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“AMERICAN NATURAL 


ee ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE 
> = NattUrRay History 


es ae EDITED BY oe = 


EDWARD D. COPE AND s 


Copyright, 1887, by E. D. Core. 


t SN SCOT 


s IF s 
at Va 
IS TEREOTYPERSANDPRINTERS| 
A yi 
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LOONA 


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CONTENTS: 


er Bacteria and their Relation to nag Se wee Theobald Smith . ... 1 
Popul rd to 


r Errors in regar the Eskimos. . Fohn Murdoch .... 9 
ke Senie. of Sex. [Ilustrated.] ek Ree es Julius Nelson . 16, 138, 219 

oe ion of a New Species of Dipodomys, with 
e Account of its Habits. [Tllustrated.] . sh Sphens ET 42 
History of Garden Vegetables 275 i Ar ee Te, £. Lewis Sturtevant 49, 
125, 321, 433, 520, 701, $26, 

993; 975 
More about the Sw Honen o e ae a S. Lockwoo 

The Taconic Question Restated sil E a T. Sterry ini 114, 238, aie 
Toe Bast Greeslanders (i woes jacks ao ecw a Fohn Mur 133 
The Massasauga and its Habits. ........., Q; P; H she Nien Vey 211 
Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coas G F. Writ (os es: 250 

Notes on the Life-History of fr Fase ss pap the 
est. Indian Seal... [IHnstrated. h i oni bbe Ward gaiso T 

` On Oviposition and Nursin ng in the Batrachian Genus 

Dendrobates.  FINushniea f: a Ea wee ats Herbert H. Smith . . . 307 
Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [Illustrated.] . . . Æ. V. Wilson... 334419 
The Origin of a Small Race of Turke Res erne ss Fohn Dean Caton å 
Sonnets: Cactus—-Parnassia . <. e 4 + ee e la Emily Shaw Forman. . 354 
The Present Condition of the Natural Sciences in 

CE e ey ane Fe ah WS ag ele ray oe Filop Trybom: y a as 409 
aa aSa a P latipes) vie eae! sie S F. McNair Wright. . . 415 
The Mesozoic and pages! Realms of the Interior 

Me ett ADEA r ooa ey ie ee s Edward D. Cope. . . . 445 
Araujia albens a Moth Trap. FS sic tae ak a . Stearns . . 501 
Biological sorbate hey. in Univers rer et ante lar end Charles pe Whitman . 507 
Review of the fin ae of North mialas Palæon- 

toloey or he Ye IS. n. o n aea hua heen rig Marcou . 532 
The Dipnoan aa [Illustrated. Fg ee a 544 
Se ae ee a ween eh Pua fee 
The Mikve Sigrit ia ak Cmte ig e os Joseph F. Fames. . . . 605 
Methods of Instruction in General Geology . <H. S. Wilnoms ; >- -010 

The Range -18 bn tion of h Human Shoulder- ? 

Blade. [Illustrated]. . o eei a e e Thomas Dwight . . . . 627 
Incised tid Boulders i in the Upper Minnesota Valley. [Il- 

MN a a NS Leons: oe 639 
Notes on the Ethnology of the Congo. oo a. Walter Tough sig ee a A 689 
Notes o n Classification and Nomenclature for the 

1 Geological See 
; Gaon We eC ee N. H. Winchell . . . . 693 
Conventional i in Ancient American Art. [IHus- 
PEOL S Sg a T aa Y S. Kingsley. . + 13 
Comparative e Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 3 
Me Lo : ae Ae =e St ee ee ae Helen C. ` De S. Abbett 19, B00 cau 
ess Romina _Littustrated.) liao Ey R.C.A - 730, 885, 1076 
Scientife F Fact and Scientific Inference... .. M. W. so Pa oie 
Instructi in Geological Investigation. [Mustrated.] William Morris Davis . ‘810 a 
The Stoay ofa ‘and Isol ated Community in the a) 
e he ee AID a Oe T. Wesley Mills : . . . 875 


iv 3 Contents. 


Remarks on Classification OF Vertebrata > a, Burt G. Wilder ies K 
Sand Boulders in the Drift, or Subaqueous O 

of the Drift, in Central Missouri. Ecce 1: TIP. Dn 
Materials of the Appalachians. _ [Illus ted jon Si W. Claypole . -955 154 
The Progress of Arachnology in Prais heap ete Lucien M. Underwood . 963 
The Perissodactyla. [Illustrated] ........ E: D COPE. ee a 1060 
How the Great Northern Sea-Cow (Rytina) became 

maceropnated = o irs i. cop Geek Pe ss Leonhard Stejneger . . 1047 


mace Hg 
an Biological Instruction, 59; The American Naturalist, 163; Verte- 
brass  Palæontology of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 164; Use of English Names for 
Fungi, 264; Importation of Rabbits nie day au 265; Odium Antitheologi- 
A Universal La i 


i 
cum, 356 Universal L RECS t, 463; Unnatural Hi 
tory, 549; The International Congress oe Geol ts, ; Summer Schools and 
hme aha 747; The Eers can Association at New York, 833 3 The American 
Comm of the International Sy ess of Goloni: 835; The Death of Pro-, 

d 


— Baird, 836; Ea and Duty, 922; The Relations An Mind, to Matter, 
007 ; Whitman’s Journal of Morphelogy, 1 008. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Ridgway’s Nomenclature of Colors, 166; Vine’s Physiology of Plants, 266; 
Strasburger and Hillhouse’s Practical Botany, 357; Wortman’s Teeth or Verte- 
olar an 


he U. S. i 
cal Memoirs of the National pE Soi of Science, Vol. IL; 555; Broceetinee of 
the American ees of Lobe ce 645; Fourth aes of 7. peau of Eth- 
nology, 646; Beal’s Grasses of Nort eki 647; Dr. Rink’s Paper on the 
East Greenlanders, 748; Wolle’s Fresh-Water Algæ of the United States, 923; 
Origin of the North American Flora, 1009; Ri idgway’s Manual of Ornithology, 


2; atio am 
Sixth Annual Sep of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1099; Packard’s Fossil 
Arthropods; 1100; Thomas on Mammalian Drai. TIOE; Jordan’s Science 
Sketches, 1103; Pesas Americanæ, I 104. 


GENERAL NOTES. 
ee See — Boe! Beye 61; = — of the Mississippi, 61 ; Moeis 
62; asus, tralia, 62; Formosa, 62; Borneo, 63; Last German | 
Ce Expedition, Ka $ Aira Notes, ee ; The Me Glacier, 360; The Germ ait 
African Association, 361 ; Shania zs Journe ; African Ssa 362; The 


Britain Group, 364; New Eh 365; neth of ian 558; South American 


Exploration, 558; Congo Explorations, 559; African Not , 560; Mantchuria ~ 


and Mongolia, 561; Nias, 561; Afghanistan, 561; Asiatic 1 Notes, 562; Spain, 
562; Length of Rivers, 650; Alaskan Mountains and Gla rs, 650; The Makua 
River, 651; The Saraswati River, 652; Prejevalsky’s Esplorado, 652; Mr. 
Carey's Journey in Asia, 653; — Rivers, America, Africa, Asia, 650. 


Geology and Paleontology. ee EN Forms of Cephalopods, 64; New Jersey 
Cretaceous, 66; Geo Rar News, 68; Notes ng Warping of the Earth’s Crust and 
m Li à ge 


the Niagara River, den eect Palseonts ogical Observation ons on the Taconic Limestones 
H 


‘of Columbia i Cos N. Y., 270; xt Porn Boulders of Decomposition in Mis- __ 


souri, 366; The Dinosaurian Genus Ccelurus, 367 ; Geological News, 369; Ameri- 
can Trisksic Rhyncocephalia, 468; New Tzniodonta of the Puerco, 469; Hill on 


Contents. Vv 


the Cretaceous of Texas, 469; The Se en ee of a Fox Hill Pba e 5035 
she Marsupial Genus Chirox ilustrat d], 566; Geological News, 567; 
he Geology wri eog logy o kuperia Tileswareety 654; Pavlow on athe 


he Address of Vice-President G. K. Gilbert before Sectio 
gust 10, 1887, 841; On the ‘Homologies of rages i aos "seit ther Osborn on 
hite River Mammalia, 924; Marsh on New mil Mammalia, 926; Eas on 
Creodonta, 927; Zittel’s Manual of Paleontology [Iustated) rot; A jee E 
Tooth Tiger from the Loup Fork Beds, rorg; Note on the Genus Ath 
The Sonora Earthquake of May 3, I 188 os 104 ; Crinoid Beds at apika a md 
Todan, 1106; The Carboniferous Genus Stereosternum, 1109. 


ian ertia 
low in Iowa, re On the Morphology and Origin of the Ichthyopterygia, 8373 ; 
WEA AL ASS: 


Mineralogy and Petrography.— vag ene News, 70; Mineralogical News, 
71; Meteorites, 72; Crystallographic News, 74 TS Massige Gesteine, 
Fi pe ae Volcanic Bombs, 271; Petrographi ical New: 274, 371; Mineralogical 
News, 275, 373; C rystallographic News, 374 ý Miscellaasca: 375; Petrographical 
News, 471; Fulgurites, 472; Mineralogical "News, 472; Chemical Integration, 

e SS 


Publications, 571; Petrographical News, 660; Crysta llographic News, 663; Re- 


lations of Diamonds, 664; Pe etrographical News, 761; Mineralogical News, 763; 
Crystallographic News, 765; Miscellan » 7665 Petrographical News “ 


Mineralogical News, 850; Crystallogra hia News, 8523 Miscellaneous, 853; 
ew Minerals, 1021; Recent Investigations pf American Minerals, 1021 ; O- 
phical News, 1109; Mineralogical News, 1112. 


Botany.—Pollen-Tubes of Lobelia Be ag crit 7S; ear Trunk ee its 
Branches, 76; Article “ Schizomycetes” of Encyclopedia Brit vo y Be 
cal — 79; Growing Parts of Pinus strobus yralinstcata dj, 178; Simard of Plant 
Diseases, 276; Vegetable Pathology, rhe Botanical Taki 277; Botanical Manuals 
for Sidans, 376; Centuries of North American Fungi, 379; omata- Ret, 380; 
Botanical News, 381; Smut in Oats, pry ipri as Collectors, 476; The Ento- 
alant as 4773 Laboratory 25 s, 477; Botanical News, 479; A a Soups of Bo- 
nical s, 572; The Origin of the To sons Bee trated], § ; Experiments 


an 
; The E Bo 
769; The Eastward Extension of Pinus pon a, 928; The Westward Extension 
of the Black Walnut, 929; The Iron-wood ai in the Black Hills, 929; Still 
another egg Paes 293 Potahy | in the America peer a eit 930; Botanical 
News, 930; The Genus Geaster [Illustrated], 1026; Character of the Tnjuries 
produced by Parasitic fingi upon their prea! ah 1114. 


Entomology.—Preliminary Descriptions of Ten New N. A. Myriapods, 81; Mim- 
: icry in a Caterpillar, 82; Critical pig on the Literature of the Organ of Smell 
in Arthropods, 182; Hauser on the Organ of Smell in Insects [illustrated], 279; 

The Joint-Worm in New oe 381; Relati tions a Borer and Aphids, 382, 579; 

_ Dipterous Larvz in A Sarre a purpurea, 382; Bacteriological Studies in Arthro- 

` pods, 383) Ants id Ultra, Violet Rays, 383; Light Perception Ls Myriapods, 384; 
The Hessian Fly in England, 384; Function of the Palpi in ap aig and Spiders, _ 

384; 34; Necrology, 385; ; a News, 385, 484, 580; On the renga ; 

a Caddis Fly from the Water, 480; Destruction of the odilia Moth by Arseni- 

cal | S, 480; Tite Wistar of a Dipterows Parasite of the Silkworm, 482; 


gree 
Insects, 579; Exposition of Insects, 580; Singular Adaptati 
an = Piiiuatraed', 770; 3 New Form of Vial for Alcoh Specim: 
i + 771; Synopsis of th ee ee apap ca North of 
u Í for Preserving Larvæ, 772; Observati pope 
go atc sd), 353; Homologies of re Wing-Veins of Insects, 
u aoon vane Ameri Pe I Sa Observations 


vi Contents, ` l ? 


cause Diseases in Se and Animals, 1029; Lack of Parallelism powers the 
ee cters of Larve and Adults, 1030; The Colorado Potato-Be etle in Europe, 
1030; Recent Publications, 1031; Phengodini, 1118; Senses of aa 1a} 9. 


Zoology.—The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the Anat tomy 
and Origin of Blind Forms, 82; Notes on the Distribution of Shells, 83; The 
Characteristics and Relations of the Ribbon-Fishes, 86; The Hyoid St ctu 

er 


585, 673, 861, 1034; Birds, 93, 291, 394, 487, 585, 861, Kerk 1034; Mam oe 
Mimicry in Amphipods 


7; Turn nal 
of Invertebrates, 388 ; Migrations = Frogs, 388 ; Brazilian Reptile 388, Relative 
Weight of the Brain of Regulus an d Spizella compared to that of Man, 389; Arti- 
cial Parthenogenesis, 484; Se e gans of Sponges, 485 ; Organ of Smell in 
; oo 


Crepidula, 486; rval Galeodes, 486; Fauna of Liverpool Bay, 581 ; System 
ic Position of the S 81; Parasitic Sea-Anemones, 582; onotus 
583; Anatom scorpions, 583; Description of w Species o - 
Pig 583; Haeckel’s Rad 668 ; Ctenodrilus , 669; Balanoglossus 
; ; the Foot of Nudibranch Molluscs, 670; TWwoOo: 
Fresh-Water c ; Tropi s clark rn Louisiana, 672; 


at Lake George, N. Y., 672; Turning ydra inside out,—a Correction, 773; A Re- 
markable Case of Phosphorescence in an Earth-Worm, 773; Dwi ight” on the Tele- 
ol o : 


pe ripa 
ie to Easten Nebraska Twenty-five 1122; Missouri River Crow- 
Roosts, 1123; A Mink gnaws Iron Wire, 1124; g ak of Beaufort, N. C., 1125; 
The Pug-Dog ee Dog, 1125. 


mbryology. ; Gesta- 

tion of Armadillos, o 95; Two Forais of Cestoid Embryos rites 195; 

Development of Scorpions, 201; Polar Globules in rustacea, 203; Haddon’s 
Embryol of 


Contents. vii 


862; Inversion of the Biene Layers in Hesperomys goer) 863; 
e genei i in Mammalia, 946; Development of Cæœcilians, 1035; Vestiges 

a Zonary Decidua in pea Noak 1037; The Rudimentary Pineal Eye in Che- 
“weg 1126. 


Anthropology. Py Jade in America, 96 ; Ornaments on Pottery, 97; Head 


ov gy 98; Love and igre tr Pi = Choo, 99; Quatrefage’s me 
Men,. 204; Deities of the Nav mei Dr. Boas’s oes 206; Cl 
ii and Origin of Folk-Lore it rd ong the Navajos, 7843 


55 
oe Serpent-Mound, 786; Ruine cd Of tc an, 787; Discovery of a 
ent Tomb near the Holy Seeiso, Terisiiaik, 865. 


Physiology.—Experiments in Pig Feeding, 396. 


Psy ro a ee of Space by Disparate Senses, ye Meee Seat < — 
sciousness, 295; orange ox phe cee of a Rat, 295; Ants and a wers, 
296; Sex i a t 399; 1 rtality of the Personal Cons scio pgs 
Evolution ead Idealism, 594; fathtigence of Echinoderms, 683; Scientific’ Theism, 
948 ; On Duration of Memory i seb agape 1038 ; The Theology of Evolution, 1127; 
An Expression of Animal Sympathy, 1129. 


Microscopy.—Orienting Objects in Paraffin Saep tarna pe Di gpees = 
Small Objects for Section-Cutting, 102; Practical Study „207; 
pg et EEE 297; Ryde r's as ga ‘ert cori e, tuted, 
298; Eyes rthropods, 401; O. Schul pore Sirise 
„Amphibian Tem 5955 : Bas ket for Imbedding [illustrated], cei 


Felt Tablet for Mounti ting Pete Preparations, 866; The mPa of 
Chromic Solutions in Animal Tissues by Reoxidation with H,O. ; The Naples 
- Water-Bath [Illustrated], 951; Microtechnical Notes by Dr. aa Mayer [Illus- 
ed], 1040; A Method of Photographing Serial Sections, 1 


ScieNTIFIC NEWS, 105, 208, 302, 404, 492, 600, 684, 788, 869, 953, 1043, 1132. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 
Indiana Academy of Taere, 107, G: Boston Society of Natural History, 
, 209, 305, n 495, 602, 1138; New York ienas n Sciences, ie 210, 
5, 406, 688; Biological Socie ety of Washin "poa, 109, 210, 305, 406, 603, 688, 
1138; Appalac chian Mountain Club, 110, 305; Middlesex lie 210, 495, 688; 
Buffalo Society of Natural Science, 208; Jo ohns s Hopkins University, 209; Kent 
Scientific Institute of Mii gan, 305; Sedalia Natural History Society, 305; Essex. 
Institute, 407, f can Committee of the ical ; i 
ı 407; British p pak reg or the aig rage of Science, 4925 American Associa- 
ion cem cience, 492, 602, m 


tion of Staten Island, 603, a, 1137; Sins Sacisky 
of Natural History 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VOL. ZIT JANUARY, 1887. Mo; T: 


* 
PARASITIC BACTERIA AND THEIR RELATION 
TO SAPROPHYTES.': 


BY THEOBALD SMITH, 


pee Basie. whether they be animal or vegetable, have cer- 
tain characters in common which are due to their relation 
to their host rather than to their own intrinsic organization. I 
shall endeavor to point out a few of those which may be ob- 
served among bacteria parasitic on animals. Since they usually 
give rise to well-defined diseases, they are also called pathogenic 
bacteria, or more popularly, disease-germs. Almost all patho- 
genic forms may be considered true parasites, at the same time 
all truly parasitic forms have been found pathogenic. 

There are certain external regions of the animal body quite 
uniformly the seat of specific bacteria. They are the skin and 
alimentary canal. Observations have shown that in the different 
Sections of the digestive tract different bacteria are found. To 
some of these a digestive function has been attributed, the power 
of peptonizing albumens, and thus facilitating their absorption. 
The bacteria inhabiting the mouth are numerous, and some are 
found quite constantly, such as the well-known Leptothrix buccalis. 
A microcobe has also been found which some years ago was 
€rroneously regarded as identical with the cholera bacillus. The 
mistake was pointed out by demonstrating its inability to grow 
upon gelatine, which the cholera germ readily does. I have re- 
peatedly found in my own saliva the same liquefying coccus- 


oo ae C., December 11, 1886. 


e R 


E A 


2 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. [Jan. 


greatly preponderating over other species, although months 
elapsed between consecutive examinations. 

Such bacteria cannot be considered strictly parasitic. It is 
true that they have adapted themselves to conditions which are 
now necessary to the continued existence of many of them, yet, 
if we draw the line at which saprophytic phenomena end and 
parasitic begin, they are not true parasites. For they do not in- 
vade the living tissues to meet the resistance which the living 
cells interpose, but live upon dead organic matter present upon 
the skin, in the mouth, and the digestive tract in general. 

This adaptation to certain media is common to many micro- 
orggnisms. The juice of the grape becomes the habitat of a 
saccharomyces (Cerevis@) which converts the glucose into alcohol 
and carbonic dioxide. When this fermentation has ceased the 
bacterium aceti oxidizes the alcohol into acetic acid. When the 
medium is too acid the bacterium aceti cannot exercise its fer- 
menting power, and another saccharomyces (Mycoderma) first 
reduces the acidity of the liquid by oxidation. Examples may 
be multiplied in illustration of this fact that bacteria as well as 
fungi select certain media as most favorable to their growth. 

It now and then occurs that bacteria not strictly parasitic may 
prove pathogenic in setting up fermentations and decompositions 
in the alimentary canal. The substances thereby produced are 
absorbed, and act as chemical poisons. It seems very probable 
that our information of digestive derangements will be made 
more precise and better methods of relief applied when more 
attention has been bestowed upon the bacteriology of the di- 
gestive tract. Under certain conditions the Leptothrix buccalis, 
the most common microbe in the mouth, may become in a sense 
parasitic. When the enamel of the teeth has been removed by 
acids formed in the mouth during the fermentation of food, this 
microbe causes the slow disintegration known as caries by in- 
vading the dentinal tubules and the pulp-cavity. Now and then 
bacteria which carry on a harmless existence in one place may 
become very virulent in others. A few years ago Dr. Sternberg 
found that rabbits died within a few days after the injection be- 
neath the skin of some of his saliva. This virulence may last 
for years. For it is extremely difficult to dislodge a microbe 
` from a place which it finds conducive to its vital activity. Harm- 
less in the human mouth, it is able to multiply in the body of one 


1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes, 3 


of the higher mammals, to act as a true parasite and destroy life. 
This may explain the occasionally poisonous bites of animals. 
The sputum in pneumonia has been found equally fatal to rabbits. 
But here we are confronted with the important but still unsettled 
question whether the pathogenic microbe in the sputum is not 
the cause of the pneumonia. 

Whether we shall ever find bacteria within the organs, in the 
blood and lymph-channels of the animal body, as permanent 
parasites which do no appreciable injury, is very improbable. 


‘Many experiments which have been made lead to the conclusion 


that the animal organism in health is free from bacteria. This is 
an almost daily experience in the laboratory. Even the excre- 
tions, such as urine and milk, are free from bacterial life. More- 
over, if there were harmless parasitic forms present, why should 
we always obtain the same microbe alone from organs affected 
with the same disease? That bacteria do occasionally penetrate 
into the closed cavities from the mucous surfaces need not be 
disputed, but they are quickly destroyed. Large numbers in- 
jected directly into the blood have been found greatly reduced 
in a few hours, and entirely absent after twenty-four hours. To 
impress this fact more firmly we may picture to ourselves our 
skin‘ and the entire alimentary canal in contact with myriads of 
these organisms. A delicate mucous membrane is all that sepa- 
rates them from the vital organs. Yet not a single individual is 
capable of gaining a permanent foothold within this membrane. 
This applies only to non-parasitic species, however. 

In contrast with this lasting enmity between bacteria and 
the healthy tissues is the more friendly relation between animal 
parasites and the latter. Trichinz and tape-worm cysts enjoy an 
undisputed repose in the muscular tissue of their host. Some 
entozoa live in the connective tissue, others infest the blood; 
they have even been found within the blood-corpuscles of fishes 
and turtles of apparently normal vitality. 

A survey of the various biological properties of those bacteria 
which have been more carefully studied up to the present does 
not reveal to us two extreme classes,—those that are capable of 
a parasitic existence only on the one hand, and those that can 
only live upon dead organic matter. We actually find bacteria 
possessing the vicarious power of living, now a parasitic, now a 
saprophytic existence. The microbes which occasion such dis- 


4 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. (Jan. 


eases as anthrax, typhoid, glanders, cholera, etc., multiply 
readily in organic infusions in milk, even in drinking-water, for a 
variable period of time. They grow luxuriantly upon the cut 
surface of a boiled potato, which is a purely vegetable product. 
Bacteria of this kind are without doubt closely related to the 
numberless forms living in the soil and water, and drifted about, 
in a dried state, with currents of air. Yet they differ in some 
physiological function, some chemical power, which enables one 
group to destroy animal life, while the other is itself destroyed 
as soon as it enters the animal body. There are other parasitic 
bacteria which are much more fastidious in their choice of a su 
sistence outside of the body, which shun the boiled potato and 
require conditions approximating those found in the animal 
organism. The bacillus of tuberculosis flourishes only on blood- ' 
serum at the temperature of the body, and the gonococcus, 
according to Bumm, seems to prefer human blood to that of the 
lower animals. 

Finally, there are parasitic forms only known to us from a 
microscopic examination of the tissues which they infest, such 
as the microbe of leprosy, and perhaps of syphilis. Cultivation 
upon nutrient substances has not yet succeeded. We must there- 
fore infer that these forms have become so thoroughly adapted to 
a life in the tissues of the living body that the conditions there 
prevailing cannot be realized sufficiently in artificial culture to 
induce multiplication. 

These facts explain why many pathogenic bacteria can be cul- 
tivated,— grown at will in tubes containing appropriate media; 
‘we simply make use of their capacity for living and multiplying 
upon dead matter, a capacity ancestral in its origin, and suggest- 
ing that all: pathogenic bacteria were derived by a process of 
_ natural selection from the innumerable harmless species every- 
where peopling the air, the soil, and the water. How the para- 
sitic nature of these bodies was acquired gives ample scope for 
speculation, as nothing definite is known. To me it seems most 
reasonable to suppose that many of the bacteria now known to’ 
cause disease acquired: certain physiological properties in their 
natural habitat, preii 5 in warm doantes — ow ac- 
cidentally Me be 


ge was added to the ras ritance c 


1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. 5 


site being subject to all the contingencies which affect other 
forms of life in nature, it may ingraft itself more and more upon 
the system, or it may die out in the course of time. 

While assuming, without any infringement of known biological 
laws, that all parasitic bacteria were derived from saprophytic 
forms, the difference between them is so sharply defined as to 
‘make us stand in awe at the tremendous power of the one class 
when contrasted with the other. Millions of saprophytic bacteria 
may be introduced under the skin or into the blood-vessels of 
animals without any marked disturbance. A single pathogenic 
microbe, by rapid multiplication within the body, may destroy 
life ina day. The power thus acquired by these minutest and 
simplest of living organisms is one of fearful effect upon the most 
highly organized class of animals. It is awar of pigmies against 
giants, which ends with the destruction of either or both opponents. 
If the giant be only a rabbit, it is at least a billion times larger 
than each microbian opponent. If we take the larger animals or 
man, the relation in size between the microbe and its victim dif- 
fers but little from that of the earth and the meteorite falling upon 
its surface. 

The derivation of pathogenic from harmless saprophytes is well 
suggested by three organisms,—those causing Asiatic cholera and 
typhoid in man and so-called cholera among swine. These or- 
-ganisms thrive very well upon various media, indicating that they 
are not necessarily limited to the living body as a habitat. But 
‘the remarkable feature which they have in common is their power 
of spontaneous movement in liquids. During their parasitic life 
this function does not appear to be of any service whatever. The 
bacteria of cholera are restricted to the small intestine, where they 
‘multiply with enormous rapidity. Those of the other diseases 
‘Mentioned are not limited to the intestines, but may be found 
-growing in the blood-vessels of various organs in the form of 
dense colonies or plugs. The motility must be regarded as a 
feature of their saprophytic life which they would lose if a strictly 
parasitic habit were finally adopted. An illustration of a some- 
what different nature is furnished by the Anthrax bacillus, the first 
disease-germ thoroughly studied, which produces such a rapidly 
fatal malady in many of the domesticated animals and in man. 
According to Koch, it is an inhabitant of certain low, marshy 
regions, where it goes through its cycle of growth without enter- 


s 


6 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. [Jan. 


ing the animal body. In fact, it cannot complete this cycle 
within the body, for that most important stage—spore formation 
—only takes place on exposure to the air, so that bacilli within 
the dead body, if immediately buried, do not form spores. These 
facts illustrate clearly the preponderance of a saprophytic life in 
this very virulent organism. 

To indicate graphically the probable phylogenesis of parasitic 
bacteria, Hüppe has constructed the following table, according to 
De Bary: 


True Saprophytes. ——————_—_______, 


f 


I. Ferment bacteria. 2. Pigment bacteria. 3- Parasitic bacteria. 


————_—Aerobiotic. 
| Facultative parasites. 


—— 


Agents of | 
oxidization fermentations. Facultative anaerobiotic. Facultative saprophytes. 
Obligatory eae Oleo ce. 

The term facultative parasites signifies that the bacteria in- 
cluded in the class are capable of living as parasites or of pass- 
ing through certain stages of their development as parasites. 
Facultative saprophytes are such parasites which may live 
as saprophytes either during the whole or a part of their life- 

cycle. $ 
If for a moment we look more carefully at the parasitic life 
of bacteria, a number of interesting facts and problems appear. 
First of all each microbe produces definitely characterized symp- 
toms and lesions which are grouped together as a specific disease, 
According to the abode which the microbes choose in the animal 
body, these symptoms and lesions will vary within wide limits. 
Some species multiply within the capillary system of the various 
organs, some are confined to the lymphatics, while others pro- 
duce suppuration in the connective tissue by attracting an army 


of leucocytes to oppose them. A few are constantly found with- 


in leucocytes themselves. Some bacterial diseases are limited to 


Special organs or tissues. It may be the lungs or the spleen, the 


skin or the mucous membrane of the intestine which becomes 
the seat of attack, and to which the disease remains restricted. 


In the various situations minor modifications in disposition and 
‘grouping give rise to diseases of quite different character. 


Bacteria growing in dense plugs in the capillaries produce in- 


1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. 7 


juries and changes different from those which arise when they 
are loosely scattered. 

It is a curious fact that those bacteria which are strictly 
parasitic and which have not yet been cultivated in nutritive 
media, or only with considerable difficulty, cause diseases which 
are very slow in their progress, often lasting for years and fre- 
quently checked and cured. Tuberculosis, syphilis, and leprosy 
are illustrations of this fact. On the other hand, the diseases 
which are produced by bacteria that thrive in artificial media 
` are usually quite rapid in their course. The conflict in the latter 
case is much fiercer and more quickly decided. In other words, 
the bacteria are more virulent. The better adapted the parasite 
becomes, the more compatible will it be with the host and the 
less capable of carrying on an, independent existence. It is for 
the interest of the more strictly parasitic forms that their host 
live as long as possible. This is not necessarily so with those 
species whose life in nature may continue more or less inde- 
pendent of a parasitic existence. 

The more perfect parasitic bacteria, manifesting their presence 
in very slowly progressive maladies, usually reside within the 
protoplasm of the cells, where the feeble irritation leads to a 
hypertrophy and then to a gradual destruction of the cell itself. 
The bacteria are probably taken up in the same way in which the 
amceba takes in solid particles. The cell endeavors to destroy 
them in this way, but their persistence within the cell-protoplasm 
indicates that the struggle has resulted in the victory of the 
parasite, which even finds the battle-ground a convenient place of 
abode. There are one or two rapid diseases, such as mouse 
septiczemia, in which this intra-cellular habitat of the microbes 
is always observed. 

Another interesting feature which they share with entozoa is 
their limitation to certain species of animals. Some are peculiar 
to one species, others may thrive upon several. This suscepti- 
bility of certain animals to definite pathogenic germs is so con- 
stant a phenomenon that it has now become an indispensable 
means in the diagnosis and differentiation of bacteria, and in 
conducting investigations upon obscure points in the life-history 
which are of direct practical value. In other words, the smaller 
animals are to the pathologist what chemical reagents are to the 
chemist. 


8 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes,  [Jan. 


I have already stated that there are many entozoa, inhabiting 
the tissues of their host, which do but little harm, and which may 
measure their parasitic existence by years, while a few, such as 
Trichina spiralis, are now and then fatal. Corresponding with _ 
these gradations in destructive effect there are similar gradations 
of virulence among bacteria. Some produce only local disturb- 
ances ; they are speedily destroyed and eliminated. Among these 
are the microbes causing suppuration. Others destroy organs 
and tissues very gradually, and are indirectly fatal by exhausting 
the vital energies or breaking down some organ necessary func- 
tionally to the processes of life. Among these may be mentioned 
more particularly the tubercle bacillus. Still others may cause 
death from within a few hours to weeks after their invasion. 
These include the microbes of septiczemia, cholera, typhoid fever. 
In general, however, the tendency of bacterial parasites is emi- 
nently destructive. The chemical poisons formed during their 
growth irritate and finally destroy the animal cell. If we pass 
from a consideration of the biology of these micro-organisms to 
the diseases of which they are the cause, a broad field of inter- 
esting facts lies before us, as instructive and suggestive ‘to the 
biologist and the student of nature as to the pathologist and the 
practical physician. I can, however, merely glean a few facts 
which may serve to illustrate the relation of epidemics_to the life- 
history of bacteria. 

There is a certain group of diseases called miasmatic, because 
the poison seems to come from the air and the soil. With the 
light shed upon this subject in recent years, the micro-organisms, 
presumably the cause, live in the soil as their natural habitat. 
This class would include all strictly endemic diseases, since they 
cannot be carried at will to localities free from them. The cause, 
residing in the soil, must have certain conditions necessary to its 
life, and unless these are found in new localities the disease will 
not take root. Though malaria is reaching out into new terri- 
tory, we have never yet heard of a quarantine against its progress. 

Another group includes maladies only transmitted from one 
subject to another. They are strictly contagious diseases, corre- 
sponding to the strictly parasitic bacteria, which cannot multiply 
outside of the animal body. 

A third group, intermediate between these extremes, possesses, 


i coe in a = bed characteristics of both. The micro-organisms may 


1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. . 9 


live both as parasites and saprophytes; and being capable of 
multiplying wherever the proper pabulum exists, the possibility 
of rapid diffusion, and hence of great epidemics, is readily con- 
ceivable, It is believed by some that for most of such germs a 
sojourn in the soil is a necessary preparation for the parasitic 
Stage. Pettenkofer regards cholera and typhoid not contagious, 
but insists that the germs must first undergo some unknown 
changes in the soil before they again become capable of inducing 
disease. Hence the spread of epidemics depends as much upon 
certain external conditions as upon the presence of the agents 
themselves. This is controverted ground, however, and most 
authorities to-day are inclined to consider the air, the soil, and 
water as simple vehicles for the spread of disease. ; 

There still remain many obscure problems concerning the 
` movement of epidemics, but their solution does not seem so far 
away, as a very firm foundation has been laid for future observa- 
tions. This has been constructed from the life-history of micro- 
organisms. The application of the principles and fundamental 
facts of biology to the elucidation of the causes of disease and 
its prevention is once more brilliantly vindicated. Disease is no 
longer the mysterious, personified entity of the past. It has 
been brought within the domain of laws which govern all life 
upon the earth. 


ON SOME POPULAR ERRORS IN REGARD TO 
THE ESKIMOS. 


BY JOHN MURDOCH. - 


(Re is often surprised, on taking up a popular treatise on 
anthropology, to find the number of erroneous beliefs con- 
cerning a race of people about whom so much has been written 
as about the Eskimos, which have been quoted by author after 
author without question, until they have come to be accepted 
by the world of readers as matters of established fact. Most of 
ese errors are due to the fact that many of the earlier authors, 
even when themselves explorers who correctly recorded the facts 
they observed, hastily accepted the conclusion that isolated 
peculiarities were chardcteristic of the race as a whole, as if, for 


I0 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. 


instance, the race of Englishmen should be described from the 
study of the inhabitants of a single county. Then the compilers, 
who had no means of ascertaining the correctness of the state- 
ments they had to work with, have perpetuated the beliefs. 
Even so acute an observer as Sir John Richardson has fallen 
into the error, in his “ Polar Regions,” of supposing that the 
peculiarities of manners and customs, correctly observed by him 
in certain limited areas, were universally practised throughout 
the whole extent of country inhabited by the Eskimos. 

Certain authors of the present day, however, are not less to 
be blamed for this habit of hasty generalization. 

In a manual of anthropology of the most recent date, which 
might be supposed to contain the latest results of anthropological 
research, since one of the authors is a professor and the other 
an assistant professor in the “ Ecole d’Anthropologie” at Paris, 
in the midst of a concise characterization of the Eskimo race, 
remarkably correct, on the whole, for a compilation, is the state- 
ment, “polyandry is practised,”—‘“on pratique la polyandrie” 
(p. 537). The natural inference from this is that such a practice 
-is general, or, at least, not uncommon, among the Eskimos. 

Now, if one takes the pains to search through the original 
sources of information in regard to the Eskimos, as the writer 
has of late had the opportunity of doing to a great extent, it 
will be found that while sexual morality is everywhere, as a rule, 
at a low ebb among them, and polygamy is frequently mentioned, 
cases of polyandry, where a woman has two or more regular 
husbands, are very rarely referred to. In fact, the statement 
above quoted is probably based on the cases mentioned by Ban- 
croft in his “ Native Races of the Pacific States.” 

Bancroft states that in former times in the island of Kadiak, 
two husbands, a principal and a secondary one, or sort of c7czsbeo, 
“were allowed to one woman, but quotes no authority for this 
statement (vol. i. p. 82). Again, he refers to Seemann (“ Voyage 
of the ‘ Herald,’ vol. ii. p. 66), who says, speaking of the west- 
ern Eskimos, “Two men sometimes marry the same woman.” 
Seemann’s acquaintance with the Eskimos, however, was only 
such as could be obtained in visits to Kotzebue Sound, in three 
os eS ee ee board thé ship 


"Pais d Anthropologie, par Abel Hovelasque ct Georgos Hervé, Paris, 1887. 


1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. II 


as she lay at anchor, and the people from the vessel occasionally 
visited the shore. I know from experience the difficulty of ob- 
taining accurate information under such circumstances. 

The statement, therefore, is not free from suspicion, especially 
as Seemann follows it up with another at variance with the ex- 
perience of later explorers in the same region, and, indeed, of 
those who have been brought in contact with the Eskimos in 
most other places,—namely, that “after the marriage ceremony 
has been performed infidelity is very rare” (zrd.). 

These instances stand almost alone. The only other case 
where anything of the kind is to be found is: in Graah’s 
“ Narrative of an Expedition to the East Coast of Greenland,” 
where he says, “report [among the West Greenlanders] said 
that the inhabitants of the East Coast were accustomed, when 
visited by scarcity, to destroy their women, so that the sex was 
usually at a premium among them, every woman having two 
or three husbands” (p. 78). He, however, makes no mention of 
finding any such cases among the East Greenlanders when he 
visited them, but, on the contrary, speaks of one man with two 
and another with three wives, which indicates anything but a 
scarcity of women. 

On the same page of Hovelacque and Hervé’s book it is 
stated, “ Les Eskimaux habitent, selon la saison, des tentes de 
peaux ou des trous creusés en terre.” “ Holes dug in the earth” 
seems, to say the least, an exaggeration to one who has ever 
entered one of the comfortable and neatly-built wooden houses 
of the northwestern Eskimos, though these are covered by a 
mound of turf, or one of the extensive structures described by 
Captain Graah, who gives the most detailed description of the 
Greenlander’s house (“ Narrative,” etc., pp. 45 and 46), sometimes 
sixty feet long, accommodating seven or eight families, with 
“regular walls, from six to eight feet high, built of earth and 
stones,” roofed with beams covered with sticks and turf. 

In fact, as far as I can discover from consulting a very large 
number of original authorities, the Eskimo winter-house is never 
more than partially underground, and in some cases even some- 
what elevated above the surface of the earth, while throughout 
the great middle region, from Hudson’s Bay northward am 
the archipelagos, the winter-house is generally of snow, built up, 
on the frozen ground. It is indeed surprising that anything so 


r2 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. 


well known as these snow-houses should be passed by unmen- 
tioned by the authors of the “ Précis d’ Anthropologie.” 

In spite of all authorities, however, the belief appears to be 
very wide-spread that. the Eskimo passes the long cold winter 
night—the darkness of which, by the way, is very much exag- 
gerated in regard to most of the region inhabited by the Eskimos, 
considering that the extreme northern point of the American 
continent extends but little beyond latitude 71°—in a sort of 
hibernation in underground dens, living in enforced idleness and 
supporting life by stores of meat laid up in less inclement 
seasons. - 

As Bancroft puts it,“ About the middle of October commences 
the long night of winter . . . and humanity huddles in subterra- 
nean dens; . . . in March the dozing Eskimo rubs his eyes and 
crawls forth” (“ Native Races,” i. pp. 43, 44); and again, “In 
midwinter, while the land is enveloped in darkness, the Eskimo 
-dozes torpidly in his den” (p. 55). 

But in reality the experience of all explorers shows that the 
Eskimo does nothing of the kind. If he did, he would soon 
perish from starvation, for improvidence is one of his greatest 
characteristics, and very little is done in the way of storing up 
supplies for the winter. To be sure, they do not live the same 
out-door life as in the continuous daylight of summer, but their 
winter-life is as far removed as poses from idleness or hiber- 
nation, 

A sketch of the winter avocations of the Eskimos of Point 
Barrow, who came under my personal observation for two win- 
ters, will serve to illustrate the truth of this statement. Point 
Barrow lies in latitude 71° 16’ north, and consequently there are 
seventy-two days—from the middle of November to the latter 
part of January—when the sun does not appear above the horizon, 
though there is sufficient twilight from ten o’clock in the morn- 
ing to three in the afternoon to enable one to work out-doors. 

The sea is frozen over and the land covered with snow, but 
the seals have made their breathing-holes in the new ice, and are 
to be caught with the spear, while nets may be set surrounding 
cracks where they resort for air. Every fine day, and even some 
stormy ones, large numbers of men are scouring the ice in search 


: S : = of seals and bears, while others are busy at home with carpenter- 
| | Se ae Bree Oe 


~ 


s 


1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. 13 


The village by no means presents an appearance of torpidity. 
The children are playing out-doors, or going out with the dog- 
sleds along the beach for a load of fire-wood; parties are travel- 
ling back and forth between the adjacent villages, and even the 
old men who can no longer lounge round the assembly-house, . 
because it is not heated, except on great occasions, are out in 
groups gossiping on the knolls, wrapped in their cloaks. At this 
season, too, visitors come from distant villages, and the great 
dances and semi-dramatic festivals are held. 

With the “dark of the moon,” late in December, comes the 
season for catching seals in the nets set along the rifts in the ice- 
field. Now the men stay out all night, night after night, in the 
coldest weather, and reap the great seal harvest of the year, a 
single man sometimes capturing as many as thirty in one night. 

After the great seal-netting is over seals are still to be netted 
in small numbers, and hardly a day passes that the men who have 
stayed in the village are not out in greater or less numbers tend- 
ing their nets, while all the women and children are busy catch- 
ing little fish through holes in the ice. Meanwhile, the richer 
or more energetic families have started off with the first gleam 
of the returning sun for the hunting-grounds, three or four days 
inland, where they remain camped in snow-huts, hunting rein- 
deer and catching white-fish through the ice of the rivers, till 
the approach of spring warns them to return for the whale-fish- 
ing. Thus the winter, in spite of the extreme inclemency of the 
climate, is passed in one continued round of activity. 

Hovelacque and Hervé, however, are much more correct in re- 
gard to a point concerning which popular belief is most persist- 
ently at fault. If there is one article of popular faith regarding the 
Eskimos that passes unquestioned, it is that they are very small, 
if not actually dwarfish in stature. Our authors state that the 
pure-blooded Eskimos are of medium or small stature, accord- - 
ing to the classification of Topinard, medium stature being 
1.65 m. (about 5 feet 4 inches), and small stature, 1.60 m. (about 
5 feet 114 inches) and less. They believe that 1.62 m. (about 5 
feet 3 inches) is the average for male Eskimos unmixed with 
Danish or Indian blood. (It is probable, however, that there exist 
few, if any, Eskimos whose blood is mixed with that of the 
Indians, since, till within a few years, Indians and Eskimos, where 
they came in contact, have been on terms of the deadliest hatred.) 


14 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. 


Let us compare with this statement the measurements given 

by those who have actually observed the Eskimos, 

who have written about the western Eskimos agree that 
they are, if anything, above the middle height (see the author- 
ities quoted by Bancroft). And this has been insisted upon 
as a point of difference between them and those of the east. 
This difference, however, does not hold good. Oldmixon’s 
figures (“ Report U. S. International Polar Expedition to Point 
Barrow,” p. 50) show that the average height of males at Point 
Barrow (5 feet 3 inches) falls a little short of Topinard’s “ taille 
moyenne,” while Parry gives 5 feet 514 inches for the average of 
males at Igloolik (“Second Voyage,” p. 492), and Schwatka 
states that the Eskimos of King William’s Land are above the 
Caucasian race in stature, speaking of individuals 6 feet, or even 
6 feet 6 inches, in height (Science, iv. p. 543). Parry, again, 
speaks of the men of Baffin Land, whom he met on his first 
voyage, as from 5 feet 414 inches to 5 feet 6 inches in height; 
and another early explorer, Lieutenant Chappell, speaking of the 
natives of the north shore of Hudson’s Strait, says, “ The males 
are, generally speaking, between five feet five inches and five feet 
eight inches high” (“ Voyage to Hudson’s Bay, 1817,” p. 59). 
According to Petitot (“ Monographie des Esquimaux Tchigtit,” 
p. xii.), “ Les grands Esquimaux des bouches du Mackenzie et de 
l’Anderson sont d’une taille plutôt au-dessus qu’au-dessous de la 
moyenne. Il est parmi eux des hommes fort grands.” 

I can find but one series of measurements that at all corrob- 
orate the popular opinion of the small size of the Eskimos, and 
these are those taken by Dr. Sutherland at Cumberland Gulf. 
Here the average height of twenty-three adult males was found 
to be 5 feet 2.4 inches (“ Journal Ethnological Society,” iv. p. 
213). Even this is above Topinard’s standard of “ petite taille.” 

Hovelacque and Hervé believe that the greater heights re- 
ported are due to admixtures of foreign blood, but it is worthy 
of notice that Schwatka’s “giants” were found among a people | 
who are far distant from any Indians, and have had little or no 
_ intercourse with the whites, and that most of the taller men 
at Point Barrow are of an age that precludes the possibility of 


Ge their being the descendants of white men. Petitot expressly 


_ states (in the work referred to above), ‘On ne trouve chez eux 
eee oe ee On the other hand, the 


1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. 15 


small race measured by Sutherland come from a region where 
they have been long in contact with the whites. 

The evidence, therefore, seems strongly to contradict the pop- 
ular belief. It is not unlikely that the popular idea arose from the 
fact that the earlier explorers compared the Eskimos with some 
of the tallest of the European race. 

I am strongly inclined to believe that the very name by which 
we know these people owes its origin to a similar case of hasty 
generalization. “Eskimo,” according to the best authorities, 
means “eater of raw flesh,” and most people believe that all 
Eskimos habitually eat their food raw, devouring enormous 
quantities of reeking flesh and blubber. 

Undoubtedly flesh is sometimes eaten raw, especially in a 
frozen state, and in certain limited regions where fuel is very 
scarce, raw-flesh eating appears from necessity to have become a 
habit, as, for instance, at Cumberland Gulf (teste Kumlien, “ Bulle- 
tin U. S. National Museum,” No. 15, p. 20). 

Nevertheless, most observations indicate that this habit is excep- 
tional, and the writings of all the original observers, from the time 
of Egede and Crantz, are full of accounts of the cooking of food, 
even when the oil-lamps furnished the only fire for this purpose. 

Captain Parry explicitly states that the people of Igloolik pre- 
ferred to boil their food when they could obtain fuel (“ Second 
Voyage,” p. 505), and we, also, found that food was habitually 
cooked at Point Barrow, though certain articles, like the “ black 
skin” of the whale, were usually eaten raw. 

The enormous consumption of fat, supposed to be a physio- 
logical necessity to enable them to withstand the excessive cold, 
is probably the exception rather than the rule, to judge from the 
accounts of actual observers. It seems quite probable that the 
amount consumed in most cases is little, if any, greater than 
that eaten by civilized nations, when we consider that the people 
who eat the fat of the seal with the flesh and use oil for a sauce 
_to their dried salmon, have no butter, cream, fat bacon, olive oil, 
or lard. 

We found, indeed, at Point Barrow, that comparatively little 
actual blubber either of the seal or whale was eaten, though the 
fat of birds and the reindeer was freely partaken of. Seal or 
whale blubber was too valuable,—for burning in the lamps, oiling — 
leather, and many other purposes, especially for trade. 


16 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


Neither does the general belief that they drink train-oil appear 
to be supported by reliable evidence, and some authors in various 
localities especially deny it. 

I trust that I have presented sufficient evidence to show that 
the popular picture of the dwarfish Eskimo, dozing in an under- 
ground den, keeping up his internal heat by enormous meals of 
raw blubber washed down with draughts of lamp-oil, is based on 
exaggeration, to say the least, rather than on actual facts. 


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. 
BY JULIUS NELSON, 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES I—IV. 

The figures have been selected to show as great a variety as possible, that the unity 
which can be discovered may be a generalization of value. For the sake of clear- 
ness they have a drawn with as little elaborateness as possible, and to that extent 
are diagramm 

The F abbreviations have been used: 

Z. w. Z.—Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie. 

M. J.—Morphologisches Jahrbuch. 

_ Carnoy.—La Biologie Cellulaire, 1884. 

Biitschli.—“ Protozoa,” i in Bronn’s Classen und eee vie des Thierreichs. 

A. B.—Archives de Biologie—Beneden and Bam 

A. m. A.—Archiv fiir mikroskopische nese 

A. Z. E. G.— Archives de Zoologie expérimentale et générale. 

‘Kent.—Manual of Infusoria, 1881. 

M. 2. S. N _—Mittheilung aus der BR wee TER zu Neapel. 

A. A. P.—Archiv für Anatomie und Physiol 

Flemming.—Zellsubstanz, Kern, und Zalltheileng, ree 

Q. J. M. S.—Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Scien 

A. z.z. I. W.—Arbeiten aus der zoologisch-zootomisch Taa zu Würzburg. 

A. z. I. U. W.—Arbeiten aus zoologischen Institut, Universitat, Wien. 

Haeckel. —“ Sretne 1862. 

Pe a oe P79: 


Ét MUCS 


‘Stein. Srey der Inkssionethiesehen; 1867, "1882. i 
: Petare I. 

Fic. 1. par ichornit—Gruber,* Z. w. Z., xxxviii—The protoplasm 
is in the form of a net-work with omnes nodes, many of which bear nuclei in 
various stages of karyokinesis. 

_ Fic. 2, Calcarina spengleri—Biitschli, na xi—A nucleus surrounded by re-. 
ic ( protoplasm is shown. It contains large and several small nucleoli, all 
wi z te pf thor of he pipen fo which the 

? y refer to the discoverer of the species. 


PLATE I. 


a 
a 


Sv 
ees 


AS 
sae 
O7 G 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 17 


having wesc the same reticulate structure. Some of the nucleoli are dividing 
by simple constriction. 

Fic. 3. Piette BREE cell of an insect—Carnoy, p. 190.—The reticulate 
nucleus is slung by a net-work, whose radial trabeculz are the more pronounced ; 
they branch sues ee eriphery of the cell 

Fic. 4. Jntestinal epithelium from an insect A p- 195.—The granules 
in the cytoplasm have been indicated in`some sectors, and the reticulum in others. 
The heavy nuclear reticulum, containing the chromatin, has contracted under the 
action of the chrom-aceto-osmic mixture of Flemming, and reveals a fine reticulum of 
achromatic protoplasm otherwise obscured by the presence of the chromatic reticulum 
(or filament, as the case may be). 

Fic. 5. Giant-cell from marrow of rabbit—Carnoy, p: 262. 

Fic. 6. oe Vorticella—Carnoy, p. 261.—In å the nucleus has divided into 
four. 


ns 7- Nucleus of Stentor polymorphus—Carnoy, p. 260. 
G. 8. Nucleus of Monas vivipara—Biitschli.—Microsomata of various sizes are 
ate by processes so as to form a regular net-work. 
Fic. ucleus of Ceratium tripos—Biitschli.—One of the nucleoli has an in- 
ternal ror i other is ot having only a surface reticulum. 
Fic. 1 s of Ceratium tripos—Biitschli.—No nucleoli present: a is an 


_ section borers the side, Fi is a view of the ventral igen The microšomata are 
trung in a row on each of the dorso-ventral filamen 

Fic. r1. Tentacle of Noctiluca dese eki. 

Fic. 12. Diagram illustrating the structure of striped muscle—Melland, Q. J, 
M. S., 

See met 93, d—Van Beneden, A. B., iv.—Contraction and amceboid movement 
accompanied, ie caused, by mutual attraction of the microsomata. 

Fic. 13. Nuclein filament from a gland-cell of an insect—Carnoy, p. 233.—The 
i arranged in a anise imbetided in the surface of the 


G. 14, a. A nucleus of Ameba proteus—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xlii—The chromatin 
granules are largest peripherally. In 6 (Z. w. Z., xl.) theta is a differentiation of a 
large central nucleolus with fine granules from a surface membrane of large, closely 
united microsomata, At times the microsomata are reduced to so fine granules that 
only a diffuse staining results. 

Fic. 14, c. Chenia teres Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—The chromatin granules have 
grown from invisible poi 

Fic. 15. Tracker lapses ‘erus—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—Like Fig. 14, this” 
cell (rhizopod) is multinucleate. In æ nucleoli appear in each nucleus; in å the 
ram have ius ae to the state of free microsomata that divide up finer and 


Fie. 16. Haliomma erinaceus—Biitschli, after Hertwig.—The central capsule only 
is shown, with its large central nucleus and peripheral smaller nuclei budded from 
the central one, which has itself peripheral “ nucleoli” that resemble the sl 
“awer” o 

Fic. ees Central capsule of Acanthamera. a, = after eea oe 


‘Fic. 18. Central « se PRG OON ee r Tee oes ie ENT ON hg be 


E Deg e saturn Hertwig, et 
VOL. XXI.—NO. I. a a = 


18 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. 


the nucleoli are getting clothed with a gree bounded plasma. In 4 these new 
cells or s have become elongate and arranged in a reticulum like that of 
H eles later they become free and are expelled as flagellate monads, as at 

d is a young capsule dividing; the nucleus consists of a group of nucleoli or 


udding. 

Fic. 19, a-b. Central capsule of Thalassicolla pelagica—Biitschli, after Haeckel. 
é shows the nucleus budding; it now has its chromatin in a filament which here 
and there preserves its reticulate arrangement seen i 

G. 19, c-e. Capsule of Zz. pathate- thinks fous Hertwig, etc.—In ¢ the 
chromatin is in a surface layer of microsomata and a central granular mass. In d 
the microsomata are in the form of beaded filaments. In ethe capsule contains 

ny small nuclei — and outside are similar grouse that have probably 
migrated from the c 

Fic. 20, a. Nuc ‘Nis ka Ameba lucida (multinucleate)—Gruber, Z.. w. Z. x 
The “ membrane” bounding the nucleoplasm is at a distance outside of that in a 
the chromatin bodies lie. These have irregular processes in a, indicating the pres- 
ence of a reticulum. In e the nucleus is dividing; the two daughters are los: con- 
nected by a bridge of hyaloplasm like that which is seen in Figs. 41, 42, € 

Fic. z a-c. Nucleus of 4. prima—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xli. 

Fic. 22, a-d. Nucleus of Engh pha alveolata—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—a shows a 
central tes eolus, 6 many p es. Inct = are massed near the centre; in d * 
they have ng ot eN so as to fill the ke and e h has taken on itself a structure 
similar to æ. This reminds us of the “ germinal balis” of Stein and others 

Fic. 23. Nucleus a Ceratium pak ea filled with germs that are wit free to 
reproduce the mother 

Fic. 24. Tirini C orii, A. m. A., iii, (see Lankester, “ Protozoa,” 
Encyc. Brit.).—The plasma in which the simple aeea bodies live, move, 
and divide is in the act of digesting a'conferva filam 

Fic. 25. A section near the surface of piston saen after 
Haeckel.—A layer of “ yellow cells” raene "a on the surface. The body is 
formed of spherical vacuoles, “ needles,” and a “ syncytium” of nucleated plasma 
masses, united by processes with one another. ean Fig. 1, also volvox, a reticu- 
lum of nerve-cells, and Figs.-8-10, etc. The physiological reason for this structure 
is probably alike in these ges ce 6 shows : — oe the a el 
its reticulum appear as iding are oft 

Fic. 26, a-h. A oi ae = Sinica villosa—Greeff, A. m. A., x.—a one 
nucleotus. In ¢ there are several, one central, and a peripheral set. In d'each has 
. split up into a group of granules or small microsomata; in ¢ these have again 

united, and in each nucleolus repeats the structure of a, and is set free as g. isa 
“ refringent corpuscle,’’ formed from g by Glseppeaninee of the nucleolus, 


5 PLATE II. ; 

Fic. 27, ae. Nucleus of Kiotiaocopiana Schneider, A. Z. E. G ad eke 
s ‘budding off smaller nucleoli, which in ¢ whisnetely Ieee 
come nucleolated; d shows nuclei dividing ; e shows a cyst wher e the remains of 
ie. 2 


PLATE II. : 
— 265 HM EEE a 
5 E ) ow A 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 19 


29, a-b. Nucleus s Carchesium PEATS soe Kent, Plate 50).— 
Fig Tank does not appear constricted between the microsomata as in Fi ig. 
31, etc. Each microsoma es tae like a nucleus pe gets áielecil. which them- 
selves become cells like the ee of the “ germ-balls.” Sexual conjugation is 
ported as having preceded this sta 
pi . 30. a-ġ, Nucleus of PERE radians—Entz, M. z. S. N., vol. V.—a, 
**germ-ball’’ state; 4, stentor state. 

Fic. 31, a—c. Stentor polymorphus ee ae (Kent, Plate 50).—The fork 
in @ caused by branched budding of one of the microsomata. In å and c the chro- 
wees has contracted to form itself into he sg asians state of germ 

2. Portion of nucleus of > —Claparède and Lachmann fere i — 
nie scouleate of the part segmente of ee the nucleus of a ne 

Fic. 33. Nucleus of Urostyla gronds- Dachi (Kent).—“ Cerin bait” state. 

Fic. 34. Nucleus of Acineta jolii—Maupas, A. Z. E. G., ser. 1, vol. ix. (Kent). 

Fic. 35. Nucleus of Plagiotoma hewbvire Stel (Kent). 

Fic. 36. eee of ee E = w. Z., ze 

FIG. 37. eus of Chilodon , A. m. A. V., vol. v. (Ken 
—The A E in saleak and a “ paranucleus” resembling this Gia 
rests against the nucleus. 

Fic. 38. Nucleus of Acineta fetida—Maupas, A. Z. E. G., ser. 1, ix. (Kent). 

IG. 39. Nucleus of Vorticella—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xli.—Notice a paranucleus on 
vat concave side of the “horse-shoe” nucleu: 
G. 40. Nucleus of Reese ae anal Mee Plate 29. 
ere are seen two par: 

Fic. 41. Nucleus of Ticigastnis meleagris—Biitschli (Kent), Microsomata in 
act of dividing and so forming the beaded filament. 

Fic. 42. Nucleus of Loxodes rostrum—Wrzesniowski, Z. w. Z., xx. (Kent). — 
Paranuclei Sram e of the sub-nuclei. 

Fic, 43. Cell from pli ganglion of Arion—Carnoy, p. 212.—The nucleus is in 


— the form of a beaded filament in an “ open” knot or tangle (“ Knāuel”). 


Fic. 44. Nucleus of epidermis cell of an Orchid—Carnoy, p. 215.—The nucleus 
contains ste PRE nucleoli and a chromatic filament in a “close” tangle. The 
chromatin is in disks, and the intervening hyaloplasm is not constricted, hence the 
filament is not beaded. 

Fic. 45. Nucleus of epidermis cell of Salamander—Carnoy, p. 219.—In a, a coarse 
reticulum is formed by fusion of the EEG IPEE at ee TANT of a close 
tangle. In 4 the connections have 
formed, which, by shortening, eine an opin” tangle, and the phases of karyo- 
kinesis follow. The chromatin is diffused throughout the filament. In ¢ we see 
the chromatin withdrawing from the processes of the meshes and gathering in a 
definite path to form the beaded filament seen constructed to segments in g, 

Fic. 46. Longitudinal optic sections of various chromatic Jilaments—Camoy, p- 

232.—To show the disposition of the chromatin. In all the chromatin is super- — 
ficial, forming a thick wall in a, thin in 4, thick with coord temas and in 


_ palpi Gaii gal: ay be allel on Wa tik pa from spiral duets of 
x p Fragment of a branching Acinetan—Bolton (Kent, Plate 47).—The nu- : - 


20 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. 


cleus runs like an axis naa all the stems and branches, and is segmented off into 
all the buds and 

Fic. 49, a—A. ibihiblan pancreas cell—Ogata, A. A. P. (Phys. Abth.) 1883.—The 
tissue hardened in warm corrosive sublimate is cut into thin sections and stained suc- 
cessively with hematoxylin, nigrosin, eosin, and safranin. Gaule, the author of this 
method, claims that there are two substances in the cy¢op/asm, one eosinophilous, the 
other nigrosinophil ous. There are also two substances in ager cleoplasm, one stain- 
ing best with Aematoxylin (ordinary chromatin), and the other EUa with safranin. 
The Sai is represented dead-black or heavily saai the safraninophil 
is outlined only; nei eosinophil is marked with parallel lines, the migrostnophi/ by 
crossed lines and 

A. The roar ie imbedded in cytohyaloplasm Sinerat well marked on 


one side. On t e other are the zymogen granules (eosinophi A sparse reticu- 
lum, several si ad and mostly peripheral nucleoli canbe: in one large nu- 
cleolus, the “ plasmosoma” (safraninophil), occupy the nucleus. In å the plasmo- 


soma is migrating from the nucleus muah ae now atrophies. In ¢ the plasmosoma, 
now in the cytoplasm, begins to develop the two constituents of cytoplasm in its in- 
terior. It grows rapidly (ď) to the size of the old nucleus, alongside which it lies. 
In e it has become still larger, and most of it has become transformed into en 
granules and cytoplasm. In the centre of the remainder, f, a chromatin nucleus 
appears, which, later, differentiates in its interior, the plasmosoma and other nucleoli, 
£ a eae so we are back to stage @ again. 

. 50. Nucleus of egg of Colymbetes fuscus (Will, Z. w. Z., xliii.), durin 
soe and yelk formation.—a, reticulated; 4, nucleo eyed ¢, the ae 
growing and enlarging one or more of the nucleoli until all i 
It then buds off large and small cells; the former become siih “aud Sack: 
the latter become follicle-cells. Then sheet after sheet of the nucleus dissolves off 


es, and microsomata of a beaded filament in a reticulum enclosing several nucleoli 
(ih, y , and finally the karyokinetic spindle of the polar globule is formed. 
FIG. 51. aiee of pA of Ascaris megalocephala—b, c, Van Beneden, A. B., iv. ; 


one large sera oars? (the « prothyalosome a, a sereal Rema ranger 505 
the prothyalosome alone takes part in forming the 

ulates with the male pronucleus ; ¢ is the nucleolus of the prothyalsomie hidhi ik tap- 
nified, seen to consist in this stage of two disks, each of four-beaded filaments es the 


and nucleoli. In 6 the reticulum is broken upinto nucleoli. In c these have fused 
tot 

Fic. by. Nucleus of egg of Nephthys scolopendroides—Carnoy, p. 237. 

54, 2-6. Nucleus of egg of Fie/d-Mouse—Rauber. M. J., viii. 

Fic. 35s a—b. Nucleus of egg of Perch—Rauber. M. J., viii—In æ the micro- 

somata are e superficial and their processes s a reticulum ; å is an optic section. 
oat: oo Prate III. | 

Fic. 56, a-f. Nucleus of f Arion duri i i a yak formation, Pin- 

ede ws E we see a nucleolus and 1 microsomata and a 


ve SS E E PET PERE ENRE a sparse reticulum, but the 


cros 1 nucleolus, while the old nucle- 


PLATE III. 


AS? 
ge ) GOGO a G 
TOS © TO O? * a 

@ © 
28o@@ È OO 
200000208" | 
"83.66 ee @ Ege a 


pee nal 


J Os 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 21 


olus is left outside as a paranucleolus. In ¢ the nucleolus is homogeneous. In d it 
has microsomata, which fuse to one “ nucleolus-nucleus” in e. Finally, in f the nu- 
cleolus has all the structure of the old nucleus of stage a 
nucleus now dissolves in the re PTY the eT as a “yelk nucleus.” 

G. 57. Nucleus of egg of Toxopneustes—Flem 

Fie 58, a7. Nucleus of egg ag Stee Reet aW, Z., a paranucleus 
appears, whose changes are as complex as those of pA nucleolus. Malus in 7 we 
have only a vesicle left. 

Fic. 59, a-f. Nucleus of egg of larva of Libe/ula—Valette St. George, A. m. A., 
ii te structure of the large nucleolus in ¢ reminds us of the entire nucleus of 
e ae ő. 

a-f. Nucleus of egg of Asteracanthion—Van Beneden, Q. J. M. S., xvi. 
E 2 stage of f is reported finally to disappear. 

Fic. 61, a-f. Nucleus of egg of Rabbit. 

Fic. 62, a-. Nucleus of Gonothyraca loveni—Bergh, M. J., v.—Multiplication 
of nucleoli Me division 

1G. 63, : acess of egg of Bat—Beneden and ee A- B. 
Fic. 6 Nais of egg of Anodon—Flemming, A. m. A., x.—A paranucleus is 


he a a-b. Nuclei of sexual cells (* primitive ova”) of Rana—Nussbaum, A. 
m. A. xviii.—a of male, 4 of female. Budding of the nucleus in ovigenesis nak 
` spermatogenesis at this stage is often reported. 


Fics. 66-93 illustrate the formation of the spermatozoon from the nucleus of the 
“ spermatid,” and points in its structure. 

Fic. 66. Antherozoids of Hymenophylium—Carnoy, p. 226.—a shows the lar; 
reticulate nucleus of the daughter-cell of an antheridium. In 4 the nuclei is elon- 
gating, curved, and at its smaller end the net-work of chromatin is changing to the 
diffuse state. In ď the pointed end protrudes from the cell and bears the locomotive 
cilia. This is homologous with the head end of a SS The cytoplasm is 
gradually utilized as pabulum by the antherozoid, the residue remaining stuck to its 
hinder end e (which is finished last), to be eos talk eave or thrown off as at f. 

Fig. 67. Spermatozoid of Anodonta ce Oy, p. 225. 

Fic. 68. Early stage of spermatozoid of Slamándik Fhentiiag e 

Fic. 69, a-b. Human spermatozoa, not yet freed from their matrix—Wiedersperg, 
A. m. Å., xxv. 

Fic. 70. Spermatozoid of Zlephant—Weidersperg, A. m. A., xxv.—The head and 
tail project from the cell, the “ neck” or “ middle” piece is still growing. In the 
cyt 


- paranucleus 
i. 71, a-e. ppermatoprai of Rat— Brown, Q. J. - = » July, 1085. ees nucleus 
difin 


ce 


er here also is a Aead- -corpuscle. At the opposite end is a tat/-corpuscle. In the cyto- 
plasm lies a paranucleus. 4 shows the fine axis of the neck and tail proceeding from 
near the ¢atl-eorpuscle. In c the whole nucleus has become homogeneous, elongated 

d curved, and mostly protruded from the cytoplasm. d shows the sperm. nearly 
apla a relic of cytoplasm remains sticking where the head and neck join, and 
another where the tail and neck join. The latter contains the remains of the para- 
nucleus (“seminal granules”). æ is the completed sperm. The neck shows 2 


ucture. 
Fi. 72, a-f. Sperm. of Bull—Kölliker, Z. w. Z., vii.; EA, Brunn, ek: 


228 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


xii. and xxiii—The multiplication of the nucleus of the spermatogonium when the 
division of the cytoplasm is partially or wholly suppressed, cause$ several spermatids 
(and hence spermatozoa) to be united to or in a single cell, and so forming sperma- 
‘togemmes. a-d illustrate this point, which with: Tee is not the 
concentration of chromatin in one side of the nucleus near a head-corpuscle, the 
formation of a cap in connection ns this kapai is illustrated in g-#. The 
other anew is either the paranucleus or tail-corpuscle. In & the membrane cover-. 
ing the middle and hinder part of the head is lost or not separated away like the cap. 
Thes collar” about the neck is the membrane of the old cell. 

Fic. 73, a-f. Sperm. of Xaédé7¢—Brunn, A. m. A., xii.—a, after Platner, A. m. A., 
xxv., shows the pig the cap and badae m chromatic head envel- 
oping the forward end of the neck-piece or its axis. s the nucleus in two 
parts, the posterior aeae grows smaller, the comin is Danai 3 in the 
anterior part of the anterior portion, which forms the head. e is from Schweigger- 
Seidel, A. m. A.,i., to show the finished SERR 

Fic. 74. Sperm. of Mouse—Brunn, A. m, A., xxiii.—Corpuscles arrange them- 
selves about the axis of the middle piece and build it up, so that in the finished 
specimen the neck is annulated. 

Fic. 75, a—c. Sperm. of Sparrow—Brunn, A. m. A., xxiiii.—Here the cytoplasm 
spins a filament that inde spirally about ihe: axis, but remains separate from it. 


er, <5 Wil. 

. 77. Sperm. of 7riton—Schweigger-Seidel, A. m. A., ii—The sinuous fila- 
ment represents the thickened edge of a delicate membrane, which slings it to the 
tail like a mesentery. See Gibbes, Q. J. M. S., xix., for same structure in salaman- 
der, and Fig. 78, c—e, for the frog. 

Fic. 78, a—-e. Sperm. of Bomébinator—Valette St. George, A. m. A., xxv.—¢ is the 
skeleton left after macerating away the sarc 
, Fic. 79, a-e. Sperm, of Raja clavata—Jensen, A. B., iv. 


PLATE IV. 
Fic. 80, a—e. Sperm. of A a A. z. z. I. W., vii.—In @ we have 
a large nucleus, to which is fastened a fai/-corpuscle; we have also a small para- 
nucleus, but thjs grows, fais Fik to the nucleus at the end opposite the aż% 
corpuscle, and proceeds to spin a spirallated piece like the middle piece of Figs. 71, 
> ete, = it here has the place of a head-cap, though its functions are DERNE 
nchan 


a 81, a-f. Sperm. of Ae/ix—Platner, A. m. A., xxv.—Here the nucleus buds 

a ucleus, then concentrates, becomes homogeneous, an axis appears, over its 
end the nucleus invaginates itself, while the cytoplasm containing the paranucleus 
spins three spiral filaments; two of these closely invest the axis, the third remains 
free. 


Fic. 82, a~. Sperm. of Cassiopeia —Mereschkowski, A. Z E. G., x.—In ¢ the 
dotted line is a portion of th + ee SN = the “ blastophore,” the protoplasmic 
which d by their heads over its surface. 
os 83, a-e.. EDN of Cucumaria frondosa—Jensen, A. B., iv.—Head- and tail- 
“corpuscles are seen. _Inea middle piece in connection with the ee is 
on is still unfinished. 


vivipara—* hair form” Sepe 
=: two “oe amen "e t periph 


PLATE IV. 


bk 


= go ù E F. 
PJE 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 23 


Fic. 85, a-f. Sperm. of Paludina vivipara—vermiform (not func ctional), a-c, 
Carnoy, p. 228.—The nucleus je plays no direct part in the formation, but acts like 
a paranucleus, d~/, Brun . m. A., xxiii. The nucleus is here represented as 
directly concerned. Sheer fand 84, g. 

F rm. of Locusta viridissimi—a, b, and h, Valette St. George, 
A. m. A., x.; ¢c-y, Brunn, A. m. A., xxiii.—Here, as iti in 73, the head (f) divides 
into two parts, the anterior of which contains the chromat 

Fic. 87, a, 6. Sperm. of Forficula auri rcdaria Valet, A. m. 


Fic. 88, a-d. Gusta of Stenobothrus—Vale ie iddle piece (at 
least its periaxial portion) is formed directly from tie ern 
9, &-g. Sperm. of Blatta germanica—Valet . m. A, pr .—The para- 


nucleus is reported as formed from a granular mass, ia it centenkdy i is built into the 
“middle piece.” In eand g globules of cytoplasma are seen sticking te the flagellum 
ie [middle piece] and tail). 

Fic. 90, a, 6. Sperm. of Agrion—Biitschli, Z. w. Z., xxi., pp. 402 and 536. c 
Hydrophilus. (Clausilia, Acridia, Clythra, etc., agree closely with Figs. 87, 88, 89, 
go. 


Fic, 91, a-f. Sperm. of Astacus—a-g, Grobben, A. z. I. U. W., i.; f, 4,7, Nuss- 

baum, A. m. A., xxiii. 7 is view from a 
FIG. 92, a-e. Sperm. of Zupagure. ‘elite, A EUW 

vag: 93, rene eae: ae Ascaris adesioni Beneden, A. B., iv.—a, Sper- 
The two nuclei are united by the spindle. 
In å spermatids have formed, held together i in a spermatogemme by a “ cytophoral” 
portion (in which is a “ refringent body” connected with each spermatid, homolo- 
gous with paranucleus). ¢, the mature sperm. e nucleus is situated in the head, 
` which is left uncovered by the thin membrane that covers the remainder. The “ re- 
fringent body” is large, and fills up nearly the entire body. æ. Here the refringent 
body is small, the protoplasm about the nucleus in the head, amceboid. The micro-. 
somata of the cytohyaloplasm, seen in rows, mark the nodes of a regular reticulum. 


FIGs. 1-13, 25, 66-68, 71, 81, 93, ‘linetsate 1 the structure of protoplasm. 

Fics. 1, 2, 6, 16-18, 22-34, 49, 59, 66, etc., illustrate the “individuality” of the 
nucleus or of its subordinate parts. 

Fics. 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28-51, illustrate the different forms of nucli 

Figs. 8-10, 13-15, 19, 20, 26, 28, 43-47, 49-61, illustrate the Mieri conditions 
and morphological structure the nuclein may assume aside from the changes of 
karyokinesis. Still other examples will appear when 4aryokinesis is considered. 


the tail has in each case been r nted, to economize space. 

Fics. 36-40, 42, (44 las. (49!), (50?), = ee 64, m na 78, > 81, (83?), 34, 86- 
93, indicate the presence of a paranucleus be given under £aryo- 
kinesis and fertilization. 


24 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


I.—Introduction. 


í 


HAT is the significance of sex ?” is a special inquiry in the 

more general field of research included under the head of 
Reproduction ; but nearly all the problems of the larger subject 
must be investigated if we wish to elucidate the more special 
one. The question presents both morphological and physiological 
aspects. Thus, we need to know the intimate structure of the 
sexual cells in the different plants and animals and the modi- 
fications this structure undergoes from the time the cells are 
generated until fertilization is effected. We can in this way 
compare the ovum and the spermatozoon and perhaps learn 
whether their functions are alike or different, and in what they 
differ. But we must also know how they compare with other 
cells, and are therefore at once compelled to treat the general 
subject of Cytology. This may conveniently be done in the fol- 
lowing order: (1) Cell-structure in general. (2) The structure 
of sexual cells; the ovum (practically the germinal vesicle) and 
the spermatozoon. (3) The phenomena of karyokinesis. (4) 
The phenomena of fertilization. 

Then in the next place it is necessary to make a comparative 
study of the methods of reproduction in the groups of living 
beings, following the phyla of evolution. In unicellular organ- 
isms we shall be mainly interested in the various ways in which 
reproduction is effected and the relation of these to the action 
of environing circumstances. Here we may see the origin of 
sex and henceforth trace its evolution. Then as we see how the 
multicellular individual arose from the unicellular one, and as 
- we trace the evolution of more and more complex forms, differ- 
entiating into more and more numerous groups, the relations of 
the sexual method to other methods of reproduction will gain in 
interest and be best considered under the heads of Alternation of 
Generations and of Parthenogenesis. We shall also be specially 
interested in following the genesis of the sexual cells during the 
life-history of each individual, and so be involved in the mazes 
of ovigenesis and A OESE Incidentally hermaphroditism 
should be and finally the morphological side of the 
-~ question must as wih a discussion of the —— 

_ the polar E and allied points. 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 25 


Then on the physiological side, there is a vast and fruitful field 
both of accumulated facts and promising experiments for future 
research. The numerical relations of the sexes under fluctuating 
conditions so comprehensively discussed by Diising in his memoir 

‘on the “ Regulation of the Sexual Ratio,” first invite our con- 
sideration. Next we cannot escape a discussion of the problem 
of Heredity, because this is the very soul and centre of all these 
other problems; and finally we must necessarily conclude by 
discussing the doctrine of the Genesis of Species. 

We thus see that this inquiry is one of vast proportions, and 
can understand why it is still unsettled, in spite of the flood of 
speculations that all ages have poured upon it because of its ab- 
sorbing interest and importance. But all except a very few of 
these attempts at a solution of the problem of sex are of no - 
scientific and only of slight historic value. We shall only attempt 
a summary of our present knowledge of the subject as a founda- 
tion for future progress. 

The stimulus this kind of research received through the 
labors of Darwin has not been effected in as great a degree among 
English-speaking savants as with the Germans. It is desirable 
that more interest in this subject be awakened among American 
naturalists, not alone for the sake of national pride, but also be- 
cause the obscure recesses of this great problem can be illumi- 

‘nated only by the combined labors of many minds. 

The earliest thinkers, acquainted only with the highest forms 
of life, naturally supposed that the interaction of the two sexes 
was necessary to produce a new being. Some, as Hippocrates 
and Galen, supposed that the two parents contributed equally 
and in a complementary manner to this achievement ; others, as 
Aristotle, Fabricius, Harvey, thought that one parent was sub- — 
ordinate in his influence, being a mere stimulus to development: 
The discovery of the ovum and spermatozoon gave more definite- 
ness to these theories, and so arose the schools of the ovulists, 
who saw in the spermatozoon a fertilizing element of the ovum, 
and the spermatists, who thought the ovum or the uterus to be a 
nidus where the spermatozoon was nourished and developed to 
the new being. Advancing knowledge dispelled the latter views 
and modified the former, but now arose the controversy of evolu- 

‘ftom vs. epigenesis, and so for a season attention was diverted from 
_ the main problem of the significance of sex. 


26 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


Spontaneous generation once accounted for the presence of the 
swarms of minuter forms of life, but scientific study, aided by the 
microscope, showed that these lower forms of life multiplied by 
methods obtaining with the higher forms, and the doctrine of 
spontaneous generation was, by Tyndall’s beautiful experiments, 
finally banished from the realm of the minutest infusorial life— 
to which, as a last resort, it had been restricted. But, with the 
establishment of the law that all living beings are derived from 
pre-existing forms of life, we also learned that another method of 
reproduction, the asexual (agamogenesis), was more widely used 
by nature than the sexual one, and increases in importance as we 
descend the organic phyla,—is, in fact, the foundation on which 
the latter rests, and out of which it has been evolved as a rare and 
expensive, but useful, link in generation. 

It is now a half-century since biology received its organon in 
the formulation of the ce//-doctrine. From this doctrine we must 
start in every biologic inquiry. Stated briefly and in the light of 
the present, it stands thus: The body of any of the larger plants 
or animals is a mass of minute units, called ce//s, that are organized 
in a complex way into different orders of higher units, or parts, 
known as żissues and organs. The unity or individuality of the 
organism is secured by the harmonious working together of its 
organs, like the parts of a mechanism, towards simple results for 
the good of the whole. All living beings, compared as to struc- 
ture (morphology), naturally fall into groups that are related like 
the branches of a tree (phylogenetic classification). At the roots 
we place the unicellular beings, then, as we reach the lowest and 
least subdivided branches, we find organisms represented by 
simple aggregations of cells like those which lower down live as 
independent beings ; and, as we rise along the phyla, such aggre- 
gates become more and more complex in organization. In the 
development (ontogeny) of an individual its organization ‘is es- 
tablished in the following manner. We start with a single cell, 
which produces an aggregation by continued self-division, and 
then the units differentiate into the tissues and organs, becoming 
successively more and more complex, so that the embryologic 
history—leaving out of consideration secondary or cenogenetic 


a modifications—is a repetition of the stages seen as we ascend its 
| phylum in the natural system. Such relations as these could 


| have beds established wir by the actual evolution of living 


a 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 27 


beings along these lines, in the past history of the earth; and 
this is confirmed by the paleontologic record. We are thus con- 
vinced that organic beings are genetically related, and, therefore, 
the phenomena of reproduction and the question of sex must be 
considered in relation to the problem of the genesis of species. 

