the bands which are regular, there occur other series o 


? 
(7.) Under normal atmospheric conditions, neighboring stars all 
present the same phenomena. ‘ 
Under abnormal conditions of the atmosphere, the bands are 
more feeble and more irregular in form and movement. 
_(9.) When high winds prevail, the bands are very faint and in- 
distinct, and sometimes appear as mere changes eigen in 
ep gui even when the stars are near the horizon, and very 


10.) When the images of the stars are very diffuse, the bands 
are most feeble and indistinct. ; 

(11.) When the bands are regular in form and movement, there is 
generally good weather; and it would appear in general that 
regularity in the phenomena of scintillation is a reliable basis for 
predicting the continuance of fair weather. 

12.) The phenomena of scintillation are most distinctly marked 
on evenings of greatest atmospheric humidity. 

Prof. Respighi then discusses the cause of the scintillation as 

regularity and con- 


earth, by which the luminous rays are carried through atmos- 
pheric strata of varying densit 


224 Scientific Intelligence. 


the violet end of the spectrum ; as its refracting power is 
changed with its density, the violet rays will be deflected. 
will thus be thrown out of spectrum, causing a dark band, 


ing to which it is due to interference, and that of Montign 


. 


under favorable circumstances, recognized the same phenomena #8 — 
A. We We, 


Astronomy. 225 


2. On the recent Solar Eclipse; by J. Norman LockyEr.— 
Mr. Lockyer closes an interesting lecture on the Solar Eclipse, 


pik 
told you that M. Madler, in summing up the observations made 


; 
ut 

: 
i 
: 
fp 
; 

: 

E 

‘ 


& 
2 
food 
E 
ee 
S 
ct 
ee 
Lae) 
= 
| 
= 
2 
GQ 
fas) 
i} 
™m 
= 
i, 
SS 
mn 
Oo 
5 
chal 
oO 
wm 
= 
5 
na 
J 
28 
Ow 
2 E 
poo 


It is a great fact that we are sure, as far as observation can make 
a Sure, that there is a glare around the hydrogen which ne us 
e 


cli : 
layer of the chromosphere gives us a glare around ie < 
€xactly what was to be expected, and that it 1s true 18 soe sede 
the observation—a most important observation made In Sp 


226 Scientific Intelligence. 


may be anxious to attempt to elucidate this subject, that probably 
if they would consider all the conditions of the problem presented 


bad weather, the observations made by the English and Ameria! 
our knowle 


increase of knowledge generally comes a. necessity il 


no exception to this rule. A few years ago our science was 3 
fied with the terms prominences, sierra, and corona, to OPT 
2 0 


sverra was employed, and aptly so, when it was imagine of 
t ecg. 


the constituent materials of these strange things; we know that 


Seis eee eee [ARES i Ai rs a EN pn SY ae ae es ere ee Dost Me SRR ele ae = ke comes re a MRL BS) ON an 
ss ise aed sioha Sa Sere Sa a a 


Astronomy. 227 


we are dealing with the exterior portion of the solar atmosphere, 
and a large knowledge of solar meteorology is already acquire zoe 


e also know that of the corona is not at the sun at all 
oa the terms Ava iS and halo have been suggested to 
designate in the one case the regions where the general 1 nessa a. 
owing to a reduced pressure and temperature, is no longer subor- 
dinate to the selective rometiee and in the other, that pert of the 
corona which is non-solar. N either of these terms Js apt, nor 


ed tha 
doubted solar portion the term Chromosphere—the bright-line re- 
gion—as it was defined in this theatre now two years ago, Rago 
expresses its characteristic features, and hepencates it from 
Peeper and the associated portion of the solar neephits 
ourse would end, if it were not incumbent on me to 


friends whom we found wherever we went, and who welcomed 
us as if they had know us from gs childhoo 
3. Sasrad Stars of August 10th-11th. sare Sherburne, N. Y., 
six persons watched for the August meteors on the night 


' of the the oats of the month. Between 11" 40™ and 12", forty- 


eight were seen, In the next hour one hundred and forty-three 
were counted, and ty the first eighteen minutes of | the nex t hour, 
wo. 


ok ; 
The latitude of the radiant was one and one-half ir less 
than that of the nebula in Perseus. Its length was at least two 
degrees, extending gues a point 2° or 3° to the left of that star 
to one 8° or 1 


to the left of Zia. Ne or quite bite 0 of the meteors 
Were judged to be sondarinn Bis to the above line as a sem $6 ee 
On a Meteor seen at haa ce N. C., July 19; ‘by C + 
Es S. Martin.—On Wednesday night, July 19th, between 8 and 9 
o'clock, we were very ee startled by a blaze of light, followed 


228 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


IV. MisceLLANreous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Deep Sea Dredging, under the direction of the Coast Sur- 
vey.—The U. 8. Coast Survey Steamer F. R. Hassler, commander 

. C. Johnson, U.S. N., now approaching completion at Wilming- 
ton, Del., will be dispatched as soon as ready to the coast of Calt- 


re 
Harvard College as physicist, Assist. L. F, Pourtales of the Coast 
Survey in charge of deep sea dredgings, Dr. Steindachner as icthy- 
ologist, Mr. Blake as draughtsman. Some of the officers of the 


Be 
muda, Trinidad, Rio Janeiro, Montevideo, the Falkland Islands, 
the Straits of Magellan, Juan Fernandez, the Gallapagos. : 

he ship is fitted out with a special view to deep sea soundings 
and dredgings, and will probably be ready for sea in the latter 
part of September. 


( y 
(4.) Analogies between the “Terramarres” and the Kjek 
_kenmeedding. 

( Chronology of the first substitution of bronze for iron. 


ing things, including various portions of the hind limbs of the Mos* 
saurs, and some more remains of the Pterodactyl found last seaso 


. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 229 


4, British Association.—The meeting for the current year at 
Edinburgh commenced on the 2nd of August. Sir William Thom- 
son, the President, oe ered his inaugural address in the Music 
Hall. The Em mperor te) 


associate? s tickets, and £910 from ladies’ tickets. The whole 
income of the year was a little 0 over £5,239, or more than twenty- 
six thousand dollars 
5. American Association.—The meeti ing was Spetel’ at pen 
apolis on the 16th of August. The address of Prof. T. Ste 
Hunt, the retiring president, was delivered to a large audience i in 
n 


oe this n er. 

6. American sbi brags —The press of the American Natural- 
ist, at Salem, Mass., will issue, according to a recent announce- 
ment, a number citarndiig abstracts of papers read at the meet- 
ing of the American Association = ‘Tadinapols and the address 
of Dr. Hunt, the retiring Preside 

OBITUARY. 

Epwarp CLaparzpe.—One of the most industrious and 
learned of the younger zoologists of Europe, Edward Claparéde, 
has lately (J une, 1871) died at Sienna, at the age of 39. fis me- 


= ipal 
_ Annelids In all his papers, his thorough physiological and 
anatomical training is pe eee ar his detai ; os a di 
cussed in all their general bearing. Living in Gen 
Pupil of Johannes Miiller, he ‘wrote with cea faoility. ‘Gieck 
dGerman: an admirable draughtsman, his many papers, which 
in the principal German and Fre nch scientific peri- 


Seen in his larger memoir on the Annelids of the Gulf of Naples, 
and his o aie on the Anatomy and more Seb 2 of the 


bsery t 
rencrtebrates made on the coast of Normandy. His style was 
puarkably clear and his information very extensive, 2s is — 
from his scientific reviews in the Archives de Genéve. tas 


independent in his scientific opinions, he never allowed him 
be carried away by weight Be pe and no as 7 
‘an protected by eminent names was owed to pass curren 


230 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


reviews and criticisms were often sharp, but always just, and 

never personal. The Academy of Geneva, where he was Profi 

of Anatomy, will find it difficult to fill the place of one who, in 

spite of his failing health, showed an enthusiasm for his science 

rarely equalled. . AG 
EXANDER Keir Jounsron, the geographer, died at Edin 

burgh, on the 11th of July, aged sixty-eight. 


VY. MisceLLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


straits, in humble homes; both of English lineage, of an ancestry 
and parentage yeomen on the soil on either continent, without 
dependence upon inherited means, or patronage, or even good for- 
tune ret i i 


unselfish spirit, and both succeeded in doing what has been for 
the good of a common humanity, “without distinction of class, an 
without a view to any personal ends of thrift or glory. 


at that age are wont to trouble themselves with; this brief note 
dated “ Woburn, August, 1769,” will serve as an example:— 


* Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, with notices of his Daugh : 
ter. hy pacing Etus. Published in connection with an edition of his wor 
merican 


Ss, 
emy by Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelfinger, Philadelphia. 680 pp. 8vo, 1871. 


The Complete Works of Count Rumford. Vol. 1. Boston: Published by ¢ 
American Academy of 9 : 


if 


Miscellaneous Bibliography. 231 


“Sir: Please to give the Nature, Essence, Beginning of Existeuce, and Rise of 
ind in General, with the whole Theory thereof, so as to be able to answer all 
Questions relative thereto. Yours, BENJAMIN THOMPSON. 


Dr. Ellis copies from the old memorandum book of young Thomp- 
son, which has fortunately been preserved, a number of very curious 
things; among them, “ An Account of what expence I have been at 
towards getting an Electrical Machine.” Commencing “1771, July 1, 
‘t pd. brass wyer,’ and giving item by item over ‘iron wyer,’ ‘Pewter 
to make bullets,’ ‘ Old brass,’ ‘1 Book Brass Leaf, ‘Oil bottles,’ ‘Cop- 
per Filings,’ ‘ Silver Brons,’ ‘ Shellac,’ ‘ Laquer,’ ‘ Varnishing brush,’ 


aided him in his memorable researches upon heat, in 


i the wind’s direction. During six months of the year, viz: fom 
October to March, inclusive, this diurnal change\is small, ut dur- 
ing the other six months the diurnal change 1s very great, an 


232 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


assigned seems adequate to account for all the facts at present 
known in this vicinity. It is much to be desired that a similar 
series of observations should be made at New Haven, for the pur- 
pose of developing still more precisely the laws which govern the | 
diurnal and annual changes in the wind’s direction 
The Wallingford observations also show the mean force of the 
wind, together with its diurnal and annual chan nee , but in a 
manner less satisfactory than they show its direction 
he same article furnishes the fall of rain and snow at Walling- 
ford for a period of twelve years, from which it appears that the 
hits ann a prea en at Wallingford is fifteen per cent 
w Hav 


The results of such observations are only important in their 
bearings upon questions of pure selec: but they are > intimately 
connected with the interests of every individual, with the sp 


Matteucci ; on the Pittman of Flight in the ‘Agia ‘King om, 
with many illustrations, by M. Marey ; ; on the Northern Seas, by 
M. Babinet; Report of the Trans. Soc. Phys. and Nat. History of 
Geneva; Coronado’s March in Search of the “Seven Cities of 
Cibola,” and x rma of their probable location, by Gen. J. H. 
Simpson, U. 8. A.; on the Social and Religious Condition ‘of the 
tea eres of Men, by Sir - ohn Lubbock ; on the Principles and 

y, by 7. . Huxley; "Remarks on the “ Casa 
Shaitsac a” ucatan, by Dr. A, Schott; Forests and 
their Climatic jade by M. Bec uerel; on a Meteorite, from S 
hi cane 3 on Co. Wisconsin, by Dr. Fr, Brenn de an Rem arkable 

. Abi 


Volsané ie Colima Cc 8. 
4, e der Ate von Dr. Carr Frrepricu Nat 
MANN. sth. ines ged an ved edition, with 836 figures; 


ities and its mention of chemical ¢ compositio 
soyetale are numerous and excellent. 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, 


[THIRD SERIES] 


Art. XXXIL—On the Connecticut River valley Glacier, and 
other examples of Glacier movement along the valleys of New 
England; by James D. DANA. 


propose now to give more regard 
to the Connecticut valley movement; and, further, to show that 


Pson; for eastern New York, between New England and 
Hudson river, from the volume of the New York Geological 


234 J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 


Reports by Wm. W. Mather, an assiduous laborer in this field 
of research. 

We learn, first, from the scratches on the rocks outside of the 
larger, valleys of New England—that is, over its higher lands— 
that the general course of the continental glacier covering New 
England was between S. 20° E. and 8. 50° E. The true course, 
_ deduced from the sation is to given, and so throughout the 
following payes. 

On the high region of western Connecticut (1000 to 1200 feet 
above the sea), about Warren and Litchfield, the author found 
the courses of the scratches S. 29° E.; more to the west, east of 
Kent, on Kent mountain, S. 19° E. ; to the south of Kent, about 
Newtown , >. 38° EH. Percival observes that over this western 
part of Connecticut the direction of the transfer of drift was to 
the S.S.E. (probably meaning S. 20°-25° E.); and he cites as 


ty, Conn., near r Norfolk, S. 20°-25° E., and Hitchcock, for that 
on Mt. Tom, the highest elevation near Litchfield, 8. 17°-92° E. 
West of the State of Connecticut, — it and the Hudson 
river in Dutchess county, not far t of Arthursville, I ob- 
tained for the course of scratches (tick were common over the 
region) S. 24° E. Mather found in Putnam county (south of 
Dutchess), near Patterson, S. 17° E. to S. 22° E.; in Dutchess 
county, mostly betwee n 8 15° E. and § 30° E., bits in some 
places S. 35° E.; and ‘hott oF Dutchess county, in Columbia 
any to S, 80° B, 


top of Tom Ball in Alfo na +: Sor north of Mt. Washingto®, =| 
S. 48° E.; on the east slope of the Taconic ridge near Pittsfi tisfield = | 
(in same latitude nearly with the Shaker village above alluded 2 

to) and at Egremont, on the west slope, about S. 50° E.; 4 7 
little south of the latter, on Lenox mountain, near the road from} 
Richmond to Lenox, 8. 38° E. Scratches observed by the we 
ter on Mt. Everett: tiended S. 27° E fs 

Again Dr. H. obtained for the course in middle Granville, 20 | 
miles west of the Connecticut, S. 38° E.; between Otis 4 and > | 
Becket, 30 miles west of the Connecticut, and farther north | 


as i the average directio tion S. 24° E. vite obtained in Royalstom 
y 20 miles west of the Connecticut, S. 18° E. to S. 88° E- 


J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 235 


ton, S. 29° E and S. 39° E. (intersecting); in central Ver- 
mont, in West Hancock, S. 50° E.; in Ripton, Ss. 60° E. In. 
the northern half of the State, on Camel’s Hump, 4088 feet 
above the sea, S. 55° E.; Mt. Mansfield, 4430 feet high, 
S. 55° E.; on Jay’s Peak, north of the latter, S. 50° E.; in 
Stowe, in the valley east of Mt. Mansfield, S. 35° E. Judging 
m the map in the Vermont Geological Report, which gives 
some observations not registered in the text, the average course 
on the higher lands away from the valleys is about S. 50° EH. ; 
and the same is not far from the course for the higher lands of 
New Hampshire, according to Prof. C. H. Hitchcock’s map. 
The facts show plainly that on the higher lands, both east 
and west of the Connecticut, and even over the elevated ridges 


t. 
1. First as to the Connecticut river valley ice. a Ange ed 


Conn, and taking thence a south ' 
Ih the following table, the courses of glacial scratches along the 
Valley are given for comparison with the course of the valley. 
It commences with localities at the south. 


1. Commncrr arses. 

E. of New Haven 3. dernier W. many Jee) De 

North of Meriden, a: ; J. D. D. 

New Britain,” 8. 15° W. Beseiyal 

Wads oh Mather. 
'worth’s mountain, Southwesterly . 

_ 2. Massacuuserts. 
Maney, 7 m. K. of Conn, R. South nearly operon 


South “ 
: Mt. Holyoke, South, S. a few degrees Ww. 


236 J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 


MASSACHUSETTS. Courses. Observers. 
Sunderland, E. side of Conn. R. South nearly E. Hitchcock. 
Deerfield, 8.E. p South “ i oe 

ontague, E. side of Conn. R. South ‘“ * 
Greenfield, W. “ 4 South “ 
Northfield, E. “ fi South ‘ i 


ys ONT, 

Vernon, for 2 m. W. side of Conn. R. C. H. Hitehek 
Guilford, 5 m. W. of Conn. R. 8. 8° E.-S. 13° E C. B. Adams. 
Bratt] / fe g ip part 1 gC R S and s. 8° CG: B. Ae 
Dummerston, near Conn. R. : 0, H. 

ey, S. 5°-12° W. C. B. A. 
Rockingham, S. to 8. 2° W. 0. H. H. 
Norwich, 2 m. W. of village, : C. H. 

orwich, S. 15° E. and §. 39° E. 

Thetford, W. part of town, peo: Ee. 0..55.E 
East Fairlee, 8. 6° E. C, H. H. 

ord, : S. 19°-30° E. 0: i. & 

. 30° E. C. B. A. 
Newbury, 8. 12°-30° E. C. B. A. 
Waterford and Barnet, 8. 5° E. many; also S. 8° E. 


Now the average course of the whole Connecticut river fee. 


Le CSR 


S. 50° E., like the scratches over the higher lands; and ~~ 
erence between the general coursé 


more of westing. 5 
Connecticut, in which the average course of the va. 


yoke and Tom, or in part at least, as stated by Hitchcock; and af 
as these are much the highest points in this s of the V: af 
(their tops 1126 and 1211 feet above the sea level), they 1" 


J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 237 


consequently the best evidence of the average direction of the 
movement in that region. 

n Vermont, where the course of the valley for the more 
southern half is S. 12° W., the scratches trend S. to S. 13° E. 
But north of White River Junction the course of the scratches 
varies between S. and S. 30° E., yet many scratches at the 
pe ay near the mouth of the Passumpsic, are 8. 5° E. 


In the part of the Connecticut valley south of Vermont the 
scratches conform closely in direction to the trend of the valley, 
and are the only scratches; while to the north there is a general 
southerly course in the scratches of the Connecticut river valley, 
yet at the same time about 15° less of westing than in the aver- 
age trend of this part of the river. Moreover, in this upper part 
of the valley there are often, besides the valley set of scratches, 
another set having the southeasterly course of the great glacier. 

The width of the region bearing the north-and-south scratches 
of the valley is generally twenty to thirty miles, but sometimes 
more. Going east or west of this there is a change more or less 
gradual to the course of the great glacier, and often also other 
scratches conforming to its course occur. In Massachusetts, in 
Heath, 15 miles west of the Connecticut, the course of th 
scratches given by Hitchcock is south with some westing, and 
the same on Mt. Pocomptuck in this town, 1888 feet high ; and 
i Rowe, 20 miles west of the river, the course is S. 2° W. In 
| southern Vermont, in Halifax, west of Vernon, and 10 miles 
| 


West of the Connecticut, the directions given by Hitchcock are 
mostly S. 12° W.; but also, in West Halifax, 16 miles from the 
Connecticut river, S. 53° E.; in Marlboro, north of Halifax, 
S. 20° E. on high land; and also, at another locality, two 
' Courses, S. 7° W. and S. 58° E., intersecting. __ 

3 The facts show beyond question that the abrading 2 i ve 


and also of the region on either side of it a little distant from 
€ river, 


238 J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 


hall, a distance of 40 to 50 miles, is very narrow, and occupies 
a proper valley, and here the scratches are parallel mostly to 
the trend of the lake—which trend is nearly north and south, 
excepting for the southern part, where it is about 16° west of 
south (S. 16° W.). Along this more southern portion, in Ber- 
son, the course of the scratches, according to the Vermont Re- | 
port, is S. 8° E.,S. 12° W.,S. 15° W.; and in Orwell, just 
north, S. 8° E., S. 12° W. Farther north, in Bridport, the 
course is S. 20° W.; in Addison, S. 17° W. and S. 18° E.; at 
Larrabee’s Point, S. 4°-12° E.; at Crown Point in New York, | 
opposite to Bridport, S. 2° E. on the west side, and S. 27°E. | 
on the east. In Putnam, N. Y., west of Benson, according to 
Mather, S. 10°-15° W. The conformity of the course of the 


20° W. and S. 15°-20° EB. , 
Along each of these valleys, the glacial scratches are closely 

parallel to its main trend, as shown and recognized by the Ver 

mont geologists. It is strikingly exhibited on a map of the 

State accompanying the report. On the Lamoille there are the 

courses 5. 55° E. to S. 85° E.; on the Winooski, the courses 

S. 60° E., S. 80° E., and even east-and-west in one case. 
4. Otter Creek Valley. Otter Creek flows northward along 

: f ; 


e Champlain. Its general course is about N. 1 : 
and S. 15°-20° E. The glacial scratches in the valley have the 
E., 8. 20° E 


valley is but a little east of south, and the same is true of thé 
scratches. 

We have thus evidence of the existence during some part of 
the era of ice not only of a glacier movement in New England 


J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 239 


along the Connecticut river valley, but also of one along the 
upper Champlain valley, the Lamoille valley, the Winooski 
valley, the Otter creek valley, and probably the Merrimack 
valley ; and many of the courses of scratches observed in other 
parts of Vermont and New Hampshire have divergences from 
the normal course of the great glacier, which are probably due 
to the valley-depressions of the surface. Among these smaller 
valleys are perhaps those of the Queechee, Black, Middlebury 
and White rivers of Vermont and the Deerfield of Massachu- 
setts; for the existence of an independent glacier in each of 
these valleys is recognized as probable by Prof. Hitchcock, on 
the ground of the conformity between the direction of the 
scratches and the valley, although the iceberg theory is ado ted 
by him for all the rest, even the Lamoille, Winooski and Con- 
hecticut. The writer has elsewhere mentioned the evidence in 
favor of a Hudson river glacier movement, and of another in 

¢ Mohawk valley running easterly through central New York; 
and further, of one along the St. Lawrence valley, the scratches 
a following its course according to the observations of Dr. 

awson. 


The facts are sufficient to prove that examples of valley 
movements of glacier ice must have been common over the 
continent in the Glacial era, or rather the rule for all the larger 
valleys. Itis hence evident that no observations on glaciers 


ection, in his view, was that of icebergs. Besides the argu- 
ment against the iceberg hypothesis elsewhere presented, New 
“ngland affords another in the fact that if there were, at the 
time, a submergence to the depth required to overcome the 
Obstacles to a southeast movement offered by the poatnerly 


to have worked their way along them to do the scratching, 
atfords another strong argument against it. 


Continental clacier still had its continental, or at least its New 
tng rpscariso a, In Massachusetts and Connecticut the 


240 J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 


seems to prove that the direction of movement thereby indicated 
characterized the ice of this part of the valley through the whole 
of the Glacial period. 

6. Again, if a local glacier occupied the valley having a thick- 
ness of say one, two, or three thousand feet, or such as wou 
lie below the level of the Green Mountain summits, the glacier 
would have had through its breadth a nearly southerly course 
corresponding to the trend of the valley, and in that case south- 
erly scratches should have existed over the whole surface, evel 
localities remote from the Connecticut river—where they are 
not found. 

In another place I have sypposed that the southeasterly 
course which occurs in the scratches to the west of the Connec- 
ticut river might have been a resultant between the tendency 
to a southerly movement down the valley, and that down the 
slope into the valley. But this was so only to a very sm 

egree. For the ice, after passing over the valley, resumed on 
the east its southeastward scratching. 

c. In the part of the Connecticut valley north of Massachu- 
setts, the course of the scratches is not that of the valley, but 
differs 10° to 15° from it to the eastward. This greater easting 
shows that the southerly movement of the ice induced by the 
valley was modified by some force pressing it eastward, and 


: t the valley ice of the Con- 
necticut had through its southern half (across Massachusetts and 


modifications in the valley movement just pointed out, and 
acier. If the southeasterly 


westerly scratches were the oldest, but admits that there ® 


much doubt with to it. 

This movement of the bottom of a glacier six or eight thou 
sand feet thick along a different course from its main ™ 
wherever it lies in + valleys, is an result of m& 


J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 241 


ing surface in which there are a few large groovings would 
move, the mass following the general surface, and the portions 
in the grooves nearly or quite the course of the grooves. The 
thickness of the ice that followed the course of the valley was at 
least 2000 feet; for the southerly scratches occur not only on 
the summits of Mt. Tom and Mt. Holyoke, but also on the top 
of Mt. Pocomptuck in Heath, 15 miles west of the Connecticut, 


the low country to the 
place. As Dr. Packard observes, such facts show that icebergs 
were not the transporting agents. 

It is, however, possible that each of these three valleys ar 


. 


and this subsidence 
having been at least 


242 J. D. Dana on Glacier movements along valleys. 


circumstances the ice along the valley would have lost all mo- 
tion. The same condition of rest would have belonged to the 


and Win 


and Maine (94 pp. 4to), published in Volume I of the Memoirs of 
the Boston Society of Natural History (1867); also by Professor 


In the foregoing pages the facts from the State of Maine have 
Tred to. ese are well discussed by Dr. Packard 

in the memoir just referred to, in which he recognizes and ap- 
plies the principle discussed in this and the writer's former p* 
pers on the valley glaciers. He observes that of the eighty 
* In order to deduce the amount idenc river from 
the ay of the highest Sireceuee sas “apie eect it is neces 
i ive fo 


ait ; ctual ; height of the terrace 
Po amount of excavation that has taken place since the land 
V el; ] ss tl n th ount of elevation. 


Sr ER Abe Biier 


—e 


fk. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper, etc. 243 


localities of scratches that have been noted in Maine, the 
scratches in sixty-two have a southeasterly course; that the 
southeasterly course of the glacial grooves and striz is espe- 
cially marked in the interior of the State on the high lands and 
low mountains; but, approaching the coast, the evidence shows 


& more north-and-south course, and at times, owing to local 
trends in the depressions, were even deflected so as to flow in a 
direction a few : ic west of south. The facts in Maine are 
Just such as are general to New England. 

he same principle is recognized by Prof. N. S. Shaler in the 
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, for 1870. 
Other similar facts have been recently pointed out in States to 
the west of New England. When the applications of the prin- 
. ciple are studied out over the whole continent, we shall under- 
: stand better than we now do the sources of the varied move- 
ments in the great glacier. 


Art. XXXII.— The Paragenesis and Derivation of Copper and 
us associates on Lake Superior ; by RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. 


II. Paragenesis of the Minerals associated with Copper. 


| No. 1. Capen Vern.—This is apparently a true fissure vein. 
: It occurs in a compact and very tough melaphyr, which is 
exceedingly chloritic near the vein. All the joints within a 
distance of several yards from the vein are covered with a coat- 
ing ;'5 to $ inch thick, of dark-green and bluish-green chlorite, 
having a combined fibrous and foliated structure egg bee to the 
Joint surfaces. The melaphyr is rich in magnetite. heet cop- 
Per was found in mining, but not in paying quantity. 
- Laumontite, in thin seams. ; 

2. Prehnite, in seams which cut through those of laumontite , 
also between symmetrically arranged bands of laumontite. 

8. Chlorite, ‘as destroyer and replacer of prehnite, and as 
ng of cavities in the latter. : : 
; 4. Analcite, in clear crystals on the prehnite and chlorite. 
alcite 


: No. 2. Huron Minz.—1. Laumontite, in thin crystalline 
. oa on the sides of a cavity; the free ends of the opposed. 
tystals nearly meet. : 
2. Prehinite filling the space between the bands of laumontite. 
_No. 3.* Copper FaLis Minz.—Fissure vein. 1. (?) Natro- 
- 2. Laumontite. 8. Analcite. : 
No. 4.* Saw vern.—1. Apophyllite. 2. Copper. 8. Orthoclase 


Noy ee from alist given by Hilary Bauerman, Quart. Journ. Geol. Society, 
be 


that the glaciers moved down the river valleys, and thus assumed « 


Fd 


244 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


No. 5.* Bay Srare Minz.—1. Prehnite 2. Quart. 3, 
Copper. 4. (?) Laumontite, 
No. 6.* PHa@yix Minz.—Fissure vein. 1. Lawmontite. 2 
Quartz. 38. “ Green- Earth,” 
No. 7.* Bay Srate Minz.—Fisgure vein, 1. Quartz, 2. 
» Apophyllite. 3. Calcite, 
No. 8.* BoHumian MInE.—1l. Anakite. 9, Copper. 3. 
Orthoclase. 


No. 9. AMyepALoID Minz.—Fissure vein, 1. Prehnite, 10 
its characteristic reniform shape. 

- uariz, in small erystals on the prehnite. 

3. Analcite crystals, covering the quartz. 

4. Orthoclase crystals, on the analcite and quartz. 

No. 10. Bay Srare Minz.—Fissure vein. On the soft 
brown gangue. 1. Analcite, lining part of a vugg. The erys- 
tals are } inch in diameter, often white and transparent, but 
very much fractured. Near the contact with the rock they are 
often reddened internally and much altered, and then sur 
mounted by the next member. : 

2. Orthoclase, in the usual minute crystals, some of which are 
scattered over the altered analcites. Bi 

0. 11. Amye@paLor Minz.—Fissure vein. 1. Prehnite, iD 
the characteristic reniform shape, forming the body of the spe 
cimen ; fresh-looking on the free surface, but on the under bro- 

en side somewhat porous, with earthy fracture, and’ then 
rather intimately associated with datolite and a soft green 
(chloritic ?) mineral. 

9. : 


Scope appear to consist of sheaf-like clusters of minute rhol- 
’ ith difficulty. : 

_ & Datolite, in microscopic crystals on No. 8; others, one line 

m rs ameter, rosy, with suspended flakes of copper, lie upon the 

prehnite. 

No, 12. Amyapatom MINE.—(Fissure vein.) On the 
gangue—here chloritic—lie, 1. Culcite, imbedded between thé 
gangue and No. 2. : a 
2. Prehnite, forming the greater part of the specimen, a2 
having a tolerably fresh luster. 

3. Copper, in grains, flakes and threads conforming to the 
radiating cleavage planes of the prehnite. 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 245 


4. Datolite; compact amorphous, white translucent mass, 
covering the prehnite with a layer of which # inch thickness, 
still remains. The copper threads do not penetrate it. 

o. 138. PEwABIC COPPER-BEARING BED.—This specimen— 
about 24 inches by 84 by $—is evidently from the interior of a 
druse, to whose wall it was attached by only a small part of its 
surface. The body of the specimen is copper, very cavernous, 
much of it pseudomorphous after laumontite. The copper is 
very thickly bestrewn with small green crystals of quartza— 
prisms terminated at both ends,—which are however older than 
the copper. On the sides and around the edges of the speci- 
men there are beautifully modified scalenohedrons of calcite. 
The successions are: 

. The rock or mineral to which the laumontite was originally 
attached, and which has disappeared. 

: aumontite or leonhardite; has also disappeared ; the 
— were } to 4 inch long, terminated at one end with a hemi- 

ome, 


mineral ; laumontite crystals occur frequently enveloped, except 
the base, in calcite 


4. 
both ends. They occur on parts of nearly every one of the 


ported only by the copper which is younger. 
The asiisin do petels couihla minute, brilliant particles of eop- 


pe oe in describing other specimens. 
ical forms, with radiating structure, scattered over the quartz 


246 h. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


atolite, in exceedingly minute crystals, lying on_ both 
the chlorite and calcite ; they are less than 51; inck in diame- 


2. Laumontite, of which only the form now remains. 

3. A mineral, now gone, which seems necessarily to have 
been present to support the isolated crystals of quartz. — f 
4. Quartz, in minute prisms, containing brilliant particles 0 
copper. 

5. ? Calcite, represented only by impressions in the copper 
This calcite may, perhaps, be older than some of the foregomg 
members. 


see above). 
7. Chlorite? the same mineral as the 6th member of No. 18; 
and occurring in the same manner. — 
8. Calcite ; a few small sealenchedrons planted on the copp@ 
in the impressions of the older calcite = 5th above. 
No. 14a. Copper after laumontite, from the Pew asic COPPER 
i [eeiatareg who Fast f a partially filled 
€ upper face of this specimen is of a 
cavity a cupriferous _ highly iatsred amygdaloid ; es 
lower, or broken face, is a portion of the altered amygdalot 
i e general appearance of the specimen at first eee 
is that of a Sy cavity, nearly filled, except in the middle, 
with broken erystals of calcite, whose interiors contain many 
thin plates and threads of native copper. th 
The amygdaloid is a soft compact brown and rock wi 
earthy fracture—an altered amygdaloidal melaphyr. Th 
aS small amygdules near the wall of the larger cavity are of calcite. 


ey a CEST TI ie Bon et 7 Oe PE ae ee ON a ae 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 247 


The pseudomorphs of copper after laumontite are prisms } to 4 
= 


angles are often sharp, though in some instances the j 
two faces of a prism presents something of the appearance of a 
copper cast made in a mould whose two halves fit only imper- 
fectly together. Sometimes, under a strong glass, the joining is 
clearly imperfect, and the pseudomorph has the effect of a prism 
built with four badly-soldered plates of metal. atlas 
Minute prisms of quartz (colored green by the chlorite-like 
mineral mentioned in specimens No. 13 and 14) project from 
the interior of the pseudomorphs, through the copper, to 735 of 
an inch above the surface. ; j 
In one place I cut to the depth of ;', of an inch in solid cop- 
per; but a cross fracture in another prism showed that the 
copper was, there, a mere superficial film, while the.interior was 
u porous mass of quartz 


Se a Oe ee et ee tn eae EEE. 2 a en 
8 
ee 
@ 
a 
avo 
= 
Q 
=) 
5 
=} 
BD 
® 
ov 
= 
B 
eu 
rt 
Sy 
& 
® 
ri 


often perforated with holes, but it often shows flakes of copper 
Nising on edge to a height of yz of an inch above the face. 


marked signs of change to datolite. The transparent crys 
pearly lustre on the cleavage 
Planes, and a little farther away this mba a Pai ss 
insensibly into a lustreless white mass composed of an 5a 
tion of exceedingly minute crystals, which exhibit the d lite 
form under the microscope, and fuse easily with the characteris- 
tic green flame before the blowpipe. The same change Had 
Visible, in places, on the fees 5 of calcite enveloping t 
Pseudomorphs after laumontite. 7 
The relative ages here appear to be, 1, The amygda F% 
though probably not in its present condition ; 2, Laumon rg 
3, Quartz; 4, Copper, chlorite-like mineral; 5, Calcite; 6, Datolu 


| 248 Re. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


th 
hollow shells, scarcely as thick as paper; the angles are = 
and the faces tolerably smooth, but often pierced with ho o 
The hemidome of one of these is studded with the ends 0 


this specimen also, some of the pseudomorphs <—_ 
bedded in scalenohedrons of calcite, which sparkle with bril 


No. 16. “Eprmors Lope,” Sr. Mary’s.—In a onvity ae 

quartz-epidote rock, which forms a frequent feature of t pe 

lie: 1, Prehnite crystals, disposed as a reniform lining 0 

cavity—2, Quartz, in transparent prisms on the prehni sae 

Analcite, crystal $ inch in imatie slightly opaque and so 

what cavernous internally, planted on the quartz. ol 
4. Orthoclase crystals planted on the prehnite, quartz 


analcite. ae 
The prehnite is ially altered, containing cavities re 
filled with a soft green mineral, chlorite or green-earth. 1 


is also a greenish-yellow chlorite-like mineral, which incrusts 

and has eaten away the surface of the quartz va 0p 
_No. 17. Auyepatorp on THE KEARSARGE LocaTION. 

the rock lie: 1, Prehnite—2, Quartz on the prehnite. 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 249 


0. 19. ALBANY aND Boston AMyGpALomw.—The rock of 
this bed is a wholly irregular mixture of hard light-green 
amygdaloid and soft brown amygdaloid, in which the vesicular 
form is frequently lost from the fact that the cavities contain- 
ing secondary minerals have extended and become merged 
together, forming a confused patch and vein structure: 1, 
Prehnite, amorphous and altered to a slightly cavernous appear- 
ance on the surface—2, Quartz in pri , Orthoclase in 
minute crystals chiefly on the altered prehnite, with which its 
formation is probably connected, and also on the quartz, 

0, 20. Same BED.—On the amygdaloid, which contains 
quartz amygdules, lie: 1, Prehnite penetrated with strings and 
films of copper—2, riz in prisms; chlorite-like mineral in 
hemispherical forms, with radiating structure—Orthoclase in, 
minute crystals; all these lie separately on the prehnite—3d, 
Calcite covering all the above mentioned members. 

No. 21. Same Bep.—1, rtz, in prisms—2, Chlorite-like 
mineral in hemispherical forms, with radiating structure; 
Wherever it is in contact with the quartz it has pitted it and 
faten into it—8d, Calcite, : 

0. 22. SAME BED.—On the amygdaloid lie:—1, Prehnite 
crystals in reniform masses—2, eit in prisms on the 
Prehnite crystals—8, Orthoclase; Calcite; the orthoclase is in 
Minute crystals on the prehnite and quartz. __ : 

No. 23. Samu Bep.—The amygdaloid on which the following 
Succession occurs consists of quartz and chlorite, and is wholly 
altered—so much so that the quartz which now composes a 
large a of it is evidently of- the cates age as ae which fol- 
Ows the prehni rehnite, in © e reniform masses 

prehnite—1, Prehniite, eager 28 ior tral 


a. par crystals occur in the cavity thus formed as well as on 
'€ outer surface of the analcite. 
0. 26. Same sep.—l, Prehnite—2, Quarte—3, Copper, 
M threads often moulded to the quartz—4, Orthoclase in 
Minute crystals planted on the prehnite, quartz and copper. 
Am. Jour. Sct —Tarrp Serres, Vor. I, No. 10.—Ocr., 1871. 
17 


250 ft. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


27. SAME BED.—1, Prehnite, penetrated with copper 
thirenddés-3, Quartz in prisms—8, Chlorite-like mineral men- 
tioned in Nos. 20 and 21; here also it has eaten into the faces 
of the quartz crystals—4, Analcite crystals, much fractured 
and eaten ste and sometimes quite hollow. 

N AME BED.—1l, Prehnite in places cavernous—2, 
Quartz in prisms in the cavities in me altered prehnite—d, 
Orthoclase crystals pienier on the quart 

No. 29. Same —1, Prehn ite9, Copper traversing 
the prehnite in ‘the en of threads, ete. , ending in crystals 
— wart themselves to the crystalline surface of the prehnite. 

AME BED.—1, Prehnite—2, Analcite—8, Copper, 
in flakes 0 on the analeite—4, Orthoclase ; oes like muneral. 

No. 31. Same BED. ad, Quartz in prisms—2, Orthoclase 
age pees on the quartz, 

No, 82. SAME BED.—1, Prehnite—2, Copper in crystals 
whose a surfaces are moulded : the crystalline surface of 
ak Caper ee 

o. 83. Huron Minze.—On the amygdaloid containing 
smaller solsertules of delessite and quartz, lie :—1, Laumontite, 
a crystalline layer with projecting crystals—2, Calcite orysial- 
ized upon and wholly enveloping the laumontite crystals. 

No. ESTERNMOST ADIT ON THE “SourustpE.” 1. Anal- 
cue, in opaque.crystals 4to4inch in diameter. 2. Orthoc 


crystals planted on the analcite. (The rock containing this is 
chocolate-brown, and filled with small amygdules of Ist Lav 
montite, 2d L Calcite). 

No. 85. “Ragcep Awyepator.” Sr. Mary’s. This is @ 


soft brown amygdaloid with brown streak, in which the cavities 
have assumed the most irregular sha ‘and merge into eac 
ober in @ manner which gives to the rock a highly brecciated 
ap nee. The cavities are generally partially open at their 
wider points ; and the minerals occupying them are chit} the 
following, often sonneee by a fs clay. On the rock 
lie, 1. Analcite. 2. Orthoclase crystals on the analcite. 8. Cal 
cite over both the foregoing members. 
On the 


No. 36. Same ie rock lies Calcite. Orthoclase 
— on the saleiee 
7. SAME BED. On the ou are scattered, 1. Analcile 


No. 38. SAME BED. 1. pam in large crystals; much 
altered. 2. Orthoclase crystals planted apn thes outer surface 
of, and in cavities in, the analcite. 

0. 39. PEwaBic CoppEr- ee BED. On the amyete 
loidal rock sao re 1, Calcite; copper. 2. Datolite in a granular 
mass incrusting the calcite crystals, 


a 
: 
. 
ei 
; 
; 
; 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 251 


No. 40. SAME BED? 1. Calcite in scalenohedrons, 2. Dato- 


and perceptibly eaten into. The calcite crystals rest upon a 
granular mass of the same variety of datolite, which is per- 
haps the result of a displacement of calcite. 

No. 41. “ EvERGREEN Buurr.” 1. Quaré prism. 2. Ortho- 
“oe in minute crystals. 38. Calcite in simple and twin scaleno- 
edrons, 


_No. 44. Locaniry Unknown. 1. Prehnite in its characteris- 
tic form. 2. Quartz in prisms on the prehnite. 3. Analcite 


surface highly crystallized. The crystals are transparent 


; 1 ppe ; 

to be confined to it. 2. Calcite, four small slightly yellowish 

semi-transparent rhombohedrons, modified with steeper scaleno- 

hedron faces, lie upon the datolite. 3. Orthoclase, yellowish 

crystals, ,!, of an inch long, are scatte: 

dae specimen, some lying upon the calcite and some upon the 
I 


green to a slight — from the outer oo of po amygdule, 


Without any line o 

i hnite often - 
nterior the pre: eg porade st 

Prehnite is characterized by a radiating structure, starting from 


252 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


a single center. It is along these planes of radiation that the 
change begins. Every possible gradation is observable. The 


more generally it is an amygdule of compact chlorite, ex- 
hibiting in its fracture the same radiating structure as the 
prehnite. 

No. 48. SHELDEN AND CoLumBIAN Location. 1. Prehnite 
which is the general filling of the cavities in the upper part of 
the amygdaloid of this locality. 2. Feldspar, red. It is quite 
an exceptional occurrence in this neighborhood, and it is in- 
timately associated with the prehnite in a manner that makes 
it seem to be pseudomorphous after it. 

Crystals of epidote and of quartz occur on this feldspar, but 
the specimen gives no insight into their relation, as regard age, 
either to each other or to the feldspar as a secondary product. 

. South Pewasic Mine. In this bed a frequent form 
of the rock is a compact amygdaloid, of which 50 or 60 per 
cent of the volume consists of amygdules from the size of a 

i The trix in a specimen 
@. 


contain, 1. Quartz, clear and filling the cavity. 2. 
copper. The chlorite (apparently delessite) appears to displace 
the quartz; in some amygdules it me : 
of the quartz, giving to this a green color; in others nothing 
remains but a cavernous mass 0 i 

well charged with copper; indeed the copper occurs here only 
with this chlorite. 


6 
a 
B 
et 
o 
4 
E. 
= 
ot 
=e 
o 
Bs 
°$ 
J 
oe 
in 
3 
3 
= 
oe 
7 
3 
Ee 
fas] 


preend a to Ay ee thick, much altered and in places changed t0 


and its associates on Lake Supertor. 253 


No. 52. SHELDEN AND CoLUMBIAN MINE. In cavities in a 
brown and green amygdaloid lie, 1. Quartz in well shaped 
prisms. 2. Calcite; Quartz. This second quartz is in small 
and very much distorted crystals, which are often partially im- 
bedded in the calcite, and are also often planted on the older 
quartz, from which they can be easily removed without fracture. 

o. 58. Huron Mine. 1. Quartz with more or less crys- 
talline structure. 2. Copper moulded on the quartz and filling 
cracks and interstices in it. 

No. AGGED AMyGpALorD. Sr. Mary’s. In the rock 
(see No. 85), some of the smaller cavities contain, 1. Orthoclase 
as a thin crystalline lining. 2. Calcite filling the interior. 3. 
os agg mineral penetrating and apparently replacing the 

cite, 


In a larger cavity occur the following : Se 

No. 55. 1. Analcite crystals inch to 2 inches in diameter, 
much reddened. 2. Orthoclase; small crystals on the analcite. 
. Clay? a soft white mineral, apparently the result of con- 
tinued decomposition of the analcite under conditions unfavor- 
able for the formation of new silicates as feldspar. 

