The American journal of science.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL

TROT aid

jet.)

SCIENCH AND ARTS.

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS,
JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, anp E. 8. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS,

Prorrssors ASA GRAY, WOLCOTT GIBBS anp
. COOKE, Jr., or CamBrinGe,

Proressors H. A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON, G. J. BRUSH
anp A. E. VERRILL, or New Haven,

. Proresson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHrILapELpPuHia.

4

THIRD SERIES,
__-VOL. XIV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, OXIV.]
: Nos. 79—S4.

JULY TO DECEMBER, 1877.

tee ,l EC ET I Oe a es eS al
ee =r - ee eee
i ey

WITH SIX PLATES.

NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1877.

Misso0urR) BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRARY

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIV.

——+oo—_____

NUMBER LXXIX.

Arr. [—Contributions to Meteorology, being results deriv ed
rom on examination of the United States Weather Maps,
and from other sources (Pl. 1, 2,3); by Eras Loomts,-. 1
IL—Germination of the genus Megarrhiza, Torr. ; by A. Gray, 21
III.—The absorption of Bases by the Soil; by H. P. Armspy, 25
IV.—Double-Star eat) with the 184-inch ae o Re-
fractor; by S. W.
as —Supplement to the Atiesttnt "of the Discoveries in Ver-
mont of the Rey. Augustus Wing; by James D. Dana,._ 36
VI.—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of
Sermahive: Ge Jawus Doane 2 2 eos eS oe
T.—On certain new ait owerful means of renderin g visible
the Latent Photographic Ima age; by M. Carry Lr
VITI.—On the perme of Transit Observation without Per-
sonal Error; by 8S. ANGLEY, -.--. eye as Sikes
.—Observations of Com ets; by C. H. F Prrens wip owe 60
X.—On Complex Fuiciiani Acids; Gizrs, A Dceped
XI.—Characters of Cor phodontide we ve td O. C. Marsn, 81
XII.—Characters of Odontornithes H. 85
XIIl.—New and Gigantic roa ty 0 ce Marsu, Coane

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics.—Effect of Pressure on a a Bp
nethod of determining the Specific ific Pryor of a readily decomposable oes.
HRISTOMANOS, 64.—Determination of High Me eticg "Points, CARNELLEY, 65.—

I
Cu
New Vapor Density Method, Gotpscumrept and CIAMICIAN: de rare of
rile scores BovuTLeRow: New — of ‘producing Salicylic acid. _ HERMANN,
66.—Formation of C an PERKIN
New cag << pa N ade Pons the Chemical Laboratory io the Johns
Hopkins Universi
Geology and Maivatey sen: ic Eruptions on Hawaii, Rev. Trrus Coan, 68.—
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania: U. 8. Geological ‘and Geographical Survey
of the Territories, 69—Geological Survey of Canada: Shifting of the earth's |
axis, Haughton. 70.—Samarskite of North Carolina; Analysis o of Samarskite, 71.
Bota: toate Sig — Zoology. and Systematic Arrangement of the Pithopho-
cen, VB. W : Ueber Sprossung der Moosfriichte und den Generations-
went sel der Thallophiyten, doom HEIM, 71.—Algee Exsiccatze Americe
. G. Farrow, ©. L. ANDERSEN and D. ©. eat Orchis rotundifolia: Beitr
zur Bntmickelungsgoschich te dak Flechten, EH. Stan, tegen American
Starfishes, A. AGassiz: Ninth Annual Begun on the Insects of the State of
Missouri, | SV; Ries EY, 73.—Bulletin of U. 8. Entomological Connniseabiy 74.
y.—Astronomical and Meteorological Observations at the U.S. N. Obser-
vatory, 74.—Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College: Meteoric nsec
the part of the motion of the lunar perigee which is a function of the mean
motions of the Sun and Moon, G, W. Hitt, 75.—Chicago Observatory : The Ob-

iv CONTENTS.

servatory, a serra Review of Astronomy: An Elementary Treatise on Ellip-
tical Functio

Miscellaneous Si es Intelligence.— American peepee New American Scien-
tific Sepa, 76. —FKarth barca age wave: Treatise on Lightning Protection:
Natural Philosophy for Be a 3, 77.—Vermont Toad of Agriculture, Manu-
nett and Mining: Wisconsin ‘ewes my of sprees Arts and Letters

my of Natural Sciences of Phila a telpi 738.— bituar ry. Elkanah Billings, 78.

“e Jewett: P. P. Carpenter: D. Owen, 0.

NUMBER LXXX.

Art. XIV.—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun by Photography, -
and a new — ote of the Solar Spectrum (eth Plate V1);

by H. Dra
AY. = Medion of of eal Organic Substances in ‘increasing the
ensitiveness of Silver Haloids; by M. C. Lra,_---.---
XVI.—Critical Periods in the eee! of the aia ’and their
Relation to Evolution; by Joserpn LeCon
XVII.—Notes on the internal and external struct of Pale-

ozoic Crinoids; by Cuartes WaAcHSMUTH, ---. ------ 15
Niger emical constitution of Hatchettolite ‘and Samar-
: by. Os0an VD. AtLaN, .. o.4-~ ceneen ones ol sed
XIX. poisons of the Geology of Vermont to that of Berk- a
shire; by James D, Dawa, 22505259; 305 4~- ---~ a0 42h 132

—A proposed new method in Solar Spectrum Analysis ;
y 8S. P. Lanerey, - 140
XXI.—Note on the Exactitude of the French Normal Fork ;
by Rupotepn Kornie.

9- ccc ore

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistr —On the Heat of Combustion of Oxygen and Hydrogen in
closed veiselk “THay, 148.—Va ee volumes and Av sogadiee Law: Plato-diiodo-

ILSON, u
Pyrotartaric Acid, Bour 50.—Polybasic a. ‘obtained by the action of
Carbon dioxide on Phenol tie Relation of Cystin to Sulphates in the Urine,
_ Niemann, 151.—Gauss s Theory of Capillarity: Influence of Light upon the
lectrical resistance of Metals, BOrystern: Chemical and Physical Researches,
THOMAS bpm, 152

Geology an alogy.—Bulletin, Ms iii, No. 3, of Hayden’s Expedition, 154—
The Coal Mine of the Western Coast of the United States, W. A. GOODYEAR:

the conditions influencing the projection of discrete solid

: g .
materials from Voleaneit: : The Geological Survey of Portugal, 157. —Earthquake 2
i i cal ef

Botany and Zoology.—Some points of Botanical Nomenclature, 158. < Athecoaatli

Chinensis L.: Re rium Annum Literature Botanicse periodicee curarunt 6.

. W. BrowNensteG, 160.—Sir Joseph Dalton haag Ae nd party on Botanical

excursion to the ocky Mountains and California: The Influence of Phyaeat

itions in the Genesis of Species, | JOEL ri ‘Alum: Sir Wyville Thomson,

and the working up of the “ Challenger” collections, 161.—American Addresses,
with a Lecture on the study of Biology, Tomas H. Huxuey, 162.

SEF SS ay Pe ne EE EE at og

CONTENTS. Vv

Astronomy.—Notice of the Meteor of June 12, ay DANIEL KirRKwoop: Micro-
metric measurement of Double Stars: Chica 0, Observatory : Handbook of

: aay
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Abstract of a pre entitled Reflections
sur les Chronometres, J. A. ehgr ses ate HKarthquake wave of May 9th and
10th, 166.—Tides of the Arctic Seas: Massachusetts ee of ig eee S
rae Transfer of the potest Collections 4 Amherst College: Imperial
my of Sciences of St. Petersburg: Nationa I Academy of re 167.—

BorroMLey, 168,.— Obituary.— Sanborn Tenney : Dr. Stephen Reed : G. F.
Winslow, M.D., 168.

‘NUMBER LXXXIL '
age

P
Art. X XII.—On a new Process for the Electrical Deposition
of Metals, and for Soph eon: Metal-covered Giass
Specula; by A . W. Wriecu canbivecccmse ct 168
XXIII.—A new and ready m aochod ‘for the Estimation of
Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes; by M. S. Cuznry

Sid 10 OHARA 178
XXIV.—Notes on the internal and external structure of Pa-
leozoic Crinoids; by C. WacusMuTH, .--.-.-.----.--- 181
XXV. —Phen omena of Binocular Vision ; by J. LeConte, is A
XXVI. Nitrate;
G: Mitran, 00.2.5 3 fee ee 195
xxvii —On “a cxystaltine form of the hydrous | and anhy-
drous varie y
nium steeeate, e iS thins 198
XXVIII.—The relations of the Daslogs of Vermont to that
of Berkshire; by J. D. Dana, ---- 202
XXIX.—On the preparation of Cylinders ¢ of Zirconia for the
Oxy-hydrogen Light ; by 3: ©. Dawei o.oo: ee sk 208

XXX.—Oceurrence of Garnet with the Trap of New Haven;
XXxi CDemaia of the » Rochester, Warrenton, and Cyn-
thiana Meteoric Stones, with som arks on the pre-
Maid falls of Meteorites in the nai regia by J. L.

a

MEAT Notiod ot x new genns of Annelids from the Lower
Silurian; by G. B. Gri Pe eee SEO «
IL—New as Sent 5 ates “by O. ©. Marsn,.. --. 249
SCIE sagt INTELLIGEN CE.
Physics.—The Radiometer, Cooks, 23
and Mineralogy.—Gravel a sits referred to t 8 Dnt, in Boone County,
reine nd Sutton: Gravel Ridges in the Merrim x valley, G. F. Wrieat,
, sup; Fos: ; .
J. CHAPMAN: Glaciers of the Swiss Alps in the Glacial era: Geology of New —
Hampshire: Lithology of the Adirondac! _ 240.—New method of Gchiepirad

'y and Zoology.—Rapi wth of. Vallisneria spiralis: Evolutionary law
as illustrated by ations) a ewe in an Apple tree, T. MEEuAN, 243. —Remarks
_on the Yellow Ant, Lumpy: Sexual Dimorphism in be tterflies, 244.

vi CONTENTS.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. ap gow of the aoe Polar er 245.

—The American Meteorologist: The American Jou of is d Applied
Mathematics: Publications of test Cincinnati “Obeervatory Tw w Meteoric
Irons: Table of Logarithms: Tenth Annual Report of the Trasteee of the

Peabody Museum of American Aaclony and Ethnology, 246.— Kinetic -
Theories of Gravitation, W. B. Taynor, 247.
bituary.—Timothy Abbott Conrad, 247.—Robert Were Fox, 248.

NUMBER LXXXIL

Page
Art. XXXIV.—On the relations of the ey of Vermont
,; pothat of. Berkshires by d: DiDaway «sce se wt 2c 25s - 257
XXXV.—Address before the Decanment of Anthropology of
the British Association at Plymouth; by F. Gauron,... 265
XXXVI— Analyses of Cast Nickel, and Experiments on the
Daeecee of Carbon and Silicon with Nickel; by W. E.

for Natural History ethene Shy OC, Sate. <". 77
XXXVIII.—On the lodates of Cobalt and Nickels pe-
cific Gravity determinations; and an Analysis of Byivan:
ite from Colorado; by F. W. Crark KE, 280
XXXIX. em phat on the Analysis of Bituminous Coal ; by
Re OO; BOOAN SSS ooo oe ee ee 286
XL.—A Profiausary Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes and
hg ee of the Bermudas, a lescriptions of four
species of Fishes believed to be new; by G. B. Goopr,-- 289
XLI.—History of Cavern a ait in Devonshire, Eng-
ene ty WP ENORtEE coe oe 299
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics. eee . Dumas’s Vapor-density method, HABER
MANN: Action of Ph hloride on Tungstic oxide, Tectu 309.—-Production
of a from Pyru ie atid, Beaks: Hexyl Chloral, Prien: eo
of Aurin into Ros: fo Sri DALE and ScHORLEMMER, 310. —Hem matin, CAZE

Na cacy of what is comm ee called a “ Vacuum,” Gad. Sroney, 311. mechike ob
the thes grind x Hiees, 312.

Geology a ScArchian of a H. G. Vennor, 313. ripen de ff
New inpetne C. H. Hrrcucock, 316.—Preliminary Report on the Pal
tology of the Black Hills, R. P. Wurrr pata Age of the Tejon group, ¢ Califor,
J. G. CooPEe —Fossil Tertiary Insects of Quesnel, S. H. ScuppER: First

America’
—Geological Survey of Victoria: Tantalite, J. L. Smrra: Geognostische und
alae ap Beobachtungen im Staate Minnesota, J. H. Koos, 323.
ot and Zoology.—Morphology of the Dentary System in the Human Race,
LAMBERT, 323.—Arbeiten aus dem zoologische-zootomischen Institut im
Wirtzburg, 324.—-Brain of Chimera monstrosa, B. G. WrupER, 325.
y.—New Planets, J.C. Watson: Tim e of Rotation - Saturn , A. HALL,
325. othe tay discovered satellites of Meri 3 26.— Ameri n Ephe meris and
Nautical Almanac for the year 1880: Does the Motion “ the inner satellite of
Mars disprove the Nebular Hypothesis? a D. Kirkw
meous telligence can peel the Advancement
of Science, 328.—Distant Points Visible fro m Mt. Washington, W. H. PicKERING,
331.—Caution to Archeologists, 333. Handbook of Hygiene ath Sanitary Sci-
ence, Witson: British Association: New Constructions in Graphical Statics,
H. cag el 336.— —Oalinarg —Henry Newton, 335 ; edie Strong, Adolf Er-

CONTENTS. Vil

NUMBER LXXXIIL.
Art, XLIL —Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life ee

in America ; y < SOARSH, no cee een 37
XLIII.—Note on the Helderberg Formation of Bernardston,
Massachusetts, and Vernon, Vermont; by J. ANA, . 379
XLIV.—History of ocak Exploration in Devonshire, Eng-
land; by NGEL 387
XLYV.—Is the Existence of Geom rings i in the Early. Exogen-
ous ce proof of ee Seasons? by Cuarues B.
RRING 394
XLVI. Bie Sipylite, : a new y Niobate, ‘from Amberst County,
Virgie bed. Wi Matai ses na She ae ce 39

#4
XLVIL—Mean Motion of the Moon ; by Srwon Newcoms,.. 401

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Action of Saline solutions on Lead, Murr: New Method
for the Synthesis of Aydrocarbons, FRiepEL and CrarTs, 411.-—-The Terpenes
of Swedish Wood Tar, ATTERBERG: Amylene from Amyl Iodide, ELTEKOFF,
412 f e-

onions 416. ie rotatory Pola ries M. TL. Racin: <r
——— Sulphide of Mantphatees ” ecabvbiarot es Alkaline a and reed
carbona -M. Hatem et mm fro:

in iron ores, M. G. Parr =i, 418.—Light, and C. BARNARD:
Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, a bon Taoaee: System of. Yolumettio Analysis,
by Dr. Emil Fleischer, M. M. P. M
Geology and Mineralogy. ealanaed a asia Survey of the Territories,
F YDEN, 420.—Fifth Annual Report of the Geological and Natural His-
ta, N. H. WINCcHE 22.—Geological

tory Survey of Minneso ‘ LL, 422 Record for 1875,
tice of Heterolite: a new eral Species,
On some Tellurium and Vanadium Mine . A. Genta, 423.

: ad 8, Mine
Mittheilungen, G. vom Rata: Elemente der Mineralogie, (’ F. Naumann, 424.
Botany Zoology. oo iy aioe ~— Cephalopod on ha? coast of
Rewtcandiet A. E. Verriut, 425.—The Antelope and Deer of America, J. D.
Eaton: Life Histories of the Birds of ins Pennsylvania, T. ‘G. pee (9 4
he scum tH R. Levckart and H. Nirscue: Bulletin of the U. S.

ar . Sr

i. rbore
ah ar land J. G. BAKER: Native “ Artichokes ” 428.—-Necrological, 429.
Astronomy. —Discovery of a New Planet, 0. H. i teen 429.—Comets in nine
Observations and Orbit of ioaien ents
Miscellaneous Scientific In nee.—Davenport Academy of Natural 5 Sciences, 430.

tA
Hy
o
ae
Ko
>
w&
A
ie
©
i]
aa
ss
By
ar
so
=.
3

.

ARREN, 43
Leverrier, Joba G. Anthony, Benjamin Hallowell, a2.

:

Vili CONTENTS.

NUMBER LXXXIV.
Art. XLVIII.—On the —— Motion of the Trifid Nebula ;

y Epwarp 8. Hotpen, bine sadn d ap iw ee Be
XLIX.—The Northern Part of the Connecticut Valley in eee
Champlain and Terrace Periods; by Warren Upuam,_ 459
L. <b oe arry of _ new § gree of Fishes; by G. Brown
Goops and Tarieron .H.. Bran, Jososi Antic ek.
LI. —Volametric Desisreuiarstinas by Chinois Acid; by C. W.
LIL. woe Gries of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) from the
Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains; by O. C. Marsu,.--- 51
LUI.—Notice of new Dinosaurian Reptiles from the Jurassic
sormasion yy bY. CME ARNG, © O25. Chak ees ooo

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and P —On the Gases enclosed in eh Tuomas, 481.—On the
oe Totween Tanolable Carbonates and Soluble Oxalates, Watson SMITH:
On the new Metal Davyum, 482.—Upon Metalacetyl- gr ethers, CoNRAD:
Phyllic acid, peters from leaves, BouGAREL, 483.—On the Constitution of

WICHELHAUS: Density of Vapors 484.—New Re-
sults in Pivaies 486,

Geology and nd Mineralogy.—China, F. F. von ern 4817. Pa THERE cant
logical Congress, 491. ba maces ogy of w Yo rk, JAMES HALL, 4
reales oor page: Report of the New Fork State Museum of Natural

istory: Notes on some new sections of Trilobites from the Tre=ton Limestone,

D. 494. —Large Bowlders in New ire: Pr ane =
Organic eae. ee the ay, of Minerals, H. us - Boutos, 495.—Note
Uranium minerals in North Carolina, W. C. KERR, 4

Botany and Zoology.—Wild hans ee America, Isaac SPRAGUE and GEORGE
L. GOODALE: Peper in ong 497.—Catalogus Plantarum in Nova
Ceesarea Repertar Srr JosepH Dayton Hooker, 498.—GrorGE HADLEY,
M.D.: Joun Daney, 499. cS Hetbatinar for sale: rs Diagrams, LEUCKART
and NITscHE, 5

Astronomy.—The a Distance, 501.

Miscellaneous apg Inielligence.—Notes on the Rocky Mountains, Sir JosEPH
Hooker, 505.—The Earths found in the - North Carolina Samarskite: Artificial

Tremors through the Earth’s Crust, Henry L. Apsott, 509.—Recherches
expérimentales, M. DAUBREE, 510.—National Academy of | Science, 511.—Canada
and New England ceils eal Thin Sections of Rocks, Minerals, etc., 512.—

Obituary—James Orton,

ERRATUM.

On page. = line 8, for Swift-Borelly read Block- Swift-Borelly.
Page 248, line 7 7 from foot, for depth read

heat.
Page a5 i 10 from foot, for the i bi insert a comma.
Page 426, line 3, for Eaton

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. I—Contributions to Meteorology, being results derived from
an examination of the Observations of the United States Signal
Service, and from other sources ; by Extas Loomis, Professor
of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. Seventh paper.

With plates I, IT and it.

. [Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 18, 1877.]
Rain-areas—their form, dimensions, movements, distribution, ete.

vice stations during a period of fifteen months (Sept. 1872, to
Nov. 1878). I propose now to consider those cases in which

erence; column 2d shows the day and hour of observation
(the numeral one denotes the observation at 75 35™ A. M.; two
denotes the observation at 4.35 P. M. ; and three denotes 11 P. M.)
column 8d shows in inches the total rain-fall at all the stations
during the preceding eight hours; column 4th shows the station -
at which the greatest rain-fall was recorded ; column 5th shows
the amount of rain observed at the station mentioned in column
4th; column 6th shows the state of the barometer at the same

Station; column 7th shows the state of the barometer at the —

direction of the rain center mentioned in column 4th from the _

center of low pressure mentioned in column 7th; column 9th

shows the distance of the rain center from the center of low _
Am. Jour. -

: eiice Sertzs, Vou. XIV, No. 79.—JuLy, 1877.

2 E.. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the

Total rain-fall at all the stations amounting to at least eight inches in eight
hours. ;

Total lRai n center from Low. Wind
No. Date. nif ghestert vu. ncaa. he to Direction.| Distance. |at prev.ob.| at date.
5 Marquette. 1:91/29°80)\29 ua Bow. 287 HB. 1 W.1
2 Saugeen. 1°74) 74) -68IN. 40 W. 78 ee Caim.
3 Vicksburg. {| 1°05/30°02 y. 8 E. 3
4 Montreal. 1°35/29°90| -°81|North. 156 W.2 |IN.E.3
5 Jacksonville. | 2°43) -99 ’ 1.E. 12 |E. 13
6 gaya eh aig 2°05; 83 re Wid
yj Norf 3°41) °96 *95 * 0 mt! .H. 8
8 Philadelphia 2°09]. 78] -74'S. 65 E. 137 . 20 .W. 12
9 ontgome 273} 98 Lo Hy 22
10 New York. | 2°50| -‘68} -33/S. 54 E. ati .B. 4 y.W. 10
1l New Orleans. | 2°20/30-05 WwW. 6 1... 8
12 Ww 1°70}29-75 S. 55 EL 987 |IN.E.17 |N.W. 20
13 “08 Y.E. 21 IN. 20
14 kuk. 63) °3! Ww 134 ‘alm. W. 12
15 New York 1°80} -8 -09|S. 57 E. 61 v.H.16 |B. 6
16 e Ci 00} 8S BE. 4 cet
] Philadelphia. | 2-18! -6 4518. 58 KE. 218 iN.E. 20 |N.E. 8
18 New Orleans. | 2-01} -9 os TW. 12
19 Philadelphia. | 1-07} -at 54/8. 36 W 630 .W. 18 |N.W. 18 _
20 uisville 1°60; “Be 49| Kas 195 YE. 8 ‘alm.
Cape May. 1°54} -66) “S5IN. 87 E. 448 /|K. 18 .6
, Knoxville 23) -8C 36|S. 39 E. 507 5 alm.
} Lake City. 2700; °9' 1.E. 8 l.W. 12
L Oswego. 1-48} + - 0 |S.E.12 |N.E. 12
) Indianapolis. | 1:08) - -46E 343 |N.E. 7 . 4
26 ti. uis. 1°65; -€ . 82 W. 245 Y. 34 V.9
+ | 3°05) *t E.4 |SE.4
} Wilmington. |1-01) .12, .|N.B3-9
) i Mm. 11°02) + v.H. 2 .W. 303
) Lynchburg. Sirs 8. 57 E. 562 |N.BE.12 |N.E.8 ©
31 t. Paul. 2°30r: *t 52'S. 67 EB. 93 .H. 18 W. 2 4
! Port Stanley. | 1:81] -56| -36/S. 60 EB. 591 IS.W.3 [SW.3 ©
33 0. 2°00} -64| - * .W.14 |SW.7 |
L Washington. | 2°12/30- 7218S. 63 HB. 1175 ig V.8 i
1 m. | 1°68 )4 IW. 4 W. 2 7
; Philadelphia. | 2-31] -04| -92\N.73E.| 34 N.E. 12 —
i Philadelphia. | 2°17|29-97| -85|N. 41 E. 348 LE. 12 |N.E. 22 —
3 Wilmington. | 1°50/30-0: S.W. 6
) eston. | 3°67/29°9 5 Calm.
40 May. | 1°92) - 6S. 12 W. 48 3 N.W. 8
4 9.3} 8-96/Mt. Washington.) 2-20] -§ 59! North. 202 W. 24 |W. 12
42 24.1) 9°51/Mt. Washington.} 1°55/30°1 86\N. 7 E. 222 |W.6 1. W. 12
431 Fort Gibson. | 1°01/29°7 Fa | .B. 6
44 New London. | 2°25} °§ *B2iN. 34 329 E32 .B, 24 |
45 Philadelphia. |1:96| 4 A5IN. 16 . 12 12 3
46 Rochester. |1°38} -65| -26IN.26W.' 273 |N. 20 LE. 25 ~
47 “95h #8 "BOIN. 54 W. 160 y. 23 14 3
48 eat 4 : TW. 24 |W. 25
49 Cape May. | 0-90 ‘ oe 8.35W.| 4 26 .W. 4
50 Boston. 15 E. 225 |E. 12 |B. 17
51 Boston. 1°50 98-69 28 a N. 48 FE. 101 I.E. 28 |W. 16
52 1:37 9\28-47|N. 75 E. 332 |K. 10 S.E. 18
53 Nashville. | 1:08) -8629°49/5. 48 W.] 52) Ww. 8
54 80 “2718. 61 W. S.E.14 |IN.12 —
55 Charleston. |1 N. 8

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 3

pressure expressed in English miles; column 11th shows the
direction and force of the wind at the place mentioned in col-
umn 4th and at the date given in column 2d; and column 10th
shows the direction and force of the wind at the observatio
next preceding the date mentioned in the table. :

For each of the cases named in this table, the curves of equal
rain-fall have been accurately drawn upon maps of the United
States, and these curves have been carefully compared. The
following table shows the geographical extent of some of
these rain-areas. Column Ist shows the number of reference
taken from the preceding table; column 2d shows in English
miles the greatest and least diameters of the area over which the
rain-fall was at least one inch in eight hours; and column 8rd
shows the greatest and least diameters of the area over which
the rain-fall was at least half an inch, in eight hours.

Dimensions of Rain-areas.

Area of Area of Area of Area of Area of Area of
No.{ one inch half inch No, | one inch halfinch || No. |} one inch balf inch
rain. rain, rain. rain. rain. rain.

10 | 720-230 | 920-398 443-167 | 714-393 || 20} 338-173 | 890-406

17
9 | 605-334 | 668-430 || 36 | 440-160 | 858-356 |} 54 | 338-194 | 458-358
45 | 546-318 | 724-350 || 27 | 380-296 | 468-390 7 | 320-288 | 394-312
39 | 490-188 | 514-236 || 32 | 374-150 | 796-340 5 | 312-276 | 394-394
6 | 360-304 | 440-402 1| 300-174 | 494-300

55 | 468-162 | 652-312
446-216 2

1
174-33 8 | 354-144 | 436-266 || 18 | 242-162 | 858-224

The form of these rain-areas is sometimes quite irregular but
generally it approximates to an ellipse of which the major axis
is not quite double the minor axis. This elongated form of
rain-areas is more noticeable in storms whieh prevail near the
Atlantic coast, than it is in regions remote from the ocean. It
will be seen that in three cases the area of one inch rain-fall
exceeded 500 miles in length, and in six cases the area of one
half inch rain-fall exceeded 750 miles in length. In number
_ ten, the area of one quarter inch rain-fall was 1,180 miles by 500
miles ; in number twenty, this area was 1,000 miles by 572 miles,
and in two or three other cases the dimensions of the rain-areas
were nearly as great. Frequently the’entire rain-area is an oval
figure whose length exceeds 1,000 miles, and whose breadth
exceeds 500 miles. ig

It was shown in my sixth paper, that south of latitude 36°
rain-areas are as frequently under the influence of an area of
high barometer as of an area of low barometer. In columns 7,
8 and 9, of the table on page 2, I have therefore left blanks for
the southern stations) The numbers in*column 8th, for the
northern stations, show that in seventeen cases the rain center
was north of the center of low pressure, and in sixteen cases it
was south of this center. In twenty cases the rain center was.

-

4 £. Loomis— Results derived from an examination of the

east of the center of low pressure, and in twelve cases it was
west of this center. If, however, we consider the middle of the
rain-fall as corresponding to a date four hours preceding the
’ barometric observation, we shall find that in four of these cases,
iz: numbers 1, , and 54, the principal rain-fall occurred
when the rain center was east of the center of low pressure, or
at least very near it. In several of the cases, however, the rain
a was clearly west of the center of low pressure, and
of the cases the rain-fall apparently had a decided nfl
ies upon the direction of the storm’s progress.
specially true of numbers 45, 46 and 47, in which case he cen-
ter of minimum pressure moved westward instead of eastward.
As this Eas is a very remarkable one, I will consider it

800 or 400 miles. The barometer fell steadily during the ian
‘and a center of minimum pressure which had prevailed for
twenty-four hours near the coast of Florida, advanced rapidly
northward. During the evening of the 19th the same winds
continued with increasing strength; the rain-fall increased espe-
cially about — n and New London ; the barometer con-
tinued to fall, and the center of minimum pressure advanced
to Norfolk. On the morning of the 20th’the same system of
winds prevailed but had advanced further northward, the south-
east winds near the coast extending from New York to Nova
Scotia, and having a velocity of twelve to twenty-five miles,
and were opposed by fresh winds from the north and west in
the vicinity of Lakes Erie and Ontario. At Quebec the wind
blew from the east, forty-six miles per hour, and on Mt. Wash-
ingtoa the wind blew from the southeast seventy-five miles per
hour. The total rain-fall: . all the stations during the preced-
ing eight hours was greater than was recorded for any other
equal period during the fifteen months under discussion. The
center of minimum pressure had now reached Cape May, and
the center of the rain area was 250 miles further north. During
the 21st the system of east winds near the coast of New Eng-
land and Nova Scotia had pushed further into the interior, and
in the afternoon extended to Rochester, which was now the cen-
ter of greatest rain-fall, while the center of minimum pressure
moved slowly in the same direction. The wind at a still

w from the east, forty-two miles per hour, and on Mt. Wash-

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 5

_ Sure was apparently pushed still further toward the northwest,
but as this center hadi now passed beyond the stations of ob-
Servation, it is impossible to locate it with precision. —

Plate I shows the curves of equal rain-fall for October 20,
7.35 a.m. The outer curve shows the extreme limits of the
rain-area during the preceding eight and one-half hours; the
next curve shows the limit of one half inch rain-fall; the third
curve shows the area over which the rain-fall was at least one
inch ; and the inner curve shows the area of one. a half
inch rain-fall. At Philadelphia and Burlington the rain-fall
was 1-96 inch during the eight and one-half hours, and it 1s
Probable that near the center of the rain area the rain-fall ex-.

6 E. Loomis—Resulis derived from an examination of the

ceeded two inches. The successive positions of the-center of
minimum pressure are indicated by the figures 19-2, 19°83, 201,
etc., and the undulating line connecting these points represents
the ‘path of the center of minimum pressure from October 19th
to October 22d. The arrows at the several stations represent
the direction of the winds for October 19th, 11 P. m., which
was the time of commencement of the rain-fall represented
upon the map.

This example presents a very unusual case of a storm center
traveling for several days toward the northwest. This result
was appercuky produced by a wind of unusual —_ setting
in from the Atlantic Ocean, and meeting with o
from the interior caused a very unusual rain-fall, and lie center
of minimum pressure followed the center of the rain-area.
These facts seem to indicate that a heavy rain-fall extending
over a large area has a decided influence in determining the
course of a storm center.

In No. 26 the principal rain-fall was on the northwest side
of the center of minimum pressure but not over 150 miles from
it. In No. 53 the principal rain-fall was on the southwest side
of the center of minimum pressure, and these two cases,
together with No. 12 on page 15 of my last paper, indicate
that in the neighborhood of Kentucky it is not uncommon for
the principal Ser to occur after the center of low pressure

as pas eastw

In Nos. 40 ae 49 the rain-fall at Cape May was aig than
at any other station, but there was at the same time another
rain-area of much greater extent near the center of minimum

ressure. The rain-fall at Cape May was apparently the result
of a local cyclone which did not greatly affect the height of the
arometer.

In No. 19 there was. a center of low pressure in Nova Scotia,

the winds near the Lake region were generally from the
northwest. At Norfolk the wind was from the south, and a
new center of low pressure was forming near the coast of North
coats The rain about Philadelphia on the morning of Jan-
17th was apparently due to a local cyclonic movement,
‘aire than to the influence of the low center in Nov arr pid
The average distance of the center of greatest rain-fall fro
the center of low pressure for cases north of latitude 36°, is i
300 miles, but it sometimes exceeds 750 miles.
In 19 cases the distance was less ae 250 siti
11 between 250 and 500 miles
5 ge eG oo 500 and 750 miles.
3 * el over 750 miles

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 7

In No. 34 (page 2) there was a center of low pressure in
Minnesota, but it seemed to exert no control over the winds in
the eastern and southern parts of the United States. Here
- there were five centers of local cyclonic movement, each of
which became the center of a rain-area as shown on Plate II.
Neither of these centers became a center of low pressure
saat the rain-area near Washington continued for sixteen

ours.

In No. 10 there was a center of low pressure over Lake
Superior, but this was so distant that it exerted but little in-
fluence over the winds near the Atlantic coast. On the
evening of November 6th, winds from the south and east
generally prevailed along the entire Atlantic coast, and these
being opposed by westerly winds (the result of a high barom-
eter in Tennessee), there was an extensive rain on the night
of November 6th, which was especially heavy along the coast
from Georgia to Massachusetts. This rain-fall seemed to have
a decided influence in accelerating the movement of the center
of low pressure, as was mentioned in my last het p. 16.

5 was i imi o. 10, but it did

on Ww
not produce the same effect on the movement of the
center, perhaps owing to the influence of another rain-area
which prevailed near Montreal.

No. 19 has already been referred to; see preceding page.

In No. 82 the center of lowest pressure was beyond Lake
Superior, but the barometer was quite low (29°56) at Port
Stanley, and here there was apparently a local cyclone resulting
in a heavy rain-fall. '

_No. 30 shows the influence of an area of high pressure com-
bined with an area of low pressure. On the 7th of May there
Was an area of low pressure near the mouth of the Ohio River, _
and an area of high pressure in New England, which gave rise
to a system of southeast winds along the Atlantic coast, and
extending to the Lake region. The result wasa slight rain-fall
Over a large area of territory, but the rain was greatest about
Lynchburg, near which place there was some evidence of
cyclonic motion. Perhaps the Alleghany Mountains had some
influence in determining the upward movement of the south-
fast current near this place.
No, 22 appears to’ have resulted from east winds along the,
Atlantic coast op by west winds near the Mississippl,
valley, on the south side ain area of low pressure. oo

No. 53 has already been referred to on page 6, and it 1s —
remarkable that the center of low pressure moved towards the .
northeast at the rate of 54 miles per hour, leaving the center
Of principal rain-fall almost exactly in its rear. ere were,

Owever, at the same time two other rain areas of considerable

8 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

extent on the northeast side, one about Baltimore and the
other about Montreal.

From the preceding statement we perceive that in the United
States, south of latitude 36°, great rain-falls are accompanied
by a cyclonic movement of the air which sometimes appears to
be the result of a neighboring area of iow pressure, and some-
times of an area of high pressure, and the latter case is about
as frequent as the former. North of latitude 36° rain-areas are
most frequently associated with areas of low barometer and
generally they are found on the east side of the center of low
pressure; but occasionally they are found on the west side of
the center of low pressure, and this case occurs most frequently
in the neighborhood of the Ohio valley. Extensive rain-areas
sometimes occur in the Northern States at a great distance from
a low center, where they appear to be as much under the

a local cyclonic movement of the atmosphere.

Of the fifty-five cases enumerated in the table on page 2,
in thirty-eight cases the wind blew from some quarter between
northeast and southeast, either at the date given in the table or
at the time of the preceding observation. Of the seventeen
remaining cases, in five of them the air was reported as calm ;
in three of them the wind was from the south, and two of the
cases occurred on the summit of Mt. Washington. In one of
the remaining cases the velocity of the wind was only two
miles per hour; in another case the velocity was three miles

r hour; in a third case it was seven miles per hour, and in a
ourth case it was nine miles per hour. There remain only
three cases in which at both the observations the wind was

west or northwest. It seems probable that this northwest
current crowded under the southeast current lifting it up from
the earth’s surface and thus condensing its vapor, and that the
south wind at Philadelphia was the result of the meeting of the
southeast wind from the ocean with the northwest wind of the
interior.

In No. 47, as has been already mentioned on page 4, the
center of the rain-area was on the northwest side of the center
of low pressure. It seems probable that in this case the violent
southeast wind from the ocean extended further west than
Buffalo, and that its vapor was condensed by its being elevated
from the earth’s surface by the crowding of the northwest wind

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 9

beneath it. This fact is distinctly indicated by the following
observations for October 20th, 7.35 4. M., from stations west of
the limits of the rain area.

we: Direction of Amount of
Direction. Ve loci ty upper clonds. clouds.
Alpena __._.. North. 9 miles. S.W. &
Detroit... ... North. 12 * South. 4
Louisville ___ North. 16 South. >
Toledo. North. bd aa S.E. £

In No. 48, south winds generally prevailed in Georgia and
the Carolinas, with cold winds from the west and northwest
in the Northwestern States. This westerly current probably

current can sometimes be seen.
The average velocity of the wind at the date of the.observa-

tain-falls are seldom accompanied by very high wind.
the most noticeable facts connected with extensiv
i rs

Of precipitation. If in each of the cases mentioned in the
table on page 2 we trace the boundary of that area over
Which the rain-fall was at least one inch, we shall find that in
half of these cases there were two such areas distinct from each
other, and in eleven eases there were three such areas. If we

‘ace the area of a rain-fall of at least one-half inch, we shall
find that in forty-five cases there were at least two distinct

10 =. Loomis— Observations of the U. S. Signal Service.

Nos. 8, 24, and 45, in which there were not at least two distinct
rain-centers. In No. 45 there was apparently a subordinate
rain-center, near Charleston, and in No. 8 there was a fall of

of precipitation, and this fact suggests the idea that those con-
ditions which are favorable to rain-fall at one locality, are
generally favorable to rain-fall over a much larger district, and
this often results in a A onaateolae precipitation at several
points remote from each ot

Plate IT exhibits the aoa areas for July 27th, 1873, at 4.35
P.M. Here we find four rain-areas showing a rain-fall of at
least one inch, and an equal number of areas showing a smaller
rain-fall. The dolewte, table shows the greatest amount of
rain observed at any station within each of these areas:

Rainfall July 27, 1873, 4.35 Pp. M.

Washington _... 2°12 inches. Shreveport ----- 0°84 inch.
New York ._... 1°54 Breckenridge _.. “45 “
Nashville _..... Loo Wilmington _... ‘18 “
Eastport --__... EOGs = Denver. csi be

It is possible that the Washington rain area was not entirely
distinct from the New York area, but the observations clearly
indicate two centers of greatest rain-fall During the time o
this rain-fall, the barometer was a little above 30 inches at all of
the stations here mentioned, except Breckenridge. The arrows
show the prea: of the wind at 435 Pp. M. There ae

e
miles per hour, no perceptible effect was produced upon the
barometer.

A considerable number of the cases mentioned in the table
on page 2, exhibit a variety of rain-areas nearly as remarkable
as that shown in Plate I. Among these may be mentioned
Nos. 1, 2, 8, 12, 14, 38, "36, and 41.

In order to determine the duration of great rain-falls, I
selected all those cases in which any of the rain-falls mentioned
in the table on page 2, were followed by at least four inches
of rain (total amount at the eighty stations) during a succeed-
ing period of eight igs The following table shows the
result of this compariso

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sBIydjoperyd|or-9 \z'9¢ VALOPION | 9F-6 |T'9Z
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12) FE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

We thus see that in a period of fifteen months there were
twenty-six cases in which a total rain-fall of eight inches in
eight hours was followed by a total rain-fall of more than four
inches in the next eight hours; there were sixteen cases in
which it was followed by a similar rain-fall for a third period
of eight hours; there were eight cases of a fourth period of
eight hours; five cases of a fifth period; three cases of a sixth

eriod; and one case of a seventh period of eight hours.
hese rain-areas which succeeded each other in order of time,

that these rain-areas had in all cases a proper movement of
translation in the direction of the stations here indicated. In
some cases this apparent movement resulted from a slight
increase of precipitation in one part of an extensive rain-area,
and a decrease in some other part. This remark will probably
explain two or three of the cases in which the apparent move-
ment of the rain-area was from east to west. In one case
however, viz: October 19th, 1878, the rain-area did unques-
tionably advance westward for forty-eight hours as shown on

e average rate of motion of the rain-areas indi-
cated by numerals in the table, is 20°7 miles per hour.

This table shows that great rain-areas are seldom of long
continuance. In twenty-three cases the same rain-area con-
tinued for at least two periods of eight hours; in seven cases
it continued for at least three periods; and in only two cases
did it continue for more than three periods, that is, twenty-four
hours. We thus see that rain-areas with a total rain-fall of at
least four inches in eight hours, for eighty stations, seldom con-
tinue for more than twenty-four hours, only two or three such
cases occurring in the United States during a year. This fact
seems to indicate that the causes which produce rain, instead
of deriving increased force from the rain-fall, rapidly- expend
themselves and become exhausted. This fact cannot be ex-
plained by supposing that the vapor of the air has all been
ake ems because these cases chiefly occur near the At-
antic

that movement to the air which is requisite to a precipitation
of its vapor, become exhausted after a few hours exercise.

Of the fifty-five cases included in the. table on p. 2, in
twenty-seven cases the place of greatest rain-fall was on the
Atlantic coast. But only one-fifth of all the stations are on

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 13

the Atlantic coast; that is, the center of great rain-areas is
found near the Atlantic coast four times as frequently as it is
in the other portions of the United States. The center of great
rain-areas is not found in the neighborhood of the great Lakes
more frequently than it is at inland stations quite distant from
the Lakes.

The distribution ofthese fifty-five cases by seasons was as
follows : > :
Spring 8; Summer 9; Autumn i0 and 16; Winter 12;
showing a slight predominance of great rain-areas in autumn
and winter. In my last paper it was shown that excessive
rains at single stations were most common during the warmest
months ; but it appears that very extensive rain-fails are most

common during the cooler months.
The distribution of these cases according to the hour of the
day was as follows:

7.35 A.M. 25 cases; 4.85 P. M. 22 cases; 11 P.M. 8 cases.

98.980 with regard to great rain-falls at single stations south of
atitude 36°. It is essential to the accuracy of this conclusion

rain-column makes no mention of rain. It is presumed that
generally in these cases the rain had but recently commenced,
and the observer thought it would be equally satisfactory to
report the entire rain-fall at the time of the next observation.
There seems no reason to question the conclusion which these
numbers indicate, viz: that the causes which produce exces-
Sive rain-falls in the United States, act with less intensity in
the evening than during the remainder of the day.

Areas of low pressure without rain.
order to compare the influence of a very small rain-fall

n
bre exhibits these cases. Column 1st contains the number
of reference; column 2nd shows the day and hour of observa-

14. EK. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

Rain-fall less than one-tenth of an inch in eight hours at any
station. ,

Total Low moved {Rain
No, Date. | rain- iy. Station. —_| pireetion.| Vel. |; High| station.
1872.
1 |Sept. 2.3.0°04 |29°65) Fort Sully. * 0 0-00 |30°25 que
2 3.1} °06| -67) FortSully. (East. 4|-°01| °26| Escanaba.
3 14.2] -02| “71 rt Sully. |Kast. 22 | -00| °30| Saugee
4 14.3} °02| °66) FortSully. (Hast. 6 | 00; ‘29; Toronto,
5 15.1) -06| 84 lu ast. 28 | 00; ‘35; Kingston.
6 20.3; °04| °63) Leavenworth. IN. 41 E.| 15 | 00] ‘23 ugusta
/ 9 4 le 0 9 ea 2 hi * 0} 04) °22) Wilmington.
8 jOct. 1.2) -33} °67 Fort Sully. (N. 69 EB. | 24 | -00 12| Nashville.
9 1.3] -O7| “8¢ Duluth. N. 69 E.| 24 | 00| °‘27| Nashville.
10 4.2) -12] “68 Keo East. 7 | -03|, -07| Jacksonville
7 5.1] *14| °82 Escanaba. . |N. 18 E.| 22 | -05| 35; Portland, Me.
12 8.3] 13| 71} Marque East. 17 | 00} -21| Lynchburgh.
is 11.2} *04 2| Fort Sully. ? ? | 00} +30) Cincinnati.
14 11.3) °00 8% Dulu y 15 | 00} °30) Cincinnati.
15 12.1] 00) Marquette. last. 17 | -00| °30| Lynchb
16 12.2} 10}. “6! Alpe 67 BE. | 24 | -01 5| Portland, Me
+ 4.3) °08| °59| Breckenridge. |N. 62 E.| 42 | -00| ‘24 Vicksburg.
18 5.1) 05; -4é Escanaba. 8 33 | -05| +24) Knoxville.
9 5.2} -29| °47;| Grand Haven. |8. 36 EH. | 30 | -29| ‘165
10 5.3} *24) ugeen. 86 EH. | 2 24| °21} Augusta.
1 6.3} 08] -83| Fort Sully. 82 E.| 47 | -00| °34| Philadelphia.
2 9.3), °03 |=: Omaha. 54 E.] 5 | 00) 27). cinna’
Z 0.1;.°00| °80). 52 E.| 4{| -00/ °32| Nashville.
24 0.2) ‘00; °60| Breckenridge. 47 EB.{ 5 | 00) °25 orfo
0.3| 01] *t arque’ 55 B. 00| -27| Norfolk.
26 aL LiOTe: 4 Escanaba. Pie 3) IB FOO) Norfolk.
: MAO 4 Milwaukee. |S.16E. | 11 | 00) - orfolk.
3 31.2} 00) “ aba. ast. ? | 00| :24| Nashville.
29 |Nov.15.2| -39| °E Quebec. + |Hast. ? | 23} -67| Fort Ben
30} ja} 28) Quebec. rast. ? | -15| °58) Fort Benton.
OG t 4 Quebec. y ? | 02} -65) Nashville
4 .3| -06 |307] Alpena bast, ? | 00} -71)Leavenwo'
} -1} -O7 |29°¢ St. Paul. . 58 E. | 36 | 05} 44) Lynchburgh.
7 L305) 34 Alpena. hast. 35 | 05] °30| Cape M
35 21.3) 091.4 Escanaba. hast. 6 | -06| °24| Lynchburgh.
36 33.2) 10|- 7 ver. oa de tf 101 OO 43 Mobile.
37 27.3! 02! + fast. | ? | 02] 64! i
38 28.1; 00 |30°( 2. ? ? |} -00
39 30.3) 17 |29° i jast. 18 | -16
40 \Dec. 3.3} -18| -99| FortSully. /East. 10 | -00
41 4.1| -11| ‘94| FortSully. Hast. 14 | -00
42 4.2) -07 |30-03 Paul 86 E. | 42 | 00
43 6.2) 13; -04| Fort Sully. ast. ? | 00
44 6.3) 04} -00| FortSully. |East. yi
45 7.1) °09 |29°67 Pembina. |. 49 BH. | 31 | 05
46 14.2} -11| ‘59 Milwaukee. [N. 73 H.| 48 | -06
47 14.3) -22) *%3 Alpena. . 69 EB. | 37 | -12
48 | 31.3| ‘43; -67) Santa Fe. 14 | Ol
1873.
49 |Jan. 10.2) -13| 82 ‘on East. | ee
50 11.3! -08! -55' FortSully. ‘S. 74 E. | 15! -08

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 15
Table continued.
Tota Low moved /Rain
No.| Date rain- edd Station. Direction.| Vel. 7 ig Station.
1873.
51/Jan. 12.3/0'10 |29°73| Milwaukee. 88 E. | 50 (0°08 30°56; Boston.
f 19.2} -39] °43) Fort Garry. 72 EB. | 13 | 07} °28) Mobile.
19.3} -20} °41 rt G 81 BE. | 14 | 13} 2% Mobile
Feb. 1.1] 19] °65) San Francisco. |Kast. 8 | 00; °95) Fort Sully.
1.3] 07] °67| San Francisco. | Kast. 13 | 02| ‘74! Davenport
9.1}. °33 6 Quebec. ast. ? | 11} °51) Vicksburg
10.1} -08| °50| Fort Garry. |East. 27 | -00| -50| Washingto
10.2) 08] “4: Escanaba. ast. 36 | °06| ‘41 avan
List 104° “3 Omaha 76 E.| 46 | 10| 29} Oswego
f 23.2) "82 | 70: Corinne ? ? | 00} °24| Fort Sully.
f 25.2| *25) 35 nver S.62 BE. | 14] :10| -16 Chicago.
f 28.2) 32} ‘77| Cheyenne. East. 5 | ‘11| °38| Cleveland.
63|Mar. 5.2) 10] -5 irginia Ci East. ? | 08; °66| Kingston.
. 5.3} 00} -42| Virginia City. |East. ? | 00} 72) Baltimore.
¢ 6.1) 03} *45| Fort Benton. |East. ? | -02| -78) Lynchburgh.
f 13.1) -02{| °92) Fort Benton ? ? | °00| -42| Nashville.
13,2} -03| °58| Virginia ast, 20 | -01| °33| Savannah.
f 13.3] °02 vf Corinn last. 20 | 00; 4 v
. 16.3) 04] 68 Santa Fe jast, 71-03; “4 Cincinnati.
i 22.2) -10| -64 Om hast. 32 1 001. 3 Fort S$
a 22.3) -01 6€ Marquette. jast. 32 | 00) « Fort Sully.
y 27.3} 05] °41 Om . 50 BE. | 42 | 00/ * Norfolk.
73/April 4.1) -08| °31 ankto: hast. 7 | -03| 26] Kingston.
74 4.3) -05| 50) Leavenworth. |East. 5 | -01| °36| Kingston.
7 21.2) 08} 45) Leavenworth. |S. 29 E. | 29 | -00| +26)San Francisco.
76/May 16.1} -09| 5s ta ? 2? | OT] <1 Duluth.
T7/June 20.2) -23] -€ Fort Sully. ? tr 06)" 4 Mobile.
78\July 6.3) 04] °7 Omaha. 5 | 00] - enver.
12.3) -12| 48) Breckenridge. |S. 50 E. | 13 | -10| -29) New London.
i ie ee Fort Garry. |N. 39 E.| 9 | 02] °19) Lynchb
Sept.11.3) -09| -¢ Marquette. East. - 7 | -02] +29) Fort Benton.
21.1) 30) “4 Fort Garry. | East. 13 | -04| 34) Washi
Oct. Lf “06 bay Havannah. ? ? -O1| -2' Marquette.
.3| 06] -83] Ha ? 2 | -00| -32| Marq
9.2} 00] -49] Fo: T 7 PGT
9.3} -08| 68] Fort Garry. |East. ? | -02| -36| Ch
10.2} -04! -68! Fo s Me 2 | -00! +35) Corinne.
10.3] 02; -°86 uth, vast. 2? | -00| -34| Cheyenne.
12.3] -23| 61] Fort Garry. (East. 19 | -00| -39)Portland, Or.
13.3} --16-| *8% Alpena. last. 2 |} 00} ‘31; Wilmi
14.2] -11] -66 n I. 71 E.| 25 | -01| -34| Wilmington.
14.3) 02} °72| Fort Sully. t.71E.| 6 | -02| -44 Saugeen.
15.3] -03| -95) Pa 20 | -00| -52| Cape May.
30.1) *30| *71 m 69 E. | 27 | -21| -48} Philadelphia.
Nov. 9.3] -16| -38 ? ? | 02} -36) Corinne.
10.1) 02} 48] Farther Point. ? 2? | 00; -38) Corinne.
10.2} -09| -87 ‘ort Sully. ? ? | 00| -34) Corinne.
13.3] -18| -61 inia City. IN. 77 E.| 25 | -00| -23) Portland, Or.
109 1) 1%] 43) Fort Garry. |N. 77 E.| 25 | -00| 36) Portland, Or.
101, #2} 17) 41] Fort Garry. |N. 77 E.| 25 | -09/ 34) Portland, Or.
16.11 11! -331 Oswego. IS 79H. ! 291-11) “46 Corinne.

16 EE. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

ber of stations was seventy-two, but this number was gradually
increased and in November, 1873, amounted to eighty-eight.
Column 4th shows the height of the barometer at the nearest
center of minimum pressure; column 5th shows the station at
which the pressure given in column 4th was observed ; column
6th shows the direction in which the low center had moved
during the last eight hours, and column 7th shows the velocity
with which it moved expressed in miles per hour. Column
8th shows the total amount of rain observed within the area

with very little rain. Of the 101 cases here mentioned, more

there were at least thirty stations which showed a pressure
below thirty inches; and in several cases there were over fifty
stations which showed a pressure below thirty inches. The
following table contains the most important examples. Column
ist shows the number of reference from the preceding table
and column 2nd shows the number of stations at which the

twenty-four hours or longer. These barometric minima seldom
continue stationary for eight hours, but almost invariably

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 17
Number of stations within the area of low barometer.

|

| No. ae

No. |Stations No. |Stations|| No. |Stations|| No. |Stations|| No. |Stations

"51! 70 || 60 | 47 || 35| 43 || 74| 39 || 161 32 || 59| 30
101 | 67 || 39 | 45 7 | 43 |hoo| 39 || 24] 31 || 61 | 30
mu | 58 || 70| 45 liv! 42 || 58} 35 || 36] 31 || 90] 30

20 | 48 52 43 71 39 || 6 33 29 |. 30

travel to the eastward. In several cases the center of least
pressure was beyond the limits of the United States so that it
is impossible to assign satisfactorily either the direction of their
progress or their rate of motion. The table on pages 14 and
15 shows the best results I have been able to deduce from the

isobar 29-8 for October 19th; the next curve represents the
isobar 29°6 for October 20th; and the most eastern curve
represents the isobar of 29°8 for October 21st; each of the
curves corresponds to the 4.35 P. M. observation. It will be
seen that during the first twenty-four hours, the center of least
pressure moved only about five miles per hour; but during
the next twenty-four hours the average motion was twenty-two
miles per hour. During these forty-eight hours not a drop of
rain was recorded at any station within the area of a pressure
less than thirty inches, although on the 20th of October this
area had a diameter of 1,500 miles.

The observations on the amount of cloudiness at the different
stations confirm the observations of rain-fall. The following
table presents a summary of these observations. Column 2
shows the number of stations within the area of low barometer
(i.e, less than thirty inches pressure) at which the sky was
reported to be entirely clear at the dates given in column Ist,
xcept that the air was very generally reported to be smoky or

azy; column 8d shows the number of stations at which the

7 rtly cloudy; and column 4th shows the number
Stations at which the sky was entirely overcast.

The following are the stations at which the sky was reported
to be overcast, viz: October 19.2, Virginia City and Duluth;
20.2, Corinne, Cheyenne and Duluth; 20.8, Denver, Cheyenne

Am. Jour. grees Series, Vou. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877.

18 E. Loomis—Results derived from an examination of the

No clouds. Partly cloudy. b wcarithe Z
Oct. 19.2 5 stations. 2 stations. 2 stations.
m3 8 < 2 ¥ none.
20.1 9 2 5 ae E
20.2 13 si T oe 3 stations.
20.3 15 rr 3 ae %
21.t 5 eg 7 ms 3 ag
21.2 4 ft 9 5 =

and Duluth; 21.1, St. Paul, Duluth and Escanaba; 21.2, Santa
Fe, Duluth, La Crosse, Keokuk and Toronto. Six of these
cases occurred in the neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains,
so remote from the center of least pressure that if there ha

been a rain-fall in that vicinity, it could not be supposed to be
the cause of the barometric minimum under discussion. The
long continuance of clouds at Duluth, and the extension of this
cloud area on the 21st indicates an upward movement of the
atmosphere attended with a slight precipitation of vapor, and
there may have been rain-fall at places further north. But
when we consider that in the Southern States a heavy rain-fall
covering an area several hundred miles in diameter exerts
scarcely any appreciable influence on the barometer, we cannot
suppose that the very limited rain-fall which may possibly
have occurred from October 19th to the 21st had any sensible
influence in the production of the barometric minimum, or in
causing its eastern progress, so that it seems safe to conclude
that rain-fall is not essential to the formation of areas of low barom-
eter, and is not the principal cause of their formation or of their

earth’s rotation the result was a diminution of pressure over
the region between the Rocky Mountains and Lake Superior.
These two areas of high barometer on opposite sides of the
low area were remarkably persistent from Detaber 19th to 21st,
but advanced eastward at about the same rate as the barometric
minimum. Plate IIT, shows the direction of the winds October
20th, 4.35 p.m. They indicate a decided inward movement
of the air and a circulation about the center of low pressure.
At several of the stations the winds were uncommonly strong.
The following table shows the direction and force of the wind
where the velocity was greates

Observations of the United States Signal Service. 19

Direction. | Velocity. | Direction, | Velocity.
Fort Sully _..| N.W. 36 miles. ||Davenport_.._| 8.W. 18 miles.
Datauth 222. N.E. ane Leavenworth Ss. LB
Chicago ____- Ss. Ee Escanaba_._--| 8.E. PE ae
Grand Haven S. 19 “ ||Omaha--.-.- Ss. 162"

The distribution of the cases of small rain-fall mentioned in
the table on pages 14 and 15, according to the seasons of the
year, is as follows:

Spring, 14 cases. Summer, 4 cases.
Autumn, 39 and 21 cases. Winter, 23 cases.

We see that these cases occur most frequently in the autumn
and especially in the month of October. They are generally
accompanied by a hazy or smoky condition of the atmosphere,
and this is the phenomenon which is generally known under the
name of Indian Summer. It appears to be due to an uncom-

‘monly tranquil condition of the atmosphere extending entirely
across the continent; and similar cases frequently occur in
each month of the year from September to March, but are
most common in October.

A comparison of all the facts which: have been presented in
this paper, together with my six former papers, appears to
warrant the following generalizations.

. Areas of low barometer result from a general movement
of the atmosphere towards a central area, and this movement
1s accompanied by a deflection of the wind to the right, which
causes a tendency to circulate around the center with a motion
Brie | inward.

of an inch. In these storms, three-quarters of the observed
depression of the barometer is usually the effect of the earth’s

20 HK. Loomis—Observations of the U. S. Signal Service.

4. In North America, south of latitude 35°, areas of low
pressure are less frequent and generally exhibit a less depres-
sion than near latitude 45°, because the area over which a
cyclonic movement of the winds prevails is small; and this
area is small because if a cyclonic area could be formed having
a radius of 1,000 miles with its center in latitude 30°, its cir-
cumference must extend southward to latitude 16°, where the
trade winds are steady and seldom interrupted. Such a diver-
sion of the winds toward the north, even if it could be produced,
could not be long maintained; so that a large cyclonic area
with its center in latitude 30° is well nigh impossible ; and it
is impossible that there should be a great depression of the
barometer in latitude 80°, except with a wind having a hurricane
velocity. This is believed to be the reason why in North

merica the centers of great storms are generally found north
of latitude 40°.

erally the original cause of the barometric depression, but
rather an incident of the cycloidal movement of the atmos-

here. The fall of the barometer during a rain storm cannot
ye ascribed to the simple condensation of the vapor of the
atmosp as some have supposed, since a rain-fall of one or
two inches prevailing over an area 300 miles in diameter near
. latitude 30° produces scarcely an appreciable effect upon the
barometer. e tables on pages 2 and 3.

7. The progress of areas of low barometer in all latitudes is
determined mainly by the same causes which determine the
general system of circulation of the atmosphere; and their
normal direction is changed by whatever causes may change.
the direction of the winds.

A, Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza. 21

ologists who have given no little attention to the subject.

In preparing the materials for this article I have been assisted
by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, Ph.D., a graduate of Yale College of
the class of 1873.

—___.

Art. I.—The Germination of the genus MeGARRHIZA, Torr. ;
by Asa if

present imperfect knowledge of this genus of big-rooted Cucur-
bi | our Pacific coast. For the extraordinary peculiarity
m question, being one which, in other cases, is
exhibit itself in certain species of a genus (as in Anemone
and Delphinium), and not in others, so it may in the present
give aid in distinguishing the five species which have
€n characterized upon more or less incomplete or scanty
aces
»He rst species known was from Oregon; the specimens,
being In slower: only, were referred in eke Flora Borealis
Americana, i, 220, to Sicyos angulatus, but were separated in
Torrey and Gray's Flora of North America, i, 542, under the
name of Sicyos Oreganus. In the course of time it was found
that there was a similar if not identical species in California,
and oy. more than one, that they were perennial from
arge and fleshy roots, that, while the flowers much
resemble those of Mehinocystis, the seeds were turgid, mar-
ginless, and with thick and fleshy cotyledons. Dr. Torrey,
"pon whom the examination of these plants devolved, many

22 A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza.

— thirty) years ago proposed for them the generic name of

garrhiza ; but he refrained from publishing it, even omitted
ae mention of it in his account of Dr. Bigelow’s excellent col-
lection made in Whipple’s Expedition (Pacif. R. Rep. iv, 1857),
although good materials of that and other collections were in
his hands, because he could not make up his mind whether he
had to do with one variable species or with two or three. But
in the sixth volume of the Pacif. Railroad Rep., which bears
the same date of 1857, in Dr. Newberry’s list of plants collected
rats Williamson’s Expedition (p. 74), two species are enumerated,
t

. 'Mogitroeie eae ais Torrey. Petaluma and Sonoma,
California; April, in flower.”

: Megarrhiza Oregana, ees On the shores of Klamath
Lake and banks of Willamette River, O. T.; August and
September, in fruit.’

Before this, however, viz: in March, 1855, Dr. Kellogg, of
San Francisco, communicated to the California Academ my of
Natural Sciences (Proc. Calif. Acad., i, 88), an account of one
of these — apparently the second, under the name of
Marah murica

A few years aa some se a been raised in France
from Californian seeds, M. Naudin (in Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 4, xii,
154, t. 9, under date of 1859, but, as the letter-press shows,
not ‘printed until 1860 or 1861), published he plant which Dr.
Torrey had called M. Calfornica under the name of Echinocystis
fabacea. This extension of Tolancaiats was Padded by Ben-
tham and Hooker in their Genera Plantarum. It was, more-
over, sear ne by Dr. Kellogg, who, in a second communica-
tion to th rnian Academy, under date of June 4, 1855,
re-describes his rsa Marah muricatus, states that it “ ne
mately belongs to Eehv inocystis,” and gives it the name of
muricatus. When, shortly after Dr. Torrey’s death, I superin-
tended the printing of his account of the plants collected on
our Pacific coast in Wilkes’ Expedition, I found that he had
left the article on this genus unwritten, and apparently had not
determined either upon the emo of the species or upon the
distinctness of his proposed gen

When in the recent jepatetion of the Botany of California
the subject came to be studied anew by Mr. Watson, with the
aid of more extensive materials, and when these materials were
found to exhibit such diversities that at least five species to
be recognized (Bot. California, i, sce with notable differences
in ovary, fruit, seeds, etc., but no approximation to the eastern
Echinocystis, it could hardly oe doubted that Torrey’s genus
ought to be reinstated ; and this was accordingly done

The M. Californica had been raised in the Botanic Garden of
Harvard University many years ago, but I had not seen the

A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza. 23

germination ; and we were never able to bring the plant into

ossom, as it invariably died down to the ground soon after
making a moderate growth. On germinating some fresh seeds
early this spring, I was somewhat
surprised to find that they came up
in the manner of beans. Instead of

well out of the soil upon what seemed
to be a well developed radicle, like
that of Hchinocystis. If the coty-
ledons had expanded, though re-
maining fleshy, in the manner of
Phaseolus, the difference between this
and Echinocystis, with cotyledons truly
foliaceous in germination, would be
much less than had been supposed. I
waited long to see if this would
occur; I also waited in vain for the
expected development of the plumule
from between the bases of the fleshy
cotyledons. After the lapse of about
a fortnight, the plumule in all three
oO germinating plantlets came
separately out of the soil of the pot;
and, on exposing the whole to view,
the state of things represented in fig.
1 came to view. That is, the plumule
came forth from the base of what ap-
peared to be an elongated radicle (of
\\ \ two or three inches in length); and
\ below this the thickening of the root,
which acquires enormous dimensions

wi
| WA. in old plants, had already commenced.
3 iV. A large amount of the nourishin

matter stored in the cotyledons ha
been carried down to the root and

cleft at the very base of the seeming

: radicle, which otherwise a | to

be solid. But on cutting it across toward the base this was

found to be tubular, as shown at the bottom of fig. 2; and

later, when more spent and beginning to wither, this stalk was

Separable from above downward into two, as shown in the upper
Part of the same figure.

24 A. Gray— Germination of the genus Megarrhiza.

This, therefore, is a case in which long petioles to the cotyle-
dons (of which there is no appearance in the seed), connate into
one body, are developed and greatly length-
ened in place of the radicle, which is thus
. simulated. It is the same as in Delphinium
\\ nudicaule of California, and some other spe-

\\ cies; only in that genus the cotyledons expand
} and become foliaceous. In the horse-chestnut
/ petioles are also developed to the cotyledons
to a moderate extent, but without union,
(see Gray’s First Lessons, fig. 24), thus
pushing the radicle and plumule well out
of the firm seed-coat, in which the very
heavy and fleshy cotyledons remain ; and the
radicle itself, as in the pea, does not further
lengthen. In Lpomea leptophylla the radicle
remains in like manner short, while petioles
to the (here foliaceous) cotyledons develope
to a great length, bringing these separately
out of the ground, and the plumule between
follows later.

Botanists on the Pacific coast are earnestly requested to
examine the germination of all the species of Megarrhiza, and to
compare them with the figures and description here given. At
least three species should be met with near San Francisco, and
in neighboring parts of California. According to the characters
assigned by Mr. Watson in the Botany of California, JZ, Cal-
fornica should be known by its obovoid seeds, of less than an
inch in length, with a small hilum at the narrow base:
Marah, by its more numerous seeds horizontally imposed in a
large fruit (of four inches in length), each seed roundish and
depressed, flattened, an inch in diameter and about half as
thick, with a prominent lateral hilum. J/. muricata, by a
nearly naked fruit only an inch in diameter, containing only
two globose seeds of half an inch in diameter. MM. Oregana,
which is known to occur from the Columbia River to the north
of California, appears to have seeds resembling those of Jd.
Marah, but rather smaller; but they are not well known. The
remaining one, M. Guadalupensis, of Guadalupe Island, off
Lower California, is much out of ordinary reach, unless it
should be found in the southern part of the State.

Mature fruits and seeds of all the species are much desired.

Fig. 1 represents a germinating plantlet of Megarrhiza Califor-
nica, of natural size, complete except the lower part of the root.
Fig. 2 represents the cotyledons at a later period, with their
united petioles separated from above, still united into a tube
below, the lower end of which is, cut away.

H. P. Armsby— Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 25
Art. III.—On the absorption of Bases by the Soil; by H. P.
ARMSBY.

THE question of the nature of the absorptive power of the
soil for bases may be regarded as still to a certain extent an
open one. Although the researches of Henneberg & Stoh-
mann, Peters, Weinhold and others have shown concluslvely that
the absorption is accompanied by a chemical reaction between the
salt whose base is absorbed and the soil, an equivalent quan-
tity of other bases being dissolved ; and though the investiga-
tions of Way, Hichhorn, \Rantenberg, Heiden, Knop and
Mulder have as conclusivel; connected this reaction with the
presence in the soil of certain zeolitic silicates which appear to
be the agents of absorption; it has been the opinion of many
distinguished authorities, e. g., Liebig, Brustlein, Henneberg
& Stohmann, that the prime cause of absorption is physical
Im its nature.

The fact which more than any other has served to sustain
this view is the peculiar effect of the concentration and volume
of the solution upon the amount of absorption. As is well

other porous bodies. Peters and others hold that the physical
force is the prime cause, and that the chemical phenomena are
only secondary, while others believe that chemical action is the
Prime cause and is modified by physical force. Knop ad-

which can unite with the acid, and that then the chemical
union of the base follows. 3

Pillitz (Fres, Zeit., xiv, 55 and 282) has indeed found that, if
a large volume of solution be filtered through a soil until no

removed, since in his experiments the absorption was constant.
But these facts, however interesting and important, neither

26 H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soi.

do away with the variability of absorption as ordinarily deter-
mined nor rob that variability of its force as an argument for
the physical nature of absorption, since as Pillitz himself says
even the most dilute solution is not exhausted, which must be
the case were the variations due simply to a lack of sufficient
material to saturate the soil.

In view of the interest attaching to this question it seemed to
me desirable to compare the behavior of the soil in this respect
with that of pure hydrous silicates. If it should be found that
the exchange of bases between these compounds and neutral
salts showed the same variations as soil-absorption, then, what-
ever view might be held as to the cause of these variations, all
possible objections to the theory which considers soil-absorp-
tion to be such an exchange of bases between the salt and the
hydrous silicates known to exist in the soil would seem to be
removed.

As illustrating the variations of soil-absorption the following
determinations made in the laboratory of Prof. Knop in Leipzig
may be adduced. ‘T'wo soils were used: No. 1, Deposit of the
Nile. No. 2, A loamy soil from the vicinity of Leipzig.

The absorptive power of these soils for ammonia was deter-
mined by Knop’s method (Bonitirung der Ackererde, 49) by
digesting the soil in the cold with a solution of NH,Cl of
known strength for forty-eight hours and determining the am-
monia remaining in the fluid by means of the azotometer.
The results denote the c. c. of nitrogen at 0° C. and 760 m.m
pressure contained in the ammonia absorbed, and the concen-
tration of the solution employed is stated in the same way. I
was found more convenient to vary the amount of the soil than
of the solution.

Absorption
Nos. Ninle.c of Sol. Wt. of Boil. Soil No. 1. Soil No. 2.
L ie 1:079 cc. 50 grms. 677 6.6, 45°2 ©. c.
2. Bo: 25 ee 49° “ *4 66
= oe 225 * 3i5...% 16-2 *
4. O25 * 14 > os
IL 2158 “ ena pao Se iGo: e738. ©
2. Sac . * i be Ered 38°2
3. week “i o> Sr’ aad me Ea
A. ree 6°25 “ ae 1g
14 liga 3°237 “ 50 = taza. *
2, Ce 95 ae 85 “0 a4
g. ae "5 “ 48°8 “
4. oo 6°25 “ac 32°1 ee
IV. 4°316 “ 50 - ino't se] ™

OO PO
‘
$
1

ee
=)
z
eo
o
i)
FS

H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 27

Representing graphically the results of the first series (I) we
obtain the curve No. 1 in the figure, showing the influence of
the relative volume of the solution on the absorption by soil
No. 1. The other three series give exactly similar curves, and
the influence of the concentration of the solution is seen in
curve No. 2, which represents the absorption by fifty grams
of soil No. 1 from solutions of increasing concentration.

140 =

~
——>| ABSORPTION

8

|

10 20 30 40 50

But not only these experiments, but all others on the subject
accessible to me show essentially the same result. With the ex-
ception of a single experiment by Laskowsky (Knop, Boni., etc.,
p. 150) the absorption never increases proportionally to the soil,
hor 1s it, as is sometimes stated, independent of its amount.

In order to study the absorption of bases by hydrous silicates
+, artificial silicate was prepared in the method described by
Way (Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng., xi, 313).

28 Hl. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soii.

Highty grams of airdry aluminum hydrate were dissolved
in a strong solution of soda (containing about 200 grams
NaOH), the solution was diluted largely, and to it were added
about 310 ¢.c. of commercial water-glass, containing 91 grms.
siO,. A bulky, flocculent precipitate resulted which subsided
readily and could be washed by decantation without much dif-
ficulty. The washing was continued till the washings showed
no alkaline reaction, the precipitate collected on a filter and
dried at 100° C. till it seemed dry to the touch. It was then
pulverized, brought upon a filter, washed till the filtrate gave
no precipitate with the solution of calcium chloride used in the
experiments, and again partly dried at 100° C.

An analysis gave :—

Tous 26100? Ooo ooo 39°94
MOPY BUMMER VS ee ee 60°06
100°00
The dry substance contains :—

RIE aes: is Sages ase 48°42

Al,O, —-——— ee ew lm ee ee 2S 16

NA esas eee 14°20

Ree ee skl egos pot ee 14°13

99°91

A neutral solution of calcium chloride was also a by
dissolving fused CaCl, in water, acidifying with HCl, and neu-
tralizing with CaCO,. 1 ¢.¢. contained the equivalent of
001683 grams CaO. . o é
Varying portions of the air-dry silicate were digested in
closed flasks with the above solution diluted to five, ten, or
twenty times its volume exactly as in the experiments with
soil. The mixtures stood three days at ordinary temperature
with frequent shaking, and then in 50 c.c¢. of the liquid the
lime was precipitated as oxalate in the usual way, and weighed
as oxide. The result calculated on the whole quantity of the
solution and subtracted from the amount of tine originally
present gave the absorption. The results in every case are ex-
ressed as CaO, as is also the strength of the solution employed.
he following are the results.
Nos. CaO in 1 ¢.c.of sol. We. of silicate. Vol. of solution. | Absorption.

1, 0°003366 grms. 40 grms. 200¢.c. *[0°6732 grms.]
& 7coes. 20 . mn 05952 “
Os. ee ey 10 we oe 04172 “
We Seen 5 ad ee 0°2432 “
Ge re ee 2°5 x te Oile7s *
septs Cer 1°25 . <a 00680 “
7 eee o625 = ™* ole 00328 “
hence 03125 * “'s 070164 “

ef

H. P. Armsby—Absorption of Bases by the Soil. 29

Nos. CaQin1le.c.of sol. Wt. of silicate. Vol.ofsolution. Absorption.

VI. 3. 0001683 grms. 10 grms. 200c.c. 0°2996 grms.
4, eo oe 5 66 pen 0°2 “
Marit ark Sewce 2°5 - e 071217.“
Le are 1°25 em ghie 00673 “
(as 0°625 =“ at 0°0338 “
Dee bac es Og125. .< pine o°0198 “
VIL 5. 0°000841 grms. 2% grms. 200¢.¢. 0°1151 grms.
. ee aceien i gs ag fe 00663 “
qe ee Se 0625 — ie 070359 “
eee ee 0°3125 “ mp 070187 “

It will be seen that the same variations occur here as in soil-

of replaceable bases in the soil. A similar limit seems to have
been reached in some of these experiments. In experiment

II, 8, about two-thirds of the soda of the silicate has been
replaced by lime, and an increase of concentration seems un-
able to carry the replacement further. e same is seen in
VII, 7, and the corresponding ones of the other series, while
In those experiments where this limit is not reached the
absorption increases with the concentration in the same wa
in soil-absorption. For the same reason, apparently, the ab-
Sorption in the last four experiments of (V) and the last three
of VI, decreases proportionally to the soil, seemingly unable to
pass this limit of two-thirds, © That the rest of the soda cannot
be displaced is not probable, but it is evidently more difficultly
replaceable. The high absorption of (VI, 8) is perhaps an
error of experiment.

Since, now, it has been shown that the absorption of bases by
tion there would seem to be no reason why the latter should not
be considered to be due chiefly to these silicates in the soil. That
other agents may also be concerned to some extent, especially in
the absorption of free bases, is doubtless true, but that any form of
Surlace-attraction can decompose simple salts is yet to be proved.

Jn regard to the chemical or physical nature of absorption it
will hardly be denied, in view of the results of Way, Eichhorn
and Heiden, that the reaction between the hydrous silicates and
a salt is essentially a chemical process consisting in a partial ex-
Change of bases. The reason why the exchange is not com
plete would seem to be the same as the reason why, e. g., I Cl
i O when heated together are not completely converted into

20 and Cl, or the reverse ; or why, when two salts are mixed

30 H, P. Armsby— Absorption of Bases by¥the Soil.

The latter is Soni what occurs in soil- Robeson or the ab-
sorption of bases by pure silicates, and hence we may safely say
that the variations caused by the volume and concentration are
due to the influence of mass on a primarily chemical Rhee

This view has already been suggested by Ad. Mayer (Lehr-
buch der Agricultur-chemie, ii, p. 93). It receives gee ar”
from the researches of Gladstone already alluded to. He added
to a solution of ferric nitrate increasing portions of potassium
sulpho-cyanate and found that each successive addition pro-
duced less and less ferric sulpho-cyanate, but that the ferric
nitrate was never completely decomposed. His results repre-
sented graphically give a curve essentially like patent for ab-
sorption already described.

According to this view it is the accumulation of sodium
chloride in the solution which prevents the further absorption
of lime by the silicate. If then sodium chloride were added to
the solution in the first pe we should expect the absorption
to be less. To test this (VII) was repeated with the addition
of 0°1700 grms. NaCl (about equivalent to the CaCl, present)
to each experiment. The following results were obtained.

without NaCl. Abs. with NaCl
25 grms 0°1151 grms. 0°1039 grms.
1°2 5 0663 “ 0595 “
0625 “ 00359 “ 0°0303 “
0°3125 “ wood = 00143

exchange of
the soil.

This ere ae which is primarily chemical, is only partial,
its extent varyin

1st. With the ao cas of the solution

2d. With the ratio between the volume of the solution and
the quantity Ag us

a f these variations is probably the “action of

mass,” or the _ tendency of the resulting compounds to re-form
the original bodies, the absorption actually found in any case
marking the point where the two forces are in equilibrium.

Laboratory of Rutgers College, May, 1877.

S. W. Tiahan-<Deuble-Shas Discoveries. 31

Arr. IV.—Double-Star Discoveries with the 183-inch Chicago
Refractor ; by 8. W. Burnwam.

THE new double stars described below were discovered with
the 184-inch Clark refractor of the Dearborn Observatory, on
the nights of October 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 15, 16, and 17, 1876,
and are some of the results obtained in the use of that instru-

Servers in Kurope; and a considerable time might elapse before
the objects would be re-observed elsewhere. It is nec

State, In explanation of its manifest incompleteness, that the
work was unexpectedly, and without notice, terminated by the
action of the officers of the Chicago Astronomical Society
which has control of the instrument, and no opportunity has
been afforded to complete the projected series of observations
Which was but just commenced. Rewiaph is given, however, to
show the value and effectiveness of the telescope in this impor-
tant branch of astronomical research; and how much might be
Accomplished for science, if it were used for any other purpose
than exhibition to visitors.

_ The reference numbers attached to these stars are the numbers
™m ty double-star catalogues, seven of which lists, with the

No. 437=—L 4291.
R. A.=—=2" 12™ 26°
Decl.=-+-3° 39’

32 S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries.

Not measured, but angle and distance estimated as follows:
P=45°4 D=5"+
The principal star is about 7} magnitude, and the companion
not brighter than 11 of Struve’s scale. The pair of small stars
in the field, sp is 2 247 rej
No. 438—= > 2538
R; As 1b" oy"
Decl.=+-36°27'

A and B Pa=48°°5 D=26" 52 - (1876°8)
A and C 245°2 53°04 (1830-8)
C and D 52°5 6°07 (1830°8)
The three nan stars, A, C and D, constitute the double star
2 2538(=S 719), but the small companion near the principal

an error of 10° in ata micrometer of oe There is
still another new member of this group, in an seepedingly faint
star almost exactly midway between oO or-

tunity occurred to measure this. Struve gives the magnitudes
of A, C and D as 8-2, 8°3 and 8’7 respectively.
No. 439=Arg. (29°) 3845
KU A190 65" es

Decl.=+29° 3
The principal star is about the cant magnitude (Argelander,
8:1), with a small companion. ‘The measures of one night
ve:
: P=249°°7 D=2"-70 (18768) =

No. 440=L 38520
BR, A==20° 17 27°
Decl.=-+-35° 277'
Amae Fsstr's D=-6"47 Maga 7 ue oe —_
ac 8 15
por

an 25 7 1876"
A and D 296°0 11°27 (1788 i)
A and E 106-8 28°15 115 (1876
A and F 32°8 29°45 75 (1783°7
FandG 113-0 10°12 12 (1876°8)

e large stars (A, D , F), of this interesting group have
long been known, and conatitats the double star IIL 113
(=5Sh 314= 2 2630 rej). The small attendants, C and H, I

S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries. 33

own results on the occasion last referred to. The relative situ-

ation of the stars known to the early observers appears to be

substantially unchanged. For A and embowski finds :
P==300°°7 D=11'*12 (1876-7)

By comparing the measures of Sir John Herschel and Sir
James South, with the recent observations of Baron Dembowski;
there seems to be an error in Herschel’s distance of A F;—

==28°2 —=36°"52 (1823°6)
28-2 35°98 (1876-7)

The relation of the closer stars can be determined only after
a series of carefully repeated measures, but it is at least proba-
ble that they will be found to have some physical connection.

No. 441=—L 39013

This is a 7-5 m. star with very small satellite, measured on
one night as follows:
« P=65°°4 D=5"'87 (1876-8)
No. 442—Weisse xx. 456
R. A.c30 13™ 3
Dech.—=-1-37° 11’
A fine group consisting of three large stars, each about 85 m.

with closer minute companions. The following measures
were made on this occasion :

A and B P=104°1 D=—18"°47
A anda 157°5 4°40
A and b 17+

A ande 332°5 19°55
Band d 164°3 8°12
Band C 48°6 17°69

Decl. =+28° 37!
Angle and distance estimated only :
P=120°- D=10’+4 Mags. 7°5 ... 115
Am, Jour, oe Series, Von, XIV, No. 79,—Jury, 1877.

34 S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries.

There is a third star following, about 30” distant.
No. 445=Cygni 287
R. A.=20" 58" 23°
Decl. ==-+-28° 37’
Very unequal pair; the principal star 7 m. in Lalande.
P=90°+ D=4"+.
This is L 40821.
No. 446—= Weisse xxi. 344
Re Asso 16". 44°
Decl.=-+-32° 56’
A pair of small stars, the larger 9 m. near and south follow-
ing a bright star.
Pee3610°7 D=e2"'30
No, 447=Vulpeculae 129.

This is a a bright star, about 6 m. with a difficult companion
in the direction of 340°. Distance not noted, but probably
under 5”. No opportunity was afforded to measure or examine
it a second time.

No, 448=L 41874
R. A.=21" 24™ 35°
Decl.= + 44° 24’

There is some uncertainty about the place of this pair. It is
assumed to be the above 7 m. star in Lalande, which | is near]
in the observed ie but may be a larger star south following.
Estimated as follo

Raut by Maga 7'O:i. . 11-0.
A distant companion preceding.
No, 449=Radcliffe 5335,
H. A.=-21" 34” 49°
Decl.=-+-41° 11’

The three larger stars, A, C and EK, were discovered by Sir
William Herschel (= # ITI. 110), and also entered in the Pul-
kowa catalogue (=O2 447). The new members of the system,
B and D, are very minute, and aight be easily overlooked
with even a large aperture. My measures of these, and Dem-
bowski’s of © and E are as follow

A and B Patti D=6' “78 (1876°8)
A and C 170°5 13°71 (1866°6)
A and D 248°2 17-94 1876°8)
A and E 45°7 29°13 totem

Dembowski gives the magnitudes of A, C and E as 7:0, 108
and 7‘7 respectively. A comparison of the measures of these

S. W. Burnham—Double-Star Discoveries. 35

stars with the early observations of Herschel, would seem to
indicate considerable change, but this is not confirmed by the
intermediate measures of Otto Struve.

Herschel A and C caniey op D=138""90 1783°8
O. Struve A and C 169°4 13°86 1848°3
Herschel —- A and E 49-4 25°97 (1783°8

O. Struve A and E 45°3 29°00 (1848°3)
The close agreement between the measures of O, Struve and
Dembowski accords with my own results on the occasion of
observing the new companions, when the angles came out
170°, and 44°-9, respectively.
No. 450=B. A, C. 7931

R. A.=22" 38™ 40"

Decl.=-+38° 50’

As a double, this beautiful object is found in the catalogues
of both Struves, and Herschel (=> 2942= O2 478=H 1802).
Struve’s magnitudes are 7-0 and 9-2. The colors are very strik-
ing, the larger being, according to Struve, reddish gold, and the
smaller, ash-color. A third much smaller star was discove
with the 184 in., and measured once as below

A and B P==982°4 =2"°66 1831°6)
A and C 232-0 10°23 Tees

Measures of A and B by Struve. Dembowski gives, P=
280°°6 ; D=2’-80 (1866:6), from which it is safe to infer there
18 no substantial change in the relation of these stars, and this
View 1s supported by the measures of Otto Struve, Midler,
Dawes, and others. The small star is not a difficult object
with the 184 in., and can perhaps be measured with a smaller
aperture.

No, 451=15 Lacertae.
R.. A.==22> 46":37°
Decl.=+-42° 40’

This star was seen with a minute attendant, roughly esti-
mated from memory as about 20” distant. The angle was not
noted, and no opportunity occurred to re-examine and measure
Subsequently.

No. 452=L 44915
R. A.==22" 51™ 378 |
Decl.=+-42° 22’

A fine pats observed about the same time as the proses
oe like that only estimated for the purpose of certain identifi-
lon :

P=270°+ D=6"+: ;
‘: The large star is 64 or 7 magnitude, and the companion
elow 12 of Struve’s scale. oe
Chicago, May 5, 1877. | | ,

36 A. Wing’s Discoveries in Vermont Geology.

. V.—Supplement to the Account of the Discoveries in Vermont
Geology of the Rev. Augustus Wing; by JAMES D. Dana.

SINCE the publication of the preceding number of this Jour-
nal, containing the concluding part of the account of Mr. Wing’s
aa. iscoveries, I have received from

ce _ Professor H. M. Seely, of Middle-

SS bury, Vt., a manuscript geologi-

cal map by Mr. Wing, which had

papers. Since the account is not
complete without the results of
his observations contained in this
map, the portion of it is here
reproduced in which his outlines
of the slate and limestone areas

parison with the colored map in
the Vermont Report.

Mr. Wing’s map contains also
his deductions with regard to the
distribution of the formations—

part of which are not
mm yet established. The
S utland and

is Hudson River (Cin-

J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 37

cinnati) in age, a belt of color indicating Trenton extends; then

others, more remote, for Chazy, Calciferous and Potsdam; and

the Chazy east of the slate-belt extends two-thirds of the way

to the quartzyte. These points in the map rest mainly on fos-

sils, except the eastern boundary of the Chazy, and the periods
t

assigned to the part of the limestone still farther east.

Art. VL—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that of
Berkshire ; by JAMES D. DANa.

sion there presented with regard to the age of the Berkshire
rocks largely on the single discovery of Mr. A. Wing, of Chazy
fossils in the West Rutland limestone, the only one of his
that had then been made public. The wider knowledge
of his discoveries which we now haye, through his notes and
letters, gives a better basis for a decision, and I propose to con-
sider the bearing of the facts as now understood.

We have first to enquire what reasons there are for making
the geology of Vermont a key to that of Berkshire. These are

the northern of the series, are of political authority, not geologi-
“si ps so are those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New
ork, 3
(1.) The Limestone formation.—The great limestone belt of
Vermont stretches southward, without interruption or dimin-
ished width, into Berkshire Co., Massachusetts; throug’
kshire, into Western Connecticut; and, continuing its south-
by-west trend over Canaan and Salisbury, it passes out of Con-
hecticut, still as wide as in any more northern part, into eastern
New York, over the towns of. Amenia and Dover, to Pawling.
Thence it still stretches southward for seven or eight miles, but

* Vol. iv, 362, 450, (504); v, 47, 84; vi, 257.

38 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

with narrowing limits, and finally ends in a narrow strip among
the flexures of hard gneiss rocks. It is one of the long Green
Mountain formations
(2.) The Quartzyte dene helaiied with the limestone belt,
and following mainly its eastern border, there is a quartzyte
series, consisting in Vermont of quartzyte and crystalline slate

Massachusetts, and into Dahinkedens ec throughout, its close
attendant.

Herrick Mountains, in Ira, having a height of 2,661 feet, and
Equinox Mountain, in Manchester, 8, a7 2 feet (auyot) above
tide-level. It continues with unchanged course into Massachu-
setts, or rather along the connecting borders of Massachusetts and

ew York, and this part, south of Vermont, has long borne
the name of the Taconic Mountains; and here it rises into
peaks nearly as high as those of Vermont, Graylock being 3,600
feet in height, and Mount Everett, 2, 634 feet. Further, the

aconic Mountains consist chiefly of ‘hydromica slate more or
less chloritic, like the southern portion of the same range in
Vermont.

Thus there is a marked unity in the area from north to south

The lithological identity is not aoe eke. yet the
differences are introduced by very gradual transitions, evident
only as the whole area from north to south is surveyed, a and
hence they are additional Soot of the unity. They are differ-
ences mainly i in grade of metamorphism.

t central slate-belt of Vernnotit commences to the
north, according to the Vermont Report, in a clay-slate belt.
Thirty miles or so south, hydromica slate, a more crystalline

J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 39

rock, commences on the two borders of the clay-slate area, with
the band of the eastern border much the biases scatiaben fates
ing in this with the general fact of a higher degree of metamor-
phism on the east. Seventy miles farther south, in the Taconic
Mountains, and its eastern spur, Graylock, the hydromica slate
is in part of somewhat coarser texture and more chloritic, and
this same rock constitutes Mount Washington in southwestern
Massachusetts, near the southern termination of the Taconic
range. It even becomes in part mica slate.

The distance from the north extremity of the slate belt to
Mount Washington, through which this small change occurs,
is 150 miles,

The ridges in Berkshire south of Graylock, or over the
western third of the limestone region, including the ridges
either side of West Stockbridge village, and the Tom Ball
ridge farther south, west of Williamsville, consist of the same
rocks as Graylock, with scarcely appreciable difference. Some
of the beds are garnetiferous.

The ridges along a line a little farther east, near the center of
the limestone belt, that is, those next east of Tom Ball, and east
and west of Great Barrington, have the hydromica slate replaced
by mica schist, and then by mica schist and gneiss, part of it a
thick-bedded granitoid gneiss. South of Great Barrington, in
Sheffield, the schist of ridges in the midst of the limestone area
(which has here great width) is a coarse mica schist containing
abundantly garnets and crystals of staurolite; and the same
staurolitic mica schist exists under similar circumstances near
Falls Village, in Canaan, Connecticut, the next town south of
Sheffield, and also, farther south and west, in Salisbury. Thirty
miles south-by-west of Canaan, about Pawling, and beyond to
the termination of the limestone belt, the associated rock is mica
Schist or gneiss,

mica schist, and gneiss; but only by very gradual transitions.
It should be here kept in view that the difference in constitu-

the presence of a few per cent (three to six) of water in the
mica of the former, and only one or two or none in that of the

A parallel change takes place in the associated limestone
formation. To the north, in central Vermont, and especially
along the western portion of the limestone region, occur the areas
of grayish half-altered or semi-metamorphic limestone, affording
distinguishable fossils. Further, the limestone of this northern

40 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

portion of the Holian limestone is generally very fine in grain
even where of the purest white color. In Pittsford and Bran-
don are found the best of statuary marbles, looking like the
finest loaf-sugar in texture. South of Pittsford, in Rutland,
the marble is a little less fine in its grain than it is farther
north ; in Berkshire, it is mostly much coarser, none answerin

to statuary marble existing anywhere; and in southern Berk-
shire and Canaan, Ct., it is still coarser in crystallization, and
abounds also in many places in tremolite, white pyroxene, an

mica. Thus the fact of intenser metamorphism to the south-
ward is as plainly apparent in the limestones as in the schists.

After this survey of the facts we have to admit that the differ-
ences are so distributed shee ie tle as to prove unity of
area and rocks, rather than diversi

eiss ; and then coarser and harder ener of the latter
rocks ; "and the crystalline limestone, which is almost free from
foreign erystallizations in Stockbridge and West Stockbridge,
contains large crystallizations of white pyroxene or tremolite
in some places in Lee, Monterey and Tyringham.
2. Tue STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONS.
In Vermont we have found the following cases of conform
le su; tion or interstratification, as described in the ens
of Mr. Wing’s researches, and illustrated in the figures of sec-

tions accom ng.

(1.) Th fe ee and schists conformable.

ies quartzyte and schists conformable.

The quartzyte and limestone, and also the quartzyte,
achnte and limestone, conformable.

The first of these Vermont cases of conformability is illus-
trated in the sections on pages 338, 340, 344, 346, 347 of the
last volume of — Journal ; pest soon in the suai a
the quartzyte ormation, as explained on e411; the thi
in the sections presented on pages 340 and 412,

The following facts show that hte Ey similar cases of con-
formable superposition exist in Berks

J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 41

(1) Jnterstratified limestone and schists.*

Fig. 1 represents a very common case of this first kind.
Chloritic hydromica slate, dipping eastward, lies between strata
of limestone which have the same dip. Examples occur in
the southern third of the ridge called Tom Ball, southwest of
Van Deusenville; also in Alvord, west of Tom Ball; in West
Stockbridge; along much of the Taconic range, the slates

2.

TEGAN \

i

Pp
small. At the north end of Tom Ball the position of the rocks
1S aS represented in fig. 8, in which on the east the limestone

dips west 18° to 20° under the chloritic hydromica slate, con-
taining in some places many garnets, and passing also into
mica slate. The schist overlies the limestone in a synclinal.

ist of the north end of Tom Ball, on the road to Glendale,
the limestone dips eastward 25° under a bluff of garnetiferous
mica schist (fig. 4).

The facts connected with Graylock, in Northwestern Massa-
chusetts, the highest of the Taconic peaks, point to a synclinal
(or a synclinal with subordinate anticlinals and synclinals),
grec the figures the blocked areas ee gy sho mentg the simply lined,

eastward end. the lined and dotted, quartzyte. Moreover, the right end is the

a

42 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

much like that of the north end of Tom Ball, as shown in
figure 5, by Emmons, here repeated.* The same structure
exists in Mount Washington in Southwestern Massachusetts,
the next highest summit of the range. At the eastern foot o
this mountain the limestone dips westward at a small angle,
(25° to 30°), beneath the chloritic hydromica slate, as I have

escribed in a former article;+ and the more eastern and
highest peak of the mountain, called Mt. Everett, partakes of

Half mile N. of Housatonic,
west of the Old Furnace.

?
P
. In my examinations in Copake I had the guidance
of Mr. William Miles, who had thoroughly explored the lime-
stone localities. Besides the many conformable outcrops over
the interior of the valley, there were others of large extent
close to the slate of the mountains, and one where the lime-
stone and slate were seen in contact. :
Again, half a mile north of Housatonic, west of the river,
the section in fig. 6 is seen in an abandoned quarry. The
limestone dips 10° to 25°, and passes beneath mica slate. In

‘online.
Canaan Mountain. Falls Village, Canaan. Hill west of the village of
Southwest Front. West side of river. Tyringham.

Canaan Mountain, Connecticut, in the southwest front there are
150 feet of limestone at base, dipping 15° to 20° to the east-

under a mica schist containing garnets and staurolites. The
mica schist forms the upper part of the hill and the limestone
outcrops toward its base.

* See last volume of this Journal, p. 347. + This Journal, III, vi, 266, 1873.

J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 43

Further, in the most eastern of the limestone areas, in
Tyringham, twelve miles east of the Taconic range, a hill,
just west of the village, having a height of 450 feet above the

ridge near its base, consists of well stratified limestone to
within sixty-five feet of the top, (fig. 9); and above this of
mica schist (the contact distinct), and very hard whitish thick-

ded gneiss; the whole dipping southeast 20° to 28°, with
the strike N. 40°-45° W. Within the limestone stratum, fifty
feet below its upper limit, there is a thin layer of mica schist.

These examples are sufficient to illustrate the point in view.
Two others are given beyond.

(2.) Interstratified quartzyte and schists.

At the east front of Monument Mountain, half way from
Stockbridge to Great Barrington, quartzyte overlies mica schist
and gneiss (fig. 10), the dip 15° to 25°, to the southeast. The

West end of Monument Mountain. East front of Monument Mountain.
x Woda is a hard kind without bedding, but vertically jointed.

front and rises to its greatest height a little back from the front,

ern hal
no bedding whatever; but in most parts of the mountain it is
tather mica schist than gneiss. *

t Mountain, rising from the Great Barrington Valley half

my Patri ‘o the concealment of the rocks by the soil. The stratum of schist in
state ep published section was inferred to exist there below the quartzyte, as I

mountains south of the old furnace, and from some ve
ma: Masses of limestone on the east bank of the river, above the furnace, which
¥ Possibly be transported blocks.

44 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

a mile east of the village, consists below of thick-bedded gneiss,
similar to part of that of Monument Mountain, but contorted
in its bedding and dipping 40° to 50° to the eastward ; at top,
for the upper 100 feet, it is laminated quartzyte (fig. 12), re-
sembling the laminated quartzyte of many other localities in
the limestone region. This quartzyte is gneissoid in many
places, or a sandy gneiss, making manifest thereby the close
relations of the two rocks.

SS SS
Kast Mountain, Great Barrington. Cobble Hill, South Canaan.

In South Canaan, east of the village, Cobble Hill consists
below, to the west, of a soft-bedded quartzyte, dipping south-
eastward 40° (fig. 13), twenty to twenty-five feet of which aré
exposed on the road side; next above, a stratum of mica schist
and thin-bedded gneiss, containing scales of both black and white
mica; and then a whitish, granite-like gneiss. The quartzyte
contains at intervals, in its upper part, streaks of black and
white mica, and thus exhibits its relations to and passage into
the overlying gneiss.

East of the village of Lee, a low ridge consists below of

uartzyte; at middle of mica schist; and at top of quartzyte—
all dipping eastward 15° to 25° (fig. 14).
(3.) Interstratifiel quartzyte, limestone, and schists.

The fact that the quartzyte keeps by the side of the limestone,
with small exceptions, from its northern limit southward to
Connecticut suggests that there is a close stratigraphical con-
nection between them. Further, seeing that the limestone occurs
interstratified with the schists, and also the quartzyte of the
same region with the same schists, there would seem to
hardly any ground for questioning the inference that the quartz-
yte and limestone are parts of the same great series of forma-

SS AGG 9
East of the village of Lee. Quartzyte ridge east of south end of Tom Ball.
tions. On these fgrounds and the
near by, it would be a reasonable inference that the strata of

occurrence of limestone _

J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 45

fig. 14 and the limestone are conformable. But there is also
demonstrative evidence of this relation in sections. Fig. 1

Stone and overlying gneiss) are in contact, and so also are 9
and 10 (quartzyte and overlying gneiss). No, 1 is the east-
ern border of the limestone of the Konkaput valley. The

Sas aE GEESE ~ SS 9
Three-mile Ridge, west side [UE ae HERE 5 1 8
of Konkaput Valley. Devany’s Quarry, east side of Konkaput Valley.

°F schist. This schist is mostly a whitish and gray gneiss, Hak
tough and hard ; but with it there is granulyte, gray and blac
mica schist, and blackish bornblendic schist.

* This Journal, III, v, 84.

46 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

Fig. 16 exhibits the stratification in Three-mile Ridge,—a
ridge on the opposite side of Konkaput valley from Devany’s
bluff, and shows the same succession essentially as on the
Devany side—namely, limestone (that of the Konkaput valley)
below ; next gee ti next a ere thickness of gneiss—not
re than 800 feet. Three-mile Rid ge extends southwa

5.S.E.), with rather an abrupt front, a shows in a distant
view nearly horizontal lines of stratification. The dip is mostly
25° to the northwest; but at base, toward the notch passed
through by the road to Great Barrington, it is diminished to
8°. The gneiss (as may be seen three or four hundred yards
south of the notch) rests on a stratum of Berit yte. It is hard

distinction between quartzyte and gneiss in Berkshire proves

be of no more importance than that of quartzyte and hy
mica slate in the quartzyte formation of Vermont. The soil
conceals at this place the lower part of the quartzyte stratum,
and the underlying rock or rocks; but, half a mile southeast-
ward, along a road which runs nearly parallel with the moun-
tain and not far from its base, and also between this road and
the mountain, the limestone of the Konkaput valley outcrops
with a small northwestward dip (15°-20°), conformable to the
schist of the mountain ; ae these outcrops continue numerous
for more than a mile. In o e knoll, toward the mountain, the
beds were found to dip eueuesd, but this seg an exceptional
ease. Elsewhere the dip was northwestwar d, and at one spot
the limestone was seen directly overlaid conformably by the
schist.

I have above given the facts of my own observation. The same
general conclusion with regard to the interstratification of these
formations was long ago reached by Professor Edward Hitchcock,
and announced in his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts.
Bs Feat of the Leb pee ae he says (Report of 1841, p. 590) : “it

ternates with and passes impercept ais His into gneiss and mica
slate ; and in fact it Lok y very mperly be regarded as a mem-
ber of the gneiss and mica slate form ” in Berkshire “it is

frequently interstratified with gneiss Re, mica slate, especially
along the eastern side of the valleys, as in Tyringham, Great
on and Sheffield.”

He also states (p. 573 and ea nd) that in Berkshire, the lime-
stone occurs ae oe with the gneiss, mica slate, talcose
slate and quartz rock of the region; that in New Malborough and
SO Bg tee it is found in als between the strata of gneiss, as at

adsell’s lime quarry ; and that its interstratification with woke

J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire. 47

slate may be seen in numerous places in all parts of the county.
He adds that he had not “ met with a spot where the limestone is
in direct contact with quartz rock; but as this rock frequently
alternates with gneiss and mica slate, and the latter with the
limestone, they must all be regarded as interstratified with one
another.”

Before Professor Hitchcock’s observations were made, Professor
Dewey announced in this Journal, in 1819, that the Berkshire
limestone at the Cave or Falls in Adams, east of Williamstown,
and also west of the Hoosac, rests on mica slate. Further, Pro-
fessor Silliman, in the second volume, 1821, gives an account of
the interstratification of the limestone and mica slate in Salisbury,
Ct., west of the Housatonic, saying that “in the course of five or
Six miles there are as many alternations and successions of these
two rocks,” and “their junction in some places is exactly defined.”

ifting force, or that of conformability in the formations, because
of the abrupt local changes, which sometimes amounted to 50
or in di i

; <ception absent and the conformability to the schist is placed
yond doubt.
An unconformable limestone ledge is alluded to above as
ne in the valley near the Devany bluff. The conformable
'mestone-outcrops extend along the side of the valley for a

48 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

fourth of a mile. But toward the west end of the series, in
front of the conformable outcrops, that is, a little nearer the
middle of the valley, there is a ledge with a dip of 80° to 85°,
instead of 25° or 30°. Its little extent shows that it is one of
the local exceptions. And this is made more manifest, and its
existence partly explained, by the fact that in the same trans-
verse line across the flat valley, and just beyond its middle,
there is a hill of schist whose beds dip 50° to the westward,
instead of the usual 25° or less. The schist in the mountains
forming the sides of the valley has little variation in dip for
several miles.

The reason for these irregularities is to be found in the
inflexibility of unerystalline limestone as compared with other
uncrystalline rocks (shales and sandstones) and its tendency,
therefore, to break and become irregularly shoved up under
uplifting or flexing action. Moreover, the limestone areas
appear generally to be regions of anticlinals, and the schist
areas those of synclinals; and the former, whatever the rock,
are usually the places of greatest surface fractures, and the
latter, of least. In the synclinal, the limestone beds are kept
in place beneath the overlying strata; and therefore, the irreg-
ularities in the limestone should not appear close to the schist.

In such a region of extensive upturning and mountain-mak-
ing as that of the Green Mountains there must be many lines
of great fractures and faults. Yet the only case of non-con-
formity in dip adjoining a ridge of schist which I have observed
occurs near the middle of the limestone region within half a
mile east of Great Barrington village at the foot of the section
represented in fig. 12. The limestone dips 80° to 85° to the .
westward ; and the schist, at its nearest outcrop—1l0 yards—
dips 50° to 60° to the eastward, the strike being N. 10° E.
The schist is mostly a thick-bedded gneiss; and its antique
look and massiveness, with its contorted texture, led me, in
view of the non-conformity of dip, to suspect actual uncon-
formability, and also difference in age and system of uplift.
But this idea was soon set aside by the discovery that the top of
the ridge was made partly of quartzyte, like that of Monument
Mountain three miles north, and by other facts showing that —
both the schist and quartzyte were part of the limestone series.

The facts here brought forward fully establish the conclusion
that the limestone, quartzyte, and schists under consideration
have the same stratigraphical relations in Berkshire that they
have in Vermont. They therefore sustain the view that these
formations constitute together a conformable series; and, also,
that the area they cover is geologically one.

[To be continued. }

M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographic Image. 49

Art. VII.—On certain new and powerful means of rendering
visible the Latent Photographic Image; by M. Carey LEA.

THE development of the latent or invisible photographic
image produced by the action of light is beyond all question
the most remarkable and the most interesting fact with which
pboto-chemistry has made us acquainted. Our knowledge,
however, of the substances capable of exhibiting this power,
has increased with singular slowness. It commenced with the
discovery, by the late Rev. Mr. J. B. Reade, in the year 1836,
of the existence of this power in gallic acid, and not long after
pyrogallol was found to possess the same property in a more
energetic degree. Mr. Robert Hunt discovered that ferrous
sulphate acted somewhat more powerfully than pyrogallol,
provided that a soluble salt of silver was present. This was
more than twenty years ago. Since then, no useful addition
has been made to this list of so-called “developers,” though
several of simply scientific interest. I was enabled to add to
It hematoxyline about ten years since. Morphia has been
found to have limited developing powers. When pyrogallol
or gallic acid was employed in the absence of a soluble salt of
Silver, it was found that the activity of these bodies could be
greatly increased by the presence of an alkali (alkaline develop-
ment), for which purpose ammonium carbonate has been gener-
ally employed. It has been recently affirmed that in the
ammonia -pyrogallol process, pyrogallol could be replaced
(though with less energetic action, and therefore not advan-
tageously) by a decoction of coffee berries, probably by reason
of the quinic and caffetannic acids contained; and possibly
by one or two other substances. This I believe represents the
!nformation acquired up to the present time.

In the following investigation I A age to show:
1. That the number of bodies en _pe
developing the latent image, so far from being very limited, as

form of development, when no soluble salt of silver is present,
's that which depends on the use of free alkali. I propose to
show that there exists a form of development which under

* Unless possibly after greatly prolonged exposure.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turp Serres, Vow. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877.
4

©

%

50 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.

appropriate conditions is more powerful than any yet known,
in which there is no free alkali present.

4, It has been held that ferrous salts act only in the presence
of a soluble salt of silver, and scarcely attack the silver haloid
in the film, to produce an image in the absence of silver nitrate
or other soluble silver salt. This also I think can be disproved.

As the development of the latent image depends (in the class
of cases which shall here consider,) upon a reduction of the
portions of the sensitive substance which have been acted upon
by light, it is evident that it is amongst reducing agents that
we must look for bodies possessing this power. But here we
are at once met by the fact that it is not the reducing power
alone that is involved. We find that many substances which
reduce silver salts energetically, have no power to evoke the
latent image, and also that the developing power, where it exists,
stands in no sort of relation to the energy of the reducing power.
It is an elective power that is required, a tendency to reduce, not
the whole surface, but only those parts that have been acted
upon by light, and to spare the others. For example, it is easy
to prepare alkaline solutions of ferrous salts, by having present
a sufficient quantity of neutral potassium tartrate. But such
solutions, applied to a sensitive surface that has received suffi-
cient exposure under a negative, or in the camera, for ordinary
development, seem to attack equally those parts that have been
acted upon by light and those that have not. So that the sen-
sitive surface darkens uniformly without showing the vestige
of an image. Other similar cases will appear farther on.

n the following series of investigations a pure photographic
paper was selected as the material for containing the sensitive
substances. In the selection of the sensitive material itself,

tassium bromide, two of potassium iodide, and one and a third
ammonium chloride, to the ounce. This proportion was that
which gave the best results and was maintained in the experi-
ments throughout. Facility of development is always increased
by the presence in the sensitive film of some suitable organic
substance. In these investigations a decoction of cocculus indt-
cus was employed : this was applied together with the haloids,

M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image. 51

first; after drying, the silver solution. Finally the sheets
were very thoroughly washed out, to remove every trace o
excess of silver nitrate and of all other soluble matter. To
this careful washing much importance attaches. If any coc-
culus were left in the paper, it might, by dissolving out in the
developing solution, confuse the result, inasmuch as cocculus
with potash exhibits some developing powers. Every trace of
it was therefore removed by the most careful washing, and as
an additional precaution, the most important results were re-
peated on paper prepared with haloids only, in order to control
the conclusions with exactness,

Resutts.—A. Sugars.

€ image produced by mannite is of a redder shade than
that resulting from any other developing agent.
B. Glucosides.
Daphnin gave a moderately strong image; its derivative,
Daphnetin, a bolder and fuller. Phioridzin and glycyrrhizin

turnings gave a moderately strong one, doubtless by the con-
version of quercetin into quercitrin. Accordingly an infusion of
white oak bark was found to give a good image. olanin .

52 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.

C. Acids.

Of a number of organic acids tried with excess of potash,
one only, cevadic acid, exhibited tolerable developing power.
Phenol, and glycerie, and gentianie acids powerfully reduced the
silver haloids, but with little or none of the elective power
necessary to produce an image. One, oleic, produced an image
lighter than the ground. Sant nic, sinapic, gummic, malic, and
seg acids produced either fain traces of an image or none

nadous acid (potassium vanadite with excess of
ee failed to exhibit any developing power.

D. Resins.
Resinous substances “8 the most part dissolve easily in dilute
aqueous potash, and exhibit more or less developing power.

Foremost among them is i seis casi which gives a very vigorous
image, not far short of what may be obtained with sertantion
m of tolu and ordinary resin both have moderate develop-
in veer: Resin scarcely attacks the parts that have not been
acted upon by light, whereas tolu does so. Resin of podophyl-
lin gives a strong oe
E. Essential Oils.

When oil of cloves is boiled for a few moments with dilute
aqueous potash, and the mixture is then much diluted with
water, it acts slowly on the image, but as the action is sustained
te cle, pre sate ae the ay of about an hour, a vig-

us a 1 of Roman chamomile acts
ibaa sides Ayah pie eclly. Oil of peppermint produces
an image of a i color, and at the same time darkens the parts
not acted upon by light, thus producing an image on a darker

round. Something similar has been already mentioned in the
ae of oleic acid. In these cases, where the light acts, the de-
veloping agent seems to reduce metallic silver, elsewhere, a dark
basic salt, pene with organic matter in combination, is formed.

F. Bases.

Daturin (atropin?) gives a weak image. Codein, As
a general thing the organic bases exhibit little laoleaey: to evoke

the latent image.
G. Pyrogaliol.

In the course of this investigation, some interesting and new
observations were made in connection with this well known
agent, ais deserve mention here

gallol is well known to have, when employed by itself,
i tlerahie developing power, which however, 1s greatly in-
creased by the presence of caustic or carbonated alkalies. It
appears that these alkalies can be re laced with sodium mefa-
phosphate, with about equal results. With sodium hypophosphite,

4M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image. 53

indicate that they might exhibit power of development al
Cases they were boiled a few moments with dilute aqueous

potash, as it was found that in that way their characteristic
actions were most fully brought out. Aloes, uva ursi leaves,
areca nuts, the bark of the berberin tree, morus tinctoria, exhib-
ited very considerable developing power. Gratiola, qpecacuanha,
pimento nuts, well marked power, but less than the foregoing.
A decoction of Iceland moss exhibited the properties already
described in the case of oleic acid and essential oil of pepper-
mint. Many other substances were examined, and showe
either faint traces only or absence of power, e. g., litmus, cartha-
nus, rutin, bryony, stavesacre, colchicum, turmeric, nus: vomica, caffe-
in, berberin, ete.

Acetone, in conjunction with aqueous potash, is a powerful
developer and gives a bold and vigorous Image.

ldehyde, with potash, gives no image, a result that seems

somewhat remarkable.

matters,

_ When to a solution of cuprous oxide in ammonia, formic acid
's added in quantity not quite sufficient to neutralize the bases,
and this solution is applied to the latent image, a powerful
development is obtained, resulting in a pure black image.
Lactic acid exhibits a similar reaction, but less perfectly, and
no doubt a large number of other organic acids share the same

rties

pro :

arious substances that develop in presence of potash,
especially gum guatacum, gallotannic acid and manna, heighten
the action of the cupro-ammonia solution. Others do not, of +
which picrotoxin (coceulus indicus) is an example. Of all the
substances named, guaiacum appeared to have the most power,
and next to it, perhaps formic acid.

J. Ferrous Salts, :
The salts of ferrous oxide have proved to be the most inter

esting and remarkable of all the bodies examined, in their

=

54 M. C. Lea—The Latent Photographie Image.

action on the image. When a salt of silver is present in solu-
tion, to suffer reduction and to furnish silver for building up
the i image to be developed, as in the case of the so-called O wet
process,” ferrous sulphate is the most Se developing

agent known, and is accordingly, always employed. But in

the absence of silver in actual solution it is powerless. It is
in connection with such sensitive surfaces (i. e., those from
which silver nitrate or other soluble silver salt has been
removed by washing), that the resent investigation is made,

A surface of sensitive paper, om which all silver ‘compounds
have been removed, may, after receiving a latent image, be
left long in contact with ferrous sulphate without an image
being develope

Desirous of finding a means of applying ferrous salts to these
developments, my first efforts were directed to the formation
of alkaline solutions containing ferrous oxide in solution, but
they did not appear to possess any power of development. I -
then tried ferrous oxide in combination with organic acids, and
here at once most interesting results followed. Severa Sree
salts furnished beautiful developments, among which may
especially mentioned /errous succinate, lactate and eatin

he succinate is best used by forming a slightly acid solution
i i ing to it a solution of ferrous
sulphate in quantity not quite sufficient to form a precipitate.

any other ferrous salts, among whith may be mentioned
citrate, formate and tartrate, give images, but much inferior to

errou.
manner ated described, echibiis that powers af a

ment, the ‘other with the wy alkaline pyrogallic develop-
ment, — the following differences :

“The sa e exposure which with the alkaline pyrogallol gives
a weak or sunk-in image after a protracted development,
gives with ferrous oxalate a bright, bold image, and this in a

* much less time. The development is particularly clear and

clean. Rotate unexposed parts are not attacked: the developer
possesses a great deal of that elective power previously spoken
of, whick causes it to react strongly on those parts which have
received the influence of light, and spare those which have not.