The laws of organization of biologic beings find their analogues 
in civil and social organizations. Hence we often speak of the 
animal as the ce//-State. As civilization progresses and Society is 
evolved, the unit, here the human mind, becomes more and more 
specialized in its activities, and the individual more and more de- 
pendent for his existence and welfare upon the fact that he is part 
of an organism,—the State,—which is complexly organized of 
many interworking and subordinate parts. How wonderful are the 
life manifestations of a State! and yet nothing is done except by 
the activities of the faculties present in each mind. The division 
of labor causes each function to be more efficiently exercised ; 
but, what is more important, it is the form in which this is or- 
ganized that impresses us and that makes the zzdividual. Ina 
similar way, a man may be said, philosophically speaking, to be 
only a developed amceba, even as a State is a man ona larger 
scale. 

We are thus enabled to understand what is meant by the Judt- 
vidual. This term is purely relative, for in an organism where 
the subordinate units still retain a large measure of independence, 
the individuality of the lesser units detracts from that of the 
larger ; indeed, the latter is not thoroughly established until the 
former is sacrificed, when the lesser units are so mutually de- 
pendent as to be mere farts. When this stage is reached the 
existence of the lesser units depends on the existence of the 
greater unit. Thus, when the organic relations or functions in a 
man’s body are disturbed, not only does the man die (cease to 
exist) as an individual, but the cells also dissolve into the less 
highly organized substances of “ non-living” matter. Life may 
then mean one or both of two things: 1, the activities of the 
organism (this is of course a mere summation of the activities 
of the cells); 2, the form of organization of these activities; this 
is a relation, an abstraction, but is necessary for the existence of 
life in the former sense,—i.c., it makes the individual. The contro- 
versies so often arising about these terms can only be due to a 
misunderstanding of the cell-doctrine. i 


» . 


oe 


28 | The Significance of Sex, [Jan. 


There is, however, this difference between the dzo/ogic and the 
social individual,—the latter can be formed by association of units 
at first independent, while in the former the cells are always ge- 
netically related. The metazoa arose from the protozoa by a 
modification in the mode of reproduction by self-division, which 
caused the daughter-cells to remain united. Now, let all the 
other phenomena and forces remain as before, these daughters 
will soon divide again, they will not separate but will go on for a 
considerable period until an aggregate of cells results, then by the 
operation of the principles that produce alternation of generations 
in separated forms and polymorphism in colonies, there will follow 
what we term the differentiation of tissues, and lo, a metazoon. In 


|! asimilar way, among the Metazoa a multisegmented form must have 


arisen from one unisegmented by modified budding or strobilation. 
Natural selection will account for the preservation of forms, but 
the cause and origin of new forms lies in the above laws of or- 
ganization. We are now prepared for the next step in this argu- 
ment. As self-division is the only form of reproduction that 
could give rise to the Metazoa, we understand why this is the 
mode which alone operates during ontogeny. It is also the usual 
mode of reproduction among the Protozoa. Once in a while 


_ under hard conditions of nutrition, etc. (perhaps so only as to 


its origin—Weissmann), the protozoan individual, too feeble to 
fight the battle of life alone, fuses (conjugation with a neighbor 
(sometimes more than one ?), and thus reinvigorated goes on in 
its former way again. Possibly conjugation is only one, though 
the most useful, of several methods by which reyuvenescence can 
be effected; at any rate we can see that by “sexual reproduc- 
tion” we do not mean a new mode of reproduction contrasted with 
the asexual mode, but simply a particular mode of a sexual repro- 
duction preceded by a particular method of rejuvenescence (conju- 
gation, fertilization’). Now when the Metazoa were formed by 
the non-separation of cells produced by binary division, those 


cells that required rejuvenescence were set free that they might 


* Van Beneden, Archives de Biologie, iv. p. 616. 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 29 


tissues for the good of the whole. Even some of the generative 
cells had to serve their more fortunate brethren by giving origin 
to the accessory parts of the generative tissues that a few cells 
might be successfully prepared to perpetuate the species. All 
the tissues, including the generative, are based on a stroma of 
undifferentiated, “ embryonic” cells, capable of dividing as they 
have in the past, and differentiating into their proper tissue when 
they have the chance, as in regeneration of lost parts. These cells 
are all the descendants of the original egg, and homodynamous 
with it and each other as if they were separate amcebe. But 
after a certain number of divisions they lose the power of di- 
viding further without fertilization and then they differentiate. 
Only the cells differentiated in the direction fitting them for 
fecundation ever get a chance to be fertilized. ae 

Possibly this want of fertilization, more and more increasingly 
felt by the embryonic cells as they continue their final divisions, 
may explain senescence ; but so long as we do not understand the | 
nature of senescence in the Protozoa we cannot understand it in ~ 
the Metazoa. 

Growth is due in the Metazoa to the double process of cell- 
multiplication and cell-growth. May we not say that cell-growth 
is also partly a result of a reproductive process, and that the cell 
is a living unit by virtue of being organized? There can now no 
longer be a doubt of this. We can no longer speak of animals 
as “evolved from a homogeneous bit of jelly.” Cells and the 
Protozoa and Protophyta in general, may be considered as illus- 
trating as wide a diversity of differentiation and gradation of 
organization as we see exemplified in the larger units or in the 
social units (societies and states). We cannot conceive of life 
without organization. The homogeneous cannot be called living. 

The cell-wall at first was thought of importance, but soon it 
was seen that this was a secreted product, and so its gelatinous 
contents, called protoplasm, next became the definition of a cell. 
But most cells had one or more “nuclei” in them, and this was 
conceived as a differentiated product of the protoplasm. Con- 
tinued study of the zucleus raised its importance more and more, 
until at present some eminent cytologists are ready to make it 
the essential part, and the surrounding plasma almost as secondary 
as the cell-wall itself. Believing this to be the true view, we are 


ready to consider,— 


30 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. 


II.—The Significance of the Cell-Nucleus to the 
Problem of Sex. 


(a) CELL-STRUCTURE IN GENERAL. 


Microscopic examination of cells in the living state, or treated 
by the simple hardening, staining, and section-cutting methods of a 
few years ago, can give us only a superficial knowledge of cell- 
structure. With such methods the first step taken was to distin- 
guish the protoplasm as differentiated into the outer membrane 
or cell-wall, the more fluid and granular contents, and the gener- 
ally spherical and central zwcleus. The last body often carries 
a nucleolus; and nucleus and nucleolus may sometimes be in- 
, creased in number, or, again, they may apparently dissolve to be 
later reconstituted. Our next step under this technique was to 
distinguish a primary and a secondary plasma,—the former the 
protoplasm proper, the latter the dewtoplasm (paraplasm, meta- 
plasm, etc.), formed by processes of absorption, assimilation, and 
degradation of the protoplasm. The former is active, 4/e-sud- 
stance, the latter passive, food-substance. The protoplasm is more 
firm and hyaline, abundant near the wall and the nucleus, and 
forms coarse trabecule, traversing and bathed by the deutoplasm. 
The latter substance is mainly “ cell-sap,” in which float granules, 
oil-drops, yolk-spheres, etc. The difference in the size of cells is 
due mainly to difference in the amount of deutoplasm they con- 
tain. We are not surprised, therefore, to learn that the yolk of a 
hen’s egg is homologous with a microscopic cell, but we cannot 
say that it contains no more pure protoplasm than the latter. 

The third step was taken as a result of studies of the phe- 
nomena ‘of fertilization. The nucleus of the egg, the germinal 
vesicle, often shows a structure quite comparable to that of a 
“ typical” cell, and the fact that it was seen to conjugate with the 
spermatozoon certainly pointed to its autonomous nature; but at 
first the true import of this conclusion was obscured by theories 
as to the multicellular nature of the ovum. 

Our knowledge of the cell has, owing to improved technique, 
- been wonderfully advanced during the last decade by the labors 
of cytologists, led by Strasburger and Flemming ; and at present 
the work of Carnoy and of Gaule promises a new era in which the 
science of the cell shall rise to the dignity of a grand division of 
biology. We shall treat of Cytology only so far as a knowledge 


. 1887] The Significance of Sex. 31 


of it prepares us to understand the import of fertilization as a 
morphological problem. 

No one cell described in detail could be taken as “typical.” 
It would be as absurd as to describe a horse as a typical animal. 
But the horse has tissues which are similar to those of widely dif- 
ferent animals. So with protoplasm; it has a typical structure 
generally obtaining,—viz., zé zs reticulated. The reticulum is easily 
seen in “ multipolar” nerve-cells, but almost any cell, when 
properly treated, will reveal it. (See Figs. 1-13.) A coarse re- 
ticulum has its trabecule themselves more finely reticulated. 
The reason for this structure is obvious. The thin threads of 
protoplasm are bathed by the cell-sap (the exchylema), and so the 
processes of nutrition and of respiration take place with rapidity. 
In the protoplasmic reticulum two elements are distinguished,— 
the clear kyaloplasm, which serves as a matrix for granular bodies 
of various sizes,—the microsomata. The microsomata are formed 
by the growth or the fusion of exceedingly minute grains, to which 
the term granules may be restricted. Then in the nucleus, when 
the microsomata grow or fuse to a few larger bodies, they readily 
come to be designated xucleolit. So these terms simply refer to 
size and not to definite substances, for one and the same sub- 
stance occurs in all these forms, and there is every reason to 
believe that several different kinds of protoplasm occur in the 
form of these microsomata. 

Another distinction is also made in that the protoplasm outside 
the nucleus is called cytoplasm, and that forming the nucleus is 
the aryoplasm (nucleoplasm). From this we get the terms cyto- 
hyaloplasm, cytomicrosomata, cyto-cachylema, p siden soca 
and, correspondingly, karyo-hyalopl ), karyoso- 
mata, karenchyma. Chemically, the haryosomata contain “ nu- 
clein,” which is generally termed “ chromatin” because of its great 
affinity for “ stains.” Gaule believes that he can differentiate two 
constituents of the karyosomata and two of the cytoplasm. He 
restricts the term chromatin to a substance having most affinity 
for hematoxylin, and gives the term plasmosomata to those nucleoli 
that especially fix safranin. The microsomata of the deutoplasm 
are said to especially stain by eosin, while migrosin has a special 
affinity for ordinary protoplasm (cytaloplasm or cytosomata, he 
does not distinguish which). ae Figs. 49 a-h.) 

t t is due to the al- 


TE da ui E SRG 
at åm aa UULA 


E 7 


32 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


ternate contraction with thickening, and stretching of the fibres of 
the reticulum. The nodes of the reticulum come closer together 
in some one direction, and get farther apart in the direction at right 
angles to this; at the same time the microsomata at the nodes ab- 
sorb the intervening microsomata. This looks as though the mat- 
ter of the microsomata was subject to mutual attractions and repul- 
sions, and then we could say that muscular movement is a special 
manifestation of those varied phenomena of division and fusion, 
attraction and separation of microsomata seen in karyokinesis.* 
However, this generalization cannot be made so long as we are 
uncertain whether the hyaloplasm or the microsomata are the 
primary thing, or whether they are independent but mutually 
reciprocal. If the microsomata (granules) are primary, then we 
must assume that the hyaloplasm is an aggregation of a special 
sort of these granules in a definite way to serve a definite func- 
tion. From the optical properties of the hyaloplasm this struc- 
ture must be regular and uniform. Others of these granules 
differentiate in various directions to serve various functions, and 
form, by various degrees of aggregation, the different sorts and 
sizes of microsomata. The primary granules from which all these 
other forms of protoplasm in the cell are derived must be en- 
dowed with the power of growth, of reproduction by simple di- 
vision, and of differentiation or variation. They would be affected 
by stimuli and vibrations travelling in the hyaloplasm in which 
they live. They should be designated gemmudes, because of all 
these properties. The cell, on this hypothesis, ts a gemmule state; 
it is a complex organism, with parts structured and differentiated 
for special ends for the good of the whole. The membranes for 
protection and osmosis, the reticulum for movement and trans- 
mission of sensations, the gemmule for assimilation and repro- 
duction. Degraded gemmules like differentiated and degraded 
cells form the various kinds of microsomata in the deutoplasm, and 
build up other parts of the cell. We shall see that the facts 
of cell-structure, of karyokinesis, and especially of fertilization, 
lend great weight in favor of this hypothesis. The gemmules are 
the idioplasm. They build up the cell in its peculiar characters 
and maintain it there. Under the above hypothesis the theory 
of Nageli as to the structure of idioplasm will apply to the struc- 
a See Figs. 12 and 93, d, and consult Van Beneden, Arch. Biol., iv. P- 343, and 
~ Melland, Quar. pe Mic. Sc., xxv., July, 1885. 


1887] The Significance of Sex: 33 


ture of the gemmule, and not to the reticulum primarily as 
Nageli intended. But the discussion of this point belongs under 
the subject of heredity. 

It may be asked, what is gained by putting back the problems 
of life—of assimilation, of reproduction, and of heredity—one 
step; are they not as inscrutable as before? Undoubtedly they 
are, but we gain greatly by such a view as this. We can better 
understand the cell. Just as we simplified the problem of 4% as 
applied to the. higher animals, by the cell-doctrine, so we sim- 
plify by as great a step this protean problem by means of the 
gemmule hypothesis. We must accurately determine what are 
the real labors of the gemmule out of which, by organization, the 
more wonderful phenomena of cell-life grow, and then we shall 
see that we have spanned by a large fraction the chasm between 
non-living matter and living matter. The albumen molecule is 
a very minute thing when compared with the gemmule, and 
there is plenty of room for one or two stadia of organization 
between, that would, when known, simplify the problem com- 
pletely. On this hypothesis, also, cells must have a life-history 
in which they pass through stages of development and stop in 
various degrees of complexity as mature cells. The more highly 
organized cells must pass through the stages in which the less 
highly organized remain; and there is room here also for a phy- 
logeny and for cenogenetic modification. Finally, the simplest cells 
we know, must be to some extent modified from the condition 
in which the original cell was. This must be taken into account 
in trying to derive “living” protoplasm from “non-living” mat- - 
ter. The first gemmule could arise only by organization of a 
lower order of life, and the first cell must have been an aggre- 
gate of like gemmules produced by binary division of a mother 
gemmule. Reproduction in this hypothetical first cell we may 
reasonably suppose to have been effected in two ways,—either 
by a division of the gemmule colony into two smaller colonies, 
or by a dissolution of its members when each gemmule was set 
free to become the progenitor of its own cell-state. When dif- 
ferentiation came in, the primitive mode of reproduction became 
motie as ceg A few only of the gemmules were kept 

| tiated for purposes of reproduction. The others had 
to serve grat helping them to get better chance of food by 
carrying the colony about by amceboid or ciliary motion; others 

VOL. XXI.—NO. I, 3 : 


34 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. 


to give protection; others, to furnish a special breeding-place 
for the gemmules differentiated into the nucleus; and so on. 
When the gemmule was set free, it more and more had to be 
protected by special envelopes, and so arose spores. When all 
the gemmules free for reproductive purposes went into the spores, 
the protoplasm remaining after the spores were set free could 
no longer grow, and hence live, and thus in reproduction by 
spores, as in gregarines, the mother-cell was left as a corpse when 
this sort of reproduction was exercised. (Fig. 27, e.) 

But reproduction by binary division still continued, modified 
first as budding, where some of the reproductive gemmules were 
pinched off with a share of the cytoptasm. Here we must call 
attention to the fact that the zadtviduality of the cell does not de- 
pend on the number of idioplasm gemmutes in it, for all these, being 

undifferentiated, are, as it were, embryonic or alike and mutually 
autonomous.” They continually grow and divide, and two, result- 
ing from one, do not produce a different kind of effect, but only 
more work than one. Indeed, the effect produced is not seen until 
they differentiate, and so present the characteristics of the cell. 
This principle is extremely important for understanding the facts of 
Fertilization. It makes no difference whether the reproductive 
element set free contains ove or a million gemmules, except that 
in the former case it sakes longer to make as large a cell as the 
mother; in precisely the same way as it takes longer to raise a 
hydra from the unicellular egg than it does from the multicellular 
bud. The reproductive gemmules being now confined to the 
` nucleus, binary division resulted in nuclear division; so far as 
it was advantageous that a large: plasmodium-like cell should 
be produced, the new nuclei remained and nourished the common 
cell; and so far as the spreading of the cell over the habitat was 
of advantage, each daughter-nucleus took its half of the cyto- 
plasm, thus producing cell division. This subject will be con- 
tinued under the head of Karyokinesis. Continued binary division 
of the nucleus and the development of the products while the 
mother-cell remains undivided results in free cell formation (at 
least one variety of this). These cells often play the role of spores, 
ad what icol ipportange yhes this is the tai, the size of the 
re is reduçed in their number,—ż.e., to the number 
~ of divisions. . In a somier of the monads these spani. are so 
“ Tapi meho Arch. f. Mic. Anat., xxvi. i 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 35 


minute as to be visible, only as a cloud of refringent points, 
under a magnifying power of four thousand diameters.. (See 
Roy. Micr. Journ., April, 1886.) Dallinger saw these points grow 
until they attained the size of nuclei, then there was differentiated 
a narrow zone, which increased in width around the nucleus and 
formed the cell. At the time this zone first appeared the hither- 
to homogeneous nucleus differentiated microsomata within it. 
(See Fig. 98, a—e.) As the flagellates seem to be the lowest of the 
forms of life in which all other groups converge, we should ex- 
pect here the most primitive methods of reproduction. This 
mode of spore formation follows conjugation: the nucleus spreads 
by a sort of dissolution through the plasma as in the case of the 
_ cyst forms. When the latter is broken, these spores imbedded 
in a plasma fill it’ Have we not here a direct reduction to the 
gemmule condition, each gemmule being given a chance to start 
a new cell, z.e. a gemmule colony ? 
©- From the simple modes indicated above, we can easily derive 
the methods of reproduction obtaining among the Protozoa. If 
the whole or a part of the nucleus segments into spores which 
remain in a “brood pouch” in the cell-body, and are liberated 
as motile young, we get the “ germ balls” of Stein. Compare 
Figs. 22, d, 23, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34. The structures here indicated 
are similar, but in many cases these nucleated bodies simply rep- 
resent a stage of development or of kinesis of the nucleus, and 
are not liberated as spores. Bütschli is inclined to disbelieve in 
this mode of reproduction, but it hardly seems as if his objections 
sufficiently disprove the evidence we have of its existence. 
` If the chromatin, instead of remaining uniformly distributed in 
the nucleus, gathers into a particular body, which sustains the 
relation of a nucleus to the old nucleus, we get a nucleolus. 
This is a structure very generally found, especially in highly 
developed cells. The nucleolus is to be conceived as the 
primary body and the nucleus as secondary. Before the nucleus 
can divide the nucleolus must divide; but here we may get multi- 
nucleolated nuclei by the multiplication of the latter, while the 
former remains undivided. . The general law of cell-life seems to 
to conserve in the centre of protoplasmic bodies a supply of 
undifferentiated or primary substance (the zdiop/asm), and to sur- 
round this by concentric structures that protect it, and serve as 
organs of relation to the external world. The external envelopes 


"e 


36 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


are derived by differentiation of this inmost substance. This 
idioplasm is continually throwing off centrifugally these sec- 
ondary substances, and the continued life of the cell depends on 
its integrity. Reproduction always means that a portion of this 
substance has been separated from the remainder, and so acts 
from a new centre. The secondary plasmas are mechanisms for 
effecting such separations, as well as organs for other purposes. 
Alt the biological mantfestations of cell-life are due to the activity 
of these organs. All the idioplasm does is to grow, by the growth 
and continual division of its gemmules, and to diferentiate, by 
organizing in various relations for the different organs, perhaps 
accompanied by the chemical degradation of the units. What 
the chemical processes are that take place in the idioplasm unit, 
by which it grows and reproduces, must be referred for discus- 
sion to the subject of Heredity. The above is not an explanation, 
but simply a statément of the facts of heredity, as we conceive 
them, in this connection. 

The forces active in the gemmule are, of course, the primary 
cause, and the reason for and explanation of the activities of the 
secondary plasmas, which activities are, as was said above, the 
phenomena studied in biology. 

We can understand, in this light, how we always have struc- 
tures and processes that obtain in one stadium of organization 
repeated in the higher, compound, or derived stadia. For this 
reason the nucleus is, when far enough developed, reticulated 
like the cell, and the nucleolus itself often repeats the structure. 
(See Figs. 2-13.) In the same way as we get three concentric 
structures simultaneously existing (Figs. 9, 13-15, 19-22, 26, 
32, 42, 44, 49, 50-64), we may have a quadruple condition (pre- 
senting one or more nucleoli in the nucleolus), seen in Figs. 13, 
26, J; 27, 33, 51, 53, 56, 58, 64; and possibly Fig. 56 is evidence 


_ of a quintuple state. The central body is always capable of 


generating the whole cell by a differentiation of its chromatin 


(see Fig. 49), and the central body of this new cell has like 
powers, and so on indefini 


We often have the TIG or the nucleolus dividing into parts 


that are of unequal value, thus giving chief and accessory nuclei 

=~ or nucleoli, as the case may be. (See Figs. 44, 49, 51, etc.) In 
~ thiscase the chief body only retains the reproductive function, 

ao and ee ae? seniasabe differentiated "e 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 37 


bodies. In this way Carnoy and Gaule have shown that such 
stains as hematoxylin and carmine are not tests for chromatin in 
a restricted sense, but that we must use safranin and methyl 
green. It is indeed a remarkable property of the idioplasm that 
it has a special affinity for aniline dyes. 

In connection with the segmentation of the chromatin comes 
up the question of individuality. Is a multinucleated cella single 
cell? If we understand that the chromatin is composed of many 
small units, like the soldiers in an army, we see that it can divide 
into bodies of various sizes, and these bodies can fuse again, just 
as the different divisions of an army may combine for any opera- 
tion and separate once more for other duties. Such phenomena 
of the multiplication of centres of chromatin activity are illus- 
trated in Figs. 1, 24, 25, 31, 42, and 48, or bya colony of flagel- ° 
lates, of hydroids, or by a tree. 

Are all the bodies we see, such as nucleoli and geinales i ina 
nucleus, the result of d:mary divisions or of simultaneous seg- 
mentation of a single nucleolus, or are they produced by a sort 
of general dissolution? Conversely, what are the laws by which 
the different orders of bodies from granules to nucleoli are built 
up? This question is to a large extent obscure as yet. The 
phenomena to be explained in this connection are illustrated by 
Figs. 14, 15, 19, 26, 50-63. Even nuclei fuse (as see Figs. 94 and 
97, ¢), and the sexual nuclei. 

In some low forms of cells and in higher cells degraded by 
parasitism, such as yeasts and moulds, the nucleus may never 
take on the form of a compact body, but be present in the proto- 
plasm in a diffused or granular condition. (See Figs. 14 and 15.) 
In karyokinesis and in maturation or development of nuclei, there . 
seem to be phases in which this condition is represented. 

Finally, we consider those forms of nuclei and of nucleoli 
where the spherical or elliptical shape is departed from to a large 
extent. Such are the fi/amentous nuclei. These are usually mo- 
niliform, being due to incomplete segmentation and to growth in 
one direction. (See Figs. 7, 19, d, 20, 3, c, 28, 30, 6, 31, 41, and 42.) 
In the higher tissue-cells, the chief nucleolus is present in this 
form, often being exceedingly long, and wound about in a way so 
as to give a reticulated appearance to the chromatin. It has 
been termed the 4nduel by the Germans, which term means a 


tangle, usually termed a “skein” in English works on pulang a 


3 


38 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


esis. (See Figs. 13, 19, 6, 43, 44, 45, 46, a—d, 47, etc.) In Figs. 13 
and 47 we see the chromatin present in these filamentous nucle- 
oli has been complexly arranged in a reticulum and in a spiral 
respectively. A cross-section of one of these filaments (mitom 
of Flemming) cannot be distinguished from a section ofa spheri- 
cal nucleolus of like structure. 


[Notre.—After the above article left my hands an meus een ba Altmann 
(“ Studien über die Zelle,” Leipzig, 1886) came to my noti By means of fuchsin 
staining, followed by a wash of picric acid, a new element, ‘i “ pie is brought 
to notice in the cytenchyma. These granules have hitherto been included with the 
cytenchyma in the general term deutoplasm, but Altmann believes they should be ele- 
vated to the dignity of an element in the protoplas To them Altmann ascribes the 
function of initiating and sustaining the teabele, or vegetative activities of the cell, 
while the reticulum mediates the motile functions. Morphologically, oad are seen 
to grow and to multi tiply by fission or budding, s ie t he has formulated the law 
“ omnis granula e granulo?’ He conceives re ucleus and nucleoli to abe aggre- 


Botanische Zeitung, 1880 and 1883.) All this falls into line with the gemmule 

hypothesis, but the function of these granules cannot be so primary as he believes, 
if we are to credit the evidence obtained from experiments on enucleating cells. 
(See Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.) Nussbaum found that if he cut an Ofalina to 
pieces, the pieces deprived of nuclei continued to manifest movement, but did not 
grow. On the other hand, those pieces that had nuclei ng STON their lost parts. 
It is worthy of note that if a new formation was once in process of development, 
this was completed, even eee the Pe was enucleated during the process. This 
can be understood if we suppose that gemmules destined to repair the tissues had 

already migrated from pi nucleus, though, = course, we are not confined to this 
explanation. } 

(2) STRUCTURE OF THE SEXUAL CELLS. 

_ In speaking of the sexual cells without distinguishing the ovum 
from the spermatozoon, it is useful to use the word gamete, from 
which we readily coin another useful word, gametogenesis, as in- 
cluding ovigenesis and spermatogenesis. In the present section 
we are concerned only with the changes which the nucleus of the 
gamete suffers after its final division in gametogenesis. 

It is well known that in the earliest stages of gametogenesis 
there is little, if any, distinction between male and female cells; 
that in many cases the cell boundari not distinct, but we hare 
a homogeneous albumen containing scattered nuclei, recalling a 


syncytium ; that these nuclei have sometimes been seen to mul- 


tiply by budding eed te paee that the nuclei, aio 
` grow, lose their 10n og ty ‘ 
en in- their r ate 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 39 


plasm, thin at first, grows out as an envelope about them, much 
as in Dallinger’s monad. (See F. R. M. S., July, 1886, and Fig. 
98.) When the cells are completed, they multiply by indirect” 
division (karyokinesis), but not to a very great extent, if destined 
to become ova. In this case a period of growth, of storage of 
nutriment for the future embryo, ensues, and when this work 
is completed, the ovum shows its homodynamous nature with 
the spermatozoon by completing its delayed divisions by the 
formation of the polar globules. Why these divisions are thus 
delayed will be discussed in its proper place. 

If the ovum has its special work to do, division of labor has 
also given the spermatozoon its special work. For the large and 
stationary ovum must be sought out and penetrated, and so the 
enveloping cytoplasm is built up into the proper locomotor or- 
gans, which gives the male cell its characteristic and varied 
forms. We see that the characters which distinguish the male 
from the female gamete, or vice versa, are purely secondary and 
acquired characters, and, in the absence of these, we would be 
unable to distinguish sex. We shall endeavor to show that she 
chromatin is not sexed, but probably differs in the two cells by an 
infinitesimal variation. So far as our idea of sex implies the 
differentiation of MALE from FEMALE, the chromatin ts not sexed, 
but so far as it implies DESIRE FOR CONJUGATION with other chro- 
matin differing from it by a slight variation, and likewise filled with 
‘a longing for conjugation, it (the chromatin) is sexed, but to this 
idea of sex the thought of male and female is foreign. Male and 
female are ideas that have arisen in contemplating the different 
secondary mechanisms that have been evolved for the purpose 
of effecting conjugation; and these characters are the result of 
the operation of the same principles that have differentiated a 
gland-cell from an epithelium-cell. 

But, let us see how these secondary or sexual mechanisms 
differ, and how the nucleus is related to them. We first consider 
the changes that are suffered by the nucleus of 

: THE OVUM. 

Most of the observations on the germinal vesicle (nucleus of 
the ovum) relate to its behavior in relation to the polar globules, 
which does not now concern us; for we now know that this is 
simply the nucleus dividing by karyokinesis so as to become 


40 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. 


sexually mature, and that, as in ordinary karyokinesis, the succes- 
sive halves of the nucleus left in the yelk are the homologues of 
those extruded in the globules. We shall show that they are all 
equivalents, and there is not a separation of “male protoplasm” 
from “ female protoplasm” in a once “ hermaphrodite” cell. 

en the few observations we have of the germinal vesicle 
during the period of growth are compared, we are struck by the 
apparent variety in the different cases. But this variety is prob- 
ably due in part toa real variety in nature, and in part to the 
limited and partial knowledge we have acquired. From a com- 
parison of Figs. 50-64, we may gather the following general 
features : 

1. There is a richness of chromatin development resulting in 
great increase in size of the nucleus. 

2. There is a considerable number of nucleoli developed. 

3. A large portion of the chromatin is broken down and trans- 
formed into yelk. (See Fig. 50.) 

4. The boundaries of the nucleus are often broken down 
or obscured; if not, they remain extremely distinct, enclosing 
a: large cavity comparatively free from chromatin, and hence ` 
the name germinal vesicle. But with either change we find that 
one of the nucleoli has taken on functions that are probably 
nuclear in nature, and this has given countenance to the notion 
that the germinal vesicle may not be a nucleus, but is a cell. 
Such an assumption of the nuclear functions by a chief nucleolus 
is repeated over and over again in gland-cells, as in Fig. 49. We 
thus have a chief nucleolus or germinal dot and one or more 
paranucleoli. The latter simply break down, while the former 
furnishes the chromatin that divides in the polar globules, and at 
last conjugates with the male pronucleus; so that we always have 
a mass of the proto-substance conserved to carry on the exist- 
ence of the gemmule colony, however much of the chromatin 
may be used for other purposes, and this reproductive sub- 
stance is always conserved in the centre of the mechanism, sur- 
rounded and protected by at least two envelopes. If the nucleus 
buds, it produces paranuclet. Perhaps this is only a peculiar 
method of giving off nutritive substances to the cytoplasm. We 
_ must here observe that paaonejei, wherever found, are not neces- 
sarily if more than one be found in 


a the same cell or still less where we deal with Phafogmeucally 


1887] i The Significance of Sex. 41 


widely separated cells. When the germinal dot enters upon its 
activities as anucleus it passes through the stages of differen- 
tiating a reticulum and nucleoli of different kinds in itself, as we 
shall see under haryokinesis. 


(c) THE SPERMATOZOON. 


When the last division of the spermatocytes has taken place, 
the nucleus is practically ready for conjugation; hence, that its 
chromatin may meet the chromatin of the ovum, the secondary or 
achromatic structures of the nucleus transform themselves to- 
gether with the cytoplasm (which seems to play a more passive 
part), into the suitable mechanism for effecting the transfer. In 
most cases the resulting form is filamentous, and has a spiral 
structure in some part. (See Figs. 66-93.) In such highly com- 
plex spermatozoa we may distinguish the following parts: 

An outer membrane, which is perhaps the relic of the cell-mem- 
. brane. A head-cap, posterior to which lies the chromatin. An 
axial filament, which may be taken as a sort of skeleton. (See Fig. 
78, e.) Finally, there isa medullary sheath, best, sometimes only, 
developed in the “eck” or middle piece of the spermatozoon. 
This sheath is often composed of two or three bands that have 
been spirally twisted in opposite directions around the axial fila- 
ment. Often one of the three is free and hung by a delicate 
- mesentery, and thus may propel the spermatozoon like a screw. 
In the development of these parts, we first see the nucleus change 
its shape and become homogeneous, then the axial filament is seen 
stretching away from the nucleus and pushing the cytoplasm 
before it posteriorly as the nucleus does at the anterior end. The 
achromatic part of the nucleus is usually present as a paranucleus 
(see karyokinesis, Fig. 123, also Fig. 81), which in some cases is 
directly converted into the medullary sheath. Paranuclei (or 
granules) of a different sort are often present, and may have some- 
thing to do in building the axial filament. All growth takes 
place in the neck just behind the head; and from this point the 
tail end is gradually pushed out as a completed structure. These 
accessory parts having accomplished their work of transferring 
the chromatin, which is to form the male pronucleus, are lost 
or dissolved in various ways. The chromatin is the essential sub- 
stance, as we shall learn under “ Fertilization? 

The d t t in the special cases may be 


E E 


42 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. 


learned by a study of the figures (Plate IV.) with the accompany- 

ing explanations. We could now pass on to the subject of fertili- 

zation did we not have connected with this phenomena another 

series of phenomena that can be understood only by reference to 

the facts of “cell division,” to which we next direct our attention. 
(To be continued.) 


DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF DIPOD- 
OMYS, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF ITS 
HABITS. 


BY F. STEPHENS. 
Dipodomys deserti STEPHENS, n. s. Desert Pocket-Rat. 


ARGEST known species of the genus. Length, head and 
body, 5.2 inches; tail vertebræ, 7.7 inches; hind foot, in- 
cluding claw, 1.9 inches. Color above pale yellowish brown, fur 
plumbeous at base, showing through the tips enough to give an 
ashy tinge. Below, white. Fore legs from elbow, and hind legs, 
in front, from knee, white. Tail, at base, on sides, below, and the 
tip, white; above, pale brown, becoming plumbeous towards the 
white tip. Indistinct white spot over the eye, another behind 


the ear, which extends across the shoulder to the white under- ` 


parts. Indistinct white band across the hips. Indistinct darker 
spot at base of whiskers. Soles of hind feet nearly white. Type 
No. 314. Female, June 29, 1886. Mojave River, Cal. Deposited 
in the National Museum. 

Habitat, Mojave and Colorado Desert regions of Southeastern 
California. 

COMPARISON OF THE SPECIES. 
. Dipodomys deserti. Dipodomys phillipsi. 

Size large. Size small. 
Color pale, markings comparatively in- Color dark, markings distinct. 

distinct 


Eyes TEES ely large. Eyes very lar 
Soles of hind feet white in the young, Soles of feet dark brown (same color as 
indistinctly brownish in the adults, per- upper surface of tail). 
haps due to soiling. 
Spot at base of saree merely darker Spot at base of whiskers nearly black. 
than surrounding 
Masti region coro nate. Mastoid regi paratively moderately 
i Aitaa 


PLATE V. 


Dipodomys deserti Stephens. Desert Pocket Rat. Three-fourths natural size. 
From photograph from life. 


Fic. 1.—Skull of Dipodomys Fic. 2.—Skull of Dipodomys 
deserti. hillipsi. 


Natural size. 


1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 43 


The proportions of the two species are much the same. There 
are other points of difference in the skull, but this is sufficient to 
show their specific distinctness. 

D. phillipsi ordi, being a slightly larger, rufous-tinged variety of 
D. phillipsi, may be considered as being classed with the latter 
in the above comparison. 

The type specimen may be below the average size. I havea 
male that measured (fresh) 5.8 inches head and body, 8.2 inches 
tail vertebræ. Total number of specimens examined is nine. 
The photographs of skulls are natural size; of the animal, three- 
fourths natural size. 

The last three days of June, 1886, I camped near the Mojave 
River on my way home from a collecting trip along the desert 
side of the San Bernardino Mountains. The first morning there 
(June 29) I found two peculiar Dipodomys in traps I had set the 
previous evening. They seemed to be a pale variety of D. 
phillipsi, such as I knew to be liable to occur there, it being the 
rule that most birds and mammals inhabiting the Mojave and 
Colorado Deserts are paler in color than others of the same 
species found in the moister coast region. In another trap was 
an ungrown D, philips: of nearly normal color, but I laid its 
darker color to its evident immature condition. At sunset I 
again put out my traps, and, as there were more inhabited 
burrows than I had traps for, I put out poisoned wheat also, 
which proved a most unwise act. This poisoned wheat is widely 
used in California to destroy ground-squirrels, pocket-rats, and 
similar pests. When it is used, some of the poisoned animals 
come to the surface to die, and I expected to obtain some ad- 
ditional specimens by its use. The next morning I had one 
D. phillipsi and two of the pale variety in my traps, and I found 
one of each phase of coloration poisoned, and, later in the day, 
when the hot sun had spoiled it, I found another pale one. 
Nearly all the poisoned wheat had been taken. These additional 
specimens convinced me that the pale animals were a good species. 

I had intended driving on in the afternoon, but I concluded to 
stop another night to try for more. The poisoned wheat had 
done its work only too well, for my traps contained no pocket- 
rats the next morning, and but few burrows showed signs of 
occupancy. I was unable to revisit the region until the next 
November, when I followed the Mojave River for twenty-five 


44 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. 


miles from where it leaves the mountains, but succeeded in 
finding no more colonies, though several miners whom I met 
knew the animal, and thought they were not rare. From the 
colony found in June I obtained three D. phillipsi and three more 
of the new species, which I have named Dipodomys deserti. As 
the river was now dry in this part of its course, I was able to 
spend but two nights at the place. The colony appeared to be 
nearly deserted, but I do not think I obtained them all. I 
brought two animals of each species home alive, and still have 
them in captivity. On my way home I camped one night in the 
Cajon Pass, at an altitude of about three thousand five hundred 
feet. The night was very cold for this region, ice forming in my 
canteen and coffee-pot. The D. deserti suffered badly. I had 
not expected so severe a night, and had given them no protec- 
tion more than to turn the open side of the box (which was cov- 
ered with wire netting) to another box. At sunrise I noticed 
that one of the D. deserti seemed uneasy, and a closer inspec- 
tion showed that its tail was frozen as stiffasastick. In turning 
about in its narrow quarters it had broken off about two inches 
of the tail, the piece lying on the floor. The other D. deserti 
had not suffered so much, but it ultimately lost most of the ter- 
minal white tuft. The D. phillipsi seemed none the worse for the 
frost, and probably are a hardier race, which may account for 
their wider distribution. 

The following notes on habits are based mainly on observa- 
tions of my captives. The D. deserti especially have become 
_very interesting pets, and allow handling freely. I often turn 

em loose in a room of my house, usually but one at a time, as 
they are somewhat quarrelsome, especially the one with the 
frosted tail, the accident having made it somewhat bad-tempered. 
It is quite pugnacious, driving the others about so that they 
often return to their cages. The D. phillipsi do not pay much 
attention to the peaceable D. deserti, but when the other comes 
near they promptly leap away. When the two species were 
first turned loose together they had an all-round fight, but the riot 
did not last long, the heavier D. deserti being easily victorious. 
The actions of both species in fighting are much alike. When 
both are disposed to stand their ground they stand nearly erect, 
facing one another, and apparently cuff and scratch with the 
fore feet, the motions being too quick to follow accurately with 


è 


1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 45 


the eye. A few passes and one or the other loses its balance 
and leaps away, followed a short distance by the other. I have 
been unable to detect any use of the teeth in such face-to-face 
encounters. Sometimes the larger D. deserti will happen near 
one of the others and slowly and slyly work closer, and suddenly 
pounce on the other, when I have.heard a squeak of pain as if 
the teeth had been used. The bite cannot be severe, for the mouth 
is not capable of opening widely, and the upper incisors slope 
inward so much that they can get but a shallow hold. I have not 
handled the D. phillipsi much, but they have never bitten me. I 
handle the D. deserti often; one has never bitten me, the other 
but once, when I attempted to hold it against its wishes. It bit the 
inside of my forefinger where the skin was thick, and though the 
teeth met, but a drop or two of blood flowed. The punctures 
made by the upper and under incisors were but five-thirty-seconds 
of an inch apart, and I believe it was about as hard a bite as 
the beast was able to inflict on so comparatively flat a surface. 
Of course they are capable of cutting a twig or similar hard sub- 
stance of small size. They have not so far attempted to bite the 
tail of another, which is the favorite mode of attack of their rela- 
tives, the tuft-tailed pocket-mice (Perognathus penicillatus). Loco- 
motion is similar with both species, but D. phillipsi is more agile, 
leaping farther and quicker. This species can reach to about 
eighteen inches from the floor in trying to escape from the room, 
the leap taking place from near the foot of the wall. I think the 
usual horizontal leap when running rapidly is three feet or more, 
which is considerably more than that of D. deserti. The gait 
might be termed a hop, the work being mostly done with the 
hinder limbs. When moving about slowly, the first movement 
seems to be a tap on the ground with the fore feet to raise the 
fore part of the body to a leaping position, when the powerful 
hinder limbs give a spring resulting in a leap of a few inches. 


When they are running rapidly one cannot see just how it is 


done, but I often thought that the fore limbs take little or no 
part in the action, which seems to be aided by the long tail, both 
in guiding and balancing. It certainly looks as if the animal 
would be in danger of running its nose in the ground and “ end- 
ing over” if it depended on its very short fore legs to raise its 
body into leaping position after each quick leap, for D. phillipsi 
at least can get over the ground at a pace that would put a cat 


46 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [ Jan. 


to nearly its best speed to overtake it. I once saw a D. phillipst 
run some forty or fifty yards in broad daylight, and have often 
seen them skurry away from camp in the moonlight when I 
happened to alarm them by some movement. 

‘In places where much camping is done, such as by springs on 
the principal roads from one mining camp to another, the pocket- 
rats are in the habit of coming about the wagons at night to 
pick up the grain scattered by the horses, etc., becoming com- 
paratively tame, as no one harms them. I never knew a dog to 
catch one, for they can get under way very quickly, and in such 
places they have many holes, perhaps for such emergencies, and 
they immediately vanish in the nearest. In feeding they often 
rise to a more or less erect posture, apparently to get a better 
view of their surroundings. In the house I have seen them 
stand erect on the tail and the toes of the hind feet, thus 
forming a secure tripod; at such times they walk about several 
steps, sidewise as well as forward, with as much ease as a man. 

D. phillipsi is the shyest ; they dislike to be handled, and do not 
often come near me when out in the room. D. desert does not 
seem to dislike handling, but they will not yet come to me when 
called, though when running about the room they pay no atten- 
tion to me, running across my feet, etc. Sometimes when I come 
in the room they will presently come quite close to me, ap- 
parently from a mild curiosity to see what I am doing. They 
appear to be almost devoid of fear of other animals. The first 
time I put the cat in the room they came to the front, putting 
their noses against the wire netting to look at the cat, which was 
greatly vexed that she could not get at them. In this instance 
the D. phillipsi remained at the back of their cages. 

So far none of my captives will drink water. They will eat 
of vegetables, such as sweet potatoes, the leaves of beets and 
cabbages. It is probable that they obtain sufficient moisture 
from such sources. The principal food seems to be seed and ` 
= They consume but little more than a heaping table- 

each of wheat or barley in twenty-four hours, and one 

or two square inches of beet or cabbage leaves, so they are not 
heavy eaters. For the first two or three days I had them they 
-~ probably ate double this amount, but as they had been on short 
allowance for some weeks they were more than usually hungry. 

_ ‘The seeds on which they depend in a state of nature had been 


1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 47 


ripe some months and naturally were pretty well gathered in, 
but this colony had depended considerably on the waste of 
the travellers who usually camped in the immediate vicinity. 
The travel had ceased in July when the stream dried up, and 
thus compelled the use of a longer route until the winter rains 
should start the stream running again. This hunger may have 
caused them to tame quicker. I heard the trap-door fall when 
the first one was caught, and immediately took it out and put it 
in a cage and gave it grain. It was amusing to see the eagerness 
with which it immediately went to filling its pockets. It stuffed 
them so full that it must have been positively painful, and then 
it would not stop to eat, but hunted about for some exit; not 
finding one, it ejected the contents of its pockets in a corner out 
of the firelight and went back for more. This time it ate a little, 
but soon gathered the remainder and deposited it with the first. 
After eating a little more, it refilled its pockets and hunted about 
for a better place to make a cache, seeming to think its first 
choice insecure. These actions plainly show that they are in 
the habit of storing away their surplus. In grain-fields infested 
by D. phillipsi, the plough will often turn up a deposit of a pint or 
so when the field is ploughed for re-seeding. The loss to farmers 
is thus quite considerable at times. 

Having watched them repeatedly, I can say positively that the 
pockets are filled with the fore feet used as hands. When placed 
at a pile of grain, when hungry, they fill the pockets very quickly, 
both pockets being filled alike. The two pockets of D. deserti 
will hold a heaping tablespoonful of grain, and are, therefore, 
capable of carrying nearly a full day’s supplies. The filling is 
done so rapidly that, where a hard grain like wheat is used, a 
continuous rattling sound is made. The ejecting of the grain 
from the pockets is aided by a forward, squeezing motion of the 
fore feet, each foot making two or three quick forward passes - 
occupying scarcely a second of time. For the first few days all 
grain put in the cages was immediately pocketed, but since then 
they rarely fill their pockets, seeming to have found its use- 
lessness. ; 

The position at rest is a curious one. At first the animal 
stands on all four feet, with the entire sole of the hind feet rest- 
ing on the ground, some of the weight coming on the fore feet; 
presently the hind feet will hitch forward until the centre of the 


48 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. 


hind feet comes under the centre of gravity, thus taking all the 
weight; then, often, the fore part of the body will be slightly 
raised and the fore feet drawn up against the body. If disposed 
to sleep, the bright eyes will slowly close, the fore feet droop 
until touching the ground, the nose slowly comes down and 
backward until resting between the toes of the hind feet, and the 
now sleeping animal is nearly as round as a ball. This appears 
to be the common sleeping posture. If there be room, the tail 
will be extended back nearly in'a straight line, but in cramped 
quarters it will be curved to one side or even alongside the body ; 
but in either case the basal part will be curved back enough to 
give some support. These animals make much use of the tail, 
and its loss would be a great inconvenience. When one of my 
D. deserti lost the use of its tail temporarily through its being 
frozen, I saw it fall over several times, lacking its accustomed 
support. 

I do not see them make much use of the power of scent, but 
the long whiskers are very sensitive, and must be of much use 
in their nocturnal rambles. The sight is good in daylight, though 
they do not like a strong light. If compelled to rest in a light 
place, they face away from the light if possible. Both species 
of Dipodomys seldom emerge from their burrows until the even- 
ing light gets dim. The hearing does not seem to be unusually 
acute, but I have made no experiments yet to positively deter- 
mine the fact. r ; : 

Phillips’s pocket-rat does not seem to live in companies, 
though the holes of different individuals may be but a few yards 
apart. From such information as I can gather, and from what I 
have seen myself, I think that the desert pocket-rat lives in 
colonies often if not usually. The only place where I have taken 
D. deserti has a colony of several groups of holes, each group 
being from two to eight entrances to a set of intercommunicating 
galleries, from six to thirty inches below the surface, and being 
within a space of two to three yards square. None that I opened 
proved to be inhabited. In each several galleries terminated one 
to two feet from the surface in a slight enlargement, which gen- 
erally contained the hulls of barley, etc., as if they were used as 
places of storage. Two contained a little dry grass, as if they 
_ had been used as nests. I put paper and cotton in the cages, 
but the D. deserti made but little: use of it. The D. phu 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables, — 49 


however, made a rude nest of theirs. After I had the animals a 
few days I gave them a little dry earth. The D, deserti, espe- 
cially, were pleased with it, rolling in it, pushing along on their 
bellies, and enjoying a good dust-bath. They looked much better 
for it, the pelage, which had been rough, becoming smooth and 
glossy. 

I think they must sometimes eat insects, as I saw one, when 
hopping about the floor, come across a cricket, which it appeared 
to leap upon, and, as I could find nothing more of the cricket, I 
think the pocket-rat must have eaten it. 

None of the females that I obtained contained embryos, but I 
have a skin of a D. deserti some four or five weeks old, killed 
with a whip by a teamster near Seven Palms, on the Colorado 
Desert, April 1, 1886. A friend has two young D. phillipsi in 
alcohol, taken in October, which were some five or six weeks old 
when taken. 

I think D. deserti will prove to be commonly distributed over 
most of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts west of the Colorado 
River, and possibly they may occur in Arizona and Mexico, 


HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. 


BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D." 


x 


HIS series of articles, which should be rather entitled notes 
L on than history of cultivated vegetables, is intended as a pọr- 
tion of a study into the extent of variation that has been produced 
in plants through cultivation. The author has had the great ad- 
vantage of opportunity of studying the growing specimens in 
nearly all the species named, and in nearly all the varieties now 
knọwn to our seed trade; and this study has given him confi- 
dence in the establishing of synonymy, as oftentimes the varia- 
bles within types have furnished clues of importance. The treat- 
ment, as a matter of convenience, is arranged alphabetically, and 
includes the species recognized by Vilmorin-Andrieux in their 
standard work “ Les Plantes Potagères,” 1883, and the English 
edition “ The Vegetable Garden,” 1885, with the exception of the 

z Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 

VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 4 


50 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. 


Pineapple and Strawberry, species which by American gardeners 
are included among fruits. In the matter of references the cita- 
tions are all taken directly from the sources indicated, quoted 
references being in all cases so acknowledged in the notes. In 
a work of this character, where the conclusions can oftentimes 
seem questionable, it is important that facilities for corroboration 
should be freely offered, hence I have made my apm to 
editions and pages. 


AFRICAN VALERIAN. Valeriana cornucopie L. 

The African valerian is a recent introduction to gardens, and 
furnishes in its leaves salad of excellent quality. The plant is 
native to the Mediterranean region, in grain-fields in waste places. 
C. Bauhin,? in 1596, speaks of it as if of recent introduction to 
botanical gardens in his time, and Clusius, in 1601, J. Bauhin, in 
1651, and Ray,* in 1686, all describe it. 

It is not spoken of as under cultivation in Miller’s Diction- 
ary, 1807, nor does Don in his “ Gardeners’ Dictionary,” 1834, 
speak of any use, although he is usually very ready with such 
information. In 1841 the “ Bon Jardinier” in France refers to it 
as being a good salad plant. As neither Noisette,5 1830, nor 
Petit, 1826, nor Pirolle,? 1824, mention it, we may assume that it 
had not entered the vegetable garden at these dates. In 1863, 
Burr® describes it among American garden vegetables, as does 
Vilmorin?’ in France in 1883, and in England in 188 

No varieties are described, although a purple- and a white- 
- flowered form are mentioned by Bauhin as occurring in the 
wild plant. The one sort now described has pink- or rose-colored 
flowers. 

The vernacular names, as given by Vilmorin, are: English, 
African Valerian; French, Valériane ad’ Alger, Corne d'abondance; 
German, Algerischer Baldrian; Flemish, Speenkrutd ; Dutch, 

Speerkruid. 
* Bauhin, Phytopin., 1596, 293; Pin., 1623, 164; Prod., 1671, 87. 
2 Clusius, Hist., 1601, 2, 54. 
3 J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. ae 2, 212. 
4 Ray, Hist., 1686, 


a 


E Barr, Field and Gard, Veg., 1863, 401. 
9 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 562; The Veg. Gard., 1885, 593. 


1887 | History of Garden Vegetables. . $I 


The synonymy is as below: 

Valeriana peregrina purpurea. Bauh., a. 1596, 293. 

Valeriana indica. Clus., Hist., 1601, 2, 54, cum ic. 

Valeriana peregrina purpurea pean Bauh., Pin., 1623, 164; 
Prod., 1671, 87, cum tc. 

Valetiana peregrina, seu Indica. J. Bauh., Hist., 1651, iii. pt. 2, 
212, cum ic. 

Valeriana mexicana. Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 394. 

Valerianella cornucopioides, flore galeato, Tourn., Inst., 1719, 


33- 
Valeriana cornucopie. Linn., Sp., 1762, 44. 
Fedia cornucopiæ. Gaertn., Fruct., 1788, ii. 37. 


ALEXANDERS. Smyrnium olusatrum L., 


The name said to be a corruption of Olusatrum (Webster’s 
Dict.), but Ray (“ Hist. Plant.,” 437) says called so either because it 
came from the Egyptian city of that name, or it was so believed. 
The Italian name sacerone is believed by Ray to have been cor- 
ruptly derived from Macedonia, but a more probable origin is 
from maceria, the Italian for wall, as Columella (lib. xi. c. 3) says, 
“ Pastinato loco semine debet conseri maxime juxta maceriam.” 

English, Alexanders, Alisanders, Allisanders, Horse parsley, 
Macedonicum, Parsley macedonian, Arabic, Seniruion. Belgian 
Petersilie van Alexandria, P. van Macedonien, Groot decd. 
French, Alexandre, Ache large, Grand ache, Maceron. German, 
Alexandrinum, Brust-wurzel, Engel-wurzel, Herda alexandriana, 
Gross Epffich, Peterlin, Liebstockel. Greece, Agrioselinon, Mauro- 
selinon, Skuloselinon. Greek, Hipposelinon, Smyrnion. Italian, 

lessandrion, Herba Alexandrina, Macerone, Smirnio. Latin, 
Fiipposelinon, Olisatum, Olusatrum, Smyrnion. Portuguese, Cardo 
do coalho. Spanish, Apio macedonica, Perextl macedonico. 

In this Umbhellifer, as Dé Candolle remarks, we can follow 
the plant from the beginning to the end of its culture. Theo- 
phrastus, who flourished about 322 B.c., speaks of it as an offi- 
cinal plant, under the name of Hipposelinon. Dioscorides, who 
lived in the first century after Christ, speaks of the edible prop- 
erties of the roots and leaves, while Columella and Pliny, authors 
of the same century, speak of its cultivation; Galen, in the second 
century, classes it among edibles, and Arsene in the third cen- 

tury, gives a receipt for its preparation for the table. aaale- 


52 _ History of Garden Vegetables. [ Jan. 


magne, who died A.D. 814, included this vegetable among those 
ordered to be planted on his estates. Ruellius’s edition of Dios- 
corides, 1529, does not speak of its culture, nor does Leonicenus, 
1529 (not necessitated by the text); but Fuchsius, 1542, says 
planted in gardens. Tragus, 1552, received seed from a friend, 
so it was apparently not generally grown in his part of Germany 
at this date. Matthiolus, in his “Commentaries,” 1558, refers to 
its edible qualities. Pena and ress 1570, say in England it 
occurs abundantly in gardens,—“in hortis copiosissimum, ubi 
radix illi crassior, magis succosa, vesca et tenerior, quam suapte 
sponte nato,” and the cultivated form far better than in the wild 
plant. Camerarius, “ Epitome,” 1586, says, “in hortis seritur.” 
Gerarde, in 1597, does not speak of its culture, but says, “ groweth 
in most places of England,” but in his edition of 1630 says, “the 
root hereof is also in our age served to the table raw fora sallade 
herbe.” Dodonzus, 1616, refers to its culture in the gardens of 
Belgium, and Bodzus a Stapel, in his edition of “ Theophrastus,” 
1644, says is much approved in salads, and is cultivated as a vege- 
table,—‘ Contra maceronis esui idonea, palato non ingrata; quo 
nomine a Gallis, Anglio, Germanis avidissime in acetariis ex- 
petitur ac ab olitoribus sedulo colitur;” yet, in 1612, “Le Jar- 
dinier Solitaire” mentions the culture of celery, but not of Alex- 
anders, in French gardens. Quintyne, in the English edition of 
his “ Complete Gard’ner,” 1704, says “ it is one of the furnitures 
of our winter-sallads, which must be whitened like our wild En- 
dive or Succory.” In 1726, Townsend, in his “ Complete Seeds- 
man,” refers to the manner of use, but adds, “’tis but in few 
gardens.” Mawe’s “Gardener,” 1778, refers to this vegetable, 
but it is apparently in minor use at this time; yet Varlo, in his ` 
“Husbandry,” 1785, gives directions for continuous sowing of 
the seed in order to secure a more continuous supply. McMahon, 
-in his “ American Gardeners’ Kalendar,” 1806, includes this 
vegetable in his descriptions, but not in his general list of kitchen- 
garden esculents, and it is likewise enumerated by later American 
writers, and is included by Burr, 1863, among garden vegetables, 
—a survival of mention apparently not indicating use; and Vil- 
morin, in his “ Les Plantes Potagéres,” 1883, gives a hania and 
a few lines to maceron, but I do not now find its seed advertised 
in our catalogues, and I never. remember to have seen FE 
| ee 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 53 


Smyrnium perfoliatum L. 

‘This species is perhaps confounded with S. olusatrum in some 
of the references already given. Loudon says it was formerly 
cultivated, and McIntosh says it is thought by many superior to 
S. olusatrum,—a remark which Burr (“ Field and Garden Vege- 
tables”) includes in his description. Although the species is 
separated by a number of the older botanists, yet Ruellius, 1529, 
is the only one I find who refers to its edible qualities. 

This plant, which De Candolle says has been under common 
culture for fifteen centuries (“a été une des plus communes dans 
les jardins pendant environ quinze siècles,” “ Orig. des Pl. Cult.,” 
72), has shown, so far as my researches indicate, no change of 
type under culture. The figures which occur in so many of the 
herbals all show the same type of plant, irrespective of the source 
from which the illustration may have been taken, unless perhaps 
the root is drawn rather more enlarged in some cases than in 
others. 

ALKEKENGI. Physalis sp. 


The alkekengi, usually known in our seed catalogues by the 
name of Strawberry Tomato, is classed with the Tomatoes, and 
it is worthy of note that Hernandez, in his work on Mexican 
plants, published in 1651, did the same. There are a number of 
species which occur under the general name, and the plant is 
frequently found in gardens, as some people are fond of the fruit, 
whether raw or preserved. The plant most often, however, occu- 
pies waste places, springing up spontaneously after being once 
introduced, and its products are of very minor importance among 
vegetables. : 

Among the species that have been identified from the seeds of 

„the “Strawberry Tomato,” obtained from commercial sources, 
are the following: ; 
1. Physalis angulata L. 

This species is found widely dispersed over tropical regions, 
extending to the southern portion of the United States and to 
Japan. It is first described by Camerarius, in 1588, as a plant 
hitherto unknown, and an excellent figure is given. It was seen 
in a garden by C. Bauhin? before 1596, and is figured in the 

* Camerarius, Hort. Med., 1588, 70, Fig. 17. 
2 Bauhin, Phytopin., 1596, 297. 


54 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. 


“Hortus Eystettensis,’* 1613. J. Bauhin? speaks of its pres- 
ence in certain gardens in Europe. Linnzus makes a variety 
with entire leaves, and both his species and variety are figured 
by Dillenius, who obtained the variety from Holland in 1732. 
When it first appeared in our vegetable gardens I do not find 
recorded. £ 

Its synonymy seems to be as below : 

Halicacabum sive Solanum Indicum. Cam., Hort., 1588, 70 
cum tc: 

Solanum vesicarium Indicum. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 297; 
Pin., 1623, 166; Ray, Hist., 1686, 681. 

Halicacabum seu Solanum Indicum. Camer., Hort. Eyst., 1613, 


- Aim ie. 


Solanum sive Halicabum Indicum. J. Bauh., 1651, iii. 609, 
cum ic. 

Alkekengi Indicum majus. Tourn. Inst., 1719, 151. 

Pops. Hughes, Barb., 1750, 161. 

Physalis angulata.L. Gray, Syn. Fl., ii. pt. i. p. 234. 


2. Physalis barbadensis Jacq. 


This species is said by Vilmorin to be sometimes cultivated in 
France. According to Maycock ¢ it is the Fop vni of Hughes.5 
I have not seen it growing. 


3. Physalis lanceolata Michx. 


This species was among the “‘ Strawberry Tomatoes” grown in 
1886, and occurred in two varieties, —4, the ordinary sort, and 
6, with broader leaves and more robust growth.» Its habitat is 
given by Gray as from Lake Winnipeg to Florida and Texas, 
Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. 


4. Physalis peruviana L. 
This South American species seems to have become fairly 

well distributed through cultivation. Birdwood® records it as 

cultivated widely in India, and gives native names in the various 
; 2 Hortus iit, 1613 be 1713). ist. ord., 13, fol. 2. 

2 Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. 609. 
bes saaa Hock Riet 12, t. 12; p. 12, f. 11, t. 115 
. 4 Maycock, Fl. Barb., 98. ; 

_ 8 Hughes, Barb., 161. , ; 

: l Rirawood, Vig Prod. of sali 173- 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 55 


dialects, and Speede* mentions it also. In France it is classed 
among garden vegetables by Vilmorin? Descourtliz gives a 
Carib name, “ sousourou-scurou.’ Drummond, who introduced 
the plant into Australia, after ten years reports it as completely 
naturalized in his region. This species differs but slightly from 
P. pubescenss Gray, in 1878, says it was introduced into culti- 
-vation several years ago, but has now mainly disappeared. 

In English called Cape Gooseberry® or Cherry Tomato; in Carib, 
“ sousourou-scurou; in Tagalo, “potocan,” in India, Winter 
Cherry, TurParee;7 in Bengali, Tapureca, Tapeeriya, and 
Lophlee; in Mindustiii, Macao; in Telinga, Budda-busara, 
Pambudda.? i 

5. Physalis philadelphica Lam. 


Although the habitat of this species is given by Gray? as in 
fertile soil, Pennsylvania to Illinois and Texas, yet it seems to be 
the Miltomatl figured by Hernandez™ in his Mexican history, 
published in 1651. It is described by Burr™ under the name 
Purple Ground Cherry, Purple Strawberry Tomato, Purple Winter 
Cherry. The “petite tomate du Mexique, as received from Vil- 
morin, in 1883, can be assigned to this species, as can also a 
“ Strawberry Tomato” grown in 1885. A 


6. Physalis pubescens L. 


This species has a wide range, extending from New York to 
Iowa, Florida, and westward, from Texas to the borders of Cali- 
fornia, and southward to tropical America. It is described by 
Marcgrav” and Piso *3 in Brazil about the middle of the seventeenth 
century, and Feuille,“ 1725, mentions it as cultivated and wild in 


t Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1842, 233. 

2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 4. 

3 Drummond, Hook. Jour. of Bot., 1840, ii.-347. 
4 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 4. 

s Gray, Syn. Flora of N. Am., ii. pt. 1, p. 233. 
6 Pickering, Ch. Hist. of Pl., 755. 

7 Speede, l. c. 

8 Birdwood, l. c. 

9 Gray, Syn. FL, 1. c. 

x Hernandez, Nova Hist. Mex., 1651, 295. 

™ Burr, Field and Gar. tid 1863, 593- 

12 Marcgravius in Piso, Brazil, 1648, 12. 

13 Piso, de Ind., 1658, 22 

14 Feuille, Obs., si, 4s 5, ph ¥. 


bee’, 


56 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. 


Peru. It has been introduced into many regions. Loureiro" 
records it in Cochinchina, Bojer,’ as cultivated in the Mauritius 
and in all the tropical countries, and it also occurs in the descrip- 
tions of garden vegetables in France and America. It was culti- 
vated by Miller in England in 1739,3 but was described by Park- 
inson in 1640. It had not reached the kitchen garden in 1807, 
but had before 1863. 

Its synonymy seems as below given : 

‘Camaru. Marcg., 1648, 12; Piso, 1658, 223. 

Halicacabum sive Alkakengi Virginense. Ray, 1686, 681. 
~ Alkekengi Virginianum, fructu luteo. Tourn., 1719, 151. 

Alkekengi Virginianum, fructu luteo, vulgo Capuli. Feuille, 
1725, ili. 5. 

Alkekengt Barbadense nanum, Alliaria Jolio, Dill. Elth., p. 10, 
E 9, £ 9; 1774 

Physalis pubescens. Lin., Sp., 1762, 262. 


7. Physalis virginiana Mill. 
This species has also been grown from the seedsmen’s “ Straw- 
berry Tomato.” It is low spreading. Its habitat is given by 
Gray as Upper Canada to Florida and Texas. 


The number of species which are included in the common 
name Strawberry Tomato is indicative of the wide source of 
seed-supply tributary to our seed-houses, as well as to the little 
importance of the plant for the vegetable garden. It is quite 
evident that in nature many of these species are quite variable, 
furnishing numerous botanical varieties. Whether any varieties 
have originated under culture it is scarcely worth the while to 
consider, as the common nomenclature is so obscuring, and as 
there is no indication of the plants receiving enough considera- 
` tion to justify us in supposing attempts for improving through 
seietan or careful cultivation. 


AmeRrICAaAN Cress. Barbarea precox R. Br. 
The vernacular name is a misnomer, as this species, although 
introduced into Anor is not native, but an inhabitant of the 


ere Fl. Cochinch., 1790, 133... ? Bojer, Hort. Maurit., 1837, 237. 
3 Miller’s Dict. 1807.. 


$ 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 57 


Old World. The first mention we find is that of Ray, who 
notices it in his description of the similar species Barbarea vul- 
garis. It is cultivated in the Mauritius, in gardens of England 3 
as a cress in 1855, and stated by Don,* in 1831, to be generally 
liked as a winter cress in Germany and England. In France it 
is included among garden vegetables by Vilmorin 5 in 1883, but 
not by Noisette® in 1829. It is recorded for American gardens 
by Burr? in 1863, and Gray, in 1880, says it is cultivated from 
Pennsylvania southward as a winter cress, 

It is known in the Southern States under the name of Zarly 
Winter Cress, or Scurvy-grass? in English generally Winter Cress, 
American Winter Cress, and Belle Isle Cress, or American Cress ; "° 
in France ™ as Cresson de terre, Cresson de jardin, Cresson vivace, 
Cresson des vignes, Cressonette de jardin, Roquetie, and Sisym- 
brium; in German, Amerikanische Winterkresse; in Flanders, 
Wilde kers ; in Denmark, Winter karse. 


Ancewica. Angelica archangelica L. 

This species is occasionally cultivated among aromatic or 
medicinal herbs. Its young, tender stalk in May, cut into small 
pieces, makes an admirable sweetmeat, and in the north of 
Europe the Laplanders consume its green shoots as a salad. 
The medicinal properties of the root were highly prized in the 
Middle Ages. In Pomet? we read that the seed is much used to 
make angelica comfits, as well as the root for medicine. Bryant’ 
deems it the best aromatic that Europe produces. 

This plant must be a native of Northern Europe, for I find no 
references to it in the ancient authors of Greece and Rome, nor 
is it mentioned by Albertus Magnus in the thirteenth century. 

By Fuchsius, 1542, and succeeding authors it receives proper 
attention, and is recorded as cultivated in gardens. 
1 Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 809, sub spec., 8. 
2 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 10. 
3 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., 1855, ii. 170. 


™ Pomet, Hist. of Didi sheds 1748, 42. 
13 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 53- 


58 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. 


The German name Heilige Geist Wurz implies the estimation 
in which it was held, and offers clue to the origin of the word 
Angelica, or angel plant, which occurs in so many languages, as 
in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, becoming Angelique 
and Archangelique in Frénch, and Angelickwurz in German. 
Other names, of like import, are the modern Engelwurz in Ger- 
many, Lngelkruid in Flanders, and Engelzvortel in Holland. 

The various figures given by herbalists show the same type of 
plant, the principal differences to be noted being in the size of the 
root. Pena and Lobel, in 1570, note a smaller variety as culti- 
vated in England, Belgium, and France, and Gesner is quoted by 
Camerarius? as having seen roots of three pounds’ weight. 
Bauhin,? 1623, says the roots vary, the Swiss-grown being thick, 
those of Bohemia smaller and blacker. 


Anise. Pimpinella Anisum L. 


Anison was known to the ancient Greeks, and Dioscorides says 
the best came from Crete, the next best from Egypt; and it is 
mentioned by Theophrastus.* Pliny,5 in the first century, says 
“ anesum, green or dry, is desirable in all seasonings or sauces,” 
and the seeds are even sprinkled in the under crust of bread, and 
used for flavoring wine. He quotes Pythagoras as praising it 
whether raw or cooked. Palladius,° in the beginning of the third 
century, gives directions for its sowing. - Charlemagne,” in the 
ninth century (A.D. 812), commanded that anise should be sown 
on the imperial farms in Germany. It is mentioned also by 
Albertus Magnus® in the thirteenth century. It seems to have 
been grown in England as a pot-herb prior to 1542, as Boorde,? in 
his “ Dyetary of Helth,” printed in that year, says of it and fennel, - 
“These herbes be seldom used, but theyr seedes be greatly occu- 
pyde.” Ruellius® records it in France in 1536, and gives the 

t Pena and Lobel, Adversaria, 1570, 311.. 
2 Camerarius, Hort., 1588, 16. 
3 Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 155. 
4 Bodæus a Stapel, Theop., 1644, 744- 
co Eb. xx. ¢. 72. 
é Palladius, lib. iii. c. 24; lib. iv. c. ve 


7 Quoted in Pharmacographia, p. 3 i 
_ § Albertus Magnus, De Veg., esen Pp 1867, 476. 
9 Quoted in 


mana D opad 


1887] : Editors’ Table. 59 


common name as Roman fennel, the same as Albertus Magnus 
used in the thirteenth century. It is classed among culinary 
herbs by Laurembergius’ in 1632,and in America by McMahon? 
in 1806 

In the seventeenth century Quintyne? records the use of the 
leaves in salads. e seeds now serve to flavor various liqueurs ; 
in Italy they appear in diverse pastries; in Germany they are put 
into bread; in England, in special bread, in rye bread, and even 
in cheese. In Malta, localities in Spain, France, Southern Italy, 
Germany, and Russia the plant is grown on a large scale for the 
seed, which enters commerce for use in flavoring medicines, etc. 
It is also grown in Northern India and Chili. 

The plant is indigenous to Asia Minor, the Greek islands, and 
Egypt, but is nowhere to be met with undoubtedly growing 
wild; and I have found no indication of- its having formed 
varieties under cultivation, except that Bauhin records one sort 
having rounder and smaller seeds than the common. 

(To be continued.) 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. 


In all of our four hundred colleges and universities, with a 
dozen conspicuous exceptions, the instruction in the biological 
sciences is but little more than a farce. College presidents and 
trustees seem to think that while some special knowledge is 
necessary for teaching the classics and mathematics, any one is 
competent to give instruction in botany and zoology. Indeed, it 
would even appear that they regard eminence as an investigator 
in either of these branches as an undesirable feature in an in- 
structor. The teachers of biology are mostly men without 
biological training, men whose ideas and methods are those 
of a generation ago, and who have no more idea of modern 
- science and modern scientific thought than have the poorest of 
the pupils who are unfortunate enough to come under them. 
Their whole idea of botany is “ analysis,’ while zoology is but 

® Laurembergius, Hort., 1632, 193. 2 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806. ~ 

Quintyne, Complete Gard., 1693. 4 Joigneaux, Traité des Graines, 146. 


60 Editors’ Table. [Jan. 


cut-and-dried classification. This is true not only of most West- 
ern institutions, but of many in the East as well. It was in 
one of the latter that the students of zoology were treated to 
three solid months of worms, while, for aught the professor 
said, they were left in absolute ignorance of the existence of the 
groups of protozoa and vertebrates. Too frequently ministers 
and lawyers are installed as professors of natural history. 
Neither have had the training necessary to fit them for the posi- 
tion, but they are graduates of the college, and must be taken 
care of. Those in authority do not seem to realize that the pro- 
fessional studies of a clergyman, instead of fitting one for a stu- 
dent of nature, are a positive hindrance. The whole theological 
training lies in the lines of faith and revererce for authority, 
while science demands of its devotees, if not a sceptical spirit, 
one of complete independence. One cannot rely upon any 
statement solely on the grounds that it is advanced by a Cuvier 
or an Agassiz. Science has no infallible gospel wherewith to 
settle all disputes except that presented by the book of nature, 
and how difficult this is of interpretation only the original in- 
vestigator knows. The lawyer or the clergyman, when he enters 
the field of science, brings his traditions and his old methods of 
thought with him. He looks for the written accounts as he 
formerly turned to his Bible or his “ Blackstone,” and when he 
finds any statement in print, he pins his faith to it as unquestion- _ 
ably as he did to the other authorities in the days of yore. 

Were this selection of incompetent instructors a matter of 
necessity it would not speak well for American science; but it 
is not. We have in our country an abundance of able students, 
but, strange to say, it is the exception, rather than the rule, to 
find our best workers occupying professors’ chairs. This results 
not from any disinclination for teaching on the part of these stu- 
dents, but from the stupidity of our college officers, who, if 

ered the choice between excellence and mediocrity, almost 
invariably choose the latter. 

When the Society of American Naturalists was formed, one of 
the objects proposed was a reform in this respect; but so far 
nothing has been accomplished in this direction. How to pro- 
ceed in changing this state of affairs may be a question, but it is 


to be hoped that in the early future some steps may be taken 
oe. SS er ee and in- 


1887] Geography and Travels. 61 


struction. A list of eligible persons, with accounts of their work, 
etc., might be prepared and placed in the hands of a committee, 
so that those in search of a professor might know from whom to 
select, while a few protests sent to college trustees, on making 
an eminently unfit nomination, might bear some good fruit. 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 


America. ALasKA.—On his way to Mount St. Elias, Lieu- 
tenant Schwatka’ crossed an unknown river, which, at eight miles 


twenty miles wide was seen by the explorers. It extended fifty 
miles along the base of the St. Elias Alps, and was named the 
Agassiz Glacier. Another to the west was called the Guyot 
Glacier, while a third was named in honor of Professor Tyndall. 

hey then ascended Mount St. Elias to a height of seven thou- 
sand two hundred feet above the snow-line. Glaciers were seen 
rising, sometimes perpendicularly, to heights varying from three 
hundred t three thousand feet, and enormous crevasses were 
frequent. Three peaks, varying from eight thousand to twelve 
thousand feet, were seen, and named Cleveland, Whitney, and 
Nicholls. : 


THE Source oF THE Muississippi1.—The controversy concern- 
ing Lake Glazier has been a long one. Science (August 13) 
prints a letter by Russell Hinman, giving copies of Schoolcraft’s 
map; and those of Nicollet, 1843; the Land Office, 1879; and 
Glazier, 1881. He also gives, in parallel columns, the language 
used by Schoolcraft (1832) and that of Glazier (1881). Nicollet’s 


’ 


Nicollet’s map have nothing to do with the source of the river, 
and that those surveyed, mapped, and named by the Land Office 
were mere lakelets, and not identical with Lake Glazier. 
oy ain Glazier’s claim to discovery seems, however, to be 

‘completely disposed of by the letter of H. D. Harrower in Scvence 

(October 8). Mr. Harrower gives a map reduced from fac-simile 


1 Edited by W. N. LocKINGTON, Philadelphia. 


62 General Notes. [Jan. 


tracings of maps of the surveys made in October, 1878. This 
shows “ Elk Lake” in exactly the position of Lake Glazier. Into 
it runs a small stream, and another stream, of about equal length, 
flows into the western arm of Lake Itasca. The last stream 
heads in a tiny lakelet. Neither stream much exceeds two miles 
in length. Elk Lake has, of course, precedence of “Lake 
Glazier.” 

The great Lake Mistassini, regarding which exaggerated re- 
ports were afloat some time ago, has been proved to be an expan- 
sion of Rupert River, about one hundred miles in length and 
twelve in breadth. Depths of three hundred and seventy-four 
and two hundred and séventy-nine feet have been found. Above 
this is Little Mistassini, a widening of the river to a width of six 
miles. 


Europe. Moresnet.—Sczence, in its Paris letter, reports a bit 
of political geography not generally known. It is that there is 
between Belgium and Germany a small and quite independent 
state that is smaller than Monaco, San Marino, or Anderra,— 
that of Moresnet. The delegates who fixed the frontier between 
Belgium and Germany in 1815 disagreed at this point, each 
wanting the mineral riches of the little spot of six square kilo- 
metres. Finally they left it independent. It had then about fifty 
sae a now it is a flourishing town of more than eight hundred 

ou 

ee Caucasus is now within reach of English summer tour- 
ists, and Messrs. Dent and Donkin spent the summer of 1886 in 
exploring the peaks and glaciers encircling Kashtantall (17,096 
feet). They ascended Tau Tetmuld (16,500 feet), and made other 
glacier rg eras which will necessitate corrections in the maps 


of the distri 


Asia and A ALIA.—The Kimberley gold- 
fields of Western peores lie in a fertile tract of country between 
King Sound and Cambridge Gulf in the tropical portion of the 
colony. The new town and port of Derby, on King Sound, has 
arisen in connection with these diggings. The entrance to the 
Sound, by arn Strait, is remarkable for the eiecmiss of the 

tide. Cambri idge Gulf, at the head of which the new settlement 
of Wyndham is situated, is pronounced by Mr. Forrest to be one 
of the finest harbors of Australia, is protected from all weathers, 
-has numerous bays, and good deep water. The “proclaimed” 
gold-field is two hundred and twenty miles from Wyndham 
the nearest route. The gold is found in good-sized lumps, on or 
- near the surface, near e head-waters of the Ord River, which 


who are sup- 


1887] Geography and Travels. 63 


posed to be the true aboriginal inhabitants, without admixture 
with Chinese. Little is known of them, as they hold aloof from 
other tribes. They inhabit the mountain ranges to the northwest 
of the Tipuns, and are a fierce and intractable race, addicted to 
cannibalism. There is also said to be a tribe of red-haired savages 
living among the central mountains. The Pepo-huans seem to 


and Chinese. The inhabitants of Formosa are intelligent, and 
the Chinese have a proverb to the effect that when the savages 
take to wearing trousers there is no room for a Chinaman. 

BornEo.—Mr. Pryer states that the natives of North Borneo 
are of mixed aboriginal and Chinese ancestry. On the east coast 
there is little of the native type left. This race, the Dusuns, is 
settling down under the North Borneo Company, and is thriving 
and increasing. In the long-course of Chinese trade with the 
island, a slow and steady infiltration of Chinese blood took 
place. 


Africa. THE Last GERMAN Conco Expepition,—tThe last Ger- 
man Congo Expedition, 1884-86, made extensive land journeys. 
Dr. Buttner proceeded from San Salvador, the residence of the 
king of the Ba-Congo, to the Quango, passing through the 
country of the Sombo into that of the Mayakke. The Sombo 
are great ivory-traders. At the capital of the Muene Putu Ka- 
songa (Kiamoo), which has about one thousand houses in its 
stockade, our traveller was compelled to turn northwards. Pass- 
ing the Kingunshi rapids of the Kuango, he crossed the country 
of the Warumba. At Ngatuka a Queen Geu (Goy) is in power, 
and her brother rules over the Bansinik at a town which has an 
audience-hall that will hold one thousand people. Thence he 
proceeded to the Congo, which he reached above Leopoldville. 

h 


Dr. Wolff’s Lomanie to be this river.) Farther eastward pacific 
relations were established with King Gakoko, ruler of the Basengo 
and of their smaller neighbors, the Bikalli. With the Bikalli, and 
with the Bavumbo beyond them, several contests occurred, re- 
sulting in the former case in the loss of two men killed and seven 
wounded, and in the latter in the wounding of Lieutenant Kund 


¢ 


by Alpheus Hyatt. 