No. 56. “ Anctent Prr” BED. Dovenass Location. 1. 
Epidote forming a crystalline lining of a cavity. 2. Quariz 
filling the interior. 

o. 57. SuLPHURET (Fissure vein) HURON sien The 


< 
= 
o 
do 
i 
=) 
© 
= 
& 
. 
Qu 
& 
S 
: 
a 
2) 
uae) 
e 
S 
— 
° 
= 
< 
3 


each side. 2. Quartz in two symmetrical comby bands on the 
dolomite and in thin seams in the dolomite connected b cross- 
Seams with the quartz-comb. 3. Chalcocite, black—bluish-black 
with distinct cleavage. Tt resembles the pseudomorphous chalco- 
cite of the Lac la Belle mine. Bornite occurs sprinkled th ough 
the chaleocite in minute specks; in places it predominates, 


— 
ese sulphurets form the central member, and bunches of 
them are often surrounded by the older members, giving the 


Note.—It is in another portion of this vein that the arseniurets, whitneyite and 
domeykite are found. 
have attempted to bring the foregoing observations into 


serve for a check upon the imper 
Copper anp Caxtcire.—In many of the ms 
Calcite crystals are found enclosing copper, ub 


instances in which 
is difficult and 


* 


a Capen Vein, <...../ Weumontite| ....- Prehnite | .-.-- Die) ooo Chlorite | Analcite | Calcite] .... | ---. | ----.- i, 
Huron Mine,-........| 2)/Laumontite} -.... Prehnite | -~=~..- “ae ae yay gee wneees fs Lt fe aes [eee ee 
Copper Falls Mine,*- a > Racal ae PY Welpaoy) he eee eee CP emesee fo Sonera Analcite oh ae ele an + by ou eee os 

oe ke | eee eee cee Paes a Ss ie ipa rate Apophyllite} --- | Copper | -.-. | Orthoclase| ___-_ 

: Bay State ot ie piee | ekeee Prehnite | Q | eee SOODOT bin cinae ol oxuneee --- cane BP ae ere: tee ceed 
Phoenix Mine,*.....-.- Bipomontite( 22000 22... uartz Sf ease Green-earth.| ... .. : --- ae SMM ay cee Rens. 
Bay State Mine,* ._..- ees bade vs uekeo Quartz sie ian oe eames Apophyllite! Calcite a eee ha tee cae pee 
Rene ee eB | eee hh cee ee PPR ewe. baad wae Analcite -+- -| Copper’ | = ... oclase| .... 

ee as a east th Scessee | uke s Prehnite | Quartz Wer Geet or Wy oe ee. Analcite ee fae ---- |Orthoclase}  ... 
pe I coca | ewes | conten, Ee Buea eee | oaewwe: | Seal Analcite He cae Bebe Orthoclase pee 
resent: eo | Ra or dee nite,Cu) ..... Hee eV aca eee tL ir ees ae ---- | Datolite; .-.--. ie 

L === [18 ini Calcite |Prehnite,Cuj ---.. ities ea wenene~ || eeneee aes Gt GOES oa) aoe ey 

 Pewabic Lodo, ....-.- 18 Laumontite} ..... | ...... Quartz |... Copper | Prinses! Sea Give cot tA Diatoltle oc. 2. ae 

ie oe | ene nS mnmontite) 25. | ole Quartz | Calcite | Copper | a sat phd Mee Calcite| _.._ ---- | Orthoclase| ...-. 
Alb. and phan Ragged elec ea he cece Prehnite {| --.-. Bey oe ht Fe eae Belle a sen ee «<<. | Orthoclase | .... 
“Hpidote eTeaa” "St. Ma- i hlorite or ; , 
ee 0 ae Prehnite | Quartz gD Ue pea gt { senor Analcite i Beat ae eg a eae 
Amygd. Kearsarge, .../17) -.-.-. | .---. Prehnite | Quartz ie i tecasam, fo me a ee x eh decd we depe le 
Huron Mine.......... Rees Fe OE Guess) Po eek PEM Peckeue Sb those t. Analcite | Calcite}. _... pect ee pee 
a” & Bost. er -- ed Wanese --- - | Prehnite | Quartz eines ee cur Bs sam oe een Ot thes om ace. ----. |Orthoclase| --. 
ge ee eee Prehnite | Quartz BS NE foe WIC | ance ees abe cot. ---- | Orthoclase| Calcite 
sh Pe AaIMN wwewae | jcnoeer’ fr bhasse Quartz pee a ow | Pcgecgone § bee oes ae aoa ieaar peo euiees Calcite 
Ns " & eeiael Sonu wecue Prehnite | Quart: gee PO et wae AT Sec ee ep ih ase, ace cee he 4 > POrthoeclage po 0% 
4 Oe eae Avie 4 ee Peehaite sonar Onl occ ie oe fo Se oe. nas ten 4 se, Se wx 
. an 24 Geena 28 <n wey - | Prehnite uart NE are ae eee ee ie poe. dase Pde o Calcite 
“ “ “6 | * alcit peed 
“ ‘ef Rind ) ereeE Weegee F Geece pee Tt hice eo As St See. Analcite | -_. ope evs TOnahastngad 
hoes Geer a AOE SA Prehnite ee Cs ak ek ak Sige aa ae a “ae cone | Orthomlene | usa 
¥ Mo. lat pee rcg | iets Prehnite | Quartz oe BAe Se { Damn gare Analcite nee <n ace BS age aaa Baa 
= pete ee GUS Prehnite | Quartz SS GE Mel | ay each eres Re Sea os soe nee == <2. +Otthoclage |< .o 
sb ; 29\ EE ee eae Prehnite,Ou| __..- De eee oot th oo Et guar: ped Bane Bhs Lait ithe Yop St! aoe 


“Ragged Amyealoid? 35 


Powabie Bed, 


u 


ase wees 


Bersren Blut Liss 


Amygdaloid Mine, oes rp 


M n Mi 
_opashgnebepee 


Shelden & Dolmsabian, ie re 
South Pewabic Mine, - - 
agi * aa 50 


Huron 


— Amyealoid = (64 


wee ee mee 


wee ee eee 


Ancient Pit” Bed, 


Dou glase, |°° 
‘Sulphuret V'n,’ Huron,'57 


“ Laumontite 


a 


ween ee 
meee ae 
wee ewe 
ween we 


meee 
eee ee 


wee eee 


ene 

weer ee 
eee 
eee 
meee 
eee ee 
meee 


ween 


sme eme 


See Prehnite 
....- |Prehnite,Cu 
Caltte: fs oc. 
Calcite | -.-.-. 
mee, Prolite 
Sees Prehnite 
“.... | Prehnite 
cies Prehnite 
a cael Prehnite 
Hpidote | ...._. 
Epidote | ....-.. 
Ankerite?} .....- 


meee 


eee 
weer 
wee 
wt ese 
----< 
eee 
--=-- 


wee ee 


eee 


Quartz 


Srna ai get a 1” a ee oh 
ee 
a ee 
ee ee 
sw ewnm | ewww eae 
a 
ee es ee ee 
ee ee 
i es 
wenwe 


seonwea | ‘Saenvewan 
“ven eee 
Seema) | wopemue 
ee ieee 


Analcite 


Analcite 
Analcite 


were ee 
eee 


we meen 


Copper 


Datolite 
Datolite 


Datolite 
atoli 


Calcite 


Orthoclase 
Orthoclase 


256 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


often impossible to distinguish as to the relative ages of the 
two. cimens in my collection offer conclusive proof 
that each of the following cases occur. 


. 
L—The copper was present before the calcite began to form, and 
became enclosed in the growing crystal. 


In this way calcite crystals, formed in a cavernous mass of 
copper, are intersected internally by a perfect net-work of thin 
plates of the metal, and yet preserve their cleavage unaffected ; 
but wherever the copper comes in contact with the surface of 
the crystal, the small entering faces are present. 

IL—The crystal of caleite was partly formed, then became incrus-— 
ted with copper, and was finished by a new growth of caleite over 
the metallic film. 


A most remarkable instance of this case is that of a crystal 


over the side-faces. All of these younger crystals are arraD 
of Sera uniformity with the plan of the underlying, older 
individual. 


Those portions of the surface on which the copper-coating § 
perfect have no younger calcite crystals; these occur where th 
metallic film is thinnest and more or less perforated. 

The copper is not confined absolutely to the surface of the 
crystal on which it lies; it penetrates to a slight distance along 
the cleavage-planes, and the result is an exceedingly delicate 
treiculation on its under surface. The calcites which at 
planted on the copper contain brilliant particles of the me tals . 


and its associates on Lake Supervor. 257 


swimming, if one may use the word, in the interior of the crys- 
tals; and these are ‘so disposed as to lead to the idea that 
ee hans the growth of the younger crystals they had to con- 
re : e 


IIL —The copper has entered the calcite crystal since its growth was 
Jinished. 


A specimen, in my collection, illustrates this remarkably well. 
It 18 a cleavage-rhombohedron of opaque calcite, traversed b 
intersecting sheets of copper, which are wholly independent of 


‘ous sheets of copper =, to z's inch thick, which are per- 
fectly straight. These sheets are parallel to several i 


Sets intersect each other, the resulting solid one composed of 


of the specimen the copper predominated over the calcite. 
erever Wie taoes of the ai laminz are exposed, they are 
marked with a delicate, reticulated tracery, indicating the lines 
of intersection of the sheet with the cleavage planes of the 
crystal. The cement in the vicinity of the calcite is resid 
hated with copper; in places it is almost wholly replaced by . 
‘netal in the fine granular condition called ‘‘ brick copper, i 
into this the laminews of metal extend, without break, from the 
— This specimen is really a pseudomorph of copper after 
icite, 
Copper and Silver-—It is a well known fact that these two 
metals occur in the metallic state, in the Lake Superior depos- 


258 J. J. Woodward on Photographing 
its, in the most intimate contact with each other, and yet with- 


out being mutually alloyed. Even at the contact they are not 
absolutely joined together, for after rolling out a piece of cop- 


[To be continued.] 


Art. XXXIV.—On Photographing Histological Preparations by 
Sunlight; by J. J. Woopwarp, Asst. Surgeon U. S. Army. 
Report to Surgeon General J. K. Barnes, U. S. Amny. 
Washington, June 9, 1871. 


So many cloudless days are offered to the photographer m 

ra not but regret these results ; yet they 
appeared to be final at the time of writing. During the last 
few months, however, I have found improved methods of using 
photographing the soft tissues, and have 
arrived at results which must materially modify the conclusions 


If a well made preparation of some normal tissue, or of some 
ia —- wore with carmine, silver, or an = 
vemporarily in glycerine, or permanently in Can 
balsam, be illuminated by White cloud i easnstin, by ae 
light, and found to be all that could be desired, it will nev | 
theless oe very unsatisfactory if illuminated by the direct 
sun, : 


rays of 


« 


Histological Preparations by Sunlight. 259 


“age to pass the solar pencil through a piece of ground glass. 
s plan is recommended in all the treatises on photo-micro- 
graphy, and has hitherto been employed in the solar work done 
at the Army Medical Museum. The method is effectual in 


the sereen, and is sadly deficient in contrast. These faults are 
reproduced in photographs of objects thus illuminated, and, 
Moreover, the time of exposure is enormously increased. Such 


ie 3 pe ai 1 d sa from 
may be greatly diminis 8 ‘. fs f a second, and that 


mirror outside the shutter and thence into the dark room, A a 
iginal paper on photo-micrograp y- 


* This Journ., II, vol. xlii, p. 189, Sept., 1866. 


260 J. J. Woodward on Photographing 


No ground glass is used, but instead a lens mounted in a suitable 
tube is fixed in the opening of the shutter through which the 
solar pencil enters. This lens is an achromatic combination 
about two inches in transverse diameter and of about ten inches 
focal length. It is placed at such a distance from the achroma- 
tic condenser that the solar rays are brought to a focus and begin 
again to diverge before they reach the lowest glass of the 
achromatic condenser. 

For anatomical preparations requiring for their display from 
two to five hundred diameters, I use an 4th of an inch ob- 
jective, without an re a obtaining the precise power d 
by variations in the distance of the sensitive plate from the 


both neo aged as in the case of the ordinary solar micro 
scope. 


diameters obtained. While the object is thus seen on the white 
Screen in its natural colors, the cover corrections, focu: 


ussilg; , 
management of the achromatic condenser, and selection of the 


from about the microscope into the dark room; then going 
the plate holder, I make the final focussing in the usual way 
the ground glass, or on plate glass with the help of a focussilg 
glass, according to the nature of the object. 
- With powers of five hundred diameters or less, I at first & 
perienced some difficulty in giving the right exposure ; for 
the time required was buta fraction of a second, it was a na 
of some difficulty to regulate it with precision. At length. 
succeeded by arranging a sliding shutter, with a transverse 
of variable width, so adjusted as to fall with its own weiglt 
ache ine tube of ne microscope, the exposure being 
uring the passage, and the time of exposure re 
width given to the slit. <a 
/t course it occurred to me that for such short exposures = 
heliostat might bi 


be dispensed with, and I found on trial without 


———— eee 
~acneigionimnnnan seienoaies 


> 


Histological Preparations by Sunlight. 261 


ag obj 
diminished ; but I have convinced myself by trial that puree 8 
good pictures can be produced without it, even with very hig 

powers, a circumstance of considerable interest where motives 


— with regard to the selection of objectives suitable for 
otographic work of this kind. The power of the objective to 
e used will depend of course upon the details it is desired to 


1-8th objective may be conveniently employed to obtain 
r si dred diameters, & 1-16th 


Suitable amplifiers or even eye-pleces May be in either 
with great increase of the wer, and often 
rtain 


of definition. Still such amplifications may sometimes be ad- 
Vantageously resorted to, especially in the case of objects which 


ower. : . 
+he objective, selected deus of course be unexceptional in 
, 8 jally corrected. for 
aa aphy. It has been erroneously stated by Moitessier,* 
: in 


. 3 es . > . * 
S ee eet Appliquée aux Recherches Mi phiques, par A. Moites- 


1866, p. 180 et seq. 


262 J. J. Woodward on Photographing 


dispensed with. This proposition, which has been adopted by 
many other writers, appears plausible, but a little consideration 
will show it to be quite erroneous. 

Every one knows that a good objective must be free from 
spherical, as well as from chromatic, aberration. Of course the 
use of monochromatic light disposes of the chromatic trouble. 
Not so with the spherical aberration. Now this aberration, like 


consideration, t ' 
he sees is left to a happy chance in the selection of his objectives. 
For even those makers who profess to prepare objectives 


with the problem. If they would’ test their objectives, while , 
ight, we should have better results; 


for photography. "It is only necessary to test their performance 
when illuminated by sunlight, which has passed through an 
ammonio-sulphate cell. Now it fortunately happens that the 


mto consideration the principles involved in the foregoiig 
remarks, 


~ condensing lens above described, This lens, it will 
tated 


us. 
ne convergent pencils proceeding from the first let 
ia and a burning 


Bi 
F 


’ 
‘ 


Histological Preparations by Sunlight. 263 


focus of heat, as well as of light, is produced, which is damag- 
ing to the preparation as well as to the balsam cement of the 
objectives used. If, however, the rays from the first lens are 
permitted to come to a focus and to begin to diverge before 
striking the second, this latter can readily be adjusted so as to 
bring the illuminating rays to a handsome focus, while the heat 
tays, after passing the second lens, become parallel or even 


light ; an 


3 consequently, the rays of heat, after passing rough 
this lens, will become parallel, abile the rays a light converge 
4 a second focus. I have approximately measured the heatin 


Power of the thermal rays of the second cone when rende 


in the second focus, did not reach 90° Fah., while ie 
Same time the heat at the focus of the first cone was sufficien 
d ”? 


* The British Journal of Photography, Dee. 16, 1870, p. 590. 


264 J. J. Woodward on Photographing 


time may ily be given with a piece of velvet, or a card- 
board screen held in the hand. For shorter exposures some 
mechanical contrivance is indispensable. That alluded to above | 
seems to answer every purpose, and is arranged as follows: A ) 
wooden screen is fixed between the microscope and the sensitive | 
plate, as close as convenient to the microscope. To prevent | 
side lights reaching the plate, the screen is connected with the 
window shutter by velvet curtains, which can be turned aside 
to manipulate the instrument, and be let down at the prope’ = | 
time. circular hole, three inches in diameter, is made in the 

screen opposite the tube of the microscope for the transmissioR | 
of the image. In front of this a light yee slides loosely UP 

and down, held in place by a cleat of wood on each side, 1 
design being to permit the x area to fall edge foremost with 8 =} 
little friction as possible. The shutter may be made of thit 
metal, of wood, or even of card-board. i 


: Vv of slit, from a fraction of an inch 

ten inches, can be ein ae art of the shutter below _ = 
rture through which the im e passes when 

fixed in place before the Sst is made. 02 


Histological Preparations by Sunlight. 265 


4 
| venient velocity is attained for a magnifying power of two to 
five hundred diameters, arranged as I have described. For still 
“= shorter exposures, necessitated by lower powers or other cireum- 
| _ Stanees, it would be best to start the shutter from a greater 
} height, which would give greater velocity to the passage of the 
| Slit, and any available fraction of time desired might thus con- 
| Yeniently be obtained. The whole arrangement is inexpensive, 
d may be manufactured in a few hours by any one, out of a 
deal board, a few pieces of card-board and a yard or two of 
Cotton velvet. Seo 
course the fractional measures of time obtained in this 
way are not absolute, since the friction must be variable, unless 
the apparatus were made in a more costly manner of meta 
But I have found that the variations thus introduced are so 
small that they may be disregarded, and that while the start- 
Ing point remains the same, the width of the slit in the falling 
‘Shutter indicates fractions of time which may confidently 
Counted upon to give proportional photographic results. 
€ next subject for remark is the arrangement employed 
When the heliostat is dispensed with. 
or this purpose the contrivance usually employed for the 
A circular dise of brass, 


: is turned by a small toothed wheel, to which a suitable 
: button or milled head is attached. Through the center of the 


carrying the mirror or right-angled prism, to w. 
Melnation can be given iy a rod passing through the ese by 
the side of the tube. The whole arrangement is vaio : _ 


© motions of the mirror or prism can 
Jour. Scr.—Turrp Serres, Vou. I, No. 10.—Oct., 1871. 
138 


266 J. J. Woodward on Photographing, ete. 


pencil obtained from the prism gives b 
d by the double pencil reflected from 


escri 

the management of the plate-holder, the 

apparatus for focussing, and other accesso arrangements, 
need only say that I employ for the solar light the same simple 


Reiss and Stiibel—Barometrical Measurements in Eeuador. 267 


work at night or in unfavorable weather. j 

€ memoir is accompained by photographic plates of tissues, 
magnified 400 to 500 diameters, as examples of the results 
obtained in the manner described, and concludes with descrip- 
tion of the preparations. | 


Sa 


ART. XXXV.—Barometrical Measurements in Ecuador M4 by W. 
Reiss and A. Srijpen. Translated from the Spanish by 
Professor OrTon, Vassar College. 


\to, as determined by the able North German Expedition in 
1870-1. Schmidt’s a of the vara, given below, differs from 
the standard in the U. S. Office of Weights and Measures by 
~ ‘0015 meter. I have reduced the meters to English feet. 


R. and S., 15,704 ;—of the crater by Wisse and Moreno, 13,600 ; 
Orton, 18,800; R. and S., 18,175.] | 
Norr.—The altitudes are calculated in meters above the level 
of the sea, one meter equaling 1°1963 Spanish vara. ing gnats 
Part of the observations were made with the barometer; but trig 


268 Reiss and Stiibel—_Barometrical Measurements in Eeuador. 


onometrical measurements were taken of some notable points.’ The 
letters B and T indicate these different means, and the numbers 
show the times of observations. As this work is provisional, the 
authors reserve the privilege of making corrections in the future, 


ca however, will be insignificant. 


emg? 


Meters 


Tulcan, plaza (ieetveats frontier), 2,97 7 
Chota bridge, 1,532 
Isambal, foot of Yanaurcu, 4,041 
Top of Yanaureu 4,556 
El Fuyafuya, north summit, 4,294 
uth 4,279 
Caricocha, 8,711 
Tabacundo, 2,889 
as, plaza, 1,639 
Hatuntaqui, plaza, 2,407 
Cotacachi, orice 2,453 
alo, plaza, 2,581 
Hacienda of Cuicocha 2,747 
Border of the Lake Cuicocha, 3,118 
Top of Cotacachi, S.E. 4,960 
N, wee 4,966 
ts “ N. 4,829 
Snow-limit on Cotacachi, Ss W. side, 4,620 
E. 4,694 
San Pablo, — 2,726 
lak 2,697 
Top of 7 4,012 
La Esperanza, plaza, 2,344 
Top of Curilche, 3,882 
Lake within the crater, 3,801 
Top of Cerro C ; 3,338 
Lake in the crater. 3,317 
Yaguarcocha, 2,253 
arra, plaza, 2,225 
Imanta, “ 2,422 
Peguche, Seow 2,556 
aillabam a, pueblo, : 2,106 
Alchipichi “ar ridge, 1,719 
Pomasqui, plaza, 2,507 
es _ * 9,802 
t ‘se 1,830 
Colicals’ pueblo, 2,792 
3,133 
Mindo, hacienda of San Diep 1,264 
= hina ofa, N.E. summi pee 
Function of of Rio Blanco with Rio del Volcan, 2 ors 
‘Hacienda of San José in in Lloa, 
Top of Rucu-Pichincha, : ee 


Feet. 


15,540 


l,m ee ee ee 


bo 
or) 
=) 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 


Altitude. 


Place. Meters. Feet. Method. 
Cundurguachana, 4,090 13,254 1B. 
Top of Guagua-Pichincha, 4,787 15,704 fv 
Bottom of the crater, 4,016 13,175 1B. 
Top of the mound in the crater, 4,087 13,408 1 “ 
‘Top of Panecillo, 3,050 10,006 2 * 
_ Machangara, hacienda de las Monjas, 2.648. 8687. 1% 
___ Bridge of Guépulo 2,545 8349 1 “ 
Church . 2,690 8,825 2 
Tumbaco, plaza, 2,390 7,841 38 * 
embo, “ 2,484 8,149 2 * 
Hacienda of Guachala, 9,601 9,189 4 * 
ayambe, pueblo, ; 2,852 9,357 Ba 
Top of Atacazo, edge of crater, 4,539 14,891 2 “ 
Arenal within crater, 4,949: 18,916- 2 
Tambillo, tambo, 2,802 9,193 7“ 
Aloac, pueblo, t  PO8e 7 SSO: 28S 
Top of Corazon, 4,787 15,704. 2 * 
Machachi, tambo, 2.935 9699-4." 
sallocantana peak on Rumifiagui, 3,839 12,594 2 * 
» Bottom of the Caldera, 9,756 49,819. 1.4 
eak between Capacocha and Sachacocha, 4,192 13,752 1 “ 
Hacienda of Pedregal, $601 11 Aat. 1 
Top of P: 0a, 4,255 13,959 2 “ 
alé, 3,161 10,870. 2 * 
Alangasf, plaza, 26st RAST 1 
Hacienda of Sir. Jijon, Chillo, 2,518 8,261 1“ 


Arr. XXXVI—Inaugural Address before the British Association 
at Edinburgh, August 2d ; by Sir Wi~LtaAM THoMPson, 
President of the Association. 


Kew Observatory. os : 
a Sse ne of the most valuable services to science 
Which the British Association has performed has been the es- 


ry. e Royal Meteorol 


eculiar 


is c 
ually t¢ : : ial phenomenon of 
.“") 60 repair to it when any celestial phen : still pera 


duced 


270 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


maintenance of such an observatory; but, happily for science, 
the zeal of individual fellows of the Royal Society and members 
of the British Association gave the initial impulse, supplied the 
necessary initial funds, and recommended their new Institution 
successfully to the fostering care of the British Association. 


Physical Observatories and Laboratories. 
The success of the Kew Magnetic and Meteorological Obse™ 
vatory affords an example of the ‘great gain to be earned 10? 


tories for experimental research, to be co : 
ire whose duties should be, not teaching, but experi nen 
hether we look to the honor of England, as a nation whic 
ought always to be the foremost in promoting physical sciene® 
_ OF to those vast economical advanta — 
: such establishments, ‘Wwe cannot but feel that experimental ci 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 271 


search ought to be made with us an object of national concern, 
and not left, as hitherto. exclusively to the private enterprise 
of self-sacrificing amateurs, and the necessarily inconsecutive 
action of our present governmental departments and of casual 
committees. The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
has moved for this object in a memorial presented by them to 
the Royal Commision on Scientific Education and the Advance- 
ment of Science. The Continent of Europe is referred to for 
an example, to be followed with advantage in this country, in 
the following words :— 

_ “On the continent there exist certain institutions, fitted with 
instruments, apparatus, chemicals, and other appliances, which 

c 


sophical instruments and apparatus, access to which is most lib- 
erally granted by the directors of those schools, or the teachers 
of the respective disciplines, to any person qualified, for scven- 
hific experiments. In consequence, though there exist no particu- 
lar institutions like those mentioned in the memorial, there will 
scarcely be found a town exceeding 5,000 inhabitants but of 
fers the possibility of scientific explorations at no other cost than 
reimbursement of the expense for the materials wasted m the 
<< naaapgad 

rther, with reference to a remar t 
effect that in respect to the promotion of science, the British 


gations, that they are to be relied upon for the advancement of 
a) 


Versities is at the same time profitabl 


The ph sical laboratories which have grown up in. the Uni- 
Versities of Glascow and Edinburgh, and in Owens College, 
. re h; but 

it, being absolutely 
destitute of means, material or personal, for advancing science 


272 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


except at the expense of volunteers, or securing that volunteers 
shall be found to continue even such little work as at present is 
carried on. 


chester) requires two professors of Natural Philosophy—one 
who shall be responsible for the teaching, the other for the 
eirancemens of science by experiment. 

xf 


of Cambridge with a splesiiit laboratory, to be constructed 
l 


under the eye of Prof. 


e tings | 
the British Association], I hope, will be the means of impressing 
on the Government the conviction, that the love of scientific 


and they remain permanently useful as landmarks in the history 
of science. Some of them have led to vast practical results; 
others of a more abstract character are valuable to this day ® 


trate the two kinds 
the . . 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 273 


rendered superfluous for any one who desires only the essence 
of these investigations, with no more of detail than is necessary 
for a thorough and practical understanding of the subject. 
Terrestrial Magnetism. : 
Sabine’s Report of 18388 concludes with the following sen- 
ag 


and honorable undertaking.” An immediate result of this re- 
port was that the enterprise which it proposed was recommended 
0 the Government by a joint Committee of the British Asso- 
Clation and the Royal Society with such success, that Capt. 

ss was sent in command of the Erebus and Terror to 


ting and simplifying the correction of the marl 
rob] ree ‘a become one of vital impo 


274 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


afforded to them for codperating in their work on this subject 
Lloyd, Phillips, Fox, Ross, and abine made magnetic observa 
tions all over Great Britain ; and their results, collected by Sa 
ine, gave for the first time an accurate and complete survey 
of terrestrial magnetism over the area of this island. [am u 
formed, by Prof. Phillips, that, in the beginning of the Assoc 
ation, Herschel, though a “sincere well-wisher,” felt doubt 
to the general utility and probable success of the plan and pur 
ose proposed; but his zeal for terrestrial magnetism brought 
im from being merely a sincere well-wisher to join actively 
and cordially in the work of the Association. ‘In 1838 he 
gan to give effectual aid in the great question of magnetical 


tables of the values of the magnetic elements deduced from 
observation are Ps a at once to make use of them,” and 
that he intends to take into account terms of at least one order 
ban fe vig included by Gauss. The form in which ot! Te. 
- quisite data are to be presented to him is a magnetic ¢ ni 
the whole surface of the globe. Materials deigaiciat © trav- 


Fe eh Tae NS eS oS a ee ee ee 
= E ee ae ae ee se he = < 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 275 


elers of all nations, from our home magnetic observatories, 
from the magnetic observatories of St. Helena, the Cape, Van 
Diemen’s Land, and Toronto, and from the scientific observa- 
tories of other countries, have been brought together by Sabine. 
Silently, day after day, night after night, for a quarter of a cen- 
tury, he has toiled with one constant assistant always by his 
side, to reduce these observations and prepare for the great work. 
At this moment, while we are here assembled, I believe that, in 
their quiet summer retirement in Wales, Sir Edward and Lady 
Sabine are at work on the magnetic chart of the world. If two 
years of life and health are granted to them, science will be 
provided with a key which must powerfully conduce to the 
ultimate opening up of one of the most refractory enigmas of 
cosmical physics, the cause of terrestrial magnetism 


0 give any sketch, however slight, of scientific investigation 


on the present occasion. A detailed account of work done and 
knowledge gained in science Britain ought to have every year. 
h 


notable 


for Something new. But nearly all the grandest discoveries : 
science have been but the rewards of accurate measurement an 


276 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


discovery was made. It was by a long train of mathematical 
calculation, founded on results accumulated through prodigious 
toil of practical astronomers, that Newton first demonstrated the 


the Earth. Then first, we may suppose, came to him the idea 
of the universality of gravitation; but when he attempted to 


present at a meeting of the Royal Bacistys he heard Ra 
i icard, whic 


Earth's radius. This was what N ewton required. He went 


a friend: then (and not when, sitting in a garden, he saw aa 
apple fall) did he ascertain that gravitation keeps the Moon 
ber orbit. : 
_ Faraday’s discovery of specific inductive capacity, which 
maugurated the new philosophy tending to discard action at a 
distance, was the result of minute and accurate measurement of 
electric forces. : 
Joule’s discovery of thermo-dynamic law through the regions 


Andrew’s discovery of the continuity between the gaseous 
and liquid states was worked out by many years of laborious 
and minute measurement of phenomena scarcely sensible to the 
naked eye. 


element. He showed the relation beween electrostatic and ele 
_ Womagnetic units for absolute measurement, and made the 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 277 


; beautiful discovery that resistance, in absolute electromagnetic 
sé 
c 


conferred by its application to promote the social and material 
those who perilled and lost their money m 


€ original Atlantic telegraph were impelled and 0 
by a sense of the deur of their enterprise, and of the world- 
Wide benefits which must flow from its success; they were, at 


loftiest regions and subtlest ether of natural philosophy. Long 
may the British Association continue a bond of union, and a 


278 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


5 


medium for the interchange of good offices between science and 
the world ! 
Kinetic Theory of Gases—Atoms. 


refractory 
enigma. The deeply penetrating genius of Maxwell brought 
in viscosity and thermal conductivity, and thus completed the 


Pes such comprehensive molecular theory had ever been evel 
imagined before the nineteenth century. Definite and com lete 
In its area as it is, it is but a well-drawn part of a great : 
in which all physical science will be represented with evély 
a tek of matter shown in dynamical relation to the whole. 


is based on the assumption of atoms. But there can be 10 Lt 
manent satisfaction to the mind in explaining heat, light, ¢ 
tism in gases, liquids, 


ferent states of matter to one another by statistics of great nu? 
bers of atoms, when the properties of the atom itself are simpl : 
assumed. hen the theory, of which we have the first inst® 
ment in Clausius and Maxwell’s work, is complete, we are but 
brought face to face with a superlatively thas question,-—what 
is the inner mechanism of the atom ? at 
In the answer to this Beets we must find the explanatio? 

not only of the atomic icity, by which the atom is 4 chrom 
ometric vibrator, according to Stoke's discovery, but of chemical 
affinity and of the differences of quality of different chemical _ 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 279 


elements, at present a mere mystery in science, Helmholtz’s 
exquisite theory of vortex-motion in an incompressible friction- 
less liquid has been suggested as a finger-post, pointing a 
way which may possibly lead to a full understanding of the 


modern doctrine regarding atoms. > t 
that article one other short passage, finely describing the pres- 
ent aspect of atomic theory :—“The existence of the chemical 
atom, already quite a complex little world, seems very probable ; 
and the description of the Lucretian atom is wonderfully ap- 
Plicable to it. We are not wholly without hope that the real 
Weight of each such atom may some day be known—not merely 
the relative weight of the several atoms, but the number ina 
siven volume of any material; that the form and motion of the 
parts of each atom and the distances by which they are sepa- 
rated may be calculated; that the motions by which they pro- 
duce heat, electricity, and light may be illustrated by exact 
seometrical diagrams; and that the fundamental properties of 
the intermediate and ‘possibly constituent medium may be ar- 
rived at. Then the motion of planets and music of the spheres 
will be neglected for a while in admiration of the maze in which 
€ tiny atoms run.” = 
liven before this was written some of the anticipated results 
had been partially attained. Loschmidt in Vienna had shown, 
and not much later Stoney independently in England showed, 
how to deduce from Clausius and Maxwell's kinetic theory of 
ity & superior limit to the Stes of — ina ake geen 
urable space. as unfortunately quite unaware | L 
Loschmidt and Stoney had done when I made | a similar esti- 
mate on the same foundation, and communicated it to Nature, 
M an article ‘On the size of atoms.’ But questions of person 
Priority, however interesting they may be to the gm ee 
_ +eerned, sink into insignificance in the prospect of any a 0. 
| Geeper insight into the secrets of nature. The triple coincidence 
_ of independent reasoning in this case is valuable as confirmation 
— of a conclusion violently contravening ideas and opinions 
Which had been almost universally held regarding the — 
_ Sons of the molecular structure of matter. Chemists and ot oe 
_‘aturalists had been in the habit of evading questions as to the 


280 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


hardness or indivisibility of atoms by virtually assuming them to 
be infinitely small and infinitely numerous. We must now no 
longer look upon the atom, with Boscovich, as a mystic point 
endowed with inertia and the attribute of attracting or repelling 


with those who have attributed to the atom occupation of space 
with infinite hardness and strength (incredible in any finite 
body); but we must realize it as a piece of matter of meas- 
urable dimensions, with shape, motion, and laws of action, in- 
telligible subjects of scientific investigation. 

Spectrum Analysis. 

The prismatic analysis of light discovered by Newton was 
estimated by himself as being “the oddest, if not the most con- 
siderable, detection which had hitherto been made in the opera- 

7 


who first showed how through it the old “ blowpipe test,” 
fro olors W 


they give to flames, can be prosecuted with an accuracy and @ 
minati the color 


the summer of 1852. The observational and experimental 


as obs a by Fraunhofer of a det 
Couble dark line D of the solar spectrum and a double brig 
line which he o sae tie gee lige artificial 


a 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 281 


(2) A very rigorous experimental test of this coincidence by 
Prof. W. H. Miller, which showed it to be accurate to an as- 
tonishing degree of minuteness. 
(8) The fact that the yellow light given out when salt is 
wn on burning spirit consists almost solely of the two 
oat identical qualities which constitute that double bright 
ne 


line D to be absent in a candle-flame when the wick was 
snuffed clean, so as not to project into the luminous envelope, 
and from an alcohol flame when the spirit was burned in a 
watch-glass, And, 

(5) Foucault’s admirable discovery (Z’ Institut, Feb. 7, 1849), 
that the voltaic are between charcoal points is “a medium 
which emits the rays D on its own account, and at the same 
ra absorbs them when they come from another e 


. 


quarter. 
€ conclusions, theoretical and practical, which Stokes 
hich 


el Observations made by Stokes himself, which showed the 
bright flame wh 


lic lectures in the University of Glasgow, were :-— 
(1) That the double line D, whether bright or dark, is due 
to vapor of sodium. 4 

(2) That the ultimate atom of sodium is susceptible of reg- 
ular elastic vibrations, like those of a tuning-fork or of stringed 
musical instruments; that like an instrument with two strings 

d to approximate unison, or an approximately cireular 

elastic disc, it has two fundamental notes or vibrations of ap- 
proximately equal pitch; and that the periods of these vibra- 
Hons are precisely the periods of the two slightly different yel- 
low lights constituting the double bright line D. 
(3) That when vapor of sodium is at a high enough tempera- 


rich light from another source is propagated, its atoms, ac- 
Cording to a well-known general principle of d are 
‘0 vibrate in either or both of those fundamental modes, if some 


5 wept i : d stellar 
(5) That Fraunhofer’s double dark line D of solar and ste 
Spectra is due to the presence of vapor of sodium in atmospheres 
Aw. Jour. Sci.—Tuiep Series, Vo. II, No. 10.—Oct., 1871, 

19 


282 Address of Sir William Thompson. 
surrounding the sun and those stars in whose spectra it had 


(6) That other vapors than sodium are to be found in the 
atmospheres of sun and stars by searching for substances fii 
ducing in the spectra of artificial flames bright lines coinciding 
with other dark lines of the solar and stellar spectra than the 
Fraunhofer line D. 

The last of these propositions I felt to be confirmed (it was, 
perhaps, partly suggested) by a striking and beautiful ig 225 
ment, admirably adapted for lecture illustrations, due to Fou- 
cault, which had been shown to me by M. Duboscque Soleil 
and the Abbé Moigno, in Paris, in the month of October, 1850. 
A prism and lenses were arranged to throw upon a screen al 


a piece of brass, compounded of copper and zinc, was put into 
the cup, the spectrum showed all the bands, each precisely 2 
the place in ho it had been seen when one metal or the other 
had been used separately. 

It is much to be regretted that this great generalization was 
not published to the world twenty years ago. I say this, not » 
because it is to be regretted that Angstrém should have the 
‘hom of having, in 1858, published independently the statement 

a a5 . ¢ 


. 


n incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same 


every kind of ray; or that Kirchhoff also should have, in 1859, 


might now be in possession of the inconceivable riches of ast? 
nomical results which we expect from the next ten years 2 


rred im. : 
Kire hoff belongs, I believe, solely the great credit of 
ving first actually sought for and found other metals than 
sodium in the sun y the method of spectrum analysis. 
publication of October, 1859, inaugurated the practice of soli! 
ce and stellar chemistry, and gave spectrum analysis an impus® od 
___ which in a great measure is due its splendidly successful cut 


“ 


Hse 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 283 
tivation by the labors of many able investigators within the last 


n years. 
To prodigious and wearing toil of Kirchhoff himself, and of 
owe la 


mgs of the British Association is well illustrated by the fact 
that it was through conversation with Pliicker at the Newcastle 


substance gives a continuous spectrum—that an in 
gas under varied pressure gives bright bars across the contin- 
e sharp, hard and fast 


be spectrum, some of which, from th 


284 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


Tn contemplating them we feel as if led out from narrow waters 
of scholastic dogma to a refreshing excursion on the broad and 
deep ocean of truth, where we learn from the wonders we see 
that there are endlessly more and more glorious wonders still 
unseen. 

Stokes’s dynamical theory supplies the key to the philosophy 
of Frankland and Lockyer’s discovery. Any atom of gas, when 


dense that each atom is always in collision, that is to say, never 
free from influence of its nike ciara the spectrum will generally 
be continuous, and may present little or no appearance of bands, 
or even of maxima of brightness. In this condition the fluid 
can be no longer regarded as a gas, and we must judge of it 
relation to the vaporous or liquid states according to the critical 
conditions discovered by daidaceey 
: Spectroscopic Research in Astronomy. 

While these great investigations of properties of matter wel 
going on, naturalists were not idle with the newly-recogn2 
a of the spectroscope at their service. Chemists $00? 
ollowed the example of Bunsen in discovering new metals? 
terrestrial matter by the old blow-pipe and prism test of Fo% 


Jomed their forces. An astronomical observatory has to 
appended to it a stock of re-agents such as hitherto was only f 
be found in the chemical borstony: A devoted corps ° 
Volunteers of all nations, whose motto might well be Uogq" 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 285 


More of the lines in the spectrum of the star, with a line or 

in the spectrum of sodium, or some other terrestrial sub- 
stance, and then (by observing the star and the artificial light 
Simultaneously by the same spectrosco 


parisons between the positions of the dark lines in the prisma- 
Ue spectrum and in his own 


debaran, a Orionis, 6 Pegasi, Sirius, @ Lyre, Ca lla, “ 
Mirus, Pollux, Castor (which they had observed rather for the 


rov 
great a velocity as 315 es per second to or from the 
h, whi ° “ 


corrected for the velocity of the Earth at the time of the obser- 
vation, gave a velocity % Sirius, relatively to the Sun, amount- 


286 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


tion extremely difficult. Still, with such great skill as Mr. Hug- 
gins has brought to bear on the investigation, it can scarcely be 


a 

cording to the laboratory results of Frankland and himself, go 
far toward confirming the conviction that in a few years al 
the marvels of the Sun will be dynamically explained according 


of weather. It seems to have been proved that at least some 
sensible part of the light of the “corona” is a terrestrial atmos- 
pheric halo or dispersive reflexion of the light of the glow 
hydrogen and i helium ” round the Sun. (Frankland am 
Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give ery decided 
bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with an 


confidently trusts to our Government exercising the same wIs¢ 
berality as heretofore in the interests of science. 

Sola~ Heat. 

The old nebular hypothesis supposes the solar system and 
other similar systems through the universe which we see at 4 
“ance as stars, to have originated in the condensation of fiery 
nebulous matter. * This hypothesis was invented before the dis 
rovery of the thermo-dynamics, or the nebulew would not have 3 
been supp to be fiery; and the idea seems never to have ae 
occurred to any of its inventors or early supporters that the 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 287 


Sary to suppose the nebulous matter to have been originally 
fiery, but that mutual gravitation between its parts may have 
generated the heat to which the present high temperature of 
the Sun is due. Further, he made the important observations 


* 


Te ® ae eR ee Se ee om 


i) 
Qu 
z 
ot 
oS 
we] 
ct 
ect 
= 
bee 
io) 
} 
o 
=) 
oe) 
oO 
=] 
mM 
pe) 
sf, 
=) 
& 5 
oO 
pa) 
B 
° 
6B 
7 
oy 
— 
— 
io) 
4 
marl 
S 
= 
° 
g. 
=] 
ag 
oo) 
p 
Qu 


on of the very approximate constancy of the Earth’s period 
of revolution round the Sun for the last 2, years, to con- 


assumed to circulate at any consi t 
1 the Sun must be very small; and therefore, “if the me- 
¢ influx taking place at present is enough to produce any 
reciable portion of the heat radiated away, it must be sup- 


288 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


clusive against it. 

Each meteor circulating round the Sun must fall in along a 
very gradual spiral path, and before reaching the Sun must 
have been for a long time exposed to an enormous heating 
effect from his radiation when very near, and must thus have 
been driven into vapor before actually falling into the Sun. 
Thus, if Mayer's hypothesis is correct, friction between vortices 
of meteoric vapors and the Sun’s atmosphere must be the m- 
mediate cause of solar heat ; and the velocity with which these 
vapors circulate round equatorial parts of the Sun must amount 
to 435 kilométres per second. The spectrum test of velocity 
applied by Lockyer showed but a twentieth part of this amount 
as the greatest observed relative velocity between different 


ich I had objected. But a solution, which seems to mee 
the highest degree probable, has been suggested by Tait. 
ur ed gas 


: J t 
) observed in gunnery trials, such as those ® 
Shoeburyness, when iron strikes eodtat iron at a great velocity 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 289 


but varied by substituting for the iron various solid materials, 
metallic or stony. Hitherto this suggestion has not been acted 
upon ; but surely it is one the carrying out of which ought to 
be promoted by the British Association. 