Ferrous oxalate is easily obtained by adding a strong warm
solution of oxalic acid to one of ferrous sulpbat A bright

S. P. Langley— Transit Observation. 55

yellow precipitate falls, which continues to increase for some
time, and which may easily be washed by decantation. The
method of employing it is by dissolving it in an aqueous solution
of neutral potassic oxalate. The latter substance is to be dis-
solved in about three times its weight of hot water, and the pre-
cipitated and washed ferrous oxalate is dissolved in it to satura-
tion, A deep red solution is obtained, which for use needs only
to be diluted with from five or six up to twenty or thirty times
its bulk of water, according to the energy of effect desired.
_An active solution of ferrous oxalate may be obtained by
simply adding a solution of ferrous sulphate to one of neutral
potassic oxalate, in quantity just sufficient to avoid forming a
permanent precipitate. But the first described method gives
the best results.

Philadelphia, May 8, 1877.

Art. VIIL—On the possibility of Transit Observation without
Personal Error ; by 8. P. LANGLEY.

swe should travel at the same apparent rate as the star.

forming a part of the telescope. These difficulties have never
been overcome,—scarcely attacked, and were they vanquished,
others would remain. This method then, though perhaps still
Susceptible of success with skillful treatment, has not yet prove
of any practical utility. A very different proposition, originally
due I think to M. Faye, and made as long since as 1858, is
that for the use of photography in transits. This evidently, if
peneable, does away with personal error, and if the exposure

reduced to a very brief time—let us say to 0°-01—it is clear
that the motion of ‘the star is immaterial, for we have its post-
on photographed relatively to the wires, as it was at a given
‘nstant. This method has been little used, except for the sun,
owing to defective light, but though not yet practicable save
in limited cases, it is perhaps not too much to say that it will
Probably be the method of the future.

56 S. P. Langley— Possibility of

Under the second class come the ordinary procedures for the
determination of relative error, or the personal equation between
two observers; such as their interchange of stations, or their
observing the same stars with adjacent instruments, or with the
same instrument jointly, ete. These comparisons are liable to
error themselves, are commonly tedious, and often compel long
journeys. When successful, they give, not the absolute error,
but the error as compared with another error, itself subject to
an unknown variation. Unsatisfactory as all this is, however,
such methods are in common use, and will remain common till
better are provided. . An effort in this direction has stimulated
the invention of a great number of devices to enable the ob-
‘server to determine bis equation by comparison with the transit
of an artificial star, itself, self-recording. This suggestion (said
to have been sea made by Pr azmowski i os has been. the
parent of many attempts, among which those of M.M. Hirsch
and Plantamour; ane that of M. Wolf of ih Paris Observatory,
particularly deserve attention; and of subsequent ones too
numerous for description, though the apparatus of Professor
Eastman, U.S. N., sais of Professor Rogers of Harvard me

is fale? haa most are aware.

To propose to offer anything new at this day on such a sub-
ject may seem to be hardy. I venture however to ask attention
to a method for eliminating the equation on the star itself,
which has worked well on trial.

Before stating it, Jet us observe that we restrict the words

‘‘ personal equation” here, to the correction for the error com-
mitted by the observer in noting the time of transit of a star
owing to the motion of the latter, and that for brevity we leave
untouched the effect of certain minute irregularities familiar to

the observer, such as the actual inequality of wire eri
which should be equal, or the apparent irregularity in the

remove the error from the observation, in the act of observation
itself. One mode which presented itself many years since, and
which has been tried in numerous subsequent plans I have
made, was to view the star only for a bnef time through a
narrow linear aperture in a moving screen, thus exhibiting its

Transit Observation without personal error. 57

position in the field for a moment only, though the use of a

ash of light which for an instant illuminates the wires has
seemed better. In any case the essential idea was to treat the ©
eye as it has been proposed to use the photographie plate, and
to impress upon it by instantaneous vision an image of the
position of the star independent of personal error (in one sense,)
since the star was to have sensibly no time to move, while the
view lasted, while yet the effect then seen would remain (owing to
persistence of vision,) quite long enough for cognizance. After
a great number of forms of the movable screen were considered,
they were set aside for the flash of light from the electric spark.

To make the present plan plain, let us recur to the use of
photography as an illustration, and first suppose that the transit .
wires are twenty-five in number and so near that a star occupies
one second in passing from one to another. In the place of a
transit lamp, let a wire, attached to a repeater in the clock
circuit, dip in a mereury cup, and the circuit being broken
every second by the clock, recording simultaneously on the
chronograph; the otherwise dark field will be illuminated by a
brilliant instantaneous flash, by whose light the wires are
projected with the crossing star on the sensitive plate of the
camera. If this plate be renewed or moved downward at each
flash, we obtain twenty-four successive pictures while the star
1S Crossing, each showing it at the extremity of its luminous
traces in precisely the same relation to the adjacent wires, since
the wire interval in time, and the flash interval, are identical.
If then the star is caught by the first flash, one-third of the

those we could expect from the photograph, and equally exempt
rom personal error, in the sense in which we have defined it.

tst as to the difficulties to overcome. — In the case of the
photograph, there is an opportunity for subsequently measuring
the distance of tie star from the wire, which we have not with
© eye. There is one particular case however, where the
result is the same for both, that, namely, when the flash comes,
the Star is on the wire and bisected by it; in this case we know
US position as accurately by the eye, as if we bisected its image
‘on the plate by the wire of our measuring micrometer, with —

58 S. P. Langley—Possrbility of

the same magnifying power. If we suppose, then, that the star
observed was in the equator, and that, by a happy accident, the
first flash came just as it was crossing the first wire, this wire
would be sharply defined on the dise of the star and bisecting
it, and the simultaneous record on the chronograph (made with-
out any intervention of the observer) would evidently give us
the same result as though the star had electrically recorded its

the top of the rod, and by sliding the bob sufficiently down-
ward ; with the use of a readily-constructed table, we can, given

the ses! of a stationary horizontal wheel, concentric with
the i

revolv
passing from a groove in its cireumference to the hand of the
observer at the transit. As the upper, or ordinarily fixed, and
the lower or constantly moving, wheel have, a common vertical

Transit Observation without personal error. 49

nothing to do, except possibly to note
_ Nite, for each records itself on the chronograph without ae
intervention of his. But if the star be, for instance, two-thirds
- the way from the first to the second wire at the first flash,
m will draw one of the cords, accelerating the flash and thus
Causing the star to appear nearly coincident with the second
vite when the next spark comes, and repeat the adjustment by
the light of subsequent flashes, till the bisection 1s perfect.
ree or four trials are in practice found to yield a bisection
Which will satisfy a fastidious eye, and when a satisfactory one

60 C. H. F. Peters— Observations of Comets.

has been once made, the effect is automatically repeated. Of
course, no increase in number of the wires, under these cireum-
stances, ~— weight to that from the first satisfactory Be
tion, but, w h the usual five tallies of five wires each, the
server can na if he please, obtain five independent bisae
tions,* or one for each tally, and in this case the chronographie
record corresponding to the last wire of each tally is assumed to
be the significant one, unless the contrary is recorded.

Under the general conception, then, of the. possibility of
diminishing to. any limit personal error, by employing brief
views of the star or wire and utilizing the phenomena of per-
sistence of vision, the par ticularly described device assumes
to dispense with the observer's record upon the chronograph
altogether, and to substitute a purely automatic one, giving the
same virtual result as though the image of the star were a tan-
gible object, itself making electric contact with each wire. The

share of personality in any observation, is relegated to the prior
+8 of bisecting a star, virtually motionless with relation to the
secting wire, so that if (as seems to be the case) this act is
independent of quickness or slowness of perception, of the time
of cognition, or of the speed of nerve transmission ; peers /
in the technical sense, appears not to intervene at a

Art. IX. ees of Comets made at the oe Observa-
‘y of Hamilton College; by C. H. F. P

1, Comet 1877, IL (Winnecke’s) :

1877. Meag t. H. C. App. AR. App. Dee. No, of Comp.
Apr. 6. 16" 18™ 56%/22" 8™ 46°29°; +16° 23’ 12°7”

i 39 25 |2 10 23°76 8 46 6°0 10
“10.418 260 24: 192 38.1971 215. 22:32 10
“12,115 30 34/22 14. 18°84 24 10 11°5 10
(34144 64.97 122 2.16... 3648 27 i 2S 14
“93.114 8 82 |22 382 39°34 43 3 33°9 10

May 2.|14 0 48 |23 12 23°07 62. 25 28:1 10
19.;138: 41. 37. ..2 50. 42°20 79 . 48 .19°5 8
“13.112 46 23 | 3 38 25°44 a0. 10. 32°7 8
ee 68 52 | 4 21 43°23; 80 8 25°0 8
“99,.;12 2 6| 8 41 11°96 |-+62 21 31°6 9

* I regret that this lengthy description may convey an agus of complexity
as to a really very simple apparatus, all we ask of which, as a timekeeper, is that

and connecting it with the wires, and i eed not exceed that of the break-
circuit my teegega box; it may ssaed er’ Bela-work He conveniently enca'
with the latter.

W. Gibbs— Complex Inorganic Acids. 61

1877. Mean C; App. App. Decl. No. of Comp.
May 3. | 11" 235), — - 80° ia 6
ae F 56 31 paris * mn 2’ 29°07 4
M4, 510 ~ B.- .6:4.5%) 26" 26°08 5 4-60°-9".25¢1 8
“ 5.110 10 88/15 15 50°04 59 30 24°7 8
“12.110 6 41/6 29 25:59 BA Fe Bi 10
*30.1. 0-58 dt 1848 1°60 ites 45 34°3 10

_Tefractor. All the other observations were obtained by myself
with the filar micrometer of the 133 inch refractor, using a power
of 270, and illuminated wires.
Comet III had always a more or less blurred aspect, without
oe nucleus, paces the pointing difficult.
n, N. Y., June 1,

Arr. X.— On Complex Inorganic Acids. From a letter of Dr.
va Grsss to one of the Editors, dated Cambridge, June
th, 1877,

oo, acid. ‘The two first mentioned are src or
metameric, and de We on an es the formulas:
Si0,. 40H,, or W, 203,Si(OH).,

while the third bist he formula

10WO, . SiO,. 40H, or erin
It occurred to me that these results might be generalized in
various Ways, and I have in fact obt see | _ very interesting
new re of acids of the same or similar typ Platinic c hydrate
PuOH H), boiled with an acid we tun bath yickia two isomeric
°F Metameric sodium salts which have the formula:

LOWO, . PtO, . 40Na, +25 aq.

62 _ Editorial Correspondence.

WO,. Pto, Nees ior ia eens PtO, . 40Am, +12 aq.

but both belong to the yellow series. I have not yet obtained
the 12-atom series corresponding to Marignac’s pire
The platino-deci-tungstates ethos tungstic hydrate, W(OH),,
on boiling, but the hydrate separates again on cooling without
thange. Acid molybdate of sodium also dissolves platinie hydrate
giving a deep olive-green solution which appears red i

ayers. The only salt of this series yet graded “crystallizes in
amber-colored tabular plates which have the formula:

10Mo00, . PtO, . 40Na, +29 aq.

They are very soluble and give — pronipltates with
many metallic solutions. I thin have also obtained the corre-
spondi ng metameric series, but of this 3 more in dee time. The

ohis :
all the salts of both series effloresce strongly and the alkaline
salts have a very distinct acid reaction, so that the limit of the
basicity is certainly higher than eight. a am endeavoring to

(OH),, &e.
the formation of new complex acids I have etd definite at
present. gets i acid appears ho seahag to be fo rmed b

venue to ‘ por unusual exte 2
According to my analyses, phonphotungati acid hasthe formula
20 or Wo057P2(0OH),¢
independently of water of ‘rystallization. y have obeatned salts of
this series having respectively the form :
20W0,.P,0,.ONa.z. ny +16 aq.
20W0,.P,0, . 2Ba0. 6OH, +18 aq.

mS
20W0, p 20,. 80K, +18 aq.

W. Gibbs— Complex Inorganic Acids. 63

sium salt, and I consider this—provisionally at least—as deter-

ici id. This is important as

showing that it is not phosphoric oxide, P,O,, which alone is

saturated. Debray considered the corresponding phospho-molybdic

ith the newer atomic weights it

would of course be regarded as 12-basic, if his view were correct.
He describes however a 7-atom silver salt which I should write

20Mo0;.P,0;.7O0Ag, . OH, + 24 aq.
and which is clearly the analogue of my potash salt above men-

excepting possibly that of the very acid sodium salt which heads
the list. The analyses of these salts as well as of the platinum

The n
tungstic acid and its salts are easily obtained, and I have more or

acids, I prove that there are also niobio-tungstic and tan-
talo-tungstic acids, an experiment will soon decide this point
But generalization is also possible in other n

Well defined. You see that. in this way the number of new acids
is Very great and that I have a heavy task before me. It is of
e0

me phospho-tungstates, &c., will be more easily seen, as we shall
‘ve for the sodium salts for instance,
‘ 20WO, . Pt,O, . 80Na,, and 20 WO,.P,0; . 80Na,,
meantime I have as yet seen no satisfactory reason for the change.
rv m disposed to think that the well known and very singular
Shonty tates and molybdates, 30Na,.7WO, and 30Na,.7MoO,,
ould be multiplied by 3 and written

64 Scientific Intelligence.

WO; .WO;.90Na,, and 20Mo0; . MoO, . 90Naz.
They will = fall naturally into the 20-atom series. It seems
also possible that the curious salt of Wohler wag written
WO,Na,+W,0, may be represented by such a formula as
i6WO, .4WO 1ONa, or W2,.W.0,,(ONa),,;.- T shall de-
vote myself to these compounds until I have exhausted the sub-
ject as far as possible, and meantime anticipate many new results,

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
J. CHEMISTRY AND PHysiIcs.

On the Effect of Pressure on Chemical action
one attention to Quincke’s statement that in some Sexpaineitle
e made in which sulphuric acid and zine were placed in

contact, the pressure of the evolved hydrogen rose in a few days”
from i4 to 10 atmospheres (varying with the apparatus), in five
months from 27 to 54 atmospheres, and in 17 years, from 25 to
126 atmospheres, and remarks that these experiments, made for
an entirely different purpose, ee prove that the evolution
of hydrogen is not arrested by pressure, but is only diminished in
rapidity, confirming his results of acne — ago. in this case,
chemism is not modified, but only the nature and extent of the
surface of attack, the metal becoming covered with an adherent
oe: layer, while the acid close to it becomes cara
Hence, in his opinion, the evolution of hydrogen would
indefinitely, limited in time only by the strength of the von
reine the reagents.— Bull. Soc. Ch, U, xxvii, i ae
1

is obtained by means of the formula oni (c, —6, —ce+ 9) m

which 4 and &,, ¢ and ¢, represent the first and second weighings
with chlorine and carbon dioxide respectively. This weight

Chemistry and Physics, 65

known, the volume is calculable at the temperature and pressure
of the experiment, and hence the volume V of the trichloride is
7

known. Its weight, W,= in grams. From

71(c,—6,)—44(e—6)’
these data, the density is obtained since w= D. The result with |
ICl, gave 3:1107, which the author thinks too high.— Ber. Berl.
Chem. Ges., x, 782, May, : ae

3. On the Determination of High Melting Points,—CaRNELLEY
has proposed a new process for fixing the melting points of less
readily fusible salts, founded on the principle that if three metallic
salts A, B and ©, which fuse at different temperatures such that
A fuses before B and B before C, be arranged on a cold block of
smooth iron and this be placed in a muffle kept at ‘a constant
high temperature, and if 2 be the number of seconds which elapse
between the melting of A and B and y, the number of seconds

between the melting of A and ©, then the ratio ¢ is approximately

constant for the same three salts whatever may be the temperature of
the mufile, provided only it is considerably higher than that at which
C fuses. Thus in sixteen experiments, using the three substances,
sulphur, silver nitrate and potassium nitrate, the experiments being
made at widely different temperatures, the ratio in each was 2°67,
2°68, 2°81, 2°80, 2°72, 2°67, 2°67, 2°67, 2°56, 2°62, 2°58, 2°87, 2°65, 2°88,
_ 2°71, 2°91; mean 2°72. If the ratios obtained with different salts
be reduced to the same scale, as by assuming the ratio between sal-
phur and potassium nitrate and any other third salt to be any
given number, the value for a given salt is constant, whatever the
other salts used with it in the experiment. From these ratios,
time-values are obtained for nine standard salts, S, AgN 2
0,;, KCIO,, TICI, PbCl,, KI, KCl, and Na,CO,. Thus if in

This (or the mean of a larger series 26:4)
: F KNO,. So 32 is the time-value for
KClO,, 45 for TICI, 59 for PhCly, 115 for KI, 197 for KCl, and
458 for Na,CO,. From the equation voor, in which ris the ex-
perimental ratio for any salt, the time-value of that salt may be
obtained. Thus with 8, AgNO, and KCIO,, if r=2-72, 42°72;
ence if c=10, y=27-2, the time-value. Or, again, the value
sid for PbCl,, KCl and Na, CO, is 1°50. Since the time-values
the two former are 59 and 197, r==138, and y=207; or Na,CO,
— 207 seconds after PbCl, ; and since PbCl, melts 59 seconds
F ‘er 8, the time-value of Na, CO, is 266 seconds. By accurately
etermining the melting points of these nine salts, and collating
AM, Jour, oretide se Sentzs, Vor. XIV, No. 79.—Juxy, 1877.

66 | Scientific Intelligence.

them with their time-values, a table may be obtained from these
data, either by direct or by graphic interpolation, from which,

knowing the time-value for any salt, its mene point can be ob-
tained.— Jour. Chem. Soc., xxxi, 365, April, 1877. .F.B

ew Vapor Density Method. fest ocean and C1aAMICIAN

ve modified somewhat Victor Meyer’s method of fixing vapor

densities, and by substituting mercury for fusible metal, have
contrived an oer which is Han See aa effective. A glass

5. On the oo of Ipdbabeliae. — Bourierow has
obtained a curious body, which he calls isodibutylene, by _ ba
action of diluted sulphur acid upon pip eniteiac soi It i

ng

on the iodide thus obtained, giving rise to a new oc Sets! Danek

isodibutol, having a characteristic smell of camphor, and boiling
at 146 6°-147°5°. When isodibutylene or isodibutol is ape
with chromic acid, the principal products are acetone and trime-
thyl-acetic rapt "hence the constitution of the iyarotaibe: is

ae ot
represented by the formula © HI>o=C 0<CH.. It is isobuty-
CH,

lene, in which an atom of caviar belonging apparently to
the ‘methylene group, is a by tertiary butyl.— Zoo oe
as Il, xxvii, 370, April, 1877. G.

6. New method of producing Salicylic acid, rents whe 4
studied some time ago the action of sodium on poe ether,
now finds that if the action be te Joe ntinued, t

yeotcton of this substance in this way is Hips! nero
because

vial —CO—CH. COOH

én, C0. ¢H.coon? is a member of the fatty series, while

salicylic acid, C,H, 1 Sat belongs to the pine it shows &

conversion of one into the other, the closed ring o arbon —
atoms in the former suffering a further condensation fee eves op-.

Chemistry and Physics. 67

ing a true benzene ring; and second because from this mode of

formation it is clear that in salicylic acid the hydroxyl and the

carboxyl groups aad the para position.— Ber.

Ges., x, 646, April, 1 G. F. B.
7. On the x Sasa of Coumarin, and of Cinnamic and

other analogous acids, — PERKIN, who synthesized coumarin

C,H, CO ° several years ago, now finds that this substance is

readily produced when a hydride is boiled with acetic oxide
and sodium acetate. He was thus led to try other aldehydes in
the same way. On bo cling benzoic aldehyde with acetic oxide
and sodium acetate for a day, a considerable quan sig v# an acid
was obtained which on examination proved to be cinnamic or
ordain bioe acid C,H,.CH.CH.COOH. — Usi i "propionic

xide and sodium epee the product of the reaction was

C

phenyl-crotonic acid, *” From butyric acid and

OH)
sodium we was obtained phenyl-angelie acid,
CH 2(C,H,.C sips

CO(OH)
sodium succinate, isophenyl-crotonic acid. From cuminic alde-
hyde, acetic oxide and sodium acetate, cumenyl-acrylic or isopro-

From benzoic aldehyde, succinic acid and

acid, Ad Saar oxide gave cinnamenylcrotonic acid, and butyric
oxide e cinnamenylangelic acid. “Avice aldeh yde pid oe Ma
paroxyphenylacrylic, niga pe NEES lee ah ape and m ee
oxyphenylangelic acide, hen thus treated. Met ea nabe ii alde-
hyde gave methylort dey henylacrylic, methylorthoxyphenylcro-
m8, a arses dig onptensangee acids.— J. Chem. ta ag
ey 877.

furfurol is treated with a few drops of h hydrochloric acid and
warmed, a splendid arpleviolt re or is Wagalépedt paid Fe rl. -
Chem . Ges ce gE iB.
ise Notes Won the Chemioat Laboratory of the Johns “Hopkins
ow Nos. 1, 2,3. 16 pp. 8vo: Baltimore, May, 1877.—
€ Papers here included are: Oxidation of Mesitylene-sulphonic
— by L. B. Hart and Professor REMSEN ; on the oxidation o
. Sulphoacids derived from metaxylene, by M. W. Ines and
€ssor Remsen; on isomeric nitrotoluenesulphonic acids from
Paranitrotoluene, by E. Harr and Professor Remsen.

68 Scientifie Intelligence.

Il. GroLoagy AND MINERALOGY.

ts Begone Eruptions on Hawaii; by Rev. Tirus Coan.—
On the 6th and 7th of January, 1873, the e great t terminal pit of
a Loa, Mokua-weo-weo, was intensely active, exciting the

Ma

witnessed in that lofty crater. But it was as transient as it

was t. e were favored with only two nocturnal exhibi-

tions, woe the curtain dropped and the lights were extinguished,
On the 20th of April, 1 — this crater fired up again, and for

months the illumination was grand by night, and the column of

smoke and gases rose in a magnificent pillar by day.

Mokua-weo-weo, and onntibted for fifteen months. During all

d n
startling detonations of the fiery abyss, and oan set jets as
they spouted upward hundreds of feet, and the glowing waves

t,.and awakening the ‘aablinalaatio sdmiredon of beholders.
This continued but one week.

On the 13th of February, 1876, we were entertained 8 another
grand display of Pele’s fire-works, keeping thousands of people
on the watch at midnight, but this also was of short duration.

All these d pga ra were confined to the great mountain
crater. There were no overflowings and no lateral outbursts.

the fing In the morning the mountain had on a veil of thick

can’s trip hammer, and a smoky atmos pce So sudden and —

ple
Hilo, enquiring if we were having the eruption all to ourselves ;
and we sent back the inquiry to them, “ What has become of the

Geology and Mineralogy. 69

voleano ?” while the mountains stood above in silent and solemn
grandeur. The steamer came up to Kona and to Kau, loaded
with passengers, curious to witness the eruption, but the fire had
become extinguished, and they returned disappointed. But before
the vessel was fairly out of sight, a.remarkable bubbling was seen
in the sea about three miles south of Kealakekua—where Capt.
Cook fell,—and a mile from the shore. Approaching the boiling

Cambria, 194 p- 8vo, with 44 wood-cuts and 4 maps and sec-
tions. 1877. This report gives from “the elaborate hypsometric
map of Edmund Smith yet to be published,” the heights of the

0 to
2,510 feet; also those of the priacipal summits of Laurel Hill, 2,270
eet,

(3) Special Report on the Coke Manufacture of the Youghiogheny
River in Fayette and Westmoreland Counties, with geo-
logical notes on the Coal and Iron-ore beds, by FRANKLIN Puatr. ©
ee are appended a Report on methods of Coking by John
ulton,

facture, by J. P. Pearse and F. Platt. 252 pp. 8vo, with maps

oo
3
oo
a
=.
bs
oO
=
3
=|
a
&,
o

D
OX
5 >
a
g .
e
oO
$
y
“0
he
*]
bas
=

70 Scientific Intelligence.

ig = Wuirs, papers on Judith River group Unionide and Phy-
; Uniones and anew genus ods fresh- water Saeeronoee from

and associated mollusks with tte 1€8 5 paloohichoutal char-
acteristics of the Green River Cenozoic and Mesozoic; Dr. E.
Coves, U. 8. A., notes on American Insectivorous Mammals;
Ornithology of source of Red River of Texas; S. Aucury, cata-
logue of land and fresh-water shells of Nebraska ; A. D. Witsoy,
on the Geographical work of the Survey. A further notice is
deferred to another number.

4, Geological ate of Canada; AtFrrep R. C. SELWYN,
Bice Report of Progress for 1875-76. 432 pp. 8vo, with
maps and plates. 1877.—This volume opens with an "Intro-
ductory Report, reviewing the work of the ws by Mr.
Setwyn, after which come eae reports: on British
Columbia, by Mr.. Serwyn; on the same region,

AWSON; and on other western areas, by Prot. Macoun, Le
Wuirnaves, R. W. Exts, Roserr BELL, and 8. BaRLow 3; and on

i Ba

rt, by C. Horrmann; on the Insects of the Tertiary at
eee by 8. H. ScuppEr; and List of Coleoptera alloted on
the Lower Peace and Athabasca Rivers, by Prof. ONTE,
Mr. Selwyn states that Mr. H. G. Vennor ih ioand a large
variety of crystalline rocks in Western Quebec and Eastern .
Satie characterize y hat great beds "of cating, the

with t
that these oa. rest probly ‘inconformably on the ° “* Lower
Laurentian or reddish
r. Dawson describes aap region between the Cascade Range
and Fraser River, the 52d and 54th parallels of 2 pe It con-
tains extensive basaltic areas; porphyritic rocks of uncertain
a e; stern beds generally if not always beneath the "banal
are “undoubtedly Tertiary; Cretaceous rocks; besides
gneiss, , granites, vote etc, The Report on New ett
w, describes the Silurian etal rocks of
the Mascarene ek “oeludi chloritic rocks, dior oa felsytes
and argillytes. They are shown to be Upper Siluria
5. Shifting of the earth’s axis.—Prot. Haughto eign E the-
matica nal papas on the shifting of the earth’s axis caused by the
elevation of the exieling continents, in the Proceedings of the
oyal Society, vol. x p. 41. He finds by calculation ‘hat the
displacement would pe as follows:
Toward Greenwich. Toward Behr. Str. baichas ne sewers oe to

Miles. Miles.
Europe and Asia, - .--- 58-7 eee Sass
, ks 26-9 sit 4
North Ameri 15:2 fone 5 105°5
South America, 19°9 a 351 a

Botany and Zoology. - 71

The power of Europe and Asia in moving the pole is partly due
to the extension of this continent along the parallel of 45°, which
is the most effective latitude.

Samarskite of North Carolina.—A letter to one of the
editors, from J. Lawrence Smith, dated Louisville, June 15, states

a few tenths of one per cent.” And that he has discovered a new
method of separating thoria from the mixed earths, easily used,
and giving accurate results even when the amount present is very
small, :

fetallic acids of the tantalic group_---------- 54°96
Oxide of tin 0°16
Oxide of uranium 9°91
Oxide of iron : 14°02
Oxide of manganese 1
Oxide of cerium (La, Di) 517
Yttria 12°84
Magnesia 0°52
Insoluble residue from the oxalate of cerium... 1°25
] on ignition 0°66

The loss was determined on another sample of the mineral.

‘ Ill Borany AND ZOOLOGY.

the genus Cladophoru. Instead, ho
pores as is the case with species of Cladophora, the upper portion
of the cells swells and the contents pass into the swollen portion,
faving the rest empty. A cell wall is then formed, cutting off
os Swollen portion from the rest, and the spore is thus form

eas foreigners who read Swedish, or to the imperfect adapta-
ity of Latin to modern scientific writin 3

72 Scientific Intelligence.

grow directly from the sete of mosses. The latter part of the
article in which Pringsheim discusses the alternation of generations
in Thallophytes is excessively recondite and difficult to a

G. F.
seb Ou Basicoate Americe —— 3 curantibus W. cr goes
on, edite. Fasciculus

a in this i! ha they dave: cocuseth ed to issue sets of
specimens, with printed tickets, &c. This first facie as con-
- tains ona species, all of real interest, many of the
to new, at least in collections. The specimens are > fall and beau-
tiful, at the fasciculus is in every way attractively prepared.
e have no announcement of the price, but we understand that a
limited number of copies are to be put on sale. Professor Eaton
at Yale College, Professor Farlow at Harvard, and Dr. Anderson
at Santa Cruz, California, conld be applied to by those who wish
to obtain these sets, Algw from the Californian coast have until
now been unattainable; and er from Florida almost equally so
since the late Dr. Harvey’ s time. The few species from our New

ae! species by Farlow, L. nigrescen , Calothrix crustacea
U. pulvinata. Among the Californian species of Dr. Ander-
“ s iclecdan’ is Agardh’s Farlowia co A. G.
Orchis rotundifolia of Pursh, Witch Richardson referred to
Bohenaban (it was confidently supposed with good reason), and
Lindley after him to Plutanthera, is a genuine Orchis, having a
ouch to the pollinia-disks as manifest as that of O. spectabilis.
is is seen in fresh flowers of the living plant sent by Mr. Prin-
gle from Vermont to the Cambridge Botanic Garden. . G
5, Beitrdége zur Pan aay a hamranibat der Flechten. Heft.
I, Ueber die bas peste ig oer der Collemaceen.—
EK. Sranu. Leet 8vo0 e ae rune important contribution joel

Zeitung, 1 . 177. He has avoi any discussion of the
te theory with regard to the gonidia ony has sought in
the study of the <oosprinamcabigh —_ of lichens to discover their
relationship to other ark part first, he aiile of Collema

ot he

"spe
female, The anatomy of the former has been known for some
time, but the latter organs are now described for the first time.
e carpogonia consists of two portions, the ascogone and the
fi

Botany and Zoology. 73

the ascomycetous fungi. The trichogyne, also composed of sev-
eral cells, is a more slender filament hi proceeds bet abs
from the. ascogone until it makes its way to the surface of the
thallus. The experience of Stahl shows eas the inkog rites seek
the surface in that part of the thallus exposed to the light. In
the majority of cases the spermatia and carpogonia are distinet.

In the genus Physma, however, the ascogone is in the base of the
same cavity in which spermatia are found, a ae which

of t the Museum of Conspearaiee Liston by ALEXANDER AGASSIZ.
Cambridge, June, 1877. 137 pp. 4to, with 20 plates.—The plates,

ago, to Tuntite a fifth volume of the Contributions to Zoblogy,
by P Renae? eo whic f unfortu mney was not completed.
e firs

ast
illustrated. An i important chapter is also devoted to - oe gees
ogies of Echinoderms

7. Ninth Annual “Report on the nowious and benefit aed
other insects of the State of Missouri ; by C. V. Ritey, State
son City Mo. oe DP. Bv9, with man figures and a map. Jeffer-

tTmy Worm, and the Rocky Mountain Locust; and also of the
noxious Insects” the Hellgrammite and Yucca Borer. Of the

ight miles a year (though not over

Se “ty a _ over the region west of the Mississippi), and es
ow mvaded nearly 1,500,000 square miles, or more tha

eet the 2 area of the United States. It does not thrive ies

ot its ra range very far south of the territory now occupied ;
Ut its northern spread is not limited, and it may push to the

74 Scientific Intelligence.

northernmost limit of the eee ra sa limit which
it has already well nigh reached. It travels by means of wings,
But “it undoubtedly availed itself se no ee EEN extent, of

8. Bulletin of the Daeg Commission—U. 8.
Geol. and Geogr. ove. — 2 pp. and No. 2, 14 pp. 8vo.—
The Entomological Commission consists of
Packarp, Jr., and Cy Their first bulletin treats of

and No. 2 of their natural history and habits in the young
unfledged state, with wood-cuts, and a map of the region east of
the Rocky Mountains overran by the insect.

IV. AsrRonomy.

. Astronomical and eioteoroligieat Observations made during
ee year 1874 at the U. S. N. Observatory, Rear-Admiral Davis,
upt. Washington, 1877. —This alin contains the observa-
— of the year 1874 atthe Naval Observatory, with the reduced
sults. The astronomical work has been mostly done by means

of the three instruments, the transit circle, the 26-inch equatorial,
ral circle. The latter instrument has been under the

of the U. S. N. Observatory (see p. 242, vol. xiii, of this Journal),

illustrated with heliotypes of the eemeneds ; IL. Report on the

difference of longitude between Washington and Ogden, Ce
y, Professor Eastman, This difference is found to pes

te Relative ages of the Sun and certain fixed Stars. _proteanor
Kirkwoop closes a communication upon this subject to the Amer-
ican ploeophipsl Society with the following summary of his
conclusion
tt. The history of ibe hg system is comprised within twenty _

or thirty millions of
-<) rom the fact that: the larger component of guehe Centauri
ice as much light as the sun while the mass of the

our solar system is the more advanced in its Shien! history.

(3.) 61 Cygni seems to have reached a greater degree of con-
densation than the sun, since, on the hypothesis of equal density,
the surface of the larger member is ae that of the sun,

while the intrinsic > light | is less than on

e companion of Sirius soca to have reached a stage
of greater maturity than the sun, while the contrary seems to be
true in regard to the spat, star, H, As N,

Astronomy. 75

3. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege. Vols. VIII and X.—The first seven volumes of the Annals
of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College contained
the results of the work done under its first two Directors, W. C.
Bond and G, P. Bond.

Three catalogues gave the observed places of 16,084 stars
observed in zones between the equator and 1° N. declination.
The great comet, of 1858, the nebula of Orion, and spots on the
sun, each filled a volume, and the planet Saturn filled one part of
a volume. The second part of vol. IV has not yet appeared, but
is in course of publication. The eighth volume contains in its first,
part an historical account of the Observatory from 1855 to 1876,
and is richly illustrated by engravings of the instruments and
apparatus of the Observatory. The second portion consists of the
“ Engravings from the Observatory of Harvard College,” which
has been furnished separately to subscribers, and has been hereto-
fore noticed in this Journal, ey are thirty-five in number (mak-
ing more than fifty engravings in the volume), and constitute a

were made in 1871 and 1872 by Prof. W. A. Rogers, aided
Mr. A. McConnel, and the reduction of them and the editing of
the volume was by Prof. Rogers. There were 564 stars observed,

with three catalogues: Ist, of 289 primary stars, being t
which are in the list of fundamental stars of the Astron, Gesell-
Schaft ; 2d, of the 275 stars not in that list ; 3d, of about 600 stars
observed in R. A. in 1867 and 1868, with the transit circle, by
Mr. E. P. Austin H. A. N.

i
Stars in twenty-seven earlier catalogues. e volume concludes
i ose

po t
- On the part of the motion of the lunar perigee which is a
Sunction of the ae motions of a Sun and oie ; by G. W.
Hit, Cambridge, 1877. 4°, pp. 28.—The motion of the lunar
ce. ee as observed does not agree with any of those computed

Y theory within the limits of error of the observations. This
th ue to not carrying the approximations far enough and —
© author undertakes to compute its value, so far as it depends
on the mean motions of the sun and moon, with a degree of accu-
Tacy that shall leave nothing further to be desired.

76 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

in Chicago to see if it is not possible to secure for him in some
way the use of the telescope in the Observatory. or many
years this large instrument (for a part of the time the largest
refractor in the world) has lain idle, not at all to the credit of
Chicago. It should have been steadily doing service in astrono-
my, such service as almost no other instrument can do. Mr.

Burnham has shown that he can do good work, and the friends of

it.
t. The eann a Monthly Review o Astronomy. Ed-
ited by W. H. M. Curtstre, M.A. Nos and 2, April and
ay.—This is a new monthly of thirty- two kon published by
Taylor & Francis, London. For convenience of American sub-
scribers currency will the received at the rate of one dollar for
three months’ subscriptio ese two numbers contain accounts
of the April and May sinesene of the Royal Astr. Soc.; and the
following besides other articles : Photographic Spectra of Stars, by

Huggins; Determination of the Solar Parallax, by D. Gill;
the Twinkling of the Stars, by E. Ledger; also Notes, Corre-
— Memoranda, Ephemer erides, &e.

8. An Hlementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions ; y by ARTHUR
Caytry. Deighton, Bell & oe Cambridge and London. 8°,
1876.—There has ol hitherto no elementary separate trea-
tise in English upon ee finda tions. The thanks ae sien ma-
ticians are due to Professor Cayley for supplying the An
excellent feature of the book is the general outline hich ‘fils the

rst chapter.

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. American Association.—The American Association will hold
its twenty- -sixth meeting in Nashville, during the week commenc-
ing with the 29th of August. The Local Committee is oe

of Cam
an nd O. C. Marsa, of New Fern Me J. Berrien Lindsley is
Secretary of the Local Cosnnitter:
ew American Scientific Museums.—A bill to establish &

Historical Library and Natural History Museum at Springfield,
Tllinois, has been passed by the Se of the State. It appro
riates to it one of the large halls of the New Capitol building.
The valuable collections made in pinta Mh with the Sake lets
survey of the State, many specimens of which are the types 0

species described in the volumes of Reports, will here have safe

Miscellaneous Intelligence. (i

keeping. Professor Worthen orcs that about it will be built
up an institution of science that w e an important addition to
the educational resources of the Wes

At St. Louis, Ae aah the “St. Louie Museum of Arts —
Sciences” has recently been instituted. It includes among 1
officers the names of prominent men of science of Missouri, oe
mies to be a center of great see activity.

Earthquake oceanic wave of May 9th and 10th, 1877.—The

Monthly Weather Review for May, published by the Signal Ser-

>
rise ximum) 2% - an the seiokiead Islands, on eastern
Hawaii, at Hilo, a and the great wave, 36 feet high, came
in - 4h 4 45’; at eae first felt at 4° 45’, and the great wave
at 5

Rey Coan, in a letter to one of the editors dated Ma
states that “ thirty- -six hours subsequent to the catastrophe at ile
the pulsations of the tidal wave still continued, the incoming and
outflowing wave oomepeng about an hour, the latter leaving the
channels nearl

4,

- 180 pp. 12°. Philadelphia, 1877, eB feos
& ‘Haffalfinger. )—This tr eatise discusses the various questions that
arise in the construction ‘of lightning rods, and their application
to different kinds of structures. The great defect of most light-
ning rods, that of imperfect earth resent ai with the remedies,
are very fully treated. The directions are such that an intelligent
mechanic can n carry them into effect
With nee minor statements of the author we should not agree.
Thus (p. 76) he says, “a building over 100 feet square cannot be

are employed through the interior, etc.” The book, Shakes asa
commended.
5. Natural See ang Banas: y Part I, the Proj
and Flu 1 To

A., F.
368 pp. small teem Lo ei ” 1877. (MacMillan & Co.)—The
character of this little work will be best understood by the follow-
ing quotation from the author’s preface :—“ The design of the
Work is to furnish a simple and trustworthy manual for those who
ire beginning the study of natural philosophy ; and it ventures
claim a distinct position among the numerous publications

78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

which have appeared with somewhat similar aims. On the one
hand great pains have been.taken to render the book intl
to early students; the amount of mathematical knowledge assu

is merely a familiarity with the elements of siiichanutd: "On the
other hand the subject is presented, it may be hoped, with ade-
quate fullness, so —* a person who has mastered the work will

pare 500 in number) is added.” The many excellent text-
books of Prof. Todhunter are now so well known that it is —a
sary to add more than a general commendation of the ner in
which the author’s plan, as above expressed, has been vite” out.
~~ second part of the work is now in the press.

6. Third Biennial Report of the Vermont Board of Agricul-

ure, Manufactures and Mining, for the years 1875-76. By
Bees M. SEELy, Secretary of the Board. 704 pp. 8vo. [ut-
land, 1876.—This volume is made up of brief original reports by
various citizens of Vermont on topics of general noha con-

d
an analysis of fertilizers, by Prof, See ely ; Pisciculture wit
reference to farming, by G. B. Fre nch, of Woodstock ; Experiments
e hybridization of cereals, b OG: Panel of Charlotte;
Toeiies injurious to the potato and apple, by Prof. G. H. Perkins.
7. Transactions of the Siaseheelie shaadi my of Sciences, Arts
and Letters. Vol. III, 1875-76. 270 pp. 8vo. Madison, oe

small lakes of ite scterr by I. A. Lapham; on Copper tools
found in Wisconsin, b J. = Butler; Report of se on
Exploration of India Skea: in = vicinity of M

Journal of the en of Ne ural Sciences of Philadelphia,
Vol. VIU, part 2. Thi is part seo ea = Batrachia and

Manchester Science Lectures for the People. Eighth series, shes 7 in pam-
— of 45 to 64 pages, 12mo.—Why the Earth’s Chemistry is ; three
ectures by J. Norman LOcKYER, PRS: 60 pp.—The Suceession 0 of Life’ on the
Earth ; three lectures by Professor W. 0. Wit {AMSON, F.R.S.; 62 pp. — Technical
Chemistry, by Professor Roscozg, F.R.S., 46 pp. Macmillan & oe London and
New York.
OBITUARY.

Exxanan Bririves.—The decease of Mr.: Billings a year since,
at ae mgt was announced in this Journal, in volume xii, at page
e are indebted to his successor as paleontologist in the
Canada Geological Surve J. F. Whiteaves, for the following
facts connected with his ice in science.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79

Mr. Billings was born near Ottawa City, on the 5th of May,
1820, and died on the 14th of June, 1876. In 1839 he com-
menced the study of law, and for seven years, beginning with
1844, his pursuit was that of a barrister. or the four years
following he added the duties of editor of the “Ottowa Cit-
izen,’

d co
foreign and North American British fossils as threw light on
Canadian species, the remainder of his life was passed at Mon-
treal, in the study of the Canadian collections, and in excursions
ks of Canada and adjoining portions
of the United States. Besides numerous papers contributed to

sty moirs :

illustrated monograph of Lower Silurian Cystidea and Asteriade,
and on the Crinoidea of the same formation: these two memoirs con-
stituting Decades 3 and 4 of “Canadian Organic Remains;” Paleo-

a3 : é h nine plates and many
Wood-cuts, 1874; and “ Catalogues of the Silurian Fossils of the
Island of Anticosti.”

Devonian formations was extensive and profound, and his deserip-

elaboration of the remarkable, and still somewhat enigmatical,
.tuna of the Quebec Group, of the south shore of the St. Lawrence,
ja Eastern Canada, and of the northern extremity of Newfound-
land. His paper “on the remains of the Fossil Elephant found in
Canada,” and another on the bones of a Beluga dug up at Corn-
Wall (Ontario), show that he was well versed in comparative
pean Sh and many of his earlier contributions to the “ Canadian

aturalist” bear witness to the eagerness with which he prose-

; panadian Naturalis ies, vol. viii, 1863.

t Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal, but never published.

80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

cuted his seclew studies. Entomology and mineralogy were
favorite departments of science with him, and he made at one
time a tolerably complete collection of Canadian Cole eoptera,
which he presented to aa Natural History Society of Montreal
a few year before his
For years Mr. Bi llings was one of the Vice-Presidents of
the Natural History Sty of Montreal. He was frequently
pressed to accept the office of President, but invariably declined.
He was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of London in
1858. The silver medal of the Montreal Natural History Society
was voted him the members at the annual meet ing held in
1867, by way of testifying to their appreciation of “his long
continued and successful labors for ie promotion of science in
nada.”
Mr. Billings possessed great firmness and strength of character
coupled with a winning simplicity of manner and unaffected
modesty. "To these traits were added inflexible love of truth and
jiative, disinterested and self-sacrificing zeal ua the acquisition of
knowledge, and unt mae aie a a purs
In 1845 Mr. Billings married a sis of Mr. Wilson, of Toronto,
now the Hon. Judge Wilson, but sere aM junior partner in the
legal firm of Messrs. Baldwin & Wilson, in whose office he studied
the last year wes to his being called to the bar. Since his decease
the members of the Natural History Society of Montreal have
passed Peblitions expressing their high estimation of his personal
character and writings; and a few of his more intimate friends in
the society have subscribed for a fine life-sized portrait of their
distinguished associate, which now adorns its lecture room.
Coronet Ezexien J EWETT, died at Santa Barbara, Cal., May
18th, aged 86. He was born at Rindge, N. H., Oct. 16, 1791. He
was an officer in the U. S, army in the war of 1812, and afterward
took part in - Chilian war, under Gen. Carrera. He has long
been well known to geologists and conchologists as an enthusi-
astic and indefatigable collector of fossils and shells. An exten-
sive geological collection, made by him, is now the property 0
Cornell University. For several years past he has devoted him-
self entirely to conchology and had accumulated a valuable col-
lection of shells, subeatad < over pe ,000 species. He collected ex-
tensively on the west coast of
r. Paitre P. CARPENTER, one at the ablest modern concholo-
gists, , well known especially for his several excellent works on the
mollusea of the west coast of North America, died at Montreal,
May 24th, aged fifty-eight. A more extended notice is necessarily
eferred to another number.
R ALE Owen, died on the 24th of June, at his summer
residence on Lake George, at the age of seventy-six.

ATTEN Dis.

Art. XI. — Principal Characters of the Coryphodontide ; by
Professor O. C. MarsH. With plate IV.

tiary Mammals, and mark a definite geological horizon in this

Kuropean specimens.

The identification of the American remains with the genus
Coryphodon of Owen, and the determination thereby of a definite
horizon, common to the two countries, and containing the
oldest known Tertiary Mammals, was published by the writer
In ge 1876, and subsequently in the following number of
ournal (vol. xi, p. 425.)§ - j

The Museum of Yale College contains a large collection of

phodon remains from Utah, Wyoming, and New Mexico,
and this material is amply sufficient to indicate all the more
important characters of the group. Among these specimens are
portions of the same individuals described by Cope under the
hames Bathmodon and Loxolophodon,| both of which are syno-
BA ms of Coryphodon, as the remains on which they were based
Clearly belong to that genus. One of the species best repre-
sented in the Yale collection is Coryphodon hamatus Marsh, and
this has afforded many of the characters given below.

*This Journal, vol. xi, p. 428, May, 1876.

{Anat Fossil Mammals and Birds, p. 299

Scien re

p. 2
des les, tome vi, p. 87, 1856.
Fe en turalist (vol. xi, ah ‘of. Cope has rece ly claimed
= 8 di very on of a paper which he read before the Spring Meeting
~ cademy, in 1876. He knew, however, at the time that my article

W:
"Y Publication was in the room, in the hands of a member.
I Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1872, p. 420.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, VoL. XIV, No. 79.—Juty, 1877.
: 4

82. 0. C. Marsh—Principal Characters of Coryphodontide.

The skull of Coryphodon, in all its more important characters,
is of the perissodactyl type. It is elongated, and the facial
portion is most produced. A line drawn from the lower mar-
gin of the foramen magnum along the palate is nearly straight.
The zygomatic arches are expanded, but the malar is compara-
tively slender, and unites with the maxillary in front of the
orbit. The general form of the skull is shown in the accom-
panying plate, figure 1. The maxillaries are massive, and
usually deeply indented on the sides behind the canines. The
lachrymal forms the anterior border of the orbit, and its fora-
men is inside the orbital margin. The nasals are slender in
front, and broad posteriorly. The premaxillaries are expand
transversely, and the narial aperture is wide. The occipital
condyles are well separated, and there are condylar foramina.
Between the basisphenoid and the periotic, there is a large
opening. ere is a paroccipital, and a,post-glenoid process.

The dental formula of Coryphodon is as follows :

Incisors 3 canines <3 premolars = ; molars a x2

The teeth in American specimens do not differ essentially
from those described by Owen and Hébert, which are well repre-
sented in the memoir of the latter author, cited above.

The brain cavity in Coryphodon is perhaps the most remark-
able feature in the genus, and indicates that the brain itself
was of a very inferior type. It was quite small, as in
Eocene mammals, but its most striking features were the small
size of the hemispheres, and the expanded cerebellum. The
form and relative size of these are shown in the accompanying
plate, figure 1.

he olfactory lobes were large, and entirely in advance of
the hemispheres. They were bounded in front by a well ossified
cribriform plate, and partially separated by a vertical bony sep-
tu e cerebral lobes were ovate in form, and very small, a
transverse section exceeding but little that of the medullar
opening. In shape and relative size, the hemispheres and olfac-
tory lobes of this genus are somewhat similar to those of Dino-
ceras. The cerebellum was proportionally large, and widely
expanded transversely. Its peculiar form is shown in figure 1,
which is drawn from a cast of the brain-cavity of C. hamatus.
This portion of the brain nearly or quite equaled the hemi-
spheres in size, thus differing widely from any known mammal.
There is a well marked pituitary fossa, but no clinoid process.
The foramina for the exit of the optic nerves are small, but for
the others very large. The brain as a whole was very low in
grade, and precisely such as might be expected in a mammal
from the odes Tertiary deposits.

0. C. Marsh—Principal Characters of Coryphodontide. 83

These facts are important, since Cope has recently published
a paper on the same subject, and given descriptions and figures
of the brain case of Coryphodon which differ materially from m
own.* He makes no reference to my article, although perfectly
familiar with it. A comparison of his figures with the speci-
mens mentioned above, shows at once that he has made most
Serious mistakes in his observations. What he represents as

Ing. Similar errors are apparent in other portions of the

ately longer. The odontoid process of the axis is a short peg.
The articular faces of the cervicals and dorsals are nearly flat.
The candals indicate a tail of moderate length.

The limbs of Coryphodon were comparatively short. The
scapula is acuminate above, as in Dinoceras and the Ele-
phant. The humerus is much less massive than in Dinoceras,
but otherwise resembles it. The deltoid ridge extends beyond
the middle of the shaft. The distal end of the humerus is com-
pressed antero-posteriorly, and the ulnar side of the articulation
18 much more prominent than the radial, thus approaching the
Rhinoceros where it departs from Dinoceras. The radius is

roximally smaller, compared with the ulna, than in Rhinoceros.
ts distal end is larger than that of the ulna.

The femur of Coryphodon is of the perissodactyl type, and
has a distinct third trochanter. The tibia, when in position,

d

the Elephant, but was inclined at a moderate angle. The fibula
Was entire, and its distal end articulated with both the astrag
alus and caleaneum.
‘ he feet of Coryphodon, hitherto essentially unknown, resem-
ble most nearly those of Dinoceras, and can perha best
illustrated by a direct comparision with them. In the follow-
ing figures (see plate iv), the feet of these two genera are placed
side by side, and in the same position. ‘The main points
of difference between them are stated below.

* Proceedings American Philosophical Society, p. 616, 1877.

84 0. C. Marsh—Principal Charact’rs of Coryphodontide.

The manus and pes of Coryphodon had each five short digits.
The carpal bones are shorter, measured in the line of the foot,
than in Dinoceras, and the distal row present more curved
articular faces to the metacarpal bones, indicating greater free-

om of motion. The pyramidal is destitute of the tubercle
projecting outward and forward for the support of the fifth
digit, seen in Dinoceras. The metapodial bones and phalanges
are throughout less roughened and tubercular than in Dinoceras,
and all their articular faces indicate greater flexibility in the
feet. The ungual phalanges expand laterally for the support
of the hoofs, instead of being rounded, as in Dinoceras. ;

In the hind foot, the astragalus, and in a less degree the
cuboid and navicular bones are shorter, along the line of the
foot, than the corresponding bones of Dinoceras. The astragalus
has the tibial articulation less convex, and the fibular articula-
tion more extensive, covering the whole exterior or fibular side
of the bone. The navicular and cuboid faces are more dis-
tinctly separated, and make a greater angle with each other
than in Dinoceras. The caleaneum approaches the ordinary
perissodactyl type, the shaft being much longer than in Dino-
ceras, and the tubercular surface below for the support of a
plantar pad, seen in the Elephant and Dinoceras, is undeveloped.
The cuboid is of peculiar shape, being sub-triangular. he
caleaneal face is long and oblique, reaching nearly to the face
for the fifth metatarsal. Both the metatarsal articulations are
essentially in one plane, and are separated only by a very slight
ridge. The navicular articulates very slightly, if at all, with the
cuboid, but covers the face of the astragalus, and fully supports
the ectocuneiform. The latter bone is not at all supported by
the astragalus, as asserted by Cope (Catalogue of Vertebrata of
the Eocene of New Mexico, p. 27). He has also published a
remarkable figure of the hind foot of Coryphodon (Bathmodon),
showing the hallux with three phalanges, and the fifth digit
reduced to a rudiment (loc. cit., p. 28

The average size of the animals of this genus was about that
of the existing Tapir. Some were smaller, and others nearly
twice as large. Their mode of life was probably similar.

A careful consideration of the characters of Coryphodon, so
far as now known, indicates that the genus represents a distinct
family of perissodacty] Ungulates, the Coryphodontide. The
skull is clearly of this type, and the skeleton and feet present
no differences sufficiently important to justify a separation from
that natural order. Only a slight modification of the limits of
the Pertssodactyla, would bring this five-toed genus into it, and
simplify classification.

he geological horizon of Coryphodon in this country is near
the base of the Eocene, in the strata named by the Survey of

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIV, 1877.

fk view. “About one fifth natur. vali size.
d foot of © iat eed vie

aaure 2.—Hin ew
igure 3.—Fore foot of ¢ uph re mm; fi
; é TO ew.
see 4 4.—Hind foot of Dine as ; ‘tr eae
igure 5.—Fore foot of Dinvesr as } fant view.

Plate IV.

Both one-third natural size.

Both one-fifth natural size.

0, C. Marsh— Characters of the Odontornithes. 85

reek series, an
localities are in Utah, Wyoming and New Mexico. Amon
the associate mammals are the equine Hoheppus, and the suilline
Helohyus, showing clearly that we must look to. Cretaceous
strata at least for the parent form of the Ungulates.

Yale College, June 12th, 1877.

the Fortieth Parallel, under Clarence King, the Vermillion
C ; the Wasatch group. e known

Art. XII.—Characters of the Odontornithes, with Notice of a new
allied Genus; by Professor O. C. MarsH. With plate V.

first sight to indicate the near affinity of Hesperornis with the
Colymbide, proves to be only an adaptation; while the skull,
scapular arch, and other important portions show unmistak-
ably that the nearest existing allies of the genus are the Fatite,
or Ostrich group, the most reptilian of modern birds. The
characters that show this affinity are nearly identical with those
laid down to distinguish the Fatite by Huxley in his impor-
tant memoir on the Classification of Birds.| They may be
briefly stated as follows:

l. The sternum is devoid of a crest.

2. The long axes of the adjacent parts of the scapula and
coracoid are parallel, or identical. :

€ posterior ends of the palatines, and the anterior ends
of the pterygoid are very imperfectly, or not at all, articu-
lated with the basisphenoid rostrum.

4. Strong “basipterygoid” processes, arising from the body of
the basisphenoid, and not from the rostrum, articulate with
facets which are situated nearer the posterior than the anterior
ends of the inner edges of the pterygoid bones.

5. The upper, or proximal, articular head of the quadrate
bone is not divided into two distinct facets.

* This Journal. vol. x, p. 403, Nov., 1875.

t Proceedings Zoological Society, 1867, p. 448.

86 0. C. Marsh—Characters of the Odontornithes.

The vomers are separate, as in lizards and a few modern birds.
In the pelvic arch, the ilium, ischium and pubis are free at their
distal ends, as in the Emu, and the acetabulum is perforated
only by a moderate foramen. :

The scapular arch of Hesperornis is represented in plate V,
figure 1. Its position in the skeleton is shown in the restora-
tion, figure 2.

The scapula is long and slender, and has no acromial process.
The clavicles are separate, but meet on the median line, as nm
some very young existing birds. The coracoids are short, and
much expanded where they join the sternum. The latter has
no distinct manubrium, and is entirely without a keel. The
wings were represented by the humerus only, which is long
and slender, and without any trace of articulation at its distal
end. Its position was close to the ribs, and it was probably
nearly or quite concealed beneath the integuments, as 12

This rendered the rudimentary wings of no possible
service in flight or swimming.

Baptornis advenus, gen. et sp, nov.

bone from the same geological horizon. This specimen,
although pertaining to a bird not fully adult, is in excellent
betel and is so characteristic that it may be readily
istinguished from any forms already described.

inner metatarsal, a short distance above the articulation. AS
in Hesperornis, there are no canals or grooves for tendons 0D —
the region face of the proximal end.

The principal dimensions of this tarso-metatarsal are 4
follows :—

Bniite eegth ce a, 7650"
Transverse diameter of proximal end .____.._......---- ye
Antero-posterior Cismiever 8°
Length of secoed Mietatarteet 2 64°5
Dength of third tinetatirr 72°

Length of fourth metatarsal
Antero-posterior diameter of distal articulation of second
metatarsal :

ae ee ee 0 te we et eR law Se ee ee i eh gl we a ee a

———S we eee ee ee ee

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. XIV, 1877. Plate V.

Figure 1. Scapular arch of Hesperornis regalis — stars natural size.
’. Scapula; 4. humerus; f. furculum; ¢. coracoid; 5
re 2. Restoration of He Hesperornis rega alis, about Ltagfoners sy cantar size.

O. C. Marsh—Notice of a new and Gigantic Dinosaur. 87

Transverse diameter ssis)s5¢ cscs S25. a a aewui seta seer
Antero-posterior diumece of distal articulation of third
metatarsa. int seneoeiitehat Jab Genre elas sew oes
Transverse diameters: o2c.24u un cou desig ected Leb os
Antero-posterior epee of distal articulation of fourth
Metatarsal os on cen cae ee Peale eee eee ee

This specimen indicates a bird about as large as a loon, and
apparently of similar habits. The locality of the only remains
at present known is in Western Kansas, in the same Cretaceous
beds that contain the Odontornithes and Pteranodontia.

Art. XIII.—WNotice of a new and ete Dinosaur ; by
Professor O. C. MAR

THE Museum of Yale College has recently received from the
Cretaceous deposits of Colorado a collection of reptilian remains
of much interest. Among these specimens are Agog of an
enormous Dinosaur, which surpassed in magnitude any land
animal hitherto doovacs d. ‘The most yale bones
preserved are portions of the sacrum, and posterior limbs. The
former is represented by the last two vertebrae with their
transverse processes, nearly complete, and by other fragments.
The last sacral vertebra has its centrum moderately concave
below on each side of the median line, but only near its ante-
rior end can indications of a keel be observed. “The next sacral .
vertebra has its inferior lateral surface so deeply concave as to
materially lessen its bulk. ‘This is also true of the next ante-
rior centrum, and may be ee, a distinctive character of
these vertebre. A’ mo mportant character of the same
centra is a very large eens in each side, connected with the
outer surface by an elongated foramen, below the base of the
neural arch. e inner surface of this cavity indicates that it
was not filled by cartilage, and it probably was a pneumatic
es ge ne to lessen the weight of the enormous sacral

+ verse processes of these vertebree are very aha
ey of mipdanas length. Their distal ends are firmly codss
fied, forming a powerful support for the ilium. Between Chie
processes are large oval openings.

The following measurements ite the more important dimen-
sions of these interesting fossils

Length of centrum of last sacral souks aa
Transverse diameter of distal end ........ .....------- 270°
Vertical diameter of distal end_....__... a

Distance between extremities of transverse processes ~<a 860°

88 30. C. Marsh—Notice of a new and Gigantic Dinosaur.

Length (approximate) of next sacral vertebra_......-.. 280° ™™
Transverse diameter of posterior end ---..--..-------- 200
Least transverse diameter of centrum---------.-------- 85°
Distance between extremities of transverse processes -.. 680°

Antero-posterior diameter of opening between transverse
prccebece OF Bove vertebra ot leu

PRR re OEE oe Prin ever ee cape eh Sew eed. oe

Antero-posterior diameter (approximate) of shaft of femur 230°

eR NN on oS ee ee Se <= =---, 950°
These dimensions would indicate for the entire animal a

described, the species may be called Titanosaurus montanus.
It was perhaps a distant ally of the comparatively small

much smaller carnivorous reptile of the same order, which

Yale College, New Haven, June 20th, 1877.

* This name Lelaps is preoccupied, having been used by Koch in 1835, and
again by Walker in 1843, It may, therefore, be replaced by Dryptosaurus. This
genus is allied to Megalosaurus, and is represented in American Cretaceous strata
by several species, among them Dryptosaurus aquilunguis

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THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art. XIV.—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun by Photography, and
a new Theory of the Solar Spectrum ;* by Professor HENRY
Draper, M.D.

I PROPOSE in this preliminary paper to indicate the means
by which I have discovered oxygen and probably nitrogen in
the sun, and also to present a new view of the constitution o
the solar spectrum.

Oxygen discloses itself by bright lines or bands in the solar spec-
trum, and does not give dark absorption lines like the metals.
We must therefore change our theory of the solar spectrum
and no longer regard it merely as a continuous spectrum with
certain rays absorbed by a layer of ignited metallic vapors, but
as having also bright lines and bands superposed on the back-
ground of continuous spectrum. Such a conception not only
opens the way to the discovery of others of the non-metals,
sulphur, phosphorus, selenium, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
fluorine, carbon, etc., but also may account for some of the
so-called dark lines by regarding them as intervals between
bright lines.

It must be distinctly understood that in speaking of the
solar spectrum here, I do not mean the spectrum of any limited
area upon the dise or margin of the sun, but the spectrum of
light from the whole disc. I have not used an image of the
sun upon the slit of the spectrocope, but have employed the
_ beam reflected from the flat mirror of the heliostat without any
_ condenser.

* Read before the American Philosophical Society, July 20th, 1877.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Series, Vou. XIV, No. 80.—Aveust, 1877.
7

90 H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.

In support of the above assertions the accompanying photo-
graph of the solar spectrum with a comparison spectrum of alr,
and also with some of the lines of iron and aluminium, is intro-
du he photograph itself is absolutely free from hand-
work or retouching. It is difficult to bring out in a single
photograph the best points of these various substances, and I

ave therefore selected from the collection of original negatives
that one which shows the oxygen coincidences most plainly.
There are so many variables among the conditions which con-
spire for the production of a spectrum, that many photographs
must be taken to exhaust the best combinations. The pressure
of the gas, the strength of the original current, the number of
Leyden jars, the separation and nature of the terminals, the

nm
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creased in number and distinctness. For the metals the electric
are gives the best photographic results as Lockyer has so well
shown, but as my object was only to prove by the iron lines
that the spectra had not shifted laterally past one another, those
that are here shown at 4825, 4807, 4971, 4063, 4045, suffice.
In the original collodion negative many more can be seen.
' Below the lower spectrum are the symbols for oxygen, nitrogen,
iron and aluminium.
No close observation is needed to demonstrate to even the

H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 91

tive strength and the general aspect of the lines in each case is
ar. Ido not think that in comparisons of the spectra of
] th

cyanogen. When these gases were in Pliicker’s tubes a double

series of photographs has been needed, one set taken with and

the other without Leyden jars. :
to the spectrum of nitrogen and the existence of this

est effect for oxygen, the character of the evidence appears.

The triple band between 4240, 4227, if traced upward into the

sun has approximate representatives. Again at 4041, the same

thing is seen, the solar bright line being especially marked. In

another photograph the heavy line at 3996, which ne this pic-
: o

ture is 5 mt an insufficiently ex the solar
Spectrum shows a comparison band in the sun.

92 H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.

The reason I did not use air in an exhausted Pliicker’s tube

spectrum. In Pliicker’s tubes with a Leyden spark the nitro-
gen lines are as plain as those of oxygen here. As faras I have
seen oxygen does not exhibit the change in the character of its
- lines that is so remarkable in hydrogen under the influence of
pressure as shown by Frankland and Lockyer.

The bright lines of oxygen in the spectrum of the solar dise
have not been hitherto perceived probably from the fact that
in eye-observations bright lines on a less bright background do
not make the impression on the mind that dark lines do.

gives increased strength to the nebular hypothesis, because to
any persons the absence of this important group has presented

H. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 93

are only partly accounted for by oxygen. Further investiga-
tion in the direction I have thus far pursued will lead to the
discovery of other elements in the sun, but it is not proper to
conceal the principle on which such researches are to be con-
ducted for the sake of. personal advantage. It is also probable
that this research may furnish the key to the enigma of the D,
or helium line and the 1474 K or corona line. The case of the
D, line strengthens the argument in favor of the apparent ex-
emption of certain substances from the common law of the
relation of emission and absorption, for while there can be no
doubt of the existence of an ignited gas in the chromosphere
giving this line, there is no corresponding dark line in the

.

or channelled spectra. This subject requires careful investiga-

tion. The diffused and reflected light of the outer corona

could be caused by such bodies cooled below the self-luminous
nt.

wo Ww :

machine thoroughly adjusted, a large Ruhmkorff coil with its
Foucault break in the best order, a battery of Leyden Jars
carefully proportioned to the Plticker’s tube in use, @ heliostat
Which of course involves clear sunshine, an optical train of
slit, prisms, lenses and camera well focussed, and in addition
to all this a photographic laboratory in such complete condition
that wet sensitive plates can be prepared, which will bear an
exposure of fifteen minutes and a prolonged development. ‘It
has been difficult to keep the Pliicker’s tubes in order; often
before the first exposure of a tube was over the tube was
Tuned by the strong Leyden sparks. Moreover to procure
tubes of known contents is troublesome, For example, my

94 H.. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun.

hydrogen tubes gave a spectrum photograph of fifteen lines, of
which only three belonged to hydrogen. In order to be sure
that none of these were new hydrogen lines it was necessary to
try tubes of various makers, to prepare pure hydrogen and

employ that, to examine the spectrum of water, and finally to

and nitrogen were made, because these gases seemed to be of
greatest astronomical importance on account of their relation to
stars, nebule and comets. Before the subject of comparison
spectra of the sun was carefully examined, there was some con-
fusion in the results, but by using hydrogen the source of these
errors was found out. :
But in attempting to make a prolonged research in this
direction it soon appeared that it was essential to be able to
control the electrical current with precision, both as to quan-

was the first person in America to procure a Gramme machine.
e was also the first to use a Brayton engine to drive @
ramme.

The dynamo-electric machine selected is one of Gramme’s
Spbpae made in Paris and is a double light machine, that is, it
as two sets of brushes, and is wound with wire of such a size
as to give a current of sufficient intensity for my purposes. —
It is nominally a 350 candle-light machine, but the current
varies in proportion to the rate of rotation, and I have also
modified it by changing the interior ti The machine
can produce as a maximum a light equal to 500 standard can-
dles, or by slowing the rotation of the bobbin the current
may be made as feeble as that of the weakest battery. In
ono use it is sometimes doing the work of more than fifty —
rge Grove nitric acid cells and sometimes the work of a single

mee.
The Gramme machine could not be used to work an induc-

1. Draper—Discovery of Oxygen in the Sun. 95

tion coil when it first reached me, because when the whole

generally, in order to get the maximum effect, I arrange the
current so that the aluminium terminals are on the point of
melting. The glass, particularly in the capillary part, often
gets so hot as to char paper. The general appearance of the
machine is shown in fig. 1.

The Gramme Machine.

As long as the Gramme bobbin is driven ata steady rate
the current seems to be perfectly constant, but variations 0%
Speed make marked differences in the current, and this is espe-
cially to be avoided when one is so near the limit of endurance
of Pliicker's tubes. A reliable and constant motor is therefore

96 M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids.

of prime importance for these purposes. A difference of one
per cent in the speed of the engine sometimes cannot be toler-
ated, and yet at another time one must have the power of
increasing and diminishing through wide limits. The only
motor, among many I have examined and tried, that is per-
fectly satisfactory, is Brayton’s Petroleum Ready Motor. This
remarkable and admirable engine acts like an instrument of

night, supplying water and air to the aquaria in the Centennial
Exhibition at Philadelphia. At any time on going into the
laboratory it can be started in a few seconds, even though 1t

as not been running for days.
Henry Draper’s Observatory, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.

Art. XV.—On the Theory of the Action of certain Organic Sub-
waging tnereasing the Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids ; by
» G. dma.

In the early days of photo-chemistry, it was observed that
all the silver haloids gained in sensitiveness by being in contact
with a soluble silver salt; that when the soluble silver salt was
removed by careful washing, a considerable diminution in sen-

M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids. 97

sitiveness followed. After a time it was noticed that certain
: : :
appeared to take, to some extent, the place of the silver salt °
removed, and that the silver haloid was distinctly more sensitive
when in contact, for example, with tannin, than when isolated.
In explanation of the fact, a theory was published by M.

.

lodine came into play in aid of the action of light. Shortly
after, Dr. H. Vogel published the same theory.

light in the presence of tannin, because the affinity of tannin for

the other side to combat, or experiments to discuss, as I can
find none. I shall, therefore, state what I conceive to be the
true p pacstion, and endeavor to support it adequately by
proof.

of increasing the sensitiveness of the silver haloids, we notice
that the one property which they possess in common is, not an
affinity for the halogen, as the Poitevin—Vogel theory would
ead us to expect, but that they are ail reducing agents.

Betty of pyrogallol was added and the mixture was expose
Sunlight for fifteen minutes in contact with water. The

istinetly acid reaction, increasing with continued exposu

98 M. C. Lea—Sensitiveness of Silver Haloids.

acid) because the former is perfectly neutral to test paper, and
- cannot confuse the reaction as would be the case with tannin,
which of itself reddens blue litmus paper].

Again: if the Poitevin-Vogel theory were correct, it would
afford a criterion as to what substances should, and what should
not, exalt the sensitiveness of the silver haloids. Substances

aving an affinity for iodine should increase the sensitiveness,
and substance not possessing such affinity, should have no such
action. This is not the fact. There are substances which ex-

the iodide to darken..

8. Starch, which has a well-known affinity for iodine, does
not appear to increase the sensitiveness of silver iodide by con-
tact with it.

a strong support to the view that I have here expressed.
I conclude, therefore, that such organic bodies as increas?

J, LeConte—Oritical Periods in the History of the Earth. 99

the sensitiveness of the silver haloids to light, do so, not by
forming substitution compounds with the halogen, but by pro-
moting, in virtue of their affinity for oxygen, the decomposition
_ of water by the halogen. :
There is, probably, another affinity which plays some part in
the tendency to form the halogen acid, and that is the tendency
shown by the silver haloid to form combinations with the cor-
responding halogen acids, e. g. hydroargentic iodide AgIHI,
etc., in the absence of an alkali.
Philadelphia, June 26, 1877.

Arr. XVI.— On Critical Periods in the History of the Earth and
their Relation to Evolution: and on the Quaternary as such a
Period ;* by JosepH LeConrn.

of the unconformity. These general unconformities attended

boundaries of the great divisions of time, and the less genera

sai ly; and that these exterminations were followed b
peereations of other and wholly different species at the begin-
oe & of the subsequent period of tranquility. Now, however,
"e believe that no such instantaneous general exterminations
forms oreations ever occurred. Now we know that uncon-
amity simply indicates eroded land-surface, and therefore
ae 4 period of time during which the observed place was
nd and received no sediment—that two series of rocks uncon-

ae le to each other indicate two periods of comparative quiet,
“ring which the observed place was sea-bottom receiving sedi-

ily, separated by a period of. oscillation at pains

u

* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 18, 1877.

100 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

like the evolution of society and even of the individual, bas its
perio id mov i i ; !

represent the periods of comparative quiet, during which
organic forms are either permanent or change slowly; uncod

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 101

formity represents a time of oscillation with increase and decrease
of land, and therefore of rapid changes of physical conditions
and correspondingly rapid movement in evolution. The general
unconformities, of course, mark times of very general commo-
tion—of wide-spread changes of physical geography and cli-
mate, and therefore of exceptionally rapid and profound
_changes in organic forms.

These periods of revolution in all history are critical; and there-
fore are of especial interest to the philosophic historian and to
the evolutionist; but they are also in all history periods of Jost
record. And as in human, so also in geological history, the
farther back we go, the longer are the lost intervals and the
more irrecoverable the lost records. We will now give exam-
of such lost intervals and show their significance in evolu-

on.

The first and by far the greatest of these lost intervals is that
which occurs between the Archean and the Paleozoic. In
every part of the earth where the contact has been yet observed
the Primordial lies unconformably on the upturned and eroded
edges of the Archean strata. This relation was observed first
in Canada, then in various parts of the eastern United States,
then in Scotland, Hebrides, Bavaria, Bohemia, Scandinavia.
Unconformity in such widely separated localities, indicates
wide-spread changes in physical geography, and therefore pre-
sumably of all those physical conditions included in the wor

imate, These changes of physical ge hy are best illus-
h

an formed at the bottom of the sea in Archean times, and
erefore these localities were all sea-bed receiving sediment at
ti ttime. We know absolutely nothing of the land of Archean
mes, and never can know anything until we find still older
re from the debris of which Arch

— 2, was land of t Interval. That
the ot itm of above, was land of the Lost Interva

102 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

erosion. That it was a period of wide-spread oscillation is also ©
evident ; for all the places mentioned were sea-bed in Archean,
land during the interval, and again sea-bed during the Silurian.
But of this long interval not a leaf of record remains.

Evidently then at the end of the Archzean an enormous area
of Archzean sea-bottom was raised up and crumpled and became
land. After remaining land for a time sufficiently long to_
allow enormous erosion of the crumpled strata it again went
down to the old Primordial shore-line and the Silurian age com-
menced. This time of elevation is the lost interval.

Now, when the record closed in the Archean, as far as we
know, only the lowest forms of Protozoan life yet existed.
The beginnings of life had not yet differentiated into what
might be called a fauna and flora. en the record again
opened with the Primordial we have already a varied an
highly organized fauna, consisting of representatives of many
classes and of all the great types of animal structure, except
vertebrates. Nor are these representative the lowest in three
several departments; for Trilobites and Orthoceratites can
hardly be regarded as lower than the middle of the animal scale
as it now exists. It is certain therefore that all the great
departments except vertebrates, and most of the classes of these
departments including animals as least half way up the animal
scale, were differentiated during the lost interval. The amount
of evolution during this interval cannot be estimated as less
than all that has taken place since. Measured by the amount
of evolution therefore, this lost interval is equal to all the his-
tory of the earth which has elapsed since. We escape this very
improbable conclusion, only by admitting a more rapid rate of
evolution during critical pervods.

It is one of the chief glories of American Geology, to have
first established the Archean as one of the primary divisions of
time. It is even yet re admitted as such by many

we have the next most general unconformity, indicating the
next most wide-spread changes of physical geography and cli-

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 103

e
re-adjustment of equilibrium and prosperous development of
these forms,

ike the previous lost interval, this was also a period of

and culminated in the lost interval, which is in fact for that
very reason lost. .
Far less in length of time and perhaps in the sweeping char-
acter of the change of organisms, but far more important and.
interesting on account of the high position of the animals in-
volved is the lost interval between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
The length of time lost here is comparatively small. In Amer-
‘ca in many parts of the west the uppermost Cretaceous seems
to pass into the lowermost Tertiary without the slightest break
of Continuity. There may be some break, some unconformity,
some lost record, but certainly it cannot be large. Yet the
change especially in the higher animals is immense. In Amer-
1ca the break and the lost interval is much greater between the
: urassic and Cretaceous than between the ( roms — Ter-—
Niry, yet the organic change is far greater in the latter case.
The reason is that the ehatges of physical geography and cli-

most and which therefore produce the profoundest changes in
Organic forms,

104 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

and were a principal agent in the extermination of the great
reptiles. The wave of reptilian evolution had just risen to its
crest and perhaps was ready to break, when it was met and
overwhelmed by the rising wave of mammalian evolution.

We have dwelt only on the great change in the higher
classes, but the change really extended to all classes. This was
therefore a time of exceptionally general and rapid changes 1n
all departments alike. In other words it was a critical period
in organic evolution. 2

it was also a time of very great changes in Physical
geography, here in America as well as elsewhere, is well known.
The Cretaceous sea which extended from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Arctic Ocean, covering the whole western plains an
plateau region, and thus divided the American continent into
two, an eastern Appalachian continent and a western or Basin
region continent, was abolished at the end of the Cretaceous,
and replaced by great fresh water lakes in the same region,
and the continent became one. Moreover it is probable that 1t
was a period of wide-spread oscillation, i. e, of upheaval and
in subsidence to the condition of things found at the begin-
ning of the Tertiary. It is probable that the upheaval which
abolished the Cretaceous sea went much beyond the condition
of things afterwards—-that just at the interval the land was
higher and larger than in the Tertiary—that, in short, this was
again a continental period and probably a period of greater cold
than the subsequent Tertiary.

The change in physical geography, then, was immense, but
in most places by bodily upheaval, not by crumpling of the
strata, and therefore the usual signs of such change, viz: uD-
conformity is often wanting. The change of climate all over
the American continent was no doubt very great and the

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 105

change in organic forms correspondingly great everywhere and
in all departments; but this was especially true of all water-
inhabiting species, in the region of the old Cretaceous interior
sea; for here there was a change not only in climate but from
salt to fresh water through the intermediate condition of brack-
ish water. The Cretaceous marine species rapidly disappeared,
partly by extermination and partly by transmutation into fresh
water species, as has been observed, recently, to take place in
some crustaceans under this change of conditions.* The Ter-
tiary fresh-water species rapidly appeared partly by transmuta-
tion from the previous marine and partly by transportation in
various ways from other fresh lakes. But all this occurred in
some places without the slightest break in the continuity of the
strata.

perhaps sufficiently explain the change in envertebrate species,
ut it is impossible to account for the somewhat sudden appear-

Interval in some unknown locality whence they migrated into
the Tertiary lake region of the United States during the inter-

period and therefore probably a period of broad land connec:
fons between Nearctic and Palearctic re ions. The complete

early Tertiary mammals of Europe and America. This intro-
duces us to a most important element of rapid local faunal
change especially in higher animals, viz: migrations. If we
do not dwell longer now on this, it is only because we shall have
to recur to it again,
I have pretorred, thus far, to speak of general evolution-
organisms, whether slow or rapid, as produ

* Arch. des Sciences, Nov., 1875, p. 284.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vo. XIV, No. 80.—Aueust, 1877.
8

106 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

preferred, thus far, to represent the organic kingdom as lying,
as it were, passive and plastic under the moulding hands of the
environment. I have done so because it is in accordance with
true method to exhaust the more obvious causes of evolution

or of resistance to change. Of these, however, the latter seems
to be most certain. There may be in the organic kingdom an
‘“anherent tendency” to change in special directions, similar to
that which directs the course of embryonic evolution—a tend-
ency, in the case of the organic kingdom, inherited from phys-
ical nature from which it sprung, as in the case of the embryo
it is inherited from the organic kingdom through the line of
ancestry. This cause, however, is too obscure, and I therefore
pass it b

y:
But whether or not there be any such inherent tendency to

e

J. LeConte— Critical Periods in the History of the Earth, 107

social change are gathering strength, but make no visible sign,
being resisted by social conservatism—rigidity of the social
crust—and periods in which resistance gives way and rapid
changes occur ; so also in the evolution of the organic kingdom
the forces of change, i. e. pressure of changing environment,

_ Some persons seem to think that saad evolution is
inconsistent with the uniformity of Nature’s laws. n th

without any missing leaf, species come and go an others take
their place, and yet only rarely do we find any transition-steps.
If this were only once or twice or thrice, or to any extent

genera, families and higher prone at certain horizons, are
n. these cases the i

sail ence of the truth of evolution. But the difficulty on the
ssumption of a uniform rate of evolution is none the less here,

108 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

for the time required to evolve a new genus or a new family is
of course immensely greater than in the case of a new species.
We will illustrate the difficulties of the ordinary view by
one striking example. In the Upper Silurian in the midst of
a conformable series, where if there be any break—any lost
record—surely it must be very small, appear suddenly, with-
out premonition, Mishes : not a connecting link between fishes
and any form of invertebrates, but perfect, unmistakable fishes.
Here we have, therefore, the appearance not only of a new class,
but of a new sub-kingdom or t: of structure, Vertebrata.
Now to change from any previously existing form of inverte-
brate, whether worm, crustacean or mollusk, into a vertebrate,
by a series of imperceptible steps represented by successive
generations—steps so imperceptible that it would take 100,000
them to advance from one intermediate species to another—
would require an amount of time which is inconceivable to the
human mind, and a number of steps, each be it remembered,
represented by thousands of individuals, which can scarcely be
expressed by figures. And yet we must believe that these
innumerable transitional forms, each represented by innumera-
ble individuals, are all lost, and that this prodigious time shows
no evidence in the rocky record. If this case were exceptional
we might possibly admit that fishes appeared in Great Britain
by migration (as they probably did), but only after having pre-
viously existed untold millions of ages, somewhere else; but
similar cases are too common to be explained in this way.
Now the whole difficulty disappears—we avoid the incredi-
ble imperfection of the geological record (imperfect at best)—
we avoid also the necessity of extending geological time to @
degree which cannot be accepted by the physicist—if we admit
that the derivation of one species from another is not necessa-
rily by innumerable imperceptible steps, but may sometimes
be by a few decided steps ; and that the same is true for the orl
gin of new genera, families, orders, etc.; in a , that there
are in the history of evolution of species, genera, families, orders,
etc., and of the organic kingdom, periods of rapid movement.
When the whole organic kingdom is involved in the move
ment, then we call the period critical, and the record of it 1s
often lost.
Thus, on the a of such rigidity or resistance 10
i orms, varying in degree in different species

species re and more rigid. In times of very gradual
change, the more plastic species change gradually part passt,
while the more rigid species change paroxysmally, now one,

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 109

now another, as their resistance is overcome. Finally, in times
of revolution nearly all forms yield to the pressure of external
conditions and change rapidly; only the very exceptionally rigid
being able to pass over the interval to the next period of re-arjusted
equilibrium.

ous
revolution, was the death-sentence of the long-continuing and
therefore rigid Paleozoic types. But the sentence was not
immediately executed. The Permian represents the time
between the sentence and the execution—the time during
which the more rigid Paleozoic forms continued to linger out a
painful existence in spite of changed and still changing condi-
tions. But the most critical time—the time of most rapid
change—the time of actual execution—was the lost interval.
Only a very few most rigid forms pass over this interval iuto
the Trias,

‘ow, the Quaternary is also such a critical or transition
Period, marking the boundary between two great Eras. The

lying unconformably on the eroded edges of an older ‘series—
"iver sediments in old river valleys, marine sediments in fiords
{2 other words, we have unconformity on a grand scale.
— In connection with these oscillations = _— great
ehanges in physical geography, and corresponding and very
wide-spread changes in climate, and therefore corresponding

110 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

rapid changes in organic forms. Here then we have all the
characteristics of one of the boundaries between the primary
divisions of time. Here then we have a transition or critical
period—a period corresponding to one of the lost intervals;
only in this instance being so recent, and being also less vio-
lent than the preceding ones, 7 7s not lost. The study of the
Quaternary, therefore, ought to furnish the key which will
unlock many of the mysteries which now trouble us. Some o
the problems which have been or will be explained by study
of the Quaternary, we will now briefly mention.

I. Changes of species not sudden.—If the Quaternary were lost
and we compared the Tertiary rocks with the unconformably
overlying recent rocks, and the Tertiary mammals with those
now living, how great and apparently sudden seems the change!
How like to a violent extermination and re-creation! But the
Quaternary is fortunately not lost, and we see that there has

een no such wholesale extermination and re-creation, but only
gradual though comparatively rapid change. :

II. Migration one chief cause of change—But what is still

of Europe as far north as Lapland and Spitzbergen. In
America, Magnolias, Taxodiums, Libocedrus and Sequoias very
similar to, if not identical with those now living on the Southern
Atlantic and Gulfcoast and in California, bundant in Green-
land. Evidently there could have been no Polar ice-cap at that
time and therefore no Arctic species unless on mountain tops.

uring the latter part of the Pliocene the temperature did not
differ much from the present; the polar ice-cap had therefore
commenced to form, with its accompaniment of Arctice species.
With the coming on of the Glacial epoch, the polar ice and Arc-
tic conditions crept slowly southward, pushing Arctie species
to middle Europe and Middle United States, and sub-Arctic
species to the shores of the Mediterranean and the Gulf.

ith the return of more genial climate, Arctic conditions went
slowly northward again, and with them went Arctic species
slowly migrating generation after generation to their present
Arctic home.

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 111

Similarly molluscous shells migrated slowly southward and

again northward to their present position. But plants and
some terrestrial invertebrates, such as znsects, had an alternative

similar migrations among mammals also. ut it is evident

that while plants and invertebrates might endure such changes

element of very rapid local change, viz: the znvaszon of one fauna
by another equally well adapted to the environment, and the
Struggle for life between the invaders and the autochthones.

the two Americas were certainly separated by sea in the region

in : as . application, with reference to Mount Washington and other Arctic insects
th e ca, was previously made by Prof. A. 8. Packard, Jr., in the Memoirs of
© Soston Soc. Nat. Hist., i, p. 256, 1867.—Eps.

112 J. LeConte— Critical Periods in the History of the Earth,

and a far broader connection existed then than now. Through
this open gateway came the fauna of South America, especially
the great Edentates, into North America. Similarly a broad
connection then existed between America and Asia in the
regions of the shallow sea between the Aleutian Isles and
Behring Straits. Through this gateway came an invasion from
Asia, including probably the Mammoth. With this invasion
probably came also Man. It seems probable, therefore, that
the earliest remains of man in America will be found on the
Pacific coast.

lso the great Pliocene Lake, which stretched from near the
shores of the Gulf far into British America, and possibly into
Arctic regions, and formed a more or less complete barrier to
the mammalian fauna east and west, was abolished by upheaval,
and free communication was established. It is impossible that

some Pliocene Autocthones isolated there by subsidence in
Mediterranean region closing the southern gateways, and still
exist there under slightly modified forms; the Arctic invaders
were again driven northward by return of more genial climate,

invasion came man, and was a prime agent in determining the
final result.

J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. 118

influence of all the factors of change, known’ and un nown—
€. g., pressure of changing physical conditions whether modi-
Sying the individual, certainly one factor, or selecting the fittest

everywhere, and therefore would produce geological faune,

be impossible.

8. The forces of change resisted by heredity, in some species
and genera more than others, determines paroxysms of more
Tapid movement of general evolution affecting sometimes spe-
cles, Sometimes genera or families. The sudden appearance of
— genera, families, ete., in quiet times is thus accounted

4 Du
changes ph: ;
rapid rate of change in all forms, Ist, by greater pressure
Physical conditions, and, 2d, by migrations partly enforced by

114 J. LeConte—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth.

the changes of climate and partly permitted by removal of
barriers, and the consequent znvasion of one fauna and flora
by another and severe struggle for mastery. This would tend to
equalize again the extreme diversity caused by the second law ;
but the effect would be more marked in the case of animals
than plants because voluntary migrations are possible only in
this kingdom. Hence it follows that a Siac horizon is far
better determined by the fauna than by the
Ill. Historic value of the Present time. Most geologists regard
the Present as one of the minor subdivisions of the Cenozoic
ra, or even of “ Quaternary period. More commonly the
Quaternary and Present are united as one age—the age of
—of the eee Era. The Cenozoic is thus divided into
fet ages; the age of mammals coupe agp with the Tertiary,
and the age of man commencing with the Quaternary ; an
the Sheeree subdivided into several ae the last of
which is the Present or Recent. But if the views above ex-
pressed in regard to critical periods, be eg ee: then the Pres-
ent ought not to be connected with the Quaternary as one
age, nor even with the Cenozoic as one era, but i 1s itself ee

the hee the inaugurating change less a. the interval
less long, but dignified by the appearance of man as the
dominant agent of change, and therefore rel entitled to the
name Psychozoic sometimes given it. The geological import-
ance of the appearance of man is not due only or chiefly to
his transcendent dignity, but to his importance as an agent

had not yet established his supremacy; he was still fighting
for mastery. With the establishment of his supremacy the

mals, so man peared before the age of man
We, therefore ,rezard the Cenozoic and Psychozoic as two
consecutive era e Quaternary as the critical, revolu-

Berkeley, California, March a 187 i:

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 115

Art. XVIL—WNotes on the internal and external structure of
Paleozoic Crinoids ; by CHARLES WACHSMUTH.

THE structure of fossil Crinoids has occupied the attention
of many able writers, and numerous ingenious and plausible
theories have been advanced to demonstrate the physiological
functions of the various parts of their complicated organization.
The results of investigations heretofore made have been by no
means harmonious, and newly discovered evidence renders
many of these theories wholly unsatisfactory. I have been
favored with unusual facilities for obtaining accurate knowledge
upon many of the questions involved in these researches, and
therefore hope that I may contribute useful information on the
subject. The collections of eighteen years at Burlington, Iowa,

ave brought to light material, unrivaled elsewhere, for this
study. I have obtained upwards of four hundred species of

have led me to conclusions which I present in the following
pages.
1. The mouth and the tubular skeleton below the vault.

The apparent absence of a mouth has proved to be one of
the most perplexing points in the investigation of the structure

visceral
radiation and within the interradial area, where, from analogy,
we must expect to find the anus. If, as Mr. Billings,
White+ and the older writers on Crinoids supposed, this aper-
ture served both as mouth and vent, so that these Crinoids

* This Journ., 1869, vol. xlviii, No 142, p
+ Journ. Nat. Hi

. ee
st. Boston, 1862, vol. vii, No. 4, p. 481.

116 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids.

exception to the rule governing the class. It is true, the
Ophiurans, for instance, have no separate anal opening, and the
same aperture performs both oral and anal functions, but it is
placed within the radial center and therefore cannot be homolo-
gized with the interradial orifice of Paleozoic Crinoids. In
Antedon rosaceus, although the nascent Crinoid develops
already within the pseudembryo a separate mouth and_ vent,
a single orifice serves for some time both as oral and anal aper-
ture, yet it is the permanent mouth occupying the center of the
ambulacral system.* While we thus find the mouth perform-
ing permanently or temporarily anal functions, we have on the
other hand no evidence either from recent nature or from em-
bryology that an anus ever becomes developed into, or per-
forms the office of, a mouth. ?
The Crinoids of our present seas live exclusively on micro-
scopic food, and we must expect to find that the Paleozoic Cri-
noids subsisted upon very similar food and had a very similar
mode of alimentation. enever in Aniedon alimentary par-

wherein the furrows terminate. Dr. Carpenter remarks on this
subject :+ ;

“The transmission of alimentary particles along the ambula-
cral furrows is the result of the action of cilia with which their

transmission of minute apni along those portions of the
immediately lead toward it; and 1t
is, I feel satisfied, by the conjoint agency of these two mov-
ing powers, that the alimentation of Antedon is ordinarily
effected.”
Ita rs from these observations, that the mouth of Ante-
as

nule, enters; a passage which might as well be external, hid-
den beneath a vault, as open to the surrounding element, pro-
* Sir Wyville Thomson, Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society.
+ Researches on the Structure, Physiology and Development of Antedon rosa
ceus. Part I, by W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clvi,
Part IL, 1866.

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinotds. 117

vided the food could be brought in contact with it. The large
cilia on the inner wall of the alimentary canal, which Dr. Car-
penter describes as being capable of producing such a power-
ful indraught to the region of the mouth, afford, it seems to
me, also a very satisfactory explanation ‘of the mode by which
the transmission of food was effected in Paleozoic Crinoids.
How much more powerful must have been the effects of these
cilia in individuals, in which mouth and furrow were arched
over and in which the current was unobstructed from without.
Considering, further, that probably the covered parts of the
food channels themselves were fringed with cilia of similar
fanctions, it could have been of but little moment how remote:
from the mouth the food entered. We find another most strik-
ing example in confirmation of this supposition in Hypomene
Sarsi Lovén, a recent Cystidian, indicating in analogy with re-
cent nature that Crinoids had the mouth sometimes internal.
’rof. Lovén found in the covered parts of its channels micro-
scopic Crustacea, larval bivalyes, and other remains of the food
of the animal, apparently taken through the open parts of the
channels. Applying this observation to Paleozoic Crinoids it
seems very probable that their food was taken up along the
open parts of the arms or pinnule, and conveyed through the
closed parts to the concealed mouth.

Dr. Ludvig Schultze, in his excellent “ Monograph on the

and compares these with the covered food grooves in Hypo-
mene Sarsi, expressing the opinion, that the galleries under-

tom and thus transformed into ducts, were food passages.
_ Meek & Worthen describe and figure in the Illinois Geolog-
teal Report, vol. v, from my former collection, now in the Mu-
um of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, several specimens
of well-preserved digestive organs, and also an Actinocrinus pro-
oseidialis, in which a skeleton of tubular canals proceeds from
4 point below the central axis of the vault, to the arms. There
are in that specimen five main tubes which bifurcate midway
toward the arm bases, each division bifureating again, sending
4 branch to each one of the twenty arms of that species. The

118 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

main tubes and branches are constructed on their lower side of
alternating plates, upon which on either side, a second row of

cently, in which they are well preserved and in place. e
condition of the specimen, as Meek & Worthen remark, leaves
but little doubt, but that the tubes form through the arm-open-
ings of the calyx a continuation of the arm furrows, In re-
moving parts of the vault, I unfortunately broke the upper
‘part of the fragile skeleton, but enough is preserved to prove
that the five main tubes did not connect di

sometimes closed underneath, particularly in very old speci-
mens, thus forming regular ducts or tunnels. Their arrange-
ment seems to be similar in all these Crinoids, no matter
whether the species has a subcentral proboscis or merely 4
lateral opening, they always diverge from a plane on the inner
wall of the vault, in front of the anus, and branch to the arm

ne.
generally attached when I found them, but so much decayed,

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 119

that it was removed by the least touch. The substance of
which the casts are formed appears to have been a fine silicious
mud which could penetrate the smallest pores. The internal
organs are of course not preserved, but their impressions at the
surface of the casts throw much light on the structure beneath
the vault. The center of radiation appears here a small pen-
tagonal, rounded, or in species with strong subcentral proboscis,
subtriangular or even heart-shaped space or plane, enclosed by
a deep groove, from which, in some of these specimens, ele-
vated ridges, alternating with depressions, pass out toward the
arms; but before quite reaching them, there proceeds, from be-
low the ridges of the casts to every arm, a smaller ridge which
clearly indicates the tubular canal, as described in Actinocrinus
proboscidialis, The casts are so perfect that I can even detect
at some places the impressions of the alternating minute plates
of the tubes.

orming the casts;
closely underlie the test, and their counterparts are preserved.

ve no annular groove, and the radiation which is marked
by elevated rounded ridges, almost like strings overlying the
nt % enter where I noticed th

the arm-bases in the same manner as the tubular canals; they
are stronger toward the center, decreasing in size with each bifur-
cation. That these ridges are remains of muscular cords is not
Probable from the perishable nature of such organs, and they
are not their casts, or they should have left depressions in place
of elevations. They can only be casts of passages which com-
Municated with the central aperture, and which were evidently

oa

=

120 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

in all Crinoids. at we find no trace of it in some of the
casts is no.proof to the contrary; it may have been sometimes
composed of more perishable material and was not preserved,
or situated at a greater distance from the vault and covered by
the substance of which the casts were formed.

2. The ventral furrow of the arms,

The arms of Paleozoic Crinoids manifest great diversity
in outer form and structure, but are invariably provided with
a ventral furrow, which continues from the arm bases up to
the tips of the arms and along the pinnule. The pinnule
spring out alternately right and left from the arm-plates, their
urrows connecting with that of the arm and forming in fact a
continuation of the same :

he furrow appears, in specimens in ordinary preservation,
: : pain

tained. The best specimen of this kind, that I have seen, is 4
Cyathocrinus malvaceus, in which the little plates above the fur-
row can be studied in all their details, with the greatest pre-

‘cision. The specimen is the property of Frank Springer, Esq.,

who had the kindness to leave it with me for investigation and
description. The arms of Cyathocrinus are composed of long
slender joints with a wide ventral furrow. They bifurcate fre-
quently, each branch bifurcating at intervals again. There
appears on the arms of Cyathocrinus no scar for the attachment
of pinnule, and as these appendages have never been observed
in the genus, it is probable that the many little branches per-
formed their functions. In Mr. Springer’s specimen the plates
above the furrow consist of two rows of minute pieces, on

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 121

either side, the inner rows of which join in the middle, inter-
ock with each other, and form an apparently solid covering.
The outer plates which are attached to the arm-joints are
toward the upper end of the arms placed partly upon the edges
of the joint, pat nearer the calyx rest wholly against the edges
of the upper part of the ventral furrow. They are longitudi-
nally arranged, partly hidden from view by the inner plates.
The visible part is quadrangular, with a narrow tooth-like pro-
jection toward the lower end of each plate, which is directed
inward and slightly downward as a sharp, elongated process,
and forms a support for the inner plates. The inner plates
are elongated triangular, resting with their shorter sides against
the inner faces of the outer series, and, between the tooth-like
extensions, overlapping them with their beveled lateral edges,
im such a manner that each plate exteriorly fits in and fills
the space between each pair of similar triangular plates on the
other side. The two longer sides interlock with corresponding
sides of similar plates of the opposite row, their sharp angles
or apices meeting the sutures between the opposite quadrangu-
lar plates. At each of these points of juncture, just beyond
the apex of each triangular piece, on either side of the furrow,
there is a little pore, which evidently communicates with the
mner channel. There are six sets of plates to each arm-joint,
all the plates being imbricated from the lower side upward,—
that is, the lower ones lap slightly the edges of the upper ones

—thus facilitating the movements of the sms.
n describing the skeleton below the vault, I suggested that
trans-

?

the tubes were a continuation of the erm furrows. A tran

122 @ Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Orinoids.

out, their ventral furrows are open, the quadrangular pieces in
place, their tooth-like extensions stand out like the teeth of a
saw, and are so arranged that the indentations face the salient
angles of the opposite side, thus giving to the furrow a strongly

the neo themselves, and especially by the manner of their
chment. The inner edges of the quadrangular plates (be-

small movable plates are evidently homologous with the
‘“ saumplatten” of Antedon, and the imbrications of these
plates, as well as of the entire covering, seems to hint at the
conclusion, that the furrow was always closed when the arms
were folded up as in Mr. Springer’s specimen; but that on the
contrary, as in my specimen, the furrow was open when the
peur spread, and that in this position the animal took in
i

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 128

it, This is evidently the case. In a transverse section of
the arm, with the help of a magnifier, I think I have detected
within the tube, traces of two passages: a deep groove oceupy-
lng only the median region, and on each side of it a smal canal,
underlying the pores. The condition of the specimen does not
enable me to say whether the two side passages connect at the

ttom or not, but in either case, they undoubtedly represent
the ambulacral canal, the food-groove occupying only the me-
dian and upper part of the channel.

It is to be regretted that in no instance the upper part of the
tubular skeleton has been found in perfect preservation. re
has been observed beneath the vault an annular vessel, con-
structed of plates similar to those of the radiating tubes, with
small openings directed toward the radial sides of the specimen,
with the alimentary canal passing through the inner space o
the ring, but its connection with the surrounding parts was
not preserved. The position of the annular organ in the center
of radiation leaves but little doubt that it is the cesophageal ring

the to the direction of the tubes, indicates most strongly that
the tubes and the circular organ were connected, and that the

to the center, another series of passages, which passing the
region of the annular vessel, unite in the center. I hold these

2€ & continuation of the food-grooves in the arms, which
evidently passing over the top of the circular organ termina
within the central orifice.

in all Echinoderms with an external mouth, is attached to the
inner side of the test, is located in Paleozoic Crinoids at a
distance from the vault. Howeve
vault cannot be homologi with the oral skin of recent
- Crinoids, and that only the tubular skeleton corresponds to the

> ,

radiating passages connecting with the peristome, the vant

124 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozote Crinoids.

thus forming a mere covering, we shall find the position of the
circular organ perfectly harmonious with that of all other
Kchinoderms.

I have mentioned already that there exists in the arm-groove
of Cyathocrinus, beneath the tube and at the bottom of the fur-

r. Schultze, in his “ Monograph on the Echinoderms of the
Eifel,” p. 17, gives a most excellent description of the arm-fur-
row in OCupressocrinus. He found two sets of plates covering
the furrow like a roof, and asserts, that the inner pieces could
be turned back in the living animal. I had overlooked this
in making out my descriptions, but it was pleasing and highly
satisfactory to me to find that we both had arrived independ-

furrow of Cupressoerinus is very similar to Cyathocrinus. In a
section of the arm of this genus, I readily distinguished, by
transmitted light, the food-groove, which has a narrow and dee
outline, a canal on both sides of it, and I have but little doubt
but that the arm-furrows were similarly constructed in a
Paleozoic Crinoids. :

3. The alimentary canal.
k and Worthen publish in the Geological Report of

convoluted body, resembling in outer form and outline the
shell of a Bulla, with a longer vertical axis, and open at both
ends. The upper end is placed below the center of the ventral

ue cases it is subcylindrical and slightly truncate at bot
ends.

_ pieces or bars with intervening meshes, but its delicate texture
1s but seldom observed, owing to the piece of incrustations
of calcareous or siliceous matter which {ill up the meshes, ap

give to the structure a rather dense appearance. *

_ * To these shisha which = evidently deposits from the water, we oWe

in a great measure the preservation of these delicate organs, and as they are com-

ara thicker in adult specimens, they seem to have accumulated already

—— life of the Crinoids, and may have caused in many

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 125

The convolutions are directed outward from left to right,
varying in number from two to four in different species.
Judging from external appearance only, the convoluted walls
of the organ appear as mere partitions leading to the inner
chamber of a bulla-shaped body. This however. is not the
act. Hxamining the so-called walls in some transverse sec-
tions, I find them to be coiled, without touching each other at
any point, and composed of two distinct partitions, placed side
by side and closed at the edges, thus proving that the apparent

more turns, while the inner one, winding in a spiral way around
its Own axis, passed upward to near the center of the dome.
ecimen of Actinocrinus in which the digestive organ is
Apparently perfect, though showing the usual rough appearance,
I succeeded in removing at one side the two upper convolutions,
‘n such a manner that the detached parts can be replaced or
lifted up for investigation. I had here an opportunity to
examine the inner or more properly upper end of the ali-
mentary canal (as distinguished from the outer end or terminal
part). The top is unfortunately hidden below some inorganic
matter, but enough can be seen to prove that it proceeded evi-
dently from a place below the center of the dome. The organ,
where it comes into view, is an elongated tube, which passing
downward, widens first gradually to near the middle of the
visceral cavity, then rapidly until it acquires the width of at
least two-thirds of the entire length of the cavity. The upper
end in descending spirally turns from right to left, but on
oming wider curves sharply in the opposite direction and
the convolutions are now directed from left to right. The outer
end also tapering rapidly and forming a flattened tube, ascends
the outside spirally from below all the way up to the top, and

while the ma end communicated with the food-groove. _
Such, wit slight modifications, was probably the construction
. the alimentary canal of all Actinocrinide, Pla tycrinide, ete.,
Ut not that of the genus Ollacrinus.* I found the alimentary
Lone sured by Cumberland without generic or specific diagnosis or specific name,
30% 1826, in the Appendix to Reliquie Conservate. eS
9 20n.—Gilbertsocrinus Phillips, 1836, Geol. Yorkshire, Pl. II, p. 207. Gont-
qiteroidocrinus Lyon & Casseday, Suppl. Geol. Rept., Iowa, p. 70. Zrematrocrinus

Hlall, 1860, Suppl. Towa Geol. Rept., p. 70. a, :
- Cumberland’s figure is perfectly correct and easily identified as Ollacrinus
) calcaratus, his generic name “ Ollacrinus” must be retained accord-
ing to the laws of nomenclature.

126 CO. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Orinoids.

canal partly preserved in Ollacrinus tuberculosus Hall, in which
it seems to have been composed of the same delicate network,
but the organ consists here of a round canal which descends
spirally, and contracting gradually, takes at the lower portion
of the visceral cavity an upward direction. The upper part of
the organ is unfortunately not preserved in this specimen.

4, The anal aperture and the proboscis.

The anus of Paleozoic Crinoids is placed always within one
of the interradial series, which is generally wider than—and
often constructed differently from—the others. The aperture
is situated either in some part of the calyx itself, or at the top
of along proboscis. It is a most remarkable fact that genera
which evidently belong to the same group, even species,
apparently of the same genus, for instance Strotocrinus, differ
so widely in the construction of this organ. Some having 4
long massive tube, reaching to several inches above the tips of
their arms, while others are provided only with a plain lateral
opening without any superstructure whatever.

I do not speak at present of the inflated or balloon-shaped
proboscis of Zeacrinus, Coeliacrinus, Poteriocrinus, Heterocrinus

The

homologized with the
“We can only

compare its lateral opening, which is generally placed low
down near the arm-bases, with the anal aperture of species 12 |

. “sag . is tube may have connect
with the terminal intestine which I have described above, and

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 127

tinct branches, This be in some instances the result of
accidental development, but is more frequently due to an ob-
struction of the anal canal. found a specimen nus

caused the destruction of an entire ray, the plates of which are
bulging out, forming together with the anal plates, and inter-

poboacis of this species, a large elongated cavity with a rather
arge aperture. All these instances give evidence of a pressure
from within, and indicate that the outside opening of Paleozoic
Crinoids was solely an ejective organ, and could not have had

toward the posterior side, and the development of the abnormal

roboscis occurs invariably in the anal series. It is therefore

ardly necessary to argue on Dr. White's supposition that the
abnormal second proboscis, wherever it occurs, might have
Served as buccal orifice, as such a theory is unsupported by
analogy,
: (To be continued.)

128 O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite.

Art. X VIII.— Chemical constitution of Hatchettolite and Samarskite
from Mitchell County, North Carolina; by Oscar D. ALLEN,
Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Sheffield Scientific School.
Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory. No. XLVI.

I. Hatchettolite.

with pyrochlore. t time I was to make only a
partial qualitative analysis of this mineral with -25 gram placed
at my disposal by E.S. Dana. The result showed the presence

n an elaborate paper on American columbic acid minerals,
published in this ptt (May, 1877), Professor J. Lawrence
Smith has also given a description, accompanied by analyses, of
this mineral, for which he has proposed the name Hatchettolite.
Having recently obtained from Mr. L. Stadtmiiller a specimen
of this new mineral, which he received in a lot of Samarskite
sent to him from the locality above mentioned, 1 have analyzed
it, hoping to gain some additional facts bearing on its chemi
constitution. The specimen was a large, but imperfect crystal.
t was broken into small pieces, and afforded twelve grams 0
material judged sufficiently pure for analysis. Pieces from dif-
ferent parts of the mass gave the specific gravities, 4°77, 484,
4°82, 4°90, 476. The results obtained are here presented, Nos.
tand 1, together with one of the analyses of Dr. Smith, No. 11.

(1.) (11) (iI1.)
Tantalic acid ___.. See re 29°83 29°60
Colambic acid ...-......... 34°24 35°94 67°36
RAO BOT sn ess 1°61 |
Tungstic and stannic acids. _ . 30 60
UTaguim Oc100,... .-.-.... 15°50 15°63
Bate an oo ee 8°87 8°89 7°09
Yttria and cerium oxides ____ "86
cron Prowride 2 2°19 2°33 2°51
Magnesia’ soo ee: 15
Potato trace* 1°21
Soda -20So ee sick ee
Water lost by heat --...... 4°49 4:42
MU SS his trace trace
98°55 100°18

O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite. 129

K,CbOFI,. Then redissolve the latter and collect the former
on afilter. If the weight of both acids is known, Cb,O, may be
calculated by difference. On account of the suspected presence
Of titanic acid in the substance here examined the second crop
of crystals of K,TaFl, was redissolved in hot water and recrys-
tallized. No more acicular erystals could be obtained in suffi-
Clent quantity to collect. For the same reason the bisulphate

sion of the mixed acids was treated with cold water. The fil-
trate and washing on boiling deposited a light precipitate, which
brought into solution and tested with tin gave an unmistakable
reaction for titanium. Moreover, after separation of tantalum
the columbie and titanic acids remaining in solution were ob-
tained by evaporating with H,SO, and boiling with water and

‘ CO :

left but very little residue, which further examination proved
to be mostly potassium titanate. eee
n analysis No. 1, the two products containing titanic acid,
obtained in this way, were fused with HKSO, which rendere
the greater part soluble in cold water. This solution on boil-

* Professor Smith remarks, ‘ I refer to the metallic acids in the analyses in this
On oolumisa cata & the fact that 2 * it

130 O. D. Allen—Hatchetiolite and Samarskite.

per cent. Iron was — assumed to exist as protoxide

and uranium as U A calculation of the relative number
of atoms from No..: 1 wae the following :
Atomic weights. T :
182 a "13 ;
95 Cb 252 t “
50 Ti 020
U 240 UO, 054
Fe "030
Mg “004 } 268
Ca "158
Na, 022
H,O0 255
Ss

n 002
Disregarding the small amount of tin or tungsten and deduct-
ing Ti with R sufficient to form with it normal titanate, there
remain R 248 R 386 H,O -255, whence R: R: H, O= 228-4; @
a ratio closely approximating to that required by R, R, 2H,O or
R, R, O, +2RR, O,+4H,0, in which R represents one atom

of a bivalent basic radical or two of sodium and R, Ta, or Ob.
The investigations of Rammelsberg* lead to the sudihsiobie that
three columbates 5 (in which Cb may be replaced by Ta) occur

in minerals, viz: RCb, Ae R, Cb,0., and R Cb, O,, correspond-
ing to phosphates and “arsenates ; which, singly or combined
with iat) other, with or without titanates., zirconates, thorates,
éte., vabininace mineral species. Hatchettolite appears to be
rst two with a small quantity of normal titan-
ate.t It it perhaps questionable whether there is any signifi-
cance in the fact that the amount of water present bears
simple ratio to the other constituents.
Some pew from one side of the specimen uae Bip ie
material for analysis was selected had the specific gra
4°60 to 4°70 per cent and were rejected. They lost ne ‘Daition
4°97 per cent. Hatchettolite may have resulted from alteration
of a mineral having essentially the same chemical constitution,
as well as crystalline form, as pyrochlore, an alteration consist-
ing of hydration and removal of alkaline fluorides,
Il. Samarskite.
marskite from Mitchell Co., mite to the analysis of
the writans has the following compositio
* Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 1
Ph mara (Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. Xxv, p. 203) supposes that these three
compounds may isomorphous, and that they exist in the isometric crystalline

on Ba
Dd Beats Sons Bitie ot Mincealogy, p. 340, March, 1877.

O. D. Allen—Hatchettolite and Samarskite. ee

a Q) (2) See ratio.
olumbic acid ._ .__- ee LLL ‘ a0. - 2754.1.
Tantalic acid__.__.. odie Co eas 80 | 18°60 0838 venus
Stannic acid _.___.. ate 0°08 0005 }
wee 14°52 14°45 *1896
Cerium oxides*_____ 4°10 4°24 0382 +4430
Uraninm oxide (VO,0) 12°63 12°46 0433
Manganese protoxide 0 0°75 0106
Tron Be. 10°60 10°90 *1513
Se ee ae 0°55 160 |
Wate ie lee the Be

100°35

rated s
expelled by ignition was collected by a calcium chloride
tube. 0° gram of the very finely pulverized mineral was com-

confirmed the first result. It may therefore be concluded that
no material amount of uranium is present in the lower state of
oxidation (UO,). The relative number of atoms of each ele-
ment present is calculated from No. 2, uranium being assum
to exist as UO, or an oxide (UO,0) of the bivalent radical
O, which it is reasonable to suppose acts as a basic radical
With tantalie and columbic acids, as it does with phosphoric

and arsenic acids in several natural compounds. R: R is then
0 : 3592=1-286 : 1=4-94:4 closely approximating 5:4 re-
* 1: ok 3 eae
quired by the formula R,R,O,+R,R,0,. |
In chemical constitution this samarskite appears to approach
Fergusonite being next to this mineral the most basic of the
natural columbates and tantalates. The formula of Fergusonite,
d uced by Rammelsberg from a large number of analyses, is
R,(Cb, 13),0%.
* The ato . ae eS Bas hea as ee ee ee + £
element is readil shown by spectroscopic examination of a solution. Only a
the ute quantity ot cerium is -paubel ‘tis swidaenies or absence of other elements of
Cerium group was not ascertained. :
t Dr. Smith's analysis, contained in the paper already cited, gave 55°13 colum-
t Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol., xvii, 424, 1875.
See also this volume, p. 71. ee

\

132). zD. zDana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

Art. XIX.—On the relations of the tee | a Vermont to that
of Berkshire; by JAMES D. D

ES: from page 48.]

izes the belt from north to south, and requires consideration :
namel y—
3. Tue ABUNDANT OccURRENCE OF IRON.