64 General Notes. [Jan. 


himself, who was struck with three arrows, which his companion 
(Lieutenant Tappenbeck) cut out with a razor. The land journey 
was then abandoned, and the river descended in boats to the Congo. 
The German accounts of this expedition call attention to the fact 
that in many of the names of tribes, etc., those mentioned by the 
Portuguese missionaries may be recognized; also to the similarity 
between the names of tribes in this region and those of others 
dwelling on the Cunene or Zambezi (z.¢., Adima, Pende, Bayeye, 
Balula, Basaka, Bangola). This points either to similarity of lan- 
guage, or to an extensive migration of tribes. 

ArFrican Notes.—Mr. H. H. Johnston made a journey up the 
Cameroons River in June last. A few miles beyond the village 


of Ngale Nyamsi, he obtained, from a height of five hundred feet 


above the river, a view of a chain of fantastically peaked moun- 
tains lying fifty to sixty miles from the river and probably ten 
thousand feet or more in height. . 

M. J. de Brazza, brother of the governor of the French Congo, 
reached the Sekoli (the Punga of Grenfell) by an overland journey 
from the Ogowé through a fertile and well-populated region, the 
abode of the Mbete and Ossete tribes. On the Sekoli dwell the 
Ikata, a commercial but warlike people. The river was descended 
in canoes to where it receives the Amboli and. assumes larger 
proportions. 


fallen a prey to the Tukaleurs. M. Davoust placed all the tribes 
on the left bank under French protectorate. Those on the right 


a river known as the Lomami which falls into the Sunkuru from 

rtheast, but does not believe it identical with the river of 
that name which flows into the Congo just below Stanley Falls, 
which he himself ascended as far as 1° 33’ S. lat. in January, 


1885; and which at that point was a stream of thirty-five thou- 


sand feet per second, at an altitude of thirteen hundred and fifty 


A GEOLOGY AND PAL ONTOLOGY. 
Hyatt on Primitive Forms of Cephalopods.'—The succes- 


sion of forms in any genetic series of Nautiloids is from a straight 


through a curved cyrtoceran form to a loose-coiled gyroce- 
i before the National Academy of Science, Boston meeting, 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 65 


ran, and finally to a close-coiled nautilian shell. Among Ammo- 
noids the same series occurs only on one occasion, at the begin- 
ning of the group, during Silurian and Devonian time, in a series 
which may be said to include Bactrites, a straight orthoceratitic 
shell, Mimoceras, a true gyroceran form, and Anarcestes, which 
is close-coiled. The discovery of a proto-conch upon the apex 
of Bactrites by Beyrich and Branco leaves no doubt that it is, as 
heretofore supposed by the writer, a transitional form from Or- 
thoceras to Ammonoidea. These forms are primitive or transi- 
tional radicals and have cylindrical whorls, except in Anarcestes. 
In this genus a depressed semilunar whorl is for the first time 
introduced. This form of whorl is not at once and generally 
adopted in the young. On the contrary, these are usually 
tubular and often straight like Bactrites, or loosely coiled like 
the adults of Mimoceras. Others, again, after passing through 
a stage with tubular whorls, may become suddenly close-coiled 
and have at once a depressed form of whorl. Such fluctuations 
in embryonic characters are common even in different varieties 
of the same species until we reach the Trias. In this formation, 
or possibly earlier in the Dyas, the larve are all close-coiled, and 
the whorls at an early stage invariably have the depressed semi- 
lunar form like the adults of Anarcestes. Throughout the Trias 
also there occur in great abundance smooth shells, Arcestes, in 
which the full-grown adults are smooth and have the similar 
anarcestian peculiarities. Thus from the Silurian to the Trias, 
inclusive, the semilunar or depressed smooth whorled forms are 


which we have designated as primary radicals, confining the use of 
the words primitive radicals to the transitional genera Bactrites, 
Mimoceras, and the like. 

Compressed forms differing but slightly from the depressed 
species occur in Anarcestes and in Arcestes, etc. In the Trias 
- and Lias these compressed, smooth shells which we have called 
secondary radicals become much more important. In Psiloceras 
planorbe we strike upon a species of this character to which we 
can trace all the Arietidz of the lower Lias and many forms of 
higher Jura and Cretaceous. 

The great trunk of radical species has, of course, many lateral 
branches, which strike off from it during the course of its chrono- 
logical migrations through the Palzozoic and Trias, but of these 
we have taken no account, because they were purely lateral off- 
shoots which did not arise from fission or the modification of 
the main stock of radical generators. In the Jura, however, this 
main stock itself splits into branches, and the pri and — 
secondary radical forms are replaced by more complicated radi- 
cals. 


There is a side branch, which arose in the early Trias, aid i in 
which they are still, in a measure, preserved and continued, but 
VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 5 
` 


66 General Notes. [Jan, 


the main trunk line is replaced by irregular branches beginning 
with species which we have styled tertiary radicals. ese have 
either the depressed or compressed form of whorl, are discoidal, 
and, therefore, resemble the primary and secondary radical 
throughout life. But, on the other hand, they are often highly 
ornamented with spines and ribs, and have more complicated 
sutures, ‘ 

_ The tertiary radicals give rise to series of species, which may 
become excessively involute and otherwise modified in the 


to continue the direct lines of descent from the Trias, so far as 
progressive forms are concerned. 

But when we turn our attention to retrogressive forms, the 
story is different. Series of degraded or distorted forms occur 
in the Jura and Cretaceous, and several families afford good ex- 
amples. In these series we can usually trace an origin in some 
close-coiled, discoidal, ornamented shell, which belongs to the 
tertiary radicals, or is not far removed from them in its aspect. 

We have frequently pointed out the nature of these degrada- 
tions. They are similar to the senile degenerations observed in 
the individuals of the tertiary radicals and other species of the 
progressive series of the Ammonoids. These geratologous 
transformations, whether occurring in the senile degenerations of 
a shell or in a series of species, tend to produce similar results, 
namely, the decrease in size and uncoiling of the whorl, destruc- 
tion of ribs and spines, reduction of sutures to more primitive 
proportions, The final result, as we have often said, is a straight 
almost smooth ‘shell, Baculites. We now wish to assert that 
Baculites is a polyphyletic group derived from many tertiary 
radicals, and separable into a considerable number of distinct 
genetic groups.—A/pheus Hyatt. é 


New Jersey Cretaceous.—The different beds of the New 
Jersey Cretaceous consist of layers of sedimentation, almost 
always conformable, which have been distinguished by the State 
Geological Survey as Plastic Clays, Camden Clays, Lower Marls, 
Middle Marls, Upper Marls, with which series in this paper the 
Eocene Marls have been united. Beds of sand separate these 
beds, and the fossils are limited to the green marls and clays. 
The clay-beds in their lower part have yielded five species of 
fossils, shells which are entirely estuarine in character, the genera 
recognized being Astarte, Corbicula, Gnathodon, and a new 
SS Dania This last genus resembles the Jurassic 

u 


_ At the upper limit of the clay-beds in the clay marls are found 
= ironstone nodules containing casts of fossils identical with 
ee Won me ee ee the Clay Marie aE Crols 


i 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 67 


wicks and Haddonfield. Their position may be in the Lower 
Marl-beds or in the clays proper. More study and investigation 
is necessary to determine this point. Lower down in the clay 
fossil plants occur cretaceous in character (Newberry). 

The Lower Green Marls hold most of the cretaceous fossils, 
and this fact, together with a showing of the comparative rich- 
ness in fossils of the entire series discussed, is made evident by 
the following tables : 


Summary of Lamellibranchiata. 


Formations. amilies. Genera. Species. 
Plastic Clays 4 4 5 
Camden Clays I 12 

ower Marls 27 76 155 
Middle Marls 8 II 
Base of Upper Marls 12 13 16 
Eocene Upper Marls 12 t7 23 

Total 31 89 222 

j Summary of Gastropods. 
rmations. Families. Genera. Species. 
Plastic Clays ‘us kis 1? 
den Clays bèr sis ae 
Lower Marls 25 60 125 
Middle Marls 5 6 y 
Base of Upper Marls 7 8 8 
Eocene Upper Marls 2I 29 52 
Total 31 80 190 
Summary of Cephalopods. 

Species. 
Lower Marls wO 
Middle Marls ; I 
Eocene Marls 2 

General Summary of Species. 

retaceous. Eocene. 
Brachi opods 5 2 
Lamellibranchiata 199 s4 
138 52 
= nade Ae A 12 2 
Total 354 79 


The fossils are usually restricted to single beds, at most only 
four molluscan forms, arate from one bed to another. The 


of this age, only Be species bein ngr seat, all Terebratulide. 
Of the brachiopods, Terebratula harlani and T. lachryma occur 
in South Carolina, and T. foridana in Alabama. 


68 General Notes. [Jan. 


Of Lamellibranchiates of the Lower Marl-beds of New 


Jersey,— 
= species ; are known from Alabama. 


essee. 
3 i S s Mississippi. 
6 T . Texas 
20 ` - North Carolina. 
4 3 $ Dakota. 
3 z x Europe. 
Of the Middle Marl-bed species, — 
Alabama has 3 species. 
Tennessee “ 
exas a i ms 


“ec 


Dakota Fee? 
Of the Eocene species, Crassatella alta is the only species 
known from any other State. 
f the Gastropods, which have been less studied in the 
Southern States,— 
North Carolina has I species. 
2 “ 


Alabama one 
E 
Tex 


Of the Gepleslbpots. 1 most have been recognized in Alabama 
and Texas. Of the Eocene Gastropods, ten occur in Alabama. 

Of the two hundred and twenty-two species of Lamellibranchi- 
ates, seventy-four of them are new species; and of one hundred 
and ninety species of Gastropods, one hundred and seven are new. 
Comparison permits the conclusion arrived at before by others 
on less extensive determinations, that the New Jersey Cretaceous 
Marls are the equivalent of No. 4 or of Nos. 4 and 5 of the 
Upper Missouri Section. 

The work done on the Cretaceous is yet fragmentary, as many 
specimens are too imperfect for use, and the middle and base of 
the upper marls have not been systematically examined.—R. P. 
Whitfield. 


Geological ace: GENERAL.—A catalogue of the Blastoidea 
in the Geological Department of the British Museum of Natural 
History is the joint work of Mr. R. Etheridge and Mr. P. H. Car- 
penter. The Blastoids are given a position as a group equivalent 
in rank to the brachiate Crinoids. The term Pelmatozoa, or 
palmed animals, includes the crinoids and cystids, and the class 
Blastoidea have the following peculiar characters among others: 
A subambulacral a which is pierced by a canal that 


a nee the water-vessel, the absence of under-basal plates, the 


e of five interradials, the constant but peculiar 
metry of the base, a a character previously ob: 


ipsa dom 


1887 ] Geology and Paleontology. 69 


only in one cystid and possibly in one crinoid, and the very sym- 
metrical grouping of the hydrospires, which are limited to the 
radial and interradial plates, and have their slits parallel to the 
ambulacra. The Blastoids are the most regular of Echinoderms. ` 
All have thirteen plates except Pleacrinus, in which one is 
divided. 


SILURIAN.—E. O. Ulrich has published descriptions of new 
Silurian and Devonian fossils, chiefly Polyzoa, and describes as 
new genera Busiopora and Lichenotrypa. 


PaL#ozoic.—Rohon and Zittel have recently studied the his- 
tological structure of the conodonts. s a result, they declare 
that they differ entirely from true teeth or the so-called teeth of 
lampreys and of Mollusca, and do not resemble any part of the 
hard parts of Crustacea, but they agree closely with the teeth 
of Annelid and Gephyrean worms. 


TERTIARY.—The second number of the Annals of the New 
Natural History Museum at Vienna contains an important paper 
upon the Miocene pteropods of Austro-Hungary, by Ernst Kittl. 
Illustrations of most of the species are given, and ten new species 
described. š 

Priocene.—The flora of the Cromer Forest-bed (England) has 
been investigated by Mr. Clement Reid, who found in various , 
, samples of dark peaty sandy clays, the seeds or fruits of forty 
species of dicotyledons, eighteen of monocotyledons, five of 
gymnosperms, and three cryptograms, besides some mosses and 
Characez. With a few exceptions, the same plants still exist in 
the locality. 


QUATERNARY.—Professor Lindstrom believes, from the con- 
figuration and structure of the rock-terraces in Gottland, Sweden, 
that the island received its present form by denudation, previous 
to the Glacial period, and that various changes of level have taken 
place since that time. Raised beaches are traced in Gottland at 
various elevations up to two hundred and fifty-nine feet above 
sea-level, the highest point on the island. Erratic bowlders are 
traced from the Aland Isles, possibly from the southwest of Fin- 
land, and from the bed of the Baltic. 


Dr. Nathorst gives his adhesion to the belief that pebbles with 
distinctly faceted surfaces are due to the action of wind-driven 
sand. Mr. Travers, in 1869, first called attention to such pebbles, 
and thus explained their origin. Similar pebbles have been dis- 
covered in the Eophyton sandstone at Lugnas, Sweden. 


70 General Notes. [Jan. 


MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.* 

Petrographical News.—Mr. G. A. J. Cole? has recently at- 
tempted to explain the occurrenct in rocks of “ hollow spheru- 
lites” like the lithophysen of Von Richthofen. The principal 
theories proposed to account for these bodies are discussed, and . 
that one is accepted which regards them as the result of the 
alteration of spherulites, in preference to the one in which a 
vesicular origin is assigned them. The present writer thinks 
that a study of the phenomena attending the alteration of spheru- 
lites will explain satisfactorily the occurrence of the hollow 
spherulites. In many of these there is often found a little patch 
of felsitic material with a radial structure, and from this Mr. Cole 
argues that the whole body was once of the same nature, and 
that the greater part of the original filling has been removed by 
decomposing agents, probably through the channels afforded by 
perlitic cracks. He then examines? many of the spherulitic rocks 
of Great Britain and some from localities in Europe and America, 
and finds that his views are on the whole confirmed. P 
fessor Milne, in a recent number of the Transactions of the Seis- 
mological Society of Japan,‘ states that the lavas of the Japanese 
volcanoes (one hundred in all, of which forty-eight are still active) 
are chiefly andesites, the hornblende varieties of which frequently 
contain quartz. Those containing olivine approximate to basalts, 
though true basalt is rare. A critical study of these rocks is 
A 


Kroustshoff® has succeeded in isolating from it small colorless 
isotropic crystals with glassy inclusions. These crystals possess 
a specific gravity greater than 3, a refractive index equal to that 
of garnet or spinel, and show, before the spectroscope, the lines 
of iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminium. The author calls 
attention to the similarity between these crystals and those which 
he obtained in a like manner from the phonolite’ of Olbriick, and 
' 2 Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin. 
`a Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xli., No. 162, May, 1885, p. 162. 


minéral accessoire de la roche de Beucha (près de Leipzig). 
de Minéralogie, ix., No. 4, 1886; also Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., 
ee 7 Ib., ix No $- A 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 71 


which he believes are members of the spinel group. A mineral 
very like those above mentioned also occurs in the tonalite from 
Adamelio. The same author, in another paper, describes a 
peridotite * from Goose Bay, in the Straits of Magellan. It con- 
sists essentially of olivine and enstatite, with picotite and apatite 


magnetite as secondary constituents. The olivine contains gas, 
liquid and glass inclusions. The fibres of the bastite seem to 
ave been curved by some mechanical agency (pressure). An 
analysis of a comparatively fresh specimen yielded, — 

SiO,  Al,O,  Fe,0, CrO, Fe(Mn)O MgO CaO H,O 
43-39 2.26 0.35 10.47 39:89 2.33 1.54 
——Basalts, E a hornblende-pyroxene-andesites, 
hornblende-mica-andesites, and dacites, very like similar rocks 
occurring in the western portion of our own country, are de- 
scribed by Messrs. Hague and Iddings* from the Republic of 
Salvador, Central Ameri Certain “Pliocene sandstones” 


sist of pumiceous dust cemented by calcite or clayey material. 

An analysis of one of these from Little Sage Creek, Montana, 

yielded Mr. Whitfield, — 

SiO, et Paes CaO MgO NaO KEO T loss by ignition 

65.56 258 o: 2.08 ` 6.50 
Mineralo oa News.—The lithia micas of Matic and the i iron- 


thorough chemical examination by Mr. F. W. Clarke and 
the gentlemen associated with him in the chemical department 
of the U. S. Geological Survey. The various types of these min- 
erals, from different localities in the States named, have been 
analyzed, and the results of these analyses are given in a paper 
in the American Fournal of Science By supposing fluorine to 
replace the hydroxyl (HO) group in ortho-silicic acid, a seri 

of fluo-silicic acids may be obtained as a nucleus upon which to 
build the formule representing the composition of the various 
lithia micas. For example, if we represent muscovite by 


F4 SO R. 
Al x SiO,= Al, then lepidolite might be represented by 
S0,=- Al ; 


Al aoe ee 
N SIFO, Wa Al, and cryophyllite by Al = Spee R 
Al ‘a SiO, —R 

S SiFO, = Rz 


t Note sur un-nouveau minéral accessoire de la roche de Beucha (près de Leipzig). 
Bull. de la Soc. Franç i Ae Minbralogie, eix; No. r; —— es. Jahrb. sapi ore ra » ete, 
1986, ii. p. 180. Ib., Sept. 1886, p. 199. 

Amer. Jour. oe, xxxii; Taly, 1886, p. 26. 4 a arni 1886, Pp- 353- 


42 General Notes. [ Jan. 


s. Penfield and Harper’ have carefully sgh pure 
aleio eon Greenland, and have eee > to contai 
Mg a H,O total 
4.46 4.27 0.12 0.63 ~ 24: ve eee 18. 73 91.70 
Upon calculation it was found that the amount of fluorine ob- 
tained in the analysis was not sufficient to unite with all the 
metals; hence these authors assume that the metals which are 
in excess of the fluorine combine with hydroxyl. If this be 
true, the ahve n of ralstonite as calculated from the analysis 
is as Seg 
K OH 2 
e aay 0.12 O07 24.25 39:91 -16.27 10.12 = 99.36, 
and the mineral may be regarded as an isomorphous mixture 
of (MgNa,)AI,F,,.2H,O and (MgNa,)Al, (OH). The min- 
eral which best illustrates the power of fluorine to replace 
hydroxyl in a chemical compound is /erderite, which has re- 
cently been shown? by these same investigators to consist of 
an isomorphous mixture of CaBeFPo, and. CaBe(OH)Po,. 
Lucasite, a new variety of vermiculite; from Corundum Hill, 
Macon County, N. C., is described by Mr. T. F. Chatard3 as a 
foliated mineral of a yellow-brown color, with eminent basal 
cleavage and a submetallic, greasy lustre. It dissolves in hydro- 
chloric acid and exfoliates when heated, swelling at the same 
time to twice its original volume. It is biaxial and negative, with 
a small apn angle. he well-known garnet pseudomorphs - 
fromt e Superior region have been examined by Messrs. 
Penfield and Sperry.* According to these gentlemen the altera- 
tion of the garnet consists in a slight oxidation of its iron, a de- 
crease of its silica,an almost total disappearance of its manganese 
and calcium, and an increase in its magnesium, alkalies, and water. 
The resulting mineral is a ferrous chlorite5 with a composition 
approaching that of prochlorite. An examination of a decom- 
posed garnet from Salida, Colorado, yielded the same result. 
Some very fine pseudomorphs of limonite after pyrite are figured 
by T. G. Meem® in the October number of the American Fournal 
of Science, in which the striations due to the oscillation of the 
octahedron and icositetrahedron are well preserved. 


rites.—During the past summer quite a number of short 
articles descriptive of meteorites have appeared in the American 
Fournal of Science. In the June number Mr, W. E. Hidden? de- 
two masses, neither of which was seen to fall. One is a 
meteoric iron, found in Independence County, Ark. It weighs 
ninety-four pounds. A curious feature in connection with it 


* Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov. 1886, p. 380 
Emory and Harper, Amer. Jour, ” Sci., xxxii., Aug. 1886, p. 107. 
"3 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Nov. 1886, p. 375- Oct. 1886, p. 307. 
a a Ancaster Naturalist, Feb. 1886, p. 161. 
- © Amer, Jour. Sci, xxzii., p: 274... o + Ib., xxxi., N No. 186, p. 460. 


.4 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 73 


is existence through it of a hole measuring five-eighths of 
n di ter at its narrowest part. Its composition is 
ae P—o0.16; Co and Ni= 8.62; thus belonging to 
the class holosiderite of Brezina. The second mass is Tom 
Laurens Coun Its composition, as determined by 
J-B. Mackintosh, is as follows: Fe= 85.33; Ni = 13.34; Co 
See $e ie O. 16. The Widmanstattian lines indicate a regu- 
lar crystallization. The presence of occluded hydrogen and little 
masses of ferrous chloride (lawrenceite) in its mass render this 
meteorite exceedingly interesting. In the October number the 
same author’ describes a meteor found at Fort Duncan, Maverick 
County, Texas. It weighs ninety-seven and a quarter pounds, and 
contains 94.90 per cent. Fe; P=0.23; Ni and Co=4.87. Sp. 
gr. = 7.522. Its peculiarity is the development in it of two series 
of very fine lines crossing each other at an angle of 70°. Since 
the publication of the article? on the three masses of meteoric iron 


Mr. ae sg Ea the seventh piece aa this Poa yielded, — 
Cu Zn Cr&M C S Si 
88. 376 9.86 der 0.03 0.03 aces 0.41 oi 0.01 0.04 

The crystalline structure of meteoric irons has been well 
worked out by O. W. Huntington,*: who examined the collection 
of these bodies belonging to Harvard College. By a very careful 
investigation of the appearance of the Widmanstattian figures on 
cleavage faces of the different ppano and by comparison of 
similar appearances in the case of many minerals, which, during 
as crystallization, extruded various impurities (as, for instance, 

micas comatung magnetite), Mr. Huntington is led to 


le 

to the principal planes of symm etry in the isometric system; (II.) 
that the Widmanstattian figures and Neumann lines are sections 
of planes of crystalline growth parallel to the three planes men- 
tioned; and (III.) that the features of the Widmanstattian figures 
are due to the elimination of incompatible material during the 
process of crystallization. The results of the investigation 
strengthen the belief that meteoric irons were thrown off from 
the sun or one of the fixed stars, and that they have cooled very 
slowly, while revolving in a zone of intense heat———A meteoric 
gd found in Utah, between Salt Lake City and Echo, accord- 

ing to Messrs. E. S. ‘Dana and S. L. Penfield,5 appears under the 
microscope to consist of spherules of olivine, some of which have 
a distinct coarsely fibrous structure in consequence of the inclu- 


: a F oo Sci., Oct. 1886, p. 304. 
G. F zib. TIL. xxx. Aa 235; of. American Naturalist, Dec. 1885, p. 1214. 
3 Ib., . 1886, 4 Ib., IIL., xxxii., One 1886, p. 284. 
5 piga or, Sci., ek bet. 1886, p. 226. 


74 General Notes. [Jan. 


sion of dark-colored glass, bronzite in broken fragments and also 
in spherules with a fine fibrous structure, broken plagioclase, 
rich in black inclusions lying parallel to the twining planes 
and, finally, patches of an isotropic mineral, probably maskelyn- 
ite. It contains the following constituents: nickeliferous iron, 
17.16 per cent.; mineral portion, 82.84 per cent. The iron 
yielded upon analysis, Pes o1.42 per cent. ; Nee Sod: Co 
0.60; Cu=o.04. The mineral portion was divided e two 
parts, one soluble in hydrochloric acid yielded, FeS = 6.08; NiS 
= 0.62; and 48.85 per cent. silicates; the other, pusetuble in | 
this acid, gave, chromite 0.75, and 43.22 per cent. silicates. A 
second meteorite, from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, proved, upon 
examination, to belong to the same general class as the one last 
mentioned. catalogue of the meteoric stones in the col- 
lection of Yale College, one hundred and forty-seven in number, 
is published as an appendix in the same number of this journal. 
Perhaps the most important paper on meteorites which 
_has appeared during the year is that of Reusch.* In this are de- 
scribed four Scandinavian meteorites, each of which presents in- _ 
teresting features. The most noteworthy of these is the occurrence 
of olivine in forms imitative of organic structures, and also, to- 
gether with bronzite, forming spherulitic bodies in a ground-mass 
composed of crystals of bronzite, augite, and iron in a glassy base. 
he most instructive fact in this connection is the discovery of a 
brecciated structure in two of the meteors described. The rounder 
grains which occur in the crystalline ground-mass surrounding 
them are of the same nature as this ground-mass, and are in turn 
composed of other smaller grains of similar mineralogical com- 
position. A gradual transition from the large fragmental parti- 
cles to the “ chondra” was traced, and from this fact, in connection | 
with the others above mentioned, the author draws certain gen- 
eral conclusions in regard to the origin of meteoric bodies, which, 
although exceedingly interesting, it would be oe to in- 
corporate in these notes in any logical sequenc 
Crystallographic News.—Quite a number a new measure- 
ments of crystals have recently been made by Mr. E. S. Dana. 


Gop? from the White Bull Mine in Oregon possesses the 
form 303. The crystals are distorted so as to assume a rhombo- 
hedral symmetry. Crystals of oe e California showed a 
persistence of the hexakisoctahedro ; 

Tue Brooxites? from Magnet oe are divided for the sake 
of convenience into those of prismatic habit and those in which 

ep A teenee is the predominating form, Twenty-five oe 
cal crystals are pictured. 


1 Neues TATE E E aha  at 
2 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Aug. 1886, p. 1 
"Tb at, Oct BOM ant 


. 


1887] Botany. 75 


COLUMBITE."—A number of new ¢rystals of this mineral from 
Standish, Maine, have been measured, and from the data thus 
obtained a recalculation of the axial ratio has been made. Ac- 
cording to the new measurements, a: b: c==.40234: I: .35798 
(Schrauf’s position) and .8285: 1: .88976 (Dana’s position). 
The species is without doubt orthorhombic. Differences in com- 
position appear to have little effect on the value of interfacial 
angles. 


DiasporeE.*—The two new planes På and P2 were discovered 
on a fine crystal of diaspore from Chester, Mass. 


SuULPHUR.'!—4}P and ¿P7 are described as new forms on sulphur 
from Rabbit Hollow, Nev. 
mong some remarkably fine crystals of hiddenite, xeno- 
time, monazite, and guartz from North Carolina, Mr. Hi 
mentions having found on the latter a well-developed basal plane 
which yielded to Professor Des Cloizeaux, OP A R= 128°, the 
calculated angle being 128° 13’. On black ‘ourmailine from 
Sharpe’s township, Alexander County, the new form was 
detected. On xenotime from the same county 3P was found, and 
on herderite from Stoneham, Maine, the new plane Ps. 
twinned crystal of molyédenite from Renfrew, Canada, suggests 
that this mineral may crystallize in the hexagonal system with its 
planes hemimorphically developed. 


BOTANY.: 


Pollen-Tubes of Lobelia.—In the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. 
xx. page 644, the pollen-tubes of Lodelia syphilitica were shown 
in the tissue of the style with enlarged or club-shaped tips. The 


tip. The three lower and right-hand grains are drawn as seen 
after the nucleus has taken the dye. 

* Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Nov. 1886, p. 386. 

?Ib., xxxii., Sept. 1886, p. 204. 

3 Edited by Prof. CHARLES E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska. : 


76 General Notes. [Jan. 


It remains to be seen what the shapes of the pollen-tubes are in 
the L. nig seine sap growing free from the tissue of the style. 
of L. cardinalis were examined before the 
corolla fan Ssi and in none were the pollen-grains germi- 
nating. A careful examination of the styles, ovaries, and ovules 
of flowers çontaining germinating pollen in the anther-tube but 
not yet having the stigmatic surface protruding beyond the an- 
thers, and therefore unexposed, did not show any signs of fertili- 
zation. The pollen-tubes were often extending over the surface 
of the style, but they were not found penetrating its tissue. 


Pollen-tubes of Zodela cardinalis. 
pe aii 


Less than half an inch of rain has fallen in this locality during 
the past eight weeks, and, therefore, these plants are passing 
through an unusual drought. There is a lack of vitálity in these 
plants as a whole, and the flowers are apparently unable to fully 
perform their functions. The rosette of hairs on the style just 
below the stigma fails to carry up the pollen, partly because the 
hairs are feebly developed, and also because the stigma is. not 
protruded to its usual length. The lobelia flower is admirably 
adapted for cross-fertilization, and we should not expect to find 
here a case of the closest kind impregnation, and yet there is 

sufficient suspicion to warrant further careful watching.—JZ. D. 
Halsted, Botanical Lab. Agricul. Coll., Ames, Towa. 

The Tree-Trunk and its Branches.—In order to determine 
iota ea the general relations between the tree-trunk and 
its branches, the hide Lond in the past few years made three hun- 


ade 1 the white-oak, cottonwood, and other de- 
ciduous treos of the Northern States, and one han dred observa- 


se. In each of these four — 


1887 ] Botany. 77 


hundred cases the circumference of the trunk! was carefully 
measured a few inches below the point of branching, and also 
the circumferences of the branches a few inches above the same 

int. € measurements were made a little above and below 
the crotch in order to avoid the extra swelling usually occurring 
at that point. In each instance the area of the trunk circumfer- 
ence was compared with the sum of the areas of the limb cir- 
cumferences. In this way it was found that the limbs just above 
point of branching on the average contain eleven per cent. more 
wood than does the trunk just below the same point. This gen- 
eral fact may be somewhat interesting, but it is not very signifi- 
cant. In the economy of the tree, constantly strained and bent 
by the wind, strength is far more important than mere bulk. In 
order to determine the relative strength of the tree-stem and its 
branches, the cubes of the trunk circumferences were compared 
with the respective sums of the cubes of the corresponding limb 
circumferences.* This comparison showed that in ninety-five per 
cent. of the four hundred observed cases the trunk just below 
the crotch was stronger than all the limbs just above the same 
point. And on the average the trunk was found to be thirteen 
per cent. stronger than the sum of all its branches coming from ` 
one point. Now practically just above the crotch the branches 
have to support the same burden as does the trunk just below 
that point, then why is the trunk made stronger than its limbs ? 
Well, even if a branch or several branches are broken by the 
wind, the tree can still grow and reproduce its kind, but if the 
trunk be broken the tree receives a much greater injury. Thus 
in general although the limbs of a tree are more bulky than the 
main stem, yet at practically the same elevations the trunk, by 
the constant action of the wind, is kept decidedly stronger than 
all its branches.—B. F. Hoyt, Manchester, Towa. 


The Article “ Schizomycetes” in the Encyclopedia Brit- 


Bacteria only, evidently agreeing with many modern writers 
in considering the Yeast Fungi (Saccharomycetes) as having 
strong cteria. In a short 
historical introduction; it is stated that “ Leeuwenhoek figured 
Bacteria as far back as the seventeenth century, and O. F. Müller 
knew several important forms in 1773, while Ehrenberg in 1830 
had advanced to the commencement of a scientific separation 


t Any relatively large part of the tree having branches was considered as a trunk, 
and several observations were frequently made among the larger limbs of the same 
tree. ; 

2 According to an established principle of mechanics, the strength of solid bodies 
of same form and substance is in proportion to the cubes of their like dimensions. _ 


78 General Notes. - Han, 


and grouping of them, and in 1838 had proposed at least sixteen 
species, distributing them into four genera.” Cohn’s work (1853- 
1872) gave us the first really accurate knowledge of these organ- 
isms. He assumed the practical constancy of the forms ‘met 
with, and accordingly described them as species and genera, 
taking form for his principal character. Later students of the 
Bacteria have shown that Cohn’s species and genera often occur 
as phases in the life-history of a particular bacterium. What 
the specific limits are in many cases has not yet been determined. 
Zopf showed several years ago that “minute spherical cocci, 
short rodlets (‘Bacteria’), longer rodlets (‘ Bacilli’), and fila- 
mentous forms $ Leptothrix’), as well as curved and spiral 
threads (‘ Vibrio,’ ‘ Spirilum,’ etc.), occur as vegetative stages in 
one and the same schizomycete. 

With these facts before us, it is at once evident that Cohn’s 
classification breaks down entirely. No stable arrangement can 
be hoped for in the present state of our knowledge. Accord- 
ingly, a good deal of attention is now directed to the study of 
the various vegetative and reproductive states, including also 
the details as to their parasitic and saprophytic habits, and their 
deportment noder cultivation. The chief vegetative forms are 
the followin 

Cocet, a or spheroidal cells: 

Rods or rodlets, slightly, or more considerably elongated cells. 

sia ener elongated cylindrical cells, united end to end in 
long thre 

Soe or ae al forms, rods or filaments more or less curved. 

To these should be added the so-called zooglcea, or resting 
stage, in which the cell-walls swell up and form a gelatinous 
matrix. Spores are known to occur in most Bacteria, and these 
have been observed to germinate in several forms, Two principal 
types of spore formation are distinguished, viz.: 1, by the break- 
ng up (fission) of the filament into its ultimate segments or 
joints (arthrospores); 2, by the formation of spores within the 
cell or filament (endospores). 

The provisional outline of a classification of Bacteria given is 
a modification of De Bary’s, as follows, 


Group A. ASPOREZ. 
No spores distinct from the vegetative cells. 
`. I. Coccace#, including the genera, 1, Micrococcus ; 2, Sarcina ; 
3, Ascococcus. 
Group B. ARTHROSPOREZ. 


res uced by segmentation. 
er be inom ie aee 4, Bacterium; 5, Leu- 


1887] Botany. 79 


. III. Leprorricue#, including, 7, Crenothrix; 8, Beggiattoa ; 
9, Phragmidiothrix(?); 10, Leptothrix. 
IV. CLADoTRICcHEA, including, 11, Cladothrix. 


Group C. ENDOSPOREÆ. 
Spores produced within the cells or filaments, including, 12, 
Bacillus ; 13, Vibrio (?); 14, Spirillum. 
In their relations to diseases the writer of the article unequivo- 
cally accepts the view that they are the cause, not the accompani- 


those of the parasitic invader; and it is now generally admitted 
that the mere admission of a Schizomycete into an animal does 
not necessarily cause disease. Were it otherwise, it would be 
difficult to see how the higher organisms would escape at all.” 


Botanical Journals.—The writer of this note has had during 
the past seventeen years, the period covered by his botanical 
teaching, many inquiries from beginners in botany as to what 
botanical journals it would be best for them to read. The re- 
plies have varied according to what appeared to be the individual 
needs of the inquirers. Recent inquiries from young botanists 
in widely-separated localities suggest the need of a short paper 
by way of guidance to those who would, if they could, read one 
or more botanical journals. 

Nowadays, in any line of work, one who wishes to be pro- 
gressive must read the proper journals. The young teacher who 
expects to keep up with the discoveries in his specialty without 
reading some of the journals devoted to that specialty will find 
himself in a few years hopelessly behind his reading fellow- 
workers. He must read,and he must read the best. He cannot 
afford to read anything less than the best. What shall he read ? 
In answer to this it may be said that it is the duty of every 
teacher to so far hold his “specialty” in check that he shall be 
first and foremost a dofanist, one who has knowledge of, and an 
interest in, all portions of the great science of plants. Let him 
be primarily a botanist, and then, if he has the inclination, sec- 
ondarily a phanerogamist, a caricologist, a pteridologist, a bryolo- 
gist, a lichenologist, a mycologist, an algologist,a phytotomist, or 
a vegetable physiologist, etc. The teacher may, and probab 
should be, a specialist, but he must be a botanist in the broadest 
sense first. His duty to his pupils is to instruct them in botany, — 


80 General Notes. [Jan. 


the science of plants,—not in some narrow department of it. He 
must lay the foundation for ay specialty, not for a particular 
one. Some of his pupils will become phanerogamists, some 
caricologists, some graminologists, some pteridologists, and so 
on, and he must be ready to guide them intelligently in their 
work. He must keep himself well informed in every department 
of the science. 

There are three journals in the United States devoted entirely 
to botany. They occupy somewhat different fields, and accord- 
ingly have different values for different people. The Botanical 
Gazette, now eleven years old, is “ devoted to all subjects which 
relate to botanical science.” From the beginning the structural 
' and physiological side of botany has been emphasized as mucl 
as possible, but the systematic botany of all the grand divisions 
of the vegetable kingdom has received due attention. From 
this journal the young botanist will obtain a very good idea 
of modern botany in all its departments. The Bulletin of the 
Lorrey Botanical Club is the oldest of our botanical journals. 
For many years it was, as its name indicates, devoted mainly to 
local botany, being the organ of a botanical club in the city of 

ew York. Systematic botany has always predominated in this 
journal, and its pages contain the descriptions of many new spe- 
cies. Since 1880 it has been given a wider range, and now in- ` 
cludes papers on all botanical subjects, and is well adapted to help 
the young botanist. These are the best botanical journals for 
the teacher, with which the present writer is familiar in any 
country. There is nothing abroad which comes near to them in 
general helpfulness. The Yournal of Botany (London) is practi- 


many papers on systematic botany. 

Of special journals,—z.c., those devoted to particular branches 
of the science,—we have one in the United States, viz., The Four- 
nal of Mycology, now two years old. As its name indicates, it is 
_ devoted exclusively to the botany of the fungi. Thus far special 
attention has been given to the description of new species and 
Synopses of various families, with descriptions of the species. It 
is indispensable to the student of the fungi. The English jour- 
nal, Grevillea, takes a wider range, aiming to be a “record of 
cryptogamic botany and its literature.” Its articles aré for the 
most part systematic, relatively few of them being structural or 
- physiological. Hedwigia (Dresden) is much like Grevillea in 
_ plan and execution. A most valuable special periodieal, of an 


ti liege tS 


1887] Entomology. 81 


ENTOMOLOGY. 
Prelimina inary Descriptions of Ten New (ines American 


1. Lithobius howei n. sp.—Brown; antennz 20 jointed ; ocelli 

25-7; prosternal teeth 6; coxal pores 5, 5, 6, 5; spines of the 

first pair of feet 2, 3, 2; penultimate lost ; last I, 3 3, I; length 
15mm. Hab. Fort Snelling, Minn. (W. 

2. Lithobius pullus n. sp.—Brown; antennæ 20 5 jointed: ocelli 
12-5; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores gas 3; 3~2,.2, Z 2° P S 
of the igs pair of feet I, 3, 2-1, 2, I: penultimate L 3, 3, 2- 

sast L 3; h it 3, 3,0; claw of the female genitalia 
Ekaa length mm. ab. Bloomington, Ind. 

+ Lithobius Saas sp.—Brown; antennz 20 jointed ; ocelli 
13-6; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 4, 5, 5, 4; spines of the 
first pair of feet 1, 3, 2; penultimate 1, 3, 3, 1; last 1, 3, 2,1; 
claw of the female genitalia tripartite ; length 16mm. Hab. Fort 
Snelling, Minn. . D. Howe.) 

4. Lithobius trilobus n. sp—Brown ; antenne 20 jointed; ocelli 
22-8; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 3, 4, 4, 3-3, 45 4, 43 qa 
of the first pair of feet 1, 3, 1; penultimate 1 sd» % i-i, 3, 
last 1, 3, I, O; claw of the female genitalia ‘tripartite : length 
10-11 mm. Hab. Bloomington, Ind. 

. Lithobius proridens n. sp—Yellow-brown; antennze ey 35. 
jointed; ocelli 15-6 ; prosternal teeth 10-12; ‘coxal pores 4, 6, 
5; 5-3, 4, 4 3; pes of the are e og of feet %3” 2a il 
penultimate I, 3, 3, 2-1, 3, 3, 1; last 1, 3, 3, 2-1, 3, 3, I; claw of 
the female genitalia whole; kiA 10-12 mm. Had. 6. Blooming- 
ton, Ind. 

6. Lithobius cardinalis n. sp.— Brown; antennz 20-31 e 
ocelli 10-6; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 2, 4, 3, 2-2; 2,3,2 
spines of the first t pair of feet 2, 3, 2; penultimate $53, 3, 1: 
L3, Si 2-1, 3, 3, 1; claw of the female genitalia tripartite ; length 

Hab. Bloomington, Ind. 

7. Sein ruber n. sp.—Bright red; attenuated anteriorly 
and posteriorly ; sternum cordiform ; frontal plate present; pre- 
basal plate concealed ; ventral plates with a large, median foveola; 
pairs of feet in the male 67-69, female 71-73; length 53 mm. 


nd. 
` 8. Tulus elli ipticus n. Carman I. impressus. Vertex with 


VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 


82 General Notes. [Jan. 


a median sulcus; eyes nearly elliptical; ocelli about 55, in 8 
series ; segments 46; first segment semicircular, not striate; 
anal spine stout, projecting beyond the valves; length 25 mm. 
Hab. Fort Snelling, Minn. (W. D. Howe.) 

9. Tulus burkei n. sp—Rather stout; brown, with a series of 
dark dots on each aac: vertex with a median sulcus; eyes tri- 
angular; ocelli 17, indistinct, in 4 series; segments 45-47 ; first 
segment produced forward to the eyes, not striate; last seg- 
ment rounded; anal valves marginate; length 14 mm. Aad. 
Ukiah, Cal. (j. K. Burke. 

10. Fontaria virginiensis brunnea n. var. —This new variety can 
be easily distinguished from wirginiensis by its color and form of 
last segment. Chestnut-brown, lateral plates and under parts 
yellow, a black, median dorsal line; last segment very blunt, 
sparsely pilose, —Charles H. Bollman, Indiana University, Nov. 
27r 

Mimicry in a Caterpillar.—S. E. Peal, writing from Assam 
to Nature, notices a singular case of mimicry on the part of a 
caterpillar, which, when suddenly surprised, erects its head in an 
attitude that caused the writer to mistake it for a shrew, probably 
the very animal that preys upon it. The resemblance is cause 
by two lateral prolongations and a pointed tip to the head; these 
when lifted in the peculiar attitude assumed simulate ears and a 
long muzzle, while the mouth parts in profile look like the mouth 
of a vertebrate. 

The same writer states that the tiger causes the Sambur deer 
to run to it by uttering a whistle which only an expert can tell 
from that of the deer. The eye and nose lumps of a crocodile 
are so like lumps of foam that Mr. Peal confesses he has been 
deceived until he saw the supposed foam sink. He believes this 
simulation useful to the crocodile in obtaining its food. 

emale chimpanzee in the Bidel menagerie, now at Paris, has 
been seen to weep as the climax of her grief when deprived of 
a child playmate. | 


ZOOLOGY. 
A. S. Packard on the Cave Fauna of North America, with 
Remarks on the Anatomy and Origin of Blind Forms.'—The 


author briefly describes some of the larger caves, with notes on 
their hydrography, temperature, origin, and geological age, the 
food-supply of the inhabitants, the means of entering or colo- 
nizing the cavern, and lists of each cave fauna. These notes are 
followed by a systematic description of the animals and their 
geographical distribution. - A comparative list of American and 
; cave animals shows that in America there are about 
sixty-two species to about one hundred and seventy-five in 
; Se a tt ae eee 


. 


1887] Zoology. 83 


poda, the following changes in the eyes, optic ganglia, and optic 
nerves occur in forms living in total darkness: (1) Total atrophy 
of the optic ganglia and optic nerves, with or without the er- 


Persistence of the optic lobes and optic nerves, but total atrophy 
of the rods and cones, retina and facets (Orconectes pellucidus 


kansas, commencing with Carroll and extending from there along 
the western line of the State, Benton and Washington being north 
of the mountains, Crawford south of them but on the north side 
of the Arkansas River, and Sebastian on the south side of it. 
Hot Springs is in Garland County, Hot Springs County south 
of it, and Jackson County north of Little Rock, on the Iron 
Mountain Railroad. The following list gives the result of a large 
amount of searching, though the total time given to it in Carroll 


. 


County was many times that in any of the other counties. 


84 General Notes. [Jan. 


Mesodon. In Carroll County I have gathered six species of 
this sub-genus, but not more than two in any of the other counties. 
Of albolabris I got many in Carroll County, most of them of a 
large size, though on the higher grounds a small variety was 
found, and also a variety named aleni by Professor Wetherby. In 
Garland County I got a couple of shells of somewhat smaller 
size than the largest from Carroll County, and darker color. Of 
exoleta I found a small size in Carroll County. For some time 
after the lip is fully formed the shell is thin, and has no parietal 
tooth, but it seeenards Ors and a rather heavy tooth ap- 
pears. In Washington nty found a single specimen, which 
was only 19-15 mm. P SS Of thyroides, the same statement 
in regard to thickness and parietal teeth as in the last is true. 
This species was originally described as of 22-1914 mm. diame- 
ters, but I have it from Indiana 28-23 mm., and from Ohio and 
Missouri nearly as large. From Carroll County the shells were 
22-19 mm., and these have been identified as bucculentus, though 
this is the ‘typical size of ¢hyroides. Two shells from Sebastian 

ounty were of the same size, and, though apparently mature, 
they had no parietal tooth. From Jackson County they were larger, 
being 24-20 mm., and from Benton County were the smallest I 
have yet seen,—18-15 mm,—one having a parietal tooth, and three 


Franklin and Garland Counties they were nearly as large, while 
from Benton they were only 15-13 mm. I found elevatus in 
Carroll and Jackson Counties, and c/ausus in Carroll only. 

Patula perspectiva Say. In abundance in Carroll County; a 
single one found in Benton Count 

Patula alternata Say. In Carroll County it does not differ 
much from the northern specimens, but in Washington and Gar- 
land Counties it is much heavier ribbed, and has darker spots. 

Stenotrema leati Ward. In Carroll, Benton, and Washington 

ties. 

Stenotrema labrosa Bld. In considerable abundance in Carroll 
County ; also found in Washington, Crawford, and Garland 

Triodopsis inflecta S In Carroll County, ‘of light color and 
II-10 mm. diameter. - Similar but darker colored ones from 
Benton, Washington, ‘and Franklin Counties. In Garland and 
Hot Springs Counties each I found one, 12-10 mm. diameters, 
but looking much larger on account of their height. From 


others from the same place are of the ordinary shape and o 

ates mm. diameters.. 

 Triodopsis appressa Say. From the bluffs of the White River, 

in Carroll moore these shells are thin and of a very light horn 
color, with A E E OR Te petila eren oil e 


1887] +) Boology. a 


basal side, and with strize very fine, so that the shell is somewhat 
glabrous. Largest, 214-18 mm., and of nearly six whorls. On 


Polygyra leporina Gld. In Sebastian County, where I found 
three specimens of this and of two other species of Poly. gyra. 

Bulimulus dealbatus Say. . In Carroll and Crawford Counties, . 

Zonites. Of arboreus I got specimens in Carroll, Garland, and 
Hot Springs Counties; of ivdentatus, in Carroll and Benton 
Counties; of /riadilis, in Carroll and Garland Counties; of de- 
missus, in Garland County; of gularis, in Hot Springs County ; 
and of digera, in Jackson County. ; 

Pupa. I found fallax, armifera, and contracta in Carroll, and 
the latter in Benton County. 

In addition to the foregoing, the following land shells occur 
in Carroll County: Patula solitaria Say; Triodopsis fallax Say, 
variety minor ; Strobila labyrinthica Say; Macrocyclis concava Say; 
Succinea ovalis Gld.; S. verrilli Bld. (?); Helicina orbiculata Say ; 
Pomatiopsis lapidaria Say; Tebenophorus carolinensis Bosc; and 
Limax campestris Binn. 

Of fresh-water shells, I found an abundance of some species, 
especially in Carroll County. Mr. C. F. Ancey, of France, has 
described Physa albofilata from Eureka Springs. I gathered the 
same species in Washington County. Physa heterostropha and 
P. gyrina were found in Carroll, and the latter in Benton, Wash- 
ington, and Hot Springs Counties. Limnea humilis was found 
in Carroll County and LZ. columella in Washington and Hot 


86 General Notes. [Jan, 


Springs Counties; Planorbis trivolvis in Carroll and Washington 
Counties; and P. dicarinatus in Carroll and Hot Springs Counties; 
Ancylus tardus in Carroll, Benton, and Washington Counties ; 
Campolema ponderosa Say, in Jackson County, coarctata Lea, in 
_ Carroll and Hot Springs Counties; Spherium transversum and 
Pisidium (?) in Carroll County. 

Pleurocera subulare Lea. In White River and King’s River, 
in Carroll County, the latter being much the larger. Two or 
three species from Ouchita River, Hot Springs County, not yet 
identified 

Gontobasis, Specimens of what have been identified as pal- 
idula were very plenty in White and King’s River, in Carroll 
County, and what have been identified as saffordi in Washington 
and Hot Springs Counties. 

I have some Unionide from three counties, but will fot at- 
tempt now to make a list of what may be found in the State.— 
F. A. Sampson, Sedalia, Mo. 


The Characteristics and Relations of the Ribbon-Fishes.— 


order seems well merited. I doubt very much whether the 
Stylephoride belongs anywhere near the group; it is a pity 
the genus cannot be re-examined. Another point has occurred 
to me. I am half inclined to think that the Heterosomatous 


=~ fishes may have branched off from the original stock, or progeni- 
Bee Of the Taæniosomous fhet T slialt investigate the subject 


oro 


1887] Zoology. 87 


The Hyoid Structure in the Amblystomid Salamanders 
My attention was recently called by my friend Dr. Eleanor Galt 
to the fact that the figures of the hyoid apparatus of Amblystoma 
punctatum given by Drs. Parker and Wiedersheim are not cor- 
rect. The latter (“Das Kopfskellet der Drodein. ” pl. v. f. 75) rep- 
resents the hypohyal tha as forming the posterior parts of 
a cartilaginous circle, from which two recurved processes on each. 
side extend, the anterior spfitouchin g the ceratohyal, the pos- 
terior returning towards the basibranchial. Parker omits the 
annulus altogether. Now, as Dr. Galt points out, there is a car- 
tilaginous ring which supports the circumference of the tongue 
in this genus in a manner different from anything known in any 
other genus of Batrachia. But it is not connected in any way 
with the hypohyals, but issues from each side of the basi- 
branchial, posterior to them; and supports the tongue above the 
basibranchial level. It sends out one lateral process on each 
side (Fig. 1) which does not connect with the ceratohyals. 

On examining other species of Amblystomidæ, Dr. Galt found 
the same character present in A. talpoideum, A. opacum, A. tigri- 
num, and A. macrodactylum. In A. tenebrosum she found a very dif- 


i 3 

Fig. 1, Amblystoma punctatum X 2, thiir below. Fig. 2, iaidó tenebrosus 
1, from below. Fig. 3, Linguelapsus annulatus, X 2, 2, from above CH, Cerato- 
hyal ; HH, hyphohyal; OH; otohyal; BB1, first basi- branchial ; BB2, second basi- 
branchial; CBr, first cerato-branchial ; CB2, second cerato-branchial ; EB, epi- 
branchial. 


ferent seudan, There is no annulus, but its basal part remains in, 
the form of a plate on each side of the middle line, the external 
angle of which represents the external process of the ri ng of Am- 
blystoma punctatum. To the straight anterior border of this cartil- 
age is attached a sheet of fibrous tissue, the fibres being distinctly — 
antero-posterior in direction, and forming the basement tissue of 
the tongue. The cartilage, handle-like in this species, and ring-like 
in the A. punctatum, is not homologous with any of those which 
have received names, so I propose to call it the otoglossal cartilage. 
These observations of Dr. Galt induced me to examine some 
of the other species referred to serena bei aise: I report the fol- 


88 General Notes. [Jan, 


lowing results. - The following species have the otoglossal carti- 
lage essentially like that of A. tenebrosum: A. aterrimum, A. paro- 
ticum, A. decorticatum, and A. microstomum. As the type is so 
entirely different from that of Amblystoma proper, I propose to 
separate these species under the distinct generic name Chondro- 
tus, with C. ¢enebrosus as the type. Examination of the species 
recently described as A. annulatum and A. lepturum,: shows that 
they represent a third genus quite distinct from either of the pre- 
ceding. Here the otoglossal cartilage (Fig. 3) has somewhat the 
form of the basal part of that of Chondrotus, but it is entirely 
free from the basibranchial bone, sliding on it in obedience to 
the contractions of the pubohyal and genioglossal muscles. This 
genus I propose to call Linguelapsus. I know but two species of it, 

According to the figures given by Wiedersheim (/. c.), Hyno- 
bius and Ranidens do not possess an: 6toglossal cartilage, agree- 
ing in this respect with the Plethodontide. Wiedersheim also 


Color of the Eyes as a Sexual Characteristic in Cistudo 
_carolina.—Naturalists interested in our native land-tortoise must 
often have noticed the bright-red eyes in some individuals. I 
have seen them so vivid in color as to attract the attention before 


let” twice, perhaps very bright red would be more correct, 
though I will leave the characters as originally noted. 
Staten Island, July, 1885. Full-grown specimen, male, eyes bright red. 
e ga “ee e ga és * scarlet 
6 


: a T n “ female, eyes reddish brown. 
ee se oe ee és é “ brown. 
g E “ One-fourth grown specimen, female (?), eyes brown. 
“ss Aug., “ — . Full-grown specimen, female, eyes reddish brown. 

- New Jersey, a a a ; is “ male- |“ ; 

‘ os u Y, I 6. "E se female, é dark ; 

Staten Island, elt ang “ ‘e uoa o k EN 

Re Otao x «male, “scarlet. 


have a particular fondness for certain 


Lk on 


| I believe these tortoises 


nd I know of two places where they 


1887] ; Zoology. 89 


on the hill-top, subject them to a needless torture. If water is 
given them, they will quickly stick their heads into it, and then 
hold them upright as birds do when drinking. 

In autumn they do not always dig under the soil to pass the 
winter in this locality, but will hibernate in a hollow or any 
place where a thick mass of leaves has collected. I found one 
on the 8th of February, 1885, in such a location, with but few 
leaves for a covering.— William T. Davis. 


On the Morphogeny of the Carapace of the Testudinata.— 
Preliminary to a more extended paper on the group Athece of 
the Testudinata, allow me to give the following results, which 
seem to be of considerable interest: 

The Dermatochelyde (Sphagididz) are characterized by the 
development of independent superficial dermal bones. In Der- 
matochelys coriacea and the allied extinct forms we find a pave- 
ment of small osseous plates extending over the whole shield, 
jointed to each other by more or less fine sutures. The number 
of these plates is very much larger than that of the other Testu- 
dinata, which never have more than seven 

In all other Testudinata we find the carapace connected with 
the internal skeleton. That the carapace of the Dermatochelyde 
is homologous to the carapace, without internal skeleton, of the 
rest of the Testudinata, there is no doubt; that the carapace of 
the “Thecophora” (Dollo) has developed from the carapace of 
the “ Athecæ” is proved by a specimen of Eretmochelys imbricata. 
In this specimen I find small polygonal plates of the same shape 
as those of Dermatochelys suturally connected with the third, 
fourth, fifth, and sixth costal plates. 

A form between the Dermatochelyde and “Thecophora” 
(Dollo) is represented by the oldest known turtle Psephoderma 
alpinum Hi. v. Meyer, from the Triassic of the Bavarian moun- 
tains, preserved in Munich. In this highly-interesting specimen, 
never mentioned in monographs on the Testudinata, we have 
certainly not less than one hundred and ninety-three plates 
suturally united*—Dr. G. Baur, Yale College Museum, New 
Haven, Conn., October 6, 1886. 


* It is important to mention that Dermatochelys has the nuchal plate developed 
besides the mosaic-like carapace. According to Gervais, this plate is covered by 


go General Notes. [ Jan. 


Collections of Humming-Birds.—Hans von Berlepsch has 
some critical remarks on the humming-bird literature in the 
“ Festschrift of the Cassel Vereins fiir Naturkunde,” 1886. Ac- 
cording to this, the largest collection of hinoeelnntteds was that 
of the late John Gould, which is now in the possession of the 
British Museum. It contained 5378 specimens, representing 
about 400 species. For second and third places there is a rivalry 
between Godman and Salvin, of London, on the one hand, and 
D. G. Elliot, of New Brighton, N: Y.: The latter had, in 1878, 
380 of the 426 known species, including many of the types of 
Bourcier, and many of which but a single specimen is known. 
Salvin and Godman’s esi will shortly pass into the pos- 
session of the British Museum. Berlepsch himself has the 
fourth collection in size (about 2009 specimens and 350 species), 
and close to this is that of George N. Lawrence, of New Yo rk, 
which is especially rich in types. 

The Nesting of Collyrio ludovicianus (Baird)—On the roth 
of May, 1883, I found, in Williamstown, Mass., a nest of the 
Loggerhead Shrike, Collyrio ludovicianus (Baird). The nest was 
situated in a sheep-pasture, in a wild-thorn tree, at a distance of 
seven or eight feet from the ground, and was made from weeds, 
twigs, and wool, lined with hair and wool. The eggs, six in 
number, are a greenish-white tint, thickly marked and dotted 
with light brown and buff-purple spots, which on some of the 
eggs nearly cover the larger end. A few days later, perhaps a 
quarter of a mile from the first nest, a second was found, that 
had evidently been deserted. It contained two eggs similar to 
those of the former nest, and the construction and materials of 
the two nests were alike. Mr. H. A. Purdie, hearing of the cir- 
cumstances, wrote on the 17th of May, 1883, that it was the first 
known instance of this bird breeding in Massachusetts. So far 
as I know, nothing was seen of this species in this vicinity until 
this spring, when I discovered a nest in an elm, perhaps ten feet 
from the ground, among the branches fringing the huge trunk; 
the nest was built of materials similar to those composing the 
nests found in 1883, and the bird was identified. As the last 

nest was within one hundred and fifty feet of the first, and all 


return from year to year. At any rate, as the first recorded 
instance of the nesting of this species in Massachusetts, it may 
be of interest to ornithologists.—Sanborn Gove Tenney, Wil- 
Baman, Mass., Nov. 27, 1886. , 

News.-Ecumonnens, —Hijalmar Theel, in his re- 
port upon the Holothuroidea. ot the ‘ ' Challenger” Expediti on, not 
is correct, we ee the nuchal te as a 
glen question: is, What is the nature of this ele- 
t contains the ribs: of se last cervical vertebra, with 


1887] Zoology. QI 


only describes the new species of the groups Apoda and Pedata, 
but adds a series of short accounts of all the forms known. Up to 


scarcely any from beyond two hundred fathoms. Now we know 

number met with at five hundred fathoms, and some that 
are abyssal. Thus Cucumaria abyssorum occurs from fifteen hun- 
dred to two thousand two hundred and twenty-three fathoms, 
Synapta abyssorum at two thousand three hundred and fifty 
fathoms, Pseudostichopus villosus from thirteen hundred and seven- 
ty-five to two thousand two hundred, while Holothuria thomsoni 
has been dredged from depths ranging from eighteen hundred 
and seventy-five to two thousand nine hundred fathoms. Some 
species have a wide bathymetrical eager individuals resid- 
ing at depths of from five hundred to sev n hundred fathoms 
presenting no notable differences from e living near the 
shore. 

M. H. Koehler maintains that in the Ophiuridæ the madreporic 
gland communicates by a cana with the lower or vascular peri- 
buccal ring, much as in the Echini. The internal epithelium of 
the intestine of the Ophiuridæ is very thic 

M. Gauthier maintains that the plates of the apical region of 
-echinids cannot be depended upon as characters for the delimita- 
tion of genera and species. He gives numerous figures of the 
variations in the apical plates of Hemiaster, from his own obser- 
vations with the microscope, to prove this. The disposition of 
these plates, notably that of the madreporic plate, often exhibit 
the variations relied on to establish species and genera. 


Vermes.—fecampia erythrocephala is a parasite in several Dec- 
apoda, and has been studied by M. Giard. arcinas m@nas is 
most commonly infested with it when young. It lives in the 
body cavity, and is often bent into a U form. Some crabs have 
several parasites. Sometimes it is hidden in the liver. If is 15 

mm. long, with a red head, and white, slightly rose-tinted 
cylindrical body. When sexually mature it leaves its host, 
crawls on the rocks, usually on its side, and soon builds a cocoon 
from threads secreted by the cutaneous glands. The cocoon is 
most dense upon the inside, becomes brittle by contact with the 
sea- water, and communicates by a narrow opening with the sur- 
rounding medium. ithin the posterior part of the cocoon 
the site deposits its rose-tinted eggs enveloped in a gelati- 
nous substance. The Fecampia itself has lost much of its bulk, 
and the snowy tint has disappeared. This transformation takes 
par at the end of August, at which period the females of C. 

nas lay their eggs. 

ea —The “ Challenger” Expedition collected one hun- 
dred and two species or well-marked varieties of Compound 
Ascidians. These are described by Professor W. A. Herdman in 


92 General Notes. [Jan. 


FisHes.—M. Yves Delage maintains, contrary to the opinion 
of Gunther, that the Leptocephala are normal larvæ, capable of 
transformation. So far from suffering through their distance 
from the coast, he believes that they finally reach it after having 
passed through their transformation. The pollack feeds upon 
these larve. . 


of Mexico. 

_ The English quarterly journal of Ornithology entitled The 
Tis, contains in its last issue a valuable article upon the wings 
of birds, by C. J. Sundeval, with a synopsis of the number of 
arm-remiges to be found in various species; some notes upon 
the genus Empidonax, by Mr. R. Ridgway, describing a new 
species and defining eighteen known species ; two papers by Mr. 
R. B. Sharpe on birds from Fao, in the Persian Gulf, and others 
from Bushire, on the same gulf; and a list of the birds obtained 
by Mr. H. Whitely in British Guiana, as well as some shorter 
Papers. The total number’ of birds on the Guiana list is six 
hundred and twenty-five, of which thirty-six are migratory or — 


cos -sea-birds. About sixty and one-half per cent. of the — 


1887] e Embryology. 93 


five hundred and eighty-nine forms occur in the Amazons valley, 
twenty-seven and one-half per cent. in Venezuela, thirty-three 
per cent. in Columbia, thirty-six and one-half per cent. in Ecua- 
dor, forty-seven and one-half per cent. in Peru, thirty-three per 
cent. in Southeast and Central Brazil. The West Indies have but 
four per cent. of the birds of Guiana, or no more than are pos- 
sessed by the Argentine Republic. 


EMBRYOLOGY.: 


The Formation of the Eggs and Development of Rotifers.? 
—G. Tessin has made a very important contribution to the life- 
history of the wheel-animalcules, which he has traced in Brachi- 
onus urceolaris, Euchlanis dilatata, Salpina mucronata, and Rotifer 
vulgaris, having succeeded in obtaining satisfactory sections of the 
embryos in a number of stages. 

The large simple sac opening into the cloaca, which has hith- 
erto beén regarded as the ovarium, is, according to Tessin, not 
an ovary at all, but the eggs are developed on the outside of this 
organ from a heap of cells lying on its right side and near its 
anterior end. As a rule, the number of nuclei in the ovarian 
mass is constant, eight nuclei being the usual number; only in 
the fixed Tubicolariz, Philodine, and Pterodina could a larger or 
smaller number of ovarian nuclei be made out. 

In the process of maturation the nucleus of the egg gradually 
passes to the periphery, where it breaks up; but before it does 
so a nuclear spindle is developed. This process Tessin regards 
as an indication that polar cells are extruded, although he did 
not actually succeed in finding them. 

None of the accounts hitherto given of the manner of segmenta- 
tion are correct, according to this author. The egg is first divided 
transversely into two unequal cells, the cleavage plane being 
also slightly oblique, and the larger cell anterior, the smaller 

t Edited by Dr. JoHN A. RYDER, Philadelphia. 

Ueber Eibildung und Entwickelung der Rotatorien, Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zoologie, 
xliv., 1886, pp. 272-302, pls. xix., xx. 


94 ` General Notes. \ : [Jan. 


posterior. The larger cell is next divided transversely, a smaller 
h ; 


mass being segmented from it behind. Then follows the division 


in twain of the smaller of the two primary tells. The four re- 


sulting blastomeres then assume a symmetrical disposition with 
respect to the future median axis. The three posterior smaller 


cells mark the future dorsal aspect of the body; the larger cell 


marks the position of the future anterior end. 
From this point onward the segmentation is essentially mero- 


laterally by a process of epiboly. Meanwhile, the posterior acu- 
minate end of the large anterior cell becomes segmented into a 
number of cells, which fake a share in the formation of the ecto- 
derm, together with the smaller dorsal cells already spoken of. 
While the formation of the entoderm is thus accomplished, the 
most anterior row of the dorsal group are destined, as shown by 
later events, to form the mesoderm. By this time the larger 
anterior cell has been further subdivided, and its component blas- 
tomeres fo the number of five, which form the rudiment of the 
endoderm, are included by the growth forward and downward 
of the advancing ectoderm. The mesodermic cells, which at first 
formed a transverse row at the edge of the dorsal group of ecto- 


dermic cells, are pushed farther forward and downward, and are 


finally thrust inward between the ectoderm and mesoderm along 
the anterior, or what may finally be regarded as the dorsal, border 


of the blastopore or prostoma. Since the mesoderm is developed 
in almost all bilateral forms from the entoderm, the development 


of it from the ectoderm in Rotifers, as here described, is probably 
characteristic and of taxonomic importance. A solid gastrula 


APETO pee aa) is thus formed, and the prostoma (blastopore) 


mes an anterior ventral position and marks the place where 
he permanent mouth is developed. The genesis of the meso- 
derm in Rotifers is contrasted with the mode of its origin in 
Astacus, according to Reichenbach, at the anterior margin of the 
blastopore. It is thought probable that the musculature and 
sexual organs are developed from the mesoderm 
The blastopore assumes a quadrate she and the ectoderm 
bounding it is divided into four well-mar lobes,—a right and 
left, an anterior and a posterior lobe. From on the invaginated por- 
tion of the ectoderm, lying within the blastopore, the cesophagus 
(which lies in front of the mastax) and the wheel-organ or trochal 
disk are developed. The posterior lobe of the ectoderm becomes 
divided off posteriorly from the blastopore by a transverse fissure 


Tone metamorphosis of the entode Didana mas mass ot cats A 


1887] Embryology, 7 95 


mentioned is very remarkable. The entodermic cells form a 
solid globular mass, filling up for a time the hinder three-fifths 
of the still nearly solid gastrula. This mass is next subdivided 
into a Sharply circumscribed anterior portion, in which the mastax 
is developed, and a posterior portion, from which the rest of the 
alimentary tract is formed. 

As a result of these elaborate and apparently very successful 
studies, Tessin concludes that the Rotifers are not affiliated very 
closely with the higher Annelids, but, on the one hand, with the 
Turbellaria, and on the other with the Crustacea; with the former 
on account of the well-marked lobes around the blastopore and 
the mode of origin of the mesoderm, and with the latter on ac- 
count of the mode of invagination of the mesoderm at the 
anterior margin of the blastopore, the -development of a post- 
abdomen with a forked tip, the position and fate of the blastopore, 
and the somewhat similar position of the anus in some aberrant 
forms of Crustacea (Cetochilus) In summing up he concludes 
that the Rotifers form a special group, which should be placed 
somewhere between lower worms and Crustacea. i 


The Gestation of Armadilloes.—A very remarkable mode 


The reviewer gives a synopsis of Von Jhering’s arrangement 
of the types or principal modes of reproduction. Two great 
subdivisions are recognized : $ i 
; * Biolog. Centralbl., vi. pp. 532-539 (No. 17, 1886). 

2 It is significant in this AE a that when Mai twins are enveloped in a 
common chorion they are always of the same sex. 


96 General Notes. [Jan. 


1. Hologeny. From the fertilized egg but one individual takes 
its rise, with or without metamorphosis. Hypogenesis (Haeckel). 

2. Mero ogeny. From the fertilized egg two or more indi- 
viduals are developed, whic 

A. Revert aiee to =x form and manner of reproduction of 
the parent. Tem 

B. Develop jais sadividoals which become different, or a 
series of generations, varying in their mode of development 
(alternation of genera rations, metagenesis). 

a. Calycogenesis (Salpa, Medusz). 


somewhat caer conclusion that the mother may become 
the grandmother of her own child, in virtue of the segmentation 
of the ovule into a number of distinct germs, which lead to the 
development of as many distinct individuals of the same sex. 
The same thing apparently occurs when in the human subject 
twins are invested by a common chorion. The subject, however, 
needs further investigation, especially since the researches of 
Dareste, Fol, Klein nenberg, and especially of Rauber, have so 
greatly extended the views of Lereboullet in respect to the mode 
of origin of double monsters among vertebrates or pleuro- 
gastric types. That the production of double monsters occurs 
among hypogastric types in essentially the same way as in the 
vertebrates seems to be pretty conclusively established by Mr. 
Ryder’s observations upon double monstrosities among lobster 
embryos. 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Chinese e in America.—In the “ Proceedings of the Amer- 
ican Antiquarian Society,” vol. iv. p. 62, Mr. Frederick W. Put- 
nam makes a report of jade objects which have a double interest, 
Twelve specimens are reported from Nicaragua and Costa Rica, 
ten of which were ornaments made by cutting celts into halves, 
quarters, or thirds, a portion of the cutting edge of the celt re- 
es on each piece. The method of sawing the objects is 
indicated. The first query, therefore, is, For what reason should 
a celt of such hard material be cut up and perforated? Let us 
suppose that the original blade belonged to the outfit or accou- 
` trement of a celebrated warrior, hunter, or artist. The pieces of 

that blade would become powerful medicine or influential fetishes 
and highly prized. 
— Greater Sron is excited when we read the report of 
_Mr. O. W. Huntington upon the nature and source of the ma- 
terial in these ornaments. It is as follows: “The eia 


1887] Anthropology. 7 97 


which you left with me are unquestionably Chinese Jade, having 
all the characters of that mineral, although the largest specimen 
from Costa Rica is rather unusual in its color, and would not be 
taken for jadeite at sight.” 

No. 33,395, Costa Rica, H.=7. Sp. gr. on 166 prms, 
3.281. A small fragment before the blow-pipe fused readily 
below 3 to a glassy bead. 

No. 33,391, Costa Rica, H. a little under 7. Sp. gr. on 54% 
grms., 3.341. Fused quietly below 3 to transparent glass, not 
acted on by acid. 

No. 32,794, Costa Rica, H. a little under 7. Sp. gr. on 13 grms., 
3.326. Fused quietly below 3 toa transparent glass, not acted 
on by acid. 

he day has gone by for hasty conclusions, and Professor 
Putnam would be one of the last to jump at one. The NATURAL- 
ist will shortly give account of evidences of connection of Costa 
Rica with Polynesia by means of a witness in another kingdom 
of nature. It will now be in order to collate during the next 
ten years the evidence for and against contact between the Orient 
and the western shores of America which will speak for itself. 
* Ornaments on Pottery.—It is thought by some that orna- 
mental patterns on pottery are handed down by savages from 
one generation to another. This is not true of our Indian, who, 
after making a pot, ornaments it with improvised designs. He 
has no pattern-books to guide him. 

Indians of New Mexico accustomed to pottery-making have, 
_ since their contact with whites, given attention to more elaborate 
ornamentation ; just as those of Mexico meet a demand and find 
their way into public and private collections. The most notice- 
able change in technique is the use of animal and human forms, 
which, though not unknown on older pieces, are rare. 

oy forms of pottery and those animal and human designs 
which met the readiest sale have been most improved by a kind 
of natural selection. 

The thirst for antiquities has also stimulated the native artists 
to imitate them. In the city of Mexico an Italian made a good 


the credit of manufacturing clever imitations of ancient pottery. 
e noble custom of exciting in children the love of the 
beautiful through toys and dolls was not neglected by the an- 
cient Mexicans. Even at our day a striking example is the 
manufacture of toys in great profusion at Guadalajara, which are 
sold not only throughout the republic but outside. 
VOL, XXI,—NO. I. 7 


98 General Notes. [Jan. 


They are taken on the backs of men and animals, packed in 
baskets andcrates. These toys are very truthful representations 
of the manners and customs of the people. For the rude appa- 
ratus employed they are truly remarkable. The most interesting 
fact about this ware is the way in which the artist holds on to 
ancient forms, and in the decoration yields himself absolutely to 
the whims and demands of the market. He even borrows from 
the Spaniard the art of silvering and gilding. 

This almost total hiding of the old thing which they are un- 
willing to give up, with paint and forms to which their old art 
was a stranger, is also seen in their gourd vessels. 

The pitchers from Toluca, once simple unnozzled vessels, are 
lost in the large spouts, altered handles, polished surface, elab- 
orate decoration, glazing, and stamping. 

Still one may visit regions in Mexico where the old art still 
survives. The Pames, near the Valle del Maiz, and the Huaste- 
cas, the Indians of Sierra Nola and of Savanito, away from the 
influence of innovations, make their esse as of old, simple in 
orm and decoration.—Edward Palmer 


Head-flattening.— Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A., contributes to 
the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology a paper on the skull of a 
Navajo child. The most interesting feature of this skull is the 
marked parieto-occipital flattening. The plane is somewhat ob- 
lique, and there is not only a flattening but a gentle depression 

over the entire area involved. The bones flexed are the two pa- 
rietals from a little in front of the obelion, and almost the whole 
of the supra-squamous portion of the occipital. Dr. Shufeldt 
has not seen a Navajo skull lacking this feature. Navajo women 
carry their children about strapped on a stiff cradle-board, with 
only a small, narrow pad beneath the occiput. However, it is 
` only the infants of a few months of age that have their heads 
bound down closely to the backboard of their portable cradles. 
Just as soon as they are able to support their heads and have 
acquired sufficient strength to control the movements of this part 
of the body, they are at once allowed considerable more latitude 
in this particular. Indeed, in the case of children who range 
from six months, or at the most eight months, of age, and up- 
wards, I have never observed that the Navajo mothers strap paid 
children’s heads at all. If the ‘strapping of the head during thes 
first few montls of infant life is sufficient to produce this poe 
deformity, then the problem is surely solved once for all. 

Love and Anthropology.—Professor Paolo Mantegazza has 
penne in Milan two volumes on love among the different 

which have been eonan in several foreign maga- 


ar 
o zines. Following his example, Dr. D. G. Brinton has laid the 


n upon the dissecting-table, and given to the world 


o : : = result of I of his work ina — read before sie, Toe Philo- 


» 


1887] Anthropology. 99 


sophical Society on the 5th November, based upon one of Carl 
Abel’s “ Linguistic Essays” (London, 1882). 

The key-note of Dr. Brinton’s study is in his second para- 
graph, in which he says, “ I shall give more particular attention 
to the history and derivation of terms of affection as furnishing 
illustrations of the origin and ‘growth of those altruistic senti- 
ments which are revealed in their strongest expression in the 
emotions of friendship and love. 

“Upon these sentiments are based those acts which unite man 
to man in amicable fellowship, which bind parent to child and 
child to parent, which find expression in loyalty and patriotism; 
which, exhibited between the sexes, direct the greater part of the 
activity of each individual life, mould the form of social relations, 
and control the perpetuation of the species; and which have 
suggested to the purest and clearest intellects both the most ex- 
‘alted intellectual condition of man, and the most sublime defini- 
tion of divinity.” 

In the Old World and in the New, Dr. Brinton finds the prin- 
cipal words expressing love in one of two ruling ideas, the one 
intimating similarity between those loving, the other a wish or 
desire. The former conveys the notion that the feeling is mutual, 
the latter that it is stronger on one side than on the other. 

A third class of words of later growth combines the two senti- 
ments into the loftiest terms of affection. 

The existence of these forms of expression is traced through 
the Algonquin, Nahuatl, Maya, Qquichua, and Tupi-Guarani 
stocks with the following general results: 

1. The original expression of love as revealed in the languages 
of those people was as follows: 

1. Inarticulate cries of emotion (Cree, Maya, Qquichua). 

2. Assertions of sameness or similarity (Cree, Nahuatl, Tupi, 
Arawack). 

3. Assertions of conjunction or union (Cree, Nahuatl, Maya). 

4. Assertions of a wish, desire, or longing (Cree, Cakchiquil, 
Qquichua, Tupi). 


Loochoo, sometimes written Liuchiu, and called by the Japan- 
- ese Riukiu, is the chief island of a group lying in the North Pa- 
cific Ocean between the 24th and 2gth parallels of latitude, and 
forming a chain extending from Formosa to the southernmost 
extremity of Japan. The Chinese accounts state that the island 
of Loochoo was discovered by an exploring expedition sent out — 
by the Emperor Yang Kwang, of the Sui dynasty (a.p. 608), 
which brought back to China one of the inhabitants. It was 
subsequently visited more than once by the Chinese, and early 
in the fourteenth century one of the emperors of the Ming dynasty 
sent some thirty Chinese families to Loochoo to civilize the 
natives, and teach them the arts and customs of China. Each 


100 : General Notes. [ Jan. 


king of Loochoo, upon his accession to the throne, sent special 
envoys to announce the fact to the emperor, and to ask that com- 
missioners be sent to confer investiture upon the new king. 
This was always acceded to, and the reports of some of the com- 
missioners have been published in China and Japan, which are 
exceedingly well written and illustrated. The king of Loochoo 
always used as his seal of state one conferred upon him by the 
Chinese emperor. He also sent envoys at stated times to bear 
tribute and congratulations to the emperor, who generously 
allowed them to bring with them a certain number of the sons of 
the Loochooan nobles to be educated, at the emperor’s expense, 
in the Kwo tsi Kien, or National College, at Peking. This state 
of things continued until after the change in the Japanese govern- 
ment, in 1868, when it was put to an end by the Japanese. The 
Japanese first became acquainted with the Loochooans A.D. 1451, 
when certain Loochooans brought a present of one thousand 
strings of cash (or Chinese copper coins) to the ruling Shogun, 
and from this time the Loochooans traded frequently to Hiogo 
and Kagoshima. Their relations to Japan were always of a 
most friendly character, and their vessels came very frequently 
bearing presents. But, A.D. 1609, Iyehisa, prince of Satsuma, 
fitted out an expedition to sate, captured the king, and 
brought him prisoner to Kagoshima. He was released at the 
end of three years, although the Japanese could not succeed in 
inducing him to abjure his allegiance to the emperor of China, 
yet compelling him to pay an annual tribute to the prince of 
ember as the Japanese histories say, and forbidding him to 
he Chinese of the fact. From this time until 1868, the 
oaio continued to pay tribute both to China and Japan. 
When Commodore Perry wished to insert some provisions re- 
lating to Loochoo in his treaty with the Shogun (“ tycoon”), the 
latter was unable to accede to Perry’s wish, as the Shogun had 
no jurisdiction, Loochoo being considered by the Japanese as a 
dependency of the prince of Satsuma, and Commodore Perry 
(and after him the Hollanders) concluded a separate convention 
with the king or regent of Loochoo. After the surrender, in 
1871, by the oe "= F oes to the Mikado of their 
territorial powers possessions, the Imperial government, 
diaaa Eodéhvò ae asa arene dagcaaenoy of the Prince of Sat- 
suma, commenced to introduce more and more Japanese laws 
and regulations pet Loochoo; and finally, in 1879, notwithstand- 
ing the earnest remonstrances ‘of the Loochooan king’s envoys, 
who appealed is aid to the Chinese minister in Tokio, as well 
as to our own minister, the Hon. John A. Bingham, the Japan- 


oe ese dethroned the king of Loochoo, and brought him with his 


Tokit, where he now is abies a pension from the 
erni nent, who have s suppla native Ooan 


"and the TIST code, 


pee = aa E S ia 
ae: A EN Mana a aaa eel ae tae a, 


1887] Microscopy. IOI 


and have prohibited the Loochooans from paying tribute to 
China or from holding commercial intercourse with that country. 
The course pursued by Japan was deeply resented by China, and 
war between the two countries seemed for a while highly proba- 
ble. Prince Kung and the viceroy Li Hung Chang requested 


cordiality between the governments of China and Japan.—D. 
Bethune McCartee, MD. 
MICROSCOPY.: 

Orienting Objects in Paraffine.—In the Zool Anz., No. 199, 
Selenka has described a method of keeping paraffine melted 
while the contained small objects are being arranged under the 
microscope in any desired position, and then of rapidly cooling 

e paraffine without disturbing the position of the objects. 