Nature of Comets. 


published), until, in 1866, Schiaparelli calculated from observa- 
tions on the August meteors, an orbit for these bodies which he 
found to agree almost perfectly with the orbit of the great 
comet of 1862, as calculated by Oppolzer; and so discovered 
and demonstrated that a comet consists of a group of meteoric 


ent 
ears, since the year 902, there have been excep- 
fliant displays of the November meteors. It had 


ve 

: 3 a splendid problem for the phy- 

Per annum, Here, then, was a splendid p: ees < sk 
iful meth 


Adams, by the application of a beautiful met 


ewton just one permitted the motion of the 1 
(eer ne influ f Jupiter, Saturn, and 
by ma igrsboh ee: influence ae ’ is, 334 


290 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


years. The investigation showed further that the form of the 
orbit is a long ellipse, giving for the shortest distance from the 


able to identify the comet and the meteoric belt.* The same 


18 therefore, thoroughly established that Temple's Comet I, 
1866, consists of an elliptic train of minute planets, of which a 
few thousands or millions fall to the earth annually about the 

4th of November, when we cross their track. We have prob- 


having been correctly predicted by Prof. Newton), we have 
passed through a part of the belt greatly denser than the avel- 
age. ‘The densest part of the train, when near enough to us, 18 


while its “tail” is merely a portion of the less dense part of 
the train illuminated by sunlight, and visible or invisible to us 
* Signor Schiaparelli, Director of the Observator: 
. 


te culate jai 
e supposition of the orbit being a very elongated ellipse, agreed very f rei 
b. 


same r Schia relli gives elements of the orbit of the No 


of any known com On the 21st of January, 1867, M. 
accurate elements of the orbit of the N ovember meteors, and in the 
Nachrichten of J of Al i 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 291 


profound secret and mystery of nature concerned in the pheno- 
 ‘menon of their tails. “Perhaps it is not too much to hope that 
future observation, borrowing every aid from rational specula- 
tion, grounded on the progress of physical science generally 
(especially those branches of it which relate to the ethereal or 


of avoidance.” “In no respect is the question as to the mate- 
riality of the tail more forcibly pressed on us for consideration 


Sun in perthelioin a manner of astraightand rigid rod, in defiance 

of the law of gravitation, nay, even of the received laws of motion. 

“The projection of this ray ... . t ! 

: single day, conveys an impression of the intensity of the 
ting to produce 


Pr 
g 
st 
=) 
Og 
a 
se 
B 
ie) 
— 
8 
ot 
oo 
et 
Ss 
§ 
=~ 
g 
e 
, & 
S 
5 
~™ 
= 
3 
= 
>. 
> 
3 
~ 
5 
> 


as we conceive it, viz., possessing mertia—at all, it pe sid 
the dominion of forces incomparably more energetic — 
tation, and quite of a different nature.” ca : ; = 
l, : th of the admirable simplicity with which se 8 
beautifal “ sea-bird analogy,” as it has been called, can expiain 


all these phenomena. 


ing i ogic itions very 
pressing it that, under meteorological condl 
erent care e peer dead matter may have run together, 


292 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


a teaching of science as the law of gravitation. I utterly repu- 
diate, as opposed to all philosophical uniformitarianism, the 


ect contravention of what seems to us biological law. I am 
prepared for the answer, “ our code of biological laws is an €X- 
ression of our ignorance as well as of our knowledge.” 


the most careful and laborious experimenting. I confess 10 
being deeply impressed by the evidence put before us by Prof 
Huxley, and I 

faith, true throug 
ceeds from life, and fr 


there was no living thing on it, There were rocks solid and 
disintegrated, water, air all round, warmed and illuminated by 
a brilliant sun, ready to become a garden. Di pie 

and flowers s nto existence, in all the fullness of mpé 
beauty, by a fiat of Creative Power? or did vegetation, grow 


or years it teems with vegetable and anim ; 
originated by tlie transport of seeds and ov4 


Address of Sir William Thompson. 293 


and by the migration of individual _ creatures. When a 
voleanic island springs up from the se and after a few years is 
found clothed with vegetation, we do ae hesitate to assume that 
seeds has been wafted to it through the air, or floated to it on 
rafta Is it not possible, and if possible, is it not probable, that 
the beginning of vegetable life on the earth is to be similarly 
explained? Every year thousands, probably sabe of frag- 
ments of ~ matter fall upon the earth—whence come these 
fragments? What is the previous — of any one of them ? 
Was it created in the beginning of time an amorphous mass? 
This idea is so unacceptable that, tacitly or explicitly, all men 
discard it. It is often assumed that all, and it is certain that 
some, meteoric stones are fragments which had been broken off 
from greater masses aie launched free into space. It is as 
sure that collisions must occur between great masses moving 
through space as it is that ships, steered F without intelligence 
ted to prevent collision, could not cross and _ re-cross 
the Atlantic fo. ghounsade of years with immunity from col- 
ions. When two great masses come into collision in space, 
itis certain that a large part of each is melt ut it seems 
also quite certain that in many cases a large quantity of débris 
must be shot forth in all oie sala much of which may , 


other oar ae com Pobre in ieeseto to itself, be when it is 
still clothed as at present with vegetation, many great and small 
ents carrying seed and living plants and animals would 
undoubtedly be scattered through space. Hence and because 
We Jay vag eA believe that there are at present, and have 
immemorial, many worlds of life besides our 

own, wemust regardit it as = pobable in the highest degree that ae 

throug 


a sera Fpaeait no life existed upon this ~~ 
one Marach, son e falling upon it might, by what we blindly call na 
fu vais to its becoming covered with vegetation. Iam 
lly pe a the many scientific objections which may 
tae pomp one hypothesis, but I believe them to be all 
sine, Sa taxed your patience too severely 


toal “ ~ a think of discussing any of them on the present 
occasion e hypothesis that life originated on this earth 
through moss- — fra ents from the ruins of another world 


From the earth stocked with such vegetation as it could re- 
ceive seeotieallys Ae to the earth teeming with all the endless 
lety of plants and animals which now inhabit it, the step is 


ea 


294 Address of Sir William Thompson. 


have all been produced by laws acting around us.”. . . + 
“ There is grandeur in this view of life with its several powers, 


ations. Reaction against the frivolities of teleology, such as 
are to be found, not rarely, in the notes of the learned commen 
tators on Paley’s ‘ Natural Theolo 
porary effect in turning attention 


physical or scientific, turn us away fro 


2 


Page Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 295 


Art. XXXVII— On some new Silurian Crinoids and Shelis ; 
by F. B. Mzrx. 


Derenprocrrinus Caser Meek. 
Compare Pentacrinite Christy, 1848; Letters on Geology, Plate IT. 


eral pentagonal outline, the upper side being longest and deeply 
excavated for the reception of the comparatively narrow tree ra- 


wn : 
Ventral extension of the body more than four times as long as 
readth ; 


296 F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 


Height of body to top of first radials, 0°39 inch, greatest breadth 
at top, 0°32 inch. Length of incomplete ventral extension, 1°95 
inches; breadth of same as flattened, near upper end, 0°65 inch; 
breadth of arms below the first bifurcation, 0°12 inch, 


ures of t 
will be given in the Ohio Geolo ical Report. F 
Loe fity and position.—Mr. Catch sped was found by him | 
at Richmond, Indiana, in the upper part of the Cincinnati ee : : 
and those belonging to Mr. Dyer were found at about the sam 7 
horizon between Cincinnati and Oxford, Ohio. | 


y as 
good specimens. Fig f the species, with a full description, 


LEpPocrintrres Moorsr Meek. 


of irregular form and size, two on the anal side being longer Spal 
wide, and extending up to form the lower margin of the princl} 


j= aad 
5 
: 
g 
cs 
° 
4 
ot 
2 
8 
et 
g 
= 
& 
e 
& 


tively ‘atge, one situated at the suture between one of the | 
pieces and the contiguous piece of the next range above, on ‘a 
anterior side of the body; another on the side to the left of 
* Now, since we know the nature of the vault of Cyathocrinites (see F sais 
Acad., N. Sci., Dec., 1868, p. 324and 336), it seems to me that Paleocrt 
“a8 a distinct genius from that group. : 


F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Sheils. 297 


Recumbent arms short, or confined mainly to the upper side, 
one extending down nearly to the opening on the anal side, another 
to the two rhombs to the right of the opening, a third to that 
on the left, and the fourth to the anterior side, the direction of all 
being thus nearly or quite at right angles to each other. Column 
thick at the base of the body, but tapering rapidly below; as usual, 

Cc y 


composed of very thin pieces. Surface of body plates marked b 
e 


Shell ovate, rather compressed or only moderately convex, the 
greatest convexity being a little above and slightly in advance of 
the middle, extremities more or less 


beaks only moderately prominent, somewhat obtuse, and not very 
convex, & fo more fice one-third the length of the valves from 


Le 
959 inch ; convexity, 0°30 to 33 inch. 
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, VoL. II, No. 10.—Ocr., 1871. 
20 


‘ 


this, 1 would #6 
inclined to refer them to the family Crassatellide, instead of to the Mytilide, 
Which Pr - McCoy associates Anodontopsis, 


298 F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 


ways describe the same hinge exactly in the same way, I have 
concluded to refer our shell, for the present, provisionally to Ano- 
dontopsis. If a new genus, however, it may be called Orthodon- 
tis 


Prot. McCoy described the hinge of his genus as follows: “hinge 
line shorter than the shell, with a posterior long slender tooth or 
cartilage plate extending just below it (double in the right valve), 
and another similar but shorter one in front of the 
then adds that there is “ occasionally one small cardinal tooth be- 
neath the beak.” . 


lve. , 
ne is certainly simple, and the muscular impression 
erlor one being larger than the other, a? 
e 


= 


“The Specific name is given in honor of §, A. Miller Esq., of Ca 
nati, Ohio, who sent on to the Smithsonian Institute the fits 


_ * From all of the known characters of such extinct shells as 


F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 299 


specimens of this shell I have seen. I am also indebted to him for 
some broken valves showing the hinge. For the use of a good 
specimen showing the hinge of the left valve I am likewise under 
obligations to C. B. Dyer, Esq., of Cincinnati. 

Locality and position—Forty miles west of Cincinnati, Ohio, 
above the middle of the Cincinnati group, of the Lower Silurian. 


ANODONTOPSIs ? UNIONOIDES Meek. 


nearer the anterior side, and its dorsal margin is not declining on 
the posterior side of the beaks as in the last. It likewise differs 
in having its posterior umbonal slopes more convex on a line from 
the beaks to the posterior basal margin. : : 
ength, 1-73 inches; height, !*11 inches; convexity, 0°63 inch. 

Locality and position, same as last. The only specimen I have 
seen was kindly loaned to me for description and illustration, by 
Mr. §. A. Miller, of Cincinnati. 


Remarks on the genus Lichenocrinus; by F. B. Mex. 


Perhaps of all the remarkable types of that protean order of 
animals known as the Crinoidea, there are few more curious and 
interesting forms (if really the 6o0dy of a Crinoid) than that for 
which Prof. Hall baste | the name Lichenocrinus. Having re- 


on 
Some interest to paleontologists, especially as this fossil is little 
known, and the specimens now obtaine afford the means of giv- 
ing a more extended description of its characters than that al- 
ready published. ees 
rof. Hall’s generic description of this crinoid reads as follows: 
Bodies parasitic on shells and other foreign substa ces. Form 

i 


rising from the centre. Disk composed of an indefinite number o: 
polygonal plates, and apparently having no distinct mee of _ 
Tangement. Proboscis perforate, and in the known species, age 
of five ranges of short plates alternating and interlocking at the 
Margins,” 
a From the specimens now known 
eseripti ‘this fossil ma iven: ; 
i Bal or iepaaeed slaneeonves bodies, growing firmly a 
tached to shells, corals, trilobites and other marine objects, an 


, the following more extended 


300 F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 


arated, presenting no sutures or openings, but in some conditions, 
showing numerous, distinct regularly arranged, radiating striz, 
corresponding to radiating lamelle that oceupy the whole internal 
cavity from top to bottom. 

_ Among the more remarkable features of this fossil, may be men- 
tioned its very curious system of radiating lamelle occupying the 


In diameter, and sey ches inlength? Is it homologous wi 
the so-called proboscis or ventral tube of other crinoids, or with 
the colu of. Hall evidently entertained the 


mens than those from which his diagnosis was written, he inclined 
to the opinion that it is a column. at one or the other of these 
views 18 correct, would almost necessarily seem to be the case, 


ling free, and if viewed as a column, apparently useless ? Again, 
if a column, connected with the free side of the body of an at- 
tached crinoid, how are we to account for the fact that no traces 


; ing 
oreign bodies, and this long appendage in all cases be left dang- 


rs In size inward, and pass b e lations into those 
forming the base of this long nate” e 


F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 301 


f a crinoid, t hich grew at the free end of the long 
column-like ap age. This suggestion derives Some support tro 
the fact that the disk, although usually growing on the flat surfaces 
of shells, etc., is sometimes found growing upon the side of the col- 


mes 
umns of other larger crinoids, as well as on other uneven surfaces, 
: and in such cases, it is bent around to conform to the curve of the 
‘Surface of attachment, just as we see in crinoid roots: es ° 
situated ; while its whole interior is so filled with radiating lamel- 


as figured the root of one type ( Cleiocrinus grandis), apparently 
composed of an accidentally folded expansion © minute polygo- 
nal plates; and it is worthy of note, that the column attached to 


a 
such system of radiated lamellz being connected wit > 
4 crinoid ; but this objection would doubtless apply with ier 

eater force against the conclusion that this disk is the body o 
One of these animals. : 
__ Onthe other hand, among the strong object 
tion that these disks are roots, may be menti 


302 F. B. Meek on new Silurian Crinoids and Shells. 


the stages of development of some Crinoid, which, if known in its 
adult condition, is supposed to be an entirely distinct type. ‘The 
other is that the disks, as we now see them growing fast to other 


down to others less than a tenth of an inch in diameter, all alike 
growing fast to other bodies by the side opposite the column-Hxe 
appendage, seems to demonstrate that this is their mode of growth 
from the first.* 
Tn view of all that is now known of this curious fossil, it seems 
i inion on 


be prepared for the reports of the Ohio Geological Survey. ped 
> _ . * L cs 
Cincinnati group of the Lower Silurian, near Cincinnati, Ohio. 


_,. Ina few very rare cases, the disk has been found detached, and showing a 
flat side marked by very regular radiating striae. 


pon which they grew and that the radiating 
lize within posed by wea’ ring, as we also Some 
specimens, 


Peters—A new Planet and the 114th Asteriod. 303 


Arr. XXX VIIL— Discovery of a new Planet, and the Elements of 
the 114th Asteroid ; by Dr. C. H. F. Perers. (From a letter 
to one of the editors, dated Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton 
College, Clinton, Oneida Co., N. Y., September 11, 1871) 


On the night of the 8th inst. a new planet was found, which 
probably will receive the number (116) of the asteroid. group. 
The weather has — me, and I have obtained the three follow- 
ing observations 


‘ Ham. Coll. m. t. A.R. (116). Decl. (116). 
1871, Sept. 8. 15" 33™ 34°* 0" 147 65" —3° 44’ 38” 
S41. 47 31 0 13303 —3 48 48 
i.” 19 30. ao 0 1241°7 =~8 64 19 


These positions = be slightly modified by — more cor- 
tect places of the stars — parison. The planet is somewhat 
brighter than 11th magni 
114th asteroid “which has been named Cassandra), I 
sare “8a sna 7 oe elements, from observations of July 
Epoch: bed Ms ¢: oi ae Berlin m. t. 


pin igs 29 es 
O = 163 53 32°3 ‘sa Equ. 1871, 0. 
ion. 3 
2 8 51 32°14 
= 81754 
saat gal bela 


peared | 8o in its present a sition. For - 
the remoter part of its orbit, near its aphelion. 


‘Waa 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
I. Puysics. 


1. Researches in Electricity :-—Inaugural- Dissertation for the 
Attainment of the Degree of Doctor of Philoso, phy at ~~ = 
August- University, Gottingen ; ; by Tuo s. R. Baxer, of Pennsy 
Vania, U.S. A—The prominent part 0 2 goat researches was the 


the Lane discharging jar, the 
scb, and a large multiplicator 


304 Scientific Intelligence. 


electricity is determined by the efforts of a charged magnetic 
needle (a small magnet) against the horizontal intensity of the 


The jar combined with the multiplicator served for the second 

s of the jar were placed at 
fixed distances apart; and then the electrical machine, also con- 
meee with the apparatus, turned until the appearance of the 
spark. 

The examination of the relation was made by seeking the 
straight line or curve whose equation the expressions for the ele- 
ments of comparison in question regarded as coérdinates most 
nearly satisfied, | 

rom the results obtained it is concluded that the relations 
a in both parts of the investigation most nearly appro 
t 


] 
at the same time. In the latter it was shown that the needle 
when in motion lost its electrical charge considerably sooner than 


2. Water unfrozen at a temperature of ~18° C_—Bovsstncavit 
finds that by preventing the agente of water, it may be kept 
unfroz : 18°C. He experimented with a gun barrel of 
steel, into which a steel ball was dropped before filling it with wate 

ring the cold days of December 26, 27 and 30, last, the tem 

and —18°, and yet on shaking the tube - 
all was found to move freely, showing that the water was not 
frozen.—L’ Institut, July 12, 


Il GroLtogy anp Natura. History. 
1. Glaciers.—Canon Moseley has a paper entitled, “On the “ 
chanical ssibility of the descent of glaciers by their welg 
; e for August. aS 
: Aine hh — och.—Lieut.-Col. Drayson mre 
‘ altho e Syoin iety the “probable cause, da 
oo et the Glacial epoch,” starts head the fact that the pole 
_ of the ecliptic would be the center of polar motion as the pole 


ia ia 
eG eS Tote ieee | Stes Sa ees Re Tn 


Geology and Natural History. 805 


varied its distance from that center. He indicated the curve which 
the pole did trace, and this curve was such as to give for the date 
13,000 B. C., a climate very cold in winter, and very hot in sum- 

he 


Gurvrrz ist Part. L The Sea Sponges of the Lower Quader. 
2 pp. 4to. with 10 haat ae 871. (Theodor Pree — 
Th valuable memoir b init notices or describes and 


= Amorphospongia vola Michelin, Spar. a Chie se Se 

ner ge 5 0 (d’Orb.) pulvinaria Go 
Goldf’ « sp., Tr. Klieni Gein., Cupulosp ongia (Orb) inf infundibuls 
‘ sp. oemeri ein., Stellispongia Plauensis 
Gein., St. Reussi Gein., St. Goldfussiana Gein.., 754. Micheliné 
f nos 


ce .s. 
18 contained in the Canadian Naturalist, No. 4 of Vol. V. 
ear notices of 29 species, 5 of whi oh are riiwicaied is 13 
gur 


6. On the catty cones = Terebratulina septentrion atl 
Epwarp S. Mor h.D. p. 4to, with nisi plates. ry pa 
te pita packard Pal he Me Mem mar go t the Boston Sccioty 
of Natural History, Vol. II, Part 

a. Gl ee Senaichene along valleys. toe ndix to Art. XXXIL) 

~-Prof. mmons, in his N. Y. Geological Report (1842) at page 
NS ee 8 that the direction of the glacier scratches im northeastern 

ork “conforms to that of the great valleys; in the wirraeg 
ie Neng it is sortt and south; in the St. Lawrence valley, 
Southw: The particular localities where his observations were 


Made tne not mentioned. 


a distance of ten miles ; << states that the scorings 


of t Il , which here run : 
hie cern are parallel id the valle it not published in this 
White i his to nd 


of Dr. Newb 


306 Scientific Intelligence. 


8. Anthers of Parnassia,—In the Journal of the Linnean Society, 
vol. xi, Mr. A. W. Bennett published, two or three years ago, an 


able to examine of this species confirm any departure in this respect 
from the ordinary type of the genus.” ‘ 

It is easy to show that Dr. Torrey’s observation, at least, 18 
independent and original. In his Flora of Northern and Middle 
States, published in 1824, p. 326, he described the anthers of P. 

aroliniana as “incumbent ;” in his New York State Flora, 1843, 
as “fixed by the base, introrse.” The first volume of the Genera 
N. Amer. Illustrated appeared in 1848. This season I have, for the 
first time, had the good fortune to see both P. palustris and P. 


sity, the former blossoming at the beginning, the latter at the close 
of August. The difference between the two species “in this re 
Vv 


n P. palustris, the anthers are certainly extrorse as to insertion ; 
but the line of dehiscence lateral, with introrse rather than extrors 
tendency. ; 

In P Caroliniana, the anthers are quite as much introrse as 
extrorse as to insertion, and truly introrse for dehiscence. 
= ress to be posterior, and the anther to be as truly nh as 
possible. » Ge 

9. Journal of the Linnean Society (Botany), No. 65, com 


Hance, but very near Roxburgh’s A. calearata. 
the export of it is increasing ; 112,000 pounds, valued at 


ture of the oak silk-worm i oa 

Bovey Set on foot and fostered.” Mr. Hanbury contribu 
torical Note Radi. 

tee eee that its introduction into Europe was due 0 

as Might take the place of ginger, yet it is still largely consume™s 


bee We To ets 


a et oe ee fa 
Seo 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 307 


especially in Russia, where it is used for flavoring the liqueur 
called nastvika, as a cattle-medicine, and by the Tartars it is taken 
ea, 
_ Dr. Masters gives a Note on the Genus Byrsanthus Guill., and 
its floral conformation, suggesting an explanation of the singular 
arrangement of the glands and stamens, and indicating that two 
species have been ¢ ‘ 
ev. 8. Matier discourses on Tamil Popular Names of Plants. 


he same as at Troy, Salem, and Chicago. The titl 
entered are fewer, having been 78, against 143 at Troy, and 150 
each at Salem and Chicago. 
G e Indianapolis meeting, under the presi : ——— 
‘RAY of Cambridge, appears to have given much satisfaction to 
those esent, among whom were many distinguished workers 
™ science. His Excel Governor Baker welcome 


dency of Dr. 


h, to which the retiring President, 
his usual appropriate and grace- 


delivered on 
Its subject, 
e Geognosy of the Appalachians and the origin of Crystalline 


Rocks,” and its general scope, are stated on page 205. 


308 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


An interesting feature of the Indianapolis meeting was an ex- 
cursion on a grand scale to the coal fields of Indiana, The ex 


the way to the town of Brazil, where they were welcomed by the 
citizens at Masonic Hall and dined with the usual complimentary 
c 


est scientific interest in the excursion, This coal is used on 

raw state in the iron furnaces, and is said to be remarkably oo : 

from both sulphur and phosphorus. The excursion rested a | 
erre H 


xhausted every means to render the visit of the sociation 1 
delightful and profitable. Here they passed the night, bi ee | 


train to Indianapolis. or 

n excursion to Mammoth Cave in Kentucky was the wee 
act of the Association, after the adjournment of the Indianapo | | 
meeting, ~ 


audience ; and after an early dinner, the party returned by spec: 


The Association, after enjoying the public and private ho 
ties of Indianapolis and of the sections of the State include i 
the excursions, adjourned on the 21s , having voted condiinaee P 
to meet in San Francisco, California, in J uly, 1872, the final dee = 
ion having been left with the Standing Committee. a 
_ The officers chosen for th | 
J. I NCE § 


Prof, JosEpH Loy Ine, of Cambridge 
a 


ER BB. : 
Prof. E. 8. Morss, of Salem, Mass. ; Treasurer, Wirias §. 
of Philadelphia, 


e following are the subjects of the papers presented, and of 
the public lectures : 


1. IN Generar Szsston, 
1. On Pterosauria; by B. Waterhouse Hawkins, 
2. Fertilization of Flowers by Insect Agency; by Asa Gray. 
3. O1 Musi Intonation; by J. D. Tillman. 
4 The Earthquake of October, 1870; by Charles Whittlesey. 
5. On the Iron and Coal Interest of Indiana; by T. Sterry Hunt. 
6. An Examination into the Laws of Devel i f Organic Typ 


2. In Secrion A.— Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. ; 
1. The Daily Motion of a Brick Tower caused by Solar Heat; by 0. G Ro! 


P 3 bi 


__2. On the use of the Zenith Telescope for determination of Time; by J.B. Bik 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 309 


3. On the construction and verification of Metric Standards for the United 
States; by J. E. Hilgard. 
4, Organic arco of the eo: and coop Nei of Seeds; by T. CO. Hilgard 
e Influence of the Moon on the Crust of the Earth; by Clinton Roosevelt. 
6. On Chemical quirainatey by 8. D. Till 
7. On the Transmission of Heat; by 8. D. T 
ody Relation between the Distances and cree Motions of the Stars; by T. 
ff 
9. On the fe rege ero of October, 1870; by Charles Whittlesey. 
10. An inquiry co — = e Physical Relations between the Masses and Mean 
scghe of the Minor Planets; by Daniel Kirkwood 
oa . On the Distribution of he Mean odoraint of the Minor Planets; by Daniel 


12. Note on the nbc LS the Solar noe by Daniel Kirkwood. 

13. On sane probable age of tin! ’s Comet; by Daniel Kirkwoo 

14. Longitude Dete saan gs across the Cor tinent; by George W. ‘Dean. 

15. On Je Mutual ee of Electric Currents; by E. B. Elliott. 

16. tion; F. Walling. 

17. The | Chemical Equivale nt of Aither; by H. F. W 

18. The co-relation of Electricity and Ch coat Hee Walling. 

= On a form of Boomerang in use among the Mogni oe’ Indians of North 


; by C. 
BRT An pmprovement of Eggertz’s Method of determining Carbon in Steel; by 
1. The Yo ur Great Eras in Modern Astronomy; by Jacob Ennis. 
22, “spade ; by Jacob Ennis. 
23. The cause of Stellar Heat and Light ; 
24, The tnaachas and ——- omposton ott ms arent that fell on May 
21, near Searsmont, "Main ; by J. Lawrence Sm: 

A deseription of the e exact locality ‘of the 1 alo masses of Meteoric Iron 
in Cohahuil , Mexico, with the eR HT of one recently discovered; by J. Law- 
Tence Sm oe 

26. A co 


nvenient rtain method of ae a constant level of Water in 
hatte oF etn tory; by J. La ith. 
het aos on the Onuiaber and other ‘Minerals from California; by J. Law- 
ce Smith. 
“+ A new and ready method of making Platinum black ; by J. Lawrence Smith. 
bys : ih ready mee of separating the Alkalies, on a large eek from Lepidolite 
site rence 
ew nate pa enient apps Gravity Flask; by J. Lawrence Smith. 
31 On — Evha harmonic Scale of 31 tones in the octa ave, and a new practical key- 
ponding the accepted musical notation ; by P. H. Van der babii 
32, On ¢ Oblique Microscopic Examination, and a new, simple apparatus fo 
a by P. H. Van der Weyde 
e ~ 


; the 
lines or bands in the same: we H. ve der We de. 
y P. an y' 
On a new and more ‘perfect fire test of illuminating Petroleum, without the 


P, yde. 

36. An application of an ex fibers function; by J. E. Hilgard. : 

37, To find a general Proton Ag for the length o: of “Gurves of Pursuit ;” by Joseph 

38. Steam boiler Water and Incrustation ; by Jos. G. Rogers. 

3. Ly Section B.— Geology and Natural History. 

1. The Mon, on the Universal Type of Seeds; by Thomas Meehan. 

eee Classification of Echinoderms from their Microscopic Structure ; by Alex- 
. . 

3. Mechanism of Flexion and Extension in Birds’ Wings; by Elliot Coues. 


310 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


. On the Morphology of the Osseous System; by T. C. Hilgard. 

. On the Geological ag cwaibe of the —— Gulf; by E. Pe: Hilgard. 
6: Seas ates on the Common Groun orm ; by James J. H. 

7. Obse ms tes bs Geology Physical te and Rotman of Niagara 

trae: iby George W 
e Qu estions Surface a Gooleey by Frank H. er 
. oe the Entozooa peculiar to Swine; by William B. Flet 
a On the Development of ‘the Tarsal and Carpal Bones in Binds: by Edward 8. 


Mor: 
i ie the Characteristics of the Primary Groups of the Class of Mammals; by 
Theodore Gill. 
12. On the Natural System of Fishes; by Edward D. Cope. ; 
The Embryology of at and its poate on the classification of the 
8. 


A. 5S. Packar 
n the EKozoon Gaindeaioe i in the Crystalline Limestones of Massachusetts; 
by L 8. 'B urban 


15. On the relati of Anomia; by Edward S. Mor 
16. Ooatetbetioes es Phy siographe and Dynamical pf a by Ri < 
yparently one-ranked phyllotaxis of Baptisia perfoliata, and on 


1% 0 
phyllotaxis of Cucurbitacea; by Henry W. Ravenel. 

18. On the Geology of Northwestern Massachusetts; " —— Tenney. 

19. Western Coal Measures 2 Indiana Coals; by KE. T 

20. peowks on the Geology of the Mississippi Bottom ag % ra: mith. 

21. Account of a Dust Storm which occurred in Clinton county, y, Indiana, Dee 

24, 1870; by J sal Tingley. 

22. Remarks pon the Catiskil Red a Group as it occurs upon the bor 
ders of sed Tonk aud Pennsylvania; by James Hall. 
et Views of Nature: of the Organizing Principle, and of Life and Intellect; bY 

Sea: niet 


24, Vitalisin, Spiritualism, and Materialism; by E. C. Seam e 
25. The Eozcon Limestone of Eastern Si cccainaelias a Perry. ahi y 
. 26. Remarks on the Geological Map and Section of Missouri pee by 4 
wallow. 


8. Remark on the Abies Douglassii, and a new species, or a pe culiar variety of 
the Abies bilsamifera, of the Rocky Mountains; by G. U. Sw low. 
tks on the Snow Line “ the Mountains of na by 6.0 0.8 


In Sussection E.— Archeology and Ethnology. 
A Theory on the Nature of the ieicews in the Mental Capacity of High - 
ioe Races of Men; by Renas Davi Hilgard. 
2. Note on the Distibution of Popilation in the United States; by J. E. 
“3. io; arles Whittlesey. 


+ On the Extinct Tortoises of the New Jersey Cretareons; by Edward D. in 
| 
2 
E 


4. An Ancient Mount to the Poa River, Geo by Charles Whittlesey: 

On the rates gins — realized to investors rage Securities of the United 
States; by E. B. 

Law 


:—W hat is —s “ind what are its Functions and Limits; by E. C. — 
In Sussecrion C.— Microscopy. 

= 

cael on Photographing Histological Preparations by Sunlight; by J 
+. Riaakc on a new form of Achromatic Condenser, applicable to low and ae 

dium powers; by E. Bicknell. 

8: On a new form of Micro-Telescope; by R. H. Ward Ward. 
on recent improvements in Achroma ie Condousers ea sy dr Wa 


leat 
. 


I Wi 8 Ae i 
‘ lumi: le A 
Ste OTE a he Wop  me*ew Se 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. dll 


On some observed changes in Vorticella; by A. H. Tuttle. 

Remarks on a Standard of Powers for Microscopical Objectives and Eye 
Pieces; by R. H. Ward. 

10. On the Microscopic Structure of Eozoon Canadense; by E. Bicknell. 


$2 99 


3. On the relation of the Auroras to Gravitating Currents ; by 
Pury Earze Cuase, Professor of Physics in Haverford College. 
___ (Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 5th, 1871.) 
—Prof. Loomis’s observations of the number of auroras in each 
: month of 1869 and 1870 (Amer. Jour. of Science, III, S., i. 309), are 
; specially noteworthy, both because of the careful accuracy of the 

rver, and because they are the first published observations 
which furnish satisfactory data for an approximate determination 

f : 


festations of terrestrial magnetism, it seems reasonable to look to 
hem for some additional evidence upon the question of the rela- 
i it e 


between hyetal and magnetic curves (see Proc. A. P.S., x, 368), 


eS 
=a 
nm 
Se 
* 
— 
° 
ye | 
S 
7) 
ede 
5 
co 
a 
foe] 
ee 
i] 
a 
= 
=) 
et 
fe) 
4 
ta 
ot 
a 
5 
o 
SS 
ic) 
is3) 
3 
or 
m 


ma in the morni g e ed gitud : 
tween Philadelphia and New Haven being less than 23°, It 1s no 
likely that there is any material difference in the daily ram-curves 
at the two places. : G 
order to make the curves fairly comparable, both in regar 
to the times and the magnitudes of deviation, I treated the auroral 


SE cat 


312 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


“retiree in the same manner as those of rainfall (Proc. A. P. | 
8., x, 526). Both in the toncupre and in the hyetal B prec | 


panying curv e given in the ich aler table. I presume ee 
one will doubt’ that the Satta sation of vapor, which 1s ern 


\ 
The auroral so caetls iat ae the normal ordinates, of the accom’ 
Comparative Table of Auroras and Rainfalls. 
. ql 
rf 
| 


ee ee ee ee 
z a ee ee ee oe... 
amoney SES 32 4 4 oH tg ee ---38 re 7 
Nebrusy...31 95° 3 93! sngust .....34 ae 15 
ee we ow 
Apit..-44 109 $ UE ostoter....38 NBs 
Mie TS rie | November...27 ge 21 
a 


Miscellaneous Bibliography. 313 


TV. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


o 
the great battles which have occurred in Europe during the past 
century, making a total of 137 cases. The author thinks that if 
these facts are insufficient to convince, it would be vain to expect 
to,do so with a greater number of cases. 

o this argument it may be replied that throughout the region 
co 


ap influence in the production of rain. : 
. the simplest mode of making the comparison may 
_ ing: Determine for alZ the battles occurring within 


be the follow- 
a particular 


“oad ne preceding a battle and the ok regio 
xt following it: rmine for the same 
owing it; and then dete hen no battle has 


tw 
e former interval should be found sensibly less 


sete some influence in accelerating the fall of ram. 
facts collected by Mr. Powers are not digested in any such manner ; 


314 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


that Mr. Powers has established his proposition in a satisfactory 
manner. 

With regard to the mode in which a heavy discharge of artillery 
might cause rain, we differ widely in opinion from the author of 


pleased if Mr. Powers, or some ot ther r person, would resume the 
TT on of this subject in accordance with a truly us 


2. ‘aeoduns ‘tory Text-Book of Meteorology; by ALEXAN bei 
Buonan, M.A., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological 
Society. 218 pp. 12mo, with 6 isa Edinburgh and London, 
1870. (Wm. Blackw ood & S ons).—Mr, Buchan takes the lead 
among the meteor logiats and meteorological investigators of 
Scotland. This small ‘and convenient text- book takes up in order 
the history and scope of Meteorology ; Atmospheric pressure an 
its distribution over the globe—a subject which has been much 


and hail; winds; storms ; peta cist 
eiitiwinde, aed waterspouts ; aurora borealis and a mag- 
ns ozone ; optical phenomena; meteors; weat and storm 


3. Dominican Republic. Report of the sea 1 of In 
fra to Santo Domingo, with the toe om ory Message Me the 


4. Sun-Pietures of Rocky Mountain Scenery, with a desc 
tion of the Geographical — Geological features and some account 
of the Resources of the t West; containing thirty phoe 


great 
graphic views along the line of the "Paxitie Railroad, from Omahe 
to ento. By F V. Haypen, M.D., U.S . Geologist, 


THE 


AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, 


[THIRD SERIES.] 


Art. XXXIX.—On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision; by 
JosepH LEConTE, Prof. Geol. and Nat. Hist., University of 
California.* 


VL. So-called “images of illusion ;? and the theory of binoewar 
relicf, ; 


In a very elaborate paper on binocular vision published in 
the Archives des Sciences+ for Feb., 1871, which is itself but a 
succinct resumé of a much more extended memoir soon to be 


the former theory by showing, first, a priori, the consequences 
u of this theory; second, 

- that the visual results of certain experiments are precisely what 
_ % priory reasoning leads us to expect; and third, that this theory, 
in the form in which he maintains it, explains all the more ob- 


P. 33, and vol. ii, nae 

‘f Arch. des Scien., nouv. per tome xl, p. 105. 

_ AM. Joun. Sot—Tamrp Serres, VoL. II, No. 11.—Nov., 1871. 
: 21 


316 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


a true image produced by the luminous impr 
of one eye, the other an “ image of illusion 


‘spectral Image—reflected fr 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 317 


. 


po image or 
object. . It is true this may be regarded as really a single image 


and Superpose them, and if they be similar, unite them so as to 
ap as one object, it is better, because it more easily explains 


318 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


Of course, by this shifting of the two fields all objects are simi- 
larly doubled. 


middle visual line. : : 
8. In turning the eyes in any direction without altering their 


Y a cular space ; this dal 
untary and habitual, and would of itself double all objects id 
tonymously ; 2d, in ocular convergence, a rotation of each fie 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 319 


ly ; (b) that all objects (different objects) lying in the 
visual lines, whether on this side or beyond the point of sight, 
have two of their images (one of each) superposed ; so that the 
two visual lines under all circumstances are combined to form a 
binocular visual line passing from the combined eyes, through 
the point of sight, and onward to infinite distance. 
uet us now, in the light of these facts, examine M. Pictet’s 
experiments. I will pass over for the present what he seems to 
his crucial experiments, and take up first the general 
phenomena of double images, as a proper understanding of the 
nature of these will make all that follows clear. 


sees 
the wall behind it by means of an illusive image propagated 
from the right eye. Now owr explanation is entirely different ; 
and we cannot but think that the —— double images 


Mage nothing from the left eye, and therefore the parts covered 
by these images must be seen, by the corresponding eye, by 


ltt 


320 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


seen by each eye, either by true or by illusive images; we say, 
every part of the wall is seen, not by each eye, but by the &- 
nocular observer ; not some parts by true and some by illusive 
images, but only by true images. ~ ; 

If instead of a finger we use a screen several inches wide 
(wider than the interocular space), then the double images wil 
not entirely separate. They will slide over each other hete- 
ronymously through a space equal to the interocular space (2). 
The overlapping area will be opaque because it covers a portion 
of the wall concealed from both eyes; the rest will be transpar- 

ent. ‘The visual result is repre- 
$ s’ , sented by fig. 1, in which SS 1s 
the right-eye image of the screen, 
S’S’ the left-eye image, and 8’S 
the overlapping area. These 
facts are more completely repre- 
sented by my method in figs. 2 
and 3, of which fig. 2 represents 
the actual relation of parts, and fig. 3 the visual result. In fig. 
, Hand L are the right and left eye respectively, n the nose, 
‘ 


ae) 


S Ss! 


m the median line, »v the visual lines, SS the screen. Fig. 3 
will readily explain itself if the reader will call to mind that in 

| : figures representing visual results capitals represent 
combined images, small italics right-eye images, and dashed 
italies left-eye images, If the optic axes be gradually 
converged, as already explained (3), these heteronymous imag® 
will slide over each other homonymously, making the opaque 
area larger and larger, and the transparent margins smaller and 


=} 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 321 


smaller, until when the point of sight is at the screen, fig. 4, 
then the images will completely unite, and the screen become en- 
lirely opaque. This is shown in the visual result, fig. 5. 


wr: 
= 
e 


| 
? 


| eee 


= 


If next we use fwo fingers, one of each hand, and gaze again at 
the wall, we will see four images all transparent. Now approx1- 
mate or separate the two fingers until the two middle images 
unite; we will have three images, the middle one opaque, the 
other two transparent. The reason is obvious. he middle 
one is opaque because a portion of the wall is concealed by it 
from both eyes. This portion of the wall is concealed from the 


he principles (1, 2, 3) laid down in the early part of this 
paper, together with the explanation of transparent double 
images just given, furnish, we believe, the key to all M. Pictet's 
experiments. We will make the application only to those 
which he thinks most conclusive of the existence of illusive 
images. We will first give his experiments and his conclusions 
as fairly as we can, and then will proceed to give our Own expla- 
nation. The following experiments M. Pictet thinks eee : 

ace an opaque screen S (fig. 6) agaist the nose n 1n a 
median plane of sight, in such wise that the object A may be 


822 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


seen by both eyes. Now place a second screen C across the 
visual line A R of the right eye, so as to intercept rays from 
6. the object A to the right eye. Neverthe- 
’ less, the object A will be seen apparently 
through the opaque screen C, which will 
therefore appear transparent, and may even 
be drawn in outline with accuracy on the 
screen at b exactly where the visual line of the 
right eye pierces the screen—exactly where, if 
the screen were transparent ground glass, we 
would see it with the right eye, and might 
trace its outline. M. Pictet thinks this ab- 
solutely explicable, except on the assump- 
tion that an illusive image is actually seen 
at A by the right eye; and that it is this 
that we draw in outline on the screen at 4, 
the screen being transparent because the il- 
lusive image is seen beyond. 
But M. Pictet gives another experiment 
which he thinks still more conclusive. 
a sheet of paper lying on the table place 4 
piece of money; then place a screen upright on the right side 


2 oO 

piece of money, we see that the 
vertical screen appears transparent 
throughout, and that 77 perms the 
right eye to distinguish the prece, as 
if through a very diaphanous sur 
face.” “Tf now we give to 

optic axes a direction more paral- 
lel, we see the image of illusion ol 
he right eye move gradually 
ward the right, traverse the line of 
intersection of the screen and thé 
table, and come to project itself OB 
the other side upon the pape! 
where we may trace its outline 
correctly.” To brent these facts more clearly I give the 

n 


directing the regard upon “ 


a 


et 


? = 
look at the piece of money. 
through the screen, Rd the visual line ol 


3 ye 
A and seem to see it 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 323 


the right eye when the optic axes become parallel, and 4, exactly 
where the visual line of the right eye pierces the paper, the place 
where the outline of the piece may be traced. The image 
moves to the right or left according to the position of the optic 
axes, being always where the visual line pierces the paper 
But “the most eee eous position of the optic axes,” says 
_M. Pictet, “is parallelism, for it is that which removes the farthest 

the image of illusion from the real image.” I wonder that M. 
Pictet did not reflect that, being on corresponding points, by 
his own principle the image of illusion, if any, cannot be separated 

from the real image ; and that there is in fact but one image seen. 

__ But furthermore, if a convex lens be placed across the visual 
line of the right eye Rd, the image at 6 will not be affected, but 
the tracing we make of the image will be found as much smaller 
than the money as the lens magnifies ; showing that the nap 
is not magnified but the drawing is magnified, and therefore, M. 
Pictet thinks, that the image of the money is ilusive or subjective, 
while the image of the paper and of the tracing is real. If, how- 
ever, the lens be placed before the left eye, the mage 1s magnt- 
fied because, thinks M. Pictet, this image is the dlusive raght- 
eye fac-simile of the magnified real image of the left eye. 

One more step of M. Pictet’s proof. By keeping both eyes 
Open, objects in the microscopic field may actually be drawn 
with accuracy on a sheet of paper placed on one side of the 
microscopic tube. Or, still better, if a stereoscopic card, having 
a picture on one half and the other half blank, be placed in the 

Teoscope, we may trace the picture on the bl half <Ac- 
cording to M. Pictet’s view, the light impresses one eye, and 
this impression is propagated as an illusive image to the other 
eye, and thrown on the paper just where the visual line pierces it 


[To be concluded] 
Q1a 


324 J. D. Dana on the position and height of the 


ho 


Art. XL.—On the position and height of the elevated Plateau in 
which the Glacier of New England, in the Glacial era, had us 
origin ; by JAMES D. DANA. 


E, 
-_ 
a 
ad 
g. 
5 
cent 
ce 
S 
% 
= 
h 
or 
= 
_@ 
ito 
P= 
a 
£. 
‘S) 
5 
$s 
m 
S 
et 
= 
oO 
© 
& 
a. 
° 
ot 
® 


vey, that the glacial scratches on Camel’s Hump, Mt. Mans 
field and Jay’s Peak, three of the high summits of the Green 
Mountains in the northern two-thirds of Vermont, have 4 
course of about S. 50° E.* In the White Mountains, 70 miles 
to the south of east (S. 75° E.), the direction of the scratches 


. 


is, as | am informed by Prof. 


the north side of Mt. Clinton, 4430 feet high, (one of the White 
Mountain series of summits about 17 miles west of Mt. Wash- 


ese 
could not have been made with the land of North America : 
its present level. Elevated land must have existed to the er 2 
if they were the work of glaciers. Moreover, these scrate 

* According to the Vermont Geological Report the direction of the scratches © 
Camel’s Hump is 8. 50° E. (S. 40° E., compass), on Jay’s Peak, S. 56° E., SS 
Mt. Mansfield, situated between the two, 8. 30° E., 55° E., S. 58° E., at diffe 


poin' ; 
_ + Prof. Hitchcock observed also the course S. 24° E. near the Lake of the ome 
but it was not common; also, in the saddle between Mt. Pleasant and Mt. Frap 


Mountain 
and that there were variations from this course due to the lay of the land. 


—_ nae eee pe a enh eS ae eee SEAL eee ep ae 
: ese pre ee ey SSE RR ere) es, id 


Icy Plateau, the source of the New England Glacier, 325 


on the higher summits of New England, must point approx- 
imately toward the region of elevated land, or the great Icy 
Plateau, as we may call it, on whose slopes the movement of 
the glacier originated. 