The existence of iron in the rocks is known mainly from the
beds of limonite along the region. This limonite, as is now well
known, was made from the rocks in place, and hence it is testi-
mony as to what the original rocks contained and still contain
where unaltered. Its beds exist in Vermont at so many places
that the geologists of the Vermont Survey represented it a
their EEE map of the State as a continuous band of
limonite. nd south of Vermont it occurs more or less in each
of the towns over ace limestone area, and in some of them in
a sits of great depth, the most noted being in Richmond

and West Stockbridge, Massachusetts; Salisbury and Sharon,

ca ie ee ie oe Copake, Ancram, North ge (ase
Mille on), Amen a, Dover, and Pawling, in New Yor In
jens that this fentaes of the region may be appreciated, T men-
tion here the more prominent facts connected with the ore-beds.
In a general way, and for special localities, the subject has been
often treated. The descriptions given in this place have par-
ticular reference to the regional characteristics of the beds
the limestone belt, as illustrated by their mineral nature, dis-
tribution, and stratigraphical relations; and they have been
drawn mainly from my own observations.

(1.) The mineral nature of the beds.
= the great limestone area, from north to —
the ore-beds are alike in the nature of the ore, its m

apareation, and its association with yellow ochre sie anya
Moreover, in most of the beds to the north as well as south
more or less manganese is present with the iron. Manganese

nington, Chittenden; Pittsford, Brandon, Middlebury, Bristol;
and ihe Vermont Report rt adds, § ‘in the vicinity of most a i
beds of limestone in the State.” I

observ
in various ore-beds of Berkshire and wee York, though oa

Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 183

abundantly than in Vermont. An analysis of ore from the
Leet ore-bed, West Stockbridge, by Dr. A. A. Hayes, made in
1845, obtained red oxide of iron 76:18, oxide of manganese
504, phosphoric acid 2°36, water 10°80, quartz and gangue
3°40 = 98-78.* At the same time, phosphoric avid is ver

sparingly present; and there is only a trace of sulphur or none
at all. The clay, while generally impure from the presence of
iron ochre and other mineral material, is sometimes a white
kaolin.t+ :

(2.) The geological distribution of the beds.

(1.) The limonite deposits are alike throughout the lime-
stone area in their interrupted occurrence and varying depths—
even many miles often intervening between those of workable
value, and all depths existing from zero to one hundred and
fifty feet or more.

on the borders of Wallingford and Tinmouth; and at the
south end of the State in Bennington. These last are near the
Taconic (or Great Central) slate-belt.

In Berkshi

* I am indebted for a copy of this analysis to Mr. J. W. Hoysradt, President of
the Company. Mr. Hoyarats states that no later analysis has been made; but he
oe impression that the ore now obtained yields less manganese and phos-

acl

+ While limonite (in which the oxide of iron, Fe,0;, and the elements of water
are in the proportion of 2 to 3) is the principal ore, there is also at Salisbury, as
first shown by Prof. G. J. Brush (this Journ., II, xliv, 219, 1867), and probably
it fn Pose the same ratio is 2: 1), and a
little géthite (in which the ratio is 1: 1); also occasionally a red ochre, which

be either turgite, or the simple anhydrous oxide Fe,0,. Besides the iron and
manganese ores, there are also traces of cobalt and zinc. :

134 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

the west of the Taconic range, in the towns of Hillsdale,
Copake, and North Hast, besides along its eastern border in
Dover, Amenia and Pawling. The axis of the band of maxi-
mum ore-beds appears hence to cross the axis of the limestone
area in Bennington, Vermont; and to strike the Taconic range
south of West Stockbridge, from which point, beds occur on
both sides of the range.
(3.) The stratigraphical relations of the beds.

The ore-beds, to the north as well as south, occur near the
junction of a stratum of limestone with one of hydromica or
mica schist, the beds of both having usually a high dip (gene-
rally between 40° and 55°); or they have schist on both sides;
and sometimes they are cut through by one or two beds of lime-
stone or schist. Quartzyte often lies along the east side in
Vermont; but a stratum of schist usually, if not always, inter-
venes between the quartzyte and limestone.

This geological relation of the beds was recognized, at local-
ities in Vermont, Berkshire, and Connecticut, more than fifty
years since, by the late Prof. Chester Dewey, then Professor of

eology and Mineralogy in Williams College, Williamstown.
In the fifth volume of this Journal, 1822, in an article on the
ore-bed of Bennington, he says (p. 251)—“It has been re-
marked that the great bed of ore is not immediately connected
with any rocks. It seems, however, to be associated with lime-
stone rocks, and the whole to lie between two strata of mica
slate. It lies in the same [mountain] range with the ore of
Salisbury, Connecticut, and has the same range of mica slate
lying on both sides of it.” The in situ position of the ore-
beds is here brought out by Dr. Dewey, and a relation to the
limestone is suggested. T'wo years later, in vol. viii, speaking
of the ore-beds of Berkshire, he says (p. 30), that the beds “ are
near limestone, but on beds of clay.” And “as mica-slate 18
found on both sides of them, they must doubtless be con-
sidered as lying in this rock, though the clay indicates that
they are a later deposit than the rock itself:” in which the
limonite beds are made a part of the mica slate, but not an
original part.
he facts at many of the ore-pits of Berkshire and New
York, as well as Connecticut, sustain the statements of Pro-
fessor Dewey. The schist often forms part of the walls of the
ore-pits, or stands in ledges near by ; and when no rock is to
be seen, the clays often show that. they are the decomposed
schist in place by their having its schistose structure, its dip
and strike, and also its flexures, all corresponding precisely
with the stratification of the rock of the region. The schist
makes sometimes the eastern wall, and sometimes the western? ;
and it is also found dividing the ore of the beds.) Among the

Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 135

New York ore-beds the relation of the schist is well exhibited
in the Weed ore-pit in the town of Copake, and in the ore-pit,
a mile and a half to the west of the village of Pawling.
Limestone strata outcrop near or within many of the pits. In
Richmond, Mass., at the Cone ore-pit, a steeply dipping lime-
Stone stratum forms part of the northwest side; and at the
Cheever ore-pit there is an outcropping bed a few yards to the
west, conformable with the slate; at the Leet ore-pit, in West
Stockbridge, limestone forms a ledge close by the pit. At the
Miles ore-pit, in Copake, a bed of limestone was met with cut-
ting through it, having the strike and dip of the region. The
Vermont Geological Report states (p. 820) that a limonite bed
in Western Bennington reposes on an impure ferruginous lime-
Stone, and it alludes to the similar position of the ore in other
s of the State.

carbonates, such beds, when air and moisture have access
to them, are in all cases undergoing alteration to limonite.
Tn some of the ferriferous limestone manganese replaces part
of the iron. :
The pure carbonate of iron has been found thus far ony in
western Berkshire. At the Leet ore-bed, one and a half
miles west of the village of West Stockbridge, there projects
from the east side of the pit, what is called the “white horse,”

Stayish white color, distinguished as ‘white ore.” It has for
many years been quarried and used in the furnace along with
the limonite. This “ white ore” is so close-grained as to be
almost flint-like in aspect, and it evidently owes its preserva-
tion from change to this quality, which renders it impervious to
water. Wherever there are cracks water and air have entered,
and the cracks are widely bordered with limonite. Some
Pleces have a thin crust of limonite—a quarter to half an
lnch thick—showing some progress of the alteration even over
the harder portions. There are botryoidal prominences of the

limestone of a hill close by the north edge of the ore-pit ; and
hence it was probabl ott of a stratum that has disappeared,
ver the interval between them, by alteration. I have been

186 ~=—s .:zD. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

informed by Mr. R. Van Buskirk, who is in charge of the mine,
that this ‘‘ white ore” has been taken also from the west side of
the pit. There is also an outcrop of limestone in the ore-pit in
which some of the layers are changed to limonite, while others
above or below are unyielding—the presence of iron in any
layers of the limestone (as an iron-calcium carbonate) determin-
ing their destruction.

t the Cone ore-pit, one and a half miles north of West
Stockbridge, mining is done mostly through shafts; only at
the north end is open mining going on so that the structure of
the walls can be studied. At this end of the pit, limestone 1s
in view having an eastward dip of 40° to 50°; and while some
of the layers are not much altered, others are wholly changed
to limonite. At my last visit (in 1875) the work was going on
in this stratified material, the limonite portion being selected
out for further separation by washing. Soveial layers had be-

18 come wholly replaced by pure limonite,
ye and one of those so changed was a yard

were intersected by cracks, making areas
\. three to six inches across, as represented .
7g in fig. 18; each crack having a border
~ of limonite either side, an inch or so

= wide.

The schist near by—hydromica slate—was in part firm, and
in other places turned to soft grayish or yellow clay—an 1m-
pure kaolin—which was silvery in surface from traces of the
original mica of the slate. The quartz veins in the hydro-
mica slate remain of course unchanged, in the ores.

Tie Cheever ore-bed, in Richmond, has also afforded some
massive carbonate of iron, but less abundantly than the Leet
ore-bed ; and here, as already stated (p. 135), there is a limestone
ledge near the pit. :

Professor EK. Hitchcock mentions the occurrence of massive
carbonate of iron in Richmond, in his Report on the Geology
of Massachusetts (1841), page 190, and gives an analysis show-
ing that it contains 87°19 per cent of carbonate of iron, 5°21
carbonate of magnesium, 2:46 carbonate of manganese, 141
carbonate of calcium, and 2°81 of silica, alumina, ete. =99°09-
The particular ore-bed in Richmond affording it is not stated,
but it was probably the Leet ore-bed. In the Vermont Geo-
logical Report (1868), p. 286, Prof. E. Hitchcock gives an analy-
sis of a dolomite from the vicinity of the Brandon ore-b
- which afforded 3°61 per cent-of carbonate of iron; and states
that east of the bed another limestone was quarried for a flux
which contained ‘10 per cent of iron” [carbonate ?].

The limestone has occasionally a little pyrite disseminated

Lnmonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 137

or rocks—these conditions are alike for the whole area, from its
northern end. in Monkton, where is the most northern of the
associated ore-beds, to the south extremity, near Pawling, N. Y.,
Which place also has its large ore-bed. The facts sustain our
Toposition as to thé geological unity of the formations. The
act that the belt of maximum ore-beds crosses obliquely the
limestone area,—being near its eastern border to the north in
€rmont, and near its western, west of the Taconic range, to
the south,—affords additional demonstration of that unity, and
Suggests a close stratigraphical relation between the eastern
anc western sides and their formations. He i
€ iron-bearing minerals include an iron-bearing limestone
(carbonate of calcium in which iron replaces part of the cal-—
fium) both in Vermont and. in Berkshire. e simple iron-
Aw. Jour, 8c1.—Tamp Senies, Vow. XIV, No. 80,—Aveust, 1877.

138 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

carbonate has as yet been found only in Berkshire ; but its
ready oxidation is a sufficient reason for its not being "exposed
to view even where it is or has been a prominent source of the
limonite,

Most of the 2 saber in — preceding view with regard to the
origin of the limonite have been recognized by different geolo-
gists; and yet the view as a 5 whales is not so well understood that

stated, with commendat atory remars by Prof. J. P. Lesle ey, "an
nounced the conclusion, after a study of the iron ores of Nittany
valley and other valleys in that State, that “the brown-hematite
Sa eee. ore of the valleys belonged to the stratified limestone
’ beds, and had been set free by chemical and mechanical decom
sition” —ma king the iron to have existed originally in the lime-
stone as the hydrated owide.

Professor Hitchcock, in 1861, in the Vermont Geological Re-
port, after stating that the limestone contained sometimes ten
per cent of carbonate of iron, and referring to the iene UP of

me cases from the quartz rock.” But to this mph a tag is
added the ol error, hat é the iron had been taken “from the sub-
aa rocks and re-deposited in connection with clay, pe and
gra

if this were the place for a full discussion of. the subje

The change of the hard schists to soft clay is one of the
most striking facts observed in the ore-beds. But if the iron
was deriv pelo from pe carbonates, a powerful

The different views of other authors might be here a
A a

* Historical sketch of Geological explorations in Pennsylvania other States.
200 pp. 8yo. Harrisburg, 1876, p. 81. ns

Limonite ore-beds of the Limestone region. 189

the regions will be good for iron ore long after the limonite
beds are exhausted.
(To be continued.)

Nore.— Professor Dewey’s determination, by chemical means,
that the Taconie “ talcose slate” es jan slate” of Emmons) is
a

mica slate

us
Species ; and on page 366 of vol. iv pie the analyses published
in the Vermont Report are cited.
Dewey, who in early life worked in chemistry as well as in geol-
°8y, mineralogy and botany, to state that in the jirst volume of
this Journal, published in 1819, in an article on the geology of
* Analyses of the same ores, from similar positions, in Pennsylvania in Frazer's
Geological Report, Harrisburg, 1876. :

140 S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.

the vicinity of Williamstown, Mass. (Northwestern Berkshire), he
observes. that the rock of the Taconic range is mainly a “very
Jine-grained mica slate—a rock which had been called ‘ soapstone

t,” he adds: “I have
been able to detect but avery minute quantity of magnesia in
any specimens I have tried, though I obtained a considerable pro-
portion of alumina.”

In a later article (vol. viii, p. 8, 1824) he says: “The Taconic
Mountain is a huge mass of mica slate.” He also uses in the
same article the term “talco-micaceous slate” for some portions of
the rock, but still holds to the result of his chemical trial that the
amount of tale was very small, and that it was strictly mica slate.

Art. XX.—A proposed new method in Solar Spectrum Analy-
sis ;* by S. P. LANGLEY.

_ No observation of modern Physical Astronomy is more strik-
ing in its conception, than that which attempts to determine the

gave experiments of his own, to show that its causes were 80
numerous and so subtle that it was difficult to be certain of any

formidable one of its own. I mean, of course, the observation
of the different wave-lengths of light coming from the east an
west limbs of the sun, which, owing to that body’s rotation. on
its axis, have equatorial velocities that together make up nearly
two and one-half English miles a second. is speed, enormous
in itself, is most insignificant compared with the velocity of
light, and this relative smallness constitutes the difficulty i0
TS neg alana op National Academy, held in Washington,
+0. R., tome Ixxxii, pp. 761-812.

SP. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis, 141

attempting the solution of the problem by means of the sun,
for the whole displacement due to it, is (as Professor Young
has remarked in illustration), but one-seventy-seventh of the
distance between the D lines, or between one-twelfth and one-
thirteenth of one division of Angstrim’s scale. Zéllner, Secchi
and Hastings have believed that ‘they, nevertheless, detected a
change in the refrangibility of the light, and Vogel* using Zéll-
ner’s reversion spectroscope obtained a displacement of from
‘08 to 0-15 of one of Angstrém’s units. In August last, Profes-
sor Young gave the results of his own measurements with one
of Mr. Rutherfurd’s gratings, showing an equatorial velocity of
1™42. Professor Young was unable to find any displace-
ment of the atmospheric lines. This last researcht+ being much
More systematic than its predecessors, and given in satisfactory
detail, has turned the weight of scientific opinion in favor of
. the view, that the change due to motion of the luminous body
18 fairly proven. It can hardly, however, be deemed superflu-
ous to still offer upon so important a question, the results of an
independent method of measurement, and one which renders
errors from instrumental displacement, on the danger of which.
so much stress has been deservedly laid, in the sense in which
the word is here used, not only unlikely but impossible.

In the course of a research upon the selective absorption of
the solar atmosphere, I arranged in 1875, means for com
mee homogeneous lights from different parts of the disc.
The apparatus was too complex for description here, but
it consisted essentially, in the provision of two pair of right-
angled prisms.of total reflection, so disposed in connection with
4 spectroscope, that the spectra could be formed side by side,
of light from different parts of the sun, and of a photometric
“pparatus by which the relative intensity of the lights at differ-
ent parts of these spectra could be compared. The results of
this research, with an improved form of the instrument, will I

Doppler, to which this apparatus is especially applicable. The
theory of the Daeg sta method is very simple. Let two spectra

* Beobachtungen auf der Sternwache zu Borhkamp. :
+ American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xii, Nov., 1876.

142 & P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.

respects to Mr. F. Walther, of Philadelphia, the optician, and
to Mr. William Grunow, the maker, of New York. Not to

anticipations justified. That it has been possible to me to
ndertake this research at all at present, is due to Mr. Ruther-
furd, who has given me choice specimens of his gratings, which
are so generally known and valued, that it is unnecessary that
I should describe them. :
It is desirable that a very clear mental picture should be
resent to the observer, of the amount of displacement he is to
expect, for though it is well that he should be ignorant, if possi-
ble, of the anticipated direction, this knowledge of the amount
will prevent him at the outset from confusing apparent pene

tage of a table prepared by Professor Pickering, showing the
* The following method

mental picture. In the 3d spectrum of the 17280 line grating the D lines, viewed

nace :

a .
eye at the distance of 10 inches. One of the units of Angstrém’s scale appears
yi di . The displacement here due

© fill rather more than #; inch at the
to rotation is as is remarked rather more than 7; or -08 of a unit, or, referred to
e of distinct vision, very near of an . It is known that we
can with the naked eye disti i Ih z#4ya Of an inch or less, in the form of discon-

i ective
yet, but can still count
less than ‘03 units, which again is less than half the amount in question.

S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis. 148

they meet, at the outer surface, and these owing to the excel-
lent workmanship, still close so as to admit no light when held
Up against thé sun. Over this slit, with their bases. almost in-

no more in the spectrum than a particle of dust, and in. fact,
the division between the two spectra is with difficulty distin-

diameter.” Over them is a hood, carrying a screen, which
recelves the image projected by the equatorial telescope. This

image is nearly one and three-quarters inches in diameter,

optical condition, as far as possible, similar, except as they may
differ at their origin in the sun itself. It shows the difficulties
of the method of research successfully employed by Mr. Huggins,
and at Greenwich, that when the instrument is turned directly
on the sun (i. e. so that each spectrum receives light from all
parts of the sun’s disc), the-two sets of spectral lines will not
ordinarily be continuous. Theoretically they should be, prac-
Heally, we find they are not, owing to numerous latent causes

144 S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.

of disturbance. A touch on the prisms, a movement of the slit,
an adjustment of the eye-piece, will ordinarily disturb one
spectrum relatively to the other, by a minute amount. But the
whole change we are seeking is of a minuter order still; how
then, can we discriminate it with certainty? In our ability to do
this lies the advantage of the method I describe, which, grant-
ing sufficient dispersive power, makes impossible the instru-
mental error that has been dwelt on by Secchi and others with .
justice, as shaking confidence in the result. To see how we
ate authorized to use this word “ impossible,” let us bear in
mind that the solar spectrum consists of two distinct kinds of
lines, one caused by absorption in the solar, the other by ab-
sorption in the terrestrial atmosphere. These latter being
formed by light from all parts of the sun are independent of its
rotation.

spectra, as we see by the opposed chromosphere lines, but as

— were tangible things, like two engine-divided scales,
whose

Moving the instrument 90° more, we come again into the
axial line of the sun, and the coincidence should return: witb
still 90° more we are again in the equator, but now spectrum
A is formed by light from the western edge, and this time it is

S. P. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis. 145

moved the other way, as if it were a scale which had been slid
by a very slight but distinctly perceptible amount toward the
ved end; while still the telluric lines retain their continuity,
assuring us that no mal-adjustment has occurred.

It will be admitted that this change is, if real, excellent ex-
perimental evidence that the wave length is virtually different
In light from the eastern and western limbs, as theory predicts.
For, granting that the instrument is mal-adjusted in auy un-
known way or degree, any instrumental cause will affect solar
and telluric lines alike, and -we may in fact defy ingenuity to
Suggest an error of adjustment, which will modify one and not
the other.

For the sake of clearness, I have assumed that we start with
all the lines continuous in both spectra; in practice this condi-
tion is not easily assured: commonly some lurking error, will,
Without especial pains, cause them to appear broken upon a
fixed source of light; but we disregard this, and consider, as
we bring the instrament into new positions, only the difference
of displacement of the solar and telluric lines. The simul-
taneous observations of this difference, in each of two spectra,
is the — condition relied on, not only in theory but in

trum. . Of these we do know that they are either caused by
the sun’s atmosphere or ours, without always knowing which,
for these can only be inferred to be telluric from their growing

to betray their solar origin. To merely see these two spectra
With clearness, then, is to be enabled to pick out the telluric

10pe then, it will not seem too assuming a title, if I speak
of this as a new method in solar spectral analysis.
T have only to add, that in all my trials of this method, I have

3 a1 tm

* Or by experiment on artificial lights view ig g

146 SP. Langley—New method in Solar Spectrum Analysis.

constantly so arranged each experiment, that I remained in in-
tentional ignorance as to which spectrum came from the eastern,
and which from the western limb, until I had determined the
point by the different behavior of these solar and terrestrial lines,
which I have been able to do thus far correctly in every instance.
I believe, in fact, that the effect under proper conditions 1s so
marked that the observer hereafter need not take pains to

Useful tests of the desired condition are the duplication of
such lines as 1529 of Kirchoff’s scale, and the more celebrates
“1474.” known as a close double since Professor Youngs

used have been principally those of the Allegheny Observatory,
to which institution my services belong, I should have been

Allegheny Observatory, April 14, 1877.

R. Kenig—Exactitude of the French Normal Fork. 147

ol XXI.—WNote on the Exuctitude Ais the French Normal
Fork ; a Reply to the paper of Mr. A. J. Ellis ; by Rupoura
Recs. Ph.D.—[In a letter to the Editors s. |

been hitherto su posed, but 878 ete vibra Mr.
having established the further fact that the forks "eiiioketiated by
me are in perfect accord with the French La,, does not hesitate

has never examin ed, are peep yea inexact. Not having at my
disposal the instrument used b y Mr. Ellis, I confess that a

Myself under some embarrassment in sta ting at one

error of construction this instrument, in the hands of Mr r. Ellis, fins

' given results so extraordin ary. F ortunately, zi can refer to a letter
fro elmholtz addressed to Mr. Appunn and published by

the latter himself in a paper on i die acoustic thenties of M. Helm-
oltz. is letter speaks of an instrument of exactly the same

astonished at the constancy of its sadientious

would aie date believed that reeds could give sounds so constant
a8 those given by your apparatus, thanks to your method of reg- .
ulating the current of air. The instrument, it is true, varies a
“little with the temperature, as do also forks; and hence it can be
‘used for dete ermining the absolute number of vibrations, only when
one can work in a room heated by a stove. By the aid of an
4stronomical chronometer, I have counted the beats, re believe
that your seconds pendulum must have been slightly inexact,
because, though the number of beats agree very

fpemselven, the absolute number obtained is not 240 but 237 to
the minute. The ove Greg which was rather low during my
€xperiments, may count for something; but even a influence
may be eliminated is counting the beats to the en a major
third, which took me a quarter of an hour. In this way T have
fo ound f for my Paris fork 43501 vibrations, ise agrees to the

512. On comparing this note of 505-6 single vibrations with a

148 Scientifie Intelligence.

the latter to be 64 fig vibrations more acute and, without

for my forks giving 512 single vibrations he has found 516’7 only,
with the tonometer which he used. Whence it would seem that
the fundamental note of this latter instrament had become more
nearly exact than that of the tonometer aceite’ by M. Helm-
holtz, since the number of its vibrations is 507°3. This note,
however, “ remains ae distant from its true ‘value

e fact that M. Hel phen succeeded, with an instrument of

self a little practice in the manipulation of acoustic instruments,
efore la ing so slightingly the results obtained by Lis-
sajous, by Despretz, by Helmholtz, by Mayer, etc., etc., and
before seeking to deride discredit upon the labors of a constructeur
who had no reason to expect so valde an attack.
26 Rue de Pontoise, Paris, J une 5th, 1877

Ov

@) 255-97, (8) 255° 9, (4) 255°92, (5) 256-02, (6) 256°02. The
ork’s vibrato ory BS eriod is accelerated or diminished sztor part
by a difference of t —Eps. |

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND Prysics.

of electrolytic gas. Since, hitherto, according to him, this term
has not been defined with sufficient exactness, Than uses “ heat of

Chemistry and Physics. 149
mixture of oxygen and hydro n, as —— that ri ie of
when th t 0° an m.

ean of five experimen nts, the heat of combustion found
Was 2°02930 gram-calories, with a probable error of 0°0018. That
is, one cubic centimeter of pert SN a at 0° and 780 mm. on

duces 33°982 units of heat (gram-calories); a close agreement
with the number —s by Andrews, 33°970.— Ber. Berl. Chem.
Ges., x, 947, Ma ,

apor theres and Avogadro’s Law. —The law of

cous state, contain the same number of molecul rom which it
follows that the molecules of all a in the gaseous state are of
the same size ence calling the me of hydrogen mole-

ments, yielding two or more bodies, the molecule of each of
which has a volume of two. Troosr has submitted this point, in
the of chloral hydrate, to ves test of experiment, in a very in-
way, by introducing into the vapor of this body, a salt

dis

containing ater, whose disso catertouion , as p
ble, equal to that of the aqueous vapor of the — mi rate,
€ vapor of the chloral age suffers dissociatio 0)

" as such, its vapor is free from water and on introducing the salt it

wil up water and the volume will increase till the dissocia-

tion-tension is reached, The salt chosen was potassium oxalate,

20,0,+H,0, whose aeereaeesene at 78° is 53 mm. and

at 100° 182mm. The experiments were conducted in Hofmann’s

Vapor densit apparates, in i woth alcohol vapor and ee nd
h ¢ ‘Sie was the same; the volume increased 0

"he !

te is a without decomposition.—Ber. J aged

€8., x, 899, May, 877.
3. ‘On Plato- Fido titipoayt tn and Triplat to-octonitrooylic ‘nesal
~—By the action of an alcoholic solution of iodine upon potassium

150 Scientific Intelligence.

or barium platonitrite, Nirson has obtained a new class of bodies
which he calls platoiodnitrites. e mixture, which is at first
dark reddish brown, becomes, on heating to 30° to 40°, clear
amber-yellow, evolving abundance of gas, in which the char-
acteristic odor of aldehyde is perceivable, and depositing on
cooling the platoiodnitrite in crystals. The potassium salt forms
large brilliant four-sided amber-yellow prisms, having the formula
eee .(H,O),. Nilson assigns to it the rational formula
---Q---NO=:=
eS the relation of this body to the pla-
K---O---NO=:=I—~
K---O---NO=:=N0O---OW
tonitrite ">Pt being very simple.
K---O---NO=:=NO---O—
The reaction he represents thus :—
ee eons deb
5 2 =

The radical he names plato-diiodo-dinitrosy]. “en

- Nilson has described also a new platonitrosylic acid, obtaine
while endeavoring to produce platotetranitrosylic acid by the
method of Lang. For this purpose barium platonitrite was de-
composed by sulphuric acid in the cold, an
evaporated in a vacuum over sulphuric acid. At first red needles
were deposited, corresponding to the acid of Lang; but on carry-
ing the solution to dryness, a brownish-green brilliant residue
remained, which was easily soluble in water, was strongly acid,
was permanent at 100°, and which after drying over sulphuric
acid, had the composition H,(NO,),Pt,0.(H,O),. Hence the
unstable tetra acid, evolving one-third its nitrogen as nitrous acid,
orms a remarkably permanent octo acid, the potassium salt of
which is well crystallized. The author calls it triplato-octon!-
trosylic acid and assigns to it the rational formula :—

~— — — = ee ed

H---0---NO---NO---O._

Ae
| >Pt - 0+(H,0).-
H---O---NO---NO---O0—
| l -
i i 4
H---O---NO---NO---O---Pt

— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 930, 934, May, 1877. G. F. B.

4. On the Action of Bromine upon Pyrotartaric Acid.—Bovk
coin has studied the action of bromine upon pyrotartarie acid,
prepared as usual by the distillation of tartaric acid. For this
purpose 6°5 grams were heated with 10 ¢.c. of bromine and 50 ¢.c.

r
to 152° for fifteen hours. On opening the tubes carbon dioxide
was abundantly evolved, and the tube contained a dense liguid
upon which rested an aqueous solution of hydrobromic acid. The
heavy liquid, after washing with dilute potassium hydrate solution,
was colorless and transparent, having an ethereal camphor-like odor,

Chemistry and Physics. 151

analysis it gave the formula C,H, Br As it readily solidifies at
17", it is thereby distinguished from acetylene tetrabromide,
which remains liquid at —20°. From its reactions, the author

“wise a large excess of hot hydrochloric acid ;
the acid separates in crystals on cooling. From

hours (when 330 grams of ene came over) and then for fourteen
y increasing temperature (during which

ae acid were obtained. The dicarbonic acid is best obtain
Y using a mixture of three molecules of sodium-phenol and one of
potassium-phenol, and heating to 320°: reason of its insolu-

= heating, prove that the two carboxyls ceeney the ortho and
st converted it

Fittig.” The phenol-tricarbonic acid is therefore oxytrimesinic
acid. No further introduction of carboxyl into phenol was pos-
riers the meta derivatives not being obtainable in this way; a
io, also of the nitro-derivatives.—/. pr. Ch., Tl, xv, 301,
pril, 1877, ; PB
6. On the Relation of Cystin to Sulphates in the Urine.—Ntx-
MANN has examined a case of cystinurea and has sought to

152 Scientific Intelligence.

determine the quantitative relation between cystin and other con-
stituents of the urine, in this disease. - The most noteworthy fact
observed was that the per cent of cystin stood to that of the sul-
phuric acid as 1:3°89, and that the two varied together. The
quantity of uric acid was diminished, but that of the urea was not
sensibly affected. The patient excreted from 0°4234 to 0°595
gram cystin per day.—Liebig’s Ann., clxxxvil, 101 suey 187 *

is connected with the variation in the contact line Lippman
believes that re has rae this included lanseane as tor 1 first
time” noticeable. He discusses the changed equation

which he has thus divided into two parts. By a peat of
the facts that the volume variation of solids and in co onapreenie

particles of a ogeneous id without volume variation, no
work is done—the original equations can be simplified. Lippman
finally shows tte we cannot assume he rise of a liquid in a

ok parts of the walls of the containing wenn oF
— tod , vol. i, No. 5, p. 275.
8, Influence af Light upon ‘the Hilectrical resistance

rays is not coteed to the metalloids selenium and tellurium, but
belongs also to platinum, gold and to and in all ogres to

metals in general. The electrical current diminishes both the
conductivity and also the fecadivecae | is light of its conductor}.
and both of these, after cessation of the current, gradually ate
their former value.—Phil. Mag. Supplement, June, 1877, p. 1

i.

Chemical and Physical Researches ; by Tuomas GranaAM.

Collected and printed for presentation only, Romi and Ana-
. R. Aneus Sur

What Horace wrote of his own wor
- mi monumentum sve eg onal

tellectual greatness than by abeal y iecaking that ieee]
which the noble intellect during this earthly life erects to itse lf.

Chemistry and Physics. 153

Such a recognition, though long delayed, the French Government
bestowed both on La Place and on Lavoisier, by publishing mag-

but we do not hesitate to say that the elegant volume before us,
m which his two friends,—James Young and R. Angus Smith,—
have embodied the ‘ Chemical and Physical Researches of Thomas
Graham,” is the noblest tribute of all’ To the scientific contem-

the Roman p te)
could write the famous verse we have quoted above; but no friend
of Graham can doubt that this literary tribute would be far more
grateful to him than the bronze statue which adorns his native
cit ]

their works when dead. Every student of science would have

pa
th
and is seen with the perspective which time gives, the plan

ppe oO
Scholar than to bring together his scattered papers, and make evi-

_ The tra
“gations of Graham, and the service we have commen ’
been most ably rendered to his deceased friend by Dr. Angus
Am. Jour. 8c1.—Turp Serres, Von. XIV, No. 80.—Aueust, 187. :
ll

154 Scientific Intelligence.

works to which we have referred above. In a biographical notice
prepared for the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, and reprinted in this Journal, HI, vol. i, p. 115, we

we desire t :
araday and Graham were two of the most successful dis-
coverers who in any age have illustrated the annals of. physical
science, and their success was wholly due to the power with which
they wielded the inductive method of experimental research. Ex
e

periment guided by analogy ever has been, and e ust be, the
fundamental condition of all progress in physics, and Vv regret
to undervalue this e of investigation as

can marshal differential equati nd forth the truths which
volve d this mathematical skill, all important as it 1,
and essential to the later development the science, wou

of what great results can be attained by purely and
very simple experimental means,
Newport, July 9th.

Il. GroLoagy AND MINERALOGY.

region to the Cretaceous, making the Eocene Tertiary commence
with the Wahsatch group. These Judith River beds overlie the

dith beds have a thickness of 300 to 500 feet, and afford, above 8
well as below, various Dinosaurian remains, From the upper aue-
thirds of a section of 332 feet, Dr. Cope enumerates the folanne :
Lelaps, 6 species; Troddon, 1; Aublysodon,2; 12 others or the
anus,
nius, Trachodon, Monoclonius ; also species of Crocodilus ; of the
Onyx,

Testudinate genera astomenus, Polythorax, Comp

Geology and Mineralogy. 155

semys, Eimys ; of Rhynchocephalia, 4 species; Batrachia Uro-
dela, 5; others of Lepidosteus, and Ceratodus.

Mr. Cope makes the Lignitic formation include the Judith
River and Fort Union epochs, as defined by Meek, and regards
the Laramie or Bitter Creek beds as representing other epochs.

_ Prof. White discusses the age of the Lignitic group in connec-
tion with his review of the species of fresh-water and land shells,
He refers the Judith River and Laramie groups to the Post- Cre-

Mountain areas, Upper Cretaceous; the eruptions were certainly

th Park View Mountain and Spanish Peaks,

nitic strata are intersected by trachytic dikes. Dr. Peale con-
sa

Morphie rocks lying beneath—the fusion being due to the heat
eccasioned by the movements and plication.
A Fourth edition of the “Lists of Elevations” by H. Gannett
S been issued. It contains the Hypsometric map noticed on
Page 387 of the last volume of this Journal. 3

156 ; Scientific Intelligence.

2. The Coai Mines of the Western Coast i the United States ;
by W. A. Goopyrear, Mining Engineer. 4 pp. 12mo. San
Francisco. 1877, (A. L. Baneroft & Co. THe author of this
volume has had a ten years’ intimate practical acquaintance with
the singe mines of California, Oregon and Washington Territory.
His work gives a clear and full description of the coal fields (none
of ehiok are Polder than Cretaceous), and of the mines themselves
as they exist to-day, together with ctopata of production, infor-
mation concerning the relative value for steam purposes of the
various coals which come to the San i nadibenees market, and ee
cognate matters sige not only to geologists and minin
engineers, but also to a o are connected with the coal annie

the following tarot reached: that the mines of California
cannot be relied on for much more coal ; an those of Coos Bay,

> On the ‘Ongi of ‘Kames or Eskers in New Hampshire ; by
RREN Shapes of os sets N. H. (Proc. Amer. Assoc., Buffalo

Ne ew Hampshire; and as being Héttnes jevers! rine in length, or

n some places containing occasional angular bowlders. A single
raieionel “kame,” 140 to 250 feet high, is said to exte nd in the
Connecticut valley from Lyme, N. H., to Windsor, Vt., a distance
of twenty-four miles. Mr. Upham describes the terraces as con-

—. ace

e han the ka.
referred to depositions by sub-glacial oem of the ence
dropped by the melting glacier before its ret
4, The American Paleozoic Fossils. A Catdloiree of the Gen-
= and Species, with names of authors, et places of publica-
n, Groups of Rocks in which found, and the Etymology and
Sinification of the words, and an Suahrntiers devoted to the
Stratigraphical mye d of the Paleozoic rocks; by S. A. MILLER.
254 pp. 8vo. Cincinnati, 1877, Published by the Author.—This
title gives the contents not Mr. Miller’s work. The a wt nee
result of a large amount of labor, me will be of great 8

se d so also a precedi on the construction 0
be morse in be du eeiess y Poot E. W. Claypole, of An-
toch ° olle per commences with the names of foss
Ani inni

imals, b
eater Among Ve seeatel ie: includes only the fossil
ae. A valuable addition to such a ee ould be #
table containing the titles of the works referre

Geology and Mineralogy. 157

5. Heights of Mountains in Western Conneeticut.—The fol-
lowing is a list of some of the mountain elevations of Western
Connecticut, as obtained by a survey made two or three years ago
Wins Ry ler and Civil Engineer George M. Bradford, ‘ot
V insted re he Hon. Robbins Battell and H. P. Lawrence, of

ik. It will be seen that Aalbers, the northwest corner
esc has pnd ape oe much higher than — of Mt. Ivy in

Spaulding’s Sain t, Norfolk 1,336 ea
Platt oral peage ices ester 1,460 ‘
Chamberlain Mountain, Winchester. _......--.- 1480 *,
Mountain, Goshen ie =
Ri Mountain, Norfolk 1-566 **
Knapp Mountain, Norfolk 1617)
Moses Mountain, 1 1,645“
Dutton. Moyntain, Norfolk ........-<.2. 2.2... BB i? Ri
Summer Mountain, Norfolk .........-.-.----- 1.612. °
Hays untain, Norfolk pois.
Gaylord Mountain, Norfolk LTT
Bal ountain, lk 1780 24
ow Mountain, Norfolk 1p TO.
Mt. Bradford, Canaan 1,960 “
lipper Mountain, Canaan 1 5
Bald Peak, Salisbury igge
Buck Mountain, Salisbury 2.160 #4
Bear Mountain, Salisbury 2,250
Mount Bras Agi ie oe ea 2,300 “

“'The last a heights are estimated.” The report of the sur-
vey says: Mount Brace and Bear are 150 to 200 feet higher than
the ground chew stood on, [Bald Peak, Salisbury], and unques-
tionably in the limits of this State,—w ‘hile there is some dispute
as to whether the highest point of Mount Brace, which is con-
siderably above the other two, is in this State, or just over the
line in New Yor e bey nument to mark the State line is on

is mountain near the top, and it is exceedingly probable that
the highest land in the "Stare j is exactly in the corner where New
ork and Massachusetts join Odnneenént Only this seems now
certain, that there is land in this State that will vary little, if any,
from 2 300 feet above the sea-level.—Hartford Times, June
1877. This high land is in the Taconic range and just south of
Mount Mfc gton

6. On some of’ the conditions ingluencing the projection of dis-
crete os naeerkale From Volcanoes, and on the mode in which

Pee was Meee igo oTgchige we Mallett Sires has an ant

ot

_ 1. The Geo ah feeder eae of Portugal. — The recent publica-

Casareda containing human remains, by J. LN.D elgado; on the

158 _—_ Serentifie Intelligence.

C. Ribeiro has also published a memoir on flint and quartz im-
plements from the Tertiary and agp = Si and Sado, in
aA Memoirs of the Lisbon Academy of Scie
ec of Jalisco, Mexico, and mes of the Vol-
cano Ceboruco.—A detailed account of the Jalisco earthquake, of
the 11th of Pebriiey: ed 7, shaking heavily the city of Guadala-
jara, and of Ceboruco, voleano in the region, by a seid
ommission, oubiedag of M. Iglesias, M. Barcena, and
atute, is contained in the first volume of the bales del Minis-
terio de Fomento de la Republica Mexicana, Tomo i, Febrero de
1877
9. West Rock at New Haven, Connecticut, not the termination
of the Green Mountain range. ~The fidioulotia statement,* that
the Green ee terminate in West Rock, is still afloat in the
School Geographies studied in and out of New England. oe
following corseiion of it appeared nearly sixty years since,
mos Eaton’s “Index to the Geology of the a ate ae ” re
103) a shin viens published at Troy, New York, i

“It is very strange that several publications fess a ted the
sout ae —— of this primitive range (the Green Mounsied
n Wes , New Haven, which is greenstone resting on red

flvcone "Such random guesses given as facts are very injurious
to the science.’

Ill. Borany AND ZooLoey.

1. Some points of Botanical Nomenclature.—The series of
laws of nomenclature, revised and ded by Alph. DeCan-

questions, all rising out of the way in which genera, their syno-
yms, and some “ney are at dealt with or referred to 0

the Genera Plantarum now in course of publication ; and he ve
ay. addresses these questions to M. DeCando lle. The latter

oo aos down the law: and the correspondence is print
he Bulletin ue i Sootbté Royale de Botanique a "Belgique,

1876 » Pp. “ta

. The iiculty ae which M. Cogniaux fell was not very for-
midable, but it is one which a botanical writer has to settle, and
which take if sides to be settled with unanimity, an and upon

all ahs rely ace ept the principle. It may well satisfy us; for
the principle is one which for many years we have strenuously
maintained in this Journal. The fact is, that the name 0

* See this Journal, III, x, 498, xi, 151,
+ fonshisck with comments, i in this Steal July, 1868.

mi

Botany and Zoology. 159

Hooker, in the 7 ee characterizes a new genus,

Cerasiocarpum, and states that it is founded upon the Zch-

mandra Leylanica of Thwaites, but does not write Cerasiocarpum

oa armpangind how is a succeeding writer to refer to this record ?
hall he write Cerasiocarpum Zeylanicum, Hook. f.?” If pers

“a the caly kind of case coming under the rule, we should sa

it were best to do so,—that, a although Dr. Ho oker has not im-

nner. Bu
tions grow; an i this one may form the fouhaation of a super-

gnia the
species, already pablsbed: sider other apie: names, and these
e in like manner enumerated, some with certainty, ‘some with

Paeitonen: into which Bentham thrusts twenty 0 A ericoe re-
ceived genera, some of them numerous in species, what is to be
done ? DeCandolle rightly answers these questions, first, by seem
attention to the fact that, from the time of Clusius and Dodoe
down to Linnzus, this suffix of authors’ names is néecly the com-
mencement of, or in lieu of, a citation; that it is not a matter of
ge or sentiment, or justice, but a matter of fact, i. e., of his-

which we ourselves Save Sreeetens to follow. It is at-

tions appl to the raising or lowering of the de of a name; for

instance, that Endlicher ess el not have written Ordo Swartzier,
he Prodrom

Jey when, in t the rank assigned is Subordo ;

« Pt
. Cnr $F tom.

nh
“ edtoge
; ope

S J
pF. of Leow

: Virgini

160 Scientific Intelligence.

also that, when a genus is reduced to a section of some other,
should not write after it the name of an author who established
it as a genus, etc. Consisten if and exact correctness require that
he

But we do not agree in the retjuinition that the name of the author
who first used a former generic name as that of a section, should
always be appended. Sometimes it is not easy to ascertain this,

or to know whether or not it has been yet so employed. And
when known, we may in many cases, in priat as well as in writing,
innocently and safely omit the authority of a sub-genus or a
as we

ecies.

2. Athamantha CUhinensis 1.—This is a puzzle, of ake a
probable solution by Muhlenberg has recently turned up. The
ve is the character, etc., in the Species Plantarum, ed. 1,
7 - hone Chinensis, seminibus membranaceo-striatis, foliis
sur re levibus multifidis,

. cates . Chinensem dixit Barthram qui semina misit ex

* Caulis ang —— levis, — parum fiexuosus. Folia
Cheerophylli, lavia. Umbella minus expansa, alba. Semina sin-
gula 5-alis longitudinal paris ; involucrum duplex.

n the second edition of the popedion Plantarum it is added:
“ Statura Selini Monier’

In reading the SS eksed correspondence of — Collins,
which (as is already noted in this Journal) is prese the
library of the Academy of Natural Sciences, philadelphia, I found

the following in a letter from Muhlenberg, dated Oct. 12, 1813.

“ Among the specimens from Genessee, sent by Mr. Srnesioe
there is an umbellate agreeing with Athana nthas Chi ’
which Linnus had from Mr. Bartram, who had visited the Lakes
Can we find out whether in Bartram’s time the name of Genessee
was known, and how Bartram spelled it: perhaps Ohineees and
whether such a word might have been misunderstood? I have
never seen Bartram’s journa

The journal referred to must be John Bartram’s “ he
made in his Travels from Pennsylvania to Canada.” o. London
1751. The name of Genessee is certainly older pisen “Bartram

6

me.

If Muhlenberg’s suggestion is the right one, as is probable, the
plant is probably Conioselinum | Canadense. Yet that hardly
posseses an “involucrum duplex.” There is, ‘perhaps, ad 7
in bg Linnean herbarium, which Secs settle this point.

epertorium Annum Literature Botanice periodicw cura:
sae G. O. W. Brouninstne, Custos biblioth, Soe. Te meleng
W. Burcx, Math. Mag. et Phil. Nat. Doct. Harlemi, Erven Loos-
jes, 8vo.—We have before us tomm. II, 1876, and tomm. Til, 1877,

Botany and Zoology. — 161

and well. They put on record, in a systematic way, the titles of all
the communications relating to Botany which are found in the
periodicals and serials of the years in question. The contents are
arranged under the heads of General Morphology, Special Morph-
ology of the several classes and orders, Physiology, Plant-descrip-
tions, Floras, Geography of Plants, Paleontology, ete., ete. <A
list of the periodicals used is given, an alphabetical index of au-
thors, and another of Families and Genera. e work appears to
be under the patronage of the Teylerian Society of Harlem. It
makes a valuable supplement or continuation, so far as concerns
botany, of the Royal Society’s Catalogue, and has also the advan-
tage of systematic arrangement. A. G.

4, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and party on a Botanical excur-
sion to the Rocky Mountains and California.—Sir Joseph Dalton
Hooker, President of the Royal Society, and Director of the Royal
Gardens, Kew, arrived at Boston in the Parthia, on the 9th ult.
He is accompanied by Major General Strachey, of the Royal —

5. The Influence of Physical Conditions in the Genesis of
cies; by Jou, A. ALLEN. 32 pp. 8vo. (From the Radical

al: @
many distinct species which now are known to shade into one an-

or geographical conditions--and not natural selection—is the
ah source of the variations, a conclusion the facts clearly estab-
ish,

8. Sir Wyville Thomson, and the working up of the “ Chal-

If Sir Wyville Thomson has neglected auponpale ilirocte in ate
matter, he may be said to have disregarded his own, by sending

162 Scientific Intelligence.

ciple involved in this distribution. The same cosmopolitan spirit
has guided Sir Wyville on previous occasions. A reference to

urvey, gives them an unquestionable advantage in working UP
these later collections. In short, i h

0 ¥
division, Sir Wyville has manifested the discriminating judgment
which has

merican Addresses, with a Lecture on the study of Biology;
by Tuomas H. Huxtey. 164 pp. 8vo, London, 1877. (Macm “
lan & Co.)—These addresses include those delivered by Prolene
Huxley in New York, in 1876, noticed on page 399 of bone ve
of this Journal (1876), and also his address on the occasion 0

Astronomy. 163

— of the Johns Hopkins University, delivered at Baltimore

n the 12th of September, 1876, and a lecture on the study of
Bi ology, in connection with the ois Collection of Scientific Ap-
paratus, South Kensington Museum, delivered December 16, 1876.

IV. ASTRONOMY.

1. Notice of ise Meteor aes June 12,1877; by Professor DanrEex
Kirkwoop, (Communicated.)—On the aga June 12, 1877,
about fifteen Pht Vive 9 o’clock, a large meteor was seen in
Indiana, throughout almost the entire extent of we State. The
Plymouth Democrat® of Th ureday, June 14th, contains the fol-
lowing notice of the phenom

remarkably brilliant meteor, of a bluish color, passed
through the heavens from ae st to ‘east, last Tuesday evening at
about fifteen minutes past 9 o’clock, The movement of the
meteor was much slower a is usual with such bodies, being
visible for several seconds. It left no trace of its course, as some
former meteors have done. Its elevation was about thirty de-
grees, and the space traversed was about twenty degrees, accord-
ing to the opinion of a city paper:

The time here wixeds fifteen minutes past 9 o'clock, is certainly

erroneous, as the meteor was seen be ore 9 both in ‘Muncie and

vi
from west to east, nearly parallel to the horizon, at an elevation
of about 40°. Mr, F, M. Parker, a graduate of Indiana University,
i Monroe County. nae
first seen it was about 15° east of north at an altitude of 17°

18°; its apparent magnitude was one-fourth that of the moon; ts

°

was aay and that its height above "the earth’s surface at t
moment of its disappearance was more than thirty miles and ee
than forty.

_. Indiana, July 2.

metric measurement of Double Seated memoir

this wibieietg extending to 266 pages, by N. ©. nee is mercer
in the Acta Universitatis Lundensis, tom. xii, 1875-

3. We are glad to learn that Mr. Burnham has fed granted

4. Handbook of Descriptive Astronomy ; E
Cuampers, 3d edition. Clarendon Press Series, Macmillan &

Co. London: 1877. 8vo, 960 pp.—The first edition of this ex-
cellent work was published = ten years ago and is probably
known to most amateur astronomers, In that edition there were

* Published at Plymouth, Marshall visa near the northern boundary of the

164 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

several very serious deficiencies. The present edition is much
enlarged, and these —. iencies have been supplied. Some of the
ceapedes are, from the increase of our knowledge, almost entirely
new. The net caesar ad the volume is not less than 200 pages
‘The work is, as its title implies, strictly descriptive. The author
has in general eviiicd all theoretical discussions. The law of
— gravitation and the nebular hypothesis ~~ alike omitted.
‘he same is true of spherical astronomy and all methods of com-
pu fiation except the v simplest. ‘The volume is therefore a
handbook of the known facts of Astronomy, stated with the least
possible amount of mathematics. Itis not designed or fitted to

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

. Abstract of a pamphlet entitled Reflections sur les Chron-
phony par J. A. Rovyaux, Enseigne de Vaisseau. Translated
by Lieut.-Com. C. H. Davis Nt

art {—Contains an exposé o of numerous inconveniences in ns
direct application of formule to chronometers at sea, and a resum
of the advantages to be derived from an application of the ‘ent
to os differences of rates observed daily at sea.

t 11—Contains a demonstration of some properties of lines
of sateen rates and temperatures (lignes isothermes et lignes
isomarches).

8 a necessary corollary follows an examination of the results
Sears uring a cruise of thirty months, by the chronometers

ib
given oat view to make public a research biol: weld perhaps have little
currency in this country, and without committing the translator to the views
ich

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 165

is to record the rates —— = with corresponding temperatures,
in the graphic form of curv :

The inconveniences - these two methods as ee to chro-
sg on board ship

must be gre
2a and these differences will only appear with change of seasons.
here must frequently occur, on board a cruising ship, inter-
i Rei of the regular observations.
(3.) In consequence of these interruptions the observations may
be badly distributed on the scale of te — res
(4.) Skill is necessary in the obser
(5.) The a so dintaliaat ys dolicetéa 8 studied repre-
sent only the Harbor rates, whereas the practical navigator is
directly concerned with the ‘Sea rates, and it is well known that
these — sometimes differ widely.
igator on vr sereite these many and important a
pectandad will be led justly to conclude that so much labor
practically useless, rte will trust as implicitly to the veculation
of his chronometers, as to ae demonstrations of a formula based
on such uncertain condit
It is proposed, therefore, ‘é apply the see not to the rates
themselves, but to r diff erences, or what is the same thing to
the second iocenton ‘of daily comparisons, _'These peieanes,

psc every day; the interruptions in the observations will not
occur; the observations will be better distributed on the eae of
reeset talent of observation will not be necessary; two
chronometers will be followed at once; and finally the perturba-
tions of sea rates nef nd directly.

There is one decided oe in this method, the impor-
tance of which it is impossible to deny, viz: that the result
practically useful to the navigator is the variation of the rate
itself, which must still ve sought by the ordinary methods, because
this method only furnishes the variation in difference of rate
The ordinary methods mt however be facilitated by a study of
the difference of rates, and are of themselves insufficient to pet
the regularity of sea rates or the validity of the proposed form

Since the rate of a oe may be regarded as a fanctioh
of the two variables, time and temperature, it may be expressed
= the ei po of a series (Taylor 8 aa and Mr. Yvon

1 he .

same tim
Pa The eral properties of chronometer-rates are implicitly
contained in the formula of Yvon Villarceau. The importance of

166 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

these ig ir is that they are Sapp ta 2 and sufficient conse-

quences of the formula, and are con rh one verified or not

peribed. at the same time as the ormula, and are capable of

replacing it either as — of an aduntied law, or as a control on

the regularity of r: Their practical utility consists in the

fact that their ee construction is much easier than that of
ormula,

Without entering into their —— demonstration these
properties may be briefly stated as follow

(1.) All the acre cor wit to ng to ashelaa ame temperature are dis-
ethoed on a para ving its axis parallel to the axis of rates.

pe on a conic, and all the conics one for different
values of rate have the same center and are similar
t be borne in mind that the aie corresponding to
equal ceompculeres are points on the curve of rates, and the points
nce te to equal rates are points on the curve of tempera-
res, sachin slator.
to the curves of temperatures and rates the same
— time = properties will appear in a graphic construction
of the ¢
A ain of the chronometers of the Decrés is given to show the
influence of vibrations caused ~~ the screw of a steam vessel on
the rates of chronometers on board.
A practical way of siehiaens rates at sea, by the application of
the formula to their differences, i is as follows
e that the normal values of the b, ¢ and
. their differences d—a, c—a,... have bee een erin een a pr
an

t
daily comparisons actually observed for the corresponding pets
To deduce variations in the rates themselves we may

(1.) If none of the differences 6—a, e—a,... have varied it may
be admitted that the rate itself has. ts varied. Because, if the
rate has varied it is almost impossible that the pa cebeppeseo da,
db, de, ... should all be equal and of the same
f one or several of the differences tae a pees it ma

while 3 and a both change, it is necessary that da=db, which is
improbable. .
(3.) If all the differences have varied there is no longer any prob-

ge.

probably due to the action of the screw, and if the effect of this
action is once determined, it may be the same in a second case.
’ —

2. EHarthquake wave of May 9th and 10th.—This .
account of which is given on page 77, reached New South Wales

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 167

oe to a report from the Pacific Steamer, Australia) on the
ing of the 11th of none 8 (Australian tim ime). At 5" 208 a. M.
ae tide uage at Fort Denison recorded the first of the series of
waves. The oscillations continued through the day and reached
their maximum at 2 p.m. the height then being three feet six
inches. Retegeaaca from New Zealand report that similar waves
were felt on the east coast, from the Bay of Islands to the bluff,
seus eg at 5 o’clock a. m. The maximum height was six feet.
3. Tides of the Arctic Seas.—These tides are mathematically
diacabeps by Prof. S. Haughton in papers published in the Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society, the last of which (Part vii) was
sae on the 17th of February last.

4, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. —In connec-
tion with this excellent institution, laboratories for the instruction
exclusively of women were open for occupancy on the 23d of
October last, and have been in successful operation through the
winter and spring. The design is to afford facilities for the ad-
vanced study of Chemical Ana alysis, mee ogy and Chemistry as
related to Vegetable and Animal Physio logy and to the Industrial
Arts. The laboratories are nena in arrangement and are
furnished with all needed apparatus. The laboratory is under the
charge and tle abs of Protea John M. Ordway and Mrs
Robert H. Rich The terms are $200 a year for a full term
of eight preg six c anys per week. Students are also taken for
one or two days per week,
oes Transfer of the ag gh rong to Amherst College.—
The scientific resources of t College have recently been

These collections have been for more than twenty-five years de-
posited in the Amherst wine Museum; and while there they
have been ever increasin a in extent ee the - and —

mg the collections in zoo be otany and archeolo
ay will to the Tastitution, with which Professor Shepard ‘i
ong been connected ole are now transferred to the ssa

for little more than half oe sum. The collection of meteorites
ranks fourth in the world, and no institution in this country pos-
— a superior ee of _— _

6. Imperial y of Sciences of St. Petersburg. — This
Academy hi has published 1 Part I. 84 a Aeisiied index volume to its
Eoreige ies covering 490 8vo pages and including the articles
in foreign la)

- National feces Seiences.—The Academy has recently
published vol. I, of Bicaraphionl Memoirs, 344 pp. 8vo, contain-
ing memoirs of a S. Hubbard, J. G. Totten, B, Silliman, E.
Hitchcock, J. M. Gilliss, A. D. Bache, J. H. Alexander, W. Chau-
venet, J. F. Frazer, J. H. Coffin, J. Torrey, W. S. Sullivant, -
Saxton , H. J. Clark and J. Winlock. Also volume I, of Procee
ings of the Academy. 120 pp. 8vo.

163 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

8. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Vol. ii, Part 2.

8vo. Boston, 1877.—This number contains the following papers
by F. H. Storer: (1) on ihe composition of certain Pumpkins and
cn - record of results obtained on saasdysilie seeds :

on growi wk ti
Pit-sand and of Coal-ashes; a nd the e following = W. G, Farlow
No _ on some Common diseases caused by Fungi.

9. Dynamics, or Theoretical Meolunaiess a by J. T. BorroMLey,
M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 142 pp., small 8vo. New York, 1877.
G. P. Putnam & Sons.—This little mak tna one of the vol-

ume s ent
ciples of mechanics are presented with clearness and precision,
without the introduction of difficult mathematics, and it is thus
an excellent book for the class of students for whom it was pre-
pared.

Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts, January,
1877. 498 pp. 8vo, = a maps. <A Report of high scientific gre The
chief topics are: Pollut f streams; sewerage; sanitary condition of Lynn;
registration of deaths ah pM growth of children ; disease of the mind (by
Dr. C. F. Folsom); health of tei

Science Lectures at South Kensington. The Steam Engine, by F. J. Bramwell.
62 pp. 12mo, with iifeberatiouat London and New York, 1877. (Macmillan & Co.)

OBITUARY.
Sansorn Tenney.—Sanborn Tenney, Professor of Geology and
Natural History in Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., died

ee on the eleventh of July, at Buchanan, Michigan, while
o Jhicago, the mri of cht of a Williams

unt
was the projector and leader. Professor Tenney was the author
of rent e text-books on sty Sah and
PHEN REE — Ree died on, on the twelfth of July at

: INSLOW, M. D. — Dr. Winslow, formerly of Bos
— weeny in Ut ah, a ave ars. He is the hor oe
ork entitled “ Cosm y, ® Puttosophical views of the
Sebati ablished at rt Becton in 1853, also later of one on “ Na-
ture and pho ;” and, besides, of short papers on some Earth-
uakes, in this J ournal, and on the discoveries of human resus in
alifornia, "ae some other po ne

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art. XXIIL.—On a new Process for the Electrical Deposition
of Metals, and for constructing Metal-covered Glass Specula ;
by Professor ArTHUR W. Wriaut, Yale College.

Ivy a paper by the writer, published in this Journal, Janu-
ary, 1877, an account was given of a method of producing me-
tallic films upon the inner surface of exhausted glass tubes, by
the action of a succession of energetic electrical discharges.
The thickness of these films could be varied, from a tenuity
such that the coating barely gave indications of a metallic lus-
ter, and scarcely dimmed the intensity of transmitted light, to
the point where perfect opacity was attained, by simply. con-
tinuing the action of the current for a shorter or longer time.
They were produced by forming the negative electrode of the
metal to be deposited, exhausting the tube, and passing
through it the current from an induction coil. The metallic
coatings thus obtained, as seen from the exterior, were very
brilliant, but the condition of the inner surface was not readily

rved, and the nature of the process made it seem proba-
ble that they possessed a dull or eyen a frosted surface. With
a view to obtain the films in a tter suited for examina-

as the nearer portion of the platgmieceived a larger share of
the metal, the thickness of the de vas not: uniform, and it
Am. Jour. 8c1.—Tuirp _— Vou, X

170 A. W. Wright— Electrical Deposition of Metals.

was found necessary to-construct a special apparatus, in which
the relative positions of the plate and the electrode could be
varied, so as to give the latter an equal action upon all parts
of the surface to be covered. The plan employed was as
described in the following paragraphs. —

rather thick-walled glass globe about seven centimeters in
diameter, blown upon the end of a tube twenty-five centime-
ters long and fifteen millimeters in diameter, was used to form
the receiver. The top of the globe opposite the tube was cut
off, so as to form an opening forty millimeters in diameter, and
the edge ground flat, in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
tube. The end of the latter was drawn somewhat smaller in a
gas-flame, and a glass stop-cock attached to it with cement. A
little way above this, a platinum wire was fused into the glass
to serve as the positive electrode. The cover of the vessel was
made by cutting from a similar globe a portion corresponding
in size to the part removed, but with the neck attached, the
two pieces being carefully ground so as to fit closely. When
they were placed together, a little cement applied to the out-
side along the line of juncture rendered the joint perfectly air-
tight. The tube or neck of the cover was five centimeters
long, and was also somewhat reduced at the extremity by
drawing it smaller. Into this was cemented a small and thick-
walled tube extending to a point near the center of the globe.
A platinum wire was placed in this tube, and was fused in at
the top, enough being left projecting to form a small loop for
the attachment of the wire from the coil. The inner end of
the wire terminated at about one centimeter from the lower end
of the glass tube. Into the latter was slipped a wire of the
, was the negative
g long enough to

The pan, when in
meters below the end of the tube

A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 171

from which the electrode projected, the latter being adjusted to
the proper distance by sliding it up or down in its support as

the plate. In some of the experiments the plate was station-
ary, being held in a little tripod of glass threads, or simply laid
upon the bottom of the globe. In these cases the tube hold-
ing the electrode was jointed near the top, the two portions
being connected by a hook and loop of platinum or magne-
sium wire. It could thus be made to traverse all parts of the
plate by giving suitable movements to the globe.

hen adjusted and closed the receiver was attached to the
Sprengel pump. By means of a small air-pump of the ordi-
nary construction, connected with this by a stop-cock and flex-
ible tube, the whole apparatus was exhausted as far as possible
and then dry hydrogen admitted, this being repeated two or
three times in order to remove the air and moisture. ‘The pro-
cess of exhaustion was then completed with the mercury pump.
The degree of rarefaction required varied somewhat with the
metal to be deposited, but was rarely above 2°5 millimeters.
For platinum the best results were obtained, when it was from
15 to 1-75 millimeters. The use of hydrogen is not in all cases
necessary, as some of the metals can be deposited perfectly
well with only air in the receiver. This is especially the case
with gold, but platinum, although ordinarily not easily com-
bined with oxygen, becomes tarnished with a film of what
apparently is A blue oxide, unless the air is removed. The
electrode itself was formed of a small wire, usually not more
than one-fourth of a millimeter in thickness, bent at the end

ree to six in
rather weak acid, and a plunge ba f fiv
two, or more were PE as Oc uired, the whole being

172 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.

joined in a continuous circuit. By immersing the plates of the
plunge battery more or less, as well as by varying the number
im the circuit, the strength of the current could readily be
changed within the limits desired. The various metals required
currents of different strength, and the power best suited to
each had to be determined by trial. It was found advisable in
most cases to regulate it so that the temperature of the electrode
was below that of a red heat, or such as barely to redden it.
Of course with the more fusible metals it was necessarily much
lower than this. The metal is actually volatilized by the dis-
charge, as is shown by the fact that the characteristic lines of
its spectrum may be seen with a spectroscope, and the film is
formed by the condensation of its vapor upon the cooler glass
surface. For the production of films with brilliant surfaces,
the strength of the current must not be great enough to give
the discharge a disruptive character, as this separates some of
the metal in the form of powder.

The primary object of the experiments was to obtain films
of the different metals upon thin pieces of flat glass for the
purpose of investigating some of their optical characters. The

to be perfectly successful in its operation,
and beautiful films of gold, silver, platinum, and bismuth, were
obtained with ease and certainty. As has been mentioned, it
seemed probable that the surface of deposit would be dull, but
the first trial showed that this anticipation was incorrect, and
the films when removed from the receiver exhibited surfaces
exquisite perfection and the most brilliant polish. They can
only compared to the surface of clean liquid mercury, far
surpassing in luster anything that can be obtained by the ordi-
nary methods of polishing.

This circumstance suggested at once a valuable application
of the process in the production of specula for optical purposes,
and the subsequent investigations were directed to this end.
The mirrors first made had been formed upon disks of thin

glass, such as are commonly used as covers for microscopical

objects, those being selected which were most free from de-
fects, and had the best surfaces. By means of a ver delicate
balance, the weight of the glass disks, both before and

assay
after receiving the depo ld be obtained to the one hun-
tes, hence it was easy to calculate
ta

dredth part of a millig
the thickness of the me

A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 173

through them. ‘he thickness of the gold layer was found to
be 0:000183 mm., that of the platinum 0°000174 mm., or
+ pore: one-fourth the length of a wave of light at the
red end of the spectrum. The gold, although thicker than the
platinum, transmits perceptibly more light, showing that it is
the more transparent of the two metals. As the films employed
for mirrors may be much thinner than the amount mentioned

possible to apply the method of local correction for the im-
provement of a defective figure, or to parabolize a spherical
mirror by depositing the metal in a layer increasing in thick-
ness toward the center, though, of course, it would be better to
avoid a somewhat tedious operation by securing the perfect
form of the glass beforehand. —

Of the metals that are suitable for the formation of specula,
platinum appears to be the most valuable. For while, when
well polished, it is but little inferior to silver in reflecting
power and freedom from color, it does not become tarnished by
oxidation or the action of sulphurous gases, and when dulled
by atmospheric deposits the surface can be cleaned by washing
with water or with acids, which is an important advantage.
By the method here described it can be deposited upon glass

174 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.

surfaces very easily, and a mirror of the most perfect surface
produced at once, without the necessity of a single touch to
complete it. Several such mirrors have been made in the
course of these experiments, by the use of concave glass lenses,
with the most satisfactory results) The metal film adheres
strongly to the glass, and when of sufficient thickness appears
to be very firm and hard. In mirrors silvered by the ordinary
method, trouble is often experienced from the insinuation of
moisture between the glass and the metal, resulting finally in the
separation of the latter. In those prepared by the new process
the adherence of the film is so close as to render such an effect
impossible. As a test of this, a small silvered speculum was
placed in a beaker of water where it remained for two weeks,
and besides this was wetted and dried repeatedly, without
‘ showing the slightest tendency to suffer the penetration of the
moisture. Similar resuits were also obtained with platinum

The metallic luster was wanting, though it was readily devel-
oped when a portion of the powdery coating, which was easily
removed, was rubbed against the surface of the glass with some
pressure. The defect was, to a considerable extent, remedied
by surrounding the electrode with a small glass tube proce
some three millimeters beyond it, so as to clear the surface

A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals, 175

the plate by an interval of only one or two millimeters. This
had the effect to cut off the lateral portion of the discharge,
and to confine its action to a limited area immediately below
the extremity of the wire. :

The yellow tarnish is removed with the greatest ease by
gently rubbing the surface with soft chamois leather and a little
rouge, and the metal is so hard, that, when this operation is
performed with care, the polish is not at all, or but very
slightly, affected. Even then, however, the metal is not per-
fectly white, having still a very faint yellow tinge. It is well
known that silver is not a perfectly white metal, for light which
has undergone repeated reflections from polished surfaces of
this metal appears yellow or reddish-yellow, though this color
is not perceptible when the light has undergone but a single
reflection. But the real cause of the yellowish tint may possi- ’
bly be found in the very tenuity of the films, which when pre-
pared in this way have a beautiful and intense blue color by
transmitted light. When not too thick, the amount of blue
rays which they suffer to pass, may be sufficient to cause, by
their abstraction, a perceptible tinge of yellow, the complimen-
tary color, in the reflected rays. If this were really the case,
the coloration should grow weaker with an increase of thick-
ness, and disappear when opacity is reached. Some of the
results areas seem to favor this view, and the probability of
its correctness is strengthened by the facts related in the next

ragraph, but further experiments are needed to decide the
question satisfactorily. 7

ne result of the investigation has been to show that the
color of the light which has passed through a layer of metal
varies somewhat with the thickness of the film. is was

ulated by observing the color of the transmitted light. An
experiment made with a circular disk of flat glass was perfectly
successful, the platinum being readily deposited upon the sil-
ver, the yellowish tint of which it entirely removed, producing

176 A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals.

light as much as may be desired. An image, nearly or quite

metal is deposited should be of non-conducting material.
is shown by the fact that the process continues to go on after

A. W. Wright—Electrical Deposition of Metals. 177

inirror has a diameter of a little less than four centimeters, and
both this and the smaller one, so far as the nature of the sur-
face is concerned, appear absolutely faultless. As only com-
mon lenses were employed in its construction the performance
of the instrument is not remarkable, but it is sufficient

to warrant the assurance that the method will be serviceable

_ Many useful applications of this process may be found, and
its use is not limited to those metals which have been men-
tioned here. Moreover for many of them no other available
rocess is known by which they can be deposited in a uniform
ayer and with a brilliant reflecting surface upon glass. very
thin layer of platinum, or still better of silver and platinum
together, could be used with great advantage in the camera
lucida and similar instruments. Very perfect mirrors for gal-

178 Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes.

vanometer needles, and for delicate torsion apparatus, can be
expeditiously formed in this way, and by the use of very thin

adherence, are serious disadvantages. These are entirely
avoided by the use of an unalterable metal like platinum; and.
though for instruments of the largest size the process here
' described may be found impracticable, for those of more mod-
erate dimensions there is every reason for believing it may be
employed with complete success. The labor and time required
for its application are indeed drawbacks; but there is compen-
sation for this in the important cireumstance that the mirror
comes out of the receiver with a surface of inimitable perfec-
tion, which would in fact only be injured by any of the ordin-
ary methods of polishing.

Yale College, August 8, 1877.

Art. XXIIL—A new and ready method for the Estimation of
Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes; by MARGARET S. CHENEY,
and ELLEN Swa.iow RicHarps.

WE had occasion several months since, to make a number of
determinations of nickel in mattes where, for commercial rea-

separation of iron as a basie acetate. (Fre s, page 36e. )
This method requires considerable analytical skill and practice
in its use. The large dilution and subsequent evaporation nec-
essary render the operation a tedious one, even without the re-
_ peated re-precipitations which are indispensable to a complete
separation. :
The method based upon the behavior of neutralized solutions
at the boiling point (Fresenius, page 362), which we personally
prefer to use, is open to the same objections. The process of

Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes. 179

separating the iron by ammonium hydrate, even with all the
precautions recommended by various authors, has given very
unsatisfactory results in our hands, By far the best success
was obtained in the use of the method given by Frederick
Field, in the Chemical News, vol. i, page 5 (1859). The method
is as follows:

“In the case of nickel and iron, the nitrates are evaporated
nearly to dryness, and, after the addition of water, oxide of lea
(litharge) is added, and the whole boiled for ten minutes or a
quarter of an hour. The iron is entirely precipitated, the ni-
trates of nickel and lead remaining in solution. After filtration,
which can be effected with great readiness, dilute sulphuric
acid is added, and on standing for sixteen hours the sulpha‘e
of lead is filtered off, and the nickel precipitated and estimated
in the usual manner.”

This process uniformly gave good results as to the separation
of iron and nickel, all the nickel being left in solution. The

containing acetic acid. The filtrate is heated nearly to boiling
and caustic potash added until the odor of ammonia is distinctly

180 Estimation of Nickel in Pyrrhotites and Mattes.

perceptible. The apple- greek mrepiee of phosphate of nickel
is partially washed, dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric acid,
the solution rendered somitiy aaine by ammonium hydrate
and a ome pesoinrtated by the bat
e than retay per cent of nickel, it is
necessa dissolve he” precipitate of phosphate of iron in
necessary 10 acid, dilute this solution somewhat, render it nearly
neutral by ammonium hydrate, add twenty-five or thirty cubic
centimeters of acetic acid, and re-precipitate by phosphate of
soda. The filtrate is added to the first filtrate. If the solution
Tea been rendered alkaline before the addition of acetic acid, or
if an insufficient quantity of phosphate of soda has been used
a small amount of iron will remain in the solution, not enough,
however, to interfere with the battery precipitation ‘of the nickel.
The solution of phosphate of soda inal d be a saturated one,
and, if it is heated separately, the troublesome boiling of the
bulky precipitate is avoided. By the aid of the filter pump
this bionagaad is readily filtered in spite of its unpromising

Found. Theory. per cent.

100 e. ¢. of which 1486 "150 99°06
100c¢c * 149 "150 99°33
Hen © 0748 075 99°73

To the first portion, the phosphate of soda was added first,
and the acetic acid afterward.

C. Wachsmuth—sStructure of Paleozote Crinoids. 181

per cent.
Matte No. 1 gave (phosphate method) 6°77 Cheney.
“ 6c .
e t Richards.

“ j i
Matte No. 2 (neutralized ie eda 08 Pt Richie.

a eney
Matte No.3 “ (phosphate method) fi ae Richards.

41+ Hardman.
basic acetate) 7 79 Hardman,
Pyrrhotite No. 1 (basi acetate) *32 9 { Hardman,
So
“ * (phosphate method) oe Cheney
Pyrrhotite No. 2 (phosphate method) 0 so , Richards.

Massachusetts Institute Technology, Woman’s hee June, 1877.

Art. XXIV.—WNotes on the internal and yeti slg of
Paleozoic Orinoids ; by CHARLES W ACHS

(Continued from page 127.)
5. The construction of the summit and its value in classification.

THE construction of the ventral disc or actinal side of the
calyx has heretofore received less attention than almost any
other part of the Crinoids, and thereby an important aid to
classification has been overlooked. I think it affords a clear
and most important distinction between recent and ancient Cri-

placed a number of Paleozoic genera in the same — with

5, Pp 227,
divides “the true Cri a which are omar by an articulated
or jointed column” into two divisions :

a, Crinoids in which the ventral side consists of a soft ski
om hose in which the ventral side is covered by solid ae

oni includes with the former group, Pentacrinide, Apio-
crinide, Eugeniacrinide, Encrinide, Cupressocrinide and Oy-
athocrinidee This division seems to have been based on mere con-
jecture, since a membranous ventral surface has been observed
only in the Pentacrinide and the recent Crinoids generally,
Richards i washings by the of a beaker.
was Mr. Harn’ rt ta of the spuowphat and not enough
Phosphate of soda was added to produce a white precipitate.

182 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

though it is probable that Hugentacrinus and several allied gen-
era had that summit structure. In the Apiocrinide and

contrary is covered by a soft peristome. Both are closely
related to Apiocrinus ; Belemnocrinus particularly has the same
heavy. body plates and the small viscera] cavity, and it appears
to me that Apiocrinus is more nearly allied to the Paleozoic

type than to the recent Rhizocrinus. |
The Cupressocrinide and Cyathocrinide are the only groups
from Paleozoic formations which Roemer places in his division
a. Dr. Schultze, who adopted Roemer’s classification, included
in the Cupressocrinide the genera “* Synbathocrinus Phill. and
Phimocrinus L. Schi.,” in which he is undoubtedly correct, for
se two

covering of the central opening of Synbathocrinus resembles
ina remarkable degree that of the central aperture of the Blas-

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids. 183

toids, and it seems to me highly probable that the consolidating
plates are homologous with the partly hidden deltoid pieces of
the latter.

the Cyathocrinide. Macrostylocrinus is allied to Melocrinus, and
has undoubtedly a similar summit structure. The same may
be said of Schizocrinus and Dimerocrinus which are not at all
related to Cyathoerinus.

he genus Cyathocrinus was originally described by Professor
Phillips and Mr. Austin as having a separate mouth and vent,
which was considered by these authors and others to be its
chief distinction from Potertocrinus: Accordingly, all species
with a proboscis or solid dome, though otherwise agreeing
with Cyathocrinus, were referred to Poterwocrinus or some allied

exceedingly interesting, and throws light upon the summit
structure of many genera. I shall herein refer frequently to
ar & Worthen’s excellent figures, vol. v, Plate 1x, figs. 13
and 14.

Looking only at fig. 14, one would at first naturally suppose
there must have been, during the life of the animal, tw dis-
tinct openings in the vault. But on examining it more criti-
cally and comparing it with fig. 13, it will be found that fig.
14 represents simply the consolidating apparatus as figured by
twoomer and Schultze in Oupressocrinus, placed here exactly as
in that genus, and consisting of five large pieces, alternating
With the upper edges of the first radial plates. ‘The plate of
the anal side is larger than the others and forms the base of the
Inner side of the proboscis. The five pieces which connect
with each other laterally, extend inward for some distance, but
hot so far as to meet in the center where there is a semi-circular
or heart-shaped opening. Along the sutures, between the five

184 CO. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

the base of a proboscis, and the consolidating plates are partly
covered, leaving but a small uncovered space in the form of a
delta in the interradial areas. The central opening is vaulted
over by a number of various sized pieces, the largest one occu-
pying the side toward the proboscis. The shallow groove be-
tween the sutures of the consolidating plates is arched by a
double series of alternating plates, forming underneath a pas-
ge for the ambulacral canal and food groove. The vault, thus
closely resembling that of Synbathocrinus, was in all probability
arranged on a similar principle in Cupressocrinus. The same
plan, with slight modifications, prevailed in Poteriocrinus,
Scaphiocrinus and all genera with an inflated or balloon-shaped
ventral sac. Among the latter, the center of radiation is fre-
quently found to be pushed toward the anterior side, so that
owing to the great size of the sac at its junction with the dorsal
cup, 1t does not occupy the center of figure.
mong all groups of Crinoids, the Cyathocrinide undergo
the least amount of change in the course of time. They are

noids was open throughout, as in recent forms. This might

ibly have been the case in Cyathocrinus Jowensis, but I
even doubt it here, as the corresponding plates in other closely
related species, though arranged upon the same fen

We by themselves, having the vault supported by consoli-
_<— plates, and covered by an immovable arch of small
plates.
The next group is one in which of all Paleozoic Crinoids the
vault is least known, including Taxocrinus, Forbesiocrinus, Ony-
chocrinus, Ichthyocrinus, Lecanocrinus, and probably other gen-
era. The Taxocrinide, for such I will call them, have hitherto
been described as being covered with some soft material inste
of solid plates, even by Dr. Schultze, though he describes and
figures a Taxocrinus with a long heavy plated proboscis, whic!
could not have been supported upon a soft skin. * In this
* I believe Dr. Schultze is mistaken in referring his Z briareus to Taxocrinus
as it lacks all the istic features of the genus. Its rather large subra-

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinotds. 185

group, the plates of the radial series are indented on their upper
margins more or less deeply for the reception of a protuberance
from the lower side of the succeeding plate. The indentation
of the upper margin does not extend throughout the thickness
of the plate, and in Forbesiocrinus, it is filled by a superficial
patelloid plate, which is separately articulated and sometimes
anchylosed with the outer margin of the plate above. This
peculiarity exists not only in the arm plates, but is conspicu-
ous in the radials, thus producing apparently an articulate
structure of the whole skeleton and indicating some degree of
flexibility in the body as well as the arms. The interradial
portions appear sometimes depressed, and in other cases swollen
or bulged out, showing that they probably yielded to a moder-
ate expansion or contraction of the body walls, due to the mo-
bility of the radial parts which likewise involves a flexibility
of the summit. I have not been so fortunate to find the sum-

. .

of the interradial series, and which decrease in thickness

dials, the large first-radials as compared with the succeeding radials, the single
rs al plate upon which the heavy proboscis rests, indicate that it belongs to Cya-
on or some allied genus. His 7. gracilis may prove to be Graphiocrinus

Am. Jour. Rot-—Titkco Santas, Vot. XIV, No. 81.—Sepr., 1877.

186 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids.

some of them as perfect in most of their parts as if dredged
from the ocean, but only two specimens have been discovered
in which the summit was preserved, and only a single Seaphio-
crinus. That this could happen at a locality where even the
finest tissues of the most delicate internal organs are preserved,
is somewhat astonishing, but yet it can be accounted for by the
fact that the pieces which cover the central opening, as also the
‘small alternating plates forming the ambulacral canal, are very
thin and that they rest but partly upon the consolidating
eaten being thereby rendered insecure and liable to removal

y any accident, even with very small force. Moreover the
arms of the Oyathocrinide are generally attached, and the ven-
tral dise thus hidden from view. In specimens in which the
arms are destroyed, their destruction almost invariably involved
that of the entire ventral side, and so delicate are these parts,
that even when the arms are well preserved and so situated as
to ex the dome, the plates are nearly always gone, or are
found in a confused mass inside the calyx.

I come now to another group in which on the basis of the
summit structure, such apparently diverse forms are included
that Iam under the necessity, very unwillingly, of making a
name for it. It includes the families Actinocrinide, Platycrin-
ide, Rhodocrinide, Melocrinide, and the genera Schizocrinus,

ymerocrinus and Macrostylocrinus, which Roemer has ranged
ome the Cyathocrinide, and I call it provisionally the Spher-
oide, from the form of the calyx which is generally somewhat
spherical. This large group, embracing over one hundred gen-
era and ranging from the base of the Silurian to the top of the

ubcarboniferous, is capable of accurate definition, is easily
distinguished, and fortunately the summit is very commonly
found well preserved in most of the genera.

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoie Crinoids. 187

other by anal plates or by the proboscis. These seven pieces
which i will call the “apical plates,” are easily recognized by
their greater prominence and size in species with comparatively
few summit plates and a lateral anal aperture; but their identi-
fication is more difficult in species in which a subcentral pro-
boscis is placed between the two small plates, and the whole
vault looks like an immense proboscis. In these forms, the
four large plates, together with the two smaller ones, are pushed
toward the anterior side of the specimen, while the center
plate rests with one side against the proboscis.

There are other summit plates following a radial direction,
which are either attached to the apical pieces or separated from
them by a belt of small polygonal plates. Their number,
which varies greatly in different species, depends upon the
number of primary arms that spring out directly from the

ody, no matter how often the arms branch afterward. In

each of them there originate two brachial pieces. As a gen-

corresponding brachial plates above the arms. Therefore in
adult specimens, with some little practice, the number of arms
can be ascertained nearly as well from the dome as from the

n loo
bundred apparently irregularly arranged vault pieces, one
Liscowit that this con-

188 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

nus. Here, the basals, primary radials, first anal and first
interradial pieces are comparatively large, while the higher
series of interradials are yet absent or but slightly developed.
The radials of the higher orders, which in adult specimens
form a part of the body, are in young specimens free arm
plates, unsupported by any interradial or interaxillary pieces.
The 8, sberlin which spring directly from the body in
adult specimens, in the young branch alternately right and left
after emerging from the y, the spaces between the bases of
the branches being subsequently filled by the upward growth
of the body, so that the branching, instead of occurring in the

arms, seems to be. completed in the body walls. So, for
instance, the young Strotecrinus umbrosus has at first but four
arm openings to the ray, ata later period it is found to have
eight, and m the adult state twelve, being a separate opening
for each arm.

The rule, that the number of summit plates increases in pro-
portion to the number of primary arms, holds good with refer-
ence to the young specimen. The young Strotocrinus has fewer
plates than the adult individual (the difference being in pro-
portion to the state of growth), and these are arranged in the
same order, and are as easily recognized as those of the sim-

lest species of this group. The apical and principal radial
pieces are larger than the intervening interradial plates which,
exceptionally in this genus, attain by age the same size as the
apical and radial pieces. The interradial plates of the vault oc-
cupy the intermediate spaces between the radial areas. As
their number depends greatly upon the age of the individual,
they vary often im the same species. In species with but lew
arms, we find comparatively few interradials, and those are gen-
erally smaller than the other plates. The latter is especially
true in young specimens, as also in small species. Sometimes,

generically from an adult Actinoerinus idialis, and both have the same
entation with the same number of arm openings, they but
slightly in specific cha Act p is the ical species 0:

of all Strotocrini, which idea seems to be r confirmed by the geological suc-
cession. The former group occurs only in the Lower, and Strotocrinus only in the
Upper Burlington limestone.

C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozote Orinoids. 189

being comparatively of large size, have generally but two pri-
mary arms, and consequently for each ray but one radial dome
plate which is here placed at some distance from the arm bases.

tinguishing many genera. In Agaricocrinus, all apical and

plates to the subradials (the two smaller plates, separated by
the anus forming together one large one), which on the other
hand were undoubtedly the first developed parts of the dorsal
side, and the parts which are the most highly developed in the
Cystideans.

zoic Crinoids that are known. There are some few genera, as
for instance Hucalyptocrinus, with a very peculiar superstructure
at the ventral side, whose affinities I have not been able to de-
termine. There is the genus Calceocrinus which differs so widely
from all other known Crinoids by its distinct bilateral symme-
try and unique structure, that it forms evidently a very dis-
tinct group pe itself. There may be still others, differing in

190 C. Wachsmuth—Structure of Paleozoic Crinoids.

their summit structure from the general plan; but I have yet to
discover a single Paleozoic genus in which a special oral aper-
ture has been identified, or in which the existence of a solid

furrow, recedes in Paleozoic Crinoids one step further and dis-
appears within the solid walls of the body. The actinal sys-
tem here consists externally only of the arm furrows, whence it
continues underneath the vault. These Crinoids therefore are
evidently of lower development and belong to an inferior type.

The ventral peristome of the recent Crinoids serves as a mad-
reporic apparatus, introducing the necessary water for respira-

in which the actinal side is closed, represent the young stage 0
growth of the living types. They ee evidently the same re-
lation to the Pentacrinide and Comatulide as the Perischoechinide
bear to the Echini, as the Cystidee and Blastoidece bear to the Pa-
leozoie Crinoids. They unquestionably form a distinct group ot
Crinoids, and I therefore propose for it, from the fact that 1ts
representatives lived almost exclusively in Paleozoic times, the
name: “ Paleocrinoidea” as a suborder of the Crinoids.

Whether Encrinus, Apiocrinus and allied genera of the Juras-
sic time are to be brought within this suborder, depends upot
the construction of their vault, which cannot at present be de-

J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision. 191

termined. Should they prove to have a solid dome they would —
be included here, and this might detract slightly from the tech-
nical exactness of the name Paleocrinoidea. Still as its charac-
teristic types were so prevalent and constituted so important a
part of the life of Paleozoic ages and the Mesozoic forms are
comparatively so insignificant in variety and abundance, the
term would nevertheless be significant and appropriate.

I shall not attempt to separate the Paleocrinoidee into fami-
lies, as I think our present knowledge is hardly sufficient for
such a work, but I feel convinced that it must be based mainly
upon the diversities in the structure of the vault, not upon the
construction of the dorsal cup, nor upon the structure of the
arms or column, upon which former authors have founded such
divisions,

The discoveries which have been made within the last few

, Seopa herein suggested. Other discoveries will follow.
he labors of the Zoologist will supplement the researches of
the Paleontologist and through their properly united efforts, we
may hope in time to comprehend the structure of the Paleocri-
nidece almost as perfectly as if they were yet living in our
oceans,

ArT. XXV.—On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision; by
JOSEPH LECONTE.

X. The structure of the crystalline lens and its relation to
Periscopism.*

THE following thoughts were suggested by the recent memoir
of Dr. Ludimar Hermann “On the passage of Juminous pencils
obliquely through lenses, and on a related property of the crys-
talline lens of the (human) eye,”+ in connection with my own
recent publication ‘‘ On the comparative physiology of Binocu-
lar Vision.” :

It is well known that the crystalline lens of the mammalian
eye increases in density and refractive power, from the surface
to the center; so that it may be regarded as composed of ideal

* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April, 1877.
+ Archives des Sciences, vol. lii, p. 66. t This Jour., vol. ix, p. 168, 1875.

192 J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision.

concentric layers, one within another increasing in density and
in curvature until the central nucleus becomes a very dense

curious and universal structure.

Very recently Dr. Hermann (loc. cit.) has discovered another
optical property conferred upon the lens by this structure—a
property which he regards as of great importance in perfect
vision, and which, therefore, he thinks, entirely explains the
design of the structure. It is the property of forming images
of olyects lying on the margins of the field of view, far more per-
feet than could be jormed by a homogeneous lens of the same
focal distance. And since, as he supposes, perfect images of
marginal objects necessitates distinct vision of these objects,
he calls a lens having this structure perzscopic.

By mathematical discussion he shows that, in a homogeneous
. lens, while the central rays from radiants near the middle 9
the field of view—i. e., of pencils nearly parallel with the axis
of the lens—are brought to a perfect focal point, the central
rays, from marginal radianis—i. e., of very oblique pencils—
form crossing caustic lines. The refraction in the former case
is stigmatic, in the latter astigmatic. Therefore the picture
formed by such a lens is distinct in the central parts and very
indistinct on the margins. Now this well known defect of a
homogeneous lens Dr. Hermann shows is certainly in a great
measure, probably entirely, removed by the structure peculiar to
the crystalline lens. For in the case of a lens composed of con-
centric lamin increasing in density and curvature to the
center, the astigmatism of oblique pencils is greatly diminished,
and if the lamine be infinitely thin, probably entirely removed.
The picture formed by such a lens would therefore be perfect
in all parts, even to the extreme margins. The crystalline lens,
therefore, by its structure is endowed with the properly of form-
ing distinct images of objects lying even on the extreme margins
of the field of view—of forming perfect images on all parts of
the retinal screen even to the extreme anterior margins. It is

this structure, according to Dr. Hermann, which gives the eye

its enormous field of view, compared with that of optical

J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision. 1938

instruments. This then is the purpose of this structure. Jt
gives periscopism to the eye.

uch is a brief statement of Dr. Hermann’s discovery, and
his deductions therefrom. This discovery I regard as very

great accuracy the exact degree of indistinctness. This is an exam-
ple of one kind of indistinctness of vision. But if I hold my
pen far to one side, on the extreme verge of the field of view,
Say 90° from the direction of the optic axis, the pen is again
indistinct, far more so than before, but from an entirely differ-
ent cause, viz: imperfect perception of the retinal image. My
perception, in fact, is so imperfect that I cannot tell whether
the image is distinct or not. This is an example of the other
kind of indistinctness of vision.

ow of these two kinds of indistinctness, the latter is by far
the greater. Objects on the margin of the field of view are

}

* Loc. cit.

194 J. LeConte—Phenomena of Binocular Vision.

important that it should be so organized), that the perception
of its images, good or bad, is most perfect in the central spot,

useless, Per riscopic structure of the lens is useless because periscopic
perception of the retina is wanting.
e periscopism, i. e. the power of distinct vision over a wide

the lens, i.e. of making distinct margin ell as central
images; 2d, a periscopic property of the retina, i. e. of distinctly
ceiving marginal as well as central images. ow, Dr. Her-

mann has left out the second factor, and se identified peri-
scopism of the lens with periscopism of the
1 think it quite certain, therefore, that the canes of making
distinct marginal images, and therefore the characteristic lens
structure, in so far as 4 sibeerses this purpose, is useless in man.
Yet it seems equally certain that this property is a very impor-
tant one. here then shall we seek its use, and what is its
significance in man? I believe we must seek its use in the
lower animals, where it originated. In man it must be Pebis
as an example of a structure which has outlived its usefulnes
e —_— already shown in our last paper (p. 170), that true
ism, or distinct vision over a wide field, is a necessar
siiaiNine of safety in many of the lower animals. In accord-
ance with the law of evolution, therefore, an ocular structure,
suitable for this purpose, mus st be gradually formed and per-
fee This ocular structure, as we have mg seen, consists of
two parts, a lens structure to produce perfect marginal images
- a nnd structure to produce e a perception of all images,
a of these were rs in the

tribution of rception is inconsistent with fixed attention and
thoughtful prepton and therefore with the development of
the higher faculties of the mind. The uses of distinct marginal
tatigidgien: viz: breadth of distinct view, are sacrificed to the
igher uses of distinct central perception — viz: fixe
coougheiat’ attention to the object regarded alone. Thus with
the development of the central spot of the ser distinct mar-
ginal perception is lost ; because the uses of the latter are incon-
sistent with the higher uses of theformer. But the other factor
of periscopism, viz: the hie of forming distinct margina
images, is retained by inheritance; because though no longer

Tih 55 4 . Ses coe . oe
y g y Nitrate. 195

useful in this way, it is in nowise hurtful and may even be use-
ful in other w

Berkeley, Cal., Jan., 1877.

Fe Me ate" be

ArT. XXVI.—On Ethylidenargentami y
Nitrate ; TER. Contributions from the Sheffield
XLIX.

,

by W. G. Mix
Laboratory of Yale College. No. XLI

moved by a blast of air, and from equal weights of aldehyde-

* Liebig’s Ann., xiv, 147.

196 Ethyla y 9g 4 °. thyli }] ws Nitrate.

tals were obtained, which were washed with alcohol, and dried
over oil of vitriol. The carbon and hydrogen were determined
by burning with lead chromate, the nitrogen by Schiff’s method
with copper oxide and displacement of air by a slow stream of
carbonic acid, and the silver by simple ignition. The following
results were obtained from the two crops above mentioned :
Atomic Calculated for
g.

1st crop. 2d crop. Mean. ratio. CyHioN;0s

Carbon 18°32 18°33 18°33 18°75
Hydrogen 4°31 4-16 4°23 10°8 3°91
Nitrogen 16°63 16°65 16°64 3 16°41
ilver 2°06 41°99 42°03 1 42°18
Oxygen 18°77 3 18°75
100°00 100°00

These results give a formula different from NO,Ag 2(C,H,
ONH,), which is given in Watts’ Dictionary, vol. i, p. 108, as
vowed representing the substance. Taken together with

iebig’s analysis, they also indicate that the same body is
formed in both aqueous and ammoniacal solutions.

,oN,0,Ag differs from two equivalents of aldehyde-
ammonia and one equivalent of silver nitrate by two molecules
of water, thus: 2(C,H,ONH,)+AgNO,—2H,0=C,H,,
O,Ag. This view of the chemical process is supported by the
reactions of aldehyde with benzamide and aniline, in which
water separates, and also by the following experiment: 29°2
grams of a mixture of silver nitrate and good crystals of alde-
hyde-ammonia, in the proportion of one equivalent or 17° grams
of the former, to two equivalents, or 12-2 grams of the latter,
were dissolved in 40 ¢. e. of concentrated ammonia-water. The
solution was evaporated in a weighed dish, first by a blast from
a laboratory bellows and finally over oil of vitriol until the
weight was constant. The residue weighed 25:445 grams. The
weight, according to the above formula, should have been 25°600
grams. The difference of 0-155 grams between the experimental
result and theory may be ascribed to the slight decomposition
the substance had undergone in drying, which was shown by
the small black residue it left when treated with ammonia-
water.

When an ammoniacal solution of aldehyde-ammonia and
silver is evaporated at 20° to 30°, hydrous monoclinic transpar-
ent crystals separate, which do not change rapidly on damp
days, but become opaque with loss of water in dry weather.
Together with the hydrous crystals, small poorly defined tricli-
nic crystals form which do not become opaque in dry air.
latter are transparent and colorless, or more frequently have @
resinous tinge. Dr. E.S. Dana has studied the crystalline form
of both the hydrous and anhydrous crystals, and gives his re-

Ethy IJ ry ‘ thy li, , Nitrate. 197

og

sults in the following paper, Art. XX VII. The hydrous crystals
ean be picked out before losing their luster if the atmosphere is
damp, and the anhydrous crystals are easily distinguished after
the former have become opaque. The following results were
obtained on good monoclinic crystals which had been dried
over oil of vitriol, and on transparent anhydrous crystals:

Monoclinic Triclinic Calculated for

dried crystals. crystals. C,H, .N;0;Ag.
Carbon 18°55 18°62 18°75
Hydrogen 4°08 4°12 3°91
Nitrogen 16°58 16°64 16°41
Silver 42°03 41°97 42°18
Oxygen 18°75
100°00

Specific gravity, 2°13 2:28

Melts with rapid 0 ° ° °
dsconepoaitibel wt t 190 dae sk ia
To determine whether the monoclinic substance lost any
ammonia on drying, nearly two grams of crystals, not entirely
free from the triclinic body, were heated to 100°, in air which
traversed a caustic potash drying tube before reaching the sub-
. Stance and then passed a weighed tube filled with fragments of
caustic potash. The substance lost in weight exactly what the
latter tube gained, and the water thus estimated corresponded
to 420 per cent. The following results were obtained by dry-
ing well selected monoclinic crystals in a desiccator at 20° to 80°:
0°383 gram lost 4°28 per cent.
ce 4°26 oe

0343 ;
0°437 “ee (<4 4°23 ee
1°0504 “ S. 4°34 a

After the 0388 gram had obtained a constant weight in the
desiccator it was exposed for half an hour to 60° without further
loss; in three quarters of an hour at 100° the loss increased
0:0025 gram and the crystals had become brown. These water
determinations lead to the troublesome formula for the mono-

oxide fumes. Both turn brown at 100°, the monoclinic crystals
remain brittle, but the triclinic substance becomes gummy at

198 FE. & Dana—Crystalline form of

100° after some time. The triclinic crystals seh ges rapidly
a few degrees lower than the monoclinic. Bot S appear

yields on recrystallization some monoclinic crystals.
s to the constitution of the bodies their reactions make evi-
dant: that they contain the ethylidene and nitro groups. ie
gous to the ammonio-silver nitrate, whic

may een “regard them as amines, a may show their rela-
tion to ammonia-silver nitrate as follow

HN CH ae

HN { AgNO; CH? —CH=NH f AENOs

In accordance with the requirements of the now received
theories, these bodies may be formulated as substituted ammo-
nium nitrates, viz :
H,=N—O-NO,, ammonium nitrate.

H N= =—N—O-NO, argentamine-ammonium nitrate.

Ag
Hy
CH ,CHN—O—NO, neers eer mg
WT ethylidenammonium nitrate.
CH, Essen
Ag

Art. XX VIT.—On the e crystalline jorm of the ei and anhy-
drous varieties of Ei
Nitrate; by Epwarp S. Dana.

A: Hydrous y 19 Pe Be 4 * ae Ue) os Nitrate.

ve

7 am

THE nyliigad variety of etl
monium nitrate, described by Bratece! Mixter i in te preceing
article, crystallizes in the monoclinic system. The observ
planes (see figs. 1, 2) are as follows:

e (001), d oe g (111), ¢ (011), and rarely 5 (010).

ement of a considerable number of stent
the following were 2 vbicead as the fundamental angles

Ethylid 77 i thylid - Nitrate. 199

a

e (001) A e (011) = 69° -2’
e (001) A @ (111) = 78° 35’
d (111) A d'(111) = 60° 50’
From these angles the elements of the crystals were calculated,

l
c:6: & = 4°32645 : 1°65788 : 1°00000
B = 89° 43’ 52”
Sade important angles, calculated from the same data, are as
¢ (001) ~A.¢g G1). =. 78. =
g G11) A g'fill) = +=60° 56’
@(ill) qj g (1) = 114° 17
d (111) A e (011) = 66°18’
g (111) A € (011) = 65° 35’
d@ (111) A e'(011) = 122° 56’
g (111) A e(011) = 122° 48’
d (111) A 5 (010) = 59° 35’
g (111) A (010) = 59° 32’
The measured angles agreed quite closely with the calculated
angles when the character of the planes was such as to admit
of satisfactory observations. This will be seen from the follow-
ing oy ey lagi the angles measured on different crystals
or da
pp mip nae 5 per 60°46’, 60°47’, 60°51’, 60°52’, 60°50’, e
¢ Ad=78°35', 78°39’, 78°40", 78°33’, 78°34’, 78°40’, 78°38’, 13°36,
ete.
In many cases, hbsaedvee. the or were by no means er
factory, being generally polishe and yet far from smooth,
hence the reflections given b them were more or less faba
tain. The planes g, g’ were quite rage striated, and hence
the measurements made upon them were always unreliable.
The following angles were all obtained tro a single crystal ;
the wide variations from the calculated angles observed in some
cases are due to the cause nam
peer: 97' cigeue 12’ dad= 60° 46’
6 AGg=78° 38’ Gag=aNe. 7 g Ag’= 60° 46
€ Ag =78° 10’ d Ac = 65° 52 gae= 65° 41’
€ Ag’=78° 30 d' Ac'= 66° 23' Ae= 66° 33’
} ce Ae =69° 3’ & Ae'==122° 51’ g Ae=122° 57
c' Ae = 69° 2! BAe == 122° 30’ J A€ =1238° 33’

200 E. 8. Dana—Crystalline form of

The crystals examined were quite small, averaging from one
to two millimeters in length. The are generally rhombic

(fig. 1) at one extremity, and hexagonal in outline on the other;
occasionally, however, from the extension of the clinodomes
they take the form of hexagonal tables (fig. 2). The hemihedral:
character of the crystals, shown in the figures, is a marke
feature which they all possess. No trace of either of the miss-
ing pyramids or clinodomes was in any case discovered ; a few
isolated crystals of apparently holohedral development were
without exception found by optical means to be twins, though
showing no reéntrant angles. Other twins had the form of
fig. 2. e twinning-axis is here a normal to the basal plane.

The cleavage is highly perfect parallel to the base (c), and the
_ erystals have a pearly luster on this face.

The examination of the optical properties of the crystals
proves that, though the angle of obliquity is small (89° 4+’),
they unquestionably belong to the monoclinic system, and, on
the other hand, that they are not triclinic. :

natural crystal, or still better a cleavage section, viewed
in the polariscope in a direction normal to the basal plane (¢),

The apparent optic-axial angle in air was obtained with con-
siderable exactness : f

2E=68° 23’ for red rays, =67° 30’ for blue rays. The ordi-
nary dispersion is consequently p>v; the dispersion of the
bisectrices, on the other hand, v>p. The character of the
double refraction is negative.

The twins (see fig. 2) gave interference figures of great beauty,
both sets of axes being visible, situated symmetrically on either

Ethylid 9 i “ ethylid “¢ 901
side of the medial line. The apparent angle between the two
axial planes, measured in the usual way, was found to be 81°
for blue and 25° for red. The true angles soriesiiStlen « to
these, obtained with the stauroscope, are 16° and 11° respec-
tively. The first-mentioned angles, however, are not sufficiently
accurate 35 serve for the calculation of one of the indices of
refractio

B. saaevis Hthylid tamine-ethylid

nitrate.

The crystals of the second, or anhydrous, variety of this
compound belong to the triclinic system. Unfortunately the
material which Prof. Mixter has thus far 3.

exception cannot be relied upon within less
han 30’

The crystals are quite uniform in habit,
and figure 3 represents as closely as possible
the common form. The crystal is placed in the position given
in order to exhibit the close approximation to the monoclinic
form. e¢, g, h are planes of the lower side, and a’ is Le es a.

The angles measured on one crystal are as follow

a (100) ,d(111) = 57°20’) a eee lig cae 10’

a'(100) AA(A11) = 58° 2’ ~— a (100) Ae(i11) = 64° 4’

g (111) Ae (111) = 65°44’

These angles pvint to a form having an obliquity in a vertical
Testis of about 5°, but very slightly inclined in a horizontal]
direction. The measurements for a wes (010) gave in ee :
best case 90° 10’, and again 90° 20’. The variation from 90° i
here within the possible error of observation, owing to ee
imperfect character of the planes; the question was not decided,
consequently, until a stauroscope examination showed that the
plane of vibration for the light was not normal to } (010), but
made an angie of about 18°, thus proving the ¢riclinie nature of
the ore

Th aa, angles, a as has been stated, are not sufficiently
reliable t ey give the axial ratio calculated from them any especial

Maa the sat shee mr values of the axes are, c=1'45, 5=1°98,
=1, emihedral character of the crystal figured i is true
at all i crystals, and the examination in_ the stauroscope
failed to show any evidence of twinning. e crystals were
hot suited for any further optical examinations.
Am, Jour. Sct.—Tutrp 8 — XIV, No. 81.—Sept., 1877.

202 J. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

ArT. XX VITL—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that
of Berkshire ; by JAMES D. Dana.

[Continued from page 140.]

CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE RELATIONS OF VERMONT AND BERK-
SHIRE GEOLOGY.

presented under the following heads:

1. Chronological conclusions: or the equivalence and age of
the formations.

2. Lithological conclusions.

3. Orographic conclusions.

And, asa sequel to this discussion, I propose, next, to pre-
sent stratigraphical facts bearing on the geological relations:
between the area which has been under consideration and the.
country lying to the southward and eastward of it, in Connecti-
eut and New York.

I. CiHRonontocicaL ConcLusIoNs: OR THE EQUIVALENCE AND
; F THE FoRMATIONS.

1. Age of the: Limestone series as a whole.—From the facts
brought forward it is manifest that the limestone, schists and
quartzyte, making up the limestone series of Vermont and
Berkshire, are continuous formations, and that they are con-
Jormable throughout. Hence we have proof that the conclusions
deduced for Vermont, from Mr. Wing’s discoveries, are true
alsa for Berkshire: namely, that—

(1.) The limestone series is made up wholly of Lower Silurian
Jormations ; that is, of formations not older than the Primordial
or Cambrian, nor newer than the Cincinnati or Hudson River

Equivalence and Age of the Formations. 208

York. In Vermont the Taconic slates (those of the central
slate-belt) overlie the adjoining rear in one or more syn-
clinals, as plainly shown in Mount Dorset, Danby ee
Equinox Mountain, Spruce Peak. in Arlington, and Mou
Anthony in Bennington ; ; and in Berkshire they have the same
position, as observed in Graylock and Mount Washington.
Hence in both States the Taconic slates overlie, or are younger
than, the adjoining limestone.

In Vermont, as Mr. Wing has shown, the limestone nearest
the slate contains, in several places, Trenton fossils (Trinucleus,
etc.), and at West Rutland, Chazy fossils (Maclurea, etc.) if n ot
Trenton; and the slates are, therefore, as has been ‘already

tated, younger than the Trenton limestone of that region and
rise probably to the Hudson River or Cincinnati group. If
this be true in Vermont, the Taconic range in Berkshire, since
it is part of the same slate- belt, consists of rocks younger than
the Trenton, and is therefore ee of the Upper Trenton or of
the sro River or Cincinnati gro :

may be questioned whether the Graylock Spur should be
ptchides with the Taconic range, since it stands to the east of

oat as first observed by Emmons.

The Berkshire niinols of the band adjoining the Taconic
range is mostly, if not wholly, non-magnesian, like that of
Vermont. Hence its constitution, as well as its position, makes
it altogether probable, that it is Trenton or Chazy, as in Ver-
mont. The limestone west of the Taconic range in Hillsdale,
Copake and farther south, must also be Trenton or Chazy since
this is true for that similarly situated in Vermont; and, more-
over, it is the west side of one and the same synclinal hexiie
the Himéstone on the east side of the Taconic range passing
beneath and coming up again on the west side.

8. The Limestones and Schists of the Buen half of the limestone
area.—Like the Taconic slates to the westward, these more
eastern rocks in Berkshire are a continuation of those north of
them in Vermont. The quartzyte is not all in one range. in
either State; but, whether i in one or several mene it 168 alike

204 soo. D. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

then, the Berkshire limestone of the middle and sonia half of
the area may include the Calciferous, Quebee, Chazy a ren-
ton formations, and perhaps also the Primordial; but, since there
are no fossils to fix the precise age, the areas of these different
formations in Berkshire cannot be se arately distinguished.

4. The age of the Quartzyle formation, and its relation in position
to the adjoining limestone.—The quartzyte formation includes, as

one, and sometimes the other, acted The special age

heats to the associated limestone—is well illustrated in
Berkshire. Mr. Wing, in his explanations of the Vermont
sections (pp. 410, 411 of the last volume of this Journal), makes
this limestone to overlie the quartayte, and to be the equivalent
of the “suberystalline limestone” which overlies the Red Sand-
rock on. the west side of the limestone area—the quartzyte
being in his view the same rock with the Red Sand-rock. It1s
to be noted, however, that the sections themselves do not indi-
eate aehettiar the limestone is over ying or anderly'0g and
may be explained as well on one supposition as the other.
In Berkshire, beyond all reasonable doubt, the sake, genie
formation overlies the adjoining limestone.
e most distinct and positive proof of the superposition of
the quartzyte over limestone that I have observed is that

Three-mile S eaaan went mre

of Konkaput Valley.

3
tees) 8 Beets — side of ‘takin valley.
afforded by sections either side of a apcone Fs locality
brought to my attention, as I state in my memoir of 1 1872-8,
by Dr, R. P. Stevens. The figures of the atone of Devany’s

Liquivalence and Age of the Formations. 205

Bluff and Three-mile Ridge, which face one another on oppo-
site sides of the valley, are here repeated from page 45 of this
volume. In each of the sections, quartzyte strata and over-
lying schists of great thickness rest on the limestone which
outcrops in the valley. The dip is small (8°-25°, p. 46).-
The limestone is plainly at the bottom; and 2 és strategraphi-
cally so, unless there has been a flexing of the strata and an
overturned fold at the place. Nothing in the region suggests
that there has been such an overthrow: the facts, on the con-
trary, prove the flexure which the strata have undergone to be
a gentle one. As has been stated, the two ridges stand oppo-
site one another, not quite a mile apart. In the eastern, the
dip is 20°-25° to the northeastward; in the western, about the
same to the northwestward. The series of rocks from below
upward, limestone, quartzyte, schist, of one side, is repeated in
the other, and the schist of the west side has a thickness of
several hundred feet like that of the east. All the conditions
are those of a low anticlinal spanning the valley; and one
Whose axis dips gettly northward, and whose sides flare south-
ward or southward and eastward. The valley south of Devany’s
Bluff widens much to the eastward and has its lakes with lime-
stone about tliem.
Besides this, the rocks of the gentle anticlinal are continued in
the high land either side in a broad shallow synclinal—the high
land synclinals and the anticlinal valley between covering a
breadth from east to west of ten miles. (a) In the synclinal to the
west (between the Konkaput valley and Great Barrington), the
schist has first a dip northwestward of 8° to 25°, but, after three-
fourths of a mile, the dip is eastward 20° to 25°, and finally 40°
to 50°, just east of Great Barrington. () In that to the east,
the dip is 5° to 25° to the northeastward, over the high land an
mountainous region all the way east from Devany’s bluff to the
village of Monterey ; but on the northeastern side of this high
land, at the village of Tyringham, and at South Lee, it is to the
southwestward. A section between Monterey and Tyringham,
east of north in course, shows the change of dip. The limestone
about Monterey dips 25° to the northwest; along the highest
part of the road, the gneiss and mica schist of the hills outcrop
and have the same dip and strike; descending to Tyringham,
five miles to the north, the dip diminishes, and for the last mile

of °c and mica schist, with a dip of 15° to 25°.

206 J. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

or areas of high land are synelinals, a rule exemplified exten-
sively in the continuation of the Appalachians from Pennsyl-
vania to Alabama, where the facts are little obscured by -meta-
morphism. The position of the limestone beneath the quartzyte
and schists aloug the Konkaput is then the original position.
_ This underlying of the thick quartzyte and schists by lime-
stone appears to be a fact in many other parts of the Berkshire
region, as in Monument Mountain, in quartzyte ridges east of
om Ball, and elsewhere, though these examples are not as
free as the above mentioned from other supposable explana-
tions. The evidence is complete with or without them, that
the quartzyte and the associated schists in some prominent cases
in Berkshire, if not all, overlies limestone. In such cases, ac-
cordingly, the limestone is the older formation of the two; and
this is as true for Vermont as for Berkshire. And where so in
either State the quartzyte and the associated schists constitute

Equivalence and Age of the Formations. 207 .

equivalent of the Red Sandrock; it is even related in age to
the Taconic slates; these overlying a western portion of the
limestone and the quartzyte formation an eastern. If so, the east-
ern quartzyte formation ts of the age of the later Trenton, or the Cin-
cinnali group, both in Vermont, Berkshire and Connecticut.

ill be remembered that the axis of the iron-ore belt is

and I have
found that both are unquestionable fossils. The former is the
shell of a small lamellibranch about six and a half lines long
and five broad. The so-called Orthoceras is a slender conical

ge,
The facts that have been reviewed have established : (1) The
Lower Silurian age of the limestone series as a whole; (2) the
unity of position, and of epoch of uplift, of the series; (3) the
very probable Trenton and Chazy age of the limestone ad-
joining the whole of the Taconic slate-belt or range; (4) the
equally probable Upper Trenton or Cincinnati age of the Ta-
conic rocks. But the age of the more eastern portion of the
limestone and of the quartzyte and schists remains undeter-
mined. My opinion is that the quartzyte will be found to be
newer than the Red Sandrock, and of the same age essentially
as the Taconic slates.
[To be continued.]

208 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of

Art. XXIX.—On the preparation of Oylinders of Zirconia for the
Oxy-hydrogen Light; by JOHN CHRISTOPHER DraPER, M.D.,
LL.D., Professor of Natural History in the College of the
City of New York.

position in the optical axis of the apparatus.

the experimenter has a good heliostat, the light from the
sun fulfills these conditions better than any artificial light; but,
experience teaches the unwelcome lesson that though sunlight
is preferable to any other, it scarcely ever happens that it is
available at the time it is wanted. The weather is almost cer-
tain to be either cloudy or hazy just at the hour when it is
desired to make an important demonstration, and the leeturer
is obliged to postpone it, thereby lessening its value, and often
entirely losing its effect. The selection of the best artificial
light therefore becomes a matter of importance to those who
desire to secure the advantages to be derived from the success-
ful demonstration of such microscopic objects as reparations
of animal and vegetable tissues, animalcules, the circulation of
the blood, ete.

Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light. 209

its position in the optical axis of the apparatus, it is thrown
into operation with comparative facility when cylinders con-
taining the compressed gases are available, and it has sufficient
intrinsic brilliancy for the majority of experiments. e diffi-
culties in the way of its use are however serious, and it is very
desirable that they should be lessened. They arise chiefly
rom the volatility of the calcium oxide at the intensely high
temperature employed. The volatilized material depositing
on the condensing lenses prevents the passage of the luminous
rays, and the cavity formed in the cylinder of hme at the spot
where the flame impinges soon interferes with the brilliancy of
the light; this necessitates a change in the position of the lime
cylinder to present a new surface to the action of the flame,
and this in its turn implies a distraction of the attention of the
experimenter, which interferes seriously with the satisfactory
management of his subject. Though the attempt is made to

trivances, they are stil] unsatisfactory in their action. Another
serious objection i is the necessity of placing the cylinders in a
closed vessel when not in use to protect them from the action of
the air.