Finding it difficult to make tubes such 
as he describes, which should be of such 
shape as to admit of removing the hard- | | 
ened paraffine readily, and at the same 


jects 1 mm. long and much larger, while 

giving a block of paraffine of very regu- 

lar shape and with rectangular sides. ” 
A common flat medicine-bottle is fitted 


with a cork through which two tubes 


may be fastened into a hole drilled into 
the bottle. One of these tubes (A) is 
connected with hot and cold water; the 
_ other (B) is a discharge-pipe for the 
water entering the bottle by (A), and 
raising or lowering its temperature as 
warm or cold water is allowed to flow 
in. On the smooth flat side of the bottle 
four pieces of glass rods or strips are 
cemented fast so as to enclose a rectan- 
gular space (C) which forms a receptacle 
for the melted paraffine. As long as 
the warm water circulates through the 
bottle the pa e remains fluid, and objects in it may be ar-- 
ranged under the microscope by light from above or below, and 
* Edited by Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Milwaukee. 


4 


102 General Notes. [Jan. 


can be oriented with reference to the sides of the paraffine-recep- 
tacle or with reference to lines drawn upon the surface of the 
bottle. 

When the cold water is allowed to enter in place of the warm, 
the paraffine congeals rapidly and may be easily removed as one 
piece. The discharge-pipe should open near the upper surface 
of the bottle, to draw off any air which may accumulate there.— 
E. A. Andrews. 


Orientation of Small Objects for Section-Cutting.—It i 
frequently a very difficult matter to properly orient small objects, 
especially spherical eggs, so that sections may pass through 
any desired plane. In my work on the embryology of the 
common shrimp I have found the following process very con- 
venient. Impregnation with paraffine is accomplished in the 
usual way, and then the eggs (in numbers) in melted paraffine 
. are placed in a shallow watch-crystal. They immediately sink to 
the bottom, and then the whole is allowed to cool. The crystal, 
glass upwards, is now placed on the stage of the microscope and 
the eggs examined under a lens. In this way one can readily 
see exactly how any egg lies, and then with a knife it may be 
cut out with the surrounding paraffine, and in such a way that it 
can readily be fastened to the block in any desired position. 
After all which have dropped in a suitable position are thus cut 
out, the paraffine is again melted, and after Stirring the eggs the 
cutting out is continued as before. —/. S. King. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


The Perception of Space by Disparate Senses.—The follow- 
ing is an abstract of an interesting paper by Mr. Joseph Jastrow 
on the nature of space conceptions, contributed to Mind, vol. xi. 
p- 539. It records the result of experiments made on different 
persons at the viscid ga Reta Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins 
University, Ba 

In order to IONE the problem by experimental methods it 
will be necessary to define accurately such terms as sight, touch, 
motion. The following classification, though provisional and im- 
perfect, will perhaps be found convenient. We can obtain the 
notion of extension: 

= By the stimulation of a definite portion of a sensitive sur- 


(z) Of the retina mae the distance of the rupee. object 


{A Byr ie application of a pair of —_ leaving the inter- 
foe tim (a) it by the E 


1887] Psychology. 103 


(6) By the motion of a point along the skin (see Mind, 40 pp. 
557 ff.); [(@) and (4) may be contrasted as simultaneous and suc- 
cessive. 

II. By the perception of distance between two movable parts 
of the body, e.g. between thumb and forefinger ; 

III. By the free motion of a limb, eg., the arm. 

The operations to be known as reproducing judgments by the 
eye, the hand, and the arm are respectively,—judging lengths by 
fixing the eyes upon them without motion of the eyeball, a 
form |; judging distances between thumb and forefinger, a form 
of Il; and judging distances by guiding a pencil over them with 
a free arm movement, a form of Ill. 

The problem was to compare the judgments of linear extension 
made by these three senses, and to determine their relative accu- 
racy. The method consisted in presenting a definite length to 
one of these senses of the subject, who was then required to 
adjust a second length equal to the first by the use of the same 
or of another sense. The judgments were confined to lengths 
between 5 and 120mm. The lower limit is set by the incon- 
venience of seeing, drawing, and measuring such small lines; 
the upper by the greatest “span” between thumb and forefinger, 
as well as by the longest line distinctly visible without motion of 
the eyeball. More direct methods of testing the relative fitness 
-of these senses and of their memory for absolute lengths were 
also employed. In several of the operations the two sides of 
the body were involved, and it became necessary to study the 
effect of this circumstance. 

RESULTS. 

In judging that a length perceived only by the eye is equal to 
another length perceived either by the eye, hand, or arm, there 
will be an error. The problem consists in tracing the nature and 
extent of this error. 

I. When the receiving and expressing senses are the same. 

(1) If the eye is both receiving and expressing sense, small 
lengths will be underestimated, and large lengths exaggerated, 
the point at which no error is made being at about 38 mm. ; 

(2) If the hand is both receiving and expressing sense, small 
lengths will be exaggerated, and large lengths underestimated, 
the indifference point being at about 50 mm. ; : 

(3) If the arm is both receiving and expressing sense, all 
lengths (within the limits of the experiments) will be exagger- 
ated. 

The conclusions above discussed may be summarized thus : 

When the same acts as the receiving and the expressing sense, 
the error is small (and the process easy). In operations involv- 
ing the use of both sides of the body, an interchange of the 
function of the two sides reverses the results; when one hand 


A | 


104 General Notes. [Jan. 


preferred arm in motion, the left. The error of the eye is less 
than that of the hand; the error of the hand slightly less than 
that of the arm 

II. When the receiving and expressing senses are different. 

(1) If the eye is the expressing sense, and (a) the hand the 
receiving sense, 

lengths are greatly underestimated, the error decreasing as 

the length increases, ‘ 

If the eye is the expressing sense, and (4) the arm the receiving 
sense 

All lengths are greatly naderestimated, the error decreasing as 
the length increases. By combining the two conclusions we see 
that,— 

If the eye is the expressing sense, all lengths are greatly un- 
BREI the error decreasing as the length increases. 

2 he hand is the expressing sense, and (a) the eye the 
oe sense 

All lengths are Poan exaggerated, the error decreasing as 
the length increase 

If the hand is the expressing sense, and (4) the arm the re-. 
ceiving sense 

All lengths are greatly exaggerated, the error daaag as 
the length increases. 

If the hand is the expressing sense, all lengths are greatly 
exaggerated, the error decreasing as the length increas 

3) If the arm is the expressing sense, and (a) the ı Pa the re- 
ceiving sense, 

All lengths are erally exaggerated, the error decreasing as 
the length increase 

If the arm is the expressing sense, and (4) the hand the re- 
ceiving sen 

All lengths are greatly underestimated, the error decreasing as 
the length increases. 

A. The error decreases as the length (to be reproduced) in- 
creases. 

This means that pope the limits of f the ae caprinientod 
ane) a larger lengt aller 


i If reproducing one sense by another results in an exag- 
geration (or underestimation), then reproducing the second sense 
by the first will share in an underestimation (or exaggeration) to 
far the same 

E A third ee ‘asunies law remains to be noticed. The 
_ processe involved. in the soare aaa we experiments can be 
ee ented thus length presente Ai EH anc OE 

_ les a oertain impression omy bain Ue the problem, 


1887] Scientific News. ` 105 


then, is to reproduce the objective stimulation, which shall give 
me an equivalent sensation. The two operations being simulta- 


sensations, involving one brain-centre; the operation is easy and 
the error small. When the expressing sense differs from the 
` receiving sense, heterogeneous sensations must be compared, 
involving two brain-centres,—a difficult operation with a large 
error. The large error seems to be due to a looseness of asso- 
ciation between heterogeneous space-centres ; it is a path of high 
resistance. Why this error is in the direction in which it is, and 
not in the opposite direction, depends on some fundamental rela- 
tion of the senses involved, still to be discovered. For the pres- 
ent the fact that the same objective spacial stimulation has a 
different value for the several space-senses is to be emphasized. 
Our conclusions, then, are (1) that the memory for absolute 
measurements is not quite accurate, the order of accuracy being 
sight, span, motion; (2) that the operation probably consists in 
matching the reproduction with the homogeneous mental recol- 
lection ; (3) that the visual inch is too short, the span- and motion- 
inch too long. These conclusions evidently favor the point of 
view of law C. 

D. Finally, a comparison of the error in reproducing by the 
same and by a different sense leads to the very important conclu- 
sion that the former operation is an accurate and easy one, the 
latter an inaccurate and difficult one. The difficulty manifests 
itself as a feeling of discomforting uncertainty and lack of confi- 
dence in one’s judgments, and a great susceptibility of fatigue. 
The connection between senses seems to be a loose one. 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Engelmann, of Leipzig, announces a continuation of the well- 
known Bibliotheca Zoologica of Carus and Engelmann, bring- 
ing the work down to 1880. The former work contained a cata- 


ation of the Bibliotheca fills in othe gap between the Anz 

and the Bibliotheca of Carus and Engelmann, and thus prs in 
e hands of zoologists a complete list of works on zoology. 

This continuation will be edited by Dr. Taschenberg, of Halle, 


106 Scientific News. [Jan. 


and will make about twelve parts of three hundred and twenty 
pages each, and is issued at a price of seven marks per part. 


— Gustav Haller, a student of the mites, died May 1, 1886, at 
Berne. 

— George Busk, a well-known English zoologist, whose 
writings on the Polyzoa and Hydrozoa are standards, died in 
London, August 10, 1886, in his seventy-eighth year. 


— Students of the Coleoptera will miss Maurice Girard, a 
French entomologist, who died in August, 1886, aged sixty-four ; 
and even more Baron Edgar von Harold, who, with Gemminger, 
compiled a most valuable catalogue of the Coleoptera of the 
world. He died in Munich, August 1, 1886. 


r. A. C. Oudemans, of Utrecht, has been made director of 
the 2 Tabora Gardens at the Hague. His place as Conor eee 
of the Zoological Museum of Utrecht has been filled by C. H 
van Herwerden. 


— Karl Plötz, a student of the Lepidoptera, died at Greifswald, 
August 12, 1886, aged seventy-three 


— H. C. Weinkauf, a ¢onchologist, died at Kreuznach, August 
14, 1886. 

— Professor A. Hyatt’s “ Larval Theory of the Origin of Tis- 
sues” has been translated into Pelletan’s Journal de Micrographie. 


— Dr. Alois von Alth, the mineralogist and paleontologist of 
Cracow, died November 5, 1886. He was professor of miner- 
alogy in the University of Ceao. 


— Professor L. Dieulafait, professor of geology at Marseilles, 
died recently. Dr. ek ‘of Lyons, has received a call to fill 
e chair thus left vacan 


— Mr. Edward J. Sn the eminent student of Crustacea, has 
been forced by continued ill health to resign his position as as- 
sistant in the British Museum 

— To the French desire for conquest and colonization is to be 
attributed the death of the celebrated physiologist Paul Bert. He 
was born at Auxerre, France, October 17, 1833. In 1867 he 


gran ze o 
sand dollars. In 1878 he became president of the Biological 
Society of France, and in 1882 was made a member of the Acad- 
emy of Sciences. ‘He held various political offices, and exhibited 
_ such administrative ability that he was appoin inted governor of 
_ the newly-conquered province of Tonkin. He died at Hanoi, 
_ November 11, 1886. 
~ —A new Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde i is 
annot rpe Tio eo ouse of Gustav Fischer, Jena. 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 107 


It is to be issued in weekly numbers at an annual cost of twenty- 
eight marks, and is to concern itself with the phenomena of veg- 
etable and animal parasitism in the widest sense. Dr. Oscar 
Uhlworm, Cassel, is the editor, Professor Leuckart and Dr. 
Loeffler being associated with him. Professor R. Ramsay 
Wright, Toronto, has undertaken to furnish a report to the new 
journal of papers published on this continent referring to animal 
parasites, and will be obliged to authors for extras of such papers. 


— At the last meeting of the Regents of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution a number of changes were introduced into its organiza- 
ion. Professor Samuel Langley, of Alleghany, Pa., was elected 
assistant secretary, and Mr. G. Brown Goode was made second 
assistant secretary. These appointments open upa long future 
of prosperity to the institution, other things being equal. 


— It is not generally known that it is to the late General John 
A. Logan that the United States owes its Geological Survey. 
He introduced and had passed the first bill for this object, and 
Dr. F. V. Hayden was sent, under its provisions, to Nebraska, 
the field of its first operations. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


Indiana Academy of Science.—The second annual meeting 
of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in the court-house at 
Indianapolis, December 29 and 30, 1886. The sessions were pre- 
sided over by the president, Professor D. S. Jordan. Twenty-five 
new members were elected after their applications had passed 
through the hands of the nominating committee. The Academy 
was called to order at ten o’clock A.M., December 29, and opened 
with prayer by Rev. A, R. Benton. J. C. Branner, S. Coulter, 
and P 


by J. M. Coulter; “The Mildews of Indiana,” by J. N. Rose; 
“The Chlorophyll Bands of Spirogyra,” by S. Coulter; “ Out- 
line of a Course in Science Study based on Evolution,” by Lillie 
J. Martin; “ The Moss Leaf,” by C. R. Barnes; “ Additions to 
the Flora of Jefferson County, Ind.,” by George C. Hubbard ; 
“Our Blind Mice,” by E. R. Quick; “Notes on the House- 
Building: Habits of the Muskrat,’ by Amos W. Butler; “A 
Curious Habit of the Red-headed Woodpecker,” by O. P. Hay; 
“ Notes on Indiana Ornithology,” by A. W. Butler; “ The Work 
of the A. O. U. Committee on Bird Migration,” by B. W. Ever- 


108 Proceedings of Scientific Societies, [Jan 


mann; “The Higher Classification of the Amphibia,” by O. P. 
Hay; “Some Reptiles and Amphibians that appear to be Rare in 
Indiana,” by O. P. Hay; “ Some Reptiles and Amphibians that are 
to be looked for in Indiana,” by O. P. Hay; “ Notes on the Winter 


The following papers were on the programme for the after- 
noon: “ Notes on Birds observed in Carroll County, Ind.,” by B. 
W. Evermann; “Review of Diplodus and Lagodon,” by C. H. 
Eigenmann and Elizabeth G. Hughes ; “ Review of the American 


Ç: 

“The Fishes of the Wabash and some of its Tributaries,” by O. 
P. Jenkins; “ The Relation of Latitude to the Number of Ver- 
tebre in Fishes,’ by D. S. Jordan; “ Elagatis pinnulatis at the 
East End of Long Island Sound,” by S. E. Meek ; “ Ospradium 
in Crepidula, by H. L. Osborn; “Notes on the Acrididæ of 
Bloomington, Ind., with Descriptions of Four New Species,” by 

H. Bollman; “A Remarkable Case of Longevity in the 
Longicorn Beetle, Eburia quadrigeminata Say,’ by Jerome 
McNeill; “ Some Biological Studies of Lixus macer Say, an 
E concavus > by F- M. Webster; s Descriptions of Four 
New Species of Worinpodi from the United States,” by Jerome 
McNeil; “ New North American Myriapods, chiefly from Bloom- 
ington, Ind.,” by C. H: Bollman; “ The Teaching of Entomology 
in the High Schools,” ie: Jerome McNeill; “ The Geodetic Sur- 
vey in Indiana,” by J. L. Campbell ; “ Recent Progress in Seismol- 


C: 
Branner. At night President Jordan delivered his address on 
“ The Dispersion of Fresh-Water Fishes.” 

Thursday the following papers were presented: “ On the Oxi- 
dation of Para-xylene Sulphamide by Potassium Ferricyanide,” 
by W. A. Noyes and Charles Walker; “ The Scientific Study of 
Psychic Phenomena,” by H. W. Wiley ; ; “Causes of the Varia- 
tion of Sucrose in Sorghum,” by H. W. Wiley; ‘ Preliminary 


Drift in Kentucky and Indiana,” py 4.6 Branner ; “The Deep 
Well at Bloomington, Ind.,” by J. C. Branner; “ Town Geology 
-—What it is and What it Might be,” by V. Ç. Alderson; “ On 
the Thysanura,” by R. F. Hight; “ Natural Gas and Petroleum,” 
A. J. Phinney; “ The Geology of vago County, Ind.,” by J. 
T Scovell; “ The Niagara River,” by J. T. Scovell; “ The Zone 
of Minor Planets,” by Daniel Kirkwood; “ The Bearing of the” 
Lebanon eds on ring ag by W. Dennis; Ks The Surface 


ria rugosa,” by A. L eT, “ The Physical Geography of 
Decatur County, Ind., during the Niagara Period,” by 
Shannon; “ Estimation of the Carbonic Acid in the joe 
: a Van Noa a and KE, eines “ The New Alkaloid, Co- 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 109 


caine,” by P. S. Baker ; * ‘The Nation—the Subject Matter of 
Political Science,” by A. oodford ; “The Manner of ips 
Deposit of the Glacial Drift, and the Formation of Lakes 


. P. Hay. 
The following officers were elected for the ies year: Presi- 
dent, John M. Coulter; Vice-Presidents, J. P ohn, 
Branner, f #5 semini Secretary, Amos W. Bus. Treas- 
urer, O. P. Jenkin 

The Academy will hold its spring meeting May Ig and 20, at 
a place to be selected by the Executive Board. C. R. Barnes 
and B. W. Evermann were selected to arrange the programmes 
for the meetings of 18 


Boston Society of Natural History, 1886.—December 1.— 
Mr. S. R. Bartlett reviewed Ranvier’s anatomical studies of some 
Mammalian Salivary Glands, and Professor W. T. Sedgwick spoke 
of the Contractile Vacuoles of Para meoecium, etc. Mr. W. L 
Harris exhibited some rare (living) Amblystomas, and an aber- 
rant form of the Newt. 

December 15.—Dr. Edward G. Gardiner reviewed recent re- 
searches on a Third (rudimentary) Eye in Lizards, and Professor 
W. M. Davis discussed the Mechanical Origin of the Triassic 
Monoclinal in the Connecticut Valley. The Section of Ento- 
mology met on Wednesday evening, December 22 


New York Academy of Sciences.— Monday evening, Decem- 
ber 6, 1886.—Mr. Seth E. Meek presented a paper entitled “ The 
Fishes of Cayuga Lake. 

December 13.—A series of a hundred lantern views, illus- 
trative of the paper lately read before the Academy upon the 
subject of Earthquakes, were exhibited by. Dr. J. S. Newberry. 


Biological Society of Washington.—Saturday evening, Oc- 

tober 16, 1886.—The following communications were read : 
F. H. Knowlton, “ Fascination in Ranunculus and Rudbeckia ;” 
F.W 


November 27.—The following communications were made : 
Mr. William H. Seaman, “ Notes on Marsilia quadrifolia (illus- 
trated).” Mr. P. L. Jouy,“ Observations made during a Journey 
through Corea.” Mr. Lester F. Ward, “ Autumnal Hues of the 
Columbian Flora” Dr. C. Hart Merriam, “Contributions to 
Te American Mammalogy. Description of a New Species 
of Bat.’ 

December 11.—The following communications were made: 
Dr. Theobald See a Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Sa- 
prophytes. r. F. A. Lucas,“ On the Osteology of the Spotted 
Tinamou, Sikes maculosa.” Mr. C. D .Walcott, “ Tracks found 

on Strata of Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) Age.” Dr. Frank 


IIO Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Jan. 1887 


Baker, “The Foramen of Magendie.” Dr. C. Hart Merriam, 
“Contributions to North American nie ee cs Description 
of a New Sub-species of Pocket-Gophe 


Appalachian Mountain Club. —Special meeting, Thursday 
evening, December 16, 1886.—A semi-social meeting was held 
from 7.30 to 10.30. Photographs were on the tables for exami- 
nation. During the evening a paper entitled “A Trip to Nor- 
way and the North Cape” was presented by Miss Marion Talbot. 
Lantern views of Norwegian scenery were shown. Rev. John 
Worcester showed lantern views of scenery on the Presidential 
Range, north of EOE 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VOL. XXI. FEBRUARY, 1887. No. 2. 


MORE ABOUT THE SEA-HORSE. 
BY SAMUEL LOCKWOOD. 


HE July number of the American NATURALIST for 1867 
contains my article, “The Sea-Horse and its Young.” 
Although the result of a long study of living specimens of this 
eccentric fish, yet some questions remained unanswered. At the 
time mentioned I was living at Keyport, on Raritan Bay. Early 
in 1870 my residence was changed to Freehold, fourteen miles 
inland, hence it has happened that specimens sent me have suc- 
cumbed before reaching my home. A happy exception occurred 
November 1, 1884, in the arrival from Shark River of a fine large 
female Hippocampus heptagonus Rafin. As the subject of my 
article in 1867 was a male, I prized my new pet highly. 

With an aquarium devoted entirely to this specimen, I set 
about studying her peculiarities. She had the same habit of 
converting her tail into a prehensile organ, and so would coil 
the tip around a tuft of sea-lettuce, and with the pretty dorsal 
fin in movement like an undulating ribbon, would sway to and 
fro, keeping the body erect. The sight of the sea-horse alive in 
the water is always pretty, although quite grotesque, for its ac- 
tion differs so greatly from that of other fishes, which are prone, 
and usually move in a line parallel to the bed of the water, 
while, as a child would express it, the sea-horse swims standing 
up on its tail. The crested head is erect,—the action though stiff 
is graceful, not unlike the knightly steeds on the chess-board, 
very quaint yet comely. ; 

VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 8 


112 More about the Sea-Horse, [ Feb. 


I had through all those years desired to see the giving of the 
spawn by the female and the taking of it by the male; for, as 
shown in that article of 1867, the male Hippo is not only father 
but nurse to the young. In his front, just a little higher than the 
vent, is a sac, into which he receives the eggs of the female, and 
in which he hatches them. My desire was to see the method of 
taking the eggs into this pouch. Did he put them in or did she? 
Despairing now of ever seeing them in apposition, I must de- 
scribe the act as I think it does take place. 

I cannot believe that the twain are without emotion, since it is 
true of some of the higher fishes that the love-season calls out 
their intelligence to its highest manifestation. Suppose in our 
latitude it is July. A pair of these Hippocampi meet. They 
curl their prehensile tails about each other and assume an erect 
position, face to face. , The female emits her eggs in a slow 
stream immediately over the pouch, which opens and closes at 
the top. The motion of the mouth of this sac is that of suc- 
tion, thus the eggs are actually drawn into it. There they are 
patiently hatched and also nourished, as shown in the paper 
referred to. This apposition of the sexes, to be sure, is hypoth- 
esis, yet I think it will prove to be true. At any rate it is the 
outcome of long and patient thought, and is perfectly consistent 
with observation of habit. 

When the young are ready for eviction, the pouch, which on - 
receiving the eggs was fat and thick, has become flaccid and 

thin. Its adipose lining has been absorbed by the young fishes. 
So badly wasted is the pouch that muscular action sufficient to 
expel the brood is impossible. The father-fish evicts his charge 
in the following way. Hè gets himself in an erect position along- 
side of some object, a stick, stone, shell, or plant, either hook- 
ing the end of his tail under it, or in some way getting hold by 
its prehensile tip. Then stiffening the whole body and keeping 
it erect, he leans upon the object and brings himself down 
against it with a jerky movement; this rubs up the pouch, push- 
ing out some of its occupants. Bids: ising eeacatediy until 
the whole brood is forced into the water. 
: _ Now, it is observable that an anal fin would be greatly in 


t 


1887] ; More about the Sea-Horse. 113 


is not in the way. In fact, it may be that she utilizes it at the 
time of emitting her spawn, as she could produce a gentle eddy 
of the water in the direction of the male’s pouch. 

I found by the microscope that diatoms were-being generated 
in the tank, and I fancied that my pet was feeding on them, for 
in all my devices I did not succeed in feeding her myself. She 
would show a movement in her tubular snout which looked like 
sucking something in. Sometimes she would stretch herself on 
the bottom of the tank and apply the tip of her nozzle in a way 
thàt seemed to me like selecting by sight. And what a cunning 
look! as with sacerdotal steadfastness of purpose one eye was 
turned towards heaven and the other kept upon the earth. Cer- 
tainly her food was microscopic, and in the hunt her optical 
application was binocular or monocular at will. 

I noticed with some concern that the peculiar scales which 
covered its body, and looked not. unlike plate armor, were be- 
coming green. It proved that a growth of micrococci had set 
in, and was rapidly spreading over her. I was quite solicitous 
about it; for it would hardly do for me to clean it, so tender is 
the little creature. Its tank had become badly infested with 
these unicelled alge. For the purpose of keeping up a supply 
of microscopic life for its food, besides the little two-gallon 
aquarium, I kept two specie jars going, and would transfer it 
to them, so that it could have freshness of food. Deciding to 
clean up the aquarium, I put it in one of the jars. It quite en- 
joyed the change, and to my surprise performed a series of move- 
ments on the clean sand, which turned out to be successful efforts 
to scour off the green parasitical slime. It needed patience, but 
that, with perseverance, did the work. 

She was in a few days put back into her aquarium. The . 
little handling necessary always begat a discernible clucking as 
of terror. It was really a species of snapping of the lips of the 
tubular snout. I heard it often, and under different circumstances, 
and thought I could detect three intonings,—one which was ex- 
cited by terror, one denoting a pleasurable emotion, as when in 
play, and a third when quite still, perhaps faintly like the purring 
of another pet. But perhaps my intense sympathy with the 

e creature may give color to these interpretations, 
Alas, there was now too much ground for sympathy,—a ter- 
_ rible malady had begun to take hold of the poor thing, The face 


” 


114 The Taconic Question Restated. 4 [Feb. 


took on a comical aspect. On each side rose a swelling as if 
she had the mumps. With a hand-lens I found that these were 
blisters, white vesicles, and so buoyant as to annoy her by pro- 
ducing eccentric movements. I contrived to pierce them with a 
needle, and so to let out the confined gas. This gave immediate 
relief. But they came again, and by and by my surgery did not 
avail. They increased, and the buoyancy would raise it to the 
surface, and the little sufferer despite all help would float. And 
- so it was on the last day of February at an early hour I found 
poor Hippie afloat on her beam ends and dead. I had her alive 
just four months, and the above is but a tithe of what might be 
told of her pretty ways. 


THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. 
BY T. STERRY HUNT. 


§ 1. So much obscurity and misconception still exist in the 
minds of most geologists regarding what have been called the Ta- 
conic rocks, that it seems desirable to set forth clearly, and more 
concisely than has yet been done, the principal facts in the history 
of the two wholly distinct and very unlike groups of strata which 
- have hitherto been included under this title, and which occupy 
very important places in American stratigraphy as well as in 
economic mineralogy. For a clear understanding of these strata, 
which, as originally described, lie between the crystalline schists. 
of western New England and the continuous area of rocks be- 
longing to the Ordovician (Chazy-Loraine) period, found along 
the Hudson and Champlain valleys, we must go back to the 
writings of Amos Eaton, in which we find, as early as 1832,a 
concise but complete exposition of the great stratigraphical prob- 
lems presented by the region in question. The gneisses, with 
hornblendic and micaceous schists, of the Atlantic belt were then 

by Eaton as the slaty or argillaceous member, consti- 
tuting the lowest division, of his triple series of Primitive rocks; 


r a ad were decbered by him to be there followed by the second or 


cious, and the third or calcareous member of the same series. 
ies DOS Granular. Quartz-rock and the Granular Lime- 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 115 


rock, by which names he designated the quartzite and the crys- 
talline limestone of the Taconic (or Taghkonic) Hills in western 
New England. 

§ 2. Above the Primitive, Eaton placed the Transition series, in- 
cluding, like the last, three divisions: First, at the base, a schistose 
or so-called argillaceous member, named by him the Transition 
Argillite, and representing in this second series the gneisses and 
crystalline schists of the Primitive. Second, a silicious member, 
consisting of a great group chiefly of sandstones and conglomer- 
ates, comprehensively described by him as millstone-grit, rubble, 
and graywacke-slate, the whole representing in the Transition 
series the Quartz-rock of the Primitive, and called the First 
Graywacke or Transition Graywacke, a term borrowed from 
German geologists. Third, a limestone named by him the Sparry 
Lime-rock, and representing in this series the Granular Lime- 
rock of the Primitive. Eaton insisted upon the existence of a 


' stratigraphical break, and a discordance, between the Transition 


Argillite and the overlying Transition Graywacke, the distribu- 
tion of which latter was described in detail. It was said to be 
“seen resting on the Argillite in Rensselaer County, where its 
subdivisions form a ridge which extends from Canada through 
the State of Vermont, and Washington, Rensselaer, and Columbia 
Counties in New York.” The conglomerates of this Transition 
Graywacke were further said to make “the highest ridges between 
the Massachusetts line and the Hudson.” 

§ 3. To the west of Lake Champlain, along the base of the Ma- 
comb Mountains (since called the Adirondacks), and resting upon 
the Primitive gneiss, Eaton found what he called the Calciferous 
Sand-rock (a magnesian limestone, sometimes holding gypsum), 
which he declared to be the equivalent, in this region, of the Sparry 
Lime-rock, and to constitute, with its overlying Metalliferous 
Lime-rock (a term borrowed from Bakewell), the third or cal- 
careous division of the Transition series. The sandstone since 
known as the Potsdam, which is often wanting at the base of the 
fossiliferous limestones in this region, was apparently unknown to | 
him. It is here to be noted that Eaton, unlike many of his suc- 
cessors, did not confound these limestones, nor their stratigraphi- 
cal equivalent to the east of the Hudson—the Sparry Lime-rock 
—with the crystalline limestone of. Western Massachusetts, but 
recognized the fact that this, the Primitive Lime-rock, together 


116 = The Taconic Question Restated. [Feb. 


with the Primitive Quartz-rock and the Transition Argillite, and 
the great Transition Graywacke, were all alike wanting in the 
Adirondack region between the gneisses, constituting the lowest 
member of the Primitive, and the fossiliferous limestones, the 
highest member of the Transition series. 

§ 4. Above this last he recognized a third, or Lower Secondary 
series, having, like the others, for its inferior member an Argillite 
or Graywacke-slate, and for its second or silicious member a 
sandstone and conglomerate. These two members were by 
Eaton united under the name of the Second Graywacke, which 
he declared to be lithologically very much like the First or 
Transition Graywacke, but distinguishable therefrom by the fact 
that it is above instead of below the Transition limestones, and 
is, moreover, overlaid, in its turn, by the Lower Secondary lime- 
stones. These comprised the Geodiferous Lime-rock and the 
Corniferous or Cherty Lime-rock, with its included layers of what 
he called “stratified horn-rock,’ in which two subdivisions we 
at once recognize the Niagara and Upper Helderberg limestones 
of James Hall. In each of these triple series Eaton recognized, 
in ascending order, an argillaceous or schistose, a silicious, and 
a calcareous member. 

All of the above details of his classification may be gathered 
from Eaton’s “ Geological and Agricultural Survey of the Erie 
Canal” (1824), and in the second edition of his “ Geological Text- 
book” (1832). They were set forth by the present writer, in 
1878, in his volume on Azoic Rocks (“ Report E of Second Geo- 
logical Survey of Pennsylvania”); and more fully, with a tabular 
view, in an essay on “The Taconic Question,” in the first and 
second volumes of the “Transactions of the Royal Society of 
Canada,” in 1883 and 1884, which is reprinted, with considerable 
additions, in his “ Mineral Physiology and Physiography” (pages _ 
` §17-686) in 1886. The student who follows the painful history 
of the half-century of controversy which has been required to 
bring order out of the confusion in which his immediate suc- 
- cessors involved this great problem of American geognosy, can 
_. only regard with reverence the wonderful insight by which Amos 

3 sche was enabled, at this early period, to comprehend the com- 

_ plex stratigraphy of the Hudson and Champlain valleys and the 


: = T When, sre later, in 1837, a systematic geological 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 117 


survey of the State of New York was begun, W. W. Mather was 
charged with the Southern district, including the region east of 
the Hudson, while to Ebenezer Emmons, a pupil of Eaton, was 
given the Northern district, to the west of Lake Champlain; 
Conrad, and after him Lardner Vanuxem, having the Central 
or intermediate district, including the counties of Oswego, Oneida, 
Herkimer, and Montgomery, and extending southeastward along 
the valley of the Mohawk to the Southern district. 

Along the base of the Adirondacks, Emmons now found, in 
some parts, between the Transition Lime-rock of Eaton and the 
underlying Primitive crystalline schists, a granular or compact 
quartzite, which he called the Potsdam sandstone. For the rest, 
he did no more than confirm the determinations of his master, 
retaining the Birdseye or Encrinal Lime-rock of the latter as a 
subdivision of the Metalliferous Lime-rock, to the upper and 
lower portions of which he gave the names of Trenton and 
Chazy ; while in the succeeding Second Graywacke he recognized 
as subdivisions, the Utica slate, the Loraine shale, the Gray or 
Oneida, and the Red or Medina sandstone, all of which, with the 
inclusion of the Potsdam sandstone, he called the Champlain 
_ division of the New York system. The last two members of 
this were, however, subsequently joined to what was called the 
Ontario division of the same system. 

§6. The metamorphic hypothesis was then in fashion with some 
American geologists, and had already been applied by Nuttall, as 
early as 1822, to the rocks of Southeastern New York, the 
gneisses and crystalline limestones of which he supposed to have 
been formed by a subsequent alteration of portions of the adja- 
cent graywacke and fossiliferous limestones. Mather, in exten- 
sion of this notion, conjectured that the Primitive Quartz-rock, 
the Primitive Lime-rock, and the Transition Argillite of Eaton 
might, in like manner, be the results of an alteration of the mem- 
bers of the Champlain division of Emmons, excluding the upper 
sandstones ; and in his final Report in 1843, on the Geology of the 
Southern district of New York, further maintained that not only 
the divisions of Eaton just mentioned, but the crystalline rocks 
in that State lying to the south and east of the Highland range, 
comprising Westchester and New York Counties, and embracing 

Manhattan Island, like the similar rocks of western New Eng- 
land, were “nothing more than the rocks of the Champlain. d di- 


118 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb, 


vision, modified greatly by metamorphic agencies and by the 
intrusion of granitic and trappean aggregates.” The passage ~ 
between the unaltered and the altered rocks was supposed to 
offer a gradual transition, and it was asserted that “no well- 
marked line of distinction can be drawn, as they blend into each 
other by insensible degrees of difference,’ or what have since 
been called-successive “ grades of metamorphism.” These same 
- notions were soon afterwards adopted by Logan for the crystal- 
line rocks of the Atlantic belt in Canada, and for a time were 
extended by H. D. and W. B. Rogers to the gneisses and crystal- 
line schists of the White Mountains, 

§ 7. A similar view was also adopted for Pennsylvania by H. D. 
Rogers, then engaged in a geological survey of that State, who 
maintained with Mather that the Primitive Quartz-rock, the 
Primitive Lime-rock, and the Transition Argillite of Eaton, which 
are prolonged into Pennsylvania, were but the altered representa- 
tives of the Potsdam sandstone with the succeeding limestones 
and the Utica slate and Loraine shale of the Adirondack region. 
These silicious, calcareous, and argillaceous groups were named 
by him respectively the Primal, Auroral, and Matinal divisions 
of the palzozoic series, and were also called Nos. I., IL, and III. 
in his notation. ‘hese he supposed to appear in a more or less 
` metamorphosed and crystalline condition in the southeastern 
part of Pennsylvania; while farther westward in the State they 
occur in their unchanged fossiliferous condition, as in the Adiron- 
dack region, and are there conformably overlaid by the Oneida 
and Medina sandstones, which constitute together the Levant 
division, or No. IV. in the nomenclature of H. D. Rogers. 

§ 8. The First Graywacke of Eaton, which in Eastern New 

= York overlies the Transition Argillite, regarded by Mather as the 
altered representative of the Utica slate, was supposed by him to 
be the succeeding Loraine, Oneida, and Medina subdivisions. — 
He thus denied the distinctness of the great belt which Eaton 
had traced from Canada, through Vermont,-along the line be- 
tween Massachusetts and New York, and confounded it with the 

lithologically similar Second Graywacke. 

The areas of this First Graywacke, which in the southeastern 

part of Pennsylvania occur above the so-called “altered Auroral 


ae but below the horizon of the typical Levant or 


by H. D. Rogers to be a part 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 11g 


of the Matinal, and were thus virtually made a part of the Second 
Graywacke. It is not too much to say that this denial by Mather 
of the existence of the First or Transition Graywacke, and the 
confounding of the great belt of this (which stretches from the 
lower St. Lawrence to the Susquehanna, and beyond) with the 
Second Graywacke, was a great and fatal error in the stratig- 
raphy of the whole region, from the consequences of which 
American geology has not yet escaped. It was, however, a legiti- ` 
mate consequence of the hypothesis of regional metamorphism 
applied by Mather to the great underlying series consisting, in 
descending order, of the Transition Argillite, the Primitive Lime- 
rock, and the Primitive Quartz-rock of Eaton, and of his attempt 
to identify these with the members of the Champlain division. 

$9. Rocks belonging to the Second Graywacke are indeed found 
upon the banks of the Hudson River, and Mather had already, 
in his fourth annual report, given the name of Hudson slates to 
what he rightly regarded as the equivalent of those named 
Loraine shale by Emmons, and Pulaski shales by Vanuxem, in 
their respective districts. The latter, however, noticed in the 
Central district of New York besides these shales (which, in its 
northwest portion, are directly overlaid by the Gray or Oneida 
sandstone) an underlying series of greenish argillites and sand- 
stones, including some graptolitic shales, but destitute of the 
fauna of the upper division. The lower, named by him the 
Frankfort division, appear in the southeast part of the district 
without the overlying Pulaski or Loraine division, the two being, 
according to Vanuxem, “ not co-extensive with each other,” and 
so distinct that he insisted on treating them separately, inclining 
to the opinion that they ought not to be put together in local 
geology. He further declared that they are separate in Pennsyl- 
vania, the characteristic Pulaski shales appearing in the Nippe- 
nose valley west of the Susquehanna, while the Frankfort slates — 
and sandstones are seen to the east of the North Mountain in 
the Kittatinny or Appalachian valley, and include the roofing- 
slates of the Delaware. These rocks in the latter region are, in 
fact, the Transition Argillite and the First Graywacke, which 
latter is there seen, in some localities, resting upon the roofing- 
slates, though in many others, in the absence of this First Gray- 
wacke, the same Argillite is directly overlaid by the Levant 
sandstone of the Second Graywacke. ` 


120 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb. 


Vanuxem, having in view the contradiction between the 
opinions of Eaton and Emmons on the one hand and those of 
Mather on the other, suggested that to the lower or Frankfort 
division might belong the thick masses of strata “ of controverted 
age” along the Hudson valley. Notwithstanding the evidence 
put forward by him as to the distinctness of these two divisions, 
Vanuxem, apparently for the purpose of avoiding controversy, 
included both the Frankfort and the Pulaski divisions under the 
collective name of the “ Hudson River group.” That these two 
divisions were, moreover, supposed by him to be associated with 
a still older series lithologically resembling them appears from 
his language when he wrote of “the difficulty of separating or 
distinguishing the slaty and schistose members of the Hudson 
River group from those of greater age with which, along their 
eastern border, the two [divisions] are more or less, really or 
‘apparently, blended.” In fact, as appears from the observations 
of Vanuxem in Pennsylvania, and as will be further shown else- 
where, the Hudson River group of Vanuxem included alike the 
Transition Argillite, the First Graywacke, and portions of the 
Second Graywacke. The subsequent palzontological studies of 
James Hall in New York for many years, however, had chiefly 
to do with the uppermost division of this heterogeneous assem- 
blage, and hence the name of Hudson River group has come to 
be very generally regarded as synonymous with Loraine shales. 

§ 10. Meanwhile, Emmons came forward as the champion of 
the views of Eaton, and while his field of official labor did not 
extend to the regions occupied by the rocks now in question, de- 
clared in his final Report on the Geology of the Northern District 
of New York, that some account of them was necessary to a 
correct understanding of the relations of the Champlain division. 
A curious contradiction is, however, apparent in the volume in 
| tion, in certain parts of which the views of Mather are set 

forth, while in others Emmons remains faithful to the teachings 
of his master, which he ever afterwards followed. As regards 
the great belt called by Eaton the First Graywacke, we find, in 
the account of the Champlain division, described as belonging to 


ae 3 _ the Pulaski or Loraine horizon, the belt of red and purple slates 
~ with red sandstones extending “through the higher parts of 


| Columbia, Rensselaer, and Washington Counties” in New York, 
= onward Mo Vermont into Canada.” Aan we are 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 121 


told that portions of this same belt belong to the Loraine sub- 
division and the succeeding Gray sandstone, and that these last 
rocks are represented by the sandstones of Burlington and Col- 
chester, Vermont, and also by those used in the fortifications of 
the city of Quebec. This whole Graywacke belt, as traced out 
by Eaton, is thus here referred, in accordance with the view of 
Mather, to the horizon of the Second Graywacke. 

In another place in this same volume we find a discussion of 
the relations of the Transition or Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton to 
the Primitive Lime-rock, which in some sections apparently over- 
lies it to the eastward, in which it is suggested that the latter 
may be younger rather than older than the Sparry Lime-rock.* 
This argument has lately been cited by J. D. Dana against the 
views maintained by Emmons in other chapters of the same 
volume, in which are set forth the teachings of Eaton that the 
Primitive Quartz-rock, the Primitive Lime-rock, and the Tran- 
sition Argillite are, contrary to the hypothesis of Mather, inferior 
not only to the Trenton limestone, but to the whole New York 
_ palzozoic system, and are, moreover, directly overlaid by the 

Graywacke series in question, which is in turn succeeded by 
the Sparry Lime-rock. The whole of these, from the base of the 
Primitive Quartz-rock, are described in detail by Emmons in his 
volume of 1842, in chapters vii., viii., and ix., as belonging to a 
distinct system, for which the name of the Taconic system was 
then proposed. This Report of Emmons can thus be quoted 
against himself, as has been done by his opponents, for the pas- 
sages already cited, which are introduced in other parts of the 
same volume, set forth the wholly opposed views of Mather as 
to the rocks in question. The secret history of these curious 
contradictions in this officially published Report on the Geology 
of the Northern District of New York, and of the persistent war 
waged alike against Ebenezer Emmons and his views and those 
of Amos Eaton, has yet to be written. 

§ 11. These perplexing discrepancies and contradictions in the . 
volume of 1842 were mentioned by the present writer in 1878 
(“ Azoic Rocks,” p. 57) as probably due to want of method and to 
a change of views in the preparation of the work. In 1885 the dis- 

«See for the preceding references the “ Geology of the Northern or Second Dis- 
trict of New York,” by E. Emmons, 1842, pp. 121, 124, 125, 280-282, and further, 

P. 147. 


122 The Taconic Question Restated. : [Feb. 


cordances were again noticed,’ when it was said of the volume, that 
Emmons therein “showed a divided opinion as to the horizon of 
the First Graywacke.” This might be supposed to indicate the 
acceptance, for a time, of the views of Mather before finally adopt- 
ing those of his old master, Eaton. It will, however, be noted 
that the passages, four or five pages in all, found intercalated in 
different parts of his account of the New York System, incul- 
cating the doctrines of Mather, are in complete opposition alike 
to the whole teaching in the three chapters—vii., viii., and ix. (pp. 
135-164)—given to the Taconic System, and to his extended 
monograph thereon, published in 1844, so that one is led as an 
„explanation of this strange contradiction to suppose that the 
passages in question may be interpolations by another hand. 
There is a painful resemblance in many respects between the 
story of Emmons and his opponents; and that of the warfare 
waged against Sedgwick by Murchison and his allies in the 
famous Cambrian and Silurian controversy, as set forth by the 
present writer in 1874 in his “ Chemical and Geological Seo 
= m 365). 

. The Taconic system, in the chapters just mentioned of pe 
e of 1842, was said to include, in ascending order, the 
“ Granular quartz” (or Primitive Quartz-rock), the “ Stockbridge 
limestone” (or Primitive Lime-rock), and the “ Magnesian slate.” 
This latter, the Transition Argillite, comprehended, besides the 
characteristic roofing-slate, a great mass of soft and more or less 
schistose rocks, which, from the prevalence in them of hydrous 
micas (and occasionally of chlorites), have an unctuous character, 


_ 1 Mineral Physiology and Physiography, = 522, 583, 584, 587. 

2Loc. cit., pp. 121, 124, 125, 147, 279, 2 

3In a letter from Emmons to ae eae Raleigh, N. C., December 29, 
1860, he writes, “I made and published with my Report a modified map of the 
State, which showed the extent of the Taconic rocks in New York. The three thou- 


. sand copies were stolen or destroyed by ns unknown, so that they were never 
issued with the proper volume. The rocks illustrating the Taconic system in the State 
Cabinet were all taken out, by order . My existence as one of the 


gists was ignored at the last meeting “of the American Association for the Aei 
ment of Science in Albany [1851]. In fine, the persecution I suffered for opinion 
has rarely been equalled. . . . The editor of the American Journal of Science re- ` 


courteous in the extreme. I claimed that 


ae __ faxed to publish my remarks upon Logan’s report when he [Logan] announced his _ 


1887] o The Taconic Question Restated. 123 


‘supposed to indicate the presence of magnesian silicates. Be- 
sides the three above named, there were, according to Emmons, 
two other divisions, the “ Sparry limestone,” by which he desig- 
» nated the Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton, and the “ Taconic slate.” 
This latter, which he“declared to be quite distinct from the Mag- 
nesian slate, had, according to Emmons, been traced one hundred 
and fifty or two hundred miles, and included another band of roof- 
ing-slates, It is said to be more or less interstratified with lime- 
stones, and “ often becomes a coarse graywacke.” This Taconic 
slate, thus defined by Emmons in 1842 as the uppermost mem- 
ber of his “Taconic system,” is, as will be seen, the First or 
Transition Graywacke series of Eaton. 

Emmons, moreover, at this time calls attention to the fact 
that the Primitive Lime-rock, or Stockbridge limestone, “ being 
often sparry, and of fine texture, is mistaken for the true Sparry 
limestone.” He further remarks that as the succession of these 
disturbed strata is “ unsettled, or at least not so clearly established 
as desirable,” he follows their geographical order in describing 
them, but proceeds to tell us that the “ Taconic slate” group lies 
between the so-called Hudson River or Loraine rocks on the 
west and the Sparry limestone on the east, and, moreover, that 
“it is undoubtedly overlapped by the former rocks, and passes 
beneath the latter with a dip of 30°-35°.” The whole Taconic 
system was further described by him at this time as “the rocks 
lying between the upper members of the Champlain group and 
the Hoosic Mountains,” and was, moreover, regarded “as inferior 
to the Potsdam sandstone, or as having been deposited at an 
earlier date than the lowest member of the New York Transition 
system.”* The precise relations of this Transition system to the 
Silurian and Cambrian systems of the British geologists, and 
indeed the limits of these in England, were not at that date clearly 
understood; but Emmons, in 1842, supposed that the Taconic 
rocks in part might “be equivalent to the Lower Cambrian of 
Sedgwick,” “ the upper portion being the lower part of the Silurian 
system,” to which the Middle and Upper Cambrian were then, on 
the authority of Murchison; very generally referred. That he 
accepted the extreme views of Barrande, and the pretensions of 
Murchison as to the downward extension of the limits of the Si- 
lurian, is shown by the language of Emmons, quoted farther on. 

1 Loc. cit., ppe 140, 144, 163. 


124 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb. 


§ 13. Meanwhile, Emmons continued his studies, and in 1844 
published his monograph on the Taconic system, which was in 1846 ` 
republished in his “ Agriculture of New York,” where it forms 
Chapter V. (pp. 45-112). Therein, while giving a more detailed 
account of the Taconic system, he made one important and sig- 
nificant change. In 1842, while maintaining that the upper por- 
tion of this is “the lower part of the Silurian system,” he had 
- nevertheless supposed that the whole succession was deposited 
before the time of the lithologically dissimilar Champlain division, 
which, although the base of the New York system, was not by 
him regarded as the base of the Silurian. In this he was at 
variance with the teachings of Eaton, who already, as early as- 
1832, had declared the Transition or Sparry Lime-rock—which 
_ he placed at the summit of the Transition Graywacke or Taconic 

slate group—to be the stratigraphical equivalent of the Calcif- 
erous Sand-rock of the New York Transition system. Emmons 
had, previous to 1846, concluded that the formation of limestones 
of this sparry type “occurred at intervals during the whole 
period of the deposition of the Taconic slate,” and, acquiescing 
in the judgment of Eaton, now declared that the upper portion 
of the Taconic system,—namely, the great belt of slates with 
limestones, sandstones, and conglomerates,—designated by him 
in 1842 as the Taconic slate, and including both the Transition 
-Graywacke and the Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton, was the strati- - 
graphical equivalent of the lower part of the Champlain division, 
and in fact a thickened and modified form of the Calciferous 
Sand-rock, which was now said to be, in its eastern extension, 
“ protean” in its character, and to include a great variety of rocks. 

§ 14. For the better identification of this Taconic slate group it is 
important to note that Emmons, who had already, in 1842, clearly _ 
defined its eastern and western limits in New York, and declared 
-that it had been traced north and south a distance of one hundred 
and fifty or two hundred miles, repeats with detail, in 1844, the 
facts of its distribution. It is described as occupying geographi- 
cally the interval between the overlying Loraine shales,—the 
_ upper part of the Champlain division,—on the west, and “the 

great mass of the Sparry limestone,” which forms its eastern 
border, and itself lies at the western base of the Taconic Hills; 
which are made up of the three lower members of the Taconic 
em. He now sdas that “the Taconic slate, with its subor- 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables, 125 


dinate beds, occupies almost the whole of Columbia, Rensselaer, 
and Washington Counties, and is of immense thickness.” He 
describes it “ from Lansingburgh to the Sparry limestone on the 
east” as having a breadth of at least twenty miles, and, while 
signalizing repetitions in the section, still supposes that its vol- 
ume “exceeds that of all the members of the New York system 
put together,” adding that, “without doubt, this immense rock 
admits of subdivision.” He declares that in the breadth of 
fifteen or twenty miles across this belt “the observer will pass 
several times over the same beds, which are brought to the sur- 
face by successive uplifts.” 

The nature of the uplifts by which these subdivisions of the 
Taconic slate group are thus repeated is further shown by an 
ideal section, afterwards published in his “ American Geology,” 
ii. 48. The real order of succession, as then defined, was, at the 
base, greenish, chloritic-looking sandstones, followed, upwards, by 
a great variety of different colored slates, sandstones, and con- 
glomerates, including, moreover, what is designated as sparry 
limestone, black shaly limestone, and, at the summit, fine black 


slates. 
(To be continued.) 


HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. 
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D." 
(Continued from page 59.) 

ARACACHA. Aracacha esculenta De C. 


L Sheers South American plant is yet included among garden 
i vegetables by Vilmorin. It was introduced to notice in 
Europe in 1829 and again in 1846, but trials in England, F rance; 
and Switzerland were unsuccessful? in obtaining eatable roots.3 
It was grown near New York in 1825,4 and at Baltimore in 1828 
or 1829,5 but was found to be worthless. Lately introduced to 
_ India, it is now fairly established there, and Mr. Morris*® considers 
it a most valuable plant-food, becoming more palatable and de- 

* Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 

2 Heuze, Les Pl. Alim., ii. 509. 

3 Decaisne & Naudin, Man., iv. 137. 4N. Eng. Farmer, July 22, 1825. 

5 Farmers’ Library, 1847, 94. € Gard. Chron., July 10, 1886, 50. 


\ 


126 History of Garden Vegetables. ” PR eb, 


sirable the longer it is used. It is generally cultivated* in Ven- 
ezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, and in the temperate regions 
of these countries it is preferred to the potato. The first account 
which reached Europe concerning this plant was published in 
the “Annals of Botany,” vol. i., about 1805. It was, however, 
mentioned in a few words by Alcedo in his “ Diccionario Geo- 
graphico de las Indias Occidentales 6 America,” 1789.” 

The synonymy has been given as below: 

Aracacha xanthoriza. Banc. Koen. Ann., i. 400. 

Conium aracacha. Hook, Exot. Fl. Bot., 152. 

Aracacha esculenta. De C., Prod., iv. 244. 


ARTICHOKE. Cynara scolymus Lin. 


The artichoke, Cynara scolymus L., is supposed by authors to 
have originated from the cardoon, Cynara cardunculus L., and 
the cardoon is indigenous at Madeira, the Canaries, Morocco, the 
Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Italy, Greece, and the 
islands of the Mediterranean. It has become naturalized on a 
vast scale in Buenos Ayres and Chili It is now grown ona 
large scale in France and other portions of Europe for the 
flower-heads, the scales and buttons of which make a very pala- 
table vegetable, and’in America in private gardens. 

The number of varieties of artichoke is extremely large, as 
through the cross-fertilization of the flowers the plants do not 
come true from seed, and hence desirable selections are propa- 
gated by dividing the stools, or from suckers. Vilmorin + de- 
scribes thirteen varieties as sufficiently prominent for notice. 

Whether the artichoke was cultivated by the ancients is in 
dispute among commentators, and Targioni-Tozzetti,> a most 
competent authority, says it was only known to the Romans in 
the shape of the cardoon, and that the first record of the arti- 
choke cultivated for the sake of the receptacle of the flowers was 
at Naples in the beginning or the middle of the fifteenth century ; 
it was thence carried to Florence in 1466, and at Vienna, Ermo- 
lao Barbaro, who died as late as 1493, only knew of a single 
plant grown as a novelty in a private garden, although it soon 

+ De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 32. * Don, Gard. Dict., iii. 378. 
3 De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 73- 
-4 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 14; The Veg. Gard., 1885, 3. 

-$ Targioni-Tozzetti, Hort. Trans., 1854, 143- 


- 1887] History of Garden Vegetables, 127 


after became a staple article of food over a great part of the 
peninsula. It seems quite certain that no descriptions I can find 
in Dioscorides and Theophrastus among the Greeks, nor in Col- 
umella, Palladius, and Pliny among the Romans, but that can 
with better grace be referred to the cardoon than to the artichoke. 
To the writers of the sixteenth century the artichoke and its uses 
were wellknown. “Le Jardinier Solitaire,” an anonymous work 
published in 1612, recommends three varieties for the garden. 

The most prominent distinction between the plants, as grown 
in the garden, is the presence or absence of spines. Although J. 
Bauhin, in 1651, says that seed from the same plant may pro- 
duce both sorts, and I have verified the observation, yet I can- 
not but believe that this comes from the cross-fertilization be- 
tween the kinds, and that this absence or presence of spines is a 
true distinction. Tragus describes both forms in 1552, as do the 
majority of succeeding writers. 

The form of the heads form a second division, the conical- 
headed and the globe. 

I. The Conical-headed. Of the varieties sufficiently described 
by Vilmorin, four belong to this class, and they are all spiny. 
This form seems to constitute the French artichoke of English 
writers. The following synonymy seems justifiable : 

Scolymus. Trag., 1552, 866, cum tc 

Carduus, vulgo Carciofi. 1. Matth., 1 58, 322. 

Carduus aculeatus. Cam. Epit., 1586, 438, cum tc.; Matth., 
ed. of 1598, 496, cum ic. 

Thistle, or Prickly Artichoke. Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 603. 

Cinara sylvestris. Ger., 1597, 291, fig. - 

— sive Scolymus sativus, spinosus. J. Bauhin, 1651, iii. 
48, cum ic. 
Saar Violet. Quintyne, 1693, 187; 1704, 178. 

Contcal-headed Green French. Mawe, 1778. 

French Artichoke. Mill. Dict., 1807; Am. Gard. Books, 1806, 
1819, 1828, 1832, etc. 

Vert de Provence. Vilm., 1883, 16. 

De Roscoff. Vilm., L c. 

De Saint Laud oblong. Vilm., 1. c. 

Sucre de Genes. Vilm., 1. c. 

Etc. 
z J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. 48. 

VOL. XXI.—NO, 2. 9 


* 


~ 


128 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb, 


II. The Globular-headed. To this form belong two of Vil- 
morin’s varieties, and various other varieties as described by 
other parties. The synonymy which seems to apply is: 

Scolymus. Fuch., 1542, 792, cum ic. 

Cardut alterum genus. Tragus, 1552, 866. 

Carduus, vulgo Cariciofi. II. Matth., 1558, 322. 

Carduus non aculeatus. Cam. Epit., 1586, 437, cum ic.; Matth., 
1598, 497, cum tc. 

Right Artichoke. Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 603. 

Cinara maxima ex Anglia delata. Lob. ic., 1591, ii. 3. 

Cinara maxima alba. Gerarde, 1597, 991, fig. 

Cinara maxima anglica. Gerarde, l. c. 

Green or White. Quintyne, 1593, 187; 1704, 178. 

Red. Quintyne, l. c. 

Globular-headed Red Dutch. Mawe, 1778. 

Globe Artichoke. Mill. Dict., 1807; Am. Gard. Books, 1806, 
1819, 1828, etc. 

Gros vert de Laon. Vilm. 1883. 

Violet de Provence. Vilm., 1. c. 

tc. 
In growing five of Vilmorin’s varieties from seed, variability 


_ was such that we had nearly as many varieties as plants, and 


among other sorts had one which in its head was precisely 
the Cinara major Boloniensts of the “ Hortus Eystettensis,”* 1613; 
and another, which was the Cinara seu Artischoche vulgatiss. of 
the same. 

The color of the heads also found mention in the early writers. 
In our first division, the French, the green is mentioned by Tra-’ 
gus in 1552, by Mawe in 1778, and by “ Miller’s Dictionary” in 
1807; the purple by Quintyne in 1693. Inthe Globe class the 
white is named by Gerarde in 1597, and by Quintyne in 1693; 
and the Red by Gerarde in 1597, by Quintyne in 1693, and by 
Mawe in 1778; and Parkinson, in 1629, names the red and the 
white. | 


‘The so-called wild plants of the herbalists seem to offer like 
variations to those we have noted in the cultivated forms, but the 
difficulty of identification renders it inexpedient to state a fixed 
conclusion, The heads are certainly no larger now than they 


— were tree Dundee amity years ago, for the “ Hortus cee 


. es a eo 5. 


>» 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 129 


sis” figures one fifteen inches in diameter. The long period during 
which the larger part of the present varieties have been known 
seems to justify the belief that modern origination has not been 
frequent. “Le Jardinier Solitaire,’ 1612, describes early varie- 
ties,—le Blanc, le Rouge, and le Violet; Worlidge, in 1683, says 
there are several kinds, and he names the tender and the hardy 
sort. McMahan names the French and two varieties of the 
Globe in America in 1806; “ L’Hort. Français,” 1824, names the 
Blanc, Rouge, Violet, and the Gros vert de Laon; Petit, “ Nouv. 
Dict. du Jard.,” 1826, adds Sucre de Genes to the list; Noisette, 
in 1829, adds the Camus of Brittany. 

The name given by Ruellius* to the artichoke in France, in- 
1536, is a@rticols, from the Italian articoclos. He says it comes 
from arcocum of the Ligurians, coca signifying the cone of the 
pine. The Romans call it carchiophos, and the plant and the 
name came to France from Italy. The names I have seen as- 
signed are in alphabetical order: Arabs, £harchiof, hirshuf,? raxos, 
harxos ;3 Berber, taga ;* Egypt, charsjuf;* Flanders, artisjok ;5 
France, carciophe $ artichaut ;3 Germany, strobildorn,? artischoke ;5 
Hindustanee, Aunjir ;? Holland, artisjok ;5 India, hunjeer, atee- 
chuk ;* Italy, carciofo, articiocca,s archichiocco ;*® Persia, kungir ;* 
Portugal, alcachofra ;5 Spain, alcachofas cardo de conners 


Asparacus. Asparagus officinalis L. 


The cultivated asparagus seems to have been unknown to the 
Greeks of the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, and the 
word asparagos seems to have been used for the wild plant of 
another species. The Romans of the time of Cato, about 200 
B.C., knew it well, and Cato’s? directions for culture would answer 
fairly well for the gardeners of to-day, except that he recom- 
mends starting with the seed of the wild plant, and this seems 
good evidence that the wild and the cultivated forms were then 
of the same type as they are to-day. Columella,*° in the first cen- 
tury, recommends transplanting the young roots from a seed-bed, 
and devotes quite a space to their after-treatment, and he offers 


: Sape De ae .» 1536, 644. 2 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 165. 
ist., I age ii. 1436. 4 De Candolle, Orig: des Pl. Cult., 74- 

s a Les pi. Pot. 14. 6 Cast. ora: 1617, 9I. 

7 Tragus, 1552, 866 . 8 Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 164, 


> 9 Cato, c. irot COE ks esac agre pe 


130 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb. 


choice of cultivated seed or that from the wild plant, without in- 
dicating preference. Pliny, who wrote also in the first century 
of our era, says that asparagus, of all the plants of the garden, 
receives the most praiseworthy care, and also praises the good 
quality of the kind that grows wild in the island of Nesidis, near 
the coast of Campania. In his praise of gardens? he says, “ Sil- 
vestres fecerat natura corrudas, ut quisque demeteret passim ; 
ecce altiles spectantur asparagi; et Ravenna ternos libris repen- 
dit.” (Nature has made the asparagus wild, so that any one may 
gather as found. Behold, the highly-manured asparagus may be 
seen at Ravenna weighing three pounds.) This evidences the 
likeness remarked between the wild and the cultivated form, and 
the recognition of the change produced by culture. Palladius,’ 
an author of the third century, rather praises the sweetness of 
the wild form found growing among the rocks, and recommends 
the transplanting to such places otherwise worthless for agricul- 
ture, but he also gives full directions for garden culture with as 
much care as did Cato. Gesner* quotes Pomponius, who lived 
in the second century, as saying that there are two kinds, the 
garden and the wild asparagus, and the wild asparagus the: more 
pleasant to eat. 

The word Asparagus, as used by the Romans, meant the cul- 
tivated form, the word Corruda the wild plant. The original 
meaning seems to have been a succulent shoot, for in this sense 
it was frequently used by the Greek writers. In the European 
languages we have the continuance of the word under various 
forms, as Sperage by Turner, 1538; Asparagus by Gerarde, 1 597 
and to date, as also Sparrowgrass. In Denmark, Asparges ; in 
France, Asperge or Esparge in 1586; in Germany, Zpargen in 
1586, Epargel in 1807, and Spargel at the present time ; in Greece, 
Asparaggia; in Holland, Aspergie in 1807, Aspersie now; in 
Italy, Asparagus in 1586, and Sparagio at present; in Soctagel, 
Espargo; in Russia, Sparsa or Sparsch; in Spain, Asparrago 
and Esparrago; and in Sweden, Sparis or Spargels 

In extra-European languages the following names appear : By 
the Moors, halion or helium, Cam. Epit., 1586; in Arabic, yer- 
er z Pliny, lib, xix. c. a 2 Ib., c. 19. 

3 Palladius, lib. iii. c. 245 lib, iv. c. 9. 

s Rei Rust., 1788, Lexicon, art. 


— oa Niles Di or Gaieraran, Epit. 1586; 1586; Vilmorin, Les PI. Poy 1583 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 131 


amya, marchoobeh ;* in India, marchooba, nagdoon, or asfuraj ;* 
Hindustanee, /z/yoon, nagdoun ;* in Persian, margeesh ;* in Japan, 
kikak kosi ;3 in the Mauritius, asperge.s 

The expression of Parkinson, 1629, “a delectable sallet- 
herbe,” implies the consideration in which for many centuries 
it has been held. Its culture in Italy was, as we have seen, quite 
general in ancient times. We have no records of its first appear- 
ance in the various countries of Europe, but it is mentioned in 
England by Turner in 1538, and as under cultivation by Gerarde 
in 1597. In Frances it was well known in 1529. In America 
“ Sparagus” is mentioned in Virginia in 1648,° and in Alabama 
in 1775, and in 1785 Cutter mentions asparagus as if it was then 
a well-known vegetable in Massachusetts. 

The wild plant is indigenous to Europe; as an escape from 
gardens it is often noted in America, not only in waste places on 
the coast, as Gray states, but also inland. There are no essen- 
tial points of difference between the wild and cultivated forms; 
such as are noted between the escapes and the garden plants are 
only such as come from protected culture and rich soil; the fig- - 
ures in the ancient botanies do not indicate other variation than 
this, and the few varieties, so called, of our gardens have no es- 
pecial importance, the differences being but in minor points, and 
but indicative of a careful selection and high culture, the ordinary 
variability of a variety furnishing plants which are propagated by 
division. 

The point I wish to make regarding this vegetable is this, that 
although under high cultivation now for over two thousand 
years, under diverse climates and treatment, yet it has remained 
constant to type. The directions given by the Roman writers to 
plant the seed of the wild plant might be followed to-day with 
our escapes without detriment. It has given no variety types 
that have been recorded from the time of Cato up to this present 
year of grace. Where, then, is this boasted power of man by 
which he is supposed to modify our wild plants into improved 
types? It probably does not exist. The types of our cultivated 
plants have been apparently taken from nature, as produced by 


t Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 

2 Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1 hed ‘160. 3 Thunberg, Japan, 139. 
4 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 350. 5 Ruellius, Dioscorides, 1529, 124. 
6 A Perfect Desc. of Va., 1649, 4. + Roman’s Nat. Hist. of Fla., i. 115. 


132 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb, 


the slow process of natural selection, and the influence of selec- 
tion and diverse cultivations has been but to secure variation 
within the type limits, and such variations are usually of the 
character which may be described as expansion under culture,or 
its opposite; as smoothness and pogramy of form; as enhanced 
quality. 


AsparaGus BEAN. Dolichos sesquipedalis L. 


This bean was described by Linnæus* in 1763, and I find no 
record of an earlier notice. It reached England in 1781.7 Lin- 
nzus gives its habitat as America, and Jacquin received it from 
the West Indies. Martens considers it as a synonyme of Doli- 
chos sinensis L. Loureiro’s description of D. sinensis certainly 
applies well to the asparagus bean, and Loureiro‘ observes that 
he thinks the D. sesquipedalis of Linnzeus the same. He refers to 
Rumphius’s “ Amboina,” 1. 9, c. 22, tab. 134, as representing his 
plant, and this work, published in 1750, antedates the descrip- 
tion of Linnzus. I think this is probably an East Indian plant, 
introduced to the West Indies, but I am unable from my notes 
to present the varieties and the forms which have been included 
under D. chinensis. 

The name of Asparagus bean comes from the use of the green 
pods as a vegetable, served as a string-bean, and a tender aspara- 
gus-like dish it is. The name at Naples of Fagiolo e maccarone 
conveys the same idea. The pods grow very long, oftentimes 
are two feet in length, and hence the name of Yard-long often 
used. 7 

The Asparagus or Yard-long bean is mentioned for American 


gardens in 1828, and probably was introduced earlier. It is 


mentioned for French gardens under the name of Haricot asperge 
in 18292 ere are no varieties known to our seedsmen, but 
Vilmorin offers one, the Doligue de Cuba? 

The names under which it is known are: in France, doligue 
asperge, haricot asperge ; in Germany, Americanische riesen-spar- 
gel Bohne ; in Holland, Judianische boon ; in Italy, fagiuolo spara- 


* Linnaeus, Sp. sie roig. 2 Miller’s Dict., 1807. 
3 Matens. Die Gartenbohnen, 100. 4 Loureiro, FI. Cochinch., 1790, 436. , 
6 Noisette, Man. du Jard., 1829. 
7 Thorburn’s Seed Cat., 1828. 


1887] The East Greenlanders. 133 


gio, fasoi longhi, fagiolo e maccarone ;? at Cayenne, pots rubran ;* 
at Barbadoes, Halifax pea;? at Jamaica, asparagus bean ;+ in 
Cochin China, dau dau and tau cos 


(To be continued.) 


THE EAST GREENLANDERS. 
BY JOHN MURDOCH. 


HE veteran authority on the Eskimos, Dr. Rink, has recently 
published an able and interesting paper on this easternmost 
outpost of the great Eskimo race, in which he reviews the 
ethnological results of the late successful Danish expedition to 
East Greenland under Captain Holm, and draws important con- 
clusions as to the original home of the Eskimos, and the probable 
_ course of the wanderings by which they have reached their 
present habitations. 

In his opinion, the metropolis of the Eskimos is probably to 
be found in Alaska, and he finds a confirmation of this view in 
the fact that here the Eskimos are not confined to the coast, but 
spread inland along the rivers. 

It is a fact, however, that the proportion of the Eskimos of 
Alaska who really dwell in the interior is very small indeed, 
being confined to the valleys of the Kuskokwim and the adjoin- 
ing less important rivers, and to the three rivers emptying into 
Kotzebue Sound, while along the rest of the coast from Kadiak 
to Point Barrow they are as purely littoral—or “Orarian,” to 
adapt Mr. Dall’s term—as in Greenland or Labrador. Never- 
theless, this scanty remnant may represent the original condition 
of the race. 

He believes that the migrations of the race can be traced by 
` the development of certain inventions as we pass along the shores 
of the continent from Alaska to Greenland. For instance, the 
kayak, which is probably, as he believes, derived from the open 

z Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 280, 2 Martens, l. c. 3 Schomburgkh, Hist, of Barb. 

4 Macfadyen, Jam., i. 288. 5 Loureiro, 1. c. 

§ Die Ostgrénlander in ihrem Verhältnisse zu den übrigen Eskimostämmen. Von 
H. Rink. Deutsche geographische Blätter, vol. ix. No. 3, 1886, pp. 228-239. 


134 The East Greenlanders. [Feb. 


bitch canoe, still used by the Eskimos of the Upper Kuskokwim, 
is far heavier and more clumsy in the west than in the interme- 
diate regions, and reaches its highest development in Greenland. 

It is, however, to be noted that the kayaks in use along the 
shores of the Arctic Ocean from Bering Strait to Point Barrow 
are far superior to those used by the nearest Eskimos to the east- 
ward of that point, and approach closely in lightness and elegance 
to those of the Cater anuet though essentially different in 
model. 

According to our author, the use of the double-bladed paddle 
among the true Eskimos (excluding the Aleuts) does not begin till 
we reach the mouth of the -Yukon, and is only used when speed 
is specially desired, even as far as Point Barrow, while a single- 
bladed paddle is sometimes used in the kayak as far as the Mac- 
kenzie. Moreover, the art of turning completely over in the 
kayak and righting oneself by means of the paddle is very un- 
usual on the Alaskan coast, and completely developed only in 
Greenland. 

A similar course of development, Dr. Rink believes, may be 
traced in the set of weapons with which the kayak is fitted out. 
He considers the “bird-dart” and “bladder-dart” (the former a 
javelin with a cluster of prongs at the middle of the shaft for 
taking fowls in the water, and the latter designed for catching 
seals, and therefore provided with an inflated bladder to impede 
the motions of the wounded animal) to be developments of the 
arrow, and the large harpoon, with a bladder attached by a line, 
to be a development of the latter, and finds the more primitive 
forms of these weapons more generally used in the south and 
west, while the more highly-developed forms gradually appear as 
we approach Greenland. 

Our extensive collections at the National Museum tend to con- 
firm these conclusions. The larger part of the harpoons from 
the region south of Bering Strait, even those of large size for 

the beluga, are of the type of the “ bladder-dart,” or 

of the still more simple type without a bladder, in which the 

shaft itself is made to act as a drag by attaching the line to it in 

a _ martingale, and these, especially to the southward, are often 

like arrows. Even as far as Point Barrow the only 

projectile weapons used in the kayak are the bird-dart and a 
martincale-dar ” 


1887] The East Greenlanders. 135 


The custom of wearing the labrets, or peculiar lip-studs of the 
western coast, which extends as far as the Mackenzie region, is 
believed by Dr. Rink to be a custom which the wandering Es- 
kimos brought with them from their original homes, when they 
were in contact with the labret-wearing Tlinkets. 

On this supposition, however, it is difficult to account for the 
abrupt way in which a custom universal up to Cape Bathurst 
ceases at that point, without a vestige of it traceable anywhere to 
the eastward. When we consider that there is now a long stretch 
of uninhabited country between the natives of Cape Bathurst and 
their neighbors in the east, with whom they have no communi- 
cation, is it not more probable that the labret-wearing habit is 
one of comparatively recent date, which, spreading from the south 
and west, only reached the Mackenzie ‘region after communica- 
tion with the east was severed ? : 

Dr. Rink derives a similar argument from the dwellings of the 
Eskimos, which in Southern Alaska resemble those of the In- 
dians, having a fireplace in the middle of the floor. 

As we go north and east the fireplace is replaced by the oil- 
lamp, and snow-huts gradually take the place of houses, till in 
Greenland we find edifices of earth or turf and stones and drift- 
wood. The form of the house also changes from square or 
round to an oblong shape in Greenland, capable of being added 
to at the ends in proportion to the number of the household. 
This extension reaches its greatest development in East Green- 
land, where the whole village occupies a single house. 

These large dwelling-houses also furnish a substitute for the 
large public club-houses, for working, and social and religious 
assemblies, so common among the Eskimos and also usual among 
the Indians. Such houses as these are no longer found in Green- 
land, if they ever existed there, and are but partially represented 
among the eastern Eskimos by a sort of large snow-houses. The 
periodical festivals and masked dances, so frequent in the west, 
are less frequently practised as we approach Greenland, appa- 
rently in proportion as the influence of the azgokoks, or wizards, 
increases. 

The greatest similarity between the branches of the race is to 
` be seen in the language. According to Dr. Rink, the number of 
“radical words,” or those which form the basis of the intricate 
- compounds used in the language, which differ from the Green- 


136 The East Greenlanders. [ Feb. 


landic or are doubtful in the other dialects, may be roughly stated 
in percentages, from the material at his command, as follows: 
in the Labrador dialect, fifteen per cent.; in the middle regions, 
twenty per cent.; in the Mackenzie region, thirty-one per cent. ; 
and in Alaska, fifty-three per cent. A careful study of the vocab- 
ulary collected by our expedition (U. S. International Polar Ex- 
pedition to Point Barrow, Alaska), containing over one thousand 
words, in which about five hundred and fifty radicals may be dis- 
tinguished, has convinced me that only fifteen ae cent. of these 
are different from the Greenlandic radicals. 

There is no doubt, as our author believes, that the inhabitants of 
East Greeland and Alaska, brought together and allowed suffi- 
cient time, could easily learn to understand each other. In fact, 
the interpreters from Labrador who accompanied the English 
explorers had no difficulty in conversing with the western nations, 
and I have seen American whalemen, who had made themselves 
familiar with the Eskimo jargon in use at Hudson’s Bay, converse 
fluently with the natives of Point Barrow. 

Dr. Rink believes that the dialectic differences indicate that 
the Aleuts were first separated from the parent stock, then, and 
much later, the Southern and Northern Alaskan Eskimos, those 
of the Mackenzie, and finally those of the middle region, and that 
Labrador and Greenland were peopled by branches from the last. 

Coming, now, to the consideration of the peculiarities of the 
newly-discovered East Greenlanders, he considers them in much 
the same condition as their western neighbors when described by 
Egede. One noticeable peculiarity about their harpoon is men- 
tioned,—namely, that the head is fastened to the shaft by a pivot, 
as in the “toggle-iron” used by civilized whalemen, whereas 
among all other Eskimos the head slips off the shaft and “tog- 
gles” at right angles to the line. The harpoon-float is made of 
two bladders instead of one, and the old implements for taking 
seals on the ice, abandoned on the west coast since the introduc- 
tion of firearms, are still in general use. 

_ The bow is no longer used, owing to the disappearance of the | 
reinde, but cross-bows are used as toys by the children, or for 
_ shooting birds. The knowledge of this weapon, the writer be- 
_ lieves, is due to foreign influence. They have no fish-hooks, but 


: - Oe oe ee a RA used by 


the Es! p ey ka 


1887] The East Greenlanders. 137 


Their artistic taste and skill is very great, and equals, or even 
excels, that of the long-famous Alaskan Eskimos. Their carv- 
ings often consist of little figures carved from bone or ivory, 
fastened with pegs to wooden surfaces. All sorts of implements 
are ornamented with such carvings, representing natural and im- 
aginary objects or conventionalized ornaments. The most ex- 
traordinary of their objects of art are the relief maps carved in 
wood, in which the islands are represented by séparate pieces, 
attached to the mainland by thongs. 

Much taste is also exhibited by the women in ornamenting 
and embroidering their clothing (in which, again, they resemble 
the Alaskan Eskimos), though their needles are all home-made, 
hammered and ground out of old iron obtained from wrecks. 

The inhabitants of each winter village appear to form one 
large household, more or less under the control of a single head, 
chosen apparently by tacit consent, and whose commands often 
do not need to be expressed. The head of the household was 
observed to give definite commands as to the order in which the 
eight families of his household should take their places on the 
sleeping platform, how the lamps should be lighted and the win- 
dows closed. During the winter one young man was expelled 
from the house by way of punishment, and compelled to seek 
shelter elsewhere. Hospitality is universal, as with the Eskimos 
everywhere. 

The largest of the several “ village-houses” on the Argmag- 
salik fjord, where Captain Holm wintered, contained fifty-eight 
people. The house nearest Captain Holm’s winter-quarters had 
eight families, thirty-eight souls living and performing all their 
work, sleeping, cooking, eating, singing, and dancing in a space 
twenty-seven feet long, fourteen and a half feet wide, and at the 
utmost six and a half feet high! 

Much valuable linguistic material was Gallectesi, thanks to their 
excellent interpreters, Christian West Greenlanders, and fifty-one 
interesting traditions, of which thirteen are plainly identical with 
those of other Eskimos, while in thirteen others are recognizable 
well-known traditional elements. From a preliminary examina- 
tion of the linguistic material, it appears that there is more differ- 
ence between the dialects of East and West Greenland than 
_ between the well-known North and South Greenland dialects. 
tain Holm is of the opinion that the East 


te 


138 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


travelled round Greenland from the north, while the West Green- 
landers came down southward along the shores of Baffin’s Bay, 
meeting the others at the southern point of Greenland, and there 
forming a mixed race. The author considers that the differences 
described favor this hypothesis, but thinks it too early to draw 
a general conclusion from the facts at hand. He adds that the 
mixed race in all probability also contains Scandinavian elements, 
though not the slightest trace of Scandinavian culture is to be 
discovered. 

In a foot-note at the beginning of the article Dr. Rink states 
that the direct inspiration of the paper was the fact that he had 
the opportunity of studying the rich ethnological collection from 
East Greenland in company with Captain Holm, and also per- 
sonally received information about the western Eskimos from the 
brothers Krause and A. Jakobson, and about those of the middle 
region from Dr. F. Boas. He also courteously acknowledges 
the information received from other sources, especially from those 
in America who are engaged in studying similar subjects. 

U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. 
BY JULIUS NELSON. 
(Continued from page 42.) 
EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI.—VIII. 