This seat of power in the era of ice was not the Adiron- 


N 

America, and even a map of the World) much too far to the 
south. The scratches point over Lake Champlain and the low 
hills and plains beyond, and across the St. Lawrence. On the 
other side of this river lies the large valley of the Ottawa, and it 
is almost exactly in their direction ; and the prevailing trend of 
the scratches through its lower half is about 8.45° E. Accord- 
ing to the table in Logan’s Report for 1863 (p. 890), this is the 
course at Ottawa City, Hull, Rideau River at Stegman’s Rapids, 
and Horton near Renfrew village south of the Ottawa. At 
Allumettes Lake, the course S. 25° E. was found; but this 
locality is higher up the stream, and the course may well have 
to some local influence. There can be no doubt 
that, if the Glacial era was a glacier era, the Ottawa valley ice 
Was a part of the same great ice-stream with that which crossed 

the Green Mountains, but a portion nearer the source. 
The Ottawa valley, including that of Montreal River (which 
has the course of the Ottawa and is its western head-tributary), 
extends toa point nearly 500 miles in an air-line from Mt. 
Mansfield, and 570 from the White Mountains, with an average 
trend of S. 65° E. But the source of Montreal River was not 


scratches in the Ottawa, instead of a si with the 
: e 


Bay . The scratches of the White Mountains and Green Moun- 
tains and those of the lower part of the Ottawa valley point 
alike toward this area. : 
.. It follows that the Icy Plateau, whence the great glacier took 
its departure, must have existed either about this part of the 
Canadian watershed, or in the same direction farther to the north- 


accord- 


: Wg to 2. a from &. 78° E. to S. 7° W., the least easting 
being foun 


on the west sid 


326 J. D. Dana on the position and height of the 


at Hast Nee S. 58° E., S. 78° E.; on the east shore S. 38° E., 
S. 18° at West Bay, S. 15° E. - on the west shore, 8. 35° E., 
Ss. ia ns 4° he BoP By 7° 

The courses of the scratches on the heights of northern Maine 
(S. 59° E. on Mt. Abraham, C. H. Hitchcock) also favors this 
conclusion. Again, in the part of Canada, north of northeastern 

aine, on the Madawaska River, about Temiscouata Lake, 
Logan found scratches trending S. 54° E., S. 52° E., S. 55° E,, 
S. 66° E., S. 48° E., S. 60° E., (with one of S 27° Hi): and these 
courses, if the form of the surface has not increased the easting, 
would point to the same watershed and the part lying between 
Temiscamang and Mistissinny Lakes, but nearer the latter, and 
these lines continued would strike into Hudson’s Bay, and this 
is additional proof that the high land was along the watershed. 

Again, the courses of the scratches in western New York 
and on Lake Huron and Lake Nipissing (northeast of Lake 
Huron and south of tae Temiscamang), have considerable 
westing. On the north shore of Lake Huron the course is 


penne suit vine all the observations here cited, és may C0 
clude with much confidence that the region of great cat oles 


husetts ; about S. 30° E. in sel en ate 
aia about 8. 25° E. in Connecticut and in eastern New Y 
adjoining. These directions correspond well with = position 
assigned to the Icy Plateau. But as the Adirondac s lie be 


mits of the Green- Mountains are, according to Guyot, t, betwe 

and 4430 feet in elevation, the latter being the hei | 
Mt. Mansfield. Killington Peak, 60 miles south of Mt The 
_ field and east of Rutland, is 4221 feet high (Guyot) 7", 
average height of the range, according to the same authorey : 


Icy Plateau, the source of the New England Glacier. 327 


summits and also scored surfaces on the White Mountains that are 
full 5200 feet above the sea, the propelling slope, or those of the 
Icy Plateau, must have certainly been higher than 5200 feet. 
e cannot assume that the rate of descent from the top of the 
Icy Plateau to the 5200 foot level on the White Mountains, a 
distance of about 400 miles, was as great as seventeen feet a mile ; 
ut we may reasonably infer it to have been at least three feet. 
This rate for 400 miles would make the height of the Plateau 
to average 6400 feet. The watershed is now about 1500 feet 
above the sea; accordingly, the average height of this region 
should have been at least 4900 feet greater than now. 
grade of two feet a mile would diminish this estimate 
wh making the required average height of the Icy Plateau 
fee 


was stegy 4 higher—at least 4500 feet on an average—than at 
t 


tl 
tion. All that the case demands is simply a bending upward of 
the surface over a wide area through a general continental 
ing its greatest results to the north ; 

imilar oscillations 


tain chains went forward on a stupendous scale over Euro ; 
Asia, and both ecu Guough ahe whole era of the Ter. 
tary; and this later upward movement in 
_ of the continent followed on as the close of the long series, 


328 J. D. Dana on the position and height of the 


the preceding elevations, as well as the last, being in preparation 
for the Glacial era. 


been greater in vertical change of level, and also vastly wider 
in its limits from north to south; and moreover such an event 
would have been out of joint with the times, tending to amelio- 
tate instead of giving arctic vigor to the climate. And further, 
as I pointed out many years since, (this Journal, II, vii, 379, 
1849,) there is independent proof of a high-latitude elevation 
of the continent during the Glacial era, in the fact that the drift 
fiords occupying valleys 

hay if 


those of Maine,—mostly 100 to 150 feet--we thus learn that 
the land along this coast was at least 150 feet higher than now, 
and probably 200 feet. Other facts lead us to believe, as stated 
by the writer in his paper on the Geology of the New Haven 
region, (Mem. Acad. Conn. i, p. 45,) that southern 

land was 100 to 150 feet above its present level. 


Bay would have been greatly 
River lengthened seaward ove 


which would make it 6,500 to 7,000 f 
was situated to the north 


If the Icy Plateau, instead of being along the watershed, 


Shee eG CRE nae ae 


Icy Plateau, the source of the New England Glacier. 329 


central or northern North America, the height must have been 


moving ice again touched bottom and resumed its work of abra- 
sion. This is precisely parallel to what happened to the gla- 


tion of other, perhaps higher, plateaus over the more northern 
and poet Wester poraues of the continent, and all a sequel to 
Majestic uplifts of the Tertiary, would have made a Glacial 


tic, or whatever the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, though 
readily of course if other circumstances favored. Having 


ada being then on the seaward slope of the high ; 
of, as sow: on the landward slope, could not have had —— 
paratively dry climate with only an annual fall of 30 inches 0 
moisture. 


330 BF. Craig on the Temperature of the Human Body. 


Ss, 
» The movement of the GLACIAL era carried the northern 
lands upward, at least 5,000 feet above their present level in 
northern Canada, and probably as much or more over the 
higher latitudes to the west and north. 
en followed aslowly progressing subsidence—the great char- 
acteristic of the CHAMPLAIN era—which ultimately sank 
same lands even to a greater extent than they had been raised, 
placing the valley of the St. Lawrence, about Montreal, over 500 
feet below its present level, and probably 1,000 feet at least below 
its level in the Glacial era. ith the commencement of this 
movement, or as it progressed, began the melting of the glacier; 
but the era continued, as proved by elevated beaches full of 
D: 


vast depositions of drift, rivers, like Niagara, sometimes had 


while other water-courses of the Glacial era were wholly cut off, 
as that from the Champlain Lake down the Hudson valley : 
fterward the return movement, that of the TERRACE em 

followed, placing the land finally at its present level, leadin 
thus to a deepening of river channels, and thereby to the mak- 
ing of the river and lake terraces that cover the continent. 

The fact of these grander movements which mark the three 
eras does not preclude the possibility of minor local oscillations 
of level during their progress. 


— 


Art. XLI— Variations in the Tem Hh vA vs 
n perature of the Huma Body 
ie ‘ Craig, M.D. (Read before the Phil Soc. of Wash 
n 


oa 


B. F. Craig on the Temperature of the Human Body. 331 


any kind, is felt by the sick man. Even in the more serious 


n the course of my experiments the highest temperature 
that I found was that of 99°°7 Fah. At this temperature I felt 


n. 

During the hottest weather, I was able, by the prolonged use 
of the shower bath, to reduce my temperature to 97 7. If, 
while at or about this temperature, I went into the street in the 
middle of a very hot day, the greatness of the heat was plainly 


It would thus ap fae the discomfort we feel in hot 
Weather is not from the impression of heat on the surface, but 


or rather, it is only when the heat of the whole body has risen 
ah. that a check of the surface cooling begins to be 


Very great elevations of temperature have been observed in 
“i hat in all such cases the heat 
of the body rises above 100° Fah. before alarming symptoms 
manifest themselves, I think highly probable. Accurate ther- 
mometric examinations of mild cases of sun stroke an of per- 
AM. Jour. Scr —Tarap Seniss, Vor. II, No. 11.—Nov., 1871. 


332 C. A. Young—Bright lines of the Chromosphere. 


sons supposed to be on the verge of apoplexy from excessive 
heat, may be pointed out as scientific desiderata. 
In the Philos. Trans. for 1792 are to be found some curious 
experiments by Dr. James Currie, on the cooling of the human 
hatha. He carried the reduction of temperature 
as low as 88° Fah., and this seemed, from the symptoms pro- 
duced, to be as far as the heat of the body could be reduced 
with safety. It is to be hoped that some one may supplement 
these researches by experiments in the direction of the elevation 
of the animal temperature.. . 


Art. XLIT.—Preliminary Catalogue of the bright lines in the Spee- 
trum of the Ch here; by C. A. Youne, Ph.D., Professor 
of Astronomy in Dartmouth College. 


within the past four weeks. It includes, however, only those 
which have been seen twice at least ; a number observed on 


prisms. The instrument distinctly divides the abies iron et 

at 1961 of Kirchhoff’s scale, and separates B (not ) ee 

three components. Of course it easily shows everything ¢ 
of 


appears on the m maps irchhoff and Angst 
he adjustment for “the position of minimum deviation : 
automatic; i, rent portions of th frum 


€ telescope to which the spectroscope is attached is ot 

new +quatoreal recently mounted in the observatory of . 

College by Alvan Clark & Sons. — 

It 18 a very perfect specimen of the admirable optical x 
ee rated and h 


In the table the first column contains simply the reference num 
: ber. An asterisk denotes that the line affected by it has no 
marked corresponding dark line in the ordinary solar spe 


C. A. Young— Bright lines of the Chromosphere. * 383 
Preliminary Catalogue of Chromospherice Lines, 
. & F S £ me. eo : | 4 4 
d}i | = | eel lgeig] 2 1] € | ela) # le 
Lowi § & Ls ae? 88 iss “| 2 & LeiLe| Fe 3 
dla | 2 Wigs dg (c2l2| & | 2 GERE| 2s lz 
 *1 | 5345 (7060-7? | 60) 3 
2 | 6545 lee77-?7| 8 4 ‘ | : re 
2 C |6561'8 100100! H. [L. J. 2} 3 R. 
4 | 719°0 |6495-7 | 2) 2] Ba. 2; 2 R. 
‘ 2| 3 8| 5) Ba L. 
5 9 f 3 Fe. R. L. 
9| 3 | 
J Ti. Bi 3 L 
1) 3) Fe. 6} 4, Ba. L. 
G8) Ba) i 7S L. 
10] 10} Na | L. 100/75) HA. WL 
10} 10} Na | L. Ti. 
100| 7 Le Ji 
6, 8} Ba IRL. Li. 
1) Fe. 
§ Fe. Ti. 
Fe. Ti. Ti. 
1} Fe Ba. 
: Ti. 
4| Ba. L. Ti. Ca.? 
Ti.? Fe. 
Ti. 
: Fe, Ti. : Ba. 
Fe. Ti. 
Fe wR. Ti. 
‘ R.? : Mn.? 
« Ti ] Mn.? 
: | ioe! 
Fe. i 8i4 at 
iss 
Tt. 
75] 15) Fe? | L. Fe, Mn. 
5} 4 Fe. 
"| L.R. : bn 
3)Fe, Ca. Ca.? 
Fe. Fe. 
3} 2IFe, Co.) L. 
Fe. Cr.? 
Fe. Cr. 
‘ Mn. | R. 100) 5 H. ies 
"i Fe. } Fe.Ti.Ca. 
Fe. Th 
Ti. — 
3/Cr, Fe? : 
3| Cr. Cr. 
Cr,Fe.? Fe. 
jay Fe. 
Pag 3S | 
LR. Lens 
15} 15) Mg. | L |/1 100) 2 H IRL 
15} 15) Mg. | L. |} 
: I Ni. e 
10) Mg. 
1! I' Na, 


ta’ ALT oung—Bright lines of the Chromosphere. 


The second column gives the position of the line upon the 
scale of Kirchhoff’s map—determined by direct comparison 
with the map at the time of observation., In some cases an in- 
terrogation mark is appended, which signifies not that the exst- 
ence of the line is doubtful, but only that its precise place could 
not be determined, either because it fell in a shading of fine 
lines, or because it could not be decided in the case of some 
close double lines which of the two components was the bright 
one; or finally because there were no well marked dark lines 
near enough to furnish the basis of reference for a perfectly 
accurate determination. 

The third column gives the position of the line upon Ang: 
strom’s normal atlas of the solar spectrum. In this column 
occasional interrogation mark denotes that there is some doubt 
as to t fA 
Kirchhoff’s.. There is considerabie difference between the two 


sometimes diffigult, and makes the atlas of Kirchhoff far supe 
rior to the other for use in the observatory. anak 

he numbers in the fourth column are intended to deno | 
the percentage of frequency with which the corresponding 
lines are visible in my instrument.. They are to be regarded . 
only roughly approximative; it would of course require a ‘vind 
longer period of observation to furnish results of this 
worthy of much confidence. 


The sixth column contains the symbols of the chemical yen 
stances to which, according to the maps above referred t0, 
rin. 


than one substance coincide with each other and with a decide 
the solar spectrum so closely as to make it impossible to 


In the seventh and last column the letters J., L. and R. i. 
note that to pe Pogues é the line indicated has 


by one or the other of these keen and active observ™ 
but if so I have as yet seen no account of such determim 


} 
| 
| 


J. L. Smith— Position of Meteorites in North Mexico. 335 


I would call especial attention to the lines numbered 
land 82 in the catalogue: they are very persistently present, 
though faint, and can be distinctly seen in the spectroscope to 
belong to the chromosphere as such, not being due, like most of 
the other lines, to the exceptional elevation of matter to heights 
where it does not properly belong. It would seem very proba- 
ble that both these lines are due to the same substance which 
causes the D? line. 

I do not know that the presence of Zitanium vapor in the 
prominences and chromosphere has before been ascertained. It 
comes out very clearly from the catalogue, as no less than 20 of 
the whole 103 lines are due to this meta 

Hanover, N. H., Sept. 13, 1871. 


‘ iy 


Arr. XLIIL.—The precise Geographical position of the large 
masses of meteoric tron in North Mexico, with the description of 
a new mass—The San-Gregorio Meteorite ; by J. LAWRENCE 
SmarH, Louisville, Ky. 


Some of the remarkable masses of meteoric iron in Northern 
Mexico have been known to travelers for a number of years; 
ut no very precise information concerning them had been 
given until the yyear 1854, when the first mass, brought from 
that locality, was placed at my disposal by Lieut. Gouch of the 
U.S. Army, and was described in a memoir on meteorites 
published in the American Journal of Science, April, 1854; 1t 
18 now in the Smithsonian Museum, and weighs 252 lbs. __ 

n the return of Mr. Bartlett, of the Boundary Commission, 
Tlearned of two other masses in that region, and Lieut. John G. 
Parke, of the U. S. Army, placed a fragment of one of them 
in . 


is 
7 
_ Dow in the Smithsonian Institute, and weighs, I believe, several 


Still later in the year 1868, Dr. H. b. bt 
Under my examination eight masses of meteoric iron that had 
i brought to the United States f 


to Mexico, I requested him to get all possible information in 
Tegard to Die guogiaphiall position of these bodies; this he 


336 J. L. Smith—Position of Meteorites in North Mecico. 


has succeeded in accomplishing. At the same time he has a 
fragment of another mass, still larger than any yet known, 
which will be called the San-Gregorio Meteoric Tron. Its des- 
cription is as follows: ‘ 

The San- Gregorio Meteorite—This immense mass of meteoric | 
iron is situated on the western border of the Mexican Desert,a 
map of which is given on the next page. Some idea of its 
form may be had in the accompanying sketch. 


6 ft. 6 in. It measures 6 
ee =: feet 6 inches im 


Y 
} 
\ a(t 
., 
‘J 
N 
\\ 
i 
fe") 
R 
ro 
at 
ig) 
‘ Or 
. ei : ah 
& 
Sp eS ERA Pe ne Oe ane ee aa ale Mey a 


AN 
| 


zz = — 


Se con un p Jue 
jierro destrueré, por que en el mondo no habra quien lo puedo 
deschacer,” 

It lies within the enclosure of a hacienda, having beet 
hauled to the ranch many years ago by the Spaniards, 
be mad ‘ 


be about five tons, it could not have been transported very !% 


find it to be of the softer meteoric irons, with a specific g 
of 7°84. e fragment I possess is too small for the study ® 
the true character of its Widmannstitian figures. , 

On analysis, it furnished the following composition : 


BOG a ee 95°01 
PR i "22 
| SO eae “51 
OU ip cca minute trace 
weotpheryg 66 0°08 
This San-Greg 


ty observatio 
to the accompany; 


J. L. Smith—Position of Meteorites in North Mexico.. 337 


. 
Gy, / 


ANT, 
Qty ie 


3 
“ee ee Ss 
3 : ¥ 2 
Sta. Bs { = 
= Rosalia ® ; 2*5 Sta. Rosa. 
a . 
a Zz a . ; @ ss 
< @2°3 . 3 
& ElParaz ' = 
2, i 2 
3 ; = 
; % 1 3 
4,4 : = 
Conception. ~, i P ° 
ae ald DS 
' 


__ No. 4. The locality of the mas 
memoir on meteorites (this Journa 


et ie three inches in ——— 
its weight to be about four thousand pound 
ed a ge meteorite lately discovered, of 
Walch no specimen has n sogrenaer and is said to be 
than any one yet found in that locality. 
6. The locality of the large mass described and figured 
; tron, and now in the Smithsonian 


*y me in 1854 as the ! j 
Astitution at Washington, having a large hole in the center, an 


338 S. BP. Sadtler on Iridium Compounds. 


sometimes called the Signet Meteorite, also the Ainsa Meteorite. 1 
do not know its exact weight, but suppose that it must weigh 
nds. 


two or three thousand pou 


from 2 to 5 about 185 miles, from 5 to 8 about 165 miles, from 

3 to 4 about 90 miles. Of course these is n } 

upon these deductions, but it would not be surprising if further | 

investigation should sustain this view. / 
Since my first publication on these meteorites, Burckhardt, . : 

of Bonn, has made some observations upon them, but his publ | 

cations are not within my reach at the present time. 


——— 


Art. XLIV.— On the Iridium compounds analagous to the Fils 
and | loride of Platinum Salts ;* by Prof. SAMUEL +: 
Sapruer, Ph.D., Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa 


and those where t 
Of different degrees of valence to form’ saturated compounds — 
A = * Extr et ‘hon Tnaug roe oe t the Univ. of Gatti .“ April, or 


S. P. Sadtler on Iridium Compounds. 339 


The range of this last class, as can be seen, is very wide; one 

of the most prominent of these compounds, however, and one 

. which exercised for some time a very considerable influence 

| ea upon the theoretical views held at that time, is the compoun 
0 


C,H, + 1. . . > 
The investigation I now undertook was to see if a similar 
base of iridium could be prepared. Various considerations, 


ammonium in solution, and, passing a stream of chlorine 
through to break up the chloride of ammonium, to then conduct 
ethylen gas into it, was unsuccessfu The method which suc 
ceeded most perfectly was to act upon iridium chloride. This 


er experiment, to see i 
Upon the rCl,, a it and uniting at the same time, was 
Unsuccessful. : 

_ It will thus be seen, that the only method of ig agar the 

iridium-base is by the reducing action of alcohol on indium 

chloride, according to the reaction :— 

IrCl, Ohape fe Wigs es =sTyOls OH + 2101+) +H,0 

— <2" 6,08" bn,\0H H 
Hr cermin Mg? ; : 

7 produce of which are iridium-ethylen-protochloride, hy 

_ drochloric acid, aldehyde and water. dikes 

The purifying of the necessary iridium was foun be 
prey iene aa Codes operation, the last traces of platinum 


340 S. P. Sadtler on Iridium Compounds. 


sticking very pertinaciously to the iridium salt. The processes 
in use also leave much to be desired in the way of completeness 
and expedition 


The method selected for separation was the method of Birn- © 


iridium oxide went very readily into solution in the fused ¢ 
ide of potassium. Taking, th 
i d 


applied to get the mass into full fusion. - Another modification 


oxide and finely pulverized cyanide of potassium to it, in smal 
 oesieea at a time 


cyanides does not oceur so readily. It is true, that adding the 
the compound is kept in the fused sta 
nee, however, leads me to prefer this latter 
y us 


ae excess of free KCy. This is meee & 


solution 


ice cece ie Aine 
abe Roe eae eer ea Sede Ray ae nh 


Sees sa ee hb ad ast 


TF aye ee ee ee Oe 


ee ce Or ae oe, ee ae ae 


S. P. Sadtler on Iridium Compounds. 341 


trary to my expectations, not the ethylen salts pure and alone, 
but there was a simultaneous formation of what appear to be 


n e-salt 

lated tolerably pure, yet, in the majority of the analyses, I had to 

0 wi i ifficult to separate even under the lens. The 

Teadiness with which these compounds decompose when sub- 

Jected to recrystallization, even although one observes the pre- 

caution of keeping the solution distinctly acid, eine any 
Successful purifying that way. The preparation, t 


pre 
and then over H,SO, or at 100°, according as I wish 


sisted of 
three Cl determinations 42°13 pr. ct., 42°07 
pr. ct. Cl, showing them to be simple IrCl, 
the percentage of Cl is 42°08 pr. ct. nus 
I next got a crystallization of fine, rea rage monoclinic 
crystals of a reddish-brown color, which I think the analyses, 
although not perfectly conclusive, still go to show to be a new 


342 S. P. Sadiler on Iridium Compounds. 


compound, Several different crystallizations of it were analysed. 
Tt could not always be entirely separated from the slight crust 
of decomposed KCl which separated out along with and among 
the crystals, 

Preparation No 1. Large well-formed crystals, with but very 
little foreign matter adhering to the sides. 
‘1567 grms. dried over H,SO, lost by heating to 100° 0170 

grms. = 10°85 pr. ct.: 

gave ‘0525 grms. metallic iridium = 33°50 pr. ct. : 

gave also 2275 germs. AgCl = -0563 grms. Cl = 35:92 pr. ct. 
1610 grms. dried over H,SO, lost by heating to 100° 0172 

grms. = 10°68 pr. ct.: 

gave — Ir, determination accidentally spoiled : 

AgCl = 


same. Nor do the percentazes agree with the simple potassic- 
ethylen iridium protochloride IrCl,C,H,KCl1+2H,0 where the 
Ir. = 48-45 pr. et. and Cl = 26-19 pr. ct. : 

If we reckon out the ratio of iridium to chlorine, we find it as 
1:6, showing it to be an iridium-chloride compound. The large 
pr. ct. of loss on heating, the small Ir. and Cl pr. cts., when com- 
pared with double iridium and potassic chloride, and the lumr 
nous flame when burned, all go to show that an organic con- 


ing itself on, we can expect from the consideration of analogous 
compounds met 3 atoms of the bivalent radical C,H, would 
hes 
We would have on this supposition the formula IrCl,(C,H,)s 
(KCl), + xH,O. Now this formula with 3 atoms H,0 gives 
Ir. = 32°93 pr. ct., Cl = 35°61 pr. ct., and with 2 atoms H,9, 
Tr. = 33-95 pr. ct., Cl = 36.71 pr. ct. ; anhydrous it gives In = 
ce 


With the rest, as must be the case here, a partial decomposition 
of the salt enters at 100° alread 


In another preparation, also well stallized, 1822 grms. 
dried at 100°» . Ae essen 

gave 0678 germs, metallic iridium = 37-21 pr.-ct. ; 
Fave also 3063 grms. AgCl = 0758 grms, Cl = 41°59 pr. 
as rae. preparation, indistinctly crystallized, 0502 grms- 
gave 0172 grms. metallic iridium = 34°26 pr. ct. 
a (Probably low from HCl mechanically ssl ang 


S. P. Sadtler on Iridium Compounds. 343 


In ‘another preparation, also indistinctly crystallized, 3207 
grms. dried at 100°: 
gave ‘2125 grms. AgCl = 1268 grms. Cl = 39°53 pr. ct. 

It will thus be seen the determinations, all things considered, 
agree close enough with the theoretical pr. cts. of the formula 
to make it very probable. The want of enough sufficiently- 
well crystallized material prevented me from making an organic 
combustion which might settle it definitely. 

Several individual crystals of the first crystallization were 
very sharply and clearly formed, and I subjected them to 
examination under the microscope with a power of about 50 
diameters. The faces were clearly to be made out. ey be- 
long to the monoclinic system, and their prevailing habitus in 
crystallization is a combination of the two lateral pinacoids 
with positive and negative pyramids accompanied by one mac- 
todome on the ends. The faces observed in an examination of 
five distinct crystals were (according to Naumann) «Po. 
ePo +P.—P.4¢P.-¢P.4+Pa.-Po 

In considering the compounds of the iridium-base with 
NH,Cl, we find again a mixture of crystallized salt: 

Preparation No. 1 consisted of sharply crystallized needles 
that looked almost black, and only by transmitted light showed 
a brownish-green color. ey were also monoclinic. 

_ On analysis they prove, I think, to be the sought-for ethylen- 
indium compound. i 
‘0713 grms. dried over H,SO, lost on heating to 100° 0029 


r. ct: 
gave “0850 grms. AgCl = 0210 grms. Cl = 29-49 pr. ct. or 


= 28°98 pr. ct., H,O —'4-89, or anhydrous 30°47 pr. ct. Cl. 
Parton ‘No 2 was of much smaller needles and of lighter 
color. c 
Analyses show it to be of very similar composition to the 
potassium salt described above. 
‘1207 grms. dried at 100° C. : 
gave 0495 grms. ie Age i. = Fe = pr. ct. = 
ve also -2068 germs. AgCl = ‘0512 grms. Ul — 
il, (C my, (NHL.Cl), = 502 gives Ir. = 39°20 pr. ct. and 


Cl = 49-43 pr. ct., and supposing it to lose s thi aoe hos 
100°, as stated above, Tel (C.H .) (NH, Cl), would give Ir. = 

e other two preparations of the ammonium salt — 
appeared under the lens to be mixtures of the iridium proto- 


344 J. Henry on the Construction of Laghtning-rods. 


chloride-ethylen salt and the iridium chloride-ethylen salt given 
above. 


The results were— 
‘1322 grms. dried at 100°: 

gave 0609 grms. metallic iridium = 46°07 pr. ct. 
1715 ere. dried at 1 

‘0784 grms. Ses iridium = 46°95 pr. ct. 
el, ( (C,H (NH, Cl) + H,O gives Ir. = 53°61 pr. ct. 
IrCl, (Cl, H,), (N NH ,Cl), gives Ir. = 39°25 pr. ct. 
The existence of the base iL TU EL). 

I ae to settle definitely by renewed analyses of larger 
quantit 
While engaged with the preparation of the ethylen and 
iridium compound, the thought of the possibility of acetylen 
(C,H,) ‘uniting with PtCl, or IrCl, led me to make some 
experiments in that direction. After 2 number of endeavors to 
form a platinum salt and analyses of the abate (a detailed 
account of which is given in the original paper), I obtained : 
negative results only. The existence of such a salt is highly = 
improbable. 


Art. XLV.—Directions for Constructing Lightning-Rods. From 
Essays on Meteorology; by Prof. JosspH HENRY.” 


to very combustible eae 


et fire to 
ed. It “Te should be, through its whole length, in aptiret ol 
continuity; as many pieces should be joined together by yee 
ing as practicable, and, when other joinings are unavoidab 6 me 
they sig aes be made b screwing the parts firmly pe. y cae 
a coupling ing taken to make the upper ©? 
tion hy ae tase stony with the rod water-tight by cement, solder, 


pai | 
3d. To secure it ee rust, the rod should be covered win ae 
cite of black pain . 


1S ee 


J. Henry on the Construction of Lightning-rods. 345 


4th. It should be terminated above with a single point, the 
cone of which should not be too acute, and to eee it from 
the weather, as well as to prevent its being melted, should be 


th. The shorter and more direct the rod is in its course to 
the earth the better. Acute angles, made b bending the rod, 
and projecting points along its course, should be avoided. 
6th. It should be fastened to the house by iron eyes, and may 
be insulated by cylinders of glass. We do not think the lat- 
ter, however, of much importance, since they soon become wet 
by water, and, in case of a heavy discharge, are burst asunder. 
7th. The rod should be connected with the earth in the most 


a 

buried in the moist ground. Pit should, before it descends to 
the earth, be bent, so as to pass off nearly at right angles to the 
side of the house, and be buried in a trench, surrounded with 
powdered charcoal. a. a 

8th. The rod should be placed, in preference, on the west side 
of the house, in this latitude, and especially on the chimney 
from which a current of heated air ascends during the summer 
Season, 

9th. In case of a small house, a single rod may suffice, pro- 
vided its point be sufficiently high above the roof; the rule 


346 J. Henry on the Construction of Laghtning-rods. - 


being observed, that its elevation should be at least half of the 


distance to which its protection is expected to extend. It is 
safer, however, particularly in modern houses, in which a large 
mou 


we a inclosed, as it were, in a case of iron rods so connect 
e earth, would be safe from the direct action of the light- 
ning. 
10th. When a house is covered by a metallic roof, the latter 
h 


ning rods; and in this case the perpendicular pipes conveying 
the water from the gutters at the eaves may be made to act the 


es better, with the gas or water-pipes of the city. In this case, 


: ns} A 
ores survey should be made, and the best form of protection 
og which the peculiar circumstances of the case 

dmi 


R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper, ete. 347 


Art. XLVIL—The Paragenesis and Derivation of Copper and its 
associates on Lake Superior ; by RAPHAEL PUMPELLY, 


[Continued from pages 188 and 258.] 
Chalcocite, Bornite, Whitneyite, Domeykite.-—Two fissure-veins | 


e 0 a perficially ; 
but it is a remarkable fact that the amygdaloids traversed by 
these veins contain only native copper. One of the fissure- 


short distance. The gangue of these veins is quartz, calcite 
and a carbonate of lime containing some iron and magnesia— 
ankerite ? 

The only other instance I have observed of the occurrence of 
copper in combination with pea og is in the fissure-vein of 


erever this vein has been opened or uncovered, along the 
greater part of its course, north of the Mendota property, only 
nave copper has been found; but when it enters a bed of con- 
glomerate on the north flank of Mt. Bohemia, the little copper 
it contains is combined with sulphur in a very pure chalcocite. 
Where the vein passed from the conglomerate into the underly- 
mg amygdaloid, a fine deposit of chalcocite with calcite was 
found whave been formed, for a short distance, on both sides 
of the vein, between the two beds. 

_ Still farther south the vein enters a mass of syenite, consist- 
ing of a pink triclinic feldspar, some hornblende and much 
chlorite, as an alteration-product of hornblende, and containing 


bornite, Excepting the syenite, wherever copper 1s found in 

traps and amygdaloids on the Mendota property, it is in the 

Phe sacurhinss of the sulphides and arsenides of 

Copper in this isolated manner and in fissure-veins traversing 
* Prof. , after a casual examination of this mineral, suggests that it is 

domorph of chalcocite after ite. ; 

— Serres, Vox. II, No. 11.—Nov., 1871. 


348 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


rocks more or less impregnated with metallic copper, seems to 
show a diversity of origin for the sulphur and arsenic on the one 
hand, and the copper on the other. It does not seem unreason- 
able to suppose the copper to have entered the vein-fissure from 
the gute rocks in solution, as carbonate, sulphate or sili- 
cate, and to have been then precipitated by sulphureted hydro- 


the Mendota vein traverses syenite, cuprite must have been 
formed by the oxydation of chalcocite or of native copper, and 
the oxide must have been subsequently decomposed by sulphu- 
reted hydrogen. ; 

The Huronian formation, which probably underlies all this 
region, contains in its upper members large amounts of carbon- 
aceous matter in the form of graphite; the gases may have orig- 
inated in a reduction of sulphates and arseniates by the carbon 
of these beds. 


pear cavernous, 10 per cent or more of the substance being 
This is the BOR Pei of this porphyry in the freshest 
pebbles. 

I have before me a pebble 4 inches in diameter, broke 
through the middle. It was the same variety of porphyty a 
have just described—the same brown matrix, with the sam 


grain : 
often enclosing crystals of triclinic 


. fiss 
the surfaces of the fissures are covered with a soft light 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 349 


visible in the holes in the altered feldspar, and the cleavage 
planes often glisten with flakes of copper. As we go further 


chloritic mineral, which whitens before the blow-pipe, and fuses 
on the edges to a grey glass. A little further from the center 
there is no longer a trace of the porphyry matrix: it is altered 
wholly to chlorite. The feldspar crystals are somewhat more 
altered here than they are in the middle of the pebble, but the 
quartz grains seem to have been in part replaced by chlorite. 
The change to chlorite is accompanied throughout by the pres- 
ence of a large amount of copper. While in the interior of the 
pebble, the flakes of copper are confined to the cleavage planes 
of tne feldspar, and the orphyry matrix exhibits scarcely a 
ce of the metal, the oe which has replaced the matrix 
contains in different parts of the specimen from 10 to 60 per 
cent, by weight, of copper. : 
tn another pebble of the same porphyry, not only is the ori- 
ginal matrix gone, but the usurping chlorite has been almost, 
if not wholly, replaced by copper; and we have as the remark- 
able result 4 quartz-porphyry, whose crystals of feldspar and 
Stains of quartz lie in a matrix of metallic copper. There is 
still a very small amount of chlorite resent, but it seems to 
have come from the change of the feldspar crystals and quartz 


and dirtier brown than in the previous cases, which may be 
due to the — of manganese in the alteration product 
t 


Zatio 
_ The entire pebble is permeated with minute —s threads 
and plates of carbonate of lime. The lighter-col portion 
©ontains considerable copper, while nearer the surface of the 
Pebble it is largely replaced by that metal. Pebbles showing 
the various alterations described above are by no means rare. 
Many of them, from 1 inch to 1 foot in diameter, are found 
every day. é 
IIL Conclusions. : 
We may be permitted to draw a few conclusions from the 


| facts brought out in the observations thrown together in the 
_ “Fegoing pages. 


350 he. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


taining the most chlorite, and occurring both diffused and con- 
centrated in seams, appears to have been formed either contem- 
poraneously with the chlorite, or as the next step in the 


rocess, 
The next step appears to have been the individualization, in 
amygdaloidal cavities, of non-alkaline silicates, viz: laumontite 
prehnite, epidote respectively, according as the conditions favored 
the formation of one or the other of these. ; 

Following these came the individualization of quartz in these 
cavities. s 

Perhaps we may be warranted in considering these minerals, 
together with the lime of the calcite that more rarely occurs 12 
this portion of the series, as chiefly due to the decomposition of 
the pyroxenic ingredient of the rock. 

So far as we may infer from the tabulated results, the con- 
centration of c in the amygdaloidal cavities does not ap- 
pear to have begun till after the formation of the quartz. _, 

In this part of the series falls also the formation of a chloritic 
or green-earth mineral, which in some manner has displaced 
prehnite, quartz, calcite, and with which copper, when preset! 
appears to stand in intimate relation. Subsequently to this 
came the individualization of the alkaline silicates, viz: anal 
cite, apophyllite, orthoclase. Here also seems to belong the 
formation of datolite. BC 

The alkaline silicates represent the period of decom pares 


ary minerals, is proof that carbonic acid was very gene nA 
present throughout the whole period of metamorphism ; It cit 
probably the chief mediating agent in the processes, without 

ing sufficiently abundant to prevent the formation of alice 
: change of pyroxene to chlorite, as illustrated 02 the 
oe scale na on e formation of the melephyte a __by 

sp ent of fe and quartz—quartz-porphyty 

chlorite as exhibited tie pabbice ot the pi pase pont & 
an ssoanaay Mi oma line of Oe ag for the rane 
geologist. alteration of the pebbles appears to have 


and us associates on Lake Superior. 351 


| seem that the direction was determined by the presence or re- 
| lative freedom from free carbonic acid. The deposition of cal- 
| _ cite, if formed from the acid carbonate, would set sufficient 
‘) carbonic acid to prevent the formation of silicates of iron and 


| ‘Magnesia 


and there in the less amygdaloidal melaphyr in minute specks 
* nd impregnations, or even in a more concentrated form as thin 
__ Sheets occupying the joint-cracks. 
ee These occurrences increase in frequency in proportion as the 
rock is more amygdaloidal; in other words, the copper is more 
concentrated in those portions of the beds where the chemical 
change has been greatest. Where the rock has not passed be- 
yond the strictly amygdaloidal stage, the copper occurs in the 
amygdules traversing these in flakes, or coating them ina film of 
greater or less thickness, to such an extent as toform from % per 
cent to 3 per cent by weight of the rock over considerable areas. 
Finally, in those beds where the ——— has proceeded 
such an extent as to wholly replace large portions of the 
amygdaloid by secondary minerals, epidote, calcite, quartz, 
chlorite, laumontite, etc., there the copper occurs in masses of 
many pounds, and sometimes of several tons weight, and in 
forms equalled in their irregularity only by those of the masses 
of secondary minerals accompanying the metal. ee 
In each and all of these positions we find that the deposition of 
_ the copper took place subsequently to the decomposition and 
Temoval of a portion of the rocks, and subsequently to the de- 
Position of laumontite, epidote, prehnite, and quartz, where 
nese accompany it. ; 

n all this we have direct evidence of the movement of 
Some salt of copper in wet solution, and the concentration of 
the metal by accumulating deposition in places where the preci- 

Pitating agent exis 

_ The Quebee group, to which these rocks belong, and whic 
Consist in various places of undoubted sedimentary strata ex- 
hibiting every degree of metamorphism, 1s as strongly charac- 

= by copper as the Galena limestone is by 

Except in th 


— e melaphyrs of Lake Superior, the copper, so 
widely diffused in the crab of the Quebec group, exists either 


352 R. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper 


in the various suphurets, or as oxidation products of these. 
Indeed we cannot well suppose the copper to have been deposit- 
ed in submarine formations in any other condition than as 
sulphuret. Nor can we suppose it to have taken any other form 
permanently, so long as unoxidized organic matter remain 
s. An oxidation of the sulphuret would be followed 
by reduction of the resulting sulphate to new sulphurets 
around the organic remains. In this way we may suppose the 
simplest and most common form of concentrated deposits 
_ —the impregnations—to have originated, as well as the farther 
enrichment of particular beds or zones—fahlbands—which may 
represent strata which were originally richer in organi¢e sub- 
— or which may have retained these longer than the other 
s. 


e 

But the general diffusion of copper through the varied rocks 
of the Quebec group, speaks for a marine origin for the metal 
in these traps. It should seem probable that the copper the 
melaphyrs was derived by concentration from the whole thick- 


ual processes 

association of sulphur with copper in crystalline rocks, rende 
it See probable that this was here also the combination ™ 
which the ially C00 
trated. Traces of sulphur detected by Mr. Hochstetter 


and its associates on Lake Superior. 353 


was effected, should seem to be limited to silicates, carbonates, 
and sulphates of copper. Probably all of these combina- 
tions took part in the process, but while we may consider the 
translocation of the copper to have been initiated by the sul- 
phate, this salt must have been so soon decomposed by the 
abundant acid carbonate of lime* as well as by the alkaline sili- 
cates, that we cannot readily suppose the sulphatet to have 
generally effected the final concentration of large deposits. It 

18 more probable that this was accomplished by the more per- 
_ manent solutions of carbonate and silicate of copper respectively, . 
as the circumstances favored. e position of the metallic 


~ before those which were formed by the destruction of the 
‘8 a A 


per could not, therefore, take place until the esa had so 
ar disappeared as to leave a relative excess 0: 
pared with the amount of ferrous salts exposed to a higher oxi- 
dation. Throughout its deposits the copper exhibits a decid- 
edly intimate connection pr 


favored by copper. This association is so invaria 
intimate that one is forced to the conclusion that there exists a 
close genetic relation between the metallic state of the copper 
and the ferric condition of the iron oxide in the associated sili- 
cates; that the higher oxidation of the iron was effected 

ugh the reduction of the oxide of copper and at the expense 
of the oxygen of the latter. : 

As regards the green-earth and that variety of chlorite or del- 
€ssite which is intimately associated with the copper, they either 
immediately follow the copper in point of age or are contempo- 
3 very thin sheets of copper from the jointing- 


* A coating of gypsum covering : 
Cracks of the ae we contiguous to the conglomerate, may be due to this 
decomposition, followed by the reduction of the coppe: 

Compare Bischof u, Phys. Geol., I, p. 52, i 


) oi 
and III, p. 716. a 
; The result of this oxidation is seen in the brick-red color of the amygdaloids 
in the brown color and spots of many of the melaphyr beds. 


354 h. Pumpelly—Paragenesis of Copper, ete. 


raneous with it, and they may be looked upon as having been 
formed under the influence of this reduction. Where cop 


predecessor, as in the pseudomorphs after some mineral (clay?) 
after laumontite. 


e 
, and in some places, as in portions of the Hecla — sare 
umet mines, it is wholly replaced by it; copper forming “shiel 
50 per cent, by weight, of the rock. In these instances ¢1 


ckel, etc., from the deposits of the trappean series, while they 
are present in the less metamorphosed rocks o 


ted; an intensity which m vy t 

which the process of concentration has been carried. pa 

tration is a process of removal relatively speaking and wee nid 

trated deposits are accumulated masses of material arres : 

the drainage channels of rock masses by the action of compe 
hoe th s . 


Hf. Morton on the color of Fluorescent solutions. 855 


Now, copper and silver belong to a class distinct from the 
| _ baser metals in that, by reason of their smaller affinity for oxy- 
! gen, they are more readily reduced to the metallic state, the 
condition of greatest permanence in presence of the usual rea- 
gents to which they are exposed. If the arresting cause of 
these metals was, as we have supposed, their reduction by pro- 
_ toxide of iron, it is a cause which would have been powerless 
as regards the salts of the baser metals, and we may suppose 
__ these to have continued in solution till they reached some re- 
gion where they were arrested by the presence of organic mat- 
ter, or of sulphureted hydrogen, ete. 


Arr. XLVIL— Observations on the color of Fluorescent solu- 
tions—No. IL; by Henry Morton, Ph.D., President of the 


Stevens Institute of Technology. 


SINCE the publication of my article on the above subject, in 
the August number of this Journal, I have discovered a curi- 
ous action which, while it in no respect affects my general con- 
clusions, nor the main observations on which they were founded, 

Ws out one of the corroborative experiments by which I 
thought that they might be established when a spectroscope 
Was not at hand. 

Obtaining some very anomalous results of late, I was led to 
mistrust the action of the Geissler tubes in which the solutions 
been examined. 


Late experiments have, however, proved that this was not so. 
Any liquid, however devoid of fluorescent properties, gives all 
- “Re of fluorescing in these tubes, and on a little 


Tn passing from the glass to air, most of the light will suffer 
tal reflection at the oer surface of the glass, but if water or 


856 HI. Morton on the color of Fluorescent solutions. 


any other liquid is substituted for the air, its greater refracting 
power (approaching that of glass) will diminish the above 
named action, so that much more of the light will reach the 
eye. The truth of this explanation was supported by the ob- 
servation that the nearer the index of refraction in the liquid 
came to that of glass, the brighter was the light seen through 
it, while a liquid of higher refraction, like carbon bisulphide, 
seemed a little to weaken the effect by diffusion. 

his fact renders of no account the observations before made 
on filtered and diluted solutions of turmeric, but a fresh obser- 
vation with the spectroscope on tubes free from fluorescence 
has fully confirmed my former conclusions as to the true color 
of fluorescence in this liquid. 


creasing, however, the quantity of cosmoline oil until its color 
begins to take effect, the tint of the fluorescence gradually 
changes to a ric 

By a little care a blue solution may be superposed on a green 
One in the same tube. 