-magnesium light is similar to the preceding, differ-
ing seg in the substitution of a cylinder or pencil of magne-
sium oxide for calcium oxide, and the light emitted is of equal
brilliancy. Following the instructions given for the prepara-
tion of these cylinders, I have taken the greatest pains to pro-
cure samples of magnesium oxide of the utmost purity. I have
also tried various methods for its preparation, among which the
combustion of the metal in oxygen may be men ntioned, but
failure has thus far attended all efforts to make pencils or
cylinders which could withstand the intense heat of the flame
of the mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases without undergoing
volatilization. The pencils obtained were fully equal in this
respect to those of calcium oxide; but, I did iti find any
superiority that repaid the trouble of their prepara

he oxy-zirconium light produced by the action ore the flame
of mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases on a cylinder of zirconium
elds meets all the requirements of the case in question. It
has the intrinsic brilliancy, the invariable brilliancy, the fixity
of position in the optical axis of the apparatus, and it does not
volatilize under the heat employed. The condensing inneee
ain free from deposit, and after the light is once adjust
the experimenter can carry on his demonstrations without the
distraction of his sop that attends the use of the’ other
lights. All that is necessary is according to the size of the
reservoirs of compressed gas to open the cocks a little as the
pressure diminishes. There is also no necessity to remove

210 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of

the zirconium oxide pencil from its position, as is the case
with the calcium oxide, it may on the contrary remain 7 situ
for any length of time, and the apparatus is always ready for
use whenever it is wanted.

Though the standard works on chemistry generally mention
the light-emitting power of zirconium oxide under a high tem-
perature, the only successful attempt that has been made to
apply it practically that I am aware of was that of Tessié du
Motay. Unsatisfactory references to his process for preparing
zirconia cylinders are to be found in various chemical works
and journals, the best that I have seen being that given on
page 47 of “Crooke’s Select Methods in Chemical Analysis.”
The careful reader of this and other articles on zirconia will be
prepared to expect difficulties in the way of its preparation,
and it is to the removal or lessening of these difficulties that I
now propose to address myself by the minute relation of the
process I have finally adopted after many weeks of experiment.

e subject naturally divides itself: Ist, into the preparation
of zirconium oxide; and, 2d, the preparation of the cylinders
or pencils.
Preparation of zirconium oxide.

2d. Reduce five or six grams in a steel mortar:
or, by first heating to bright redness and chilling in water
while very hot the same may be in a porcelain mortar.

wder. The final yield of zirconia depends on the thorough-
ness with which this is done.

4th. Weigh out two grams of the fine zireon powder and
mix it intimately in a mortar with ten grams of dry sodium
carbonate, place the mixture in a covered platinum crucible of
twenty cubic centimeters capacity.

. Place the crucible over a strong Bunsen flame; the
burner should be at least fifteen millimeters in diameter;
about twenty minutes the mass in the crucible will have
shrunken to one-third of its original volume if the heat 18
sufficient. To secure uniformity in temperature of the erucible

Zirconia for the Ozy-hydrogen Tright. 2i1

I have employed the following device. The platinum crucible
being placed in a triangle of platinum wire supported on the
ring of a retort stand, a graphite crucible having a diameter of
five centimeters was taken and an opening fifteen to twent

millimeters in diameter made in its bottom. It was then

Coal gas being turned into the burner, ignited, and the bellows
thrown into action, seven clean sharp pointed blowpipe flames
are produced which give a very intense heat.

e mass in the platinum crucible having been fused and
the fusion continued until it begins to assume a pasty state, it
1s again liquified according to the plan of Berzelius by the
addition of caustic soda about equal in weight to that of zircon.
The heat being again applied the disintegration of the silicate
continues, and if necessary a second addition of caustic soda
may be made.

7th. The contents of the platinum crucible having cooled,
separate them therefrom, and place in a beaker, add two hun-
dred cubic centimeters of distilled water; any portions of the
fused material that adhere to the walls or cover of the crucible
are also to be removed by a jet of distilled water and added to
the contents of the beaker. An occasional stirring will pro-
mote the disintegration of the mass, which is completed in the
course of a couple of hours, silicate of sodium, the excess of
sodium carbonate and soda dissolving, and leaving a white
powder, which according to Dr. Melliss is composed of zirco-
_ ium oxide, silicium anhydride, and sodium oxide, together
with any zircon that may have escaped disintegration.

212 J. C. Draper—Preparation of Cylinders of

distilled water added, the mixture stirred and set aside for
twenty-four hours or longer, and when the precipitate has set-
tled the liquid is decanted and the beaker with its contents
set on the water bath to dry.

8th. Pulverize the dried material in the beaker with a glass
rod, add twenty cubic centimeters of pure hydrochloric acid
(Merck’s), cover the beaker with a large watch glass and set on
the water bath; when the acid has dissolved as much as it will
take up, it is to be decanted while hot into a shallow evap-
orating dish of about five hundred cubic centimeters capacity.

second dose of twenty cubic centimeters of hydrochloric
acid is added to the contents of the beaker, and when all lumps
are broken down the mixture is transferred to the evaporating
dish, a little hydrochloric acid being used to complete the
transference.

9th. For the final separation of the silica the contents of the
dish are evaporated to dryness on the water bath, and the heat
continued until they cease to emit acid fumes, a little distilled
water is then added and thoroughly incorporated with the
residue by stirring. The mixture is again evaporated to dry-
ness at 212° F. The second drying being completed, about
two hundred cubic centimeters of distilled water are added,
and when all the soluble material is taken up the mixture 1s
transferred to a filter. On the filter there remains silica an
undecomposed zircon. In the filtrate there are zircomum
— sodium chloride and iron chloride.

1

tate properly on the filter, it must be carefully transferred
therefrom to a beaker while it is still moist by means of a glass
rod and jet of distilled water from a washing bottle. The

Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light. 213

tilled water well stirred, and when the precipitate has settled it
is collected on a filter as before and allowed to drain as long
as it will yield any fluid.

th. The precipitate obtained above is dissolved in as little
pure hydrochloric acid as possible, the solution diluted with
distilled water to five hundred cubic centimeters and heated to
_ boiling for some time. Ammonia is added to the hot solution,
when the zirconium oxide is thrown down and is to be col-
lected on a filter, washed with hot water and allowed to dry at
the temperature of the air, the yellowish or whitish lumps
resulting are pulverized in an agate mortar, when a white
powder is obtained. The quantities I have given in the ’
various operations detailed above apply to two grams of the
powdered zircon. For the preparation of a zirconia cylinder of
sufficient size the product obtained from four grams of zircon
is required, the quantities may be doubled throughout; but, it
is better to make two fusions of two grams each and double
the quantities given in the latter part of the description.

I have also tried the separation of zirconium chloride from
iron chloride by hydrochloric acid; but, though I worked at a
temperature of 32° F., the yield was very small and therefore
unsatisfactory. In the process by hyposulphite of soda I
found it very difficult to get rid of the soda. The process of
disintegrating the zircon by chlorine at a high temperature
also failed to give satisfactory results in my hands, and I find
that Dr. Melliss records the same experience. :

Preparation of the Cylinders.
The zirconium oxide powder obtained in the manner described
b

above is to be heated in a platinum crucible and kept at a
bright red for five or six hours; it will under these circum-
stances shrink considerably in volume. I have sometimes in
addition submitted the powder to the heat of the oxy-hydrogen
flame with advantage, spreading it out for this purpose on a
piece of platinum foil supported on a slab of iron, and directin
the flame on the powder. The operator should wear smoke:
lg The powdered oxide thus condensed by heat is
then moistened with just enough water to give it a tendency to
form small lamps. In this condition it is placed in a cylindrical —
mould and submitted to severe pressure by a piston fitting
closely to the cavity of the cylinder, both of which should b
properly oiled. The size of the pencils I have prepared is
about six millimeters in diameter and one centimeter in length.
When in use they are mounted so as to present one end to the
action of the oxy-hydrogen flame, when a brilliant circular
Spot of light is formed admirably adapted for all kinds of
optical experiments.

214 Preparation of Zirconia for the Oxy-hydrogen Light.

The cylinder in which the pencils have been compressed is
about two centimeters in diameter and four centimeters in
length; the cavity running centrally through it is six milli-
meters in diameter, the piston rod fits closely, and both it

from the zirconia prepared in the manner related above have
been tested alongside of those made from zirconia prepared by

erck, which is stated to be pure, and is sold at the rate of
one dollar per gram. Whatever the process may be that Is
used in its preparation it does not give a product as free from
iron and silica as the one which I have described, nor does It
possess the same illuminating power.

June 22d, 1877.

E. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven. 215

Art. XXX.— Mineralogical Notes. No. V. On the occurrence
of Garnets with Sh oe of New Haven, Connecticut; by
by Epwarp 8.

GARNETS have been recently discovered in connection with
the New Haven trap rocks, at two distinct localities ; and their
method of occurrence presents some points of considerable
interest.

These “trap rocks,” as they are commonly called, belong
to the system of dikes of igneous rocks which characterize the
Mesozoic sandstone areas of the Atlantic border. Mr. G. W.

awes has given these rocks a thorough chemical examina-
tion,* and has shown that they have all essentially the same
composition, being for the most “pnt true dolerites, but Lg
ing also the hydrous, chloritic variety called diabase. I tak
the liberty. of quoting here Mr. Hawes’s analysis of the teu
from West Rock, which, as he states, is “the typical rock of
this region.’ Specific oravity 3°08.

ive OR Lillis cos ee eae eee 51°78
Bape eptipe nee Rear gee 14°20

a sesquioxide bck eiu ph be ee aus ees 3°59
Tron protoxide 425
Manganese protoxide Janie wha Uigbes aan ey can 0°44
Ailtie ooo oe a a ee 10°70
Magacis eas bee C eed ae Soa owe ome 7°63
BOGS oo ec ee ee eae 2°14
POR ie ee ae 0°39
Phosphoras pontémide 20. ak 0°14
RIOR es 0°63
99°89

writer has made a microscopic examination,t by means
of thin sections, of this series of rocks, including, among many
others, specimens from West Rock (see the analysis above) and
also from the two localities where the e garnets have been found,
viz: East Rock and Mill Rock. These three points, it should
be stated, are within four miles of each other, all lying just
outside of the limits of the city of New Haven. It was found
that the specimens from the localities named were Hautes
in mineralogical character, and that they were all quite free
from any alteration. The mineralogical constituents are as
follows: A. triclinic ss Jed which Mr. Hawes has shown
mor fe o be labradorite, pyroxene, and magnetite, also
more or less chrysolite, and . little apatite in minute acicular
crysta.

< This Journal, III, ix, — — 1875.
; This wisi) Ii, viii,

216 ES. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven.

Garnets from East Rock.

nar, and the garnets occur on the vertical surfaces of the

front of the Rock, failed to reveal any other locality.

The associated minerals are: Magnetite, apatite, pyroxene
now altered to chlorite, calcite, and also in traces chalcopyrite
and sphalerite.

The garnets themselves are uniformly crystallized in rhombic
dodecahedrons, with the edges truncated by the planes 2-2.

; :
crystalline crusts which have been mentioned. It was selected
with care to ensure freedom from the rock, and still more from
the apatite crystals, which, as remarked below, were intimately
associated with the garnet. The specific gravity was 3°740.

e mean of two analyses gave:

BOG: o.oo Be
Tron sesquioxide (with AlO, trace). .-..----- 29°15
ron protoxide 23). iui oo. Me Oe emer 2°49
Manganese protoxide_... .. 0.0 2l en esse 0°36
NO So te Oe es ee 32°80
Maonesig posit, scsi oe seus fa 3s sesh Ge 0°24
APUIRION [ois ad ee, 26s ee ie ween oe
100°48

E. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven. 217

to prove its absence. The magnetite was also tested qualita-
tively for titanic acid, but none was discovered.

The associated minerals deserve also a few words of descrip-
tion. The magnetite stands first in order of abundance. tt
appears in the form of brilliant octahedrons, scattered some-
times thickly, sometimes sparsely, over the surface of the rock ;
it uniformly underlies the garnet where they occur together.
The octahedrons of magnetite are sometimes unmodified, but
generally the solid angles are replaced with the planes of the
form 8-8, and the edges beveled with those of the form 2-2; an
m-n form is also common, but with planes so rounded as not
to admit of determination. The development of the last form
occasionally produces irregular bullet-shaped crystals. The
octahedral faces are brilliant, the others dull.

The pyroxene occurs in minute dark-green crystals, destitute
of luster; they are crowded together on the surface of the
rock. These crystals are strictly pseudomorphs after pyroxene,
for though having unquestionably its form, they are so soft as
to be easily cut with a knife, and in the powder have all the
mp of chlorite.

he apatite occurs in very minute prismatic crystals of a
yellowish-green color. They are most common on and among
the crystals of pyroxene. They are more numerous, however,
than would appear at first glance, since a careful examination
shows that they interpenetrate the garnet crystals in great
numbers. The crusts of garnet particularly, which are appar-
ently perfectly homogeneous, are found when broken up to be
penetrated in every direction with these minute apatite needles.
In this respect the garnets resemble those of the Kaiserstuhl
described by Knop:

-

inally, the caleite is found in crusts, and in rhombohedral

the above minerals are here true secondary apes
ably in

cite; the excess of silica above that needed by the garnet, and
also the alkalies have disappeared entirely.
Am. Jour. ——s Vou. XIV, No. 81.—Sxpr., 1877,

218 £. S. Dana—Garnets from the Trap Rocks of New Haven.

Garnets from Mill Rock.

The other garnet locality is at the west end of Mill Rock.
In appearance and in method of occurrence the garnets here
found are a decided contrast to those that have been just de-
seribed. They occur on the line of contact between the trap
and the adjoining sandstone, and probably owe their origin to
the metamorphic action of the heat of the erupted rock. They
are found best in seams and little cavities in the trap, where

other forms occurring with this are:
2-2, 3-3, and H. The adjoiming
figure shows the habit of the crystals.

The following angles were measured
to determine these forms.

For $-3A3-3 (over H) =136° 15’, required 135° 59’ 48”.
“« «adjacent (edge B)=149°16’, required 149° 16’ 38”.
For 64-4 edge B =178° 15’, required 178° 5’
“ce “cs 4 8 —178° 56’, “cc 179° 6

.
'
.

Of the above enumerated forms, the basal plane (/) is quite
rare with this species, the tetragonal tris-octahedron 3-3 is new,
though it has been observed on fluorite, and also by Klein (as
a hemihedral form) on sphalerite; and the hexoctahedron

admit of any chemical examination, but in view of their siml-
larity of form and color, they may safely be referred to the

to obtain enoug
character remains undetermined.

J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 219

ART. XXXI.—A description of the Rochester, Warrenton, and
Cynthiana Meteoric Stones, which fell respectively December 21st,
1876, January 3d, 1877, and January 23d, 1877, with some
remarks on the previous falls of Meteorites in the same regions ;
by J. LAWRENCE SmirH, Louisville, Kentucky.

A SHORT notice of the three meteorites which form the sub-

ject of this communication, was published by me shortly after
their fall, the detailed account of their flight and fall having
been deferred until I could make a moré thorough examina-
tion. his I am now able to do, as there have been
sent to me the entire stone that fell near Cynthiana, and a
large portion of the fragments which have been saved of the
other two.
_ The points of interest in connection with these three meteor-
ites are as follows: First, they fell within a period of thirty-two
days, and within a circumscribed territory of about two degrees
of latitude and six degrees of longitude. ‘Secondly, they differ -
from each other in their structural characteristics, and each has
some peculiarity distinguishing it from the ordinary type of
meteoric stones. Thirdly, they fell within a belt of cory
which I shall show has been the lodging ground of all the
meteoric masses that have been observed to fall and have been
collected in the United States during the past eighteen years,
with the exception of about one kilogram.

1. Rochester (Indiana) Meteorite.

The passage of this meteorite through the earth’s atmosphere
has left but a small souvenir of its visit. It was well observed
_ at Bloomington, Indiana, lat. 89° 12’, long. 86° 82', by the dis-
tinguished astronomer Professor Kirkwood, who communica-
ted to me at the time his observations; and he has subse-
quently given them more in detail to the American Philosoph-
ical Society, with the observations he had collected from others.
I will therefore simply give a summary of the phenomena
attendant upon its flight before describing the chemical and
mineralogical characteristics of the stone which fell.

e bolide made its appearance about nine o’clock P. M.,”
December 21, 1876, and was of extraordinary magnificence. It
saree eastward over the States of Kansas, Missouri, Illinois,

ndiana, Ohio, and parts of Pennsylvania and New Yor
Although no observations were made in the two last mentioned .
States, still Professor Kirkwood is doubtless correct in defining
this as its course. t Bloomington its elevation was fifteen

egrees. According to the calculation, the length of its observed
track was from 1,000 to 1,100 miles, one of the longest on rec-

220 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteorie Stones.

ord. Its height is supposed to have been thirty-eight miles
above the place where the small fragment fell from it.

In various parts of its track, it threw off fragments, accom-
panied with the usual rumbling noise and commotion in the
atmosphere common to the flight of these bodies. When cross-
ing Indiana, the main body was followed by a train of smaller
bolides, many of them of the apparent size of Venus or Jupi-
ter. Its velocity in reference to the earth’s surface appeared to
be from eight to twelve miles per second. The pyrotechnic
display is said to have been transcendently beautiful, hardly
arpa or surpassed by any previous occurrence of the kind.
The cause of this brilliancy lay in the physical structure of the
body, which will be detailed farther on.

e fragment which fell—The only fragment of this bolid
known to have fallen was one found on the farm of Mr. Mor-
ris, three miles northwest of Rochester, Indiana, lat. 41°, long.
86°. This farmer heard the explosion, and shortly afterward
noticed a body strike the ground not far from him. There
- were six inches of snow upon the ground, and, on the follow-

ing morning he found the stone, which had rebounded to a
short distance from the place where it first fell, it not having
ceeds the ground. The entire stone did not weigh four
undred grams, and as we have not heard of the fall of any
other mass, it is reasonable to suppose that it was dissipated into
very minute fragments and dust, as in the case of the Hessle
stones and other similar falls.

he manner in which the molten matter of the exterior of

many of these meteorites is swept over their surfaces, in shining
streaks, covering freshly broken surfaces, show clearly that this
disintegration is constantly and rapidly going on in these bodies
during their passage through the air. I have in my collection
many fine examples illustrating this fact.

Professor Kirkwood is of the opinion that this bolide never
passed out of our atmosphere, which is in accord with my gen-
eral view on this subject, viz: that a bolide rarely, if ever, gets
entangled in our atmosphere without being entirely reduced to
fragments or powder,

‘I'he stone has been broken up into many small fragments, of

‘which I have fortunately secured a good portion. Others have
been lost and a few have found their way into collections.
With the exception of the largest specimen in my collection,
weighing ninety-five grams, hardly any other fragment weighs
over thirty grams. It is important to treasure these specimens,
small as they are, for it is a remarkable stone of its type. It1s of
the pisolitic variety, very friable, of a gray color, easily crushed
under the fingers into light powder (some of it to fine dust), and
to small globules, some of them perfectly spherical, of which 1

J. L. Smith— Description of Meteoric Stones. 221

have specimens two millimeters in diameter. It resembles more
closely the Aussun stone than any other I know of, although

much more friable. This peculiar gullet so often seen in
many parts of meteoric stones, has rec ently attracted muc
attention, Professor Tschermak, of pares paving recently
published an interesting paper on the subjec

The specific gravity of the stone, taken ooh several average
specimens, is 3:55. There is nothing peculiar about the coat-
ing on the specimens I have examined; it is of a dull black
and quite rough.

Chemical examination.—The stony part of the meteorite
separated almost perfectly from the metallic part still on
a notable portion of troilite ok could not be separat
chanically. The amount of sulphur found in that part of ‘the
meteorite indicated the amount of troilite treme viz: 3°31.

The stony material, when treated with chlorhydric acid over a
water bath, affords soluble part 47-80 per cent, insoluble 52:20
per cent, and is constituted as follows:

Soluble part, per cent. Insoluble part, per cent.
34 57°81

Pig See D5
Iron. \ protoxide. agence ae 11°04
a be Gas eS gee as trace 23
eg Vel ebb Oke eee 5°31
Magnesia ........-.--. 36°38 24°97
ee O8IGG . cbs “40
ee ey re ae 46 ae

99°14 100° 00°30 :
I separated some of the globules perfectly free from the inter-
vening matrix, which is easily done oy rubbing a piece of the
stone between the fingers. Very minute specks of iron could
be distinguished on them, and when sh kee and treated with
chlorhydric acid, they gave about the same result as the ma-
a viz: soluble, 46°80 per cent; insoluble, 53-20 per cent; and
magnesia in ‘the soluble part was 34°48 per cent, showing
clensly that they were merely concretions of the matrix of the
sto
The piceaiperans iron, which was separated mechanically,
is compos

i abn cals ok ee dk ace ae
NICKS! iy Cy ek ea 4°12
Cena ee ee 51

99°12

The quantity of iron was too small for an examination of the
other ceed dered Pa phosphorus and copper, but they were no
doubt both p

* ee Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. Ixxi, p. 661.—Wien.

222 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.

Mineral constituents of the Stone.—Careful examination under
the microscope of the spo surface, as well as of a section
rub

with nickeliferous iron and — anton like anorthite is
distinguishable. The first two inerals constitute the bulk |
of the stone, and ioe is easiiiy more than one variety of
each of these minerals present. The nickeliferous iron is
quite abundant, although Professor Shepard states that from a
casual observation he estimates it at one per cent; by the care-
re method adopted for aeparating it, I find in two average

and in this way it was found to contain both classes of silicates
referred to, a fact, as already stated, sustained by chemical exam-
ination. Iconsider He mineral constituents of the Rochester
stone to be about as f

Bronzite ey py Hike minerals..._.... 46°00
Olivine mmersis... Sye0> 41°00
Wickeliterous irom 20 Fi ol. oe ck: OOO
RYOHO es oe a 3°00
rome Wen Vi a Ie

2. Warrenton (Missouri) Meteorite.

About sunrise, on the 8d of January, 1877, five miles from
Warrenton in the State of Missouri, lat. 38° 50, long. 91° 10’, a
sound was heard by certain observers similar to the whistle of a
distant locomotive; or, as stated by others, like the passage of a
cannon ball throug the air. The sound came from the “north-
west, and became louder and louder to four observers near
Warrenton. On looking up they saw an object falling, which
struck a tree, breaking off the limbs, and then coming to the
ground with acrash. The observers were fifty or sixty meters
distant from the spot where it fell. On approaching the place
they saw a mass of stone broken into a number of pieces.
From the fragments they suppose it to have = originally of
a conical form, and about eighteen inches in len The snow
was melted, and the frozen ground thawed near bhiees it fell,
but the pieces, although warm, were easily handl The
weight was estimated to have been about one hundred pounds ;
but, whether this estimate be correct or not, only epee ten or
fifteen pounds of fragments have been preserved, a por-
tion of which is in my possession, mostly in small fragments ; ;

J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 223

some specimens are in the cabinet of Yale College, and others
scattered about among the inhabitants of the country where it
fell.

As regards its temperature at the time of falling I would say
that I have a specimen, which gives as it were a satisfactory
record that it was not very hot when it struck the tree, for a
portion of the fibers of one of the branches is adhering to the
surface entangled in the rough crust of the stone, and these del-
icate fibers show not the slightest signs of having been heated.
A fact to be noted in connection with the fall of this meteorite

its rapid motion through the atmosphere, and dropped quietly
like an exhausted bird in its flight. Its direction, so far as
made out, was from northwest to southeast.

Aspect of the Stone.—Studied by the various fragments that are
under my observation, it differs in a marked degree, although
pisolitic, from the one just described, and which fell only
a few days previously. It has its own points of peculiar inter-
est, and is not like any meteorite that I am familiar with, ex-
cept the Ornans meteorite, which fell July 11th, 1868; and this
it resembles closely in every particular, as may be seen by com-
paring my results with those of Pisani (Comptes Rendus Acad.
Sci., 1868, vol. ti, p. 668), although his method of recording the
analytical results is different from mine, and the specific gravity,
as made out by him, is higher than mine, which is not singular
in different specimens of these porous bodies. Its crust is dull _
black, and quite thick; in many places, of several centimeters
square, from two and one half to three and one half millimeters
thick (the thickest I have ever seen), where the crust is a
rough scoria that sometimes terminates abruptly on a smooth
portion of the crust, and is doubtless produced by the melted
matter on the surface being forced backward and opposite to
the direction of the flight of the stone, being swept off one por-
tion of the surface, and leaving this part smooth, and piled up
behind it, in the form of a surface of scoria.

The interior of the stone has a very dark uniform ash color,
and is soft and easily crushed; the latter fact accounts for its
having broken into fragments as it struck the ground. Its spe-
cific gravity is 8-47, and the amount of metallic matter con-
tained in it is small.

Chemical composition.—The stone pulverized and freed from
metallic particles gave on analysis an amount of sulphur equal
to 3°51 per cent of troilite; the amount of nickeliferous iron
was small, being equal to 2°01 per cent. The stony minerals
treated with chlorhydric acid gave—

224 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.

Solnblo:vin-eckdia, 25 tei ie. 04 80°40 per cent.
Insoluble: in-neid 3 is0cscsweds 12013. 19°60 per cent.
cn as follows
Soluble. Insoluble.
.--33°02 56°90
any protoxide ahh « alee ann Biase are 37°57 10°20
ek cio uleiduien Garr ts ware 0°12 20
_ ER aR Ee hace euhene wath Oe 7°62
ph) A IRS a 28°41 22°41
ee ks em tee ee aig cs “0 1°00
Petner OSIGO 2 oe ee ew 1°54
Covet oniae > co oe ’
Chromium oxide 33
101°04 97°66
I obtained chrome oxide thirty-three per cent, indicating
050 of chrome iron, if the chrome be present in t or

the oxide of nickel, with the exception of — a minute
portion, belongs to the composition of the soluble silicates.

e nickeliferous tron contained in this stone is very small in
quantity. This on analysis gave

99°32
Mineral constituents of the Warrenton Meteorite.—A microsco-

erals, subaeneg em four-fifths of the tink The proportion of

the mineral constituents is about as follows:
ave vine minerals-- So eno ae tee
Bronzite and pyroxenie minerals. ... .-_. -.--18°00
Nickeliferous iron -__.__.. AA Be a
TYOHGE So Se eae 3°50
Chirsuis WON ee 50

3. Cynthiana 7 aot Meteorite.

I have called this the Cynthiana stone, although it fell nine
miles from that place, in Harrison county, Cynthiana being the
nearest important point to the place where it fell.*

* I will take occasion just here to correct an error that I have seen in several
among them those of Vienna, the British a and the Garden =
ic yy me i

Plants. These catal
that of Harrison county, Kentucky: it s

J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones. 225

At four o’clock P. M., on the 28d of January, 1877, a brilliant
bolide was seen traversing Monroe county, Indiana, in a south-
easterly direction, about thirty-five degrees above the horizon.
The same bolide was observed by a number of persons in Deca-
tur county, of the same State, lat. 39° 27’, long. 85° 28’, and
it disappeared just as it seemed to touch the earth, apparently
not more than a quarter of a mile distant. As will be seen, it
fell about sixty miles distant from these places. It seemed to
fall almost perpendicularly toward the earth’s surface. I can-
not learn that it was seen by any one in the State of Obio, but
Suppose that it was. In the State of Kentucky it was seen
over a considerable territory. The phenomena culminated in
the usual noises heard in the heavens accompanying the
approach of these bodies, and much consternation was produced
among the inhabitants of the surrounding country. Fortu-
nately one of the observers, an intelligent farmer (Mr. Crag-
myle), heard a solid body strike the ground; he walked imme-
diately to the spot, and dug the stone from a depth of thirteen
inches, to which extent it had penetrated the ground, A few
days after its fall and before it had become generally known,

rofessor Kirkwood wrote me a letter, stating what observa-
tions had been made in Indiana, and telling me to look out for
a meteoric fall somewhere about the region where the stone did
fall. I had, however, made the observations and secured the
meteorite, before his letter arrived, but the stone had not yet
been forwarded to me.

Character of the Stone.—It is wedge-shaped, with one portion
of it very extensively and regularly pitted, while the rest is
comparatively smooth. The crust is dull black, and, as it
reached me, it was as perfect as when it fell. There was a fresh
broken spot of two or three square centimeters, which, to a cas-
ual observer, would appear to have been made after the fall;

n close examination, I saw that it had been made prior
to the fall, and before the melted matter of the surface had
entirely cooled, for a few small specks of this matter have been
sprinkled on this broken surface, to which it firmly adheres,

could not have arisen from any fusion of that surface, which is
too fresh and unaltered to have been heated to any high degree.
The fracture was produced by the same cause that produced
the pitting.*

The weight of the stone is six kilograms. It is of the harder
brecciated yariety, and when broken presents a mottled surface,
identical with that of the Parnallee stone, which it resembles
also in every other particular, the very,pale yellow round spots,

* This is clearly and fully set forth by Professor Maskelyne, in the Phil. Mag.,
for August, 1876.

226 shit Sinsthx Description-of Meteorie Siac,

sometimes five or six millimeters in diameter, are disseminated
through the two alike; and so with the triolite, the globular
structure in some parts, and a few specks of a black siliceous
mineral; and, by a singular coincidence, the specific gravity of
the part I tested is identical with that as made out by Maske-
lyne, viz: 341. Under the microscope it presents the appear-
ance described by the same author.
Chemical examination.—The stony material freed from metal-
lic iron, consisted :
Matter soluble in chlorhydric acid --..--_--.- 56°50
Matter insoluble in chlorhydric acid --.-_---.- 43°50

Some of the soluble part was composed of troilite, which I
could not separate mechanically, but is deducted in the follow-
ing analysis:

Soluble part. Insoluble part.
: 57°60 -

Pees ee ee gS 33°65
atom proceaiae (50'S. 2. 252252 80°68 11°42
An ee SE A EE *43
Mee foe) ea es ee 5°70
Magvew <; S52 2G ee. og 34°61 23°97
romfum ‘orble 4269. gt Jak "38
SS ae ee es sg 1°24

100°
The portions examined contained nickeliferous iron 5°93 per
cent, consisting of:

SVG 2 er a a Le ia 1 1 oe et
hee a es |. re eee ea BSE
Cweelt <u... .: Oth oes eae. ace t 73

99°72

Mineral constituents of the Cynthiana Stone.—The minerals in
this stone are quite easily distinguished by the eye, but are
very much more conspicuous ander a moderate magnifying
power, especially the round and distinct concretions of a light
yellow bronzite. The troilite and metallic specks and fila-
ments are also easily seen. :

No attempt was made to separate the stony minerals in suffi-
cient quantity for analysis; quantitative tests were made to
distinguish their character. From the chemical examination
previously made I deduce the following as about the propor-
tion of the mineral constituents:

Obvisée Mies. 50°00
Bronzite and pyroxenic minerals ---. ---. .---30°00
Nickeliferous 1rO@R ob ee Er OO

ee ad

J. L. Smith— Description of Meteorite Stones. 227

There were no distinct — of minerals visible either to
the unaided eye or with a

4, Remarks on the region where these meteorites fell.

In the study of tne three aerolites just described it is inter-
esting to note the relation of = region where ty fell to that
of deh falls of recent dat

ring a period of less chine eighteen years there have been
igatve falls of meteoric stones in the United States, of which
- specimens have been collected. "AN of these, with one or two
exceptions, I have described in detail, and “ ished specimens
to various cabinets in this country a and in rope.

In grouping together these twelve falls ad estimating the

amount of me teoric matter et them, I have been

of the surface of the United States, east of the Rocky M Moun-
tains. It may be supposed that one reason for this may be
that this region is more thickly populated than others, and con-
sequently that there are more observers, This however is not
aie ee Kd the population is not much above the average of
the co

ag re a map of the region (see next page) where these
eight “falls occurred, which shows at a glance their relative
positions. The accompanying table gives a few comparative
details in relation to each of them

No.| Time of Fall. _ Place of Fall. Lat. Long. Weight of Fall.
1 — Saen 1859) Harrison Co., Ind. 38° 207 | 86° 10’ 1: kilo.
2 1860 Guernsey Co. (Con- | 40 Sl 30 (0
cord),
3 |25th March, 1865 Chigwater (v ernon 43 30 91 fees
Co.) Wis.
4 |Not known, 1874) Waconda, Kansas, 39 20 98 10 40° py
5 /12 -, 1875) Iowa Co., Iowa, 41 40 92 500° s
6 |21st Dee., 1876 ee. Indiana, 41 86 40.
7 |34 Jan, 1877) Warrenton, Missouri,, 38 50 | 9110 | 10 «
8 23d Jan, 187% [Oncidepar Ky. 38 20 84 20 es

Total, 1060°40 kilos.

There have rae four other falls in the United States during
the same period; but the ageregate weight of them is less than
two kilograms. They occurred respectively. Nov. 28th, 1868,
lat. 34° 30’, long. 87°; Dee. 9th, 1868, lat. 34° 80’, long. 87° 50’;
et 6th, th, 1869, lat. 32° 10’, long. 85° ; ; May 21st, 187 thy ie 44° 30’,
on

228 J. L. Smith—Description of Meteoric Stones.

Again: in this region more bolides have recently been ob-
served than in any other. Professor Kirkwood has described,

re
—
to
oo
> ls 2
a ha eS”
(oe) ° Oo <-S
= ele
.
Moz] ay
Lu wa
< ~i 45
za wc
< Sd
oo) %&S =) 3
=z - 38
5 wall FOTN - Ya
df aks
Grr gee
= wo oi ©
w = -™ bt
oO ~ = El
5 2 aes
°o rr rs. (2
v om 2-8
wh OZ = HS e5e
= nay
e a | 825
< pe ee
3 2) 3
= ei sD
ie) 8 :
sig 22
S oe ie eS
aes
oe
< as
ui g6
ad ‘
wo
“oO <x al
|
3 a 3 ° et

as seen by him and others, eight from July, 1876, to February,
1877, the stones from three of them are those described in this
paper, the others left no evidence of their passage. By per-
sonal observation I have noted, in the last two or three years,
three splendid bolides, that were seen to burst in the sky, but
of which no fragments were found; these I have described, and
still others have been described to me by several observers. It
is a still more striking circumstance, that, in the past sixty

Fossil Annelids from the Lower Silurian. 229

Hi ‘there have been twenty well noted falls of meteoric
stones; and of these just one half have fallen within the

nearly twelve hundred kilograms—an amount twenty times
greater than that of the other ten falls scattered over various

regions

I have mentioned this singular fact not that it has any cos-
mical significance, but simply as a part of the record I keep of
my observations and study of these curious links between
heaven and earth. Before very long I hope to put together my
more recent speculative studies in regard to these bodies.

Art. XXXII. — Notice of a new genus of Annelids es the Lower
Silurian ; by Gko. BirD GRINNEL

THE Museum of Yale College has recently received, from
the rocks of the Cincinnati group, a series of fossils which are
of unusual interest. The remains are shining black in color,
and present a striking contrast to the associated fossils, Trilo-
bites, Brachiopods, Crinoids, ete., which have assumed the
color and constitution of the matrix. An examination of these
A remains shows that a are the hard chitinous parts of

ley

suggest Sake red com saul erith these specimens are the
Phrou h the kindness of Professor
arsh, the Boy ae been Bo to examine a number of
the original specimens of these fossils, collected by Pander him-
self near St. face lg ; and a comparison makes it clear that
they are quite unlike t @ remains referred to. They are widely
different in color and form from the material under observation,
while chemical tests show that their composition is by no
means simi
hese Pacis fossils include a large number of specimens,
and, as might be expected, there isa wide variation in their form.
So little is at present known in regard to the jaws of Anne-
lids, that any pry ee conclusions drawn from the material at
the command of the writer would be premature; Besa for the
same reason it would be unwise to distinguish b name each
of the many forms which appear. Further study will doubt-

230 Fossil Annelids from the Lower Silurian.

less furnish data for a more extended description, with numer-
ous illustrations, which it is hoped will soon be completed.

Nereidavus varians, gen. et sp. nov.

The jaw selected as a type for the genus (fig. 1), is one of the
largest and most perfectly preserved of those at hand. It is

ark brown, with a coppery luster in some places, this coloring
being due to the weathered condition of the specimen. It is
hollow at the base and throughout the greater part of its length,
and so strikingly resembles the jaw of the common Nereis pela-
gica Linn. of the Atlantic coast, as to render their near affinity
almost certain. The denticulations, or teeth, are eight in num-
ber, but were probably more numerous originally, since the pos-
terior portion of the specimen is wanting. The anterior tooth,
which is the largest, is somewhat twisted outward, not Iving 10
the same plane with its fellows. The length of the specimen 1s _
5°6 mm., the depth beneath the fourth tooth 1-4 mm.

A second very perfect specimen, which may possibly belong
with the jaw above referred to, is represented in fig. 2. It con-
tains eighteen teeth, the anterior one quite long and stout, the
next five mere slight protuberances, and only to be seen under
the microscope, while the remaining teeth are sharp and strong.
The length of the exposed portion of this individual is 2°8
mm.; depth under the first of the strong teeth, the seventh in
the series, 22 mm. Since the base of this specimen is burie
in the rock and cannot be seen, it is not altogether certain
what it is. It bears some resemblance to one of the seta of
Nereis Dumerihi, Aud. and M. Ed., figured by Ehlers in his
work entitled Die Borstenwiirmer, pl. XX, fig. 31.

e specimens under consideration were collected by Profes-
sor A. G. Wetherby, near Cincinnati, Ohio. Through the en-
ergy and courtesy of this naturalist, a large suite of specimens
has been secured and forwarded to New Haven, and to bim
the writer would express his grateful acknowledgments.

Yale College Museum, New Haven, Conn., July 28th, 1877.

Chemistry and Physics. 231

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

I. Puysics.

hah
have hee: during the past few months. Several of these

nomena in question are liable to be modified by many adventitious
circumstances. Five theories of the radiometer have found promi
nent and weighty advocates. The first regards the motion of the
instrument as a direct effect of radiation. ‘The second refers it to
electrical action. The third to convection currents. The fourth
to the emission of material particles from the vanes or the -_
of the instrument. Beg eise st finds in the apparatus simply a n
heat engine, and sees in the motion a simple result of the differ-
ence of Gatiparaahin of the pas wholly in accordance with the
mere mechanical theory of hea

n this motion was first ysis ered it seemed to. be a direct
mochanioal effect of radiation, and there were not wanting ingenious
speculations to show how the force exerted by the waves of the

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whole tenor of his published’ papers have certainly justified, the
common opinion that, until very recently, he regarded the phe-
nomena—he had so admirably develo ae —as a direct effect of
radiation, and not, as he now thinks, a secondary result depending
on differences of temperature, which may be produced by radiation
or by other means. Hence, several experimenters have labore

to show that in the motion of the little wheel of the radiometer
the reaction was exerted not against anything independent of the
instrument, but a A ge the enclosing walls - Spoce ane —

0

slightly in the opposite direction. Soon after M. Salet} con-
ructed a very ingenious apparatus ‘in wel this reaction was
made to turn a mica disk; and very recently, M.M. Bertin et
* Philosophical M agazine, Nov., 1876.
+ Comptes Rendus, Nov. 20, 1876.

232 Screntific Intelligence.

Garbe* have published an interesting paper, in which they show
by careful ae camp aveats that the reaction of the glass bulb fully
accounts for the motion of the wheel; and their investigation

caused Ss forces which act within the glass

how
de Pony ielle.+ In opposition it is oe that no distribution of
statical electricity could maintain a constant motion, and furt
Mr. Crook he cites an experiment of Mr. Cromwell F. Varley, with
an apparatus so arranged that the electrical condition could
tested with a delicate eg ata ; when not the slightest poke
- electrical excitement could be de tected, aluhoogh the motion of
e wheel was re er misiataiie
whe convection theory has been recently advocated by F.
Neesen,|| who describes a number of experiments which he thinks
indicate that the wheel of the radiometer is moved by the gas

vane of the enclo ook 2 glass walls, But the effects he obtains
by plating ditine wheels unsymmetrically under the receiver of
a mitentd pump, do not, as it seems to us, necessitate his expla-

sn

n currents and the peculiar motion of the radiometer is
raitklogiy marked in many experiments which have been else where
described, the one passing into the other at a certain degree of

exhaustion.
The emission or evaporation theory appears to have a
with iy Osborne Reynolds. It was later maintained by Govi,**
and recently it has formed the subject of an extended artiole—in

The particles thus emitted may be either those of aeriform sub-
stances adhering to or occluded by the solid materials of which
in

into the vaccuous s Leaving, peschie a questions in
abeyance—as these pieyuialaty prefer, —there o doubt that the
general order of the phenomena might be sioplelied if the assump-
tions which the emission theory requires could be accepted; but
on the other hand, the phenomena which % IIner adduces in sup-

ort of his view, may be,—for the most part at least—fully as well
explained by the more general mechanical theory of heat. Zoll-
* + baibtiee de Chim. et de Phys., [V] xi, 45, Mai, 1877.

Beiblatter, i, 170. gree rpacbge yf 329, § Pogg. Ann., clx, 143.
[compar Zallner, Pogg. Ann., clx, 459. §[ Proc. Royal Soc., 1874, June 18.
‘Ann., clx, 154, 296 and 459. ++ Comptes Rendus, Ixxxiii, 1.

Chemistry and Physics. 238

ner endeavors to show* that the mean path of the molecules of the
residual gas in the bulb of the ee when it is in the condi-

sitiveness is reached, and si on further exhaustion the sensitive-
ness rapidly diminishes, seems to us,—especially when viewed in
connection with the Seiticionie just referred to—fatal to the
emission theor

tion of the ne mena is said to have been first suggested by
Mr. Johnstone Stone Similar views were al ry early ex-

- pressed by Professors Tait and Dewar.{ More recently they have
been adopted by Mr. Pa and are now very generally ac-
cepted by physicists.

n

pail I
fa indies i for exaienie, with the adjacent molecules,
ae pene of one system, and, by a well known mechanical law, n

wall then of course a force is exerted between the opposing ne

esata is then simply a heat engine in which the action sakes
place between two surfaces of different temperature, the heater and
the cooler of the engine. As such a difference of temperature may
be maintained in a great variety of ways, so the apparatus admits
of a great number of modifications. Moreover, it is obvious that

* Pogg. Ann., clx, 305. + Beiblitter, i, 167 i 330. a July 15th, 1875.

§ Philosophical Transactions, vol. clxvi, p 5, in postscript dated June ot 1877.
See also Mr. Stoney’s papers. Phil. Mag., aa t pp. 177-182, oe (18

Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Series, Vou. XIV, No. 81.—Sept, 1

16

234 Scientific Intelligence.

when, as in most cases, the difference of temperature is the result
of radiation, very irregular effects may be produced by the dif-
ferent absorbing or radiating power of the surfaces for the various

_ It does, however, still remain to show that the dynamical theory
of heat is quantitatively as well as qualitatively confirmed by the
a

sent very great experimental difficulties, and t ta thus far
obtained can only be regarded as rough estimates, and for this
reason we attach much importance to the criticisms of

tension of the residual air is about 0°19 millimeters, but he has

succeeded in reducing it to 0-0076 millimeters, and then the

velocity of the motion was only one-tenth of the maximum
0 ;

the exhaustion, he has been able to reduce the tension to one OF
two millionths of an atmosphere, and that he can most readily
secure the condition of greatest sensitiveness by first pushing
the exhaustion to the utmost limit of the power of his app@
ratus,* and then with the aid of a peculiarly constrneted =

i i h Mf

allowing gas to enter until the proper tension is reache
* Crookes has obtained these later results with a new form of the Sprengel

Chemistry and Physics. 235

using vanes of mica previously rendered anhydrous by ignition
and working with hydrogen, he has thus succeeded in constructing
a radiometer of such sensibility that it moved under the sole influ-
*s rays. The results of Finkener on the point of

otherwise like condinieng nan one 1 a large bulb and this
also has been fully realized by Mr. Crookes.+ Quite rege
Stoney and Mossf have published some preliminary results o

investigation, in which they propose to compare the i Foe

and wi
and under varying conditions "of tension, ascent te.
Investigation was begun soon after the publication of Stoney’s
original communication to the Phil. ee , March, 1876, and is not
yet completed. Th ive a description of their apparatus, and
they call the reaction exerted between the cooler and heater in
the radiometer and all similar instruments, “ Crookes’ Force.”

sure,
sensible at a distance of at lea n mailion

rfac
pent being rag of ia rota plate, the siemapiee he of t
surfaces must be essentially the same. Such effects Boies
ta studied both by Crookes§ and by Zéllner.
Rok is ites noe in favor of the view of the subject _ presented
no psc a new eu rip or exaggerate an old = pe

* Annales de Chimie et Physique, V, x, 396, pa jdt a Beiblatter, i, 165.
pEehiaten i, 318, No. 6; also Proc. Roy. 'Soe.,
Beiblatter, i, 169. 1 Pogg. Ann., clx, 169.

236 Scientific Intelligence.

those who accept this theory the radiometer becomes an instru-
ment of the very highest interest, affording as it does, another
and very striking manifestation of molecular motion. Moreoy er,
when we shall be able to overcome the experimental difficulties
so as to estimate with certainty the force exerted under determin-
ate conditions, we may hope to obtain by its aid a direct measure
of absolute molecular magnitudes,

We may be permitted to add to this notice a brief account of a
few experiments made with the radiometer at Cambridge in the
spring of 1876, soon after the instrument had ip received from
Europe. We ‘became at once reatly sarerasta in the new phe-
nomena, and with the aid of a skillful glass blower made more

commu adem}
and in a popular article in the Boston Daily Advertiser, we did
' not otherwise publish our results, because we felt that the field had
been in a measure preémpted by the a ea of the phenomena,
who was then investigating the subject, and who, we felt sure,
must dean at last to the same conclusions Witch we had reached.
Our results can now add nothing to the strength of the theory,
Moe has been since so well ata out by aan ects <
of the i ia Bisa have never been—so far e kno

aastirbed before, and being so aie that ity oii be easily
repeated in any physical cabinet, a description of them, even
this late day, may have an interest for cy of physic

st experimented with a common radiometer beetue pe

ned o i eam

made at once this experiment. We placed an opaque screen ‘iear

auntie ten petri et ait in a similar way cect only
the uncoated faces ; when the wheel pagent to sb in the same
ane although much more slowly than befor Again we

ounted the revolutions. Lastly we counted the avelaaions while
the beam shone on batt sides of the vanes as usual. We repeat
the experiment se times, and were surprised at the remark-
able constancy of ‘he results. They were as follows:

Time of ten goby ee
With both faces exposed ge ate 319
With ——— = alone exposed ____- e's a
ca faces ne ex 29"

mmm wee eee

Chemistry and Physics. 237

the motion must take et ean the parts of the instrument
itself; or else we are driven to the most improbable alternative
that lampblack and mica should have such a remarkable selective
power that the impulses, then supposed in some mysterious way
to be imparted by the beam of light, could exert a repulsive force
at one surface and an attractive force at the other. Were there,

faces were protected or not. It was now an obvious step to heat
the glass of the bulb pi pees“, of the vanes in order to see if
under these cireumstances we should not obtain a reverse action.
This was easily effected “both by ace ng the dase over a lamp
and also by placing the bulb pase A toward the beam from
the lantern, so that it heated the glass without striking the vanes
of a wheel. We thus easily obtained the now familiar reverse
motion, but which was to us a new Dene very. We weep felt
bairketees justified in spiking of the radiometer, as we di

communications referred to, as a heat engine, of which, when x mov-
ing in the oo eae way, the — surface of the va 8 is

yeh then the parallel with he steam engine, which we seh Sak
gested the extension of the dynamical theory of gases to include
the new phenomena almost in the very words used above. More-
over, while exhausting the large number of radiometers of which
we have 5 spoken, we noticed variations in the effects kg ei
caused by differences in diathermancy between crown and flin

glass, and were thus led to realize what an important ait this

a £
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s
°
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ae O&
aun
eee
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oe
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os
a4
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o
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i
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®

also devised an appé aratus for measuring the force exerted under
determinate conditions, but our experiments were brought to an
end by the sudden aak of the only skillful glass blower in our
nei ipitiochs od.

238 Scientific Intelligence.

Soon after these experiments, Mr. B. O. Peirce, now Shek it
in the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College, ma e fol-

a thermopile. He used a large Bunsen burner provided with
an air valve, so that the non-luminous could be at once changed
a lumi He placed the burner wide ay between

circular aperture admitted the rays and where the
reflecting surface of the cover set obliquely enabled the observer
to count the revolutions of the radiomet Tn front of the

, an
also took the readings of the galvanometer ; then, after rendering
the flame luminous (by oe the air valve), t the same observa-

tions were repeated, mparison of the similar values ee
of cou beste —— Brie aa of the non-luminous and the
feta nous us ay — ba the radiometer on the one side
and the cheetaicile on the o
Psat Thermopile.
1 0°342 028%
2 07309 0°380
3 0°248 0°283
4 0°267 0°325
5 0-277 0-350
6 0°367 0°250
7 0°394 0°304
Mean, "315 ll
While, therefore, there was A eg a large variation between the
several observations, as might be expected with such a variable

source as a Bunsen flame, yet the close agreement of the averages
showed conclusively that with the radiometer, as with the thermo-
pile, the effect caused by the rays of light must arise solely from
the change of temperature thus produced. It will be noticed that—

as measured by either instrument— the radiation of the. Juminous

the same time showed that the illuminating power of the first was
at least a thousand times greater than that of the second. wo
separate experiments gave 1080 and 1079 times greater respec
tive

In ‘ this notice we have been able to refer to only a few of the
‘omit sane presented in recent articles on the radiometer, and

t wi e be understood that our limits prevent us
even sitidiigy t we a large number of other very eras t ere
vations bearing on the “subject.

Ne August 3d, 1877.

Geology and Mineralogy. 239

II. GeoLtoagy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Gravel a referred to the Drift, in Boone County,

Kentucky.— GrorGE Surron states (Proc. Amer. <Assoc.,
1876, p. 225), that on the highest part of the table-land in Boone
Comity, Kentucky, 450 to 500 feet above hi igh-water mark in the

the mouth of ratte Creek, at about the same e height as shoei ver-
terrace formation in Keeney That of Hogan Creek consists of
laminated clay and loam with very little gravel, and, as the author
remarks, “ was evidently formed away from the current of the
Ohio Riv
2. Gr raed Ridges in the Merrimack valley.—Mr. G. F. Wricnt
describes the gravel ridges connected with the Quaternary of the
Merrimack valley, in the vicinity of Andover and both south and
north of that place, in the Proceedings of the Boston Society ot
Natural History for December, 1876. At Andover there are
three such ridges, at a height of 82 , 90, and 132 feet above the
bed of the river, Piha highest being most remote from the stream.
They are often only wide enough at top for a foot path. The
ourses of the ridges are more or hs tortuous, and they are

they are not in all parts stratified. The pie materia

240 Screntific Intelligence.

likely to abound near the top as at the bottom. The material
overlies the “bowlder clay” or “till” of the region. These

pham in a paper pone on page 156 of this volume. The ey a

during its diaolnaion) modified afterward by the water Shin
ees in the summer months, wee have flowed freely, over,
neath and from the foot of the
the supposed — denies: ‘called Protichnites and
Climatictites by Professor E. J. Cuapman.—The Potsdam
sandst of Beuharnois ue Vaudreuil, Canada, near the junc-
tion of the St. Lawrence ttawa rivers, an the same forma-
tion in the vicinity of Perth, Canada, afforded the Protichnites,
four species of which were made out by Professor Owen. fes
sor Chapman, | of Toronto, concludes, from his examination of shibie
that they are impressions of large fucoids. This view he regards
as strengthened by the occurrence of the Protichnites at Perth
along with the i impressions known as Climatichnites. The latter
have the form of a band five to six inches wide and several feet
in length, with transverse series of narrow Geascatin ridges, an
ex-

sabe the upper limit was from 1 200 to “1,600 meters. From
the distribution of bowlders, ~ _ of the upper surface of the
ancient glaciers has been ascertained to be about thirty feet in
1,000, in the narrow valleys, vile whore it was more pone
and in some places the surface was, for 50 kilometers in lengt
horizontal or nearly so. This state of things gives to the ancient
Swiss glares, & as Loe remarks, a close resemblance to those which
now cover Greenland and Giiabergen,-- Verhandl. Nat. Ges.
Basel, 1875-76, ia 136.

5. The Geology of New iit ge C. H. Hrrencocg, State
Geologist, J. H. Huntrneron, Warren Upnam, and G. Ww.

AWES, Assistants. Part II, Eeratigraphien! Geology. 684

described, in the American Chemist for March, rocks from the
Adirondacks Bec ieee by him in Essex County and mostly in the

Geology and Mineralogy. 241

valley and township of Keene. He adopts for the 4 which
Hunt showed to consist of feldspar identical with or r Labra-
dorite along with hypersthene or a related augitic or hordblenaie
minera (and more or less of iulageeting or menaccanite), the name
norite, and uses the yi hypersthenic igen hornblendic norite,
pyroxenic norite, for varieties. He giv s the specific gravities of

orty-four varieties of 1 siotkean; which vary from 2°67 to 3°459, the
_ proportion of the feldspar to the amphibolic species and menacanite

determining it. The labradorite, from — norite forming the mass
of Mount Marcy afforded him on analysis

SiO, AlO, FeO, FeO CaO MgO Na,O K,O H,O TiO,

5447 26-45 1°30 0°66 10°80 0°69 437 0°92 0°53 undet.=100°19
giving the qanvel rapeat ratio for the pr vlone ss, POPMlON ess and
Silica, 1°13: 3: 6°83. Another analysis was ma a waxy felsitic
variety, from the same place, which afforded ven Poe the same
resu

Pricos Leeds gives also an analysis of a doleryte from the
5 Sie and others of the pyroxenic portion of the Mount Marcy

rite also gives the characters afforded by thin slices of
Seas of the rocks,

On a new method of determining hs species of TLRS
contained in rocks, by Dr. J. 5za86, Professor of Mineralogy and
Geology in the eee of Budapest, Hugs ty. 88 pp. 8vo;

: lammenreaetionen,” This method, to the elaboration of which

he has devoted four years of study and experiment, is based, first,
eter atiatios of the degree of "fusibility, and,

secondly, u e degree of coloration of t

under certain omnes ns, Eos which the Saccuatd of sodium and

the methods employed in ih the different experiments reference

potereiams (observed with cobalt glass), is note r removal

rom the flame the extent of fusion and character of the fused mass

te observed. bh same assay is then introduced a ete time
ty

242 Scientific Intelligence.

hottest part of the flame and allowed to remain two minutes; the
alkalies, now converted into sulphates, . the flame more dis-
tinctly than before, and this effect is duly no
Professor Szabé gives a general scale of ‘fusibility containing
eight cegreat from quartz (0) to antimonite (7), and a special
scale of six grades for the different feldspar species; he distin-
guishes the character of the fused products in the case of the

‘ 3
white or blebby enamel, is obtained; he also gives large colored
plates exhibiting the inten oe of color, yellow and violet, a

of sodium and potassium seope tively. By means o of these ba is
in cer

ado in a given spar, and thus to determine the species.
method doubtless requires considerable skill in naatipiiine
tion, “a also extended experience in the application of the de li-
cate tests described. The end aimed at, however, is so important
one—especially in view of the tendency now preva ent to con-

—that it is wo rthy of much time and labor, and Professor Szab
deserves the thanks of eae toe for the care and oe
Ww - which he has worked out his resu

8. Brief notices of some newly described be onli Voor it
oceurs as a greenish earthy-looking ‘ ‘clay-or e” in irregular layers

beabeees :—SiO, 30°73, AlO, 14-67, FeO, FeO 0-29, CuO
17°58, MgO 18 55, = 20 12°83 = 100. The caniciealeet ratio 5 tbe
R:#R:Si:H=3:4:6:4, “which puts the mineral, if it be a
homogeneous subehaes (as its microscopic character indi indi-
cate) among the chlorites.” (Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in a pamphlet
entitled “ Detatiption of a Double Muffle Furnace by pthc’
B. Silliman, and A new ore of Copper and its metallurgy, by
T. Sterry Hunt; Sas ret Dec, 30th, 1876.)

UVranocireite ‘oceurs in quartzy veins in pt granite of Falken-
stein, Saxon Voigtland; it has long gone by the name of autunite

bles. §S

Botany and Zoology. 243

Spheer ee occurs in spheroidal forms with ee at
Schneeberg, S . Structure coarsely radiated; the sphe
surface under the icine is found to be made up of minute
rombohedral crystals ; veal Sasipalg red; hardness = 4; spec
gravity = 4°02-4°13. B.B. es black on caution ‘in lous
tube. ‘Dissolves with pe ste etie in warm hydrochloric acid. On
analysis gave Winkler CoO 58°86, CaO 1°80, FeO, 3°41, CO, 34°65,

20. 1:22 = 99°94, or, deducting the hydrated iron oxide C00,
84:25, CO, 35°75 = 100. This sopneapane to the formula CoCO
which requires : CoO 63:06, CO, 36 = 100. (Weisbach, I. c.)

the name of “per sofskite.” act gravity = 4° 3. An
analysis gave Knop: Cb,O, 22°73, TiO, pts FeO 5°70, MnO
0°42, oe) 5°58, CaO 19°36, Meo tr. , Na,O 3°50, K,O tr., F tr.,
A1O, SiO, 2°31 = 100°17. This agrees closely with -”
ann “ERT, + RPb,O,, when R= Fe, a, Na
The mineral is named dysanalyte, i in ¢ onsequence of the aidizalties
met with in its analysis. (Knop, Zeitschrift fur ihe Pith
i, 284, 187 77.)

Ill Botany AND ZOooLoGy.

. Rapid Growth—A. W. Bennett says, of a plant of Vallis-
siipin spiralis: The first flower-bud made its appearance in my
aquarium this year on July Ist, the pedicel rte at 3 P.M. appar-
ently about 1°5 inch long. On the 3rd, at 4 Pp. M., the base of the
bud just touched the surface of the water, aid “the pedicel was
about 7 inches long. At 1 P.M. on the 7th {an Saatigbe of ninety-
three hours), it had. reached the astonishing length of 43 inches.
og bed was then still closed, and the flowerstalk quite eee

ot showing yet any tendency tocoil. At 10 A. mu. on the
the Teagth was 45°5 inches, the flower being then open, and the
lower on of the flower-stalk so strongly undulating that it w
most impossible to straighten it. At 11 a. M. on the 10th it had
Feiched its ultimate length of 48 ces the undulation of the
nd portion being more strongly mar

2. Evolutionary Law as illustrated i Abnormal Growth in

Apple Tree.—Mr. Tuomas Mrruan exhibited some branches
of a “ Smoke-house” apple tree, which had the cluster of flowers at
the end hes a young shoot, flowering after the leaves and growth
had matured, instead of bloo ming in spurs early in spring, and
denultaverunty with the expansidn of the leaves, as in ordinary
case were numerous instances of the normal and abnor-
mal growths on the same tree, the abnormal ones flowering about
six weeks after the normal ones, but both classes maturing the
fruit at about the same time in the fall.

e point he wished ages eit! to draw attention to was that
when there was a change in one important character, there was
often change in others Giakay a complete set of characters which
need nothing but permanence to be regarded as specific. For

244 Scientific Intelligence.

instance, the fruit from these terminal neh was as unlike the
ramet moke-house” as it was possible The fruit stems
ere very long and slender, and the fruit Sakvened--whes omol-
Salute term oblate. It might further be noted that this change
was not a change by gradual modification through seminal agency ;
but.a leap, wo from a tree that had sie bi produce flowers in
the normal w. There was apparently no more reason why the
law, reatavor it may be, that operated on this one tree might not
under some circumstances operate on all the trees in the orchard,
or on other wild trees in native places of growth, or on the indi-
viduals of a whole district, as well as on a single tree. It was
such osdeeero8 as these ehibshn made the doctrine of evolution in
some form an absolute certainty.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philad.,
pies p- 192,
emarks on the Yellow Ant.—Professor Leipy remarked
pe recently while seeking certain animals beneath stones in the
s near Philadelphia, he had had the opportunity of ——
the Yellow Ant, Formica flava, in possession of large numbers
other insects, This fact, in itself common enough, in one vested
was new and of special interest to him, and may be so to others.

midst of one of the former herds. In a larger colony of the Yel-
low Ants, there was a herd of Aphides which occupied the under
part of one margin of the stone and was almost ten inches long by
three-fourths of an inch in breadth. The same colony also pos-

almost a square ee of Be Los "In bo th colonies Pe Aphis and

of the sto
not attached to roots. They ap lets to be Srohally attended
by the ants, which surrounded A at e larva alluded to was
almost six millimeters long, was covered on the back with a thick
white cotton-like secretion. It was also arely attended by

antenne. "The Aphides and Cocci were all in pre condition, but
pti
grass roots partially extending into the earth beneath the stones,

to which it is probable they were at uy *uaicgos by their
vga —Proe, Aca d. Nat. Sei., 1877,

2 P
of coloring of the group to which the species belongs; while it is

Miscelianeous Intelligence. 245

if male that shows divergences from the type in structural char-
These structural divergences in Butterflies appear in the
eae and the legs, and sometimes in the antenne. Mr. Scudder
knows of no example in which the male alone diverges from the
ee plan of coloration belonging to the group.—Prvc. Amer.
cad., 1877.

IV. MisceELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1, Narrative of the North Polar ee on, U. 8. Ship
Polaris, Captain Charles Francis Hall ¢ mmanding. Edited
under the direction of the Hon. G. M. peeeinetin Secretary of the

vernment Printin
fice, Washington. 1876-77. the iidantholy interest which

was seemingly about to realize his life-long hopes, is
Hithoasist by the reflection that the erie shed officer, to whom
was entrusted the preparation of this narrative, was himself called
away by death while his task was aliiobt complete. e final
chapters were consigned by him to the editorial care of Professor
Nourse of the National Observatory. This volume is what its
title declares—a narrative of the Polar Expedition from its incep-
tion in 1870 until the “Frolic” brings the survivors of the party to
Washington, on the 5th of June, 1873, after experiences which
must ever be con siderél memorable, even among the almost
incredible trials sink heroisms of Arctic exploration, The closing
chapters of the narrative recite the cruises of the Juniata and
Tigress for the rescue of the Polaris and her crew, the examin-

of the Board of Enqui . The volume also contains a translation
of the report made to the Royal Gesenighicnt Society of Paris,
April 21, 1875, b e Brun, oquette

and the U. 8. Navy Department in relation to the stores left by
the Polaris Expedition on the west coast of Greenland; the
Journals of Mr. H. C. Chester and Captain Geo. E. Tyson while

Expedition,

The scientific results of the expedition have been worked up b
Dr. Bessels, under the supervision of the Smithsonian Institution,
in three volumes, the publication of which may be shortly ex

This narrative is illustrated by thirty-eight full page wood
engravings from original sketches by Mr. Emil Bohaitiitin and
Dr. Emil —s painted in oil by Mr. J. H. Morgan and photo-
graphed on wood by Mr. Smilie, There are also eighteen tail
pieces from original sketches, two photolithographs, a steel por-

246 Miscelluneous Intelligence.

trait of Captain Hall, and a steel engraved frontispiece of the
Polaris.
It is a aces to know also that Professor Nourse is now
engaged in preparing for publication Captain nage Journals
ring his second expedition, 1864-69, in obedience to a resolu-
tion introduced into the U.3. Senate, February: - 1877, by Mr.
Sargen B. 8.
The American aoe Joun H. Tice, Editor. In
monthly numbers of 32 8vo. Saint Louis, Missouri.—The
second volume of this J eae consisting of six monthly numbers,
commenced with January of the current year. The author holds

ena, and their causes, and presents them in his Monthly. Facts
are, in his opinion, in “irrepressible conflict,” as he expresses it,
with ordinary physical theories.

The American Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics.
ose this title, a much needed addition to the scientific jour-
nals of the country, will soon fe made, under the asrpes of the
Johns Hopkins University. The editors announced a J. SYL-
VESTER, BENJAMIN Perrcr, Stmon Newcoms, H. re OWLAND,
and Ws. E. Story, the first were of Mathematics in the

* Associate-Editor-in-Charge.” Four numbers. in quarto, will for
the tees be issued annually, making a volume each year of 384
pages. e price is five dollars a volume. ‘The first number will
appear in erwrel he Subscriptions and contributions should
i. aise to ig am E, Srory, Johns Hopkins University,
Reldwects.: Marylee

4. Publications oe the Cincinnati Observatory.—Two numbers
—2 and 3—have recently been issued in a ae No. 2, eighteen
pages, contains Micrometrical Measurements of 176 double and
triple stars, observed with the 11-inch reflector of the Observatory
by O. M. Mi tchell; Cincinnati, 1876; and No. 3, thirty-four in ie

metri a

triple stars, during t 38 years 1875-76, under _ otistee T°
of fag ond Stone, A.M., Director, Cincinnati, 1
Two New Meteorie trons. (Letter to a Shion )—I have
had lately sent to me two new meteoric irons, one from Casey
County, Kentucky, nd the other from Dalton, Whitfield County,
Georgia. Descriptions and analyses of these will be published
shortly. WRENCE SMITH.
6. Table of Logarithms. —M. Gav s Vicnias has pub-
lished in Paris a volume of logari shias: pion tee tables for all
numbers from 0 to 434,000,000,000 with twelve decimals, by M.

Belgium). This wonderful volume, selling at three francs, has
been printed Py ae of the Royal Academy of Sciences of

7. Tenth taal Basia of the Trustees of the Peabody
Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Presented

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 247

to the paced — Fellows of Harvard College, June, 1877.
Vol. If, No. 1, p. 8vo. Cambridge, 1877.—A paper, ‘by Dr.

. C. Asport, ‘deaciites the occurrence of what appear to be flint
chippings in undisturbed gravel deposits, only partially stratified,
of the Delaware River valley, near Trenton, New Jerse
stone is a hard or indurated argillite, somewhat fusible before the
blowpipe; but in one case, flint. Bowlders eight or ten feet in
diameter occur over the surface. Mr, Abbott regards the mate-
rial as of Glacial origin, and the relics, ~ ‘meg of man of the
Glacial era. This paper is followed by another, by Professor N.
HALER, on the same relics and deposits, errs’ states that he
accompanied Dr. Abbott over the region, and obtained from the
beds two of the su pposed relics, and concludes with the remark
that “if these remains are really those of men, they Prove the
existence of interglacial man on this part of our shore.”

This Report contains also papers on the exploration of Ash
Cave in Benton, Hocking County, Ohio, and on ge ena of

1 DREWS ;

mounds in Southeastern Ohio, by Professor EK 3; on
the exploration of a mound in Lee County, Va., by ctu Carr,
Assistant Curator d on se Art of War and
Mode of Warfare of the Ancient Mexicans, by . BANDELIER,.

Professor Andrews describes instruments, anita and other or-
naments of copper, from the mounds examined . One o

» Be Se ae
the mounds (W. Connett’s in Dover, Athens County, Ohio) is
spoken of as “of great scientific value, because ae . we prove

und,’
8. Kinetic Theories of Gravitation ; poe WILLIAM B. TAYLOR,

either hypothesis can satisfy the two Newtonian conditions of a
Scientific theory—verity and sufficienc A. W. W.
acher’s Primer of Chemistry. Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia.

OBITUA
Tororny Aspotr Conrap.—Dr. ‘tae p died on the ninth of
Sage at the residence of his bier nee Mr. T. Abbott,
n, New Jersey. He was son of the late Solomon Conrad,

of th the | University of Pennsylvania, and oe bons in 1803.

248 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

His scientific labors began early in life and were continued up
to the present year. They were devoted especially to the study
and description of recent shells and the fossil shells of the Tertiary

were determined by cold intervals in the course of the earth’s
progress, and he points out the great fact that the Mississippl
depression, as it is often called, was a consequence of the elevation
of the Appalachians on the east, and of the Rocky Mountain area,
late in geological time, on the west. On the first of these points
he remarks that “the theory of periodical refrigeration alone can
explain the sudden extinction of whole races of animals and
es.

nd him
lectual friends,” and watched with unfailing interest the progress
of scientific discovery.

APPUN TET:

Art. XXXIII.—WNotice of some new Vertebrate Fossiis ;
by O. C. Marsa.

known member of the family. A number of new genera are
introduced, some of which have an important bearing on the
genealogy of Tertiary Mammals. Among the other vertebrates
is a new genus of Crocodilians from the horizon of the Weal-
den, and a species of Crocodilus from the Pliocene.

Moropus distans, gen, et sp. nov.
This genus of Edentates is based mainly upon the bones of
the feet, which have been found in several individuals. These

(Orycteropus). The specimens here described belong to a dis-
tinct family, the Moropodide.

In the type specimen of the present species, only the hind
feet appear to be represented. One of the most characteristic
ones 1s a codssified first and second phalanx. The articula-
tion for the metatarsal is nearly in a horizontal plane, and
situated on the proximal end of the upper surface of the base.
It is somewhat heart-shaped in outline with the apex rounded
and about equally concave in both directions, or slightly less
so transversely, This articulation occupies nearly half the
length of the first phalanx which is thoroughly codssified with
the seco The line of junction between the bones can, how-
ever, be traced easily, and is strongly marked on the under
surface by a pit or foramen entering obliquely upwards and
forwards. Except near this line of junction, the surface of the

Am, Jour. Sot.—Tump an Vou. XIV, No. 81,—Sept., 1877,

250 O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.

bone is rather smooth. The under surface, below the articula-
tion, is flattened. The second phalanx is less than half the
length of the first, and its surface is roughened, as if by abnor-
mal growth of bone over the surface. The length of the first
phalanx is 43"; the longitudinal diameter of the metacar-
pal articulation 18"; its transverse diameter 23™”. e
least transverse diameter of the bone is 21™™: its vertical
20

The greatest vertical diameter of the bone is 32 This
bone resembles the penultimate phalanx of the middle finger of
Priodontes, but is somewhat shorter and thinner. :

These and other less characteristic remains indicate an anl-
mal somewhat larger than a tapir. They were found in the
Miocene of Oregon by the Yale Expedition of 1873.

Moropus senex, sp. nov.

A second larger species of the same genus is indicated by @
few remains, among which is the characteristic bone formed of
the united phalanges. The proximal phalanx is considerably
larger than the one above described. Its length is 52%.
The proximal articulation is oblique, and does not occupy
more than one-third the upper surface of the bone. The me-
dian phalanx is well preserved, and measures 25™™ in length.
It is not united with the first phalanx in a line with the axis
of that bone, but is inclined about 15° toward the sole of the
foot. Its distal articulation is composed of two not very prom-
inent pulley-shaped surfaces with a groove between.

Moropus elatus, sp. nov.

is more nearly vertical than in either of the Miocene species.

ts median vertical diameter is 30™™:; and transverse diameter

O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 251

420m, The least vertical diameter of the phalanx is 28™™;

The shaft of the bone is rounded throughout. The distal
articulation is hemispherical above, but presents two shallow
grooves below, which are carried around so far as to become
nearly horizontal. The greatest proximal diameter is 50™™,
and the greatest distal diameter 44™™. :

The proximal face of the fifth metatarsal is oblique, trian-
gular in outline, convex vertically, and through the greater
part of its tranverse extent. Its greatest vertical extent is

mm, and greatest horizontal diameter the same. The vertical
diameter of the shaft of this bone is 40™™, and its transverse
diameter 38™™, caneum measures 108™™ from its pos-
terior end to the vertical face for articulation with the astraga-
lus. The vertical diameter of the shaft is 53"™, and the trans-
verse diameter 41™™.

: ese remains are from the Lower Pliocene of Nebraska, and
Indicate an animal about as large as a Rhinoceros.

Amynodon, gen. nov.

The present genus is based upon a nearly perfect skull, and
various other remains which belonged to the oldest representa-
tive of the Rhinoceros family yet discovered. These speci-

nection with the rest of the anterior dentition, they prove con-
clusively that the large lower teeth, usually regarded as incisors

252 O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.

in Acerotherium and many other members of the Rhinoceros
family, are really canines.

The nasals in this genus are smooth, and evidently were
without horns. There were four toes in front and three be-
hind. The type species is Amynodon_advenus Marsh, which was
provisionally referred to the genus Diceratheriwm when first
described.

Tapiravus rarus, gen. et sp. nov.

genus, which may be calle ;
validus Marsh, (Lophiodon validus) from the Miocene of New
Jersey. This genus may readily be distinguished from Lophio-
don or Hyrachyus, by the last upper premolar, which is similar
to the adjoining molars.

second species of this genus occurs in the Lower Pliocene
east of the Rocky Mountains, and remains were collected there
by the writer in 1873. The most characteristic specimen ob-
tained was an upper molar tooth which indicated an animal
considerabiy smaller than the living Tapir. The crown of this
molar was 15™™” in antero-posterior diameter, and 17™™ in trans-
verse diameter. It is peculiar in having the antero-exterior
angle very obtuse, and less prominent than the outer cusps.

Bison ferox, sp. nov.
This genus has not hitherto been found in the Tertiary of

ras
low as the genus has been found in the Old World. This
specimen indicates an animal much larger than the existing
Bison, and having very powerful horns. The specimen pre-
served was over 500™ in length, when complete. The radius
of the inner curve measures about 400™. The largest end
has a diameter can and the smaller, at a distance of

A second larger species, with more curved horns, is indicated
by a nearly perfect horn-core from the lower Pliocene of
Kansas. This species, which may be called Bison Alleni, 1m
honor of Dr. J. A. Allen, of Cambridge, also had very large

O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 253

horns. The type specimen has its greatest and least diameters
near the base, 140™™ and 110™™. t a distance of 300™™
further toward the end, the diameters are 100" and 90™".
The radius of the inner curvature, except for the last 150"
of the length, was 350™™.

The discovery of these two lower Pliocene species of Bison,
suggests the probability that this form is a New World type,
although it has generally been credited to the other hemisphere.

Allomys nitens, gen. et sp. DOV.

Among the Upper Miocene mammals, a peculiar genus is
found, which is probably related to the flying squirrels, but
the teeth are somewhat like those of Ungulates. Its affinities
are evidently with the Rodents, however, and it represents a
distinct family, the Allomyide. The general characters of
the upper molar teeth are shown in the accompanying figure,

which is six times natural size. The animals of this species
are all very small, hardly larger than a rat. The extent of
three molar teeth is 8™. The transverse distance between the
two series is, in front, 3°8"™, and posteriorly, 4°4™™.

‘The known remains of this species are all from the Upper

Miocene of Oregon.
Graculavus lentus, sp. nov.

The Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic coast and of Kansas
have hitherto alone yielded remains of Birds, but these have
recently been found in beds of the same age in Texas. The
most characteristic specimen obtained is the distal end of a
metatarsal, which differs from the corresponding bone of the
toothed birds from Kansas, and may be referred provisionally
to the genus Graculavus, the type of which is from the Upper
Cretaceous of New Jersey. This specimen shows that there
were three toes of nearly equal size, and also a hallux raised
above the main digits.

Transverse diameter of shaft of tarsometatarsal bone. 4:2"

Vertical. diameter-of same << 1.0.0.) us. seedeseuds 3°6

Transverse diameter across distal articular faces-. -- - 10°

Vertical diameter of median distal articular face ..-- 48

The known remains of this species indicate a bird about as
large as a small duck.

mm

254 OU. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.

Diplosaurus feliz, gen. et sp. nov.

An interesting discovery recently made in the lower Creta-
ceous, or Wealden beds, of Colorado, is a new genus of Croco-
dilians, intermediate between the old Teleosaurian type and the
modern Crocodilus e new genus has a head and teeth very
similar to the latter, but with this the ancient biconcave ver-
tebree. The present type species is based upon a nearly perfect
skull, and a number of vertebree belonging with it. These
pertained to an animal smaller than most existing Crocodilians.

e of the principal measurements of this. species are as

follows:
ries of skull on median line - oo ere Be5e™
Length of skull from quadrate to end of snout __...- 275.
Transverse diameter of premaxillaries .__.__...__._- 46°
Transverse diameter of skull, at front of orbits ------ 90°
Transverse diameter at ends of qunenne S o 1 29
omy diameter of quadrate at end .__.-..___-_- 20°

econd species of this ci is apparently the Hyposaurus
Vabbi Cope, which may be called Diplosaurus Vebbit.

Crocodilus solaris, sp. nov.

o Miocene Crocodilians are known from the Western lake-
basins, and none have been described from the Pliocene of the
same regions. One species, however, lived in the Pliocene lake
east of the Mountains, and, as an indication of climate, at least,
is well worthy of record. The remains preserved indicate an
animal of moderate size, well protected with deeply ae bony
plates, and probably belonging to the genus Crocodilu

Measurements of some of the more important pasate are
the following :

Length of centrum of lumbar vertebre Sbcue tue Mees
Vertical diameter of anterior articulation . eueree sed 25°
Transverse diameter Pe ys ee ee
oh diameter of neural ¢ dana al. _ ae tunes &
Vertical diameter pes ni chien articulation .......--. 26°
"Tranaverte CimQiOles Soa ce oe ee 30°
Transverse Serta of dermal goute.. 25 4203 OH

These specimens were found by the writer, in 1878, on the

Niobrara 1 iver in Nebraska.

Nanosaurus agilis, gen. et sp. nov.

The most diminutive Dinosaur yet discovered is repececnl
by various portions of a skeleton recently received from t
Mesozoic deposits of the Rocky — ge sel
indicate an animal not larger than a cat, and yet apparently
fully adult. Most of the bones are hollow, and hen walls thin.

O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils. 255

The crowns of the teeth are apparently compressed, and inserted
in distinct sockets. The femur has the characteristic third tro-
chanter, and is shorter than the tibia.

The principal dimensions of this pigmy Dinosaur are as
follows :

Space occupied by five teeth in lower jaw .-. .----- 13° ™™
Depth of jaw below last tooth -..../.2..-.. 222. 10°
Length of femifs/eus 00s isle ie se ee
Distance from head to middle of third trochanter.... 25°
Length of tibiaies oy -6 oc seed wei asd amet 458 75°
Least, diameter of shaft... ci.s5 nc coda ve htt cece

The geological horizon of this unique fossil is probably
Jurassic, but possibly in the lower part of the Dakota group,
which I regard as the equivalent of the Wealden of Europe.

Nanosaurus victor, sp. nov.

length. The remains at present known indicate an animal
about as large as a fox.

Apatodon mirus, gen. et sp. nov.

One of the most interesting specimens hitherto found in the
Rocky Mountain region, is a portion of a lower jaw with the
last molar in place. This fossil is widely different from anything
yet described, and its exact affinities are d ul. The frag-
ment pertained to an animal about as large as a Tapir, and the
general appearance of the specimen at once suggests the mam-
malian type. The tooth most resembles, in form and superior
surface of crown, that of a typical Suilline. The structure of
the tooth, however, is different, and the fangs are, in part at
least, codssified with the jaw.

is specimen was found near a locality where Dinosaur
bones were abundant, and it is possible it may belong with
that group. The jaw, however, is very unlike any correspond-
ing jaw of a Dinosaur, so far as now known. This tooth
measures about 41™™ in length of crown; 20™™ in transverse
diameter, and 8™ in height. The geological horizon is Lower
Cretaceous or Jurassic.

256 | O. C. Marsh—New Vertebrate Fossils.

Heliobatis radians, gen. et sp. nov.

The most interesting fossil Fish hitherto found in the Ter-
tiary of the west is a land-locked Ray, recently discovered in
the Green River beds of Wyoming. The specimen is in ex-
cellent preservation, and shows the characters of the group
most perfectly. It differs much from recent Rays, and resem-

es most nearly the genus Cyclobatis of Egerton, from the Mt.
Lebanon deposits of Syria, which are probably in nearly the

latter differs from Cyclobatis in having a much greater number
of radiating digits, which entirely encircle the body, and sug-
the generic name. ere are also numerous dermal
defensive tubercles, which are wanting in Cyclobatis.
The principal dimensions of this rare specimen are as fol-
WS:

Antero-posterior extent of rays.....-...-.-.--------- 235"
Transverse diameter across scapular arch to bases of rays 75°
‘Sous Gremaverse Gmeter ee 5 -- e+ 280"
Transverse diameter of head ee te TO,
Distance between scapular and pelvic arches_.--.- --- 55°
ngth of vertebrw at pelvic arch _-.-._-...-----.---- 2°6
Length of vertebrz in caudal region -._----...-.----- 2°

Yale College, August, 1877.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

e.

Art. XXXIV.—On the relations of the Geology of Vermont to that
of Berkshire; by JAMES D. Dana.

[Continued from page 207.]

2. LITHOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
Ui OF LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS AS A TEST O.
GEOLOGICAL AGE. :

subject.
The Taconic slate-belt in the western half of the limestone

area and the quartzyte group of the eastern half may be sep-

arately considered, and, afterward, the relations of the two.

1. Taconic slate-belt or range.

The diversity of rocks in the Taconic slate-belt is small
compared with that in the Eastern or Quartzyte group.

A. In Vermont.—The rocks, as has been explained, are (1)
argillyte to the north; then argillyte along the center with
borders of (2) hydromica slate varying from a pure slaty hydrous
mica to a mixture of hydrous mica with more or less quartz;
(3) chloritie hydromica ‘slate, in which quartz seams and veins
(often chloritic) are common. Besides these, there is (4) a
hydromuaceous conglomerate, consisting of quartz pebbles in a

Am. Jour. — — Vor. XIV, No. 82.—Ocrt., 1877. —

258 =o. D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

hydromica paste, ‘‘abundant in Ira, Middletown, Wells, Poult-
ney and Pawlet,” and the main constituent of Bird Mountain,
in Ira—as stated in the Vermont Geological ae (p. 426).

In Berkshire and farther south. —There are here the same
slates, but in part coarser. Also (5), a rock of awed aspect,
in which the mica is a pearly hydrous mica (found in the
Graylock range, near Williamstown) ; (6) a garnetiferous chioritic
eran slate, common ; (7) mica es af (8) graphitic mica

arnetiferous mica schist ; (10) staurolitic mica
)*

schist ; (9) g
schist (in Be liahdry and Sharon

2. Schists of the Quartzyte group.

A. In ilpion. —(1) Hydromica Sr which is often very
fine in grain and is then called novaculite slate ; (2) chloritic
hydromica eke (8) chlorite slate or ‘ache sometimes contain-
ing octahedrons of magnetite; (4) hydromica conglomerate, like
No. 4 above; (5) hydromica quartzyte, all shades occurring
between hydromica slate and true quartzyte; (9) greenish- era
hydromica gneiss, containing disseminated chlorite—a kin
protogine—the mica pearl- -white, the feldspar ices seen by the

writer on the western slope of the quartzyte and hydromica
ridge northeast of rise ee the rock much like the kind from
near Base cabs (No. 5 above).

B. In Berkshire and farther south.—(1) Hydromica slate, more
or less chiaits and often garnetiferous ; (2) mica slate, that
is, fine-grained mica schist; (3) mica schist, varying in color
from a dark- ray to black, the latter a fissile rock consisting
largely of black mica; (4) garnetiferous mica schist: (5) quartaytre

schist.

Vora of gneiss.—(6) Fine-grained gneiss, thin bedded, the
mic very small scales aud in general mostly black, the
Bldeat in small white grains; (7) the same, sae thick-bedded
and very hard, color moeey light gray, the rock sometimes a
contorted gneiss; (8) the same, but with little mica, the color
whitish, graduating ee (9) granulyte, a granular compound of
quartz and feldspar, with only traces of mica; (10) a whitish
or grayish striped gneiss having the mica in lines of spots or in
interrupted lines, looking interruptedly striped, the mica mostly
biotite; (LL) granitoid gneiss, eh ) fine-grained granite, the

neiss graduating into these rocks, by a loss of its schistose
structure; (18) quarizytic gneiss, fine-grained, whitish (often
yellowish ‘from alteration of pyrite or black mica), a rock t that
graduates by insensible shades into laminated quartzyte ; (14)
epidotic gneiss, containing much mica, half of which is musco-

ace Seger pong tio staurolite as well as garnet in the mica sla te of Salisbury
ed by Prof. Dewey, in this Journal, vol. viii, P. 7, 1824. Earlier, in
iia. wits, bs Dabonacmmnsh ial existence of staurolite in She

Luthological Conclusions. 259

vite, and also small green grains of epidote; (15) syenyte gneiss,
consisting mainly of hornblende and whitish feldspar, not
common ; (16) hornblende slate, occasional beds; (17) pyroxenyte,
consisting of white pyroxene (at Canaan, Conn.).

arnet rock, a firm tough rock of a blackish-gray color,
consisting of quartz, pale-red garnet, some feldspar, magnetite
an rite, and also minute disseminated prisms showing one
lustrous cleavage which may be zoisite (from Beartown Moun-
tain)—

eral successive beds of the former, or taking wholly its place in
the formation.

3. Schists along an East-and- West section of the limestone region.

In Vermont.—The schists of a,section across the limestone
region from west to east in the line of Rutland, are the same
nearly as occur in the Quartzyte group from north to south,
argillyte being the only rock to the west not found to the east.

In wre.—The remark just made for Vermont applies
equally to Berkshire. Along an east-and-west section i
southern Berkshire, there are, commencing to the west: argil-
lyte, various kinds of hydromica slate, from a black glossy
slate differing little from argillyte, to pale pearly slates, chlo-
ritie and garnetiferous hydro-mica slates; farther east, fine-
grained mica schist and gneiss, coarser garnetiferous mica
schist and staurolitic mica schist; and all the gneisses and
other rocks mentioned above.

Thus the same kinds of rocks are met with on going from
east to west across Berkshire as in going from north to south
along the Quartzyte ranges of Vermont and Berkshire.

The above lists afford an idea of the great diversity in the
crystalline rocks of the limestone series We are now pre-

ed for a conclusion.

Since then these rocks of the limestone series are confoi
able, and of Lower Silurian age; and since they were all
crystallized into their present state after the Lower Silurian

260 =o od. zD. Dana— Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

era had nearly or quite passed, we leaniicthiat all the various
mica and chloritic schists mentioned, and the varieties of
gneiss, and ‘a6; the other rocks designated, as protogine, gran-
ulyte, hornblendic, erie epidotic and garnet rocks, were
in this case a produc a single metamorphic process, acting
on deposits of lores: iturin age; and, since this wide diver-
sity of rocks occurs in the eastern or Quartzyte portion alone
of the limestone area, they have also come from that portion of
the Lower Silurian to which the Quartzyte group belongs.

pia setting if the lithological canon is a good one, neither
of the rocks in the above list can be good for distinguish-
ing formations ‘of any other geological era than the one here
conside

age. And if so, the lithological canon, as far as the varie-

have not cd it in New England

hydromica schists of the series we wor distinguishable from
those of many other geological re

The lithology of the region ae “still some Lagesage oo
These are: the absence of hornblendic granite, and syenyte;
the sparing occurrence of hornblende schist and horublendic
gneiss, these rocks occurring only in beds subordinate to er
mica schist or true gneiss; the absence, so far as observed, of
labradorite rocks; and the certain absence of granitoid labra-
dorite rocks (those having cleavable labradorite as a prominent

Orographic Conclusions. 261

constituent) ; the absence of chrysolite rocks, corundum-bear-

g rocks, and zircon-bearing rocks. Moreover, coarse flesh-

colored granites and coarsely porphyritic gneiss or granite are
ed

not among the rocks mentioned.

The frequent abrupt transitions between quartzyte and
gneiss is of so much interest that I may refer to it here again,
and repeat that it means abrupt transitions from sand deposits
to mud deposits in the old seas, just as are now common along
the borders of the modern.

In the condition of sedimentary rocks, the differences which,
under metamorphism, have led to so long a list of rocks would
hardly be apparent to the eye, and generally be overlooked in
a description—a little difference in color, or in texture, or in
proportion of sand, or in compactness, or thickness of bedding,
being the chief points visible in an unaliered rock made of clay,
mud or san

3. OROGRAPHIC CONCLUSIONS.

Among the orographic relations between the limestone
region in Vermont and Berkshire I mention here only two.

(l.) The first relates to the positions of the rocks, and the
connection between position and height.

_ a. Along the Central slate-belt of Vermont and its continua-
tion in Berkshire, called the Taconic range, the slates, for the
most part, have a high eastward dip; and the facts show that
where this is the case they are pushed over in synclinal folds
(sometimes with subordinate or local anticlinals and synclinals),
the axial plane of which dips eastward.

_ 6. At intervals the slate-belt rises into peaks over 2,500 feet
in height. Such peaks occur wherever the synclinal is a broad and
comparatively shallow one. ‘

In Vermont, this is the case in Dany Mountain, Mount
Dorset or Eolus, Spruce Peak, Equinox Mountain and Mount
Anthony, as illustrated on pages 346, 347, of the last volume
of this Journal. The explanation is simply—that a very br
synclinal or trough holds a very large mass of mountain mate-

; and that, on account of its magnitude, and often also its

262 = od. zD. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

greater compactness or hardness due to the heat and pressure,
it has had its height less reduced by denudation.

Berkshire, as I have already shown,* owes its highest sum-
mits, similarly, to the occurrence of broad synclinals. Gray-
lock, the highest, is one of them; and the Berkshire Mount

er.

This feature is so remarkable and so instructive in Mount
Washington, that I here reproduce the outline map of the
mountain, used in a former article,* on which the position,

x
&
o
~ \ Se
fa \)
*/f \) Be
H —
ee
WASHINGTON j B=
Hf —
4 |
2S
i i ——
f 1
t

“2
a

boundary between Massachusetts and New York, the width of
which seldom exceeds a mile; while the rest of the unlined part
of the map represents the area of Mount Washington, over
miles in breadth. The Taconie range, as above stated, corre-
sponds in its narrower part to a close synclinal, with the axial
plane dipping eastward. But in Mount Washington the lime-

* This Journal, IT, vi, 266. The outline of the mountain is taken from the large
wall-map of Berkshire, bearing the date 1858.

Orographic Conclusions. 263

stone and schists at its eastern foot dip westward at a small
angle—usually 20° to 25° (65° to 10° in the spur R); and also
westward, but at a higher angie, in its highest summit, Mount
Everett (E, on the map, 2,634 feet above the sea-level); while

the former bringing up the limestone. Such flexures are not
distinguishable in the schists unless sufficiently profound to
bring up the limestone; for the dip is throughout to the east-
ward; and hence there may be many of these subordinate
anticlinals and synelinals in the broad mass where there is
nothing to prove it. In the memoir referred to I have men-
tioned some evidence that the Graylock mountain-mass, while
a broad synclinal, comprises one or more subordinate anticlinals
and synclinals. It is a point to be considered in the study of
all mountain-masses consisting of steeply flexed rocks.

In another place in this yolume, I speak of the Mt. Washington
range in New Hampshire, east of the principal valley, as probably

.

corresponding to a synelinal, I would here add that it may be a

264 J, D. Dana—Geology of Vermont and Berkshire.

compound synclinal, and to this owe the apparently great thick-
ness of its andalusitic mica schists. Flexures of less span than
five miles, and. much less, are far more common among steeply
dipping rocks than those of greater extent, and sisnply because,
under the pressure producing such bold upturnings shaly strata
cannot help flexing at narrow intervals, so as to have frequent
local flexures subordinate to the larger folds.

twenty miles.

he magnitude of the results are strong evidence that the
so-called limestone-area is really but a small part of a larger
region of cotemporaneous disturbance and uplift. The true

e

Valley on the west, and so had the breadth of the Appalachian
disturbance of a later epoch, or whether it had narrower limits
—may be ascertained by studying the stratification. Some o
the results of such a study as regards Connecticut and a
portion of New York I propose to give in another paper.

are needed for a conclusion.

F, Galton—Address before the British Association. 265

“Art. XXXV.—Adiress before the Department of Anthropology
of the British Association, at Plymouth ; by FRANCIS GALTON,
E.R.S.

Under these circumstances I thought it best to depart some-
what from the usual form of addresses, and to confine myself to
certain topics with which I happen to have been recently en-
gaged, even at the risk of incurring the charge of submitting to
you a memoir rather than an address.

I propose to speak of the study of those groups of men who
are sufficiently similar in their mental characters or in their
physiognomy, or in both, to admit of classification ; and I espe-
cially desire to show that many methods exist of pursuing the
Inquiry in a strictly scientific manner, although it has hitherto
been too often conducted with extreme laxity.

The types of character of which I speak are such as those
described by Theophrastus, La Bruyére, and others, or such as
may be read of in ordinary literature and are universally recog-
nized as being exceedingly true to nature. There are no wor-
thier professors of this branch of anthropology than the writers
of the higher works of fiction, who are ever on the watch to
discriminate varieties of character, and who have the art of de-
scribing them. It would, I think, be a valuable service to an-
thropology if some person well versed in literature were to com-
pile a volume of extracts from novels and plays that should
illustrate the prevalent types of human character and tempera-
ment. What, however, I especially wish to point out is, that
it has of late years become possible to pursue an inquiry into
certain fundamental qualities of the mind by the aid of exact

266 =F. Galton—Address before the British Association.

measurements. Most of you are aware of the recent progress
of what has been termed psycho-physiecs, or the science of sub-
jecting mental processes to physical measurements and to phys-
ical laws. I do not now propose to speak of the laws that have
been deduced, such as that which is known by the name of

echner, and its numerous offshoots, including the law of
fatigue, but I will briefly allude to a few instances of measure-
ment of mental processes, merely to recall them to your mem-
ory. They will show what I desire to lay stress upon, that the
very foundations of the differences between the mental quali-
ties of man and man admit of being gauged by a scale of inches
and a clock.

should be lost on the road, in transmitting their impressions to
the brain. Now the velocity of the complete process of to an

fro nerve transmission in persons of different temperaments has
not been yet ascertained with the desired precision. Such dif-
ference as there may be is obviously a fundamental character-
istic and one that well deserves careful examination. 1 may
take this opportunity of suggesting a simple inquiry that would
throw much light on the degree in which its velocity varies 1n
different persons, and how far it is correlated with temperament
and external physical characteristics. Before I describe the in-
quiry I suggest, and toward which I have already collected a
few data, it is necessary that I should explain the meaning of
a term in common use among astronomers, namely, “ rsonal
equation.” It is a well-known fact that different observers
make different estimates of the exact moment of the occurrence
of any event. There is a common astronomical observation, In
which the moment has to be recorded at which a star that 18
traveling athwart the field of view of a fixed telescope, cross

the fine vertical wire by which that field of view is intersected.
In making this observation it is found that some observers are
over sanguine and anticipate the event, while others are slug-
gish and allow the event to pass by before they succeed in not-
ing it. This is by no means the effect of inexperience oF mal-
adroitness, but it is a persistent characteristic of each individ-
ual, however saaiicha: in the art of making observations OF

F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 267

268 FF. Galton—Address before the British Association.

imagine few greater services to anthropology than the collec-
tion of the various experiments that have been imagined to re-
duce the faculties of the mind to exact. measurement. ey
have engaged the attention of the highest philosophers, but
have never, so far as I am aware, been brought .compendiously
together, and have certainly not been introduced, as they de-
serve, to general notice.
Wherever we are able to perceive differences by inter-com-
arison, we may reasonably hope that we may at some future

The history of science is the history of such triumphs. I will
ask your attention to a very notable instance of this, namely,
that of the establishment of the scale of the thermometer. You
are aware that the possibility of making a standard thermomet-
ric scale wholly depends upon that of determining two fixe

points of temperature, the interval between them being gradu-
ated into a seale of equal parts. These points are, I nee

hardly say, the temperatures of freezing and of boiling water
respectively. On this basis we are able to record temperature
with minute accuracy, and the power of doing so has been one
of the most important aids to physics and chemistry as well as
to other branches of investigation. We have been so accus-
tomed, from our childhood, to hear of degrees of temperature,
and our scientific knowledge is so largely based upon exac
thermometric measurement, that we cannot easily realize the
state of science when the thermometer, as we now use it, was
unknown. Yet such was the condition of affairs so recently as
two hundred years ago, or thereabouts. The invention of the
thermometer, in its present complete form, was largely due to
Boyle, and I find in his “ Memoirs” (London, 1772, vol. vi, P»
403), a letter that cannot fail to interest us, since it well ex-
presses the need of exact measurement that was then felt in 4
particular case, where it was soon eminently well supplied, and
therefore encourages hope that our present needs as anthropol-
ogists may hereafter, in some way or other, be equally well sat-
isfied. - The letter is from Dr. John Beale, a great friend and
correspondent of Boyle, and is dated February, 1663. He
says in 1t:—

“T see by several of my own thermometers that the glass-
men are by you so well instructed to make the stems in equa
proportions, that if we could name some degrees, .. + -
might by the proportions of the glass make our discourses intel-
ligible in mentioning what degrees of cold our greatest frosts
do produce. .... If we can discourse of heat and cold im
their several degrees, so as we may signify the same intelligi

y, .... itis more than our forefathers have taught us to do
hitherto.”

F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 269

The principal experiments by which the mental faculties ma
be measured require, unfortunately for us, rather costly and del-
icate apparatus, and until physiological laboratories are more
numerous than at present, we can hardly expect that they will
be pursued by many persons,
us now suppose that, by one or more of the methods I
have described or alluded to, we have succeeded in obtaining a
group of persons resembling one another in some mental qual-
ity, and that we desire to determine the external physical char-
acteristics and features most commonly associated with it. I
have nothing new to say as regards the usual anthropometric
measurements, but I wish to speak of the great convenience of
photographs in conveying those subtle but clearly visible pecu-
liarities of outline which almost elude measurement. It is
strange that no use is made of photography to obtain careful
studies of the head and features. No single view can possibly
exhibit the whole of a solid, but we require for that purpose
views to be taken from three points at right angles to one an-
other. Just as the architect requires to know the elevation,
side view, and plan of a house, so the anthropologist ought to
have the full face, profile, and view of the head from above of
the individual whose features he is studying. f
It might be a great convenience, when numerous portraits
have to be rapidly and inexpensively taken for the purpose of
anthropological studies, to arrange a solid framework support-
ing three mirrors, that shal] afford the views of which I have
been speaking, by reflection, at the same moment that the di-
rect picture of the sitter is taken. He would present a three-
quarter face to the camera for the direct picture, one adjacent
mirror would reflect his profile towards it, another on the oppo-
site side would reflect his full face, and a third sloping over
him would reflect the head as seen from above. All the re-
flected images would lie at the same optical distance from the
camera, and would, therefore, be on the same scale, but they
would be on a somewhat smaller scale than the picture taken
directly. The result would be an ordinary photographie pic-
ture of the sitter surrounded by three different views of his
head. Seales of inches attached to the framework would ap-
pear in the picture and give the means of exact measurement.
Having obtained drawings or photographs of several persons
alike in most respects, but differing in minor details, what sure
method is there of extracting the typical characteristics from
them? I may mention a plan which ee occurred both to Mr.
Herbert Spencer and myself, the principle of which is to super-
impose optically the various drawings and to accept the aggre-
gate result. Mr. cer suggested to me in conversation that
the drawings reduced to the same scale might be traced on sep-

270 =F. Galton—Address before the British Association.

arate pieces of transparent paper and secured one upon another,
and then held between the eye and the light. I have attempte

this with some success. My own idea was to throw faint
images of the several portraits, in succession, upon the same

acommon double eye-glass fitted with stereoscopic
lenses to be almost as effectual and far handier than the boxes

e
Criminality, though not very various in its development, is
extremely complex in its origin: nevertheless, certain general
conclusions are arrived at by the best writers on the subject,
among whom I would certainly rank Prosper Despine. The
ideal criminal has three peculiarities of character; his conscience
is almost deficient, his instincts are vicious, and his power 0
self-control is very weak. As a consequence of all this, he
usually detests continuous labor. This statement applies to
the criminal classes generally, the special conditions that deter-
mine the description of crime being the character of the 1n-
stincts; and the fact of the absence of self-control being due to
ungovernable temper, or to ion, or to mere imbecility.
he deficiency of conscience in criminals, as shown by the
absence of genuine remorse for their guilt, appears to astonish
all who first become familiar with the details of prison life.
Scenes of heartrending despair are hardly ever witnessed among
prisoners; their sleep is broken by no uneasy dreams—on the

F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 271

contrary, it is easy and sound; they have also excellent appe-
tites. But hypocrisy is a very common vice; and all my in-
formation agrees in one particular, as to the utter untruthful-
ness of criminals, however plausible their statements may ap-
pear to be.

we are entitled to say is, that the prevalent instincts of each
idual. A man

gress on the subject, I was enabled to examine the many thon-
sand photographs of criminals that are preserved for purposes
of identification at the Home Office, to visit prisons and confer
with the authorities, and lastly to procure for my own private
statistical inquiries a large number of copies of photographs of
einous criminals. I may as well say, that I begged that the
photographs should be furnished me without any names at-
tached to them, but simply classified in three groups according
to the nature of the crime. The first group included murder,
manslaughter, and burglary; the second group included felony
and forgery; and the third group referred to sexual crimes.
The photographs were of criminals who had been sentenced to
long terms of penal servitude. :
By familiarizing myself with the collection, and continually
sorting the photographs in tentative ways, certain natural
classes began to appear, some of which are exceedingly well

272 FE. Galton—Address before the British Association.

marked. It was also very evident that the three groups of
criminals contributed in very different proportions to the dif-
ferent physiognomic classes.

This is not the place to go further into details: indeed m
inquiry is far from complete. I merely quote my experiences
in order to show the way in which questions of character, phys-
iognomy, and temperament admit of being scientifically ap-
proached, and to give an instance of the helpfulness of photog-
raphy. If I had had the profiles and the shape of the head as
seen from above, my results would have been much more in-
structive. Thus, to take a single instance, I have seen many
pencil studies in outline of selected criminal faces drawn by Dr.
Clarke, the accomplished and zealous medical officer of Penton-
ville Prison; and in these sketches a certain very characteristic
= seemed to me conspicuously prevalent. J should have

een very glad of photographs to corroborate this. So, again,
if I had had photographic views of the head taken from above,
I could have tested, among other matters, the truth of Profes-
sor Benedict’s assertion about the abnormally small size of the
back of the head in criminals. ;

I have thus far spoken of the characters and physiognomy of
well-marked varieties of men: the anthropologist has next to
consider the life history of those varieties, and especially their
tendency to perpetuate themselves, whether to displace other
varieties and to spread, or else to die out. In illustration of
this, I will proceed with what appears to be the history of the
eriminal class. Its perpetuation by heredity is a question that
deserves more careful investigation than it has received, but it
18 On many accounts more difficult to grapple with than it may
at first sight appear to be. The vagrant habits of the criminal
classes, their illegitimate unions and extreme untruthfulness,
are among the difficulties. It is, however, easy to show that
the criminal nature tends to be inherited while, on the other
hand, it is impossible that women who spend a large portion of
the best years of their lives in prison can contribute many chil-
dren to the population. The true state of the case appears to
be that the criminal population receives steady accessions from
classes who, without having strongly marked criminal natures,
do nevertheless belong to a type of humanity that is exceed-
ingly ill-suited to play a respectable part in our modern civili-
zation, though they are well-suited to flourish under half-sav-
age conditions, being naturally both healthy and_ prolific.
These persons are apt to go to the bad; their daughters consort
with criminals and become the parents of criminals. An e
traordinary example of this is given by the history of the infa-
mous Jukes family in America, whose pedigree has been made
out with extraordinary care, during no less than seven genera-
tions, and is the subject of an elaborate memoir printed in the

F. Galton—Address before the British Association. 278

thirty-first annual report of the Prison Association of New York,
1876. It includes no less than 540 individuals of Jukes blood,
among whom the number of persons who degraded into crim-
inality, pauperism, or disease, is frightful to contemplate.

t is difficult to summarize the results in a few plain figures,
but I will state those respecting the fifth generation, throug
the eldest of the five prolific daughters of the man who is the
common ancestor of the race. The total number of these was
103, of whom thirty-eight came through an illegitimate grand-
daughter, and eighty-five through legitimate grand-children.
Out of the thirty-eight, sixteen have been in jail, six of them
for heinous offences, one of these having been committed no
less than nine times; eleven others were paupers or led openly
disreputable lives ; four were notoriously intemperate; the his-
tory of three had not been traced, and only four were known
to have done well. The great majority of the women consorted
with criminals. As to the eighty-five legitimate descendants,
they were less flagrantly bad, for only five of them ha
in jail and only thirteen others had been paupers. Now the
ancestor of all this mischief, who was born dante the year 1730,
is described as having been a hunter and a fisher, a jolly, com-
panionable man, averse to steady labor, working hard and
idling by turns, and who had numerous illegitimate children,
whose issue has not been traced. He was, in fact, a somewhat
good specimen of a half-savage, without any seriously criminal
instincts. The girls were apparently attractive, marrying early
and sometimes not badly; but the gipsy-like character of the
race was unsuited to success ina civilized country. So the
descendants went to the bad, and the hereditary moral weak-
nesses they may have had rose to the surface and worked their
mischief without a check. Cohabiting with criminals and
being extremely prolific, the result was the production of a
stock exceeding 500 in number, of a prevalent criminal ty
Through disease and intemperance the breed is now rapidly
diminishing; the infant mortality has of late been horrible
among them, but fortunately the women of the me genera-
tion bear usually but few children, and many of them are alto-
gether childless.

his is not the place to go further into details. I have
alluded to the Jukes family in order to show what extremely
important topics lie open to inquiry in a single branch of an-
thropological research, and to stimulate others to follow it out.

here can be no more interesting subject to us than the quality
of the stock of our countrymen and of the human race gener-
ally, and there can be no more worthy inquiry than that which
eads to an explanation of the conditions under which it dete-
Tiorates or improves.

Am. Jour, — Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr., 1877.

274 W. EF. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel.

Art. XXXVI.—Analyses of Cast Nickel, and en on
the combining of Carbon and Silicon with Nicke 1; by WILLIAM
K. Garp. Contributions from the Sheffield ‘Laboratory of
Yale College. No. L.

NUMEROUS analyses of commercial nickel have been pub-
lished, according to which the usual impurities of this product
are cobalt, iron, copper, sulphur, arsenic, alumina, alkaline
earths and silica, in very varying quantities. In a few cases
carbon is report rted.

In text-books of metallurgy it is usually stated that the
final step in the process of preparing commercial nickel is to
reduce the oxide in the form of lumps or cubes without fusion
by means of charcoal. According to Kerl,* the already
reduced outside portion of the cube takes up carbon by con-
tact and transfers it to the interior. If the reduced metal be
allowed to remain in contact with the coal at a high tempera-
ture, it takes up more and more carbon. It is also stated in
Gmelin’s Handbook of Chemistry. on the authority of Déber-
einer, that nickel takes up carbon

The nickel plates now largely used as anodes for nickel

t
oxides, as alumina, alkaline earths and silica. The oe
analyses show, per that silica may be reduced and retained
as silicon, and that a considerable amount of carbon may be
nt.

presen

No. L No. I. No, Ii.
b- we ee a

n, "530 549 17104 1080 1°900 1°830
Silicon, 303 294 130 “125 255 "268
ron 464 463 "108 110 301 318

Cobalt, 446 438 trace trace
Sulphur, 049 05 2 "84 104 = 096
[Nickel], 98°208 987199 98°392 98°345 97°440 977488

———

100°000 100000 100-000 100000 =—100°000 100°000

Carbon was estimated by the method that is generally
employed in this labora for its determination in iron, viz:
treatment with solution of perfect! neutral normal cupric
chloride, or of cupric ammonium 8 te and combustion of
the residue after washing on an asbestos filter. The action of

* Handbuch der metallurg. Hiittenkunde, vol. iv, p. 482, 1865.
+ Vol. v, p. 366, 1851.

W. EF. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel. 275

cupric chloride on nickel is extremely slow, two or three weeks
being required for the solution of five grams, although crushed
fine in a steel mortar. The cupric ammonium chloride is a

than nickel, while the reverse happens with sulphur.

Fzperiments.

It is well known that when oxide of iron is reduced by car-
bon at a high temperature in presence of silica, a portion of
the latter is simultaneously reduced and combined with the
iron. To ascertain the deportment of silicon to nickel under
similar conditions, the following experiment was made.
quantity of pure nickel oxide was intimately mixed with about

alf its weight of finely pulverized quartz, and enough charcoal
powder to effect reduction of both. The mass was made into

Oarbon . 2 2. 86 9°50
Sinton... ae. 6°039 6190

packed in layers with charcoal in a Hessian crucible and
exposed to a full red heat twelve hours. Examination of the
contents of the crucible showed that no fusion had taken place.
The temperature was then raised until complete fusion ensued.
The resulting metal was strongly magnetic, quite soft and toa
considerable extent malleable. It possessed a specific gravity

of 8-04, and a fracture resembling that of fine-grained grey pig-

276 W. FE. Gard—Analyses of Cast Nickel.
iron, scales of graphite being plainly visible. It was found to
tain:
a b
BPDON 66~ x 2°105 2°130

Tot.
Graphitic carbon.. 27030 1:990
360

re 3

, thin Sac of electroplate nickel—which a careful
nase ertien proved to be free from impurities. No. 2, gerne
prepared r re ducing = Oxl by h ydrogen. No. 3,

were then made, the — is weighed each time after

cooling in the current of A portion of the electro-plate

nickel was used for PR after the second exposure, SO

that an amount equal to 5638 grams was present at the last
eat.

_ A condensed statement of the result is exhibited in the fol-
lowing tables, in which the first column contains the original

Gain in Gain in Gain in &% CO. at

Weights of metals. 3t hours. 4% hours. 6} hours. close.
Ni, "8597 0067 0823 [0672] 10°649

2, Mt, 19008 0046 0071 0114 . 5°96

3. Fe, 1°2837 0078 0096 0103 "795
4. Co, 1°2697 0758 1680 1857 12°758

No deposit of carbon could be detected on any part of the
apparatus or on the metals at the close of the ape: The
iron and nickel No. 2 were eee ae in appeara
cobalt was somewhat aera It was as first stad very

rous and spongy ; a part of its seekiges in weight may have

een due to ete carbon. Nickel No. 2 was in the form
of coarse compact grains presenting bcs little sur-
face. The electro-plate nickel at the end of the operations ha
become brittle, and resembled gas carbon in color and luster ;
treatment with nitric acid readily dissolved the nickel, leaving
a spongy mass of easily combustible carbon. A broken sur-

G. O. Sars—Practical use of Autography. 277

face appeared under the microscope homogeneous, granular,
with dull metallic luster. When ground to fine powder with
water all settled rapidly and every particle was strongly
attracted by the magnet. These properties seem to render
it probable that the carbon was all in a combined state.

Art. XXX VITI.—On the practical use of Autography, especially
jor Natural History publications. Condensed from a letter to
the Christiania paper ‘“‘ Morgenbladet,” 1875, by G. O. Sars,
Professor of Zoology at the University of Christiania, Nor-
way, and translated by J. LINDAHL.

AUTOGRAPHY is a long-known process by which manuscript,
or drawings, made on common paper by means of a peculiar
kind of ink, may be transferred to a lithographic stone and
then printed. This simple and cheap method has, however,
had hitherto a very limited practical use, and almost exclu-
sively for the reproduction of original manuscripts, hieroglyphs,
or other simple figures, for which types could not be used. In

orway it was introduced in 1878, by Dr. Lieblein, who illus-
trated his Egyptological work with some pages of hieroglyphic
Inscriptions reproduced in autography. This suggested to me
the idea that the same process might answer also for represent-
ing simple zoological objects, and thus afford the means of
removing one of the great impediments that too often have
interfered with a free development of zoology, viz: the heavy
8 seem connected with a production in the usual way—b
lithography or copper plate engraving—of illustrations so
necessary for all works on descriptive zoology. * * * There
are a number of objections to the autographic process hitherto
used, and these led me to experiment on the subject. I have
been fortunate enough by my experiments to devise an easy
method and to prove its extensive practical use, and it gives
me pleasure to communicate it to the scientific world, coe
that I am doing science an important service. I must ad
that the success of my experiments is greatly due to Mr. Fehr’s
warm interest and assistance.

The following is a detailed explanation of this improved
autographic process. The drawing is done on common paper,
not too thick (for instance common letter paper), which, on
one side (where the drawing is to be made), has been coated,
by means of a sponge, with a thin film of starch. As it is not
well for the shading to use quite glossy paper, it is a good way
to give it a granulated surface by pressing it against a litho-
graphic stone. By using for this purpose stones with more or

278 G. O. Sars— Practical use of Autography.

less smooth surface, the paper will assume any degree of
smoothness required, according to the character of the drawing.
The next process is to fasten the paper to a sketching board or
a piece of pasteboard; the drawing is then made by means of
the lithographic crayon. I use a kind of crayon containing
copal (‘“erayons copal’) and therefore less brittle than the
common kind; and as this kind is also in other respects
preferable, it had better always be used for this purpose. It
can be obtained in small boxes from Monsieur Lemercier, Rue
de Seine, St. Gn., 57, Paris.