Figs. 94 to 124, 4, illustrate cell-division (94-104 are Protozoan), and Figs. 

124, 7,-133 ENER fertilization (ż.e., the union of male and female pronuclei). 
PLATE VI. 

FIG. 94, a-b. Opalina ranarum—Kent, Plate 26. See also Nussbaum, A. m 

vi., and Zeller, Z. w. Z., xxix.—This “ unicellular” animal is multinucleate, a 
the nuclei maltiply by karyokinesis (see Figs. 104, 105) independently of cell- divis- 
ion. The latter takes place successively as in a, until small cells like 4 Sage con- 
taining few nuclei. These become encysted and the nuclei fuse to becom 


Then the mononucleate animal escapes and increases in size, roast the sa ibe 


come more numerous . Their number may rise to | 


again. 
Fic. 95, a-d. Oxytricha scutellum—Gruber, Z. w. Z., mei this infusorian 


ki am PS 7 een the groups of nuclei as shown in g and 4. 
one Polyericus sche i Ai ix.—This infusorian 


grows the amber of nuclei i increases aig comes division, w ye have a form like ¢, 
wt FTA 


PLATE VI. 


MISA Po 
OO 
a SY 


ei erp 


Maè E 
Se laze 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 139 


usually has a row of four nuclei as in æ, but when division takes place the nuclei 
divide so as to furnish the daughters with the normal number (4). 
Fic. 97, a—d. Stylonychia histrio—Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.—Here we have 
wo sorts of nuclei, a small spindle-shaped * paranucleus,’’ which in division presents 
k spindle-fibres and microsomata of karyokinesis, and a large nucleus whose 
“ nuclein” substance is more irregularly distributed. In a resting state (a}the para- 
nucleus is homogeneous and nearly spherical, the nucleus has small bodies in it that 
resemble the paranucleus. When cell-division takes place (4, c) both sorts of nuclei 
ivide so that the daughter-cells are multinucleate, but when these return to the 
“resting” condition the sey fuse once more, as seen ind. Here the nuclein bodies 
of the nucleus are drawn out into filaments. 
1G..97 4, a-b. pane vision of Paramecium,—tfrom article “ Protozoa” in 
Encyclopeed. Brit., by Lankester. Here the paranucleus divides into two groups of 
four each, but the nucleus Ge a up much finer and strongly suggests. beaded ng 
a Bütschli in A. m X., figures the nucleus as broken up more irregular 
G. 98, a-g. RN ~ e (a—c, f-g) and Dallingeria drysdali (d EA D 
e Jour. R. Micr. Soc., April, 1886.—After conjugation (see Fig. 131) the 
fertilized nucleus of the sp je EES a the protoplasm in ultra mi- 
croscopic particles (gemmules), and when the cyst bursts these are projected out, and 
soon grow so as to be visible to a power e fifteen thousand diameters, until final 
they attain the size and shape seen in a, then granules appear in their substance, 
and at the same time a clear zone of protoplasm (4) is secreted about this body, which 
henceforth is the nucleus (c). When division is to take place the u 
themselves in regular lines as in g, and a peculiar and simple karyokinesis follows 
(e-f), with return of granules to normal distribution in g, a daughter-nucleus. 

Fic. 99, a—c. Nucleus of Chromulina woroniana—Fisch, Z. w. Z., xlii.—The 
wall of the nucleus is thick and contains nuclein, but there is also a nucleolus which 
segments up into fine granules, while simple constriction of the nucleus ensues (a-c), 
and when the daughter-nuclei are established, these granules fuse and return by in- 
verse kinesis to the normal state. 

` Fic. 100, a-d. Nucleus of Cyathomonas truncata—Fisch, |. c,—This is thin- 
walled, sin most all the ace is in the nucleoli. In æ four of these bodies are 
seen. es raying out from the nucleolus, and the nucleus 
and nucleolus behave in division : much as if the former were a cell and the latter its 
nucleus; finally, after division (c-d), the rays disappear, and we get a simple nucleus 
with a nucleolus, 

Fic. 101, a-e. Nucleus of Cordosiga botrytis—Fisch, l. c.—We have first a clear 

_ vesicle containing a nucleolus, the latter gradually dissolves into granules (a, 6), and 

use to filaments (d), which arrange themselves parallel to one another 
like a spindle, and then the fibre-bundle constricts, followed by the nucleus (e). The 
original state is assumed by the daughter-nuclei passing ugh an inverse series of 

: : thus ae e we get successively d, c, 4, a, etc. 

Fic. » a-b. Onychodactylus acrobates—Entz, Mitt. Neap., v.; 1 Stylonychia 
PERE (from Kent, Plate 1.).—Division of nucleus and paranucleus 
during ee a The nucleus and paranucleus remain dent applied to 
each other; the latter /eads in division. The segments of the former remain united 
by a brides (c), the centre one only being severed by cell-division as in 4. 

ae 1G. 103, 6-9 “ae, Nucleus of Spirochona gemmipara—Hertwig, Jenaische Zeit- 

: jum etchornit- ig, Z 


see Gruber, Z. w. Z., xxxviii—a-c show the ameeboid powers of nuclear substance; 


140 The Significance of Sex, [ Feb. 


in a the phenomena are restricted to the nucleus; in 4 to the hyaline body which 
holds the nucleolus, and at last, in ç, the nucleolus is sending out ray-like pseudo- 
podia, which become the chromatin fibrils. A spindle is finally formed with a hy- 
aline mg at each end. d-A show different states of a nucleus in the “ resting” 
condition. In æ we have a nucleolus and paranucleolus ; these segment and become 
related, as ine and f. Ing the nucleolus is much segmented. 4 shows us the nu- 
cleus preparing for division ; the aa protoplasm sheet saa the nucleus is amee- 
boid, as is also the nucleolus. The former, at last, gathers as two polar caps (/), 
while the latter dissolves to granules (); ; at first the granules are in the centre of the 
nucleus, then they pervade its whole substance, and finally a peripheral clear zone is 
abil ed (2). The substance of this zone then moves to the poles, forming a “ polar 
plate,” while the granules egate in vertical lines, and fuse more and more towards 
ator to form an equatorial plate of microsomata (7). Then SSO, 
begins n, and the daughter-microsomata move apart towards the s (m). On 
their way they form a continuous plate or zone of very minute anhi (2), but 
sometimes the groups may be shown to be still distinct, as at o, which also shows the 
polar stars (“ so) raying out from the protoplasmic cap. The microsomata are 
received and absorbed by the polar plate in a rosette-like figure (2). The polar ana 
invaginates like a gastrula, while the spindle constricts; the polar masses of pro 
w down on the sides (g), and are at last jamn constricted to serve as 
an envelope for the daughter-nuclei ; the spindle-fibres are absorbed into the cavity 
of the gastrula-like “ calotte,” and a stage-like 4 results. The substance of these 
brils is probably that which is separated from the nucleolus to form the paranu- 
cleolus. 

Fic. 104, a-c. A nucleus of Opalina ranarum—Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.—The 
nucleus divides by first forming four “ microsomata nucleoli,” seen in polar view in 
a. ese microsomata divide and move along fibres to the poles, as in 4, and simple 
constriction, as in ¢, and reversion to uninuclear condition follows. 

oo 105, a-f- A ikii of Opalin m. According to Wisenes: (M. J., xi.), 2 

shows an irregular reticulum or “ inet” with a couple of nucleoli and irregular 
masses of chromatin at the surface. In 4 the chromatin has become aggregated in 
superficial microsomata. These are forms of resting nuclei. The initial condition 
from which division p ds is seen in c. We have an abundant knäuel and a few 
nucleoli; then ind the knauel (skein) filament segments ; next, in z, the segments 
are concentrated to the centre. The nucleoli may or may not be absorbed. Now 
there ray out fibres from an “ amphiaster”’ towards the centre from two opposite 
the segments of nuclein arrange themselves into an equatorial plate (/), 
<- and, splitting each into two, send the regular number of V-shaped loops along the 
ae fibres of the spindle to the poles (s4). AS follows (7), and the segments 
"once more fuse into a “ skein-filament” or a “ reticulum.” BEE oe 

cated a form of karyokinesis as psies ROT 

Secs 106; pa Nucleus of embryonic e = Scorpion—Blochmann, M. J.,x.—To 
show “ direct” atoé; the nucleolus then divides, 
next the nucleus does so, and at {last the cell constricts jecol to 


> “Fis. 107. Nucleus of Vorticella in division—Camnoy, p-217-—Shows a simple con- 
t modification of the net-work. — n 


PLATE VII. 


alt 09 


oa 
ie SES eee 
ff T A asof 


1887] 5 The Significance of Sex. 141 


simple @onstriction; the segments of the nucleolus are thus separated without a 
spindle,—a mode of division known as “ stenosis.” 

Fic. 110. N ucleus of muscle-fibre of psi of Hydrophilus (Carnoy, p- 240) enter- 
ing into division. The segments of the nuclein filament are seen lying among the 
fibres of the kpindi, which latter have been bas from the ie oem net- 
work, 


PLATE VII. 
- 111, a—&. Nucleus from cells of endoderm of Ccelenterates except (4) which 
„is aGieciermal-—-Pitcaer .m. xii.—a gives the * skein!” reticulum; 4shows the 


in centre; in g the nucleoli have dissolved; in e the polar asters have formed a 
spindle, and the segments have formed a “ rosette” in its equator ; f shows the “ ro- 
sette” broken up into loops by segmentation of outer limbs of the rosette. This is 
the “m 


get in g the “ dyaster.’’ shows the spindle with the loops near the poles and with 
astral et streaming out into the cytoplasm ; 7 shows the constriction of spindle and 
of cell; in 4 we have a true skein-filament that does not form a reticulum. 

The Sarian of the cel] “ plate,” where (as in plants) there is no cell constriction, , 
may be seen in Figs. 124, and s, and modern text-books on botany. 

Fic. 112, a-g. Kayokinesis from epithelium of Salamander—Flemming, A. m. 
A., xviii.—c, d are from testes as seen in living state. Here we see bodies at the 
poles nearly corresponding in number to the segments of the filament. When the 
dyaster is formed they are about twice as numerous, and strongly suggest that they 
are a species of paranucleolus. cf. 9714, 103, etc. In the daughter-nuclei the series 
a, b, is inversely followed, as in z, f, g. - In g the filament is cut across by the knife 
in many of its windings, thus giving us pseudo-nucleoli. 

Fic. 113, a-g. Epithelium of Salamander according to Rabl, M. J., x.—a is a 
schematic side view, and 4 a polar view of a resting nucleus. According to Rabl the 
segments of the filament do not fuse or in any way anastomose in the resting nucleus, 
but simply branch out finer and finer. Then in kinesis the branches are withdrawn, 
and short thickish loops are formed. The spindle is first seen in its entirety at one 
pole, which, as seen in æ and å, is different from the other pole, and then the spindle 
turns at an angle of 90° and forms the usual amphiaster (c, d). When the srt si 
the halves are carried apart at their dend first, and the shorter arms of th 
separated as seen in e. Arriving at the poles th as in we 
to form the figure æ. In g we see a PE REEE from testicular epithetinns of 
Proteus, where the branching does not take place, but the loops are formed of a row of 
microsomata (beaded filament). 

Fic. 114, a—ġ, shows how such a beaded filament splits by each microsoma divid- 
ing in the general plane of the loop. Pfitzner, M. J., vii. 

FIG. 115, a—e. Nucleus from growing point of Tradescantia vir, virgin tca—Strasburger, 
“ Zellbildung u. NRIS Jena, 1880.—The nearly homogeneous protoplasm of 
the nucleus (a) becomes granular; the granules fuse and arrange themselves in rows 
of microsomata (6), poe these rows are cut across (c) in the equator and pushed to- 
wards the poles while undergoing various changes of segmentation back to granules 
again, but a central nucleolus remains undissolved, or rather is built up during the 
process of reconstruction of the daughter-nucleus (d;e). : 

Fic, 116,a—e. Nucleus of Spirogyra majuscula—Strasburger, 1. c.—In a we see the 

view showing it becoming granular. 


aier nuc — with its nacie] bisa oe 


In 


D A oo 9 


142 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


or microsomata which soon reach the granular state again (c, d, e). Meanwhile the 
nucleus flattens more and becomes biconcave; the granular protoplasm ane in 
concavities and sends across and through the nucleus the spindle-fibres (e); t 
marked boundary of the nucleus = dissolved, and the equatorial atone of cee 

splits and moves towards and into the polar masses, while the intervening portions of 
the ane -fibres (“ connecting aie) spread out and help build the cell-plate. 

117 is from Spirogyra nitida, where the nucleus is more spherical and the 
callie Bees are at first aggregated towards the centre in union with the central gran- 
ular mass of chromatin, and they become more spread out as the nucleus loses in 
outline and the chromatin is divided into its daughter portions. We see also that 
the latter is confined to the central fibres of the spindle. 

Fic. 118, a—dz. Nuclei from protoplasmic layer next wall of embryo-sac of Galan- 
thus nivalis—Strasburger, A. m. A., xxiii.—a, first step towards karyokinesis; the 


finely-wound “skein” or “tangle,” the meshes of whose reticulum give a finely gran- 
ular appearance to the protoplasm. A large nucleolus exists besides. This is dis- 
solving and adding itself to the filament in 4, where the boun aries between the 
microsomata are not indicated in the diagram. cis she “ segmented stage,” in which 


* 


around like hooks (only a few segments are shown). Next, the ot split — 
dinally, and the halves of each hook seek opposite poles; to do this there must be 
stage where one-half of the loops of the southern aA cross as equator on 
meet correspondin g hooks from the northern y to the southern hemisphere. 
(See d, where w and w are the corresponding sateen 4 the southern hooks, and x 
d the northern hooks. w/ and x’ are represented as having just crossed.) 
While this “ metakinesis” is progressing the hooks become more U-shaped, and 
taking the northern daughter-nucleus, as in dy, we can see how its skein-filament 
“is reconstituted in dz, by union of neighboring limbs of the sets of loops. (Meta- 
esis refers to the changes that take place after the splitting of the loops or micro- 
somata to form the chromatin figures which are to occupy the So The’ 
ing changes constitute the “ prophase,” the succeeding, the phase.’’) 


Fic. 119, a-/. From wall of embryo-sac of Fritillaria imperialis urger, 
A. m. A., xxiii—a-d represent the prophase, e-f, the metaphase, g-/, the anaphase. 
Here the first step of the metaphase is, as in the last case, one of mutual transfer be- 
tween the opposite sides of the equator. (See f.) Following any one loop in the 

- northern hemisphere, splitting into two halves (1, 2, Fig. fw), the part 2 is des- 
tined for the northern daughter-nucleus, and 1 for the southern. Separation between 
the two halves proceeds from one end to the other, so that the part 1 becomes pulled 

_ out straight, one limb of the part 2 is held back, while the other is dragged t towards 
its own pole (fx), both halves are therefore acted on so as to be pulled into line par- 

allel with a meridian, but the end, as it approaches the pole, bends around hook- 

-shaped to form a new loop, hence the part 2 passes through an “ S”? stage (fy), and 

the part 1 a hook stage, and they finally reach the U stage stage in fz, when the stages 
a ma oe, as in he preceding ane On comparing — it will be 


Hata 
Dever ai Gy 


ti d by means of the d 


a a PEN g Pee sake RUN a f the loops 


p but are oftener hooks or even straight filaments : 
and fx would be omitted. ; 


approximated. The number of Toop Sgr grrr grat ia 
e diagram, 


: 
> 
2 
J 
A 


s 


1- >, Æ c : 
‘ fi A / 
is : r enw: 
lej AR? « : -a 
tae . rag ae 
o i, Rd . 
UY wie a / 
` ar oe ai 
= s- i ne 
> 
j i ey 
f ` 
< 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 143 


Fic. 120. Cell from testis of Chelonia caja—Carnoy, p. 250.—The nuclear spindle 
is nearly constricted off in the equator; the ‘hpi: is partly so, and shows its 
T as ri dis goo arranged as those of the spind] 
1. Dividing sperm-cells from Aat—Weidersperg, A. m. A., xxv.—The two 
sat i are at a distance from each other, but still the Abie fibres unite the two 
daughter-nuclei. 


PLATE VIII. 
Fic. 122, a-¢, From pollen mother-cells of Fritillaria persica—Strasburger, A. 
m. A., xxiii.—a-g is the SA pet -m the anaphase, m-r a succeeditig prophase, 


and r-¢ the next anaphase he filament is at first much finer pap more intricately 
woven than represented in the een three diagrams. In ġ we see a nucleolus at one 
ih in connection with which the loops of the skein are put; ¢ is a polar view of the 

d the filament has shortened more and passed out of its relation with the 
te sadist which is now breaking down. Next, in ¢, the segmentation is com- 
pleted, and the limbs of the U-shaped segments are closely applied to each other; 
then, in 7, these stumpy “loops” get crowded into the centre, and the spindle is 
formed (g). Then splitting ensues and metakinesis (4). In the daughter-nuclei the 
loops come to lie so as to make the poles of the nucleus unlike : side view in 7 and 2 
and polar view in /, where the open ends of the loops point towards the old equator. 
Finally the eta sae is constituted as in m and # side and surface (polar) 
views respectively. But as about to divide again, the return to the resting state 
is not complete, AE e a a continuous filament is established, with local thicken- 
ings on it, showing the chromatin already segmenting. While segmentation pro- 
ceeds, the segments get into the meridians and shorten towards the equator (f and g), 
then the spindle is formed (7), and after the anaphase straight rods of chromatin 
pass to the poles, where they curve into loops (s, 7). This series shows what varia- 
bility there may be between successive divisions of same nucleus. Such variability 


- 124). 

FIG. 123, a-gx. Spermatogenesis of Helix pomatia.—a, the nucleus, with a thin 
layer of protoplasm about oh forming the “sperm mother-cell.” It is now homogene- 
ous, soon becomes granular, and a reticulum is developed (4). Out of the nucleus 
now buds a paranucleus (x). Then there is a period of growth until we get c, with 
a rich surface reticulum of chromatin. In g the meshes of the reticulum 
absorbed by the TAS In e hiss —— a ie any a 


formed four microsomata ; these re distant 
distribution, and, by tie the connecting proteases in i aie s directii and 
strengthening them in a meridional direction, they form a series of loops of a filament 


e MIRER now approaches the pole, and at the same time the loops 
ikri towards it, forming a rosette (g). The outer turns of the rosette break, as 
seen in polar view given in 4. The paranucleus is absorbed, and the loops with their 
bends wa ea axis ssi saree to the dre cee (J); at a same — Sr SPEA is 
formed. 
such bodies in an cea sie (4); the fibres of the spindle are in union, by- 
means of the rays of the polar aster, with the cytoplasmic reticulum. Each karysoma 
now segments again into four microsomata (/), but only the first plane Lees in the 
meridian cuts through completely; the second is simply the beginning of an attempt 
_ to form a beaded filament. These short filaments, consisting each of a pair of mi- 


144 The Significance of Sex. [Feb, 


in forming the paranucleus (see A. m. A., xxvi.), the karyosomata segment to form 
the rosette p and fx, where ż is the figure in the first division and gr that of the last. 
The reticulum is again established in gand gx ; the steps following the final division 
are ete in Fig. 81, a, 4, ¢, etc. 

24,a-s. “ Cy ideri” of the egg of Ascaris megalocephala (a-g), from Car- 
aii Cellule, vol. ii., May, 1886. %-s from Van Beneden, A. B., iv.—a is the nu- 
cleus of a young egg having a beaded filament forming a “skein.” There is besides 
a nucleolus which Carnoy calls a “ — -nucleolus” (x). Soon the filament seg- 
ments (4) into eight karyosomata, and then reticulum of the nucleus can be seen 
remaining. -The egg grows, and when mature, ee containing the spermatozoon, the 
preparations for forming the polar globules are made. The poles of the egg become 
marked each by a plasmatic-nucleolus; and the eight karyosomata now take an equa- 
torial pee in two groups (c), which gives to the germinal vesicle the appearance 
o! ing two germinal spots when viewed with moderate powers. The next stage 
soe the reticulum and wall of the germinal vesicle dissolved (which solution ap- 
pears with all nuclei at oe stage). Two groups of fibres now ray down from one 
pole towards the kary ta (d). The other half of the spindle is soon completed 
in a similar manner. “Then from the poles, where is a granular mass called a “ pla- 
teau,” there ray out into the protoplasm, fibres to form primary asters (1). The 
pti may split and so form several secondary plateaux, one of which is shown at 

’, Fig. ¢, for each pole, but its aster is still primary, because a part of its rays enter 
into the nuclear spindle. There may be several of these formed by repeated split- 
ting of the “ plateau.” ees asters (2) are formed when the streamers flow from 
the karyosomata. Tertiary asters (3) are those ponnera” with primary asters, but 
not a part of nuclear ieai while quatenary asters (4) are small asters scattered 
through the yelk, but they may be connected ady any other aster by one or two fila- 


fixed law governs their production, and the utmost variety of combination may be 
found. The system of asters is much more complex in the formation of the second 
pear globule than in the first. Our description of Fig. z is from the second “ cary 
etique figure.” The asters finally fade out until only one plateau with its bilat- 
on spindle is left; this often closes up on itself (/),so that the polar plate looks like 
an equatorial. plate; the karyosomata are thus carried around into a plane at right 
angles to a. old position, ang ead to approach each other. But this mode of dis- 
The last trace of the spindles and asters 


disappears (zg), the plateaux are reduced to ticulum of the plasma 
is restored, | but not as ya ie membrane of the nucleus. Now the reticulum produces 
Pi simple spi al (the tion’’) between the two groups of kary- 


aaasta. aad the tit periphoral one is at off by an equatorial cell-plate, much as 


two 

each, y re eated, so that only two karyosomata a ave leftin 

de cat ton eee eae 

divide by karyokinesis. After the last polar globule has been extruded (4) the two 

_ karyosomata of the female pronucleus segment up into microsomata, and a similar 

eola uate Aled gee aa eE agen 7 shows the two in a stage 
y eoncestration snd. pais 


ieee 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 145 


finally arrange themselves in the equator, so as to show in polar view as in , two of 
these loops were furnished by the male and two by the female. A side-view of this 
stage is shown in o, where the filaments have split in the middle, but not yet at the 
ends and the centre. In g the V-shaped loops have diverged towards the poles quite 
a ways; the central apices, however, move faster towards the poles than the outer 
limbs. hows the microsomata somewhat irregularly segregated at the base of a 
figure formed by the polar aster and spindle of conducting fibre, and at the apex of 


— the spindle of connecting fibrils, which is now constructing the cell-plate as ins. This 


e 


seems to show that the connecting fibres and the conducting fibres belong to distinct 
systems, which is more clearly shown in 7, where the karyosomata are placed at the 
ints of the meshes formed by the interlacing of the two systems. In the con- 
struction of the daughter-nucleus the microsomata pass by segmentation into a knauel 
like that seen in 7 and 4, and only when the equatorial plate is again formed for sub- 
sequent division do we get the four Ud once more established, as is seen respect- 
sg at the left and right of s. Van Beneden, however, ignores the evidence of his 
s, and states that the four loops remain distinct throughout. (See text for 
sibs prises n.) 
(c) KARYOKINESIS. 
WO extreme types of cell-division are known; in one, the 
nucleus simply constricts into two halves that move apart, 
followed by a similar constriction of the cell-body, so that each 
of the daughter-cells is provided with its own nucleus; in the 
other type the nucleus undergoes changes by which it becomes 
invisible to the microscope, unless the cell be treated with proper 
reagents, and as the partition which divides the cell-body appears, 
there is gradually built up a nucleus in each of the daughter-cells. 
The former type is known as direct division, the latter as indirect 
division. The term aryokinesis (nuclear motion) is usually re- 
stricted to the latter kind of division, but we are learning that 
there are many forms of indirect division that gradually unite the 
two extremes, so that we can no longer make the above dis- 
tinction. The term karyokinesis admits readily of a broad sig- 
nification, and we shall use the word as including all sorts of 
nuclear transformations 
Our knowledge of Gell stractuce and of the nucleus has won- 
derfully increased since 1833, when Robert Brown discovered the 
nucleus while studying the generative organs of orchids, and 
Von Mohi (1835) first saw it divide. To-day we are making as 
rapid progress in this direction as ever, and there is no field of 
biological research which offers so great inducements to the in- 
vestigator, or so valuable results as this. 
In all our progress there has been but one tendency, and that 
is to show us that the cell, and especially the nucleus, is a com- 


140 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


plex and highly-organized structure. We can no longer use the 
term protoplasm in its old sense of one definite substance whose 
remarkable properties are due to the great chemical complexity 
of its molecule. 

1. Historical—In the works of Schleiden and Schwann (1838- 
1840), which established the cell-doctrine, the cell was described 
as originating by the activity of the cytod/ast (the nucleus), which 
was itself due to a condensation of granules in the cell-substance 
of the mother-cell. The endogenous origin of cells and cell-nuclei 
was, however, gradually overthrown, and in 1855 Remak estab- 
lished the generalization that all cells are due to the division of 
pre-existing cells in such manner that the nucleolus first divides, 
then the nucleus, and lastly the cell-body. This schema could rest 
only on the facts of direct division and a superficial observation of 
indirect division. As soon as the latter was carefully studied by 
Hoffmeister, in 1867, he found that the nucleus disappears and 
two centres of attraction arise in the cell, in connection with 
which the daughter-nuclei were built up. These facts had been 
observed in animal-cells already in 1858, by Munk, so that the 
view that a cell must return to a cytode condition to divide and 
so, in a manner, be rejuvenated, and produce new nuclei endoge- 
nously, was fairly established. This school was strengthened by 
receiving the support of all who had observed the maturation of 

e ovum (except Warneck, 1850), for here it was seen that the 

rminal vesicle disappears before segmentation, and that the 
nuclei of the segmentation products arise as new structures, and, 
moreover, Valette St, George had, in 1866, shown that the ovum 
is a cell, the germinal vesicle a nucleus, and the germinal dot a 
nucleolus. 

complex nature of cell-structure was surmised by Brücke 
as early as 1861, although the microscope had then only re- 
vealed granules, and that these were at times arranged in a 
radiate manner with reference to the nuclei. 

In 1865, Frommann, through extended research, described the 
reticulate nature of protoplasm and generalized that this was the 
typical structure of protoplasm, but his views remained for many 
years unnoticed. 


2 = | Ia: eed the view that whenever a pro- 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 147 


peared as granules. The nucleus is only a large nodal point in 
the centre, and as this developed it repeated the process, and finally 
the nucleolus in a mature cell takes on the reticulate structure. He 
laid the basis for Nageli’s theory of heredity by advancing the 
notion that the reticuli of all the cells in the body are continuous, 
and so anticipated modern studies of protoplasmic continuity. 

This year is memorable as marking the beginning of studies 
on karyokinesis. The stimulus came from a paper by Schneider, 
in which the different phases were pretty well described, though 
their connection and sequence were unknown. Even the spindle 
and cell plate were figured. Bütschli and Fol confirmed these 
results, the former mainly as to the nuclear rosette and its sepa- 
ration into two halves to constitute.the daughter-nuclei, while 
the latter got the asters and spindle best; hence the former 
agreed with Schneider that there was no deconstitution of the 
nucleus, while the latter inclined to side with the orthodox school. 

Auerbach now appeared with his “Organologische Studien” 
(1874). He starts with Heitzmann’s views as to the organization 
of protoplasm, but considers the nucleus to be a sap-cavity into 
which molecules of protoplasm wander and grow to become 
nucleoli. These multiply by division, so that old cells have many 
nucleoli. The cells of highly-organized tissues, he says, have 
more nucleoli than cells lower in the scale of organization. The 
nucleoli are young cells, and they are simply separated into two 
groups in direct division ; but in indirect division, which he dis- 
tinguishes as palingenetic, these are dissolved into a molecular 
state in the nuclear sap, and then absorbed with the sap by the 
cell-plasma. This process is termed £aryolysis, the spindle with 
its polar asters is the karyolytic figure and the simple expression 
of the streaming out of the nuclear substance. Later, near each 
star, the sap and molecules return to form a daughter-nucleus. 
_ This seemed a pretty fair explanation, and Flemming at this time 
was much influenced by it. 

Bütschli, however (1875), opposed the theory, though he modi- 
fied his former view of the simple persistence and division of the 
nucleus to the view that the nucleus is reconstructed into a spindle, 
at whose equator the fibres become thickened to form the nu- 
clear plate, which plate by splitting passed its halves to the 
poles of the spindle to be re-formed into nuclei. In the same 
© A list of the papers referred to will be given at the close of the article. 


148 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


year the first edition of Stvasburger’s work on cell-division ap- 
peared. This treated in the main of the plant-cell, where the 
spindle thickenings after separating leave between themselves 
connecting fibrils that are more prominent than in the animal- 
cell. These he called xuclear fibrils, and at their equator a second 
set of thickenings appear that go to construct the dividing wall 
between the new cells, hence he named it the cedl-plate. The 
second edition of this work appeared in 1876, and the third in 
1880. In the last he changes the name he gave the connecting 
fibres to cell-fibres, because he supposed that they were formed 
from the ‘cytoplasm penetrating into the nuclear matter at the 
time of the deconstitution of the latter. 

Van Beneden, on the other hand, agreed with Bütschli that the 
spindle comes from the old nucleus. He distinguishes between 
the nuclear sap and the xuclear essence. The connecting fibrils are 
of the same essence as the nuclear disk, and are due to the draw- 
ing out of the elements as they segment into the daughter-disks. 

In this year, also, Hertuig showed that the egg-nucleus does 
not disappear during cleavage, but passes through a metamorpho- 
sis similar to the cell-divisions described by Bütschli. At the 
poles of the spindle and in the centre of each aster he finds a 
polar corpuscle. Fol had seen corpuscles in the stars, but had 
confounded them with the daughter-nuclei. The following year, 
1876, Fol corrects this error. Balbiani found the nuclear plate to 
be composed of rod-like elements that were composed of granules, 
but these views were unnoticed, so that Pfitsner received the 
honor of their discovery five years later. 

At this time the elements which compose the nuclear plate 
-= were not distinguished from the spindle-fibres, due to the fact 
that reagents which made the one visible left the other obscure, 
hence there was a good deal of contradiction in the results, 
which was unreal. 

In this year Bitschi’s chief work appears. He supposes the 
-infusorian ‘nucleus to represent the original type of nucleus. He 
thinks the cytoplasm stimulates the nucleus to division, though 
it may not itself necessarily follow the example. The rays of the 
stars are not the expression of attractive forces of the nucleus, 


T mie toa Shona influence. He found that the 


1887] The Significance of Sex. "149 


ter, like Van Beneden, into sap and nuclear substance, Strasdurger 
now proposes the following scheme. There are in the nucleus 
three formed substances, one of which is active. By the excita- 
tion of the cytoplasm the active substance gathers at the poles 
of the nucleus, leaving the spindle-fibres stretching between; the 
latter are cytoplasmic in origin, and the polar substance acts on 
them just as it acts on the fibres of the cytoplasm which form 
the stars, hence the general disposition of the polarized mole- 
cules in rows radiating away from the polar area. The third 
substance is first repelled from the poles to form the nuclear 
equatorial plate; but in some way there is a change of polarity 
by which it is subsequently attracted to the poles, and so the 
plate splits in two (it might also do this through internal repul- 
sion, but, as we shall show farther on, there is no necessity for a 
physical explanation). This is perhaps the best of the few theo- 
ries which have been advanced to account for the phenomena." 

On the question of the solution of the nucleus, Fo now took 
a middle ground, holding with Strasburger that the cytoplasm 
entering formed the spindle, but the nuclear matter simply be- 
came continuous ae the cytoplasm through the dissolution of 
the nuclear membran 

In 1878, Schleicher adtaindsd the view that the protoplasm was 
composed not of parts that had a fixed relation to one another, 
but of units that were independently mobile, and so all the struc- 
_ tures were amoeboid in form, hence there could be no definite 
phases during cell-division, wherefore he proposed the term 
karyokinesis to designate the phenomena. On the other hand, 
Flemming had, by careful staining, worked out the series of forms 
through which the nuclear matter passes during karyokinesis. 
He did not get the spindle well because, as he showed the next 
year, this was composed of non-stainable matter. The resting 
nucleus consists of a vesicle enclosing a reticulum and one or 
more nucleoli. This reticulum is changed to an exceedingly 
long and intricately wound filament, at the same time the nu- 
cleoli dissolve in the sap and the filament absorbs the material. 
This is the phase of the close knauel. (Fig. 112, a.) The filament 
now shortens and grows thicker, passing through the open 

* We give the theory in its most developed form, third edition of Strasburger’s 
work, 1880, where he slightly modified it from its original statement in the second 
edition. 


150 . The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


knauel stage, until it shows as a rosette (Fig. 111, e), with loops 
turned peripherally and towards the centre. Then the outer 
limbs of the loops break, leaving a lot of V-shaped filaments 
having their apices towards a common centre. (Fig. 105, 7.) This 
is the “ mother-star.” Meanwhile the central point of attraction 
splits and movés to the poles, where asters now appear. This 
is accompanied by alternate expansion and contraction of the 
nuclear star (diastole and systole), and finally results in its flat- 
tening into an “ equatorial plate” (Fig. 113, Æ); then each loop 
splits lengthwise, though it may have done so while still in the 
mother-star (Fig. 119, ¢), and thus formed the “ fine-rayed star.” 
The halves of each loop become separated and grouped in a 
“ dyaster,” or two daughter-stars, passing through the phase 
which shows as a splitting of the equatorial plate. Then the 
apices of the loops (travelling along the spindle-fibres) are drawn 
towards the poles (Fig. 112, ¢), drawing the limbs after them, and 
so reach the pole. Here they form into a figure like the old 
mother-star (Figs. 112, f, 105, 4), and return, by uniting ends 
through the rosette (Fig. 118, f) into the knauel form, and finally 
become like the mother-nucleus. 

The next year Flemming divided cell-division into direct and 
indirect. He limited the former to motile cells, and accepted 
Schleicher’s term as applying to the indirect kind. He thinks 
the nucleoli are an accidental thing in a nucleus, and according 
as nuclear substance stains or not he calls it chromatin and achro- 
matin. In the same year, 1879, Fol proposed his electrolytic 
theory of cell-division. He believed the nuclear reticulum was 
directly transformed into the spindle, and the nuclear plate was 
due to an equatorial thickening of its fibres. 

Strasburger's studies gave him different results from Flemming. 
In plants the phases are not so marked, but may give a spindle 
figure of chromatic granules arranged in rows like the staves of 
a cask; and the daughter-nuclei arise through the simple break- 
ing of these across the middle. (Figs. 115, a-d.) ` 

In 1881, Retzius had confirmed the phases of Flemming, but 
showed that the rosette must be given up, as segmentation of the 
knauel may take place while in the loose or open knauel stage. 


_ (Fig. 112, 6.) He says the chromatic substance is contained in a 


= hyaline matrix, as Pfitzner has shown, and most of it is absorbed 
: a and these are the nucleoli. p 


#' 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 151 


Pfitzner, this year, called attention to the fact that the nuclear 
loops are composed of granules like a row of beads, and that the 
loop splits by the segmentation of each granule. He thought 
these granules to be the protoplasmic molecules, but later (1883) 
said they were independent and individual units in the. nuclear 
structure. (See Fig. 114, a, 6.) 

In 1882, Strasburger proposed the terms cytoplasm, microso- 
mata, nucleoplasm, etc., which we adopted in Section æ of this 
paper. He studied more carefully the method of rearrangement 
of the loops in the equatorial plate during its division, and finds 
that it is more complex than Flemming made it, for the old bend 
straightens out, and one end of the loop gets drawn towards the 
pole, and then bends like a hook, and this new bend travels along 
the filament to its middle point, thus making the two limbs equal, 
while at the same time the loop is drawn polewards. Strasburger 
had not yet discovered the splitting of the loops, so that he had 
as yet only an imperfect notion of how the rearrangement took 
place. (See Figs. 118 and 119 for the actual facts.) 

In this year appeared Flemming’s systematic work on the cell, 
and in it he accepts the criticisms of Retzius and Strasburger, so 
far as they relate to the rosette phase and the “ rearrangement.” 
He doubts if there is a reticulum in cells, or at least in nuclei. 
The appearance.may be due to the optical effect of a closely- 
wound filament or mitom, the sap is the paramitom, and karyo- 
kinesis should be termed mitokinesis, or mitosis. Besides the 
mitom there are chief and accessory nucleoli. He gives up the 
idea that the chromatin may dissolve in the cell-sap. He gives 
us the term sgzrem for the knauel phase. Rearrangement in the 
equatorial plate is termed metakinesis. He uses the term aster 
for the star-form of the mother-nucleus, and dyaster for that of 
the daughter-nucleus. 

In 1883, Pfitzner makes three sorts of chromatic substance in 
the nucleus. The substance of the spindle, hitherto called achro- 
matic, he terms parachromatin, while the sap only is true achro- 
matin. The nucleolus has prochromatin, while the mitom has 
the true chromatin. In the resting nucleus there may be, besides 
Strasburger’s membrane, which belongs to the cytoplasm, a true 
nuclear membrane of parachromatin. 

Roux, in this year, proposes a theory of karyokinesis, based 

on the idea that there is a mixture of qualities in the chromatin, 


152 The Significance of Sex. [Feb. 


etc., and that these have to be distributed in a definite way be- 
iict the daughter-cells at each division. Hence the complicated 
machinery. 

In 1884, Rad/ seeks to show that there never is a simple fila- 
ment in a cell, but that the loops pre-exist even in the resting 
state, and that in this latter state the chromatin flows out along 
definite paths into finer and finer branches, which never anasto- 
mose, but may swell up at points, where a special lot of chro- 
matin gathers, and there form nucleoli. The cell is heteropolar, 
always having the apices of the loops directed towards the 
principal pole. (See Fig. 113, a) 

Teuser agrees with Rabl in finding the mitom segmental in 
the resting phase. 

In this year Strasburger discovers the splitting phase in certain 
plant-tissues. (Figs. 118, 119.) 

Carnoy now comes to the front with important contributions. 
He finds, what has not been noticed by previous observers in its 
true light, that there exists a true reticulum in the nucleus, like 
the reticulum in the cytoplasm (Fig. 4), but that the mitom in 
its convolutions hides this, and gives us the aspect of a coarser 
reticulum (Fig. 3), which is the one referred to by previous in- 
vestigators. The mitom may be itself reticulated (Fig. 13), or its 
segments be short and rod-like in some cells (Figs. 123, 124), but 
besides these there are the nucleoli. All the nucleoli are not 
composed of true chromatin. There are one or two that are 
composed of plastin (Figs. 44, 124, 6, c), like the true reticulum, 
and with it and the membrane become transformed to the achro- 
matic or spindle part of the figure. The phases of Flemming are 
realized only in a limited number of cases, and there appears to 
be the utmost variety in the karyokinetic figures; we may get 
forms where the nuclear reticulum does not become transformed, 
although the mitom may segment. (Figs. 109, 110, stenotic di- 
vision.) Again, the achromatic part of the figure may in one 
and the same cell differ under different circumstances from great 
—— to simplicity of structure." 

Platner has also made important contributions (see Fig. 123, 
a-ga); but these will be considered i in another connection.? 


8 See also, Lee, “ Carnoy’s Cell R. hes.” Q. J. M.S, April, 1886. 


Egle rater ee eed oa eter as just come to my notice. 


— eae e e a 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 153 


Thus we get a notion of the cell as a most varied organism. 
Cells may be as varied among themselves as the higher organ- 
isms. But we have hardly begun to get an idea of the variety of 
karyokinetic phenomena; what is to appear by future study we 
can only vaguely imagine. The phenomena of cell-division can- 
not be purely physical phenomena. They are living phenomena, 
and show they are subject to the laws of heredity and evolu- 
tion of adaptation and variation. If this be so, we can under- 
stand karyokinesis only through comparative studies, just as we 
study the laws of variation and evolution, of homology and affin- 
ity with higher organisms. It becomes important, therefore, to 
understand karyokinetic phenomena among the Protozoa. Re- 
cent studies in this line have shown that here we may get nearly 
as complex figures of karyokinesis as in tissue-cells; but from 
this we get all grades down to the simplest direct division. We 
learn that nuclei may be alike in distantly-related forms, while 
closely-allied forms may have very diverse nucléi. 

2. Protozoa.—These organisms present, as we should expect, 
a great variety of nuclear forms and karyokinesis. The differ- 
entiation has been in so many different directions, with the ac- 
quirement of secondary characters whose physiological signifi- 
cance we can hardly guess, that it is perhaps impossible to 
connect the forms. Frey thinks the vesicular form of nucleus is 
the primitive one, but most writers agree with R. Hertwig in de- 
riving this form from a solid form through vacuolation of the 
latter, which leaves the chromatin either all in a cortical zone, 
or else in one or more nucleoli; and this process may be repeated 
in a nucleolus when this becomes large and important. Gruber 
suggests that in a primitive state the chromatin was present 
throughout the cell ina granular form, as in Trichospherium, 
Pleurophrys, Trachelocercus, Chcenia, and others, and that solid 
nuclei arose by fusion of these granules, or by some of them re- 
maining in close union following their multiplication. But it 
must be observed that this granular condition could easily arise 
by the segmentation of larger bodies and so be secondary in 


plasmic streaming in one direction. Each meridian bears a karyosoma that splits, 
because the fibre splits; thus, always in a meridional plane. The parachromatic 
mitom is so wound that the current is towards opposite poles in neighboring fibres 
after the splitting, hence the daughter PPE are swept to their proper poles. 
This theory appears to be as weak as its predecesso: 


154 The Significance of Sex. [Feb. 


character. In some forms we get either many small nuclei or 
else granules, besides one or more chief nuclei, and, according to 
Altmann, this is true of all tissue-cells, so that we have nuclear 
bodies first differentiated in two directions, the granules serving 
some nutritive or other function, while the nuclei retained the 
office of being the primary reproductive bodies. 

The next differentiation arising would be the differentiation of 
the nuclei into two kinds, which in some Ciliates have acquired 
considerable independence and act quite differently during di- 
vision. We know them as nuclei and nucleoli, or as nuclei and 
paranuclei, respectively. Better terms are Huxley’s endoplast 
and endoplastule, as not implying homologies which are probably 
false. In massive nuclei the chromatin exists in a fine net-work, 
which gives the appearance of granules in the resting phase and 
of fibrillz during division. In Gastrostyla the endoplastules 
divide by a true spindle and a nuclear plate of karyosomata. 
Nearly all the nuclei of Opalina are of this sort. 

The substance of the nucleus may differentiate into two sorts 
that gather in two portions of the nucleus, either by polar dif- 
ferentiation or by centripetal differentiation. One substance is 
hyaline, the other granular; examples are Leptodiscus, Spirochona, 
and Noctiluca. In Spirochona it is the endoplast which has this 
structure, and it divides by a complex kinesis. A nucleolus 
appears in the clear part, which becomes transformed into fibrils 
while the hyaline portion gathers as two polar plates that sepa- 
rate, and so, as it were, tear the nucleus in two. The three 
endoplastules present divide by simple constriction at the same 
time; and here also there are polar plates of a substance different 

from the equatorial portion. 
| Ina different direction we get the vesicular differentiation, and 

this is most common in the lower Protozoa, and is that from 
which the metazoan cell-nucleus is derived. In Rhizopods we 
may not only get many nuclei (about two hundred in Pelomyxa), 
but each nucleus may present a great variety of phenomena. 
There may be a central nucleolus, and this nucleolus may be 
composed of many microsomata, or the microsomata may sepa- 
rate as so many nucleoli, or again may fall into granules. To- 
gether with all these forms there may be a cortical shell of 
micros¢ for examples, see Figs. 14, a, b, 20, 22. The 


= -  multin clearity of many of the Protozoa is due to the fact that 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 155 


cell-division is purely facultative, and has not been inseparably 
associated with nuclear division. When it takes place, as in 
Opalina, any number of nuclei may be separated away in the 
daughter-cell. In many cases the nuclear divisions affect only 
the chromatin, while the hyaloplasm and its nucleolemma remain 
as funiculi uniting the segments. (See Figs. 42, 31, 29, 28, 41, 
etc.) The microsomata of a nucleolus or of a karyosoma behave 
in the same way; as in Figs. 19, d, 43, 114, 115, 123, g, 124, 9. 

In Radiolaria we get a multitude of small “ massive” nuclei 
that divide by amceboid constriction (Fig. 25), and in the central 
capsule vesicular nuclei, whose different metamorphoses are 
shown in Figs. 16, 17, 18, and I9. 

In division of vesicular nuclei we get, as the simplest form, the 
Remakian scheme. (Fig. 100.) Next we may get the granular 
contents arranged in fibrils that are bisected by the constrict- 
ing nucleus (Fig. 101), or they may remain in the granular state. 
(Fig. 99.) The most complex case is given by Actinospherium 
eichornii. (Fig. 103, a-g.) Here the nucleolus separates into 
two bodies, one containing chromatin and oné the parachromatin ; 
then each body segments into fine granules; these granules get 
arranged in fibrils; the chromatin-granules fuse to karyosomata 
lying in an equatorial plate in the spindle formed by the parachro- 
matin; the karyosomata divide into daughter-karyosomata that 
pass towards the poles; on its way each daughter-karyosoma 
segments to microsomata; the microsomata segment to granules, 
which, however, form separate karyosoma-like masses until they 
are absorbed by the polar plates. The latter are due to the fact 
that the external protoplasm had gathered at two opposite poles 
of the nucleus and had attracted the parachromatic cortical layer 
of the nucleus. Why the protoplasm should gather at the poles 
and so induce nuclear division is unknown. Possibly substances 
in the nucleus have first passed to the poles and attracted the 
cytoplasm. These substances may be the segments of the para- 
nucleolus, for it is possible to derive the spindle-fibres from a dif- 

. ferentiation of some of the chromatin-granules into hyaloplasm. 

It is rare to find the nucleolus (or the granules that represent 
it when it is segmented) in the same condition during nuclear di- 
vision as during the resting phase. There is a cycle of changes, 
so that one condition has to be assumed for division, and then 
the chromatin returns through inverse stages to its resting state. 


i. The Significance of Sex. [ Feb, 


The phases of this cycle may be few or they may be many, and 
besides, the phase in which the nucleus rests may be in one case 
in one point of this cycle, in another it is a different phase of this 
cycle. But in all cases the cycle is made up of stages of fusion or 
of segmentation between the two extremes of one single nucleolus and 
of numerous granules. (The law is unchanged even if we sup- 
pose that the granules are the nodes of a reticulum.) Usually 
nuclear division follows that point in the cycle where the chro- 
matin is most condensed. Thus, even in the Remakian schema, 
this law is followed, as see Figs. 99, 100, 101. Cases like Figs. 
IOI, 103, 104, and karyokinesis in Metazoa are related to the Rema- 
kian schema by a compounding of the latter, for cach karyosoma fol- 
lows the Remakian schema. We thus see that direct division is to in- 
direct division asa unicellular or unisegmental animal is to one that 
is multicellular or multisegmented. Jf we study the cell-division 
of multinuclear Protozoa we find that the same laws hold. Opalina 
is an exception, and such forms as Polykrikos (Fig. 96), that have 
only nuclear division during cell-division, are connecting links to 
the far larger class of cases, where, as in Oxytricha (Fig. 95), 
Paramoecium (Fig. 9734), Stentor, etc., there is fusion of the 
nuclei (or of nuclear segments in moniliform endoplasts) before 
division and multiplication of these bodies preceding, during, or 
following division. In Paramcecium the resting phase concurs 
with the mononucleate phase. But even in the exceptions to this 
law there is fusion, when these forms encyst to produce spores 
(Fig. 97) by the successive or by simultaneous division of the 
fused nucleus. In such cases, as in conjugation of low forms, 
the phenomena may be facultative, the number of nuclei resulting 
from the fusion being one which varies from one to the original 
number, just as the resulting spores may vary in number. 
What is the meaning of this? Zt ts evident that we have here 
to do with conjugative phenomena. These self-same nuclei that 
with one form of cell-division fuse, may, in case of buds, be set 
free, as microgonidia to fertilize other gonidia. It may be that 
the granules and nuclei are in different parts of the cell subjected 
to different conditions, and thus come to vary slightly. If, now, 
the cell divided, the daughter-cells would differ, and ultimately 
new species be formed. But, as we find that if conjugation phe- 
_ nomena be left out in one place in the different modes of repro- 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 157 


prevented, as in male and female parthenogenesis, the resulting 
organisms are weak, we must conclude that the organism derives 
some benefit from the mixture of chromatins that are slightly dif- 
ferent. In the case assumed above, where cell-division is not ac- 
companied by fusion of the nuclei, we may presume that conju- 
gation of gametes supplies this lack,’ though in Opalina the only 
form of fertilization as yet discovered is that of nuclear fusion 
during encystment. But Opalina is a parasite, and parasites, we 
know, get along remarkably well without fertilization. 

This explanation of karyokinesis seems quite plausible, so that 
we may formulate the law ¢hat every cell-division ts preceded by 
fertilization phenomena: ts accompanied by close inbreeding. Other 
explanations have been suggested. Strasburger regards karyo- 
kinesis as resulting in like cells, therefore the different chroma- 
tins present must be carefully divided, so that each daughter-cell 
shall receive its proper ingredients. Roux and Weismann go 
further and call attention to the fact that dividing cells are not 
alike, so that we need a particular distribution of the gemmules 
for each division, so that, to follow the last author, in the first 
egg-segmentation, the histogenic plasm is separated from the 
generative plasm. Thus the soma is descended from one blasto- 
mere and the generative cells from another. In a similar way the 
endoderm-cells have a common ancestor, and the ectoderm 
another, and so on. This explanation seems to me difficult of 
application to the Protozoa, so that the law enunciated above 
- appears to be unaffected. 

3. General—It would extend the length of this paper unduly, 
as well as be of no interest except to the specialist, to discuss the 
various views that have been advanced in interpretation of the 
special stages of karyokinesis. Nevertheless, some of the more 
prominent features should be noticed. We have already seen 
that cell-division need not be necessarily associated with nuclear 
division, whether this be direct or indirect, so in the higher tis- 
sues there occur cells that present such conditions. These are 
the internodal cells of Chara, many fungi where the nuclei are 
granules, and the generative tissues of both plants and animals; 
also in cartilage-cells and marrow-cells. In the generative tissues 
of plants cell-division does not take place until many endosperm 

* The formation of varieties and species must take place in spite of this tendency 
of differentiated chromatins to fm. 


158 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


nuclei are present, and to this form of division the term /ree-cell 
Jormation has been applied, while the term in the sense in which 
Schleiden used it has been pretty nearly abandoned. Still, we 
saw that in the Protozoa nuclei could arise by the fusion of gran- 
ules, and return by fragmentation to the granular state, and it 
may be a question whether similar phenomena may not be found 
in tissue-cells. The cases of the endogenous origin of nuclei are 
reported in eggs that have so much yelk that it is hard to follow 
the nuclear changes. 

Does the cytoplasm or the keelas ilate division? Hertwig 
holds that the nucleus is the automatic centre which controls the 
individuality of the cell, but it must be confessed that the earliest 
changes are in the cytoplasm. Protoplasm gathers at two points 
and forms stars, between which the nucleus becomes stretched 
out and transformed. Carnoy (Fig. 124), and lately (1886) Hert- 
wig, have found independent stars arising in the cytoplasm, and 
if more than two of these get connection with the nucleus, there 
are as many polesand spindles or resulting daughter-nuclei as there 
are asters. The rays about these asters are simply a transforma- 
tion of the reticulum. What their function is we can only guess 
with the numerous guesses made by predecessors. They may 
be nutritive, may be paths for travelling gemmules, may have a 
nervous function, or finally only serve motor functions. The 
spindle-fibres are a similar transformation of the nuclear reticu- 
lum (że. the parachromatin reticulum); whether the nuclear 
membrane in dissolving adds to their material, or gathers at the 
poles of the spindle as in Actinospherium, may be doubtful. 
In the latter case it would continue its original function of medi- 
ating between the intra- and the extra-nuclear reticulum. But 
Strasburger and others find that the astral- and spindle-fibres are 
continuous, and thinks the latter come by a penetration of the 
former through the poles of the nucleus. But the mass of evi- 
dence is against him, and besides, the spindle-fibres are composed 
of parachromatin (chemically, plastin) and react differently from 
the extra-nuclear fibres. 

_ Then there are the polar corpuscles in the centres of the stars, 
and forming the apices of the spindle. Their origin is obscure. 
_ Possibly the plastin nucleolus of Carnoy may, by its division and 
‘migration, have initiated the division of the nucleus, and is rep- 


ee It is ee T o DERA 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 159 


may divide, and so split the spindle (Fig. 124), and often the two 
stars first arise close together, and move later to opposite poles. 
We must also notice Rabl’s discovery of a spindle intact in the 
nucleus, which rotates into its position (see Fig. 113, c) through 
an angle of 

In what condition is the chromatin in the resting nucleus? It 
may be present as a fine or as a coarse reticulum, closely inter- 
penetrating the parachromatic reticulum, and perhaps fused with 
it. In the germinal vesicle it is present as a nucleus, which be- 
comes transformed into the reticulum before division. The next 
change this reticulum suffers is its transformation into a mitom,— 
z.é., a filament,—which, while it is very long and closely balled up, 
may not be distinguished from a reticulum. Some nuclei rest in 
this phase, or in subsequent phases of its shortening and conse- 
quent thickening. When thick it has been found to be com- 
posed of granules that fuse to form microsomata, so that finally 
the mitom is one microsoma thick. The next phase is one in 
which the mitom segments into loops or filamentous karyosomata. 
Some cells rest in this phase. (See Fig. 124.) When the segmen- 
tation occurs early, while the reticulum is being transformed into 
the mitom, we get a condition of things represented in Figs. 113 
and 45. The karyosomata are apt to be short or corpuscular in 
generative cells. (See Figs. 122 and 123.) 

Now we have two ways in which the karyosomata are sepa- 
rated into two groups to form the daughter-nuclei. In one they 
are separated without accompanying division, as in Fig. 124. In 
the other they divide in such a way that each half of the karyo- 
soma is destined to pass into different daughter-nuclei. In this 
case we get two forms. In one form the karyosomata, if they 
are short, become arranged into a nuclear plate in the equator of 
the spindle, and by division and separation of the halves we get 
two daughter-plates that pass to the poles, and become the 
daughter-nuclei, but if they are long, they lie along each spindle- 
fibre and are bisected in the equator as in Figs. 101 and 115. In 
the other case the daughter-segments are produced by a longi- 
tudinal splitting of the loop, as shown in Figs. 114, 118, and 119, in 
which splitting usually occurs early, while the spirem figure still 
persists, and in this case no true equatorial plate may form, but 
be only the expression of separating loops passing each other on 
the way to their respective ogg Between all these different 
VOL. 


XXI.—NO, 2, 


160 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. 


methods there are connecting links. Carnoy calls such a case as 
is seen in Fig. 109 stenotic division, while similar separation with 
more complex spindle and asters, as in Fig. 124, he terms cyto- 
dieresis. 

Finally, the karyosomata reach the poles and pass through 
stages of fusion of the larger bodies and segmentation of the 
smaller, so that the nucleus appears homogeneous because of its 
very fine reticulum. Then from this point the changes continue 
along the upward path to the resting phase, wherever that may 
be. While undergoing this fusion, the hyaloplasm in which the 
chromatin-granules are imbedded become much increased, so 
that if the chromatin is sparse we get vesicular unions, like 
Fig. 125. This hyaloplasm is parachromatin, and it undoubt- 
edly enters partly into the formation of the spindle-fibres; in 
Fig. 126 appears to be the only source of these. 

Concerning the nucleoli that may be present, besides the re- 
ticulum or mitom and the plasmatic nucleolus, there exist the 
most diverse views. In the first place, we must call attention to 
the fact that very diverse structures have received this name by 
different writers. The nodes of the reticulum, the karyosomata, 
the groups these may’form when unresolved by the lens, all 
have received this name. The true nucleolus seems to disappear 
during division, and to be gradually built up by fusion of gran-, 
ules at its close. It has been supposed that it dissolved in the 
nuclear sap, and was absorbed by the mitom, or that it was di- 
rectly connected with the mitom, and so incorporated into it. 

us Pfitzner called its substance prochromatin, as being a store 
iam which the mitom replenished itself, but has lately changed 
the name to pseudochromatin, and other authors think it is of 
accidental value. Those who think with Strasburger, Fraisse, 
Kassel, and Brass that the chromatin is food-substance and the 
hyaloplasm the real idioplasm, find no difficulty with this body. 
But it must be remembered that it also has hyaloplasm, so the 
difficulty i is unsolved. What is the meaning of those polar cor- 
~ puscles (not to be confounded with the polar corpuscles consid- 
he Ee cla seen in Fig. 112, c, o, d, which multiply as the loops 

ly, and whose number is approximately two or three times 
that of the loops ? It almost seems as if they were related to the 


oe kacpeomats,. as the endoplastules of Protozoa are to the endo- 


icy Ne Hes Rome by She segmentation othe nache 


46 


1887] The Significance of Sex. - 161 


olus, and in that case this body is a paranucleolus over against 
the mitom. But these bodies may have come from the plasmatic 
nucleolus of Carnoy, and so we are still in doubt. 

nother unsolved problem is concerning the connecting fibres 
that remain between the retreating karyosomata. In plants they 
help to build the cell-plate, and the nucleus gets reconstructed 
without their being absorbed. In animals they seem to be ab- 
sorbed, for, if left outside, they form the paranucleus of Platner 
(see Fig. 123), which is later absorbed by the nucleus to form 
the spindle. They are thus made of substances similar to those 
which enter into the parachromatic reticulum, and, when not 
absorbed by the nucleus, they join the other fibres of the cyto- 
-plasmic reticulum, from which they can no longer be distin- 
guished. Thus the chromatin of the nucleus must make more 
hyaloplasm, from which a new parachromatic reticulum can 
arise. 

There is some evidence of the existence of microsomata that 
are not chromatin; in the cytoplasmic reticulum these are not so 
active in their fusions and segmentations as the nuclear microso- 
mata, but still they do this, for the spindle-fibres and rays, when 
extra-nuclear, have been observed to segment and fuse. This 
can easily be understood by combining with Heitzmann’s schema 
the idea of units in the cell. Strasburger and Pfitzner recognize 
the microsoma as such a unit, and we have shown that there are 
numerous units of differing complexity and degrees. When 
two organisms differ in the number of units that enter into their 
structure, such difference is one of degree in the ordinary sense, 
but when two organisms differ by belonging to higher or lower 
stadia of organization, such difference constitutes a discrete degree. 
Such degrees separate the Protozoa from Metozoa, a man from 
the social organism, a cell from the microsoma, a microsoma from 
a gemmule. Though here further study is needed to discover 
the number of stadia visible to the microscope, Nageli has ad- 
meaty discussed the stadia that lie between the chemical mole- 

a NS, a 


icell „and Altmann | 


Ppa aes, HL 


that the bacterial 
organisms are of the same grade of organization as the microsoma. 
Each node in a reticulum may be conceived as a unit. We have 
already seen how, when chromatin segments, it may leave a funic- 
ulus of hyaloplasm (with or without a wall). This connecting 
piece of hyaloplasm may break by beiig drawn towards the 


162 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb, 


centres on either side of it, or it may, like a pseudopodium, reach 
out and obtain a fresh connection with a neighbor. This is ad- 
mirably illustrated in Fig. 123. In this way it is that a reticulum 
can be transformed into a mitom or a fibre. The observations of 
Rabl and of Retzius on the formation of the mitom become 
intelligible. By the attraction of the hyaloplasm along definite 
paths, and their separation along others, we may also see how a 
nucleus arises in a cell, as in Fig. 2. By mutual attraction the 
microsomata fuse. Why they segment may be explained by 
assuming that certain gemmules or societies of gemmules differ- 
entiate from the others and serve as governing centres, about 
which the rest flock. Individuality arises in this way everywhere. 
The cause of union between two units of like order, which con- 
stitutes sexual union, is not so apparent. We find this occurring 
only where a slight difference has arisen, so that, Lankester says, 
“they may mutually gain each other’s experience.” At bottom 
all the phenomena of the cell-life may be referred to attrac- 
tions, and through its action the reticulum becomes the organ of 
movement. 

There is considerable evidence that successive cell-divisions 
differ in their karyokinetic phenomena. We know that the num- 
ber of karyosomata in the segmenting-egg are fewer than in the 
tissue-cells, and that they are shorter. There must be a change 
somewhere. But in gametogenesis two successive generations 
may differ, as can be seen by Figs. 123 and 124. We may start 
in gametogenesis with direct division, pass on to generations pro- 
duced by budding or by stenosis, and finally reach the complex 
phenomena of the segmenting embryo. We know only a little. 

ut this. Our knowledge compares with what we should 
know, as the knowledge of zoologists, before embryology, com- 
pares with their present knowledge. When we reflect that we | 
must observe cells in all periods of their life and all the genera- 
tions of cells as they differentiate, and we must do this for all 
the different animals, and the results must be corroborated by 
different observers, morphologists need not quarrel for lack of 
room nor sit idle for lack of work. We can also understand why 
is is such a mysterious phenomenon.  Ce//-division 

= must be r understood onlegeutically and PS 


_ (To be concluded. ) 


1887] ee Editors’ Table. . 163 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. 


For twenty years the AMERICAN NATURALIST has played an 
important part in the history and development of American 
science. In the seventeen thousand pages which compose the 
twenty volumes there is contained not only an epitome of the 
world’s scientific progress but a large proportion of the original 
investigation carried on in this country. The magazine has won 
for itself an honorable place in the sciéntific literature of the 
world, and to-day its position is higher than ever before. 
Through these twenty years it has pursued but a single policy, 
and in its fundamental features it is, in 1887, the same that it was 
in 1867. It has constantly aimed to make American natural 
history prominent, and to occupy a happy medium between a 
technical magazine and one in which all science is sacrificed to 
popularity. It has aimed to instruct rather than to amuse; it 
has sought accuracy rather than elegance of diction. Through- 
out it has aimed at independence, and its columns have ever 
been open to all. There have been many changes in these twenty 
years, but these have been in way of expansion, rather than 
alterations of the original plan. 

In mere size alone the development has been considerable. 
The volume which has just been closed contained nearly twice 
the matter that was given twenty years ago. Then fifty writers 
contributed notes and longer articles to a single volume, now 
the contributors number nearly one hundred. In the beginning 
there were four editors, now the editorial corps numbers nine. 
In the first number the minor notes were grouped under the 
heads of Botany, Zoology, and Geology. To-day it has, besides 
these, departments of Anthropology, Embryology, Entomology, 
Geography and Travels, Microscopy, Mineralogy and Petrog- 
raphy, Physiology and Psychology, as well as one embracing 
the miscellaneous scientific news of the day. All of these facts 
show progress, and apparently a growth in the right direction. 
They indicate that the magazine had friends and has made more 
friends; and to all these, both subscribers and contributors, 
the AMERICAN NATURALIST returns its most cordial thanks. In 
the past the editors and proprietors have endeavored to show 


164 Editors’ Table. [ Feb. 


their appreciation of public favor by increasing the size and im- 
proving the quality of the magazine. There is still room for 
improvement, and it is confidently believed that the present 
volume will surpass any of its predecessors, a belief that seems 
warranted by the reputation of the J. B. Lippincott Company of 
Philadelphia, which has assumed the business management. The 
enterprise shown by this house in other lines is an ample guar- 
antee that in all that pertains to the mechanical execution the 
future volumes will be better than the past. It also ensures a 
wider field of influence and a larger circulation, and this, in turn, 
will result in still further improvements. 

With the present volume there is a change in the editorial 
management. Professor A. S. Packard, to whom is due the 
credit of starting the magazine, and who has labored unceasingly 
for its success for twenty years, retires from the management. 
He has won the thanks of every lover of Natural History, and 
has fully earned the relaxation and release which his retirement 
will give him. Certainly no one has done more for the spread 
of a knowledge of nature than he. His place will be taken by 
Dr. J. S. Kingsley, of Malden, Massachusetts, who needs no in- 
troduction to the readers of this journal, and who prefers to begin 
his editorial labors without further announcement. The depart- 
ment of Entomology will be in the able hands of Professor J. H. 
Comstock, of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. 


In the years 1878 and 1880 Congress, by concurrent resolution, 
ordered the publication “ by the public printer, with the necessary 
illustrations,” of the third and fourth volumes of the final report 
of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, at that time 
under the direction of Dr. F. V. Hayden. These volumes were 
to contain the reports on the Tertiary and Mesozoic Vertebrata 
of the West, by Professor E. D. Cope, which were to be based on 
materials preserved in the collection of that naturalist, On the 
faith of these resolutions of Congress, Professor Cope undertook 

extensive explorations in all parts of the far West, at his own ex- 
pense, examining various regions from Southern Texas to North- 
ern Montana, and from Kansas to Oregon and California. This 
was necessary, erage oa survey was not in a financial 
— Loca sustain the expenses of the investigations in the field _ 
of v > palzeont og) yand h he had no other collectors of ver- 


1887] Editors’ Table. 165 


tebrate fossils than those employed and paid by Professor Cope. 
The result was the accumulation of a large amount of material, 
which includes about one thousand species of vertebrata from all 
the vertebrate-bearing horizons in the Western half of North 
America, excepting one, and a large amount of material from 
most of the Eastern bone-bearing beds. 

In 1880 the survey under Hayden was abolished on pretence 
of a consolidation, which was never carried into effect, and a new 
survey was organized under the direction of Major J. W. Powell. 
The unfinished work of the Hayden survey was placed in the 
hands of Major Powell by the following order of the Secretary 
of the Interior, Teller: : 

« WASHINGTON, Sept. 27, 1882. 
“ Maj. J. W. PowE 
x pAn g S. Geological Survey, City 

“ Sır, —The letter of Dr. H. V. Hayden, dated June 27th, bearing your endorse- - 
ment of July 2oth, relating to the unpublished reports of the survey formerly under 
his charge, is herewith returned 

« You will please take charge of the publications referred toin the same in accord- 
ance with the suggestions made by Professor Hayden. 

“ It is the desire of this office that these volumes shall be completed and published 
as early as practicable. 

“ Very respectfully, 
“H. M. TELLER, Secretary.” 

In spite of the above order, no part of Volumes III. and IV. 
of the Hayden series which was not previously in the printer’s 
hands, has been sent to the Government printing-office, nor even 
been prepared for it since they came under the control of Major 
Powell. The verbal promise made to Dr. Hayden and Professor 
Cope by Major Powell, that part of the unfinished work repre- 
sented by these volumes would be undertaken and completed as 
part of the work of the new survey, was not fulfilled; and inquiry 
finally elicited the statement from the director that this unfin- — 
ished work would not be published by him. 

Under these circumstances, Professor Cope, with the advice and 
consent of Dr. Hayden, applied to Congress for a small appro- 
priation to pay the expenses of the preparation of the reports. 
The amount required per annum was three thousand eight hun- 
dred dollars, of which one thousand dollars was for an artist, 
seven hundred and twenty dollars for a preparateur of materials, 
and two thousand and eighty dollars for the preparation of the 
text and completing the reports. A lump amount was at first 


166 Recent Literature. [ Feb. 


asked for in the winter of 1885-86, but failed for want of the 
approval of the Secretary of the Interior. The smaller amount 
asked for at the session of Congress of 1886-87 was approved 
by the Interior Department and by the Senate,-but was lost in 
the conference between the committees of the Senate and House, 
during the last days of the term. 

This explanation is due to the various palzontologists and 
others who are interested in the completion of the work so suc- 
cessfully begun sixteen years ago, and for which so many pre- 
liminary publications have been made. The long delay in pub- 
lishing the illustrations, of which many have been prepared, is 
thus accounted for; although the inconvenience experienced by 
students is not diminished thereby. 

Pending the consideration of the question by Congress, letters 
approving or urging its favorable consideration by that body 
were received from Professors Baird, Osborn, and Scott in this 
country, and Flower, Gaudry, Riitimeyer, and Zittel in Europe. 
Notes favoring such action by Congress appeared in the ¥ahrduch 
Sir Mineralogie and Cosmos in Germany. i 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Ridgeway’s “Nomenclature of Colors.'—This work has a 
value to others than naturalists, for it gives first'a large number 
of hints upon the selection of water-colors, pointing out thirty- 
six of the most useful and most permanent forms, and then How 

ese can be combined to make one hundred distinct shades. 
Next is a comparative vocabulary of the names of colors in 
English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Norwegian, and 
Danish. Illustrating this part of the work are ten colored plates, 
which contain one hundred and ninety-two distinct shades, each 
one named, while the explanation of each plate tells how these 
can be produced from the thirty-six colors deemed most essential 
for the water-color artist. As will readily be seen, this illustrated 
nomenclator renders the work of great value to the artist as well 
as to the naturalist, who has frequently considerable difficulty in 
his descriptions, of deciding exactly the meaning of nearly 

_ Synonymous terms. Could this nomenclature have a further 
ee Ridgeway, Robert: A Nomenclature of olen for Naturalists, and Compendium 
: si i. eed rnithologists. pp- 129, pls. 17. — 


s 


1887] Recent Literature. 167 


introduction, and its terminology replace the meaningless terms 
like “elephant’s breath,” etc., introduced in trade, it would have 
a very beneficial effect. As to the correctness of the colors we 
cannot in all cases decide. We have never seen clothes worn as 
long as the famous ones of the Spanish queen, but should judge 
that the representation of “Isabella color’ was about the hue 

that linen would assume under such conditions. 
e only bibliographical omission we ee is the absence 

of reference to the two handsome volumes of 
The remainder of the book is more Sarmclatly suited for the 
ornithologist. It contains a vocabulary of the technical terms 
used in descriptive ornithology, which occupies fifty-eight pages ; 
tables for the conversion of metric into English measures, and 
others for reducing inches to millimetres. The seven plates 
which illustrate this part of the book give the parts of a bird 
named. The portions of the head, shapes of wings, different 
markings of feathers, shapes of eggs, and comparisons of milli- 
metres with English and French inches. The most noticeable 


specially intended. 


RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 
Plateau, Felix —De Y Absence de Mouvements respiratoires eek gts chez' les 
Arachnides. E Arch. de Biol., vii., 1886. From the a 
Spencer, W. B.—On the Structure and Presence i in Sphenodon a other Lizards of 
the Median Eye. ote Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886. From the author 
Minot, C. S. ae Number-Habit. Ext. Proc. Am. Soc. Psy. EE 1886. 
From the 
Goss, N. S. aS “of Kansas. Topeka, 1886. From the author. 
McMurrich, F. P—A Contribution to the Embryology of the Biceobran h Gastero- 
pods. Ext, Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1886. From the author. 
ht E: EE Laboratory Appliances. Ext. Am. g From the author. 
es, Y. W.—Report on the Medusæ collected by th S. Fish Commission 
Tanas Albatross. Ext. Ann. Rep. Commissioner re Fish and Fisheries, 1886. 
From the author. 
Annual Report Smithsonian Institution for are ar From the Institution. 
Scudder, S. H.—Systematic Review of our Pr owledge of Fossil Insects, 
including oe and Arachnids. Bull. "UL S. prer Survey, No. 31. - 1886. | 
From 


Herrick, F. H- aai on the Embryology of Alpheus and other Crustacea, and 
the Development of the Compound Eye. Ext. Circ. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1886. 
From 


Plateau, E ur la perception de la Lumière par les Myriopodes 
wi a Ext. Jour. dei P Anat. et Phys., 1886. From the author. 

Norman, A. M., and Stebbing, T. R. R—On the Crustacea Isopoda of the “ Light- 
ning,” “ Porcupine,” and “ Valorous” expeditions. Part I. Ext. Trans. Zool. 
Soc., 1886. From the author 


De Borre, A. P.—Note sur les Crustacts eagar de la Religi Ext. C. R. Soc. 
Ent. Belgique, 1886. From the author. 
d 


168 : General Notes. [ Feb. 


Packard, A. S.—The Organ of Smell in the Arthropoda. - Ext. Am. Nat., 1886. 
From the author 

Dimmock, Geo. Eeer dæ and some other Fish- wees. A ig Ext. Rep. 
Fish and Game Commissioners of Mass., 1886. From the 

Fleischmann, Albert—Ueber die erste Anlage der Placenta fa: re Riibthieréa 
Ext. Sitz. Phys. Med. Soc. Erlangen, 1886.—Zur POE der 
Raubthiere. Ext. Biol. Centralbl., vii., 1887. From the author. 

Nee, G. Frederick —The Muir Glacier. Ext. Am. po Sci.; 1887. From the 

uthor 


Pilar, Rob ert.—Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists, and Compendium of la 
oe open for Ornithologists. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1886. Fro 


meee fom ote Morton Laboratory in the University of Caneeess vol. ii., 
part 2; vol. iii., From the Balfour Libra 

Meinert, Fr. —Myria aa p i Hau unensis; iii., Chilo opoda. E Vid. Medd. f. 
d. Naturrh. Foren. Kobita, 1884 (188 6). From the a : 

Stuxberg, Anton.—Faunan pa och Kring Novaja Semlja. accel 1886. From 
the author. 

Sowers Paul.—Notice sur un Crustacé de la craie bliss des environs de Mons. 

otice sur un Crustacé des pe npa a Groa nis —Note sur la présence de 

Can adina desmaresti dans les de la Meuse.—Notice sur les Mollusques 
recueillis par M. le Pa ary Storms dan oh régi ion du Tanganyka.—Notice sur 
les Crustacés és Décapod n Maeitiid du Tabon: Ext. Bulletin. Mus. 
Roy. d’Hists Nat. fisece iv., 1885-1886. From the author 

Shufetdt R. W.—Bibliographical résumé of the writings of R. W. Shufeldt, M. D. 
New York, 1887. From the author 


GENERAL NOTES. 


GEOLOGY AND PALZZONTOLOGY. 


Notes upon Warping of the Earth’s Crust in its Relation to 
the Origin of the Basins of the Great Lakes.—Evidence of 
unequal oscillation of continental areas, producing warping of 
the crust of the earth in the ppi of the Mississippi and in the 
basins of the Great Lakes, is of importance. Numerous borings 
have been made by the Mississippi River Commission—alor 
the course of the Mississippi River, and on its flood-plains be- 
tween Lake Providence, La., and New Madrid, Mo.—that have 
passed through the alluvium and entered the Li ignitic clays, 
which Mr. Wilson (of the Commission) identified as those of the 
I (Eocene) group of Professor Hilgard. 

measurements of these borings, given in the Report of 

: a premet for 1881, I have found that the slope of the bed 
_ of the preglacial valley, for a distance of three hundred miles 
below nor Mamia, is only 0.41 foot Beds age while that of the 


ce and | the e Gulf the sio e ike terion in only : 


1887] Geology and Palaontology. 169 


‘0.35 foot per mile, while that of the ancient bed is indefinitely 
greater, as shown from the record of the borings of the deep 
well at New Orleans. From New Madrid to St. Louis the slope 
of the valley is 0.73 foot per mile, but above it is reduced to 
about half a foot, throughout a long stretch below Rock Island 
Rapids. Above the Rapids (where the fall is twenty-two feet in 
fourteen miles), for two hundred miles the slope, so much nearer 
its higher waters, is again reduced to only 0.28 foot per mile. 
The valley at St. Louis is about eight miles wide. Within a 
mile of its western side, as shown at the eastern abutment of the 
St. Louis bridge, the old channel reaches to a depth below the 
flood-plain of one hundred and thirty-six feet, increasing towards 
the eastward. Therefore there is every reason to conclude that 
from New Madrid to St. Louis, or even above it, the floor of the 


of that above and below this region, but without success. 

North of St. Louis the floor of the buried valley rises. 
It is not known whether the modern channel of the Des Moines 
Rapids at Keokuk has been produced by erosion into the rocky 
floor, exposed by the upward warping of the earth’s crust, or 
by the river deflected over hard rock by the filling up of War- 
ren’s channel to the westward. 

| been stated, the slope of the valley above Rock Island 
Rapids is only half that below. But a more striking difference 


170 General Notes. [Feb. 


exists along this floor of the buried channel, as shown by various 
borings at Prairie du Chien, La Crosse, and elsewhere, from 
which we learn that the bottom does not slope southward, but 
actually to the northward. Even at La Crosse, two hundred 
miles north of Rock Island Rapids, the bed of the old channel is 
fifty = pores that at the Rapids. 

Fr e above observations it is apparent that there is a 
ncaa warping across the Mississippi, which has culminated 
at Rock Island, and exposed a floor of the hard rocks to be 
eroded during later geological days. The uplift is further 
demonstrated by the observations of Mr. W. J. McGee, who 
that an old channel of the Mississippi leaves the mouth of the 
Maquoketa River, and is coincident with it for several miles, 
and then passes southward to the valley of the Wapsipenicon, 
with which it is identical to its mouth. This old valley is from 
one to three miles wide, and rises to fifty feet above the Missis- 
sippi River. It is cut not only through the Paleozoic rocks, but 
also through the Drift and Loess. The floor consists of alluvium 
only. Accordingly, the uplift or warping has been quite recent. 
As this channel is above Rock Island, its presence does not 
relieve the necessity for an explanation of the stricture in the 
valley below that place, but only shows more plainly the warp- 
ing of the strata in later geological times, which has brought 
up the old rocky floor of the region to be chiselled into by the 
waters flowing since the Drift epoch. _ 

This warping is part of a fold which extends across the conti- 


and separation of their basins. A low anticlinal extends from 
the head of Lake Ontario westward, between Lake Huron and 
Lake Erie, and beyond, as was long ago pointed out by the 
geological survey of Canada. It is along the axis of this fold 
that the Dundas valley—part of the ancient outlet of the Erie 
basin—is located, where the dip of the strata upon the southern 
<a is twenty-five to thirty-seven feet per mile to west of south, 
eighty feet and upward upon the northern side in the oppo- 
ie direction. In the peninsula (thus rendered somewhat weak) 
mae the Lakes Ontario and Erie local warpings are visible 
in many places. Furthermore, Mr. G. K. Gilbert has observed 
that the old shore-lines about Lake Erie rise to the eastward 
and northward, thus showing that the basins across the old out- 
let have been recently raised. 
same gentleman has also observed that a conspicuous 
terrace south of Lake Ontario rises one hundred and thirty fe 
foes from the western end of the lake to Oneida, Lake, 
cate its eastern end. From this region northward to Adams 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 171 


probably reaching northward as far as the eastern end of the 
lake has been gathered by Mr. W. J. McGee, who finds a recent 
uplift of twenty-five feet in Virginia to four hundred to five hun- 
dred at New York, which has not been followed farther north- 


ard. 
The Paleozoic strata at the eastern end of Lake Ontario has a 


ward, during a period of high continental elevation, when the 


Ontario and Michigan, below the present level (some of the 
present terraces north of Lake Ontario are certainly marine), and 
that of the adjustment to the present relative elevation of land 
and sea, which, to a considerable extent, has been since the Ter- 
race epoch.— F. W. Spencer, Ph.D., F.G.S., University of Missouri, 
January, 1887. : 


The Formations of the Belly River of Canada.—In his report 
on the geological survey of the Dominion, Mr. George M. Daw- 
son describes a new formation, to which he gives the name of 
the Belly River epoch. 