_ Another semi-solid preparation of cosmoline, which has a very 
light color, gives a solution with benzine fluorescing of a mag 
nificent blue. 

I have this substance now under investigation, and hope 
soon to be able to make some further observations upon it. h 

Returning to the solutions of turmeric, I have found that yet 
fluorescent body in that substance is not its essential oil nor ™% 
brown coloring matter, but either the yellow coloring es 
itself, or something so closely allied to it in solubility that 
have thus far been unable to effect an separation. — ts 

In connection with this, let me say that Iam much indebted en 
Mr. Robt. F. Fairthorne, of Philadelphia, who has aided a 


greatly in the preparation of the various constituents of turmeM’ 


In a state of purit ee 
‘1 my former paper I mentioned that uranium nitrate in 8” 
lution gave a very faint fluorescence. re 
___*Mr. Houghton tells me that “cosmoline ” is prepared from crude petroleum 
chennie nin vacuo and filtration through animal charcoal only | 


a Se RT te ees Oe ae 


ee eee Oe ee ee 


A. E. Verrill—Distribution of Marine Animals, etc. 357 


This appearance I now find was due entirely to the above 
explained action of the tube, and a number of carefully con- 


Art. XLVIIL.—Brief Contributions to Zoiilogy from the Museum 
of Yale College. No. XVI.—On the Distribution of Marine 
Animals on the southern coast of New England; by A. E. 
VERRILL. 


IN connection with the investigations concerning the fisheries 
under the direction of Professor S. F. Baird, U. S. Commis- 
sioner, thorough explorations of the adjacent waters were 
undertaken in order to ascertain the character of the bottom, 
and the distribution of the lower animals, especially of those 
that furnish food for certain fishes. ‘The Fish Commission had 
its headquarters at Wood's Hole, Mass., situated on the point 
of land between Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. In addi- 
Hon to the shore collections, extensive and systematic dredging 


a 
adapted to soft muddy bottoms; an iron ch un- 
Taveled ropes, or “tangles,” were attached for use on 
bottoms; a trawl-net; surface towing-nets for swimmin 


* The dredgings in the first part of the season were made under the direction of 
eS Seats pnd lene rid saben J. E. Todd, Professor A. Hyatt, Dr. A. S. 
and the writer, all more or less aided at various times by other naturalists, 


and especially by Dr. W. G. Farlow, who : 
t Some st Ouse Gnkremtates it be described in a future number of this Journal. 


358 =A. B. Verrill—Distribution of Marine Animals 


od, are occupied chiefly by southern forms, or the Virginian 
fauna, the deeper channels and the central parts of Long Island 


out much change in the depth. And equently there must 
if Vuelos: dis middle of 


Stream, as shown y the occurrence of southern forms of 
pelagic animals in their waters. 
si 


which is rarely found north of Cape Cod. But in nearly 7 
other respects the littoral fauna is very similar to that of the 


Tr 
“a oy, and especially for the absence of rocks south of New 
ork. 
In Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay the water is every- 


where shallow, usually from 8 to 8 fathoms deep, and rare é 
exceeding 12 or 14 fathoms, even in mid-channel. In Vie 
yard Sound i 


species of compound ascidians, growing in large m 
One of tl which forms large hemispherical or a 
masses, made up of an tion of long slender colonies; 


‘United together at their bases and usually thickly covered 


SS ee ae eS ee 


a oe ete te > ee 


Ieee ee ee agen Se 


on the Southern Coast of New England. 359 


throughout with sand, is very abundant, ae entirely filling 
the dredge with masses up to six inches in diameter. This is 
the Amouroucium pellucidum Verrill. Keaas one, nearly as 
abundant, forms smooth, cartilaginous masses in the form of 
flat lobes, crests, and plates, sometimes two feet long and about 
an inch thick, the surface covered with stellate colonies, while 
the color of the masses is of a delicate bluish or sea- green tint 
by reflected light, although yellow by sransmnsitep light. This 
is oa eg stellatum V., described wit e last in a for- 
mer number of this Journal. A_ third ae of the same 
ale is also common, although still undescribed. This forms 
ooth gelatinous masses, varying from light orange to pale 
Glowict in color, with beautifully stellated colonies over its 
upper surface. With these were several simple ascidians, 
chiefly Cynthia partitat Stimp., and Molgula Manhattensis V., 
while creeping over them was a beautiful green species o f Pero- 
phora,t which is the first representative of the social ascidians 
discovered on our coast. This species also occurred in abun- 
dance on the piles of the government wharf at Wood's Hole, 
associated with the three last named. In the interstices of A. 
pellucidum were numerous annelids of several species, and grow- 
ing upon or with the ascidians were many species of hydroids, 
bryozoa, and sponges. Among the sponges a massive sulphur- 
yellow species (Spongia sulphurea Desor) is very conspicuous. 
While young this species perforates and destroys dead bivalve 
shells, but later in life grows up into hemispherical or irregular 
masses, Span sh the same bottoms were found the common south- 


iculata, L. dubi ‘1, Eupagurus pos E. etn and 


many other less ore on species. On rocky and stony bot- 
toms, and especially i in the tide-way of the channel at Wood's 
*A . nov. Masses thick, turbinate, often encrusting, 


Surface latinous, translucen 

usually “convex, smoo stance , gelatinou 

than in A. sake. Syste oth, subst circular, oval ing eg often elongated, or 
irregular and complex. Zodids much elongated, slender, the branchial tube short 


six rounded lobes. sac e lor of the masses usually 
light red, va raat and pale flesh-color; the orifices 
maa wine, tines Zo6i erally orange-yellow; the orifices and 


usually flesh-color or pale yellow, sometimes bright orange; stoma: 
glandular ribs; mantle — pew opaq oo a 
| Cynthia stellifera V. proves to be a depressed vari ‘ 

it ae ae nov. Individuals small, about ‘10 to “12 of an inch 
high, connected by slender stolons, and , covering the surfaces over which 
they creep. Test compressed, seen from the siiaacarnely kinins team boo S™ 
elliptical, or subcircular, often one-sided or distorted, with a short pedicle or ne’ 
Sessile at base. Branchial orifice large, terminal; anal lateral or subterminal, 

@ litle prominent, with ais 16 angular lobes, — Fee r and smaller. 


Test beautifully reticulated with bright yellowish green 


360 A. E. Verrill—Distribution of Marine Animals 


Hole, the southern purple sea-urchin (Echinocidaris punctulata), 
the orange star-fish (Cribrella sangwinolenta), the green star-fish, 
the coral (Astrangia Dane), and many other interesting species 

occurred. All the species referred to, excepting the widely 
_ diffused species of Cribrella and Amphipholis, are either charac- 


lometra quinquecirra were common, and both frequently 
gave shelter to several young “butter-fishes” (Poronotus a 
acanthus) of all sizes, from those just hatched up to two inches 
or more in length. In some cases twenty or more were foun 
together under one jelly-fish. They also occurred, in the even 
ing, under. Zygodactyla Greenlandica earlier in the season. The 
“ Portuguese-man-of-war ” (Physalia arethusa) was met with sev- 
eral times. Two Pteropods not before recorded from the Unt 


different from that of the sounds and bays, and closely resem 
bles that of Massachusetts Bay and the coast of Maine. The 
difference in the temperature of the water is also well-marked. 
The surface temperature, during the latter part of August, wer 
69° to 71° in Vineyard Sound. On Sept. 9th, in the mouth 
Vineyard Sound, west from Gay Head, the surface temperatule 
was 67° F., and the bottom, in 154 fathoms, was 63°; but pro 
_* This and Lytechinus vari. were found by the writer, Mr. 8. L Smith, 
pologny E. — at Great Wee 1 rbor, N. a last a but they are very 


> 
ye TP ee ee ee eRe, oe A a eee heer) ee, 


mat 


’ sachusetts Bay. 


on the Southern Coast of New England. 361 


ceeding about two miles farther out, off No-mans-land, the sur- 
face temperature was 62°, and the bottom, in 18 fathoms, was 
583°, showing a decrease of 5° within this short distance, both 
at the surface and bottom. A few miles farther out, at the 
same depth, the bottom temperature was 57°, which was the low- 
est temperature obtained. A short distance west of No-mans- 
land, on a gravelly bottom in 11 fathoms, where cod-fish are 
caught in winter, the temperature was 63° at the surface and 
59° at the bottom. Off the mouth of Narragansett Bay, about 
sixteen miles south from Newport, the depth over a limited area 
1s 29 fathoms, which was the deepest water found. At this 
locality the surface temperature was 62° and the bottom 59°. 
The bottom, in these deeper waters, was generally composed of 
soft mud, filled with innumerable tubes of worms and Amphi- 
crustacea, among which a species of Ampelisca, which 
makes a soft flabby tube, two or three inches long and covered 
with mud, is extremely abundant. At the last named locality 
humerous specimens of the rare and beautiful Hpizoanthus Amer- 
tcanus V. was found coating the shells inhabited by hermit-crabs 
(Eupagurus Bernhardus) and finally absorbing the shells en- 
tirely. This remarkable Actinian has been found previously 
only on two occasions,—first on a deep bank off the coast o 
New Jersey, by Capt. Gedney ; and since in deep water off Mas- 
With this was also found a rare Holothurian 
(Molpadia otilitica), previously known only from specimens taken 
m fish stomachs. 


nella glandula, Modiolaria nigra, M. corrugata, Pecten tenuicosta- 
va (you = P.f iach abe ag undulatum, Chrysodo- 
mus pygmeus (large and abundant), Crucibulum striatum, Mar- 
garita obscura, Cylichna alba; of ANNELIDS, Clymene torquata 
Leidy, Ophelia simplex Leid 


ta sp., Sternaspis fossor, 


‘ iv? Trophon a —? 
Aphrodite aculeaia (large aa common), Nephthys (large species), 


SMpunculus Bernhardus, and species of vereis, Lumbriconereis, 
Aricia, ete. ; of CRUSTACEA, species of Ampelizca (abundant), 


862 Scientific Intelligence. 


Unciola trrorata, and several other Amphipods, Crangon vulga- 
ris, Pandalus annulicornis. On sandy bottoms Lichinarachnius 
parma was very abundant, as it was, also, everywhere in the 


attributed to Stonington, that all these northern species pis’ 
obtained by him from the stomachs of haddock, ie, whiel 
ithi i his wo 


far westward as that locality, beyond which its influence has 
not yet been traced. 


er 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 


1, On nitrous and hyponitric acids,—Hasenpace has repeated 


fo: arsenous by nitric acid. By como, 
ing these vapors, Nylander obtained a ee liquid boiling at 13 4 
which appeared to have the formula N@,, and therefore t0 
isomeric with hyponitric acid. Hasenbach employed an appara 
onstructed entirely of glass, and dried the liquid product 
* This Journal, I, vol, xlviii, 1845. 


Fe re ere a en A eee 


Chemistry and Physics. 363 


tained ‘sem to boil at 2° c giving ‘off much nitric o ; the 
thermometer then rose rapidly to 10°C. ; sa een 10° a ed 13° 


of nitrous and eons nitric aci , is form 
(2.) Hyponitric acid and nitric oxide unite at a high tempera- 
ture to form nitrous acid, which may in this manner be prepared 
pericalt 
3.) Hyponitric acid and eh under the same circumstances 
unite to form chloronitric acid, N 

(4.) Bromonitrie acid, N 6B, aon not be obtained pure by 
this process, as the product is decomposed b 

= Tait and Sepia acid do not combine at a high tem- 


-) Chlorin 

with one acid, or do so only to a very limited extent. 

neoes = and oxygen unite at ordinary temperatures to 
rm hyponit 
“(@,) Eaipharous: aan and carbonic oxide unite with hyponitric 
acid, even at a low temperature, to form compounds not further 
Investicated. 
All these facts speak in favor of the assumption that the mole- 


cule of fluid hyponitric acid is Ne: ; that of the vapor above 


ad ,» on the contrary, NO2.— ournal Sir prakt. ine: Band 
rs P. 1. Cow Series. G. 


mann 
may contain ammon intel salt i is to be evaporated ina ethene 
Vessel, not quite te dryness; a larger quantity of ! = 
-Monic oxalate is then to paminel dk tie whale heated to perfect 
Am. Jour.,Scr.—Tuirp Series, Vo. I, No. 11.—Nov., 1871. 
24 


364 Scientific Intelligence. 


point and filtered. The magnesia remains on the filter as carbon- 
ate, while the alkalies are present in the filtrate as carbonates per- 
ia epe 


must of course be so pure as to leave no residue on ignition. In 
the presence of sulphuric acid the method is not applicable, proba- 


diethyl anilin, methylic or ethylic aleohol and chlorhydrate of anl- 
lin being heated together. In this reaction, however, other. prod- 
ucts are formed at the same time with the salts above mentioned, 
and these have been examined by Hofmann and Martius, who 
operated upon very large quantities of material, repeating the pro 
cess twice in succession upon the same material. The very 


€,H 
N. HO} “Fe loxe'H, tN. Hcl+it} © 
H 1st phase. 


once 

Hs 
ot 

.H € 

6 
€"H; (N. Hol} OH loe'H; tN HOL+H | | 
ot © H 

a ©,H, (€H,) 
€'H, INHOLy- Hs loxe'Hs "{N-BOl4y | © 
8 €H 

€,H,(€H,) pa OB ) 
gee }s.nto4- loxe'H? = n.Hol+ pf? 
€ H, y € ihe A 


It can, however, scarcely be doubted that methylic chloride a 
water are always formed first, and that methylic chloride is the # 
oe of substitution. In the basic oils submitted to exa ‘aime 

authors discovered besides dimethyl anilin four other 


oe mn aa A a a i as 


“oRULd py, 


: 


Chemistry and Physics. 365 


thylated monamines—namely, dimethylated toluidin, xylidin, cu- 
midin and cymidin; in symbols the compounds: 


Dimethyl— 


*1s €,H 
Anilin, eH), LN, 
= (CH 
Toluidin, (OTH), |N= (ern), ) EN, 


Xylidin, Gstle Lm Gope(OMsde Ly 


Camidin, (6°94), lN=G n° 3)s LN, 
Cr «St, = om 
The terminal member of this group is still wanting, and would 
have the formula 
o(CH,), nay 


Gy eet (CH) 


a poreny sylidin Prison with the coe but only one isomeric 
hit. Thus we already know a solid and a fluid modification of 
toluidia, By treatment with methylic iodide, solid toluidin yielded 
a dimethyl base, which in many respects resembled that mentioned 
above, but which yet did not appear to be certainly identical with 
) i I derived from a bases ap- 


it, although the tertiary monamines 

peared to exhibit no differences whatever. The ors promise 
a further i investigation of the whole subject, and shemale will look 
with the greatest interest for their re ence 


Chem. Gesellschafi, Jahrgang iv, p. 7 
4. On the derivatives of hydric Powphide which Sindee to 
ethylamin and diethylamin.—A. W. Hormann pone succeeded in 


, P 
ae 2H,I+2Ph,I4+-Zn0 = 2P(€,H,)H; 14 Znl,+0H,. 

In a a certain quantity of diethyl phosphin is 

always f formed, th reaction being expressed by the equation: 
2€,H “LLPH, I+Zn0 =P(€,H,),H.1. Zul, O8,. 

The tertiary and quaternary derivatives of ———— _ not 
formed in this reaction. These, Hofmann already shown, 
might be obtained D the action of the aechate themselves on 
phosphonic iodide. The e separation of the mono- and di- compounds 


366 Scientific Intelligence. 


is very easy. Water readily decomposes the first, setting the 
The 


Il. GkoLtogy Anp NaturaAu History. 


1. Note on an Apparent Violation of the Law of Regular 
gressive debituminisation of the American Coal beds coming 
: . Lestey. (Proce. Am. Phil. Soc., xii, p. 125, 1871.) 


y OYJ. : 
—In the course of a Geological survey of certain lands in ee 
d. 


he 
Many years old, and several hundred feet from the outerop, under 
high hill cover, at a point on the western border of the d 
Bituminous Coal Basin of Pennsylvania, near the Mar land ap 
Virginia State line. More properly we should say that the bag 
‘ of the First Basin. For os 
Negro Mountain anticlinal comes up from Virginia and 5P 
the First Basin into two in Pennsylvania. The Mountaip ” 
down at Castleman’s River; but the anticlinal axis Tup* 


Geology and Natural History. 367 


northward. The First Basin is similarly split into two, east of 
Johnstown, by the Viaduct anticlinal, which may or may not be 
an actual prolongation of Negro Mountain. 


my report to the owners of the property will suffice. The accom- 
panying map shows the Backbone of the Alleghany passing by 
Altoona. This is the eastern edge of the First Bituminous Coal 


asin. The two 
Connellsville enclose the Second Bituminous Coal Basin of Penn- 
sylvania. The Third, Fourth and Fifth lie west of it, and the 
Sixth occupies the northwest corner of the map; no mountains 
Separating the last four. [The map referred to is here omitted ]. 
The property surveyed, in this instance, lies in my old tramping 
and camping ground of 1840, during the fifth year of the State 
Geological Survey. The report which Mr. James T. Hodge and 
myself made to Mr. H. D. Rogers, Chief of the Survey, may be 
found recorded in the Fifth Annual Report (1841), pages 89-92, 
which I will here recapitulate in the descending order of the beds, 
for convenience of comparison. 
¢ Pittsburg bed, I, has been eroded from the whole country 
between the Alleghany Mountain and Chestnut Ridge (at Con- 
nellsville and Blairsville) except two hill tops; one near Salis- 
ury, and the other near Ligonier. It is possible also that a third 
exception may be discovered in the high hill country south of 
Johnstown, where a conspicuous bench runs along the hill-tops 
for several miles. : ’ : 
Limestone 20 feet below I, 6 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin. 
Coal bed H, 50 feet below I, 3 feet thick in the Ligonier Basin; 
1 foot thick in the Salisbury Basin. os : 
oal bed G, 100 feet below H, 14 feet thick in the Salisbury 
Basin; encircles the highest hill-tops in the Ursina Basin with 
Conspicuous bench. Fort Hill is not quite high enough to have it. 


b . : 
mM the Salisbury Basin. It forms the high terrace of the Fort Hill. 
k. 


368 Scientific Intelligence. 


Coal Bed, 22 feet below Limestone, on west bank of Castleman’s 
river, ¢ mile above Zook’s Run ford, and on North Fork at old 
ing ; carries 5 feet of Shale, containing 1 foot of ore-balls. 

Coal bed A, 70 feet below B; 22 inches thick, at Shroff’s 
Bridge over Castleman’s river. 

Conglomerate ; 30 feet below A; the interval pang massive 
gis 

uch was the general scheme of the Coal measures made out 


—e 
=] 
ee) 
es 
° 
a 
5 
et 
et & 
a) 
aor) 
2 
.o® 
a] 
nN 
_ 
nm 
a3: 
“ 
i) 
—— 
— 
al 
sO 
oO 
2 ae! 
ie 2 
vcr 
"Oo 
rs 
_ 
Th 
= 
— 
4 


e details with regard to the region and the beds of rock eh 
coal are here omitted]. Analyses of specimens frou one of the 
called the Ferriferous Bed afforded as a mean of two analyses: 


Volatile matters and water__..__....__.__-- 17°125 

Water Miue 6225 5h es ee as 

— carbon _..-68°535 
Ashes Se 14°34 


- — from another opening, near the mouth of Brown's 
ree 


Sie a or 0°55 
Volatile soars! (gas) ee es 
Wareon (ore). cs ee 
Sulphur (in ash) pon oe. aaa 
BEG or a . 15°95 
That both the 6-foot and the 3-foot Ursina ae situated at the 
western limit of the Ist Bituminous Coal Basin, should have only 
17 cent. of volatile matters,—not more than the coals of the 


eidadtey The Somerset Coun s are almost perfectly 
undisturbed. os coal = vin gangway showe r cent. ne 
volatile su this is no grvarer than the ree . 


0 proper scheme of the rates of debituminization to easting wl 


to disturbance, can be obtained until all the analyses of each the 
in sd series of te Measures shall be tabulated apart fi “Ga ting 

: an ee tne then expect to learn something also res 
x the int of specific a upon the percentages of 


ne 


AH A Conny MASSA. pd Dee ee ig 25 Wig a 2 SnD ae ees Sore ea 


Geology and Natural History. 369 


But in the outset one source of error must be guarded against. 
The specimens of co: rom which the foregoing ana eng were 


chters made a recent comm ce to a German 
eR in which he states his opinion ‘that the westberin of 
coal depends upon its ability to absorb oxygen, ip binge the 
hydro-carbons i into water and carbonic acid. eat, say of 
375° I’. only 5 or 6 per cent. of the carbon accepts exyaens the rest 
seems to show little or no disposition to affine with it. The F ro- 


But w coal, col at ordinary temperature, the aca is 
80 > a as to be imperceptible, even after exposure for a tire 
r € says moisture has no accelerating effect, unless pyrites 


Herr Grundmann, of Tarnowitz, on the other hand, - recently 
published elaborate. pg ipesccig i tee the effects exposure 
on bituminous coals to be mo ous. Coal which oe exposed 
for nine months lost jifty per ‘eon cof its value as fuel. His con- 


in connection with Herr Varrenthap , of Brunswick, who prov ed 
by laboratory phreianye'> that oxidation took place at common 
“33 phceraars Le ee months sufficed to rob coal, kept uniformly 
ey Q ° F.) of all vag hag ttn a heat less than that 


: Fs i proved that the ae was the same in the 
middle of the heap as at the surface, and reached its maximu 


absorbs it most rapidly ; that moisture is an bas geo condition ; 
that coals making, when freshly mined, a firm — coke o 
good quality, make, after even only eleven days expos either no 
coherent eoke at all, or coherent coke of quite eda quality. 
or gas purposes, also, the coal is greatly inju 
It is evident that these facts have an important bearing on the 


ve. 
2. On the Os wells of Terre Haute, Indiana; by 7... Sreax 
Hunr. Abstract of a a paper presented to the American Association 
for the Ne eater of Science, Indianapolis, Aug., 187].—In pre- 
Vlous publications I have en eavored to show that the 


that 
ous petroleum. I have, however, expr ressed the opini : 
the “pa, sandstones in Pennsylvania are also truly oleiferour. 


370 Scientific Intelligence. 


In a paper read to this Association last year, I showed that the 
Niagara limestone at Chicago holds impri 


where the first two formations come together, and according to 
Professor Cox, where exposed at North Vernon, Indiana, are both 


equivalent of the Genesee slates, 50 feet. Beneath this, at 4 
depth of twenty-five feet, in the underlying Corniferous limestone, 
ith. 


of 2,000 feet, but no traces of oil were met with. 
is_ locality, on the Wabash river, is, according to Prof. Cox, 
on the line of a gentle anticlinal or uplift which is traced a nie 
distance to the west of south. The relation of productive oil we . 
to such anticlinals was pointed out by Prof. Andrews and by my 
in 1861, 


- 


iptum.—In a note in this Journal for Beptenibes 


ous rocks.” It would have given a more correct jdea of my views, 
had he cited the words preceding; after maintaining that a primer 
pal source of the petroleum is in lower rocks, in fact the ime 
= lagara and Corniferous formations, I added: “ eee 
however, reason to believe, as I have elsewhere pointed out, t f 
much of the petroleum, ete.” I there referred to the Geology P. 
Canada, 1863-66, page 24, where I cite from two papers of 1 * 
S esley (Amer. Phil. Society, x, 33, 187), and it is from the evr 
_ dence there Siven by him, and not upon my own observations, 


SIA Rae gre (eo eM, 7 
eM a jt Bead yeast El tag stig ae ed | 4 


Geology and Natural History. 371 


to Mr. Warner’s remark that while the sand-rocks in question are 
seen in certain parts to abound in fossil plants, “ they tain 
nothing from which the petroleum could possibly have been de- 
rived”, While I have constantly maintained the view held by 


lower horizon, I am nevertheless not disposed to reject the state- 
ments of so skilled an observer as Mr. Lesley. Mr. Warner will 


m 
an ndstone, nor even from the underlying pyroschists, but 
tom the still lower limestones of the Niagara and Corniferous 
ormations 
M 
- 3. Su 0. of by G. F. Marrnew, 
8q., (Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. of New Brunswick, April, 1871.)—The 
i ing conclusions. 
e present summer climate of a large part of ‘Acadia is 
‘i d Lake Supe- 
. E. Logan, 
The resemblance in 
their 


D. Dana may be quoted in favor of the for- 
southern New England, which enjoys 


372 Scientific Intelligence. 


4th. That such portions of the glacier as were pushed over the 
tops of these hills, or through the narrow valleys between them, 
conformed in some degree to the slope of the surfaces over whic 
they moved. 


e. 

4, Remarks on Fossil Vertebrates Srom Wyoming. (Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sei. Philad., August 8, 1871.)—Prof. Lerpy remarked that 
the collections of fossils presented this evening by Drs. J. Van 

- Carter and Joseph K. Corsos were of unusual interest. They 
consist of remains mainly of turtles, with those of mammals and 
crocodiles, and were obtained from the tertiary deposits in the 
vicinity of Fort Bridger, Wyoming Territory. : 

The great abundance of remains of turtles, of many species and 


: 
; 
s 


the earlier portion of the Tertiary period. Crocodiles and lacer- 

tian reptiles were likewise numerous. e many mam eal 

remains found in association with the reptilian fossils mainly 
al 


: oming tertiary fauna presents a remarkable contrast 
with the later faune of the Mauvaises Terres of White River, 


now living. The carapace has measured about two feet anda 
et 


ys Carteri. ; tan 
he first and second vertebral plates of this species prese? 
arance, rst is 4 ae 


: ni 
ong, 2% inches wide in front, 43 inches near the middle, and % 
1s 5 inches long, and 4 inches wide. : 
The second turtle belongs to the recently characterized ase : 
but is considerably larger than its associated spe” 
n described. T 


Seles tn Ageiag of afoot anda half in length, and is - : 


ahalf high. The sternum is flat, and about 
ng. Its pedicles nd 


' 


Geology and Natural History. 373 


| are seven inches and a half broad. As in the living Dermatemys, 
and the sea turtles, they are covered with large scutes, four in 
number, as in Baena arenosa, The inte rmediate vertebral scutes 


nches wide. 
| manner in which the costal scutes join the marginal seutes, and the 
sternal scutes one another. The species may be named Baena 
unda 


z Dr. Carter’s collection also contains some fragments of bones 

}] ofa large ag settee which are so mutilated as to be hardly charac- 

teristic. A jaw fragment among them, with the retained fragments 
alceosy ops 


mach lar ger th an P. p sus. In absence of other evidence, it 


r 
and att, and an inch srg fe peed in front. 

rter had also sent some fossils to Prof. Leidy, among 

) ahah were portions of poe with nearly full series teeth of 

yrachyus agrarius. This animal is related to the Tapir, Hyra- 

codon, and Lophiodon. The formula of its dentition is the same 


as i ‘yr a: 7 molars, 1 cani nd 3 ors. The true 
molars are like those of Lophiodon, except that the last lower one 
has a bi-lobed instead of a t Uy cro Apparently the 


the last rt a and the oe true a ers a vay’ 
Species of Hyrachyus, which may be n med azimius. ‘TI 

crown of the last premolar is 74 lines antero-posterior, an 
transversely. The true molar has measu about 84 lines fore 
and aft, and 6 lines transversely. The depth of oe} jaw fragment 
below the true molar is over an inch and a half. 

Another fossil is a mutilated incisor, indicating a species of 
Trogosus rather more than half the size of TZ. castoridens, which 
may be name 

A fem aludosus, in the collection, exhibits 
the third abohiaitee heraitcratic of the unequal-toed pa 
The astragalus of this animal almost repeats that of the living 
a 


the remains of Dr. Corson’s collection there is the 
ee crocodile, but too much 


m, as shown both by the ieote and by the soundings 


B74 Scientific Intelligence. 


executed by the Survey, is covered with a uniform deposit of 
clay, or clayey mud, usually very soft and bluish or drab m 


ons. 
character of the bottom, while below 30 to 40 fathoms, where the 


Pontoporeia affinis Lindst., at nearly every haul from the 


y catus, marine species, and were supp ft 

by Lovén to have been derived from ancient marine species le 

in the lake basins by the recession of the ocean. The occurrence 
k . 


this brief notice. In the shallow waters many interesting y aaity’ 
7 ? 


6. A. Featherman: Report of Botanical Survey of Southerm 
and Central Louisiana. Yn sa et Report of the Board of 
Supervisors of Louisiana State University, for year 1870. New 
Orleans, 1871.—The Botanical Report, séparately paged, fills 130 
pages. Professor Featherman is | Peat on Botany in the us 


Geology and Natural History. 375 


‘versity, me Professor of Modern Languages. The general matter, 
_ which makes the principal staple of this Report, is of consider- 


ses 
> carping trite. Our attention is concentrated upon the list of new 
species, twelve in number, which we enumerate, appending the 
: ; 


Megane is & maculata L., a pretty well-marked, more 
t, and smoothish variety, of our southern coast. 

Sabbati nana is S. gracilis Pursh, a dwarf form, approach- 
ing S. stellaris. 

8. oligophylla i is a slender state of S. gentianoides Ell. 

Hydrolea leptocaulis is H. ane Gray, Manual, ed. 5. 
. Ludoviciana is H. ovata Nut 

Jussicea oydiana is J. repens L. a small form. 

Tephrosia. angustifolia, from the drawing is probably only 


t. 
T. multifiora is T. onobrychoides N won 
Lilium Lockettii is Crinum Americanum UL. 
nothera paludosa, for lack of povoet ees and drawing, is not 
made out. 
Vitnnen Seminariense is H. nudiflorum Nutt., = is, 
Leptopoda bra ee Torr. and Gray. G. 
7. Dr. Rohrbach on Typha.—Dr. pak ha ch, the shcintierbaiide 
of Silene, of Berlin, has published a careful revision of the genus 
hu. “He recognizes 9 species, with 4 sub-species: 7 of the 
former are found in Europe, and 2 of these also in the territories 
of the United grat ogee with a sub-species, peculiar to the 
Warmer parts o 
Dr. R. has discovered that nad fruits of 7 of the 9 re show 


The othar ee on which he relies to distinguish the 
Species are (1) the shape of the stigma, which is linear, spatulate 
or rhomboid ; (2) the presence or absence of bracts (vari riable in 
Shape in the same species) at the base of the female flower ; 
(3) the proportional length of the stigmas, the perigonial hairs, 
and the j entioned. bracts, at the period of maturity of 
et (4) the presence or absence a a on the axis of = 
_ lnale inflorescence ; (5) the pollen, whether in single 
: penne united re te Seacseical structure of the seed seek: 


* The specie th adnate pericarp a: T. Lawmanni Lepechin (the earlier 
‘name for 7. suet Be Sm.), throughout mi Sogo — Europe and Asia; and 
4: stenophylla F. & M. iieniae from aa into I 


876 Scientific Intelligence. 
The shape of the leaves, — a contiguity or distance of the male 
and female inflorescence, ot furnish very reliable diagnostics. 
Typha oe Lin., A somanbek the United States to the Pacific, 
and into Mexi Axis of male inflorescence hairy; pollen grains 
in 4’s; feasiits Gowns without bracts; stigma lanceolatespatalat, 
much longer than the perigonial hairs ; leaves flattish 
Typha sce Ae Lin., in the northern parts of the United 
States, southward only known in Louisiana. Axis of male inflor- 
escence hairy; hairs linear; pollen vay ro de female flowers 


f the 
ward ; perigon ial hair xed female flowers slightly clavate (not 
that 


snifotia H. B K, belon 
A plate elucidates the differences of structure of the seed coats. 
n alphabetical index enumerates the names and a baneal ergs and 
refers them to their proper places. 


Ii Astronomy. 


1. Cordoba Observatory.—The following are extracts from the 
recent official Report of the Director, Dr. B. A. Gou 

The Observ: vatory is situated on a height o or parranca, lying to 
the southeast of the city of Cordoba, at a distance of eight squares 
from the principal Plaza, and not far from the gardens of the Na- 
tional Exposition. 

The ground plan of the edifice consists of a square, divided i. 
four rooms of 5°8™ a side each; and forming wings to the ©. a 

two more rooms of 3°6™ "wide sdons 3° pg destin i 


while in tha north and south direction two cnale towers of 4 
meters in diameter serve as prolongations to the mas 
towers have revolving cupolas, and the whole of the edifice =i 
& Cross terminated at its four eg eH by as rage fg towers. ade 
by a 
of 24°3" from N. toS. The i of the tice towers is 6" on 


lie toward the E. and for the towers to the NS & Ew el 
m the United States in June of the last year, with the excep 


tion of the masonry, which it was necessary to have con ct : 
= the spot. 1 materials, forming thus ephae ed . 


were rece Abe in Corsobe in the 3d week 5 in Octo 


Astronomy. BIT 


2g tory. 
It would not be possible for me to recount here the efficient aid 


Cordoba. The latter authorized me on my arrival to choose a lot 


Magnifying power. Not having ordered it early enough, we had 
hot supposed that it would be finished within the brief time at 
our dis : I have had the fortune to be able to procure a 

objective of great excellence, the work of Fitz, a distinguished 
Optician of New Yor wer has been tried by the astron- 


x P. cess p : : 
1 focal distance of about 3"°63, and is provided with clockwork. 
‘t stands upon a pillar of white marble of a height of 1-91", under 
the revolving dome of the east tower. The small Equatorial has 


378 Scientific Intelligence. 


Germany, who constructed it under the immediate supervision of 
the inventor himself, Professor Zoellner of Leipsic. This instru- 


sary apparatus for the study of the light of the southern stars, 

with directions to turn over to them the apparatus acquired with 

this sum, or a similar amount may appear to be most con- 
ise t 


informed you of the course adopted in this respect. Without loss 
of time there was commenced a detailed and laborious series of 


emands is concluded—thanks to the intense application of my 
i ard is no le orable 


? . 
themselves than us to the new institution. I hope that ye 
eee concluded and given to the press before gs end °F 

0 


ompanied by > 
catalogue of the stars, arranged by constellations, which shall — 


tine Uranometry,” and no exertion on my part shall be omitted 
that its publication may be a stamp of honor to the nation, whie 


path of a higher ci “i 
_ Ihave found the heavens of Cordoba less serene and more S¥ 
ject to clouds than I had hoped according to the received data, 


- 


Astronomy. 379 


have observed and reduced to the maps about 4500 stars between 
the 10th degree of north declination and the south pole, while the 
Uranometry of Argelander, which contains all the stars visible 
without instruments between the north pole and 30° of south lati- 
tude, contains only 3256 stars. If the Government decides upon 


vations taken at Cape Town, at Madras, Melbourne and Santiago | 
will serve for a beginning to this labor, which is designed rather 


. > 
tain brilliancy, situated in a given region of the heavens. The 
same proceeding is successively repeated up to the definitive explo- 
ration of the entire space between the proposed limits. A simi- 
lar examination has been made by the German astronomers, 


e 

1¢ National Congress has without solicitation from Dr. Gould 
Provided for an obseryer’s dwelling upon the Observatory grounds. 
by which the Observa- 
1 use in developing the science of the coun- 


380 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


President Sarmiento and the Minister of Public Instruction 
have officially approved the rors and promise to put the insti- 
tution into relations with the national establishments of public 
instruction, in pales pi carry on a full system of meteorological 
observation 

2. ‘Hnche'e Comet.—A view of Encke’s comet was obtained at 


lowing places of the comet, taken from an ephemeris b 
Glasenapp of Pulkowa, and published in No, 1854 of the ane 
nomische Nachrichten, may be of interest to observers. 


a st P 

0h Berl mt. AR. Deel. log. dist. to @ log. A. —3,q— nat 
hm s RS ” 

Aug. 18 2 8 35°83 +23 32 33-1 0-33419 021013 0°58 

Sept. 20 2 01485 30 36 413 0°25522 997354 237 

Oct. 21 0 21 52°73 38 54 38-5 0°14690 9°66369 17°10 

29 2318 38 54 48-4 0710987 958273 29°47 

Nov. 2 22 40 41°93 37 39 10°8 0-08931 9°54811 37°06 

6 22 0 21:40 35 16 23-6 0-06716 | 952021 47:80 

10 2119 31 44 32-8 0-04317 950100 58°33 

14 2041 2649 29% 14 9-9 0-01707 949178 68°63 

18 90 5 1 4 26-7 9°98850 949254 77:96 

22 19 33 47-49 §=:16.- 86-171 9°95703 950334 85°84 

$6. 19: 4:8 1 31:3 9-92215 9°52258 92°19 

30 1838 3-4 5 46 17-2 9°88322 954957 97°43 

Dec. 4 1813 41°66 + 0 41 12-7 9°83947 9°58379 101°81 

16 17:15 19°72 —12 37 13-4 967272 9-72983 111°99 


After reaching the ua ag F ipscasn ge 29th, the comet will be 
too near the sun to ce rved, In to the comet was 
seen with a lightintansty of 1 1-2. In 1868 it was first seen 
with a light of 2-2. On the night of Oct. 13th the light was 
about 10, conting ‘to von ene: s nope 
3. Discov new Pla ER of ilk discovered a 
new planet (117) on the 14th vs Sept. "he was equal in brilliancy 
to a star of the 11th magnitude. 


IV. Miscenuanzous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 


1. Midw y Islands, i in the North Pacific.—It is well koa! 
that the Havas line of islands is continued beyond Kauai in 
series of coral islands or atolls, i Bae oss Sli with the high is 

al to all, m 


art m 
to whe rag tay ee N avigation, in December, 1867, of Capt. Wo 
U.S.N. These three islands are Ocean felons ale 
25’ N. and eer 178° 25’ W; Midway o 5 Oe 
whe in 28° 15’ N. and 177° 20’ W. ; and Pearl and Hermes 
land in 27° 50’ N. and 175° $0! W 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 381 


In Brooks Island, which was the best of the three as regards 
harbor, the encircling reef is 18 miles in circumference. On the 
west-north-we st side, for three miles, the reef is mostly wanting, 

there are 3 to 10 fathoms water. At the northwest point 
iets are breakers ; and then from there, along by the east side, for 
4} miles, there is a steep wall of com pact coral rock, of about 5 feet 
ele evation, and only 6 to 20 feet wide, where examined ; beyond 


b ] 
and southwestern sides s, there is again a oousinare ons pr for 43 
miles. There is no vegetation along the wall. ether this wall 
indicates an elevation of the island or not, it is difficult to say. It 
is more probable that there has been a subsidence of four or five 
feet, and that the wall is only the ruins of the coral rock that 
£. 


onl 

Sopp cree Welles Harbor—is rather larger than that of Hon- 
olulu (of Oahu), and as safe, but has not quite as much water on 
he bar—the depth being from 21 7 16 feet at low water. The 
entrance between the reefs is 800 feet. On the southwest reef there 
is a small island, called Middle Behnke Island, whose aon point 
is 15 feet above the e sea; its vegetation is shrubs and g The 
lagoon is 2 miles long and 14 miles in its greatest eiith,” “hare 
are many clumps of coral with a = 2 fathoms over them; but the — 
rest of the bottom is of white : 

Turtle abound on the island, gue seals were seen only oceasion- 
ally. Birds were very numerous, and the oung — were so 


onthem. There is but Bear guano, and this is cecbably owing 
to the condition of the 

Ocean Island is much Tike Brooks, in having a wall of coral rock 
on its northwest, north and east sides ; the north side reef is at low 
tide level, There i is no ship aakrence to the lagoon. There i is a 


The circumference of the reef is 42 miles, the renee: 
fast to west being 16 miles, and that from north to south 16 
mhiles 


es Eruption “a the Volcano of Colima in June, 1869 ; ;* by Dr. 


Cuartus RIvus.—To the northwest of the town of Colima 
rise, Sieve omen mountains, two lofty volcanic peaks, the more 
easterly, capped with snow, being metres (12,434 feet) in 


: the 
(11,745 feet). The latter had an eruption in the year 1818, but 
Since remained in repose, though thin clouds of smoke have 
i it. 
the 12th June, 1869, a dense smoke issued from the crater, 
and at siebs a bright light was visible at its mouth; detonations 
* Smithsonian Report, 1869, p. 423 


382 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


tang like glass, and was vitreous and porous. In the middle of 

the upheaved mass the movement was strongest; there large clefts 

and intense light were displayed, while engulfed stones, which 

were swallowed up in great masses, were followed by a noise 38 
ke, someti 


was ded 
tended by the constant upheavi g and descent of rocky masses, 
f smoke. 


The upper (ancient) crater has a diameter of 150 metres (492 
eet), descends in a 


escent was very toilsome on account of the rolling ee 

At 3.30 p.m. the horses were reached, and at 9.30 the hacienda 
San Marcos, where many were waiting to learn the result of the 
expedition. The report of Orosco was, that the district W% 
threatened with no danger, as no lava was issuing, and the fissures 
being open gave no reason to fear any explosion from the tension 
of confined vapors. Later explorers of the volcano found a fissure 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 383 


and about three feet in depth, but neither "heat nor vapor issuing 


June 9 oj—A great a c of the aceite havin ng been measured in 

Russia ula all the precision which modern methods of observation 

will admit of, it became an interesting subject to examine the va- 

riations of the intensity of gravity in the districts traversed by this 

are, and to compare the progress of those changes with the varia- 

tions which are observed in the egiperih of gravity determined 
rvat 


operations. An extensive series of sacl ulum observations was 
therefore arranged by the Academy of Sciences of St, Petersburg, 
to be made at “certain stations between Tornea in Finlan 


a caenennceeeiae 
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during the gee of 1865 M. Sawitsch and M. Lenz; those 
Ta were made in 1866 and 1868 


ee. an e results of the csrvatonh ic 1 are 
given a a Oy dierent cation situated between 65° 51’ and 
45° 2 ‘north latitu At Petersburg te length of the 


aaa at St. . 


384 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


its length at St. Petersburg according to the relation of the squares 
of the numbers of infinitely small oscillations which the compar- 


calculation gives for the length of the simple seconds’ pendulum 
at St. Petersburg 39°16975 English inches or 441-0319 Paris lines. 
Assuming this length, we have deduced, as the result of our ob- 
servations, the values contained in the first three columns of the 
following table. 

Length of the 


Longitude E. Seconds pendulw Errors. 
Place of observation. Latitude N. from reonwich. in Paris lines. Paris lines. 
Tornea, 1 36 441-2525 +0°0200 
Nicolaistadt, .._... 63 5 33 1 26 26 4411293 —O-0141 
St.Petersburg, .... 59 56 30 a. 441-0319 —0-0017 
Réval 59 26 37 P39 y 441:0190 +0°0033 
Derpet eS 6S aR ae 1 46 54 440°9762 —0-0002 
Jacobstadt, ....._- 56 30 3 1 440°8900 —0°0157 
aha eee tert 5441 2 14112 0°8353 —0°0001 
BM, sd ages 4 62.23 1 40 52 440°7268 —0°0035 
Kréménetz, ....__- 0 6 1 42 54 440°6533 +0-0017 
aménetz-Podolsk,. 48 4 39 1 46 18 440-5844 + 00160 
inchinef; 225 6.1 7 130 1 55 18 440°5278 +0°0030 
WAS accesses 45 20 34 1 55 16 4404479 —0-0071 


To examine the accuracy of each of the results M. Sawitsch has 
compared the length of the pendulum observed at each station, 
with the sovreqonding length obtained from the formule give? 
in hi e residuals are as given in the fifth column of the 
preceding table; the sign + denoting that the observed length 18 
greater than the calculated length. 

The sum of the positive residual errors is +-0°0440, and of the 
negative residual errors —0°0423. age 
Thus the formula agrees well with the equations of condition. 


” 


ff 
above any certain traces of those anomalies and of the local cause? 
which produce them. : 
“In the work of W. Struve on the are of meridian between the 
Danube and the Arctic Sea is a detailed discussion of the latitudes 
of the principal places between the North Cape and the Danube 
The differences in latitude found directly from the astronomica 
observations vary only + 1°75 from those deduced from the ge 
ations. Athough these differences are very much lar 
ie erro, 


peer eo ert Gohe tee ere ee 


i. 