The paper must be cut to the size intended for a full plate,
and the drawings arranged in the same order as they wil
have to appear in the printed plate. The execution is exceed-
ingly simple, and any draughtsman will easily acquire the

ill in the work. The method is the same as in

common drawing with lead pencil, or rather crayon. The

_ figures should, however, first be sketched in outline on com-
mon paper and then transferred to the prepared paper in the
usual manner, by means of transparent paper and plumbago
paper, blue paper, or, still better, red paper, the transferring
being done with a lead pencil that is not too soft. The details
of the figures, the shading and finer structural conditions may
be drawn off-hand with the crayon on the prepared paper,
after the outline has been transferred. Any correction or
change in the drawing can easily be done by erasing with a
fine scalpel, taking care only that the starch film be not
injured. I have in this way made numerous corrections in my
drawings without the slightest injury to the prints. When the
plate is finished to satisfaction, it is transferred to a common
smooth lithographic stone, in the following simple way. The
back of the paper is moistened with water containing a small
— of nitric acid; and, after having been put for some time
etween moistened soft printing paper, the plate is laid, face
downward, on the stone, which then for a moment is put in
the press. To make more sure of it the outside of the paper

weak etching, and will then be ready for printing. The whole
process of transferring the drawing from the paper to the stone .
is simple, but requires practice and great care. This should
therefore be left to the charge of a professional lithographer.

It may be thought that the zoologist, by taking on himself
the execution of his plates, would have his labor excessively
in is, however, is not really so. e drawing must
at all events be made by the zoologist in one way or another

G. O. Sars—Practical use of Autography. 279

before the lithographer or engraver can copy them, and it is of
no material difference to the former whether he makes them
with lead pencil or in the above described manner. The onl
difference is that he must himself arrange his figures on the
plates, and not, as otherwise is the practice, leave this to the
hthographer; and besides, he must draw all the figures that
are to go on one plate in as far as possible a continuous
sequence. But this increase of labor is of small account com-
pared with the great and essential advantages offered by this
method, viz:

1. Cheapness.—The expenses of such a plate are reduced
simply to the cost of paper and printing, and will be even less
than for a page of common printed matter. Thus any zoolo-
gist who publishes his researches can illustrate his papers with
any number of plates, without meeting the insurmountable
obstacle of enormous expense, which too often has rendered
illustration of such papers impossible. -

. Correctness.—It avoids the errors that come from the copy-
ing of drawings by the engraver.

has seen, and consequently it is generally necessary that the

draughtsman should be a zoologist. : :
me modern zoologists have, to save expense, tried to make

their drawings direst on the stone. Such a plate will of

requires unusual practice and a special study of the litho-
graphic art, which can be e: very 8

number of zoologists. It is obvious that the same result is ob-
tained by the above described method, and in a far easier way.

280 F.. W. Clarke—Todates of Cobalt and Nickel.

Art. XXX VIIT.— On the Lodates of Cobalt and Nickel ; some Spe-
cific Gravity determinations; and an Analysis of Sylvanite
om Colorado; by F. W. CLARKE, Professor of Physics and
Chemistry. Numbers IV, V, and VI, of Laboratory Notes,
from the University of Cincinnati.

IV. On the Lodates of Cobalt and Nickel.

Axovt forty years ago Rammelsberg described the iodates
of cobalt and nickel.* He dissolved the freshly precipitated
carbonates of the metals in an aqueous solution of iodic acid,
and, upon concentrating, obtained the salts in the form of crys-
talline crusts. To the cobalt salt he assigned a quantity of
water of crystallization represented by 14 molecules, while the
nickel iodate was found to be monohydrated.

During the winter of 1876-1877 I put one of my laboratory
students, Mr. H. B. Fullerton, at work upon the iodates, requir-
ing him, among other salts, to prepare the two in question.
Rammelsberg’s mode of preparation was followed, and results
somewhat different from fie obtained.

hen cobalt carbonate is dissolved in aqueous iodic acid

and the filtered solution evaporated rapidly over a flame, Ram-
melsberg’s iodate readily separates out, nearly the whole of the
salt being deposited in a very few moments. But when, on
the other hand, the solution is allowed to evaporate spontane-
ously, small red crystals are formed, having the composition
Co his is evidently the normal iodate, since it con-
tains the same number of molecules of water as are found in
the chlorate, bromate, nitrate, chloride, bromide, iodide, hypo-
phosphite, hyposulphite, dithionate, selenate, and numerous
other salts. Indeed, a large majority of the known salts not
only of cobalt and nickel, but also of zinc and magnesium,
crystallize with six molecules of water. So general does this
rule appear to be that all exceptions to it ought to receive the
most careful scrutiny. Even the sulphates of these metals,
&. are well known to be

F. W. Clarke—LIodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 281

21°. Rammelsberg’s salt gave 50275 at 17°, and 4:9885 at 19°.
These determinations were made by weighing in benzol with
an ordinary specific gravity flask.

The iodate of nickel was prepared in a manner precisely cor-
responding to that which yielded the cobalt compound, and
separated out in small green crystals resembling in color the
nitrate. These also proved to be hexhydrated, and contained,
according to Mr. Fullerton’s analysis, 11°15 per cent of nickel.
Theory, 11-41. Specific gravity, 8°6954 at 22°. Want of time

water of crystallization, and that they are essentially different
from the salts obtained by Rammeisberg.

V. Some Specific Gravity Determinations.

as a rule those of which the density is unknown, and thus
he realizes that his work is actually adding something to the data
of science. In short, every student is absolutely required to
determine some new fact for himself, and to determine it accu-
rately. The work is done under my own personal supervision,
and a sufficient number of checks are put upon it to render it
reliable. The weighings, with a few exceptions, have been
made in benzol, as in the case of the iodates already described.
In three instances only were the weighings made in water.
The figures, however, all refer to water as unity, taken at its
temperature of maximum density.
. H. B. Fullerton, as I have already stated, was
assigned the iodates. In addition to the figures for the cobalt
and nickel salts, he obtained the following data.

282 F. W. Clarke—Todates of Cobalt and Nickel.

ear iodate, Bal,O,, ep Ce and carefully dehydrated,
2179 , 51853, 5°2855, a at 18°.

Siver jodate, Agl0,, precipitated, 5°4023, 16°5°. The same salt
recryst stallized from ammonia gave 5° 6475, 14:5°,

Lead iodate, PbI,O,, p bay ge a 6°1783, at 19°, and 6°1322, 21°.
For this salt Schroder found 6-209. These three iodates
were weighed in wate

Ammonium Foie os NH,. io,, small crystals, 3°3085, 21°; and
3°3372,

Mr. Falierton “alls determined the specific gravities of two
iodides which had previously been examined by Boédeker.
CdI,, in rey beautiful pearly scales, gave 5°9857 at 12°, and
59738 at 13°5°. Bodeker’s figure is s 4576 at 10°, making the
salt oe than either of the elements contained in it. This ©
fact of itself would tend to throw suspicion upon Bédeker’s
results.

Bismuth iodide, Bil,, gave Mr. Fullerton 5-9225 at 16°, and
58813 at 175°. Bédeker found 5°652 at 10°. Here again I
regard Mr. Fullerton’s figures as the more anos rthy.

he ae double and compound cyanides were deter-
mined by .
peace potassium tenia: K NAO, H,O; 1°875, 11°; and 1°871,

Potassium pacaeeuce, K ge Oe 3H,0, slightly moist, 2 Lig
13°, and 2°4548 The disc repancy between the tw
ticgeice aig ns 19 the moisture which could not ae

yeaa um ee ide, NH .CyS, 1299 and 1°316 at 13°.
Potassio-chromic sulphocyanide, K,CrCy,,8,,, 8H,O, 1°7051, 17°5°;
17107, 16°.
Potasio-patni sulphocyanide, K,PtCy,S,, 2-370, 19°, and 2°342,
Sodium nitroprusside, 1°6869, 25°. Schréder found 1-710 and
1-716 for this salt.
Four nitrates were determined by Mr. H. Laws.
NiN,O,, 6H,O, gave 2-065, 14°, and 2-037, 22°.
n A
CdN,0,, 4H,0, gave 2°450, 14°, and 2-460, 20°.

BiN,O,, 5H 0, well crystallized, gave 2°823 at 13°.

This salt has also been determined by Playfair 08 goa.
who found 2°736. Their method of working, nome was
less reliable than that with the specific gravity bot

The bromates were taken up by Miss E. D. a with the
following results.

KBrO,, 3°323 at 19°. Kremers found 3°271, and Topsoé 3-218.
The agreement is tolerable,

AgBrO,, 5°1983, 16°, and 5°2153, 18°.

BaBr,O,, carefully dehydrated, 40395, 17°, 3°9918, 18°.

F. W. Clarke—lIodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 283

Hyposulphites, measured by Mr. L. T. Richardson.

CaS,0,, 6H,O, in fine crystals, 1°8715, 13°5°, and 1°8728, 16°.
SrS Kn Be 6H, O, in good crystals, 21566, 2°1991, both at 17°
BaS, ey 0, ’ precipitated, 3°4461, 16° and 3° 4486, 18°.

Mr. Ri chardson also made a determination for potassium sul-
phate, getting 2°653, 18°. This agrees closely with Petters-
son’s figure, 2°66.

Tungstates, examined by Mr. J. L. Davis. The sodium salt
was a commercial product, and was therefore first analyzed to
be certain of its character. The nickel and barium salts were
eam by the well-known method of fusion.

a,WO,, 4°1743, 20°5°, and 471833, 18°5°.
Ne Wo. , 2H,0, i "2588, 175°, and 3°2314, 19°.

BaWo,, 0035, 13°5°, and 50422, 15°.
NiWwo? . 8846, 20° 5°, and 6°8522, 22°.

Molyhdates prepared and determined by Mr. F. O. Marsh.
BaMoO,, 4°6589,17°5°, and 4°6483, 19°5°.

SrMo,, "4: 1554, 20°5°, and 4°1348, 21°.

Mr. C. A. ss ae worked upon phosphates and hypophos-
phites, as follow
Barium iia er ee BaP,H,0,, H,O, 2:8718, 10°, and 2-8971,

se es
Magnesium 5 buat MgP.H,0,, 6H,O, 1°5886, 12°5°, and
15681,
Sodium metaphosphate NaPO,, ee by igniting microcos-
mic salt, 24756, 19°5°, and 2°4769
Potassium metaphosphate, KPO, babel by pigee f the mono-
potassium ortho-salt, 2°2639, ‘and 2°2513, both at 1

No other hypophosphites or metaphosphates have as - had
their densities determined.
amevaneg orthophosphate, anhydrous, Na,PO,,2°5111, 12°; 2°5362,

Sodium, p pC Re fhe 10H,O, 1°7726, 21°. Playfair
ngs e found 1
The same salt, dehydrated by ignition, 2°3851 and 2:3618,
17°. Schréder’s determination makes the salt 2584, a widely
different figure.
The following series of chromates was prepared and exam-
ined by Miss E. O. Abbot.
sagas chromate, MgCrO,, 7H,0, finely crystallized, 1°7613 at
16°. For this salt Bodeker found 1 -75,and Kopp 1°66. The
higher result is more probable. In her work on this com-
pound Miss Abbot also determined another important fact,
namely that, like the corresponding sulphate, magnesium

284 F. W. Clarke—TIodates of Cobalt and Nickel.

chromate loses six molecules of water readily, holding the
seventh with much greater firmness. Heated to 130° the salt

more water, but not the whole, is expelled, the compound at
the same time undergoing partial decomposition. The den-
sity of MgCrO,, H,O, was found to be 2°2886 and 22301, at

Ammonium chromate, (NH,),CrO,, crystallized, 1:9138 and 1°9203,
12°. Schréder makes it 1-860 to 1°871.
Ammonium dichromate, (NH,),Cr,O,, 2°1223, 16°, and 2°1805, 17°.

99

at 20°, a figure probably much too low. The difficulty in
dealing with this body arises from the extreme instability of

Ammonium-magnesium chromate, (NH,),Mg(CrO,),, 6H,O, well
crystallized, 1°8278 and 1°8595 at 16°. Also 1°8293 at 17°.

and 2°5966, 19°5°. Schréder er 2°592 to 2°608, a close
agreement.
_ These chromate determinations fill up some important gaps
in this series of salts, and help us to arrive at some interesting
conclusions. Pettersson has lately shown that selenates have
molecular volumes exceeding those of the corresponding sul-
phates by 6 for each molecule of the acid radicle. Thus, the
molecular volume of sodium selenate is that of the sulphate
plus 6; that of a selenic alum exceeds that of the correspond-
ing sulphuric alum by four times 6, and soon. Upon compar-
ing these and other chromates with Pettersson’s selenates we
now find that the two series of salts have approximately equal
molecular volumes; the difference, if any exists, being very
slightly plus for the selenates. If regularities of this kind can
be thoroughly established, it will be easy, having the density
of a chromate, to calculate that of the corresponding sulphate
or selenate, and vice-versa. This connection between chromates
and selenates has already been suggested by Schréder, and Miss
Abbot's figures do much towards confirming it. Miss Abbot
has also redetermined the density of chromic chloride, CraCls,
on a beautifully characterized specimen. She finds 2°3572,
175°, and 238766, 165°. Schafarik’s figure for the substance

F. W. Clarke—Jodates of Cobalt and Nickel. 285

“i 3°03, I redetermined it again in person, and got 2°349 at
My result thus confirms those of Miss bbot, and the
sicities is raised whether this ener he may not exist in
more than one modification as regards density.
ee féflowing series of pyrophosphates was worked up by
. Lewis. They were prepared by igniting the double
realise ee

Mg.P,O., 2°598, 299, and 2° 559, 18°, eohupidee found 2°22,
3°.

‘dias of the corresponding aj feheiies were prepared by
Miss Helena Stallo, as follow
Mn,As,0., 3°6832 and 3°6927, 298 Also 3°6625, 25°.
Zn /As,O 4°7034 and 4°6989,
Mg, As,0., 3°7305, 15°, and 8 eis: ys ha
Miss Stallo also dletahniiied the ae trisodium ortho-
arsenate, getting ,2°8128 and 2°8577,
The following compounds, srceety various series, may
be regarded as scattering.
—— sulphate, GISO,, 4H,O, 1°6743, 22°, Miss Stallo. Top-
oé found for this salt, 1725. The sample Miss Stallo
easier with was slightly damp, which will account for the

difference.
Potassio-chromic oxalate, CrK,0,0,,,3H,O; 271039, 23°, and
’ tte ae Bisho

Ae?

Stannous chloride, SnCl,, oF O, 2°634, 24°, E. P. head The
published figure obtained by Penny was 2°71,

Cupro-mercuric iodide, HgI,. Cul, 6°1602, 15°, mt 6° 1412, 18°,
A eighway.

Mercurie chloride with ammonium dichromate, HgCl,.Am,Cr,0.,

O, in large crystals, 32336, 21°, and 3-1850, 18°, A. E

20)

eighway.
Mercuric nee eh Hg(C,H,0,),, 3°2544, 22°, and 3-2861, 23°, John
Hagem

This inlets the list of determinations thus = made by
my students. Sixty-three compounds are here given, forty-six
among them not having been measured before. In concluding,
I will give a few determinations of my own.

Potassium iodate, KIO,. There are two published values for this
t, namely, 3° 979, Kremers, and 2°601, Ditte. Th ary
from each other so widely that I thought it worth while to
detente eo salt, and I obtained the figure 3°802, 18°.

This confirms mers.
Tellurium dioxide, TeO,, 5°7559, 12°5°, and 5°7841, 14°. Schafa-
rik found 5-93.

286 7. OC. Sloane—Analysis of Bituminous Coal.

Tellurium trioxide, re, ei 14°5°; 50794, 10°5°. Another
ample gave 5: 111

Barium tellurate, BaTed, “fecbly ignited, 4°5486, 10°5°; 4°5305,
o°. Another sample gave 4°4811, 16°. This salt, ‘like the

VI. An Analysis of Sylvanite from Colorado.

Having had occasion lately to analyze a sylvanite from the
Grand View Mine, Colorado, I publish the result here, not
because it contains an ything novel, but because it seems to be
desirable that such material should be preserved for future
reference and discussion. The ore from this mine has, I believe,
not been carefully analyzed before. The specimen was imbed-
ded in quartz, associated with a ie iron pyrites, and had all
the usual characteristics of sylvan

The analysis came out as ‘sliowe’ after eliminating a little
gangue.

Tellurium See i eae
Old... J eee 2 eae
Silver BP LEG Hligeos? y 4. ES Ma GR Ledger his" 10°55
TOR Oe a a ey
Salphur .. ...<:- 5°62
99°97

The sulphur was not estimated directly, but was calculated
as pyrites to correspond with the amount of iron found. Elim-
inating the pyrites the ge will stand thus.

Peuuram — 207 co ...-58°91
RG a Foe 29°35
ee ee. 2a

100-00

This sylvanite wy ey given me by Professor E. S.
Wayne, of Cincinna

Art. XXXIX.—WNotes on the Analysis o. oe Ooal; by
T. O’Conor Stoang, A.M., aD.

THE determination of ash in coal appears a very sl imple
matter; yet I have on several occasions found much difficulty
in reaching a accurate results. I traced the error finally to
Seiesfeint pulverization of the coal.

A sample of coal was reduced to powder and passed through
a fine wire sieve, number sixty, or eighty, mesh. I made a

T. OC. Sloane—Analysis of Bituminous Coal. 287

number of determinations of ash, using different weights of
the coal, and got the following widely discordant results:
a. From 3 grams, 6°66 p.c.; 5. 12 grams, 3°72 p.c¢.; ¢ 1 gram,
4°67 p. c.; d. 2 grams, 4°40 p. c.; e. 12 grams, 2°63 p. ¢.
I then took all that was left of the pulverized coal, spread it
out upon a piece of glazed cloth, and divided it into two parts,
each of about the same weight. I did this with the usual pre-
cautions adopted in sampling, so that the coal in each half
would be exactly the same. One of these parts was ignited
and incinerated. Its weight was 23-9665 grams. The ash
weighed ‘9920 grams, or determination f 24 grams nearly,
‘14 per cent. The other portion was powdered in a porcelain
mortar until of a full brown color. The ash was deter-
mined in one gram of it, giving 3°90 per cent, e. 1 gram, 3°90
per cent.

I have since this investigation subjected any coal I was
about to analyze to a fine powdering in a porcelain mortar. I
am of opinion that it would be well to prolong the operation in
an agate mortar, but the process is too tedious. ou
coal be reduced to a brown powder, it is still quite difficult to
obtain good duplicate results. I give below some instances:

i 2
Coal Aiscuc cess 4°50 p. ¢ 4°00 p. ¢
ote ate ses "25 5°12
Wise uses 13°86 14°10

D

The ash I generally determine 'in one gram of the coal. If
the crucible, in which the incineration is taking place be
supported on the triangle in an inclined position, and if the lid
be so placed as to direct the exterior zone of the flame into it,
the operation will be greatly abridged. By looking into the
erucible while over the burner it can be seen when the
right position has been reached. The cake of coke will appear
bright, or ignited, on the surface. From time to time it may
be rubbed, or broken up if possible, with a platinum wire.
Before incineration the sample should be ignited in the same
crucible with the cover on.

‘The sulphur may be conveniently determined by fusion
with the salt flux (Fresenius, Vacher’s Ed., p. 127). One gram
of the coal is fused with a mixture of NaCl 24 grams, NaNO,

288 T.O'C. Sloane—Anaiysis of Bituminous Coal.

it exacts more attention and trouble. The salt fusion, in two
comparative determinations that I made, gave higher results on
the same coal,

Salt Fusion. Deflagration.
2 US sae cane 1°70 p. ¢. 1°37 p. ©.
S| eS ae 1°92 1°69
The specific gravity cannot be satisfactorily determined with-
out the specific gravity bottle. y weighing lumps in air

and in water all sorts of results will be obtained. I break up
a sample in an iron mortar and pass it through a No. 4 or
6 sieve. I then shake it up in a finer, No. 15 or 20, sieve, so
as to free it from the dust and fine particles. This seems a
bad practice yet cannot well be avoided. The finely divided
coal, if left in with the rest, will float on the surface of the
water used in determining its specific gravity, and no amount
of boiling will make it sink.

e coal thus prepared I place in a small beaker with some
distilled water, and boil it. I then put the coal and water
into the specific gravity flask, fill up with recently boiled
distilled water, and cool it to about the temperature of
the room. The last cooling is done in a beaker of water
which is stirred once or twice, during the cooling, to make the
water of uniform temperature. When the bottle and contents
have attained this temperature, the bottle is carefully filled,
the stopper put in, and the whole dried and weighed. The
coal is then thrown out, the bottle filled with recently boiled
distilled water, brought to the same temperature as before, and
weighed. This careful reduction to one temperature is very
important; by paying attention to it very close duplicates can
be obtained.

The specific gravity of coal varies with the percentage of
ash ; yet the correspondence is not so perfect as to make the
determination of the specific gravity a substitute for that of
the latter constituent. As the degree of correspondence is a

"some interest, I give below a number of parallel
determinations of ash and specific gravity.

Specific gra Ash. SS) ¢ gravity.
fi Sere 4°02 p. POCT. ce. 7°23 p. ¢
1300 22... 15406 108 cs
1°286 222°. 24°14 Pose [sles 10°38
11206 2. see 4°68 Sy Gee ee 13°98
1906.25, 65,818 en eee es 16°22
190420354. 5°78

Tracing Cloth instead of Glazed Paper.
For the purposes of sampling and pulverizing minerals,
coals, fertilizers, &c., for analysis, glazed paper is generally

G. B. Goode— Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes, etc. 289

employed. This soon wears out. I have so ei Raa oy
draughtsman’s tracing cloth in its place. This s indefi-
nitely, is just as smooth, and is much to be Biaitintago for
these purposes. In the assay laboratory, paper, bese — mix-
ing the weighed ores with the fluxes, soon wears o Here,
also, I would suggest the use of tracing clot

Sabkitaddey N. Y. Gas Light Co., New York, August, 1871.

Art. XL.—A Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes and
Leptocardians of the Bermudas, with descriptions of four species
of Fishes believed to be new ; by G. BRowN GOODE.

In a previous paper* I ih Sed seventy-four species of
fishes collected in the Bermudas in 1872. ‘Another visit to
these islands pune the past winter ho enabled me, with the
codperation of Mr. J. Matthew Jones, who kindly allowed me
the use of his collections and note books, to increase the num-

ber to one hundred and sixty-three. these one hundred
and forty-eight have been sufficiently studied to enable me to
give their names in this preliminary list. ope at an early

day to discuss the fishes of the Bermudas in a more extended
paper. Since there is a peculiar interest in the chorological
relations of the members of an insular fauna, I have in a gen-
ral way designated the distribution of each species by the use
of letters. W. indicates the West Indian province, U. the east-
ern coast of the United States north of Georgia, E. the Eastern
Atlantic, including Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Med-
iterranean, and P. the Indo-Pacific waters. These however do
not show faunal relations opp oa since in this way it is
impossible to distinguish those species which are resident in
any particular eee from mere stragglers. Those species
which are pecu - to Bermuda are marked ‘“ B.” and are eight
in number; tw ce these, with Carassius auratus, introduced,
occupy the ined locked brackish marshes. Two species, Huci-
nostomus Lefroyi and Haliperca phoebe, occur only in Bermuda
and Cuba. The Bermudian fauna shares with the West Indies

ing
number of others have their centers of distribution in that
tegion, individuals having made their way in summer to the

* Catalogue of the Fishes of the Bermudas, based chiefly upon the collections

of the United ted States National Museum. By G. Brown Goode, Assistant ae
v8. National Museum. (Bull etin U. S. Nat, Mus., No. 5.) Washington: Go
ernment Printing Office. 82 pp. 8vo. 1876.

Am, Jour. shatitcngas Serigs, Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr., 1877.

290 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,

coasts of the United States or Europe. With the eastern United

occur in the islands adjoining the coast . agate — the
waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, it has ommon
thirty-two species. Should Otyphidodon Sorelle Solnuder
prove identical with @. pe another species will be added
to this list.

The panel. are the numbers of species common to two or
more faunas, the ae having significations as explained
sheet W. Us ; B. W. E., 36; ee B. P. E,
fae i B.W.U.P, 87 BW. : B.W.EP,,

The reps, ss: il re observed, are all pelagic except the
lizard, which is peculiar to Bermu ida and most closely related
to the West African species of the genus.

CATALOGUE.
Class, REPTILIA.
Order, Lacertilia.
Eumeces longirostris Cope. Tidak.

Seed lh ow Rond. Leather Back Turtle.

assochelys dace aL. Loggerhead Turtle.
Eretmochelys fonbihonsn L. Hawksbill Turtle.
Chelonia mydas Schw. Green Turtle

Pterophryne @ picta (Val.) Goode. te Devl aaa W. *
Pterophryne principis ( eee
aS
Orthagoriscus mola (L.) a “oe Fish. P, E. W. U.
Paradiodon hystrix (Z.) Bikr. Sea Hedgehog. P. E. W.
j a Cuv. P.W.
veins reticul _ ae) Bibron. Sea Porcupine. E. W.
Chilichthys arene! (Gioot Goode. ae ah E. W.
acium quadri Cow E. W.

Baliste Gm. bot. P. BE. W.U
Balistes vetula Z. Blue Turbot. W. U.
atu

Canthorhinus setifer Benn. var. beta. P. E. ce U.
Alutarius scriptus (Osbeck) Blkr. P. E. vw
Ceratacanthus aurantiacus (Mitch.) Gil. B. U.

Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 291

r, Lophobranchii.

Hippocampus antiquorum bok a age P. E.
Hippocampus guttulatus Cw :: Sea Hi
Syngnathus Jonesii Gthr.

ae Hemibranchit.
Centriscus scolopax L. KE.
Fistularia serrata Cur. P. U. B
Aulostoma maculatum Val. Trumpet Fish. W.

Order, Teleocephait.

Rhomboidichthys —— mi thr. Plaice. W.
Rhomboidic riage ppg — Ww.
Temi ) Gt

Hemirhombus per cn Cae) ) Gtr. Ww.
Lefroyia bermudensis Jones.

rotula barbata pe Cur. W.
Fodletsinatned — fish.

Blennius crinitus = 7 W.

Blennius (species determined).

Blennius (species undetermined).

Blennius (species undeterm

Labrosomus nuchipinnis (Q. & G.) Gu. E.W.U.
Salarias texilis 9 & G. W.

Gobius soporator C. @ V. Molly Miller.

ot ak taal

earus Catesbyi ‘
Pseudoscarus vetula (Schn.) Gill. Blumber. W.
Pseudoscarus a (C. & V.) Guich. Rainbow. W.
Pseudoscarus coeruleus (2B wad yoke ams ec WwW.
seudoscarus croicensis (Bloc
seudoscarus psittacus (Z.) at. orator Fish. W.

Poey

bifasciatus (Bloch) Gth
d aig nitidissima Goode, (ne “e pecies) 5 eS

1 peatntee M.
hidodon saxatilis ZL. Cow Pilot; ; Sergeant 3 Major. E. W. U.
0.

canthurus nigricans (Z.) Gill. Doctor Fish. W. U.
erotarodun er aren 06 (2 loch) Pee Four-eyed. Fish. W.

ilo ciliaris iL ‘ pon An ngel Fish. W. U.
{olacanthus tricolor (Bloch) Lamp, Black Angel ‘Fish, W.
— gladius Z. Sword Fish. E. W. U.

Thyrsites prometheus (C. & V.) Gthr. Cat Fish.
Orcynus pment yo. :) Gil Mackerel. E. P. W. U.

{7m P ep a
4 2

ei ) ir.
pterus —— ape e ype Hound ig
hurops crumenophthalmus (Bloch ee 'P. W.U.

carangu :
Carangus dentex (Bloch) C. & V.
Trachynotus ovatus (L.) Gthr. ‘Alewiier P. K. W. U.

292 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,

Trachynotus goreensis C. & V. E. W.
Naucrates ductor L. Pilot Fis sh. E.P. W.U.
Zonichthys fasciatus (Bloch) Sw. Bonito. U.
Seriola Dumerilii Risso. Bonito.
Corypheena — (Z.) Risso. Dolphin. KE.
Nomeus Gronovii (Gmel.) Gthr. P.
Centrolophus (epecies undetermined). E.

ra

yi

Malacanthus Plumieri (Bloch) C. &. V. Whiting. W.

Mulloides flavovittatus (Poey) Gthr. Goat Fish. W.
ypeneus maculatus (Bloch) Cuv. Goat Fish W. U.

Holocent sogo : uirrel.
eques acuminatus (Schn.) Gill. Cluck; k Grunt. W.
megacephalus (Sw.) Poey. Goat’s Heed Porgy. W.

alamus
Samra orbitarius Poey. pa gk Head Eoeey:
Pages Bre

le argente ee
Lagodon Phomboides, “E) Holbrook Spanish Porgy. U.
sored epte
siprana ta aie andetermine® ‘Sailor's —
Heeition capeuna (Licht. arg White Grunt. W. U.
ylum xanthopterum C. x

(&V. Ye
mylum macrostoma Gthr. Streaked wee
Lutjanus caxis (Schn.) Poey. Gray Snap
Lutjanus buccanella (C. & V.). Black- rio Red iii W.
Lutjanus aya (Bloch) Gill. Red Snap
Lutjanus (species undetermined). Silk Snapper
Lutjanus abate undetermined). Schoolm
Ocyurus chrysurus (Bloch) rio Bi ade Tail: Yelting. W.
Triso sick go “indulosis ag de
r. quadratu

=a

ae Rock Fish.

a cates 6 is

var. rub: tus de,
Trisotropis guttatus (Schn.) Gill. Red Rock WwW

undetermin: W.

Epinephelus striatus (Bloch) Gill. Hamlet; Grouper. W
Epinephelus guttatu 1.)

eace’ punctatus (L.) Poey.

var. tivere , MS. Coney; ition Fish.

talibi MS. Ni Fish.

Petrometopon guttatus (L.) Gill.
Serranus (species undetermined). Gra raysby.
Serranus i pag Mutton Hamlet.

(species

rea phoebe Poey.
Blase ee puella pop Gill. Cataphebe.
Rhyp’ us (Schn.) Cuv. Soap Tish. BE. W.U.
Choteesranioed { perco

Elacate canadus (r) Gill. Oubby-yew. PEW:
Apogon imberbis (Z.) Gthr.
Priacanthus macroplithalmis 0d ¥ es
Echeneis remora LZ. Suck Fish. P. BE. W. U.
Leptecheneis tea tbe —_ Sack F Fish. P. E. WU.
Sphyreena spet (He E.
Sphyrena picuda Schn. Senne ey
ogalorus ga ts (Wai) 6 ¥. Sea Serpent. EY,
fugil liza Val. w.

\therina harringtonensis Goode, (ne = ee 8 _ Russ Fry. B.
selone bona Boode, ( a ew poms 2. B.
selone sc.& v. ge So Gar Fish. ¥._
Te nihamphus Pleii Val. Gar Fish.

exiliens Gmel. Butterfly Fish. WoW.
ae bahiensis Ranz. Flying Fish. P. W.

eee Bag

Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 293

Exoccetus Roberti Mi & T. Flying Fi

Exoccetus Rondeletii C. & V. Tong F Pak E. W.
Cypselurus furcatus (Mitch.) Weinl. Flying Fish. P. W. U.
Fundulus Bermude Gthr. Pond Mullet.

na ,
Synodus fonaes (L. ) Gill. Snake Fish. U.
Trachinocephalus myops (Schn.) Gill. Snake Fish. P. U.
Albula conorhynchus Schn. Bone Fish. P. E. W. U.
Megalops thrissoides (Schn.) ee Tarpum. W. U.
— anchovi W.
engula m acrophthalma (Ran,) Geol. i = odie W.
Opistonema thrissa (L.) ring.
Engraulis choe Mouth: Fry. B.
tassius auratus (L.) Blkr. Gold Fish,
Order, Apodes.
Gres rostrata (Les.) DeKay. ah Eel.

Pes
moringa (Cuv.) Goode. Speckl E. W.
re haaecauien punctatus ( Cust.) Goode. ey I Yellow ists Maray. P.
inni up. Green
E

lk. :
suru s Poey. Sand Rel. W.
Ophichthys triserialis (Kaup.) Gthr. Spotted Sand Eel. P. W.
Leptocephalus (species undetermined).

Sub-class, GANOIDEA.

Order, Glaniostomi.
Acipenser, sp. Sturgeon.

Sub-class, ELASMOBRANCHII.
Order, FP

aie,
‘Ktobatis narinari (Zuphr.) M. & H. Whip Ray. P. W. U.
Order, Squali.
rine ang sp. boas xx Shark.
Sphyrna zygzena (L.) M. & H. Hammer-Head Shark. P. E. W. U.
Rolain obscura ( Lvs.) Pad Shark. U.

Mustelus canis ( Mitch.) DeKay. a urse Shark. U.
Ging preceleata ele (Gel. H.
Curious form in collection of J. M. x ones, genus and species undetermined.
Class, LEPTOCARDII.
Order, Cirrastomi.
Branchiostoma lubricum Costa. P. E. W. U.

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.

1. Julis nitidissima, sp. n
his species agrees in ay particulars with tht pak
by Dr. Gunther under the name Julis. niti
specimens in the British Museum.*, There per however,
various diagnostic characters which it seems desirable aoiee

° Cuisine of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. iv, p. 190, 1862. —

294 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,

will indicate my suspicion that, upon comparison of the speci-
mens, the two species may prove to be identical.

The fish is quite small, rarely exceeding three inches in
length, and is very abundant among the outer reefs, swimming
among the Gorgonias and Plexauras, six or eight fathoms
below the surface, a very conspicuous object by reason of its
brilliant yellow colors. It is extremely shy and it was only
after repeated trials that I succeeded in capturing a single
specimen, which took a small hook baited for chubs.

The diagnostic characters which separate Julis nitida from
Julis nitidissima appear to consist in (1) the relative proportions
of head and body, (2) the relative proportions of pectorals and
ventral fins, (8) the number of rows of scales below lateral line,
and (4) in the coloration. The latter character is, however, of
minor importance, it being quite possible that a faded museum
yc of the fish before me might have assumed the colors

escri

Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 295

of the caudal. The posterior blotch is prolonged upon the
outer rays of the caudal to the tips forming a crescent shaped
gure. Dorsal fin at margin transparent, white, at the base
yellow, the intermediate space brownish green, deeper in shade
anteriorly, and between the second and fifth ray, forming a
blotch, similar to that indicated in the description of Judis
nitida. Pectorals transparent. Anal rose color with yellow
transparent margin. Ventrals yellow. Caudal, as hitherto
described, yellow with exterior lobes brownish green.
. Belone Jonesii, sp. nov.

The total length of the specimen selected as a type of the
species is eighteen inches (m. 0°60). :

The body is slightly compressed, its greatest height, above
the ventrals (m. 0°03) one-twentieth of total length, its greatest
Width (m. 0022) about one twenty-eighth of the same. Free
portion of tail somewhat depressed, quadrate, its height (m.
0-01) one-third of greatest height of body. Caudal carinz
moderate.

Length of head (m. 0°196) contained about three and two-
fths times in total length, and about three and one-fourth of
length without caudal. Upper surface of head somewhat
depressed, striated, with a broad shallow median groove, which
expands posteriorly into a wide, somewhat depressed triangular
area. Superciliary region sharply striated. :

Length of snout (m. 0°12) equal to length of maxillary (m.
0°12), contained five times in total length, and containing —
orbital length of head (m. 0:04) thrice. Length of mandible
(m. 0°14) slightly less than distance from snout to nape (m.

296 G. B. Goode—Preliminary Catalogue of the Reptiles,

0157) and ten times the vertical diameter of the eyes (m.
0-014). Lower jaw projects four millimeters beyond the tip of
upper jaw. Horizontal diameter of eye (m. 0°019) equal to
width of interorbital area (m. 0-019) and to length of opercu-
lum (m. 0-019) and about one-eighth of length of head.

Teeth large, sharp, not very close. Maxillary teeth about
sixty, the largest three millimeters in length; mandibular
teeth about sixty, the largest two millimeters in length. Vo-
merine teeth none.

Distances from insertion of dorsal to snout (m. 0433) slightly
greater than that of anal (m. 0-481). Length of dorsal (m.
0:097) equal to distance from insertion of dorsal to insertion of
ventral. Greatest height of dorsal (m. 0°026) equal to greatest
width of head (m. 0-025).

Anterior rays longest, their length (m. 0°03) one-tenth of
distance from ventral to snout. Length of last ray (m. 0°013)
about one-third of that of anterior rays.

Length of anal (m. 0-085) less than that of dorsal. Posterior
rays half the length (m. 0°007) of posterior dorsal ray. Anal
fin terminating anteriorly to dorsal at a distance equal to
length of first dorsal ray.

median rays (m. 0 012).
= Aa orate 9+14:A,14+7:0,5+10—-9+6:P,

IN: 6:

Branchiostegals, 12.

Number of scales in lateral line (estimated), 380.

Coloration :—Above deep green, below silvery white, oper-
cles and cheeks silvery white. Anterior rays of dorsal and
pectoral fins, with caudal carine blackish.

I take great pleasure in giving to this species the name of
my friend Mr. J. Matthew Jones, F.L.S., President of the
Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sciences, who has for two
— been associated with me in the study of the Bermudian
auna.

The “ Hound Fish,” as it is called in Bermuda, is a graceful,
active species, attains the length of three feet or more. 4
frequents swift tide courses where it preys upon small fishes,
particularly the schools of Atherina and Engraulis. It takes
the hook well.

Fishes and Leptocardians of the Bermudas. 297

3. Atherina Harringtonensis, sp. nov.

The length of the specimen selected as type of the species is
one and one-half inches (m. 0-055), the measurement being that
of a specimen which has been in strong alcohol for four months.
From the discrepancy between this measurement and a partial
set of measurements taken from a fresh specimen of the same
species I infer that the shrinkage in the length of the body has
been quite considerable, probably from six to eight millimeters.
The proportions given below are taken from the alcoholic spe-
cimen, In the study of fresh specimens allowance should be
made for discrepancies caused by this shrinkage e propor-

tions of the head do not appear to have been changed by the

The height of body (m. 0-07) is contained in length about
esa times (84 in fresh specimen), its width about twice in its
eight. ;

Length of head (m. 0-011) about equal to length of caudal
peduncle (m. 0-01) and contained five times in total length (52
m fresh specimen).

Diameter of eye (m. 0°004) about one-third the length of
head, the length of snout somewhat less than that of post-
orbital portion of head, also equal to length of maxillary, and
slightly greater than width of inter-orbital area (m. 0-0037).
Greatest width of head (m. 0-006) about double the length of
snout. Length of mandible (m. 0-:005) about equal to that of
post-orbital portion of head. Cleft of mouth quite oblique,
maxillary extending to the vertical from anterior margin o
orbit. Lower jaw slightly the longer; mouth very protractile ;
teeth small, inconspicuous.

Spinous dorsal inserted behind extremity of ventral, at a
distance from snout (m. 0°08) greater here than half the length

f body. Anal directly beneath dorsal, their lengths of base
(m. 0-007) being equal. Greatest height of anal (m. 0-005)
greater than that of dorsal (m. 0-008).

Length of ventral (m. 0:006) two-thirds that of pectoral (m.
0°009) which exceeds three-fourths that of head.

Radial formula:—D. VII, I, 10: A. I, 11

umber of scales in lateral line about forty-five; in trans-
verse line about six.
_ Coloration :—Greenish white, a narrow silvery band extend-
Ing from gill-opening to tail, covering the third row (from
above) of scales and the edges of the contiguous rows above
and below.

The “Russ Fry” occurs in immense quantities in all the
lagoons and protected bays of the Bermudas. The schools
“swim near the surface of the water and are preyed upon by all
the carnivorous species. They are particularly abundant in
the beautiful little lagoon called Harrington Sound.

298 G. B. Goode—Catalogue of the Reptiles, Fishes, etc.

4. Fundulus rhizophore, sp. nov.

The length of the specimen selected as type is six centi-
meters. Height of body at insertion of pectorals (m. 0-015)
one-fourth of total length, at ventral (m. 0°009) about one
seventh, at base of caudal (m. 00075) one-eighth.

Head much depressed, its length (m. 0-017) contained three
and one-eighth in total. Snout broad, obtuse, depressed, its
length (m. 0-006) slightly longer than orbital diameter and
contained in length of head about three times. Inter-orbital
area broad and flat, its width (m. 0°007) less than length of
post-orbital portion of head (m. 0°009) and greater than length
of operculum (m. 0:006). Diameter of orbit (m. 0-0045) half
the length of post-orbital tract.

Origin of dorsal fin equidistant from tip of caudal and ante-

rior margin of snout, and over the eighteenth scale of lateral
line. Distance from snout (m. 0-018) three-tenths of total
length; extreme height (m. 0-006) one-tenth, and length of
base (m. 0-008) two-fifteenths.
First anal ray below third dorsal ray; length of base (m.
0:005) one-twelfth of total length. Extreme height (m. 0-011)
double length of base, and nearly double the extreme height
of dorsal.

Ventral inserted slightly in advance of middle of body (dis-
tance from snout. m. 0-029), its length (m. 0°007) equal to
width of inter-orbital area.

Pectoral inserted at distance from snout (m. 0°02) equal to
one-third of total length; length (m. 0-009) equal to post-orbital
length of head.

Length of caudal (m:.0°01) equal to height of anal and about
one-sixth of total.

Radial formula :—D. 12: A. 11.

Number of scales in lateral line thirty-five; rows in trans-
verse line twelve or thirteen.

Coloration :—Ground color light tawny yellow with about

teen regular transverse bands of greenish brown, each about
two scales in width, obscure anteriorly but distinct upon pos-
terior half of body.

is little minnow occurs abundantly in Basden Pond, @
brackish marshy body of water at the eastern end of the main
island, among the arching roots of the mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle). It is known as the “Pond Mullet,” but may more
appropriately be called the Mangrove Minnow. ‘The specl-
mens described are young males, not in breeding colors.

W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 299

Art. XLI—History of Cavern Faploration in Devonshire, Eng-
land; by W. Preneewiy, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
Geological Section of the British Association at Plymouth.

Cavern-Exploration in Devonsire. I am not unmindful that
there were giants in those days; and no one can deplore more
than I do our loss of Buckland and De la Beche, among many
others ; nor can I forget the enormoas strides opinion has made
since 1841, when, in this Section, Dr. Buckland “ contended —
that human remains had never been found under such circum-
Stances as to prove their contemporaneous existence with the
hyzenas and bears of the caverns,” and added that “tin Kent's
ole the Celtic knives * * * * were found in holes dug by art,
and which had disturbed the floor of the cave and the bones
below it” (Athenwum, 14th Aug., 1841, p. 626). This scep-
ticism, however, did the good service of inducing cavern eX-
plorers to conduct their researches with an accuracy which
should place their results, whatever they might prove to be,
amongst the undoubted additions to human knowledge.

_ The principal caverns in South Devon occur in the limestone
districts of Plymouth, Yealmpton, Brixham, Torquay, Buck-
fastleigh, and Chudleigh ; but as those in the last two localities
have yielded nothing of importance to the anthropologist or the
paleontologist, they will not be further noticed on this occa-
sion. In dealing with the others it seems most simple to follow
mainly the order of chronology; that is to say, to commence
with the cavern which first caught scientific attention, and,
having finished all that the time at my disposal will allow me
to say about it, but not before, to proceed to the next, in the
order thus defined ; and so on through the series. :

eston Caverns.—When Mr. Whidbey engaged to superin-
tend the construction of the Plymouth Breakwater, Sir Ji oseph
ks, President of the Royal Society, requested him to

assembled, and have the bones or any other fossil remains that
Were met with carefully preserved (see Phil. Trans., 1817, pp.

300 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

176-182). This request was cheerfully complied with, and
Mr. Whidbey had the pleasure of discovering bone-caves in
November, 1816, November, 1820, August and November,
1822, and of sending the remains found in them to the Royal
Society.

Cavern was not discovered until 1821. British cave-hunting
appears to have been a science of Devonshire birtn.

The Oreston Caverns soon attracted a considerable number
of able observers; they were visited in 1822 by Dr. Buckland
and Mr, Warburton ; and in a comparatively short time became
the theme of a somewhat voluminous literature. Nothing of
importance, however, seems to have been met with from 1822
until 1858, when another cavern, containing a large number ©
bones, was broken into. Unfortunately, there was no one at
hand to superintend the exhumation of the specimens; the
work was left entirely to the common workmen, and was badly
done; many of the remains were dispersed beyond recovery ;
the matrix in which they were buried was never adequately
examined ; and we are utterly ignorant, and must for ever
remain so, as to whether they did or did not contain indications
of buman existence. I visited the spot from time to time, an
bought up everything to be met with; but other scientific work
In another part of the county occupied me too closely to allow
more than an occasional visit. The greater part of the speci-
mens I secured were lodged in the British Museum, where they
seem to have been forgotten, while a few remain in my private
collection.

original rock, and overgrown with ” (Phil, Trans., 1822,
pp. 171-240). ee ee eee

W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 801

The conclusion I arrived at, after studying so much of the
roof of the cavern of 1858 as remained intact, was that Dr.
Buckland’s opinion was fully borne out by the facts; that, in
short, the Oreston Caverns were Fissure Caverns, not Tunnel

averns.

Thecavern of 1858 was an almost vertical fissure, extending a
length of about ninty feet from N.N.E. to S.S.W.
menced at about eight feet below the surface of the plateau,
continued thence to the base of the cliff, but how much farther
was not known, and its ascertained height was about fifty-two
feet. It was two feet wide at top, whence it gradually widened
to ten feet at bottom. The roof, judging from that part which
had not been destroyed, was a mass of limestone-breccia, made up
of large angular fragments cemented with carbonate of lime,
and requiring to be blasted as much as ordinary limestone.
The cavern was completely filled with deposits of various

lar stones, but otherwise perfectly homogeneous, and known to
eae much more was undetermined.

€ osseous remains found at Oreston prior to 1858 have

been described by Sir E. Home, Mr. Clift, Dr. Buckland, nee

ig en

hippopotamus, I can only say that I have never met with satis-
factory evidence of its occurrence in Devonshire; but the

802 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

mammoth was certainly found at Oreston in 1858; and, unless
I am greatly in error, remains of Rhinoceros tichorhinus were
also met with there, and lodged by me in the British Museum.
It may be added that the skull and other relics of a hog were
exhumed on that occasion, and now belong to my collection.
There was nothing to suggest that the cavern had been the
home of the hyzena; and whilst I fully accept Dr. Buckland’s
opinion that animals had fallen into the open fissures and there

rished, and that the remains had subsequently been washed
thence into the lower vaultings (‘‘ Relig. Dil.,” 2d ed., 1834, p.
78), I venture to add that some of the animals may have
retired thither to die; a few may have been dragged or pursued
there by beasts of prey; whilst rains, such as are not quite
unknown in Devonshire in the present day, probably washed
in some of the bones of such as died near at hand on the adja-
cent plateau. Nothing appears to have been met with sugges-
tive of human visits.

Kent's Hole—About a mile due east from Torquay harbor
and half a mile north from Torbay there is a small wooded
limestone hill, the eastern side of which is, for the uppermost
thirty feet, a vertical cliff, having at its base, and fifty-four feet
apart, two apertures leading into one and the same vast cavity
in the interior of the hill, known as Kent’s Hole or Cavern.
These openings are about 200 feet above mean sea-level, and
from them the hill slopes rapidly to the valley at its foot, at a
level of from sixty to seventy feet below. :

There seems to be neither record nor tradition of the dis-
covery of the cavern. Richardson, in the 8th edition of “A
Tour through the Island of Great Britain,” published in 1778,
speaks of it as “ perhaps the greatest natural curiosity” in the
county. Its name occurs on a map dated 1769; it is mentioned
in a lease 1659; visitors cut their names and dates on the
stalagmite from 1571 down to the present century; judging
from numerous objects found on the floor, it was visited by
man through medizeval back to pre-Roman times; and, unless
the facts exhumed by explorers have been misinterpreted, it
was a human home during the era of the mammoth and his
contemporaries,

In 1824 Mr. Northmore, of Cleve, near Exeter, was led to
make a few diggings in the cavern, and was the first to find
fossil bones there. Ie was soon followed by Mr. (now Sir) W.
C. Trevelyan, who not only found bones, but had a plate of
them engraved. In 1825, the Rev. J. MacKnery, an Irish
Roman Catholic priest residing in the family of Mr. Cary, of
Tor Abby, Torquay, first visited the cavern, when he, too,
found teeth and bones, of which he published a plate. Soon
after, be made another visit, accompanied by Dr. Buckland,

W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 308

when he had the good fortune to discover a flint implement ;
the first instance, he tells us, of such a relic being noticed in
any cavern (see Trans. Devon. Assoc., iii, p. 441). Before the
close of 1825, he commenced a series of more or less systematic
diggings, and continued them until, and perhaps after, the
summer of 1829 (ibid., p. 295). Preparations appear to have
been made to publish the results of his labors; a prospectus
was issued, numerous plates were lithographed, it was generally
believed that the MS. was almost ready, and the only thing
needed was a list of subscribers sufficient to justify publication,
when, alas! on February 18, 1841, before the printer had
received any “copy,” before even the world of science had
accepted his anthropological discoveries, before the value of
his labors was known to more than a very few, Mr. MacEnery
died at Torquay.

After his decease his MS. could not be discovered, and its
loss was duly deplored. Nevertheless, it was found after
several years, and, having undergone varieties of fortune,
became the property of Mr. Vivian, of Torquay, who, having

ublished portions of it in 1859, presented it in 1867 to the

orquay Natural History Society, whose property it still
remains. In 1869 I had the pleasure of printing the whole, in
the Transactions of the Devonshire Association.
_ Whilst Mr. MacEnery was conducting his researches, a few
independent diggings, on a less extensive scale, were taken by
other gentlemen. The principal of these was Mr. Godwin-
Austen, the well-known geologist, whose papers fully bore out
all that MacEnery had stated. (See Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond.,
2d series, vi, 446). In 1846, a sub-committee of the Torquay
Natural History Society undertook the careful exploration of
very small parts of the cavern, and their report was entirely
confirmatory of the statements of their predecessor—that un-
doubted flint implements did occur, mixed with the remains of
extinct mammals, in the cave-earth, beneath a thick floor of
stalagmite. The sceptical position of the authorities in geologi-
cal science remained unaffected, however, until 1858, when the
discovery and systematic exploration of a comparatively small
virgin cavern on Windmill Hin, at Brixham, led to a sudden
and complete revolution; for it was seen that whatever were .
the facts elsewhere, there had undoubtedly been found at Brix-
ham flint implements commingled with remains of the mam-
moth and his companions, and in such a way as to render it
impossible to doubt that man occupied Devonshire before the
extinction of the cave mammals.

Under the feeling that the statements made by MacEnery and
his followers respecting Kent’s Hole were perhaps, after all, to
be accepted as verities, the British Association, in 1864, ap-

304 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

pointed a committee to make a complete, systematic, and
accurate exploration of the cavern, in which it was known that
very extensive portions remained entirely intact. This com-
mittee commenced its labors on March 28, 1865; it has been
re-appointed, year after year, with sufficient grants of money, up
to the present time; the work has gone on continuously
throughout the entire thirteen years; and the result has been,
not only acomplete confirmation of Mr. MacHnery’s statements,
but the discovery of far older deposits than he suspected—
deposits implying great changes of, at least, local geographical
conditions; changes in the fauna of the district ; and yielding
evidence of men more ancient and far ruder than even those
who made the oldest flint tools found in Kent’s Hole prior to
the appointment of the committee.

The cavern consists of a series of chambers and passages,
which resolve themselves into two main divisions, extending
from nearly north to south in parallel lines, but passing into
each other near their extremities, and throwing off branches,
occasionally of considerable size.

The successive deposits, in descending order, were :—

1st, or uppermost. Fragments and blocks of limestone from
an ounce to upwards of 100 tons weight each, which had fallen
from the roof from time to time, and were, in some instances,
cemented with carbonate of lime.

2d. Beneath and between these blocks lay a dark-colored

and known as the black mould. This occupied the entire eastern
division, with the exception of a small chamber in its south-
western end only, but was not found in the other, the remoter,

entrances to the cavern. Nothing of the kind has occurred
elsewhere.

5th. Immediately under the granular stalagmite and the
black band lay a light red clay, containing usually about fifty
per cent of small angular fragments of limestone, and somewhat
numerous blocks of the same rock as large as those lying 0D
the black mould. In this deposit, known as the cave-earth,
many of the stones and bones were, at all depths, invested with

W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 305

thin stalagmitic films. The cave-earth was of unknown depth
near the entrances, where its base had never been reached ; but
in the remoter parts of the cavern it did not usually exceed a
foot, and in a few localities it “thinned out” entirely.

6th. Beneath the cave-earth there was usually found a floor
of stalagmite having a crystalline texture, and termed on that
account the crystalline stalagmite. It was commonly thicker
than the granular floor, and in one instance but little short of
twelve feet.

the oldest of the cavern deposits. It was composed of sub-
angular and rounded pieces of dark-red grit, embedded ina
sandy paste of the same color. Small angular fragments of
limestone, and investing films of stalagmite, both prevalent in
the cave-earth, were extremely rare. Large blocks of lime-

Except in a very few small branches, the bottom of the
cavern has nowhere been reached. In the cases in which there
was no cave-earth, the granular stalagmite rested immediately
on the crystalline ; and where the crystalline stalagmite was not

resent the cave-earth and breccia were in direct contact.

arge isolated masses of the crystalline stalagmite, as well as
concreted lumps of the breccia, were occasionally met with in
the cave-earth, thus showing that the older deposits had, in por-
tions of the cavern, been partially broken up, dislodged, and
re-deposited. No instance was met with of the incorporation
in a lower bed of fragments derived from an upper one. In
short, wherever all the deposits were found in oné and the same
vertical section, the order of superposition was clear and invari-
able; and elsewhere the succession, though defective, was never
transgressed.

Excepting the overlying blocks of limestone, of course, all
the deposits contained remains of animals, which, however,

called the Ovine bed, the remains of sheep being restricted to it.
In it were also found numerous flint flakes and “ strike-lights,”
stone spindle-whorls, fragments of curvilineal pieces of slate,
amber beads, bone tools, including awls, chisels and combs ;
bronze articles, such as rings, a fibula, a i a spear-head, a
socketed celt, and a pin; pieces of smelted copper, and a great
Am, Jour, sia eons VoL. XIV, No. 82.—OctT,, 1877. :

306 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

number and variety of potsherds, including fragments of
Samian ware
The e granular stalagmite, black band, and cave-earth, taken
together as belonging to one and the ‘same biological period,
may be termed the Hycnine beds, the cave hyena p09 8 5a
most prevalent species, and four id in them alone. So f
they have been identified, the remains belong to ss cave
yena, Hquus caballus, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, gigantic Trish
deer, Bos primigenius, Bison priscus, red deer, mammoth, badger,

Sewekes made from flakes, not nodules, of ie and chert; flint
flakes, chips, and ‘cores ;” ‘‘ whetstones, “ hammer-stone,”
“dead” shells of Pecten, bits of charcoal, Mi bone tools, includ-
ing a needle or bodkin ‘having a well-forme eye, a pin, an awl,
three harpoons, m4 a perforated tooth of badger. The artificial
objects, of both bone and yroty were found at all depths in
each of the ieenstie beds, but were much more numerous
below the stalagmite than in i

The relics found in the crystalline stalagmite and the breccia,
in some places extremely abundant, were almost exclusively
those of bear, the only oo being a very few remains 0
cave line and fox. Hence these have been termed the Ursine
beds. It will be remembered ‘that teeth and bones of bear were

ene N. NE., sient ‘the top of the lofty cliff pape the
northern boundary of the beautiful Ansty’s Cove, Torquay,
there is a cavern -where, simultaneously with those in Kent’s
Cavern, Mr. MacEnery conducted some researches, of which he
has left a lee account (see Trans. Devon. ape vi, Pp:

. bear, Ps hysena i coprolites, a few marine and land
shells, one white aig tool with fragments of others, a Roman
coin, and potshe

W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 807

In a letter to Sir W. C. Trevelyan, dated December 16th,
1825, Dr. Buckland states that Mr. MacEnery had found in
this cave “ bones of all sorts of beasts, and also flint knives and
Roman coins; in short, an open-mouthed cave, which has been
inkabited by animals of all kinds, quadruped and biped, in all
successive generations, and who have all deposited their exuvize
one upon another” (ibid., p. 69).

Yealm-Bridge Cavern.—About the year 1882 the workmen
broke into a bone-cavern in Yealm-Bridge Quarry, about one
mile from the village of Yealmpton, and eight miles E.S.E.
from Plymouth ; and through their operations it was so nearly
destroyed that but a small arm of it remained in 1835, when it
was visited by Mr. J. C. Bellamy, who at once wrote an account
of it, from which it appears that, so far as he could learn, the
cavern was about thirty feet below the original limestone sur-
face, and was filled tu from one foot to six feet of the roof (see
‘Nat. Hist. S. Devon.,” 1889, pp. 86-105). In the same year,
but subsequently, it was examined by Capt. (afterwards Col.)
Mudge, who states that there were originally three openings into
the cave, each about twelve feet above the river Yealm; that
the deposits were, in descending order :—

1. Loam with bones and stones ._-.-.-... 3°5 feet.
2: Stiff whitish olay: 2205 oi -avee.ek. aac 2h. :#
8. Bam cs ad. eee el oes tees pe oa: *
4. Red clay-.--- bp inne OD oe
6. Argillaceous sand... <...-...-.-- 6to180 “

and that, where they did not reach the roof, the deposits were
covered with stalagmite.
On the authority of Mr. Clift and Prof. Owen, Capt. Mudge
mentions relics of elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, sheep, hysena,
og, wolf, fox, bear, hare and water-vole. The bones, and
especially the teeth, of the hysena exceeded in number those of
all the other animals, though remains of horse and ox were
very abundant. Mr. Bellamy, whilst also mentioning all the
foregoing forms, with the exception of dog only, adds deer, pig,
glutton, weasel and mouse. He also speaks of the abundance
of bones and teeth of hysena, but seems to regard the fox as
being almost as fully represented; and next in order he places
horse, deer, sheep, and rabbit or hare; whilst the relics of ele-
phant, wolf, bear, pig and glutton are spoken of as _ rare.
Phe bones, he says, were found in the uppermost bed only.
They were frequently mere fragments and splinters, some being
undoubtedly gnawed, and all had become very adherent through
oss of their animal matter. Those of cylindrical form were
without their extremities ; there was no approach to anatomical
juxtaposition ; and the remains belonged to individuals of all

308 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

between the town of Brixham and Berry Head, and about half
a mile from each, there is a cavern known as the Ash-Hole. It
was partially explored, probably about, or soon after, the time
acEnery was engaged in Kent’s Hole, by the late Rev.
H. F. Lyte, who, unfortunately, does not appear to have left
any account of the results. The earliest mention of this cavern
ave been able to find is a very brief one in Bellamy’s
‘Natural History of South Devon,” published in 1839 (p. 14).
During the Plymouth Meeting in 1841, Mr. George Bartlett, a
native of Brixham, who assisted Mr. Lyte, described to this
Section the objects of interest the Ash-Hole had yielded (see
Report Brit. Assoc. 1851, Trans. Sections, p. 61). So far as
was then known the cave was thirty yards long and six yards
broad. Below a recent accumulation, four feet deep, of loam
and earth, with land and marine shells, bones of the domestic
fowl and of man, pottery, and various implements, lay a true
cave-earth, abounding in the remains of elephant. Prof. Owen.
who identified, from this lower bed, relics of badger, polecat,
stoat, water-vole, rabbit and reindeer, remarks, that for the
first good evidence of the reindeer in this island he had been
indebted to Mr. Bartlett, who stated that the remains were
found in this cavern (see “ Brit. Foss. Mam.” 1846, pp. 109-110,
113-114, 116, 204, 212, 479-480). I have made numerous
visits to the spot, which, when Mr. Lyte began his diggings,
must have been a shaft-like fissure, accessible from the top only.
A lateral opening, however, has been quarried into it: there 1s
a narrow tunnel extending westward, in which the deposit is
covered with a thick sheet of stalagmite, and where one 1s
tempted to believe that a few weeks’ labor might be well
invested,
(To be continued.)

Chemistry and Physics. 809

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I, CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.

cat Hofmann, of making fhe tau un reduced
pressure. For this purpose the neck of the balloon, which is made

serves as a receiv er, and then t through this with a Bunsen pump
furnished with a manom waist to indicate the residual tension.
After the substance—about one gram—is introduced into the bal-
loon, and this is lowered into a bath and connected to the pump,
an exhaustion of 500 or 600 millimeters is effected, the cock to
the pump is closed and the heating is proceeded with, a tempera-
ture mene than that at which the substance boils, never ae

for the reduction of sake —Liebig’s Ann., clxxxvii, 341, June
1877. F.

2. On the action of Phosphoric chloride on Tungstic ‘ovide.—
Trev has proved that the sole products of the action of tungstic
oxide upon phosphoric chloride are phosphoryl! chloride and tung-
stic chloride (tungsten hexachloride ) Equivalent weights—three
molecules PCl, and one of WO,—of the pure substances were
sealed in glass tubes, well sbakelt. and peste) in a paraftin bath to
for six or eight t hours. One , brilliant metallic

D i
traces of PO Cl, were des pinived and the crystals obtained
pure, For quantitative analysis, a weighed quantity was heated
to 100° in a sealed tube with water and nitric acid, and the chlo-
Tine determined as usual. The result showed the "crystals to be

be obt ained of | ge an es size. ‘The crystals are inne, and
fuse at 189° is given b the Geen

310 Scientific Intelligence.

3. On the production of Tartronie from Pyruvic acid.—Gri-

solved in two or three times its weight of water, and barium
poh gradually added, the temperature being kept at 30° to

0° white precipitate soon formed, which, decomposed by sul-
aie ce acid, yielded a crystallized acid, very soluble in water and
alcohol, fusing about 142°, and yielding the above formula on
analysis. The author thinks that the mesoxalic aldehyde-acid
CHO—CO— COOH is first formed, but that this body being at
the same time an aldehyde and an acetone, is oxidized on its alde-
hydic side and reduced on its acetonic. Hence it is hydrated and
gives COOH —CHOH—COOK, which is tartronic acid. The reac-

HBr, COOH

ion & POO) HORA
H

analogous to the transformation of rblehionecelee into lactic acid.
— Bull. Soe. Ch., U1, xxvii, 440, May, 1877.

4. Ona Hexyl Chloral,—Prsn er has subjected to a more care-
ful examination an oily body “ high boiling point, first observed
by him nearly two years ago n the distillation of crude butyl
chloral. From a kilogram of this oil from the factory of ce 20

yields trichloreapronic wn C,H,Cl,0,. Reducing agents, such
as zinc powder, reduc this ‘acid to hexylenic acid C,H,
which crystallizes etn ether in brilliant white needles, fases at
39°, is almost insoluble in water, and does not appear to be iden-
tical with any of the three known acids having the no oma
cal formula.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 1052, +h

B.

with that of rosaniline hydrochlorat Conversion into Hof-

mann’s Violet, aniline green and aniline blue still farther confirmed

it identity. The reaction is given as follows:—C,,Hy4
NH;),.= Onn GE: O),. The authors regard aurin and

Chemistry and Physics. 311
rosolic acid as identical— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x, sie June,
1877. P

6. On Hematin.—CazEnEvve has prepared beinaiin nde
ined its properties. For its areionaee defibrinated ides: ose
treated with twice its volume of commercial ether, allowed to
stand twenty-four hours, ie ether Heneneene from the clot, and
this clot exhausted by the ether containing now two per cent of
oxalic acid. The etherial solution, colored a sone ehiee by the
hematin, was exactly saturate by ethe ae with ammonia
gas, and the precipitated hematin was collected, washed with
water, alcohol and ether and then ae e product is pure

ematin. In presence of alcohol and ether, it combines readily
with Freire. Wise eect and hydri riodic nie, giving crys-
tallized compounds. On analysis, it afforded 6 18 per cent of

es dichroic; and the hematin ae into two sutaiaeres (A)
an e first is obtained ure by the dialysis of the solu-
tion till it is no Ongar acid. It exists as suspended flocks, the

gives a one-banded spectrum, in alkalies, a four-ban
Bull. Soc, Ch., UW, xxvii, 485, June, 1877 F. B.
Shee On the Nature of what is commonly termed a“ Va acuum ;”

is commonly termed a ‘ Vacuum,’ ” might perhaps suppose with
him that the subject is one which had not been previously noticed,
and conclude that we are as yet without an explanation of
“‘ Crookes’s force,” in which the vast multitude a he gaseous
molecules that are present has been taken into acco

e subject is one which cannot, I should think, _ been over-
looked by any real student of the ‘molecular theory 0 of gases; and
in particular your readers ie a it ‘oe sree . a paper that
I presented ten years ago t al we 5 pede hil. Mag.
[1V], vol. xxxvi, p. 141):—“ It is peo ee le that there are

312 Scientific Intelligence.

not fewer than something like a unit-eighteen of molecules” [i. e.
1,000000,000000,000000] “in each rie creeper ~ a gas at
ess H

177 ate 305, I phe an obiaateien of the daeiahndcieasll aioe
within Crookes’s radiometers based upon this very 2 seem ent ee
see in oe page 17 8, where co following words r:—“I

what we know of the number of molecules in gases at ordina

pipers that the number remaining in this so-called vacuum will
be somewhere about a a i. e. one hundred millions of
millions, in every cubic millimeter.” After which I quote, in

besa was new ‘to mself, and had been overlooked a some of
the writers upon Gisokeas radiometer.— Phil. Mag., Sept. 1877,

8. Note on the Telephone ; by Pacer Hiees.—In the present
agitation concerning speaking or telephonic telegraphs, the follow-
ing extract from M. Le Comte du Moncel’s “ Exposé des Applica-
tions de l’Electricité,” edition of the year 1857, vol. iii, p.110, may
be atid as pointing out how nearly the ‘idea has been fore-
_

“ The Electric Transmission o ech,—I did not wish to bring
forward in the chapter of the electric telegraph a fantastic concep-
tion of a certain M. Ch. B——, who believes that it will be possible
— transmit speech electrically, because it might have been asked

had classed among so many remarkable inventions an idea

mint presented by the author as it is, is not more than a dream.

However, to be faithful to the réle that I have imposed upon my-

self of speaking of all the oo of electricity that have

become known to me, I wish to quote here the information which
the author has pu ublished on this subject.

‘ After the marvelous telegraphs which are able to reproduce at

a issanoe writing of this or that individual, and designs more or

Geology and Mineralogy. 313

less complicated, it mee impossible, said M. B——, to advance
further in the region of the marvellous. Nevertheless, essaying

which ar are ronnie oy the intermediate m aaa
ut the intensity of these vibrations diminis shes _— rapidly
with the distance, from which it follows, even in the thei nt

vibrations ect on ad by the voice, that this plate establishes and
interrupts successively the communication with a tery. ou
would be able to have at Z distance another plute which would exe-

cute at the same time the same mene sg

ice, and constant at the point of arrival where it is vibrated by
slactaketiye But it is cemanatrable hae this would not alter the
sounds,
‘It is evident from the first that the sounds would reproduce
themselves with the same pitch in _ scale. — actual condition

of acoustical science does not permit of saying, @ priori, whether
the same conditions would we old g sre for 9 asilanios articulated
by the human voice. e manner in w these syllables are

produced is not yet mafticiéntly well “apc

‘In any case it is ‘impossible to ‘demonstrate, in the pr esent
state of — that the electric transmission of sounds is impossi-
ble. very probabilit , on the contrary, is for the possibility.
An ele electric battery, two vibrating plates, and a metallic wire will

‘It is certain that, at a time more « or less distant, “speech ‘will be
e

conomic minerals nny we have hitherto called the Lower
pena sake of rocks.

314 Scientific Intelligence,

I may rgncr 4 give you the results arrived at, after now some
work in Eastern Ontario and the adjoining ed of

but this does not appear to be dias to the nidpeuitics of sodichtie
This rock forms the Salih bon of Canada. On it there has been

of these economics are in close proximity and have close relation-
ship to each of the four or five great bands of crystalline lime-
stone.

sil may, and indeed has been = set ound in some of the lower

limestones, The celebrated Petite Nation locality for Hozoon,

has now been proved to be on this highest band of limestone, and

in fact in the most a portion of my second system, the zone of

limestone in which t ossil occurs is ct eat characterized by
i t 2

giving out as escend into these older rocks; while the fis-
sures themselves narrow to threads and bifurcate. This fact has
been proved by a close and careful investigation in Rossie.

wins
ree <dasiowele: iaeiditiane: Bedford, Madoc, and Tudor, in Can-

é
fmm — — the Sse limestone the a
belt of rocks come in with horizons of both hematitic

delet iron oves-vehlall the vii’ and immediately low thine
again a great belt of plumbago-bearing rock (extensively wrought
for this mineral in Buckingham and Lochaber, — county),

of ma )
which occur a number of promising min es (e. g. the Baldwyn an
Qs the Christies’ a —_ mucha Lake

with apatite intimately associated, which has now been identitie
and followed continuously for upwards of one hundred sailen

Geology and Mineralogy. 315

chrysotile and veins of baryta and galena.
You will t i

tion; while the great body of apatite-bearing rock is at the very
mmit ”

Having established this important sequence my thoughts at
once flew back to the discoveries of phosphatic nodules and shells
in the Lower Silurian rocks at the Allumettes Rapids (Geology of
Canada, page 125), and in several places in the eastern townships
and elsewhere. Is it not probable that the source of our mineral
apatite is in the Lower Silurian rocks, whence it has enetrated
into the upper portion of the second division of the Laurentian
system? Or, may the Hozoon not have furnished a considerable

long with the Eozoon, but if so their remains have been entirely
obliterated by crystallization or other metamorphism. in
that the gap between the Lo Silurian and uppermost crystal-

eral of my bands of limestone, and I fail entirely to discover Sir
William’s upper distinct system—yet I have been over the same
ground,

The Huronian and Hastings series of rocks I believe to be sim-
ply an altered condition, on their westward extension, of the
ower portion of my second system ; and this alteration com-
mences as this portion reaches Hastings county, where you will

316 Scientific Intelligence.

remember Hunt, Macfarlane and others likened them to the Huro-
nian, while Sir Kiera thought they more resembled some por-

tions of the Devo

The Seles of "New Hampshire. C. H. Hrrencocn, State
Sant ba J. H. Huntineron, Warren Upnam, an G. W.
Hawes, Assistants. Part II, Stratigraphical Geology. 684 pp.

Royal 8v0, with many maps, plates, and sections. Concord, 1877.

—This large volume consists mainly of chapters by Professor
Hitchcock. The geology of the Coés and Essex TSO RTEB DION
district and of the west part of the Merrimac mph and so
other brief sections are by Mr. J. H. Huntingto

e difficulties of the survey have been linea on account of the

see: of the surface covered by unbroken forests, and the dis-
turbed crystalline condition of the rocks. But, through great
labor, the distribution of the several ads of metamorphic rocks
has been to a large extent made out, and is carefully describedst in
the Report. Professor Hitchcock has carried gue rd the wo
with energy and fidelity, and has presented not only his saa
views, but also,‘with fairness, as far as he has hh them,
the views of others. As to the sone mcrae from the facts pre-
sented in the volume, Professor Hitchcock is aware that the writer
differs from him in many points; and if in the remarks beyond
some of these differences are mentioned it will be without the
assumption on the writer’s Lage that he is always right.

Professor Hitchcock refers the crystalline rocks of New Hamp-
shire—taking his latest conclusions from the closing pages of the

volume—to the following groups in ascending order:—Lauren-
ton: Montalban F anions to Huronian, and so named from the

esides, there are various areas of eruptive granite recogni ized,
including those of the “ Be ted granite,” “Albany granite,

* Chocorua series ” aud o

The La

ite, feldspathic mica schists, the a ated gneisses, fibrolite

schists; the Upper Hu wronian, hams blade wink a chlorite schist,

greenstones, and other rocks; the Cods, staurolite slate, staurolitic

mica schist, Rentenyie § overlying er ORs Calciferous mica
n

even one stratum may, after metamorphism, be, in its different
parts, andalusite slate, mica hist, pas ar mica schist, gneiss,

3

Geology and Mineralogy. 317

pposed by

, be Professor Hitch-
cock to be eruptive, may be for the most part, if in all

not in all cases,

8.
The chief facts of interest in the valley region is the occur-
rence at three places of limestone containing Lower Helderberg
fossils—corals, crinoids, or brachiopods, associated with various
metamorphic rocks. These places are in Littleton and North Lis-

The section given on page
326 of the Littleton rocks represents a synclinal of slate (the
f the “ Lis-

i yman, Li
bon, and Helderberg groups. On pages 329 and 331, this con-
formability is again exhibited in sections, and also on plate xi.

Hitchcock, however, calls the Lisbon and Lyman groups
uronian, a conclusion that is not suggested by the above-men-
on

ley. The rocks of the west side in this part are, going southward,
a light-colored well characterized granite (“Conway Granite”),

318 Scientific Intelligence.

a hard siliceous granitoid gneiss, varying into true granite, form-
ing the eastern foot of Mount Willard, to the east of the Mount
Willard poser in the Notch; ae ‘continuing southward, but
at first a little westward, andalusite slate , Meeting the Mount
Willard granite parallel with its “per eae s if conformable to it,
and extending southward to the top of Bot Willey; then, on
the southeast side and foot of Mount Willey, the Mount Willard
granite again, which becomes, five miles south of the Notch, at
: :

ebster; and a this, far up t the s ides of this mountain, the

“ Montalban schists”. (feldspathic mica schist chiefly), the charac-

terizing rock of the Mount Washington range. The rocks of the

region and of Mount Washington dip, with some local exceptions,
to the westwar

a acare facts respecting the rocks are here cited from the

rt, as an introduction to a point of very PIOmSnEDY interest-—

e
«1,200 feet ee the Spe ae Going southward in the gorge

“ster, at a "height nae to that of the top of esd Willard, where
it has a thickness of two hundred to three hundred os Its
sient coches from. "the Notch, “is not in a right line, on

sesiaid to the writer’s observations at the place, the granite becomes sye-
nos ne a substitution of hornblende for black mica (biotite). The other ingredi-

ents are precisely the same—gray feldspar and gray quartz, so that the two rocks
are iden tu apieon one. It is an interesting example of the abrupt transition
“betwee two rocks, and is well worthy of a visit from those who are inter-

‘and lower parts of one’ original, stration br succeshite strata was consi
without finding reason to sustain it.

Geology and Mineralogy. 319

Again: a similar petetieareene occurs one to two miles north
of the Notch, (pp. 163, 165). Two miles southwest of Crawford’s,
on Cascade Brook, the Mount Willard gran-
ite “contains many fragments of the hard

seem to carry andalusite quite abundantly. ite
Half a mile farther west up this same brook,
andalusite slate succeeds to the granite (but
with an intermediate po orp yritic junction-
rock, like that observed in Mount Willard),
and it continues up Mount Tom.

The writer had the pleasure, in 1875
examiring this part of the White Mountain
region with Professor Hitehcock, adds
here a pir representing a portion, six feet
wide, of the surface of fo anite, just
below the Notch.

e great number and erates size of the granite veins ——- ng
ei the gorge in a north-and-south direction, and the extensive
ange of breccia-granite followin ng the same course, seem + 4 su
‘ain the opinion, which Professor Hitchcock quotes in his incon
from the writer, that the gorge, like most valleys of the Appa-

oba

\\ i

\

~
-
.
-
-
iz
.
’
-
of

lachians, was pr y the course of a lofty anticlinal, the frac-
tures in which led to degradation and so de -
ion of the valley. And if this conclusion ght, the Mount

tch is the central and lowest rock he anticlinal; that the
Mount Willard (or Conway) granite is the amorphic
stratum on both the east and west sides, it lying conformably

against the slate in Mount Willard and elsewhere; and that the
andalusite slate on the west and the Montalban schists (often anda-
a and part an ra a — together on the _ consti-

ute the succeeding stratum. e dissimilarity in the eastern
se western portions of is last sougeie ma ac is Atha of
a small variation from east to west in the constitution of the sedi-
ments and of differences in the degree of metamorphism. The
dissimilarity is chemically small; for the analysis of the andalu-
sitic slate from this region by Mr. G. W. Hawes (Report, p. 233)
found it to consist (No. 1, below) of—

SiO, AIO, FeO; FeO MnO MgO K,O Na.O hots H,0
1. 4601 30°56 144 6°85 0°10 Bs 666 1: 3 1-91 4:13=100°22
2. 4623 83:08 3°48 ... a) 290, 887). i 412= 99°28
which corresponds very nearly e the bes of common
mica (muscovite), or rather wie hydrous variety wiih one

A similar pe pd amg the Franconia Notch, near the Basin,
zag pis 137 of Professo’ r Hitcheock’s Report) masses “of porphyritic granite,

iss, hornblendic ona other siliceous rocks, are cemented together by a

tight Sotorel feldspathic paste.” Other localities also are mention

320 Scientific Intelligence.

analysis of which is cited in No. 23; and also, for half of it, as Mr.
Hawes suggests, to that of common feldspar (orthoclase). The
slate is peculiar in affording so large a percentage of alkali (7°78),
and so small of silica; but it varies in its silica, being in some
laces an “ argillaceous quartzyte ;” in others a "é felsitic slate,”
weathering w

This view that the andalusite-slates and Montalban schists
(which also are often andalusitic) correspond to a stratum higher
in the series than the Mount Willard dea is sustained by the
occurrence of masses of them in the of —e nite on Cascade

rytio % or “spotted” granite named the “ Albany granite,” is stated
to bound it on the west and to occur e it disappears to the
north. Whether the ‘ulate dinalppeaee os dipping beneath the
granite, or by passage into it, is not stated. Th ‘Alb bany granite
is in the larger part a ranite without cine (p. 143), and hence
may have nearly the constitution of the slat

rofessor Hitchcock states that the penphtis granitoid a
ten to two hundred feet wide, which marks the junction in Mo
Willard of the andalusite slate and Mount Willard granite, 1 ak

from which is Mount Willard grits was made, and that from
which the andalusitic slate proceeded, had some beds of passage ;
there was a transition in the metamorphic products because of a
transition in the material and in other conditions.

e structure of the White Mountains is so exceedingly com-
plex, that it re reasonably give rise to Heo diverse ah eons
tions. The view the write has here seems at least to
be worth ecealbetiiiy’t in the future study of t of the region.

Geology and Mineralogy. 821

The volume also treats of the rocks of the Merrimack district,
the Lake enero the Coast district, and the district of northern
New Hampshi

he se Map, illustrating this volume, is in the hands of
the engraver, It is onascale of two and a half inches to the
mile,

The third and last nee of the Survey will contain a mport
y Mr. Warren Upham on the Sine aternary of New Hampshire
ee one by Mr, George oW. Hawes, on me Catoes of the State,
we chemically and microscopically con
Penelipinory Report on the Pale sos Bei of the Black ‘Hills,
¥ WN gee t S. Geogr. and Geol. Survey of the
Rocky filha region, J. W. Powxt in Charge. 50 pag
8vo, July, 1877. Washington.—This valuable report conta eH

and of Cretaceous species, seventy. The sixteen be agTeDNNS
plates are bse of well-drawn aoe finely enere ee? figu
Age of the Tejon group, Californ ~The Dion is

from a cee by Dr. J. G. Cooper in the Re enge of the Cali-
fornia Academy of Scienc ces, for Nov. 16, 1874 —The # baat of
the age of the Tejon group is so far derived from only a few marine
fossils which have been refer rred by different ee to the Ontee
Conrad, the Nestor of Ameri-
can paleontologists, over twenty years ago, phe a as unmis-
s, now known as the Tejon group,
among which he thought was the Cardita planicosta, “that finger-
post of the Eocene, both in Europe and America.” Mr. Gabb,
finding from better specimens that this shell differed from Cardita
planicosta, described it as new, and referred the Te gon group to
the Cretaceous, finding in it a very few species which

identical with the lower ioe proved to be Cretaceous by the
presence of numerous Ammonites. He also stated, in an article in
our Proceedings, publi ner November, 1866, that “a solit tary

the lower ones, less than one-tenth of ig a Cretaceous shells being
Am. Jour. Sci. Ses Senizs, Vou. XIV, No. 82.—Ocr.

322 Scientific Intelligence.

common to both according to Gabb, of which several may be dis-
tinct. On the other hand, many of the Tejon group are scarcely
distinguiehatic. from Tertiary = living forms. One, Aturia
Mathewsonii, is so near the Eocene A. zigzag, as om have been
taken for it, no other Cretaceous Abivia being know

I may add that the ammonite (A. jugalis Gabb) + be found by
me in a stratum just beneath the Mt. Diablo coal, and apparently
on the same level as those from Clayton and “ Curry’s,” Postid by
Gabb, so that its existence above the Coal, or in the Tejon group
itself, is perhaps accidental. But, to pass by this doubtful fact, we
have still later strata, referred to ‘the Eocene by Conrad, near "the
mouth of the Columbia, where we would expect the first Tertiary
to rise near the surface, and this time the Eocene Aturia zigzag

ue zi is so

to sosenate any Eocene here, that he calls the formation Miocene.

neral character of these ‘fossils, of which there are me dint in
the eadent ’s Museum, shows, however, that they are of am
tropical growth than any of our Miocene cjckia the Aturia itself
being very similar to the Nautili now living in the tropics.
Though perhaps mixed with ices species among the broken
rocks so numerous on the lower Columbia shores, it is most proba-
ble that true Eocene strata exist there, and, as shown by
Academy’s specimens, extend south nearly to California, where
later strata cover them. From all we yet know, we may assume
that the gap between the Cretaceous and Tertiary, so marked on
the Atlantic shores, was bridged over in part by the sain’

he “Tejon of mo

there, or the earlier part of it, just as we find the flora and fauna
of Australia resembling forms fossil in the Eocene formation of
Europe,

Eocene mollusca appearin ale just preceding the Miocene,
—, me those of the Atlantic
sil Tertiary Insects of Cubeiel, British Columbia.—Mr.
S. 1 ‘Rovpone has described, in the Canada Geological Report
for 1875-76, the “emrtitomg Columbian ape go sp — ed insects.
Hyunoprers: Formica arcaria Pimp. asian: necta, Ca-
lyptites (n. gen.) untedibuvianer. Dieters: ‘Boletina sepulta,
Brachypeza abita, B. procera, Trichonta Dawsoni, Anthomyia in-
animata, A. Burgessi, etehien ia senilis, Seciomyza revelata, Ti-
deintegned (0 — ) picta, Lonchea senescens, Palloptera morticina.
Cot Prometopia depilis. EMIPTERA: the Aphid,
nus popermitin with mention of an imperfect satiate of a
Mente ~
he first discovered traces of Fossil Insects in American
Tortiarivs, and on new Carabide ipo ve interglacial “Hi Soup of
Searborough

Botany and Zoology. 323

by Mr. Seuaddles edad species of ymenoptera o the milies
ni ‘ ;

ress by the Secretary or Minzs, with Reports on the Geology,
Mineralogy and Physical Structure of various parts iyi the Col-
ony, . A. F. Murray, F. M. Kraust, N. Tay

How1rr, W. Nicuotas, J. Cosmo Newser ry, and Profe ssor F. Mc-
Coy.--The Report of Progress states the following facts brought
out in Decade [V of the Prodromus of the Paleontology of Vic-
toria by Professor Maven which is nearly ready for issue. Three
plates are devoted to the Diprotodon which, “like the Megathe-
rium of South America, was obviously a feeder on the twi igs and
phon ne. like their diminutive cease nels Mie of m

times ate V are represented Favosites Goldfussi, “ agreo-
ing In every respect with the European Bnenaian coral,” Spirif-
era levicosta, a species also of England and abounding se ea
fiddle Devonian limestones of th ifel, Chonetes Australis,

E C.
“closely allied to the C. sarcinulata of the Rhenish Devonian
beds,” Astervlepis ornata, “ almost identical with ego found
in the Russian Old Red Sandstone; ;”? on Plate VI are figures o
Archeopteris Howitti, Sphenopt eris Ti uunensis, and Cordaites

sland.
Mr. Howitt describes the basalts, and other rocks of North

Gipaeedy | and gives “gab of thin slices of the rocks, with de-
tailed deseri ons The volume contains also facts on other for-
eet | in Vieto and much on auriferous veins.

Tantalite. ae sa lately had sent to me a mass of tanta-
tise weighing about 500 grams, somiitg from Professor Eugene A.
Smith, State Geologist of Alabama; its exact locality in Alabama
is not given. It is the first time that tantalite has been found in
the United States; its specific gravity is over 7:2. It is a surface
specimen, and has undergone partial decomposition in the crev-
ices. It is an important “discovery at the ee a while this
class of minerals is exciting interest. ; E SMITH
ll ge! a8 und geographische Bichesinonias im Staate
Minne Doctorate Inaugural dissertation by J. H. Kxoos,
Mining: Rigiooer of Amsterdam. 58 pp. 8vo. Berlin, 1877.

Ill. Borany AND ZOOLOGY,

1. Morphology of the Dentary System in the Human Race.—
Dr. E. La aMBERT, of Brussels, has given the characteristics of the
?

rrived at the following important conclusions, here derived from
the — of the Royal Academy of Belgium, 46th year, No. 5,

324 Scientific Intelligence,

In the white race, the pees wea surface of the canines does
not project beyond that of the other teeth, the two premolars are
equal in volume, the first true molar is the ‘largest, and the last or
wisdom tooth is the smallest. In the black race, the contrary is
true in all these points, the canines projecting beyond the teeth
adjoining, the posterior premolar being the largest, and the true
molars increasing in size posteriorly.

In the white race, the molars have ordinarily only four cusps;
in the black, five. If in the white race there are five, it is the
first molar which has them; while in the black it is the last.

In the yellow race, ——, is usually a slight increase in the size of
the molars from the interior to the posterior, as in the black race ;
and, ~ in the black race, sherk is a fifth cusp on the wisdom tooth.

e black race, the ‘diameters of the incisors are larger than
in the white race, and the bce surface of the canines is
ee than that of the teeth “2

the black race, there is midlight diastema, which does not

int in the online race, and the inner tubercle of the premolar is
6 developed than the outer—as in the m man-apes. In the inferior
molars, the first has often an inner tubercle feebly developed,
whilols again manifests a slight approximation toward the man-

apes.
In the black race, the superior molars have the antero-posterior
diameter equal to the bi-lateral; in the white race, it is always

smaller, and, in the yellow, the form is interme
is more difference in the teeth between the black race

and the yellow than between the yellow and the white
ever, the Malay branch, the type of the fran race of D’Omaling,
seems to transitional between the b and the pane as

e ner race—the red race of D’ Omalius usually united
with the igre resents so nearly the dentary characters of the
black race that Dr. Lambert unites the two. The Australians,
Parnasiians, and New Caledonians present, in some respects, an
exaggeration of the sie og characters of the ‘African negro, and

Anta), as has been remark ed os MM. Priine «Be ey, Broca and
Custer Blake, approximates most that of the iAaaeratien and New
Caledonian races, showing a resemblance in the age of the mam-
et th between man in Belgium and the existing races of their

ntipodes. Dr. Lambert’s paper is published at length in the
Bulletin of aha “Academy.

2. Arbeiten aus dem zoologische-zootomischen Institut im
Wiurtzburg. 8vo. aacecroeten von Prof. Dr. Cart SEMPER.—

Astronomy. 325

The third volume contains the following ew gfe The
Uranogenital system of the Amphibia, by PRENGEL,
114 pages, with 3 folded plates; Strobilation. ‘and abt ion
in articulate animals, with special reference to the e homolog es
between Vertebra ates, Annelids, and Anthropods, by C. Sempxrr,
290 pages, with 12 folded plates; Studies on the Tarbellaria (on
the Plathelminthids) by Cuartus SeDG@WIcK Mrnor, of Boston, 62
pages, with 5 plates; on eng saliva and cement glands of the Deca-
pods, by Dr. M. Braun, 8 een me with 1 plate; Remarks on the
* Nephrofnensten” of v. ate ing, by C, SEMPER.

On the Brain of Chimera monstrosa, by B. G. WiLpER,
Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., May 29, 1877. 34 pp. 8vo, with a
plate.

IV. ASTRONOMY.

New Planets.—In a letter to the editors Prof. Watson says:
“ The following are the places, from the observations —
reduced, of the two planets recently discovered by me.

Planet ( (174) discovered pre ais 8th, magnitude 10°3.

Ann Arbor. Mean — 174)qa. sich = No. Comp.
MA ite
1877, Bache 8, be 50 0 21 22 39°10 mT 4 70
s 21 13 57°94 1546 60 5
; > 25 2113 5°89 1544 8:0 5
18,1040 5 2112 0-29 1541348 § 56
20, 11 1113 21 9 55°43 1536304 5
26, 9 30 21 4 91 15 19 581 5
30, 12 15 30 21 0 33°55 15 2
Sept. 1, 948 4 2059 3°24 1621 279 9
a; 20 57 34°90 14 54 53 5
Planet (175) discovered September 2d, re Ne 11°5.
Ann Arbor. Mean — (175)a. (175)d. No. Comp.
h m i ee
1877, Sept. - a 2 58 2310 4°80 +0 44 59°71 5
3 50 35 23 9 58°39 0 44 50°2 5
0 40 9 23 9 10°38 0 43 36°9 6
11 56 23 8 16°21 +0 42 11°3 5
wrens Ann — September 10, 1877.
Rotation of Saturn.—Professor Haxx discovered on
thie anlght of December 7th, a bright spot on the ball of Saturn,

at Poughkeepsie, Albany, Hartford, ets. The spot was followed,
and its} baton famed at hay (es Sie sire Jan. 2d, or through
an sixty

min
proper motion on the surface of Sa shia Evan Hall obtains for
the time of one revolution on its a
10" 14™ 93° . ie 2°-30.
The only earlier determination of this quantity was made by Sir
m. Herschel in 1793-4 who found it to be 10" 16™ 0%-4, which
he ‘belienea could not be in error as much as two minutes. By a
curious mistake his time for the rotation of the ring, or 10" 29™
16*-8, has been hitherto given in almost all treatises on astronomy
as the time of rotation of the planet itself.

326 Scientific Intelligence.

3. The newly discovered satellites of Mars.—The announcement
of this remarkable discovery made by Prof. Hall was too late

but was given upon the third page of the cover. It is of such
exceptional importance that we give in full Admiral ee Re-
port to the Secretary of the Navy, dated August 21st.

“Sir: the outer satellite of Mars was first observed by Profes-
sor Asaph Hall, U.S. N., on the night of the 11th of August,

served, and its motion was established d by observations extending
thr rough an sated of two hours, during which the planet moved
over thirty seconds of arc. The inner satellite was first observed
on the night of August 17th, and was also discovered by Pro-
fessor Hall. On Saturday, August 18th, the discoveries were
telegraphed to Alvan Clark and sons, Cambridgeport, Mass., in
order that if the weather should be cloudy at Washington, they

at aaa wee Mass., and by the Messrs. Clark, at Cambridge-
port. On August 19th the discovery was ¢ scuhmusiaated to the
Buchanan Institution, by which it was announced to oe Ameti-
can and European observatories in the — dispa

Two satellites “of Mars discovered by Hall, at Washington.
First, elongation west, August 18, eleven hours, Washington tim
Distance er sec eg Period, thirty hours. Distance of
second, fifty se

It will be ao hereafter that the statement of fifty seconds as
the distance of the inner one was erroneous. The observations
hitherto made are as follow

‘ na ie ee

1877, Aug. 11, 14 40, p= 59°6 (2); i 45, s='0: 57 (2) Obs, aa

16,114 lL.

13 7, p= 11°9 (2).2..-222 $=80°83 ah “ Hall

33 s=80-4 (1) “ Hall.

17,16 2, p= 85°5 (2); 16 19, s==63°24 (3) “ Hall.
18, 10 28, p=251-7 (3); 1018, s=82°93 (8) “ Newcomb.
10 57, p= 244°5 (1); 11 5, s=81°6 (1) “ Harkness.

11 50 6 (4); 11.57, 6 (4) Hall

, p= 232'1 (4); 1439, s=81-04 (4) I

19, 11 42, p=283°2 (2); 11 49, (4) “ Hall

15 43, p= 2554 (8); 15 . : 81-37 (6) “ Hall

20, 10 * p= 61°] (3); 1033, s=76-07 (2) “ Hall.

11 57, p= 52°1 (4); 12 “y $= 59°93 (4). “Hall.

The Second Satellite.
h
1877, Aug. 4 16 "6, p= 43 0 (2); 16 21, $=30" 81 (4) Obs., Hall.
1 31, p=248°8 (2); 11 37, s=34-65 (4) H
Wd } 25, p= 226'8 (2); 11 30, s=24-08 (2) “ Hall
20, 13 15, p= 67-1 (1); 13 26, 31: ~ (3)

13 56, 27-02:(4) -; “: > Halk

14 22, p= 170 (est.); 14 22, ‘Auciie = (3) “ Hall.

16 19, p= 250 (est.); 1619, e=15°15 (7) “ Hall.

16 35, s=16-70 (7) “ Hall.

Astronomy. 327

From these observations Professor Newcomb has derived ‘he
following approximate circular elements of the orbits. The
able errors assigned are only very rough estimates.

Ou te.
Major semi-axis of apparent orbit seen at distance [9°5930]-.__82-75 40° "5
Minor semi-axis of apparent orbit seen at distance [9°5930 eine Sk 2"

—— semi-axis of orbit seen at t distance

Position angles of apsides of bit 70° phot
Passage through the west apsis V0 260°) Aug. 19, 16°6h, W. m
Ti con ty 30h ee +2m
Hourly mo n Areocentric longitude 11°°907
Inclination ep clas orbit to ‘oi ecliptic 25°44 2°
ngitude of ascending ni 82-°8 + 3°
Position of pole of orbit i in celestial sphere. ..-- Long. 352°°8
Lat. +64°6
oA SEG!
Decl. +53°8
1

Th Bae 3,090,000
ese elements gave for the mass of Mars 3,090,000

tele
Major poertre 7 of the gantony orbit at distance ¥ 5930]-- ens "0+1
P wiser of revolution: 2: =--<u- 38° ae 5m
Hour on in ie reocentric longitude --.._-....------
Pruaeet Cronah the eastern apsis (p= - 0°), Aug. 20, 13-0h, W. mn. t.

The American. tii ge and Nautical Almanac for the

within aheos days from the date of _ first ee Professor
Newcomb found the period to be seven hours d thirty-eight
minutes, On os theory, therefore, of a circular orbit the —
is within 3400 miles of the planet’s surface. Professor Hall r
marks that the diameters of bee _— satellites are extremely
age probably not more than 5 100 miles. It is interesting
o observe that even with the wanes limit the bodies are smaller
< reteisin with their primary than any other ip eng in
the solar system. Accor ing to Proctor, Mars revolves on its

three orbital revolutions in less sm a Martial day. How is this
remarkable fact to be reconciled with the cosmogony of betes ?
Although the period of no other madeline is less than that of the
~—— of its primary, the case can hardly be regarded as wholly
u e rings of Saturn are clouds of extremely minute sec-
sa planetoids revolving about the primary in approximate
accordance with Kepler’s third law. The periods of those in the
outermost ring, like that of the exterior satellite of Mars, are
m

328 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

ring complete a revolution in about eight hours. “These rings of
Saturn, like everything cosmical, must be leet 8 iit 3

and of two which impinge, one may be accelerated, but it will be
siaceeiies at the expense of the other. The other falls out of
the ici as it were, and is gradually drawn in towards the planet.
The consequence is "that, ossibly not so much on account of the
improvement of telescopes of late years, but perhaps simply in
consequence of this gradual closing in of the whole system, a new
ring of Saturn has bce gah seinen the two old ones,—what

formed of the laggards, as it tei: which 1ave been thrown out

The sedoess a ‘sinee! 3 in dies case of Saturn’s rings, the period
of revolution has beco s than that of the planet’s rotation is
eo Saree indicated. elnie is ane impossible that a similar process

y have been in a evorsete Siete: the forming period eae the
Martial arti Unles uch explanation as this can be
given, the short rt period of t ste inner satellite will doutetees be
regarded as a conclusive kc me = the nebular hypothesis.

Bloomington, Indiana, August 2 27th, 1

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

ings, owin ng to the season of the year for a place so far south, and

Health, gotten a ihe» ecial reference to this ‘sabatation r
port on the Topography of Nashville, tive Major Wilbur F Foster,
illustrated with a map embracing an | three miles; report

* Tate’s Recent Advances in Phys. Sci., p. 259.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 329

Marsa was elected President for the ensuing B.
ee of Hoboken, New Jersey, Vice-President of Section A;

. R. Grorr, of Buffalo, Vice-President of Section B; and H. C.
Boron, Guae Secretary.

The retiring President, rec W. B. Rogers, was unable to
be present at the meeting, and hence the occasion failed of a
Presidential Address, which in this case was looked for with high
oF ohne’

The even ning session of Wednesday was occupied with a lecture,
by Professor Newcomb, on the recent astronomical discoveries—
that of the Satellites of Mars by ee tal Hall, and that
of oxygen in the atmosphere of the by Pr -ofessur Henry
Draper; remarks, by —- ontop Hall, on the history of =
ig poe te and the work it had done; a pee by Profe

. Lawrence Smith, on sitio stones ; and a paper, by Prolene

. RK. Grote, on an International Scientific Service.

Professor Marsh, the Vice-President of Section B, occu pie ed
Thursd —- with a discourse on the “Introduction and Sue-
reg of Vertebrate Life in America,” which was rich in facts

is own “ard work sinohe the vertebrate fossils of the

Marsh’s paper will appear in the following number of this Journal.
On Monday a very valuable discourse was delivered by Professor
Daniel — “on the ra — of America.”

mber of important papers read in the several sections
was Ae The following “a a list of those read or accepted for
reading,

I. Section of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics.
On a New Type of Steam Engine, theoretically capable of sag the full Me-
chanical Equivalent of Heat Energy; and on some points of Theory indicating its
practicability, R. H. THurston.—On a new method of planning gears an
of representing to the Eye the a of ergo of three or more Elements
in all poeeiele proportions, a —The work of the U. S. Board appointed to test
th:

irom, other
€ proper motion or the Trifid Nebula, M. 20, G. C, 4355, etc. E. 8.

A new Quadruple Objective for Astronomical Telescopes, E. GunpLAcH.—A
new Periscopic Eye-piece, id.

330 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

’ On the arbitrary coefficient A (?) in Laplace’s expression for the semi-diurnal
tide, J. G. Barn

Mechanics of | the fl ight of birds, A. C. Camp

The Physics of the Mississippi river below the "Red river, C. G. Forsuey.—The
Physics of the Gui of Mexico, id.

On a Measurement of the wave-length of the Blue line of the Spectrum of
Indium, T. C. a DENHALL.— poet modification in the Metric System
in its Introduction into the Uhited pitty

Improvement in use of the Reflecting Gorlonbstes H. W. WILEY.

A novel Radiometer, Mr. JEFFREY.

The — onetary Question , E. B. Enitorr.—On Standard os :

e Relation of Organ to Function; or of Form in general to Mode of
Pee Racsiged and Exerted, R L. KirKPATRICK.

If. Subsection of ther and me
A Steam blast pd fh voweing use in laboratories, with illustrations o e, J. L.
Smitu.—Use of a ent of steam in boiling a ids with and without precipitates
for use in the scalyigoal laboratory, id.—Some remarks on Phosphorus in Iron, i
—A peculiar Silicide of Iron with remarks on artificial Silicides of the metal, id.
—On the general methods scene in the analyses of the American Potunietie

The action ae Dilute Acid upon Ferrous Sulphide made from Cast-iron, F. P.

p Srrserome ss e Minerals a Deposit of Antimony Ores in Sevier County,
Arkans

Ethers ots poe Bile Acids, and specimens, A, SPRI

On the of Hypos ulphite of Soda for the prec sipitation of Alumina, ©. L.
MEEs.

The various methods of a as os Soegeirgn. Barium, Strontium and
Calcium. Part I. Determination of Strontium, P. ScawxitzER.—On some inter-
esting pemgreay from the solubility of aifioultly soluble Hactoesarath id.

N he Separation of Iron from Cobalt and Nickel, A. H. ELLIorr.

On ‘hes ssaggeenre of steel by the open hearth ined 5 8. HEDRICK.

If. Section of Geology and Natural History.
Our wledge of the rage Worm, A. R. Grots. — A new Lepidopterous
Tnsect injurious to Vegetati a
On Sex owers,
The iow of Repetition, Miss Vinorsta K. Sgihecs
On the Respiration of Amia, B. G. Wimp
Agamous reproduction among the Crs, H. F. Bas
On the Origin of Structural Variai E. D. Cop m—On the Classification of the
Extinct Fishes ‘of the Lower types,
On the Silurian Island of the aes: ti uplift with reference to its part
Tennessee, J. M. Sarrorp.—Notice of a specimen of Cyrtodonta ventricosa from
tog seiner a

On Geographi
piss spt Fossil asda: in the Rocks of the Cincinnati reer N. S. SHALER.

On Geodes, S. J. WALLACE.
oe the Annual Deposits of the Missouri River during the Post-Pliocene, J. E.

"The Structure of Eruptive Mountains, J. W. PowELt.—Overplacement, id.

The Variation of certain Fresh Water Mollusks of the United States phe their
Geographical dye tae ents Gh ERBY.

Notes on the Siluri veer of ab dor Nevada, T. Srerry Hunt.—Notes on
the Githagy of the 3 Rocky 3

*

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 331

Geology and Topography of the Oil Region of Tennessee and the Oil Springs
and Wells, J. B. Kinu
Hossgrox of the hen on the Headwaters of the Androscoggin River, J. H.
UN’
A se of McKinny Hill, Tennessee, E. L. Dra
3 ceouia position and mode of origin of Hy ained brown oxide of Iron, E. T.

On the Fibre of Gossipeum herbaceum (cotton aonsl considered with reference
toa stp application of its manufacture, J.

On t i e to be made of the Post Route Maps in ae advancement of Science,

ven

epetmeneranay Concussion as a Means of Disinfection, Mrs. H. R. Ineram.

IV. Pena aes Anthropology.

On the ae of the Japanese, S. I

e fo and present numbers 6 our ar tnd ans, G. MALLER

Additional adil Mere -_ ificial Paitoreiseat of the Orient in Ancient
Mounds in Michigan, H.

Habits of the Moqui Tribe, rE ‘A. BARBER.

Some Popular Errors concerning the N wae he Bae Indians, J. W. POWELL.
—Introduction to the Study of Indian ee

On the —— excavations in Western N orth Carolixi: A, A. Jub
xploration of the pi f the Mound Builders in in Scott and
Mississippi Co ai ies, Missouri, H. N. Rust.

Observations on the skull of the Comanche, T . O. Summers, Jr.

2. Distant Points visible from Mt. oe sap oles: oi YY. ae
fae (Read October 11, 1876). observer were to go
up four particular peaks in the White Pan he could see all
the pad points visible ie any of the other summits, together
with a good many more not visible from them. ese four peaks
are Washington, Moosilauke, Passaconnaway and Lafayette. I
name them in the order af ee extent of the datant views obtained

S

of these four peaks must always be the most conspicuous object in
the view, provided no near hills intervene. By means of the
following formule the distance visible from any mountain may be
readily calculated, and also the elevation a mountain must have
in order to see a certain distance: d= 75 4/175h, h = $d?, where
d= distance in “shies, an — elevation ‘in feet They may also

— to eck seen _ ce Washington, many of them ee visi-
le only on = ae A occa’

Mt. Bele

and nearly over Prospect Lancaster. It is quite a high
mountain near Montreal, and i. sid to be visible. Lake Memphre-
magog, north border of Vermont: distance 70 miles, position north
40° west, and over Jefferson Hill. It requires a very clear day,
as aie water is difficult to distinguish.

Mt. Carmel, Maine: distance 65 miles, position north 10° east,
and jak: over Mt. Adams. It is very near the northern border o
Maine, and is readily recognized by the steep slope on on the eastern

side. ‘It is said that a very fine view may be obtained from it.
Mt, Bigelow: distance 70 miles, position north 35° ang and nearly

332 EMiscellaneous Intelligence.

over Mt. Hayes. It appears as three rounded hills. Just to the
south of it and far beyond is a mountain with a very sharp apex,
which is sometimes called Katahdin, but this is a mistake. Mt.

Abraham: distance 65 i position north 40° east, and somewhat
to the right of Mt. Hayes. long serrated ridge, ‘also sometimes
called Katahdin, Mt. Katahdin, Maine: distance 163 miles, posi-
tion north 45° east, and about half way between Mt. Hayes and
Mt.

all the view from shington. If visible at all in summer, it
eet be far the faintest object in sight in that sgoceinyee Mt.
Blue, Maine: distance 57 miles, position north 57° east, half

way ’ between Surprise and Moriah. It is quite a conspicuous
pyramidal peak, ~~ is near iakeioe, Maine. It i is used as a
Joast Survey Statio
ortland, Maine: aitandl 65 miles, position south 51° east,
and over the northern summit of Doublehead. It appears as

as t as often seen as some more di stant

Se

east, and over Mt. Gemini. It is 14 miles long, and about 11 wide.
M amenticus, Maine: distance 80 miles, position south 24°
east. Hi flat Heh omens hill ee considerable height in the southern
Soa f Maine, and forms a conspicuous landmark for sailors.
sles of Shoals, coast of New Hampshire: distandd 97 miles, posi-
tion south 22° east. ey are very difficult to see, and are situa-
ted on the ‘aisles just > the right of Agamenticus.
noonuc, New Hampshire: distance 92 miles, position south 9°
west, and half way between Mts. Crawford and Passaconnaway.
Twin summits near Manchester. Mt. Wachusett, Massachusetts ;
distance 1265 miles, position south 13° west, and just to the right
of Whiteface, if it is visible. Mt. Mon adnock, New Hampshire:
distance 104°5 pene — south 22° west, and a little to the

right of Sandwich Dome. A very regular rounded summit. Mt.

A
ct
q
3
fo)
bd

Mt. Graylock, western Massachusetts: distance 147 miles, posi-
tion south 40° west, and just over the summit of Mt. Webster. It
has a pointed summit and is situated in the northwest corner of
Massachusetts, near the Hoosac Tunnel, and is the highest moun-
tain in the State, being no feet high, or about the same as Cho-
corua. It is extremely d cult to see, as it is, next to Katahdin,
the most distant point visible. se Guide Book says it is 160
miles distant; this, however, is an e

t. Ascutney, Vermont : sinende 3 85 miles, position south 45°
west. Situated in Windsor, Vermont, close to the Connecticut

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 833

iver. Killington Peaks, Green Mountains: distance 91 miles,
osition south 59° west, and between Mts. Liberty and Blue.
i el’s Hum

win peaked summits near an ont. Cam
Green Mountains: distance 80 miles, position north 87° west, and
just over Bethlehem Street is ng looking mountain,

tains: distance 130 miles, posi tion north 86° w It i

barely visible, hardly rising above the right ate Spe of Canels
Hump. This is one of the highest of the Adirondacks, rising to a
height of 4,900 feet. Two lower peaks are seen just to the right,

south of Whiteface and nearly over the y 2. Mt.
Mansfield, Green Mountains: distance 78 miles, Picenee north 78°
west, and between the twin Mountain House and t. Deception.
It is the highest of the Green Mountains, being 4,300 feet high, and
appears as a long ridge bearing a fancied resemblance to a human
_ —Appalachia, No. 2, March, 1

aution to Are junblosete The “Archeological Section of
the aeadeis of Sciences of St. Louis has issued a circular dated
St. Louis, Mo., June 12, 1877, war vi —— of all lovers

from the Mimourl Mounds are also bei ing sicmcerarte and offered

dealers — obtain a or that rat be worthless; or, at a se

tars direction, ra is spent - furnish to scientific ies, or

efforts, i refusing to porshana or in any way consieeiakios! the
mercenary traffic in antiquities.”

334 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The noes of ee Society is Mr. F. F. Hilder, 604 North
Fourth ih , dt. Lo

4, Win iieadioat of Hygiene and es Science.
edition, cisnoaa and iy oes 490 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia,
1877. (Lindsay and Blakiston.)—Dr. Wilson’s well-know _—

h
subjeets are treated in a systematic manner and — style makes
— reading of even the most technical portion

5. British Association.—The meeting of the British ‘Association
for 1877, Sate at Plymouth, on Wednesday, the 15th of August,
and the address of the Oe aM Professor Allen Thomson, —

xalto

befor ae

before that of Ge rai Se are eeianecba on the ner ae pages
of this volume, from ature of August 16 and 23. Sir William
Thomson presented a paper advocating _ doctrine suggested

ecome the vehicle of animal life to this earth sre another planet
or heavenly body, and “ was evidently listened to with much enjoy-
ment.” Much amusement was caused by his saying that “though
the outside shell of a meteoric stone might be incandescent from the
riction caused by its flight through the terrestrial ——
fet within a crevice of that stone might be concealed a Colora

eetle, oe falling ie" a earth, might become the 25 IN of a
lar isbeliever in the doctrine,
Profeme: ot Haughton, followed ‘with sWjecticiet; but said “ re still
he didn’t care how many papa beetles came, so long as the mamma

were the following: on the rate of on ea of groups of waves,

and the rate at which wa is transmitted by waves, by Osborne

Reynolds; on the effect of transverse stress on the magnetic sus-

ceptibility of iron, by Sir Wm. Thomson; unit of light for pho-
ium

°s structure, by Professor ——

It was decided that the fiftieth or jubilee meeting of the Asso-
ciation—in 1881—be held in York, in consideration of the fact
that its first meeting—that of 1831—-was at that place.

Obituary. 335

New Constructions in Graphical Statics ; by H. T. Eppy.
Van Nostrand, New York: 1877. 8vo, pp. 62 an nd9 foldin ng plates.

to the arch rib with and without joints, the suspension cable, t
continuous girder, the retaining wall, the dome, ete.
The following oa at of the U. 8S. Geological Survey of the oe
den in charge, have been received and will be noticed in another nu
ber ; also other volumes whose titles fo
Ninth A ort, embracing Ootors do and parts of adjacent Cabal
being a report of progress of ae exploration for the year 1875, by F. V. Hayden
27 PP. ae Washington,
f the United pa Geo logical Survey of the Territories, volume XT.
odagretis of North American Rodentia, by Elliott Coues, Secretary and Natu-
ralist of the o Rare and Joel Asaph Allen, Special Collaborator of ‘the Survey.

Misce adie Publications.—No. 7. Et seg ar see es the Hidatsa
Indians, hy Gi rom —_— Matthews, Assistant Sur 239 pp. 8vo.

rig ring Animals: A Monograph ee North Ametioan Mustelide,
yi lliott prey Gantaln and Assistant Surgeon U.S. A 8 pp. 8vo, with
twenty plates.

Bulletin of the U. S. Geological ree bre are Survey of the Territories.
Volume III, Number 4, August 5th, 1

Bulletin of the U. 8. National Museum; No. 8.—Inde the names which
have Pome applied to the subdivisions of ‘the ae Bciiocls by W. H. Dall.
88 pp. 8yo. Washington, 1877.

hina : oF erp eigener Rei und darauf Le semi oc te — od

Mesmeri rism, Spiritualism, ete. Historically and scientifically considered; be-
ing two Lectures delivered at the London Institution, by Whar as B. Carpenter,
C.B., ete. 158 pp. 8vo. New York, 1877. (D. Appleton & C

Proceedings of ee Davenport Academy of N atural Sciences, aba I, Part I;
January, 1876—June, 1877. Davenport, low

yee bent jan Naturhistorischen Yorsis von Wisconsin fiir das Jahr
agit waukee.
neers f Science and Industry, by Theodore 8. Case. f monthly
of 64. pages published at Kansas City, Missouri, popular in its characte

Pr he American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Twenty-fifth n eae he held at Buffalo, N. Y., August, 1876. 368 pp. 8vo. 1877.

OBITUARY.

_ Professor Henry Newron, E.M., Ph.D., Professor elect of Min-

engaged ee a Bic examination of the Black Hills, which,
begun two ago, as Assistant Geologist to the United oer es
Black Hills Expedion of the Interior Department. He w

region, with plates of fossils, and numerous drawings
eae and other hae illustrations. The publication of this
uable report by the department, as it has more than ap-
ten before with other reports of the same kind, had been griev-
ously delayed—much to the annoyance and disappointment of its

336 Obituary.

young and enthusiastic author, whose health became impaired
under such an additional oe upon his nervous system, immedi-

ments, Professor Newton returned this season e Black Hills,
where he was a ees stricken with mountain a while prose-
oe nes

Prof ; heaton was fora number of years attached to the
School of Mikes of Columbia College, Pig he received ao degrees
and was Assistant in Geology. During the same peri id
excellent service upon the Geo bloseldial Sarvey of Ohio, J.P. K

Moszs Srrone, Assistant Geologist in the Geological Survey of
Wisconsin, died on the 18th of last August. Mr. Stron ng was en-
gaged in a geological examination of the branches of the Chip-
pewa River, and was erapxonng to pass in a skiff some rapids
on the Flambeau ou, when the boat was upset, and he was

occupied by the co DO end be formation in the region of the
Upper St. Croix River. and had exa amined the Huronian forma-

aa st trong, after graduation at Yale pig oa with the class of
1867, pursued scientific studies at a German University, and ha
thus ‘thoroughly fitted sponge for the work in which he was en;
gaged. He leaves a young wife and chi

Professor ADOLF at an eminent Gere an physicist, Pro-
fessor in the ighen SV EOeN died on the 13th of July, at the
age of seventy-on

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]}

ArT. XLII. oe and Succession of Vertebrate Life in
tea ; a 0. C. Mars

[Address before the American Associa tion for the Advancement of Science, at
Nashville, Tenn., August 30, 1877.]