The deposit is immediately overlaid by the Pierre or number 
four cretaceous of Meek and Hayden, which in turn is overlaid 
by the Laramie. The Belly River beds are of lacustrine origin. 
Tt is well known that the Pierre beds are of marine origin, while 
the Laramie beds are lacustrine. The Pierre fauna of the Do- 
minion is identical with that already known, while the Belly River 
` beds also contain numerous fossil remains. e plants have been 
studied by Sir William Dawson, who finds them to be identical 
with those of the Laramie. The same conclusions have been 
reached by Mr. Whiteaves as to the Mollusca, and Professor Cope 
finds the vertebrates, of which there are numerous species, to be 
identical with those of the Laramie. It is difficult to believe that 
the same land fauna continued during two geological epochs so 
generally different as those of the Pierre and those of the Laramie. 
It is also difficult to believe that a deep-sea marine fauna could 
have occupied the interior of the continent during the stage of 
elevation presented by the Laramie. It is therefore suspected that 


172 General Notes. [ Feb. 


there has been some error of observation. It must be said, how- 
ever, that the conclusions of Mr. Dawson have been confirmed by 
two other competent members of the survey.—E&. D. Cope. 


The Cross-Timbers of Texas.—The paper recently read before 
the Washington Philosophical Society on “ The Cross-Timbers 
of Texas,” by Mr. Robert T. Hill, who is a native of that State, 
and now connected with the United States Geological Survey, 
gives some interesting data about that hitherto little studied 
region. The article demonstrated that these two belts of anoma- 
lous timber, instead of representing quaternary or tertiary basins, 
are merely the detritus of outcrops of arenaceous strata, those of 
the eastern member being probably of the age of Dakota sand- 
stone, and the western of a sandy group at the base of the entire 
cretaceous series, part of which are of undetermined Mesozoic, 
and are given the name of “ Dinosaur Sands” by Mr. Hill, while 
part of them are of undoubted Carboniferous age. He further- 
more shows that the topography of the entire central region is 
the result of extensive denudation, whereby the members of the 
geologic series, from the marine tertiary to the Carboniferous 
coal-measures, are successively exposed along the line of the 
Texas Pacific Railroad, from Elmo to Millsap. The most inter- 
esting feature of Mr. Hill’s paper, however, is that he demon- 
strates, the existence of a marine group of the Cretaceous in 
Texas lower than any heretofore recognized in America, and 
completely clears up, by methods of stratagraphic paleontology, 
the vagueness that has hitherto accompanied our knowledge of 
that region. The paleontological results of the work are also 
very ee and will be studied and presented by Dr. C. A. 
White 


MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.« 


Rosenbusch’s ‘‘Massige Gesteine.”—It is rarely that the re- 
vision of a standard work in any branch of science is followed 
with so much interest as has been the case with Professor Rosen- 
busch’s “ Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Ges- 
teine,” the first part of the second volume?’ of which has recently 
been issued. When the first edition of this classical work a 
peared (1877) the study of rocks by means of the microscope _ 
had but just begun to take its place as an independent science, 
oeae new methods of investigation, new apparatus for these 

nvestigations, and new modes of reasoning by which the truths 
BAAT ne by them could be made use of in the elucidation of 
many obscure probie in the broader science of geology. I 
is not surprising, then, that as petrography increased its store of 
: + Edited by Dr. W. S. Baviey, Madison, Wisconsin. 

handiong (E Koch). t Abt., Stuttgart, 1 1886. E. Schweizer bart’sche Verlags- 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. ° 173 


‘observed facts, and the number of minds devoting themselves to 
the application of these facts to the study of the rocks them- 
selves and to their origin became greater, new fields were ex- 
plored and new facts were observed, which seemed to contradict 
many of the deductions obtained by the earlier investigators, 
and rendered a revision of their views necessary. This is es- 
pecially true in regard to the classification of the massive rocks, 
the separation of these rock-masses into families,—into groups, 
all the members of which are characterized by certain general 
properties which mark them as belonging to the same group, 
and distinguish them from the members of other groups. Until 
we know the history of every rock on our globe and can trace it 
back to its origin through all the changes which it has under- 
gone since its first existence as a distinct portion of the original 
molten magma, all attempts at a perfect classification of these 
bodies must be futile, and the classification itself must be an ar- 
tificial one. As we can never expect to know everything relating 
to even a single rock type, so we can never expect to possess a 
perfect classification of rocks. The differences in structure pro- 
duced during the solidification of molten masses by slight dif- 
ferences in the conditions of temperature and pressure under 
which they cool are so great, and our knowledge of the effects of 
these differences is so limited, that we must be content, with that 
classification which best conforms with the facts known and incor- 
porates them in a consistent whole. In no maiural science can we 
hope for more than this, and least of all can we hope for it in pe- 
trography, the materials of which are the embodiments of the ac- 
tion of largely unknown conditions on substances of whose original 
nature little can be positively known. It is safe to affirm that no 
classification of rocks ever proposed has met with such general 
acceptation as that of Professor Rosenbusch’s as developed in 
the first edition of his “ Massige Gesteine.” That this, however, . 
did not fully meet the requirements of the rapidly-growing science 
has been acknowledged for some years past. at classification 
was based upon the fundamental notion that rocks erupted before 
the Tertiary period in geological time, in consequence of certain 
conditions then prevailing, possessed structural and mineralogi- 
cal characteristics which distinguished them from those of more 
recent age. This, then, was taken as the ground upon which to 
separate all massive rocks into two great divisions,—the pre-Ter- 
tiary and the recent rocks. These were again subdivided ac- 
cording to their structure into granular, porphyritic, and glassy 
rocks; and finally the members of the subdivisions were classi- 
fied by groups in accordance with their mineralogical composi- 
tion. Recent investigations, especially those of Italian and Amer- 
ican workers, have shown that structure is dependent not upon 
the age at which rock-masses were formed, but ra’ the 
geological conditions under which they were produced. A mass 


+ 


174 General Notes. [Feb. 


of molten material which flowed out upon a land surface and 
there cooled, no matter in what geological period, always pos- 
sesses characteristics which distinguish it from a mass of the 


tance below the surface. It is probable that rocks of the latter 
class have been formed throughout all time since the beginning 
of the Laurentian, and may be in process of formation at present, 
but at such depths that we can never hope to see them. at most 
of the plutonic rocks with which we have to deal were really 
formed early in the earth’s history, is due merely to the fact that 
that portion of the earth’s crust in which they are found has 
been eroded to such an extent as to lay bare its innermost 
depths. > 

In the new volume under consideration, Rosenbusch character- 
izes these deeply-formed rocks as possessing, I., each of their 
constituents in but one generation, and, II., so developed that 
the different individuals have mutually interfered with each 
other’s growth, thus giving rise to the granular (kdrnige) struc- 
ture. When none of the constituents possess crystal outlines, 
the structure is cated hypidiomorphic ; when certain of the con- 


quently possess this granular structure, are designated as intrusive 


_ or plutonic (Tiefengesteine). 


The intrusive rocks are subdivided in accordance with their 
chemical and mineralogical composition into granites, syenites, 


_eleolite syenites, diorites, gabbros and norites, diabases, theralites, 


and peridotites. All these are characterized by the possession of 
the hy pidtomorphic structure, in which by far the larger part of 
the constituents are allotriomorphic (possess a form due to ex- 
ternal causes and not to the action of intermolecular forces,—z.., 


words, s 
constituents become zdiomorphic (possess eyil outlines), and 
the rock tends to the Forala structure, such as many of 
the diabases. 
On glancing over the list of the names of intrusive rocks, it 
will be noticed that in it are included, with the single exception 
of teschnite, all those formerly described as pre-Tertiary with a 


granular — In the place of teschnite we find the new te 


sie theral 
The abolition of the old type teschnite is due particularly to 
= work we Sne, a in 1885, after a paana examina- 
lity thin his 


1887] - Mineralogy and Petrography. 175 


group. This disposition Rosenbusch accepts as the correct one 
for many of the rocks heretofore denominated teschnites, an 
among them that from Teschen, Moravia, named by Hohen- 
egger teschnite, in which Zirkel, in 1868, and Tschermak, in 1869, 
thought they had found nepheline. Since, therefore, the original 
teschnite is probably only a variety of diabase, it was thought 
best to drop the name as descriptive of intrusive nepheline-plagi- 

lase rocks, and to substitute for it the name theralite (@j;e¢-— 
seek diligently). 

is name is intended to cover all intrusive rocks containing 

nepheline and plagioclase as prime constituents. That such 
rocks occur has not yet been positively proved, although the 
recent work of Wolff in Montana and the earlier work o 
Hawes and of Harrington in the neighborhood of Montreal, 
Canada, render their existence probable. 

The gabbros and the norites have been included together in 
one family, the former comprehending those plagioclase rocks in 
which a monoclinic augite (of a composition approaching that of 
diallage) occurs as the predominant bisilicate constituent, and the 
latter those in which this augitic constituent is orthorhombic. 
Every gradation between the typical gabbro and the typical 
norite is recognized as possible. 

The diabases are regarded as occupying a peculiar position 


characteristics of thin magmas which cooled at the surface, 
such as the possession of amygdaloidal upper surfaces, the asso- 
ciation with them of tufas, etc. The greater mass of diabase, 
however, Rosenbusch describes as intrusive (in sheets or dykes), 


description of this rock chlorite also was considered as essential. 
This mineral is now regarded as merely secondary, the last pro- 
duct in the alteration of the augite. In this connection occasion 
is taken to remark that uralitizatine is not a paramorphism of 
hornblende after augite, but that the change is probably due to 
loss of calcium,—the hornblende is an apomorph. The frequent 
association of epidote with chlorite would seem to confirm this 
ew 


scription of Dathe’s, which this writer himself acknowledges to 
be erroneous in some of its essential particulars. : 
The second great class is that of the dyke rocks. These are 
not as well characterized as the intrusive class. The conditions 
: American Naturalist, Notes, May, 1885, p. 499. 
VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 12 


176 . General Notes. [ Feb. 


under which they solidified have varied to such an extent, in 
consequence of differences in the thickness of the dyke, in 
the depths at which pos portions crystallized, in the degree 
of conductivity of the S pricama Pe that all types of 
- structure are found i em. s t be expected, this 
class is much less well defined than tliat. of the intrusive rocks 


later. In it are included only those rocks which can neither be 
regarded as intrusive nor yet as effusive. They are divided 
according to structure into three distinct types, — aes the granitic; 
, the grano-porphyritic; and, III., the lamprophyric. They 
all tend to the development of one or ‘the other of their constitu- 
ents in porphyritic crystals; in other words, they are all panidio- 
hic. 
The granitic class includes only aplite and beresite 
The structure of the grano-porphyritic type is defined by the 
name. They are porphyries in the sense that they contain certain 
of their ingredients in two generations, but differ from them in 
e possession of a holocrystalline ground-mass. Among the 
grano-porphyritic class are placed granite-porphyry, syenite-por- 
phyry, eleolite-syenite-porphyry, diorite-porphyrite, and quartz- 
diorite-porphyrite. It will be seen that this class embraces most 
oen those pre-Tertiary porphyritic rocks that are not true porphy- 


ge lamprophyres are distinguished from the grano-porphy- 
ritic group by the prevalence of bisilicates and the subordination 
of the feldspathic constituents. They consist of a fine-grained 
to very compact (dicht) ground-mass, in which porphyritic crystals 
of biotite, augite, or hornblende are scattered. They all weather 
very readily, and, as a consequence, pea a great deal of cal- 
cite, so that in many cases before their structure can be studied it 
is necessary to etch their thin sections with a dilute acid. 
The lamprophyres are subdivided into the syenitic and the 
dioritic varieties. The syenitic varieties include minette, charac- 
terized by the e predominance of biotite, and vogesite, in which the 
place of the biotite is taken by hornblende or augite. The 
dioritic varieties embrace kersantite and camptonite. The latter 
name is applied to the porphyritic diorites described by Hawes * 
from the neighborhood of Campton, N. H. They contain por- 
phyritic brown hornblende and lath-shaped plagioclase crystals 
in a ground-mass composed essentially of green augite, apatite, 
1 i i i exist. 


id : | y 
The third and last great class of rocks is that of the effusives 
(Ergussgesteine). It embraces those which were poured out 
-~ „upon the surface and then solidified . They are found in sheets 
~ and in volcanic streams (Decke and Ströme). There seems to be 
aeons kA should not be a corresponding effusive rock 
*Minenlegr 408 Leber os emo, 1878, p. 160. 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 177 


for every intrusive one, if difference of structure is due merely 


corresponding intrusive equivalents. This is accounted for by 
Rosenbusch on the assumption that during the gradual rise of 
the magma in the cracks through which it reached the surface 
enough time was consumed to allow of its separation into strata, 
the heavier, more basic portions accumulating towards the 
bottom, and the lighter portion floating on the top 

The characteristic structure of the effusive rocks is the por- 
phyritic. The porphyritic crystals are supposed to have been 
developed at the period during which the rock was ascending to 
the surface. After it reached the surface another more rapid 
crystallization set in, and the result is a glassy or finely-granular 


ground-mass. 
The effusive ra are divided into two classes, according to 
age. This iš only remnant left of the old classification into 


_ pre-Tertiary cat recent rocks. Here certain characteristics are 
noted in those rocks erupted at an early geological period, which 
distinguish them from the rocks of later eruptions,—e.g., the 
ground-mass, of the older rocks, is more lithoidal in character than 
that of the younger ones, the appearance of their porphyritic feld- 
spathic constituents is different t, etc. Whether these differences 
are of primary or secondary origin is still a matter of doubt. 
The pretertiary effusive a are known as palæo-volcanic, the 
younger ones as neo-volcan 

The palæo-volcanic rocks include the quartz-porphyries, quartz- 
free- opii, eee augite-porphyrites and melaphyres, 

and the pikrite-porphyr 

e full discussion of the different varieties of the palzo- 
cles rocks and the entire discussion of the younger class are 
left to the second part of the book, which is promised to appear 
in a few months. It is of course impossible to give any adequate 
conception of the amount of new material incorporated in this 
volume, or even to mention all the important results reached in 
its consideration. Perhaps the most important of all the advances 
_ have been in the direction of what is now known as dynamical 
metamorphism, by the action of which a massive rock is made to 
assume a schistose structure. This mode of alteration is treated 
in some detail. 

It is needless to say that the very latest ee Soa ste have all 
been critically examined and their teachings made use of in de- 
veloping the new system of classification. It isa gitter wobe 
of note that quite a large proportion `of the most instructive 
papers bearing on this subject have been # shaggngs by Americans. 

Instructors in petrography, and all those to whom a ready 
Sth of German is denied, will be glad to learn that a 

. n of both the first and second volumes of the “ Mikro- 


178 | General Notes. [ Feb, 


skopische Physiographie” is contemplated by Mr. J. P. Iddings, 
of Washington. It is proposed to omit those parts which are 
not essential to the production of a good text-book, and to in- 
corporate the remaining portions in one volume. As the labor 
involved in translating the work is very great, it. may be some 
time before the English version is given to the public. 


BOTANY.: 


A Study of the Growing Parts of the Stem of Pinus 

strobus. THE WHITE Pine.’ —Before beginning work on this 
| special part of the subject a cursory examination was made o 

the tissues in general as compared with that of Pinus sylvestris, 
the so-called Scotch Pine. Roughly speaking, they are the 
same,—a central pith, a zone of xylem varying in width according 
to the number of years’ growth, the phlceum, outer cortex, and 
the epidermal system. But by direct comparison the tissue of 
the White Pine is seen to be more dense than that of its foreign 
relative,—the cells having a smaller ARRE and the resin pas- 
sages being smaller and less numerou 

In Pinus sylvestris there are ket rows of resin passages in 
each year’s growth of the xylem, one comparatively near each 
margin of the zone, while in Pinus strobus there is but one row, 
which lies towards the outer part of the zone. Sometimes an 
extra passage is found lying deeper in the xylem. On the con- 
trary, in the outer cortical tissue of Pinus strobus are two rows 
of resin passages, the inner row being much larger than the 
outer one, but both being quite large, while there is but one row 
found here in Pinus sylvestris 

Growing from the epidermis of the bud and young shoot of 
Pinus strobus are many glandular, often capitate, hairs, composed 
of but two or three somewhat elongated cells, filled with densely 
granular matter. ese, appear to be secretory hairs, producing 3 
the resin that is found in such abundance in the bud of the : 
ia Pine. They were not found in the Scotch Pine. 2 

In the phloeum, in slehgated cells which are distributed irregu- 
larly throughout this tissue, with the exception that they never 

* occur within a zone of about eight cells from the xylem, occur 

large numbers of crystals of i mes of lime. Fig. 1 of, plate i is 


- 


the ariii of a Geyer stem, showing parts of five of these 
cells, three of which contain crystals. These crystals do not lie 
oe the cell-wall, but are embedded in a substance which more or 
ron ene. fills the~cell, offers great resistance to acids, is 

Edited by Prof. CHARLES E. BEssEY, tees, N 


ebraska. 
oe tected fe work of students in the botanical laboratory - 
a oe Universi of eee: meee and communicated by Professor V. M. 


we re 


TES 


PLATE IX. 


is 


: A 


1887] Botany. 179 


not affected by ether, and stains from yellowish brown to dark 
blue with Hanstein’s aniline violet. The cells surrounding 
these contain much starch and protoplasm, with usually a 
nucleus. 

Resin passages are also found in the phlceum and outer cortex, 
which do not run parallel to the long axis of the stem. Some 
were found running radially from towards the centre. At one 
end of some of these radially directed passages they hend at, or 
nearly at, a right angle, and pass up the stem. The great major- 


of growth in the spring. This material was preserved in alco- 
hol and used as desired. Schultze’s solution and Hanstein’s 
aniline violet gave the best satisfaction as staining agents: 
Schultze’s olution for differentiation of tissues, the aniline 
violet for staining nuclei. To clarify the sections, after cutting 

placed them in sulphuric ether for some time, which removed 
the resinous substances, then, if staining with the violet, I 
removed them to a reduced solution of this, and after overstain- 
ing removed the excess with alcohol by placing the sections in 
it for a short time, and afterwards cleared with clove oil and 
mounted in dammar. . 


180 General Notes, [ Feb. 


tudinal sections showing large numbers of dividing nuclei. At 
this time. the ground tissue composed the greater part of the 
stem, though the vascular system had increased considerably. 
Soon the growth in the cortical and medullary tissues almost 
entirely ceased. May 27, cell-division had so nearly ceased in 
these tissues that I could find no dividing nuclei, though I spent 
much time looking for them; and in the same material cell- 
division was taking place along the cambium line. 
But growth does not entirely cease, at least in the outer cortex, 
for I found cell-division here in a three years’ growth. 
ig. 3, a, is a camera drawing from near the epidermis of a 
three-year-old stem, showing a nucleus that has divided and the 
new cell-wall just formed. I think, in this tissue, growth con- 


contained protoplasm and nuclei. I do not think the central 
cortical tissue lives very long, though I found some cells of a 
four years’ growth containing protoplasm and starch. 

The main growth of the stem is along the line of cells desig- 
nated as the “ cambium zone.” On one side the cells that are 
here newly formed pass into the xylem, on the other into the 

As each year’s growth of xylem is much larger than 
that of the phlceum, many more cells must go to the formation of 
xylem than of phlceum. 

To all appearances, when the stem is growing, the cambium 
zone is but one cell broad, as all nuclei that show signs of division 
in this tissue are found along a straight line in a longitudinal 
- Fig. 3, c, is a longitudinal section through a three-year-old 
diameter of a cambium-cell, thus showing that there must be 


one year old, but in cells of the medullary rays passing through 
the zylem, and which were four years old, I found protoplasm 


~ Many cells of the phlceum, in all specimens examined, were 


1887] Botany. 18r 


apparently empty and lifeless, but the great majority contained 
nuclei me of these cells must have been quite old, as I ex 
amined some sections s prike from the body of a tree about 
eight inches in diamete 

{n studying the acti of the nucleus and the process of 
cell-division, I had about equal success in the three above-men- 
tioned tissues. 

ig. 4 is from a drawing of a cross-section of a young shoot 
cut April 26, showing a few cells of the xylem (x), the newly- 
formed tissue (7), some cells of the old phlceum (2), and a medul- 
Wid ray (m). In this shoot a zone about seven cells broad had 
med. 


"To obtain some idea of the rate of cell-division I made an 
estimate of the number of newly-formed cells produced by the 
cambium in a piece of a three-year-old stem one inch long, cut 
April 26, by counting the number of cells in the breadth of the 
zone, the number of cells around the stem, measuring the length 
of a number of cells, and taking the eeoa Also, in obtaining 
the number of cells around the stem, I took four sections from 
- different stems, but all of about average size, and took the aver- 
age. By this means I estimated the number of newly-formed 
cells, in such a piece of stem one inch long, April 26, to be 
560,640. As April 17 there were no signs of growth, and as I 
could find but few nuclei and cells in the process of division in 
the material cut April 26, and from the great number of newly- 
formed cells, I conclude that the entire process of cell-division 
can last but a very short time,—perhaps two or three hours. 

Fig. 5, a, ġ, c, d, and Fig. 6, f, g, and Å, are camera drawings 
of some of the forms of the dividing nucleus found in the medul- 
lary rays along the line of the cambium. These are all from a 
four years’ growth, cut May 6 and 

Fig. 6, 7, and Fig. 3, 4, c, d, represent some forms found in the 
cambium from material the same as the above. Fig. 7 represents 
cells from the inner cortex of a young shoot cut May 6, and Fig. 
8, the same from the outer cortex. 

Forms essentially like all these drawn were found in each of 
the three tissues, and from these we can trace the process of 
growth of cell-division in the pine. 

First the nucleus in a state of repose; the nuclear filament 


making the section. It demonstrates the composition of the 
nucleus. About the first change manifest in division is the seg- 
-mentation of the nuclear filament, shown in Fig. 5, c and d. 
Then these segments double and arrange themselves in a radial 
manner around a common centre, as shown in somewhat varying 
stages in Fig. 8, c, and Fig. 6, g and h. Then the oe of 


182 . : General Notes. [ Feb. 


the nuclear threads running off from the ends of these pegnenn 
to the poles of the nuclear spindle, as shown at Fig. 6, f and 
These “ conjunctive threads,” as Fol calls them, arrange IMS 
selves in such a manner as to form a double hollow cone with a 
common base. The segments of the filament then pass out along 
the line of these threads and gather at the two poles of the 
spindle. Fig. 5, a,and Fig. 8, 4, show early stages of this kani 
formation, and Fig. 8, a, and Fig. 7, 6,a little later. The n 
cell-wall or “nuclear plate” is then formed, as shown in Fig. . 
c, across these threads at right angles and about midway between 
the two masses of filaments, the parts of each of which have 
now united and form a rounded mass, in appearance like the 


until it reaches across the cell from side to side and forms a 
complete cell-wall. All these sections are radial longitudinal 
ones.—L/mer Sanford. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Critical Remarks on the Literature of the Organ of Smell 
in Arthropods.—[ The following abstract of the more important 
portions of Kraepelin’s criticisms on the works of writers on 
the olfactory organs of arthropods, may prove not unwelcome to 
‘our entomologists, who may never be able to obtain Kraepelin’s 
rather rare pamphlet. See pp. 889 and 973 of vol. xx—A. S. 
Packard. in 

My own observations on different groups of insects agree, in 
general, with those of. Perris, Forel, and Hauser, without being 
in a position to confirm or deny the varying relations of the 
Hemiptera. That irritating odorous substances (chloroform, 
acetic acid) cause the limbs to move in sympathy with the 
stimulus, I have seen several times in Acanthosoma; still it may 
be a Sees rather than olfactory stimulus. 

As regards Crustacea, there are no observations or experiments 
_ (except on Asellus) on the conjectural seat of their olfactory 
organs. It should be here mentioned that Jourdain has described 
and Professor Dohrn, in Naples, has reported to me that the 
Brachyura by a remarkable. movement of their inner antenne, 
which are almost continually in convulsive movements, seem to 
support the opinion long entertained of the perception of odors 
_ by the antenne 

oe 5 o spiders, it is not certainly known whether and to what 

they oes in the sense of smell. Robineau-Desvoidy 
cot said t hat their sense of smell is very well developed and 
paragre m the mandibles, but Perris placed them in the lowest 
hr ki i ei e remarks on “the sensibility of 


Turning n now w from peas and panpe observation to exact ; 


1887] Entomology. 183 


to have a distinct reference to the perception of odors.. It com- 
prises a structure composed of nervous substances which are 
enclosed in a chitinous tube, and either only stand in relation to 
the surrounding bodies by the perforated point, or pass to the 
surface as free nerve-fibrilla. 

Wolff’s theory that the sense of smell is lodged in the skin of 
the soft palate-like roof of the mouth is published in a work of 
two hundred and fifty quarto pages, which shows so much skill, 
acuteness, and subtle reasoning that his views prevailed for several 
years, and were adopted by Graber in his well-known work on in- 
sects. Forel appears to have been the first to oppose Wolff's con- 
clusions, both on theoretical grounds and from his experiments on 
Polistes and Sphex. Leydig, in his work on Amphipoda and Iso- 
poda (p. 235), expresses the view that “this nasal skin possesses 
nothing more special than other regions of the skin which should 
be considered as tactile.” I think that Leydig is here perfectly 
correct, and that those small pit-hairs are plainly tactile organs, 
since such must be present in the mouth near the organs of taste. 
Moreover, it is generally. doubtful whether such direct sense-per- 


they are formed to feel and repel solid bodies, rather than to 
smell them. The presence of a gland differing in the nature of 
its secretion from the other glands of the mouth, on which Wolff 
laid so great weight, should not have much force as an argument, 
` since we know as good as nothing of the chemistry of digestion 
and the secretions in insects necessary for it. The apparatus is 
better fitted by its situation for a gustatory apparatus. Hence we 
should adopt Leydig’s view of the tactile nature of these minute 
hairs so long as no further anatomical and physiological data 
prove their gustatory function. ; 

In insects there is a remarkable and fundamental difference in 
the structures of the parts supposed to be the organs of smell. 
Erichson (10) was acquainted only with the “pori” covered by 
a thin membrane; but Burmeister (11), in his careful work on the 
antennz of the lamellicorns, distinguished pits at the bottom of 
which hairs rise from a glass-like tubercle, from those which were 


_ free from hairs. Leydig (14) afterwards was the first to regard 


as olfactory organs the so-called pegs (kegel), a short, thick hair- 
like structure distinctly perforated at the tip, which had already 
by Lespés (38) in Cercopsis, etc., been described as a kind of 
tactile papilla. Other very peculiar olfactory organs of different 
form Forel (Fourmis de la Suisse) discovered in the antenne of 
ants, which Lubbock (“On some points,” etc.), according to a short 


Ee. 


184 General Notes. ; [Feb. 


notice of Forel, incorrectly associated with the nerve-end appa- 
ratus found by Hicks in other insects. This manifold nature of 
the antennal organs has by the last investigator, Hauser (22), 
from thorough studies of the nerve-elements belonging to them, 
been not simplified but rendered more complicated. According 
to this naturalist we may distinguish the following forms which 
the olfactory organs may assume: I. Pale, tooth-like chitinous 
hairs on the outer surface of the antennz, which are perforated at 
the end; nothing is known as to the relation of the nerve passing 
into it (Chrysopa, Anophthalmus). 2. In pit-like depressions of 
the antenne arise nerve-rods (without a chitinous case) which 


These pits are either szzf/e, viz., with only an “olfactory rod 
(Tabanus and other Diptera, Vanessa), or compound (Muscide 
and most other Diptera, and Philonthus). It seems important 
that these pits are partly opez (in the above-named groups of in- 
sects), and partly closed and covered with a thin membrane, under 
whose concavity the olfactory rods end (Orthoptera, Melolontha, 
and other lamellicorns). 3. Short, thick pits sunken slightly 
into the surface of the antennz, and over this a chitinous peg 
perforated at the end, in whose base, from the interior, projects a 
very singular nerve-peg, which is situated over an olfactory gan 
glion-cell, and provided with a slender crown of litle rods, and 
flanked on each side by a flagellum-cell | (Hymenoptera). 4. 
Round or crevice-like pits covered over by a perforated chitinous _ 
membrane with nerve-rods like those in 3, but in place of the 
flagellum-cell with “membrane-forming”’ cells Spread before it. 
Hauser finally mentions further differences in the ganglion-cells 
sent out into the nerve-end apparatus. These exhibit in Diptera 
and Melolontha only one nucleus, in Hymenoptera a single very 
large one (with many nucleoli) and three small ones, in Vanessa 
six, in Orthoptera a very large number of nuclei, etc. We add 
beside all these different forms also the Forelian flasks (“ micro- 
scopical stethoscopes” of Lubbock) not known to Hauser, and 
the champagne-cork organ in ants; thus we have in fact a very 
great variety, so that it seems difficult to understand how Hauser 
could aamen ascribe a common function to all these nerve- 
end appara’ 

As the ans result of my researches I may state that the great 
variety of antennal structures previously described may be referred 
to a single common fundamental type of a more or less developed 
free or sunken hair-like body which stands in connection by means 
of a wide pore-canal walle a many-nucleated ganglion-cell.* The 
latter sends mice a relatively n nerve-fibre (axial cord) through 


o Vi oop thie  stracture might’ more more correctly be considered as a lion with 
: Humerus cells, ee structure of the nerve: ae 
OH E sg arom gl -a ca 


1887] : 3 Zoology. 185 


the pore-canal into the hair; but the same is enclosed by epithelial 
cells which surround the pore-canal. 

Kraepelin thus sums up our present knowledge of the olfactory 
organs of Coleoptera: The terminal apparatus of the organ of sense 
in the antenne of beetles consists in each case of a ai delicate 
or iSong long or short hair-like —— Set as planted in the 
mt. le of a more or less arched, “ e membrane” closing in 
the sai pore-canal of the Saleen vall “D his membrane extends 
over the st at the same level as the surface of the antennal 
integument (Geotrupes, Strangalia), or it rises as a cupola in the 
middle of a beaker-shaped pit (Melolontha, Buprestide, Dytiscidz). 
Often such sense-organs (either with or without special pits) are so 
united that they stand associated in flat depressions of the surface 
of the antenne, the so-called “ compound” pits (Melolontha, Stran- 
- galia, Euchroma, Lucanus, etc.).—. Kraepelin. 


ZOOLOGY. 
Mimicry in Amphipods.—Dr. Carl orena ga ryta 
Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis, xviii., 1886) a new genus of Hy- 


perid Amphipods, the three species of wicks are ie for 
their mimicry of jelly-fishes. The head and five, six, or all seven 
of the thoracic segments are enormously inflated, so that the an- 
terior part of the body closely resembles the bell: of a medusa, 
while the feet and compressed abdomen hang down like the ten- 


t 
following: The eyes “do not form a continuous mass on each 
side of the head as, in the other Hyperids, but consist of six to 
ten large ocelli scattered over the lower side of the head. These 
do not show such long crystallic [szc] eak as in Phronima, 
Rhabdosoma, and others, but seem to be composed each of a 
great many granular, fine, ighe amakiig corpuscles interspersed 
with dark brown pigment.” The innervation of these ocelli is 
eculiar; some receive their nerve-supply directly from the 


not remains to be determined by sections of fresh specimens, 
but it is interesting to note that all the ocellar nerves betort 
arise 


bell” 


` Mimonectes om the a rom 
the Canary Isles; and M. steenstrupii, from the mouth of Davis 
Strait. 


186 General Notes. [ Feb. 


Australian Cladocera.—It is a well-known fact that the eggs 
of various fresh-water animals (notably those of Entomostraca) 
will withstand long desiccation, but still the experiments de- 
tailed by Mr. G. O. Sars have SPE Hee interest. cor- 
respondent sent him in Christiania, Norway, some dried mud 
from the shores of a fresh-water lake in opie Australia. This 
mud was placed in water, and from it were hatched out one 
Copepod, one Ostracode, a species of Polyzoan, apparently be- 
longing to the genus Plumatella, and five species of Clado- 
cera. These last ‘are made the subject of an article of nearly 
fifty pages and eight plates in the Forhandlinger Vidensk. Selsk. 
Christiania for 1885 (1886). These species all belonged to 
genera (Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Ceriodaphnia, Moina, and Ley- 
digia) already known from European waters, and the species 
themselves closely resembled those of the antipodes, notwith- 
standing that they came from localities thousands of miles apart 
and which have entirely different environments. These facts 
recall to the author the close similarity—even identity—of the 
crustacean species of Italy and Norway, and he concludes that 
one cannot lay too great stress on the importance of birds in 
the distribution of these forms. Sars’s paper is, like many others, 
written in English. 


The Myzostomata.—Nansen’s beautifully-illustrated “ Contri- 
butions to the Anatomy and Histology of the Myzostomata” is 
the last publication of the Bergens Museum. The text (sixty- 
eight pages) is in Norwegian, but a résumé in English of twelve 
pages places the substance of the article within reach. Two new 
species are described with great detail, the integument, nervous 
system, sensory organs, segmental glandular sacs, hook appa- 
ratus, alimentary tract, genital organs, complemental males, and 
hermaphroditism being discussed. Nansen comes into frequent 
conflict with Beard. Thus he does not believe with Beard that 
the dicecious forms of Myzostomata were the primitive type,and - 
the hermaphrodite the secondary. He finds nothing resembling 
` the epidermal sense organs or chitinous hollow rods described 

Beard, nor can he accept Beard’s account of the development 
of the nervous system by which the larval nervous system dis- 
appears and has nothing to do with that of the adult. Nansen 
considers the “suckers” as “ a es ental glandulous sacs,” stating 
that they are ciliated, and lack the SaS walls described 
by Graff. Whether they are homologous with the segmental 
organs of the Annelids is left undecided. The fact that they do 
- not communicate with the body cavity is the greatest objec- 

tion to this view, but the ready answer to aon is -o unless the 

-cavities in which the ova are situated are such, the c coelom is 


" Nansen's conclusions as to the systematic position of the 


1887] Zoology. 187 


agony we quote (from the résumé) in full: “I cannot agree 
Beard in regarding the Myzostomida as belonging to the 
Paecspods. there are too many dissimilar features in their struc- 
ture, and I do not think that their development, as described by 
ard, is ‘quite that of a Chztopod.’ The absence of a preoral 
ring of cilia, the relatively small development of the preoral lobe, 
and the great development of the body part of the larva are no 
insignificant differences; they show that the larva is not a little 
differentiated. The presence of a preanal ring of cilia is com- 
n to most Annelid larve, and the larve of Mollusca, Bryozoa, 
etc., also usually possess such a ring. In the absence of this ring, 
as well as in the rudimentary development of the preoral lobe, 
the larve of Myzostomida resemble those of Sipunculus; in 
their general structure there is, however, but little resemblance 
to be traced. I am inclined to regard the Myzostomida as a 
peculiar, distinct group, belonging to the Daid, related to the 
Chætopods, but also showing a tendency towards some of the 
Arachnids (Linguatulida, Tardigrada, and perhaps Pycnogonida) 
and Crustaceans; they are sprung from the Trochophora; amon 
the Archianelleda their ancestor has been chiefly related to that 
of Histiodrilus; on the other hand, it has also been related to 
that of the Arthropods, because the Myzostomida really show, 
in their structure, a tendency towards these. They are therefore 
one of those groups presenting the greatest interest as a subject 
for phylogenetic studies.” The present reviewer fails to recog- 
nize the EE ge resemblances of these forms. He is in- 
clined to regard them as Annelids but remotely related to the 
Chetopods, parasitism having extensively modified them. 


Anatomy of Echinorhynchi.—The Acanthocephali have been 
regarded as devoid of a digestive apparatus, and Lespés'’s discov- 
ery of what he considered the alimentary tract in the pyriform 
body in the proboscis of Echinorynchus claviceps, met with but 
little acceptance. Recently AE n has been studying the sub- 
ject, and gave the result of his researches before the Scientific 
Congress of Paris. In order to settle the question it was neces- ` 
sary to study these worms at a period before the development of 
the sexual organs, and when the nutritive system was in full 
function. Megnin found Echinorhynchi encysted in the cellular 
tissue of some Varanidæ from the Sahara. These proved to be 
in a larval stage and to have a digestive apparatus composed of 
two long convoluted tubes, each giving rise to numerous cecal 
diverticula. The whole — an analogy to the alimentary 
tract of the Trematodes. In some species, as the Æ. brevicollis 
found in Lalenoptera sibbaldi, ee aeea apparatus persists 
and acquires considerable development. In others it undergoes 
a degeneration and is to be sought in the “lemnisci,” structures 
heretofore of problematical nature, occasionally regarded as sali- 


188 General Notes, [ Feb. 


vary glands. The larve have a rudimentary dorsal vessel, and 
this, with their proboscis and aquiferous apparatus (which, how- 
ever, is well developed in the adult), shows the relation of the 

canthocephali to the Nemerteans or Rhynchoccela, while the 
digestive apparatus is more like that of the Trematodes. They 
can no longer be arranged with the Nematodes. | 


Argulus and Mortality of Fishes.—In the October num- 
ber of this journal (vol. xx. p. 856) Mr. F. L. Washburn records 
an annually recurring extensive mortality of different species of 
fish in Lake Mille Lac, Minnesota, and describes as the cause of 
death a Siphonostome, the abdomen of which is furnished with 
an umbrella-like disk. Although this description hardly answers 
to an Argulus, yet I think the mode of occurrence and the great 
mortality point to the parasite being a member of this genus. 
I do not remember to have seen before an account of such de- 
vastations by — in America, but similar accounts from 
Europe are not uncommon. 

Mr. Washburn’s Hote reminded me of the circumstance that 
two years ago Mr. A. C. Lawson, of the Geological Survey of Can- 
ada, brought me an account of a similar mortality of an undeter- 
mined species of Coregonus in the Lake of the Woods. He had 
preserved a number of the parasites, which I marked at the time 
re coregont Thorell (?), with the intention of determining 
afterwards whether the Canadian and Norwegian species should 
turn oar to be identical. I find now that the characteristic cop- 
ulatory ridges on the swimming legs of the male are very dif- 
ferent in the Canadian species from those in Argulus foliaceus or 
coregont. Dr. J. S. Kingsley has undertaken to see whether 
they agree with those in any described American form. 

It may be of interest to note here that Leydig, in a recent 
communication to the Zoologische Anzeiger (No. 237), announcès 
that the “ poison-sting” of Argulus is in reality a sense organ, 
the “ poison-duct” a broad nerve-tube, and the “poison-gland” 
a part of the fat body, so that the great mortality caused by Ar- 
gulids is not to be attributed to any poison injected with the 
bite—R. Ramsay Wright, University College, Toronto, January 8, 
1887. 


Irish Red Deer.—In the March number of the Zoologist 
Rt J Ussher states that the Irish red deer lingered in the moun- 
tains of Knockmealdown, Counties Waterford and Tipperary, in 
bags that its last haunt was Erris, County Mayo, where a 
few existed as s late as 847, when they were slaughtered for food 

ı peasantry. The onl 


1887] Zoology. 189 


rusty grackle (Scolecophagus ferrugineus) was shot last autumn 
at Cardiff, Wales. 


The Birds of India.—W. T. H. in Ward’s Science Bulletin 
‘gives a short notice of the comprehensive ornithological survey 
of India that has for several years been carried on under the 
direction and at the expense of Mr. A. O. Hume, Secretary to 

e Government. Not only India, but British Burmah, Ceylon, 
the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands are included in 
this work. Besides doing a vast amount of field-work himself, 
and writing largely upon the subject, Mr. Hume has constantly 
kept from one to three corps of collectors in the field. Among 
the- results of the work is a collection of over forty-five thou- 
sand bird-skins and unnumbered eggs at Simla, a superb four- 
volume work upon the Game Birds of India, and a work on the 
Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Mr. Wm. Davison, one of 
Mr. Hume’s collectors, has found five hundred and eighty species 
in Tenasserim, and seven hundred and twenty-eight in British 
Burmah. 


The Zoology of British Burmah.—Apropos of the preced- 
ing note comes a condensed account of the contents of the 


Revue Scientifique of April 1. The mammiferous fauna presents 
many relations to that of the Sunda Isles, and includes four species 
of rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus, Rh. indicus, Ceratorhinus 
crossi, C. sumatrensis), the tapir (Tapirus malayanus) and Orcella 
Juminalis, a peculiar form of fresh-water dolphin, the anatomy 
of which has been fully described by Mr. Anderson. The bats 
hibernate as in Europe, and the genus Taphozous is particularly 
remarkable for the reservoir of fat stored in its tail for winter 
use. The roussettes do not hibernate. 

Mr. E. W. Oates enumerates seven hundred and seventy-five 
species of birds, or a hundred more than is contained in all 

urope. these, four hundred and fifty are also found in 
Hindostan, about one hundred of which are water-birds common 
to all the Old World, and winter visitants of Burmah; one hun- 
dred and fifty Malayan species, the northern limit of which is in 
Burmah; fifty species common to Burmah, Siam, and China 


level. Birds identical with or closely related to those of Europe 

are few; among them are Cotyle riparia, Chelidon urbica, Strix 

. flammea, the cuckoo, the wrens, the skylark, the pipits, and Saxi- 
la. 


co 
The variety of the fauna is’ explained by that of the country, 


: 190 General Notes. [E Feb. 


which is so varied that in an hour one can pass from grassy 
plains interspersed with rice-fields to the inaccessible precipices 
of granitic mountains; from a sea of bamboo jungles to the 
shady retreats of the virgin forest; and from the rich tropical 
vegetation of the coast to the pine-woods of the heights. In- 
numerable water-courses, interminable creeks, broad marshes, 
valleys alternately inundated and dried up; chains of mountains 
of various elevations diversify the surface of'this province, giving 
it an unequalled array of flowers and fruits, birds, reptiles, in- 
sect, and molluscs. 

The list of reptiles given by Mr. W. Theobald includes four 
crocodiles and more than seventy serpents, fifteen of which are 
among the most deadly, and shows that in this province Malayan 
and Indian species meet. 

Among the fishes are many of those singular forms which 
seem as much at home on land as in water, such as the tree- 
climbing Azabas scandens, the Ophiocephalide and Trichogaster, 
which have a reservoir of air above their gills; Clarias, with an 
accessory respiratory apparatus; and Saccobranchus, with its 
long air-vessel extended across the dorsal muscles and commu- 
nicating with the gills. The singular modifications of the organs 
of respiration in these fishes are an adaptation to the zstivation 


that follows the rains. Some, as Oph. punctatus, Rhynchobdella 


aculeata, and Amphipnous ached live i in summer buried two feet 

below the surface. After a storm fishes appear as if by magic; 
the Ophiocephalidz glide, eel-like, from pond to pond through 
the wet herbage, and the cu chia lies on the ground -hidden 
among the tall weeds, iah to spring into the water when dis- 
turbed. Many species, both marine and fresh-water, migrate 
regularly in accordance with the monsoons. Many mount to 
the mountain torrents to lay their eggs, and descend with the 


falling waters, while their young often remain above till the en- 


suing year. e siluroids of these rapid torrents are provided 


aquatic plants beside the rivers. The nest is formed of the stems 
of herbs, which it bites off for the purpose; the male guards the 


es the eggs, from fifteen to twenty, in his mouth, 


manicus hatch 
and during the incubation takes no fi 
- -The _prosobranchiate Gasteropoda are more numerous and 


does the South American genus Nenia. The conchological 


oc : fauna of British Burmah shows that the ng was primi- 
5 tively E EE EE E for upon 


$. 


1887 | Zoology. IQI 


the cretaceous hills of the valleys of Salween and Aracan occur 
isolated species, more numerous and interesting than those 
of the flat country that separates them. Two hills fifteen miles 
apart have a different molluscan fauna, and many forms are 
confined to this region. Besides the, to some extent, special 
fauna of these hills near Maulmain, three other molluscan faunæ 
can be distinguished : first, that of Aracan and southern Pegu, 
considerably resembling that of Assam and of the Himalayas; 
second, that of Upper Burmah and Thayet, resembling that of 
India, Central Asia, and China; and, third, that of Tenasserim, 
allied to that of Siam and the Malay Peninsula and connected 
with that of the Malayan Archipelago. 


Description of a New Species of Wood-Rat from Cerros 
Island, off Lower California (Neotoma bryanti sp. nov.).—Mr. 
` Walter E. Bryant has kindly presented to me the skin and skull 

of a wood-rat collected by him January 11, 1885, on Cerros 
Island, off Lower California, in lat. 28° 12’ N. 

Concerning its capture he writes as follows: “On the shore of 
a small, shallow lake, about two thousand feet in altitude, on 
Cerros Island, I found a nest composed of the large dry leaves 
of the Maguey plant (Agave). It was built among small living 
plants of the same kind, which held it so firmly that I could not 
overturn it. It was about. four feet high and as much or a little 
more in diameter at base. One of our party set fire to the struc- 
ture, and while it was enveloped in flame and smoke a scorched 
rat ran out, which I shot. This was the only nest and only rat 
seen on the island.” 

This unfortunate circumstance, together with the fact that the 
skin was preserved in brine, explains the very poor condition in 
which it reached me. Enough remains, however, to show that 
the species differs remarkably from all known representatives of 
the genus in possessing a very dark belly, which, in this indi- 
vidual at least, is absolutely concolor with the back and sides. 
It may be added that the dark color of the under parts is in no 
way due to the scorching above mentioned. In all the pre- 
viously described species the belly is pure white, or nearly white, 
in sharp contrast to the color of the upper parts. 

This animal may be distinguished from its congeners by the 
following characters : 

_NEOTOMA BRYANTI sp. nov. Bryant's Wood-Rat. (Type No. 
2838, 
1833 

Size large, about equal to that of eastern specimens of N. flori- 
dana; hind foot, 37 mm.; tail naked, its length uncertain, part 
of it being wanting; ears, apparently about the size of those of 
eastern 7 , but too imperfect to admit of measurement; 
head, throat, and body all round, dark slate color, almost sooty, 

13 


VOL, XXI. —NO. 2. 


male, immature; Merriam Collection.) 


192 ~ General Notes. [ Feb. 


exactly the same below as above, without trace of whitish on 
under parts. The feet may have been white, but it is impossible 
to tell from this specimen. 

Behind each ear there is a patch of fulvous-tipped hairs, and it 
is possible that a superficial wash of this color was spread over 
much of the upper parts where the tips of the hairs have been 
singed off. The skull shows that the animal from which it came 
was full grown, but not quite adult. The grinding down of the 
molar teeth has only recently begun; consequently the deep pli- 
cations along their sides are of unusual length. The enamel of the 
front upper molar forms two well-marked re-entrant angles of the 
inner side of the tooth. The pattern of the crowns of “the molar 
teeth in both jaws is the same as in eastern specimens of flori- 
dana of corresponding age. The incisive foramina extend poste- 
riorly beyond the plane of the anterior roots of the first molars. 
The pterygoid fossa is narrow, as in all the western forms of the 

enus,—very unlike its condition in eastern floridana. The con- 
dyloid process of the mandible is decidedly longer than in any 
of the other species. The zygomatic breadth is “noticeably less 
than in the other members of the genus, which may be due in 
part to the immaturity of the individual, the zygome usually 


last character, however, is common to the western representatives 
of the genus. 
Comparison with the western forms of the floridana type has 
: been intentionally withheld because of the unsatisfactory if not 
ies condition in which these forms have been left by recent 
rite 


e new species is named in ene of its discoverer, Mr. 
Walter E. Bryant, of Oakland, Californ 
e following cranial mreasiranieits will suffice for present 
purposes (all measurements in millimet 
Basilar length (from one of the occipital condyles to posterior edge of alveola 


of incisor of same sid e) 1.80 
Basilar len math - Hensel (from inferior lip of foramen magnum to posterior 
edge of alveola of incisor) 38.20 
Ocsipitgrnasal i ee “nes occipital crest in mediei uae to most anterior 
— ent of very little va 45.80 
Greivest aginst 22.50 
; 3 es t int bital triction 5.50 
Greatest sa of nasal bon 17.70 
Greatest width of nasal pouti anteriorly = 
Leas width f nasal bones posteriorly 2.10 
Least width of rostrum in front of zygomz 4.80 
Distance between outer rims of alveolze of sppe tiee 4.80 
s Distance from posterior rim of alveola of anterior rim of alveola 
oe of first ooe molar.....+.0... 12.50 


g rim of “ pal- 
ase = vee te siete d iache gue raha 


1887] Zoology. 193 


Length of upper molar series measured on the alveolz 10.40 
Length of upper molar series measured on the crowns 8.30 
Distance between alveolz of upper molar series anteriorly 2.70 
Distance between alveolz of upper molar series posteriorly 4.40 
Width of pterygoid fossa 2. 
pex of post-palatal notch to foramen magnum ry: 
Hei cranium from inferior lip of foramen magnum 11.20 
Fronto-palatal depth (taken at middle of molar series) 11.80 
Greatest length of single mandible (exclusive of incisors) 29.30 
istance from incisors to first molar (on ) 


Length of under molariform series measured on the alveolæ 9. 
. Hart Merriam. 


Zoological News.—Sponces.—Franz Vejdovsky points out that 
the recently described Spongilla glomerata Noll is the same as 
Sp. fragilis described by Dr. Leidy in 1851, and since described 
under several different names. He also gives a list of the known 
fresh-water sponges of Europe, enumerating eight species dis- 
tributed among the genera Euspongilla, Spongilla, Trochospon- 
gilla, Ephydatia, and Carterius. 


EcuHINODERMs.—C. F. and P. B. Sarasin describe (Zool. Anzet- 
ger, ix. pp. 80-82, 1886) the poison apparatus of the leather-urchin, 
Cyanosoma urens, a new genus and species. From the integu- 
ment arise slender stalks bearing on their extremities strong 
connective-tissue poison-sacs. 

Hubert Ludwig, in the same journal (p. 472), describes a six 
radiate condition in Cucumaria doliolum. Out of about one hun- 
dred and fifty half-grown specimens which he obtained at Naples, 
five had this peculiar structure, which affected not only the tenta- 
cles and ambulacra, but made itself evident in the internal organs. 
Such variations are extremely rare among the Holothurians. 


Worms.—Dr. H. Schauinsland has a note (Zool. Anzeiger, ix. 
574, 1886) upon the excretory and genital organs of the Pria- 
pulidæ, a family of Gephyrean worms, in which he points out 
that the so-called genital organs of these animals are not simply 
genital in function, but that, in fact, they are but portions of the 
ducts of the excretory organs, the epithelium of which gives rise 
to the genital products. He also states that these worms differ 
from the other Gephyrea in that the ova and spermatozoa do not 
escape: into the body cavity, but are directly expelled into the sea. 

In a paper read before the Linnean Society of New South 
Wales, June 30, 1886, Mr. J. J. Fletcher described six new species 
of earth-worms from Australia in addition to the three previously 
known. Of these, two belonged to the genus Perichzta, two to 
Notoscolex (a new genus), while two new genera, Didymogaster 
and Cryptodrilus, are created for the other two. Those pre. 
viously known belong to the genera Lumbricus, Digaster, and 
Megascolides. 

Prof. R. Ramsay Wright described at the meeting of the 


194 General Notes. [Feb. 


Zoological Society of London, June 29, a new ectoparasitic Tre- 

matode under the name Sphyranura oslert. In its position it = 
Sibesencdints between ee and Polystomium, and w 
found upon Menobranchus 


Mo ttuscs.—Kobelt ina “ Nachtrag” to his former papers on 
the Molluscan fauna of Nassau ( /ahré. Nassauichen Vereins, Bd. 
39, 1886) reviews, among other molluscs, the Unionidæ of Nassau, 
and describes, besides several varieties, Unio rhenanus, U. kochi, 
and Margaritana Jreytagi as new! Eight plates illustrate the 
paper. 

The rarest of the Cypreeas is possibly Cyprea deckpions: It 
was described by Edgar mith in 1880 from a single worn 
specimen, which until recently was the only one known in any 
collection: It somewhat resembled a young C. ¢hersites, and 
some had oe as to the validity of the species. Recently 
several specimens have been obtained from the pearl-divers of 
Northwestern Aari, and these show conclusively that the 
species is a good one. It is said that the large green turtle feeds 

upon these molluscs 

Usually molluscs are very tolerant of those commensals, the 
oyster-crabs, which make their homes within their valves. At 
a recent meeting of the Zoological Society of London, Henry 
‘Woodward exhibited a specimen of the pearl-oyster (Meleagrina) 
from seks in which a -male Pinnotheres was enclosed in a 
cyst of pearl. 

Bednal, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of South Aus- 
tralia, enumerates five species of Murex and one of Typhis as 
being found on those Mee 
_ Crustacea.—Collett, in a paper on Rudolphi’s rorqual (Ba/e- 
noptera borealis), ecole the presence (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 
1886) of the parasitic ie oa Balenophilus unisetus, on this 
whale. It is regarded as very rare, and has before been recorded 
but twice, = then on Balenoptera sibbaldu. 

Myrrapops.—Berlese has a monograph of the Italian Iulids in 
the seventesath volume of the Bulletin of the Italian Entomologt- 
octet) 


y. 
According to G. Saint-Remy the brain of Scolopendra is much 
more like that of Hexapods s than like that of either Crustacea or 
ida. 


o < AROSA a recent meeting of the Entomological So- 
- ciety of Washington, Dr. Marx announced the finding of the 
Eur n Epeira diademat i 


é esota. 
At the meeting of the Linnean Society of London, November 18, 
“1886, Mr. A. D. Michael exhibited specimens of the mite Argus 
Ww which | > been received from Australia, and which were z 
ly identical with- the celebrated Argus persicus, the bite a 
ch is said to pre oo and even fatal results. : 


1887] _ Embryology. 195 


EMBRYOLOGY." 


Notes on Two Forms of Cestoid Embryos.—While engaged 
on the systematic study of the entozoa of*marine fishes in the 
laboratory of the United States Fish Commission, Wood’s Holl, 
Massachusetts, I have made notes and sketches of different stages 
of development of several species of Cestoidea. Without attempt- 
ing at this time to give a detailed account of any one species, I 
wish to present a few notes on two forms which are of frequent 
occurrence. 

To illustrate the first I have chosen a cyst taken from the 
peritoneum of the bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), and containing 

an embryo Rhynchobothrium. (Fig. 1.) Cysts like these, either 
of the same or closely related species, are abundant in most of 
the Teleostei, and are also occasionally found in Selachians. In 
the specimen under consideration the length was 12 mm., 
breadth at the widest part6 mm. When removed from its ‘host 
the following points could be made out. The outer covering or 
cyst proper was oblong, larger at one end than the other, and 
tapering uniformly; thin, transparent, and delicate, sag yellow 
granular patches, apparently masses of lymph-cells, on the sur- 
face at the larger end. When the cyst was broken Spell an en- 
docyst TTA Diesing, “ Revis. der Ceph. Ab. Param.,” Intro- 
duction, p. 3) was released. After the escape of the endocyst 
from its enveloping cyst, the latter, retained its shape and was 
not irritable or contractile. It was easily separable into a 
thicker outer and thinner inner layer, both hyaline and formed 
of connective tissue. 

The endocyst when released from its capsular envelope wa 
white and opaque, but became translucent, with a faint bluish 
tinge, when subjected to the action of the compressor and viewed 
by transmitted light. In form, while somewhat variable, it is 
usually club-shaped; much larger at one end than the other; 
the larger end blunt and rounded. The breadth of the larger 
_ end is uniform for about one-third the length of the endocyst, at 
which point there is a sudden constriction, beyond which the 
breadth diminishes gradually to the smaller end. When placed 
in sea-water it continues in a state of activity for hours. There 
is no decided locomotion, but a continuous series of movements, 
consisting of alternate contraction and extension of different 
parts of the sac-like mass and feeble lateral movements of the 
smaller end. In this condition the appearance of the endocyst 
is that of a thick-walled sac, the walls of which are made up of 
granular protoplasm with a thin investing membrane, and filled 
with clear, highly refractile globular masses. When placed 
under the compressor and slight pressure applied, the embryo 
Rhynchobothrium could be seen lying in a loose, irregular coil in 


2 Edited by Dr. JoHN A. RYDER, Philadelphia. 


s 


196 General Notes, [ Feb. 


the large end of the blastocyst. (Fig. 2.) A sinuous vessel, re- 
vealing the existence of a water vascular system, could be plainly 


uniting in the median line at the smaller end. At the larger end 
they seem to be merged in the common parenchyma. In the 
immediate vicinity of the embryo the blastocyst is more trans- 
parent than in other parts, and the embryo seems to be held in 
position by a limiting membrane which lines the blastocyst and 
surrounds the embryo. When considerable pressure is applied 
the embryo is forced through the walls of the larger end of the 
blastocyst. The parenchyma is then seen to be confined to the 
thick walls of the blastocyst, as it does not flow out when the 
walls are ruptured. I succeeded in separating the wall of the 
blastocyst into two distinct coats, the outer one much thicker 

an the inner. In the outer coat three distinct layers were dis- 
tinguishable ; an outer granular layer, under which was a layer 
of longitudinal muscular fibres, and under this a thick layer in 
which were the characteristic refractile masses. These layers 
were not separable from each other. The thin inner coat, which 


tained a few irregular, flat, granular masses. The presence of 
transverse muscular fibres was not demonstrated, although their 
existence was shown by the power which the blastocyst had to 
contract and expand lawerally. They probably lie in the outer 
granular layer. 

The irritability and contractility of the blastocyst continue for 
several hours after the embryo is removed. In earlier stages of 
the development of similar forms, before the embryo is‘ c learly 
outlined within the blastocyst, the individuality of the latter is 
even more clearly marked, and is strongly suggestive of the 


from a’six-hooked larva, as in most other Cestoidea, and whic 
er the manner of a nurse, gives rise to an embryo by internal 
gemmiation, This embryo, when ready to escape from the blas- 
tocyst, is a scolex similar in form to the adult, and if transferred 
to a proper host would develop directly into an adult strobile. 
The embryo, when freed from the endocyst (Figs. 3, 3 4, and 
4), Was quite active, and consequently definitely accurate meas- 


urements of many of the dimensions were impossible. Its length i 
was about 24 mm., although it was capable of varying this to a 


considerable degree both by contraction and extension. 
ae are ant in number, marginal, oblong, widely divergent 
behind, a each other, but not uniting, in front; notche 


on the posterior Badd and obscurely two-lobed; edges free, 
o thin, and mobile. Length of bothria, Seance while paewhat 
_ flattened under the compressor, 2.23 mm.; breadth of head, com- 


” 


1887] Embryology. 197 


ressed, 2.72 mm. Proboscides, four, very long, slender, cylin- 
drical, and armed with recurved hooks of different sizes. The 
proboscides were not entirely everted, but by counting the series 
of hooks which are exposed, and allowing for the part which is 
inverted, which can be plainly seen through the transparent walls 
of the proboscis, the result is about one hundred series of hooks 
arranged in spirals. The spirals are nearly 0.05 mm. apart, and 
the proboscides about 4.80 mm. in length. There are about fif- 
teen longitudinal rows of hooks. These rows do not coincide 
exactly with the axis of the proboscis, but make about one and 
a half turns around it from base to apex. The hooks in these 
longitudinal rows present Be following differences. (Fig. 6. 
Three contiguous rows have small, recurved, stoutish hooks, 
which lie in groups of two, one hook noia ey in front of the 
other, and each group of two thus formed corresponding in 
position with a single hook in each of the other longitudinal 
series. The central of these three rows does not have the hooks 
as distinctly placed in groups of two as the two remaining rows. 

t the bases of the proboscides these hooks are 0.0152 mm. in 
length, increasing to 0.02 mm. at the apex, gas e breadth of 
base 0.0102 mm. throughout the series. On e side of this 
group of three longitudinal series lies a series of pb slender, 
slightly recurved hooks, These hooks are 0.0127 mm. in length 
at the base of the proboscis, increasing to 0.02 mm, at the apex, 
with the breadth of base 0.0076 mm. Each hook of these two 
series corresponds in position to one of the groups of two in the 
three series first mentioned. e remaining series of hooks are 
ten in number. It is rather difficult to estimate the exact num- 
ber of these longitudinal series, since the transverse spirals are 
not in even curves, but have a slight zigzag or sinuous course, so 
that the exact number of longitudinal series in a given part of 
the circumference is not always Plainly: shown. In one proboscis 
I counted eleven of these series, but in another, of which I had 
a plainer view, there were certainly but po These hooks are 
much larger, stouter, and more sharply recurved than those in 
the other series.- The length of one of the largest near the base 
of the Sokoi was 0.0356 mm., with a breadth of base of 
0.0254 mm. Towards the apex of the proboscis they are a little 
longer than this. These larger hooks are not of uniform size, 
those adjoining the smaller longitudinal series being smaller than 


course standing side b 
The e Ge (Fig. 4) are long and spiral. A con- 
tractile ligament was clearly defined in each and could be traced 
out into the proboscis, where it appeared as a tubular band con- 
taining a fluid in which floated a few granules. Towards the end 


198 General Notes. [ Feb, 


this tubular ligament merged imperceptibly into the proboscis, 
and t uid interior with granules became the interior of the 
inverted EA with, at first small wie scattered rod-like 
hooks, and towards the apex of the inverted proboscis, with 
normal hooks attached to the inner parietes 

The front end of the long and slender contractile bulbs lies 
about 10 mm. back of the apex of the head; length 2.46 mm.; 
breadth 0.24 mm. The contractile bulbs, as in all the Trypano- 
rhyncha, are thick-walled. The walls are composed of diagonal 
muscular fibres, which interlace, making angles 2 about 70° and 
110° with each other. These organs act in much the same 
manner as the bulb of a syringe. By their penen the fluid 
contents is forced into the proboscis-sheaths and proboscides. 
The column of fluid thus forced into the proboscides causes them 


nated from the apex. When the embryo was first liberated the 
proboscides were entirely retracted; when, however, pressure 
was applied, they unrolled. In this condition the proboscides are 
very beautiful objects, being quite transparent, while the chitinous 
hooks have a brilliant vitreous lustre. When fully extended the 
proboscides throw themselves into graceful spiral curves. When 
e pressure is released they are apt to be withdrawn. 

e bothria, in life, are transparent, finely granular, with a few 
maiie refractile globular masses similar to those in the walls 
of the blastocyst. The tubular neck, when flattened under the 


tudinal muscles, and outside of this a layer of vascular tissue, 
in which the reticulated vessels of the water vascular system 


nearly as can be ascertained without stained sections, consists of 
oriens muscular fibres. 
water vascular system consists of a net-work of vessels 
in he tra of the bothria which connects with large sinuous 
— in the centre of the head, and together with these with 
he reticulated subcuticular vessels of the neck. Back of the 
cnet bulbs the system is represented by two pairs of 
: a lie in sinuous curves near each edge of the em- 
bryo. One ' these ne was _— larger ‘in the others, 
€ ed in a bulbous enlar 
the contractile bulba. E e body has the appearance of 
sac, filled with poe — e with the 


1887] | Embryology. 199 


refractile masses much smaller than those in the blastocyst, and 
enclosed in an investing membrane about 0.005 mm. thick. 
The posterior end is terminated by a papillary, button-like pro- 
cess, which is retractile and covered with a dense coat of minute, 
straight, hair-like bristles. (Fig. 5.) 

Another form of cyst I will notice briefly and illustrate by an 
embryo Tetrarhynchobothrium, taken from the surface of the 
liver of the cero (Cybium regale). (Fig. 7.) This cyst is long 
and slender, about 10.5 mm. in length and 1.5 mm. in breadth, 
yellowish, opaque, but broken in places so as to show the out- 
line of the blastocyst. 

The blastocyst, which is set free, when the walls of the cyst 
are ruptured, is long and slender, with a neck-like constriction 
at one end. (Fig. 8.) The head part. thus set off is very 
changeable in form, expanding, contracting, moving up and 
down and from side to side, and revolving with a rotary move- 
ment on the constricted neck. The longer part or body of the 


When compressed the embryo is discovered lying in a coil in 
the head of the blastocyst. (Fig. 8.) The parenchyma of the 
head part is now seen to be much coarser than that of the body 
part, the coarseness being due to the presence of numbers of 
large, oval, refractile fluid spaces. The parenchyma of the body 
is dense and finely granular, with smaller refractile masses than 
those in the head part. When the head part of the blastocyst 
is braken open the embryo is released, but instead of separatin 
from the blastocyst, as in the case of the embryo Rhynchoboth- 
rium, the blastocyst remains attached to the body of the scolex ` 
much like the Cystocercus of Tenia. The method of release, 
however, is quite different from that of the Cystocercus of most 
Tæniæ. Instead of unfolding like the finger of a glove, the neck 
of the scolex first emerges in the form of a loop. (Fig. 9.) 
While in this position the head lies close beside the base of th 
neck in the vicinity of the contractile bulbs. The head is re- 
leased by a simple straightening of the neck, which at its base, 
a short distance back of the contractile bulbs, remains attached 
to the head part of the blastocyst. (Fig. 11.) In this speci- 
men, after the head of the scolex was released, the anterior part 
or head of the blastocyst continued for some time working 
backwards and forwards on the neck of the scolex like a mova- 
ble barrel on a stationary piston. (Fig. 10.) Considerable press- 

re was applied for the purpose of making the scolex separate 


entirely from the blastocyst, but without causing it to break loose. 


When pressed out as far as it would go, it could be seen that 
there was an unbroken continuity between the scolex and blasto- 


200 General Notes. — [ Feb. 


cyst. The posterior tapering end of the scolex, however, was 
clothed with the straight, fine hair-like bristles noticed in the 
Rhynchobothrium embryo. 

bothria are four in number, in opposite, lateral pairs, 


backward, and ‘with a retractile proboscis, armed with long, 
slender, slightly recurved hooks, belonging to each bothrium. 
(Figs. 11 æ and 11 4.) The proboscides were everted but a short 
distance, but they were apparently as fully developed as those in - 
the Rhyrichobothrium embryo. The proboscis-sheaths were in 
spirals and the contractile bulbs slender. A reticulated system 
of vessels in the margins of the bothria, and sinuous longi- 
tudinal vessels behind the contractile bulbs and near the edge 
of the blastocyst, were made out in the living specimen. 

In a specimen which was lightly stained with carmine and 
placed in glycerine, the scolex and body part of the blastocyst 
are red, while the globular head-like part of the blastocyst is a 
golden yellow, the carmine only showing faintly in some longi- 
tudinal central vessels, which apparently belong to the water 
vascular system. This same part in unstained specimens in al- 
cohol is yellowish and more opaque than the body, which is 
white with a faint bluish tinge. 

The development of this form differs at this period from that 
of the Rhynchobothrium described, in that the blastocyst is re- 
tained as a part of the scolex after the latter is released. I have 
repeatedly tried the experiment of opening blastocysts of these 
two types, with the results in every case as given above. 
one case, the embryo does not seem to have any vital connection 
with the blastocyst when the walls of the latter are broken. In 
the other, the embryo cannot be removed from the blastocyst ~ 
except by breaking a connecting bond. Whether, in the latter 
instance, the blastocyst becomes a part of the adult strobile by 
giving rise to segments by absorption or otherwise, or whether 

-it is evanescent, I have, as yet, had no opportunity of observing. 
—Edwin Linton, Wood’s Holl, Mass., August 31, 1886. 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 
Fic. 1. Cyst from peritoneum of Pomatomus saltatrix containing endocyst, en- 


about two diameters. 
ocyst released from its cyst, somewhat flattened under the compressor 
P3 . = ph a ar 5 ane Ary Se | El 1 Mi VEEE WERE 


: ona Embryo liberated from the endocyst (or blastocyst), lateral view, enlarged 


ameters. 

Fic. 3 a. One of the bothria, isolated, enlarged three diameters. __ 
oo Fic. 4. ‘he same flattened under the compressor, showing the contractile bulbs, 
__ the spiral proboscis-sheaths, and the protruded proboscides, enlarged six diameters. 

Fic. 5. Posterior end of same, showing the termination of the vessels of the water _ 


RGE 
E 
: 


- 

os 
oe p; 
Cae 


1887 | Embryology. "20I 


G. 6. Portion of proboscis, showing the five series of smaller hooks in sg and 
a zie of the larger hooks at the side, a two hundred and twenty-five diam- ~ 
eters. 
i ae X Cyst with endocyst, from surface of liver of Cydium regale, enlarged six 
iame 
re 3. Endocyst renting i liberated from its cyst, slightly compressed and 
showing the coiled embryo T Scat mae at vee in the “head,” enlarged nine 
owe oe 
The same, subjected to greater pressure, Somn the embryo in the act of 
Piety “from the blas stocyst, enlarged nine dia 
Fic. 10. The same, with head freed from the ‘blastocyst, but still attached pos- 
teriorly to the “ head” of the blastocyst. The bothria are seen from below as they 
are spread out and applied to the under glass of. oh compressor, enlarged twenty- 
five eres eters. 
Outline of ra with its blastocyst now-attached like a rudimentary 
dohil; calang eds six diam 
ai Hiei near ai or proboscis, enlarged three hundred and fifty diam- 
a II å. Portion of proboscis, enlarged two aes bag and twenty-five diameters. 
All the figures drawn from life by Mrs. Edwin Lint 
Edwin Linton. 


ee of Scorpions.—Kowalevsky and Schulgin have 
a paper on the development of Androctonus ornatus in the 
pr S Centralblatt (vi. pp. 525- 532, 1886) which throws 
much light on these forms. As long as the egg remains in the 
ovarium it is not impregnated. Segmentation begins in the 
uterus. Their earliest embryo had the blastoderm completely 
formed at one pole of the egg, and at this time no nuclei were to 
be seen in the yolk. The first appearance of a differentiation 
into germ-layers was seen in the appearance of a swelling beneath 


blastoderm cells and sink to the lower layer. This germin 
area is circular in outline. The next step consists in the forma- 
tion of the embryonic envelopes, which arise as a circular Mpt 
cature ok the blastoderm in a manner analogous to thos 
Hexapods. Now the germinal area elongates, aod one af oe 
iceabalicy retains its breadth while the other (abdominal) becomes 
thicker and longer. During these processes many cells separate 
from the lower layer (ento-mesodermal) cells and sink into the 
olk. These cells are not regarded as forming any of sa tissue 
of the scorpion, but as digesting or softening the y e 
entoderm arises as a layer of cells which separate kon the ento- 
mesodermal layer and come to lie close upon the yolk. These 
rapidly spread over the yolk, which has already been enclosed 
by the amnion and serosa. The entoderm cells modify the outer 
layer of the yolk and then take up the modified deutoplasm, at 
the same time taking on the character of a cylindrical epithelium. 
The abdomen now grows out, and a portion of the mesenteron 
extends into it as far as the penultimate segment, where it unites 
with the proctodeum. The central portion of the mesenteron is 
latest in being differentiated io the tubular mid-gut and the 


202 General Notes. [Feb. 


lobulated liver. The neural surface is outlined first, then the 
sides and hzmal wal 

The mesoderm is first differentiated when the entoderm sepa- 
rates from the ento-mesodermal layer, but for a long time it lingers 
in the germinal area. It then segments, and there is a preoral 
segment which contains a cavity like those of the post-oral series. 
The somatopleure is thicker than the splanchnopleure. Beyond 


their character separate, and become the primary blood-corpus- 
cles hey fill the space on the back of the embryo, which the 
authors afer as the homologue of the segmentation cavity. 
Later the mesodermal layers unite—first above and later below 


mesodermal origin, and even before the union of the layers of 
either side the histological differentiation of endothelium and 
muscular layers is eviden 
The first traces of oa nervous system appear as ectodermal 
thickenings. In each segment appear, on either side, two eleva- 
tions. Of these the lateral give rise to the appendages, ber 
median to the ganglia. At first these latter are simple 
dermal thickenings, but soon a rapid process of wall: pronieanoa 
takes place—first in the cephalic, then in the body region—in 
the following manner. In the head there are from fifteen to 
twenty places, in the other segments from ten to twelve, where 
this growth takes place. Each has the appearance of a groove, 
and in section these grooves are seen to be simple cavities which 
soon disappear by the growth of the bounding cells, In this 
way a very rapid proliferation is possible, but the authors do not 
consider the point whether it have any phylogenetic importance. 
The development of the brain is distinguished from that of the 
rest of the nervous system in that an accessory fold takes part in 
its formation. This fold was previously recognized by Metschni- 
in the scorpion and by Balfour in the spiders ; it is distinct 
from the grooves mentioned above. A groove is formed around 
the periphery of the procephalic lobes, which becomes deeper and 
finally forms a right and a left cerebral vesicle. Next a second 
_ fold arises and forms a pouch on either side, the mouths of which 
are directed laterally. These are the first traces of the median 
eral eyes are developed independently, but their 
history has not been worked out. 
The coxal glands, when first seen, appeared as a pair of tubes 
opening externally at the base of the second(?) pair of feet. 
Later the tubes were much coiled. Two portions could be dis- 


tinguished,—an inner, arising from the spla eure and com- 


. ASE S Me ratom by a broad funnel, ond a S 


DEE AA E Aa 


M 


mo EN a ne 


SRE ge EE a E a 


1887] Embryology. 203 


late, as simple inpushings into a space rich with blood-cor- 
puscles , 

In this connection the reader is referred to this journal, vols. 
xix. p. 560; xx. pp. 666, 825, and 862.— F. S. K. 


Polar Globules in the Crustacea.—The question whether 
tere are polar globules formed in the maturation of the arthro- 
egg has long remained in doubt, and both Minot and Bal- 
se have suggested that their absence was connected with the 
existence of parthenogenesis. Several writers have described 
and figured what might be polar globules, but their observations 
have contained a considerable element of doubt. Recently, 
August Weismann (Zool. Anzeiger, ix. 570-573, 1886) gives a 
preliminary account of the studies in this direction made by 
himself and his pupil, Chiyomatsu Ishikawa, on the partheno- 
genetic eggs of several Crustacea. In Polyphemus oculus, the ripe 
summer egg forms a polar globule in the normal manner, with 
a soen; the long axis of which is at right angles to the 
surface of the egg. Then the egg enters the brood space, and 
there quickly forms a vitelline membrane. While this is going 
on the spindle divides, and the polar globule, which contains 
considerable protoplasm, becomes separated from the egg. This 
takes place at the animal pole of the egg, and then the inner 
end of the spindle becomes converted into the segmentation 
nucleus, and segmentation quickly follows. At the close of the 
second segmentation the polar globule itself divides and then 
quickly disappears; the authors think it is absorbed again by 
the egg. In Bythotrepes longimanus the process is much the 
same, except that the transformation of the proximal end of the 
spindelkern into the segmentation nucleus has not been seen. 
At the eight-cell stage the remnants of the polar globules are 
still visible, sunk between the cells, but with further development 
of the egg ‘they sink deeper and finally disappear. Grobben had 
described polar globules in Motina paradoxa and Weismann con- 
firms the observation, describing the process of formation as 
witnessed in the living egg. It does not differ materially from 
that outlined in the other species. In Leptodora, Weismann 
found a body very like the polar globules of Polyphem mus and 
Bythotrepes, but did not see the method of their formation. In 
Daphnia longispina the spindle is apparently not so evident 
as in other cases, but its place is taken by a clear spot about 
half-way between the pole and the os see Shortly after this 
the polar globule appears on the surface, its ada frequently 
retaining traces of the ieeryokinetic figures of formation while 
its circular or oblong body remains homogeneous. During the 
first and second segmentation of the e “gs the polar globule itself 
divides, the process being accompanied by karyokinesis and the 
resulting cells ASEAN close together. In this species the egg 


204 General Notes. [ Feb. 


completely fills its envelopes, and hence the polar globules are 
forced into the soft surface of the yolk, where they are with dif- 
ficulty visible, at least without reagents. Leydig 
a quarter of a century ago, on the eggs of this same species 
showed bodies which have been supposed to be polar globules; 
but this could not have been the case, as these bodies which he 
describes were outside the chorion A full paper is a in 
the Verhandlungen of the Freiburg Gesellschaft — F. S 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 

The Races of Men.—A. Hennuyer, of Paris, will publish a 
series of volumes entitled “ Bibliothèque Ethnolo ogique, Histoire 
Générale des Races humaines.” The first volume has already 
appeared, with the title : 

Introduction à l'Étude des Races humaines, by A. de Quatre- 
fages. There will follow 

Les’ Races Noires, by E. T. Hamy. 

Les Races Jaunes, by M. J. Montano: 

Les Races Rouges, by Lucien Biart 

History of the Mongols, by Jules Denitar. 

Les Foulahs, by Dr. Tautain. 

Les Aztèques, by Lucien Biart 

M. Quatrefages perfects the scheme of nature which has al- 
ready appeared in his work, entitled “ L’Espèce humaine,” 
but which may not be familiar to all the readers of the AMERI- 
CAN NATURALIST 


EMPIRES. KINGDOMS. PHENOMENA. CAUSES. 
Sidereal Keplerian movement Gravitation. 
ish ase | . Keplerian movement Gravitatio 
Mineral i \ 
{ plus physico-chemist Etherodynamics. 
Keplerian movement Gravitation. 
Vegetal fo us physico-chemistry Me herodynamics. 
plus vitality 
Keplerian movem Gravit ation. 
Avie’ plus 5 physico-chemisuy E FA erodynam: 
Lee lus voluntary motion Animal Spirit. 
{ Keplerian movement Gravitation. 
plus us physico-chemistry Etherodynamics. 
Human | plus vitality + Life 
plus bier Me otion pore Spirit. 
plus morality and religiosity | Human Spirit. 


The views of monogenists and polygenists are presented in par- 
allel columns, with monogenism as the personal equation of the 
author. ve remains for a polygenist to prepare a similar table 
with as much fairness. 


fll men belong t one andthe same There are evel pecie ot men 


man groups are racial characters, mi 


1887] 


MONOGENISM. 
At = epoch did this single species 
appear on the surface of the ee p- The 
ening ‘of antiquity is simple. 


The human species first ons only 
a circumscribed area of the globe. There 
is, then, a question of geographic origin to 


ve. 

e globe was peopled by anise’ 
o! ich we have to bi the es 
and iseti the histo 


To-day there ne “ee no autoch- 
thonous people n particular, 
oor fy: olynesia v were agate only by col- 


The human soaa inhabits to- asy the 
entire sreng le as well as the 
ator. It ig therefor, subjected it- 

f to environments the most diverse. 
The question of erant ting in its widest 
and in its most special sense is necessarily 


In these Shige the human species, 
ed action of new environ- 
be 


& 
S 


passing in our day ought to arrest 
special manner the attention of anthro- 
pologists. 

Crosses between human races in the 


parent types. 

the persian oksa combined 

in peoples of . an class 

ae een human 1 races most di- 

ss ce under eyes. They 

have piven birth to populations which en- 

mer 5 day and more 

d eng oe The aly of th ea 

ouble an 


the past and permits us to look into the 

~All actual populations have been m 

or less modified, either by pakane 
i h 


or by crossing. The primitive type of hu- 
manity is lost. r i 
could 


sible 
which would — it? 


Anthropology. 


20¢ 
POLYGENISM. 