_ Tested in this subject how strongl 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 385 


4. Zoological Results of the 1870 Dredging Expedition of the 
_ “ Norna” off the coast of Spain and Portugal ; b S 
E 


There propose, commencing at the lowest animal group, to men) 
enumerate some of the more important forms taken, adding suc 
remarks on the characters or connecting circumstances which 


va 

including Hyalonema, Dactylocalyx, Aphrocallistes Bocagii, La- 
oe pupa, and four other species new to science, three out 
Selig 


ciatio 
of its size, and I would here add a few more words in reference 
I have been afforded the 


Tr m 
ced: local 


tionist’s point of view, this examination has led me to rega d 
specimens as holding rather the rank of a well-mark 


remised. c 
abla of the specimens, now placed side by side in the British 
useum collection, will, I think, suffice to prove to all those inte- 
forms are. Meanwhile, the generic name of Pher 
ay: myself, I still retain, as I consider both Prof. Wyville Thomp- 
Son’s form and my own to be local varieties of another species 


386 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


first described by Dr. Leidy of Philadelphia as Pheronema anne, 
and a letter recently received from Dr, Leidy himself more fully 


In my description of other sponges belonging to this same 
Hexactinellate group, read before the Royal Microscopical So- 
ciety, and published in their “ Transactions” for N ovember, 1870, 
T have, in creating a new genus and species, Askonena Setuba- 
lense, erroneously associated Prof. hompson’s name with it as 
having once pronounced the form to be of vegetable and not 

zatio i 


i 7p 
(Rhabdomina, &e.), and the former being notably abundant m 
cie ties of Lagena and Cristellaria. Many of these 
forms are new to science and await description. 
The Celenterate sub-kingdom has likewise furnished several new 
and rare forms, including among the latter category an example 
of Hyalopat amidal: i 


the 
rium, first taken sparingly 
dantly in the Laminarian zone near Setubal, excited our warmest 


admiration. 
Nothing can exceed the beauty of the elegant opaline polyps 


was experimentally stirred up one dark evening, an rilliant 
umin produced a spectacle too brilliant for words a 
d . The rting stem appeared always to be the chie 


seat of these phosphorescent properties, and from thence the scit- 
tillations traveled onwards to the bodies of the polyps themselves- 
cime i 


the supporting stalk, while the individnal polyps, when fully 
exserted, protruded upwards of an inch-and-a-half from this - 
and measured as much as an inch in the diameter 


s Polyzoa were also dredged up from the various 
, many of which remain yet to be identified; but the allied 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 387 


ave been presumed to constitute a distinct genus of Tunicata 
inter se, or otherwise to be the larval conditions of higher forms. 
My own observations, however, recorded in the last July number 
of the “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,” have led me 
to believe that they are the free swimming reproductive zooids of 

igher Tunicates, bearing the same relation to them as many f 


n- 
cluded among these were—Fusus contrarius, a common fossil of 
the Norfolk crag recently discovered in the living state in Vigo 


5. Destruction of the Museum of the Chicago Academy of 
Sciences—Among the devastations of the great Chicago fire, not 
in importance was the burning of the Museum of the 


son, the Curator, says, “it collapsed like a bubble in the intense 
heat, as did indeed all other ‘fire-proof’ buildings in the city.” 
Museum contained the largest collection of Crustacea in the 
world, “filling,” as the same letter says, “ more than ten thousand 
Jars,” included the very extensive suite of a species, 
even to the t of all the many new species, gat y Prot 
J.D. Dana oes Wilkes ieplonios Expedition in the Atlantic 
and Pacific Oceans, the basis of his Report of 1,500 pages m 
1855 on that subject ; and also the large collections made by Dr. 
Stimpson himself in his cruise in the Ringgold Expediti 7 
North Pacific, besides his recent collections from the Gulf of 
Mexico, and specimens from various other sources. ere were 
also the alcoholic specimens of other invertebrata, obtained 
ition, and those of Dr. Stim 
re 


-Unfortunatel , the Crustacea dredged up by Mr. de Pourtal 
his late diedigii e itions, these having been sent there fo 
description and a final report. : 


888 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


The noise heard in Haddonfield was similarly described by all 
observers as resembling the dragging of heavy furniture over the 


was felt at Dupont’s powder mills, where there was not an explo- 
sion, as has been suggested. 


OBITUARY. 

Prrer D. Knieskern, M. D., died at Shark River, New Jersey, 
on the 12th of September last. He was born at Berne, Albany 
county, N. Y., June 11,1798. When a boy his love of nature 
and of books was such that his father despaired of making 4 far. 
mer of him, and he consequently, but with great difficulties, found 
his way to a liberal education. He took his medical degree about 

the year 1829 or 1830, at Fairfield (College of Physicians and — 
geons of the Western District,) N. Y., then a famous school © 
medicine. He early became passionately fond of Botany, W% zt 
mre steahle collector and a keen observer w botanists have 
exce ir 


for its own sake. Neither poverty nor want of opportunity 
companionship appear to have discouraged him, alshosge ie 
: 1 w fie 
first established himself, as a physician, at New London, then 
oe 7 ved to Or iskany, N. Y. He published in th Report of oe 
- of the University for 1842, a catalogue of plants 


; 
. 
{ 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 389 


Oneida county, of which Dr. Torrey took occasion to speak in the 
ighest terms, while also acknowledging the most efficient aid 
which Dr. Knieskern had rendered him in the preparation of his 
Flora of the State of New York. In the year 1841, upon Dr. 
orrey’s recommendation, he removed to a new field, which seemed 
to offer an opening for a medical man, while it afforded a richer 


subsequently appeared as a contribution to the Geological Survey 
f What articular course will be adopted in reference 
_ tothese botanical reliquie, the writer of this notice is at present 

} ~=tnable to say. But those wishing for information may address 


communications to him, or, which is better, to the Rev. Samuel 
Lockwood, Freehold, New Jersey, to whom we are indebted for 
the facts relative to nieskern’s later | informs us 


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mM 
ct 
5 


‘eep his memory green and name perennial in American Botany 
long after the few surviving companions of his youth have passed 
“ag, ld 


A. G. 

_ _ Joun Epwarps Horproox, of South Carolina, died at Norfolk, 
Massachusetts, on the 8th of September. e was born 

; upied the position of Professor of Anatomy in the 

“eae Tawvreraty of South Carolina. He is chiefly known from the 


es—a 
dred and sixty in number. Some volumes had been previously 
published and canceled by the author in consequence of their sup- 
Posed imperfection. The advance in our knowledge of American 


390 Miscellaneous Bibliography. 


d, 
interfered with its completion, although, as it stands, it embraces 


AMES De Carte Sowersy, died August 20th, at the age of 
84. Mr. Sowerby was well as a naturalist; still better, 
however, as an is illustrations of shells, plants, and other 


prominent ; in the latter department, mainly in connection with 
what is known as “Sowerby’s English Botany,” pags gs ches 


_, Sir Roprrick Impey Murcuison, the eminent geologist, died 
in London on the 23d of October, aged 79, having been born in 1792. 


V. MIscELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


1. The Linn-Base decimal system of Weights, Measures and 
Money ; by W. Witprrrorce Mann, New York, 1871. pp. 20.— 
This system is based upon the following, as principal units: the 
“inn=1 dekameter ; the arr=1 sq. dekameter ; the soll=1 capp 
=1 liter; the pondd=1 kilogram, and the monn=5 francs. The 
multiples ascend by tens by the Greek prefixes, Hena-, Dua, 
Tria-, Tetra-, &c., and the parts descending by tens are denoted 
by Latin prefixes, Primi-, Bini-, Tern-, &c. 

2. Earthquakes, Voleanoes and Mountain building ; by J.D. 
HITNEY. 108 pp. 8vo.—Three articles published in the No 
American Review. A valuable and interesting discussion of many 
of the views connected with the three subjects mentioned in the title, 

with the results of the author’s own important investigations. — 
, of Central Canada: & y si 
HAPMAN, Prof. in University 


, Three and four place tables of Logarithmic and Trigonometric Functions. By Prof. 
_- FM. Pierce, of Harvard University. Ginn Brothers, Boston. pp. 16... 
e ements of Trigonom By Prof. E. Olney, of the University of Michiga™ 
2 Shelton & Co., N. E 

General Geometry and Calculus. By the same author and publishers. 


| ’ AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, 


[THIRD SERIES] 


| ae ee ale 


Arr. XLIX.—On the Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico ; 
ty. EK. W. Hitearp, of the University of Mississippi.* 
ith a Map. 


THE colored outline map before you, without much preten- 
Sion to accuracy of detail, shows the general geological features 
of the great embayment, once a portion of the Gulf of Mexico, 
Whose axis is now marked by the course of the Mississippi 
tiver, from southern Illinois to its mouth. I have compiled 
this s map from the best data now extant, accessible to me, wi 
& view to the better elucidation of the succession and character 
of geological events ; and especially with a hope of bri 
bear ae the later formations of the interior of the continent, the 
chron ological record here left by the retiring waters of the sea. 
Marine deposits being better understood and more available ‘for 
8eneral comparison and conclusions than those of inland lakes 
me series here shown would seem, by its original a 

: AD 


| e Rocky i Mountain region, it gee be difficult to find in 
thet ee of the conti 

The subject matter of ‘the present communication is, for the 
great er part, embraced in publications made by myself during 
4° Past ten years ; and to these publications | must refer for 
: the corroborative detail, which in this general summary would 
be out of plac 
* Read before the capa: Association for the Advancement of Science, at 
is, August, 18 
| Am. Jour. Scr—Tump rite esis Va ne a 1871. 

26 


the Cretaceous beds are very distinctly divided into three prin- 
cipal stages, viz: 


4 
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special home of Inocerami, Selachians, and gigantic Am- 
monites, 

8. Ripley group: crystalline, sandy limestones, alternatil 
with dark colored glauconitic marls atiadnte finely preserved 
fossils. Thickness 300 to 350 feet. Equivalent of the highest 
bed yA Cretaceous of New J ersey, and doubtless of Hayden s 


The fauna of the Tombigb: a a 
at: gby sand sub-group is distin, 

alr eady stated, b number, hore, of indi 

species of In 


L. W. Milgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 398 


} = equivalents, the Rotten limestone would be represented by his 
ort Pierre group. 

The distinctive features of these several groups become less 
marked the farther we advance northward, even in Mississippi. 
Non-fossiliferous or lignitic clays and sands mingle with the 
marine strata; and become altogether predominant, it would 
‘ seem, near the northern termination of the outcrop.* 

West of the Mississippi, the continuous Cretaceous outcrop 
does not extend as far northward as on the east side, by some 
150 miles. Nor have the more ancient lignitiferous beds 


Dias ilies ig 3 


SE. 

great rock-salt mass of Petite Anset, exhibit the 
teristics of the Ripley group; while deep borings have demon- 
strated the presence, for a thousand feet beneath, of the uniform 
Rotten limestone, such as it exists on the prairies of Mississippi 
and Alabama. I have elsewheret stated the stratigraphical as 
Well as lithological reasons which induce me to consider both 
the rock-salt of Petite Anse, and the sulphur and gypsum de- 
posits of Calcasieu, as lying within the limits of the Cretaceous 

formations. 
The data given by D. D. Owen seem to assign to the Cretace- 
ous strata of Arkansas a dip S. or slightly W. of S. The out- 
ers in Louisiana are too limited in extent for determinations 
of dip; but it can scarcely be doubted that they represent the 
Summits of a (more or less interrupted) ancient ridge, a kind of 
“backbone” to the State of Louisiana, whose resistence to 
udation has measurably influenced the nature and confor- 
_ Mation of subsequent deposits. It is fair to presume that from 
_ this ridge the strata dip toward the axis of the Mississippi 
_ Valley, to meet those on the opposite side; and the depth at 
Which these beds are found in the Calcasieu bores, seems to 
Indicate, on the western slope, a south-southwesterly dip of 
to four feet per mile. A glance at the map shows, never- 
_ theless, that the general form of the northern Gulf shore was 
_ Rot materially influenced by the existence of this axis of eleva- 
_ Hon, which probably was marked merely by a series of discon- 
_ Rected islands in the early Tertiary sea that, after the emergence 


* Fide Safford : 
p;t, Indicated on the map by the localities of Petite Anse, Chicot, Winfield and 
3 This Journal, Nov., 1869, p. 345. i : 


- ds observed in South Carolina and Ala 


Tertiary period. 

It will be perceived that during the Tertiary period, the north- 
ern Gulf shore receded from its extreme northern limits ™ 
southern Illinois and Missouri, to a shore-line which, though 
running near the latitude of Baton Rouge, is not far irom 
parallel to the present one, if we ignore the extreme projection 
of the Mississippi delta. This rapid filling-in of the embay- 
ment, no less am the character of the deposits, prove that the 
depth of water was not great; especially in the remoter por 
tions, where lignitic and lignito-gypseous deposits V Pu 
ingly interspersed with small marine beds tthe remnants © 
_ estuaries) from the predominant material. Similar aleransie 

of materials occur, in fact, throughout the older Tertiary € 
_ of the southwest; and hence, the divisions marked off 
oy difference of color on the map, as “ lignitie” and “ marine 

ert 


the dip is very slight, lignitiferous strata are altogether predom: 
inant on the surface; ei the i to underlie 


out on the surface; forming, according to Hopkins, Ҥ a 
beaches around some of the Cretaceous outliers mention 


1 representing a : 
ary, I have little doubt that the larger portion, if aot alie 


(and Flatwoods clay) group (Lagrange and Porter's Creek group 
of Safford) are the strict srieentonte: in time of the oldest marty 
beds bama, and design® 


E. W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 395 


by Tuomey as the Buhrstone group (‘‘Siliceous Claiborne” of 
my Miss. Report). The lithological continuity of the bed- 


supported to some extent by paleontological evidence, sinchgle 


‘ae 
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€ river, so far as I know; and the oceurrence of somewhat 
extensive marine Tertiary outliers on the Cretaceous territory 
of Arkansas, as well as of lignitic beds on that of Texas (e. g., 
the Cross Timbers, as approximately laid down on the map), 
deg that although the deeper water of the embayment fol- 
Owed substantially the lines of trend shown on the map, 
_ there still existed at that time a connection, in a northwesterly 
- ection, of the Gulf waters with those of the great interior: 
__ basin of the West. 


: ; ecting troug! 
Inconsiderable thickness of the deposits, that of course — 
avored their removal by the subsequent events of the Quater- 
hary period. Nevertheless, enough seems to remain of these 
§ deposits to form a chain by which, with the aid of paleobotany, 
_ "Me equivalents in time of the Buhrstone and Claiborne marine 
_ Stoups, at least, can be determined among the fresh or brackish- 
_ * Miss, Rep., 1860, $$ 162 and ff. 188, ete. 


396 FE. W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 


water beds of the interior. And with these as fixed horizons 

to start from, aided also by the flora of the subordinate lignite 

beds of the later (Jackson and Vicksburg) stages, we may hope 

' to establish a comparative chronological scale through which 

the parallelisms with more distant regions, and later times, may 

be aw even for the much-discussed Tertiary beds of the 
est. 


My present purpose scarcely requires that I should more 
than allude to the detail of the later stages of the older Tertiary, 
which I have not distinguished on the general map, in order 
not to obscure too much the general features. Buta detailed 
map shows both the successive decrease in the width of their 
outcrops, and the regularly diminishing convexity of the Gulf- 
outline. I may also add that as we recede from the vertex of 


and more subordinate ; yet, by its persistent recurrence seem 

ing to intimate the occurrence, if not of oscillations, at least of 

local variations of depth; dependent, perhaps, upon corres: 
i outh A 


(much diminished) Vicksburg sea, here represented, appeats 
have intri ad al 


A 
the same time, let it be remembered that both east and west of 
the Mississippi, from the Chattahoochee to the Sabine, the older 
Te eriod closes with a decided prevalence, in the Vick# 


geological Feiss of the ulf does not exhibit any phenomen 
lie sesillel wi : cn the coast 


pproximation to, and admixture of, modern m# 
icksburg epoch closes abruptly, so far as the Gu : 
concerned, the marine Tertiary series. The geolo- 8 


Ee eee * 7 


‘ 


E. W. Hilgard— Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 397 


_ only in the lower, clayey division of the series; and it is suffi- 


ciently remarkable that the fine sand- and clay-stones of the 
* This Jour., Jan., 1869, p. 81; Ibid, Nov., 1869, p. 338. 


398 EF. W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 


upper division should have preserved no vestiges of either 
animal or vegetable life. 

0 not see how, in view of the nature, thickness (about 260 
feet) and wide distribution of this formation, the inference can 
be avoided that during the whole or a part of the interval 
tween the Vicksburg and Drift ages, the Mexican Gulf was, by 
some means, isolated from the Atlantic ocean; or that at least 
its communication, perhaps across the still submerged penin- 
sula of Florida, was so imperfect as to render the influx from 
the interior of the continent predominant over the original , 
supply of sea-water. An upheaval of the northern borders of 


ear the marks of the event recorded by the Grand Gulf rocks 
on the northern shore of the basin. The observations of Mr. 
Gabb in Sto. Domingo, and of the English geologists in Jamaica, 
seem to indicate the existence there of marine Miocene a 
Pliocene tertiaries, which are altogether unrepresented im the 
hat beds of that 
character may be covered by the Grand Gulf and later beds of the 


“ Northern Lignitic” of the older Tertiary, the Grand Gulf beds 
could be explained away as a mere littoral formation. — 

It is worthy of remark that while east of the Mississippi, the 
peculiar sand- and clay-stones of this group are confined 10 the 
northwesterly portion of its area of occurrence, in Louisiat@ 
and eastern Texas these rocks are altogether predominant, & 

cially along the northern (or landward) border, the clays 

eing subordinate. 


EL. W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 399 


Safford in Middle and Eastern Tennessee, and by Tuomey and 
myself in Alabama. The same is true, apparently of the larger 
channels of Texas. But within the limits of the Mississippi 
embayment, it constitutes one huge delta-shaped mass, covering 
the entire Tertiary, and a large portion of the Cretaceous area, 
to a depth varying from a few feet to over two hundred; on an 
average, perhaps, between sixty and one hundred feet. Its pre- 
dominant material is orange or reddish, rounded sand, mostly 
ferruginous, of various degrees of induration, with subordinate 
beds of clay, and enormous gravel-streams, evidently denoting 
ancient channels.* Its beds disappear beneath those of the 

ort Hudson age about concurrently with those of the Grand 
Gulf era; and consequently, it cannot well be independently 
represented on the map. 


ead of the w is elevation was succeeded, during the 
“Champlain” epoch, by a slow depression to at least twice that 
amount ; and finally, the Terrace epoch, a re-elevation 


be changed upward, accordingly. The same, 
mm a reverse direction, would be true if it could be assumed 


m 
that the occurrence of the glacial epoch sensibly affected the 
general level of the ocean. 


bles of many pounds weight ; while between these, the deposi- 
tion of the finer materials took place in more quiet waters. 
That these events were not of a local character; that on the 
contrary, the phenomena observed in the Southern States are 
but the necessary consequence and complement of the Drift 
Phenomena at the North, hardly requires discussion ; but it 1s 
time that these facts were more gi y understood and taken 
ito account by American geologists, and that the Ohio should 
* Miss. Rep., 1860, this Jour., May, 1866, and other papers above referred to. 
+ This Jour., Nov., 1869, p. 335. 


400 E W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 


ferous to the Bluff or Loess. Thus, in northeastern Texas, they 
have been accounted of Tertiary age; the “ Tertiary iron ores” 
of that region being precisely the same as those of the “ Orange 
Sand” of Louisiana and Mississippi. The same is doubtless 

ore banks” of Tennessee, 


ington and Baltimore. I ascertained its wide prevalence in the 
States of Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, and identified with 
it the superficial beds observed by Owen in Arkansas and 
southwestern Kentucky, and by Safford in Tennessee. So close 
and cogent a connection was thus established between it and the 
“modified Drift” of the Northwest, that I can no longer doubt 
Its equivalence, whatever may be the precise mode of origi? 
assigned to it. The “Eastern gravel” streams observed by 
Safford in the mountains of Tennessee, and no less by Kerr 
_ North Carolina, have their counterparts in the rivers of Texas, 
and in the great pebble-belts of the Mississippi embayment. 

But it will be difficult to combine into a harmonious whole 
the widely differing observations and opinions of geologists 0? 
the vexed Drift question, unless some agreement is come to 8 
to the precise meaning of the word. Let it be understood that 


F 
oO 
i 
B 
° 
Fry 
Rig’ 
® 
4 
5B 
& 
ra) 
= 


continent, outside of river channels, and that within this “” 
are : 


ms, the Glaciet- 


drift or moraines; t I Een cht ial’) drift f the North- 
atone Se eaten glacial”) =) “fit of 


ai 


= 


es 


eg 


EL. W. Hilgard— Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 401 


the Western, South Atlantic and Gulf States. It will then 
become possible, by a comparison of the really cognate pheno- 
mena, to trace more definitely the history, both general and, 
local, of that turbulent period, without the confusion attending 
the use of a word to which each observer attaches, more or 


Having discussed this formation somewhat in detail in 
papers recently published, I will merely state that it embraces 
& group of ly littoral and estuarian, partly swamp, lagoon 
and Tevisate daponte whose thickness and location is mani- 
estly dependent upon the topographical features of the con- 
tinent, then (during the ‘Champlain ” period) in progress of 
low depression; as shown by the nature of the deposits, and 
the numerous superimposed generations of large cypress stumps, 
imbedded in laminated clays exhibiting the yearly fall of leaves. 
These beds overlie those of the Orange Sand or Stratified t, 
while themselves overlaid by, not only the river alluvium, but 

by the Loess or Bluff silt or its equivalents; a as well as 
‘face. 


where this is absent, by the Yellow Loam of the 
___ * See Miss. Rep., 1860, p. 153. The reference of the outcrop at Powe’s to the 
Grand Gulf group, I thin, undoubtedly erroneous, and be true of 
part or whole of the Dwyer’s Ferry section, p. 154. 


402 HE. W. Hilgard—Geological History of the Gulf of Mexico. 


flow, have clearly been formed by simple disintegration of these 
strata, altogether independently of the river alluvium. 

These results fully confirm, therefore, the statement made by 
Gen. Humphreys,* that the Mississippi does not, as a rule, flow 


(Gen. Wade Hampton’s plantation), where a tube well has fur- 

nished a copious flow of combustible gas undiminished for 

many months. aor 
The swamp clays form, however, only the lower portion 0 

the Port Hudson beds. igher up, 

Hudson Sect there lie yellow or whitish silts and “ hard- 
ans.” + 


: a side of the valley, as shown on the map. 
i __ * Rep. on the Mississi river, p.98, etal + Thi Jour., vol. i, 1871, p- 345. 
- $ See profile in this Jon Yor Pons, sEocy | 


Perec ety ene gee 


puppets,” ends the deposits clearly referable to the epoch of 
depression. ; 

he Loess differs little from its equivalents farther north, 
save in being, utterly devoid of stratification as well as of any 
fluviatile organisms. It is not easy to imagine the modus 
operandi by which a deposit of this kind, sometimes 70 feet 
thick, and of dead uniformity from top to bottom, could be 
produced. Its equivalents farther north exhibit very distinctly 
the structure resulting when deposition takes place in (gently) 
| flowing water; at the south it was agg substantially stag- 


It is altogether devoid of stratified structure, as well as of fossils, 
and forms the surface layer, and in most cases the subsoil of 
£ 


tion of submergence, however brief, to the highest level at - 
vhich ; changes of level heretofore alluded to 
Would be shown to have exceeded by 600 to 700 feet the esti- 
_ Inate given above. 
_ The succeeding (Terrace) epoch of elevation has not, so far 
as I am aware, left any marks in the way of beach-lines or 
terraces, unless the second bottoms or “ hommocks” be ac- 
counted such. They, however, belong to a very modern epoch, 
s no 


404 A. Hali—Astronomical Proof of 


on the very Gulf shore, we find deposits of the Port Hudson 
age (180 feet at the Five Islands on Vermillion Bay) shows, 
nevertheless, that a wieipindous amount of erosion was accom- 
plished during the time that the Mississippi occupied in scoop- 
ing out its channel, to a depth which, even below the northern 
ond of Louisiana, cannot be estimated at less than 500 
fee 


‘ae regards the modern epoch, I will merely remark that, 
while in ale axis of the ancient embayment the Mississippi 
river, through the singular instrumentality of mudlumps up- 

eaval, is rapidly pushing out the land into the Gulf waters, 
the latter are nevertheless gaining ground on almost the eae 
coast of Mississippi and Alabama; and the same is true of a 
eet of Vermillion Bay. Yet on the whole, the scent of 
ouisiana, as well] as that of Texas and Florida, is more than 
holding its own; and the shallowness of the water, even where 
rareama: arn does take place, will necessarily restrict the latter 
within narrow limits hereafter. 


Art. L.—On the Astromonical Proof of a Resisting Medium m 
; by AsapH HALL. 


THE return of Encke’s Comet during the oy cai shin and 


its very favorable position for observation will att the 
pe ee of astronomers to this, one of the most reared 
bodies of our solar system. Besides the interest belonging to 


1786—1795 wea time= 12087112 days 
1795—1805 =—1207°879..“ 
1805—1819 a = =1207 454. * 
In order oo for this diminution Encke adapter - 
= a resisting medium in He appears to 
> been led to this hy, pothesis in the first place on account or its 
_ inherent probability, and in this view he was sustained by 


a Resisting Medium in Space. 405 


the introduction of forces acting in various directions, and pro- 
ducing anomalous changes in all the other elements of the 
orbit, contrary to what was required by the observations. 
cke therefore, notwithstanding the doubts of Bessel and 
other astronomers, continued steadfast in his theory of a. resist- 
‘Ing medium in space, and for more than forty years, and until 
within a short time before his death in 1865, pursued his cal- 
culations with wonderful zealand industry. Between the years 
1829 and 1859, he published in the volumes of the Berlin 
| Academy eight memoirs on the orbit of this comet, and also 
| Other investigations on the same subject in the Astronomische 
q Nachrichten and in the Berlin Jahrbuch. He assures us, what 
| We car easily believe, that he spared no labor and despised no 
| Precaution that could give completeness and surety to his com- 
ana and besides being an excellent mathematician, 
Kncke ssed, in a degree rarely equaled, the skill of ada 
ing formule to convenient and safe forms for numerical calcula- 
ions. He has given in the Berlin Jahrbuch for 1861 a résumé 
of his labors, and the proofs presented there, taken simply by 
: themselves, seem to put beyond the shadow of a doubt two 
_ Conclusions: first, that the periodic time of this comet is 
_ “minishing ; and secondly, that this diminution is satisfactorily 
_ *ceounted for by the assumption of a resisting medium in 


sh that the comet can approach very near to Mercury, so 
as the small mass of this planet, 
the perturbations which it may produce in the motion of the 


406 A. Hall—Astronomical Proof of 


when the observations have been accurately made. Encke 
imself has given in the Berlin Jahrbuch for 1858 a new and 
rigorous method for such calculations. : 
But should it be found, as seems probable, that Encke’s 


Comet. q- a. & 
ncke, 0°3407 2°2181 0°8464 
Faye 1°6942 S187 0°5556 


? 
Winnecke, 0°7684 —-3.1367 _ 0°7550 


Mercury, and always remains nearer than J upiter, on the other 
hand, Faye’s comet never approaches so near the sun as does 


a Resisting Medium in Space. 407 


been very carefully determined by Professor Axel Moéller of 
Lund, Sweden. A i 


eee area 


culty in the telescope of the Naval Observatory, but on the 
} first night it was looked for it was seen exactly in the predicted 
| Place. Professor Peters of Hamilton College, who is provided 


a Aa = 105-55, Ad = +9'"9, 
F The prediction, therefore, was one of the most accurate ever 
_ Made of the return of a comet. Hence in the case of Faye’s 


detected in his own work, is such that there is additional reason 


ts orbit is that by Professor Oppolzer of Vienna. As the per- 
turbations of thin comet have not been large, regard was hs 
to the first powers only of the disturbing forces, and the calcula- 
fions have been made with comparative ease. By combining 
Am. Jour. Scr.—Turp Series, VoL. II, No. 12.—Dec., 1871. 

26 


408 New Goniometer Hye-piece for the Microscope. 


the positions of 1819, 1858 and 1869, Prof. Oppolzer finds for 
the first interval the value of the mean motion 638” 6312, and 
for the second interval 638’:7007. ‘This difference is so small 
that we may safely conclude that the comet’s motion is strictly 
in obedience to the law of gravitation. 
ence, so far as the motions of comets have been determined, 
the evidence is against the theory of a resisting medium in space. 
Thus far, the observations of the planets lead to the conclusion, 
that their motions are in strict accord with the law of gravita- 
tion; and in the disputes about the acceleration of the mean 
motion of the moon, no one has thought to seek its cause in a 
resisting medium, but much more probable causes are at hand. 
Encke’s comet, therefore, stands alone in the strange anomaly in 
its motion which the calculations have shown. The first thing 
to be done would be to test the correctness of these calculations; 
and for this purpose it seems to me that the method of speci 
“polseeagiras is better than the expansion of the general pertur- 
ations, since by the first method all powers of the disturbing 


all ot . 
pointed out, by Olbers I think, that this comet moves throu 
those regions where the zodiacal light is seen. Possibly also the 
numerous meteoric streams which are moving around the sun, 
and which are closely connected with the orbits of some of the 
comets, may exert an influence on their motions. 
Sept. 25, 1871. 


Art. LL—On a new Micrometric Goniometer eye-piece for 
the Microscope ; by J. P. SourHwortTH. 


ieeels Meee 
Saar SS ee retina ear 


AFTER a few experiments by Dr. H. T. Porter and myself, 
! ucceeded in i i 


we have su 


making an eye-piece micrometer and 


process are 


New Goniometer Eye-piece for the Microscope. 409 


Ist. A scale of 100 heavy India ink lines about 3 of an inch 
apart are drawn on a dead white surface of Bristol board. The 


es king every ten divisions are inches long and 
_ extend one inch each side of the scale; those marking Ala 
five divisions are five inches long and extend one half inc 


length of one-half inch. In this the lines are zi, of an inch 
apart. After intensifying, washing and drying, a cover of thi 
g is cemented on with Canada balsam, and the slide cut to 
the slit in the micrometer eye-piece. It can b also mounted 
with a spring and micrometer screw, like J ackson’s micrometer. 


India ink, divided into degrees. The center is indicated by a 
dot, and one diameter is drawn. Every five and ten degrees 


, 


410 Dawson— Bearing of Devonian Botany on 


Art. LIL—On the bearing of Devonian Botany on Questions 
as to the Origin and Katinction of Species ; by Dr. J. W. 
Dawson. 

[The theoretical views contained in this section, though necessary to give 
completeness to the subject, are not suitable for an official report, and are, there- 
fore, printed separately by the author, for circulation to those who may be inter- 
ested in them as matters of science. ] 

Fossru plants are almost proverbially uncertain with refer- 
ence to their accurate determination, and have been regarded 
as of comparatively little utility in the decision of general ques- 
tions of paleontology. This results principally from the : 
mentary condition in which they have been studied, and from 
the fact that fragments of animal structures are more definite 
and instructive than corresponding portions of plants. 


that, with reference to such points, the evidence of fossil plants, 
when properly studied, is, from the close relation of plants to 
ose stations and climates, even more valuable than that of 
animal fossils, ss 
It is necessary, however, that in pursuing such SON 2 


nen c forms, whether with reference to a single 
geological period, or to successive periods; and ced 
¢ for stating here some general principles, whic b 
rtant for our guidance, with reference to the 

oA eas floras which form the subject of this memoir. 
(1.) ists proceed on the assumption, vindicated by e* 


ical purposes, the same assumption with “ag 


pierre 


Questions as to the Origin and Extinction of Species. 411 


to any given geological period, and may hold that for each such 
period there are specific types, which, for the time at east, are 
invariable. : 


condition and various states of preservation, it is still more 


lave greater significance than if they appeared in the Middle 
a Wh sara iSyned di ithout known suc 
. en specific types disappear without any kno - 
api teams rer: ae ei it seems unlikely that 
We should have failed to discover their continuance, we may 
fairly assume that they have become extinct, at least locally ; 
and where the field of observation is very extensive, as in the 
great coal fields of Europe and America, we may esteem 


a es such 
-€xtinction as practically general, at least for the northern hem1- 


412 Dawson—Bearing of Devonian Botany on 


without any external cause. : 
(6.) With regard to the introduction of specific types we have 
t infe i 


ties, may result from derivation, this by no means excludes the 
idea of primitive specific types originating in some other way. 


to discover, if possible, what are elementary or original types, 
and, having found these, to enquire as to the law of their crea- 
tion, 


(7.) In prosecuting such questions geographical relations 
must be carefully considered. When the floras of two succes: 
sive periods have existed in the same region, and under cireum- 
stances that render it Eitan that plants have continued to 

J 


broken continuity of fi 
I ire, however, under 
fone 


‘orth Am 


Questions as to the Origin and Kectinction of Species. 418 


Atlantic. The similarity of the Carboniferous flora on the two 
sides of the Atlantic, and thé great number of identical species 
proves a still closer connection in that period. These coinci. 
dences are too extensive and too frequently repeated to be the 


result of any accident of similar sequence at different times. 


differences in the features of each period, as, for instance, the 
floras of the Lower and Upper Devonian, and of the Lower, 
Middle, and Upper Cdebivndideeaits 

nother geographical question is that which relates to cen- 


Further, it is possible that these changes of subsidence ma 
ve some connection with the introduction, as well as wi 
the extinction, even of specific types. It is certain, at least, in 
the case of land plants, that such types come in most abun- 

tly immediately after elevation, though they are most abun- 
dantly preserved in periods of slow subsidence. I do not mean, 
however, that this connection is one of cause and effect; there 
are, indeed, indications that it is not so. One of these is, that 


| 
| 
: 
: 
| 
: 
| 


ain simi 

| _ lar to those of the Carboniferous. Of these types a few only 

_ Te-appear in the Middle Coal formation under identical forms ; 

_ 4 great number appear under allied forms; some altogether dis- 

- 4ppear. The Erian flora of New Brunswick and Maine occurs 

ide by side with the Carboniferous of the same region ; so does 

_ the Erian of New York and Pennsylvania with the Carbonif- 
us of those States. Thus we have data for the comparison of 


n direct seq f 
the Lower, Middle, and Upper Erian, and the Lower, 


414 Dawson—Bearing of Devonian Botany on 


Middle, and Upper Carboniferous, all more or less distinct from 
each other, ie i i ison 1 


eastern regions where the great limestone-producing subsidences 
were unfelt, and, on the other hand, are absent in Ohio, where 
the subsidences and marine conditions were almost at a maxi- 
mum. 


cilie types. Of these only four reappear in the Carboniferous 
under identical species, but no less than twenty-six reappear 
ler representative or allied forms, some at least of vin? 

i ed 


urther, a very poor flora, including oe 


Erian flora of America, as well as the Carboniferous, requires 4 
‘horough comparison with that of Europe before general co 


be safely drawn. In the meantime I may indicate the : 


: 
: 
| 
: 
; 
- 


Questions as to the Origin and Extinction of Species. 415 


Table of Erian and Carboniferous Specific Types. 


; age a5 
= Erian Types. Represented ee. Erian Types. Represented gale 
a in Carboniferous— alee in Carboniferous— SS /28 
| BSB PS ibs 

1. Syringoxylon mirabile, - --_- 21. Cordaites Robbii,....._._- * 
2. Nematoxylon 28. OC. au OUR oe ee 
So. Prowtaxites .o0l6 85 29. Cyclopteris (Archzopteris), - 
4 ma Aporoxylon, sic. cee 80.: 0: (Aneimites) oe occ Saws se * 
; meMrmoxylon, ..6..+..2...5 31. C. Brownii, 
4 BereMeORVION. oo cuec es */ 39. C. varia, * 
q 7. Sigillaria Vanuxemii, --_--_ * || 33. Neuropteris polymorpha, __ * 
8. S. palpebra, * || 34. N. Serrulata, - * 
9. Didymophyllum,______.-- 30..N. Dawson, sues oe.co ou 
0. Calamodendron, _._....-- * || 36. N. retorquata, it 
1. Calamites transitionis, _.._| * 37. N. resecta, 
2. C. can Me stage * 38. Spenopteris Heeninghausi, _| * 
3. Asterophyllites scutigera, 39. 8. Harttii, * 
ome WUIONA: oc * || 40. Hymenophyllites curtilobus, | 
ularia laxa, 41. H. obtusilobus, 
: 16. Sphenophyllum antiquam, - * || 42. Alethopteris discrepans, = 
byclostigma, ..._...-..-. 43. Pecopteris serrulata, ------ ma 
. OB WEIN a 44, P. preciosa, 
19. Lepidodendron Gaspianum,| | * || 45. Trichomanites, --_-...-~-- 6 
. L. Veltheimi. . * || 46. llipteris, * 
21. Lycopodites Matthewi, - _ _- * || 47. Psaronius, = 
22. L. Richardsoni,_-----..-- 48. Cardiocarpum,: ....------- * 
me ee VeRONOMT, oo... 2 4st 49. ( 
24. Lepidophloios antiquus, --- * || 50. Antholithes, . 
26. Psilophyton princeps, -- ---| 51. Trigonocarpum. ...=-.--=- 
oes ropustius .......... 


direction in which the facts seem to point, by the following 
general statements :— tees : 
1. Some of the forms reckoned as specific in the ee 


gl 
pnts of structure. The fact that so many Erian and 


ld resul 
_ Struggle for existence.” (4) The elevation of a great expanse 
‘new land at the close of the Middle Erian and the beginning 
+ In the manner illustrated by Hyatt and Cope. 


416 . Dawson—Bearing of Devonian Botany, ete. 


of the Coal period, would, by permitting the extension of species 
over wide areas and fertile soils, and by removing the pressure 
previously existing, be eminently favorable to the production 
of new, and especially of improved, varieties. 

2. Whatever importance we may attach to the above supposed 
causes of change, we still require to account for the origin of our 
specific types. This may forever elude our observation, but we 
may at least hope to ascertain the external conditions favorable 
to their production. In order to attain even to this it will be 


types, or the reverse—whether these conditions were those of 
compression or expansion, or to what extent the a pearance of 
new types may be independent of any external conditions, other 
than those absolutely necessary for their existence. I am not 
without hope that the further study ‘of fossil plants may enable 
us thus to approach to a comprehension of the laws of the crea- 
tion, as distinguished from those of the continued existence of 


species. 
In the oo state of our knowledge we have no good 
ground eit: 


rence of such an advanced and ialized type as that of 
Syringoxylon, in the Middle Devonian, should guard us against 
these errors. The creative process have been applicable to 


grand 
ons which may not come till we have pr away, 
earnest and true to nature an its Creator, 


\ 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 417 


Art. LIIL—On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision ; by 
JosepH LxConrts, Prof. Geol. and Nat. Hist., University of 
California. 


If I place a piece of money on a sheet of ye lying on the 
table, and look downward in the direction of the piece, but at 
he same time gaze on vacancy, I see two heteronymous i 


of 
the pencil. If I use the 
right-eye image (left image) of the pencil p to draw the left-eye 


on vacancy, as al- 


418 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


and the right-eye image of the pencil p; and these, being in 
the visual line of the two eyes, are brought together by the law 
of corresponding points (2) precisely as the two pictures of a 
stereoscopic card are united, or as any two objects, an interocu- 
lar space apart, are superposed when we gaze at a distant point. 
If M. Pictet had used his left hand to draw, then he would have 
used corresponding images of the pencil and piece; and he would 
have found that in attempting to draw his ilusive image he 
would have placed his pencil on the prece. 

n the ex- 
periment with- 
out the median 


visual results, 
igs. 11 and 18, it will 
be observed that the ad- 
ditional images, viz: @ 
and P’, are cut off by 
the median screen. 

is evident, there- 


—s 


tet’s experiments, 
image we see and trace 
in outline is not an 7m 

I 


age seen by the left, eye. 
The pencil we see with 
the right eye, and the 
two points, viz: 

pencil and money, OF 
the part of the i ss 
; : whic y make 

drawing and the money, being in the = Sea are brought 


— 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 419 


together by the law of corresponding points. In M. Pictet’s 
experiment these two, the pencil and the money, are similarly 
related to the two eyes, one on one side and the other on the 
other side of the screen—one exposed to the view of one eye 
and the other to the view of the other eye. If the image we draw 
is an illusive image seen by the right eye, then the pencil with 
which we draw must be also an illusive image seen by the left eye. 

But to explain M. Pictet’s experimenta little farther: When 
we look directly at the money, M. Pictet says ‘‘ we see that the ver- 
tical screen is transparent throughout, and that it permits the 
night eye to see the piece as through a perfectly diaphanous 
surface.” But there are two transparent screens seen. e one 
seen by the right eye M. Pictet observes,* the other apparently 
escapes his observation. The truthis, when we look at the money, 
the heteronymously doubled images of the median screen m m’ 
(fig. 14) meet at the distance of the point of sight. The actual rela- 
tion of parts is seen in fig. 7 (p. 322), in which A Rand A Larethe 
visual lines converged upon the piece A. The visual result is 
seen in fig. 14. It is seen that the visual line of the right eye 
Stops at the right eye image of the median screen, while the left 
visual line runs parallel to its image 
of the median screen unobstructed 
to the piece a’. Again, “if we give 
to the optic axes a direction more 
parallel,” says M. Pictet, ‘“‘ we. see 
the image of illusion move gradually 
come on the right side.” “But again, 
he does not observe that there are 
two screens seen; and again, it is 
the left eye image of the screen 
which he neglects. In truth, as the 
eyes become parallel, the two images 
of the screen, mS and m’S’ fig. 14, 


screen seen by the left eye; only the right eye shifts tts image of the 
screen to the left of it. If M. Pictet would place another piece 


- There seems to be a kind of dexterity in the right eye. In many cases of 
double images, most persons habitually neglect the left-eye image. 


420 J. LeConte.on Binocular Vision. 


only s : . : 
of Bae = vo bey a the principle of making tracing 
case of squinting’ of stance from the object itself, In the 
The stisisothie, rane a median screen is inadmissible. 

i na of M. Pictet’s first experiment, fig. 6, will 

: 16. now be easily un- 
derstood. If no me- 
dian screen is used, 


Ss 
fe 


together, so that the 
left-eye image of A, 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 421 


line. The visual result is represented in 


go. 
As illustrating the singular confusion into 
which M. Pictet has fallen, I would draw 


0 
teal images differ slightly from each other, being taken from 
different points of view, so do their fac-similes the two illusive 
images ; also, necessarily, that the real and illusive images o 
each eye differ precisely, as do the two real images or the two 
illusive images. He believes that the perception of relief is the 
result of comparison by each eye of tts real with its wlusive image. 

‘ow what advantage this theory has over the usual and simpler 
one of Brewster, Prevost and Briicke, considering the fact that 
the real and illusive image of each eye differ precisely as do 
the real images of the two eyes, it is impossible to imagine. 
But M. Pictet regards the existence of the four images not as a 
question of advantage, but as a question of fact. “A very 
Simple geometric construction shows us thus four images iden- 
Heal, two to two.” I reproduce M. Pictet’s figure illustrating 


4992 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


this point. The full-lined figs. A and B are two projections of a 
truncated pyramid, as seen by the left and right eye respectively. 
On the same smal- 


gure. These four 
figures, according to 
Pictet, represent 


images formed in 
looking at a a 
truncated pyrami 

the full-lined figures being the true and the dotted-lined figures 
the illusive images. For, says he, “if we unite in oné single 
image these four contours (by means of a stereoscope), we eX- 
perience instantly the impression of. a solid body ; and we 


mon faces, the smal] triangles, are united, the full-lines of the 
ee figure must coincide with the dotted lines of the other. M. 
; mage has therefore, by his dotted lines, only represented in 
oe of his fig ures what must take place in the binocular com- 
mation of his two full-lined Jigures, if there were no dotted lines 


and which forms the foundation of Briicke’s theory. 

b ame rt Prevost and Brewster explain the perception of relief 

ies changes of Optic convergence, by means of which 

ak parts of the two dissimilar images of the same object, 
Wo stereoscopic pictures, are successively united. In 


angles are perfectly united, then th 
7 e smaller triangles are 
doubled. Thus, the alternately greater and less convergence, 
+L. ty, 10 unite successively different parts of the pictures— 
f the point of sight back and forth—precisely 


{ | J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 493 


like that which takes place, in natural vision, in looking suc- 
cessively at nearer and more distant objects, or nearer and more 
distant parts of the same object, gives a distinct perception of 
relief. 