Tue origin of life, and the order of —- in which its
as forms have appeared upon the earth, offer to science
most inviting and most difficult. field of research.
Macech the primal origin of life is unknown, and may per
haps never be known, yet no one has a right to say how ranch
of the mystery now surrounding it science cannot remove.
’ It is certainly within the domain of science to determine when
the earth was first fitted to receive life, and in what form the
earliest life began. To trace that life in its manifold changes
through past ages to the present is a more difficult task, but _
one from which modern science does not shrink. In this wide
field, every earnest effort will meet some degree of success ;
every year will add new and important facts; and eve ry
generation will bring to light some law, in — with

which ancient life has been changed into life we see it
around us to-day. That such a development noe taken pee
no one will doubt who has carefully traced any single group

of animals through its past history, as recorded in the ne of

the earth. The evidence will be especially conclusive, if the

group selected belongs to the higher forms of life, which tha

sensitive to every change in their surroundings. “But lam

TI need offer here no argument for — since to doabe
Am. Jour. Sct. prea pee Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov.,

338 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

evolution to-day is to doubt science, and science is only another
name for truth.

Taking, then, evolution as a key to the mysteries of past life
on the earth, I invite your attention to the subject I have
chosen: THE INTRODUCTION AND SUCCESSION OF VERTEBRATE
LIFE IN AMERICA.

In the brief hour allotted to me, I could hardly hope to give
more than a very incomplete sketch of what is now known on
this subject. I shall, therefore, pass rapidly over the lower

in so
approach man in structure, and thus indicate his probable
origin. These higher vertebrates, moreover, are most important
witnesses of the past, since their superior organization made
them ready victims to slight climatic changes, which would
otherwise have remained unrecorded.

In considering the ancient life of America, it is important to
bear in mind that I can only offer you a brief record of a few
of the countless forms that once occupied this continent. The
review I can bring before you will not be like that of a great
army, when regiment after regiment with full ranks moves by
in orderly succession, until the entire host has passed. My
review must be more like the roll-call after a battle, when only
a few scarred and crippled veterans remain to.answer to their
names. Or rather, it must resemble an array of relics, dug
from the field of some old Trojan combat, long after the con-
test, when no survivor remains to tell the tale of the strife.

why.
y this same method of research, the more ancient strata
of the earth have been explored, and, in our Western wilds,

or gold. Without such spoils, from many fields, I could not
have chosen the present theme for my address to-night.

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America, 339

According to present knowledge, no vertebrate life is known
to have existed on this continent in the Archean, Cambrian, or

exist here in those remote ages. Fishes are known Sr the
Upper Silurian of Europe, and there is every probability that
they will yet be discovere in our strata of the same age, if not
at a still lower horiz

In the shore pease of the early Devonian sea, known as
the Schoharie Grit, characteristic peneaee of Fishes were pre-
served, and in the deeper sea that followed, in which the

continue abundant in the shallower seas, and, so far as now
known, were the only type of vertebrate life. 7 fishes
were mainly Seceae a group, represented in our present
waters by the Gar- -pike (Lepidosteus) and Sturgeon (Aipensr
but, in the Devonian sea, chiefly by the aes ee, the ex
affinities of which are somewhat in doubt, ith these were
Elasmobranchs, or the ne, tribe, and among them a few
epimers a peculiar r type, of which one or two members still
survive. ‘The Placoderms were the monarchs of the ocean. All
were gu protected by a massive coat -of armor, and some o
them attained huge dimensions. The American Devonian fishes
now known are not as numerous as those of Europe, but they
were larger in size, and mostly inhabitants of the open sea.
Some twenty genera and forty species have been described.

e more important genera of Placoderms are, Dinichthys,
Aspidichthys, and Dee our largest Paleozoic fishes.
Others are, Acanthaspis, Acantholepis, Coccosteus, Macropetalich-
oys, and Onychodus. Among the Elasmobranchs were, Clado-:

dus, Nechaiath us, Machcracanthus, Rhynchodus, and Ptyctodus,
the last two ang regarded as ohamttia ve the Chemung
epoch, the great sha gy a was introduced with Dipierus,
Heliodus, and possi Ceratodus. Species of the European
legmtis Bothriolepis an Sega oes have likewise been found
ur Devonian de
With the close of tha Davekian. came the almost total extine-

Helodus, Psammodus and Sandalodus. Of the Sarangi
there were Antliodus, Chomatodus, Ctenoptychius, Petalodus an

340 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

Petalorhynchus; and of the Slgeirma the genera eli,
Carcharopsis and Diplodus. e Hlasmobranchs were the
rulers of the Carboniferous open sea, and more than one hun-

smaller size, an denizens of the more shallow and confined
waters. The latter group of fishes was represented by true
Lepidostide, of the genera Paleoniscus, Amblypterus, Putgac
mus and Hurylepis. Other genera are, Rhizodus, Megalichthys,
Ctenodus, Edestus, Orodus, Clenacanthus, yracanthu s, and Cela-.
canthus. Most of these genera occur also in Europe.
rom the Permian rocks of America, no vertebrate remains

are known, although in the same formation of Europe Ganoids
are abundant; and with them are remains of Sharks, oes sie
other fishes, the affinities of which are doubtful. The
zoic fishes at present known from this country are ive vi
numerous as those found in Hurope.

In the Mesozoic age, the Fishes of America begin to show a
decided approach to those of our present waters. From the
Triassic rocks, Ganoids only are known, and they are all more
or less closely related to the modern Gar- -pike, or Lepidosteus.
‘They are of small — ee the number of individuals
preserved is very larg: e characteristic genera are, Catop-
terus, Ischyplerus, Bichotepta, Rhabdolepis, and Turseodus.

rom the Jurassic deposits, no remains of fishes are known,
but in the Cretaceous, ichthyic life assumed many and
various forms; and the first representatives of the Teleosts,
or bony fis es, the characteristic fishes of to-day, make

their appearance. In the deep open sea of this age, Hlas
mobranchs were the eae forms, Sharks and Chimeeroids
being most numerou n the great inland Cretaceous sea of

and many of them of large size. The Ganoids were compara-
“aden few in number. In the earliest Eocene fresh-water
deposits, it is interesting to find that the modern Gar-pike,

0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 841

and Amia, the Dog-fish of our western lakes, which by their
Structure are seen to be remnants of a very early type, are
well represented by species so closely allied to them that only
an anatomist could separate the ancient from the modern. In
the succeeding beds, these fishes are still abundant, and with
them are Siluroids nearly related to the modern Cat-fish
(Pimelodus). Many small fishes, allied apparently to the
modern herring (Clupea), left their remains in great numbers
in the same deposits, and, with them has been recently found
a land-locked Ray (Heliobatis).

The almost total absence of remains of fishes from the Mio-
cene lake-basins of the West is a remarkable fact, and perhaps
may best be explained by the theory that these inland waters,
like many of the smaller lakes in the same region to-day, were
so impregnated with mineral matters as to render the existence.
of vertebrate life in them impossible. No one who has tasted
such waters, or has attempted to ford one of the modern alkaline
lakes which are often met with on the present surface of the
same deposits, will doubt the efficiency of this cause, or the
easy entombment of the higher vertebrates that ventured within
their borders. In the Pliocene lake-basins of the same region,
remains of fishes were not uncommon, and in some of them are

pliocene fishes are essentially those of to-day. _ : :
In this brief synopsis of the past ichthyic life of this Conti-

known in this country, are from the lower Devonian ; but these
old fishes show so great a diversity of form and_ structure, as

It is safe to infer, from the knowledge which we now possess
of the simpler forms of life, that even more of the early fishes
were cartilaginous, or so destitute of hard parts as to leave no
enduring traces of their existence. Without positive knowledge
of such forms, and considering the great diversity of those we
have, it would seem a hopeless task at present to attempt
to trace successfully the genealogy of this class. One line,
however, appears to be direct, from our modern Gar-pike,
through the lower Eocene Lepidosteus to the Lepidotus of the

_ Cretaceous, and perhaps on through the Triassic Ischypterus

342 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

ians known from osseous remains are all of moderate size,
but the foot-prints attributed to this group indicate animals
larger than any of the class yet found in the old world. The
Carboniferous Amphibians were abundant in the swampy trop-
ical forests of that period, and their remains have been found
imbedded in the coal then deposited, as well as in hollow
stumps of the trees left standing.

The principal genera of this group from American Car-
boniferous rocks, are, Sawropus, known only from footprints,
Baphetes, Dendrerpeton, Hylonomus, Hylerpeton, Raniceps, Pelion,
Leptophractus, Molgophis, Piyonius, Amphibamus, Cocytinus, and
Ceraterpeton. The last genus occurs also in Europe. Certain of
these genera have been considered by some writers to be more
nearly related to the Lizards, among true reptiles. Some other

genera known from fragmentary remains or footprints in this
. formation have likewise been referred to the true reptiles, but
this question can perhaps be settled only by future discoveries.

No Aniphibia are known from American Permian strata, but

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 343

in the Triassic, a few oheractenietows pemaine have. been found.

ctory, an
this class can be based upon them. rom the Jurassic and
Cretaceous beds of this Continent, no remains of Amphibians
are known. A few only have been found ‘in the ertiary,
and sees are all of modern t,

berry, Leidy Cope, Dawson, Agassiz, St. John Gib es, , Wy-
man, Redfield, and Emmons, and the pionpe literature of the
subject will be tonans in their publication

Reptiles and Birds form the next om eat division of ver-
tebrates, the Sauropsida, and of these the Reptiles are the older
type, and may be first considered. While it may be stated
with certainty that there is at present no evidence of the exist-
ence of this group in American rocks older ve the Car-
boniferous, there is some doubt in regard to their appearance
even in this period. Various foot- prints which eee resem-
ble those rl by Lizards; a few well preserved remains similar

In the Permian rocks of tonne Reptiles have been
found.

odon, Ww Ss WwW iso |
Roan It belongs to the Thecodont division of Reptiles,
which have teeth in distinct sockets, and its nearest affinities

344 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

are with the Crocodilia, of which order it may be considered
the oldest known representative. In the same strata in which
the Belodonts occur, remains of Dinosaurs are found, and it is
a most interesting fact that these highest of reptiles should make
their appearance, even in a generalized form, at this stage of
the earth’s history. The Dinosaurs, although true reptiles in
all their more important characters, show certain well marked

ri
enormous development both in variety of forms and in size. -
Although comparatively few of .their bones have as yet
been discovered in the rocks of this country, they have left
unmistakable evidence of their presence in the foot-prints and

other impressions upon the shores of the waters which they
frequented. The Triassic sandstone of the Connecticut Valley
has long been famous for its fossil foot-prints, especially the
so-called ‘bird-tracks,” which are generally supposed to have
been made by birds, the tracks of which many of them closely
resemble. A careful investigation, spe: ne nearly all the
. Specimens yet discovered, has convinced me that there is not a
particle of evidence that any of these fossil. ‘iipreekions were
made by birds. Most of these three-toed tracks were certainly

detected the impressions of these anterior limbs in connection
with the osterior foot-prints of nearly all of the supposed
“bird-tracks” described, and have little doubt that they will
eventually me found with all. These double impressions are
precisely the kind which Dinosaurian reptiles would make,
and as the only characteristic bones yet found in the same
rocks belong to animals of this group, it is but fair to attribute
all these foot-prints to Dinosaurs, even where no impressions
of fore-feet have been detected, until some idler appears
that they were made by Bi rds. I have no doubt that
ae Boge at this time, although at paesent the proof is

The pritieipal genera of Triassic Reptiles known from osseo
remains in this country are, Amphisaurus (Megat)
from the Connecticut Valley, Bathygnathus, — Prince E
ward’s Island, Belodon and Coiisiearsh Other generic names

a

A
Reptiles have been found in undoubted Jurassic rocks of
America, but they are not sufficiently well determined to be

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 345

character of most of the rocks then formed, which were not
well fitted for preserving such remains, although admirably
adapted to retain foot-prints.

During the Cretaceous Period, Reptilian life in America
attained its greatest development, and the sediments laid down
in the open seas and estuaries were usually most favorable for
the preservation of a faithful record of its various phases. With
out such a perfect matrix as some of these deposits afford, many
of the most interesting vertebrates recently brought to light
from this formation would probably have remained unknown.
The vast extent of these beds ensures, moreover, many future
discoveries of interest.

Some of the earliest forms are allied to the modern genus
Trionyx. In the higher Cretaceous beds, some Chelonians of
enormous size have been found. They belong to the genus

T ery numerous, an
with them are many fresh-water forms of Jrionyx and allied

genera,

A striking feature of the American Cretaceous fauna, as con-
trasted with that of Europe, is the almost entire absence in our
strata of species of Jchthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, whic
abound in many other regions, but here seem to be replaced by

346 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America.

the Mosasaurs. A few fragmentary remains have indeed been
referred to these genera, but the determination may fairly be
questioned. This is more than true of the proposed new order
Streptosauria, ich, was founded wholly on error. The order

lestosaurta, however, is well represented, but mainly by forms
more nearly related to the genus Pliosaurus than to the type
of the group. These were marine reptiles, all of large size,
while some of them attained vast dimensions. So far as at
present identified, they may be referred to the genera, Cimolio-
saurus, Discosaurus (Llasmosaurus), and Pliosaurus. e num-
ber of species is comparatively few, and none are known above
the Cretaceous. The important suggestion of Gegenbaur, that
the Halisauria, which include the Plesiosaurs, branched o
from the Fishes before the Amphibians, finds some support in
American specimens recently discovered.

The Reptiles most characteristic of our American Cretaceous
strata are the Josasauria, a group with very few representatives
in other parts of the world. In our Cretaceous seas, they ruled
supreme, as their numbers, size, and carnivorous habits, enabled
them to easily vanquish all rivals. Some were at least sixty
feet in length, and the smallest ten or twelve. In the inland

retaceous sea from which the Rocky Mountains were begin-
ning to emerge, these ancient “Sea Serpents” abounded; an
many were entombed in its muddy bottom. On one occasion,
as _I rode through a valley washed out of this ad ocean bed, I
saw no less than seven different skeletons of these monsters in
sight at once. ‘ osasaurs were essentially swimming Liz-
ards, with four a developed paddles, and they had little affin-
ity with modern serpents, to which they have been compared.
The species are quite numerous, but they belong to compara-
tively few genera, of which Mosasaurus, Tylosaurus, Lestosaurus

and Adestosaurus, have alone been identified with certainty. The
genus Mecasnaten was first found in Europe. All the known
species of the group are cases us.

The Crocodilia are abundant in rocks of Cretaceous age in
dere, and two distinct types are represented. The older
type, which is foreshadowed by Belodon of the Trias, has bicon-
cave vertebre, and shows marked affinities with the genus
Teleosaurus, from the Jura of Europe. The best known
tg is Hyposaurus, of which there are several species, all

ore or less resembling in form the modern Gavial of the
Sane peculiar intermediate form is seen in Diplosaurus,
te ite Wealden of the Rocky Mountains. The second type,
which now makes its appearance for the first time, has pro-
ecelian vertebree, and in other respects resembles existing Croc-
odiles. The genera described are Bottosawrus, Holops and Tho-
racosaurus, none of which, so far as known, pass above the

0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 347

Cretaceous. Of Crocodilia ae bi ge arse vertebree, Amer-
ica, so far as we know, has Specimens similar to those
so termed in Europe, are noe renee here, but they per-
tain to Dinosaurs

Tn the Kocene fresh-water beds of the West, Crocodilians
are especially abundant, and all, with the exception of Limno-

ATipabE The Miocene lake-basins of the same olen
contain no remains of Crocodiles, so far as known, and the
Pliocene deposits have afforded a, a single species. The
Tertiary marine beds of the Atlantic Coast contain com-
paratively few Crocodilian remains, and all are of modern

ern type. In the Eocene lake-basin
mains of Lizards are very numerous, aa indicate species much
larger than any existing to-day. Some of these, the Glyptosau-
ride, were protected by a highly senatnerited bony coat of mail,
and others were covered with scales, like recent Lizards. A
few resembled, in their more important characters, the modern
Iguana. The genera best represented in the Kocene, are, Glyp-
tosaurus, Iguanavus, Oreosaurus, Thinosaurus, Tinosaurus and
Saniva. Some of thesegenera appear to eth continued into the
Miocene, but here, as well as in the Pliocene, few remains of
this group have been found. It is not Seapmobatile that some
of our extinct Reptiles may prove to belong to Rynchocephala,
but at present this is uncertain. The genus Notosaurus, from
Brazil, has biconcave vertebre, and some other characters
which. point to that group. No Dicynodonts or Theriodonts
have as yet been found in this country.

The first American Serpents, so far as now known, appear
in the Kocene, which contains also the oldest European species.
On the Atlantic border, the genus Titanophis (Dinophis) is
represented by several species of large size, one at least thirty
feet in length, and all doubtless inhabitants of the sea. In the
fresh-water Western Kocene, remains of snakes are abundant,
— all are of moderate size. The largest of these were related

© the modern Boa Constrictors. The genera described are
Seti: Lithophis and Limnophis. The Miocene and Pliocene

348 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

Snakes from the same region are known only from a few frag-
mentary remains. ’
he Prerosauria, or flying Lizards, are among the most
interesting Reptiles of Mesozoic time, and many of them left
their remains in the soft sediments of our inland Cretaceous
sea. These were veritable Dragons, having a spread of wings
of from ten to twenty-five feet. They differed essentially from
the smaller Pterodactyls found in the old world, in the entire
absence of teeth, showing in this respect a resemblance to
modern birds; and they possess other distinctive characters.
They have therefore been placed in a new order, Pteranodontia,
‘ from the typical genus’ Pteranodon, of which five species are
nown. The only other genus is Nyctosaurus, represented by a
single species. All the specimens yet found are from essen-
tially the same horizon, in the Chalk of Kansas. The reported
discovery of remains of this order from older formations in this
country is without foundation. .

the remains discoverel in deposits of this age: the herbiv-

by far the largest land animal yet discovered; its dimensions
being greater than was supposed possible, in an animal that
lived and moved upon the land. It was some fifty or sixty
feet in length, and, when erect, at least thirty feet in height.
It doubtless fed upon the foliage of the mountain forests,
portions of which are preserved with its remains. With T%tan-
osaurus, the bones of smaller Dinosaurs, one (Nanosaurus) not
larger than a Cat, as well as those of Crocodiles and Turtles,
are not uncommon. The recent discovery of these interesting
remains, many and various, in strata that had long been pro-

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Tnfe in America. 849

nounced by professional: explorers barren of vertebrate fossils,
should teach caution to those who decline to accept the imper-
fection of our knowledge to- rsh as a fair plea for the supposed
absence of intermediate for

n the marine Oretadeous rn of the West, be? a single
Ditibdaur (Hadrosaurus agilis), has been found, but in e higher
resh-water beds, which mark the close of this Dacnesols their

Hadrosaurus and Dryptosaurus were foun n Cretaceous
fresh-water deposits on the coast of Brazil, remains of this order
occur, but the specimens hitherto discovered are not
characteristic for accurate determination. This is unfortunately
true of many Dinosaurian fossils from North America, but the
great number of these Reptiles which lived here during the
Cretaceous Period promises many future discoveries, and sub-
stantial additions to our.present knowledge o
e first appearance of Birds in America, according to our
Leow i knowledge, was during the Cretaceous Period, although
any announcements have been made of their existence in
preceding epochs. The evidence of their presence in the Trias,
ased on footprints and other impressions, is, at present, as we
have seen, without value; although we may confidently await
their discovery there, if not in older formations. Archeopteryz,
from the European Jura, the oldest bird known, and now
fortunately represented by more than a single specimen,
clearly indicates a much higher antiquity for the class. The
_ earliest American forms, at present known, are the Odontornithes,
or Birds with teeth, which have been exhumed within the last
few years, from the Chalk of Kansas. The two genera, Hes-
perornis and Ichthyornis, are types of distinct orders, and differ
from each other and from Archeopteryx much more than do
any existing birds among themselves; thus showing that Birds
are now a closed type, and that the key to the history of the
class must be sought for in the distant past.
n Hesperornis, we have a large aquatic he. rhe six —
in length, with a strange combination of The ja
are provided with teeth, set in gro OveS ; shai wings were ru Padi.
mentary, and useless ; while the egs were very similar to those
of modern diving birds. This last feature was merely an adap-
tation, as the more important characters are Struthious, showing
that Hesperornis was essentially a carnivorous swimming Ostrich.
Ichthyornis, a small flying bird, was stranger still, om ie fort
were in sockets; and the vertebrae biconcave, as
and a few Reptiles. Apatornis and other allied + forins scien

350 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

in the same beds, and probably all were provided with teeth.
It is strange that the companions of these ancient toothed
Birds should have been Pterodactyls without teeth. In the
later Cretaceous beds of the Atlantic Coast, various remains
of aquatic Birds have been found, but all are apparently dis-
tinct from those of the West. The known genera of Ameri-
ean Cretaceous birds are, Apatornis, Baptornis, Graculavus,
Hesperornis, Ichthyornis, Laornis, Lestornis, Paleotringa and
Telmatornis. These are represented by some twenty species.
In Europe, but two species of Cretaceous birds are known,
and both are based upon fragmentary specimens.

During the Tertiary period, Birds were numerous in this
country, and. all yet discovered. appear to have belonged to
modern types. ‘The Kocene species described are mostly wading
birds, but here, and in the later Tertiary deposits, some charac-
teristic American forms make their appearance, strongly fore-
shadowing our present avian fauna. ‘The extinct genera are the
Kocene Utntornis, related to the Woodpeckers, and Aletornis,
which includes several species of Waders. Among the existing
genera found in our Tertiary beds are, Aquila, Bubo, Meleagris,
Grus, Graculus, Puffinus, and Catarractes. The Great Auk
(Alca impennis), which was once very abundant on our North-
east Coast, has become extinct within a few years.

wealth of our continent in the extinct forms of these groups,
and thus to suggest what its actual life must have been.

Although the Trias offers at present the first unquestioned
evidence of true Reptiles, we certainly should not be justified
in supposing for a moment that older forms did not exist. So
too in considering the different groups of Reptiles, which seem
to make their first appearance at certain horizons, flourish for
a time, and then decline, or disappear, every day brings evidence
to show that they are but fragments of the unraveled strands
which converge in the past to form the mystic cord uniting all
life. If the attempt is made to follow back any single thread,
and thus trace the be e of a group, we are met by difficulties
which the science of A can only partially remove. poate
the anatomist constantly sees in the fragments which he studies
hints of relationship which are to him sure prophecies of future
discoveries.

The genealogy of the Chelonia is at present unknown, and

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 851

our American extinct forms, so far as we now have them,
throw little light on their ancestry. This is essentially true,
also, of our Plesiosauria, Lacertilia and Ophidia, although sug-
gestive facts are not wanting to indicate possible lines of
descent. With the Crocodilia, however, the case seems to be
different, and Huxley has clearly pointed out the path for
investigation. It is probable that material already exists in

nuine “missing link,” a saurian (Diplosaurus) with

352 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

that they are an aberrant type of Reptiles, totally off the line
through which the Birds were developed. The announcement
made not long since in Europe, and accepted by some American
authors, that the Piarsitagiis) ‘in consequence of certain points
_in their structure, were essentially Birds, is directly disproved
by American So far more perfect than those on which
the conclusion was base

t is now generally nilmitted by biologists who have made
a study of the vertebrates, that Birds have come down to us
through the Dinosaurs, and the close affinity of the Jatter
with recent Struthious Birds will hardly be questioned. The
case amounts almost to a set aap ag if we compare, with
Dinosaurs, their contemporaries, the Mesozoic Birds. The
classes of Birds and Reptiles, as now living, are separated by a
gulf so profound that a few years since it was cited -by the
opponents of evolution as the most important break in the
animal — and one whi - that doctrine could not bridge
over. Since then, as Huxley has clearly shown, this gap
has been vatially filled by the discovery of bird-like Reptiles
and reptilian Birds. Compsognathus and ani yiteaed of the
Old World, and Ichthyornis and Hesperornis of the New, are
the stepping stones by which the evolutionist of to-day leads
the doubting ectaes across the shallow remnant of the gulf,
once thought impassable.

It remains now to consider the highest group of the Animal
Kingdom, the class Mammalia, which includes Man. Of the
existence of this class before the Trias we have no evidence,

Marsupials, she lowest Mancosliae group hich we ey in

to the insect- are Myrmecobius, now egies in Australia.
ura of Hurope has ‘segs other sumnilar

few years have brought to light i in the Eocene.

0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 353

important to define the division Lpstiy me indicated in our
Tertiary and Post-Tertiary aapoihe as these in many cases

eae series of the West is uppermost Cretaceous, or lowes
Kocene. The evidenoe of the numerous vertebrate remains is

are most setae witnesses ; that invertebrate animals
are much better; and that vertebrates afford the most reliable
evidence of climatic and other geological changes. e su

divisions of the latter group, moreover, and in fact all forms
of animal life, are of value in this respect, mainly according
to the gf molgese4 of their organization, or Zoologica al rank.

)

law, ene that the line, it sc ae a separating our
Cretaceous from the Tertiary, m t at present be drawn where
the Dinosaurs and other M sete vertebrates disappear, and
are replaced by the Mammals, nencetirts the dominant type.

The Tertiary of Western n America ca comprises the most exten-
sive series of. deposits of this age known to geologists, and
important breaks in both the rocks and the fossils separate it
into three well-marked divisions. These natural divisions are
not the exact equivalents of the Kocene, Goons and Pliocene

Am. Jour. Sct. ime are Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Noy., 1877,

354 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

of Europe, although usually so considered, and known by the
same names; but, in general, the fauna of ‘each appears to be
older than that of its corresponding representative in the other

characteristic genus of which is the ungulate Coryphodon, and
hence I have called these deposits the Coryphodon Beds. The
middle Eocene strata, which have been termed the Green
River and Bridger Series, may be designated as the Dinoceras
Beds, as the gigantic animals of this order are only found here.

e uppermost Eocene, or the Uintah Group, is especially
well apes by large mammals of the genus Diplacodon,
and hence may be eahed the Diplacodon Beds. The fauna of
each of these three subdivisions was essentially distinct, and the .
fossil remains of each were entombed in different and successive

n
central plateau of the Continent. As these mountain chains
were elevated, the enclosed Cretaceous sea, cut off from the |

drained by the constant deepening of the ries rivers, and
pe have yerrse remained essentially dry lan
he Miocene lake-basins are on the wet of this region,

These basins contain three faunas, nearly or quite distinct. The
lowest Miocene, which is only found east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, alone contains the peculiar mammals known as the B Bron-
totheride, and these deposits may be called the Brontotherium
Beds. The strata next above, which represent the middle Mio-

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Infe in America. 355

cene, have as their most characteristic fossil the genus Oreodon
and are known as the Oreodon Beds. The upper Miocene, which
occurs in Oregon, is of great thickness, and from one o its most
important fossils, Miohippus, may be designated as the Miohip-
pus Series. The climate here during this period was warm

Above the Miocene, east of the Rocky Mountains and on the
Basic: Coast, the Pliocene is well developed, and is rich in
vertebrate remains. The strata rest unconformably on the
Miocene, and there is a well marked faunal change at this

Eocene; and yet in beds of this age, coed over the
Chalk, fossil mammals of many different kinds abound.

The enna strange to say, are here few in number, and
- diminutive in size; and have as yet been identified only by frag-
mentary specimens, dea most of them too imperfect for accurate
description. In the higher Eocene deposits, this group is more
abundant, but still represented by small animals, most of them
insectivorous, or carnivorous in habit, like the existing Opos-
sum. From the Miocene and Pliocene, no remains of Marsupials
have been desaabiad, From the Post- Tertiary, only specimens
nearly allied to those now living are known, and most of these
were found in the caves of South America

The Edentate Mammals are evidently an American type,

which belong to animals of this rags and to the genus Moropus.

356 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

There are two species, one about as large as a Tapir, and the
other nearly twice that size. This genus is the type of a dis-
tinct family, the Moropodide. In the lower Pliocene above,
well preserved remains of Kdentates of very large size have
been found at several widely separated localities in Idaho and
capes These belong to the genus Morothertum, of hich
two species are known. Last of the Rocky Mountains, i in the

later fossils corresponds nearly with beds in Europe that have
been called Miocene. In the Post-Pliocene of North America,

is ace by the huge Mylodon, ae Megalonyz,
ren ie Ochotherium, Gnathopis, Lestodon, Scelidotherium, and

Sphaenodon ; and among the A phniilison were Chlamydotherium,

Hurydon on, Gly jptodon, Heterodon, Pachytherium and Schistopleurum.
Peraiherim, another extinct genus, is supposed to be allied
to the Ant-eaters,

It is frequently asserted, and very generally believed, aie pi
large number of huge Edentata which lived in North Am
during the Post-Phocene, were the results of an onteserts
migration from South America soon: after the elevation of

the Isthmus of Panama, near the close of the Tertiary. fe)
conclusive proof such migration has been offered, and
the evidence, it seems to me, so far as we now it, 1s

?
on ppnores. to this view. No undoubted Tertiary Edentates
een discovered in South America, while we have at
iat i species in our Miocene, and during’ na ehageie. of
our lower Pliocene, large individuals of this oup
uncommon as far north as the forty-third puttallel of latitude,
on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. In view of these facts,
and others which I shall lay before you, it seems more natural
to conclude from our present knowledge, that the migration,
which no doubt took place, was from north to south. The
Edentates finding thus in South America a congenial home
flourished greatly for a time, and although the larger forms are
now all extinct, diminutive representatives of the group still
inhabit the same region
The Cetacea first appear in the Eocene, as in Europe, and

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 307

are comparatively abundant in deposits of this age on the
Atlantic Coast. The most interesting remains of this order, yet
found, belong to the Zeuglodontide, which are carnivorous
whales, and the only animals of the order with teeth implanted
by two roots. The principal genera of.this family are Zeuglodon
and Squalodon, the former genus being represented by gigantic
forms, some of which were seventy feet in length.

Saurocetes, which includes some small animals of this group, has
been found in South America. The Dolphin family (Delphinc-
de) are well represented in the Miocene, both on the Atlantic
and Pacific Coast. The best known genus is Priscodelphinus, o

tiary, and with them in the earlier beds, various Ziphioid forms
have been found. The toothless Balenide are only known
with certainty as fossils from the later Tertiary and more
recent deposits.

The Sirenians, which appear first in the Eocene of the

related to our living species. In the Tertiary of Jamaica,
skull has been found which indicates a new genus, Prorastomus,

Artiodactyles, even at the base of the Eocene.

tially Perissodactyle, p s some characters which point to a
-chhadiateh Ungulate type from which the present orders have
een evolved m these characters are the diminutive

the mammalian foot have been derived. Of this family, only
a single genus, Coryphodon (Bathmodon), is known, but there

358 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

were several distinct species. ‘They were the largest mammals

animals nearly equaled the Klephant in size, but had shorter
limbs. The skull was armed with two or three pairs of horn-
cores, and with enormous canine tusks. ‘The brain was propor-
tionally smaller than in any other land mammal. The feet had
five toes, and resembled in their general structure those of (o-
ryphodon, thus indicating some affinity with that genus. These
mammals resemble in some respects the Perissodactyles, and in
others the Proboscidians, yet differ so widely from any known
Ungulates, recent or fossil, that they must be regarded as form-
ing a distinct order, the Dinocerata. Only three genera are
known, Dinoceras, Tinoceras and Uintatherium, but quite a num-
ber of species have been described. During the later part of the
middle Hocene, these animals were very abundant for a short
time, and then became extinct, leaving apparently no succes-
sors, unless possibly we have in the Proboscidians their much
modified descendants. Their genetic connection with the
Coryphodonts is much more probable, in view of what w

now know of the two groups.

this Continent, and was told in reply that the reports to that
effect were too unsatisfactory to be presented as facts in science.
This remar me, on my return, to examine the subject
myself, and I have since unearthed, with my own hands, not less
than thirty distinct species of the horse tribe, in the Tertiary
deposits of the West alone; and it is now, I think generally
admitted that America is, after all, the true home of the Horse.

can offer you no better illustration than this of the advance
vertebrate paleontology has made during the last decade, or 0
the important contributions to this progress which our Rocky
Mountain region has supplied.

The oldest representative of the horse. at present known, is
the dirninutive Hohippus from the lower Eocene. Several spe-
cies have been found, all about the size of a fox. Like most
of the early mammals, these Ungulates had forty-four teeth,
the molars with short crowns, and quite distinct in form from

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 859

the premolars. The ulna and the fibula were entire and dis-
tinct, and there were four well developed toes and a rudiment
of another on the fore feet, and three toes behind. In the
structure of the feet, and in the teeth, the ippus indicates
unmistakably that the direct ancestral line to the modern horse
has already separated from the other Perissodactyles. In the
next higher division of the Eocene, another genus (Orohippus)
makes its appearance, replacing Hohippus, and showing a
greater, although still distant, resemblance to the Equine type.
The rudimentary first digit of the fore foot has disappeared,
and the last premolar has gone over to the molar series. ‘0-
hippus was but little larger than Hohi ypus, and in most other
respects very similar. Several species have been found in the
same horizon with Dinoceras, and others lived during the upper
Kocene with Diplacodon, but none later.
ear the base of the Miocene, in the Brontotherium beds,

we find a third closely allied genus, J/esohippus, which is about
as large as a sheep, and one stage nearer the horse. There are
only three toes and a rudimentary splint bone on the fore feet,
and three toes behind. Two of the premolar teeth are quite
like the molars. The ulna is no longer distinct, or the fibula
entire, and other characters show clearly that the transition is
advancing. In the upper Miocene, Mesohippus is not found,
but in its place a fourth form, Afiohippus, continues the line.
This genus is near the Anchitherium of Kurope, but presents
several important differences. The three toes in each foot are
more nearly of a size, and arudiment of the fifth metacarpal
bone is retained. All the known species of this genus are larger
than those of Aesohippus, and none pass above the Miocene.

The genus Protohippus of the lower Pliocene, is yet more
equine, and some of its species equaled the ass in size. There
are still three toes on each foot, but only the middle one, cor-
responding to the single toe of the horse, comes to the ground.
This genus resembles most nearly the Hipparion of Europe.
In the Pliocene, we have the last stage of the series before
reaching the horse, in the genus Pliohippus, which has lost the
small hooflets, and in other respects is very equine. Only in
the upper Pliocene, does the true Aguus appear, and complete
the genealogy of the Horse, which in the Post-Tertiary roamed
over the whole of North and South America, and soon after
became extinct. This occurred long before the discovery of
the Continent by Europeans, and no satisfactory reason for the
extinction has yet been given. Besides the characters I have
mentioned, there are many others, in the skeleton, skull, teeth,
and brain of the forty or more intermediate species, whic
show that the transition from the Eocene Hohippus to the
modern Hguus, has taken place in the order indicated, and I

360 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

believe the specimens now at New Haven will demonstrate
the fact to any anatomist. They certainly carried prompt
conviction to the first of anatomists, who was the honored guest
of the Association a year ago, whose genius had already indi-
cated the later genealogy of the horse in Europe, and whose
own researches so well qualified him to appreciate the evidence
here laid before him. Did time permit, 1 might give you at
least a probable explanation of this marvellous change, but
justice to the comrades of the horse in his long struggle for
existence demands that some notice of their efforts should be
placed on recor
Beside the Horse and his congeners, the only existing Peris-
sodactyles are the Rhinoceros and the Tapir. The last is the
oldest type, but the Rhinoceros had near allies throughout the
Tertiary ; and, in view of the continuity of the equine line, it a
well worth while to attempt to trace his pedigree. At t
bottom of the Eocene, in our Western lake-basins, the peor
genus /elaletes is found, represented by numerous small mam-
mals hardly larger than wer diminutive horses of that day. In

Miocene west of the Rocky Mountains, this line seems to pass
on through the genus Diceratherium, and in the higher Miocene
this genus is well represented. Some of the species nearly

equaled in size the existing Rhinoceros, which Diceratherium
strongly resembled. The main difference between them is a
most interesting one. The rudimentary horn-cores on the
nasals, seen in Colonoceras, are in Diceratherium developed into

as in the Ruminants, and not on the median line, as in all
existing forms of Rhinoceros. In the Pliocene of the Pacific
Coast, a large Rhinoceros has been discovered, which may

e a descendant of Diceratherium, but as the nasal bones have
not been found, we must wait for further evidence on =

The upper Eocene Stan Amynodon is the oldest known
Rhinoceros, and by far the most generalized of the family.

O. C. Marsh Vertebrate Lifein Ameticas == UB

The premolars are all unlike the molars, the four canines are
of large size, but the inner incisor in each jaw is lost in the
fully adult animal. The nasals were without horns. There

as been referred to the genus Aceratherium. This form has
lost the canine and one incisor above, and two incisors below.
In the Pliocene are several species closely related, and of large
size. Above the Pliocene in America, no vestiges of the
Rhinoceros have been found, and our American forms doubt-
less became extinct at the close of this perio

remarkable that the Miocene of the West, so greatly developed as

™ . .
the Isthmus of Panama appear all to be generically distinct
from those of South America.

In addition to these three Perissodactyle types — as
e

the fittest, have alone survived, and whose lineage ay

362 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

represented, and with it is found a nearly allied form, Paleo-
syops. In the upper Kocene, both have left the field, and the
genus Diplacodon, a very near relative, holds the supremacy.
The line seems clear through these three genera, but on
crossing the break into the Miocene, we have, apparently as
next of kin, the huge Brontotheride. These strange beasts show
in their dentition and some other characters the same transition
steps beyond Diplacodon, which that genus had made beyond

aleosyops. The Brontotheride were nearly as large as the
Elephant, but had much shorter limbs. The skull was elon-
gated, and had a transverse pair of large horn-cores on the
maxillaries, in front of the orbits, like the middle pair in
Dinoceras. There were four toes in front, and three behind,
and the feet were similar to those of the Rhinoceros. There
are four genera in this group, Brontotherium ; Diconodon ; Meno-
dus (Titanotherium) ; and Megacerops, which have been found
only in the lowest Miocene, east of the Rocky Mountains.

In the higher Miocene beds of Oregon, an allied genus,
Chalicotherium, makes its appearance, It is one stage further
on in the transition, and perhaps a descendant of the Bronio-
theride ; but here,.so far as now known, the line disappears.
It is a suggestive fact, that this genus has now been found in
Western America, China, India, Greece, Germany and France,
indicating thus, as I believe, the path by which many of our
ancient mammals helped to people the so-called Old World.

rtiodactyles, or even-toed Ungulates, are the most
abundant of the larger mammals now living; and the group
dates back at least to the lowest Eocene. Of the two well
marked divisions of this order, the Bunodonts and the Seleno-
donts, as happily defined by Kowalevsky, the former is the
older type, which must have separated from the Perissodactyle
line after the latter had become differentiated from the prim-
itive Ungulate. In the Coryphodon Beds of New Mexico,
occurs the oldest Artiodactyle yet found, but it is at present
known only from fragmentary specimens. These remains are
clearly Suilline in character, and belong to the genus Hohyus.
In the beds above, and possibly even in the same horizon,
the genus Helohyus is not uncommon, and several species are
e molar teeth of this genus are very similar to

those of the Kocene Hyracotherium, of Europe, which is sup-
osed to be a Perissodactyle, while Helohyus certainly is not,
ut apparently a true lineal ancestor of the existing pigs.
In every vigorous primitive type which was destined to survive
many geological changes, there seems to have been a tendency
to throw off lateral branches, which became highly specialized
and soon died out, because they are unable to adapt themselves
to new conditions. The narrow path of the persistent Suilline

O: 0; March— Verlebricte Dije ta titneicae 368

type, throughout the whole Tertiary, is strown with the remains
of such ambitious offshoots, while the typical pig, with an
cn: never lost, has held on in spite of Catastrophes and
Evolution, and still lives in America to-day. In the lower
Eocene, we have in the genus Parahyus apparently one of these
short-lived, eet branches. It attained a much larger
size than the — lineal sori and the a of its teeth

these early Suillines, with the possible —— ss Parahyus,
appear to have had at least four toes, all of usa

In the lower Miocene, we find the genus iskenn seem-
ingly a true Suilline, and with it remains of a larger form,
Hlotherium, are abundant. The latter genus occurs in Europe

e
aberrant Suilline offshoots, pra mentioned. Some of the
species were nearly as large as a Rhinoceros, more in all there were
but two serviceable toes; the outer digits, seen in living ani-
mals of this group, being represented only by small rudiments
concealed beneath the skin, In the upper Miocene of Oregon,
Suillines are abundant, and almost all belong to the genus
Thinohyus, a near ally of the modern Peceary (Dicotyles), but
having a greater number of teeth, and a few other distinguish-
ing features. In the Pliocene, Suillines are still numerous, an

are all trne Poocatiens No authenticated remains of the genera
Sus, Porcus, Phacocheerus, or the allied Hippopotamus, the Old
World Suillines, have been found in Ameri ica, although several
announcements to that effect have been made.

In the series of generic forms between the lower Eocene
Hohyus and the existing Diciglen which I have very briefly
discussed, we have ap arently the ancestral line ending in the
typical American Suillines. Although the demonstration is

364 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

not yet as complete as in the lineage of the Horse, this is not
owing to want of material, but rather to the fact that the
actual changes which transformed the early Tertiary pig into
the modern Peccary were comparatively slight, so far as they

ranches were so numerous as to confuse the line. It is clear,
however, that from the close of the Cretaceous to the Post-
Tertiary, the Bunodont Artiodactyles were especially abun-
on this Continent, and only recently have approached
extinction.

metapodial bones were distinct. The type species of this genus
was about as large asa cat. With Helohyus, this genus forms
a well marked family, the Helohyide.

In the Diplacodon horizon of the upper Eocene, the Seleno-
dont dentition is'no longer doubtful, as it is seen in most of
the Artiodactyla yet found in these beds. These animals are
all small, and belong to at least three distinct genera. One of
these, Homeryx, closely resembles Homacodon in most of its
skeleton, and has four toes, but its teeth show well marked
crescents, and a partial transition to the teeth of Hyopotamus,
from the Eocene of Europe. With this genus, is another
(Parameryx), also closely allied to Homacodon, but apparently a
straggler from the true line, as it has but three toes behind.
The most pronounced Selenodont in the upper Eocene is the

romeryx, which genus appears to be allied to the existing
Deer family, or Cervide, and if so is the oldest known repre-
sentative of the group. These facts are important, as it has

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 865

been supposed, — very recently, that our Eocene contained
no eyen-hoofed mammals.
n the lowest Macéens of the West, no re crescent-toothed
Artiodactyla have as yet been identified, the exception
of a single species of Hyopotamus ; but in a overlying beds
of the middle Miocene, remains of the Oreodontide occur in
such vast numbers as to indicate that these animals must
have lived in large herds around the borders of the lake-basins
in which their remains have been entombed. These basins are
now the denuded deserts so well termed Mauvaises Terres by
the early French trappers. The least upecialineds and apparently
the oldest, genus of this group is Agriocherus, which so nearly
resembles the older H: yopotamus, and the stil] more ancient
fomeryx, that we can hardly doubt that they all belonged to
the same ancestral line. The typical Oreodonts are the genera

In the nthe Pliocene formation, on each side of the
Rocky Mountains, the genus wire a = one of the ath
forms, and continues the line on he Miocene, where

oe) r surviving until the Post- are, so far as know
A tibet interesting line, that leading to the Camels and ee
mas, separates from the primitive Selenodont branch in the

Hocene, probably through the genus Parameryx. In the Mio-

ene, n Pebrotherium and some nearly allied forms
ine ataeabie ‘ndibationh that the Cameloid type of ruminant
had already become partially specialized, although there is a
complete series of incisor teeth, and the metapodial ogee are
distinct. In the Pliocene, the ‘Camel tribe was, next the
Horses, the most vetoes of the = mammals, The Tine j is

e home of vast numbers e Camelide, and there can be
little doubt that they eousee here, and migrated to the Old
World.

366 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

Returning once more to the upper Eocene, we find another
line of descent starting from Oromeryz, which, as we have
seen, had apparently then just become differentiated from the

and its near allies, which resemble so strongly the Pliocene
Cervide that they may fairly be regarded as their probable
progenitors. Possibly some of these forms may be related to
the Tragulide, but at present the evidence is against it.

The Deer family has representatives in the upper Miocene of
Europe, which contains fossils strongly resembling the fauna of
our lower Pliocene, a fact always to be borne in mind in com-
paring the horizon of any group in the two continents. Several
species of Cervide, belonging to the genus Cosoryx, are known
from the lower Pliocene of the West, and all have very small
antlers, divided into a single pair of tynes. The statement
recently published, that most of these antlers had been broken
during the life of the animals, is unsupported by any evidence,
and is erroneous. These primitive Deer do not have the orbit
closed behind, and they have all the four metapodial bones
eat although the second and fifth are very slender. In the

liocene, a true Cervus of large size has been discovered.
In the Post- ‘Tertiary, Cervus, Alces, and Zarandus have been met
with, the latter far south of its present range. In the caves of
outh America, remains of Cervus have been found, and also two
gt of Antelopes, one referred to a new genus, ‘Leptothert tum.
ollow-horned Ruminants, in this country, appear to
date pack no further than to the lower Plioce ene, and here only
two species of Bison have as yet been discovered. In the Post-
Sacre this genus ~ represented by numerous individuals
and several species, e of large size. The Musk Ox agen’
was et naty ete per ing some parts of this epoch, and
its remains are widel) Sieibaes d.

No authentic fossil remains of true Sheep, Goats, or Giraffes

have as yet been found on this continent.
roboscideans, which are now separated from the typi-
Uoguletes as a distinct order, make their first appearance In

upper Pliocene, and in the Post-Tertiary ; although some of
the remains attributed to the latter are undoubtedly older.
The Pliocene species all have a band of enamel on the tusks,
and some other fam Aone observed in. the oldest Mastodons
of ht which are from essentially the same horizon. Two
species of this genus have been found in South America, in

S.

The genus Hlephas is a later form, and has not yet been iden-

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Lafe in America. 367

tified in this country below the upper Pliocene, where one
gigantic species was abundant. In the Post-Pliocene, remains
of this genus are numerous. The hairy Mammoth of the Old
World (Elephas primigenius) was once abundant in Alaska, and
great numbers of its bones are now preserved in the frozen
cliffs of that region. This species does not appear to have
extended east of the Rocky Mountains, or south of the Colum-
bia River, but was replaced there by the American Elephant,
which preferred a milder climate. Remains of the latter have
been met with in Canada, throughout the United States, and in
Mexico, The last of the American Mastodons and Elephants
became extinct in the Post-Tertiary.

The order Yoxodontia includes two very peculiar genera,
Toxodon and Nesodon, which have been found in the Post-Ter-
tiary deposits of South America. These animals were of huge
size, sik ocean such mixed characters that their affinities
are a matter of considerable doubt. They are thought to be
related to the Ungulates, Rodents, and ae aeeER but as the
feet are unknown, | this cannot at present be deci

Macrauchenia and Homalodontotherium are two ae peculiar
genera from South America, now extinct, the exact affinities
of which are uncertain. Anoplotherium and Paleotherium, so
abundant in Europe, have not been found in our orth
American Tertiary doposien ‘ithpieh reported from South
America.

ica are the Tillodontia, which are comparatively abundant in
the lower and middle Kocene. These animals seem to com-
bine the characters of several different groups, viz: the Car-
nivores, Ungulates, and Rodents. In the genus Tillotherium,
the type of the order, and of the eee Tillotheride, the skull
resembles that of the Bears ; the molar teeth are of the
ungulate type; while the large incisors are very similar to those
of Roden The skeleton resembles that of the Carn rnivores,
but the pa | and lunar bones are distinct, and there is a
third trochanter on the femur. The feet are plantigrade, and

each had five <> all with long pointed claws. In the

m fragmentary specimens.
The Rodents are an ancient type, and their remains are not
unfrequently disinterred in the strata of our lowest fresh-water

368° O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America

Eocene. The earliest ere forms are apparently all related
to the Squirrels, and the most common genus is Scturavus,
which continued pamiaen the Kocene. A nearly allied form,
which may prove to be the same, is Paramys, the Fee: of
which are larger than those of the older type. the Dino-
ceras beds, the genus Colonomys is found, and the specimens
preserved point to the J/uride, as the nearest living allies. A
peculiar genus, Apatemys, which also occurs in the middle
Eocene, has gliriform incisors, but the molars resemble those of
Insecti vores, All the Kocene Rodents are of small size, the
largest being about as large as a rabbit.

In the middle and upper Miocene lake-basins of the West,
Rodents abound, but all are of moderate size. The Hares first
appear in the Oreodon see and continue in considerable num-
bers through the rest of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary to the
present day. In these beds, the most common forms belong to
the Leporide, and mainly to the genus Paleolagus. The Squirrel
family is represented by Ischyromys, the Muride by the genus
Fumys, and the Beavers by Paleocastor. In the upper Miocene
of Oregon, most of ia same genera are found, and with them
some peculiar forms, very unlike anything now living. One o
these is the genus Allomys, possibly related to the flying
Squirrels, but having molar teeth somewhat like those of the
Ungulates. In the Pliocene, east and west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, Rodents continue abundant, but most of them belong to
existing genera. Among these are Castor, Hystrix, Cynomys,
Geomys, Lepus and Lesperomys. In the Post-Tertiary, the
gigantic beaver, Castoroides, was abundant throughout most of

orth America. Hydrocherus has been found in South Caro-
lina. In the caves of the island of Anguilla, in the West
Indies, remains of large extinct Rodents belonging to the Chin-
chillide have been discovered.

The early Tertiary Rodents known from South America are
the genera ae, pits aad and a large species referred
to Arvicola. In Brazil, the Pliocene Rodents found are referred
to the existing g pie Cavia, Kerodon, Lagostomus, Ctenomys,
Hesperomys, Oxymycter us, Arvicola ana ‘Lepus. A new genus,
Cardiodus, described from this horizon, is a true Rodent, but
the peculiar Zypotherium, which has been referred to this order

some authorities, has perhaps other affinities. In the
Post-Tertiary, the Rodents were very abundant in South
America, as they are at present. The species are in most
instances distinct from those now living, but the genera are

nearly the same. The Caviide were especially numerous.
Cercolabes, Myopotam Ps and. i loc veg oe are nee found, and two
extinct genera, Phyllomys and Lonchop

The Cheiroptera, or Bats, have not ae Sacacks in this country

0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 869

below the middle Hocene, where two extinct genera, Nyetilestes
and Nyetithertwm, are each represented by numerous remains.
These fossils all belong to small animals, and, so far as they
have been investigated, show no characters of more than generic
importance to distinguish them from the Bats of to-da

other members of this group are known from “ Tertiary.

found in North America, but from the caves 3 “Brazil quite
a number have been reported. These all belong to genera
still living in South America, and most of them to the family
Phyllostomide.

The lias date back, in this country, at least to the
middle Eocene. Here numerous remains occur, which have
been described as belonging to this order, although it is pos-
sible that some of them were insect-eating Marsupials. The
best known genera are, — oo Talpavus, snk
Entomacodon ; all represented by animals of small size. In
the Miocene, ‘the bones of jo are comparatively abun-
dant, and the genera best determined are Jctops and Leptictis.

few specimens only have been found in the Pliocene and
Post-Pliocene, most of shen related to the Moles. No extinct
Insectivores are known from South America, and no member
of the group exists there at present.

The Carnivora, or true flesh-eating ~~ — an old type,

well represented in the Eocene, and, t be expected,
these early forms are much less ae, Sr pits the living
species. In the Coryphodon beds, the genus Limnocyon,
allied to the Pterodon of the European Eocene, is abundant.

nother genus, apparently distinct, is Prototomus, oe several
others have been named from fragmentary fossi In the
middle Eocene, Carnivores were still more numerous, and many
genera have been discovered. One of these, Zimnoj/elis, was
nearly as large as a lion, and pd ea gd allied to the cats,
although the typical Felide seem not yet to have been differen-
tia

cyon, = Coheonion
In our Western Miocene, Carnivores are abundant, and
aces an approach to modern types. The Felide are well rep-
resented, the most interesting genus being Jachairodus, which
is not uncommon in the Oreodon beds on both sides of the
untains. An allied genus is Dinietis, and several
smaller Cats are known from about the same horizon. The
Canide are represented by Amphicyon, a Kuropean genus, and
' Am. Jour, Sci. re Serizs, Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Noy., 1877.

370 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

by several species of Canzs, or a very nearly allied form. The
peculiar genus Hycenodon, found also in Europe, and the type of
a distinct family, is abundant in the Miocene east of the Rocky
Mountains, but has not yet been found on the Pacific Coast.
In the Pliocene of both regions; the Canide are numerous,
and all apparently belong to the existing genus-Canis. The
genus Machairodus is still the dominant form of the Cats, which
are abundant, and for the most part belong to the genus Felis.
The extinct Leptarctus is supposed to belong to the Urside,
and if so, is the oldest American representative of this family.
In the Post-Pliocene, the extinct Melide include species nearly
as large as a lion, and smaller forms very similar to those still
living. Bears, Raccoons and Weasels have also been found.

n the Pliocene of South America, Machairodus represents
the Felide, while the genera Arctotherium and Hycnarctus
belong to the Bear family. Species of Mustela and Canis have
also been found. In the caves of Brazil, the fauna of which
is regarded as Post-Pliocene, one species of Macharrodus is

nown, and one of Synelurus. Canis and J/eticyon, still living
in Brazil, and the extinct genus Speothos, represent the Canidae.
Mephitis and Galictis, among the Weasels, were also present,
and with them species of Nasuwa and Arctotherium.

e come now to the highest group of Mammals, the Pri-
mates, which includes the Lemurs, the Apes, and Man. is
order has a great antiquity, and even at the base of the Eocene
we find it represented by several genera belonging to the lower
forms of the group. In considering these interesting fossils, it is
important to have in mind that the Lemurs, which are usually
oe as Primates, although at the bottom of the scale, are
only found at the present day in Madagascar and the adjacent
regions of the globe. the American Monkeys, moreover,
belong to one group, much above the Lemurs, while the Old
World Apes are higher still, and most nearly approach Man.

In the lower Eocene of New Mexico, we find a few repre-
sentatives of the earliest known Primates, and among them are
the genera Lemuravus and Limnotherium, each the type of a
distinct family. These genera became very abundant in the
middle Eocene of the West, and with them are found many
others, all however, included in the two families, Lemuravide
and Limnotheride. Lemuravus appears to have been most
nearly allied to the Lemurs, and is the most generalized form
of the Primates yet discovered. It had forty-four teeth, form-
ing a continuous series above and below. The brain was
nearly smooth, and of moderate size. The skeleton most
resembles that of the Lemurs. A nearly allied genus, belong-
ing to the same family, is Hyopsodus. Limnotherium (Tomithe-
rium) also is nearly related to the Lemurs, but shows some affin-

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 371

ities with the South American Marmosets. This genus had
forty teeth. The brain was nearly smooth, and the cerebellum

generalized forms, with characters in the teeth, skeleton and
feet that suggest relationships with the Carnivores, and even
with the Ungulates. These resemblances have led palzontolo-
gists to refer some imperfect specimens to both these orders.
_In the Miocene lake basins of the West, only a single spe-
cies. of the Primates has been identified with certainty. This
was found in the Oreodon Beds of Nebraska, and belongs to
the genus Laopithecus, apparently related both to the Zimno-
theride and to some existing South American Monkeys. In
the Pliocene aud Post-Pliocene,of North America, no remains

f ;
In the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Brazilian caves, remains

of Monkey
cies of Callithrix, Cebus and Jacchus, all living South American
enera. Only one extinct genus, Protopithecus, which embraced.

existence of Man in our Pliocene. All the remains yet dis-

Ip this rapid review of Mammalian life in America, from its
first known appearance in the Trias down to the present time, I
have endeavored to state briefly the introduction and succes-
sion of the principal forms in each natural group. If time per-
mitted, I might attempt the more difficult task of trying to
indicate what relations these various groups may possibly bear
to each other; what connection the ancient Mammals of this
continent have with the corresponding forms of the Old World;.
and, most important of all, what real progress Mammalian life
has here made since the beginning of the Eocene. As it is,

372 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

can only say in summing up, that the Marsupials are clearly
the remnants of a very ancient fauna, unas occupied this
continent millions of years ago, and from which the other
Mammals were doubtless all oo although the direct evi-
dence of the transformation is wantin

Although the Marsupials are Bee related to the still
lower Monotremes, now living in the Australian Region, we

supposed absence in our Miocene and Pliocene can have but
limited weight, when taken in connection with the fact that
they flourished in the Post-Tertiary, and are still abundant.
The evidence we now have is quite as strongly in favor of a
migration of Marsupials from America to the Old World, as the
reverse, which has been supposed by some naturalists. Possi-
bly, as Huxley has suggested, both countries were peopled with
these low mammals from a continent -now submerge

_The Edentate mammals have long been a puzzle to to zoolo-

ocene, while Moropus, the oldest Edentate genus, is found in
the middle Miocene, and one species in the lower Pliocene.

The Edentates have been usually regarded as an American
type, but the few living forms in Africa, and the Tertiary
species in Europe, the oldest known, have made the land
of their nativity uncertain. I have already given you some
Saget ot pe that the Edentates had their first home

taken place in the Miocene period, as the Isthmus of Darien
was then submerged; but near the close of the Tertiary,
the elevation of this region left a much broader strip of land
than now exists there, and over this, the Edentates and other

*

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 373

mammals made their way, perhaps urged on by the increasing
cold of the glacial winters) The evidence to-day is strongly in
favor of such a southern migration. This, however, leaves the
Old World Bicctare: fossil and recent, unaccounted for; but I
believe the solution of this ite is essentially the same,
namely: a migration from North America. ‘The Miocene rep-
resentatives of this group, which I have recently obtained in

regon, are older than any known in Europe, and, strangely

eno ough, are more like the latter and the ete African types

than like any of our living species. If, now, we bear in mind
that an ees of only 180 feet would, ‘as hms been said,
close Behring’s Straits, and give a road thirty miles wide from
America to Asia, we can easily see how this migration might
have taken place. That such a Tertiary vie 3 “did exist, we
have much independent testimony, and the known facts all
point to extensive migrations of animals over it.

The Cétacea are connected with the marine Carnivores through

old type, which doubtless branched off from the more primi-
tive stock leading to the Carnivores. Oar American extinct
Cetaceans, when carefully investigated, sumer to throw much
light upon the pedigree of these strange mammals, As most
of the known forms were probably ache theif distribution is
of little service in determining their orig
That the Sirenians are allied to the ozelhice is now gen

erally admitted by anatomists, and the separation of the exist:
ing species in distant localities suggests that they are the rem-
nants of an extensive group, once widely distributed. The
large number of teeth in some forms, the reduced limbs and
other characters, point back to an ancestry near that of the

‘earliest ungulates. The gradual loss of teeth in the specialized

members of this group, and in the Cetaceans, is quite parallel
with the same change in Edentates, as well as in Pterodactyls
and Birds
The Vagal are so distinct from other Bones that they
must be one of the oldest natural divisions of mammals, and
they probably originated from some herbivorous ats ial.
Their large size, and great numbers during Tertiary and Post-
tertiary time, render toa most pene in tracing migrations
induced by ‘climate, as well as in showing the chan - )
structure which such a contest for pee ate may
n the review of the extinct Ungulates, I have Pdeasored
to show that quite a nanhee of genera usually supposed to

874 —«O. ©. Marsh—Vertebrate Life in America.

belong originally to the Old World are in reality true Amer-
ican types. mong these were the Horse, Rhinoceros, an

Tapir, all the existing odd-toed Unguliates, and besides ‘these
the Camel, Pig, and “Deer. All these I — and many
others, went to Asia from our North West Coast. It must, for
the present, remain an open qvestion ils we may not

continent. On this point there is some confusion, at least in

ames. The Himalayan yet ae called Upper Miocene, and

so rich in Proboscideans, indicate in their entire fauna that

they are more recent than our Niobrara River beds, which, for

apparently good reasons, we regard as Lower Pliocene. The
)

better standard for comparison of faunas, I have preferred to
retain the names already applied to our divisions, until the
strata of the two continents are more satisfactorily codrdinated.

he extinct Rodents, Bats, and Insectivores of America,
although offering many suggestive hints as to their relation-
ship with other groups, and their various migrations, cannot
now be fully discussed. There is iittle doubt, however, that
the Rodents are a New World type, and, according to A Aes
ga weed Saan a their origin i n North America.

a
followed the huge Edentates to South America, and the Ungu-
lates across pies to Europe. With this genus went scene
e

was seat before nie reached it.
The Edentates, in their southern migration, were Lair

remains of the last have yet ties found: oth of co. The
Mastodon, Elephant, Llama, Deer, city and ott am-
mals, followed the same path y the Mastodon, Elephant,

eo

0. Q. Marsh— Vertebrate Lage in America. 375

The relations of the American Primates, extinct and recent,
to those of the other hemisphere, offer an inviting topic, but it
Is not in my present province to discuss them in their most
suggestive phases, s we have here the oldest and most

ancestry, is readily explained by the then intervening oceans,
which likewise were a barrier to the return of the Horse and
Rhinoceros. : :

however, came; doubtless first ; across Behring’s

a ?
Straits; and at his advent became part our fauna, as a
mammal and primate. In these relations alone, it is my pur-

visits to that region, many facts were brought to my knowl-
edge which render this more than probable. Man at this time

as a savage, and was doubtless forced by the great volcanic
outbreaks to continue his migration. This was at first to the
south, since mountain chains were barriers on the east. As
the native Horses of America were now all extinct, and as the
early man did not bring the old world animal with him, his
migrations were slow. I believe, moreover, that his slow pro-
gress towards civilization was in no. small degree due to this
same cause, the absence of the Horse

typical Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley and those of
the Pueblo Indians. I had long been familiar with the former,

376 O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. .

assurance of a friend who had os Pearse them in New

Mexico, to convince me that they were not from the mounds.
A third fact, -~ I leave Man to the dy Se nat Vea on whose
province I am even now trenching. In a large collection of

waterjars from Peru, th at no one could fainty d douks that some
intercourse had taken place between the widely separated peo-
ple that made them

The oldest known remains of Man on this continent differ
in no important characters from the bones of the typical
Indian, although in some minor details they indicate a muc
more primitive race. ‘These early remains, some of which are
true fossils, resemble much more closely the corresponding
parts of the highest Old World Apes, has do the latter our
Tertiary Primates, or even the recent American Monkeys.
a living and fossil forms of old world Primates fill up

so etek long survive. Texts the intermediate forms of
the past, if any there opal become of still —. gc 8
For such missing links, must look to the caves and later

b]
left their remains somewhere on this continent. In these two
directions, as I believe, lie the most important future discov-
eries in Paleeontology.

As a cause for many changes of structure in mammals
during the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary, I regard, as the most
. potent, Natural Selection, in the broad sense in which that term
1s now used by American evolution ists. Under this head, I
include not merely a Malthusian struggle for life among the
animals themselves, but the equally important contest with the
elements, and all surrounding nature. By changes in the envi-
ronment, migrations are enforced, slowly in some cases, rapidly
in others, and with change of locality must come adaptation to
new conditi tions, or extinction. The life-history of Tertiary
mammals illustrates this nar at every stage, and no other

explanation meets the fac

O. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America. 377

The real progress of mammalian life in America, from the
beginning of the Tertiary to the present, is well illustrated by
the Brain-growth, in which we have the key to many other

ceans with teeth retain this type, except the Zeuglodonts, which
approach the dentition of aquatic Carnivores. In the higher
mammals, the incisors and canines retain the conical shape, and
the premolars have only in part been transformed. e latter
gradually change to the more complicated molar pattern, and
hence are not reduced molars, but transition forms 1
the cone to more complex types. Most of the early Tertiary
mammals had forty-four teeth, and in the oldest forms the
premolars were all unlike the molars; while the crowns were
short, covered with enamel, and without cement. Each stage
of progress in the differentiation of the animal was, as a rule,
_tnarked by a change in the teeth; one of the most common
being the transfer, in form at least, of a premolar to the molar
series, and a gradual lengthening of the crown. Hence, it is
often easy to decide from a fragment of a jaw, to what horizon
of the Tertiary it belongs. The fossil Horses of this period,
for example, gained a grinding tooth, for each toe they lost,
one in each epoch. In the single-toed existing horses, all the
premolars are like the molars, and the process is at an end.
Other dental transformations are of equal interest, but this
illustration must suffice.

The changes in the limbs and feet of mammals during the
Same period were quite as marked. he foot of : the primitive
mammal was doubtless plantigrade, and certainly five-toe

378 0. C. Marsh— Vertebrate Life in America.

changes took place in the limb bones. One result was a great
increase in speed, as the power was applied so as to act
only in the plane of motion. The best effect of this speciali-
zation is seen to-day in the Horse and Antelope, each repre-
senting a distinct group of Ungulates, with tive-toed ancestors.

If the history of American Mammals as I have briefly
sketched it, seems as a whole incomplete, and unsatisfactory,
we must remember that the genealogical tree of this class has its
trunk and larger limbs concealed beneath the débris of Meso-
zoic time, while its roots doubtless strike so deeply into the
Paleozoic that for the present they are lost. A decade or two
hence, we shall probably know something of the mammalian
fauna of the Cretaceous, and the earlier lineage of our existing
mammals can then be traced with more certainty.

The results I have presented to you are mainly derived
from personal observation ; and since a large part of the higher
vertebrate remains found in this country have passed through
my hands, I am willing to assume full responsibility for my
presentation of the subject.

r our present knowledge of the extinct Mammals, Birds
and Reptiles of North America, science is especially indebted
to Leidy, whose careful, conscientious work has laid a secure
foundation for our vertebrate paleontology. The energy of
Cope has brought to notice many strange forms, and greatl

brates have been described by Lund, Owen, Burmeister, Ger-
vais, Huxley, Flower, Desmarest, Aymard, Pictet, and Nodot.
Darwin and Wallace have likewise contributed valuable infor-
mation on this subject, as they have on nearly all forms of life.

In this long history of ancient life I have said nothing of
what Life itself really is. And for the best of reasons, because
I know nothing. Here at present our ignorance is dense, and
yet we need not despair. Light, Heat, Electricity, and Magnet-
ism, Chemical Affinity and Motion, are now considered different
forms of the same force; and the opinion is rapidly gaining
ground that Life, or vital force, is only another phase of the

ower. Possibly the great mystery of Life may thus be
solved, but whether it be or not, a true faith in Science knows
no limit to its search for Truth.

ad. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 879

Art. XLII —WNote on the Helderberg Formation of Bernardston,
Massachusetts, and Vernon, Vermont; by JAMES D. Dana.

IN examinations of the Bernardston Helderberg formation
which were the basis of my former paper “On the Rocks of
the Helderberg era in the Valley of the Connecticut”* my
main purpose was lithological—that is, to ascertain and point
out the kinds of crystalline rocks that were comprised within
terranes of Helderberg (later Upper Silurian) age. he con-
formable position of the Bernardston limestone beneath strata
of quartzyte and slate, first made known by Professor Edward
Hitchcock,+ I found to be, as I thought, a fact; and from
there I traced the quartzyte at intervals, along with the slate—
a peculiar mica slate easily distinguished by the minute garnets
which gave its layers a pimpled surface, and the small crystals
of mica set transversely to the lamination—over the country,
to South Vernon in Vermont; and announced in my- paper
that the Helderberg formation included, besides the quartzyte
and mica slate, beds of compact green hornblende rock, a rock
of the composition of syenyte, staurolitic mica slate, coarse
mica schist, whitish and grayish quartzose gneiss, and all
Stages of passage between quartzyte and gneiss.

Recently, Professor C. H. Hitchcock, in the Second Volume
of his Report on the Geology of New Hampsbire,t and more
briefly in a note in this Journal,$ has suggested that the order
of stratification at the limestone locality is not the true order;
that the rocks may be “in an inverted position :” that the
limestone stratum may have overlaid both the other formations,
that is, the quartzyte and mica slate;| that “the limestone
occupies a small valley in the quartzyte."§ Having, throug
this supposition, made the limestone*the newest of the forma-
tions, he concludes, further, that the mica slate, now lying over
it, is not necessarily Helderberg; that the hornblende rocks
and gneiss of Vernon are not necessarily of the Helderberg
series,** and neither the staurolitic slate; that a long period

-* This Journal, IIT, vi, 339.
po etc. of Massachusetts, by E. Hitchcock, 8vo, 1833,
Pp. 255; Report of Amer. Assoc. for 1851, p. 299; Report Geol. of Vermont,
2 vols. 4to, 1861, p. 447. This last notice was prepared in conjunction with Mr.
C. H. Hitchcock. It gives a section representing the limestone dipping bene
quartzyte and slate.
Page 428 and beyond, 1877. § Vol. xiii, page 313, April, 1877.
Tbid. Report New Hampshire, vol. ii, p. 455.
It should be added here that the volume of the N. Hampshire Geological
Report referred to conveys on an earlier page (p. 18), a different opinion as to the
limits of the Helderberg, where it is stated that the Connecticut Valley Helder-
series consists of several thousand feet in thickness of qu 8 stones,
slates, conglomerates, sandstones, flags, and probably hornblende schists.

4
i=)
Q
$
o
a

880 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.

intervened ap the deposition of the hornblendie stratum
and quartz

hile nc dissenting from my conclusions, Professor Hitch-
cock adopts my suggestion that the garnetiferous mica slate
which overlies the quartzyte and limestone at the pees
limestone locality is identical with the Cods slate of the
necticut Valley in all its characters and age, and hence that of
the former should turn out after all to be Helderberg, the
Coés formation (which extends up the valley to Canada, accord-
ing to Professor Hitchcock) is also Helderberg or later Upper
Silurian.

These differences of opinion, and the wide bearing of the
facts on New —— geology have led me to revisit the place
and examine it an n my former paper I closed by stating
my intention, afeither season, to study the stratigraphical
details of the region, aan trace out the limits or ran .
formations southward along the Connecticut Valley. But
other geological work in Westerns and Southern New England,
and on the islands off its southern coast, have since occupied
such leisure time as I could command. In my recent visit to
Bernardston I was accompanied by Professor B. K. Emerson, of
Amherst College; and it is a great sativfaction to know that he
will give the whole subject a careful and thorough study, and
connect it with a general geological survey of Central and
Western Neauantinests <woek for which he is eminently fitted.

To facilitate explanations I repeat the section of the strata
at the Bernardston locality before published, with one correc-
tion. 0. 8, the blocked area, represents the stratum of
Crinoidal limestone : Nos. 1 and 4, dotted areas, an underlying
and an overlying stratum of quartzyte; and "Nos. 2 and 5
tinely lined areas, an underlying and an overlying stratum of

SE
Se = TT

Older cla;

garnetiferons mica slate. The succession and BER are the
me as in the section by Professor Hitchcock in the Vermont
Geological Report, excepting the omission here of a layer of slate

papas over the limestone.
conclusions which the facts coe to me to sustain, in
Spposition to those set forth by Professor C. H. Hitchcock in
the New Hampshire Report of 1877, Bae mostly in agreement
with Mr. C. H. Hitchcoek of the Vermont Report* (p. 598) of

1861—are the following :

*The Vermont Report makes no — in the oe én the Bernardston
limestone (p. 447), of the rei nat S, gnei ss, ete., of the adjoining region
on the east. But on page 598, in an fas of “Section I,” extending across the

J. D. Dana—Note on the Pernardston Helderberg Formation. 881

“ ie the quartzyte is Helderberg as much as the lime-
sto

9, “Phat the garnetiferous mica slate is equally Helderberg.

3. That the limestone is a lo Ser pod pete between the other
Sean of the Helderberg format

4. That hornblende rocks, sinuroiti tae mica schist and
gneiss of the adjoining region on the and northeast are of
e and the same geological ‘ornate

. The Quartzyte as of the Helderberg formation. The overly-
aa quartz te (No. 4) besides occurring in large outcrops over
the hill-side, constitutes the upper two to four feet of the vertical
section exposed in a portion of the limestone quarry. is
alone proves its conformable position and close relation to the
limestone. But further, while this overlying quartzyte is in
part very compact and solid, some portions are very cellular from
the removal of calcareous matter nd pyrite, and also from the
removal of fossils. The first of the fossils was found by Pro-
fessor Emerson, while we were together, an

h

. pseudo-galeatus, a Low Rpt cstes Se species. Besides these
brachiopods, there were in the same layers of the reader dem
humerous fragments of erinoidal pare mostly of small species.
Some of the lamine of this quartzyte ‘have be tween them mica
in seales, so as to look in a surface view like mica schist

The fact that there is conformability between the limestone
and quartzyte is hence beyond question. And it is equally cer-
tain that, overturned or not, the quartzyte belongs to the same

extremity of the State near the Massachusetts boundary, Mr. C. H. Hitch-
Sock describes the hornblende rocks of Vernon and Bernardston as associated
m

also “invariabl renting upon the quartz rock” and hence ‘‘ newer” than it;
as, th pa F rivegrans Bec! the Sacer r Helderberg age, like the Hebron lime-
stone (H (Hall’s first d pel eat which rests on the same quartz rock; thus mak-
ing the ‘whole series Upper Helderberg. The unconformability e the quartz
tock series on the clay slate is also recognized.
re still his vee except ng the change of Upper Helderberg to
Lower Helderberg, ie should be in close agreement. In my arguments above, I
fact sustaining Mr. C. H. Hitchcock of 1861, against Professor C. H. Hitch-
ba pe wen conclusions have been influenced by his faith in the

aE
g

bd oo by C. H. Hitchcock,” and the poem 0 fos pad that oe pies on
i were prepared by any other person.

382 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Held-rberg Formation.

era with the crinoidal limestone; for the former orcs graduates
into the latter as its calcareous matter and fossils s

limestone as well as one (No. 5) above. This inferior mica
slate wants the little disseminated crystals of mica common in
the other; but it is pimpled with garnets like that. The
line of outcrops extends for several rods, and runs along within
a few yards of the limestone, at the nearest aes hardly a yard
of earth intervening; and the strike and dip throughout cor-
respond with that of the limestone snide: Basia garnet-
iferous mica slate below the limestone as well as above, and
the three strata conformable in dip, there can be no reasonable
doubt that all are of one formation. The limestone stratum is-
so placed with reference to those above and below that it could
not have been originally at the top, and the newest of the series.
Whatever faulting or inversion be supposed, it must have had
originally, as it has now, an overlying and an underlying mica
ey

The limestone a local depostt in the patna formation.—
Phe fact that the limestone has not been observed elsewhere in

isolated calcareous eens in the “Calciferous mica schist,”
would be regarded as showing the age of the schist; and so it
hou ere.
Professor Hitchcock says that if the Cods slate is Helderberg,
the Calciferous mica schist is unquestionably so too. Admitting
this to be true, the parallelism between the Bernardston lime-
stone and the isolated calcareous depcits in the schist becomes
~ com
T the hornblende rocks, staurolitic slate, mica schist and asso-
ciated gneiss are of the Helderber gq formation.—As limestone has
_ been found in the region only at the one locality in Bernards-
ton, the evidence of equivalence has to be derived from the
distribution of its associated rocks. This evidence, east and
phate of the Bernardston village-plain, is as follows :
1.) The same garnetiferous mica slate with disseminated

brown mica erystals set transversely that lengurs associated |

* My knowledge of the rock formations of Western Vermont is not sufficient to
warrant an independent opinion with regard to the “ Calciferous mica schist.”

J.D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 388

with quartzyte at the Bernardston locality on the west side of
the Bernardston plain occurs associated with quartzyte at
different points between Bernardston and Vernon. It some-
times dips beneath guartzyte and sometimes overlies it.

(2.) Outcrops of the quartzyte and the peculiar Bernardston
mica slate together appear east and northeast of Bernardston
within one to one and a half miles of the Crinoidal limestone
locality (the intervening flat valley being under drift and
alluvium), and at intervals beyond, to Vernon, with the same
aspect and conformable superposition as at the limestone
locality.

(3.) In the same region, hornblende rocks, staurolitic slate,
gneiss and mica schist occur in alternating beds with the
Bernardston mica slate and quartzyte.

A mile and a half east of Bernardston,* the Bernardston
mica slate occurs in alternating beds with the hornblende rock,

ray-green compact rock, not schistose—with so obvious
junctions that the alternation cannot be questioned. The ho
blende rock (1) dips beneath (2) mica slate; this beneath (8)
hornblende rock; and the last beneath (4) mica slate again.
Whether there is a fault between 2 and 8 is not certain; but it
is unquestionable that 1 and 2, and 8 and 4 are strictly con-
formable. Part of the hornblende rock is speckled white with
quartzyte and feldspar and is like a quartzytic syenite in con-
stitution, though unlike true syenyte in aspect.

Again: a mile to the north of the last. mentioned locality
and less than a mile and a half northeast of the Bernardston

rolite,
quartzyte is in some places a staurolitic slate. Another place,
farther east, is mentioned in my former paper where the slate
is abundantly staurolitic.

ain: in Vernon, four to five miles northwest of South
Vernon, where the quartzyte is largely exposed to view, one
of the quartzyte knolls consists partly of mica rock like that
above described, made up mainly of aggregated scales of brown
mica but containing distributed through it some quartz and
* For the position of this locality see my former paper.

384 J. D. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.

hornblende. In other outcrops in the field adjoining, the rock is
mostly true quartzyte, but partly a Aiea es oc hornblende
rock, “with insensible gradations between the quartzyte.
Again: at South Vernon, over the ae nearly west of the
hotel, there occur—first quartzyte, but with it, and ganas
into it, the compact green hornblende rock ; then,
slope, a coarse garnetiferous mica schist sarang mainly of
brown mica, which is nothing but a coarse form of the Ber-
nardston slate: a nd in this miea schist there are hornblendie
layers; and some beds which consist of a quartzytic syenyte,
though with the hornblende grains in slender crystals.
ain: between Vernon Center and South Vernon, there
are oer showing the transition between the quartzyte and
a quartzytic gneiss. The gneiss has the aspect of any ordinary
light-colored thick- — gneiss. But it is all quartzytic, and
in part very largely
esides this fishy. polos quartzytic gneiss, there is also,
norta of South Vernon, quartzytic syenite, a whitish rock con-
taining small grains of greenish hornblende, rather sparsely dis-
seminated, without mica, and making . handsome rock whic
might at first be taken for a white erani
5. Conelusion.—Thus, the region “affords examples (1) of the
interstratification of the quartzyte and Bernardston mica slate,
with a green massive hornblende rock; with a syenytic roc
with gneiss; and with coarse mica schist; (2) of transitions of
the Bernardston mica slate into staurolitic slate and mica schist ;
and (3) of transitions of the quartzyte into (a) micaceous quartz-
yte; (b) a tough quartzytic mica rock, more or less hornblendic ;
(c) quartzytic gneiss often granitoid : (4) green hornblende rock ;
and (5) syenyte, besides various intermediate forms. For some
other examples of these transitions I refer to my former paper.
emonstration is certainly complete that whatever the
ape . the quartzyte and the associated Bernardston 1 mica slate,
ame is the age of the rocks above mention and that
che fossils of the Bernardston locality decide the age approxi-
mately for the series; and tinally, that all are of the Helderberg
formation a =i Upper Silurian, if that is true of the
noidal lim
6. Lithological characteristics,—In using the lithological test
of geological age it must hence be noted that the following may
be rocks of metamorphic Upper Silurian formations: mica slate
and iyi staurolitiec mica poe hornblendie Aue, varying
from a kind consisting mainly of green hornblen a quartz-
ytic soto and hornblendie a ious gia true
gneiss; micaceous quartzyte ; bah zyte.
minerals included among the abundant metamorphic
species are: brown and white mica, the former much the most.

JD. Dana—Note on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation. 885

common ; staurolite ; green and black hornblende; orthoclase;
garnet; along with pyrite, magnetite, and granular limestone.
The mica slate and schist and the staurolitic mica slate are
not distinguishable from kinds that are of earlier age.
e hornblende rocks are peculiar. Those which are made
mainly of hornblende have a dark green color, and are massive,
often indistinct in bedding instead of schistose and» muc

or quartzyte and orthoclase.
he whitish quartzytic syenite mentioned on the preceding

quartz grains with few of feldspar.

e gneiss also is peculiar. It generally consists very
largely of grains of quartz, even where looking to the eye like
a true gneiss. The mica is almost solely the brown kind and is
like that of the mica slate, though often seeming to have as little
elasticity as chlorite; and the regular disposition of the spots
of mica, give to the most quartzytic varieties a strikingly
guneiss-like look. Professor Hitchcock refers the rock to the
Bethlehem gneiss. But “the most characteristic of the rocks
comprising this formation,” he says, speaking of the Bethlehem
gneiss, “is a reddish granitic gneiss, the flesh-colored orthoclase
predominating, with chloritic or some hydro-micaceous mineral

of orthoclase in characteristic “ Bethlehem gneiss” which renders
connection with a Helderberg formation improbabi

The quartzyte in some places—as two miles west of South
Vernon,—contains much pearly mica (hydrous mica?); a
weathered surface of such a specimen shows that the rock
consists mainly of quartz. In other places the quartzyte is
marked with dark-gray and blackish lines where the mica is
not distinguishable without a glass, of it indicates by its
fineness of texture, and sometimes even flinty aspect, that the
quartz sand of which it was made was very finely comminuted,
-and not coarse like that from which the Green Mountain

Am, Jour. 8cr.—THIrp ce % Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov., 1877.

386 J.D. Dana=Ni ote on the Bernardston Helderberg Formation.

quartzyte was made; and hence that the region, when the
deposition took place, was not the border of the open se

7. Origin of the Rocks.—To understand the rocks of this
Helderberg region, it must be borne in mind: that quartzyte
beds in their original state, that is, beds of quartz sand, may
have been formed at different times in the course of the era,
owing to changes of est or of currents; that the sand beds—
like those of any other era and of the present time—would, in
many places, have had more or Jess eartby material (ground-up
crystalline rock) with the quartz sand, so that metamorphism

ould not make pure quartzyte out of it, but might make a
micaceous or gneissoid quartzyte, ora quartzytic gneiss, accord-
ing to the nature of the earthy material present; that while
sand-beds were formed where the currents were rapid enough
for the purpose, mud-beds would have formed where the waters

mica rock, and the hornblende rocks wou iave een pro-
duced. The existence of some potash and alumina in the
triturated rock or mud (both ingredients of orthoclase) would
have favored the formation of brown mica (biotite) by meta-

the same proportion in the blende as in the mica. Anal-
yses of average biotite and dark green hornblende afford :
Biotite. Hornbiende.
J RR Seas ae ce a 45
PRU 2a ce es a 18 * 10-12
Iron protoxide
eee proto t ice sis es ap
Magneto 2 See Ss: - 22 20
We 20 Set ee AL ae 14
WORMS Fe i ct 10

The magnesia would have come from the trituration of such
older rocks as are made partly or wholly of minerals contain-
ng nt hg which tise. hornblende and biotite are the most
co
‘Admittitig the Cods formation of Professor baptipe 3: and
the Calciferous mica schist adjoining it, to be of the same
formation with the mica slate, headed bat and borhktinds rocks

of the Bernardston and Vernon region, which Professor H.
states to be a fact, this Helderberg Somnitien stretches north-

ward beyond the ‘boundary of New England, with a breadth
along the Connecticut Valley of fifteen to thirty miles or more’:

W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 887

breadth enough where narrowest—as at Bernardston—for a
clear sea good for growing corals and crinoids. Whether Pro:
fessor Hitchcock’s Lisbon and Lyman groups, which he refers
to the Huronian, are not to be included, remains to be ascer-
tained, as indicated on page 817 of this volume. Addin
them, it would follow that the Connecticut bay or channel of
the Helderberg era covered a large part of Northern New Hamp-
shire, and was connected with a great area in Maine marked off
by the occurrence of Helderberg and Devonian fossils.

Art. XLIV.— History of Cavern Exploration in Devonshire,
England ; by W. PENGELLY, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
Geological Section of the British Association at Plymouth.

[Continued from page 308.]

Brixham Cavern.—Early in 1858.an unsuspected cavern was
broken into by quarrymen at the northwestern angle of Wind-
mill Hill at Brixham, at a point seventy-five feet above the
surface of the street, almost vertically below, and 100 feet above
mean tide. On being found to contain bones, a lease in it was
secured for the Geological Society of London, who appatiten
& committee of their members to undertake its exploration ;
funds were voted by the Royal Society, and supplemented by
private subscriptions; the conduct of the investigation was
Intrusted to Mr. Prestwich and myself; and the work, under
my superintendance, as the only resident member of the
committee, was begun in July, 1858, and completed at mid-

1859.

e cavern, comprised within a space of 135 feet from north
to south, and 100 from east to west, consisted of a series of
tunnel galleries from six to eight feet in greatest width, and
ten to fourteen feet in height, with two small chambers and
five external entrances..

The deposits, in descending order, were :—

Ist, or uppermost; a floor of stalagmite, from a few inches

to a foot thick, and continuous over very considerable areas,
but not throughout the entire cavern.
_ 2d. A mass of small angular fragments of limestone, cemented
into a firm concrete with carbonate of lime, commenced at the
principal entrance, which it completely filled, and whence it
extended thirty-four feet only. It was termed the first bed.

3d. A layer of blackish matter, about twelve feet long, and
nowhere more than a foot thick, occurred immediately beneath
the first bed, and was designated the second bed.

388 W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire.

4th. A red, tenacious, clayey loam, containing a large num-
‘ber of angular and subangular fragments of limestone, varying
from very small bits to blocks a ton in weight, made up the
third bed. “ Pebbles of trap, quartz and limestone were some-
what prevalent, whilst nodules of brown hematite and blocks
of stalagmite were occasionally met with in it. The usual
depth of the bed was from two to four feet, but this was ex-
ceeded by four or five feet in two localities.

5th. The third bed lay immediately on an accumulation of
pebbles of quartz, greenstone, grit and limestone, mixed with
small fragments of shale. The depth of this, known as the
fourth or gravel bed, was undetermined ; for, excepting a few
feet only, the limestone bottom was nowhere reached. There
is abundant evidence that this bed, as well as a stalagmitic
floor which had covered it, had been partially broken up and
dislodged before the introduction of the third bed.

rganic remains were found in the stalagmitic floor and in
each of the beds beneath it, with the exception of the second
only; but as ninety-five per cent of the whole series occurred
in the third, this was not unfrequently termed the bone bed.

The mammals represented in the stalagmite were bear, rein-
deer, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, mammoth, and cave lion.

e first bed yielded bear and fox only.

In the third bed were found relics of mammoth, Rhinoceros
tichorhinus, horse, Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, red deer, rein-
deer, roebuck, cave lion, cave hyena, cave bear, grizzly bear,
brown bear, fox, hare, rabbit, Lagomys spelceus, water-vole,
shrew, polecat and weasel.

e only remains met with in the fourth bed were those of
bear, horse, ox and mammoth.
human industrial remains exhumed in the cavern were
flint implements and a hammer-stone, and occurred in the third
and fourth beds only. The pieces of flint met with were thirty-
six in number. Of these, fifteen are held to show evidence of
having been artificially worked, in nine the workmanship is
rude or doubtful, four have been mislaid, and the remainder
are believed not to have been worked at all (see Phil. Trans.,
vol. elxiii, 1878, pp. 561, 562). Of the undoubted tools, eleven
were found in the third and four in the fourth bed. Two of
those yielded by the third bed, found forty feet apart, in two
distinct but adjacent galleries, and one a month before the
other, proved to be parts of one and the same nodule-tool; and
I have little or no doubt that it had been washed.out of the
fourth bed and re-deposited in the third.
he hammer-stone was a quartzite pebble, found in the upper
portion of the fourth bed, and bore distinct marks of the use
to which it had been applied.

W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 889

validity of the doubts thrown upon the previously prevailing
(Phil. Tr

the face of it lay several fine relics of the ordinary cave mam-
mals, including an entire left lower jaw of Hyena spelea replete
with teeth, but which had nevertheless failed to arrest the
attention of the incurious workmen who exposed it, or of any
one else.

Soon after the resumption of the work in 1861, the remnant
of the outer wall of the fissure was removed, and caused the
fall of an incoherent part, of the dike, which it had previously
supported. Amongst the débris the workmen collected some
hundreds of specimens of skulls, jaws, teeth, vertebrae, portions
of antlers, and bones, but no indications of man. Mr. Wolston, ©
the proprietor, sent some of the choicest specimens to the
British Museum, and submitted the remainder to Mr. Ayshford
Sanford, F.G.S., from whom I Jearn that the principal portion
of them are relics of the cave hyena, from the os aa whelp
to very aged animals. With them, however, were remains of
bear, reindeer, ox, hare, Arvicola ratticeps, A. agrestis, wolf, fox,
and part of a single maxillary with teeth not distinguishable
from those of Canis isatis. To this list I may add rhinoceros,
of which Mr. Wolston showed me at least one ; :

From the foregoing undesirably, but unavoidably, brief

390 W. Pengetly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire,

descriptions, it will be seen that the Devonshire caverns, to
which attention has been now directed, belong to two classes,
—those of Oreston, the Ash-Hole, and Bench being Pissure
Caves ; whilst those of Yealm Bridge, Windmill Hill at Brix-
ham, Kent’s Hole, and Ansty’s Cove are Tunnel Caves.

Windmill Hill and Kent's Hole Caverns have alone been
satisfactorily explored; and besides them none have yielded
evidence of the contemporaneity of man with the extinct cave
mammals.

Oreston is distinguished as the only known British cavern
which has yielded remains of Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., xxxvi, p. 456).

Yealm Bridge Cavern, if we may accept Mr. Bellamy’s iden-
tification in 1885, was the first in this country in which relics
of glutton were found (South Devon Monthly Museum, vi, pp.
218-223; see also ‘Nat. Hist. S. Devon,” 1839, p. 89). The
same species was found in the caves of Somerset and Glamor-
gan in 1865 (Pleist. Mam., Pal. Soc., pp. xxi, xxii), in Kent's
Hole in 1869 (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1869, p. 207), and near Plas
Heaton, in North Wales, in 1870 (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.),
Xxvil, p. 407).

Kent’s Hole is the only known British cave which has
afforded remains of beaver (Rep. Brit. Assoc.. 13869, p. 208),
and up to the present year the only one in which the remains
of Macherodus latidens had been met with. Indeed Mr. Mac-

1st. The lowest known bed in each is composed of materials
which, while they differ in the two cases, agree in being such as

W. Pengelly—Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 391

may have been furnished by the districts adjacent to the cavern-
hills respectively, but not by the hills themselves, and must
have been deposited prior to the existing local geographical
conditions. In each, this bed contained flint implements an
relics of bear, but in neither of them those of hyzena. In short,
the fourth bed of Windmill Hill Cavern, Brixham, and the breccia
of Kent's Hole, Torquay, are coéval, and belong to what I have
called the Ursne period of the latter.

2d. The beds just mentioned were in each cavern sealed
with a sheet of stalagmite, which was partially broken up, and
considerable portions of the subjacent beds were dislodged
before the introduction of the beds next deposited. .

3d. The great bone bed, both at Brixham and Torquay,
consisted of red clayey loam, with a large percentage of angular
fragments of limestone; and contained flake implements of flint
and chert, inosculating with remains of mammoth, the tichorhine
rhinoceros, and hyzna. In fine, the cave-earth of Kent’s Hole
and the third bed of Brixham Cavern correspond in their mate-
rials, in their osseous contents, and in their flint tools. They
both belong to what I have named the Hyenine period of the
Torquay Cave.

But, as already stated, there are points in which the two cav-
erns differ :

Ist. While Kent’s Hole was the home of man, as well as of -

the contemporary hysna during the absences of the human
occupant, there is no reason to suppose that either man or any
of the lower animals ever did more than make occasional visits
to Brixham cave. The latter contained no flint chips, no bone
tools, no utilized Pecten-shells, no bits of charcoal, and no copro-
lites of hyzena, all of which occurred in the cave-earth of Kent’s

ole.

2d. In the Torquay Cave, relics of hyzena were much more
abundant in the eave-earth than those of any other species.
Taking the teeth alone, of which vast numbers were found,
those of the hyzena amounted to about 30 per cent of the entire
series, notwithstanding the fact that, compared with most of the
cave-mammals, his jaws, when furnished completely, possess
but few teeth. At Brixham, on the other hand, his relics of
all kinds amounted to no more than 8% per cent of all the

tools were unpolished flints, until the quarrymen broke into it
early in A. D. 1858. Kent's Cavern, on the contrary, seems

392 W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. .

to have never been closed, never unvisited by man, from the
earliest Paleolithic times to our own, with the possible excep-
tion of the Neolithic era, of which it cannot be said to have
yielded any certain evidence.

Though my “ History of Cavern Exploration in Devonshire”
is now completed, so far as the time at my disposal will allow,
and so far as the materials are at present ripe for the historian, I
venture to ask your further indulgence for a few brief moments
while passing from tlie region of fact to that of inference.

That the Kent’s Hole men of the Hysnine period—to say
nothing at present of their predecessors of the Breccia—belonged
to the Pleistocene times of the biologist, is seen in the fact that
they were contemporary with mammals peculiar to and charac-
teristic of those times. This contemporaneity proves them to
have belonged to the Paleolithic era of Britam and Western

urope generally, as defined by the archeologist; and this is
fully confirmed by their unpolished tools of flint and chert.
That they were prior to the deposition of even the oldest part
of the peat bogs of Denmark, with their successive layers of
beech, pedunculated oak, sessile oak, and Scotch fir, we learn
from the facts that even the lowest zone of the bogs has yielded
no bones of mammals but those of recent species, and no tools
but those of Neolithic type; whilst even the granular stalag-
* mite, the uppermost of the Hyenine beds in Kent’s Hole, has
afforded relics of mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, cave bear,
and cave hyena.

That the men of the Cave Breccia, or Ursine period, to whom
we now turn, were of still higher antiquity, is obvious from the
geological position of their industrial remains. That the two
races of Troglodytes were separated by a wide interval of time
we learn from the sheet of crystalline stalagmite, sometimes
twelve feet thick, laid down after the deposition of the breccia

ad ceased, and before the introduction of the cave-earth had
begun, as well as from thé entire change in the materials com-
posing the two deposits. But, perhaps, the fact which most
emphatically indicates the chronological value of this interval
is the difference in the faunas. In the cave-earth, as already
stated, the remains of the hyena greatly exceed in number
those of any other mammal; and it may be added that he is
also disclosed by almost every relic of his contemporaries—
their jaws have, through his agency, lost their condyles and
lower borders ; their bones are fractured after a fashion known

W. Pengelly— Cavern Exploration in Devonshire. 893

dead near it ; and the well-known habits of his representatives
of our day have led us to expect all this from him. When,
sowerer, we turn to the breccia, a very different spectacle
awaits us. We meet with no trace era of his presence,

operated, not a coprolite to mark as saa as a visit. Can it be
doubted that had he then occupied our country he would have’
taken up his abode in our cavern? Need we hesitate to regard
this entire absence of all traces of so decided a cave-dweller as
a proof that he kad not yet made his advent in Britain? Are
we not compelled to believe that man formed part of the Devon-
shire fauna long before the hyzena did? Is there any method
of escaping the conclusion that pine the era of the Breccia
and that of the Cave-earth it was possible for the hyena to
reach Britain ?—in other words, that the last vee nents state
of our country occurred during that interval? I confess that,
in the present state of the evidence, I see no escape; ahd that
the conclusion thus forced on me compels me to believe also
that = eke men of Kent’s Hole were interglacial, if not
pregla
The. ‘olla table will serve to show at one view the co
ordinations and theoretical conclusions to which the facts of
ents Cavern have led me, as stated briefly in the foregoing
remarks, ‘T'he table, it will be seen, consists of two divisions,
separated with double Be crc lines. The hii or left hand,

~

orizons, and tholk sotcaidiuaial continuity throug

columns denotes oe y. Thus, to take an exeuiple
from the two columns headed “ nbebsicenad? and “ Danish-
Bog,” in the second division: the horizontal “og passing con-
sions! through both, under the words “Iron” and “ Beech,”
is intended to suggest that the “Iron Age’ of Western Europe
and the “Beech” zone of the Danish Bogs take us back about -
equally far into antiquity; whilst the position of the line under
the word “ Bronze” indicates that the, ‘‘ Bronze age” (still of
Western Europe) take us back from the ancient margin of the
Beech era, through the whole of that of the Peduneulated Oak,
and about half- -way through the era of the Sessile Oak; and so
on in all other cases.

394. C. B. Warring—Growth-rings in Exogenous Plants

KENT'S CAVERN. PERIODS.
Deposits. Bones. Implements. Archeolog’al Danish-Bog Biological Geograph Climat
Tron. Tron. Beech.
: Peduncu-
lated Oak.
Black Mould.| Ovine. Bronze. Bronze. Recent. | Insular. Post-
’ Glacial
Sessile
and (?) Oak.
Neolithic. || Neolithic.
Scotch Fir.
Granular
Stalagmite. ’
‘ Paleolithic Contin-
Black Band. | Hyzenine.
Flakes. ental. Glacial
Cave-earth. ari and (?)
we eis
Paleolithic. oink
Inter-
Crystalline Glacial
ws Insular.
Paleolithic
Ursine. | Nodules.
Breccia. Contin-
ental Pre-
Glacial

Fae XLV.—Is the Existence of Growth-rings in the Karly
Exogenous Plants proof oy Alternating Seasons? An extract
from a paper read before the N. Y. Academy of mahences)

March 19, 1877; by “see B. WARRING, PH.D.

WE are told that there must have been the same alterna-

re seasons necessary to the cate : the rings?
Until that is established their existence has no importance in
this connection. Were it possible in some wer to secure a
temperature uniform through the year we might be able to deter-
mine the question experimentally. The nearest approach to
such a condition in this latitude is to be found in green-houses.

as proof or not of Alternating Seasons. 395

The results thus far show that exogenous plants, e. g., the
orange and lemon, so placed, form growth-rings as regularly as
do the forest trees.

It would be interesting to know how generally exogenous
plants in tropical regions exhibit these markings, an er
they are annual or whether they are made at longer or at
shorter intervals. I esi: found it difficult to obtain any in-
formation on this point, either from books or from botanists.

nual layers. There is a woody Phytolacca which makes more
layers, at least twice as many, as it is years old—probably indi-
cating two periods of growth and rest.” To this I add that
there now lies before’me a section of Chenopodium aibum cut
on the first of August, and consequently not more than four
months old, in which are eight well defined rings. This section
is as hard and compact and as well formed wood as if it were
a section of ash or pine.
n the other hand there are exogens growing even in this
ese which, notwithstanding our cold winters and hot sum-
, show not the slightest trace of a ring. I have before me

a a section of Akebia quinquefolia cut by Dr. O. R. Willis on his

wn lawn from a plant five years old, which has no such mark-
tet Then from a little further south I have a section of the
Passion Vine in the same condition; also one of the Iron Wood
ip sie precip neh which presents — ne ssible traces

ese also I am indebte . Willis

‘Mise C. C. Haskell, of Vassar College, pee the result of her
examination of the ‘tropical woods in their museum, as fol-
lows: In the Moria atiara of the Amazon, the circles are very
apparent. In the Aliso or Birch of the Indus, the circles are
evident. They are seen, too, in the Brazilian Red-wood (Upper
Amazon), and in Siphonia elastica or Rubber trée, as well as
in the Moria peranya of the Rio or None are seen in the
Tortoise Shell Wood or in the Cow

These suffice to show that, in the sendin warm climate of
the tropics, singe are formed as regularly as in the trees of our
northern forests. But it may be said that although there is in
these regions no Waernadion of hot and cold seasons, » yet that
they do “undergo semi-annual changes from wet to.

seasonless condition which a perpendicular axis would produce.
But there is evidence that exogenous trees would form these

396 C. B. Warring—Growth-rings in Kaxogenous Plants.

marks in a climate of absolutely no variation. I have before
me a section of es ee also presented by Dr. Willis. This
tree, as is well n, grows in the muddy margins of tropical
rivers and all sin the shores, forming dense forests even at

seen ~ any trees an ywhe

To dispel any vestige of ‘belief that seasons and these mark-
ings are connected as cause = effect, I add shah the Cycads
require several years to form o

he consideration of these fnots leads to the chacluwie that

these circles have their origin in cycles of activity and repose,
implanted in the constitution of the plant, which would con-
tinue to manifest themselves although there were no climatic
variations—a conclusion strengthened by the experience of all
who have attempted, by artificially equalizing the temperature,
to make their plants bloom all the year. It is true that where
seasonal variations exist, the successive stages of activity and
rest are for obvious reasons synchronous with them, but they
are not absolutely dependent upon them

We may conc se ‘too, that the pre-glacial flora sig ate
similar cycles of growth ‘and rest, some of which may hav
been of short Rnration measured perhaps by weeks, like diode
of the Chenopodium, while others like ~~ Cycads may have re-
quired several years for their completi

The following propositions appear te ‘be established by the
facts which have been presented.

. Some exogens form rings at intervals much less than a

ey "Others require intervals of several years.

3. Some form no rings.
- The presence or absence of rings in exogens occurs in all
climates.

5. Large and well defined rings are found under aces gaie
in which there is absolutely no ~aesiienet variation of t
aegis: or moisture throughout the

seaso
adopt any conclusion as to the inclination of the earth's axis
which may appear to us most reasonable.

J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate. 397

Art, XLVI.— On Sipylite, a new Niobate, from Amherst County,
Virginia ; by J. W. Mauuer.

THE allanite found in Amherst County in this State, of which
an analysis by Mr. J. A. Cabell, was published in the Chemical
News, 1874, p. 141, occurs in large quantity, and furnishes an
abundant source of supply of the cerium family of metals. In
picking over a lot of three or four hundred pounds of it, I was
struck with the appearance of a few fragments of an accom-
panying mineral, which on more careful examination turns out
to be a new niobate

iron ore. The vein is said to be about two feet wide, and runs
about northeast and southwest, dipping at a large angle to the
southeast.

Beside allanite, magnetite, and the new mineral now to be
described, I have only noticed among the specimens which
have reached me a few large crystals of hydrous zircon. One
of these measured about 30x 18X13 mm., was doubly termin-
ated, of sp. gr.=4°217, and yielded on ignition 1°89 per cent of
water.

he new mineral is decidedly rare; all the specimens I have
collected were picked out from three lots of the allanite, two
m of several hundred pounds each, and would probabl}
not weigh half a kilogram ; the largest single piece weighs about
orty grams; most of the fragments are much smaller. It is
found imbedded in, or more commonly adherent to, the outside
of the masses of allanite and magnetite, from which it is easily
detached.

398 J. W: Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate.

The color of the mineral in mass is brownish black, in thin
splinters a red brown, like that of dark pine-rosin ; one or two
small specimens display a gradual passage to a brownish orange,
and even a yellow, but whether in these cases the chemical
Iiebvprcia tices remains quite the same, there is not sufficient
material to determine. The streak is light cinnamon-brown to
pale gray. The luster resinous and pseudo-metallic. In
general appearance to the eye the mineral is much like fer-
gusonite from Greenland, euxenite from the neighborhood of
Arendal, and samarskite from North Carolina, save that the
last named is more distinetly pitchy blac ‘ranslucent in
thin splinters. Hardness = nearly 6. Specific gravity may
be considered = 4°89; one specimen gave 4°887 at 12°5 C.;
another 4892 at 17°°5.

Heated alone in the ordinary blowpipe flame the mineral

before which a stout blowpipe wire of splot readily melts to
a bead, thin splinters are fused merely on the edges. Heated
in a close glass tube, the same decrepitation, glowing and
change of color are observed, and water is given off, which
condensing on the surface of the tube is found to have an acid
reaction, and slightly etches the glass. Fused with borax in
the oxidizing flame, the mineral is dissolved, producing a
yellow glass, which becomes pale on cooling, and assumes a
greener tint in the reducing flame. With microcosmic salt, a
yellowish green glass is obtained. Strong boiling hydrochloric
acid attacks to some extent the mineral in fine powder, and the
partial solution, if boiled with metallic tin and diluted with
water, gives the fine sapphire-blue color due to niobium. This
— hydrochloric acid solution, if diluted, contains zireonium
nough to brown turmeric paper to an extent quite sensible if a
Sinai experiment be made with similarly diluted hydro-
chloric acid alone. Boiling concentrated sulphuric acid decom-
ses the mineral completely, though somewhat slowly ; and the
diluted solution gives a blue color on addition of metallic zine.
e chemical analysis was made, with much care an
patience, under my direction by Mr. W. G. Brown, a student in
this laboratory during the last winter. The details of the
method used are given in a notice of his work in the Chemical
News. Tantalum was found to be present, but in such small
quantity, certainly less than one-twelfth of the niobium, that a
satisfactory separation could not be obtained by Marignac’ s
meth The sp. gr. of the mixed niobic and tantalic oxides

J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate. 399

was 4°60. By determination of the Siesne se erbium first as
oxides and then as sulphates it was found that the mixture con-
tained almost exclusively the latter metal, of which the absorp-
tion spectrum is obtainable with great distinctness from the crude

solution. Iron and uranium were proved to exist as ferrous
a uranous compounds. ‘The following results were obtained :

le, oe Sree ee aE Gos So f 48°66
WoO,. PRBS EEE RUE AF 5 "16
SWAN so ie cgmhing whe onus Came eee 08
GEO... Sie he des S age va pug oe 2°09
LE ee
CeO F080 Sena en), ogee 1°37
OR Suey ee ee 3°92 :

THOS. aus 4°06

wae Sous hwae eke oenes ee 3°47
MnO soot ier A ioe es trace
PeO ac soca oes Sa ic 04
BeO petuesy 62
MgO 05
CaO ii je sot sg ane apace abs 2°61
LA.OF oo oc bios trace
Nat) cient wipe ena oe "16
BO oo 06
BF ns oan Bue ees baa trace
FS lives + amen ee ene eeee 3°1

100°48
Throwing together, as ema age has done in his valuable
paper** on 1 the natural tantalates and ai the acid oxides

of niobium, saritatier raerigwethe tin and zirconium, reducin @ br
the basic oxides present to the equivalent acactatits of dyad
oxides, and leaving out the water, we have from the above

gures the ratio,
R’0: MYO, = 221:100
oe to the formula R’’,M)O, 4 R”,M?O,, or, applying the
mon phosphate nomenclature, a single atomic group of
obi niobates with four of pyro-niobates; while samars
according to the calculation of Professor O. D. Allen++ from his
analysis, contains one to one, or is represented by the formula
* Ta,O; ma wo fin be assumed = Ah 2 per sg
tos Y.0; may be assumed =
erous oxide, but Seiomy th Oléve’s formule and atomic weights for this and the

u
Containing a rue of Di,O,. | Co: ontatiing a trace of Ce.0s.
se

Saal A; August, , 1877, p- 731.

400 J. W. Mallet on Sipylite, a new Niobate.

R” MYO, . R’,M$O,, and Rammelsberg ware »yrochlore

from Fredriksvarn solely the pyro-niobate, R I0,, and
fergusonite, tyrite, es soley. the ortho-salt, R’’,
owever, the water be included in the Paice and

considered basic, alas it on an equivalent footing with the
dyad oxides we have the ratio,

R’O;: MSO. = 311: : 100, or nearly 3:1,

which gives the simple formula of an ortho-salt, R”,M‘O,.
This I confess I am inclined to think more probable, and, if so,
it may be allowable to suppose that the very remarkable glow
exhibited by the mineral when heated is connected with the
loss of basic water and the change from ortho- to pyro-niobate,
as in the well known incandescence of ammonio-magnesian
ortho-phosphate at the moment of change by heat to the pyro-
phosphate of the latter metal.*

Whichever formula be preferred, sao hus for the mineral
now described, it differs essentially fro that of any niobate
hitherto on neon, the one view aking it the nearest approach
to a simple pyro- -niobate (since the Fredriksvarn pyrochlore con-
tains largely of titanium) and the other making it an ortho-salt

ike fergusonite, etc., but one partially acid in character or
penne basic h drogen

5 heey grounds alone, but in several respects as to
eg properties, the mineral is new and distinct. Carrying
out the fancy of Heinrich Rose, which led him to name niobium ~
from the danghter of Tantalus, and remembering the number
and SUEY of the natural niobates which have been met
with, Foe a for this species the name sae dine from Sipylus,
one of the numerous children of Nio

*Tt cade: aye worth remarking that from the nae of Professor Allen (loc. cit.)
of Professor J. Lawrence Smith’s ele coal tchettolite, which accompanie
samars' kite i in North ats sears water resent in it in definite leo
tion; and, although Rammelsberg ~g waa aa the water found in his analyses
of tantalates and niobates as non-essential, and the formula, R’’, MYO,, which he
has assigned in common to ge gene nite, yttro-tantalite, eg and bragite, requires
that bsg’ be e seluden: if it be also taken into account his analyses of these

minerals lead pretty closely to her acgtelh eno ns as to ee extent of hydration
(without considering the water basic), mak

Fergusonite, from Gree: rset (with very ties water)—R’’,MYO,,
or perhaps 2R’’,MYO,
Brown yttro-tantalite, from Yiterby
“
Bragi
ae ciccua from Gamle Kararfvet_........--- 2R/’,MYO, . 5H, 0.

University of Virginia, Sept. 3, 1877.

S. Neweomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 401

Art. XLVIL—On the Mean Motion of the Moon; by Stwon
NEWCOMB.

For some time after the appearance of Hansen's Lunar Tables,
it was very generally considered that the theory of the moon,
aftcr occupying the attention of the mathematicians and astron-
omers of every century for two thousand years, was at length
complete, and that the motion of that body could now be pre-
dicted with entire confidence. That Hansen’s computation of
the Seats of short period pies d mE the sun not only

Seiirerlen’s of modern sironomy, I conceive can hardly be
ou i

agreement with Pebets from 1750 to 1860, it was there
shown that this agreement had been obtained b sacrificing the
agreement before 1750, and that the moon had then begun to

tinue satisfactorily to represent the observations. During the

entirely confirmed. So far as can be j y the most recent
observations, the i of the tables now seh A ten seconds,
d is increasing at a rate of not less than half a second a year.

Shortly after Ne phere yeti of the short paper to which I
have alluded, it was made a part of my official duty to investi-
gate this question. In accordance with this arrangement, I
have aimed at the complete discussion of all recorded observa-
tions of any astronomical value before the year 1750. These
researches now being brought substantially to a close, so far
as the din Maas are Sass the object of the present
article is to ome account of them , and of their results.
The material peoalete in brief, e every observation of an eclipse
or an occultation previous to 1750, which appears to be worthy
of confidence, and calculated to throw any light upon the ques-
tion of changes in the moon’s mean motion. The available
data may be Classified as follows :—

ccounts of ancient historians from which it has been i ae
ferred that the shadow of the moon pet over certain points
of the earth’s surface during certain total eclipses of the sun
f Thales, of Lari, and of Agathocles
have been very estan Sy discussed py Professor Airy i

7: ee Sct. heer, Vot. XIV, No. 83.—Nov.

402 S. Newcomb— Mean Motion of the Moon.

Society. Aftera careful examination of the six or eight eclipses
in question, I was led to the conclusion that none of them could
be safely relied upon as furnishing data for the error of the
Lunar Tables at the times when they were observed. It is im-
possible, within the limited space of the present article, to enter
into any details of the considerations which led me to this con-
clusion. It may be remarked, however, that among the eclipses
in which I can feel but little confidence is the celebrated one
of Thales. To prevent misapprehension I may say that I do
not deny either that Thales predicted eclipses or that the
shadow of the moon passed over Asia Minor, B.C., 585 as in-
dicated by the Lunar Tables, or that a battle was stopped by
some real or fancied advent of darkness, as described by Herod-
otus a century afterward; but I fail to see any good reason
. for maintaining that the extremely obscure account of Herodotus
really refers to the total eclipse in question, or, in fact, to any
eclipse whatever. Consequently, whilegthese eclipses may be
useful in throwing more or less of evidence on the question of
the moon’s secular acceleration, I do not think they can be
considered reliable enough to be used for determining that
uantity.
: Il. The second class comprises the nineteen eclipses of the
moon quoted by Ptolemy in the Almagest, on which he founded
his theory of the moon’s motion. These eclipses appear to be
worthy of some confidence, making due allowance for the very
considerable errors of observation with which they are neces-
sarily affected. The mode of treatment was this: from a very
careful study of the account of each eclipse as given by Ptolemy,
and without any knowledge of how it compared with the tables,
I sought to make an estimate, first, of the most probable time
of the phase described, and second, of the probable error of that
time. These estimates I shall publish without any alteration
suggested by the subsequent comparison with the tables.
When this comparison was made, it was found that the general
deviations of the tabular from the recorded times did not indi-
able error essentially greater than that estimated,
except intwo cases.