At what epoch have appeared the dif- 
fe Siyan species? H 


ave they arisen 
ively? The 


question ee antiquity is tiple. 
The ent species have first appeared 
th where history announces 
their discovery. The question of ge 
raphic in does not exi 
Migr count nothing i in ae 


The P ea of which histor 
sery ed the memory ar 
an in: 
ence over the pirita distribution of 
eoples. 
Excepting the 


European colonies 


founded in our day and those recorded in 
history, almost the entire globe has been 
peopled af auth ones. Specially, all 
the peo f America and Polynesia 
were my could oly he the products of 
the soil where modern explorers have 
found A 


Sos ples, constituting 
any Biss originating on the spot, were 
the 


‘ade to live nich ey which 

sree ae diem The ere is no general 

estion of acclimating. We ri ave only 

i study the special cases resulting from 
e expansion of m pulations. 

ifferent Saat ies have ap- 

peared with all the characteristics now 

arking ` a environment 

could nor alter these. We have not to 

searc -o distinctive edan ea 

could be Wong 


_ Populations with mixed characters 


therefore, about their irecte. ethnic 


ins. 


Crosses among human species can have 


if the crossing c 
study possesses, therefore, a serious in- 
terest for us. 


All the human species having appeared 
with their — characters, such as. 
we now re em, nye B oblem of 


roe 


primitive man oe no 


206 7 General Notes. [Feb, 


Some of e burning questions which M. Spuafrefages discusses 
are the following : 

The pretended Simian origin of man. 

Incompatibility of Darwinism and polygen 

Impossibility of going back to the first oa a the species. 

The survival of fossil human races. 

In his general treatment of his theme M. Quatrefages has fol- 
lowed the method of Prichard. 


The Deities of the Navajos.—In the interesting account en- 


`Ț\ 


the fact that the warriors offered their sacrifices at the sacred 
shrine of Thoyetli, in the San Juan valley. He says that the 
Navajos have a tradition that the gods of war, or sacred brothers, 
still dwell at Thoyetli, and their reflection is sometimes seen 
on the San Juan River. Dr. Matthews is certain the last part 
is due to some natural phenomenon. The following account 
seems to furnish a complete explanation of this last part of the 
myth. Several years ago, a clergyman, while travelling in the 
San Juan valley, noticed a curious phenomenon while gazing 

h 


and surrounded by a circular rainbow, the “circle of Ulloa.” 
They jumped, moved away, and performed a number of exer- 
cises, to be certain that the figures were their reflections, and the 


dians to consider these reflections as those of their deities.— 
G. A. Brennan, Roseland, Cook County, Til., January 12, 1887. 


. Franz Boas, the successful explorer of the polar countries 
north of Hudson’s Bay, has just returned to the East from a three 
months’ trip to the east side of Vancouver’s Island, B. C.,and the 
mainland opposite. He visited there a considerable number of 
tribes, most of which, he thinks, belong to the Selish family, 
though he entertains doubts whether the Kwákiūtl belong there 
or not. As far as their intercourse with the whites is concerned, 

are harmless and friendly; but outside of Nanaimo and 

Victoria the white population there is very sparse. The Gospels 
and John have been translated into the Kwákiūtl 
of Fort Rupert, a post now abandoned. Dr. Boas in- 


he tee to publish soon a part of his exploratory results in this 


country, with illustrations.. A pamphlet upon the Bi lkúla, or 


He peas iora ati attention than explorers 


1887] Microscopy. 207 


the collecting of myths, traditions, and vocabularies. To get 
these he was obliged to avail himself of the Chinook jargon, 
which he has mastered in a pretty short lapse of time. The 
songs and melodies which Professor C. Stumpf, of Halle, obtained 
from the Bilkula Indians travelling in Germany were published 
y him in an article inserted in the Zettschr. fir Musikwissen- 
schaft, 1886, pp. 405-426, and two articles by Dr. Boas (with an- 
other by Goeken) upon the same tribe are to be found in the 
“ Original - Mittheilungen der Ethnolog. Abtheilung der Kon. 
Museen zu Berlin,” 1886, pp. 177-186.—A. S. Gatschet. 


MICROSCOPY.? 


Note on the Practical Study of Moulds.—lIt is well known 
that the study of moulds may be greatly facilitated by following 
their development in gelatine films, or other solid substrata, 
spread on glass slides ; but the value of the method for classes in 
elementary biology has not been sufficiently recognized. The 
_ following aaen of the method is perhaps already in use; 

o call attention to it as simple and practical, and 
especially as eat a ready means of making very clear and 
beautiful permanent preparations. 

e spores are sown with a needle-point in films, consisting of 
a modification of Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid (with pepsin) thick- 
ened with Iceland moss. In this medium moulds grow freely in 
the moist chamber. They may be examined either fresh or after 
treatment with iodine, which scarcely colors the substratum. 
For the purpose of making permanent preparations the culture- 
slides are transferred directly from the moist chamber to a satu- 
rated solution of eosin in ninety-five per cent. of alcohol, a fluid 
by which the moulds are at once fixed and stained. After 
twenty-four hours (or, preferably, three or four days) the prepa- 
rations are washed in ninety-five per cent. alcohol until the color 
nearly disappears from the substratum, cleared with oil of cloves, 

d mounted in balsam. All stages may thus be prepared. The 
mycelia, conidia, etc., appear of an intense red color, while the 
substratum is scarcely stained. Alcoholic fuchsin may be used 
instead of eosin, though inferior to it; but other dyes (of which 
a Sone aS number have been tested) color the substratum 

the moulds, and are therefore useless. Eosin 
ee rton made more than a year s do not yet show the 
slightest alteration of color. The best results have thus far been 
obtained with Penicillium, Eurotium, and certain parasitic — 
Mucor gives less satisfactory preparations, since it is always m 
or less shrunken by the alcohol. Fair preparations of yeast al 
be made by mixing it with the liquefied medium and ome 
the mixture on glass slides, which, after solidification of the films. 


Edited by C. O. es ue apes Wisconsin, 
` VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 


208 Scientific News. [Feb. 


are placed in the eosin solution, as in the case of mould-cul- 
ures 

For preparing the cultures, Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid, with 
pepsin [see Huxley and Ma rtin’s Practical Biology], but not 
containing more thei five per cent. of sugar, is heated with Ice- 
land moss until the mixture attains such a consistency that it 
will just solidify when cold (fifteen to thirty minutes). It is then 
filtered by means of a hot filter into small glass flasks, which are 
afterwards plugged with cotton-wool, and sterilized at 65° to 70° 

. by the ordinary method. When required for use, the mass 
is liquefied by gentle heat, poured on the slides, and allowed to 
solidify. The spores are sown by a needle-point, touched once 
to a mass of spores, and thereupon drawn across several films in 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


—W. Baldwin Spencer, of Lincoln College, Oxford, has been 
appointed to the chair of Biology in the University of Melbourne. 
He is a pupil of Professor BS: N. Moseley. He has published 
papers on the Armary organs of Amphipods and on the neuren- 


retains all of its optical structure, though it is probably not 
functional. 

—The Buffalo Society of Natural Science is at last provided 
with suitable quarters. It has long occupied rooms in the old 
building of the Young Men’s aese w of Buffalo, but they 
have been inadequate for the accommodation of the library and 
collections. The Young Men’s P Paa has also been cram 
for room, and a few years ago they began the erection of a new 
building, which has at last been completed, at a cost of about 
three hundred thousand dollars. It occupies a very eligible re 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 209 


and the Buffalo Society of Natural Science. The latter soeiety 
have ample e in the western portion of the base 
ment. Professor D. S. Kellicott, the president of the Society of 
Natural Dalee, gave the address for that society. This society 
was organized in sa ny er, 1861, and its history has been 
one of continual progress. It has accumulated a fine mu seum, 
which is especially rich re local forms. The collection of fossils 
of the Waterlime group is noteworthy. Nowhere in America 
can be seen a better rai of Eurypterids, those oa 
Limulus-like am which were a prominent feature in the Pa 
zoic seas. rst president the late Judge Clinton, gave the 
society his valucke herbarium, while its A a collection 
contains many of 2 type- ee D of t : 
Robinson, A. R. Grote, L. F. Hervey, D. S. Kellicott, and stare 
The library is ome rich in Satomologieal works. At present 
the society is somewhat cramped for funds, but in time it will be 
amply provided with money. Its late president, Dr. George E. 
Hayes, left about two hundred thousand dollars, which, after the 


so of his widow, are to come into the possession of the so- 
present its funds are Agree nee from the bequest of 
the late Professor C. T. Robin We are glad to learn that 


the meetings of the society fave, never bern better attended or 
the discussions and papers more interesting than at present. 

—The Johns Hopkins University will have its marine labora- 
tory this year at Nassau, N. P. The party will sail about March 
1, and will stay until July 1,if not longer. It is proposed to hire 
a building for the laboratory. Dr. W. K. Brooks will be in charge | 
as usual. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 


Boston Society of Natural History.—January 19, 1887——On 
account of the inclemency of the weather the regular paper of 


peculiar feature was noticed in the development of Decapods, in 
that the germ from the eyes to the tip of the abdomen was ac- | 
tually longer in early than in later stages. An explanation of 
this fact is difficult. Dr. Kingsley also referred to the classifica- 
tion of Arthropods and their derivation from Worms. Cs. 
Minot gave a résumé of observations on the origin of the trachee 
of Hexapods, and suggested that they supported Dr. Kingsley’s 
view that these organs were not homologous in Arachnids and 
Hexapods. Professor W. T. Sedgwick spoke of the extrusion of 
trichocysts in Paramecium under the stimulation of tannic acid. 
Sudene 2.—Dr. Kingsley gave his paper pope: from the 
preceding m eeting. He maintained that the ‘ centro- 
lecithal” as applied to Arthropod eggs, and “ ener” as de- 


210 Proceedings of Sctentific Societes. [Feb. 1887. 


scribing their segmentation, were totally erroneous. A superficial 
segmentation is of necessity meroblastic. In Arthropod eggs the 
first segmentations are central, and the blastoderm is formed by 
migration of the resulting cells to the surface. With this new 
view it is a comparatively easy matter to reconcile the process 
of gastrulation in the Hexapods with that of other Metazoa. 
It affords an excellent example of the theory of acceleration, 
or concentration of development, held by Professors Cope and 
Hyatt. The nauplius of Crustacea was regarded as an adaptive 
stage, and one which had far less phylogenetic significance than 
was usually assigned it. Professor Hyatt spoke of the early 
development of the sponges, and instanced cases which paral- 
leled and supported the views of Dr. Kingsley 

General meeting, Wednesday evening, February 16.—The fol- 
lowing papers were read: “On the Range of Variations in the 
Human Shoulder-Blade,’ by Dr. Thomas Dwight; “A Study 
of North American Geraniaceæ,” by Professor Wm. Trelease. 


Middlesex [ Mass. ] Institute-—January 19, 1887.—Mr. Frank 
S. Collins read a paper on “ Curious Conceits of the Older Her- 
balists,” quoting from Gerarde and earlier writers. 


New York Academy of Sciences.—Monday Retin A het 
.—The following paper was read: “ Report upon ink. 
Dolomite recently obtained near Morrisania, with LEA by 
Mr. A. B. Bjerregaard. 
onday evening, February 14.—The following paper was 
read: “ The Landskibet, or Viking Ship, discovered near Gok- 
Se Norway, in 1880” (with lantern illustration), by Dr. John S. 
hite. 


Biological Society of Washington.—February 5, 1887.— 
The following communications were read: Mr. William T. Horn- 
aday, “ The Last of the Buffalo; Mr. Richard Rathbun, “ Ocean 
Temperature Charts in Connection with Studies in Geographical 
Distribution ;’ Dr. C. Hart Merriam, “ Contributions to North 
—— Mammalogy. Description of a New Species of Wood- 
Rat” (Neotoma); Mr. Henry W. Elliott, “ Ridgeway’s Nomencla- 
ture of Colors for Naturalists;” Dr. $a BY tejneger, “ Exhibition ; 
of New Species of Birds from the Sandwich Islands ;’ Dr. Tar- 
leton H. Bean, “ Variation under horns of the Rainbow 
_ Trout” (with exhibition of specim 
Sinti 19—The | following Oa s were read: 
—— ED m “An Un described — s of Snake from 

id 5; 


= “ae E. Patines “6 Professor RE C. we E Notes on Physian- 
ee P sex Moth-tr 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL. XXI. MARCH, 1887. No. 3. 


THE MASSASAUGA AND ITS HABITS. 
BY O. P. HAY, M.A. 


AJ OTWITHSTANDING the almost universal dislike enter- 
tained by people for snakes, the horror even that the sight 

of them excites in some minds, and the low value generally 
placed on ophidian intelligence, the more unprejudiced attention 
that has been bestowed by a few persons on these animals within 
recent years has shown that there is, after all, much to be said in 
their favor. Their lithe forms, their active and graceful move- 
ments, and their frequently brilliant and variegated colors, would 
at all times have rendered them attractive objects had not the 
possession of these qualities been more than offset by the actual 
or supposed possession of others of a disagreeable or dangerous 
nature. A closer acquaintance with snakes dispels many of our 
old prejudices against them, as being animals degraded in struc- 
ture, malicious in disposition, and as laboring under a special 
curse; and presents them to us as possessors of many singular 
adaptations to their environment, many sagacious habits relating 
to the preservation of themselves and of their young, and some- 
times of considerable conjugal and parental affection; and, by 
inference, enjoying as much of the favor of Heaven as most 
“animals. That very interesting work by Miss C. C. Hopley, 
entitled “Snakes; Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life,” 
will doubtless do much to remove unreasonable prepossessions 
against these persecuted animals, and to awaken greater interest 
in them and their ways. When we have learned more about 

VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 15 


212 The Massasauga and tts Habits. [March 


them, we may discover that He who “spake with authority” also 
spake as having knowledge of nature when He used the words, 
“as wise as a serpent.” 

At present far too little is known concerning the life-history 
of the great majority of our snakes. Of the breeding habits of 
many species and large groups of species we know little or nothing, 
and it is to be desired therefore that accurate observations should 
be made and reported. I hope in this paper to contribute some- 
thing to the knowledge of the Prairie Rattlesnake, or Massasauga 
(Caudisona tergemina). 

This venomous serpent ranges from Ohio to Utah. Towards 
the north it extends into Michigan, Wisconsin, and to the Yellow- 
stone River. It has also been found in Georgia and in Missis- 
sippi ; but it appears to be replaced in the greater part of the South 
by Caudisona miliaria. Its general color above is from gray to 
brown, with seven rows of dark spots which have a light margin. 
The belly is mottled with black and yellowish. In Ohio and 
some parts of Indiana black specimens are sometimes found, and 
to these the name “ Black Massasauga” has been given. Speci- 
mens of these were described by Holbrook as Crotalophorus kirt- 
landu in honor of Dr. J. P. Kirtland, their discoverer. Professor 
S. F. Baird also regarded this form as a distinct species; but of 
late herpetologists are not inclined to consider it as worthy of 
even varietal distinction. That the spotted form is ever found 
in wooded lands I do not know; but the black form, both in 
Ohio and Indiana, lives in swampy lands which are overgrown 
with brush, weeds, Sees coarse grass, and not on the open 
prairies. 

Some of Dr. Kirtland’s statements concerning the Black Mas- 
sasauga are, I think, to be taken with some grains of allow- 
ance. With reference to its bite he has, it appears, asserted that 
its virulence is scarcely greater than that of the sting of a hornet. 
There are probably no differences, as respects virulence, between 
this snake and the more common pale and spotted form living on 
the open prairies, and where the latter is best known it is much 
feared ; and certainly the effects of its bite on the large domestic 
animals are very serious. The members of this species are 
probably as poisonous as are individuals of equal size belonging 
-~ to any of the other species; and since specimens of the Mas- 

eee ee 


1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 213 


them would probably be equivalent in virulence to a _ whole 
colony of hornets. 

Some twenty-five or thirty years ago this species was exces- 
sively abundant on the then sparsely-settled prairies of Northern 
Illinois; and among the farmers’ boys of that day the slaughter 
of these snakes furnished a means for establishing a reputation 
for courage and enterprise. As more and more of the land came 
under cultivation, these serpents rapidly disappeared; so that, 
where they were once so numerous, they have scarcely been seen 
for perhaps twenty years. The reasons for this rapid extinction 
are, I think, not clear. Men, hogs, deer, and the larger wild fowl 
are regarded as the principal enemies of the Crotalide. Of course 
every. man and boy attacked and killed every rattlesnake that 
was seen; but so likewise they did with every harmless snake; 
and the species of the latter have not usually suffered to the 
same extent as the rattlesnakes. 

The members of the hog family are the foes of the venomous, 
and perhaps also of the non-venomous, serpents; but in the dis- 
tricts to which I refer the production of wheat, oats, and corn 
was at that time so exclusively pursued that but few hogs were 
raised, and these few were kept shut up in close pens, and thus 
prevented from exercising any influence on the reptilian fauna. 
Of their other enemies, the deer were early exterminated, and 
the native large wild birds, which may possibly have been ad- 
dicted to devouring the young snakes, were by the “ murdering 
guns” soon greatly reduced in numbers. That the mere dis- 
turbance of the soil in cultivation would be more prejudicial to 
the welfare of the rattlesnakes than to that of other species of 
serpents we do not know. Possibly, being heavy and clumsy 
animals, they would find it difficult to move about over culti- 
vated fields and pursue there their vocation, and would abandon 
them. In this connection it might be profitable to study the 
influence of similar changes of environment on the Heterodons, ` 
It appears to me quite probable, however, that as the country 
became more thickly settled, the rattlesnakes were deprived to a 
considerable extent of their opportunities for securing food. In 
primitive times the prairies were the breeding-grounds of great 
numbers of prairie-hens (Cupidonia cupido) and other ground- 
nesting birds, whose young and possibly also eggs contributed 

largely to the support of the various species of snakes. The cul- 


214 The Massasauga and its Habits. [March 


tivation of the land interfered greatly with the breeding of these 
birds, and the prairie-hens were soon thinned out by the hunters, 
and thus the resources of the venomous snakes were greatly 
_ reduced, 

`The assertion that the sound of the rattle of the Massasauga 
is so feeble that it is scarcely audible is certainly incorrect. 
From experience I know that it can be heard at a distance of 
several feet. 

The purpose of the rattle of the Crotalide has exercised the 
ingenuity of many minds and called forth many conjectures. 
The old notion that it was intended as a means of preserving 
man from the bite of the snake does not meet the requirements 
of the case. The organs of animals and plants are designed for 
the benefit of their possessors, and not for the benefit of some 
other organism. The somewhat close resemblance of the whirr 
of the rattle to the song of some grasshoppers has suggested to 
some one the idea that it is produced in order to lure within 
reach of the snake some of the grasshopper-eating birds. This 
hypothesis seems to lack the necessary basis of observation. 
No one probably has yet heard hungry rattlesnakes in imprison- 
ment sounding the rattle in the vain hope of securing food. 
Nor is there any more evidence to prove that it is of use in 
bringing the sexes together. The anal scent-glands would seem. 
to be far more efficient for that purpose. The sexes once together, 
it is quite possible that their emotions may be expressed by the 
low humming of the rattle that has been observed. Mr. Darwin 
concluded that the crepitation produced by the organ is used to 
frighten away the many birds and beasts that are liable to attack 
the snake. The means adopted to produce this result ought, then, 
to be regarded as a signal failure, for no man, or hog, or deer, or 
ravenous bird, that had resolved to attack a serpent, would prob- 
ably be deterred therefrom by such impotent demonstrations. 
If the inspiration of fear were their purpose, we might expect the 
serpent to elevate itself like the cobra, or make other threatening 
movements, whereas the rattlesnake lies almost motionless in a 
coil, meanwhile sounding its rattle, a model of repose born of a 
consciousness of the possession of reserve power. 

_ The opinion that is generally held that the rattle is sounded 
ee en ni ae snake bas reason to fear 
ee get ¥2 ns 


1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 215 


said against it. Dr. Elliott Coues has concluded that “the 
actual result of its use as a menace in self-defence is the reverse 
of beneficial to the serpent, since the sound serves to direct and 
provoke attack from all the enemies which the animal has reason 
to fear.” We are led to wonder how the rattlesnakes have been 
enabled to maintain themselves in the struggle for existence. 
In spite of the possession of this organ, thus pronounced to be 
of no use to them, and constantly betraying them into the hands 
of their enemies, the rattlesnakes have succeeded in diffusing 
themselves over most of the western hemisphere, in adapting 
themselves to many varied conditions, and in producing many 
species and an excessive number of individuals. On the other 
hand, the Copperheads and Cottonmouths, in possession of all 
the advantages enjoyed by the rattlesnakes in the way of poison- 
glands and fangs and relieved of the so-called disadvantage of 
the rattle, have neither extended their range so widely, nor de- 
veloped into so many species, nor perhaps become so abundant 
in individuals. 

Nothing can be more certain than the fact that the rattle is used 
chiefly when the snake is alarmed or angry. The whirr then 
serves to warn an approaching enemy that it is coming into col- 
lision with a rattlesnake, and not with something else. This is 
done for the special benefit of the snake. It is not benevolent, 
but intensely selfish. It is evidently extremely solicitous for its 
precious store of poison and its battery of fangs, without which it 
would fare slenderly in its endeavors to get a living ; and if it can 
induce its antagonist to withdraw, the snake will have saved its 
stores and have escaped other possible results of a pitched battle. 
This warning must have been very efficient with most animals. In 
the eastern United States there were no native species of the hog 
tribe to devour snakes. To what extent deer are accustomed to 
destroy rattlesnakes we do not know. It appears to me that the 
rattlesnakes had more to fear from the numerous buffaloes that 
roamed over the greater part of the continent than from any ani- 
mals that made direct war onthem. The serpents must have been 
in frequent danger of being trodden upon by these, and to have 
attempted a war on a herd of large animals would have been 
useless. But through the simple device of sounding the rattle, 
each animal as it approached would be~ warned of the presence 
of the snake and would probably be induced to give it abundant 


216 i The Massasauga and its Habits. [March 


space. Thus the poison might be reserved for such as could not 
take a hint. Doubtless, too, by this means, the snake was saved 
from many a rude tread by bear, or wolf, or. panther, that to the 
serpent would at least have been very unpleasant, and. might 
have involved it in a fight in which it had everything to lose and 
nothing to gain. 

Within the past few weeks some specimens of the Massasauga 
have come under my notice, whose history may throw some light 
on the breeding habits of this species, as well as on some other 
matters that have, been discussed. These specimens belonged 
to the black variety, and were captured in the northern part of 
Hendricks County, Indiana, by Mr. M. B. Harvey, of Rainstown. 
This gentleman’s truthfulness is testified to by friends in whom 
I have complete confidence, and his statements are made with 
such sincerity and carefulness that I have no hesitafion whatever 
in accepting them. 

he specimens, two in number, one about two feet long, the 
other somewhat less, both dull black without trace of spots 
above, were captured about the Ist of last August and kept 
in close confinement. They were found in an old swampy clear- 
ing that was somewhat overgrown with brush. About the Ist 
of September they both brought forth living young,—one five 
and the other six,—the two broods appearing within thirty or 
forty hours of each other. Two of the young died when about 
three weeks old; the others are still alive (January 28) and in 
apparent health. Neither the parents since their capture nor the 
young since their birth had had, up to January I, anything either 
to eat or to drink. About the latter date the corner of the box 
containing them was put into a vessel of water, and one old one 
and one young one partook. With this exception none have had 
either food or water up to the presenttime. Mr. Harvey states 
that at first the young were but three or four inches long. Some 
of them are now at least ten inches long, as I know from obser- 
vation. Others are somewhat smaller. How can this growth 
have been made? It is possible, I think, that the gentleman has 
been somewhat mistaken as to the original size ; or some of 
| may have been that small, while others not occa ob- 
JEPP were larger. A specimen of the light-colored variety in 


= my possession, which was taken from the mother but which had 
fe the fangs dorejapen, measures, when ea and a 


1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 217 


half inches. It was hardened in alcohol while spirally twisted 
within the egg-membranes, and would when born probably have 
been somewhat longer. However, it is quite evident that Mr. 
Harvey’s specimens have made some growth. Having at hand 
another alcoholic specimen, seven and a half inches long, which 
probably had not long been born at the time of its capture, and 
observing in the posterior portion of its body a hard lump, it oc- 
curred to me to open the abdomen and see what the young snake 
had eaten. The whole intestine was empty, and the hard lump 
consisted of an elongated mass of egg-yolk two and a half inches 
long and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. On such a 
store of highly-nutritious materials doubtless the young are ac- 
customed to subsist and grow until they are able to capture their 
own food. 
The question whether or not the young ever enter the mother’s 
mouth and stomach for refuge from danger and are permitted 
to come forth again has been much discussed. It would seem 
that the results of Mr. Goode’s inquiries ought to have settled 
the question, but there are still many sceptical persons. In the 
issue of Wature for December 24, 1885, a writer, in discussing the 
case of Pelias berus, suggests as an explanation of what has been 
observed, that possibly the young in their fright, against the 
mother’s will, rush into her mouth as they would into any other _ 
opening that might present itself; and that once having entered 
the stomach they may either never leave it again alive, or they 
may act there as an emetic and be violently ejected! Now, Mr, 
Harvey states that his young snakes were accustomed, from their 
birth up to the time they were a month old, to pass freely into and 
out of the mothers’ mouths. He does not know that they were 
ever all in the mothers’ stomachs at the same moment, but some- 
times three or four of them would be missing at once. Some- 
times one would be seen going down the throat while another 
was coming out. Occasionally one might be seen with his head 
sticking out of one corner of the mother’s mouth like a cigar, 
while in the other corner would be another’s head or possibly tail. 
In describing the mother’s movements, Mr. Harvey says, in a 
letter, that “the mother would sometimes lay her lower jaw on 
the floor, raise her upper jaw and with it her entire backbone, 
thus adjusting herself for them to play in and out... . They 
seemed to go in the full length of the stomach.” When the 


218 The Massasauga and its Habits, [March 


young were about a month old they sloughed their skins, and 
after that event they were never observed to enter the mother’s 
mouth, though they may have done so. 

The maternal instinct must be very strong in these reptiles, 
usually regarded as so low in intelligence and so unfeeling, when 
they will for weeks and months endure hunger and thirst and 
still continue to care for their young. One might readily sup- 
pose that if the young ever entered the mother’s stomach, the 
temptation would, under the circumstances, be almost irresistible 
for her to keep them there. When I first saw these specimens, 
about January 1, the old and most of the young were coiled up 
together as if for the purpose of keeping themselves warm. The 
heads of all the young ones were lying out on top of the coils, 
as if they were as desirous of seeing what was going on as are 
other young folks. One little one, however, was away from the 
others on the bottom of the box. One of the mothers appeared 
to take great interest in it, and kept rubbing it with her head 
and pushing it gently about with her snout. Mr. Harvey states 
that the mothers have been accustomed in various ways to show 
their affection for their young. “ The mother would raise her 
head, turn it about and look over the young, place her nose. 
against them, push them about, and pull them to her side.” 

The old ones have not shed their outer skins since their cap- 
tivity began. Since they appear to change their dress twice a 
year, it is quite likely that this was accomplished just before they 
were captured. One young one who was watched got rid of 
his cuticle in about twenty minutes from the time that it was 
seen to be loose on his head. : 

Most of the young are quite dark in color, but all have plain 
indications of the rows of spots usually found in the species, 
and one has the ground color so pale that it closely resembles 
the young of the specimens found on the open prairies. 


es L 


L 
œ 


A] 


` 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 219 


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. 
BY JULIUS NELSON. 


(Concluded from page 162.) 
PLATE XI. 

Fic. 125, a—e. From the segmenting egg of the 4.xo/ot/— Bellonci, Arch. Italiennes 
de Biol., vi.—Shows how the knäuel reticulum is formed from the loops. The loops 

in this case are hook-shaped, or almost straight rods, the end of the segment which 
first reaches the pole swells out and the chromatin breaks up into microsomata, the 
whole segment is thus transformed into a vesicle containing peripheral microsomata. 
These vesicles fuse as in ç, æ, e, and the microsomata become arranged in rows, which 
thus form a reticulating filament. 

Fic, 126, a-k. Fertilization of ovum of Arion empiricorum—Platner, A. m. A., 
xxvii.—In æ we see the polar globule (fg) and the pro (sf), whose head 
and neck have “poten into the Bes but left the tail The head consists of a 
hyaline material holding two karyosomata. As usual ack rays surround it. 
germinal vesicle contains many cps mata, each with a hyaline envelope. e 
head of the spermatozoon at last becomes included in the germinal vesicle. In 4 we 
see the karyosomata have broken up into many microsomata arranged at the periph- 
ery of each hyaline vesicle, they fuse, so that for the most part, as in c, each shall 

wo microsomata at opposite sides. But the hyaline vesicles themselves fuse 

(or divide?) as indicated by the dumb-bell forms in 6. The hyaline mass of the male 
pronucleus divides, so each half has a karyosoma, and the latter passes through the 
same stages of segmentation and fusion as the female karyosoma, except that each 
vesicle has finally four microsomata instead of two (c, d, e sf). [Only the , -rminal 
vesicle or its contents are shown in all figures except a.] On the side of the 
vesicle towards the centre of the egg there arises an aster (c), and some 


into connection with it, the membrane of the germinal vesicle disappearing at this 
point. Ind a second aster has arisen, also near the first, so that the two are not 

at first opposite each other, but become so more and more by swinging around into a 
right line, and as they do so the germinal vesicle sinks towards the interior of the 
‘egg; ther RERA microsomata, like the first lot, now become connected with thi 
aster, except that the male karyosomata are behindhand (æ, e), but finally these 
join. Meanwhile ths microsomata become regularly disposed in an equatorial plate 
and grouped in fours, each pair of a four being united by a spindle-fibre to its own 
pole (f). Then each group of four microsomata fuse to form one karyosoma on each 
fibre _ g), and again segmenting into four (4), they separate, leaving connecting fibrils 

osomata move polewards there is a stage, as usual, where 

sy ine seem to fuse laterally (7). In 4 we see the spindle turned out of its position, 
leaving the two large polar asters i situ, but still possessing little ones of its own. 
Such is the history of the first segmentation after fertilization. By comparing it on 
the one side with Fig. 124, and on the other with Fig. 127, it is seen to form a con- 
necting link. 

Fic. sg a-f. A case of conjugation ing Vorticella microstomum—Engelmann, 
M. J., i.—When division or budding takes place the nucleus stretches into the bud 
and is CSE off. These buds are a sea SENS or males, and may suffer 


220 The Significance of Sex. {March 


segmentation like sperm mother-cells before being set free. The mother from which 
they budded is the macrogonidium, and is itself soon fertilized by a microgonidium, 
which is the child of another macrogonidium, c shows the first step in this conjuga- 
tion. The nucleus, both in the macro- and the. micro-individual, segments up into 
bits, oe and smaller, and the microgonidium being absorbed, its microsomata 
are added to the more numerous microsomata of the female. Then there is gradua 
fusion al the single nucleus i is reconstituted. Before this happens there may be 
division and budding, as in @ and 4. An exactly similar series of phenomena is 
described for Zpzsty/is ania 

Fic. 128, a-e. Conjugation of ahem pete Brit., “ Protozoa.””—This illus- 
trates “temporary conjugation.” æ is a normal individual; å, two united for sexual 
ends. The nucleus and paranucleus divide successively, the former into eS the 
—_— a kow _ and bce they fuse Do ay parey oaiae in e; REDE 


pa icle eus, 


functions of the nucleus. The individuals separate and couse asexual tere 


This is probably an incomplete account of what happens. There is much co! 
about this ill-understood process, but we must assume that there is nee airc 
of microsomata between the two individuals in harmony with some observations, and 


thus bring this process into line with what we know happens in ai other cases of fer- 
tilization. (See text for further discussion.) 

IG. 129. Fertilization of egg of Bat—Van Beneden and Julin, A. B., i.— 
two pronuclei are seen each in a vesicle lying in a clear space in the vitellus and in 
proximity to each other. 

Fic. 130, a—g. Fertilization of ovum sad ee eer 
A. m. A., xx.—In @ we see a large fi ronucleus 

in the egg. In ġ each has been crowned by an aster. The male pronucleus now 
moves towards and fuses with the female pronucleus (c). The chromatin of the 
male pronucleus may split as in d, but soon all the chromatin of the fertilized nucleus 
is transformed into a segmented “skein” (e). At the same time polar asters appear, 
whose rays drive the segments to the equator (/), where they arrange themselves 
a regular plate, split, and pass to the poles, there constituting the daughter-nuclei, 
one of which is shown at g, still crowned by its aster. 

Fic. 131, a-b. “ Genetic blending” of Dallingeria drysdali—J. R. M. S., April, 
1886.—We may suppose the form with one flagellum, large nucleus, and granular 
zone to be female ; then the form with three flagella and small nucleus is mal i 
nuclei and bodies fuse to one individual, and then the nucleus is dissolved, and the 
cell is encysted, finally to burst, as myriads of spores, scarce visible under fifteen 
thousand diameters magnificati 

Fic. 132, a-d. Fertilization r S in Orchis latifolia—Strasburger, Befruch- _ 
so ea animale ore , Jena, 1884; see also Jen. Zeits., xi—Two | 

sorts of nuclei, “ germinative’” and “ vepar are found in the pollen-grain and 


and these may multiply by karyokinesis. The former alone act as male pro- l 


sitll, eek Whee thet more than one, the first one to make a egg 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 221 


clei at the other end (s’) are the antipodal cells. In æ the male pronucleus has en- 

tered the ovum. In å the two have fused, but the nucleoli are still separate. In c the 

nucleoli are one; and in d the first segmentation spindle of the embryo is formed. 
fits 133. A segmentation spindle from the egg of Aulostomum gulo—Nussbaum, 

. m. A., xxvi.—To show the direct continuity of spindle-fibres with the yelk retic- 
aa 

(d) FERTILIZATION. 
aen fecundation, copulation, conjugation, zy- 
gosis, are Some of the terms used indiscriminately when 
referring to the fusion of sexual elements. We may refer to the 
Jusion of nuclei, or of cells; or simply to the apposition of cells, 
or of individuals for sexual purposes. We shall use the term con- 
Jugation always in the former sense and copulation always in the 
latter. Thus we shall use the term copulation where other writers 
say “temporary conjugation.” Conjugation of cells when not 
followed by conjugation of the nuclei produces plasmodia; we 
might u$e the term zygosis when fusion of the nuclei is involved. 
Polyspermy is where more than one male cell fuses with a female 
cell; and superfecundation implies, or should imply, the conjuga- 
tion of more than two nuclei to form one zygote. We need one 
term more, and that is where, in polyspermy, the female nucleus 
segments by stenosis to furnish a partner for each of the male 
nuclei. For this case we would suggest the term mu/tifecunda- 
tion. 

The modern theory of fertilization dates from the birth of the 
cell theory, when Kolliker extended its scope by advancing the 
view that the spermatozoon is a cell, and that it fertilizes the egg 
by a fusion with its substance, as against the theory that it was 
the fluid portion of the semen which holds the impregnating 
power. This view was not established until 1847, although 
Barry had seen the spermatozoon penetrate the ovum in 1843. 
It was now possible to compare fertilization with the conjugation 

which successive years of study continued to discover in the dif- 
-ferent groups of plants and animals, but with this line of devel- 
opment we are not here concerned. 

In 1827, Baer described as maturation of the ovum the changes 
which the egg nucleus suffers, and Purkinje three years later 
_ named this nucleus the germinal vesicle, because it bursts and lets 
out its “generating lymph” through the germ. Attention was 
first called to the polar globules by Dumortier, and Müller named 
them direction corpuscles in 1848, because he thought they fixed 


222 The Significance of Sex. [March 


the plane of cleavage. It was in 1862 that Robin gave them the 
name they now usually bear. 

In 1842, Bischoff saw the germinal vesicle expelled from the 
egg during maturation, and this was confirmed by other observers, 
and thus the idea that the polar globules were the extruded ger- 
minal vesicle was gradually established. 

In 1853, Keber discovered the micropyle, and the theory o 
actual penetration of spermatozoa into the egg thus received 
more favor, speculations concerning the functions of the sperma- 
tozoon became more numerous. Bischoff held the katalytic 
theory, by which molecular motion was supposed imparted to 
the egg through the spermatozoon. Meissner thought it was a 
nutriment, others thought it served to help maturation, and thus 
for a long time the formation of polar globules was supposed 
to depend on fertilization. The independence of these phenoment 
was shown in 1875 by Hertwig. 

The penetration of more than one spermatozoon was seen by 
several observers, and it was only gradually that the idea gained 
ground that normally but one spermatozoon enters the egg. 
Perez thought, in 1879, that there may be degrees of partheno- 
genesis, so that if this is strong in tendency, it does not take as 
many spermatozoa to saturate the ovum as if weak. 

The next step was the discovery of the sexual pronuclei. The 
male pronucleus (so termed by Fol) was first seen by Weil in 
1873, but its direct morphological connection with the head of a 
spermatozoon was first established by Hertwig in 1875. Hert- 
wig also showed that the whole germinal vesicle was not ex- 
truded in the polar globules, but that the germinal dot remained 
to be transformed into the female pronucleus, which fused with 
the male pronucleus. Auerbach had seen these pronuclei fuse, 
but supposed they originated in opposite poles of the egg, and by 
uniting, the characters of the different hemispheres of the egg 
would be mixed. Beneden and Bütschli practically saw the 
same thing bie, but likewise derived these bodies by endoge- 
nous formation. Fol was, however, successful in seeing the 
female pronucleus derived from the amphiaster which extruded 
the polar globule ; but it remained for Hertwig, in 1877, to show 
that the polar bo dies arise 


, an sie ian tlie kneiadegie Of the fomai pror 
i and Giard arrived at this result independently 


. 


arise by a true karyokinetic division of the 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 223 


Then Whitmann was enabled to give what we consider as 
the true theory of the polar globules,—viz., that they represent 
an asexual generation of cells that once were functional. 
Beneden, Minot, and Balfour carried this view so far as to say 
that the polar globules are male cells. Thus, that every cell is 
hermaphrodite, having male and female plasmas, and that the 
cells become sexed by extruding one of these plasmas. It can 
then no longer develop until it has fused with a cell containing 
_ plasma opposite in character to itself. The absence of polar 

globules in any instance does not disprove the theory, for this 
plasm may be gotten rid of in many different ways. But this 
theory has lately received its death-blow by the discovery of 
polar globules in parthenogenetic ova. Strasburger has modi- 
fied the theory by his idea that the nucleo-hyaloplasm is primary 
idioplasm, while the cytohyaloplasm is secondary; the former is 
conservative, the latter is adaptive. Cell phenomena are due to a 
dynamic interaction of the two. Two nuclei may be alike, but 
because the cytoplasms differ the cells will develop in a different 
manner. Cells become sexually mature, therefore, by getting rid, 
by division or any other way, of certain constituents in the cyto- 
plasm.? Weismann says that these constituents are histogenic 
plasm,—z.¢., plasm which belongs to the cell as a cell,—and when 
this is lost then the plasm, which represents the generation of 
tissue-cells to come from the segmenting egg, ‘may develop. A 
view similar in some respects was advocated by Robin in 1875. 

It is strange how many different bodies, having not the slight- 
est homology, have been appealed to to prove the sexual nature 
of protoplasm. Every sort of paranucleus has been worked into 
line with this theory. We have already adverted to the fact that 
paranuclei are themselves very different bodies. Thus, in Fig. 
49, Gaule’s paranucleus can be homologous only with the germi- 
nal dot of the (parthenogenetic) ovum; for from it the new cell 
develops, while the old nucleus goes to the ground. Besides 
paranuclei other things have been supposed to represent the lost 
sexed protoplasm, such as canal-cells, perivitelline excretions, 
_ 1 Bütschli said the polar globules are to be considered as the first stages of de- 


_ The idea of Fol is that certain substances injurious to further development must 
* be excreted. This is only a general statement of the fact that cells must i 

a certain cycle of work before they are sexually mature, most commonly a certain 
number of divisions. 


a 


224 The Significance of Sex. [March 


synergid-cells, follicle-cells, nutritive cells, seminal granules, “ re- 
mains” (“ Rest”) of protoplasm in spore formations, and, in fact, 
any sort of excretion and secretion. Trouble arises in explain- 
ing cases where more than one of these modes coexist. Thus, 
Sabatier holds that in gametogenesis one cell buds off a number 
of cells, which become nutritive to the mother-cell, in the ovary ; 
while in the testes the daughter-cells develop to spermatozoa at 
the expense of the mother-cell. Such a theory as this cannot 
possibly be universally applied, and does not explain polar glob- 
ules. Our knowledge of sex has developed by two steps more. 
Beneden showed in ascaris that the two pronuclei are just alike, 
each containing two loops that are placed in order in one equa- 
torial plate in the zygote, and split as in ordinary karyokinesis, to 
furnish the two daughter-nuclei. (See Fig. 124, 0.) In the latter 
the four loops reappear as a result of the process of reconstruc- 
tion, so that Beneden thought that each daughter-nucleus had still 
two male and two female loops; and thus every cell of the body 
may be considered hermaphrodite, having the chromatins of the 
two sexes in morphologically distinct structures; and finally, 
when any cell becomes sexually mature, all that happens is a 
cell-division at right angles to the ordinary cell-division, thus 
separating the male from the female chromatin. But this theory 
is very faulty, for in the first place the phenomena of karyoki- 
nesis have as one object the mixture of the chromatins, and we 
know that this is accomplished in one phase or other somewhere 
between two successive divisions. Then, secondly, the chroma- 
tin derived from the spermatozoon possesses the characters of its 
ancestry, both: male and female; if this be lost the characters 
which fertilization has bestowed are lost; and as this loss occurs 
with every generation, how could there ever be an accumulation 
of characters?* Only through the idea that chromatin is sexed 
can such grave errors as this arise. Platner (see Fig. 126) fur- 
nished an important contribution when he showed that in Arion 
the number of microsomata derived from the male pronucleus is 
less than a fourth as great as that of the microsomata in the 
female pronucleus. Thus the two pronuclei bear the relation of 


1 Strasburger holds that the contributions of the ancestors in each fertilization 


eae ae in Set ports: of the mitom: Roux, in a somewhat analogous 


ponds oh a eee ee o 


re 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 225 


macrogonidia and microgonidia to each other. In Limax the 
microsomata are approximately equal in number in the two pro- 
nuclei; and as the result, so far as fertilization is concerned, is the 
same in the two animals, we must believe that the pronuclei need 
not be morphologically equal. It has been said that the two 
parents furnish equal contributions of hereditary characters be- 
cause the chromatin is alike in amount in the two pronuclei. But 
this assumes that quality depends on quantity. We cannot accept 
this notion. We believe the quality of the chromatin inheres in 
the nature of each gemmule, that the gemmules are nearly alike, 
and that the quantity of chromatin may readily be increased by the 
multiplication of the gemmules. Such multiplication may take 
place in the male pronucleus before fusion because of the nutri- 
tive conditions furnished by the yelk. Even if it did not increase 
in this way, it might happen that the reproductive vigor of the 
fertilizing gemmules is so great that during ontogeny they would 
at last outnumber the ovum gemmules. We do not know 
whether characters are realized in proportion to the number of 
the gemmules, or whether it depends on the strength of the 
gemmules, or, again, on some dynamic influence reciprocally 
acting between the gemmules. In the last supposition we might 
have each gemmule possessing a system of vibrations whose 
wave-form could be slightly altered by the proximity of differing 
systems ; and that, finally, equilibrium being established, it would 
require a new fertilization to introduce a new variation. It would 
also be intelligible how gametes may develop parthenogeneti- 
cally before fusion is accomplished where only the preliminary 
steps to such end have been taken. Finally, such variation could 
be effected by other means than by fertilization. 

Under the first supposition we could understand how, if cell- 
division should not succeed in separating the gemmules in due 
proportions, we might get cells that had a preponderance of 
gemmules of one ancestor, and the parts of the body developed 
from the offspring of these cells would present the characters of 
one parent to the exclusion of the other. But we defer the 
discussion of this point to the subject of heredity. 

Strasburger claims that fertilization is effected by the fusion 
of similar parts in two cells, cytoplasm with cytoplasm, nucleus 
with nucleus, and nucleolus with nucleolus. But in phanerogams 
it is only nuclei that migrate from the pollen-tube to fuse with 


226 The Significance of Sex. [ March 


the egg, and in many animals it is only the head of the sperma- 
tozoon that makes the male pronucleus, the greater part of the 
flagellum not even getting into the yelk, so that we are justified 
in believing that fertilization is essentially a phenomenon of the 
mixture of chromatins. e cannot speak even of the union of 
“half nuclei” to make a whole nucleus, nor say that the nuclei 
are morphologically alike, nor yet that they are the complements 
of each other in any way. That the sexual pronuclei are physio- 
logically alike we may infer from the fact that the characters of 
both parents are equally well transmitted, and from the fact that 
we may get both male and female parthenogenesis, which latter 
statement receives its best support from the evidence afforded 
by polyspermy and by the behavior of unfertilized eggs. We 
know that, aside from differences in size or in locomotor organs 
and other secondary characters, gamete may differ physiologi- 
cally in this way: in one, which we usually call the male, or mi- 
crogamete, there has been a greater number of cell-divisions than 
in the female gamete, but in the latter we may, by enforced par- 
thenogenesis, secure just as many divisions, and so make the 
cells alike. But neither of the gametes have divided as many 
times as they can, for it is possible, though more difficult than 
with the ovum, to get male parthenogenesis. The offspring 
thus resulting are more sexed, have greater desire as well as 
need for fusion with other cells, especially cells that have not 
divided as much as themselves. Unless we give such cells easy 
conditions of life we reach a stage when they can no longer 
divide. Such facts as these, observed with spores and the proto- 
organisms, enable us to understand certain phenomena obtaining 
with fertilization in higher forms of life. 

We should expect that in most cases the ovum would possess 
a tendency to segmentation, which is realized normally under con- 
ditions of easy nutrition in parthenogenetic development, but may 
be realized in a less degree with other eggs. As a matter of 
fact there have been a number of observations in widely different 
groups of animals that show a sort of irregular segmentation of 
unfertilized eggs. I have observed such cases not infrequently. 
Such segmentation is slow and irregular, and probably cannot pro- 


_ ceed as far as normal is. Pane phat nsieecteasie = a 


1887] : The Significance of Sex. 227 


fertilized eggs. But this phenomenon has not received the at- 
tention it deserves. 

In polyspermy we find that not only does the female nucleus 
form an amphiaster, either alone or by zygosis, with one male 
nucleus, but that the male nuclei left unconjugated also form 
amphiasters. This phenomenon was first studied by Fol, 1879, 
but Hertwig has just published an article fully illustrating these 
forms. If more than one spermatozoon conjugates with the 
female nucleus it develops a tetraster (sometimes a triaster), or 
a figure having a greater number of poles according to the num- 
ber of spermatozoa fusing. It results that segmentation follows 
a series whose terms are multiples of the normal one. But this 
only when there are no free spermatozoa in the yelk, for in such 
a case each of these also segments and receives its bud of cyto- 
plasm, thus making the segmentation of the egg irregular. 
When the nuclei fuse before the spindle is formed, the number 
of spindles seems to depend on the number of nuclei. (This 
may be doubtful, as the poles seem to be determined by asters 
independently arising in the yelk, which migrate to the nuclei and 
direct their transformation.) But the amphiasters and the more 
complex tetrasters, etc., may also unite among themselves, re- 
gardless of sex, by superposition of poles, thus building up 
complex figures that may be as regular as a dodecahedron. 
The result is the fusion of daughter-nuclei of diverse origins. 
It follows, therefore, that the spermatic nuclei after one segmentation 
have an affinity for each other. Hertwig found further, that the 
nuclei resulting from the segmentation of pronuclei became fused 
again, but whether there was subsequent division and normal 
development remains an obscure question. The male nuclei also 
form triasters and tetrasters which cannot be distinguished from 
those made by the female pronucleus; but it is possible that in 
these cases multifecundation has taken place. Besides Fol and 
Hertwig, polyspermy has been studied by Bergh and Horst, 1881, 
and by Strasburger in phanerogams; Salenka and Schneider 
report normal development as following polyspermy ; but this 
subject also requires further study. 

Another line of study has been followed by Hertwig. It is 
well known that certain nuclei which are not too closely nor too 
distantly related to each other are prepotent in zygosis above 
ag a = am mn afi foi 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 


228 The Significance of Sex. [March 


spermatozoa. By letting the eggs lie a long time in impure water 
Hertwig has so weakened this resistance as to effect hybridization 
between forms not ordinarily capable of being thus hybridized. 
But as he got results closely similar with unfertilized eggs and 
also with eggs where polyspermy of its own species took place, 
and furthermore, that polyspermy ensued in these cases of enforced 
hybridization, we must be cautious in our inferences. To leave 
eggs a long time unfertilized, instead of developing the tendency 
to fuse with any partner, ought rather to develop the opposite 
or parthenogenetic tendency. Strasburger thinks superfecunda- 
tion arises when the gametes are not sexually mature. But here 
again we have no thorough knowledge of the facts. Spermatozoa 
have also been seen to penetrate the polar globules, which is not 
remarkable, as we know that these are (when the first globule has 
divided again) the counterparts of the female pronucleus; but 
Hertwig found that the spermatozoa penetrate any globule of 
extruded yelk (whether it has a nucleus or not) when artificially 
pressed out through a riftin the egg membrane. Probably, then, 
the attraction of the spermatozoa is for the nutriment, or for the 
cytoplasm, and the nuclear attraction arises later in accordance 
with other laws. 

We see from this survey that sex in its primary sense, as in- 
hering in the nucleus, or perhaps in Strasburger’s sense as due to 
a peculiar stimulus of the cytoplasm upon the unsexed nucleus, 
sex is not an absolute condition but admits of degrees, is, in fact, 
a want, a hunger, which the cells may experience in different 
degrees. How the mixture of different characters confers vigor 
to cell-division we cannot explain. Perhaps we would be more 
general if we said that fertilization consists in broadening cell-_ 
education. Hence parasites that are cells of one idea do not need 
it to any extent. At present we cannot see how it is possible to 
explain it on physical principles. It is, however, only a confes- 
sion of ignorance to refer the problem of heredity to the domain 
of psychology; we have explained nothing in so doing. 

tozoa—Here the phenomena of fertilization are very 

ated: In the lower flagellates more than two cells may fuse; 
and polyzygosis has been observed also in Actinophrys and 
Arcella. We meh with Lankester, also place in this catagoiy 
3: ‘ ; ce 


Sg T 


1887] The Significance of Sex. A 229 


be a fusion of nuclei to a greater or a less extent before spore 
multiplication; and the same thing happens with multinucleated 
forms like Gastrostyla, Actinophrys, and Actinospherium. Multi- 
nucleated cells are not separated from plasmodia by any distinct 
line, for in Heliozoa, Greeff found that division of the cell is facul- 
tative and optional, following the nuclear division, and if it occurs, 
the cell-bodies are apt to fuse again. In low forms of Protozoa 
conjugation also is as facultative as with those protophyta, where 
both male and female parthenogenesis have been noticed. 

We may get conjugation between ordinary zooids, or one of 
the gametes may be a microgonidium while the other, not having 
divided so fast, remains as a macrogonidium. Again, the gametes 
may be due to spore formation; and here, again, the spores may 
be alike or unlike, and conjugation may be between like spores, 
or may be between macrospores and microspores. If the con- 
ditions of life are equal, the more often the cell-division has 
taken place the stronger is the desire and need of conjugation, so 
that where macrospores are parthenogenetic, microspores may be 
gametes. That this need of conjugation does not depend on the 
small quantity of idioplasm present may be gathered from two 
facts : first, when spore formation succeeds conjugation the re- 
sulting spores are smaller and more numerous than if parthen- 
ogenetically produced, but whereas the latter are apt to be 
gametes the former grow with vigor and multiply rapidly; 
secondly, where cell-multiplication allows time for the cell to 
grow as in ordinary gonidia, gametes are just as apt to form. In 
spore formation the microspores are not gametes more often than 
the macrospores because they are small, but because they have 
undergone division more frequently. In forms where both 
gonidial and sporular gametes occur, a failure to conjugate in 
_ the gonidial stage insures conjugation of the spores, while the 
occurrence of conjugation in the gonidial stage insures sporular 
parthenogenesis. 

The Vorticellz enable us to understand that fertilization has to 
do with quality of the gemmules and not with the number of 
these present. Two zooids which have resulted from the repeated 
division of a mother-zygote and standing near each other bend 
together and conjugate. But others just like these bud off a 
piece off the nucleus with some of the cytoplasm, and this goes 
swimming away until it finds the appropriate gamete (a macro- 


* 
t 


230 ; The Significance of Sex. [March 


gonidium) with which to fuse. As the chance of cross-fertiliza- 
tion is greater in proportion to the number of these microgonidia, 
they have acquired the habit of dividing a few times after their 
separation from the macrogonidium before starting out on their 
search for partners. Here, as with Arion, a small quantity only 
of the idioplasm is needed to effect fertilization. We do not 
contend that there may not be some advantage in starting with 
a large quantity of idioplasm, but we do call attention to the. fact 
that, compared with the vigor due to the mixture of idioplasms 
of diverse experience, such advantage becomes quite secondary. 
We may now pass to the consideration of the phenomena of 
copulation. The simplest cases join easily on to the case last . 
considered. When the bud from the nucleus is not carried away 
y cell-division it may still be transferred to the interior of 
another cell, if. such cell be brought with an aperture close to a 
corresponding aperture of its own cell. When the nuclear bud 
is produced at the time of the fertilization, Engelmann terms the 
metz “ periodic hermaphrodites” (so far as this implies sex it is 
a misleading term). When, however, the nuclear bud remains as 
a permanent endoplastule and does not conjugate with the endo- 
plast, except perhaps for a brief period in connection with fertili- 
zation, after which it is immediately budded off again to form the 
endoplastule, then Engelmann calls such a cell a “ permanent 
hermaphrodite.” In some cases the whole reproductive function 
may have passed over to the endoplastule, so that this never con- 
jugates with the endoplast, but rather by its own division builds 
up the latter when this disintegrates. Periodic hermaphrodites 
are Stentor, Spirostoma, and Trachelius; while permanent her- 
maphrodites are Stylonychia, Euplotes, and Paramcecium. 
ulation is most frequent with the Ciliata, but has been ob- 
served in Peridinium and in one-chambered Rhizopods. An al- 
ternation of copulation with conjugation occurs in Stylonychia 
and in Platoum (Troglodytes). See Gabriel. 
~ In connection with conjugation and copulation there is in all 
the higher forms a segmentation of the nucleus, or of the endo- 
plast and endoplastule respectively. The last leads in the di- 


vision, car stiri engi era Sri eng eh _The 


1887} = The Significance of Sex. 231 


structure, Possibly it does not get thoroughly mixed with the 
nuclear idioplasm in a molecular or rather gemmular intimacy, 
but as this process of segmentation and fusion is repeated for 
each division, there is no reason to suppose that after a while this 
may not be attained. Thus it is that every cell-division is a ferti- 
lization. 

In the conjugation of Stylonychia, there is a fusion of nuclei 
with nuclei across the body, first uniting the nuclei of the two 
gametes; and then the anterior nucleus (zygote) fuses with the 
posterior one, after which the two nuclei are reconstituted. Possi- 
bly, Engelmann says, the nucleoli (endoplastules) do likewise. 
In copulation of Stylonychia there is segmentation of the nuclei 
and probably of the nucleoli, but Engelmann was unable to 
observe any transfer of material between the gametes. The nu- 
clear fragments fuse to one body and bud off the nucleoli, but 
here there is disagreement, for in another case it seemed as if 
the nuclear products were extruded (Bütschli), the nucleoli be- 
came four in number, one disappeared, two became the new 
nucleoli, and the fourth, dividing, formed the endoplasts. 

In copulation of Anoplophrya, Schneider could not observe 
` any exchange of nucleoli, but the nuclei sent processes into the 
apposed cell, which became budded off mutually and fused with 
the remnant of the original nucleus to form a new nucleus, 
while the nucleolus came from one of the four segments into 
which the nucleolus divided; the other three disappeared. In 
Paramecium, the endoplastule and the endoplast get segmented, 
the former usually into four, the latter into many, granules. 
Then there is a fusion of the fragments, but-as to how this is 
done, and as to whether there is any mutual interchange of idio- 
plasm, is a question which has received a dozen different answers, 

Greeff thought the nucleolus was a semen capsule and the nu- 
cleus an ovary. The “eggs” that came from the “ ovary” being 
fertilized, developed to living embryos viviparously. Stein called 
that part of the nucleus which remained after budding off eggs 
the “ placenta,” Balbiani, that the eggs were laid, and Engelmann 
also, with many other early observers, held views of a similar 
nature, according to which we had here a true hermaphodite, 
Engelmann subsequently modified his views to some extent, but 
Bütschli attempted to bring the phenomena into line with his 
observations on tissue-cells, and so he held that the nucleus is — 


232 The Significance of Sex. [March 


extruded, due to fertilization, and a new nucleus arises endoge- 
nously, and this is rejuvenescence. In 1882, Balbiani showed that 
there was an interchange of nucleoli; and Jickeli, in 1884, saw 
two nucleoli in the act of passing each other across the line 
separating the gametes. Lankester could find no interchange, 
but said that a portion of the segments of both bodies are lost, 
the remaining ones fuse to constitute the new nucleus and nucle- 
olus, but with reversed functions. (See Fig. 128.) 

' Maupas, in 1886, said all the products of the nucleolus are 
lost except one; this divides, and one daughter remains and one 
crosses to the other gamete to fuse with the stay-at-home over 
there. The resulting zygotes segment to eight daughters; of 
these, three are absorbed, four become nuclei, and the eighth, after 
repeated divisions accompanying cell-division, becomes four 
nucleoli. The old nucleus is absorbed. Plate, in the same year, 
saw no interchange, but did see two nucleoli in apposition with a 
wall between. Gruber, however, saw the same thing, but no wall 
between, so that there was a chance for some interchange of sub- 
stance. There was no fusion, however, for the nucleo-gametes 
separated and returned to divide into four. Gruber thinks the 
“ stay-at-home” nucleolus acted in a similar way, for eight nucleoli 
result, and four of these fuse to form a new nucleus, the other 
four fuse to make a new nucleolus. 

Truly, when such eminent observers disagree, who can decide ? 
For our present purposes it is sufficient to know that there is an 
interchange in this case as in all others of fertilizing material, 
and that this is mutual and reciprocal. We cannot here, as did 
the older observers, speak of male and female idioplasm. That 
the functions of the endoplast are different from those of the 
endoplastule is evident, but Weismann’claims that the reproduc- 
tive plasma is restricted to the latter, while the former has only 
histogenic plasm. Thus, from a survey of fertilization in its rela- 
tion to the nuclear phenomena, have we been enabled to get 
pretty clear notions of the significance of sex. But our morpho- 
logical inquiry would not be complete did we not study the 
various methods of cell reproduction and observe the relations 
of these to the Tena of gaet Several of the lows 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 233 


Briefly, then, in conclusion, we have shown that the phenom- 
. ena of life are the manifestation of forces that are organized, 
. by being in some way connected with an ultimate unit, which 
unit, by multiplying and differentiating, forms units of a higher 
order; and these units repeat the same process, and so we get 
higher and higher units capable of a more complex life. Only 
in this way is organic life connected with inorganic life. A series 
of discrete degrees separates such life, as we study with the lens, 
from the substances with which the chemist deals. We can study 
the higher stadia morphologically, and only by analogy do we guess 
concerning the nature of the lower. We find the cell a reticu- 
lum of hyaloplasm holding microsomata in its nodes as nuclei. 
We find the soma of a metazoon likewise a reticulum in which 
the cell is the unit. As in the body, all cells come from embry- 
onic or germinal cells, all traceable back to a single egg, so in 
the cell, all the differentiated gemmules, or micelle, or tagmata* 
are descended from nuclear idioplasm, which is itself due to the 
multiplication of a single gemmule. Finally, we find that cell 
phenomena are accompanied by fusion or mixture of idioplasms 
that have had diverse experiences, and in some way the cell-life 
is thereby invigorated. Sex has been evolved as the means of 
effecting such fusions. The distinction of male and female has 
arisen comparatively late and is coupled with very secondary 
characters. 

We have seen that half a dozen different structures are present 
in the cell, and that those in the spermatozoon are transformed 
into the different parts of its structure. Undoubtedly in the 
metamorphosis of all tissue-cells these structures play a part. 
If we could see which of these structures preponderates in a 
given tissue or organ, we could infer that the function of this 
part is similar in the cell to the function of the tissue in the 
soma. 

Gaule’s work on the cytozoan, or paranucleus, which can wan- 
der from cell to cell, and on which the cell-life depends, is yet too 
little known to be criticised. We may expect fuller details when 
Gaule has completed his researches. 


1 The ferments such as zymogen, etc., which are lower in the scale of organiza- 
tion than the bacteria, seem to come in somewhere near the plane occupied by the 
gemmule ; but their relation to the latter is probably at present beyond the scope 
even of a guess. 


234 The Significance of Sex. [March 


LITERATURE BEARING ON THE SIGNIFICANCE St THE. CELL- 
NUCLEUS TO THE PROBLEM OF SE 


. The following are a few of the principal papers Taa on the 
subjects discussed in the preceding pages. The list does not in- 
clude those referred to in the text, or in the explanations of the 
plates. 

ARNOLD.—“‘ Beobachtung über Kerntheilungsfiguren in den Zellen d, Geschwulste” 
(Virchows Archiv, 1879); “ Beob, über Kerne u. Kerntheilung in den Zellen des 
Knochenmarks” (/éid., 1883). 

AUERBACH. oe Studien,” Breslau, 1874. 

Von BAER.—*“ De ovi animalium et hominis genesi,” Lipsiz, 1827. 

BALBIANI.—“ Note sis a Sara d'une génération iale chez les Infu- 
soires” (Compt. spurte Es xlvi., 1858); ‘‘Sur les phénomènes de la division du 
noyau cellulaire” (ġid. “ta, 1876) ; “ Les organismes unicellulaires” 
( Journal de SA cttw 

BALFouR.—“ Development of ee ee. Fishes” ( Fournal of Anatomy sand 
EEE vol. x., 1876); “The Maturation and Impregnation of the 
(Q. F M. Sa vol. xvii., 1878). 

BAMBEKE,—“ aeeaiei = la constitution de l’ceuf” (4. B., 

BENEDEN.—“ La maturation, la fécondation, etc., de Pœuf” (Bul ne P Acad. Roy. 
de ye a = xli., 1875); “ Saia to the History of the Germinal Vesicle” 
C0. -F , Xvi., 1876) ; “ Recherches sur la maturation et fécondation” (4. os 
iv., I ge 

BiscHorr.—* Entwicklungsgeschichte des Kaninchen Eies,” 1842. 

LOCH .— Bemerkungen zu einem neuen Erklarungsversuch der Karyoki- 

nese” (Zool. Anzeiger, 100, 1882 
Bower.—* Recent Researches into the Origin and Morphology of Chlorophyl Cor- 


1884). 
RANDT.—‘‘Commentare zur Keimblaschentheorie des Eies” (4. M. A., xvii., 
1880) ; “ Die Zelle als elementar Organismus” (Zool. Anzeiger, 1882). 
Brass.—“ Die Zelle als elementar Organismus,” 1882; “ Biologische Studien,” 


_ Halle, 1883. 
Rogert Brown.—* Organs and Modes of Fecundation in Orchidee,” etc., 1833. 
Reprinted by Ray Society in 1847. 
Brocke.—“ Die elementar Organismen” (Sitzber. Wien., 1861). 
Töm —* Mittheilung über die Conjugation der Infusorien und die Zelltheil- 
ung” (Z. w. Z., xxv., 1875); “ Studien über die ersten Entwicklungsvorgange 
_ der Eizelle, die Zelltheilung u. d. Conjugation d. Infusorien” (dh. d. Senckenberg. 
Naturf. Ges., Frankfurt, 1876). : 
CUNNINGHAM.—“‘ Review of Recent Researches on Karyokinesis,” etc. (Q. aes 
S., xxii., 1882). 
DUMORTIER.—“ Mémoire sur les évolutions de embryon dans les molinsġues gas- 
pmet Aa de l Acad. de Bruxelles, se x; 1837)- 
Zur Kenntniss vom Bau d: Zellkerns” (4. m. A., viii., 1872); “ Ueber 
_ den Bau des Zellkerns” (4. m. A., Xiv., 1877). 
“Ueber € ie Vielzelligkeit von Noctiluca? (Z. w. Z., xii., 1863); 
a prera (M. FJ = es “ The 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 235 


Physiology of Protoplasm ;”” Hermann’s “ Physiologie,” 1879 (Trans. in Q. F. M 
S., 1884). 

FLEMMING.—“ Die ersten Entwicklungserscheinungen am Ei der Teichmuschel” 
(4. m. A., X., 1874); “ Beobachtungen über die Beschaffenheit des Zellkerns’ 
a xiii., 1876); “ Zur gee der Zelle,” etc. (Centralblatt für Med. Wiss., 
XV., 1877; A. m: A., xvi., xviii., a -» 1879, 1880, 1881) ; “ Befruchtungs, étc., 
pu Eizelle” feiii paa iii., 1884). 

TT « The Nucleus of Benedenia Ha etc. hes E ns pps 

—*“ Ersten Entwicklung d, Geryoniden Eies” (7. Z., 1873); “Sur le dév’t 
Ea Pteropodes” ( sempe RARA r k)i S SAR naik et ee (vol. 
lxxxi., 1875) ; “ Sur division cellulaire” (vol. lxxxiii., 

876); “Sur, etc., de le fécondation ;’’ ‘ = le premier dév. ’une étoile de 
mer ;” “ Sur pat th fécondations anormales,” etc. ao Ixxxiv., 1877); “ Re 
ponse à quelques objections formulées contre mes idées sur la pe aR s du zoo- 

e G., vi.); “ Recherches sur la fi Pala et commencem 
@hénogénie ches divers animaux” ren ves des Sciences Phys. et anes 
1877; Mém. Soc. Phys.-Hist. Nat. de Gen 1879 

FROMMANN.—* Zur Lehre von der Structur ee Zellen” (F. Z., ix., 1875); ‘ Bild- 
ung der Starke Körner,” ete. (Zbid., xiii., 1879); “ Structure, etc., tierische u. 
panache Zellen” (Zbid., xvi., 1883); “Zur Lehre von der Bildung der Mem- 

. pflanzlichen Zelle” (lid, xvii., 1884 


Ca RIEL.—“ Unters. über Morph., Zeugung, ia Yotrwickinng d. Protozoen” (Trog- 
lodytes) (M. F., i-, 1875). 

GauLE.—* Kerntheilung in Pankreas” (4. 4. P., 1880); “‘ Die Beziehung der > 
tozoen zu der Zellkernen” (Zdid., 1881); “‘ Nebenkerne und Cytozoen” (Central. 
Jj. Med, Wiss., 1881); see also Biol. Ctb., 1886, and F.. R. M. S., Pecat, 


1886. 

GEDDES.—“‘ Contributions to Eats Cell Theory” (Anzeiger, 1883); see also articles 
“ Reproduction” and “ Sex” in Encyclopedia B ee “ Nature and Function 
of the Yellow Cells of Radiolarians,” etc. (Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, 1882). 

GIARD.—“ Sur la fécondation des Echale” (Compt. Rend., tome 1xxxv., 
1877). 

GILson.—‘** PES comparées de la AP eE chez les Arthropodes’ (Za 
E b, 


—“ ease der Unke,” 1875. 
bier “ Beob. über die Fortpflanzung von Infusorien’”’ (Sitzd. d. Unterrheinische 
Ges., Bonn, 1868). 
GROBBEN.—“ ‘Evian - oo (Ard. aus Z. Inst., Wien, 1879) ; 
see AMER. NATURALIST, xiv. 
GRUBER.—“ Die Theilung von eae te w. Z., xxxv.); “ Theilung bei mono- 


xviii., ; ; 

1885); “ Die Konjugations Process bei Paramecium aurelia” (Bericht d. Natf. 
Ges. Freiburg, ii. 2 1886); 3 see wne Z. w. “> xl. and and xli. 

GUIGNARD.—“ Sur lad h 

papii 1883; seealso Am. Sc, Nat., xvii., 1884). 

—“ Spermatogenése chez Ascaris” (Compt. Rend., i., 98, 1 1884). 

EA. — Untersuchungen über Protoplasma” (Theil i, and ii. in Sitsd. Akad. 
Wiss., Wien, i., 67, Abth. iii.; and iii., iv., and v., in t. lxviii., 1873). 


végétaux” ( Fourn. de Micro- 


236 The Significance of Sex. [March 


HENNEGUY.—“ On the Existence of Polar Globules in the Crustacean Ovum” (Ann. 
and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vi., 5th ser., 

HENSEN.—* Physiologie der siege? Hermann’s “ Physiologie,” vol. vi., 188 

O. HErtTwic.—* ao zur Kenntniss der Bildung, Befruchtung und Theilung der 
tierischen Eies” (M. F, i., 1875; iii., 1877; iv., 1878 (R. Hertwig); “ Beitr. z. 


hseteeaesine a über die Bedingungen der Bastardbefruchtung” (Jéid., xix., 
885); “Ueber = Befruchtung d. tierischen Eies unter Einfluss äusseren Agen- 
hae (Ibid., xx 
HEUSER. —““ Beobach hng über Zellkerntheilung” (Botanische Centralblatt, TE 


Hıs.—Unters. über d. Entwicklung von Knochenfische (Zeitschr. f. Anat. u. Ent- 
ee 1., 1876). 
Horst.— La fécondation et la développement de l’Hermella alveolata ;” see 


Carie s Jahresbericht, 1881 

HYATT.—*“ Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissues” (Proc. Bost. Soc., 
xxiii., 1884). 
Von Jen — “ Befruchtung u. Furchung des thierischen Eies,” etc. Leipzig, 
18 

pow — “ Ueber d. Kernverhidltniss d. Infusorien” (Anzeiger, 1884). 

KLEIN.—* Obs. on Structure of Cells and Nuclei” (O. F M. S., xviii. and xix., 


KLEINENBERG,—* ia ete fice: 1872. 

KOLLIKER.—“ Ueber d. ersten Vorgänge im befruchteten Ei” (Arch. Sf. Anat. u. 
Phys. u. Wiss. Med., 1843); “ Die Bedeutung der Zellenkerne f. die Vo: orginge 

der E Vererbung” (Z. w. Z., xlii., 1885); see also AMER. NATURALIST, 1885, p 


Koksi — Ueber Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung der Infusorien” (Kosmos, 1886, 


43 

Kupvecs: —‘ Ueber Differenzirung des Protoplasma,” etc. (Schriften d. Naturw. 
Verein, Schleswig-Holstein, i. 1875); “ a active Betheilung des Dotters am 
Befru TESEN etc. (Sitzb. München 

aaa “ Zeugung” (Wagner’s “ Handbanrinch des Physiologie,” 1853). 

—“ Maturation Fecundation, and Segmentation of Limax cam campestris” (Bull. 

sila Zool. Harvard, vi., 12 

MARTIN.—“ Zur etude d. tidiekiei Zelltheilung” (Virchows Archiv, Band 
Ixxxvi., 1886). 

Maupas.—* Division of Semier le (Arch. Zool. Expt., i. 1883); “Sur la 
conjugaison des Infusoires ciliés” (Compt. Rend., 1886 

MAYZEL.—“ Beitr. z Z. Lehre v. d. Paeilangsvoreang as Zellkerns” (Hoffmann’ 

á . 


of Cunchution” (Proc. Soc. Bost. Nat. Hist., 


1879). 
MEISSNER.—* Beo. über das Eindringung der Samenzelle in san Dotter” (E Ze 
vi., 1854): 


. MULLER. —“ Zur Rania d. Furchungs-process,” ete. (Archiv f. Naturge- 
‘sehiolés, xiv., 1848). 


1887] The Significance of Sex. 237 


—‘ Ueber d. Befruchtungserscheinungen im Ei der Neunaugen”’ 
Cor ys. Ok. Ges. Königsberg, 1864 
UNK.—“ Ei und Samenbildung und Belnuchtung bei Nematoden” (Z. w. Z., ix., 


105 
NussrAvm. — Zur Differenzirung d. Geschlechts im Thierreichs” (A. m. A., xviii. 
1880); r die Bau und Thätigkeit d. Drüsen” (Zbid., 1882); “ Veränderung 
d. A a bis zur Eifurchung” (Zbid., xxiii., 1884 
oc ea —“ Beiträge z. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kinochenfache” Z. 
872); “ Die Arison des unbefruchteten Keimes des Esato aan ”” ete: 
ia: xxii; 1872 
PEREZ.—‘* Hécherch. sur les phénom. qui précèdent la segmentation,” etc. ( Four. 
Anat. et Phys., xv 
PFITZNER.—“ Bee PHA e vom Bau des Zellkerns” (4. m. A., xxii., 1883). 
PFLÜGER.—“ Einfluss d. Schwerkraft auf d. Theilung d. Zelle” (Archiv fe Phys., 
1883); “ Untersuchung. über Bastardirung” 
PLATNER.—“ Die a ess bei den Lejidoptirea” (Internat. Monatschrift f. 
Anat. u. Fist., 1886, iii. Heft 1 
- PRIESTLEY.—“ Recent Raai hr on ‘thse Nuclei of Cells” (Q. F. M.S., xvi., 1876). 
PURKINJE.—*“ Symbolæ ad ovi avium historiam ante incubationem.” Lipsiz, open 
UBER.—“ Thiere und Pflanzen” (Anzeiger, 1881) ; “ Karyokinetischen Process bei 
erhöhten u. verminderten Atmosphaerische Druck ;” * Ueber die Bedeutung de 
ersten Furchung,” 1884. 
REICHERT.—“ Beitr. z. Entwickl. d. Samenkörperchen bei Nematoden” (Arch. f. 
Anat. u. Phys. u. Med., 1847). 
EMAK.—* Unt ntersuchungen iiber d. Entwickl. z hi ease ” Berlin, 1855. 


1882. 

RINDFLEISCH.—“ Ueber die organische es i chow’ Archiv, 1883). 

Rosin.—* Mém. sur les phénom. qui passent dans l’ovule avant la segmentation” 
( Four. de la Phys. v., 1862). 

Roux.—* Ueber die cas der Kerntheilung,” 1883. 

SARASIN.—* Reifung u. Furchung d. ie Sg Centralblatt, 1884). 

SCHÄFER.—“ Structure of the Animal Cell” (Brit. Med. Journal, 1883). 

SCHLEICHER.—* Die Knorpeltheilung” (4. m. A xvi., 187 ai 

ScHLEIDEN.—* Beitr. z. Phytogenesis” (Miller's Archiv f. Anat. u. Phys., 1838). 

SCHMITZ.—“ Beob. über die vielkernigen Zellen der Sonesta” ‘hci 
Natf. Ges. Halle, 1879). 

SCHNEIDER.—“ Untersuchungen über Platthelminthen’’ ganna Oberhess. Ges. 
J. Natur. ü. Heilkiinde, 1873); “ Ueber Befruchtung” (Anzeiger, 1880) ; “ Das 
Ei u. seine Befruchtung” (see Carus’s Sabihirkie 1884); Conjugation of 
OB THA circulans ergs 28 Rend., i., 100, 188 

SCHWAN icroscopical A s on Structure ‘and Growth of Animals and 
vann ;” orig. in oi n 1847. 

STEIN.—“ Ueber die Auta Fortpflanzung der Infusorien” (Abh. d. K. 
Böhm. Ges., X., 1858). 

STRASBURGER.—* Zellbildung u. Korem A 1875, 1876, 1880; “Studien über 

Protoplasma” ( Y. Z., xi.) ; “ Ueber Befruchtung u. cas (Lbid., xi., 1877) ; ; 
**Bau u: Wechsthans d. Bie me 1882; naan organg. d. Zellkerne’ 
(A. m. = xxi., 1882); “ Die Kontroversen der a Kernteilung”’ (Ilid, 
xxiii., ie 
ai —“ Beob. über d. Entstehung der Kern,” 1877. 


238 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


— Kern u: Zelltheilung bei Bildung d. Pollen,” etc.; “ Kerntheilung in 
Senay (Sitst. Wien., 1882) ; “ Zur Lehre von d. Continuität des Protoplasm” 
(Zéid., 1884). 

Tor6K.—* Ueber die Rolle der Dotterplatchen beim Aufbau d. Gewebe,” 1874. 
TREUB.—* Quelques recherches sur le rôle du noyau dans la division des cellules 
végétaux” (Akad. v. Wetenschap. Amsterdam, xix., 1879). 
TSCHISTIAKOFF.—‘ Beitr. z. Physiologie d. Doede (Bot. Zeitung, xxxiii., 
1875). 
Uskorr.—* Zur Bedeutung der brons (A. m. A., xxi., 1882). 
VALETTE.—“ Ueber d. Keimfleck u. die Deutung d. Eitheile”’ oi m. A., ii., 1866). 
VINES.—Article “ Repraditon” (regetebie)s in Encyc, Brit. 
WALDEYER.—“ Eierstock und 1870. 
ETY —“ Ueb. yas u. Entwickl. d. Embryos bei Gasteropoden” (Bul. Soc. 
Imp. d. Naturalistes Moscou, xxiii., 1850). 
WEIL.—“ Ueber d. ina. Entwickl. d. Kaninchen Eies ;’’ see Hoffmann and 
Schwalbe 
WitissmaNn. —“ Beitr. z. Kennt. d. ersten Entwickl. Vorgang im Insecten Ei.” Ronn, 
1882. 


WHITMANN.—* ee of Clepsine” (Q. F M. S., xviii., 1878). 
WIELOWIEJsKI.—* Das Keimblaschen Stadium d. Gesce Kern” (Anzeiger, Vii., 
188 


5)- 
ZACHARIAS.—* Ueber Eiweiss, Nuclein u. Plastin” (Bot. Zeits., 1884). 
ZALEWSKI.—“ Ueber Theilung d. Pollenmutter Zellen bei tiaa" (Kosmos, 1881). 
ZELLER.—Obs. on Opalina (Z. w. Z., xxxix., 1883). 


NoTE.—The substance of what has been published under the head of Significance 
of Sex was Goit delivered as part of a series of lectures in the spring of 1886, 
from random notes. In preparing the article for publication I have added historical 
matter and the latest literature, but the plates having been first prepared, do not con- 
tain, as they otherwise would, some of the instructive figures which accompanied this 
later literature. 

Jouns Hopxins UNIveErsity, March, 1887. 


THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. 

BY T. STERRY HUNT. 