No one who has carefully analyzed his visual impressions, 
either in natural vision or in stereoscopic combination of pie- 
tures, can for a moment doubt that there is in all cases @ change 


i ears 


idea of a complete mental combination of dissimi- 
| lar images, though still supported Oy great names, is certainly 
: n my ou 


a stereoscopic Bese: or of a natural solid object; and that 


in insisting, against Wheatstone, on the impossibility of com- 
plete union of all parts of a stereoscopic picture of an object 


Wwe can distinctly perceive stereoscopic relief by the arath an 


* Arago, (Euvres complete, tome 4, p. 70. + This Jour., ITI, vol. i, p. 15. 
Am. Jour. Sct.—Tutrp Series, Vou. II, No. 12.—Dec., 1871. 
28 


424 J. LeConte on Binocular Vision. 


the operator. A Leyden jar was introduced into the circuit 
in order to increase the brilliancy of the sparks. The sparks 
were 1-2 inches in length. I selected stereoscopic pictures in 
which all other forms of perspective were entirely wanting, so 
that no relief was visible with one eye. Outline geometrical 
gures are best for this purpose. 
I first viewed these in the stereoscope by the continuous light 


When I first commenced my experiments by either of these 
methods, but especially the last, a rapid succession of spar! 
was n inati t 


difficulty in the interval of darkness, After some practice 
however, the rapid succession of sparks was no longer necessary. 
The combination was effected, ana the relief perceived by sepa- 


by monocular vision, even in the full light of day. By the 
x their relative distance was at once detectable with two eyes, 
though not with one. This last experiment was varied in many 
ways, but always with the same result, : 

Stereoscopic combination, by squinting requires considerable 
practice, even in the full light of day, and of course much 
more. by the electric spark. All the other experiments were 
repeated by my brother, and my results confirmed. 


ae ; * II, vol. ii, p. 1. 


J. LeConte on Binocular Vision, 425 


“ 


whether the images are real or illusive, or whether one be real 


. . . 
a side the point of sight, are doubled, but differently, the 


genitally or become so by experience, I quite agree with Don- 
ders, that there is truth in both views. In a letter to Prof 
Tyndall, published in the Phil. Mag. for April, 1871, referring 
to the question whether the “Jaw of direction” was native or 
acquired, I have said that instinct is nothing but “ inherited 
experience.”+ Precisely the same remark applies to the law o 

Corresponding points, Jt is acquired by the experience of succes- 
sive g y 


1S greater in the lower animals, the individual experience is 
‘ater in man. Binocular si i 


_ * This Jour., II, vol. ii, p. 1 et seq. 
mh fil not en sen th similar view of Hering vit, that instinct is * inherited 


426 H. James-Clark—The American Spongilla, 


is any such fusion of corresponding fibres as suppose 


Art. LIV.— The American Spongilla, a craspedote, flagellate 
Infusorian ; by H. J AMES—CLARK, 05: De Sear E POL I 
Hist., Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky. (With a Plate). 


not altogether mere cell-components of a tissue, but are each, 
severally, an independent body, although closely connected 
with others in a common bond, then the =e parallelism 
between the two groups must utterly fail of confirmation. ie 


is a eae ey member (a cephalid in this case) of a polycephalie 


individual.* We believe, as far as we can understand his un- 


not a polycephalic unit. Yet, whichever view prevails, the 


© Gin deii-daticde on “ Polarity and ; ism,” this Journal, January, 1870. 
| " rai reas : ph ae 


+See Carter, On Fe im the two Volvoces; on Eudorina, 
enone ana Magazine Nat. Hist., January, 1859; also for July, 1871, On new 


| 


4 


H. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 427 


_ new ‘Sounge fe, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., July, 1871) has an- 


; etn needles. yea ne mie Soa “a heron she in- 
2 contractility of the living sponge, can appreciate the ad- 
aS Nat, Hist., vol. i, 1867, “ On the Spongie corres 
_ fusoria Flageliaia.” 


* 


428 H. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 


vantage of not being obliged to destroy and sever parts of an 
organism from their natural relations. Premising thus, that 
everything has been studied “in place,” even to the details of 
the monads, we shall endeavor to describe this sponge as if it 


from the monadigerous mass (9), an were, suspen 
on the points of the larger, far-projecting spicules (e); just as a 
tent canvas is supported on the e The inner di- 


bracing them, as if ina sheath, from their tips to t 
where they rest on the brown mass of monads. In brief, we 


pillars are the bundles of spicules, and the floor is tapestried by 
Sse the pillars hangs from the ceil- 


which allow a free ingress of the water to the space just _be- 
neath. These are the afferent ostioles (os), through and into 


op ee the focus of the objective to the floor of arene 8 
, : : 


h). The outer divis- 
Ms scattered minute 


pe eae es ES 


H. James-Clark—The American Spongiila. 429 


ments here; namely, the inner division (c) of the investing 
membrane, and the groups of monads (h) which are imbedd 
in it, below its surface. In a fully expanded individual these 
groups seldom lie so closely as to touch each other. They 
vary considerably in size and are usually globular or spheroidal, 
and form a single stratum, with rather narrow interspaces (c’) 
between them. 

It seems proper here, at least for the sake of precision, that 
the cytoblastematous basis, in which the monad groups are im- 


where the body stands out an irregularly rounded mass, some- 
times an inch in diameter, the cytoblastematous basis fills mel 
- interior, in enormous proportion to the bulk of the mona 
ayer, 


ORGANOGRAPHY. 


a very diffuse cytoblastema (a') and irregularly disposed cells 


(6,02) scattered through it. The intercellular cytoblastema 
_ forms a very thin layer (a*) between the cells (6); but where 


_ divisions) presents in profile (a', c, d) such an irregular thickness. 
| toblastema (a*) is colorless, hyaline, and apparently homo- 
power; but, when magnified to about four 

it capi a very finely granular aspect. 


430 Hi. James- Clark—The American Spongilla. 


than that, owing to the extreme transparency of the cells, and 
their consequent inconspicuousness, That the cytoblastema, 
notwithstanding its low undeveloped state, is the true contractile 


. . 


it 1s barely possible to discover even the trace of a cell on the 


collection of coarser granules than are generally diffused through 
the cytoblastemic layer. The irregular and jagged outline, and 
the caudate projections of the cells (2*) also tend to tempt one 
to the latter view. The cell element in this case, then, corres- 
ponds only to what is usually considered the cell contents, and 
anucleus. The contents are composed of coarse and fine grey 


quently are so transparent and slightly refractive as to appear, 
collectively, unless specially focussed upon, as a faint blotch in 


such a function, we could detect no change other than might be 
produced by the varying length and breadth of the cell, and the 
Tale, Last By pug ovetiving each other in Spongila alba. At 


H. James-Clark—The American Spongiila. 431 


the whole organism is contrived and constructed. They are 


ess circular, areas scattered in pretty close proximity to each 
other over the “cytoblastemic mass.” Each chamber has a 


Xtreme border, an i 
of the investing membrane becomes evident. 

*The hollow groups of monads were originally descibed by Carter (Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., July, 1857) as lining an hypothecated vesicle. he named ne 
“ampullaceous sac.” He has since (Ann. Mag., Jan., 1859) revoked that view 
another. We believe him to be, excepting the inferred “ampull ‘ 

” in the main, right in his first interpretation ; but as our species are differen 
We cannot speak definitely. 


432 HT. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 


Entering this aperture we do not meet with any obstacle 
for a little distance around it; there is a clear open space 


Pt 
0g 
es 
& 
i=) 
Oe 
1e) 
6B 
4 
5 
oc. 
S 
6 
B 
Qu 
Sa 
9 
sr 
@ 
ra] 
- 
= 
- 
° 
et 
o 
= 
OQ 
a 


Ow a power as two hundred diameters. We have studied 
these bodies with an 4th-inch objective, and found it not at all 
difficult to focus down upon the details of their organization, 


es, some 
outline ; or, when the whole mass is expanded, they scarcely 
impress eacli other, and therefore retain a rounded contour. 
By plunging the focus so as to look into the aperture of a cham- 


H. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 433 


The monads are so transparent, and the organization so distinct, 
that the collar and flagellum may be seen clearly from an oppo- 
site point of view, looking directly through the body of the 

halid. This, too, is the best position from which to study 
the contractile vesicles. 


by Plunging the focus half way through a chamber, serves best 
to disclose the manner in which the posterior ends (/) of the 


The body, proper (fig. 8, 7), of a cephalid is a little shorter 
w hape. Its 


? 


The contractile vesicles \v).—The body of the monad is dis- 
ed 


her large, cl y : 
from each other, but always close to the periphery. These clear 


particular place in the body, although they, usually, are not in 
front. The systole and diastole are sr slow, but very 
distinct, if sufficient patience is summoned to wat y 
and without joer epiini The last third of the systole 1s 


434 H. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 


abrupt, and then only does the vesicle appear to contract sud- 
denly; whereas by watching it through a complete circuit of 
diastole and systole, one learns that its function is, on the whole, 


Hf. James-Clark—The American Spongilla. 3 435 


op and expanding, draw in current through its open afferent 
ostloles, 

We regret that we have not the means, in this locality, for 
completing these researches. Our specimens were gathered; and 
studied on the spot where they lived, in the western part of 
Massachusetts, several Bicndeed miles away from our present 
Tesidence. Unfortunately we put off the attempt to feed the 
awe with colored matter until we had completed other me- 
thods of investigation, and then we were prevented, by circum- 
stances, from carrying out our designs. 

In regard to the afferent and efferent canals, seen by Carter 
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1857, ut sup.) in the monadigerous mass 
(“ parenchyma” Carter), we have not met with any trace of them 
in the species described in this article. It is ag that they 
May exist in the oldest and largest individuals, but as we 
worked, only, on very small and transparent specimens, our 
tirect observations, in this respect, strictly apply to the latter. 
It is more likely that ours is a different genus from the Spongilla 
of Carter, in favor of which we cite the curious fact that each 


ES 
3" 
a 
o 
or 
5 
= 
g 
ee 
<: 

; z- 
5 
Fare} 
=) 

1a 

‘B 
5 
2 
g 
© 
<— 
8, 
a 
® 


ivesting membrane, exactly overlies and is mseparable from 
the entrance to a monad-chamber (‘ ampullaceous sac ;” partim, 
Carter); so that whatever enters these chambers must go out 
by the same way that it came in; not out into a system of 


436 Hough—Description of a Printing Chronograph. 


branching canals, burrowed in ee monadigerous mass, but into 
the great circulatory apartmen 
Spongilla set oe Jas—Cl. 
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF PLATE IL. 
The following letters apply to identical part~ in all of the figures. a, Inves ue 
Sectio 


hae 
membrane; outer division.—a', onal profile of the cytob astema of a.—b 
. Cells in the thickness of me Lo — seer - se about ‘me ‘spioules ge i 
is ; : 


sti brane, with th surface 
porary junction (by contact only) of ‘te os tr (a) and inner © divisions iP the 
investing membrane.—c, Inve ting membrane; epithelioid inner division, in sec- 
tional Pipa be avegcanea 8 between monad-c Ubes-comaoy J ncthi of the divi- 
R ps 2 a 


—%; m 
chambers and monad shonpk —1, Aperture of h.—j, Monads, or the body proper 
in figs. 3 and 3a.—k, “pamriaas collar of j.—1, Flagellwm.—n, Nucleus.—os, Minor 
ostioles.—v. Bie ye 
Fig. 1. Magnified 320 dinmetons Part of a biped young Spongilla, of an o oblaté 
— form, te about z's Of an inch i in diameter. On the right is presented 
f the investing membrane and the underying ieeastieel mass, 
On the left the focus is so adapted as to be fixed on a face-view of the monad-mass, 
and at the same time on a sectional protile of the investing membrane at a’, 5°, ¢, 


Magnifie ed 780 errno Interior Ler @ monad-chamber, seen through 


Forti ; the monads appear in end view, and crowded together side by side 

like a pavement wor 
Fig. 3 segnited 1 600 af we ah A single monad, as seen in profile in the 
monad-chamber. Onl © contractile Mer eal gase present in this specimen. 


The eplindrcal collar On is extended to its u 
;600 eters. het ened, front view of a monad; 
the the body iy Gi) in the Sigeneo; the hollow cylinder (%) projecting toward the ob- 
like a dark hoop, and the flagellum (I) in the center appearing as a black 


Fig. 4. ified 780 diameters, — view of a monad-chamber, —— 
the aperture (#) into profile, as well as the monads aeacat lie at the same ley 
thus showing their conve ergence about ng psa open 


Arr. LV. Miers ene of a Printing Chronograph; by G. W. 
Hovea, Director of the peers Observatory. 


rved. e gre 
point of ‘hataaeke and saving of labor, over the old eye and - 
ene coop y used, led to the almost general adoption © 
e new plan. 
| hth, the past ten years the idea of constructing a chrono- 
graph, which ahoahl print with type the time of the observ® 
tion, has been entertained F t fiv 


a a ef 


= tion, it is necess 


Hough—Description of a Printing Chronograph. 437 


of an apparatus designed for this purpose, and about the same 
time Prof. C. A. Young, of Dartmouth College, published a 
proposed plan for one,* But, so far as we are informed, the 
mechanical construction of such an apparatus has not hereto- 
fore been attempted by any one. 

The construction of a machine which shall carry a type 
wheel, capable of giving impressions, with uniform ve ocity for 
anumber of hours together, without sensible variation in its 
motion, is a problem which is not easy of solution. 

me five or six years ago, in a paper read before the Albany 
Institute, I gave an account of the method I proposed to adopt, 
and in the construction of the machine, now to be described, 
the plan then proposed has been generally followed. My plan, 
which is radically different from any other proposed, is based 
on the principle of using separate systems of mechanism for 
the fast-moving type wheel, and those recording the integer 
minutes and seconds, regulating each with electro-magnets 
controlled by the standard clock. 
_ Hor a clear understanding of the mechanism, elaborate draw- 
ings would be necessary. We shall, therefore, merely give a 
general account of its construction and peculiarities : ; 

Ist. A system of clock-work carrying a type wheel, with 
fifty numbers on its rim, revolving once every second; one, 
two, or parts of two numbers being always kag: so that 


nd. A system of clock-work, consisting of two or more 
shafts, carrying the type wheels indicating the minutes and 
seconds. ‘The motion of this train is also governed by an elec- 


he type wheels are constructed of brass disks, around the 
circumference of which is soldered a strip of electrotype copper, 
holding sixty numbers. is 
Presuming now we have this system of type wheels in opera- 
essary to print without disturbing their motion; 
* See this Journal, No. 124, July, 1866. 


438  Hough—Description of a Printing Chronograph. 


f the record is made while the type wheel indicating integer 
one number 


operation of this et allowing c~ fall and print. ihe 

a time - — mmer is about 0-07 sec., being but aa 

“€ in excess of our ordinary chronographic recording pen; 20 

Since the hammer is acted’ on by she alone, the armature 
if ‘ 


Hough—Description of a Printing Chronograph. 439 


Ss 
“3 
Bg 
PE. 
0g 
& 
of 
be 
ee 
m 
i 
Co 
— 
tat) 
S 
5 
pe) 
<i 
(a>) 
3 
co] 
B 
3] 
Loar) 
be) 
Ss 
rae 
-- 
= 
= 
o 
= 
; 
~~ 
= 
@ 


_The train carrying the minutes and integer seconds will run 
eight hours; the gear for elevating the hammer will deliver 
2000 blows; and the train for moving the paper fillet will go 
1200 times without winding. The fast moving train runs one 
hour and thirty-six minutes ; but since this train can be stopped 
at pleasure, without changing the zero of the type, its compara- 
tively brief running is not a serious inconvenience. 

To recapitulate, we claim the following: 
t, Separate movements for the integer seconds and the 
hundredths of seconds; 2nd, The method of regulating the 


nary chron h. Three Grove elements, or six Hill's ele- 

ments, work the two electro-magnets well. A separate bat- 

tery of about the same size is used for the hammer and fillet 
ets. 


| __._In point of accuracy, this machine leaves nothing to be de- 
| _ Sired, and is much beyond what we thought possible. From a 
vast number of experiments, made by reco Aya Sc: 
the beats of the standard clock, both at the middle and end of 
the oscillation, the mean error for a single print is found to be 
about 0-018 sec., equal in this respect to the recording chrono- 
graph. The maximum difference in the records of the beats 
Seldom exceeds 0°03 sec. ; and we believe this is as much due 
to the irregularity in the clock connection as in the running of 
the machine, since the same thing is found in ordinary chrono- 
Saag where the measures are made from second to: 
Secon: 


‘During the building of the machine, which was accomplished 
istant, F 


_ Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Series, Vow. II, No. 12.—Dzc., 1871. 
29 


440  Hough—Description of a Printing Chronograph. 


in the method of regulation, printing, etc. The fast moving 
train was used to propel the integer seconds and minute type 
wheels, dispensing with the auxiliary movement; but the dis- 
turbance of its motion was considerable, especially at the end 
of every minute, when it had double duty to perform. 

The saving of time and labor by the use of a printing chrono- 
graph is very considerable. At the lowest estimate, it does 
work equivalent to the labor of one person where three are em- 
ployed at the same time. In our zone work in former years, 
when the zone extended two hours in right ascension, it usually 
required the labor of two persons a whole day to convert the 
chronographic records into numbers and copy them on the 
blank forms. With the observations printed, this labor is 
wholly dispensed with; since the “mean” is at once deduced 
from the printed records. 

The machine is readily adjusted to indicate the same num- 
bers as the clock’s face, the type being so set as to print zero- 
hundredths when the pendulum is at its lowest point, where the 
magnetic circuit is completed. In the construction of the appa- 
ratus, provision was made for attaching engraved rings to the 
type wheel shaft, showing at a glance the time. But these are 
not found essential, as they would but little facilitate the set- 
ting of the type, which is accomplished as follows: The min- 
ute type wheel, which is free to move in either direction, 15 
revolved to correspond to the correct minute; an impression 
my then be taken, and the machine started, when the clock 
indicates the same; the seconds being readily counted from the 
beats of the magnet regulating the fast moving train. The 
whole time for this adjustment need never exceed two minutes. 

observation of zone stars, the type may be set to give 
the integer-seconds of mean right ascension, so that the final 
reduction will always be a small quantity. 
_ The constant use of this mechanism on every day and observ- 
ing night, for more than four months, during which time more 
than ten-thousand records have been made, enables us to speak 
with confidence of its success, both as regards correctness i 
printing and in saving of labor. 
_ Other things being equal, it is found, that for three observers 
twice as many observations can be reduced in the same time, a8 
when a recording chronograph is employed. 


Oe ee a ee 


ee 


G.W. Dean—Longitude Determination across the Continent, 441 


Art. LVI.—Longitude Determination across the Continent ; by 
GrorGe W. Dean. (Read before the American Association 
at Indianapolis.) 


Wirn the permission of Professor Peirce, Superintendent of 
the United States Coast Survey, I offer to the Association a 
brief statement, in regard to the method used, and the results 
obtained, by the Coast Survey, in determining the longitude of 
San Francisco and several intermediate points, by telegraphic 
exchange of clock signals, with Harvard College Observatory, 
Cambridge, Massachusetts. 


required for transmitting a 0m through one or more of those 
instruments. The results of those preliminary experiments were 


longitude operations at Cambri ge. : 

The biden acid for determining the clock and instrumental 
Corrections at Cambridge, were made chiefly by Assistant A. 
T. Mosman and Sub-Assistant F. Blake, Jr. 


442 G.W. Dean—Longitude Det-rmination across the Continent. 


At Omaha, the clock and instrumental corrections were 
determined by Assistant Edward Goodfellow and Mr. E. P. 

ustin, who used a forty-six-inch transit with an aperture of 
two and three-fourths inches. All the observations were re- 
corded by an astronomical clock in connection with a chrono- 
graph register. At Salt Lake City, the clock and instrumental 
corrections were determined by myself, assisted by Mr. F. HL 
Agnew, Sub-Assistant in the Coast’ Survey. 

The instruments used were similar to those provided for the 
stations at Omaha and San Francisco. 

Assistant George Davidson had charge of the longitude opera- 
tions at San Francisco, and codperated with Professor Winlock 
and myself in making the telegraphic longitude determinations 
across the Continent. : 

Cold dry weather being most favorable for exchanging tele- 
graph signals between Uistant stations, arrangements were made 
for these experiments during the winter of 1868-69. 

Whenever the weather permitted, the clock and instrumental 
corrections at each station were carefully determined, imme- 
diately before and after the exchange of clock signals between 


correction in no case exceeded 0°05 seconds. Mayer's formule, 
by application of the method of least squares, have been used 
in these reductions, which have been made in the most satis- 


ts. 
In closing this paper, I will state, that on the nights of Feb- 
ruary 28th and March 7th, 1869, the Western Union Telegraph 


science, placed two of their telegraph lines, between Cambri 
and San Franci 


purpose of measuring the “transmission time ” of ‘signals sent 
rom Cambridge to San Francisco and returned, and “ vice versd. 
The entire length of the several circuits, which were com- 


e ul d closely with 
the “double transmission time” deduced from the longitude 
: determinations between Cambridge and San Francisco, and ast 
ae with the. results of the experiments made for “ transmissiou 

time” with a single wire between those points, by Professor 

mock and Assistant Davidson. 


Company, with their usual liberality for the advancement of 


G.W. Dean—Longitude Determination across the Continent, 448 


Formule used in the Reductions. 


STAR. 
LampTallies 
a 


O. 
M.U | Mean of Tallies 
F. Mean of Thread Intervals. 


when F sec 0 is less than 2", it may be neglected. 


log R. 
hk R=F sec dog; and is to be added to M te. —— the Time 
of Transit over the mean of all the 8. 

6, =the level correction in time,,c dete ‘oot inequality 

| "of pivots: it is positive for west end high. 
A. A= sin ie 
q 5) { 180 °—d being used instead of J when 
B. B= sete ne star is below the pole. 
cos 


t do. 


C, C= secd 
%. x = the diurnal aberration = sec 0°021 cos g sec J, It is 
(—) in upper and (+) in lower culminations. 


Ba,. 
T. | T=M4+R, 
z. t= ay ah “BB, 
. o=e —t= St Aas 
Ce, 
“9 =w-+ Ce, upper sign for lamp west. 


The co. satan constant (c) is determined from reversals on 
circumpolar stars, and is to be obtained from the equation 
te — ty = Oy — 4, = 20 
A is positive except for stars between the zenith and north pole. 
B at lo ower culmination. 
Cc “ “cc 


The local time and simu are obtained thus: assume an 


the correction for aniee ear bY mls — 
° x daily rate, 


(1) = +* 24 rar 
and we have, putting A= Aat—4, 
rad + shes zw, 
ZAA0-4+ZA2a = SAo’,, 
Haag we determine a, 46, and thence At for the time ne 


444 G.W. Dean—Longitude Determination across the Continent. 


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G. W. Dean—Longitude Determination across the Continent. 445 


February 17, 1869.— Collimation. 


Star. | Time. | Ce. | C. | c. 
Draconis L. ©. 5 37 | +001 | —2°7 —0004 
w’ Draconis L. 0. 5 44 —0805 —3°273 +°0246 


T, = 6h. 46m. 6 = +12°550. 
‘ Clock and Azimuth Corrections.— Observer A. T. M. 


Star. Lamp.|  («) A w, | A? | Ao’, || Aa | At 
aa W. E.|+12-246| 4+9580| —304| 6-656 |—0-784 || —-312 |12°558 
¥ Draconis (pr) L. C.| E. W.|+12'139| +2°976| —-411} 8:857 |—1°223 ||—360 12°499 
@ Orionis, W. |412:496| +0°578| —-124| -335 |—0-072 ||—-070 |12°496 
¢Geminor, W. |4+12-450] +0-455| — 07 |—0-046 || —-055 |12°505 
€ Can. Maj. W. |+12:452| +1-080} —-098| 1-167 |—0-106 ||—-131 |12°583 
i. Maj. WwW. |4+12420| +1-:037| —-130| 1-076 |—0-185 ||—"1 : 
Geminor, W. |+12-474| +0:372| —-076| +139 |—0-028 ||—- 18 
@ Can. Min. E. 12°500| +0°60 050 3 |—0-030 || —-073 |12°573 
8 Geminor, E. |412:505! 40-276) —-045| -076|—0-012 | —-033 |12°538 
9 Gemin FE. |412497| +0-296| —-053| -088|—0-016 || —-036 |12°533 
1 + 10-262 |—1-391 |18-964|—2-462|| + [12635 
te 10 A? + 10°252 a= —1°391 A@ — °1240 = —°1391 
ry +10°252 AO + 18-964 a = —2°452 Ag = —"015 
A@ + 1:0252 a = —0-1391 
+10°251 A@ 4 ‘if 10 a= —1°426 At = +12°535 + -007 
8-454 a= — 1096 


ene between ae and Omaha. 
[Not corrected for personal equation.] 


a+ Xo No. of a t .} Bao ok 
Date Probable Series of Probable |Series of 
__ 1869. hm s. error, | Signals. error. | Signals. 
Feb. 17, |1 39 15°305| +-018 2 990} +015 3 
HAS, 15°293| +-033 2 1-960 | +°030 2 
“24, 15278| +-028 3 -999| +032 2 
Hared 15°351| 4-015 2 3009 | +015 2 
outhy 15°351| 4-031 1 007 | +°015 4 
oa 15°384| 4-034 1 1-982 | +°033 1 
Mean ah \ 
Xi 2 
Date Probable Probable || Double transmis- 
a. 5 hm 6 error. ||h.m 8 ror. sion time. 
Feb. 17 |3 18 30-295 | +4023 |/13915°147| +°012 08-315 
38 30-253 | +:045 127| +:022 0°333 
“24 30-277 | +043 15138 | +7021 0°279 
ae 30°360 | +021 15°180| +°011 
we 3: 30°3 +034 15179} +017 
‘38 30°366 | +:047 15°183 | +7024 0-402 
Mean | 1 39 15°159 +008 0-366 


Nore.—T h te used at Buffalo and Chicago. 
moe of tlograph wie ae Abit between Cambridge ant and Buffalo, 504 miles; 
and Chicago, 540 miles; Chicago and Omaha, 493 


ment. 


tion across the Cont 


446 GW. Dean—Longitude Determina 


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G. W. Dean—Longitud: Determination across the Continent. 447 


Longitude Determinations across the Continent, January and 
February, 1869. (Final results.) 
Personal Equations 


Dea = S- 
Goodfell ee =e =+0 i t From Gou'd's Report of May, 1867, p. 75. 
NS ee From observations made at San Francisco 
ean ee +0180 April, 1869. : 
on. Observer. Dean’s Standard. 

Cambridge, Mosman, +0*110 ) To be applied to the — 

Omaha, Goodfellow, —0°020 ae cae of the 

Salt Lake, an, 00 tiv + 
’ San Francisco, Davidson, +0180 them to > Dene! 8 pi 


To correct the differences of longitude for personal equation, 
we have :— 


Cambridge Time — Omaha Time = +0°130 
_ “ — Salt Lake Time = +0°110 
maha eo he _ = —0°020 
Cambridge “ W— San Francisco Time = —0-070 
Omaha * 33 “« = —0°200 
Salt Lake Cc — = “« = —0°180 
STATIONS. Difference of} Personal } Corrected differ- |Doubletran~- 
Long. (A). | equation. Pre of — mission time. 
.™. 8. 8. lh: 8. 
Cambridge to Omaha 139 15-159) +7130 [1 39 15- 289+ -008 3364 015 
ambridge to Salt Lake | 2 43 bes Oe 110 |243 4:3674-008| 5914-019 
to Salt Lake 1 3490 BLE “a0 1 349°061+4-008) -260+4-016 
Cambr’ge to S. Francisco! 3 25 7 260) 2 2m: 3 007) ‘8174-014 
Omaha to San Francisco | 1 45 52-094 — bi 1 45 51°8944-010! -483+-023 
Salt Lake to S. Francisco] 0 42 3-024. —-180 | 0 42 2°8444-008) “2424-016 
Diffe of 
ay STATIONS. : Longitude. Xi + Xs 
h. m. 8. #: A 
Cambridge to Omaha, 1 39 15-2894-008 | -3364-015 
Omaha to Salt Lake, e 3 49°061+°008 | 2604-016 _ 
Cambridge to Salt Lake (sum), Sper eeiaued 43 43504-011 | 5964-022 
NON i i ca ; 43 4367+4°008| 5914-019 
a 0174-014 | 005 +°029 
Cambridge to Omsha, 1 39 152894008 | 3364-015 
Omaha to Salt 1 3 49°0614°008 | -260+-016 
Sslt Lake to tee reiaead Ces 042 2:8444-008} -2424-016 
Cambridge to San Francisco (sum), eee eoue. 325 7:1944°014 | 8384-027 
(direct) os... 3.22 325 7:1904°007| -817+-014 
Difference ee -0044°016 | -021+4°030 
Omaha to Salt Lake, 1 339-061 4°008 | -260+-016 
Salt Lake to San Francisco, ’ 042 28444008 | -242+-016 
Omaha to San Francisco (sum), 1 45 519054011 | 5024-023 
a irect), 1 45 518944 °010 | 483 +023 
Ditters co | * O12 7015 9+-032 
wo, 2  Dileroneh 0. 
Cambridge to Omaha. 1 39 15-2894 -008 | -3364 015 
Omaha to San Francisco, --| 1 45 51°8944°010 | 4834023 
Cambridge to San Francisco (min --|3 25 7-1834°013 | ‘8194-027 
(direct), ........-|3 25 7-1904-007 | ‘8174-014 
Difference, 5 | 0024-030 


007 +015 


448 Smith and Verrill—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 


Difference of 
STATIONS. Longitude. A ae 


hem. 8. Ss. . : 
Bee hala ane mate 243 4367+-008| -591+:°019 
Foose. St 042 2.844+°008| -2424 016 
Cambridge to San Francisco (sum), ...-______. 325 7-211+4°011 | -833+4-025 
¢ “ (direct, 325 Tl 


SERRE eas £30.) 90+°007 | -817+ O14 
WON, fii bie inne, = 0214°013 | -016+°029 

Cambridge to San Francisco, _._............. 325 7.190+°007 | -817+°014 
(C. to 0.)+(0. to S. L.)+(3. L. to 8. 5 A ee eae 7-1944°014 | -838+°027 
em 07 HO. te 8. Fo oT 7183+-013 | -819+°027 
MirteS.)+(8. Eto 8. PY css 7-211+4-011 | -833 4-025 
Cambridge to San Francisco (Mean of Me 325 7194+°006 | 82747012 


Art. LVIL— Notice of the Invertebrata dredged in Lake Superior 
in 1871, by the U. S. Lake Survey, under the direction of Gen. 

- B. Comstock, S. I. Smith, naturalist ; by S. L Smirx and 

A. E. VerRRILL. - 

(Published by permission.) 

During the explorations in Lake Superior, mentioned in the 
last number of this Journal (page 373) the following species 
were obtained, together with a number of minute forms, which 
have not been determined. 

_ full account of the expedition, with descriptions of the 
Species collected, will be published in the official report of the 
expedition. : 

RADIATA. 


In 32 fathoms, 
arbor, it was b 
In the deep dredging 
bottom of the clay in the ‘oe g 
while the dredge was near the 


surface. 
OLLUSCA, 
Limnea. A species allied to L. disidiosa Say, was abundant 
ng ora in 8 to 13 fathoms on the south side of St. 


tione 
__A very young specimen, apparently of 
fathoms among the Slate Islan 


Smith and Verrill—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 449 


Planorbis parvus Say. Common in 8 to 18 fathoms on the 
south side of St. Ignace. 

Valvatu sincera (Say sp.). Abundant with the last species, 
in 8 to 13 fathoms, and also, in 4 to 6 fathoms, in the cove at 
the eastern end of the same island. 

Spherium sp. nov.? Among the Slate Islands, in 6 to 8 
fathoms. A single young specimen of another species of Sphe- 
— was found, in 8 to 13 fathoms, on the south side of St. 

gnace. 

Pisidium Virginicum Bourguignat. On the south side of St. 
Ignace, 8 to 13 fathoms. 

sidium abditum Haldeman. With the last species, in 8 to 
13 fathoms, and also, in 4 to 6 fathoms, in the cove at the 
eastern end of the same island. . 

wsidium compressum Prime. In the cove at the eastern end 
of St. Ignace, 4 to 6 fathoms. 

isidium sp. nov. A small, semi-translucent species, the same 


6 fathoms, and abundant among Cladophora, in 8 to 18 fathoms, 
on the south side of that island; among the Slate Islands, in 6 
to 8 and 12 to 14 fathoms; at 13 to 15 fathoms on a sandy © 
bottom in Simmon’s Harbor; near Copper Harbor, in 17 fathoms, 
clear sand; in 82 fathoms, very soft —- mud, in Neepigon 
Bay ; off Copper Harbor, in 62 fathoms, and north of Keweenaw 
Point, in 82 fathoms, soft reddish clayey mud and sand; an 
in all the deep dredging down to 159 fathoms. 
W opMs. 

Lumbricus lacustris Verrill, sp. nov. About 15 inches long, 
‘04 in diameter. Body round, distinctly annulated. Head 
short, conical, obtusely pointed. Sete spine-like, strongly 
curved, acute, arranged two by two, those of each pair close 
together. Color reddish brown. 


san 
lobes. Setae in four, fan-shaped fascicles on each segment, com- 
mencing at second segment behind the mouth. The two 
ventral fascicles are separated by a space equal to about pied 
the length of the sete, of which there are five or six In eac 
fascicle ; the sate are simple, acute, slightly curved, equal to 


450 Smith and Verrilli—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 


about one-sixth the diameter of the body. The lateral fascicles 
contain three to five somewhat shorter and straighter simple 
sete. One specimen appeared to have four minute ocelli upon 
the upper side of the head. 

Of Doppae Harbor, 17 fathoms, sand ; off Simmon’s Harbor, 
60 fathoms; and on the line from the Slate Islands toward 
Stannard Rock, fourth haul, 159 fathoms. 

Senuris limicola Verrill, sp. nov. Worm more slender than 
the preceding, attenuated posteriorly, composed of about 44 
segments. Length about ‘33 of an inch, diameter 02. Cephalic 
lobe blunt, conical. Setze in four fascicles upon each segment, 
six to eight in each fascicle anteriorly, four or five eect” 
The setae in all the fascicles are relatively long, slen |‘ 
and acute. Two tortuous red blood vessels pass along the in- 
testine, forming a loop at each segment. Intestine moniliform. 


On the line between the Slate Islands and Stannard Rock, 


moniliform. Anus terminal, large. 
Chirodrillus larviformis Verrill, sp. nov. Body rather short 
and not very slender, cylindrical, obtuse at both ends, distinetly 
annulated, composed of about 88 rings. Length about ‘30 of 
an inch; diameter ‘05. Cephalic lobe short, conical, obtuse, 
mouth large, semi-circular beneath. Ventral fascicles of sete 
near together, with about five sete, which are rather short, 
simple, acute, little curved; lateral fascicles with five or SIX 
setz of similar form and size; sub-dorsal ones similar. op 
preserved in alcohol, the body is usually curved ventrally or 9 
a simple coil. Color, when living, translucent whitish, intestine 
slightly greenish. A thickened smooth zone commences benin 
the 10th setigerous ring, occupying the space of about four 
segments. 
__ Off Copper Harbor, 17 fathoms, sand; off Simmon’s Harbor, 
59 fathoms, clayey mud. le 
Chirodrillus abyssorum Verrill, sp. nov. Sub-cylindrical, 
thicker anteriorly, distinctly annulated, com of about 42 
segments. Length 25 of an inch: Giameter about 02. Cephalic 
lobe short, conical, obtuse, mouth large, semi-circular. Ventral 
fascicles with eight or nine sete anteriorly, five or six posteriorly. 
_ The sete are long, slender, acute, strongly curved, those on the 
_ inferior side of the fascicles nearly twice as long as those of the 
upper side; setz of the lateral fascicles five or six, slender, 


-nearl a ly as long as those of the ventral ones, and similar in form; 


Smith and Verrill—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 451 


‘ 
dorsal fascicles with four or five shorter, stouter, and straighter, 
acute sete. 
Six miles S.E. of Passage Island, 47 fathoms; on line from the 


teriorly, more slender posteriorly (02 in diameter). Cephalic 
lobe short, conical; one specimen apparently had two minute 


about ten small lobes. Seta in four fascicles upon each seg- 
ment. Those of the lateral fascicles three anteriorly, often but 
two, short, slightly curved, mostly with minute forked and 
hooked tips; those of the ventral series in fascicles of four to 
six, three or four times longer than the upper ones, considerably 
bent, the ends minutely hooked and forked. 

Neepigon Bay, 32 fathoms. ; 

Nephelis fervida Verrill, sp. nov. Leech two or three inches 
long, 20 to 0 wide, elongated and slender in full extension, 
very little depressed, most so posteriorly, often round and 

M 


‘tapering anteriorly. outh large, nearly circular, subterminal, 


the upper lip, in contraction, short and rounded; corrugated 
within the oesophagus with three conspicuous folds, eyes eight, 


blackish, conspicuous, two pairs, a little apart, on the first 


anteriorly to the anterior sucker, which is broad and thin, 
sub-cireular, about three times as wide as the neck where it is 
attached, Oeelli four, on the upper side of the anterior sucker, 
the two larger, black ones, in front, and two minute ones wider 
apart and farther back. Posterior sucker large, rounded or 
oval. Color translucent greenish, with minute black specks 
arranged in transverse band 

Among the Slate Islands, 6 to 8 fathoms. 


452 Smith and Verrill—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 


Procotyla fluviatilis Leidy. Numerous specimens, apparent 
of this species, were obtained in 8-138 fathoms on the sout 
side of St. Ignace. They were, when living, dirty white, mottled 
with brown. 

In addition to the preceding species of worms, a few were 
obtained which have not yet been fully determined. 

CRUSTACEA. 

Mysis relicta Lovén. The occurrence of this and the follow- 
ing species, identical with forms from Lake Michigan, and the 
lakes of northern Europe, is mentioned in the last number of 
this Journal. It was brought up with sand and mud from 12 
to 14 fathoms at the eastern end of St. Ignace, from 8 to 13 
fathoms, with Cladophora, on the south side of the same 
island, and from deep water in a large proportion of the hauls 
from 73 to 148 fathoms. 

Pontoporeia affinis Lindstrém. This species was found at 


the peduncle of the antennule. jpoda sub-equai 12 
both sexes, the second pair being only slightly larger than the 
first ; propodus in the first pai rate, the palmar, : 


and armed with several spines. 
_ The incubatory lamelle of the female are very large, Pd 
jecting meh percns the coxse of the anterior legs, as In © me 


of the antennule, antenne thepoda, while it differs 


nt . etc., 
_ much in the ultimate pleopoda and in the form of the telson. 
Length, 5 to7™ : 


Smith and Verrill—Dredgings in Lake Superior. 4538 


Among Cladophora, in 8 to 13 fathoms, on the south side of | 
St. Ignace 


of the first segment of the pereion. Eyes small, prominent, 


h narro’ bly 
stouter the male than in the female; dactylus more than half 
as long as the propodus and its palmary edge armed with acute 
spines, of which the distal ones are larger. The mnteene 
pairs of legs all similar, the and prop segments sub 
equal in length and armed with short spines along the posterior 


454 T. Coan on Kilauea and Mauna Loa. 


Color above dark fuscous, spotted and mottled with yel- 
lowish. 


Neepigon Bay, and two species of Phryganeide larve were 
common among Cladophora in 8 to 18 fathoms on the south 
side of St. Ignace. 


Arr. LVIIL— On Kilauea and Mauna Loa; by Rev. Trrus Coan. 
(From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, Aug. 30.) 


ha 
leaving a high, serrous, black ledge around the circumference of 
2 rsp ; 


ees with light puffs of long, white steam rising here and there. 
; cre Were no demonstrations, and so nearly cooled was the bottom 
of that great south lake—Halemaumau—that I went down into it 
Some twelve hundred feet below the u rim of Kul 
measured across the floor. I found the diameter five-sixths of @ 


time, where the ineandeacoit rocks were seen boiling 
through - hy oe caverns fifty to one hundred feet below. Such 


y, 1869. 
Y recent Visit, two years later, I found great changes. 
uth lake had been filled with molten lavas, and successive 


ESTE See Se ee NS 


ES 


T. Coan on Kilauea and Mauna Loa. 455 


a firmament in conflagration, and reminding one of the 
figures of Peter in speaking of “the heavens being on fire... an 


g my absence, 
Square miles to a depth of fifty to three hundred feet—the deepest 


and extending east, south, and west, to the outer walls of Kilauea, 
and flowing down a steep slope to the north, and sweeping over 
the great central concave. 

was in the crater on the 22d instant, and was at once surprised 
with the great changes manifest. I had no sooner descended from 
the northern terrace, or black rim, than I found myself on new 
ground. All old tracks and landmarks were obliterated. All was 
recast. About half a mile ‘from the south lake I began to rise on 
an angle of some 25° until I was ona level with the rim of the 
cauldron. About three hundred yards from the pit the heat was 
so great, and the gases so pungent, that I could not proceed in a 
direct line to the margin. Being driven back I made a detour, 
and again attempted a direct approach. Failing in this, I retreated 
to a safer atmosphere, and then flanked the fiery pit at some dis- 
tance, traveling southwestward for half a mile. Here I found the 
in I advanced on the crater at 


Am. Jour. Scr.—Turep Series, Vou. II, No. 12.—Dzc., 1871. 


456 T. Qoan on Kilauea and Mauna Loa. 


clouds of smoke, which the fitful wind began to drive upon me. 


margin of the pit. : es 
he immense quantities of lava which came from this pit by 
not all thrown over the upper rim. After this rim had been raised, 


. ? - . ° e . s 
action is unequal, sometimes throwing up brilliant jets, and see 
i verns. It ha 


me thirty-five or forty miles from Kilauea, and about ie 
feet above it in altitude, how is it that we can see no sympathy 
that proves a subterranean connection 


the people have removed from the shore and built half a mile to 


Ww fish wl > 
they cultivated vegetables and grazed their horses. The de 
of that little cataclysm is s 


Chemistry and Physics. 457 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. CHEMISTRY AND PuHysliIcs. 


nm the sensitiveness to light of the haloid salts of silver, and 
the sasdeotitn between optical and chemical absorption of light. 
—Scuurrz-Se.iack has published with the above “title a very in- 
teresting memoir, the principal results of which are, in the author’s 
words, as follows 
"In the case of a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen the curve 
of the chemical intensity of the spectrum which shows the relative 
chemical action which the different ee exert when completely 
absorbed, has a course different from that of the curve which 


rae 
citenent extends in the case of chloride of silver from ie tra- 
violet o 8HG: in the case of iodide of silver to }$ e case 
of Brarioe of silver to 4 GF, with iodo-bromide ‘and iodo-chloride 
of silver to beyond E. 