There are five eclipses in which Ptolemy does not say to.
what phase the time which he gives refers. It has very gen-
erally been considered that in these cases the phase was that of
the middle of the eclipse; but in all other cases the time which
he gives is that of commencement; and there would be a cer-
tain probability in favor of the times where no phase was given
being also those of commencement. The errors in question
were systematically different from those of the other eclipses,
and seemed to indicate that in these eclipses also, the beginning
was referred to. Owing, however, to the uncertainty of this

S. Newcomb— Mean Motion of the Moon. 403

correction. This discordance, however, is not the most perplex-

seen atall. If this one really was seen, it would almost neces-
sitate a negative correction to the tabular times. We have then
this dilemma: either the whole thirteen eclipses recorded by
Ptolemy are, with a single exception, half an hour or more in
error, or there is some mistake about this eclipse having been
actually observed. Deeming the latter the more probable of
the two hypotheses, I threw out this eclipse entirely. Of the
twelve remaining eclipses, sixteen phases were observed, which
were divided into four groups, and the mean result, by weight,
of each group was taken. The mean corrections to the tabular
times given by the several groups, are as follows :—
Epoch, — 687 ‘dt=+20™ de=—11'+4' 38 phases.

— 38 dt = + 50 dé — 27 +5 3 phases.

—189 dt=—+ 36 d&= — 20 +3 8 phases.

+134 dté=+ 30 dé=—16 +4 — 3 phases.

may be remarked that the two or three given by Tycho Brahe
furnished the first data from which the secular acceleration of
the moon was deduced. It is therefore a singular fact that no
comparison of them with modern tables has ever been seriously

Coelestis. Asa slight indication of the value of these eclipses

There are, in all, in this book, observations of twenty-five
eclipses ‘including thirty-four phases of beginning or ending.
They were all reduced and compared with the tables of Hansen.
Three of them were so far discordant that they had to be re-
jected entirely. This ratio of three out of thirty-four will not
appear great if we reflect that the manuscript from which the

*

404 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.

observations were translated, was frequently very difficult to
decipher or to translate, owing not only to the fading of the
writing, but to the uncertainty of some of the terms which the
author used. Besides these three discordant observations, there
were two which could not be used because the altitude assigned
to the moon at the time of the observation actually exceeded
its meridian altitude. Here it was evident that there was some-
thing wrong, in recording, transcribing or translating the obser-
vation. The general result was that each observation of a

Epoch, 846 de —4'4
926 et oe it
986 d&= —4°8

telescope by so short an interval that it can hardly be supposed
that they would throw much light on the question under con-

. sidera
carefully to find whether Tycho Brahe had ever observed an
V. Observations of occultations and eclipses made with a

‘telescope but without a clock, the time being determined by
the altitude of the sun or of some star observed with a quad-

have the great advantage that the only error to be feared is that
of the determination of time, always supposing that the phenom-

S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 405

enon was actually seen. The, ee of the star —
the moon’s limb is, in fact, a sudden nomenon which
not require any measure of distance to Se well observed.

VI. Observations of eclipses and occultations made by Heve-
hus with a very imperfect clock regulated by altitudes taken
with a quadrant with pinnules. It is well known that Hevelius
would never use a telescope with ‘ta quadrant; so that the re-
sults to be derived from the observations of this most’ indefati-
gable observer do not correspond to the labor which he spent
in making them. His observations are much better than those
of Gassendus, but far more inaccurate than those made with the
telescopic sig

VII. Observations of Flamsteed at Greenwich, and of the
astronomers of the French school, from 1672 to 1750. Flam-
steed’s observations were published in the Historia Ccelestis.
Those of the French — are not only for the most part
unpublished, but seem to have ee totally forgotten — the
time they were made aia I was fortunate enough to them
in the archives of the Paris Dieaianan in 1871. Not oo
it fears: wholly unreduced, but in many cases not even the

of the occulted star was given. — reduction we ion
eee ties tae been the most laborious part of my wor
The observers have left no explanations wbaeeves of their mass
of a and it was necessary to learn this by induction
from the observations themselves; and from the calculations
sectieses — and there through the ooks.

supposed to commence. In the same class with these Paris
observations are to be included those of ote at St. Peters-
burgh, with which I was furnished by Str
The following are some independent mean corvedone

by the observations of Bllialdas, grt Hevelius, Flam-
steed, and the French astronom e list is incomplete, as
the Maealation of the solar peters ia pe been finished; but
it will suffice for the purposes of the present discussion :—

1621 + 77" 1661 + 37”
1630 +30 1666 24 oy
1633 + 53 1680 + 30°4
1635 +55 1682 + 255
1639 + 23 1715 + 13°8
1645 + 51 1725 + 7:0

- 406 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.

The investigation is terminated at the epoch of 1750 so far
as the reduction of observations is concerned, because there is
reason to believe that a s tables are not greatly in error
from 1750 to 1865. We may, therefore, in this preliminary
discussion consider the tabular Sie zero between these epochs.
For the epoch 1875 the correction given by some good observa-
tions of occultations is —8’’0, a result 1” * less than that indi-
cated by the observations at Greenwich and Washington. This
discrepancy is quite surprising. It is, however, worthy of re-
mark that Captain Tupman from a discussion of all the meridian
observations made in Europe about the time in question ob-
tained a mean result somewhat less than that given by Green-
wich and Washington alone. It is well known ss Hansen’s
term depending on eight times the mean motion of Venus mi-
nus thirteen times that of the earth is almost enti rely empirical,
being adjusted so as to satisfy the observations between 1750

and 1 And since this term fails to satisfy the observations
oakids of these limits, in fact making the tables worse than
they would be without it, it ought to be rejected from the com-
parison of theory with observation, Its effect upon the ancient
results is, however, so small in comparison with the necessary
error of the observations that its effect need not be taken into
account.

From the individual corrections to the moon’s mean longi-

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
- Hansen. H’; $=8""8. s—6"'18. At.
—687 11" es by +16’ +397 —Tom
381 —— GT ao aay +10 i 38
—189 —20 20 4 +10 pees 14
+134 —-16 —16 8 +4 — 6
846 — 44 aie | fe | — 03 0
$26" ee | + 03 -. 31 mn
986 — 49 — 48 — 3°8 = 13 + 2
1625 +650" +33" 7 age +128
1660... +39 +18 SO i: Beene ee +3
1675 +32 +15 ay 8-6 +34
¥ +21 +16 ee —13 °5 +25
1725 + 7 +16 - 68 86 +16
1750 0 +19 +64 0-0 0
1775 0 +31 +12 °5 + 8-4 —15
1800 0 +15 +112 +1 + 9°5 —17
1825 0 +32 +30 +44 — 8
1850 0 ~=—4} — 46 0-0 0
1875 — 8 —28 —15°8 —1°6 +14

S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 407

In column (1) we have the mean correction indicated by
observations to Hansen’s tables of the moon without any mod-
ification whatever. In column (2) these corrections are modi-
fied by the effect of Hansen’s empirical term, so as to show the
corrections to the pure theory after this term is subtracted
from the tables. If "the theory is perfect, these numbers ought

The —— are the several corrections given by the method
of least square

dex 41957
dn= —12 id: URpoek, 1700,
ds= — 3°

The value of the secular eae. adopted by Hansen is
12°17. Subtracting the correction it seems that the accelera-
tion to which we are led by observation alone, is

Column (3) shows the outstanding corrections whiol remain

value of the see acceleration much less than that indi-
cated by the older ones. If we investigate the uniform varia-
tion of the siesibebition which would best satisfy the whole of
the observations, we shall find it to be —0”°9 in a century.
The hypothesis of such a uniform vwiedon is, however, too
improbable to be admitted; and moreover, it still fails to
represent the modern observations, although the ancient ones
are thus greatly improve

In recent times it has been generally considered that the
difference between the theoretical acceleration and that given
by observations arises from a change in the length of the

ay. It is worthy of remark that by supposing this change
itself subject to variations, all the apparent changes in the
mean motion of the moon can be accounted for. This is a
hypothesis which I have suggested in former numbers of this

the
between observation and aioe In the first place, the sec-
ular acceleration must be supposed to be "iilonn and equal to
617. Two epochs at which we may suppose the time given

by the rotation of the earth to be correct, being entirely
arbitrary, we shall take 1750 pe ge 0 for these epochs.
Having thus formed a theory of the moon’s mean motion

ary.
founded on gravitation alone, column (4). cone the apparent
corrections indicated by observation. In column (5) these cor-
rections are changed into time. The times here given are

408 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.
hypothetical errors of the earth’s rotation which it is necessary

in order to reduce them to. a perfectly uniform measure of
time. The sign + indicates that the mah is abead of its mean
rotation, and the sign — that it is behind it. For some years

truth it would be no longer possible to predict the apparent
motion of the moon, since the changes in the rotation of the

It is therefore extremely gratifying to find that the compari-
sons we have just given lead to the hope that these deviations
may, after all, be due to the action of some of the bodies of the

not very far from 260 years. Now, it is remarkable that this
_ differs very little from the period of Hansen’s first Pe bam oe
which is 273 years. The question therefore arises whether
deviations in question may not be explained by a ibe in
the constants of this inequality. The result is very surprising.
By merely diminishing the argument of Hansen’s first ine-
quality by 60° 48’ without changing the co-efficients at all, the
observations from 1625 to 1875 may all be 2 i pany within
the limits of error. In fact, we see that the numbers in col-
umn (3) may be very nearly "represented by the formula

t~ 1800

— 5”°04—107°14 a — 15750 cos A,
in which we have placed,

A=18V-16E-g,
V being the mean longitude of Venus counted cet the equinox
of 1800, E that of the earth counted in the same way, and g
the mean anomaly of the moon. The com abot in question
is shown in the following tables; the fourth column of which 1s
taken from the corresponding column of the preceding table.
The residuals still outstanding are shown in the last column.

Epoch. Pe paseo terms. Observ. Diff.
1625 ~47°-0 +3 +6"1 +3"9
1650 —14 -0 aid fs —6°9 —2 2
1675 +19 ‘0 snl all hy —0°3
1700 52 0 ~4°5 —3 6 +09
1725 85 -0 +1°3 —O 3 —1°5
1750 118 -0 +1°3 +64 —0°9
1775 151 ‘0 +110 +125 +1°5
1800 184 -0 +104 +11 1 +0 °7
1825 217 0 4°8 +3°0 —1°8
1850 250 -0 —4°3 —4°6 +0°2
1875 283 -0 —160 —165 °8 +0°2

S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon. 409

Correcting Hansen’s term by this dnidivicad addition, we find
that instead of
15734 sin (A+-30°-2),
the value given by Hansen, we shall have
15”°3 sin (A—30°'6),
as the result of observation
sa test of this result, the sum of all the corrections here
found to Hansen’s tables has been a and compare
corrections given in column 1. It is to be remarked in the
first place that the diminatiun of 10” a century in the mean
motion of the moon involves a further correction of —0’”4 to
the value of the sistas acceleration in order that the ancient
observations may still, on the AYerAees be best represented.
Thus the secular pray rt reduces
87°45
and the total correction to the accnieration of Hansen is
—3"°76.
We put V, for the empirical term of Hansen,
217-47 sin (9SV—13E +274° 14’),
the existence of which appears to have been entirely denis by
the researches of Delaunay; and T for the time counted in
centuries after 1800. Then the total corrections to the tables of
ansen are as follows:—
—V,~—1714—29717 T~3"-76 T? — 155 cos A.

The following are the values of these corrections for the
principal epoc ochs from 1625 to 1900. The computation and
comparison with observation is given so fully that any explana-
tion of the table appears to be unnecessary.

1"-14
—15"5 ; Observa- ‘

Epoch. —Ve iia i 2 ra Sum. pe th Diff.
1625 | +17"1 =-10"°6 +38"4 +44"9 +50" +5"
1650 21 “4 —15°0 34 +] 40 °5 —1°5
1675 16°9 —14°7 29 °4 a1 6 3 +04
1700 + 5:°2 — 9°5 24°3 20°0 21 +10
1725 — 8°6 — 14 18 °6 8°6 7 —1°6
1750 —18°9 + 7°38 12:6 + 0°9 0 —0'9
1775 31-2 13 °6 + 5°9 — 1° 0 +1°7
1800 —14°7 15 4 — I'l — O04 0 +04
1825 — 2:1 12°4 - 8°7 + 1°6 0 16
1850 +11 °4 6°3 —16°7 0-0 0 0°0
1860 15 °7 + 1°8 —20°0 — 2°5 +1°5 +4°0
1870 19-0 — 1% —23 4 — 671 —5°5 +0°6
1880 20 °9 — 5-2 “—26°9 —11 "1 ae eae
1890 21 °4 — 84 —30°4 —17 “4 Bee nape
900 +20°6 —11°2 —34°] —24-7 Kees iua

410 S. Newcomb—Mean Motion of the Moon.

The only case in which the difference exceeds the possible
error of the comparisons is at the epoch 1860. Asan oa anniee
of this I can only suggest that the term found by Mr. Neison as
due:to the action of Jupiter is at that time let to the result of
a possible error in Hansen’s value of the term which depends
upon the ellipticity of the earth. The comparison may there-
fore be improved when the theory is suitably corrected.

The great question which now arises is this. Is it possible
that this correction to the term produced by the action of
Venus can really be a result of the attraction of that planet?
We are struck by the fact that the proposed change can be
expressed by a mere change of the algebraic sign of the con-
stant term of the argument, leaving the value of the co-efficient
unchanged. It may therefore be inquired whether it is possible
that the sign of this quantity is erroneous in Hansen’s formula.
This question must be answered in the negative. I have found
by an investigation still unpublished, substantially the same
result as Hansen ; while the researches of Delaunay published
in the Connaissance des Temps for the year 1862 show that the
approximate expression of the constant term in question, is

180°—2h",
h” being the longitude of the node of Venus, which does not
differ much from 75°. It i is, therefore, a mere gine that the

change of Hansen’s term can be expressed in thi
Although Hansen, Delaunay, and myself Baye all arrived at
the same result for the value of the term in question, I cannot
confidently say that that result is complete. In all three com-
putations the terms of the second order due to the mutual attrac-
tion of Venus and the earth are neglected. It is evident that
in consequence of this mutual attraction, i direct action of
Venus on the moon is different from what it would be if each
planet moved in its elliptic orbit. It may Bus that this differ-
ence is sensible in terms of so high an order as those under
consideration. I have actually computed the additional terms

in — ae Be being the ewan of Venus from the earth) which

and observation which is produced by the introduction of this

empirical term, seems to me such as to warrant its provisional use

until a more careful investigation of the subject can be made.
Washington, Oct. 3, 1877.

Chemistry and Physics. 411

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysiIcs.

1. On the Action of a solutions on Lead.—Mutr has ex-
amined the action exe by various saline solutions upon lead,
with and without access of air, with a view to explain the mech-
anism of the process. e lead used was sold as pure, and con-

ER 10} :
Pb(OH), or Pb SO’, in fine silky scales. It was found to
Pb

be more soluble in ammonium nitrate when air was excluded (one
part in 4,600), and in calcium chloride with access - air (one part
in 26,000), though its solubility was very great in carbonic acid
phased (one part in 4,300). e author believes that i in the action
of saline solutions upon lead, a soluble salt is first produced; that
earbon dioxide is slowly absorbed from the air, converting the
lead into hydrocarbonate, which is mostly precipitated ; that in
certain Sigids the formation of the soluble salt proceeds at first
more rapidly than its ne TCE but that later the latter action
preponderates; and that carbonates precipitate the lead ge as
fast as it is formed, in the vate of hydrocarbonate.—v, —
XXxxi, 66v, pnt 1877.

2. New Method for the Synthesis of Hydrocarbons. ia Ragen
and Gearen in examining the action of finely divided aluminum
upon organic chlorides, which is at first very slow, but becomes

re ‘fou i

remaining itself unaltered. If, for example, amy
treated with the anhydrous chloride, hydrochloric acid gas is

412 Scientific Intelligence.

evolved in the cold, as well as a mixture of gases not absorbable
_-by bromine. In the residue, beside the unaltered AI,Cl
contained various hydrocarbons, some of high boiling point. If,

ri é"

Iodides and bromides act similarly, though not as uniformly.
Ethyl iodide treated as above gave ethylbenzene, methyl chloride

zene, gives, by 1 u loride, the
zophenone, acetyl chloride gives acetophenone, phthalyl chloride

organic compound to be first formed and then decomposed, regen-
erating the chloride, thus:
C,H,+Al,Cl,=HCl-+ Al,Cl,(C,H,)
Al,Cl,. (C,H,)-+(CH,C,H,)CI=Al,Cl,+-(CH,. C,H,)C,H,.

4, On the Amylene from Amyl Iodide.—EureKorr has inves-
tigated the action of alcoholic potash upon the amylene dibro-
mide obtained from amy] iodide, and concludes that this amylene
is really a mixture of two isomeric bodies, isopropylethylene

Chemistry and Physics. 413

CH[CH(CH,),] |
OH whose bromine derivative gives isopropylacetyl-
e by the ie of alcoholic potash; and methylethylethylene
cH [CH(C.H P JERRY sOUny:
cu, which does not yield valerylene under these cir-
cumsta ances, but is transformed into valeric ether. Isopropylacet-
ylene boils at 35°, forms a crystalline addition product with silver
nitrate AgC=C — CH | On , which is decomposed by iodine, yield-

ing IC=C— —CHY OH » moniodisopropylacetylene. — Bull. Soe.
Ch., Ul, xxviii, Aug., 1877. « BB
5. On the Co ies ta of unsaturated Dibasic Peers —At the
' Close of a series of researches 5 certain unsaturated dibasic
acids made in his tabarston TTIG sums up the results and dis-
cusses their bearing upon the sunceeiians of the acids in question ;
i. e., fumaric and maleic acids in one group, and itaconic, citraconic
‘ and mesaconic acids in another. The facts are (1) the two former

unite directly with hydrogen to yield succinic acid OH,.C . oon’
as the three latter by the same treatment yield the same pyrotar-
On,

taric acid, cH . COOH ; (2) the former acids by union with bromine

H,.CO
give two different sete ae acids (both of which, however,

an isomer; (4) while mono- or di-bro m-citraconi¢ mht mesaconic

re m an
and yield no carbon dioxide when thus treated; (5) while fuma-
rates and maleates yield on Sigg th den the same acetylene, and
citraconic and mesaconic acids the same allylene, itaconic "acid
gives a hydrocarbon not precipitating silver solutions. There is
no constitutional formula which will satisfy all these conditions if
the position be maintained that in pores yde ompéunds se
carbon atoms are always united by several bonds. Hence the

Promina a in which there are single carbon atoms eo eg Meena
are not completely balanced. Rejecting also as unproved the
xistence in a compound of carbon atoms three of whose units are

414 Scientific Intelligence.

balanced while the fourth is free, the author gives for maleic acid
CH. COOH

the formula | and for fumarie acid || For
=C. coon CH. COOH
ma ae
\
itaconic acid he gives cH . COOH, or C, COOH, for citraconic
| .
C

H,. COOH H,. COOH
tei CH,
acid CH. COOH and for mesaconic acid c. COOH . Hence the

=, COOH OH, COOH
isobrommaleic acid of Kekulé is properly bromfumaric acid, and
the dibrommaleic acid of Bourgoin, dibromfumaric acid. Of t
two itaconie acid okey Fittig prefers the first.—Z — Ann s
elxxxviii, 95, July, 1

Ona Phenol of | Phenanthewie. Phenanthrol, i Rieke Ne ex-

amined, under Graebe’s direction, the product obtained = fusing
phe enanthrenemonosulphonic acid wit potassium hydrate. After :
solution in water, the phenanthrol was separated in oily drops by
the addition of. sulphuric acid, which solidified on cooling. After
envi with sia Mga carbonate, and reerystallization from a

are gg troleum naphtha and aha! = was 0 ort in
beautiful pan tuseaslag plates, fusing at 112°, and giving
analysis the formula (O t forms rival érystallized com-
pounds with alkalies, ‘and ethers with acid oxides. , rl.
Chem. Ges., x, 1252, July, 1877.

1. Formation of Rosolie acid Jrom Cresol and Phenol. "The
discovery of Caro and Wanklyn that by de-nitrogenizing rosaniline
rosolic acid could be formed, and of Dale and Schlorlemmer, that
aurin (rosolic acid) could be converted into Sieg Hong led Zut-
KOWSKY to attempt the production of rosolic acid from cresol and
phenol as rosaniline is produced from toluidine and Panflings A
mixture of two molecules cresol, oe Pen) and three of sulphuric
acid heated with arsenic acid to 120° C. became dark brown and
thick and yielded to water a ist tod with a : arereh metallic
luster, having all the properties of rosolic acid. It is = produced
with pheno alone. The author represents rosaniline a

CHA Ly on joe
NH,. CH, | i and rosolic acid asOH . C,H, J 7 . ;
CH, CH, Son Ar

Corallin he ries = into five different bodies.— Ber. —_ Chem.
7 = —

» Co ehiape ee .—Hormann has upuniee a ee
brilliant a coloring matter, obtained from Martius. He found it
to be the sodium salt ofa an organic acid, which was separated by

easily soluble in alcohol, less so in water, having t
CH. O,, and being ‘monobasic, No doubt, f aeebore, ches

Chemistry and Physics. 415

by diazonapthalene and a phenolsulphonic acid. Using the fi
method, and pen sodium a naphtolsulphonate with aniline
nitrate and p — es the nad color was obtaine ed Bot
Berl. Chem. Ges., x, 8, July, 18

9. LKxamination ae a Nickel anid —H. Wir. (Abwtrses

tion a nickel magnet presented to Kotschubey, Pres ide nt of t

Russian Technological igs by Jos. Wharton of Philadelphia,
It had the form of a flat 2mm. thick, 9.5 mm. broad, and
155 mm. long, pointed at shies ends, and had at its center an apna
cap for ‘supporting it on a pivot. Its weight was 25 grams, Its

Pp
112,000 units, the steel giving 245,000. After ssa i ing, ce
nickel gave 188 ,000, the steel 368, 000. With wolf m steel, t the
ent went up to 594 000 in one instance. e nickel was
Saeed by Butlerow and found to contain only one-third of one
er cent of i iron, with traces of cobalt. The effect of Ae
e

porary magne b ha

oo and one-fourth of that ack of "ein anicont in soft
i. Ac. St. Pet., xxiv, 1, May, 1877.

a etroscope with a Fluorescent Eye-piece.—M. J. 1. Soret

has pablinad a detailed description of sig sarap se which he

t n he uses
either a small plate of uranium agen or a cell fitted with an
aqueous solution of esculine; and the spectroscope is best con-

416 Screntifie Intelligence.
structed with lenses of quartz and prisms of Iceland spar. With
en ]

i ae beyond N, but with the spectroscope whose construc-
n he describes in detail the principal lines could be distin-

at an sage of Ae meters, and draws from them the conclu-

more refrangible than T. Whence he infers that it is the atmos-
phere of the sun, and not that of the earth which absorbs the
most Reirengibla rays of the spectrum. The diminution in bril-

~ Heat.- aa ‘ Crova has published a very avon de d
paper on the calorific intensity of the solar radiation and its
absorption by the atmosphere of the earth. In this paper the
author discusses very exhaustively methods of observation and
gives the results of a large number of measurements which are of
great interest, but can nes nas described in a short abstract.—Ann.
Chim. et de Phys, xi, By Cy TR

12. Changes tn the ‘Speatra ‘of Gases caused by increasing ten-
sion.—In the spectrum of a gas rendered luminous by an electric
spark M. eee dvi two classes of foc as caused by

remain meanwhile as definite as at first. In the case of compounds
of carbon and markedly in the case of carbonic dioxide the bril-

is. “ The Tnpu ence of Light in Chemical Chances aad dell
in kee ” is the subject of a recent paper by M. P. Cuas-
tainc. The author distinguishes as a definite effect of the sun *s

solar spectrum from the well-known reducin eee le dedu toe
this conclusion chiefly from the observation that the oxidation of

Chemistry and Physics. 417

such substances as ferrous sulphate, alkaline solution of arsenious
acid, and aqueous solutions of h

proceeds more rapidly in the ‘light t than in oe Sax k, and he
endeavors to estimate the action of the light by the diferencs in
the pelea of the process in the two cases under otherwise like

as we an fuse the red to the violet end of th

co
the air and light a direct effect of oxidation caused by the sun’s
rays, and this effect is produced chiefly, if not wholly, by the more
retrangible rays,— Ann. Chim. et de Phys., V, xi, 145. 5. P. 0., IR
c rotatory Po laregion: —M. Henet rt BecQuEREL has

cs

<8
S

dS

cannot be stated in a few words. The most important genera
conclusions are the followin

~ That thé positive rotation of the plane of polarization of a
ray of “Tight having a definite wave-length, in passing through the
unit of thickness of a diamagnetic mat terial under the influence of

index of refraction, an factor depending on agnetism
and on the diamagnetism of the body, this factor jaca h
prop a substances are magnetic.
2.) That with substances chemically allied or containing the
same radical the qu tient the ma rotation, and the cor-
responding value of n2(n? —1), varies yey slightly: (3.) That the
chemical nature of the substance exerts an important influence on

8 phenomenon, and that the several conaadbeotien of a compound

roduce an independent effect. (4) That when in solution

the specific effect of the molecules o Vorunes bodies is not

cerita by the concentration of the solution, while that of the

lecules of magnetic bodies may be greatly affected by the
he tee —THIRD ios Vou. XIV, No. 83.—Nov., 1877.

418 Scientific Intelligence.

closer proximity, which such a concentration would cause,

(5.) That when the substances are very diamagnetic the disper-

sion of the rays caused by the magnetic rotation is sensibly pro-

n? (n?—1) .
2

portional to in which expression A is the wave length

and n the index of refraction. For various qualifications and
details we agit refer to the original paper, and also for a discus-
sion of the theory scscapstebe by M. Becquerel pére, which refers
the digerencee between magnetic and diamagnetic effects to the
relative strengt of ‘ahs magnetic energy of the bodies experi-
mented on and — of the ain um ad which they are o_o
nepee Chim. et de Phys.,
eaeiees Siete of ie —The nadine of the
“hitches of the rose-colored sulphide of manganese obtained
pall Apinseniaes into the green semi-crystalline modification of the
mpound has been studied by MM. Ph. de Clermont et
H, aise who come to the conclusion that the two substances
are different <tget - sic of the same body.—Ann. Chim.
et de Phys., V, x
16. An nalysis of ‘Alkaline Sulphides and Sulpho-carbonates.—
M.M. Detacuanat et Mermer have described a new method for
the complete chemical analysis of alkaline sulphides and sulpho-
carbonates based on the application of hypobromite of potassium
as an oxidizing agent. e method offers certain mar rked advan-

aris and ‘Gmolived the process prop rallas for
separating potassium from sodium based on the pianigiaiioes that
potassic —. rate is insoluble - alcohol and the

LAUIVGE

uently
is the only one whose prochlorat e gids not dissolve in this

as perchlorate after the salt has been teal to ae while the
sodium is converted into sulphate and weighed as reo —Ann.
Chim. et de Phys., V, xi, 561. Je Py 0.5 oR.
= ar Ray ener. athod of determining i amount of Man-
gan s described by M. Garcta ParreXo which
will “andoubtedly 1 ue found useful in many shea The manganese

acid. The process is conducted in a flas the chlorine gas
conducted into a weak solution of potassic ‘odide, the last traces
being driven over by boiling the acid. The amount of iodine

Chemistry.and Physies. 419

thus set free is then determined by a standard solution of hyposul-
phite of sodium which bleaches the solution colored by the iodine.
The solution of the hyposulphite is standardized by a et
Saba with pure Mn,O,.—Ann. Chim. et de P, 7 ae

ae aR,
19, Light: A series of simple, longed ie abit
experiments in the phenomena of light, for the use of students of

every age; by Atrrep M. Mayer and. Cavacus BaRNnarp. 112
. 8v0. New Yo rk, 1877, (D. Appleton & Co.).—The purpose of
this little volume is to present an tnstrate the fundamental phe-
nomena of light in a manner suited to the ready comprehension
of the younger class ‘of students, and to suggest means for verify-
ing the laws of its action by actual experiment. The text, which
was prepared by Mr. Barnard and revised by Professor Mayer, is
written in vivacious and entertaining style, and with such clear-

use of the m ost common oe materials, and at a very

than fie seer dol s. The aim of t the dutho ors has ng to make

4 7. E. THORPE, Pb.D., F.R.S., Paskeaace of Chemistry in the
herinerse College of Science, Leeds. New edition, 406

New York, 1877, (G. P. Putnam & Sons).—The — ious edition
of this work, as well as the other volumes by the same author.

well known among chemists, and their value fally apprectinel
‘A feature of this new edition is the co —_ of examination q
tions and exercises at the end of the wei

21. A System of Volumetric Analysis, by Dr. Emil thesenent

Translated with notes and additions from the second Germ
edition; by M. M. Parrison Murr, F.R.S.E. 274 pp. 8vo. Lite

don, 1877, (Macmillan & — erit of this work

lies in the fact that it gives not “a complete collection of receipt

for indepen system of gene thods under
hich the individual cases may be bro remar kes 3 ior

ugh s
translator the work LF to divide volumetri
a few great groups, to explain clearly the principles inde ance fay
each, and farther to illustrate by examples the application of these
principles. It will be readily seen how much greater benefit the

420 Scientific Intelligence.

student will derive from studying this subject, when so systemati-
cally presented. We are indebted to the translator for the intro-
duction of the shonidoal nomenclature and notation of modern
chemistry, for some advantageous condensation, and for the addi-
tion of more or less new matter

II. GroLtoGy AND MINERALOGY.

1. Geological and Geographical coding of the Territories ; by

. Haypen, U. 8. Geologist in charge. Conducted under the
authority of the Secretary of the Nav vy. Washington.—The fol-
lowing are notices of the recent publications of Dr. Hayden’s
pet EE which has been so rich in results to science and the

“(. ) Winth Annual Report, being a Report of Progress for the
year 1875. 810 pp. 8vo, ser numerous plates.—This volume

ports by A. D. Wirson and F. B. Raopa, H. Gannett. we
CumirTENDEN and G. R, Brecu LER; and Zoclogical Reports on the
History of the American Bison, . A, ALLEN; and on the
ocky Mountain Locust and other i injurious insects of th e West,
$i: A, > Packarp, Jr. We cite a few facts from some of these

River pe formed a shore-line in Cretaceous’ times.” ‘The
area of the Archean Continent was probably of some consider-

sion of that farther east, where the main chain of the Rocky
Mountains is now.” No Silurian or Devonian beds were ob-
served; and over a great part of the district the red beds (Trias-
sic) re rest immediately on the Archwan. The thickness of the
Carboniferous in Colorado is stated to be 4,000 to 5,000 feet ; and
of this only 500 to 1,000 feet consist of fra mental rocks. The

accounts of the other formation contain interesting sections and
many important details.

~~

‘ Geology and Mineralogy. 421

Dr. Endlich describes the Sangre de Cristo range and the
Luis and the Huerfano region. The highest mountains of this
. :

c.——may
boniferous, and he adds, this point is at least “entitled to further
investigation.” The Aiootoaiton ous ae Cretaceous rocks are
described and various sections are give The volcanic rocks are
spoken of as either trachyte, dole coe or basalt. There are six
volcanic areas situated—near the eastern entrance of the Sangre

idad regi s of

says of the coal. Dr. Endlich also discusses the distribution of
the Ancient Glaciers of Southern Colorado, and illustrates the

i with a map.

- Holmes describes the geology of the La Plata mining re-

n, giving vty daganin oe views and — and stating
a cts interest ted with the trachytic eruptions.
Professor adce eater ‘stratigraphic details respecting the

ert ai Cretaceous

opographical an nd Geogra aphical Reports treat of the

courses and heights re es sabe of drainage, i and

is illustrated by chy outline slichihes which’ are very effective ve.

The a Report by Mr. Allen, which ae previously
sppcareds: Ie already been noticed in this Journ Professor

ackard’s an treats of a subject of the highest stipiaaaibe to
the country—the injurious pion of the west—and occupies 220
pages of the volume. He remarks that in the United States the
loss of agricultural products gies this source is probably —
two hundred millions of dollars each year, and that from on
quarter to one-half of this amount might be saved by prev st
measures. Many figures are added to the text illustrating the
species.

422 Scientific Intelligence. :

(2.) Bulletin of 2 acti vol. ii, No. 4, pp. 118, 8vo, (739-
856 of vol. iti).—-This number of the Bulletin contains the follow-
ing articles: The first aieruced traces of fossil insects in the
American Sage mana by 8. H. ScuppER; ; description of two pa

of Carabide from Scarboro Heights, y 8. H. Scupprer ; Report
on insects sk a in the cece — of = 5, by P. a "Unter; ‘
on Cambarus Couesi, a new craw-fish from Dakota yok: i.

STREETS; on a Carnivorous Diaceat (deslage tr adadaa) from
‘the Dakota beds of Colorado , by E. D. Cope; contribution to the
Ichthyological fauna of the ‘Green _ er Shales, by E. D. Copr;
on the genus Erisichthe, by E. D.

Mr. Cope states that the fish of ime Green River Shales repre-
sent families partly of fresh water and partly of brackish or salt
water species. Material is needed to a whether the Green
River lake had communication with the

omy
by Dr. Coues, and those of the Leporide, Hystricide, p eaten
myide, Castoroidide, Castoride and Sciuride, by Professor
Allen. Specific and family distinctions, structural relations, geo-
divergences of varieties,

this
are treated with atone ire and precision. The monograph on
the Muridx is accompani four plates. The volume closes
with a synoptical list of ‘he fossil Rodents of North America, by
Professar Allen, and a neta by Mr. T. Gill and ‘Dr.
93 s.

This ie by ¢ one pores has Spent much time eth the ke
treated of, contains a full account of the condition, habits, arts,
histor , ete., of the people, and also a discussion of "the relations
of me anguage, together with a ep and vocabulary.

(5.) Miscellaneous Publications, No. Fur-bearing ‘Animals.
A ‘Monogr aph of Nort th American Masttider; ; “aA Ex.iotr Covks.
348 pp. 8vo, with 20 plates. Washington, 1877.—A work that
is ner sclehtiie, while also in part popu lar in its character.

2. Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History

? ‘of Minnesota, for the year 1876, INCHELL, State
Geologist. 248 8vo. Saint Paul, 1877 —— volume con-
tains reports on the Geology of Houston and Hennepin Counties,

sota; a chemical report by Prof. . §. F. Pecknam; a list of the
Fungi of the State, by Dr. A. E. Jounson; an entomological

Geology and Mineralogy. 423
Salaun treating of the locusts and other insects, by ALLEN

fog 4: os ort on Hennepin County contains many valuable facts
about the drift of the county, and also on the cha — from ero-

. Fhe Geological Record ne ‘ists 3 an account of works on
Geol ology, Mineralogy and Paleontology, published during the
year. Edited by Wm. Wurraxker, B.A., F. er es the Geological
Survey of England. 444 pp..8vo. Lo ndon, 1877.—This second
volume of the Geological Record will be po by all who are
interested in the progress of geological or mineralogical science.

e notices are brief, but yet ‘they are so well prepare red as to give
a correct idea of the contents of publications. It thus enables
the student to survey the year’s progress at a glance, and to
gather up references to the papers or works which he may need
to consult in detail. i

4. Steven Notice a wer Discovery of a new Mineral
Speci IDEON , Ph.D. (Communicated.)—The
ipecics here briefly deser ibed pace associated with chaleophanite
in ochreous limonite, at the Passaic Zine oe Sterling Hill, New

See
2

Color black. Streak brownish ea paque.
Before the blowpipe: in the forceps Lote eam in the closed
ube yields a little’ water. With fluxes reactions ‘for manganese

zinc,
The analyses lead to the _ Zn, Mn, Mn or Zn Mn. Whence
the a is a zinc haussmanite.

invariable cant with and close genetic relation
to chaleophanite, I te for the species the name Heterolite,
from éraipos, a 00)

Jersey City, Sept. 2 1877.

5. On some Tetherium and Vanadium Minerals ; by F. A
Gentu.—Dr. Genth’s al ruses sa SE of three new
Species, whose characters are here gi

Coloradoite. No ot erystallize withons cleavage; massive, some-
what i aaumes sometimes having an imperfectly columnar strue-
ture. (Sma gler Mine). " Hardness about 3; specific gravity =

the specimens neato! ed were more or less i a “as it was
impossible to separate entirely the associated minerals. Found
in Colorado at the Keystone and Mountain in Mines, with

424 Scientific Intelligence.

native tellurium and quartz; also at the Smuggler Ming where
it is often mixed with native gold, tellurium and tellur
nolite. Occurs in exceedingly fine sation, poe in

at the Keystone Mine, Magrolia
District, Colorado ; it occurs in ae upper decomposed portion of
the mine, with quartz, limonite and aendiees having been
produced by the oxidation of coloradoi

Kerrotellurite. A crystalline coating on quartz, associated with
native tellurium; under the microscope it appears in very delicate
tufts, sometimes radiatin ng, or in erate in minute prismatic
erystals of a color between straw and lemon-yellow inclining to

tity in hand did not allow of a reliable ip Baeky sis. Found at the
Keystone Mine, Colorado.

Dr. Ge also mentions the occurrence of 7ellurite (tellurium
dioxide, TeO,) at the Keystone, Smuggler, and especially at the
John Ja ay Mine, Ustors do. It is found in minute white, yellowish-
white and yellow crystals, mostly prismatic, isolated or aggregated

into bundles. eavage eminent in one direction, luster on this
face adamantine, elsewhere vitreous inclining to resinous. The
same compound was observed ith native tellurtum at

nolia District, outed it contains, however, more aluminum and
less vanadium. An analysis of the Siberian "volborthite i - oven
and its relation shown to the species psittacinite. . D.

6. ineralogische Miitheilun gen von G. vom Rat ee pores

land, and on compou und rutile apron a recap the expla-

nation of the obscure be gabercre 1a ) thread-
like forms of gold, oleae Sanh contribution, and is
on idated by a considerable n of figur

Botany and Zoology. 425

important work, did not end with his death, but its continuation
has been undertaken by one well fitted to perform the task. The
present edition, while including much new matter, retains the form

and a arrangement of those Nicer have arene ed ex — in one

E. 6. D
Ill. Borany AND ZooLoey.

Occurrence qe race gigantic Cephalopod on the coast of
Naitountont: EK. Verritt.—A nearly perfect specimen
of a large mee oa rang cast ashore after a severe gale, a
Catalina, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, Sept. 24. It was living
when found. It was fpraoee for two or three days at St. Johns,
and subsequently was carried in brine to New York, where it was
purchased by Reiche “& ae for the New York Aquarium, where
T have had an PDE to examine it.* Although somewhat
mutilated, and not in a very good state of preservation when
received, it is of great chara pings, without doubt, the largest
and best specimen ever preserve t proves to be Architeuthis
princeps, formerly described by me, from the jaws alone, in this
Journal.t The jaws agree well in form and color with the large

ie sessile arms (ventral ones) 11 feet; circumference at base 17
inches. Length of upper mandible 5°25 inches; diameter of large
su bdokets 1 inch; diameter of eye-sockets 8 inches. The eyes were

matty a sagittate in form. The rims of the eps suckers are
white, with very acutely serrate margins, and the small smooth-
rimmed suckers, Wives a gas iohea tubercles, are distantly
scattered along most of the inner face of the tentacular arms, the
last ones noticed pette nipetesn feet from the tips. The sessile

ones being somewhat shorter and smaller than the others ; the
serrations are smaller on the inner edge than on the outer of the

* When examined by me it was loose in a tank of alcohol. I learn that it has
i inserted two

Vol. ix, p. 181. Plate V, figs. 14, 15, March, 18
Measurements soc the — caught specimen were made by Rev. M. Harvey,
at St. Johns, and co cated to

426 - Scientific Intelligence.

suckers. A more detailed description is deferred to a es
a together with a description of another specim
The 2 Antelope and Deer of America ; by JOHN uae Eaton.
3 426 pp., numerous cuts. New York, (Hurd & Houghton.)
1877.—This is an excellent treatise on the ae antelope
oa the various species of deer, moose and elk, of which eight
species are recognized, The descriptions of the species are “de-
tailed, and a large part of the book is devoted to their habits,
domettiontiots hybridity, aliment, diseases, the chase, comparisons
with congeners, and other kindred subjects. The illustrations are
well executed | and characteristic.

Tuomas G, Gen Vol. ii, sre: 399 pp. Philade ‘Iphia. Pub-
lished by the eee 1877.—The second volume of this work,
which has just reached us, is, like the first, replete with details in
respect to the habits of ’pirds, and more especially as to their
migrations, the time occupied in building nests and oe and
the nature of food at different seasons of the year. In this consists

its chief scientific value. The author has evidently spent ‘ great

of this kind. 1e volumes include all the families above the
waders, and the author proposes to complete the work in ——
volume.

4. Zoologische Minas toe by Dr. R. mpage and Dr. es
- Nirscue. Bo — Theodor Fischer. oo ih ioe bee three

the analyses of certain seeds aaekascalty used for human food, an
two or three other papers by Prof. Storer which this new number

Botany and Zoology. 427

of the Bussey Bulletin contains, we call attention here only to
Prof. Farlow’s short article, which refers to some of the various
questions and problems he has had to deal with during be past
year. They mainly relate to the Black Knot of Plum trees, which
was the subject of a former paper; to the American Grape ne
mildew (Peronospora viticola), and a disease caused by Uncinula
spiralis the conidial form of which is genres: undistinguishable

rom the notorious Oidium Tuckeri ; to the #umago of Orange
and Cae trees, in which it t appears that the mischief produced
is owing to 0a wooly p lant-louse, upon the excretions of which, or
the exudations of the leaf caused by the punctures, the fungus i is
thought to live; and, final wk there are some notes supplementary
to Prot Farlow’s s memoir n the Onion n-smut. It seems that this

but is A all appearance Phe ae sa s U. magica, found on an Italian
car

It is well that we have in this country an institution which furthers
investigations of this sort, and intends to educate a sence of
teachers capable of u undertaking them

7. Flora Brasiliensis.—The 70th fascicle, a large one, with, 70
plates, is tilled with Bentham’s pita ether ‘of the Mimosee, and
concludes the sixteenth volume. The 71st contains the small
orders, Ochnacew, Anacardiaceew, Sabiacew, and Rhizophoracee,
by r. Engler. As to Ochnacee, the author confirms Planchon’s
idea, aes in 1862 but not anywhere acted upon, that this
order emb Ppergicdg 4 and he insists ak it is allied to
Dillen iacee oi ap t to Rutacew. For the large genus of the
sing op pete following pale, replaces Schreber’s long received
na Gomphia by Ouratea of Aublet, and he appears to have
in pes identified Aublet’s oda specimens. In dAnacardiacee
the genus Lithrea of Miers is reinstated. Brazil has but one species

ocky M
tains ss the jpice Popes of the Genhogiadl Survey of
Canada for 1875-76, issued in 1877, we find an interesting narra-
tive, by Professor John Macoun, of a botanical exploration from

ca

t to the Peace and Athabasea Rivers east of the Rocky
Mountains, and t Canada, to which is appended a full
Catalogue of the Plants collected, or known Mr. Macoun t
occur on this range, with a careful indication of their cre

i acea ‘the continent. A very useful and er

9. Sketch of the rar of the Nicobar Islands ; Tne:
thon of Burmese Palms ; Vontributions toward a knowledge of the

428 Scientific Intelligence.

Burmese Piora, ete.; by 8. Kurz.—These are the titles of some

se
ames. ‘“ Petal occurs as a name for several different plants in
Jelinck’s journal. I fear it is meant for ‘bétél’ (‘just so, ‘right

so’), a very usual saat of a Malay to a question regarding the
pronunciation of a word.” A.
10. Arboretum aolana .... par Atpo. LavaLiee. This

handsome octavo volume, as i ‘te full title ductares is an enumera-
tion of the trees and shrubs cultivated at Segrez (Seine and Oise),
h

while the author was forming the Arboretum which now adorns

ames, and

through traditional errors or oversights of the nurserymen, som
times thr rough less innocent practices of “ quelques hortionitours
which our author is agin rained to denounce. In consequence he
was obliged to stud the acanclalatins and cabin the sy-
nonymy for himself ieanelieuk, with the best aid to be had from
the Jardin des Plantes and elsewhere. Hence the raison @étre of
this volume, and its value to all who have pistes eR to
eee: or to. care for G.

1. Systema Iridacearum ; by J. G. Baxer.—This bogiits in
ee 90th number of the Journal of the Linnean Society, and is
continued in the following. When concluded, we may give an

peri and timely, and the Jridacee particularly need revision,
n almost untouched by all later ee ae except by
Dr. "Platt, whose synopsis in the Linnea co Sanat

and whose views are not always to be adopt

12. Native “Artichokes.”—Upon sae et the article upon n Heli
anthus tuberosus, contributed to this Journal (in May last) by
Messrs. Trumbull and Gray, the bios os herpes botanist and
explorer, Mr. John Macom, wrote a

“It is a fact that a species of Helionthes week I took to be #.

Astronomy. 429

tuberosus, grows in baa mine maths in the valley of the paige eee pa
on the e right t bank of the river, above Point Mem
discharges into Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, anes is quite easy of
access from the United States. I saw the plant growing in abund-
ance on the alluvial flats on the 12th July, 1869, and found the
tubers of a cao size at that time. Whether my plant i is the true
tuberosus or not, it is certainly the parent of the Indian tuber. -
Where I got it was ae the old (high) road to the northwest. It
would be worth while to have one of the American tourists get a
few plants late in Au te ust. I Lave no doubt but I have hit upon
the exact locality from which the French took the tubers, and it
only remains to identify my plant with A. doronicoides,”

It is well to know of this station; ie the Hurons of Sagard’s
narrative doubtless dwelt much farther

Dr, C. C, Parry

of Wisconsin and Minnesota, publi in Owen’s Olea
Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa an Minnesota, in nish. on page 61
is the entry: “ Helianthus tuberosus L., Artichoke, river

banks, St. Peter and St. Croix, es mative, and a well-known
article of diet among the Indians, called by the Chippewas Ush-
ke-baug.” An original specimen was kindly supplied by Dr.

Tn regard to the other sort of root mentioned by Sagard as
resembling pa di . eo they call Sondhratates, and which a
much better,’ Dr. Macom is confident that not Sium lineare but
Aralia racemosa is meant’ for the older inhabitants of that part
of Canada affirm that the root of this Aralia was a favorite food
of the Indians, and that they taught its use to the first settlers.
In flavor this root (commonly called “spikenard” and “ = "y
might well be said to resemble parsnips.

13. Necrological.—There pete died during the past summer 96
European botanists of note, namely, Henry A. WepbpDELL and
Pure et notices of dines will $e given in the ong
record of the yea ee a

IV. ASTRONOMY.

Discovery of a New Planet; by C. H. F. Perers. (From a
ne to the editors, dated Litchfield oe of Hamilton
College, Clinton, = Y., Oct, 15, 1877.)—I take pleasure in for-
warding an observation | of a new planet found last night, showing
the brightness of a ies of 10°5 magnitude:

Oct. 14. 12h39m51sH.0.m.t. a(175)=1h6m4.73s, 6(175)= +8° 637°4",
from 18 comparisons with Schj. 397. The daily motion ef the
planet is about 36° in right ascension, and between 13’ and 14’ in
declination toward the south. You are perhaps already aware,
that the planet, of which the last number of the Journal contains

430 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

a valuable series of pose with the number (174), is ener
cal with the planet (141) Lumen, so that what is’ called t
(175), receives the former, and "the present Sianee the jute
number,

2. Comets in 1877.—The number of comets for the present
year already amounts to six. 1. Discovered ws Borrelly, Fe

. 2. Discovered by Winnecke, April 5th. eins by
Swift, April 11th, 4. Discovered by Coggia, ap 13t Di
covered by Tempel, Oct. 2. To these is to be nided PA rests
comet of short period.

3. Observations and Orbit of Tempel?s Comet.—Comet 6, 1877,
discovered by Tempel October 2d, was first seen at the Observa-
tory of the Sheffield Scientific School October 5th. From meas-
urements made on the 5th, 7th a 9th, the following provisional
orbit has been computed. The comet is re ceding from both the
earth and sun, and will soon dies pear. From places computed

as early as July, an been ever since that time both favorably
situated for ee — at least as bright as when discovered
It fgneag have us at any time neare about

‘BO
saad bia to chee of any preted calculated orbit. The
observations were made and orbit computed by Mr. W. Beebe
and Mr. en,
New Haven m.t. Comet’s a(m.eq.1877°0). Comet’s J.
h m

Oct. 5, 10 30-7 2339 194 —13°50" 9”
1, 9: 483 32 31°0 5 40 4
9, 9 262 26 29°1 17 20 58
ll, 7 46.4 20 PT 18 48 53
ae a 26-800 Wash. mH. t. C.—0.
= 2 Aa Aé

g=184 17 -o¢™ ed 18770 Oy 1, —18 4+ 2”
54 -0 11, —9. +38
log. peo nee

NG goccoaraibie SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Vo iL ii, Part - Jan., 18 76 to , 1877. 148 ss 8vo.—The
Davenport Academy Ae iigee - e expecial rich in papers on
merican Archeology. The num f the Eocesainee before

us ome several papers of ae character by the following
authors W.. H. Pratt. Rey. J. Gass. R. J. pasa M.D.,
Rey. - Peet, C. T. Lindley and Fain J. W
Mr. Gass announces the discovery of ee engraved tablets in
an Indian mound, which he Bove “Mound No. 3 of the Cook’s
Farm Group ;” | and these a re particularly deasriteld by Mr. Far-
ees in a paper illustrated by excellent photographs of the
blets. One represents a calendar, another a sacrificial or crema-
oe scene, and the third a hunting : scene. In the last, thirty indi-

. 7

Aiiscellaneous Intelligence. 431

viduals are represented: of man, 8; bison, 4; me ss birds, 3 5
hares, 3; big-horn or Rocky Mountain goat, i; , 1; prairie
lf, ‘1; " non-deseript animals, 3. of the last chee it is sug-
gested may be the Mastodon, and as. and in view of other
oe: announcements, the cotemporaneity of Man and the
Tastodon is deemed probable. fe ~ number contains also a few
zoological A bls by J. D. Put
Tw. &. Geographical and fae ogical Survey of the pea
Mountain Region. J. W. Powe11, Geologist in charge. Depart
ment of the Interior.—This surve , under the Interior Department,
has recently issued volume I of Cinniiations to North American
Anology, a quarto volume of 362 pages, with many illustrations.
Part I contains a Report on the tribes of the extreme N orthwest ;
by W. H. Datz; Part I, on the tribes of Western Washington
and Northwestern Oregon, with a ma y GrorGE GI
cluding, in an appen of 122 pages, CO mparative vocabularies,
and a a Niskwalli-Roglish and English-Niskwalli Dictionary.
Burial Customs of North American Indians ; Mr. H. C
Yarrow, of Washington, D. C., has issued a circular requesting
information in aid of a memoir he is preparing, upon the “ Bu a
apt of the Indians of North America, both ancient and m

tion to the following points in regard to which information is
desired: Name of the tribe; locality; manner of burial, ancient

at the xeny Medical Museum aa D GC,
cular contains more detailed statements,
On the Science of Weighing and ie nante Pata and Stand-
ae

ards of Measure and Weight ; by H. W. Cutsnotm, Warden of

the Standards. 192 pp. 8 ndon; 1877, (Macmillan & Co.
ture ).—This little volume contains a very interesting

account of the ancient standards of weigh easure, mo

ployed in’ the restoration of the imperial pound and yard after
their destruction by the burning of the Houses of Parliament in
1834, Another chapel is devoted to the Metric Bh tena and one
also to instruments for weighing and measuring. The numerous
illustrations of the ancient standards add much to the foitarest of
the description.

. How to draw a Straight Line; A Lecture on Linkages
by A. B. Kemps, B.A. : pp. 8vo. London, 1877, (Macmillan

Jo. Nature Series). —A description of the ingenious Me tel

432 . Miscellaneous Intelligence.

herical axonometric and oblique projections. For colleges and

Scientific Schools ; S. Epwarp W ; j vo
ew York, 1877, (John Wiley & Sons).—A salou work for
students in descriptive geomet It is intended as a concis

- humerous examples in connection with the successive

ro
ts iisitbtonde Report for 1876.—Many are the ways in which
the Smithsonian Institution is promoting the progress of science
in the land. One among these, of very wide influence, is the pub-
lication, in its Annual Report, of an appendix containing memoirs
on scientific subjects. Among the memoirs in the Report for 1876
there are the following:

Eulogy of aay Lussac, by M. Arago; a biographical sketch of
Dom Pedro II, by A. Fialho ; a paper reviewing the kinetic
theories a Gravitation, by W. B. Taylor; on the Revolutions of

the Crust of the Ea rth, y Prof. G. Pilar , of Brussels; on the
Antecids ek eseas Mars and Jupiter, i > Kir — and vari-
rin Ethnological ceri yrogne m _ relics.

RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR FURTHER NOTICE HERE.
Paleontology of the Geological Survey of the State of New York: epee ron
of Devin Fossils, Gasteropoda, Pteropoda, Cephalopoda, Crustacea, an

Publi ont of N rk, by authority of the
Legislature of the State of New York, nearly 150 plates, 4to. Albany, 1877
Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the New Yor useum of Natural His-

' °
tory, by the Regents of the University of the State of New York (ex-officio Trus-
tees of the Museum). Transmitted to the eulgeigie ieee 30, 1875; peau
a paper by James Hall, consisting of 34 plates of fossils of the Nia agara group of
Central Indiana with explanations, and important sth on Trilobites, etc., Sey
C. D. Waleott, with a Botanical Report, by C. H. Peck.

OBITUARY.

Urs J. Leverrier, the French astronomer, died on Sun-
day, tha: 23d of September, - — age of sixty-six, having been
born a the 11th of March, 1

Joun G. Antuony, the Nauiahloplst: Professor in Harvard Col-
lege, Cambrid e, Mass., died on the 9th of October, aged seventy-
ep years. e was born in Providence, Rhode Island, May 17,
1

Bensamin HatLoweEtt, author of a work on Geometrical Anal-
ysis, died at Nair Hill, Montgomery wiser Maryland, in his
seventy-eighth year.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

ART. rene the Proper Motion o the oe rod
M. 20 = H. v; 10, 11,12 = h. 1991, 8718 = G. C. 4355.
[R. A. = 17h 53m 518-8, N. P. D. = 113° 1/ 39-9; 1860- -
by Epwarp 8. HoLpEn.

[Read in Abstract to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.]

It seems proper to collect the evidence now existing on this
point in order to show the desirability of the study of this
nebula, and because, in case the indications which we there find
of a decided proper motion should be confirmed, such results
would be of importance.

Following I give in chronological order such extracts from
published and unpublished observations of this nebula as bear

on the points now under consideration, italicizing such portions
as deserve particular attention.
OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEBULA.

This nebula was discovered by Messizr June 5, 1764, but he
gives no details concerning it.—Hist. de l’ Aca ” des Sciences
1771, p. 443

Am. Jour. Rok cPane ~~ Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Dec., 1877.

434 #. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifia Nebula M. 20.

Observations of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL

1784, July 12: “Three nebule faintly joined form a triangle.
In the middle is a double star. Very faint and of great extent.”
—Phil. Trans., 1786, p. 494.

1786, May 26: “A double star with extensive nebulosi sity of
different intensity. About the double star is a black opening, re-
sembling the nebula of Orion in miniature.”—Phil. Trans., 1789,

. 247

ll, ....: “Three nebule seem to join faintly together form-
ing a kind of triangle; the middle of which is less nebulous, or
perhaps free from nebulosity ; ; in the ameoe of the triangle is a
double stur, ete.” —Phil. Trans., 1811,

236 Sweep July 12, 1784: ce Between, 3 ers (10, 71, °49,
V class) is a double star.”— Mem. R. A. 8., i, p.

566 Sweep. May 26,1786: “ A double star yithin nebula IV,
41.” — Mem. R. A. 8., 1,

Observations of Sir JOHN HERSCHEL

Se ee “Tn the nebula R. A. 17" 52™, N. P. D, 113° 1’ mn
Sagittarius * * * * the idea of an absorption by the double star
in its middle is very forcibly suggested. This nebula is broken
into three parts, and the three lines of division meet in a vacancy,
in the midst of which is situated the aoe star. Ti og a
object has perhaps a proper motion.”--Mem. R. A. S., ii, p. 49

8.

os
Fig. 1. HERSCHEL, 1833.

1827....: “A double star placed exac tly in the central vacuity
of a ine irregular nebula, which appears to have broken up into
three portions by three rifts or cracks, extending from its ce miter
to its circumference, pos ose directions meet at the double star.”
—Mem. R. A. a: ili, p.

et “The ie star Sh. 379 in the center of the trifid

183
nebula” . [Sweep 2

E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 485

“A careful drawing t taken, but the nebula is not clear from twi-
light and clouds. aaa This drawi ing is unfortunately lost, and
that engraved in fig. 80 is constructed from much less elaborate
sketches, aided by memor 5 32.

“Ver large ; trifid, three nebule with a vacuity in the midst,
in which is righ situated the double star Sh. 379.”—Phil.
Trans., 1833, p.

If we had nothing but the preceding evidence aes regard to
this nebula we should be justified in laying down the following
tpg. with regard to the situation of the triple ihe relative

to the three nebulosities.
8.

N.
Fig 2. Mason and Situ, 1839.

4. From 1784, July 12, to 1833, this triple star was centrally
situated habinash the three Ltacheetn f es. ‘The evidence is based upon
two observations of Sir am Herschel and four phiseryations
of Sir John, and in the tae Trans. for 1811-Sir William again
repeats his former statements.

436 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

Observations of MASON and SMITH.
August 1: “The double star is certainly not as figured in
Phil. Trans; 1833, but rather adhering to the |eastern| of the vies
i ns.’
839. yey 9..: “The triple star is certainly not central, ore
involved * ” Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc y, vol. vii, pp. 175-

N.
Fig. 3. HerscHen, 1834-8.
Observations of Sir Joun Hersener at the Cape of Good Hope.

1835. August...: “I have been rather unfortunate in my fig-
r Y “
ures of this “nebula. That given in my Northern Catalogue (our
figure 1) is not to be taken as more than an attempt, and that a
most rude and imperfect one, to show the situation of the fine
triple star in its center with respect to the nearer portions of the

three principal surrounding nebulous masses.

oe then speaks of the drawing of Mason (our figure 2)
as follow

E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 487

“On comparing our figures they will be found to agree in every
essential particular, allowing for the difference of light between
reflectors of 12 dnd 18 inches aperture, with one rather remanent
exception, viz: in the form of the southern mass of the trifid neb-
a and the character of the three paths or avenues which’ lead up

the triple star. Mason represents these avenues as free e from
ate abrupt change of direction, the northern and preceding of
them branching out with and easy and graceful biftreation from

N.
Fig. 4. Index-Map. (Lassen.)

the southern; whereas my figure, whose correctness in this respect
I cannot ¢ oubt, gives the prec eding avenue a remarkably sudden
and uncouth flexure, like a gnarled branch of an oak, just at its
divergence from the other two.”*— Astron. Obser. Cape of Good
Hope, p. 10.

* M : = Art. 4 46, p. se this appearance | is recorded among the

thin ght His re represents only “things certain,” and
sieobanly. Sir po Here hel referred Saily to the drawings in his comparisons.

438 H. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

The observations of Secchi* (1852-5) and of D’ Arrestt (1866,
June 2) throw no light on the position of the triple star relative
to the nebula.

Later observations of the nebula are those of Lassell, Lang-
ley, Trouvelot and myself. (It has also been observed at Mel-

4-foot reflector, an instrument well suited to the purpose. They
are published in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety, volumes xxxili and xxxvi.

No verbal description of the nebula is given by Lassell, but
the drawings are complete in themselves, and the evidence to
_ be derived from them will be considered hereafter. The fol-
lowing micrometric observations were made by Lassell. In
order to present the nomenclature of the stars the Index-Map
(Lassell’s) is given.

Table [—LasseL’s Star-Posttions.t
[The positions are referred to Star 1.]

gusty Observed. Computed.
Star —. Dp. 8. Aa. Ad,
3 25° 467 270"°15 +117"44 | +243"°30
4 333. 4 243-20 —110°16 +216°82
5 ves. ee 8 | 215'37 +175°38 + 125°02
q 116 49 181°21 +161°72 — 81°75
8 311: 94 391°68 — + 259-03
10 121 30 90:39 + TT07
14 43 PEPE + 11°49 +176°80
167 52 249°25 + 52°39 a
21 235 40 129-17 —106°67 — 72°85

* Mem. dell’ Oss. Coll. Romano, 1852-55, p. 89.
{ Abhand. d. k. Sach. Gesell. d. Wissenschaften, voi. v, p. 343.
Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxvi, p. 49.

E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 489

_ Observations at the Harvard College Observatory.
1866. July 31.

Prof. Sie discovered the 4th star of Sh. 379 Sa ra which he
estimated 13 mag., and whi ae ue described as “blue.” inde-
pendently seen ea Prof. Winlock, Measures of codr Saas made,

— August

[The following ree are copied verbatim from the original
observing books, orca that. I have replaced the letters which are
assigned to the stars by Prof. Langley, by Lassell’s numbers, for -
the fee of antfoemit ty. The peptone’ in square brackets are
m

1866. August 11.

Méxsulds of coérdinates of stars [omitted]. ‘Observed just
south of 1, 10, 7, a faint, straight, narrow channel nearly filled up
with nebulous matter. Was less confident to-night that the nebula
surrounded the quadruple star, which seemed to be in the channel
with blackness on each side, less in the preceding than in the fol-
lowing side.

1866. August 13
Fifth component (E) of Sh. 379 discovered by. Prof. Langley.
1866. September 10

The entire region south of 1 [C] is judged, as before, to be the
brightest part of the nebula, Ge nearly so, Cannot fe el sure that
there is any nebulosity about 1. The channel [south of] 1, 10, 7,
is rather suspected than seen

The drawing of M. Trouvelot was made with the aid of the
Harvard College refractor (of 15 inches aperture) in 1874, and is

published in the Annals of the Harvard College Observatory,

as

proper p place. The following oe ae made by me with the
26-inch refractor of the U. 8S. Nay al Observatory “pbdalate
the materials at our —
in detail.*
I give the Washington pisces almost literally from the

* Printed b fee ssion of pontine John Rodgers, U. 8. N., Superinten-
dent of the U. 8. Naval Observato

440 HE. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

observing books, ee order that they may serve for future com-

arisons. ot infrequently a verbal statement can be made
more definite and satisfactory than the presentation of the same
evidence in a drawing.

Washington Observations.
1874. August 12. Observers, S. W. Burnham and E. 8. Holden: the subsequent
observations are by the latter observer.

Sketch of ( made, 37 and 38 faint. Within 35” of Sh. 379
are 4 stars, I, II (=Lassell’s ade Ill and IV. [These have been
subsequently measured, se h, Ast. Obs. for 1874-5-7 ; of these
I and IV were Rincoveten byl Prof. Langley at Harvard College
earvatary,

34 equal in brightness to 36. [The principal work of this night
was the making of the star-chart f

6 is certainly inside the nebulosity, but is close to its preceding
cone: 11 is inside the nebulosity by $ of the distance from 6 to

11, but the oe: is faint there; 12 and 13 both inside; 12 is
nearer to the following edge of the “nebula ae 13. 52 is inside
the eatin ?? Clouds prevent further work.

1875. August 5.

6 is on the edge of A. 11 is on the edge of a brighter streak,
but follows the extreme edge by about } the distance 6-11. From
11 to the point near the triple star [this refers to the point of the
edge of the nebula A north of 1-2-19 and about the prolongalon
of the line 1-2; August, 1877] the edge is faint and tremulou
12-13-52 all inside the nebu ulosity. In the line 13-52 the cag
to the following edge Sealy is not always sharp) is about equal
to the distance tam 13 to 52, [This distance is to be measured
from 52 toward the fillwinc side, 1877.

A figure was made, from which the following notes are derived.
The nebula is condensed around star 4. Ifa line be drawn joining

this last line cuts ve ope edge of B at a distance from 18

20 is about vi middle of the dark channel f [see index-map].
The angle of position of this channel f is 160° (1 measure).

f extends ¢ of the distance from 20 to 9.

ay is immersed in nebulosity. The line 20-9 [16 ?] is nearly the

of f.

a second sketch of the bounding lines of the nebula made, which
agrees more nearly with Lassell 1864 than the first one of this night,
in the position of the nebulosit mera fo the stars 18 and 40.]

The triple star Sh. 379 is mali ia

E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 441

1877. July 2.
The following stars were identified and placed on the chart:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, —, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, rd 28, 29, 30, 3], $e 33, 34, 35, 36, a7, 38, 39, 40, 41,
—,—, 48, 49, 0. 51, 52, —, BA, 5 ; leaving stars

8, 12, 43, “6, 47, 53 to be aieiantee charted.

Measures of P, Ao, ete. See Table II. WNotes.—48 has a ne
less 46 than 18. 44 has a little greater 4d than 18. The
1 and 12, 19°-2, is nearly that of 1 and 19. If anything the p of 1
and 19 is greater than oo id 1 ae 12

12,

Measures of p, Ja, ete. ‘See Table II. Notes.—The line 12-13
passes west of 1, and ‘the nebulosity near 1 is still west of this line.
Star 3 is east of the line 12-13 by about 1” (est.). The line 1-18
bisects A (roughly speaking). 7 precedes 5 a little.

Along the line 14-20 there is nebulosity to the edge of y, then
darkness to the edge of A, then nebulosity to the edge of A again,
then darkness in /. That is, the preceding edge of A is cut off
by the line 14-20

The nebulosity of A just following the line 14-20 is fainter for 3”-6”
(est.); but beyond this sa it is uniformly bright up to 1, 2, 19.

877. July 13.

The line 14-20 is Pare gi in regard to the nebulosity as in figure
[omitted]; that is, the line 14-20 really passes through the nebula
near 1, 2, 19, but through a fainter part. It is, however, about
tangent to nebulosity of the same brightness as that near 1-2 on

ebula ity i t,
meturaehs had prides about ray stars since Mason’s faving
877. 'y 16

Measures of p and Ja. See Table IL. I suspect D to be vari-
able, 11 very faint.

1877. July 25.

Measures of Ja, 46. See Table II. DandE seen. D is fi
brighter than any other of the small components of Sh. 379, of quia
aly D and E are visible whi ene E is quite faint. E<20

. July 26,

ae nlight. Placing ve Bae ometer wire through 12-13 the
wire runs west of 1, 2, 19, but is involved in fainter nebulosity near
them. Half way from this wire to star 1 Te noes mee becomes

442 EH. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

1877.
V. The line 3-35 is sag 32 ona cecal to the line 12-13, =
intersects the nebulosity A near 1,2,19. This line is tangent v

exactly to the preceding an of the brighter nebula about kan
three stars.

An ee of position of #, passing through 20 and 16 (not 9),
162°°7

New dark channel between 1 and 10, as in sketch. It extends
no further east than 10, and 10 and 11 are on or near its following
borders. Its preceding border is 20’-30" following 1, 2,19. The
seeing is poor, and this point should be reéxamined.

The brightest part of the nebula is about the triple star.

It is an oval mass nearly symmetrically disposed about the triple
star. The triple star is, if anything, toward its western side.

(B) The next brightest nebulosity is near 36, but eae Pe not
much brighter than (C) or the brightest parts of (B) ne

(D) Stars 12-13 are both inside the ne aie esi [See Oneeye.
tions of 1875, Aug. 4; 1877, July 12

E) Star 11 is on the very edge of a ‘irighter portion, but follow
the Pace Ga by 4 the distance 6 to 11. [See Observations of
ar

OF Star a is within the brighter nebulosity, the boundary line
of which runs (see sketch) [omitted] between 5 and 26, but much
nearer 26 than 5; perhaps 4 of the distance 26 to 5

(G) [Star 6 is seekality inside the nebulosity, about half way
from the shes | edge of the fainter nebulosity to ine preceding
edge of the brighter.] See Observations of 1875, .
tars 5, 27 and 28 are on the precedin g edge of ‘the fainter
parts of A. [But preceding 5, 7, 28 it is not totally black. |
(J) The triangle 40, 44, 21 has no nebulosity gs is’ at all
bright within it exce t Al

(K) 21 is involved in C a few seconds, but it is ius to its north
edge. 35 is well chs goa 36, 37, 38 are correct on the map.
1877. July 31..

21 and 1, —65"°73 (3), —0”-09 refraction, 46 = —65"°82.
This is about the mean of the 46’s of 38 and 37. Sketch of stars,
etc., age 5, 17, 28.

‘he tmosphere on this night was more favorable than pre-
viously ‘auting the year, and the principal work was devoted to
the examination bo the apparent differences between Lassell’s and
Trouvelot’s fi

5, etc. is in the northern part of t , and the eye ae
ors to trace the following “om of i "channel y, that it 1s
n mpression that 5 on or the preceding

Plac ing'5 in ne center of the field, and thus prouilig ¢ the dis-
turbing effect of the well marked border of the channel y near

E. & Holden— Proper Motion of the Prifid Nebula M. 20. 448

6 and 11, the ) maendepi of Lassell’s figure are most nearly pos
sented. As before describe d, the nebulosity between 5 and 26
mostly faint, bata near 26 it becomes brighter, so that 26 is aacobved

now more dee eply in the brighter parts of (A) than is given by
Lassell, and not so much as given by Trouvelot.

The ‘nebulosity immediately about 4, 27, 28 is faint. The dark
channel y a to have well marked edges south of 5. The faint
nebulosity about 5, however, does not seem to be connected (as in
Lassell’s figure) with (B).

August 3,

Night very Baie i A sep 14 46) = -—211"'37 (2), —0"°30 re-
fraction, Jd = — 7 (2). _Lassell gives Soden , and I pre-
sume there is an error in ae numbering her

Order of brightness of the see stars.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 18, 20, 26, 21,25. 39 and 24
are quite faint.’ Lassell’s order of brightness is therefore main-
tained. Nebulosity was traced north following Sh. 379 a consid-
erable way, about half a degree to a nebulous star 8", but I was
hindered in this by clouds which finally covered the whole sky.
The same hindrance occurred in the same way on the clear night
of July 31. The connection of this nebula with neighboring ones
deserves examination, as it is vat extended, but no opportunity
offered ——o 1877 for this work :

ith regard to t po triple star: It was first seen double b
ee South ie Say ane aoe wit

in 1877. A = Lassell 1; = 3; r=
The approximate oes me the various soimponents are;

A and B : o11° : 10” rg

A and C Swe & 65 t Bh. ay

B and D : 283 : 2°5

A and F ; 107 : 19°5

B and E ‘ 193 5°8
This nomenclature includes Trouvelot’s star s.f.1. Ihave several
times sus eee the existence of a small star n. p. A. =310
s=6" r measures of the above stars, see the Washington Aiea.

n nd rve th
triple star Sh. 379 on the iraneit-Cirole, in order to fix its position
b solutely.

The ington observations of star positions are given in the
table following It will be noticed that in the column “ Holden—
Mason” the errors are usually within the limits set by Mason
himself.

444 HF. S. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

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E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 447

Position of the mass A relative to the triple star.

Ir will be convenient to examine the various drawings with
regard to ak situ! and to lay down a series of bom
e com-

original ones and the propositions I have derived from

them. In the actual examination of the drawings, each one
was studied separately, and all the evidence to be derived from
it recor nd the various data were subsequently collated.

In this way a é tolerably pnt judgment can be formed.

In Sir John Herschel’s Cape of Good Hope figure we find:

I. Stars 1-2-19 are on the very edge of A.

II. The line 12-13 does not pile a t A,

Ill. The star 20 is not laid

IV. The line 1-10 is not rales le precedin

V. The star 35 is not laid down on = caving although
given in the Catalogue

In general the soreenient with Mason’s drawing is good for
‘ e mass A near 1, 2,19. In the figure given by Mason and

mith :

I. Stars 1-2-19 immersed in

II. The me 12-13 does not pees A, but passes west of it
by about 1

II. The . star 20 is not laid down, as it was too faint for Mason’s

bee =
e line 1-10 preceding 1 is involved in A by a little over
14”.

V. 35 is not laid down in his drawing.

These measures are not made on the engraving representing
the nebula as it appears to the eye, but on the contour map
(Mason's Plate II). The two plates agree however, but the
second is more useful for a purpose like the present one, as it
was seen by Mason that it would be.

ring his residence at Malta in 1862-4, Lassell presented
to the Royal Astronomical iety a figure “ei this nebula
drawn under his coerne which is referred to in the Memoirs

that work. This Seater bed not be here given, as essentially
the same observations are represented in Lassell’s second

448 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

gure in the vol. xxxvi of the same series (p. 48 and fig. 32
Plate VII), which we give below. The first of these figures
we may, however, briefly describe in some important points,
using Lassell’s nomenclature for the stars, as given in the last
cited work and Mason’s nomenclature for the “nebulosity, as in
our Index-map.

N.
Fig. 5. Lassen, 1862.

Lassell’s first figure.
I. Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in the nebula.
Il. The line ‘of stars 12-13 prolonged passes through the nebu-
losity of A. If we draw the shortest line from star 2 to the pre-
ceding edge of A this line is cut by the line 12-13, cbonnasel at
about one-third its length from > _— eding end, and this line is
involved in the nebula near 1, 2, 19, for about 30’ of its length.
Ill. The line from 14 to 20 — the line from 2 at about its
mee point, or) is involved in the nebula near 1, 2, 19 for about
” of its lengt

E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 449

FY, thee line 10-1 is involved in nebulosity preceding 1 by
about 167°6.
Vv. The line 35-3 is nearly tangent to the preceding edge of the
nebula

Lasseli’s second figure.

This figure is the result of repeated observations and is to
be considered as more trustworthy than the former.

I. Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in A.

IL. The line of stars 12-13 prolonged passes through the nebu-
losity A preceding 1, and is involved in the nebula A for about
25” of its length.

IL. The line 14-20 is involved in A for about 17”, It is to be

noted here that all of A which precedes the line 1, 2, 19 is in this

rawing nappueoee fainter than that just on the border of
which 1, , 19 are situate

This is “fot so given in the earlier figure, but probably this
second figure represents more exactly the careful observations
of Lassell himself. Returning to the second figure we find :

IV. hoo line 10-1 is inv olved in nebulosity preceding 1 by
about 16

. The “line 35-3 is approximately tangent to the preceding
shore o

From the Hareecd College observations by Professor Langley
and from sketches accompanying them the following conclusions

may bedrawn. As remarked by Prof. Langley these tain
are not of ae sre = as the micrometric observa

I. Stars not immersed in A, but wa in “the ‘duck
channel waick, jotta is filled with faint nebulosi

he line 12-13 prolonged i is not involved in he nebulosity A,

IIL. Stars 14-20 not laid down.

IV. Line 1-10 not sips preceding a:

V. 35 not laid dow

In the drawing ads by M. Trouvelot at Harvard College
Observatory*—

L Stars 1, 2, 19 are immersed in 4.

IL The line the does not intersect A, but passes west of it
by many secon

UL. lags line 14-20 is not csic eras in A at all.

IV. The 1-10 preceding 1 is involved in A.

Vi The. star 35 is not laid
- From the Washington hediats it appears that—

I, 1, 2, 19 are immersed in

IL The line 12-13 pechongel passes through A, Half way
from this line to the line 1, 2, 19 the nebulosity becomes brighter,

* Annals Harvard College Observatory, vol. viii, plate 32. This — is not
copied, as it is but lately published and is in the hands of cpap
Am. Jour. Sot SS Vou. XIV, No. 84.—DeEc.

450 ES ee Re Motion of the T: mies Nebula M. 20.

and so continues up tol. That is, the line 12-13 is involved in
the fainter nebulosity.

III. The line 14-20 cuts off the canes borders of A, but is
involved only in fainter nebulosity. .It is, however, about tangent
to the brighter nebula about 1, 2, 19.

IV. The line 10-1 prolonged i is involved in A preceding 1.

he line 35-3 is almost exactly parallel to the line 12-13
es and intersects A near the triple star. This line is
tangent very exactly to the Bre edge of the brighter
nebulosity about these three star

We may make the following summary of the evidence with
Sate to the position of the triple star relative to the
nebulosity.

the very ed e of. , but in Mason’s figure ant in his notes,
ee Certain,” he places these stars within the nebula, and

ably a meet of the two memoirs will result in the
sere that Mason was right mh that we must suppo
the triple star to have been involved in 1837-9. It is all the

1
more proper to come to this aenelanon as Herschel does not ex-
ss

to be noted here that this position is utterly different from the
one derived from thesevidence of the earlier observatio

In the absence of satisfactory micrometric measures ionic
indeed are almost impossible to make on this point even with
bei Sounenetig wires), it may be said that Lassell’s (2 fig-
ures), Trouvelot’s and my own observations agree in this re-
spect with Mazon’ 8, rallowhig for difference of telescopes. We
may therefore say with certainty that—

%. From 1839 to 1877 the triple star was not centrally oleae’
between the three nebulosities, but was involved in A. The
ve

same time it must be noted that’ in several respects these observa-
tions vary from other later ones, and it is to be remembered that
the evidence is _— mostly derived from verbal and definite de-
scriptions, an erefore are of greater weight than if deduced

II. The line 12- 13, according to Herschel, does not intersect
ason—does not intersect ‘A; Lassell ( (1)—does intersect A ;
Lassell (2)—does intersect 4; Lan ngley—does not intersect A;
Trouvelot—does not intersect A; Holden—does intersect

E. S. Holden— Proper Metin of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 451

Ill. The line age wi dah pc ~ IIerschel, cannot be traced ;
Mason—cannot be traced ; Lassell (1)—is i involved in A; Las-
sell (2)-—is eee in A; apieye ts not involved in 4; Trou:
velot—is not involved's in A; Holden—is involved in
e line 10-1; the evidence under this head corroborates

that ides I, except in the case of Harvard College, 1
. The line 35-3: He rschel, star 35 not laid lowh: Mason,
star 35 not lai d down; Lassell (1), stars Bees: about tangent to

35-3 intersects the fainter nebulosity A, te is about tangent to
the brighter part of A near the triple sta

. In these points I-V, it appears that there are few discrepan-
cies A the difference i in telescopes will not explain, and infer-
ence % is con

General notes on the brighter portions of the Nebula.

The brighter portions only are considered, in order to avoid
as much as poss gt => discrepancies arising from differences
of instrumental

In this sxnnsietrian again it will be convenient to derive a
series of api ges from each drawing in succession, which
can afterwards be compared.

The following anal yats may be made of the figure of Her-
schel (1837).

A. The brightest nebulosity i is that following 1-2-19, that called
B, and that called C. The bounding line of C is stra angely different
in Herschel and Mason’s figures, as remarked b on former. Mason
refers in his notes to the outline as given b hel.

B To understand the distribution of the aiten nebulosity,

C. { a reference must be made to ox drawing.

D. Star 12 is on the very edge of the following side of B.
might even be supposed to have been intended to be laid down in
the channel y. 13 is immersed, but not muc

E. Star 11 is immersed in

G. Star 6 in immersed in A.

H. Star 5 is on the preceding side of A

J. The —— defined by stars 40, ‘44, 21 [these stars not

Herschel makes this inference somewhat

7 se ee

the aiesh ies of C near where star 21 would be, is 1

452 _ E. S. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.
With reference to the distribution of the , in
Mason’s figure we may lay down the following propositions

A. The brightest nebulosity is that immediately following 1,
19; that surrounding his star 5 [= Lassell No. 18], and that near

; Mason 6.

The fainter orders of nebulosity are pretty uniformly and
C, ET acuta disposed about these three brighter centers.
This is better understood from the figure than from a description.
D. Stars 12 and 13 are immersed in nebulosity.
E. Star 11 follows the edge of the nebula a considerable distance.
Star 6 is somewhat immersed in
H. Star 5 is on the preceding edge of
J. triangle whose vertices would ‘be in the positions of
Lassell’s stars 40, 44, 21 is completely filled with tolerably bright
nebulosity.
. The stars Mason 6 and 4 are both immersed in nebaloelty,®
in very faint nebulosity, 4 in a brighter part. The chan
is south of these. The 40 of 6 and 4 is according to Maton
—63" and —39",
L. The 46 of the south edge of B is-about the mean of the 46’s
of stars [Mason] 4 and 6, that is, about 51”. About 7° pease:
1, the 4o of the aeesae "northern limit nt C is about 18

In regard = i distribution of the nebulosity in Lassell’s
figure we may remark :

A. ca sick nebulosity is immediately about and following
wh 2,

B. The next order of bright ‘aoa = about stars 35, 36, 37;
i. €., just south of 1, 2, 19 in the lin

C. The third order of bright cenaac aia is between stars 12, 48,
40 and stars 40, 18.

tars 12, 13, 52 and 53 are immersed in nebulosity.

E. Star 11 is just on the edge of A.

F. Star 26 is just on the edge of A.

G. Star 6 is nearly in the middle of the dark channel y.

H. Stars 5, 27, 28 are immersed in the following border of B.

J. The triangle 40, 44, 21 is tree of nebula.

K. The pit gH 36, 35 are immersed in C south of the channel a.

LL. The southern limit of B instead of iia as in Herschel and
Mason’s hited 4 ver 100” south of 1, is over 60” north of it.
The 46 of the north shore of C is tedghity) about — 70”,

Lassell’s ne figure confirms the above propositions in gen-
eral. The only changes necessary to introduce are with
regard to—
D. 12, 18, 52 on the edge or following the edge of B.
F. Star 26 outside of A.
H. 5, 27, 28 follow the east edge of B.
. The triangle has a patch of faint nebulosity in it (4’).

E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M.20. 453

From the MS. observations and ae of Professor Lang-
ley the following conclusions may be draw

A. “The brightest nebulosity is about 1” ie ~ “ The
region south of 1 is judged to be the brightest” (Sept. 10).

C. See the observations in detail.

D. Stars 12, 13 are immersed.

E. Star 11 is, if wupthinas muses of A.

F. Star 26 not laid down.

G, Star 6 is, if anything, outside of A.

H. Star 5 is near the Niel edge of A, but immersed.

J. 40, 44, 21 not laid dow

K. Stars 30 ? 35? are immersed in C south of the channel a.

L. No measures — on the sketches, but it in general
agrees with ‘Trouve

From the drawing of M. Trouvelot, which gives the general
effect of the nebula to the eye bett ter than any other, we
deduce what follows:

A. The brightest part of the nebula is in A south following
tae ae 8 8

"B. Next in order of brightness is the nebulosity about star 40.

C. The northern borders of C are next in order of brightness.

D. Stars 12 and 13 are immersed in B,

E. Star 11 follows the extreme edge os me a little (see his out-
line- go of stars in Annals H. C. Obs.,

F. Star 26 is teitoanly surrounded ee cleats light nebu-

losity.
G. Star 6 is within the padersiiing edge of A (outline-map).
H. Star 5 is within A (outline-map).

J. triangle 40, 44, 21 contains a considerable amount of

pretty bright nebulosit
Star ie is on may northern border of C, Stars 35 and 36 are

not laid dow

The resu aa Are, oo is K, for the Washington observa-
tions are laid down in the detailed transcription of those obser-
vations (1877, July 30) and need not be repeated here. “As to
L, we may say that the 46 of the north shore of C, 7* preceding
lis about —65”.

We may summarize the foregoing results as follows: First
as to the distribution of the brightest portions
In all of the drawings the pace wigs closely pes the triple
star is of the first order of brightness, while in the Washington
observations between 1 and 10 a ag Se lead exists. J am

Fetnces g 1, exists.

454 FE. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Prifid Nebula M. 20.

It is possible that the brightness of the stars 1, 2, 19 pro-
duces ss contrast part of the effect noted.

spite of minor nyt ta the general agreement as to the

seustion “Ot stars 12 and 13 is good. Lassell’s first drawing if not

corrected by his second would be difficult to explain im this
ect.

3 According to Herschel: star 11 is immersed in A; Mason,
star 11 is dee eply i immersed in A; Lassell, star 11 is just on the
edge of A; Langley, star ab is not immersed in A; Trouvelot,
star 11 is very slightly immersed in A; Holden, star "11 is on the
bie Ms edge of the br am Fa eiesitiy, but follows the extreme edge
a

Here Herschel aa Mason agree with each other, but differ
from the later authorities.

F. According . Lassell: star 26 is just on the edge of A; that
is, the space between 26 and 5 is totally black. In his first fig-

star 26 is within the brighter medley of A, whose boahdary
ine runs between 5 and 26 at a distance from 26 equal to about
4 the distance of these stars.

The evidence under this head should be considered in con-
nection with that under H, which is for comparison next given.

H. According to Herschel: star 5 is on the Wee edge of
_A; Mason, star 5 is on the preceding edge of A; Lassell, stars
5, 27, 28 are immersed in the following border of B. In Lassell’s

first figure these three stars are entirely free from nebulosity and
follow the east edge of B; Langley, star 5 “e shots mae Pe
velot, star 5 is weiter A; Holden, stars 5, 2 € on

veding edge of a fainter strip of nebulosity which bepiite ae yt to
horder A and continues northward beyond 28. The preceding
edge of the brightest parts of is is very close to 11, a little east

18 b
been able to see how the exact effect given in Lassell’s two draw-
ings (by two different observers, be it remembered, at different
times) can be produced. At the’ same time, I have no doubt that
the appearance given by Lassell was a true one for 1862-4, and a
slight change in the intensity of the nebulosity between 26 and 5
would reduce the nebula as — in the Ww

mo to the appearance’as given by Lassell. A change in the

verse direction is-needed to shoes, 3 the appearances given by
treecil and Mason

E. S. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M!20. 455

While, therefore, no definite conclusion can be reached (as
Lassell’s drawings of nebule in general are of the highest

must not only accept them as evidence, but as very positive

and conclusive evidence), it is possible that some slight changes

se brilliancy (apparently none of situation) may have oceurr red
n the region 28, 17, 18, 26 during the ame forty years.
Toning the previous order :

G. According to Herschel: star 6 is immersed in A; Ma
star 6 is immersed in A, but is 8 very near the edge; Lassell, for

The evidence above seems to me to indicate some decided
changes in the brightness [and position] of the edge of A near
6. The first two and the last two authorities agree, and both
differ from Lassell and from Langley. Accepting Lassell’s
authority, some change has here taken place, and it appears
that it Is connected witb the suspected changes F and Z.

ones, but seem to confirm Lassell’s.

J. The triangle defined by 40, 44, 21 is, according to Herschel:
free from any marked nebulosity ; ; Mason, completely filled with
tolerably bright nebulosity ; ae free from nebula (2d figure),
free from nebula except A’ (1st figure); Trouvelot, contains a con-
siderable amount of pretty bright nebulosity ; Holden, contains
no nebulosity at all bright except A’.

Here the various accounts do not agree. Positive evidence
is more to be considered than negative, and this triangle in
1837 was Rabel filled with nebula considerably bright. It
is not so now. ‘T'rouvelot’s figure really agrees with Lassell’s
and my own, if we correct a little distortion of his figure
near this part.

K and L. The point to be settled is, has the channel a remained
unchanged? From Herschel’s figure we derive the following :

The apex of A’ (which in his figure is continuous with B, and
is indeed about the beishved portion of the nebula, quite different
from now) is about 38 seconds of arc south of 1. The 4a of this
apex is (approximately) —7*. The width of the channel a-at
this point is 85 seconds. Bee the north shore of C in the
R.A.—7* (from 1) is in Jd —12

456 E. 8. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

From Mason’s figures (assisted here by the measured posi-
tions of stars 4 and 6 of his 1 list) we find the south shore of B
in 46 —51”; and the 46 of the extreme northern limit of .C
187”. An acquaintance with Mason’s memoir is necessary in
order to understand the great dependence to be placed on his
wor

In Lassell’s figure we find star 21 nearly on the northern
limit of C, and hence in the (measured) 46 —73’"9. In La
sell’s fioures the part A’ is completely detached from B by a
wide, black opening. In Trouvelot’s drawing A’ is continuous
with B, and in my own sketches A’ is indeed separated from
B, but by a narrow and not very obvious channel. In respect
to the southern parts of B we have then the following succes-
sive results.

From my own observations the contour of the north shore of
C near stars 21, 36, 37, 38 is similar to Lassell’s, and the 46 of
21 which gives s the 46 of this north shore is —65”. Collecting
the various authorities—

} Herschel: 46 of north shore of C = ‘
Mason: J6 of north shore of C ale (measured. )

Lassell : As of north shore of C’-—=— 73”. ibs
Trouvelot: 46 of north shore of C —=— 60’.
Holden: 46 of north shore of C =— 65’. “ip

The last three authorities may be said to agree: the first
two agree in placing the north shore of C 1’ or more further
south. The amount by which it is further to the south is prob-
' ably best given by Mason’s figures, for reasons already cited
here, and spoken of in general by Herschel himself (doc. cit,

. 11, foot note.

If there had been no stars (Mason’s 4 and 6) near the area in
question, this conclusion would not be so definite as it now
appears to be. In fact, the positions of these stars were fixed
and then the nebalosity was drawn about them. It is certainly
not about these stars n

The space A’ about 7° oe 1 and between the parallels of

4d=0" and 46=-—38" is, according to Herschel, about the

brightest portion of the nebula and S ainuaes with the rest of

B; Mason, nearly equal to the brightest parts of the nebula, and

continuous with the rest of B; Lassell, totally black ; Trouvelot,

tld bright, and part of B; Holden, bright, but separ ated from
y a narrow channel.

n this respect, regarding all the drawings as of equal or
ae equal accuracy, there has undoubtedly been a decided
change.

E. 8. Holden— Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20. 457

RECAPITULATION OF THE PRECEDING RESULTS.

We may now collect such of the Plena results as we have
found bigelibat de First it has appeare

. H 1784, July 12 to 1833, the triple star was centrally
situated ranean g oe three sobulosiiioe

Again,

%. From 1839 to 1877 the triple star was not centrally situated
between the three nebulosities, but involved in A..

It has previously been seen that each of these Rope
rests on a firm basis. Granted that A and 8 are correct, I
know of but three ways to reconcile the opposing face: ;

a, The triple star une a large Propet s motive

6. The nebula A has a large proper
ce. The nebula A is s subject to derided changes of gear

T
in progress. The relative positions of 1 and the various stars
a
as is probable, the proper motion of the triple star fs si:

We have seen that the evidence with regard to the pbeitidik
of the nebulosity A relative to the star 6, indicates changes in
the brightness and position of this part o his appears to
be connected with changes much less certain near star 5, ete.
It has also pants that in 1839 the nebula B was about the
stars Mason 4 and 6. This is confirmed by Herschel’s earlier

Each of the above inferences rests on undoubted authority, and
only cases are included here in which no doubtful points have
arisen. It therefore appears to me to be a just conclusion that—

he evidence as recorded with regard to this nebula indicates
marked changes of position or brillianey, or both, during the
period 1784-1877. The conjecture of Sir John Herschel, “perhaps
this ost Sea object has a proper motion,” will be recalled i in this
connectio
I have, s my own mind, no doubt but that the evidence as
recorded, if Nicer pele he. by any competent person will
o the same conclusion. The examination of many draw-
ings of nebulz has, however, led me in common with others,
to the conclusion that too great care cannot be exercised in
Drawings and observa-
tions made from one point of view have to be interpreted
from quite another and a different one, and misreadings and

es
4
@
bas 3
Tc
®
a.
B
a
2
s
a
%
as
er
5.09
a
2
=)
Ra
wa

458 ES. Holden—Proper Motion of the Trifid Nebula M. 20.

misinterpretations are likely to occur. It is for this reason
that I have given my own observations in detail, so that they
may be repeated step by step at any subsequent time; and for
the same reason, I have given in full the analysis of the sepa-
rate drawings so that each point can be verified or rejected by
any one who has the original drawings before him.

This method of examining each drawing, deducing from it
all the evidence on all the points in question, and then collating
the various data under each separate head, not only enables the
whole work to be quickly verified, but it enables the person
collating the evidence to form the final conclusions with little
or no danger of bias or prejudice. The principal question is as
to the goodness of the evidence itself. It may be worth while
in this case to examine the evidence and to see what must be
rejected in order to suppose that this nebula has remained wn-
changed from 1784 to L877. First then, Sir William Herschel
speaks of the triple star as being ‘in the middle” of the three
nebulosities on several occasions. Sir John Herschel is explicit
as to its being “in the midst” and “exactly in the center” of
the “central vacuity.” Inference A rests on these statements,
which could not have been made more definite by Sir John
Herschel and which are strongly corroborated by Sir William -
Herschel. 8 is undoubtedly correct. Heénce I believe that
the previous inferences regarding the relative motion of t
triple star and the nebula should stand, and are correct.

e further conclusions as to change, as I have given them,
could have been deduced from the drawings of Mason and

to be solved, and his results are entirely trustworthy. In
every point noted as “certain,” (and only such points are

aracter. In regard to my own obser-
vations, I am satisfied that they are, in the main and on essential
points, correct. The season of 1877 was very unfavorable and
the star positions could be improved, but I do not think any
error of moment remains. It therefore seems to me that the
evidence remaining to be examined is such that it ought not to
be rejected, and that the previous conclusions should stand.

Connecticut Valley in the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 459

Art. XLIX.—The Northern Part of the Connecticut a in the
Champlain and Terrace Periods ; by WARREN UPHAM

A CAREFUL exploration of the stratified drift bordering Con-
necticut River on both sides, from its source to the north line
of Massachusetts, has been made for the geological survey of
New Hampshire. Much of the present essay, which is based on
this work, will be published, with i lid details, in the
7 volume of the report on that sur

At the end of the Glacial period, chi wallop: like every other
prominent valley in New Engla and, received thick beds of
Sins sand and clay, or fine silt. These were deposited dur-

The river-lands here to be considered include the interval,
or present flood-plain, frequently known as meadow along the
Connecticut, and called bottom-land in the western States; and
terraces, which rise in steps on each side of the river, the high-
est often form ming extensive plains. This highest ‘deposit ig
found to have about the same height upon both sides, and to
extend Sie Te ‘with early the same feiehey as that of the

over me dis ances , however, sometimes shows a wwell- marked

d and continuous flood-plain, now ‘bebe and st Pe
swept away by the further porta of the channel. These
terraces are almost always level-topped, and bounded at a

* Tt will be seen that these terms are adopted from Prof. Jam Be re a,

has given much attention to surface geology, and has YeOlhe he ue pro Pl
nence the abundant deposition of drift, both stratified and ccteasinat goad ae the

apparently in all countries, which en ove
tinetly characterized as successive arate of glaciation, deposition and erosion

460 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley

face by a steep escarpment ; and their appearance is sometimes
very striking, and even grand, as they rise in gigantic steps on
the side of the valley, shaped with a smoothness, order and
beauty, which could not be surpassed by art.

e most interesting discovery made during the survey of
this valley is, that a massive gravel ridge, often nearly covered
by the alluvium of the highest terraces, extends from Lyme,

. H., to Windsor, Vt., a distance of twenty-four miles. It is
principally gravel, always waterworn, the largest pebbles be-
ing one to two feet in diameter. with occasional layers one or
two feet in thickness of coarse sharp sand. These deposits are
very irregularly bedded, and a section always shows a some-
what anticlinal stratification, conforming to the slopes of the
ridge. Its height is 150 to 250 feet above the river, by which
it has been frequently cut through, as well as by tributary
streams. This ridge occupies nearly the middle of the valley,
and as the river has cut its channel through the alluvium, this
has been often a barrier rising steeply upon one side and pro-
tecting the plains behind it. In two or three places it has been
swept away by the river for a distance of one half mile to one
mile, and below these places the terraces show by their coarse-
ness that the ridge has supplied a portion of their material.
Similar ridges of gravel have been often described by European
geologists, under the various names of kames in Scotland,
eskers in Ireland, and asar in Sweden. They have also been

escribed by geologists in many portions of the northern
United States. In both the Connecticut and Merrimack Val-
leys they extend long distances, but have hitherto escaped no-
tice, owing to the large amount of levelly stratified alluvium,
forming the conspicuous terraces and plains, by which these
underlying gravel ridges, or kames, are often nearly concealed.
"he kames are thus shown by their position to be the oldest of
our modified drift deposits.

The series of kames already mentioned lie along the middle
or lowest te of the valleys, which are bordered by high ranges
of hills; but in the southeast part of New Hampshire, in some
parts of Maine, and in eastern Massachusetts, where there are
only scattered hills, with the valleys not much below the gen-
eral level of the country, these ridges, of smaller size than in
the great valleys, are found extending usually north and south
without special regard to the present water-courses.

The origin of the kames has been a.question much discussed
by European geclogists, and the theory commonly accepted on
both sides of the Atlantic was, that they were heaped up in
these peculiar ridges and mounds through the agency of marine
currents during a submergence of the land. Even if such
ridges could be formed by this cause under any circumstances,

tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 461

it seemed impossible to account thus for the kames in the Con- _
necticut and Merrimack Valleys, which, being bordered on
both sides by high hills, would have been long estuaries open
to the sea only at their mouths, and therefore not affected by
oceanic currents. - From the position of these peculiar accumu-
lations of gravel, which are overlain by the horizontally strati-
fied drift, the date of their formation is known to be between
the period when the ice-sheet moved over the land, and that
closely following, in which this more recent modified drift was
deposited in the open valley from the floods that were supplied
by the melting ice. We are thus led to an explanation of the
kames, which seems to be supported by all the facts observed
in New Hampshire, and which appears to apply, also, to the
similar deposits which have been described in other parts of the
United States and in Europe.

At the beginning of the Champlain period, or final melting
of the great ice-sheet, its nearly level surface of pure ice lay
above our highest mountains. That it overtopped Mt. Wash-
ington in New Hampshire, has been recently discovered by
Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, the State geologist, who has found trans-
ported rocks, and shown that glacial drift, or .till, underlies the
angular blocks at the summit. The melting of the ice-sheet
appears to have taken place mostly upon the surface, which
was moulded into basins and valleys; and near the terminal
front of the ice, these came gradually to coincide with the con-
tour of the land. Here the surface of the ice became covered
with the abraded material which bad been contained in its
mass, and which was now exposed to the washing of its innu- -
merable streams. Its finer portions would be commonly carried
away; and the strong current of the rivers which would be
formed near the terminal front of the ice-sheet could transport
coarse gravel or even boulders of considerable size. In the

462 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley

The glacial rivers which we have described appear to have
flowed in channels upon the surface of the ice-sheet; and the
formation of the kames took place at or near their mouths, ex-
tending along the valleys as fast as the ice-front retreated.
Large ‘angular boulders are sometimes, but not frequently,
found in the kames or upon their surface. They appear to
have been transported by floating ice. Their rare occurrence
forbids the supposition that these deposits were formed in chan-
nels beneath the ice-sheet, from which many such blocks must
have fallen upon the kames.

he necessity of referring the formation of these gravel
ridges to glacial rivers became apparent emaee the exploration
and study of our a ties in 1875; and in August, 1876,
this was announced in a “On the origin of Kames or
Eskers in New Heap In this essay it was supposed
that these rivers more commonly had their course beneath the
ice-sheet, but subsequent examination of the underlying till
shows that this was seldom the case, and that the kames were
deposited in channels formed on the surface of the ice. Prof.
Otto Torell, of Sweden,t had pointed out a division of the till
into two members, the lower characterized by its blue color,

two or three feet, as is mo ost © ommon, to fifteen or twenty feet,
- between the upper and Sexe till. It should be added that the
lower till in a majority of cases has no distinct blue tint, but is
dark gray; being always somewhat darker than the upper till,
which is colored by ferric oxide. The lower till may be dis-
tinguished by an imperfect cleavage in planes parallel to the
surface, noticeable wherever an excavation has been for a short
time exposed to the weather. Before this, Professor James D.
na had insisted that. the deposition of a great part of the
til took place in the Champlain period, being dropped from the
“melting ice-sheet. This suggested the origin of the upper till,
and an explanation of its difference from the lower till ; the
latter being the ground-moraine, while the former appears to
ave been satitéslad contained in the body of the ice-sheet, and
allowed to fall loosely on the surface when this melted. As
the kames overlie both members of the till, exe plainly were
deposited in superficial ice-channels.t
* Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

vol. xxv

See this Journal, III, xiii,

Similar conclusions Tespoding ‘the eke of the kames had os neat -
other observers, b unknown to me when my views were
August, 1876. Probably rte first of els was — rN. H. Winchell, State

tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 468

- ae the descendin fone increasing in depth in the
same way that additions are now made to the phage pas or
intervals, of our large rivers by the annual floods o i
The terraces began to be formed as soon as the ae of
material became insufficient to fill the place of that excavated
y the river. We must suppose that this process of erosion
was slow, allowing the river to continue for a ong ti me at
nearly the same level, undermining and wearing away its bank
on one side, and depositing the material on the opposite side,
till a wide and nearly level lower flood-plain would be formed,
bordered on both sides by steep terraces. When the current

arrived at or confirmed oe long study of these deposits
this valley and throughout New Hampshire.

The sources of Connecticut river are a series of four lakes,
the highest of which, covering only a few acres, is 2,550 feet
above the sea. The lowest of the series is Connecticut Lake,
three square miles in area, 1,618 feet above the sea. Heights
of the river, with distances {rom Connecticut Lake, are as fol-
lows: Mouth ‘of Hall’s stream, 15 miles, 1,085 feet ‘above sea, ;
at Colebrook, 24 miles, 1,010; at North 'Stratford, 37 miles,
891; at Groveton, 49 miles, 854; at Lancaster, 56 miles, 835 ;
mouth of John’s river, 68 miles, 330; at Upper Waterford, 74
remind of Minnesota, who held this yer! as early as 1872. See Proc. Amer.
nce, vol. xxi, 1872, p. 165; Geologygof Minnesota, First

b>
ni

ralcg the glacial period, wile} insufficient to discharge these incre
floods, and would become obstructed ‘the detritus which they brought.

464 W. Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley

miles, 674; mouth of Passumpsic River, 83 miles, 460; at
Wells River, 95 miles, 407; at Hanover, 130 miles, 373; at
White River Junction, 184 miles, 333; at Windsor, 146 miles,
804; at Bellows Falls, 170 miles, fall from 283 to 234; at
Brattleboro’, 192 miles, 200; at South Vernon (Massachusetts
line), 202 miles, 180.

The general course of the river to the mouth of Hall’s
stream is S. 60° W. High wooded hills border the valley
which is destitute of modified drift for half of the way. The
largest alluvial area is on Indian stream, and the highest ter-
races are of coarse gravel, 30 to 40 feet above the river.

From the mouth of Hall’s stream to that of John’s River, at
the head of Fifteen-miles Falls, the general course is S. 13° W.,
with a descent in nearly fifty miles of only 255 feet, one-fifth
of which: takes place in the first two miles, and two-fifths more
in the nine miles between Columbia bridge and North Stratford.
Below the first two miles the modified drift is continuous
along this whole distance; and, including+both sides, it is
usually a half milé to one and a half miles wide. It is very
simple, having two heights, and consisting of the present flood-
plain, bordered by remnants of that which filled the valley in
the Champlain period. This ancient flood-plain is represented
by a lateral terrace of sand or fine gravel, from 40 to 120 feet
above the river, usually remaining at both sides, and in many
places forming considerable plains.

At Colebrook we find an interesting gravel ridge or kame,
portions of which remain north of the junction of Beaver
brook and Mohawk River, but most noticeably west of the vil-
lage, extending nearly a mile parallel with the river. Its
height is about seventy feet above the river, and fifty above
the low alluvium on each side. Its material is the same as

' that of the long kame farther south in this valley, being prin-
cipally coarse water-worn gravel, with abundant pebbles six
inches to one foot in diameter. In Stratford and Brunswick
both heights of the alluvium are well shown, the highway be-
ing on the upper terrace and the railroad on the meadow. At
«Lancaster the upper terrace of Connecticut River is only fifteen
or twenty feet above the present flood-plain. The only higher
modified drift has been brought down by tributaries. Part of
Lancaster village is built on one of these deltas, formed by
Israel’s River on its south side, fifty feet above the terrace of
the main valley. This delta sloped rapidly westward, and
formerly occupied the whole area of the village; a portion of
it, twenty feet lower than the former, remains at the cemetery
opposite the court-house.

Between South Lancaster and Fifteen-miles Falls the broad
river-plain is unterraced. It seems probable that a lake ex-

in the Champlain and Terrace Periods. ° - 465

ing to know the depth of the stratitied drift in this basin; it
is probably couet than the height of the highest terraces north-
ward above the river.

From the oak of John’s River, the Connecticut hasa rapid
descent for twenty miles, falling from 830 to 460 feet above
the sea. Its general course is deflected to.S. 70° W. along this
distance, beyond which the direction of the upper is again fol-
lowed in the lower valley, with but slight deviation, to Massa-
chusetts line. The noticeable features of the valley along
these rapids are, that it is deep and narrow, with sloping sides
of till, and destitute of the level alluvial terraces and intervals
which occupy a large width everywhere else along the river.
Where any modifi ed drift’ does occur, it is coarser than usual,
being generally gravel, sometimes imperfectly rounded or
water-worn, and its surface has commonly an irregular slope.
The river flows in a nearly continuous descent over coarse till,
showing abundant bowlders, but with scarcely any exposure of
solid ledges. The falls farther south are produced by ledges;
and the channel, except at such falls, is composed of gravel,

sand or silt, which is also the case along the nearly level upper
val The irregular surface left by the ice has been here re-
vated toa channel of nearly regular slope with no abrupt falls,
cut through the till, which still covers the ancient bed in which
the river flowed before the glacial panad.

In a direct distance of 119 miles from the mouth of Pas-
sumpsic River, which is near the foot of these rapids, to the
Massachusetts line, the river flows 187 miles, descending from
460 to 180 feet above the sea, or two feet to the mile. The prin-
cipal falls in this distance are Beard’ s falls, at Barnet, five feet;
McIndoe’s falls, ten feet; Dodge's falls, three and a half miles
south, five feet; at Woodsville, about ten feet; White River
falls, between Hanover and White River J unetion, thirty-five
feet; Sumner’s or Quechee falls. oe miles below the mouth
of Quechee River, five feet; and Bellows Falls, forty-nine feet,
—making a total ot 119 feet, and 1o igs an average descent,
excluding falls, of one and one-sixth feet per mile.

ified drift of this lower valley is sor vatars well

developed, and occurs in extensive terraces and various heights,
three or four often on each side, the upper one alae usually
from 150 to 200 feet above the river, while the lo se is the
interval or meadow. The largest plains are rig of the
upper terrace or of still higher tributary deltas These areas
are generally of a clayey, moist, saponin sil ee in con-

Am. Joon. Sc1.—THIRD ~~ Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Drc

*

466 W.Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley

trast with the dry sandy plains of Merrimack River and other
arts of New Hampshire. The most extensive intervals or
meadows are between Woodsville and Bradford, twelve miles
long and one half to one mile wide, including the Lower Cods
intervals of Newbury, Haverhilland Piermont; and in Charles-
town and Rockingham, six miles long and half a mile wide.
In addition to these, smaller areas, up to a mile or more in
length and a few rods to a half mile wide, are of common
oceurrence. These bottom-lands are very fertile, being com-
posed of the finest silt, and enriched every year by a coating of
mud from the turbid freshets of Spring. Many of the lower
terraces which are not overflowed are of the same material;
but the higher terraces usually show some intermixed sand or
fine grave
The greatest widths of modified drift that can be measured
in this valley on the west side of New Hampshire, are in Haver-
hill and’ Newbury, two miles, and in Hinsdale and Vernon, two
and a half miles wide. The average width is fully one mile.
The narrowest places are at Shaw’s Mountain, near the south
line of Bradford, and at Barber’s Mountain, in Claremont, both
of which occupy the middle of the valley, with narrow belts of
alluvium on each side; at the west side of Rattlesnake Hill,

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ormer stream has cut its channel 200 feet deep through its
delta, wide areas of which still remain on both sides. An old
outlet of Wells River may be seen on its north side, one mile
above its mouth, occupied at the close of the ice-period until it
cleared away a hundred feet or more of modified drift from the
pre-glacial rocky bed in which it now flows. A well marked
kame occurs here, commencing in Bath half a mile northwest
from the Narrows. It has been cut through by the river, and
appears on the east side of the railroad at and above the junc-
tion, and again at the southwest side of Wells River Depot,
being more than a mile long. It is composed of coarse gravel
and sand, anticlinally stratified, with varying height from 80 to
150 feet above the river. It is well shown by cuttings, but
otherwise might escape notice, as most of it is partially or

tn the Champlain and Terrace Periods. 467

wholly concealed by the ordinary alluvium. In the twenty-
four miles from Wells River to Lyme no similar ridge is found.

In Thetford and Lyme we come to an abrupt change in the
height of the upper terrace-plain. This slopes in thirty-three
miles between the mouth of Passumpsic River and the south
line of Orford, from 650 to 440 feet above the sea, gradual]
declining from 190 to only 60 feet above the river. At Nort
Thetford this line of the highest terrace suddenly rises to 525,
and in a mile and a half farther south to 545 feet. This forma-
tion is well shown through Thetford, with remnants in Lyme,
and continues well developed and nearly level for twenty-five
miles to Windsor, varying from 560 to 500 feet above the sea,
and from 150 to 220 feet above the river. It forms extensive
terraces or plains on one or both sides along the whole distance
and is clearly the original flood-plain of the river. Frequent
delta-terraces rise above it, sometimes 100 feet higher, being
more than 300 feet above the present river channel. It isa
notable coincidence, that along this same distance we have a
continuous kame, occupying the center of the valley, commonly
rising somewhat above the highest plain, but not seldom en-
' tirely covered by it. Super-position and conformable stratifica-

tion show the fine material of the terrace-plain to have been
deposited upon this kame or gravel ridge, which beforehand
extended like a windrow along the empty valley. To the south
from Windsor the highest terrace shows a somewhat regular
slope, descending with the river, and preserving a height about
150 feet above it.

This high and continuous flood-plain, extending from Thet-
ford to Massachusetts line, seems to have been formed during
a gradual and slow melting of the ice along this distance. It
would appear that the greater part of the depth of ice, as far
northward as to the Passumpsic River, had been melted in the
last part of this time, sending down its floods laden with gravel
to form the kame. A comparatively shallow mantle of ice
remained, and when the melting advanced to the north from
Thetford and Lyme this disappeared too rapidly to give time
for the formation of a kame, or the deposition of a high flood-

in.

In Norwich we find an interesting example of a well marked
ancient river-bed high above its present level. This extends
two miles from Pompanoosuc River, one-third of a mile above
its mouth, to the bend of Connecticut River a half mile south
of Tilden pond, which occupies a depression of this old channel.
Its highest point, from which there is a gradual descent both
ways, is 520 feet above the sea or 145 feet above the river. On
the east side of this ancient channel is the steep gravel kame,
which for a while turned the Pompanoosue River in this course,
‘till a direct passage was cut through its ridge.

468 W.Upham—Northern part of the Connecticut Valley

Two miles north of Hanover the Connecticut River has cut
through the kame, and thence flows close on its west side to
White River Falls. Along this distance of four miles we find
the high plain well developed in New Hampshire, averaging
three-fourths of a mile wide. Hanover common, 545 feet above
the sea, and 172 above the river, represents its greatest altitude.
In digging the first well at this place (near the residence of Pro-
fessor H. E. Parker), a large log was found in this alluvium forty
feet below the surface, but no prospect of water, which caused
this site, selected for the buildings of Dartmonth College, to be
abandoned, and led to their Jocation farther east, upon coarse
glacial drift. This log shows that the glacial age had here been
succeeded by a temperate climate, under which forests grew again
upon the land; ed that floods, sent out freighted from the melt-
ing ice-sheet, which still remained farther north and on the high-
lands, brought down drift-wood to be buried with their alluvium.
It was not till considerably later that the river ceased its wor
_ of accumulation and began to cut its present channe

Near the south line of Lebanon, east of Sumner’s Falls in
Plainfield, and at several places in Cornish, we find banks of
sand, or dunes, destitute of vegetation, and blown in drifts by
the wind. These vary in height from a few feet to 100 feet
above the highest terrace, from which they appear to have been
carried up by the oe northwest winds. Southward
through New Hampshire they are found in many places on the
east side of this valley, but none were seen in Vermont.

‘From Lyme to Windsor we find a continuous gravel ridge or
kame, extending twenty-four miles along the middle of this
valley, with its top from 150 to 250 feet above the river, or from
500 to 600 feet above the sea, The gravel, which always forms
the principal part of the ridge, varies in coarseness from layers
with pebbles only one or two inches in diameter, to portions
where the largest measure one and a half or two feet. The
finer kinds prevail; and the channels of brooks cutting through
the ridge frequently show no pebbles exceeding one foot in size.
All the materials of this kame, and of its remnants southward,
are plainly water-worn and stratified.

Large and unworn bowlders, which could not have bgen

at least of journey on foot along the top of this ridge, and the
examination of many sections where the river or its tributaries

in. the nen and Terrace Periods, 469
have cut through it, failed to reveal other bowlders of this
kind.

One or both sides of this kame are generally covered by the
alluvium of the upper terrace; but its top usually projects in
a long, rounded ridge, 10 to 80 feet above the tines highest
plain. At one place, east of Hartland Depot, this plain has
been swept away from both sides, and the kame forms a con-
apne steep ridge 125 feet in height. Wherever it is

xposed, it is readily recognized py the pebbles which strew its
Pare and which are ve ry rarely found in the ordinary modi-
fied drift of the valle ey.

he most important feature of this kame, if we compare it
with others in New Hampshire, is, that along its entire extent
it constitutes a single continuous ridge, which runs by a very
direct course nearly in the middle of the valley, having no out-
lying spurs, branches, parallel ridges, or scattered hillocks of the
same material associated with it. In calling it continuous from
Lyme to Windsor, however, it is not meant to imply that it is
now entire, since it has been frequently cut through and con-
siderable portions swept away by the main river and by tribu-
tary streams; but that so much of it remains as to make it
certain that it , Snealy formed an unbroken ridge. The por-
tions now separated by gaps always lie in a continuous line.