(3.) The dark a. of haloid salts of silver exposed to the 
spectrum takes place in the case of chloride of silver within the 
extent of the photographs es ; this is pee also the 
case with the other haloid sal 

4.) In the case of the haloid salts of a. the i te of 


is never zero. 
(6.) A thin film of iodide of silver absorbs the light which is 
more refrangible than G very strongly, the light between G and 
+GF but feebly; this last is, however, photographically active. 
In photo: aphing upon iodide of silver, the interposition of a thin 
film of the iodide yor like illumination with light approximately 
homogeneous from G to 1 GF. 
© 47.) Ata ae temperature the co 
a silver becomes deep brown. Th 


loration of the haloid salts 
an ee to light then 


strongly refrangible rays of the spectram } 
tion then that EE aie taciens sensitive to Tight specially a 
precisely these rays.— Pogg. Ann., exliii, p. 1 
2. On th the proteine series. melas ETZ aa “Han ERMANN have 
taken up the study of this somewhat megpected subject, and have 


arrived at results of much interest. e authors in the first p 
pass in review the results obtained many years since by wait i! 


of the products of the action of various reagents upon mem 


is othies ee 


458 Scientific Intelligence. 


we must refer to the original paper. The results finally reached 
showed that under the circumstances the products of the decom- 
position were— 


benzoic acid, 


Bromanil, 


ucine, 
Bromoform Malamic acid (?) Leucimid, 


Bromacetic acid, Asparagic acid, Le 
fi 
Carbonic acid, Oxalie acid, Capronie ‘acid, 


Tribromamido- 


together with some ammonia and humus-like substances. Tyrosin 
was not found in any case; but the authors suggest that it was 
converted by the action of bromine into bromanil. The products 


Mulder. The action of bromine upon the proteine bodies, 
that of other agents of decomposition, yields two classes of pro- 
ducts—those which belong to the fatty and those which belong to 


der Chemie und Pharmacie, clix, p. 304, pelo 
3. On the products of the reduction of silicie ether and some of 
tts derivatives.—LapENpure has studied the action of zinc-ethy! 
and sodium upon silicic ether. The first product of the reduction 
is the silico-propionic ether of Friedel and Ladenburg, Si€,H, 
(9۩2H,),. When this is repeatedly treated with zinc-ethyl and 
sodium, a second product is B ere which has the formula 
Si(€,H,),(0-©,H,).. es 
The density of this liquid is 0-8752 at 0° C., and its boiling point 
155°°5. The author terms it silicium diethyl-keton-ether. It 1s 


in the air, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and 


ain 
Ing with chloracetyl or chlorbenzoyl the ethyl groups are ex- 
2 i et Pie ether is formed. Thus 


__ Si(€,H,), (9 €,H,),42€,H, OCI=Si(€,H;),Cle+ 
Beet 2(€,H,0.0€,H,). 


’ 
<i) 
q 
: 
si 
sr 
4 


Geology and Natural History. 459 


With one molecule of chloracetyl or chlorbenzoyl, the reaction is 
different ; thus we have— 
Si(€,H,),(8€,H,),+€,H,OCl=Si(€,H,),Cl(O€,H,). 
Silicium-diethyl-chlorethin, Si(€,H,),Cl(O©,H,), boils at 148° 
C.; silicium-diethyl chloride, Si(€,H,),Cl,, at 129°C. Both 
are liquids which fume in the air, and burn with a green bor- 
h 


e 
diethyl chloride the author obtained a viscid syrup, the analyses 
of which agreed tolerably with the formula, Si(€,H,).0. The 


rmula. 
the further action of sodium and zinc-ethyl upon silicium-diethyl 
ing t rmula, 


at 153°C. Todhydric acid reacts with this body according to the 
equation : 
28i(€,H,),(0€,H,)+21H = (Si(€,H,) 3)20-+2€,H,1+ OH,. 
Silicium triethyl oxide, (Si(€,H,),).0, was first obtained by 
Friedel and Crafts. The new reaction furnishes a method of ob- 
taining it more easily. In conclusion, the author points out a cer- 
tain regularity in the physical properties of the best known mem- 
bers of the silicium-ethyl series. We have— 

Boiling point. Density at 0°, 


Silicic ether, SiH .)50, 166°°5 0°9676 
Silico-prop. ether, Si(€,H;),85 158°°5 0.9207 
Silico-diethyl-keton, Si(€,H,),02 155°°5 0°8752 
Silico-heptyl ether, Si(€,H,),0 153° 0°8414 
Silicium-ethyl, Si(€,H, 152°°5 0°7657 


4 
—Berichte der Deutschen Chem. Gesellschaft, Jahrgang iv, 
726. w. G. 


IL Grotogy AND NaturAL History. 


_ Triassic Sandstone of the Palisade Range.—The Triassic (or 
Triassico-Jurassic) rock, in New Jersey, as well as Connecticut, is 
generally a distinct granitic sandstone, that is, it 1s largely made 
up of pulverized granite or gneiss. This rock in the Palisade 


ersey fine-grained sandstones were made 
was albitic. The rock from the Newark quarries consists, accord- 
ing to him, of albite 50°46 per cent, quartz 45°49, soluble silica 


460 Scientific Intelligence. 


0°30, water 114, bases dissolved out by hydrochloric acid 2:19= 
100°30. It would be of geological interest to find the locality of 


) en, Ct., contain orthoclase instead of albite, and the 
material is evidently from the rather coarse granites that lie just 
ne D. 


2. Martius, Fl 
have all appeared during this current year; the first bears the 
date of February, the last of July, 1871. The enlightened Em- 
peror of Brazil, while in Germany this year (where he visited the 
grave of von Martius, and plucked and preserved some flowers as 


this great national work, under Dr. Kichler’s efficient direction. 
Dr. Kichler has this year been called to fill the chair of Botany at 


of the structure of the embryo, the amount of albumen, and the 
simply imbricative sstivation of the corolla, Yet in the diagnostic 

coroua .... lobis .... per wstivationem 
contortis.” With good judgment, he refers all to the one genne 
Cuseuta, and gives a conspectus of all the tropical and subtropical 
American species, after Engelmann. Eighteen Brazilian species 
are described, one figured at oe and the flowers, seeds, &c., of 
| n 


jr @ are equally maintained by Mr. Bennett as an m- 
pendent iter which may almost equally well be de- 
eter way ; but we have before alluded to a connecting link 

een this group and the Hydrophyleaceee which our author 


eee Ie ORAL TY ee OR Fe Gh eae eee 


4 


Ee A ey alae nT pn aE | Cees ae Oe ea ata ee eee eee ee oe eee 


Geology and Natural History. 461 


overlooks. Five species of Hydrolea and one of Wigandia are all 
that are me ee for the Brazilian flora. The Pedalinew count 
two genera of a single species each and one of three species. 

The 53d lapchcsie contains the Zridew, elaborated by Dr. Klatt 
of Hamburg, and illustrated by 8 plates. It is stated that the 
known sees of the order amount to 470, of which 251 are 
African, 109 American, 50 Asiatic, 42 European, and 13 


Pisces would appear to inhabit Brazil as well as Mexico, and 
S. America is the home of Sisgrinchiwm, of whith 21 species are 
socom 

Fasc. 54 comprises the Zscallonieew and Cunoniacee, by Dr. 
Ragler of Breslau, and the Connaracee and Ampelidew by Mr. 
Baker of Kew. Escallonia counts 42 to 43 species in Brazil, and 
Weinmannia almost as many. The 35 Brazilian species of Con- 
naracee are divided among four sah and there are good 


i es. 
there are 35 Sv avied of Vitis (taken in se Bh os 


of the Co nor be series are taken a a Anamirta Coceulus t 
officinal Cocculus Tndicus), our own Cocculus Carolinus, and t 
Menispermum Dahuricum, which is very like our own ei 


Bizacew, another syncarpous Berberideous genus, nearly related 


to the Chilian Berberidopsis of Hooker, and with it constituting 
The name Bongardia he replaces by Chev gonmm 
s’s 


a new tribe. 
of Rauwolf and Bauhin (which would thus throw out Li 


462 Scientific Intelligence. 


beyond the mark. Nelumbo, Cabomba, Nuphar, Nymphea, and 
Huryale ave well illustrated; the latter genus is made to include 
Victoria ; the quasi tyled tems are described, &e. In 
the first instance the ovules of the Cabombew are said to be inserted 


ous torsion of the stem. Mr. Ravenel points out that the phyllo 


successive internodes right and left, i. e., one twists to the right, 
the next as much to the left, the next in the opposite direction, 


numerous on the upper face of the leaf as on the lower. THEY 
scopical examination proved the correctness of Mr. Ravenel’s 
_ conjecture ; the stomata are about equally numerous on the two 


es, or whether the sto o dis- 
gewise to 18 
question. The fact is that the two are thus lated, and such 
rily essential to the well-being of the plant. 
It may be remarked, however, that the stomata do not ma’ y 


is peculiar to the species in question. 
d B. leueantha, which retain 


Geology and Natural History. 463 


rst or second 
changes to the distichous order. The difference between B. per- 


fi 
of which is in our possession. Most of its leaves are cordate-clasp- 
ing rather than perfoliate, and with or without a retuse or emar- 


obviously a pair of stipules; and one of like conformation but 

with an obvious terminal leaflet in the sinus! Mr. Ravenel re- 

marks that this is a manifest step toward his own B. stipulacea. 

But it hardly invalidates that species, although the inflorescence 
| A 


. Drosera (Sundew) as a Fly-Cateher.—A valued correspon- 
dent and accurate observer, Mrs. Treat of Vineland, New Jersey, 
writes : 

“For mers i 
rotundifolia, D. longifolia and D. filifolia from their moist beds, 
and placed them in sand and water in such a way that they made 


nature; but with my preposessions an its, 
‘mologist and a house-keeper, I was contentedly 
the work go on.” 
- If we rightly remember, in D. rotundifolia it is only the gland- 
tipped bristles that bend inward and hold the a while 


interested to see 


they probably suck the juice out of him. This folding of the 
blade of the leaf itself around the fly is a new fact to us, and is 
8o especially interesting, being a step toward Dionea, that we 


464 Scientific Intelligence. 


would call particular attention to it, in the hope of further obser- 
vations and independent confirmation. We are told that the blade 
incurves from apex to base, in the manner of its vernation. What 


higher Cryptogamia as well, and now also in Phanerogamous 
plants, both aquatic and terrestrial. The paper in Bull. Acad. St. 

etersb. vol. 13, 1869, is reproduced. in the Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 5, 
% 33; mna, Ceratophyllum and Callitriche are among the 
aquatic plants in which the phenomenon has been observed, and 
Stellaria media among terrestrial. Lemna trisulea isone of the 
best plants for these observations. Under diffuse day-light the 
grains of chlorophyll are distributed over the cell-walls parallel 
to the surface of the leaf or frond. Under the direct light of the 


po i 
became grouped in clusters. In darkness the chlorophyll is like- 
is . Thus absence of light produces 
essentially the same effect as direct sunshine, but less strikingly. 
ther these changes are passive and caused by movements of 
the colorless protoplasm, as Sachs supposes, or active, is not made 
ut. But the movements, according to Borodin, are in response 

only to the more refrangible rays. aa 
7. Dehérain: Evaporation ‘of Water and decomposition of 
Carbonic acid by foliage-—Some notice of Dehérain’s papers, 


abstract published last summer in the AR, Sci. Nat. (ser. 5, tome 

2). and least expected results, 
which came to light early in the investigation, and simplified the 
experiments considerabl as :— 


—- ter fr young leav q 

_(4.) And is mainly caused by the luminous rays (yellow and re ). 

(5.) The difference in this respect is manifest even when the ar 
refrangible and more refrangible rays are brought to an eq 


y: en 
aporation of water is much more copious from oe oe 
from the lower face of the leaf, This result, in seas 


Astronomy. 465 


of the wseide of the leaf, and the situation of the stomata, is 
most unexpec 

(7.) Since the decomposition of carbonic acid also takes effect 
under the yellow and red rays mainly, and in the upper rather 
than the lower face of the leaf, the relation between these two 
capital functions of foliage appears to be intimate and is rapa. 
eayh worthy. 

. Herbarium.—The Herbarium of a veteran Europe a ‘Bo- 
Sis, one of much importance, is offered for sale, a Ri she? 
wishing to see to its satisfactory pd ea during bi ife-time, if 
possible. Particulars may be obtained from the maior of this 
notice upon enquiry addressed to the editors of this Journal 

A. G. 


Ill. Asrronomy. 


light, Dewees upward and to the heres Its highest points were » 
from 30° to 40° in altitude. A white aurora, consisting of bright 
stre camer, Pils sap simultaneously, sie extended round to the 
northeas 

The crimson aurora was examined with the spectroscope at six 


o'clock. The instrument used was a single gl sm spect 
Scope, made Duboscq of Paris. On directing the slit toward 
brilliant streame mentioned, a bri 
ed, consisting of five well-marked lines. A millimeter scale 
attached to the instrument was then illuminat th e, 
the auroral lines being readily measured, even when the numbers 
on the scale were aie enough to be read distinctly. ium 


* Professor Newton informs me that he observed an go ea sed push 
of five or ten minutes lower 
of evich pede pes Paeghiorbene sy cine ibiee: that of the white, it would seem as if 
his sak een aoe thee ak Gas wh the red being most remo 


i 


him in the sun’s chromosphere and also by Rayet in the 
1868, one of which may coincide with this fourth auro 


466 Scientific Intelligence. 


alone was absent. The measurements are exact to half a division 
of the scale. ‘ 

To determine the approximate waye-lengths of these lines com- 
parison was made both with certain elemental lines and with the 
lines of the solar spectrum. On the scale of this instrument, the 
elemental lines employed read as follows:— 

Ka63, Lia 79, Srf 80,H(c) 82, Caa 91, Sra 96, Caf 113, H(f) 146°, 
Srd 163, Cs6 165, Csa 167, Rba & f 200, Kf 218. 
The Fraunhofer lines measured as follows :-— 
a 70°5, B 76, C 82, D 100, E 124°5, 6 130, F 146°5, G 189. 


ments. In this way the wave-lengths of the five auroral lines 
were obtained as given in the following table :— 


Seale Wave- Auroral 
Line. number. length. lines. Other measurements. 
6 687 
Cc 82 656 
1) 90 623 623 627 Zoliner. 
100 589 
(2) 110°5 562 562 557 Angstrom. 
E 124°5 527 
(3) 130 517 517 520 Winlock. 
b 130 517 
(4) 138 502 502 
F 146°5 486 
®) 149 482 482 485 Alvan Clark, Jr. 
or 189 431 


In this table, column 1 gives the auroral and the Fraunhofer ae : 
column 2, the number of these as measured upon the scale of the J 
Spectroscope used; column 3 : 


3 
coal 
A 
g 
B 
@ 
er 
° 
5 
ot 
a 
© 
2 
Es 
=f 
‘3 
‘. 
i 
= 
az. 
ba 
: 
< 
Ne 
5 
o 
i 
ww 
h 
Cire ee ey 


New Haven, Nov. 13, 1871. 


Astronomy. ; 467 


[Norz.—Since the above was in type, the Astronomische Nach- 
richten for October 24th, No. 1864, has been received. It con- 
tains a notice of auroral spectra as observed at the Bothkamp 
Observatory by H. Vogel, which is dated August, 1871. In ordi- 
nary auroras 6 lines were seen, in a red streamers 7. The fol- 
lowing are the wave-lengths. given :— 


629°7 Very bright line. 

556°9 Brightest line of the semghien ee weaker 
i when the red line is ras pre 

538°2 Very faint ean tie ful.) 

523°3 Pretty bright | 

Very bright see the red line is present. At other 

times, as =“ as the last. 

500°3 Pretty bright hi 

from 469°4 { Broad band, brighter in the center. Very weak in 

to 462°9 : the red stream 


The line of wave-length 500°3 . aude the same observed by 

me, and given as 502. 

Vogel t thinks he has obtained evidence in support of the assump- 
tion that the auroral spectrum is an air spectrum, modified by 
conditions of pressure and temperature. 

e whole number of lines which have been seen and measured 
in the + eoaederigh of the aurora by different observers appears to be 
11, as follows 


No. anctintan: wiveloigic Observer. 
oe H. R. Procter. 
1. Bright red line 629°7 Vogel. 
627°9 Zoliner. 
623 Barker. 
562 Barke ; 
2. Brightest line in the 5DT Winlock. 
spectrum 556°9 Voge 
| 556-7 Angstrom 
3. Band 544 oa 
4. Ve faint lin §38°2 
ee 532 Alvan Olark, Jr 
5. Band (coronal line ?) +531 har ° 
523 oge 
6. Pretty bright line ; ine . Vol 
. : 518°9 Vogel. 
rker. 
8. Pretty bright line ; ae xe 1. et tee 
485 yan Clark, Jr. 
9. Band (F ?) a 482 A 
462°9 to 469°4 Vogel. 
464 


10. Band Winlock. 
11. Band (G ?) 434 Alvan Clark, Jr. 


468 Scientific Intelligence. 


Many other observations of auroral spectra have been made, but 
in most cases the lines were not measured even approximately. 
G. F. B. 

2. An Explosion on the Sun; by C. A. Youne. (Boston Jour- 
nal of Chemistry).—On the 7th of September, between half past 
twelve and two Pp. M., there occurred an outburst of solar energy 
remarkable for its suddenness and violence. Just at noon the 

riter had 


at the sun’s distance 1” equals 450 miles nearly, it was about 
100,000 miles long by 54,000 high. 

At 12°30", when I was called away for a few minutes, there was 
no indication of what was about to happen, except that one of 
the connecting stems at the southern extremity of the cloud had 
grown considerably brighter, and was curiously bent to one side ; 
and near the base of another at the northern end a little brilliant 
lump had developed itself, shaped much like a summer thund 

ead. Figure 1 represents the prominence at this time, @ berg 
the little “thunder-head.”t 


was my surprise, then, on returning in less than half = 

hour (at 12"55™), to find that in the meantime the whole thing ha 
been literally blown to shreds by some inconceivable up-rush from 
* This is the name given by Schellen to the combination of astronomical tele- 
scope and spectroscope. f 
+ The chromosphere (called also sierra by Proctor and others) is the layer a 

ye mn and other gases which surrounds the sun to a depth of about 7,0! 
miles. Of this the prominences are mere extensions. “2e 
7 The sketches do not pretend to accuracy of detail, except the 4th; the thr 

rolls in that are nearly exact. 


Astronomy. 469 


beneath. In place of the quiet cloud I had left, the air, if I 
may use the expression, was filled with flying débris—a mass of 
oe ched vertical fusiform filaments, each from 10” to 30” lor ng by 
‘or 83” wide, brighter and closer together where the pillars had 
Saseck: stood, and rapidly ascending. 
Vhen I first looked some of them had already ee a height 
of nearly 4’ (100,000 miles), and while I watched the they rose 
ith a motion almost perceptible to the eye, until in ron minutes 
(2 05™) the uppermost were more than 200,000 miles above the 
solar surface lis was ascertained by careful measurement; the 
mean of three closely accordant apenas gave 7’ 49” as the 
extreme altitude attained, and I am particular in the statement 
because, so far as I know, chromospheric matter sa hydrogen in 
this case) has never before been obser at an altitude exceeding 
5'. The velocity of ascent also, 166 iniles per Sout is consider- 
ably greater than anything hither to recorded. A general idea of 
its appearance, when the filaments attained their greatest elevation, 
may be obtained from figure 
As the filaments rose they gr radually faded away like a dissolving 
cloud, and at 1°15" only a few film eee with some brighter 
ners low down near the 
oe chromosphere, remained to 
gee a5 place 
the meanwhile the 


alluded grown anc 
developed wonderfully into 
amass of rolling and ever- 


changing flame, to speak 
according to appearances. 
First it was crowded down, 


nost 

Rebredencs 50,000 miles in 
eight; then its summit was 

Pe awn out into long filaments 


like the ee geome 3 
and 4 cnet it in its full de- 
velopment; the former hav- 
ing been sketched at 1" 40™, and the latter at ey 55™ 

The whole ere ear suggested st forcibly the idea of an 
explosion under the t prominence, acting mainly upward, but 
also in all directions — S caaterned. and then after an interval followed 
by a corresponding in-rush: and it seems far from impossible 


470 Scientific Intelligence. 


that the mysterious coronal streamers, if they turn out to be truly 
solar, as now seems likely, may find their origin and explanation 
in such events, , 


The same afternoon a portion of the chromosphere on the oppo- 
site (western) limb of the sun was for several hours in a state of 
unusual brilliance and excitement, and showed in the spectrum 
more than 120 bright lines whose position was determined and 
catalogued,—all that I had ever seen before, and some 15 or 20 
besides, 

Whether the fine aurora borealis which succeeded in the even- 


3. November Meteors in 1871.—On the night of November 
13th-14th, the writer, with Prof, Lyman and about two others, 
watched for meteors from 11" 20™ onward, with the following re- 
sults :— 


Between 11°20" and 11° 30" we saw 9 meteors. Sky 2 obscured. 
oc 80 ‘74 45 “c 8 “ Al 


ewer clouds, 
ce 4 5 “c 12 1) it4 3 6 [but haz 
bie 12 0 “c 15 73 8 “ 
“ 15 ‘“ 30 ‘c 17 “ Nearly clear. 
& 30 “ 45 << 13 “ 
“ 45 “ T 6 3 15 “ 
“ t 6 «c 15 rT 3 14 6 Sky L overcast. 
/ 15 “c 30 “ 5 a3 
- 30 “ 45 3 6 & Sky rs overcast. 
Shortly after 1" 45™ the clouds had entirely closed over, and 
did not break away afterward. e w of the 98 meteors 


the watch hot in the meteor stream. If the earth passed throug 
it this year, it did so earlier than 11" 20™, or later than 1" 20", ° 
the night of the 13th-14th. A. B. 


f 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 471 


4, Asteroid (117).—This new planet was discovered by Borelly 
at Marseilles two days before it was seen by Luther. tt has re- 
ceived the name Lomia, 

5. Tuttle's Comet.—This comet, first discovered by Méchain in 
1790, and again by Tuttle in 1858, and which has a period of 13°6 
years, was again seen at Marseilles October 15th, and at Karlsruhe 
October 15th. 


IV. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Plattner’s Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative Analy- 
sis ae the Blowpipe, from the last German edition, revised and 
enlarged by Professor THropore Riconrsrr, of the Ro oyal Saxon 
Mining Academy. Translated by Henry ’B. Corn NwalLt, A. 
.M., Assistant in the Columbia Colle e School of Mines, New 
York, assisted by Joan H. Capwert, A.M. With 87 wood-cuts 
and 1 lithographic plate. xv and 549 pp. 8vo. New York, 1872. 

. Van N vitegeaes 23 Murray St.).— comple 8 wclelwauir work 
mplet 


& 


the lifetins of the au Dee a and it is a source of great satisfaction 
to us to know that Prof. Richter has codperated with the trans- 
lator in issuing the American edition of the work, which is in fact 
a fifth edition of the original work, being far more complete than 
the last German edition. 
The American editor, Mr. Cornwall, has done a very great 

service for all students of chemistry an d mineralo ogy who use the 
English tee in thus adding to our fe ikea ata rature a work 


of such rare merit. He has showed excellent j sage in render- 
the work ne good English, in avoiding needless repetitions, 
in adding a large amount of valuable material, and in adopting a 


mineralogical nomenclature which is familiar to American scientific 
men. 


2. Geological exploration under Dr. Haypen.—The geological 
expedition to to the Rocky Mountain region under the charge of Dr. 


aft pn the 
Valley to the Three Forks, and thence by the Jefferson to its 

ry source, exploring many of its branches, and pursuing a a direc- 
tion nearly ‘parallel to that which the party had traversed in the 

une previous. 

The valleys of the Gallatin, Madison and Jefferson forks of the 
Missouri, with all the little branches, were ae occupied by in- 
dustrious farmers and miners—a contrast quite striking to the 
doctor, hee vb Points ago, in exploring that same region, met 
— no abitant. 

e Rocky Mounts ihre Divide was crossed at the head of Horse . 
Am. Jour. Sor.—Tuirp Series, Vor. I, No. 12.—Dec., 1871. 
Bl 


472 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Plain Creek, from which the party passed over into eg 
og Creek, following this down into the Snake River Plain. 
An interesting fact observed was the occurrence of two oneal of 
Soisk in great “quantity in streams such as Medicine Lodge, Comas, 
and other creeks, all sinking into the plains after a course ‘of Esbe 
fifty to s eventy-five miles. The trout appeared to be of the 
two species in a ee the waters had no apparent contestitll 
wy iM Harper's 

GF. geographical researches of modern times 
have been more “interesting than those carried on in Madagascar 
by M. A. Gra r, whether we consider our previous ignorance 
of the region in amet or the number of s pers and important 
scientific novelties brought to light. We have already referred to 
the return of this gentleman from his third expedition, the first 
having been commenced in 1865. On this occasion = attempted 
_ to reach the heart of the island, but in vain; and in the following 
year he explored the southern region, but did not reac iS the mount- 
ains. In 1869-70, however, he t versed the entire breadth of the 
island three times, from west es an, through its whole extent, 


five chains of mountain 8, which have eg os the same direction 
—namely, from northeast to southwest. ese are separa rated by 
sandy and arid plains, intersected by shallow ravines. After 
crossing the fourth chain, a region is reached of which the general 
level is from 1000 to 1200 meters in height, extending to the In- 
dian Ocean, a vast sea of mountains, with no hy lands except a 
few small valleys used for the cultivation of ri 
ne eastern coast is intersected at almost “ia step with rivers 
and ine a ; and the northwestern pro nage pour into the sea 4 
large mber of important riv ~ On the southern and western 
regions pen oe the case is ap Yebeirg there being distances 
of fifty leagues without the manlnes brook. The reputation pos- 
sessed by Madagascar for ‘ee riant Ae crnggignr and fertile. soil, 
according to M. <pemmienart edges means merited, its provinces 
being neither rich n or produc tive. The secondary plains are stel- 
ile, and the population is confined to the immediate banks of — 
ee e entire mass of Mee: granitic mountains, situate 
=~ 


x which connect with those of the west, forming around t s) 
— a narrow girdle, including a dry and desert region me 


We es eo ete ee 


epee FAY 8S a Fey pape 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 473 


M. Grandidier made numerous astronomical, meteorological, and 
magnetical observations. He also studied closely the ethnology 
of the inhabitants, having taken a great many measurements upon 
the living body, and having collected notes of the habits, language, 
and traditions of the people. His natural history collections em- 


also gathered, for the purpose of further investigation into the 
tees ers 


in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, and finally the Chincha Islands | 
and the Galapagos. During this whole period Dr. Habel was dili- 


Russell, Caligny, et 


— 


: ont 
the position called upright to the wave surface ; that is, with her 


Originally vertical axis normal to the wave surface. the ship 


474 = Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


yielded passively to that tendency, like a broad and shallow raft, 


ship has, like a pendulum, a natural period of none depen 
on her stiffness, or tendency to right herself, an ment of 
inertia, nsese: a quantity depending on the distribution of re mass. 
Stiffness tends to shorten, and inertia to lengthen, the period. It 
was asaiee? in 1862, by Mr. F roude, that the greatest unsteadiness 
and the greatest danger of being overturned takes place when the 
periodic times of rolling of the ship and of the waves are equal; 
for then each successive wave adds to the extent of roll; and if 
the co-graaaatly of the periods were exact, the ship would inevitably 
be o rturned in the end. 


her natural Tolling ; ; but great angles of roll occupy longer pores 
than small.* Hence, supposing a ship to encounter waves of @ 
at pe 


creased, un 
time of the waves ; and thus she in a manner eludes the danger 
arising from coincidence of riods. In order, however, that this 
safeguard may act efficiently, it is essential that the natural Lapa 
of the ship for the smallest angles of roll should not be less 
the period of the waves; otherwise the first effect of the progressive 
ase of angle will be, not to destroy, but to produce pain 
cae of period; and the result will be great unsteadiness of m 
tion, and possibl at danger. 
The speaker described the above principles as being the latest 
nangeda to our knowledge of the theory of the relations between 
sea-waves; and he illustrated them by means of expert: 
ments on a machine so constructed as to imitate the dynamical 


es. 
- On a Meteor seen at peg ake Fegupt s by Beverty KEN- 
From 3 pct 


_ * An exception to this rule exists in the case of that form of ship known a8 me 
« Symondite,” i in Which the sides flare out at and near the water-line, so as to mare 
the stiffness ss increase faster than the angle of heel. In such ships the i 


e angle increases; aud 1-1 gues 

Siiias Gadetis of that andal la caeceee for nas Ww . - 

_ periodic time for the smallest of roll is — than that of any of the bei 
which she encounters, the Symons. model does not promote unsteadiness; 


ate he pore ot pec 2 ean ormistwoadiny! ports from coincidence 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 475 


nal.)—The meteor attracted my attention last night (Sept. 8th) 
t h 


and also that of my companions, and many other persons who 


toward the earth; at the end of two minutes and thirty seconds 

it was obtuse-angled, and of moderate brilliancy; at the end of 

the third minute it was right-angled in shape, and of a distinct- - 

ness sufficiently great to attract attention, disappearing entirely 
r three minutes and twenty seconds from the time we first 

noticed it. 
7. Kansas A 4 

Society, of Leavenworth, Kansas, changed its name to that of the 


John Fraser, President ; B. F. Mu 
Presidents; John D. Parker, Secret 
B. F. Mud t 


logy and to scie Its t 
crowded with excellent figures. The closing chapter, forming a 
“supplementary section” to the volume, is republished on -_ 


r. e memoir 
side of the other Paleontological publications of the Canada Geo- 
logical Survey. 


Bulletin of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Nos. 4 and 5, 
for Feb. and July, pp. 48 to $1. Madison, Wis. 


INDE X*:-T.0 


VOLUME. &}. 


systems of weather tele- 


Abbe, C., 
h 


graphy, 81. 
Acid, nitrous and hyponitric, 362 
orig pera aay: Remsen, 
y Be ©. a 


d A., mye Studies i in|} 


“Natural Hitetor notice ced, 1 
oe prehistoric, Sensis of, 


ecw, Naturalist, 22 


Association, American, ots at Indian- 
apolis, 184, 229, 307. 


29. 
W. Thompson’s addre=s, 269. 

Arctic — on, Hall’s, 72. 

Aste w. Peters, 201, 303. 


mical data. Hotography sees 
to determination’ of Matas 
roof Pictheae * sal, 
Atomic Fanaa of nickel and cobalt, 
sag 
jaa oe of, pe gravitating cur- 
rents, 311 
B 
art T. &., researches in electricity, 


; id & Fisk seirot weign ar 
- Barracks and Hospitals, etc 


a M,, tide guage for cold 


si cor terraces of British 
Columbia, ge 


Botan 
teers of Parnassia, 306. 
Baillon’ apenas ee Plantes, 461. 
Baptisia Te 
Borodia, 
siblight, 
sewer acid “composed by foliage, 
Dehér: 
Chinese, om plese r, 221. 
Cross-fertilization of Serophularia no- 


rape ake under 


Diapensiacex, 62. 
a fly-catcher, 463. 
ds, 63. 


= 


eee on Typha, 375 ‘ 
— get aufrogen at —18°0, 


we 
Fe 


pretechneider s Chinese Botany, 2 
oadhead, G. C., coal-measure fois, 


Brush, G. J., on ralstonite, 3 
Buchan’s sasirobiay, ste 314. 


C 
Calvert, nik a endurance of heat by in- 


Ca ; 
Cardiff t, 
Carpen Sons, #. 5 Fesearches in waters of 
Adlanti 
Carter, ys Ciiialh of the Spongiadz, 
sasile t Cen- 
Chapman, minerals and aed 
tral Canada, noticed, 3 ral 
— P. E, American yor Fe notes, 


rae rainf: 
exces of auroras to gravitat- 
g currents, 311. 


Chemical abstracts, Gibbs, 138, 202, 36, 
71. 
noticed, Chisago Academy of Sciences destroyed, 


387. 


h J2Aez, contains natn the e femeral heeds, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, Zoology, and under 


Rusa BE Ses aaah Ste oe 


INDEX. 


fost ay a printing, 7 436. 
Cla srr Sa . James, the American Spongi 


an, Titus, Kilauea and Mauna Loa, 454. 
st § Survey, be sea dredging, 228. 
ang Ene 
Tut’, ee 
a of the Port Ken- 
nedy ate cave 
gp = synopsis of extinet 
Batrachia, e 
homeloiies of cranial bones in Rep- 
ia 
stratigraphic relation of ‘reptilian 
orde 
ging ES of, Pumpelly, 188, 
43 
Gordoda ¢ Observatory, 77, 136, 376. 
op antero- — symme try, 5 
aig, B. F., temperature of ih 
330. 


|, J., ocean currents, 140. 
Seedicta as see Ocean. 


D 


Dall’s report on Brachiopoda from Pour- 
tales’s eee 152. 
Da er terrace 


na, 144, 
valley pdectien of glaciers, 233, 
305. 


- position of ice Plateau, the source of 
the N. En age ices a 
Dawson, J. sigillaria 147. 
“betrng of of Devonian bay + ques- 
to origin of s 
fossil slautte 6 of the Det aie etc., 
noticed, ny 
Dean, G. W,, a Aton’ snoee 
across the Continent, 44 


E 
tage in New Jersey, Delaware, 
ete, 3 
Balipse, soo 
pica atecharge of Leyden jar, 
Rood, | 


es in, Baker, 303. 
Encke's s patie 3890. 
new difference, sire 113. 


477 
ee S. W., primordial rocks near Troy, 
Lrossile, see Geology. 


G 


Gabb, W. M., vegetation of — Do- 
mingo, 127. 


alleiv, 203. 
Galvan ometer, a new, Trowbridge, 
Elbthalgebi ayers er 


Geological Se cutee Haydn 471. 
f Gulf of Mexico, Hilgard, 


te of Canada, report, noticed, 
Geology of Utah, Blake, 216. 


GEOLOG 
Carboniferous fossils of W. Virginia, 
Meek: 


a 
ou 


Champlain ‘epoch, oceanic submerg- 
ce in, Hitchcock, ay 
Coal measure fucoids 
plants of the Altai, Gein 149. 
Crinoids, on affinities of, 2 
Devonian ae iia’ t on ques- 
extinction 


plants, Caged on, Dawson, 475. 
Eozoon, 2 
Fo ossils, mineral silicates i in, 57. 
—— corals in N. Hampshire, 


Lepidodendra and on Ys co 
Mastodon remains “te 5. ie 6 

Yphite of Skye, 2 

-hosphatic sund in vo. epiigae 58. 


igillarie, Dawson, 
ilurian crinoids, etc., Me 
urface geology ‘of N. Branswvitk Sil. 


STH TH ee 


Britis 
ace apie Marsh, 4 120. 
North Caroli 
Triassic sandstone of the Palisade 
range, 459. 
MU ositiey of the Port Kennedy bone 
Geinite, ‘i gomin A eae a ie Altai, 
Gibbs, chemical abstracts, 138, 202, 362, 
Gil, f, —— of families of mol- 


E 
Ey piece for microscope 
Eozoon, King and ownia, aii. 


F 
a — of botanical seated 
horewcet pore i color of, 154, 198, 


* 


lusks, 152 

Glacial features of L. Michigan, 16. 
Glacier of N. — ee of icy 
lateau at irs 

sf a movement of, in N. Englanil, 


Rana "Be 145. 
rs Frentaine of glacial epoch, 304. 


 Infusorial cout of ge 


478 


Gould, B. A., — from, 77, 1 
es B. w difference see 113. 
Gravity Vila in Russia, 
Gray, A., botanical notices, 62, 150, 221, 
306, 460 


H 


Habel, Dr. A., 
~~ = "photography applied to deter- 
of astronomical data, 25, 154. 
nye omical proof of a resisting 
medium in space, 40 es 
Hall’s arctic Lee me, 
Has tog pee Sone acids. 


Hayden, F. V., geol. exploration of, 74, 


s aes of Rocky Mt. scenery, 

noticed, 3 

“Hayes, S. Da. distillation of naphthas, 
ete. 18 

ae 2 Eager gegen of bases soluble 


INDEX. 


Kilauea and Mauna Loa, — 454. 

King, ob ophite of Skye 

Kirkwood, D., testimony rs ocoaaes 
on the nebular hypothesis, 155. 


L 
Lakes, Great, survey of, 7 
ntern, new attachm rs or, 71, 153. 
Le Conte, J, hidouiiaew vision, 1, 315, 417. 
Lee, e Se ato omic weights of nickel and 


cob: 

Leidy, ct vertebrates of bss co. 372. 

sc 2 et a ization of 
‘ican coal beds, 

ie gece he "to, of silver salts, 

Lightning rods, construction of, Henry, 


Bacher: J. N., recent solar eclipse, 225. 
Loomis, F. E., direction, pr of wind, yh 


Heights i in ig fa dor 
ick J., con agence ots of lightning rods, 


E. W., Geol. history of the G 
of 3 Mexico, 391. 
ard, T. C., infusorial circuit of gener- 
ations, 20, 88. 
Mite C. ee ier corals in N, 
Hampshire, 
proof of Ae submergence in the 
Champlain Period, 207. 

— &., decomposition of chromite, 
Hofmann, 
365. 
ere @. W., a printing chronograph, 
— T. S., mineral silicates in fossils, 

address before Amer. Association, 


derivatives of hydric phosphide, 


oil wells of Terre Haute, Ind., 369. 


I 
lurance of heat oo 21 
nerations, 


Infusoria, en 9. 
Hit- 
gard, 20 


rei anesh Sckeomda Sadiler, 338. 


Johnson, M, transmutation of form in|M 
certain protozoa, 1 161, 


K 
of fe geeerans 475. 


Joe gene ~ie 
of dredging of 


=: 


|| Morse, E. 


Longi tude determination cross the c 
tinent, Dean, 
no hin 
Magnesia, “Separation from potash and 
a, 363. 


Mallet, od W., meteoric iron from Vir- 


33. 


inia, 
Mann, Linn-Base decimal system, 3' 
vores O. C.,* new tertiary see ys 


goes expedition of, 80, 228. 
Marti ee meteor seen in N. Caro 


lina, 
Mesa remains in New York, 58. 
Matthew, surface geology, of N. Bruns- 


wick, 371. 
Meek, F. B., aceemneenrone fossils of W. 
Virginia, 2 


new Siran erinoids, ete., 
Mendenhail, oecu 
meee. —— to the 
m, 156. 
arial colloids, ~ 


295. 
gas 
Senso- 


xandria, 
Meteors of Novena 187. 1,4 470. 
M hical position of 


Meteorite, ois G: 
teorology, Buchan’ 8 ak book noticed, 
314. 
S., early stages of Terebratu- 
lina septentrionalis, 305. 
masts “3 eolor of va escent solutions, 
ag "198, 355. 
Omitted in Index of Vol. I: 
sh, new fossil serpents, 44T. 
* 


INDEX. 479 


oo goniometer eye-piece for,||Rain-falls, Chase, 


Rankine, U. J. a a waves, 473. 
Midway Is. in North Pacific, 380. Reiss, Abeta ties Bs measurements in 
Mineralogy, Nawman n, noticed, 232. Ecuador, 267. 
of Utah, Blake, 216. Resisting medium in space, Hall, 404. 
Mineral silicates in fossils, Hunt, 57. |Respight, L., scintillation of eri 222. 
MINERALS, etc.— |Reynolds, mercurial colloids 
chromite decomposition of, 204; rals-) Richter, new syn esis of wey 
wa <r ee Ulexite, Wink-|| Rockwo od, C. G., motion of a ae by 
ae heat, 177, 
of viens Pte noticed, 390. Hed. . V., time necessary for vision, 
NWN 4 tals of Leyden e connected 
Ne os ag distillation of, 184. Fadi oa © i one ee Skye, 211. 
ar hypothesis, evidence on from Pat 9 
eee acopé)..Kirkuwood Rumford, Count, life of, noticed, 230. 
Nitto trous oxide, salts of, <e 
November meteors, 1871, 470. Ss 
0 0 Sadiler, 8S. P., Iridium compounds, 338. 
BITUARY— Sandstone of the Palisade range, 459. 
Edw. vee any cea Santo es vegetation of. Gabb, 127. 
report, 3 
John awards Hotioak, 389. oe col of volcano of Colima, 
Sir R. I. Murchison, 390. pote, A.,, variation of gravity in Rus- 
J. de Carle Sowerby, 390. sia, 3 383. ae 
Ocean currents, Croll, 140. Scheerer, separation of magnesia from 
Oceanic waters, Atlantic, Carpenter, 208.|| potash and soda, 363. 
Oil-bearing rocks of Ohio, 215. Sea waves, 473. 
Oil-wells of Terre Haute, Ind. 369. Sensorium, time occupied in communi- 
cating impressions to, Mendenha 156. 
P tini, geometrical and infinitesimal 
Packard, A. S., Jr., new Ph lopoda, 108. analysis. noticed, 76. 
bryol "ath Gara ei f 3 pg omg C. 4 gear sands in 8. 
Paragenesis of Copper, a so vs ee 
ee no — Shooting stars of August 10-11 th, ‘227 
| Shoo x 
on oer of November, 1871, 470. 


C.H. F. 
Ph = 5 
ona sands in 8. Carolina, Shep-) 0 other, products af rede notion of 4 of, 158, 
ahaa hing histological rations Silver salts, sensitiveness to " 
by sun- light, 25 sae rR ‘Smith, J. L., composition 

Pla stone of Searsmont, Me., 200. 
Plants *eoseil I Devesiens Dawson, 472. _ geographical oe tion of 
Plattner’ Blowpipe Analysis, noticed, San Gregorio sa gr ete., 335. 
Smith, 8. J dredgings in Lake Superior, 


eslghars mian contributions, 76. 


meteoric 


— sie aud Weather, noticed, 313. 
es, 457. 


Protozoa. 
nual report, 
‘pete ae oo soo ivorng as influencing climate, 64. 
188, 243, 347. « 2 eat. P., eye-piece for micro- 
Q oz bearing of Devonian botany on 
origin 0 
Quacernary, see Geology. ‘Spectroscope for measuring —- 
colored light, ~~ 


of a 
eee & pret st ay" bright 


R 
Rain, artificial production of, sta gic tae, Ot 


& 


480 INDEX. 


Spectrum of corona, Young, 53. Wilder, B. G.. mastofon remains in N. 
of Uranus, 138. Y., 58. 

Spelter, manufacture of, Wharton, 168. ||Williams Coll. Scientific Exp., 67. 

Stars, scintillation of, 222. Williamson, W. C., Lepidodendra and 

Stars, see Shooting. Sigillariz, 148. 

Sun, explosion on, Young, 468. | Winchell, N. H,, glacial features of Lake 
recent eclipse of, Lockyer, 225. Michigan, 15. 

Sun’s heat, movement of tower by, 177. || Wind, force and direction of, Loomés, 281. 

Woodward, J. J, photographing histolog- 


T i 
; . Wojeikof, A., influence of a sno 
Temperature of gs body, Craig, 330. ou Climate, 64 
of British Columbia, 142 


— Sir Benjamin, life of, noticed, Y 

Thompson, Sir William, address before | Young, C. A., spectrum of corona, 53. 

the British Association, 269. catalogue of bright lines in spectrum 

J., heat of neutralization of of chromosphere, 332. 

bases soluble in water, 140. explosion on sun, 468. 

7 , Temarkable meteor, 63. 
Tornadoes, Whitfield, 96. : Z 

Trowbridge, J., new galvanometer, 118. tac 

v 153. 


Verrill, A. E., star fishes and ophiurians| -Annélides chétopodes, 61 
130. 


of Atlantic coasts, Antero-posterior symmetry, Cowes, 59. 
distribution i Bivalve Crustaceans, 305. 
southern coast of N. England, 357 \chiopoda, from Pourtales's expedi- 
dredgings in Lake Superior, 448, tion, 152. 
Vision, time necessary for, 159. Distribution an = 
Volcano of Kilauea, 76, 454. ah cant of WF England, Verrill, 35 
ge In ae endurance of heat by, 219. 
M ts of 
Warner, A. J. pes rocks of Ohia|| Phyllo Packard, 108. 
. io, |) ll new, 
ete, 215. i Ja grasa enemy Soe 
_ Water unfrozen at —18° ©., 304. Reptilia, homologies of cranial bones : 
Watson, J. C., new planet, 201. in, 153. | 
Veather notes, American, Sieboldtia Davidiana, 305. i 
Spongilla, a flagellate i 
Starfishes and haan eae ) 
Ve 1 = 
aahe i of reptilian of = 
ype, 217. 
nopeis cr'extinet Batrachia, supple ‘ 
ment, 163. septentrionalis, 305. : 
. 


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GILLA ARACHNOIDEA J-C.