Probably a aime ridge once existed along the vole ey south-
ward, though now shown by only a few fragme These
occur in Cha ee pata Springfield eat and the

e r as it occupied the main valley, but the escarp-
nts thus formed remain at the mouth of the valley of C
River, ets 100 to 200 feet high. On the south side of Saxton’s

iver a ecasioneies art of its delta remains, and the upper
terrace is increased in ceieht by this cause for two miles south.
The poate of this delta by Saxton’s River has formed a
most interestingly terraced basin, situated less than a mile south
from Bellows Falls Junction. On both sides of this river, and
crossed by a voles is an interval about one fourth of a mile in
diameter. Around this on all sides are ranged terraces, which
rise in succession like the seats of an amphitheater, the highest
on the northwest being 220, and on the south 200 feet above
the arena below. They do not, bowever, show a perfect regu-

*

470 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.

larity either in correspondence of height or in continuous
extent, and no single section would embrace all of the eight
distinct and pasted terraces which were noted on each side of
the river.

It is mainly sides of sand, nearly level, but with a slight
slope to the west and south, being as usual towards the river
and in the direction of its course. Its northern portion changes
to gravel which becomes coarse on the southeast side of
Wantastiquit Mountain, containing pebbles one foot or some-
times a foot and a half in diameter. The position and slope o
this plain show that it was not deposited wholly from currents
of the main valley, but that a considerable portion was con-
tributed from the melting of the ice-sheet east of this mountain.

Art, L.—Deseriptions of two new species of Fishes (Macrurus
Bairdii and Lycodes Verrilli’) recently discovered by the U. 8.
Fish Commission, with notes upon the occurrence of several
een forms ; by G. Brown GoopE and Tarueton H.

EAN, *

AMONG the mers ee discoveries made during the
pegs ae summer by the United States Fish Commission (Prof.
F. si, Donemsiiontn) is ger of a species of Macrurus
believed a ‘be undescribed. As ngle specimen was taken in
rawl net, August 19, 1877, on the + voyage of the U.S. Steamer
“ Speedwell” from Salem to Halifax. It was found in the
Gulf of Maine, forty-four miles from Cape Ann (east $ south)
in 160 fathoms, muddy bottom (locality 35). Two members
of this family ee included by Professor Gill in his Catalogue of
the Fishes of the East Coast of North America (Washington,
1873). One, Coryphenoides norvegicus, has been recorded only
from Grasnlands a and the northern and western coasts of Nor-
way. The other, Macrurus rupestris, has ave the same geo-
graphical range: a fish found floating at sea near Gra vesend,
N. Y., in 1876, and now in the U. 8 Na Ganal Museum, has
been identified with this species.
The genus Macrurus, auct., has been subdivided into three,
viz: Macrurus, Coryphienoides and Malacocephalus. The most
important diagnostic character eran. by Dr. Giinther as sepa-

Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes. 471

rating Macrurus from the other genera is the joining of the
ridge of the suborbital ring to the angle of the props ae
as in Scorpenide and Cottid. This character does not hold
good in the species here under consideration, which in all other
respects agrees with Macrurus, as aint n Giinther’s Cata-

The closest affinities of Macrurus Bairdié are with MZ. sclerorhyn-
chus, described by Valenciennes from the Canary Islands. Its
relations to this species and to the other representatives of the
amily in North America are if sitet in the following table :

she Macrurus | Coryphenoides ?
Macrurus Bairdii. scerorhynchus. rupestris, norvegicus.

Snout. Sharp, conical,| Sharp, trihedral,| Sharp, trian-| Obtuse, ob-
ota ate, shorterjshorter than eye,|gular, as long asjliquely truncat-
neye, ‘less than| which is two fifths|eye. ed.
one-third of head.|of head.
First Dorsal.| Second spine| Second spine} First spine} First spin
denticulated from|denticulated, ex-|denticulated on-|denticulated an-
ase to tip, notex-|tending far be-ly towards thelteriorly.
tending to origin bre htiacrd of sec-|top..
of second dorsal. jond dorsal.
Vent. Under middle Bekin d vertical} Behindvertical| Before etd
of first dorsal. ed _ ny offrom origin ofjfrom origin of
first second dorsal. jsecond dorsal.
Scales. Spiny. Median aay Median} Each with a} Spiny, without
ro of spinesrow of spines strong longitud-|keel.
keel inal i

w
forming keel upon forming 5 inal keel termi-
scales of head and nating in a point.
upper anterior
Transverse por tion of body. 4
rows of scales|) 6+19 or 20. 5+21 or 23. 5+ -4or54+.
Radial | D111. 137. | IL. 9or11. 87.| 11.124. 1l+.
formule. A. 120, %2. 148, ;
7, 8 >

Macrurus Bairdii, sp. nov.
Extreme ty Se of ppeemen described,* 0-296 m. (117
inches). Body tapering from first dorsal to tip 6f tail, much
mpressed posteriorly, its greatest. bright over origin of pec-
Bah fs (0-087 m.) contained eight times in length; its greatest
width at same point (0022 m.), conmbat "3 times in length.
Pl irregularly polygonal, the free portions covered with
ransparent, vitreous ARNO aan ged in from ten to twelve

prominent and presents the Lineaehee a a low median keel.
eral line nearly straight, formed by a smooth groove
which replaces two or three median rows of spines of each
* Cat. No. U. 8S. National Museum, 21,014.

472 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.

scale. Number of scales in laieral line, 152; six transverse
rows above it, and nineteen or twenty rows below it, counting
from vent obliquely backward. : ;
Head.—Greatest length (0°045 m.) equals distance between
first and twenty-third anal rays, and is contained six and one-
half times in extreme length. Greatest height, at posterior
margin of orbit, (0°028 m.) greater than width at same point
(0023 m.), and contained one and four-seventh times in length
of head. Width of interorbital area (0-012 m.) equal to verti-
cal diameter of orbit (0°012 m.), and almost equal to length of
snout (0018 m.) and length of maxillary (0013 m.). Length
of post-orbital region (0°017 m.) about equal to horizontal
diameter of orbit (0-016 m.). Length of operculum (0-007 m.)
about half the length of mandible (0:015 m.).
nout sharp, a front view presenting four ridges radiating
from the tip at right angles to each other, the lower one being
merely a fold in the skin of the under surface of the head.
he horizontal ridges are continued into the ridges upon the
suborbitals. Ridge extending backward from tip of snout upon
top of head is lost in the interorbital space. Branches of the
horizontal ridges are continued upon the upper margins of
orbits, and there disappear. Nostrils immediately in front of
orbit, the posterior pair much the longer.
outh situated entirely on lower side of head; symphysis of
lower jaw in vertical from anterior margin of orbit, and articu-
lations of mandibles in vertical from posterior margin of orbit ;
width of cleft of mouth (0°012 m.) equal to distance between
symphysis of maxillaries and line connecting their articulations.
ha) 08 jaw protractile vertically. Barbel 0-005 m. in length.
eeth conical, somewhat recurved, of nearly uniform size,
arranged in villiform bands. Palate smooth.
Distance of first dorsal from snout (0:057 m.) about four

Goode and Bean—Two new species of — 473

of longest ray A posterior third) 0-004 m., which 3 is less than
length of bar All rays very feeble. ‘Membrane scarcely
perceptible. :

Distance of anal from snout (0-070 m.) three and four-fifth’
times in its length of base, its origin under 18th seale of
lateral line. Length of first ray (0° 006. m m.) one-half the length
of tenth ray (0 012 m. ), and three times the length of last ray
(0-002 m.), the length of rays increasing to a point beneath ante-
lope part of first dorsal, and thence gradually decreasing to tip
)

Distance of pectoral from snout (0-048 m.) four times width
of interorbital area; its length (0°029 m.) twice the length of
mandible. . Insertion above the middle of the depth of the
body, on a level with center of es be its third ray jconent its
tip reaching to vertical from base o f fourth anal ra y:

Insertion of ventral behind pectoral and slisibek under that
of first dorsal; its distance nie snout (0°053 m.) slightly ex-
ceeding twice ‘its length (0°025 m.). Tip of ventral filament
reaches to base of third oe

Radial formula: D. I, 11. 137; A 4208 Podht- Vet,

Color: Ground color, light brownish eray ; under parts, sil-
very; belly, darker, bluish. Under surface of snout, pink, as
is also the first dorsal except spines. Spines of dorsal, ventral
and anterior anal rays, blackish. Throat, branchiostegal mem-
brane and isthmus, rich deep violet. Sclerotie coat, green.
Hyes, very dark blue

Spermaries well dossieied: but milt not mature. Individ-
ual apparently adult.

This species is dedicated to Professor Spencer F. Baird, LL.D.,
Assistant ce ica of the Smithsonian Institution, Director of

the U. ional Museum and U. 8. Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries.

Another interesting form is a species of Lycodes taken in the
trawl thirty miles south of Cape Negro, N. 8S. (localities 44 and
45), in ninety fathoms, fine sand and mud bottom, and twenty-
seven miles south of Chebucto Head, Halifax, (locality 83) 101
fathoms, fine sandy mud. Five specimens (Cat. N o. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 21,013) were taken in the first locality and one (No.
21,015) in the latter.

Eleven species of this genus have been described, eight of
which are found in arctic seas, three in antarctic, the latter be-
ing — by Dr. Giinther into a distinet section of the
genus. The form under consideration is — by (1)
its elongated form, which it shares, with J. (2) the
great proportional length of the maxillaries ; (8) ie bake presence
and arrangement of scales; (4) by various proportions of par

‘which distinguish it from one or all the allied species; (5) the
presence of five rays in the ventral fin, and; (6) by coloration.

474 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.

Lycodes Verrillii, sp. nov.

The extreme length of specimen described 0°127 m. (five
inches).

Body more elongate than in any other described species of
that section of the genus occurring in arctic seas, except L,
Sarsit Kroyer: its greatest height (0010 m.) equal to its great-
est width between pectorals (0010 m.) and nearly one-thirteenth
of its total length.

Distance of vent from ventrals (0°023 m.) slightly greater
than length of head (Om. 022), which is contained about five
and two-third times in total length. Distance of vent from
snout (0-041 m.) about one-third length of body.

Head, body and fins enveloped in tough lax skin..

Scales cycloid, circular and ovate, 0:00025 m. to °00085 in
diameter, with numerous concentric stri#, and with about
eighteen lobes upon margin, the whole perrimeter being lobed :
they are deeply imbedded in the skin at distances from each
other equal to their own diameters: they are most numerous
upon the upper half of the body, and extend upon the base of
the dorsal; very few upon the lower half of the body; and are
absent from the anal fin. :

Head much depressed, its width (0-014 m.) considerably
greater than its height (0°010 m.) which equals length of post-
orbital portion 6f head (0-010 m.) and double the width of the
inter-orbital space (0005 m.). Length of maxillary (0011 m.)
is half the length of the head (0-022 m.): the maxillary extends
nearly to the perpendicular from the posterior margin of the
orbit. Diameter of orbit (0°004 m.) is half the length of snout
(0°008 m.).

Viewed from above the snout is somewhat obtusely rounded,
and a line drawn through the center of the eyes would form
with the sides of the snout a figure approximating in shape -an
equilateral triangle, the angle of the snout being rounded.

Upper jaw far overlapping under jaw; gape extending from
ventral to center of orbit.

A series of large pores, six on each side, extends backward
from nostril toward angle of operculum, following line of upper
jaw at a distance above it about equal to diameter of pupil.
The fourth of this series, counting backward, is under the cen-
ter of orbit, the last is situated about two-thirds of the distance
from snout to angle of operculum. :

A similar series, seven on each side, follows line of lower
jaw from its symphysis obliquely upward toward angle of oper-
culum, in such direction that if the maxillary row were con-
tinued by the addition of a single pore to the series, the two
lines would intersect. A line connecting the fourth pore of the
one series with the fourth pore of the other would intersect the

Goode and Bean—+~Two new species of Fishes. 475

articulation of the jaws. The first four pores of the mandibular
series are slit-like; all the others in both series are circular or
nearly so, their diameter equal to one-third to one-half that of
the pupil. The profile of the head resembles that of Zoarces
anguillaris ; the top of the post-orbital tract is on a level lower
than that of the top of eye, the outline of the head then rising
to a point over the center of the orbit, thence sloping abruptly
to the snout.

Cleft of mouth horizontal, in width equal to post-orbital length
of head (0°010 m.), also to distance from snout to angles of gape.

Nostrils at extremities of fleshy tubes, the length of which is
equal to the diameter of the largest pores.

Teeth in lower jaw in two rows and nearly uniform in size,
in upper jaw, in a single row, some larger ones near symphysis
with patches of smaller ones behind them. About seven teeth
on the vomer. <A single row of teeth on palatines. All the
teeth are curved. ~

Gill openings narrow; gill membranes attached to isthmus.

Distance of dorsal from snout (0°033 m.) one and one-half
times the length of head (0-022 m.

Distance of anal from snout (0-045 m.) twice the length of head.

al and anal fins are about equal in height, with even
margins, not differentiated from caudal; the rays increase some-
what in length toward extremity of tail, though the fins do not
increase in height.

Distance of pectoral from snout (0°023 m.) about equal to
length of head, twice length of pectoral (0-011 m:) and more
than three times breadth (0-007 m.). Pectoral extends to ver-

above lateral line light grayish brown with numerous minute
circular dots marking the position of the scales; below lateral
line pearly white. Brown irregular patches upon the sides, bi-
sected by the lateral line, the part lying below lateral line is of
the dorsal hue, that above a darker shade of the same color, and
exhibiting the white dots already described. These brown
atches are seven to ten in number on each side, in some speci-
mens regularly alternating with each other, in others approxi-
mating each other in such manner as almost to form broad irreg-
ular bands across the back. A spot of brown upon the tip of
tail. Abdominal region livid blue Jn a very small specimen*
the brown patches are for the most part circular and are not
confluent over the back. :
* 21,015 of the U. S. National Museum Catalogue.

476 Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes.

Four of the six specimens taken had a lernean parasite on
the gills.

This species is dedicated to Professor Addison E. Verrill, of
Yale College, who has been in charge of the invertebrate work
of the U. S. Fish Commission since its organization.

In addition to the above species a number of new or unusual
forms have been taken or observed, among which may be speci-
fied the following:

Alutera cuspicauda Dekay. A specimen of this species which
has not before been recorded north of Cape Cod, was taken in
Halifax Harbor, September 6.

Euchalarodus Putnami Gill. Several specimens of this un-
common species, which had been taken in Salem harbor in
winter, were found in the collection of the Peabody Academy
of Sciences.

Myzopsetta ferruginea (Storer) Gill. Taken in Massachusetts
Bay in forty-five to ninety fathoms; near La Have Bank in
ninety fathoms; and at the mouth of Halifax Harbor in sixteen
to eighteen fathoms.

Pleuronectes glaber (Storer) Gill. Several specimens, taken in
Salem Harbor, Mass., were noted in the collection of the Pea-
body Academy.

Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (Linn.) Gill. This fish, the Craig
Flounder or Pole of Kurope is cited by British authors as one
of the rarest of arctic flounders. It has hitherto been unknown
to the coast of North America. At least one hundred speci-
mens have been secured, representing great variety of form, age
and other conditions. The species was first taken August 6,
1877, off Salem in forty-five fathoms. It has since been secured
near La Have Bank in eighty-eight. fathoms, and in Bedford
Basin, Halifax, in from twenty-five to thirty-five fathoms.

Hippoglossoides platessoides (Fabr.) Gill. Taken on La Have
Bank in eighty-eight fathoms. Heretofore recorded only from
Greenland. It is not identical with H. limandoides as suggested
by Dr. Giinther.

A species of the genus Hippoglossoides which is distinct
from H. platessoides and may prove to be identical with the H.
limandoides of Giinther has been taken in company with Glyp-
tocephala seynoglossus in Bedford Basin, Halifax.

Kthinonemus caudacuta (Storer) Gill. Several specimens
taken in Massachusetts Bay, and on La Have Bank

Cryptocanthodes maculatus Storer. One specimen taken in
Massachusetts Bay, August 13, 1877, in forty-eight fathoms.

Humesogrammus subbifurcatus (Storer) Gill. A single speci-
men was taken August 25, 1877 in the mouth of Halifax Har-
bor in sixteen fathoms. |

* Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 1862, p. 405.

Goode and Bean—Two new species of Fishes. 407

Sticheus punctatus (Fabr.) Reinh. A single specimen of
brilliant scarlet color, was taken in the same locality with the
preceding.

Eumicotremus spinosus (Fabr.) Gill) One specimen was
dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission six miles off Half Way
Rock, Salem, Mass., August 10, 1877, in thirty-five fathoms.
“It is of very rare occurrence. Two specimens were dredged
in 1861 by Professor Verrill, off Anticosti in ten fathoms, and
another was taken by U. S. Fish Commission at Eastport,
(Maine), in 1872.” (Putnam.)

Aspidophoroides monopterygius (Bloch) Storer. Up to the
time of the visit of the U. S. Fish Commission to Salem, this
species has been very rarely taken south of Greenland, Mi: that
pele from the stomachs of cod, haddock, halibut and other

fishes. Several specimens were dredged by. the Commission at
Portland and Eastport, Maine. Many specimens were taken in
Massachusetts Bay, often a dozen coming up ina single haul of
the trawl.

Kcelus uncinatus Reinhardt. Trawled in considerable num-
bers in Massachusetts Bay in forty-two to ninety fathoms.
One or two were ia by the U. S. Fish Commission at
Eastport, Maine, in 1872. No other specimens are known to
have se iauals on the coast of North America

Triglo An undetermined member of this genus, has
been ae in “deep water in sales dose ties.

Fistularia serrata Cuy. Specimens from a NGF Bay
are in the museums of the Boston ee of Natural History
and the Peabody Academy, Salem; also one from the West-
ern Atlantic in the Colonial Museum at Halifax. Later writers
have excluded this species from the fauna of North America,
following the lead of Dr. Giinther who gives its distribution as
exclusively Indo-Pacific. A specimen taken by J. Matthew
Jones, Esq., in Bermuda, was identified by Dr. Giinther with
F. serrata. This species must be restored to the faunal relations
claimed for it by the earlier American authors, to w
Giinther makes not the slightest reference in his synonymy.

Raia radiata Donovan. This species is well described by
Fabricius under the name of Raia fullonica. Adultsand young
have been taken sparingly in Massachusetts Bay, on La Have
Bank, in Halifax Harbor, and in Bedford Basin.

Canthorhinus occidentalis (Gthr.) Goode. A specimen of this
fish, not before recorded north of Bermuda and Key West, was
taken in the summer of 1875 at Linen Island near the entrance
to Chesapeake are and presented to the National Museum by
sig se John

Hypeneus womcsilice (Bloch) Cuvier. A specimen was taken
at Wood’s Holl, Mass., July, 1877, by Vinal N. Edwards. The

478 Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid.

species occurs in Bermuda, the West Indies, and on the coast
of Brazil.

Chilichthys Spengleri (Bloch) Goode. A single individual
was taken by Vinal N. Edwards at Wood’s Holl, in August,
1877. A West Indian and Madeiran form.

Lactophrys trigonus (Linn.) Poey. Ten or twelve individuals
were taken at Wood’s Holl, 1877. The species has only once
before (in 1838) been taken north of Florida.

Art, L1.—Volumetrie Determinations by Chromic Acid; by
C. W. H N.

for chromic acid in estimating the quantity of sulphuric acid
in drinking water.

Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid. 479

During the last few years I have had occasion to make a
large number of determinations of the quantity of sulphur in
coal gas, and have often wished for some process of determin-
ing sulphuric acid less tedious than the ordinary gravimetric

ne by barium sulphate and more accurate than the volumet-

reduced by quite a number of reagents. I had previously
found a delicate test for chromic acid in the acid solution of
starch paste and potassium iodide. It remained to be seen if
the blue color disappeared as soon as the chromic acid was all
reduced. I found that of the ordinary reducing agents only
an acid solution of stannous chloride produced Ps result,
even when a large excess of acid was present. I found that

as
allreduced. It was finally found desirable to boil the bichro-
mate solution And cool it out of contact with the air; when
this was done the quantity of water present made no difference

in the amount of stannous chloride required. The following *
ch

nearly tothe neck. The flask is closed with a stopper agit
which passes a glass tube, at the end of which is a rubber v

opening outward. The contents of the flask are boiled for
eget Segoe and then cooled; the valve preventing the access
OF ® A few centimeters of h drochlotie acid are added and

and potassium iodide added to the contents of the flask pro-
duces a dark blue color which is to be removed by the cau-
tious addition of stannous chloride. The exact point is easy
to hit as at last the color changes rapidly with a small addition
of the chloride. The following determinations were made in

this manner, a standard solution of potassium bichromate con- -

taining 14-761 grams per liter being used

K,Cr,0, SnCl, Ratio.
25 ec. req. 19°26 ce 770%
10°04
10 7°72 772
10 7°73 “773
3 2°32 773

480 Hinman— Volumetric Determinations by Chromic Acid.

Of course bodies like ferric and cupric salts that are reduced
by stannous chloride must be absent and the solution must not
be so concentrated that the green of the chromic chloride ob-
scures the iodo-starch blue. Stannous chloride has had the
reputation of changing rapidly on standing, but I have found
it quite stable, when properly protected from the air, as the fol-
lowing results show :

March * 10 cc. potassium bichromate required, ; ep ec. stannous chloride.

“ Aai a“ “ ““ . Joucy a sé

April 16, a“ “cc 4“ “ 7-734 ce : “

May 21, “ “c “ “ i V4 “ i“

The following determinations can be made by means of
chromic acid. The chromates of lead, barium, and bismuth

n be accurately precipitated, barium from an ammonical
ion, the others from an acetic solution. The determina-
tion of lead is given as an exam

Twenty-five cc. of a solution of lead acetate, fifty cc. of
which gave 0°5908 gram lead sulphate, were diluted with water
and a little acetic acid, heated to boiling in a small beaker and
10 ce. standard bichromate solution added. The precipitate
of lead chromate was filtered off after standing a few minutes,
washed, and the excess of chromic acid determined in the fil-
trate. The quantity of stannous chloride required was 0-20 ce. ;
other experiments gave 0°21, 0.21, 0°20, and 0:20, by calcula-
_ tion from the amount of lead sulphate there should have been

peguiran 0°19 ce. being an error of one or two parts in about
fa known quantity of bichromate is added to acid solu-
tions of arsenious or antimonious acids they will be oxidized to

can then be determined. Twenty-five cc. of a solution of
arsenious acid, containing 5-2675 grams per liter, plus 10 cc.
standard bichromate solution, required 1:36, 1°35,.1°33, and
1-35 cc. of stannous chloride. If the arsenious acid had been
pure only 1°22 cc. stannous chloride would have been required
instead 1°85. In other words the arsenious acid contained
about one and four-tenths per cent impurity. The only anti-
mony compound I happened to have at hand was tartar emetic,
but tartaric acid in that seemed to interfere with the reaction
to a certain extent so that the results were not satisfactory.

Sulphuric acid can be determined as follows: ‘To a slightly
acid solution of a sulphate heated to boiling is added a small
excess of a solution of barium chromate in hpdrochilorie acid,
barium sulphate is precipitated ; then the solution is neutral-
ized with ammonia which precipitates the remaining barium
chromate, the precipitates of barium sulphate and chromate
are filtered off and the chromic acid determined in the filtrate
is equivalent to the sulphuric acid in the original solution.

Chemistry and Physics. 481

H.SO, sol. SnCl, sol. © Calculated.
3 ec, req. 1°87 ce. 1°85 ce.
5 3°10 -

10 6°16 615

25 15°38 15:37

Twenty-five ce. fe the sulphuric acid oo gave 0°4633

rams barium sulpha

Perhaps the slater in drinking water can be determined by
means of the chromic acid method, but my experiments are as
yet incomplete. —

laving worked for Some time with the method of ee

iron by means of stannous chloride, I am convinced that
importance is not yet recognized generally. |The ohana
modification seems to simplify the process as given in the last
edition of Fresenius’ analysis. To the iron solution which has
just been decolorized by stannous chloride, add a small pipette
full of iodine solution, equivalent to about one-fourth cubic
centimeter of stannous ‘chloride, cool, then add a little starch
paste and stannous chloride until the color disappears. The
equivalent in stannous chloride of the pipette of iodine solu-
tion substracted from the whole amount used leaves the quan-
tity required by the iron. By this means the use of a second
burette is avoided and less calculation is required.

Office of State Gas Inspection, 32 Hawley street, Boston.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysics.

On the Gases enclosed in Lignite.—Tuomas, in continuation
of tis erica upon the gases enclosed in coals, has examined
with this view the lignites of Bovey Heathfield, Devonshire, =

also a specimen of mineral resin, a . retinasphaltam” of Hate

ett. A leafy lignite weighing 1 0 grams, on being kept in a
Sprengel vacuum at 50° for fous days, scckon’ 56°1 cc, of gas,
canara: of CO, 87°25, O 0°24, CO 3°59 and N . 92== 100. It

100 grams of resin, comsting of CO, 882 ‘24 an 0°23, a : ies

0-47, CO 7-0, N 3°16=100. On further bestia hk sonic began

to melt, and ‘decom saat set in at 110° to 112°, the gases col-

lected below 150° consisting of H,S 0°41, CO, 78°88, C,H,, gases
Am. Jour. Sct. ae Series, Vou. XIV, No. 84,—Dec. , 1877.

482 Scientific Intelligence.

2°67, CO 7°82, CH, 8°05, C,H, 1°86, nitrogen 0°31=100. Com
eek with the coals proper, ‘lignites show therefore a marked faa
ference in their gaseous contents, approaching most nearly, how-
ever, the cannels. But while the greater portion of the gas en-
closed in both cannel and lignite consists of CO,, the former con-
tains the gases and other compounds of the a ogee series and the
latter C,H,, gases as well as oily aromatic bodies and CO. 3 ore-

ea 146, Aug.,

2. On the eae between Insoluble Carbonates nd Soluble
dice —Warson Situ, observing that ammonia was evolved
on mixing ammonium oxalate and chalk or marble powder, re-
peated the experiment with sodium oxalate, and Fess ate even in
the cold a distinctly alkaline reaction On hea the tw ahs
bona together and then ae the filtrate eavesoa on aad

chloric acid. is to a series of experiments to de-
sitive the character and extent of this reaction, and to compare
it with that of alkali Sap ogre upon the e arthy oxalates. Re-
garding the possible O, formed when the decomposition is
complete as 100, a Ec carbonate treated with sodium oxalate
gave 19°83 Na CO, in the cold and 22-90 when heated; strontium
carbonate gave 7 ‘63 in both cases; barium carbonate. gave 4°84
and 4°98; and lead carbonate 6°35 and 13°08. Conversely, if 100
represent, the possible Na,CO, converted into oxalate, calcium ox-
alate converted 16-07 in the cold and 52°34 when heated ; stron-
tium oxalate 57°24 and 79°96; barium oxalate 73°20 and 87°96;
me lead oxalate 81°54 and 90°61. In the cold, calcium carbonate
is as much more acted on by sodium SENG ‘than is barium car-
bondie as bata oxalate is by sodium carbonate more than cal-
cium oxalate. In the case of soluble Seataten, the reaction does
not appear to be bycrireaas materially by heat.—/. say mM. i *
xxxli, 245, Sept.,
3. the new Me tal Da avyum.—tIn the month of Fane ees

Sir Huinphrey Davy. To prepare it, 600 grams of the platiaifer

ous sand were treated by Bunsen’s metho d for the separation of
the pl iridium, rhodium, osmium, palladium, ruthenium,
iron and co which it contained. The mother liquors after

its solutions pees Hp tern sulphide ives a brown precipi-
tate in solutions of davyum chloride, whic
rying. Potassium sulphocyanide colors this solution red, like

Chemistry and Physies. 483

ferric salts, when dilute, and gives a red precipitate when concen-
trated. In Men ndelejeff’ ’s classification, the author thinks davyum
a ear ee element placed between molybdenum and ruthe-

subsequent paper, Kern gives the reactions of the new
metal alkanes by dissolving his ingot in _ regia. The yel-

ow hydrate is readily soluble in acids, even cetic. - The
nitrate Ad gee as a brown mass, which on ea sti gives a black
xi issolved in potassium cyanide, um chloride

in water and alcohol. No second chloride is ea eter-
minations give the density 9°389. Its atomic sieht mo not yet
been determined, but it is porters between 150 and 1 fs 38
Ixxxv, 72, 623, July, Oct., 1877.

solution of copper sulphate on oeens ener, the author
ina H,CO- ees —Cu—CH-COCH,
establishes the formula as 600C,H, éooc.H, , in

which the carbon atoms of the two groups are ‘linked directly by
copper. Nickel, cobalt, magnesium, aluminum and mercury ¢
pounds were also prepared. —Liebig’s Ann., clxxxviii, 26, Ang. =
ag A

On Phyllie acid, extracted from leaves.— Fount has suc-
hed 3 in sacle from the leaves of the cherry-laurel, a new acid
to which he gives ‘the name phyllic acid. The leaves are extracted
hap boiling er the extract left on wit off the ae

a

¥° i
at 170°, and decomposing at 200°. Analysis of the ] potass sium salt
fixed the molecular weight at 624; and ultimate analysis, conse-

484 Scientific Intelligence.

quently, the formula C, he Or which the author regards as pro-
visional only. The so and ammonium salts are well crys-
tallized. The acid has aoe been obtained from the leaves of the
quince, apple, ig almond, banks lilac and eines
Bull. Soe. Ch., T, xxvii, 148, Sept., 18

6. On the Constitution of Buwanthon. cases and Wr ICHEL-
HAvs have experimented to determine the constitution of euxan-

eibaiion sy. wa It has t g cameos C, tl 0, Its vapor
passed over zinc sae wder in a current of rogen ‘gave the
product O. This, oxidized with nitric acid or permanganate
aye C,,H,0,; treated with fu uming nitric acid, gave a nitro-pr ae

C,,H,Br,O and CG. Hbr,O; e
rae wee wie acetyl chloride to 100° gave diacet yleuxanthon,
HC, ; From these reactions, taken in connection wit
po fact ern ‘. obtained a hydroquinone- -like body on reduc-
tion with sodium amalgam, the author regards euxanthon as a
C,H.
carbonein of hydroquinone CO “te >O. , the reduction product
OF ee

with zine being carbodiphenylene CO Sale nei >, giving on oxidation

pa a a a oxide CoG uP >O.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., x,
1397, Oct., oe

rf Secs a ‘Vapors. —- One of the most important of ies recent
additions to chemical methods is that of Victor Meyer for deter-
mining the density of the vapor of substances which have a high
boiling point. As in the method of Gay-Lussac or in the modifi-
cation of that method as employed by Hoffman, a given weight of
the substance used is converted completely into vapor and the
volume of this vapor measured under determinate conditions. An

ut varying dineala noi Bs with the seen of the vapor to be deter-

e glass having been weighed to decigrams and the material
introduced, the interior is or at | 100° . with W 00d’s ‘fusible

~

Chemistry and Physics, 485

apparatus is sacar and again weighed, but as before, only to
decigrams. The apparatus is now immersed in the vapor of boiling
sulphur, which, according to the oe et of Regnault has a
constant t temperature of 442°2° when the barometer stands at.
723°5 m The substance passes into visio? and a considerable
— of the alloy overflows and the tension of the vapor thus
formed is evidently measured by the height of the barometer
column at the time, plus the equivalent in mercury of the height
of the column of melted metal which fills the neck of the apparatus
above the level of the metal in the bulb. The last is easily meas-
ured with a millimeter scale if at the instant of peed the apparatus
from the sulphur bath the levél of the metal is arked on the bulb,
which may be easily done with melted seers wax, using a heated
glass rod as a pen. hen now the apparatus has partially cooled
and the adhering particles of metal have been removed, it is
weighed for the third time and from the three weights we easily>
ascertain what quantity of metal has overflowed in the sulphur

wb ¢c. ¢., so that its density was about two-thirds of that of
mercu From these values he deduces the following formula
for the eeletacion of the vapor _— from such observations as
we have described :

Density (referred to air as unity) = Woaets WHET 3h)?

* This is the pr hap of the barometer at Zurich where Meyer’s Persea
tions were made. e mean level of the sea with the mean height 760 mm.

the boiling point is eatin nearly
At the sea level when the barometer stands at 760 mm. this constant
du ced.

2
the tension in millime by H’. The density of the vapor is equal to its ee
divided by the et er the same volume of air at the same temperature
sion, or d = — and as is well known,
ra :
ohis 1 a ig
w’ = 0':001293 (71 5-9-003665-444~2) ~ 760°
But in the process we are consiflering the volume of the vapor is evidently equal
to the volume of the overflow at 444°2° less that of the overflow which bose :
; “10
(Ww —0-036 W’) and as we have seen, H’ = H+ $h. Making now the substitu-
tions and combining the numerical wala we obtain the expression given above.

486 Seientific Intelligence.

here w is the weight of the substance used, W’ the weight of alloy
which filled the bulb at 100°, and W the weight which overflowed
in the sulphur bath; also H the height of the barometer and /A the
difference of level of the alloy in the bulb and neck of the appa-
ratus at the moment it was withdrawn from the bath.

Wood’s fusible alloy is exceedingly well adapted to the use to
which it has been so beautifully applied by Victor Meyer.
prepared and sold by Dr. Schuchardt of Gorlitz it appears to have
a — constant co ommpoeition and equally constant physical quali-
tie Spry aden it is but slightly acted on by boiling sulphur an
can reaaie be recovered from the sulphur bath into which it over-
flows. It can an be easily cleaned and used over again re-
peatedly. But for these and other details we would refer to the
ey full description of the process which has recently oi eae
in Fresenius’ Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie, xvi, 4 Of

with any substance which would act chemically upon the alloy.
Still it has already very oe extended our — of

such substances it is both more easy of application and more’

site than the only comparable method, that of Dumas as
ed by Deville and Troost. We add two examples for illus-
foxcions

Anthrachinon. .
Substance used -_-. cite 0. ae OOCE2 germ.
Met a reas Oe Me ene nrRenTT Oning eit ic ereie aie W...o 2644, *
Which Gvermowed 22 .0c00.2.22W. =7,179°6.:...°
Barometer height oo. 5. eis nen H =728% mm.
pierenes Of level... 2 acs cence mee 388°.
Resulting density .-.. ..2..2/.-0.- 7°22
e OY Ge Ae OE kyon ean 7719
Found by Grabe with the process of :
Deville and Troos Se
Paradibrombenzol.
Substance weeds) os. bbs w == 0°0772 grm.
Metal used ____ ._. i eee ee eee
“which overflowed ......------ Wo @ 1874. *
Barometer teint... .- 2 2c se H = 7285 mm.
Difference of level .....--.-2.-...--
Restitting detisity 05505 oo. ik, 8°14
Theory. fon 00 Eb By eden op een tins 8°15

Po Os
New Results in Physies.—(\.) A. F. Beraeren concludes

wi the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths possess

greater electrical conducting power than the sblabie sulphates 0 of

the same bases.—Ann. der Physik und Chemie, new series, vol. 1,
499,

“(2.) Sirow has undertaken an investigation of weak magnetic
substances. His method consists in observing the deviation of an
*astatic system of needles, produced by appending to it a cylin-

Geology and Mineralogy. 487

drical vessel containing the magnetic substance under considera-
tion. He discusses the method ‘by t the aid of the theory of poten

tials and obtains for an aqueous solution of chloride of iron of
density 1°475 a magnetizing constant of -K = 0:0000815.—J2.,

(3.) Hanxet discusses the results of previous experiments upon
the electrical effect of light rays upon metal plates, immersed in
fluids, and adds some experiments of his own which show that the
difference of potential of certain metal plates immersed in fluids
is assert altered by light; and that in certain cases this effect
is opposite to that caused by the heat rays.—

4.) Cuausius shows that if there are a number of condueting
bodies C,, C,, C,, ete. which influence each other and if these
bodies are first char ged with the quantities of electricities Q,,
Q,, Q, ete. giving the potentials Mig V,, V, etc., and afterwards
charged with the page co 2, Diyas wi ith the ——— 8,
B,, B,; the equation [VQ=2[8Q results.—J0.,

.) Herman Herwie collects the facts in leeks 8 ‘the differ-
ent mechanical actions of positive and negative electrical poles;
joins to these some observations of his own in regard to the
havior of flames placed between their poles, and discusses the
generality of these phenomena together with their bearing upon
the tywo-fluid theory of electricity. ie p. 516.

6.) According to an investigation of W. von Muncumavsen
carried on in the laboratory of A. Wullner, the _ heat of
water et . is represented by the sg, ese me pie _
Ib., p. 5

II. Geology AND MINERALOGY.

, by Frerpinanp FREIHERRN VON Ri ICHTHOFEN.

auspices of the Prussian Government. nly a few prominent
points in Chi ina were heotere - interior of the country not being

aiping rebellion. He also went to
Siam, Formosa, the Bhitipy ‘ipnines Celebes and Java. Japan was
not at the time open to foreigners.

The year 1867 and part of 1868 were spent in California, in con-
nection with the Geological Survey of that State under J.
Whitney; and av volume treating learnedly of the N atural Sys-
tem of volcanic rocks, and describing those of Western North
America was one result of his labors.

In July, 1868, he left for a second fe Chis: ai was there

- Pe pea Ergebnisse eigener Reisen at darauf gegriindeter Studien; von
a RICHTHOFEN. Erster Band. Rinleitender Theil.

ND FREIHE VON
fon 1877, (Verlag von Dietrich Reimer,

438 Scientific Intelligence.

— the center of the Province of Sz-tschwan, over 900 miles

of eo and to the north, the borders of Mongolia,
sacra of Pekin. During a portion of the years 1870, 1871
(from August, 1870, to the spring of 1871), he was in Japan.

The work, of which the Ist volume, out of the four to be pub-
lished, has acenip been issued, will embrace the results of his
observations and studies with reference to the t topography of
China, its geography, climate, density of population in different
parts of its histor y, its production ns and their mercantile importance,
its geology a gy, etc. Besides the account of China, the
work wi ntain a sketch of the author’s observations also in

pan, sera Manilla, Java and Siam; and, in conclusion, a
discussion of some pro roblems connected with the earth’s general
arog" and history, as illustrated by the special facts observed.

he fourth volume, on the Paleontology, will be prepared by
2 specialists, among them, Dr. Kayser of Berlin, Prof.
Schenk of Leipzic and Dr. Schwager of Munich. There will alse

in the text. The atlas will contain twenty-eight special charts on
the scale of 1: 750,000; a general chart of China, on that of
1: 3,000,000; and other charts to illustrate the geology, —
phy “of products, density and movements of population, etc., 1
China; also, a general chart and several special charts of Japan.
The volume issued is princely in its style of publication; and it
manifests, bess dus; that the work will be thorough in its discussion
of the subjects taken u up.

‘he first yolume commences with a survey of the general
topography of China and Central Asia. It next treats of the
dss-formation of Northern China—its features, structure and ori-
gin, and its relations to the salt ste pes of Central Asia and the
léss-deposits of other countries. e mouutain-systems of Cen-
oe Asia are then described, and with this subject Part I closes.

rt II consists of a histor rs of geographical knowledge with
dle to China, and treats of ancient Chinese geographies and

ing the different periods of grr history, of the intercourse of

the people with the people of Southern and Western Asia, and,

after the arrival of the Pecaene in 1817, with the nations of
urope.

The account of the léssformation of Northern China is of
special interest, because of its wide distribution and its connection
with the social ‘condition and welfare of the people. Baron von
Richthofen observes that west of the alluvial plain of the sea-border
—which plain in the vicinity of Pekin extends 175 English miles
west from the Petschili gulf—there is a terrace of léss thirty to
eighty meters in height. Continuing west, there is, next, a moun-
tainous region on the east border of the Provinee of Shansi, and
then succeeds a plateau largely covered with léss, which is 600 to
1,000 meters above the sea-level. Again, farther west, after pass-
ing a mountain range, there is a second ‘plateau, 1 500 to 1,800

; Geology and Mineralogy. 489

meters above the sea-level, which is covered in great part with
liss. The river Fénn-ho "(a stream flowing s onthward into the
Hoang-ho, through the center of the Province of Shansi), occupies
a deep channel cut through it along its western border. West of
this — there is another mountainous region, in which flows
north and south, for 300 miles, the Hoang-ho or epee River.

Beyond, Jeeaagh the Provinces of Shensi and Kansu, the léss is
widely spread; and, on the authority of the missionaries and the

Chinese, it continues in the valleys to the most western sources of
the affluents of the Hoang-ho, over 900 miles robes alte coast. The
loss spreads northward along the plains or valleys into Mongolia,

Southward, it occupies basins in the broad valley of the Wei, the
largest tributary of the Hoang-ho; and it also occurs in the val-
ley of the Han. It is found also farther east over parts of the low
near Nanking, Tung-ting Lake, and Po-yang Lake, which are its
lands of Honan and Shantung. South of Honan it exists in iso-

€ ?

otal to Baron von n Richthofen,

The material of the = like that along the Rhine, is a brown-
ish-yellow earth (whene the name “Yellow River,” given to the
a very inded, exceedingly fine in grain, and friable

when ; and affording on chemica ment, more or less car-
bonate of lime. It often contains, at different levels, calcareous

also p

ing to the author, shells of fresh-water snails. Vegetable se
also occur in it. From top to bottom it is penetrated by ve
small tubular Swear d which are like shone — are now in many

ever, at intervals usually of — than fifty feet (but vary ing from
a few feet to more than a hundred), horizontal divisional ‘planes
which are usually connected with planes of concretions. In con-
sequence of these structural aigicayh hie the léss fronts the val-
leys with high vertical walls, in which are occasional horizontal
terrace-like shelves. It becomes reduced by intersecting stream
or streamlets, and the rills from the heavy rains, to regions =
deep and narrow labyrinthine passage-ways, groups of oft ty o
lisks, castles, clustered towers. Instructive views of its alate

are cla in the volume.

Baron von Richthofen discusses the theories as to the origin of
the liss, sad adopts that which he had advocated in his memoirs

490 Scientific Intelligence. :

on the Provinces of Honan and Shansi, published at Shanghai in

1870. He objects, with reason, to the theory of marine submer-

gence, advocated by T. W-. Kin ngsmill, Esq., in the Quarterly

Journal of the Geological Society for 1871 (p. 376 ,) on the ground

that the shells, bones and vegetation are all terrestrial; that there

are no marine relies of ny kind in the deposits ; and states that
ould re

which would give a chance for the introduction over the area of
China, within comparatively recent times, of all kinds of marine
li He e rejects also the view that the 16 ss is of freshwater origin
deposited from the waters of vast lakes that formerly covered a
wi part of the country—the opinion brought out by ae

He says also that there is no evidence of glacial origin, no
moraines or other marks of glaciers having been observed in any
part of the country.

Baron von Richthofen holds that the léss formation is a subaerial
accumulation, due to the drifting action of the winds; to trans-
portation by rivulets from the hills immediately a one each
léss basin; and to the mineral material left over the
growing peste and other plants. The first and the last of these
causes are made the most effectual. The degradation of the rocks
of the neighboring hills by decomposition and alternate changes
of temperature, produces the loose grains for emg ocewee The
plants covering the great plains served to stop the wind-drifted
earth, and so keep the en nb ever in ies ss. He observes
that the true léss is made over a dry surface and he calls it Jand-
léss. But the liss basins have generally had a lake at center;
and about the a the deposit is thin-laminated or stratified ; an

* Mr. Pumpelly’s Memoir was published in a quarto of 144 pages, . iets maps,
by the Senittloeah Institution, as No. 202 of the Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge, Washington, D. C., October, 1866. The author visited the region

wagon-roads run for many miles without rising to the plain. In the valley
between the Kvenkates (pu) and the Moose defile, I crossed a gully forty or
fifty feet deep and not more than four feet wide, having the same _— sg the
way down, and following pc these Piha a tortuous course for more than
nile. ; ' :

channel from top to bottom, and this with each succeeding rain works its way
backward toward the mountain. As the erosion a the sides of the
gullies offer new starting points for tributary ravini

Geology and Mineralogy. 491

this he wails lake-liss. The lakes had formerly sag width than
now; and in the valley of the Wei where the true léss is oe
sive,. “he has seen it overlying the laminated lake-los ss. Abou
the ‘dried-up basins, under the present dry climate, salt aoe
cences are common.

From all the facts he concludes that the léss-basins were
originally sites of salt lakes; that the land had less height in the
interior to the northward than now, as shown by the succession of
liss basins going west, and that the basins had consequently very
great extent ; that the climate was so dry that the evaporation |
exceeded the fall of wat er, and consequently the streams were
very feeble, or dried up, an nd that this was another occasion for
great undrained basins; that the true léss was formed about the
dry borders of the basins by the methods above mentioned, and
gradually spread inward covering the lake-léss as the water of the
basin diminished, so giving the upper surface of the deposit a

was much like the present state of ‘be salt-steppes of Central
Asia; and that the léss-making era was brought to an end de a
change of climate in which gr reat rains chan nged ‘08 rivers

floods, which led to their cutting channels through Ky basins a
opening up the present system of drainage. Thus the Hoang-ho

this drainage a ag was promoted also by an elevation to the
ev

a eapenil?s article, referred to "a was peace
ne a perme of Baron von Ri chthofen’ s views; and it is of inter-

est here s arguments. ost important are these:
that the disintegration going on over the hills is a very inadequate
source o r such great and thick deposits, and the winds

made, Pe p
von Richthofen’s, yes
Pekin and about Kalgan) for the freshwater and lacustrine origin of
the liéss from the presence of shells in the deposits (at Té Hai) ;
rom the uniform constitution and fineness of the liss, this “ prov-
ing that it has not come from what were the neighboring shores,
but that it*was brought into the lakes by one or more large =
which must have drained an area of great extent. J.D
2. International Geological Congress,— The nu mber of shis
Journal for December of 1876 contains the announcement of the

492 Scientific Intelligence.

— of a Committee, by the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, to take action with reference to
holding an International Geological ee at Paris, dur ae the

derived from a ee issued by the Committee, of which Prof.
James Hall is

At the recent svtcnting of the Association, at Nashville, a report
on the subject was presented by the Secretary of the Committee,

r. T. Sterry Hunt. According to it, the circular was sent to
learned societies over the world, and has everywhere called
forth gratifying st The oe Society of France has
expressed its hear es oe abet and English, —, Swedis

a

the project of a similar International Geological Congress, to be

held in [taly, before the Italian Minister of Agriculture, Industry

and Commerce. German has declined to take any part in the
this m

the Committee is now in correspondence with the Secretary of the -
Geological Society of rae upon this point, and believes that a
time convenient to all will be agreed upon
e Report also atibodila a resolution of the Standing Com-
mittee of the Association’ recommending that the Presidents, for
the time being, of the Geological Societies of France, Lo don
Edinburgh, Dublin, Berlin, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
the Imperial Geological Institute of Vienna, be invited to form
part of the Commiss
After the presentation of the report to the American Associa-
tion, the Secretary received official notice that the Geological
Society of France, had, in codperation with the above plan, ap-
pointed in Paris a local committee of organization for the pro-
posed Congress, constituted as follows: Hi&serr, President ;
-OURNOUER and» ALBerT Gaupry, Vice-presidents; BrocHE
Treasurer; JANNETAZ, Sec retary-general ; Deraire, Sauv VAGE,
Broccut and Véiarn, Reananastes ; with the following : BreLGRAND
Bureau, pE CHancourrots, G. Corre EAU, Damour, Dauprée,
&,

Gonceaatics.

A circular Seued by this Committee, ae date er Faly 31, in-
vites all those interested in geo logical, mineralogical and pa aleon-
— tological studies, to take part in the approaching ag Sta and
to subscribe the sum of twelve francs each, which will give a card
of admission to the Congress, and Tight to all the sablications

Geology and Mineralogy. 493

thereof. All those who intend to be present are at the same time
invited to send, as soon as possible, a list of the questions which
seem to them worthy of general discussion, as well as of the com-
munications which they intend to make touching these questions.
They are also invited to indicate What time appears to them mos
convenient for the meeting of the Congress
regards an International Geological Exhibition, the Paris
Committee of organization state that the difficulty of finding a
suitable locality seems to them an obstacle in the way of realizing
this part of the programme. They hope however that there will
e many special pallsetions sent, and beg the exhibitors of such
to give the committee due notice of these, in order that a special
catalogue of them may be prepare
The circular issued by t e Committee of the American Associa-
tion did not contemplate, as Dr. Hunt states, the holding of an
International Geological Exhibition apart from the Universal
Exhibition, but, in 5 or guage of that circular, the making as
e pegs department of the Universal

Exhibition. It is that, as at all previous similar exhibi-
tions, the different eaten will contribute more or less of geo-
logical terial; an yas conceiv hat such collections,

International Geological Exhibition. To the accomplishment of
this end it will only be necessary for the exhibitors of all nations
to sehd a list of their Por contributions to the local Com-
mittee of organization at Pari

All correspondence oaien to the ye oe should be addressed
by Dr. Jannetaz, Sécretaire-général, Rue rands si apace

7, Paris, France, and all moneys sent to Dr: Bioche at the sam
ac ress,

3. Paleontology of New York, Illustrations of Devonian
Fossils: Gaster opoda, Pte sh Ale Cephalopoda, ¢

nse :

IV of Professor Hall’s great work on the Paleontology of New
k was published in 1867, and contained descriptions and fig-
ures of the fossil Br: achiopods of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton,
Portage and Chemung ype illustrated by about seventy rec
Since its publication, as reface to this new volume states

with the care of the Museum, in connection with impaired health,
the descriptions still remain incomplete. In 1875, eighty plates
of the Lamellibranchs had been drawn and litho graphed, and the
drawings of the greater part of the Gasteropods, Pteropods,
Cephalopods and Crustacea, now issued in this new volume, had

494 Scientific Intelligence.

been finished, while those of the Corals were in progress. Dur
ing that yea r the Legislature of the State authorized the pitsiio:
tion, by the albertype process, of a hundred copies of each of one
hundred of the plates, ree the pape bi of thirty additional
lates. Through this means the new volume of plates, with the
explanatory pages of ext; vias been pins All the plates it con-
tains were photographed from excellent original drawings, except-
ing part of those of the Corals which are direct from the specimens.
The most of the drawings were made under the supervision of
Mr. R. P. Whitfield, and many of 1 those of the Gasteropoda and

The plates form a beautiful volume, and, with the explanations
accompanying each, they ‘scence even aw ork which will be of great

Geole shogieid Sur rvey h made him an reenter in that ieee
ond eee conferred oak in order to avoid any duplication of

ad io

Pictessr Hall states that to complete the Devonian Cephalo-

a, the number of plates—here forty—will have to be doubled,
the plathe of the Crustacea will need some additions, and those of
the Corals, here over forty, will have to be greatly increased in
number. Prof. Hall’s eee have been of vast service to Ameri-
can negate and of great honor to the State under whose
rt

ibe

4, Twenty-cig. hth Annual Report of the New Yu orks State
Museum of Natural History, by the apes of the University of
the State of New York. 100 pages, 8vo, with 34 plates. Trans-
mitted to the Legislature, March 30, 18 75. Albany, 1875.—This

eport, whose contents are mentioned on page 432, is one of special
paleontologic eal value. The chief article is by Prof, Hall, and
consists of plates and their os ae te illustrating “the fauna
of the iets Group in Central Indian e number of plates
is thirt r-tW e figures include s eid of fossil Sponges,

by the Sake A serait C. HL. Peck. T e new Create ioualle de-
scribed by C. D. Walcott are of the iter stig: Concho-
os ee patelliform shell), Bathyuras whe Asaphu

on some new sections of Trilobites from ‘the Trenton
chee and meer dose of new sp oes of fossils, by C. D.
Watcorr, 22 pp. 8vo, with one plate. Published i in "advance of
the Rep. N. Y. State Musenm, Sept. 20, 1877.—In this paper Mr.
Walcott gives an account of the discov. ery of articulated append-

Geology and Mineralogy. 495

ages connected with the mouth of Trilobites, derived from see-
3 of ssenee oe of Cal mene senaria, - urus. leurex-
l

Brat = the 2 ect position acro oss the he ads is not stated.
More sections ey needed before the facts observed can be satis-
factorily interpre

Mr. Walcott fone also observed in sections of the body of a
Ceraurus pleurexanthemus what he regards as remains of the ova
of the animal, similar to those described by Barrande as occurring
in Barrandia crassa. The space between the dorsal shell and the

that the question naturally arises whether the ovoidal bodies are
not of can noite origin
6. Large Bowlders in a Te Hampshire.—One of the largest of

about 70,000 ods giving for the te nearly 6,000 tons. Close

about the sa
The largest parle in Vermont is called the Green Mountain
Giant, Pe de on a hill in Whitingham ; it contains 40, eg cubic

feet.—Daily Monitor, Concord, New Hampshire, Oct
7. Bo of Org nie Acids to the inesribaiatians of Min-
erals ; b . Carrineton Borron, Ph.D. 36 pp. 8vo, with one

plate. New York ‘Acad. Sci., i, 1877. —Professor Bolton presents
in this memoir the results of a ‘long investigation with regard to
the action of citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids on minerals, and

with malic, formic, acetic, benzoic, pyrugstie ce, and picric acids.
The minerals were subjected to the acids i ad ae wder, the solid
acids having been made into satarated solution

From a table in the concluding part of f the memoir, we take
the talewing reactions of citric acid. CO, is given off when the
cold acid acts on the mineral carbonates, excepting magnesite and
siderite which require heat. CO, is also given off, when acting

with the h cid o sm e, mang and _psilo-
lane. H,S is liberated when neting with the cold acid on stib-
nite, nape a sphalerite, pyrrhotite, e hot acid on

t
bornite and bournonite as well as the preceding. A jelly is formed
when the hot acid acts on willemite, datolite, pectolite, calamine,
natrolite ; and nou-gelatinous silica, when the same acts on wollas-

lite, rhodonite, analcite, chabazite, stilbite, serpentine, retinalite,
deweylite’ The following minerals are decomposed by boiling

496 Scientific Intelligence.

with citric acid and KNO,: argentite, chalcocite, pyrite, marca-
site, niccolite, smaltite, chalcopyrite ullmannite, arsenopyrite, te-

trahedrite, uraninite, and a the species above enumerated as
decomposed wi e “Th owing are decomposed by
boiling with citric acid and NH,FI: olivine, wernerite, ortho-

talc, spodumene, almandine garnet, epidote, and also the above-
enumerated species which yield silica,

Professor Bolton inate that solid citric (or tartaric) acid is
far more convenient than hydrochloric for the traveling mineral-
ogist; and also that potassium nitrite, KNO,, should be added to
the usual list of blowpipe reagents ; for it a with citric acid,
nitric acid, and it affords a ‘convenient means of carrying this
reagent, We refer to the memoir for special detaila Hes reference
to ay several mineral species studied by Professor Bo

Note on Uranium minerals in North Cuesiinay
i State Geologist. (Communicated.)—Besides the samarskite
of the Wiseman Mica Mine in Mitchell County, with the associated
hatchettolite of Dr. Smith, the minute crystals of microlite found
in iia mines, and some stains and incrustations of uranium
lat R

the latter, and of the fragments of rock adjacent, Zorbernite and
“ooh nite. These minerals occur only in one part of the mica-

of
irregular nodules and rounded masses, some with a. key tien of
uraninite of one half to three-fourth inch, enveloped a heavy

ite,
from an eighth to a fourth of an inch thie k, which is uranochre,
or uraconite. One — the largest, weighs "just a ead: an
all I obtained between three and four pounds. The quantity of
pitchblende eksiadasgr 1 naltered is very small and by far
greater part of the mass “of the nodules, probably n aan is
— and the smaller ones are nearly or entirely changed to
uracon
I oe recently obtained specimens, one pound in weight, of

— from a new locality, viz: Grassy Creek Mine, in Mitchell

unty. rab eiaa§ this mineral had been found chiefly, I believe
onl vl at the Wiseman Mine.

notable fact in connection with the occurrence of these ura-

Botany and Zoology. 497

Ill. Borany AND Zoonoey.

1. The Wild Flowers of — illustrated by Isaac Spracus.

Text by Grorce L. Goopats, M. D., Assistant Professor of Vege-
sey Fhysilogy and Lassitees in Botany in Harvard University
Houghto Seg emer of

so closely as to adopt the genus rep Sp might have been
mentioned that the cogent reason for t e rehabilitation of ‘Rafin-
esque’s genus was not the sterile = Saeed ich were known

from the first and suggested the name, but a involution of the
petals in the bud around the fi pei ee enwrapping
each, which was a new discovery. In the letter-press accom-
panying the very pretty plate of Viola saps (which is well
set off with a tuft of sedge behind it), the method of the discharge
of the seeds is clearly explained, and the _ gpa mode in

amamelis is incidentally alluded to as = it were a recent dis-
covery of the persons mentioned. Far rlier dates are referred
to in this Journal for Feb., 1873, with a aeruace to the amusing

muddle of the subject into which an English — periodinal

was led. Eastern flowers have served hitherto; but in the present

fasciculus the ultra-Mississippian Rudbeckia cemnnaal columna-

ris i Sibec nd to great advantage, especially the two-colored

vari The velvety red-brown bases of the drooping dane
rende

a me before the Botanical Society of France (printed in
ite Bulletin, xxiii, agg in which he described the production
of fruit and seeds in Jmpatiens ee apparently without

rticipation a the male. sex, and when two learned botanists

since lost. A. G
Am, Jour, Sc1.—Tutrp oe Vou. XIV, No. 84.—Derc., 1877.

4938 Scientific Intelligence.

Catalogus nage in Nova Cesarea Repertarum.—This
is the title on the cover. The title page, all eyes is “ Catalogue
of Plants pwwhie ainouk cultivation in the State of New Jer-
sey, with a specific description of all the species of Violet found
therein, Directions for sipenren tel Ba Labeling and Presery-
ing Botanical Specimens, and a ription of suitable i tsi
therefor; with suggestions to Tea mans rosecuting the study o
Botany; to which is added Directions for commencing the study
of Botany; a also a Directory of living Botanists of Nort mer-
ica and the West Indies. By Oliver R. Willis, Ph.D., Instructor
of Natural ar in the Alexander Institute. Revised and
enJarged edition, (A. 5. Barnes & Co.: k, &e.” 8vo
pp. 88.) This full title leaves no need and little room for any
particular petit of this compendious volume. It lacks only a
date, which we may put at 1877, and it has an Index. The pret-
ace to the fier edition bears the date 1874. We gave a notice of
the original — at the time; the present edition is much en-

the ditficulties and labor incident to the preparation of a w

like this,” adds that, “ consequently I expect to be judged with
lenity and criticised with ¢ charity.” We see no good reason for
disappointing his expectations. We will add—since the title
page does not mention it—that, while the catalogue stops with
the Lycopodiacea, it is supplemented by one of marine Alge, by
Samuel Ashmead, and that there is a monograph of the forms or
varieties of — ruit of one of the States’ staple products, the
cranberry. New Jersey has a rich flora, as is well known. This
catalogue enumerates 1,603 species of Phxnogamous lants, and
states that there are tifty-seve n first class and — sc opateah second
class trees. _ this posi 27 eee speci G.

4, Sir Josepy Darton Hoox ached bis home at iow on
the 19th of Setiber, after an msaally long voyage of almost a
fortnight. In his rapid reconnoissance of the botanical features of
the United States he traveled over between nine and ten thousand

miles of American territory, asoended some of the highest moun-
tains, and botanized with a vigor and industry which he could
hardly — mig in his bears days. The time—all too

visit as soon as ossible, and then ie endeavor to see ibe
of the Atlantic States (its institutions as well as its natural pt
ductions), and also of New Mexico, Arizona and Southern Calitor-
nia, which are now becoming readily and promptly accessible to
the rapid-moving traveler.

Nature for October 25 contains an excellent steel portrait of
Sir Joseph Hooker as one of the series of Scientific Worthies; the

Botany and Zoology. 499

accompanying biographical notice is by his companion in Ameri-
can travel, Professor Gray, but was written in May, and was in
“type before Sir J — reached this country. The same number
Nature contains two pages of Notes on the Botany of the
Rocky Mountains, a brief sketch, drawn up by him on the —
ward vo
5 nie ree Hap y, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Buffalo, died, at Buffalo o, N. Y., Oct. 16, in the 63d year
of his age. So passes to his rest the last and the oldest of the
three gifted sons of gifted and most excellent parents. The sub-
ject of this notice, called to a less conspicuous position, did not
attain the eminence of his brother James, but rather follos wed in

., at Fairfield, then at Geneva, and lastly at Buffalo,
where his son succeeded him. The father and the son were singu-
larly alike, model teachers and model men, truthful to the core

and loveable exceedingly, modest and quiet a ree that
musked from the world their ability and their learning: but these
traits could not be hidden from those who in nerations
came under their influence and shared their abiding friendship.
From the father the writer of these lines received, you

of sixteen, his first help as a student of botany, and later his first
encouragement in essaying a scientific career. He would lay this

tribute to the memory of both father and son fees the sons rag
ey. uy receive the mortal remains of the :

N Darsy, who graduated in 1831 at Williams allen
ark fe North Adams, Mas s., Sept. 27, 1804. His life was cee

y years in G orgia Female College at Mac on. He filled
the ae of Mathematics for one year in Williams College: his
alma mater. om this chair Professor non went to Auburn
in Alabama as Davies of Chemistry and Natural History in the
East Alabama College, where he Sed. pore his death in
August, 1877.

Professor Darby’s scientific work outside the time occupied in
teaching—to whi ch he ever gave a most “ee aii kr and willing
devotion—was chiefly in botany, of which science he was an
enthusiastic student. In he published his “ pee of the
Southern States,” in two : I. Structural and Physiological
Botany and Vegetable Pious IL. Deseri ie ions of Southern

r i

work, Dr. Gra (* is Journal, vol. xx, - “WI, 1855), on “the
book is excellently planned, and is well adapted to its purpose
—that of a text-book for the Colleges and High Schools of the

500 Scientific Intelligence.

Southern States.” Professor Darby also published a large of
Chemistry. He was married August 20, 1833, to Miss Julia P.
ee: daughter of Calvin Sheldon, of Manchester, Vt. Profes.:

arby enjoyed the enviable reputatio n of a man of high
eeu and pure life, zealously devoted to teaching in his chosen
departments.

7. Herbarium for sale-—The herbarium of the late Arthur
Schott is offered for sale, for the benefit of his meget hoe is said
to contain 7,000 species, in good condition, and to be rich in plants

of the U. S. and Mexican Boundary, of Mexico, and “of Central
many from Southern Germany x Hungary.

dred to one hundred and ten sah diagrams, both plain and
xg 7a illustrate the structure and development of the prin-
cipal forms of animal life. They intend to copy their illustrations

Py German, French jen English text. The authors intend to
take at care not _ follow eases school of zoology and always

a in ve issue of the harta but the separate numbers w

d he icat
by a i mega the plates for which each is cass responsible
The plates are issued at a very moderate price, at far less than a

ordinary. draughtsman can afford to make similar diagrams.

The three plates of the first number are devoted to Corals,
Rinepede and Isopods; the coloring of the various organs and
of special parts is identical in the different figures, thus greatly
facilitating the comparison of different animals.

It is a great pity that both the French and English text should
be marred not on serious misprints but also by the most
ies translations of the German explanation of the fig-

re cture of some of the French and English sentences
is as marvellous, and we earnestly hope that the authors will

the meaning of the :
But these are minor oe and if the work is carried out as it
has been commenced, it cannot fail to be a most valuable guide to
* Zoologische 1 eae gee . Dr. R. Leuckart u. Dr. H. Nitsche. Erste ]iefer-
ung Tafel I-III. Cassel, 1

Astronomy. 501

teachers of zoology, for they may rest Te that the distin-
guished editors will give them nothing w has th stoud the
test of time, and we most cordially Secunia the se

“AL AG.

TV. ASTRONOMY.

1. The Sun’s Distance. (Abstract of the Report of the Astro-
tee pilach on the Telescopic Observations of the recent Transit
of Venus, from Nature of Nov. 1).—A most interesting state
paper has just been issued ; we refer to the Report by the Astro-

sc

observations made in the expeditions organized by other goveru-
ments.

t will be seen from the ‘ieee; report that the plan of opera-
ine actually pursued has been very nearly that proposed by the
Astronomer-Royal in his communication to the oyal Astronomi-
cal Society on Dousutvie 11, 1868, when for the third time direct-
ing attention to the arrangements ‘which it would be necessary to
make tor the efficient observation of the transits of 1874 and: 1882.
The method of absolute longitudes was to be applied for observa-
tions both of ingress and egress; it being therefore essential that

x
ritain were Alexandria, stations in New Zealand and i “oA
Sandwich Islands, sok dn aes s oe and Mauritius or the tw
oe of Rodri uez and Bov

expedition * entirely by consideration of th
influence | — pesmi would have in determining with
accura tion of parallax.”

y t rati allax. They were:
Egypt, the roller aad the lia 1d of Rodriguez, New Zea-
land, and Kerguelen’s Land. It was iuionded to adopt in each of
these districts one fundamental station, the longitude of which
was to be independently determined, for conversion of local times
into Greenwich times, and itbordinate to this primary station,
other stations were proposed to be selected at such distances that
oo. pe taken of different states of weather that
mi me

tro ng Rae 8 ighness the Khedive rendered every possible
ass ssistence, “8 being supplied with military guards for the pr
tection of the observers and their i instruments, and telegraph wires

erected. edeacromeiertb Eas acknowledges the obligations of
the expedition to the liberality of the Eastern sea a Company,
in affording the means of determining with extreme accuracy an
great facility the longitude of the principal station Mokattam.

502 Scientific Intelligence.

Greenwich was easily connected with Porth Curno, in Cornwall,

whence there is an uninterrupted line to Alexandria, = longest
submarine line in the world; Alexandria was connected with
Mokattam by aid of the special new constructed by yt Khedive
rom Cairo to the station. It is further stated that time-communi-
cation was also made from Mokattam through Cairo to Thebes,
and to Suez by the peerety baphipase: Thebes and Suez being the
other Egyptian stations where the transit was observed.

In the Sandwich Islands ani assistance was seceived from King

sea

station was at Honolulu, the longitude of which was determined
partly by meridian- transits of the moon and partly by transits o
the moon observed with the Altazimuth instrument. Waimea,
the island Kauai, where observers were also placed, was connected
with Honolulu u by means of chronometers carried in H.M.S. Zeredos.
At the Tsland of Rodriguez the longitudes were determined in the
same manner as for the Sandwich Islands stations, for three posi-
tions, viz: Point Venus, the Hermitage, and Point _ an

the acrextioun and Sir George Airy hind at first bee ade d to
suppose that all useful observation had beenslost ; it sakanoie
appeared, however, that this was not the case, "one phase of the
transit being w well seen at Burnham, the longitude of which was
fixed by meridian transits of the moon
The report is divided into three sections or tables. In the first
are given the descriptions of the various phenomena, in the words
ith the Greenwich sidereal times of the different
phases, obtained from accurate reduction of the observations for
longitude here particularized ; where such longitudes depend upon
lunar ea the places ‘of the Nautical Almanae were care-
fully corrected by observations on nearly the same days at Green-
wich, Paris, Strasburg, and Konigsberg. In studying these
or iginal descriptions, Sir George Airy was led to infer that it was
“possible to fix upon t three distinct phases for the Zngress and
four for the Egress,” though it might have been supposed that
Egress and Ingress would exhibit “the same number of distinct
i ases in inverse order; this was not the case a practice. The
r e

Astronomy. 508

George Airy finds that of these phases 6 is the most exact,
observers, even in the presence of clouds of moderate density,

much greater discordances are e Similarly at the Egress,
he first appearance of a fine line or faint shadow is called hi
becomin “bro ze” appearing, is called «.

hen most observers record “contact,” the shadow having
reached a maximum intensity, the phase is — 6, and in this
phase there is an agreement amongst observers, much closer than
in other phases at Egress. The e ame. contact at Egress is
called 7

In the second section of the report, or Table II, these “adopted
phases are massed for each district in which the parallax-factor
is nearly identical,’ and several of the details of reduction

verted h_ sidereal es vith the at
apparent places of the sun and Venus in the Nautical Almanie

of alterations of the third class, as it is remarked, constituted “ the
special object of the expedition.” The form of the reductions was
“entirely determined by the consideration that such alterations
must be made in the parallaxes as will render the observations of
the same phenomena in rire parts of the ste consistent with
each other.” In Table III. we have “ the m solar parallax
deduced from 3 sheen’ combination.” Thus In Dares acceler-

t the reper ere and secondly, upon the esiiier

phase «, #, y, , and g being ren: it is found that

all the cobibnasiiinn for Ingress give mean gens parallax
‘

8”-739, weight 10°46, and all the Sonibinntgies for
8"°847, weight 2°53, "whence the general result is 8” 760, fro
whi ch Sir George Airy finds the mean distance of the sun saeal

504 Scientific Intelligence.

to 93,300,000 miles. The New Zealand es were not
included i in these calculations ; their mean result is 8"°764, almost
identical with the above. It is remarked that any persons may
perhaps consider that the more clo cp agreeing phases 6 and ¢
should be employed in deducing the value of the parallax to the
exclusion of the others. If this be sous we shall have from the
Ingress 8"*748, and from the “gress 8”:905, or with their due
weights a mean valne 8”°773
In this outline of the details contained in the Astronomer-
Royal’s first report upon the observations _ the transit ied Venus,
the conclusions to be drawn from t we have adhered
closely to his own words. Pending the pend of the deduc-
tions to be made from the complete measuring of the photographs,
the results before us are perhaps to be regarded as —
ones only, or we have not yet learned all that may be done from

Sir sn of any astronomers we can imagine will regard
with some secpieiba so small a parallax as 8"-76, whidke: is a tenth
of a borate Jess than has been given by the most reliable previous
investigations, ra different principles. In illustration we ma

From meridian eee? tions of Mars, 1862 8”°855
From ea, observations of Mars 1862 8"°842

— ality o of the m 8"-838
From the lu wien tion of the ear 8”-809
From the transit of Venus, 1769 (Powaiky’ s reduction) 8"-860
From Foucault’s e es | on hgh os. 8"-860

To these may be added Leverrier’s Mage pu eanenuly deduced
from the ae tary one , which is also Newcomb’s

mean figure, taking account of Soe corres ae to the prob-
able errors is 8’*848, which, with Capt. Clarke? *s measure ot Be
earth’s equator, implies that the mean distance of the is
92,393,000 miles. Sir George Airy’s 8’°760 would AEE ob Boe
the re at a mean distance of 93,321,000 ng

tunity as is presented by a close opposition of ae as nln
at least as favorable conditions, and the result of Mr. expe-
dition to Ascension to utilize the late eppomtian will be. on this
account awaited with much interest. Nevertheless, whatever
degree of ae might be entertained by competent authorities,
it appears to have been felt by those immediately responsible for
action, in different civilized nations where science is enGonraant
that so rare a phenomenon as a transit of Venus could not
allowed to pass without every exertion being made to utilize *
and this country may lay claim to an honorable share in the great
scientific effort, thanks mainly to the long-continued and admur-
co ay irected endeavors of the Astronomer-Royal to secure this
sult.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 505

Several of the stations occupied during the transit of 1874 will
be available for ie transit of 1882, Kerguelen’s Land in particu-
lar, where at Ingress the sun wil ‘be at an elevation of 12°, the

and

smallest altitude of the sun 12° for observing the reta rded Ingress ;
and for observing the Egress as ae ated by = x, the fac-
tors are about 0°85, the sun’s elevation varying from
to 32° at New Orleans, or Jamaica. Australian and New Zealand
Stations are important for retarded Egress.

s is well known, the transit of Venus on December 6, 1882,
will be partly visible in this count

V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Notes on the Rocky: ee ; by Sir Joseps —
(From Nature of Oct. 25.)— apeey: with Dr. =

rth American flora. In order to comprehend the at ae of

Colorado and Utah as the basis for such investigations, I should

state that they occupy a very central position in the continent,
i i Rock ou

long and about as seen namely, from N. lat. 37° to 41°, and
from — = _— 105° to 11

vated 4,000 to 5,000 feet abov sabe sea, called “g idea in local
to opography, which are iatarpon between innumerable iii
mountain ridges of very various geological age form

which often reach 12,000 feet, “sg enpestaRt 14,000 feet sieve
tion, the maximum bein under 14

Those of the so-called parks shies are watered by rivers that
flow to the east are continuous with the prairies that lie along the
eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains; those watered by rivers
that flow to the west are continuous with the sehen desert or

Way are sometimes low, and the a features of the east and
bens may hence meet and mix in one

ich a section of the Rocky Meaniedia must hence contain rep-
rohedtetiv es of three very distinct American floras, each charac-

506 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

teristic of immense areas of the continent. There are two tem-

the two latter of widely different origin, and in one sense proper
to the Rocky Mountain ranges.

The principal American regions with which the comparison will
have first to be instituted are four. Two of these are in a broad
sense humid; one, that of the Atlantic coast, and which extends
thence west to the Micsissipp! River, including the forested shores
of that river’s western affluents ; the other that of the Pacific side,
from the Sierra Nevada to the western ocean: and two inland,
that of the northern part of the continent anette to the Polar
regions, and that of the southern part extending ‘through New
Mexico = the Cordillera of Mexico proper.

t and second (Atlantic plus Mississippi and the Pacific)
teatime of are traversed by meridional chains of mountains approxi-
mately parallel to the etks Mountains; namely, on the Atlantic
side by the various pore a — under oe cee te term

t

tending from the Snake River to Arizona and Mexico. Thus the
Colorado and Utah floras might be expected to contain represent-
atives of all the various vegetations of North America except the
small tropical region of oo which is confined to the extreme
southeast of the Continen
e most singular breach aeergein * are America is un-
questionably the marked cont between its two humid floras,
peaiet Se those of the “Atlantic ies nw: and the Pacific one ;
his has been ably illustrated and discussed by Dr. Gray in vari-
ous communications to the American Academy of Sciences, and
elsewhere, and he has further largely traced the peculiarities of
each to their source, thus laying the eee BTS for a fat ture re-

ssing.
Our course and direction in ice as cermers westward to
Colorado, where we followed the ostionn flanks of the Rocky
Monntains for about 300 miles, that i s fro om Denver i in the north,

Miscellanéous Intelligence. 507

in Utah, which lies on the base of the Wahsatch Mountains, them-
selves the western praise of the Rocky Mountains proper in
that latitude. After ascending these we proceeded westward by
rail through Utah, to Mews da, “thus crossing the great inte region
that intervenes between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Ne-
vada, which is variously known asthe Desert, Salt, or Sink region
of North America, in accordance with the prevailing features of

y numerous short meridional mounta ee ges, often reaching
8,000 feet, and rarely 10,000 feet elevation ; unlike the Roe cky
Mountains or over the Sierra Nevada, these © preset no ——
slopes, and shi the highest have a limite pine

‘rom Reno, at the western base of the Sierra aw aid we pro-
ceeded es by Carson City, flanking the Sierra for some sixty
miles to Silver Mountain, when we struck westward, ascending
the Sierra, which was crossed obliquely into the Pacific slo ope.
There we visited three groves of the “ Big Trees” 7 Sip gigan-
tea) at the headwaters of Stanislaus and Tuolomne Rivers, and th
singular Yosemite Valley, whence we descended into the great
valley of California, and made for San Francisco.

From the latter place w mate e excursions first to the old Span-

: reat ,
anist, as being the scene of Menzies’ labors during the voyage of
our countryman, no snaieniay in 1798 (whose surveys are

cers of the Coast Survey of the United States), whom he accom-
panied as botanist. Then we went northward along the coast
range to Russian River to visit the oe of Red-wood (Sequoia
sempervirens), the only living congener of the Big Trees, and

almost their rival in bulk and stature. "Phen to Sacramento, and
up the valley of that name for 150 miles to Mount Shasta, a noble-
forest-clad volcanic cone about 14,400 feet in elevation. Return-
ing thence to Sacramento we took the Union Pacitic ailway east-
ward, and from the highest station visited Mount Stanford, on the
crest of the Sark Nevada, and Lake Tahoe, which occupies a basin
in the ciaberiae at about 7,000 feet elevation, and with which we

maximum ovebeuaen in number of species and in stature on the
Pacifie a2 of the American continent.

The net result of our joint investigation and of Dr. Gray’s pre-
Vious intimate knowledge of the elements of the American flora is,
that the vegetation of the middle latitudes of the_ continent re-

as ees and
enera of herbaceous plants are concerned, abso lately distinct.
ese are the two ie 7 and the dry intermediate regions above
indicated.

508 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

rege of these, again, is subdivisible into three, as follows :—
The Atlantic slope plus Mississippi region, enbdivisible into
a an Atlantic (8) a Mississippi valley, and (y) an interposed
mountain region with a temperate and sub-alpine flor

(2.). The Pacific ies subdivisible into (a) a very dual cool]
forest-clad coast range; (/) the great hot drier Californian val-
ley formed by the San J oaquin River flowing to the north, and the
Sacramento River flowing to the south, both into the Bay of San
— and (y) the Sierra Nevada flora, temperate, sub- alpine;
and alpin
(3.) The Rocky Mountain region (in its widest sense extending
from the Mississippi beyond its forest ie? to the Sierra Ne-
vada), subdivisible into (a) a prairie flora; (/) a desert or saline
flora; (v) a Rocky Mountain proper flora, temperate, sub-alpine,
and alpine.

As above stated, the difference between the floras of the first
and second of these regions, is ne snares and to a great extent
generically absolute ; not a pine or oak, maple, elm, plane, or birch
of Eastern America extends to piety and genera of thirty to
fifty species are confined to each. The Rocky Mountain region,
again, though abundantly distinct from oR: re a few elements
of the eastern region and still more of the w

the on temperate an and rigid zones, and which had a ready en-
gaged Dr. Gray’s attention, as may be found in his various publi-
cations. No less interesting are the traces of the influence of a

continent, and of the effects of the great body of water that oc-
a the whole saline region during (as it would oe a gla-
cial period.

eocnee was ma Pi A ray’s.
ously visited both the Rocky Mountains and California, shows
not with the same object. But for unflinching determination

More reover, chantighins the ex saci on we seule great hos-
pitality, aud enjoyed unusual facilities, not only from the staff of

Se ee Ue ae en ne a ee eee

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 509

the Geological Survey, but from the railway authorities, who
franked us across the continent, and on all the branch lines which
we traverse
e Earths of the Cerium Groups as found in the North
Barolinn Samarskite.—In my original paper and subsequent note
on this group of a as separated by sulphate of potash from
the mixed earths of North Carolina ee I then stated that
oxide of cerium was not to be ranked among them. have con-
tinued the researches in this direction, asd while they are far from
being complete, it is pretty well determined that the bulk of the
earth separated by the sulphate of potash is a new earth, if it be

The other oxides of this group are thoria and ox um,
Tam still prosecuting a researches, and hope before ps ps give
more oth ae — awrence "Smith's letter 4

abstract of aper ae Henry L. Axssort, Major of Rogites ers,
Bvt. Brig. ence read before the National Academ my of Sciences
at its recent meeting in New York.—Mr. Mallet’s results, reported

many years ago to the Royal Society, were:
Velocity i in ft. per second i - Mase Se eee 825 ft.
n discontinuous — much shattered granite,, 1306 ft.
ts “ ee in more so lid gran 1665 -
a = “in quarries at Holyhead (MOAN) 5 a 1320 ft.
The Pe ger obtained by the officers of the United States Engin-
eer School of Application at Willet’s Point, for the rate through
drift deeteation of Long Island, are the followin ng:

TABLE I.
2 .
& & |&,,| Tremor of Ss
Be 2 = a3 mercury. BS
y=] Date. Observer. | Cause of Shock.| 23 |35 38
Qa o
: a | d) Lasted
g A & apie for a =
miles.| | sec'ds. 'sec’ds ft. pr sec.
1| Aug. 18, "76./Capt. L 200 Ibs. dynm.| 5 + |B| 5 5280 +
2 Sept. 24, 16.\Lieut. Young /|Hallet’s Pt. ex.) 5134) A.) 7+} 634) 3873+
3 “ |Lieut. Griffin is «1. 1. $330) B.|. .5°3.) T2°3.) 8300
et “'Lieut. Kingman} “ “ “| 9333) A.| 10°9 | 23°5| 4521
1. * \Lieut. Leach . 12°769| B.| 12°7 | 19:0} 5309
6/Oct. 10, '76./Lieut. Kin; an be Ibs. powder.| 1°360} A.| 5°8 | inst’t} 1240
gm. po
7\Sept. 6, 77.|Lieut. Kingman 0 Ibs. dynm.} 17169} A.| 1°8 | 7:8} 3428
8} “ “© Lieut. Leach “ | 1169) B.| O'7 | 17-8} 8814
9\Sept. 12, '77.| Lieut. Griffin 306 i dynm.| 1°340) A.| 1:05) 88| 6730
10) “ “ * ILieut, Leach ye ng 1340} B.| 0°81} 17-1} 8730
ll} “ \Lient. Griffin (70 Ibs. powder.| 1-340) A.| 1°27) 4°8| 5559
I) eo eo: h ee es 13401 B.| 0°84! 15-11 8415

In the case of No. 6 the charge was five feet below the surface.
In those of Nos. 11 and 12 the charge was thirty feet below sur-

510 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

face, giving a much more violent shock than No, 6. Lieut. Leach
reports, ae papers say that it (the tremor) was at least two
seconds in attain a maximum.” ence, an instrument just
capable of datdesien it, would have registered only 2,489 feet.

TABLE II. (Analysis of above.)

Seismometer A, (power 6). Seismometer B, (power 12).
No. of obser- No. of obser-
vations. vations.
4 Velocity of Duration of Velocity of | Duration of
transmission. tremor. ij transmission. tremor.
ft. per sec. seconds ft. per sec. seconds
2 3873 + 1 5280 +
4 452] 3 8300
6 1240 instant 5 4 5309
7 3428 78 8 8814
9 6730 8°38 10 8730 FEL
ll 5559 4:8 12 8415
Mean. 4225 M 7475

Conclusions. In such observations a high magnifying power
of telescope is essential, The more violent the initial shock, the
higher is the rate. This rate diminishes as the wave advances.
For ee mile, yt drift formation, a severe shock gives a
velocity of say 8,500 feet per second. The rate for the great
Hallet Point explosion was about 8,300 feet per second for the
first eight miles, and about 5,300 feet per second for the first thir-
teen miles. These conclusions are supported by much additional
sdents shat cannot be stated in a tabular form.

4. Recherches pitiinadles Saites avec les gaz produits par
fee de la dynamite sur divers syilconaks des météorites et

es bol i le

‘he
ters of meteorites. ‘Pama of 1 plamel steel, aad side tatug a
surface of $5 mm., were subjected under different conditions, to

heap mass acted upon was broken up into numerous poly-
hedral fragments, the planes of fracture being mostly perpendicu-
lar to the “surfuce of action” on which the force of the gas was

' felt. The surface directly exposed to the explosion showed nu-
—_—- gee depressions; these sometimes attained a diam-
ain o 18mm. and a de ith of 4to5mm. They were often
lees in tae like the links of a chain, and in some cases were

i
.
}

t

Miscellaneous Inteliigence. 511

bordered by an elevated ring. Outside of these distinct cavities

the whole surface acted upon was fretted, or covered over with

minute irregular depressions, Moreover the lateral faces showed
c

F
duced by the violent crushing action of the exploded gas; and
further, when these lateral faces were polished and a Ply
dilute acid, it was B fous that the parts close to the urfac eXx-

a sort of caarpeniesl whic the surface had undergone from its

the surface in the case of iron meteorites; the striated, ae sur-
faces in the interior of the mass, due to the Bs ope e parts
against each other; the black veins (“lignes noires”’) rerun
from a portion of the fused surface being prec into cracks in the
interior; and finally, the black marbl ed s

Professor Daubrée concludes that, as in Bios case of steel sub-,
jected to the action of dynamite, a also oe the bolides and
meteorites the effects observed are due mostly to the action of
strongly compressed and hence highly hea a “ets Although it

P

upon a bolide, from the time it enters the fA oe until it ex-

erted by the gas in ‘the experiments wit :
writer would also ascribe the ieee of the large num-
r of individual stones which have c = some falls, as

that of Pultusk in 1868, to the fracturing of an original ma

the compression of the air, and not by the unequal contraction
due to a heated surface and a cold interior. He also calls atten-
tion to the fact that the “ eee ptic” character of ‘the surface is
true of the whole meteori not to one side only, and con-
cludes from this that the jaat mass must have had a motion of
rotation, so that the different surfaces were in ae dosh in
Katanl and subjected to the action of the compressed a ioe Rt.

5. Mi ational se eel y of Science.—At a session held at Columbia

College, N. Y., Oct. 23-25, 1877, the following papers were read :

EN ALEXANDER.—(1.) On the laws of extreme distances in the Solar sys-
tem =) On the inclinations in a direction retrograde of ‘the shadow of the
pl 3.) On the luminous band which see encircle the m

partial solar eclipse.—(4.) Whence came the inner satellite of Mars?

512 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

A. M. Mayer. —On a new and simple method of determining the number of
vibrations of ba ous bodies
—On con development of haere et

caer the Morphology of the Anitle ae vide.
test Loomis.—Contributions to Mete crology (ih yper).
Henry L. Aspot.—Velocity of transmission ineke caused by the explosion
of gunpowder and of a ar gi compounds, th ig the earth’s crust.
JOSEPH HENRY. abnormal snag f ound. in relation to Fog
— aia behalf « of t ine w. 8. Light House
. N. Roop.—(1.) On the photometric comparison of Lh of different colors.—

(2) ‘Ona a ee the study of the contrast o

Dr. Tats nek method of studying of Signs of Sound in Wood.
Presented hee "0. | N.

J. S. NEWBERRY. Bor ) ‘On some new fossil ee from Ohio and Indiana.—
(2. y “9 the geological age of ee hilyoanee Ligni

AWRENCE SMITH.—(1.) mn the s,m of Columbates.—(2.) Notes on

Pe Pac iron and basalt of Greenland. —( fe sete te ns sie of specimens showing
the occurrence of rape of chromium

JamMES Hatu.—Note on the Hedemutie ag regeciae ‘and associated strata at the
Falls of of the Ohi

O. C. Marsa rit .) On some gigantic Dinosaurian Reptiles from the Wealden
of the Rocky Mountains.—(2.) American Cretaceous Birds.
H. A. NEwtTo

f Locu
JosePH LECoNTE. —On the gly: eopeaie tenitotel of the Liver, and its relation to
vital force and vital
A. GUYOT. —Biggrapia memoir of Louis Agassiz. 1st part, relating to his
life and work in

6. Canada and 1 New England ab einagl —A paper on this
recent earthquake by Prof. Rockwood, f Princeton, N. J.,
swill appear in another number of this Souris

7. Thin Sections of Rocks, Minerals, ete., e made to order
by A. A. Julien, School of Mines , Columbia Dollese, New York,
who also has made arrangements for sawing an lishing rocks,

and polishing and Sen oe He has also collections of
slides of various rocks on
OBITUARY.

JAMES Orton, Professor of Natural History in Vassar Sehr:
died in Bolivia about the 24th of September while crossing
acca and oa buried on a little island in the lake. He sass

at Seneca F rane N. Y., in the year 1830, and graduated at
is thi our

to South America, In 1867-68, he took charge of an expedition
to the Upper Am gage under the auspices of the Smithsonian

in 1873, he made a secant ke exploration of the enetrati ing
to Bolivia. About ten months since “af cial for ‘his thin ex loring
tour, with the design of tracing the waters of Eastern Bolivia to

This Journal contains partied wer from

peared
the Continent of South America,” giving a full account of
observations and discoveries.

APPENDIX.

Arr: LIL—A New Order of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) —
the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains ; by Prof. O. C. Marsa

THE Museum of Yale College has recently received the
greater portion of the skeleton of a huge reptile, which proves
to be one of the most remarkable animals yet discovered. It
was found on the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, in beds
which I have regarded as corresponding nearly to the Wealden
of Europe, and which may be classed as upper Jurassic.
The remains are well preserved, but are embedded in so hard a
matrix that considerable time and labor will be required to
prepare them fora full description. The characters already de-
termined point to affinities with the Dinosaurs, Plesiosaurs, and
more remotely with the Chelonians, and indicate a new order,
which may be termed Stegosauria, from the typical genus here
described.

Stegosaurus armatus, gen. et sp. nov.

In this specimen, some of the teeth preserved have com-
pressed crowns, and are inserted in sockets Others are eylin-
drical, and were placed in rows, either in thin plates of imper-
fect bone or in cartilage. The latter are especially numerous,

and may possibly prove to be dermal — having all the
pa er characters of teeth, as in some es. e vertebrae
are biconcave, their neural arches baat. coosified with the
centra, and the chevrons articulated. The limb bones indicate
an dae life. The body was long, and protected by large
bony dermal plates, somewhat like those of Atlantochelys (Pro-
tostega). These plates appear to have been in part supported by
the elongated neural spines of the vertebre

The length of one of the compressed teeth of this ae
is 112 mm., and the greatest diameter of the crown 2
One of the. fs areal teeth is 75 mm. in length, and 1 it in
diameter. Seven of these teeth in position occupy a space of
63 mm. A trunk vertebra measures 450 mm. from base of
centrum to top of neural spine, and 170 mm. to the floor of
the neural canal. The extent of seven posterior caudal verte-
bre is 660 mm. One of the large dermal plates was over three
feet (one meter) in length,

e present species was probably thirty feet long, and
ge ieee bagerieg by swimming. For its —— science is
R. Sct.—THIRD tr oro , VoL. XIV, No. 84.—Dec.,

514 O. C. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles.

indebted to Prof. A. Lakes and Engineer H. C. Beckwith of
th avy, who found the first remains in Colorado near
the locality of the gigantic Adlantosaurus montanus, and in
essentially the same horizon.

Yale College, New Haven, Nov. 15th, 1877.

Art. LITI.— Notice of New Dinosaurian bees lates the Jurassic
jormation ; by Professor O. C. M

THE gigantic Dinosaur, Atlant montanus, described by
the writer in the July number of this Je ee * proves to belong
to a lower horizon than at first supposed, and is really from the
upper Jurassic. Additional remains of the type specimen,
moreover, throw considerable light on the structure of this
largest of land animals, and indicate that it is the representa-
tive of a distinct family, which may be called Atlantosauride.

In the type genus, Atlantosaurus, one of the most important
characters is the pneumaticity of the vertebre, as mentioned in
the original description. Another noteworthy feature is the
absence on the femur of a third trochanter. The shaft of the

one is somewhat thickened at the point where this process
should be, but the trochanter is wanting. The size of the orig-
inal specimen of A. montanus may be estimated from the femur,
which was about seven feet in length. If the animal had the
proportions of a Crocodile, it was at least eighty feet long.

Apatosaurus ajax, gen. et sp. nov.t

Another gigantic Dinosaur, allied to the above, and of
scarcely less interest, is represented i in the Yale Museum by a
nearly complete skeleton in excellent preservation. It is from
the Jurassic beds in the Eastern foot hills of the Rocky Moun-
tains, but from a somewhat lower horizon than the type
of Atlantosaurus.

the centra. The anterior dorsals have stings shan ter The
posterior lumbars have the articular faces very nearly flat, and
transverse. The sacral vertebra are more solid, and have ‘their
transverse processes nearer the middle of the centra than in
Atlantosaurus. The anterior caudals are biconcave, and their
* Vol. xiv, p. 87, 1877. The name Titanosawrus was first given, but, being pre-

occupied, may be replaced by Adlanto: —
¢ The principal chatunides | of this genus and its nearest allies were given by the

writer in a paper before the Wotiinal 1 pt of Science, at the meeting in New
York, October 25th, 1877. : _

0. C. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles. 515

interior structure is cancellous. The chevron bones differ from
those of most known Dinosaurs in having the superior articu-
lar ends of the rami not united, but — from each other,
as in the orgy with free heemapophys

Some of the dimensions of this skeleton are as follows:

ee of centrum of anterior ry vertebra. =. ..2 2306"
Transverse diameter of anterior Ee ena assaf
toevoe BOO

Wertioal didmeter . oe ee

Amount of convexity [ors (Serer ee aoe
Length of centrum of lumbar vertebra. - 240°
Transverse — of anterior Thee co52 52s 410°
Vertical diametet - 266.3. e465) «970
Length of eae sacral ver sane Wee WeaS ge saan wes 250

760°

Expanse of its waperone PIOOCRSCB fan os Hine 4 pg oat
Length of centrum of median oie picnin ham aot oe 190°
Length of poate CARON Sec. 6 pi ia ne i :
This animal must have been between fifty and sixty feet in
length, and more than thirty in height when erect.
Apatosaurus grandis, sp. Nov.

Another huge Dinosaur, apparently of the same genus, but
* smaller size, is represented in the Yale Museum by the more

mportant parts of a skeleton, in remarkable preservation. In
thie specimen the cervical vertebrae have the walls of the cen-
tra very thin. The caudals preserved are elongated and slen-
der, indicating a long tail. The femur is comparatively short,
and wit thout a third trochanter, The great trochanter 1s much
lower than the head of the femur, and continuous with it. The
metapodial bones indicate a foot of medium length.

The following measurements indicate the size of the reptile :

Length of femur - ‘Vebesn hae ae
Transverse diameter of proximal end Fe see 340°
Transverse diameter of distal end ___........--.--. 290°
Length of posterior caudal vertebra iwtiate [ae
Vertical diameter anterior Ccteclac face - oe oats 110°

Transverse diamete ee ooo ee

The known remains of this species are from the same geo-
logical horizon as those above described. They indicate an
animal at least thirty feet in length.

——e Mee deg gen. et sp. nov.

516 O§fC. Marsh—New Dinosaurian Reptiles.

the middle part being so diminished as to greatly reduce the
strength. The vertebra preserved are biconcave, with shallow
cavities. The feet bones referred to this species are very
slender. A lumbar vertebra has its centrum 105 mm. in
length, and 89 in least transverse diameter. An anterior
caudal, 35 mm. long, has its centrum so much cae ied that
its least transverse diameter is 38 mm., while its anterior face
is 90 mm. in transverse diameter.

The animal indicated by the remains preserved was from
fifteen to twenty feet in length. All the known specimens are
from the upper Jurassic of Colorado.

Nanosaurus rex, sp. nov.

A diminutive Dinosaur, about as large as a fox, is indicated
by some remains in good preservation, the most characteristic
of which is a nearly perfect femur. In this bone, the great
trochanter is prominent, and the third trochanter especially sO.
There is a well developed fibular ridge, directed outward and
backwar "be cavity in this bone is unusually large, and the
walls are smooth. This femur agrees so nearly with that of the
type of Nanosaurus, that the present species may be provision-
ally referred to that genns.

e dimensions of this bone are as follows:

Length of fem TOR =
Distance from head to middle ‘of third trochanter . = 30°
Transverse diameter of distal end __._......-.---- 21
Great ro-posterior diameter ...-.--.-...--- 18
Least transverse diameter of shaft_....._...___--- 11
Diameter across third trochanter__...... ....-.--- 15°

The known remains of this reptile are from the upper
Jurassic of | Colorado.

The specimens described in the resent articles are deposited
in the Peabody Museum of Yale Co ollege. They are all from
essentially the same geological horizon, which I find to be upper
Jurassic. The deposits which contained them may be called
the Atlantosaurus beds, from their most characteristic fossils,
the huge Dinosaurs of that genus

Yale College, New Haven, November, 1877.

‘ee eee eee

NDEX:-TO VOLUME AI¥

A

Abbott, H L., ein = ear through
the earth’s crust, 5

Academy, National, pablicalioin of, 167.

oO
a
By
- OF

Ss sett: oy phenol, 414,
salicylic, met od of producing, 66.
tronic, from pyruvic, 310.
arm ‘onstitation of unsaturated diba-

gherny satire Gibbs.
— A., N. American sa shes 73.

te and samars-

2

Amylene from amyl iodide, 412.

Anthropology, Galton, 265.

Archzeol caution to, 333.

Archeology, Peabody Museum of, Re-
port, 246,

vi. P., absorption of bases by

5.
sar omy agg observa’ rien Harvard Col-
aaa os
Washington,
ce the nee of Swedish wood

Pers me of into rosaniline, 310. |

Autography, practical use of, Sars, 277.

B

—— J. G., * gpreowe
a; naam pet ie 64,

ner '309, 411, epee

Barna: rd, C, Light, 4
TH, two one secios of ees.
Becquerel, H, rotatory . 417.

* The Index contains the
under each the titles of Artic

Bennett, A. W., rapid ata 8 ig
tes fishes of, Goode, 2

Berthelot, effect of pressure ba * ibied
action,

Bolton,
er of t winer.

‘organ ic acids in examina-
49

rals,
tein, influence of te a electri-

tal resi ce of metals
Botan

th Ame ee Ps

Fun by, 4
Gri abnormal, in an aie
Meeha ner

rapid.
Gro een | in exogens, Warring,

394,
pei clei ee 497.
ature, Gr TAY, 158.

rt

See

Bottomley, J. T., Dynami ics, 168.

Brug paylli acid, extracted
leaves

Bour: rgoin, Sine - bromine upon pyro-

from

tartaric acid, 1
tlerow, isobutylene, 66.

Bout

Brohnensie : , Year book of
botanical literature, We.

Bromine, action of, upon pyrotartaric

aci
Burnham, S S. W., double-star discoveries,

Bussey Institution, Bulletin of, 168.
Capillarity, _ s theory of, 152.
Carbon:

ates and o
pn dotermination of high melting
Caton, T D, "Antelope and deer of Amer-

cavern > mien in Devonshire, Pen-

meral heads pias ae MINERALOGY, ZooLoGy, and
rticles referring thereto are mentioned.

Am. Jour. S8c1.—THirp — Vou. XIV, No, 84.—Dec., 1877.

518

Cayley, A., Elliptic oe 76.
Cazeneuve, hhoms atin,

Chambers, Handbook of descrip-
tive ace

Chapman, E. osed fossil a
Protichnites ea Climati ichnites, 240.

~~ ing, i We in

mical | change sont

Cheney cies * nickel in
pyrrho aha mattes, 1

China, Richthe — 487

léss of, 48

Chisholm, H. W, science of weighing

and ener ga "431.

Chioral, hexyl, 3

Christie, W. = ML, ‘the Observatory, 7

Christomano. 8, specific gr avity of a cook
ily deco: mposable boty: ia

oo researches

Ciamician, new vapor cast iol

F. Ag iodates of cobalt and
“el, 28
ape vity determinations, 281.
sylvanite from Colorado, 286.
Coan, T., volcanic eruptions on Hawaii,

Cobalt, ate = Daag’ 280.
Col

Semssk Tempel orbit Ps 430.
Comets ats

) o. Py pik
the radiometer,
er, J. G., age 4 eg Tejon group.
Californi ia, 321. :
Coues, E., fur-beari
North Ame

, sun’s heat, 4

ire conversion of aurin into rosaniline:
of Brachio 426.
8 Telok mney

S., ethyli Sucka:
iaemear nitrate, 198
ts from the trap rocks of New

garne
Haven, ce
mineralogical notes, a“ eo 510.
sig J.D. ie disco 8, 36.
logy 0 See nak Beeknhire
37, 132, 202, 257
White Mountain geology, 319.
note on the Bernardston Helder-
berg formation, 379

INDEX.

Daubrée, meteorites, characters of, 510.

Davyum

Delachanal, analysis of alkaline sul-
phides and sulpho-carbonates, 418.

Draper. H., discovery of oxygen in the
sun, 89.

Draper, J. C., zirconia for the oxyhy-

drogen light, 208.

E
HKarthquake, wave of ag 187 il tt 66.
of Jalisco, Mexico, 158.

Barth's axis, ehifting = 70.

Earths i - - Carolina samarskite, 509.
Eddy, new constructions in

phi ical — es, 335.

Blevation, see HEIGHT.

Sltekof. amylene from amyl iodide, 4
Entomologica il Commission, Bulletin a

74,

Ethers, metalacetyl-acetic,
Hhesy ecusgeneeninerge yeni
ium nitrate, Mixter, 195 98.
Euxanthon, constitution of, 484.

Farlow, W. G., botanical notices, 71, 72.
diseases of plants caused by fungi,
426.
Favre, A., glaciers of the Swiss ate in
the glacial era, 24
Fittig, eo of unsaturated diba-

Fleischer’s ‘Volumetric analysis, 419.

Fossil, see GEOL

Frazer, P., Jr., Geol Report

Friedel, ne w method for the ses a
Pareacbons, 411.

G
Galton, F., address before British Asso-
ciation, 265.
Gard, analyses of cast nickel. 274.
Gases, effect of tension on spectra of,

enclosed in lignite, 481.
Genth, F. A., vera jellurium and vana-
diu om. minerals,
Gentry, TG, Dinde. of Eastern Pennsyl-

LOGICAL REPoRtS oR SURVEYS—
Black Hills, 321.
Canada, 70, a
pn saint
w Hampshire, 240, 316.
New York, 4
Pennsylvania, a
Portugal, 15
Rocky Moun se (Powell), 43
arenes Seren 69, 164, an
Victoria, 323

IN DEX.

GEO’
Adirondacks, ee, me 240.

Alleghanies, heights

gee elids, Lower sition Grinnell,
isd zean of Canada, 313.

Berkshire er Vermont, Dana, 31,

32, 2
Birds, Cretaceous Moral, 85, 253.
Bowlders, large, 4
Breccia-gran nite, Pe re eo 319.
Cavern Ce s in nshire,
a 299, 387.

Climatic tes, Vise se 240,

ut valley in the ‘Ohainplats
and Terrace periods, tea 459.
Coryphodontide, Marsh, 8
Crinoids, structure of Semee Wachs-
muth,
seit new, Marsh, 8 87, 254, 514.
stay on periods in the history

Pal ~ St. "Anthony, recession of,
423.
Fishes of Green River shales, 256,

Geolo ogical Record, 1875, 423.
Glaciers of the aie Alps, 240.
af —

Gravel deposits o ne county,
spree Sutton
Ss bags n the persis valley,
Wright,

Gro: cit ‘as indicating seasons,
ea

Halder in Vermont and Massa-
chusetts, Dana, 3
ertiary of Quesnel, 322.

merican fertiaries, 322.

Kames in New Hampshire, 156.

Lignitic of Judith River. eee

Limonite ore beds, Dana, |

ion characters, use “oe Dana,

259, 3!

P pein new ae Marsh, 249.

New Hampshire, 3

rpms Marek

eozoic fossils, ontslogs of, 156.
corr , Chapman,

Reptiles, new, Mera, 87, 264 sah pie

Stegosauria, a order

Marsh, 513. -

Tejon group, age of, Cooper, 3

Trap rocks, garnets ‘fro ‘om, pint ‘215.
bites, appendages of, Walcott, 494.

Insects,

> Trilo!
Vermont ager? on Dana, 37,

132, 202, 2
Wing’s feels in, Dana, 36.

519.

GEO
Vertebrat rate life, American, Marsh, 33".
Vertebrates from Lignitic beds, ‘Cope,
154.
new fossil, Marsh, 85, 87, 249,

19.
W., complex inorganic, acids, 61.
chmidt, new vapor density method,

Goodale, G. L., wild flowers of America,

Goode or BB, catalbutie of reptiles and
fishes of the Bermudas, 289.

Grahan, T., a and physical re-
searches, 1
ay, A., germination of the genus
Megarrhiza, 2
botanical sonnei e,

botanica Sich perm 42; ib "126, 497.
Grimaux, at pee n of tartronic’ from
pyruvic a

Grinnell, G. “B. fossil annelids from the
lower ‘Silurian, 2

Habermann, on Dumas’s. vapor density
method, 309.
Hall, A., time of rotation of Saturn,

Hall, J., Paleontology of New York,

Haug hton, shifting of earth's axi
Hawaii, voleanie eruptions on, Trai 8.
oo » pu a of pai
tions Fat 69, 154, 4
heeding in western Goma 157,
Hematin. a 3
Herm new method of producing
salieylic acid, 66.
liggs, P., note on the telephone, 312;
ot C. W., volumetric determina-
by chromic acid, 478.
Hitchec — = i, Geology of New Hamp-
shire, 240,
Pa a new coloring matter, 414.
researches on chronome-

Holden, “ie S,
ters, 1
inten motion of the trifid nebula
M. 20, 433.
Hooker, botanical excursion to

5D;
Rocky Mts., 161, 505.

Huxley, T. a sfc addresses, 162.

Hydroe arbons, new method for synthe-
sis of, 411.

Hydrogen, heat of combustion of, 148.

520

Tron ores, amount of ee ok » 418.
Tsobutylene, oudanesuae of, 6

J
Jordan, D. 8., North American Ichthy-
ology, 426.

K
Kempe, A. oy anae to draw a straight
line, not.,
Kern, S., on ie hew me etal, davyum, —
uranium minerals, N. U

lina,

Kirkwood, tellite of Mars and
nebular hypothesis $2 327%.

Kloos, J. H cology and geography in
DP onae

Koenig, F., bee of the French
normal] fork,
., botanical ‘publications, 427.

L.
Laboratory notes of Johns Hopkins
Universi
Lambert, > morphology of of the dentary
system
—* s. Ps bsber ng robservations with-
ut pers

new od *y sda spectrum
nok 141.
vallée, A., Arboretum Segrezianum,
Cooage

M. C., new pea of the pho-
wietepbie i

age, 49
sensitiveness of silver haloids, 96.

Lead, action of solutions on, 411.
Le Conte, J., critical periada t in the his-
tory of the ea

rth,
phenomena of binocular vision, 191.
agree | A. R., lithology of the Adiron-
240.

‘ay, J remarks on the yellow ant, 244.
Fe a R., zoological diagrams, 500.
_ influence of in chemical chan

hag ccna 152.
Liss < of ‘chi a, 4
i contienioks to meteorology,
M
Macoun, J., Botany of British Columbia,
427.

Mallet, J. W., 8 pie a niobate, 397.
Mallet, Ki, yolcanoe 157.

Manganese» rane sulphide of, 418. |

Mars hy ow
ti

charactors of the oe 85.
giga mse

characters of Coryphodon-

soit vertebrate Sodatiag

INDEX.

Marsh, O. C., introduction and succession
of vert ebra te life in America, 337.
Seago a new order of rep-

sic ph aterind 5
ne diners of satellites of, 3
sachusetts Institute of poohaobay,

aathoradice, American Journal me Pica
Matthews, W., Pi ida oe ae

Mayer, A. M, Light,

Mecha, I, arian seowuri in an apple

weting io s, determination of, 6

Merm alkaline a ai: and ante
sion tes, 418

—_ siden} deposition of, Wright,

aad ape _ ged Kirkwood, 163.
mse sae —
arse 246.
specail ie a ihe 219.
Meteorol contribution aae 1.
., density of vapore
8. a, Amattiels aoe fossils,

NERALS—

Autunite, 496.

Coloradoite, ae

thet St

Fe ee Sade new mga of determin-
a5

Ferrotellurite te, 424.
Garnets from er of New Haven,
Jonn.,

Gummite

Huse tte cain a

Hetzerolite, Moore,

Labradorite ¥ Mt. Maivy, 24).
oli

Weel estimation of, 17

Samarskite of North oaroinn 71, 509.
analys' is of, 71,

pen Mallet, sat.

Spheerocobal

Sylvanite, pes tat eo ap 286.
Tantalite pry Alabama,

Mixter, eth Sager ome epee aes
ethylide nammoniutp nitrate, 195.
Moon, mean motion of, New —_ 401.
motion of the igen aoe
core, G. £., on hetzerolite, a neeionese

species.
ount Washington, points visible from,
331,

INDEX.

Muir, saline solutions on ~~ 411.
ae a. national, Bulletin of, 42
new American sclantities 76.

=
nn, 0. F., Min gs 42-4.
a

den
esis and munis of
d, 327.
ewcomb, S., mean motion of the moon,

New astronomical notice, 74.
New Y Tork, mera of Natural History,

Nickel, cast, analyses of, Gard, 274.
in pyrrhotites and mattes, Cheney

magnet of, 4
Niemann, ronticn of ysis to satabtes
in urine,
— platoiodnitrites, 14
Nitsche, H., zoological dine 500.

OnitvuARY—

tained vty ation of carbon
dioxide hate

Parrefio, G., manganese n ores, 4 18.
Pengelly, W., cavern sadestcbeet in Devy-
onshire, 299, 387.

Perkin, pcan of coumarin, 67.
Peters, C. H. F., observations of comets,
60; a new planet, 429.

Phenan'

Phenol, acids obtained from, 151.

Phosphoric popes action on tungstic |
oxide,

melee image, new developers of,
49.

521

Phyllic acid from leaves, 483.

Physics, new results in, 486.

girs W. Wot distant oe visible
from

69.

. Penn., 69.
Polaris expedition, ‘narrative of, 245,
Polarization, — etic rotatory, 417.

Potassium, separation from sodium, 418.
Pringsheim, germination of mosses, ae
Pressure, effect on chemical action

.
Radiometer, Cooke, 2
Rath, G... v., ies Mittheil-
424,

ungen,
Rehs, phenantbrol, 414
Richar rds, E. W., e stimation nickel in

Rouyaux, J. A., chronometers, 164.

Salicylic acid, new method for, 66.

Schloesing, separation of : potassium from
sodium, 418.
Schorlemmer, aurin,
Scudder, S. = "sexual denoupnie in
butterflie
insects in F Auoationt Tertiaries, 322.
eee insects of Quesnel, 322.
Sea, see
Seeley, iH it, Vermont board of agri-
culture, report ‘of, 78.
An

Semper, C., atomical publications,
Wirtzburg, see
She collec Amherst Coll., a3
ness

a haloids, riteee Foo
., bituminous — 33.
‘Smith, 's Ve meteoric stone
a ite, Oa:
s in North Carolina samarskite,

Smith, W., ween insoluble
carbonates pon gee oxalates, 482.

Smithsonian report for 1876, 432.

Soil, oe ion of bases by, ‘Armsby, 26.

Soret, ny ea spectroscope with a fluo-

Spang, H. W. Sonning: protection, 77.

522

TTS gravity determinations, Clarke,

decomposable body,
Spectroscope with fluorescent Sian

pitesin analysis, solar, Langley, 141.
Sprague, L, Wild flowers of America,

‘ahl, ‘EB, — of lichens, 72.
oe double, discoveries, Burnham, 31.
Stars, sored 163, 246.

7a « vacuum,”
ts, ts, T. i, natural “iy iv Hawai-
os Islands, 426.
sec pt ih ee en 418.
n stars, relative ages, pe
very of ox ygen in, Draper, 89.
Sun’s acess ;

ea’ :
Sutton, G., gravel deposits, in Kentucky,
239,
Szabd, J., species of feldspars, 241.

T

peor W. B., kinetic theories of gravi-
Teel, action of Leow chloride on

tungstic
Teeth, m inonphe a ws ‘ot human, 323.
hist note on.

rk wood tar, 412.
Than, Soak of maaan of oxygen and
: i ssels, 148

nclosed in lignite, 481.
and ‘ een

crust, 5
jrovtridee physical notices, 152, 48
Tuning-fork, exactitude of, Koenig, ay,

Beets
Upham, W., orig of “kames” in New

Hampshire. 4
Connectic oe “alley in the Cham-
plain and sagt periods, 459.
Urea reaction.

mee relation of fale to sulphates i in,

a Gees? nature of, 311.
cage oor new neethod, 6
modification of ph: sory 309.
of omic high boiling
point, 4
Vapor volumes, 149.

INDEX.

Vennor, H. G., Ar — se ee 313.
or transit of, report
Verrill, A. #., gigantic cephalopod, 425.
ological notices, po ace
etek Board of Agricu heh Rep., 78.
Villars, G., Table of garth 246.
Vision, pinocula r, Le Con
olumetric roohurscoenes s "chromic
. acid, Hinman, 478,

Wachsmuth, C., cr hagas of paleozoic
ernoids, 115, 181.
alcott, C. D.,

trilobites appendages, 494.
Warren, 8. E., Dése

eto a cpcagint 431.
s proof

Ww Moiese 325.
Whitaker, W., Geologica] Record, 423.
Whitfie eld, R. P., Paleontology of Black
Hills, 321.

— harper
Wi

li, N. H
Wittrock, Vv. P. , Pithophora oraceee,
ight, A. Ria electrical deposition of
metals, 1
physical notices, ae 419,
Wright, G. F., gravel ridges in the
Merrimack valley, bo

x
Yarrow, H. C., burial customs of North
American Indians, 431

: Z
ape for oxy-hydrogen light, Draper,

Ant, ae, ool Leidy, 24
Autography, for a — History pub-

Butterfi shies

Gee: rig Vorval 4

Challenger expeditio coins 161.

Gaisrnse potato bentle

Diagrams, 426

bt bes logical Commission, Bulletin

Fi shes oe the weeny ae y eer
470

Ww species
Musenm, Nationa Bulletins, 426.

from cresol and chee