(Continued from page 125.) 
$ 15. WE have said above that Emmons, in his “ Agriculture 
of New York,” published in 1846, referred the upper portion of 
his Taconic to the horizon of the Calciferous Sand-rock. Iti is, 
however, important to note that in Chapter V., there devoted to 
-the account of the “Taconic System,” and previously printed 
‘separately in 1844, two years earlier, he still adhered to the 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 239 


opinion expressed in 1842, that the whole Taconic system was 
“inferior to the Potsdam sandstone,” and repeated, in 1844, 
that “the Taconic system occupies a position inferior to the 
Champlain division of the New York system, or the lower 
division of the Silurian of Mr. Murchison.” In support of this 
view he attempts, in 1844, to show that both the Potsdam sand- 
stone and the Calciferous Sand-rock are found, the latter at inter- 
vals to the east of the valley of the Hudson, reposing upon the 
slates of the Taconic system, but adds, “probably, however, 
upon the Magnesian slates,” which, as we have seen (§ 12), were 
assigned by him to a horizon below the group called by him dis- 
tinctively the “ Taconic slates,” and were subsequently included 
in his Lower Taconic, the latter being Upper Taconic. In the 
same volume, in a subsequent chapter, which first appeared in 
1846, or two years later, he had, however, arrived at the conclu- 
sion that the Calciferous Sand-rock to the eastward becomes more 
largely developed, and, losing the distinctive character which 
had given that name to the west of Lake Champlain, becomes, 
to use the expression of Emmons, “ protean” in its modifications. 
Among these he now included the red sandstones of Addison, 
Charlotte, and Burlington, Vermont, with their interstratified red 
and chocolate-colored slates, besides blue limestones and gray 
calcareous sandstones, the whole resting upon what were desig- 
nated as black Taconic slates. These so-called protean modifi- 

cations of the Calciferous Sand-rock were now described by 
` Emmons as forming an irregular belt from Canada through 
Eastern Vermont, thence traversing Washington, Rensselaer, 
Columbia, and Dutchess Counties, and crossing the Hudson into 
Orange County. This series, more or less interrupted in its 
geographical distribution, but including areas of some miles in 
extent, is described as “ often forming the highest points in the 
_ region,” and Emmons remarks, “ We can hardly avoid the con- 
clusion that this belt was once continuous, and formed an impor- 
tant mass overlying the Taconic slate.” * 

§ 16. It is scarcely necessary to remark that this great belt of 
sandstones, slates, and limestones, now described by Emmons, in 
1846, as belonging to the Calciferous Sand-rock, and as resting 
on Taconic slates from Canada to Orange County, N. Y., is no 
other than the First or Transition Graywacke which, with the 

t Agriculture of New York, vol. i. pp. 118-122. 5 


* 


240 3 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


same geographical distribution and similar lithological characters, 
had long before been described by Eaton as resting unconform- 
ably upon the Transition Argillite (§ 2), and subsequently by 
Mather (§ 8) and (apparently) by Emmons (§ 10) had been referred 
to the horizon of the Second Graywacke. It will also be re- 
membered that the Sparry Lime-rock, which we know forms an 
upper member of this Graywacke series, was already by Eaton, 
in 1832, regarded as the stratigraphical equivalent in the eastern 
region of what he had called the Calciferous Sand-rock to the west 
of Lake Champlain. Emmons had thus in 1846, after his pre- 
vious statements printed in 1842 and 1844, arrived to the same 
conclusion as his old master, and now assigned the great mass 
of uncrystalline more or less fossiliferous strata, which he subse- 
quently called Upper Taconic, to a horizon below the Trenton 
limestone, and regarded it as the equivalent of the Calciferous 
Sand-rock, including, however, as he afterwards taught, also the 
representative of the Potsdam sandstone. When he speaks of 
this great Graywacke group as resting on Taconic slates, we 
“must remember that already in his first recognition of the ae 
position of Calciferous Sand-rock to Taconic slates in 1844, a 
above cited, he had declared these to be “ probably the Mag- 
nesian slates,’ which correspond to the Transition Argillite of 
Eaton, included in the Lower Taconic, and not to what he else- 
where designates as the proper “Taconic Slate” group, which 
was later included in his Upper Taconic, and-is no other than 
this same “ protean” Calciferous Sand-rock and Potsdam sand- 
stone, or the First Graywacke itself. 
17. Emmons could scarcely have defined more clearly than 
he did in 1844* the great extent and the boundaries of this 
Taconic slate group as then known to him, with its breadth of 
fifteen or twenty miles, occupying the greater part of the three 
counties named in Eastern New York, and stretching from north 
to south one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles; its limita- 
tions on the west by the overlapping upper shecahers: of the 
Champlain division, and on the east by the great mass of the 
Sparry limestone, portions of which are said to occur at intervals 
in the section farther westward. He, moreover, declares in 1844, 
* Agriculture of New York, i. 65-72. We quote from this volume for the reason 
dita thai. tine fiat ind separater ceinied elimina ab esd 


4] á 


pi x F 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 241 


that in this Taconic slate group—described in 1842 as “ often 
becoming a coarse graywacke” and now called “ protean”—are 
numerous subordinate divisions, among which he mentions coarse 
greenish sandstones, gray sandstones, red and chocolate-colored 
shales, roofing-slates, green and black flinty slates, blue compact 
limestones, and gray silicious limestones, all of which are in- 
cluded in this great disturbed and faulted belt of uncrystalline 
strata. One of these subdivisions he described as a black slate 
with trilobites, and noticed another containing impressions re- 
sembling graptolites. In further proof of the fossiliferous char- 
acter of this great Taconic slate group, which he had already, in 
` 1842, referred to “the lower part of the Silurian system,” he de- 
clared that besides these in the black slates just mentioned he 
had found fossils in the green sandstones and the green slates; 
while with regard to the Sparry limestones he remarks that “ no 
fossils have yet been discovered in this rock, though it must be 
confessed sufficient examination has not yet been made for mi- 
croscopic bivalves.” 

§ 18, It is here important to remark that the term “ Taconic 
slate” applied to this upper and notably fossiliferous portion of 
the Taconic system of Emmons has led to the erroneous opinion 
that it is in some special sense the representative of the system, 
and to look upon the lower members as of less significance; a 
view which, it is unnecessary to say, finds no countenance in 
the publications of Emmons. Eaton, as we have seen, asserted 
the existence of a stratigraphical break between the Taconic slate, 
his First Graywacke, and the underlying Transition Argillite. 
This upper unconformable portion was afterwards separated by 
Emmons from the inferior members of the system, and designated 
Upper Taconic. In his “ American Geology,” in 1855, he in fact 
proposed to consider the Taconic system as consisting of two 
parts, between which, according to him, “the line of demarcation 
is tolerably well defined.” Of these, the lower part, henceforth 
called by him Lower Taconic, included (1) the Primitive Quartz- 
rock, (2) the Primitive Lime-rock, or Stockbridge limestone, and 
(3) the Transition Argillite, or Magnesian slate, with the lower 
roofing-slates. The Upper Taconic included the great group of 
the First Graywacke, called by Emmons, in 1842 and 1844, the 
Taconic slates, with the Sparry Lime-rock, called by him the 
Sparry limestone. This same view is again set forth by Emmons, 


242 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


in his “ Manual of Geology” in 1860, and in his subsequent re- 
ports on the geology of North Carolina. 

§ 19. It is important to note that the line of demarcation 
between the Lower and Upper Taconic series corresponds to the 
stratigraphical break already pointed out, in 1832, by Eaton be- 
tween the Transition Argillite and the First Graywacke. It 
should be further mentioned that this division is one between a 
series of essentially crystalline strata below and one of earthy 
sediments above ; and, moreover, that the facts known with regard | 
to the distribution of the two show clearly that their areas are not 
co-extensive. While found superimposed upon the Lower Ta- 
conic in certain districts, the Upper Taconic is wanting over 
great areas of the Lower, and is elsewhere seen in many places 
resting unconformably upon pre-Taconian crystalline schists. 

It was this Upper Taconic which Emmons, in 1842, declared 
to belong to “the lower part of the Silurian system,” which he 
showed, in 1844, to contain organic remains, such as trilobites 
and graptolites, in several of its subdivisions of shales and 
sandstones, remarking that while they had not yet been found in 
the Sparry Lime-rock sufficient search had not been made therein. 
It was the same Upper Taconic or Taconic slate group which he 
later, in 1860, declared to correspond to the Primordial zone of 
Barrande, which latter was included alike by Barrande and by the 
other followers of Murchison, both in Europe and America, in 
the so-called Silurian system. Yet, notwithstanding all these 
facts, we find that the discovery in Eastern New York of fossils 
of Cambrian and Ordovician age in what J. D. Dana calls “a 
limestone of the original Taconic of Professor Emmons,—his 
Sparry Limestone,’—is brought forward in 1885 as an argument 
against the views of Emmons. Ina letter to Marcou, dated Al- 
bany, September 1, 1860, Emmons writes, “ The upper part of the 
Taconic is equivalent to Barrande’s Primordial group,” while in 
his “ Manual of Geology,” also published in 1860, he declares (p. 
: that “it has been shown that the Primordial zone in Bohemia 

in co-ordination with the upper series of the Taconic rocks.” 
tn another letter to Marcou, in November of that year, he ex- 
pressed the opinion that neither his Taconic system nor the Pri- 
mordial zone or group of Barrande was Silurian, but in a subse- 
quent letter, November 29, 1860, admits his misconception and 
writes, “ On reading his [Barrande’s] papers I found that, after all, 


1887] l The Taconic Question Restated. 243 


his Primordial group is only Lower Silurian. I conceive that 
we have exactly his Primordial group in the band of slates con- 
taining the Paradoxides.” (Olenellus.) 

§ 20. The study of these Upper Taconic rocks in the province 
of Quebec by the geological survey of Canada was carried on in 
the vicinity of the city of Quebec in 18 52-1855, the present writer 
being at intervals an assistant to Logan in his field-work in that 
district. The official reports of Mather and Emmons on the geol- 
ogy of New York were then repeatedly consulted, and the Ta- 
conic system of the latter being then generally discredited, the 
passages in accordance with the views of Mather, which, as we 
have already noticed, are to be found on certain pages of that 
volume, were alone accepted, and the Graywacke series of Quebec 
and its vicinity was referred to the horizon of the Second Gray- 
wacke of Eaton. This great thickness of contorted shales and 
sandstones, with intercalated limestone and dolomite beds, al- 
ready described, in 1827, by Bigsby as “a slaty series of shales 
and graywacke,” was then called Hudson River group, and as- 
signed to a position above the horizontal and well-characterized 
Utica and Trenton divisions found a very few miles away on the 
west side of the St. Lawrence, while the green sandstones which 
apparently overlie these inclined strata were designated Oneida 
sandstone. They were thus described and mapped in the “ Es- 
quisse Géologique du Canada,” bearing the names of W. E. 
Logan and the present writer, but prepared by the latter, and 
published in Paris in 1855. 

§ 21. The great belt of disturbed strata described, in 1827, by 
Bigsby as “a slaty series of shales and graywacke,” which by 
the united labors of Eaton, Emmons, and Logan had now been 
traced with little interruption from the banks of the St. Lawrence 
below the city of Quebec, along the west side of Lake Cham- 
plain, and thence nearly to the Highlands of the Hudson, con- 
stituting the Upper Taconic of Emmons and the larger part of 
the Hudson River group of Vanuxem. That this, contrary to 
the teachings of Eaton, but in accordance with the views of . 
Mather, was regarded as above, and not below, the horizon of 
the Trenton limestone appears, from James Hall's Report to the 
geological survey of Canada, published in 1857, on the grapto- 

* Letter of Emmons to Marcou, November 20, 1860, in Marcou’s “ Taconic 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 17 


244 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


lites of Pointe Levis, which were then described as belonging to _ 
a higher horizon than the Utica slate, and in the words of Hall 


to “that part of the Hudson River group which is sometimes 
designated as Eaton’s Sparry limestone,—being near the summit 
of the group.” Still later, in 1859, with regard to the trilobitic 
‘strata of the town of Georgia, Vermont (the “slates with Para- 
doxides” of Emmons, noticed in § 19), Hall wrote, “I have the 
testimony of Sir William Logan that the shales of this locality 
are in the upper part of the Hudson River group, or form part 
ofa series of strata which he is inclined to rank as a distinct 
group above the Hudson River proper.” 

§ 22. It was in 1856 that the finding by the present writer of 
an unknown trilobite in one of the many limestone bands of this 
Graywacke series at Pointe Levis, opposite the city of Quebec, 
led to further researches, revealing in that series a fauna which 
furnished to Billings convincing proof that the view of Eaton 
and Emmons was the correct one, and that this same Graywacke, 
or Hudson River group, was below and not above the horizon of 
the Trenton limestone, and was in fact the First and not the 
Second Graywacke of Eaton. This was first admitted by Logan 
in a letter to Barrande, dated December 31, 1860, but published 
in 1861." In this, referring to the trilobitic beds in Vermont 
noticed above, which he had placed at the summit of the Hudson 
River group, but now declares that he had “ recognized as equiv- 
alent to the magnesian part of the Quebec group,’ Logan 
writes, “ Prof. Emmons has long maintained, on evidence that has 
been much disputed,” that these rocks “are older than the Birds- 
eye formation” (the basal beds of the Trenton), and adds, “ the 
fossils which have this year been obtained at Quebec pretty 
clearly demonstrate that in this he is right.” 

Refusing, however, to adopt the name of Upper Taconic or 
that of the First Graywacke, Logan, for reasons of his own, chose 
to give to these rocks the title of the Quebec group, a name 
which he extended to the whole belt from the Lower St. Law- 
rence to the valley of the Hudson River, and henceforth made 
no further allusion to Emmons, whose views he had now 
adopted. In accordance with the teachings of Emmons in 1846 
and 1855, these rocks were now declared by Logan to be a great 


sad eee of sediments about the age of the Chazy and the 


* American Journal of Science, xxxi. 220. 


La 


1887] _ The Taconic Question Restated. 245 


Calciferous divisions of the New York system. The Red Sand- 
rock included in this belt in Vermont was, however, subsequently, 
from its fauna, referred by Billings of the Canada geological 
survey to a lower horizon, the so-called Lower Potsdam, and an 
attempt was made to establish a Potsdam group beneath the 
Quebec group, including both the Red Sand-rock (which Logan, 
in 1859, had placed above the summit of the Hudson River 
group) and a group of strata at Farnham in Quebec, which are, 
however, of Chazy if not of Trenton age. ; 

§ 23. The subsequent history of Logan’s endeavor to separate 
the Graywacke series, as displayed near the city of Quebec, into 
what he called the Levis, Lauzon, and Sillery divisions of the Que- 
bec group, and his conjecture that the apparent order of super- 
position in the section there exposed represents the real or true 
order has been elsewhere told in detail. By his adoption of 
this conjecture the Levis or Sparry Lime-rock was put at the 
base, and the massive green Sillery sandstone at the summit of 
a Graywacke series of many thousand feet, all of which was but 
a reaffirmation of the old hypothesis of 1855, which had made 
this sandstone the Oneida, and the underlying gray sandstones, 
with shales and limestones, the equivalent of the Loraine. That 
this apparent order was contrary to palzontological evidence was 
pointed out by Billings, who insisted that the horizon of the 
Sparry Lime-rock, and its adjacent Phyllograptus shales, was 
somewhat above the typical Calciferous Sand-rock of New York, 
and that the massive green sandstones belonged to a much lower 
horizon, 

Logan, although he had borrowed from Emmons the concep- 
tion that the great Graywacke series was really below the horizon 
of the Trenton limestone, still adhered to the stratigraphical 
scheme which he had framed when he believed that the section 
at Quebec and Pointe Levis represented the Loraine shale, with 
a great overlying mass of green sandstones with conglomerates 
and red shales, corresponding to the Oneida of the New York 
system. These sandstones, he now thought, might correspond 
to the St. Peter’s sandstone of the Upper Mississippi, and to the 
sandstones and shales which in parts of the Ottawa basin appear 
in the Chazy subdivision. The history of all this has been set 
forth in the writer’s volume on “ Azoic Rocks, etc.”? The dif- 

* Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report E, 1878. 


246 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


ferences between Billings and Logan on these points appear in 
the volume of the former on “ Paleozoic Fossils,’’* and more 
fully in the instructive correspondence of Billings with Jewett 
and Marcou, lately published by the latter in his paper on the 
Taconic system in 1885.7 

§.24. James Hall, who had in 1857 declared that the graptolitic 
slates found in conjunction with the Sparry Lime-rock at Pointe 
Levis, the Levis limestone of Logan, were at the summit of the 
Hudson River group,—employing this term, as he had always 
done, as synonymous with Loraine shales,—was led by the palæ- 
ontological discoveries in Vermont, and near the city of Quebec, 
to reconsider the age of this so-called group and the true signifi- 
cance of the term. In his “ Report on the Geology of Wiscon- 
sin” in 1862 (p. 443), he referred to the evidence furnished by | 
organic remains in the rocks of the Graywacke belt in the prov- 
ince of Quebec and in Vermont, “ which prove conclusively that 
these slates are to great extent of older date than the Trenton 
limestone,” though probably newer than the Potsdam. He re- 
marked, moreover, that “the occurrence of well-known forms 
of the second fauna .. . in intimate relation with, and in beds 
apparently constituting a part of, the series along the Hudson 
River, requires some explanation. Looking critically at the 
localities in the Hudson valley which yield these fossils, we find 
them of limited and almost insignificant extent. Some of them 
are on the summits of elevations which are synclinal axes, .. . 
“where the remains of new formations would naturally occur. 
Others are apparently unconformable to the rocks below, or are 
entangled in the folds of the strata, .. . while the enormous 
thickness of beds exposed is almost destitute of fossils.’ He 
hence concluded that the name of Hudson River group cannot 
properly be extended to the great mass of strata which had 
hitherto borne that name, but which he now regarded as distinct 
from “the Hudson River group proper.” 

§ 25. Thus while still retaining for the Loraine shales the name 
under which Vanuxem had, in 1842, included alike these shales 
and the great underlying mass of older strata belonging to two 
lower horizons which constitute by far the larger portion of the 

* Geological Survey of Canada, 1865; Paleozoic Fossils, vol. i. passim. 


2 Proc. Amer. Acad. Sciences, New Series, vol. xii. pp. E See also therein 
the letters of Emmons and and Marcou, pp. 1 184-201. 


1887] ‘Thè Taconic Question Restated. 247 


rocks hitherto called Hudson River group, Hall admitted the 
distinctness and the greater antiquity of these. In 1877, while 
justifying the retention of the name of Hudson River group for 
the fossiliferous rocks of Loraine age found along the banks of | 
that river, and originally called “Hudson slates” by Mather,— 
_ which Hall speaks of as “the newer series, or the rocks above 
the Trenton limestone,” as contradistinguished from the older or 
infra-Trenton series,—he admits that “the error lay in extending 
the term [Hudson River group] to rocks on the eastward, at a 
time when their fossil contents had not been studied . . . and 
their geological position had not been determined by critical ex- 
amination.”’* 

The geological position of these rocks to the eastward and 
their relation to the newer series had, however, already been de- 
- termined, and Hall, in 1862, did but repeat the statements long 
before made by Emmons, who, in 1842, had declared that the 
Taconic slate group was undoubtedly overlapped along its west- 
ern border by “the Loraine or Hudson River slates.” Again, 
in describing, in 1846, beds of the Loraine shale alternating with 
the sandstone of the Gray band in the valley of the Rondout, and 
in their northern outcrop along the termination of the Helder- 
berg range, Emmons declares that this section of the Loraine 
strata “resembles the beds which occur in patches on the east 
side of the Hudson along the Western [Boston and Albany] 
Railway. These latter beds may be clearly distinguished from 
the slates and shales of the Taconic system. They neither con- 
form with them in dip nor in strike,” and, except in the immediate 
vicinity of the great northern fracture of the Hudson valley, their 
dip and their disturbance are not excessive. These unconform- 
ably overlying areas of Loraine shales resting on the older Gray- 
wacke were said to form a small range between Chatham Centre 
and Chatham Four Corners, “ where they lie in deep troughs and 
are exposed in the railway cuttings.” In some cases, we are told, 
“their peculiar distribution and the confined limits of the fossilif- 
erous beds’ render quite difficult the recognition of these shales 
when they lie in proximity to the Taconic system.”? It was thus 
clearly shown by Emmons, in 1844, that the Loraine shales not 
mely overlie the Upper Taconic or First Graywacke along its 

t Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1877, p. 263. 
2 Emmons, —— of New York, pp. 124, 125, 128. 


248 The Taconic Question Restated. [March 


western border in New York, but are found thereon in small un- 
conformably overlying areas, as was admitted by Hall in 1862. 

§ 26. These facts regarding the relation of the Loraine shales 
to the great Graywacke belt were set forth by the writer in 1878. 
It was at the same time shown that within the limits of this belt, 
in the province of Quebec and in Vermont, there were found 
organic forms ranging from a horizon at least as low as the Pots- 
dam (the Olenellus or Lower Potsdam beds of Billings, which 
were the Paradoxides beds of Emmons) to the Phyllograptus 
shales (belofging to the horizon of the Arenig or Skiddaw of 
Great Britain), without counting the fossiliferous beds at Farn- 
ham, Quebec, assigned by Logan to the base of the Quebec 
group, but shown by Billings to be not lower than the Trenton. 
In other words, it was set forth that this First Graywacke, other- 
wise called the Taconic slate group, Upper Taconic and Quebec 
group, had been by Emmons, as long ago as 1842, declared to 
belong to the age of the Silurian of Murchison; that he had 
shown it in 1844 to contain in its various subdivisions trilobites, 
grapolites, and fucotids, and had in 1860 referred the same 
Taconic slate group to the Primordial zone, or so-called Primor- 
dial Silurian of Barrande. Still further, it was shown that it had 
been maintained by Emmons in 1844, and confirmed by Billings, 
that within this belt were accidentally included unconformable 
portions of post-Trenton fossiliferous strata of the Champlain 
division. 

It was further pointed out by the writer in illustration of these 
facts that similar conditions appear in the basin of the Ottawa, 
near the city of that name, where, as the result of an uncon- 
formity between the upper and lower members of the Champlain 
division, a belt twenty miles long of shales and sandstones, 
carrying the fauna of the Utica and Loraine subdivisions, is 
found lying transgressively alike on the Trenton, Chazy, and 
Calciferous subdivisions, as long ago shown by Logan. 

$ 27. The observations of Ford, Dwight, and Dale along the 
great Graywacke belt to the east of the Hudson, in the State of 
New York, which show, besides a Cambrian fauna of Potsdam 
and Calciferous age, the presence of small areas of strata belong- 
ing to the higher divisions of the Champlain divisions, are thus in 
direct confirmation of the original statements of Emmons, the later 
determinations of Billings, and my own teachings. They show 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 249 


the horizon of the Upper Taconic or Taconic slate group—the 
Transition or First Graywacke of Eaton—to be, as taught by 
Emmons in 1842, the lower part of the Silurian system, as he un- 
derstood it, and as he later declared it to be, the Primordial zone 
or Primordial Silurian of Barrande. If, then, we except small’ 
areas of true Silurian (Lower Helderberg) and possibly Devonian 
Strata, as at Becraft's Mountain, near Hudson, New York, and, 
according to James Hall (as cited by Edward Hitchcock), in 
Vermont, it will be seen that the great belt of Graywacke, stretch- 
ing from the St. Lawrence to the Hudson River in Dutchess 
County, is of Cambrian age, with overlying and included patches 
of Ordovician (Chazy-Loraine) and a few small areas of Silurian. 

It may here be added that the evident ignorance of these his- 
torical facts which is apparent therein, is the only excuse which 
-can be pleaded for the misstatements which have of late years 
been repeatedly put forward with regard to this important problem 
in American geology. 

§ 28. Marcou, who had already, in 1880, insisted thereon, de- 
clares in 1885, the “time has now come to make clear the prior 
right and the real advantage to be found in the use of the term 
* Taconic System,’ instead of the so generally employed ex- 
pressions ‘Cambrian’ and ‘Silurian,’ to designate the strata enclos- 
ing the Primordial fauna.* In answer to this proposition, it is to 
be said that the names of Silurian and Cambrian were proposed for 
the great Transition or Graywacke series of Wales by Murchison 
and Sedgwick in 1835 and 1836. We need not here repeat the 
long history which I have elsewhere told,? of the means by which 
it was sought by Murchison to include in his Silurian the greater 
part of the Cambrian of Sedgwick, a task in which he was seconded 
by Barrande, who called the horizon of the lowest Cambrian fauna 
—his Primordial zone—Primordial Silurian. 

In the great work of the New York geological survey, be- 
gun in 1837 and summed up in the final reports of 1842 and 
1843, a succession was independently wrought out for the Ameri- 
can palzozoic basin, in which were named the “New York ` 
System” and the “ Taconic System.” As regards the probable 
parallelism of these with the previously-named Cambrian an 

t The Taconic System, Proc. American Academy of Sciences, pit xii, 

* Hunt, History of Cambrian and Silurian, Chemical and Geologi Si heen pP- 
349-425. 


250 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March 


Silurian, we find Emmons, in 1842, suggesting that the Taconic 
rocks in part might “be equivalent to the Lower Cambrian of 
Sedgwick,” “the upper portion being the lower part of the 
Silurian System,” to which the Middle and Upper Cambrian of 
»Sedgwick were then, on the authority of Murchison, very gen- 
erally referred. To repeat what we have already said, we add 
that this upper portion, the fossiliferous character of which he 
made known in 1844, was by Emmons declared, in 1860, to cor- 
respond to the Primordial of Barrande. “The upper part of the 
Taconic is equivalent to Barrande’s Primordial zone,” and again, 
“His Primordial group is only Lower Silurian. 1 conceive that 
we have exactly his Primordial group in the band of slates con- 
taining Paradoxides.”’* 

The names of Cambrian and Silurian were thus prior to that 
of Taconic, and so far as regards the Upper Taconic, it is now 
shown by palzontological studies to be unquestionably the strati- 
graphical equivalent of the great mass of the Cambrian of Sedg- 
wick, including accidentally, as we have seen, small portions of 
his Upper Cambrian (Ordovician), but excluding, so far as yet 
known, the lowest Cambrian or Paradoxides horizon. It remains 
to be seen whether American or European geologists will aban- 
don the accepted and well-defined terms of Cambrian for that of 


Taconic. 
(To be concluded.) 


NOTES ON THE GLACIATION OF THE PACIFIC 
COA 


BY G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. 


J HAVE elsewhere (see Am. Four. Sci. for January) given an 

account of the results of my observations during last summer 

_ onthe Muir Glacier, Alaska. The journey to and from that point 
of interest afforded equally good opportunities for observation. 

The Northern Pacific Railroad passes out of the glaciated re- 

gion at Sims’ Station, Dakota, about forty miles west of Bismarck, 

at an elevation of two thousand two hundred and eighteen feet 


Tha Haki Ps +s. meee 
t printed text, 


1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pactfic Coast. a 51 


above tide and three hundred and fifty above the Missouri River. 
The passage from the glaciated to the unglaciated region is quite 
marked and can easily be detected from the train. From this 
point on to the west no signs of glaciation appear until passing 
the western ridge of the Rocky Mountains near Lake Pend 
Oreille in Idaho. Here the movement was towards the west and 
was evidently local. Water-worn pebbles from this vicinity were 
observed far down in Eastern Washington Territory, in old water- 
courses, or “ coulees,” worn by post-glacial streams in the exten- 
sive lava deposits of that region. ; 
West of the Cascade Mountains, between Portland and Seattle, 
all the streams coming down from Mount Rainier and its com- 
panions are heavily charged with glacial mud, and can be traced 
to extensive glaciers in the mountains. The White River Glacier, 


` on the north side, is the largest of these. This glacier is from 


one to one and a half miles wide at its termination, which is 
about five thousand feet above tide. Two or three miles farther 
up it is about four miles wide. It is about ten miles long, and 
in its higher level merges in the general ice-cap which envelops 
the upper five thousand feet of the mountain. The height of the 
mountain is fourteen thousand four hundred feet. 

The north and south valley between the Cascade Mountains 
and the Coast Range in Washington Territory is about one hun- 
dred miles wide. The northern half of this is penetrated by the 
innumerable channels and inlets of Puget Sound, which extends 
from Port Townsend south about eighty miles to the parallel of 
Mount Rainier. The Olympian Mountains to’the west rise to a 
height of about ten thousand feet, as does Mount Baker in the 
Cascade Range to the northeast. The shores and islands of Puget 
Sound have every appearance of being a true glacial accumula- 
tion. Norock in place anywhere appears. The shores and islands 
rise from fifty to two hundred feet above tide, and present a mix- 
ture of that stratified and unstratified material characteristic of 
the terminal accumulations of a great glacier. Boulders of light- 
colored granite and of volcanic rocks are indiscriminately scat- 
tered over the surface and embedded in the soil. One of these 
boulders near Seattle, two hundred feet above the sound, was 
twenty feet in diameter and twelve feet out of ground. The 


_ channels of the sound and of the adjacent fresh-water lakes have 


a general north and south direction, parallel with the axis of the 


252 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March 


valley. This is specially noticeable near Seattle, where Lake 
Washington, elevated sixteen feet above tide, and twenty-five 
miles long, is strictly parallel with the sound, and is separated 
from it by a series of ridges showing every mark of glacial 
origin. Not only is the surface of these ridges covered with 
boulders, but wherever the streets have cut down into the soil 
they show, at the depth of a few feet, an unstratified deposit 
abounding in striated stones. Superimposed upon this ridge 
there is a thin stratified deposit of varying depth but increasing 
in extent down the slope towards tide-water. At Port Townsend, 
on the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and forty miles north-northwest 
of Seattle, the coarsely stratified deposit is much greater in ex- 
tent. A noteworthy section of this I had the privilege of studying 
at Point Wilson, two and a half miles northwest of Port Town- 
send. Here, facing the strait, is a perpendicular bluff from one 
hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in height, composed, in its 
lower portion, for about one hundred feet of rather fine, stratified 
material, which is capped at the summit by about fifty feet of 
coarse, unstratified material abounding in large striated boulders, 
which as they have been washed out by the erosion of the sea 
have fallen down to the foot of the bluff in immense numbers. 
Near the bottom of the bluff there are several strata of vege- 
table deposits. One of these, two feet thick, consisted almost 
wholly of the fragments of the bark of the fir-trees which are 
now so characteristic of that region. Fragments of wood pro- 
ject from the freshly exposed bank in great abundance. The 
meaning of these facts will be more readily apparent alter a study 
of the phenomena to the north of the strait. 

The Strait of Juan de Fuca is from fifteen to twenty miles in 


width, running east and west. Its north shore, near Victoria, on ` 


Vancouver’s Island, is remarkably clear of glacial débris. The 
rocks, however, near Victoria exhibit some of the most remark- 
able effects of glacial scoring and striation anywhere to be found. 
Immediately south of Victoria long parallel furrows rise from 
the shore of the inlet and ascend the slope of the hill to the 
south to its summit, a hundred feet or more above the water- 
level. At the steamboat-landing, outside of the harbor, extensive 
surfaces freshly uncovered exhibit the moutonnée appearance of 
true glaciation, and, in addition to the finer and abundant scratch- 
ing and striz, display numerous winding furrows from six inches 


t 


* 


1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. 253 


to two feet in depth, and from twenty to thirty-two inches in 
width, and ten or more feet in length. These grooves are finely 
polished and striated, resembling those with which geologists are 
familiar on Kelly’s Island, Lake Erie. Like the corresponding 
grooves on Kelly’s Island, some of these also turn around the 
southern point in graceful curves, adjusting themselves to the 
retreating face of the rock-wall. That the motion of the ice 
here was to the south is evident not only from the direction of the 
striz, but from the fact that the stoss side of the glaciated rocky 
projections are towards the north. That they are due to glacial 
action, and not to icebergs, is evident both from their character 
and from their analogy to numerous facts farther to the north, 
which are unquestionably connected with true glaciers. 

Vancouver’s Island, which trends parallel with the shore of the 
continent, northwest by southeast, is nearly three hundred miles 
in length, and from fifty to seventy-five in breadth. In character 
it seems but a continuation of the Coast Range of mountains, with 
numerous peaks rising from four to seven thousand feet above 
the sea. The shore-line of the continent upon the northeastern 
side of the Strait of Georgia is formed by a continuation of the 
Cascade Range, with a general elevation of from three to eight 
thousand feet, penetrated in numerous places to a distance of 
seventy-five miles by inlets or fiords several miles in width. Mr. 

rge Dawson has described the glacial phenomena in Bute 
Inlet, which enters the Strait of Georgia about opposite the centre 
of Vancouver’s Island, in latitude 50° 30’. He describes the 
chasm (see Quarterly Fournal of Geolog. Soc., vol. xxxiv. p. 89) 
as forty miles in length, surrounded by mountains, rising in some 
places in cliffs and rocky slopes from six to eight thousand feet. 
“The islands about its mouth are roches moutonnées, polished and 
ground wherever the original surface has been preserved.” 

The mountains on either side the Strait of Georgia, and north- 
westward to the head of Lynn Channel, in latitude 59° 20’, are 
snow-clad throughout the whole season. The shores are every- 
where rocky and precipitous, retaining in many places far up 
their sides glacial striz parallel with the direction of the numer- 
ous channels which thread their way through the Alexander 
Archipelago. I had opportunity at Loring, on the western shore 
of Revilla Gigedo Island, to examine minutely the striation on 
the shores and islands of the bay. There are now no glaciers 


254 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March 


coming down from the mountains of this island, but the shores 
and islands abound in well-preserved glacial striæ running W. by 
18° N., corresponding to the direction of the local valley down 
which the glacier came, and entering Behm’s Canal nearly at right 
angles to its course upon that side of the island. This is in lati- 
tude 55° 40’. 

Upon proceeding one degree to the north, I had opportunity 
also to observe closely the striæ at Fort Wrangell. Here, too, 
they show the influence of the continental elevation to the east, 
and are moving outward in a westerly direction towards the Duke 
of Clarence Strait. About thirty-five miles up the Stikine River, 
two glaciers are encountered of immense size coming down, one 
from the north and one from the south, to the vicinity of the vast 
cañon through which the river runs. The glacier from the north 
is about forty miles long and two miles wide near its mouth, 
spreading out to five miles a short distance back from the river, 
which it approaches to within four hundred yards. The glacier 
approaching the river at this point from the south is not so long 
and reaches only to within about two miles of the river. It is 
clear that a comparatively slight extension of these two glaciers 
would make them unite and close up the outlet of the river, and 
it requires no great stretch of the scientific imagination to see 
the whole valley occupied by a glacier, moving towards the ocean 
with an immense subglacial stream emerging at the ice front, 
wherever that might have been. From phenomena observed in 
Glacier Bay I am led to credit the tradition of the Indians that 
within historic times these glaciers met and the Stikine River 
made its way under them through an immense tunnel. 

From the mouth of the Stikine River northwards, glaciers in 
great numbers and of great size are seen coming down from the 
mountains towards the sea-level, while all the mountains upon 
the islands are snow-clad through the whole summer, and some 
of them contain glaciers of small size. At Holcomb Bay and 
Taku Inlet glaciers come down to the sea-level and send off 
` numerous small icebergs, which are frequently met with in 
Stevens’ Passage. At the head of Glacier Bay no less than four 
glaciers of great size come down to tide-level, sending off im- 
mense numbers of small fragments and bergs. The evidence 
here of the recent vast extension of these glaciers down the bay, 
and of the facility of glacier-ice in adjusting itself to the local — 


1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. 255 


topography, is of a most explicit and interesting character. The 
Muir Glacier, which is two miles wide at its mouth, is formed by 
the confluence of nine main streams, coming in majestic curves 
from the southeast, east, north, northwest, and west, and uniting 
in a vast amphitheatre of ice many miles in diameter a short 
distance above its present outlet. From the surface of this icy 
amphitheatre numerous islands project, as from the waters of an 
archipelago. The summits of these bear every mark of having 
been freshly uncovered by the decreasing volume of ice. Below 
the mouth of the glacier numerous islands in the bay present 
exactly the same appearance, except that they now project from 
water instead of ice. Their recent glaciation is indicated by every 
characteristic sign. Willoughby Island, about the middle of the 
bay, is as much as a thousand feet above the water. Were the 
ice to retreat a few miles farther, it would doubtless uncover an 
extension of the bay with numerous islands similar to those now 
dotting its surface south of the glacier. Fresh glacial débris 
lingers on the flanks of the mountains on either side of the inlet 
. ata height of two thousand feet; and at three thousand seven 
hundred feet striae were observed moving, not down the moun- 
tain, but parallel with the axis of the bay, showing that the 
present glacier is but the remnant of an ice-flow of similar 
character and direction of movement, but of vastly greater 
dimensions, extending and filling the whole bay to its mouth in 
Cross Sound, a distance of twenty-five miles. At Sitka the rocks 
in the harbor are all freshly striated, the direction of the move- 
ment being in a westerly direction, or towards the open sea. 
Glaciers still linger in the mountains at the head of the bay to 
the east of Sitka. : 

From all these facts it seems evident that we have only to 
suppose a slight increase of present forces favorable to the pro- 
duction of glaciers to find a state of things which will account 
for all the facts and unravel the whole intricate web of phenomena 
upon the western coast of North America. 

_ The present formation of glaciers on the coast of Southeastern 
Alaska is favored not so much by the coolness of the climate as 
by the elevation of the mountains and the excessive amount of 
precipitation, which is not far from one hundred inches annually. 
There is no evidence that the elevation of the coast has materially 
changed in recent times. Nor is there evidence of any changes 


256 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March 


in the amount of precipitation. It would only be necessary to 
suppose a slight diminution of temperature to secure all the 
additional force required to extend the present glaciers of South- 
eastern Alaska, British Columbia, and of the Cascade Range in 
Washington Territory and Oregon, until they should occupy all 
the channels of the Alexander Archipelago, fill the space occu- 
pied by the Strait of Georgia between Vancouver’s Island and 
the main-land, and cover the whole valley between Mount Rainier 
and the Olympian Mountains, where now we find the vast moraine 
deposits of the islands and shores of Puget Sound. Southward, 
in Oregon, the Willamette valley is filled in a similar manner 
by an extension of the glaciers still lingering on the flanks of 
Mounts Hood and Shasta. The absence of drift on the southern 
shore of Vancouver’s Island seems to point to a termination of 
the northerly movement in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, where, 
perhaps, the confluent streams turned westward and sent off vast 
drift-laden icebergs to the sea. Mount Baker, immediately to 
the east of this point, is upwards of ten thousand feet high, and 
still preserves glaciers on its flanks, and would have aided greatly 
in this movement. 

In the boulders about Puget Sound, and in the striated surfaces 
which must exist somewhere in the vicinity, there is doubtless 
positive evidence of the direction of the ice movement which 
brought to its present position the immense ridges and piles of 
glacial débris forming the fertile soil of this remarkable region. 
It is to be hoped that local observers will not long leave the 
world in doubt as to the source of the boulders and the direction 
of the striz about Puget Sound. To me the shores and islands 
of that region had the appearance of being the terminal deposits 
of confluent glaciers coming down from the flanks of Rainier to 
the southeast, and from the lower portions of the Cascade Range 
farther north, joined by smaller glaciers from the Coast Range 
on the west. It is clear that the earlier glacial movements on 
the Pacific coast were local in character, and must be studied in- 
dependently of those east of the Rocky Mountains. The ancient 
glaciers of the Pacific coast can be understood only by reference 
to the glaciers which still linger at the head of all its numerous 
valleys, inlets, and fiords. In these the investigator has his 
vera causa ever before his eyes to guide his steps and to assist 

his imagination. 


* 


PLATE XII. 


MONACHUS TROPICALI 


1887] Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis. 257 


NOTES ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF MONACHUS 
TROPICALIS, THE WEST INDIAN SEAL. 


BY HENRY L. WARD. 


HEN in 1494 Columbus was cruising among the West 

Indies with his little caravels, searching for the ever-delu- 

sive route to the kingdoms of the Grand Khan, towards the 

latter part of August his vessels became separated, and in order 

to spy out if possible the missing ones he came to anchor near 

a tall rock lying south of the centre of Hayti and called by him 
Alto Velo. 

Sailors were sent ashore with orders to climb to the top and 
look out for the other caravels. Unsuccessful in their search for 
them, on returning to the ship “they killed eight sea-wolves 
(seals) which were sleeping on the sands.” 

This West Indian seal was consequently the first observed 
American mammal larger than the Coypu or Cane-Rat that a 
ably had been seen at Cuba. 

The next notice that we have of it was written by Dampier in 
1675; then follow Hill’s account in 1843, Gray’s in. 1849, 1850, 
and 1874, and Gosse’s in 1851. This comprises all accounts of 
which I am aware that, based upon specimens in hand, appeared 
previous to 1884. Dampier and Hill and Wilkie (Gosse’s account) 
in 1846 have given us the only records of observations concerning 
the life of this seal. Since then all trace of it has been lost, two 
small skins in Mexico and a single young one in this country 
comprising all the specimens known to be in existence up to the 
time that we obtained others. 

Last fall I had consummated a plan to try and find this seal, 
when, hearing from Professor F. Ferrari Perez, of the Mexican 
Geographical and Exploring Survey, that he had the same object 
in view, we decided to join forces. Accordingly, in November last 
we met by mutual appointment at the city of Campeche. The 
Triangles, or rather the East Triangle, was the point at which we 
had decided to make our first search for Monachus, This is in lat. 
20° 55’ N., long. 92° 12’ W. or one hundred and eight nautical 
miles in a northwesterly direction from the nearest point of the 
Yucatan peninsula. Distant two or three hundred yards in a 
northeasterly direction from the east island lies what J shall 


258 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicals. (March 


designate as the North Triangle. The west island, distant seven 
and a half miles, was unvisited by us. 

A brief description of the east and north islands, the ones at 
which we obtained seals, will be of interest as depicting one of 
the hitherto unknown habitat of this animal. They are of coral 
formation and surrounded by dangerous reefs that here and 
there have reached the surface, from twenty-seven to twenty- 
eight fathoms of water surrounding them. Meandrina, Millepora, 
and Madrepora were the three genera noticed, the former, by far 
the more common, forming the bulk of the islands and outlying 
reefs. 

The East Triangle is an irregular oval in form, about half a 
mile in length by perhaps one hundred and fifty yards in greatest 
width. The northern part of the island is quite level, raised 
scarcely a yard above high tide, and consists of gleaming white 
coral sand interspersed with water-worn, rounded blocks of the 
same material. 

These sandy portions of the islands were the principal “ haul- 
ing-up” places of the seals. The southern part of the island is 
almost exclusively composed of these coral stones, strangely 
heaped up into pinnacles and ridges, about twenty feet above sea- 
level, between which lie gullies and circular pits six or seven 
feet in depth. 

Beginning a little distance from the smaller end of this island, 
so as to include between itself and the land a narrow lagoon, 
runs a reef which, for its entire length awash, loses itself in the 
sea before it reaches the Northern Triangle. This island, of ap- 
proximately half the area of the other, is quite similar to it in 
form and character. No trees or bushes grow upon either, three 
species of plants alone forming the observed vegetation. Two of 
these are trailing plants. The other, one of the Leguminosez, 
growing to a height of about two feet, formed sheltered nooks 
between the diverging stems, positions that were used as nests 
by the Booby (Sula cyanops) and the Man-o’-War-Bird (Fregata 
aquila). Sterna maxima was the only other bird noticed. Ala- 
crans (scorpions) a black kind, abounded in the sandy places, 
causing one to be somewhat careful where he sat or what he 
picked off the ground. The house-fly completes the list of the 
air-breathing observed fauna. 

_ Upon arriving at the islands we anticipan a stay long enough 


1887] Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicals. 259 


to enable us to do all the work both upon seals and other objects 
that we might desire; but on the second day the barometer in- 
dicated the near approach of a “Norther,” the severe winter 
wind of that part of the coast, and upon the third day we had 
hurriedly to break camp, even leaving some of our specimens, 
get aboard of our little schooner and scud back to harbor amid 
the breaking waves and chilling blasts of a winter gale. My 
observations therefore cover a very small period of time,—zz., 
from the Ist to the 4th of December. This proved to be the 

time of parturition among the seals, for upon making a landing 
on the east island we killed a female with a foetus nearly ready 
for birth, and in a little internal pond of salt water found a female 
lying on her side suckling her young. She paid no more atten- 
tion to our near approach than would the familiar denizens of 
the barn-yard under similar circumstances. ‘Subsequently four 
other females were killed containing nearly ripe foetuses. In 
one case, where the foetus was removed immediately after killing 
the mother, it kicked and squirmed for one or two minutes in 
such a lively manner as to indicate that delivery would have 
occurred in a few moments had the female not been molested. 
Following the usual order with seals, there is but one offspring ` 
at a birth. The female can have little difficulty in nursing this, 
as in any but a perfectly prone position one or more of her four 
teats will always be within reach of the young. 

The foetus is quite large, one measuring 85 c.m. in length from 
tip of nose to end of tail." The hair is long, very soft and woolly, 
and of a glossy black color. Parturition probably occurs in 
shallow water, as the three females noted nearest this period 
were lying stranded on the beach, half in and half out of water. 

The young seal previously mentioned was of a uniform black 
color, including its mystacial bristles, with large, dark brown, 
lustrous eyes that looked inquiringly at one: more intelligent in 
appearance than were the adults. This youngster we took with 
us on leaving the islands, and had it in captivity for a week or 
more at Campeche, where it eventually died, probably from lack 
of proper nourishment. 

Its teeth were uncut, and so it had no thoughts of offering 

* More measurements and descriptions of this seal will be found in a bulletin of 
the American Museum of Natural History, now in course of preparation by Professor 
J. A. Allen. 

VOL, XXI.—NO. 3. 18 


260 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis. [March 


resistance when handled. It was totally devoid of fear ; but most 
too young to make any demonstrations of friendship. Its time 
on shipboard was spent in aimlessly roaming to and fro, serenely 
regardless of such trivial obstructions as people standing in «its 
way; uttering every few moments its cry, a long drawn out, 
guttural “ah,” with a series of vocal hitches during its enuncia- 
tion. At Campeche this little seal seemed to enjoy its daily bath 
in the sea, plunging its head under water and blowing and snort- 
ing as if in great glee, yet ever and anon uttering its plaintive 
cry, as if in momentary mourning for its lost parent. 

Two females containing foetuses measured respectively 2 m. 
16 c.m. and I m. 99 c.m. from end of nose to end of tail. Two 
adult males measure from a skeleton and stuffed specimen re- 
spectively 2m. 29 c.m. and 2 m. 16 c.m. between the same 
points. These are about the maximum sizes, of the two sexes, 
noticed. Such a seal looks large and might easily give rise to 
the “about ten feet in length,’ and even greater measurements, 
that have been reported of this species. 

From the black pelage of the extremely young to that of the 
adult there is an intermediate stage of yellowish gray on the 

‘dorsal surface, shading to almost a perfect ochre on the ventral 
portions. Adults are grayish brown or grisled on the back, a 
result of the Vandyke-brown hairs being tipped with light horn- 
color, the lower surface ochreous-yellow to yellowish white. — 
Females seem to have much less of the yellow or white on the 
ventral surface. 

The variations in coloration in individuals of approximately 
the same age seemed to be comparatively slight. In adults the 
-mystacial bristles vary from dark horn-color for the basal half 
and light horn or whitish for the remainder, to a clear light 
color for their entire length. They taper gradually to a remark- 
ably fine point, for a half-inch, in some specimens, being scarcely 

peace than a coarse human hair. 

_ The head is very large and prominent, having an extremely 
“brainy” appearance even for a Seal: quite belying its mental 

capacity, which seems to be very slight. This prominence is not 
so much on account of the size of the skull as because of the 
immense amount of muscle and flesh intervening between it and 
the skin. The whole body of the animal is very chunky. The 

bones are all deeply embedded in the flesh, over which, particu- 


1887] Votes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis, 261 


larly on the belly, lies a thick coating of fat. The eye of the 
adult is an index to its mental capacity, for so dull is it that in 
the first specimen observed I was much inclined to think that 
this organ was diseased. The pupil is medium-sized, round, and 
well defined, the iris is light reddish brown, in color, and with 
but little of the sclerotic coat showing. Over the cornea there 
appears a deadening film, giving it much the same appearance as 
a glass eye or marble that has been so much handled as to lose 
its polish. May not this lustreless eye arise from the strong 
reflection of a tropical sun upon the coral sands? Most seals 
have a peculiarly soft, intelligent eye. 

When lying with the head close to the ground, either in life 
or immediately after death, the shoulders appear more prominent 
than in any other seal with which we are familiar. 

The whole character of this seal is that of tropical inactiv- 
ity, exemplified by the peculiar circumstance that several of 
those collected had such a growth of minute alge upon their 

- backs and flippers, more especially the hinder ones, as to appear 
_ quite green. At no time does this seal raise its head as much 
above the line of its back as does the harbor seal: the flexibility 
of its cervical vertebrae appearing to be quite restricted. Upon 
first approaching them they appeared to have no dread whatever 
of the human presence, lazily looking at us, perhaps uneasily 
shifting their position, and then dozing off in restless sleep. 
Upon advancing to within three or four feet they would some- 
what rouse themselves, bark in a hoarse, gurgling, death-rattle 
tone, and uneasily hitch themselves along a few paces. At first 
the seals offered very little resistance, and only upon the second 
day of our stay, when they had become somewhat accustomed 
to our presence, and when we made an onslaught upon a group 
of several, did they show fight at all. On this occasion their 
numbers and their being huddled together seemed to give them 
courage, as well as making our attempts to kill them with clubs 
and daggers (we had early decided not to use firearms, because 
of the danger of frightening them away from such small islands) 
dangerous and more or less abortive. Not infrequently would 
they make savage rushes for a yard or two at some one of our 
attacking party, and failing to reap revenge upon us would fall — 
upon their dead or dying fellows, biting and shaking them in 
impotent rage; or occasionally two would engage each other in 


262 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis, [March 


savage conflict for a moment or two, the heavy gnashing of their 
teeth as their powerful jaws closed giving us a lively idea of how 
unpleasant it would be to fall within their reach. Nevertheless, 
the whole aspect of the animals was one of indecision. Instead 
of stampeding when molested, they only roused themselves to 
action upon being individually attacked.: As another illustration 
of their lack of intellectual acuteness, I may mention that on the 
following morning we found several seals that had “hauled up” 
during the night among the dead ones surrounded by skinned 
carcasses. 

In the water they showed no particular curiosity in regard to 
a boat or its occupants, a curiosity usually so very marked among 
seals, nor did they disport themselves in play as does the harbor 
seal. That they are generally peaceful is borne out by their ap- 
pearance, very few scars of combat being observed, and some of 
these not unlikely inflicted by the myriads of sharks surround- ` 
ing the islands. The contents of the stomachs of several were 
examined, but nothing except fluids were found, which gave no 
clue to their food. It undoubtedly consists largely of fish: one 
in captivity was fed on this food and appeared to thrive well. 
They are greatly infested with intestinal parasites several inches 
in length, that shortly after death swarm out of anus and vagina, 
dying as they reach the air. On land or in shallow water the 
seal progresses by drawing forward the hind parts, thus throw- 
ing the line of the back into a strong curve, then pitching itself 
forward on to its breast to again repeat the same action. 
distance covered is usually about a foot, the difference between 
the chord of the arc and the horizontal length between the fore 
and hind flippers; but when this movement is violent the seal 
throws itself forward with so much force as to somewhat over- 
shoot this. The appearance of one moving is much like that 
` of an “inch-worm,”—a continual bobbing up and down of the 
middle of the back. One was noticed that, when under consid- 
erable excitement, evidently forgot how to run, but lay on its 
belly trying to scull through the sand with its hind flippers as 
though it were in the water. 

On the 29th of November last a small seal was captured alive 
near the city of Campeche ; but as we were busy getting away we 
did not obtain it. On our return the purchaser tried to dispose 
of it to us for one thousand dollars! and on my departure for 


1887] Notes on the Life-Fistory of Monachus Tropicalis. 263 


the north still held it at two hundred dollars. It was difficult to 
glean any exact data from the inhabitants; but I am inclined to 
believe that the seal is quite uncommon on the coast. The high 
price asked for the young one, and the fact that it was here placed 
on exhibition and afterwards taken to Progresso for the same 
purpose, would seem to confirm this. 

About forty years ago, I am told, a vessel was wrecked at the 
Triangles, the captain and a negro, the only survivors, living 
upon seals and birds for six months before effecting their escape. 
Mr. W. B. Alexander, of Plymouth, Mass., writes me, under date 
of February 9, 1887, “In the spring of 1856 I was with Captain 
Lucas at the Triangles for a load of Mexican guano. I only saw 
two seals while there, which left the island in a hurry, so I can 
give you no information from personal knowledge, although there 
must have been great numbers there, by the skeletons, poor hides, 
etc. ; and some one must have carried on an extensive business in 
that line, for we made a grand bonfire of perhaps a hundred 
barrels of the remains.” 

Mr. F. A. Lucas writes me from the United States National 
Museum, February 2, 1887, “In the spring of 1856 my mother 
was at the Triangles, where my father, A. H. Lucas, had gone in 
the bark ‘ Edwin,’ of Charlestown, Mass., to seek guano. The 
young boobies were in downy plumage, and this is why I call it 
spring. My mother remembers seeing seals on the rocks, and 
seal-bones were found on the island.” 

Mr. Gosse, “ A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,” says that this 
seal has crimson irides, that “the hair prevails everywhere ex- 
cept on the palms of the flippers, which are bare,” and “the 
color of the body is an intense uniform black.” The first two 
points are evidently mistakes. The third is characteristic only of 
very young specimens of Monachus. Perhaps it is Gray’s Cysto- 
phora antillarum, a species concerning which I am very sceptical. 

But color seems to be a great stumbling-block with many. 
Mr. H. W. Elliott, usually so exact in description, in Science, vol. 
iv. pp. 752, 753, describes the specimen now in the National 

useum as “ intense ebony-black,” while Messrs. True and Lucas, 
in Smithsonian Report, 1884, Part II., p. 332,in describing the 
same specimen, say, “In our specimen the hairs of the back and 
hind flippers appear light at the tips, as if faded by age; but are 
dark sepia color or nearly black, except at the extremity.” 


264 Editors’ Table. {March 


It is surprising how this seal has lived for so long a time in 
such a frequently traversed part of the ocean as the Gulf of 
Mexico, surrounded as it is on all sides by populous cities, and 
yet should for nearly four hundred years remain all but unknown. 
Naturalists are usually particularly acute in searching out rare 
specimens; but by some peculiar combination of circumstances 
this seal has eluded the many scientific expeditions heretofore 
made to these waters. 

For a full description of this seal the reader is referred to the 
previously-mentioned bulletin of Professor Allen, to whose much 
more able hands this work peculiarly belongs, and to whom I 
have willingly resigned it. 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. 


WE most heartily approve the growing practice of using Eng- 
lish names for the various fungi, especially those which are of 
interest to us economically. Such fungi must be discussed over 
and over again in the journals of the day; they must be talked 
about by farmers, gardeners, stock-growers; they must be de- 
scribed by teachers and popular lecturers. A few of these spe- 
cies which are bound to have this publicity have scientific names 
which can be readily adopted into English speech ; but in the 
great majority of cases the scientific names cannot be used by 
the people, nor can they be in any way “anglicized” or modified 
into such forms as will bring them into every-day use. Thus, 
while the genus Bacterium has given us the accepted term Bac- 
teria for a group of organisms, the allied genus Saccharomyces 
has not been nor ever will be anglicized. Possibly Mucor may 
come into common use, but Entomophthora never will; nor will 
Phytophthora, Podosphzra, Sphzrotheca, Heop hasa, Ery- 
siphe, etc. Itis not too much to hope that gardeners will habit- 
ually speak of the “ Ramularia” of the strawberry, the “ Septoria” 
of the plum leaf, the “ Peronospora” of the grape-vine, but is any 
one rash enough to expect to hear our vineyardists speaking 
familiarly of the Physalospora (“ Black Rot”), the Cercospora 
€ Grape-leaf Blight’ ’), or the Phyllosticta (“ Grape-leaf Spot”)? 


1887] Editors’ Table. 265 


English names, or names which can be readily used by Eng- 
lish-speaking common people, must be devised by our writers 
upon the injurious fungi. But in order that confusion shall not 
arise among and be propagated by the botanists themselves, it 
is all-important that English names should be chosen with the 
greatest care. Several years ago this matter was talked over in 
the Botanical Club of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, and it was hoped that some good would come 
of it, but no report has yet been made by the committee then 
appointed. 

Let us have, before the confusion proceeds further, a clear un- 
derstanding among botanical writers as to the application of the- 
terms Blight, Mildew, Rust, Smut, Scab, etc. Let the fungi of 
certain orders bear certain English names. Let us say “the 
Rusts” for the Uredinez in general, and Wheat Rust, Maize Rust, 
Euphorbia Rust, Rush Rust, Bean Rust, etc., for the species. 
Let us no longer use the name “ Rust” for other fungi. It is 
doubtful whether the use of a modifying term ought to be en- 
couraged in the English names of groups, as, for example, the 
“Downy Mildews” for the Peronosporee, and the “ Powdery 

_Mildews” for the Perisporiaceze. This compels us to use terms 
like “ the Powdery Mildew of the Lilac,” “the Downy Mildew 
of the Grape,” etc., forms of expression which are not likely to 
become common. 

There is opportunity here for the exercise of considerable in- 
genuity among our students of the fungi. In constructing such 
English or anglicized names, that most excellent rule, “ Avoi 
very long names as well as those that are difficult to articulate” 
(Laws Bot. Nomen., Art. 36), should be strictly observed.— 

“ik. D. 


A Louisiana planter, according to the public press, is import- 
ing a load of rabbits from Australia, for the purpose of stocking 
a game-preserve with that animal. The extreme fecundity of 
this species (Lepus cuniculus) is well known, and in Australia its 

‘introduction from England has done incalculable harm to the 
agricultural interests. Hence the Louisiana enterprise is looked 
on with considerable anxiety by some persons. 

The prospective injury will depend on the management of his 

‘preserves by their owner. The Australian fauna is peculiar in 


266 Recent Literature. [March 


the absence of carnivorous mammalia, and hence the increase of 
rabbits, kangaroos, etc., has little natural check excepting that 
of deficient food-supply. In the United States the case is far 
different. Here the opossum, raccoon, several species of weasels, 
foxes, and cats furnish an effective restriction to the increase of 
any form of animal life sufficiently large to attract their atten- 
tion. If the keepers will permit the presence of these carnivora 
in the preserves there need be no fear of excessive increase of 
the rabbits, and quite a zoological porden might in this way be 
maintained. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Vines’s Physiology of Plants..—This important work has been 
before the scientific public for somewhat more than half a year, 
-and has in that time received the critical attention of most of the 
vegetable physiologists. It has already taken its place as an 
admirable cyclopedia of vegetable ee it from which the 
botanical lecturer can draw ad libitum in the preparation of his 
notes. This use of the book is much favored by its form, the 
various topics being treated in twenty-three “Lectures.” With 
the exception of the tables, which in some parts of the book are 
pretty freely used, there is ‘little in it to remind one of the usual 
text-boo e style i is eminently that of the lecturer before an 
audience, and, while it is pleasant to read, one cannot help think- 
ing that it might have all been given in the book in much less 
space. There is a notable absence of any indication of the scale 
upon which the figures are drawn in the illustrations, an over- 
sight which we attribute to the emphasis of the “ lecture” idea 

in the book. 


The general sequence of subjects may be understood from the 
headings of the successive chapters, as follows: the structure 


water in plants; transpiration, the food of plants; metabolism, 
growth, irritability, reproduction. In some cases several chapters 
or a are given to each topic; thus “irritability” is dis- 

cussed in seven lectures, covering 226 pages, or very pies one- 
third of the book. 

_ Ina work of this kind one may demand exactness of state- 
ment and a freedom from contradictions. It is puzzling to the 
reader to be told on page 22, that “in some cases it is evident 

1 Lectures on the by ca of Plants. By Sidney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc., 

F. ym the Univers Lecturer of Christ’s ren ego Cambridge, and Reader in Bot- 

% Wi 96 & ea oe niversity Press, 1 "B86, ph x., 710. 


1887] Geology and Palæontology.  - 267 


that the incrustation (on the surface 2 plants) has been formed 
by the evaporation of water holding e salt in solution, which 
had been excreted by the plant;” E ailé on page 60 it is said 


its mineral substances which it absorbs.” In the table on page 
106 the relative numbers of stomata upon the two surfaces of the 
leaf of the Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) are given as 100 for the 
upper, 150 for the lower surface, an error which is the more not- 
able from the fact that the figures in the following column (“rel- 
ative quantity of water transpired ”) lose their significance when 
brought into relation with the proper numbers (o for the upper, 
330 a ea mm. of the lower surface). 

On 99 we notice with pain the careless use of the word 
“bud, j in i spéakiiig of the one. of lichens. The use of words in 
this loose way in a scientific work can be productive of bad re- 
sults only. A bud is one sind: 6 a soredium is an entirely differ- 
ent thing. On pp. 602 and 603 we find another batch of loose 
statements, from the description of the mode of spore-formation 
in Bacillus to the remark that “the teleutospores of these fungi 
[Uredinez] are those which are formed in the autumn, at the 
close of the growing season 

In spite of these blemishes and a sig oe the book is one 
calculated to do much to elevate the botanical work of the 
schools and colleges, and we trust that in this country its spirit 
and influence may be abundantly felt.— Charles E. Bessey. 


GENERAL NOTES. 


GEOLOGY AND PALZZONTOLOGY. 


A Landslide at Brantford, Ontario, illustrating the Effects 

Thrusts upon Yielding Strata.—A landslide along the right 
bluff of the Grand River, about two miles southeast of Brant- 
ford, Ontario, which occurred at 6.45 P.M. of April 15, 1884, is 
worthy of notice as giving not only one of the best known illus- 
trations of the structure of the Erie Clay of Ontario, but as show- 
ing the physical effects upon a smaller scale of lateral thrusts 
upon yielding strata. 

At the point where the slide occurred the valley is about two 
miles wide, although some distance above and below it is much 
narrower. The sides of the valley rise about ninety feet above 
the flood piane which is ten feet above the usual surface of the 

river. upper twenty feet are composed of sandy Saugeen 
Clay (of Canadian geologists), in very thin regular beds, whilst 
the lower portion of the cliffs and that below the modern alluvium 


268 General Notes. [March 


consists of Erie Clay. None of the underlying rocks of the 

per Silurian series are exposed. Owing to weathering, the 
surfaces of the Erie Clay soon cease to show their stratification. 
But here, after the slide, the great hummocks and pyramids— 


thickness, easily splitting into slabs. The landslide, in this 
material, extended along the face of the bluff for seven hundred 
feet. A belt, eighty feet wide, was detached from the brow of 
the table-topped cliff, and in sinking sixty feet, caused the for- 


te 
po 


; bed of river; S, stones lifted by 
» grassy ] d forward; H, h 


r 
one hundred feet to one inch. 


Owing to the forward movement and reaction, the deposits of 
the Erie Clay have been raised into perfectly truncated anticlinal 
folds, which are composed of vertical strata more or less twisted. 
The vertical edges, where not concealed, are forty-four feet across, 
and on them—ten feet above the surface of the river—are resting 
the pebbles of the former bed of the stream now elevated i 


sloping surface, with the trees still standing, but sloping at 
angles from twenty-eight to thirty-five degrees from the perpen- 
- dicular towards the hill, as the present slope is that of a surface 

which formerly stood farther up the hill-side, at a higher angle. 


marked across the transporte grassy surface by a deep longitu- 
dinal fissure. The eastern end of the slide consists only of a 
confused mass of hummocks and pyramids. a 


b 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 269 


The landslide was due not to any undermining of the bluff, as 
the inclination of its lower part was at too low an angle, and the 
river two or three hundred feet away, but due to the hydrostatic 
pressure acting in the joints and along the smooth bedding of 


ratory experiment on plications, twistings,’and thrusts, as shown 
in folded schistose rocks of mountain regions.—/. W. Spencer, 
University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 


- Age of the Niagara River.—The visit in August last of the 
Geological Section of the American Association to St. David’s 
Valley,—adjacent to the Whirlpool of the Niagara River,—has 
drawn forth some notes upon this subject in the i issues of Science 
for September 3 3 and 10, 1886. 

In my various arietes bearing upon the origin of the Great 
Lakes,—the most recent of which appeared in “ Surface Geology 
of the Region about the Western End of Lake Ontario,” Cana- 
dian Naturalist, 1882, —after having shown that the deep west- 
ern end of Lake Ontario was due to subaerial erosion and streams, 
—among which was a great river flowing from the Erie Basin, 
with large tributaries from the highlands of the province of On- 
tario, cutting a cafion through the thick beds of limestones and 
shales of the Niagara escarpment to a depth of nearly one thou- 
sand feet—now partly submerged beneath Lake Ontario—and a 
width of over two miles,—I accounted for the drift-filled valley 
of St. David as being a portion of a channel of an interglacial 
Niagara River. 

Subsequent observations of Dr. Julius Pohlmann (Proc. A. A. 
A. S., 1882) show that the eastern end of the Erie Basin is due 
to erosion by streams,—some of whose channels are now deeply 
buried near Buffalo —which emptied into the Alleghany River, 
as it flowed northward from near Dunkirk, into the western end 
of Lake Ontario by the Dundas Valley. This great ancient 
water-way is now partly filled with drift, and is still more ob- 
scured by the warping of the rocks along the anticlinal between 
the two Great Lakes. 

Upon further examination it will be found that the St. David’s 
Valley is small, not only when compared with the great (Dundas) 
valley, —the old outlet of the Erie Basin, —but even with man 
other valleys cutting into the Niagara escarpment. Again, Pro- 
fessor Claypole’s observation that rocks are found beneath the 
talus at a considerable height along the sides (at least) of the 
ath valley at the Whirlpool, restriéts still more its. probable 

h. In short, the St. David’s Valley is inadequate for the 
drainage of a great basin like that of Lake Erie. | 


270 General Notes. [March 


eighty-three feet beneath the present surface of Lake Erie, whilst 
the adjacent ice-scratched bed of the Niagara River, at the Buf- 
falo International Bridge, is not more than forty-five feet beneath 
the lake surface. 

Consequently, it appears that the St. David’s Valley and such 
portions of the channel as those ice-scratched above the Whirl- 
pool which remain, represent only the water-course or water- 
courses of local drainage before the Ice Age. This being the 
case, the ancient river did not recede deeply into the Niagara es- 
carpment, and we are led to the conclusion that the cañon of the 
Niagara River, above the Whirlpool as below, is mostly of modern 
origin throughout, and not to any great extent an ancient drift- 

lled gorge, re-excavated since the Ice Age—% W. Spencer, 
University of Missouri, November, 1886. 


Palæontological Observations on the Taconic Limestones 
of Canaan, Columbia County, N. Y.'—These researches occu- 
pied a little more than two days in June of this year, and were 
made in continuation of those previously reported, with the 
following results : 

I. Thorough search was made in and around the farm of E. 
S. Hall, near Flatbrook, with the hope of finding in place the 
Trenton limestone which occufs here in large loose angular 
masses, filled with Solenopora (Chetetes) compacta and other 
minute corals. A ledge was found which may very likely con- 
tain altered nodules of this coral, but no positive evidence of its 
Presence was obtained. The fossiliferous masses may well have 
come from ledges concealed under the deep drift which covers 
this farm. 

II. An exceedingly interesting locality of richly fossiliferous 
limestone was discovered about two and a half miles to the north 
(of Hall’s farm. It is on the farm of Mr. Joseph Heminway, 
about a mile and a quarter northeasterly from the Canaan Four 
Corners Railway Station; it barely crops out at the surface, at 
the eastern foot of a very conspicuous limestone ledge lying im- 
mediately east of the farm buildings. Much of this rock is a 
mass of organic remains, most of which are finely comminuted 

~ nts of crinoid columns mixed with portions of mollusc 
shells. 
- Though presenting a somewhat different set of the larger — 
organisms, this stratum appears most probably identical with the 
fossiliferous limestone at the Canaan railroad tunnel, described 
in the American Journal of Science for April, 1886. The Hem- ' 

* Abstract of paper presented before the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, at Buffalo, August, 1886. 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 271 


inway outcrop is, however, much the richer in fossils, of which 
ste following have already been Keone : 
. Crinoidal fragments in vast number: 
z Fragments of lamellibranchs, pets of the genus Lyro- 
desma. 
= Gasteropods of several genera and species. One of these is 


‘diameter, and have six or seven whorls. They look exceedingly 
like Ophileta, but may prove on careful examination to be Heli- 
cotoma or Pleurotomaria. 

4. A single genal spine of a small trilobite 

There were open also, large calcareous slates, whose precise 
nature is not evi 

The general ad of these organic remains indicates very 
decidedly the post-Cambrian origin of the strata; while, in spite 
of the Ophileta-like appearance of some of the Gas asteropods, the 
presumption is strong that they belong to the Trenton epoch. 

Nore.—Subsequently to the presentation of the above paper, 
the continuation of these investigations at Canaan developed 
yet more important facts. In a limestone ledge on the Hemin- 
way farm, lying a little east of the fossiliferous outcrop above 
described, indications of Orthocerata were noticed; on following 
this outcrop northward a few hundred feet into the farm owned 
by Professor Charles Drown, quite a number of very interesting 
Orthocerata were discovered. These are finely preserved and dis- 
tinctly characterized, showing admirably the septa and siphons. 
One of these is very nearly one foot long, and its shell is quite 
cylindrical, since the taper is exceedingly gentle. The septa in^ 
all are quite frequent, about fifteen to twenty to the inch. A well 
defined lituite was also found here. 

ese Orthoceratites are of the same general m as those 

occurring at Rockdale, near Poughkeepsie, N. Y., which from 
their character, and from their associate fossils, I consider as 
belonging to the horizon at present known as the Calciferous. 

This, and the Trenton, therefore, appear to be associate com- 
ponents of the Canaan limestones —Wm. B. Dwight. 


MINERALOGY AND .PETROGRAPHY. 


Volcanic Bombs.—In view of the fact that the volcanic bombs 
of Monte Somma present such a large variety of beautifully crys- 
tallized minerals in druses, and further, that in the case of the 
limestone bombs these minerals may well be supposed to owe 
their origin to the action of the hot lavas on pieces of limestone 
torn from the walls of the vent through which the lavas reached 

z Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayzey, Madison, Wis. 


~ 


272. General Notes. [March 


the surface of the earth, it is a matter of’no little surprise that 
sections of these bombs have not been more thoroughly inves- 
tigated by means of the microscope and the other appliances 
now so generally made use of in the attempt to discover the 
origin of rocks and minerals. The most satisfactory article which 
has thus far appeared on this subject is that of Bruno Mierisch,* 
working under the supervision of Professor Zirkel at Leipzig. 
Eighty specimens of these bodies belonging to the collection of 
the University of Leipzig were examined. As might be expected, 
the results reached are exceedingly interesting. According to 
Mierisch the bombs may be divided into two great classes: (1) 
those consisting of broken pieces of older lavas, which are in- 
cluded in the younger lavas, and (2) the limestone or silicate 
bombs, in the druses of which the crystallized minerals, as men- 
tioned above, are found. It is to the latter class that the present 
writer confines his attention. This class can be subdivided into 
limestone bombs and silicate bombs, and the latter of these again 
into (1) those in which the minerals are zonally arranged, and (2) 
those in which this arrangement is wanting. Under the micro- 
scope the limestone bombs are seen to consist of grains of cal- 
cite and an olivine mineral, which analysis proves to be forsterite, 
—the pure magnesium oliyine. A noteworthy fact in this con- 
nection is the entire absence of even a trace of calcium in the 
forsterite, and the existence of the merest trace of magnesium 
in the closely-associated calcite. When druses occur in these 


occurring in them, and describes in detail its appearance, micro- 
scopical characteristics and associations. Here again we find 


most important of which can be noticed. In the calcite of the 
limestone bombs glass inclusions were detected. These, accord- 


ing to the author, cannot be considered as secondary in origin, 


because not a trace of glass was detected in the ground-mass 
of any section examined. Consequently the calcite must have 
*Tschermak’s Min, u. Petrogr., Mitth. viii, 1886, P> 114. 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. a 


included these in its crystallization from a molten magma. Por- 
phyritic biotite crystals were seen to be surrounded by a rim of 
little augite crystals, evidently an alteration product, since in the 
immediate vicinity of the augite the biotite was bleached. In 
the olivine, fluid inclusions containing crystals of salt were 
detected. In some of the hauyne crystals inclusions of pyrrho- 
tite were observed. It was noticed that as decomposition of 
these inclusions proceeded the substance of the hauyne became 
ofa deeper blue color. The inference drawn by the author is to 
the effect that the sulphur freed by this decomposition is the 
agent which produces the blue coloration.’ 


Petrographical News.—About a year ago reference was made 
in these notes to the.work of Hatch? on the andesites of Peru. 
The same author has continued his work, and now appears with 
a paper? on the rocks of the volcanoes in the neighborhood of 
Arequipa, a town in the southern part of Peru, about twenty 
miles from the Pacific coast. These rocks consist of andesites 
in all varieties, from the typical hornblende andesite, through in- 
termediate varieties, to the rock containing augite as its only bi- 
silicate constituent. Hypersthene occurs very widespread in the 
lavas of all the volcanoes in this region. Particular pains were 
taken to identify this mineral in a manner to preclude the possi- 
bility of error, and it was found that the only reliable means of 
distinguishing it from monoclinic augite consisted in the deter- 
mination of the position of the optical axes. In almost every 
case where hornblende was present it was found to be surrounded 
by an opacitic rim, outside of which was occasionally seen a 
second rim of augite microlites. The high percentage of silica 
noticed in certain of the specimens was proven to be due to the 
silicification of the rock by the impregnation of its constituents 


opal.The Ponza Islands, off the west coast of Italy, are 
comprised 4 principally of trachytes, rhyolites, and tufas. An 
interesting point in connection with the trachyte of the island 


of Ponza is the occurrence of olivine in it. Glaucophane is sup- 
posed to occur in that of San Stefano. The tufas contain peb- 
bles and pieces of quartz in addition to the broken crystals of 
various minerals. The ground-mass of the quartz trachyte from 
San Pietro,5 off the southwest coast of Sardinia, consists of chal- 
cedonic substance, in which are grouped little fibres of chalcedony 
in radial apie wae Rhyolite, obsidian, and perlite are also 
found there.——In the diabase porphyrite from Petrosawodsk,® 
in Russia, about = ued miles northeast of St. Ponerinae 
the porphyritic feldspar crystals are composed of parallel growths 

1 E Mi er Ueber natiirliche oo enue ag mn aa 

American N Er February, 1 t. 
i aait u. Petrog., Mittheil. vii., 1886, p. 308. ; 
4 F. Eigel, pi viii., 1886, P 73: s Ib., p. 62. 6 Ç. v. Vogdt, ib., ps tor. 


274 General Notes. ` [March 


of oligoclase, labradorite, and orthoclase. These crystals, more- 
over, have undergone an unusual alteration into an aggregate of 
colorless prismatic needles of a uniaxial mineral, which occur 
either radially grouped or scattered indiscriminately in the mass 
of their otherwise apparently unaltered host. Their nature 
could not be determined, but an analysis showed that the altera- 
tion is attended with loss of silica and potassium and addition of 
aluminium. The ground-mass of the rock contains numerous 
little plagioclase ‘crystals and grains of epidote, which v. Vogdt 
thinks were derived from the substance of the ground-mass by 
—Certain conglomeratic, granitic, 


Mr. Hicks? thinks are pre-Cambrian in age, have recently been 
described by Bonney.” The so-called felsites from Trefgarn are, 
according to this author, halleflintas of volcanic origin, consist- 
ing of acid lavas and their associated ashes, which have been 
permeated by hot water, containing silica in solution, and have © 
thus been silicified by the replacement of their feldspathic c con- 
stituents by chalcedonic quartz. The greenstones of St. Min- 
ver, Cornwall, have been separated by Rutley3 into two distinct 
varieties. The first embraces those rocks which were once 


position with the production of bands and “small knots” of 
felsitic material, separated by bands of serpentine or palagonite. 
In the felsitic portion are small circular and lenticular areas o 
quartz and serpentine, which the author regards as the fillings 
of original vesicles. The second class described is of much | 
fresher rocks. These contain large areas of augite, polarizing 
as a single individual, in which are included small crystals of 
plagioclase. [This same structure has been described frequently 
y American petrographers* under the term “ lustre-mottling 
(Pumpelly and Irving) and “ poicilitic structure” (Williams).] 
Aggregates of augite, peace ilmenite, and a few accessory 
and secondary minerals make up the entire rock. The author 
calls it an augite-andesite. ser an appendix toan article by Mr. 
Durham 5 on the volcanic rocks of Fife, Professor Judd describes 
altered augite and enstatite andesites, in which the porphyritic 
pyroxene crystals occur in groups, and also porphyritic and per- 
litic mica-dacite glasses. In the base of the latter feldspar micro- 
_ lites and trichites are arranged in flowage lines. When heated 
before the blow-pipe a splinter of this rock lost 8.9 per cent. of 
its weight, and attained a bulk eight or ten times as great as that 
of the original fragment, producing a pumice which readily 
floated on water. The author concludes his paper with a dis- 


. E i Goi. 
5 Quart. Jour. Geol. . Soc., August, 1886, p. 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 275 


cussion of the several stages in the alteration of pyroxene ande- 
sites, as illustrated by the specimens examined. In the case of 
the mica-dacite glasses, alteration begins along the perlitic cracks, 
when it produces globiform masses, and then gradually extends 
outward until the entire body of the rock becomes white and 
opaque and appears to be isotropic. The author thinks that this 
alteration product may be a hydrated acid glass, corresponding to 
the palagonite of basic rocks. In a recent article in which are 


In a letter to the Neues Jahrbuch 
Sir Mineralogie, Siemiradski? describes three anorthite rocks from 
the island of St. Thomas, one of the Antilles. One is a corsite 
with a ground-mass saturated with secondary opal, which has 
been produced by the decomposition of the other constituents. 
The other two are dyke rocks cutting the corsite. They can be 
best characterized as altered anorthite andesites. 


Mineralogical News.—The optical investigations of Lange- 
mann 3 on harmotome, phillipsite, and stilbite seem to indicate that 


the plane P% produce eightlings, with a quadratic symmetry; 
and, finally (3), three eightlings with oo P as their twinning plane 
yield twenty-fourlings with a regular symmetry.——By observing 


mineral is like that of cuprite and salammoniac, in the gyroidal 
hemihedral division of the regular system. The bromide and 
the iodide of potassium crystallize similarly. n a late num- 
ber of the fourth Beilage Band of the Neues Fahrbuch fir 
Mineralogie H. Schedtler5 has an elaborate paper on the thermo- 
electrical relations of tourmaline. The paper opens with an his- 
torical introduction to the subject, in which the results of many 
earlier investigations are given. Then follow descriptions of 
the methods in use for the detection of electricity in minerals, 
and some general considerations, after which the author de- 
scribes his own results based upon the examination of sixty- 


1 Min, u. Petrogr., Mitth. viii., 1886, p. 1. 
2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1886, ii. p. 175. 
3 Ib., p- 83. a ID., Vol, i Ds 234; 
s Ib., Beil. Band iv., 1886, p. 519. 

VOL, XXI.—NO. 3» 19 


276 General Notes. [March 


seven crystals, from almost every known locality in which this 
mineral is found. These results are embraced under fifteen heads. 
Under one of these he states that the electrical activity is greater 
in the green, brown, and red crystals than it is in black or color- 
less ones; and that the black crystals often show no electrical 
phenomena, but, on the other hand, are conductors of electricity. 
——The same subject has been treated in a paper by E. Riecke in 
the Annalen der Physik und Chemie. In his study of Brazilian 
topaz K. Mack? has found that-the electrical axis does not cor- 
respond to any crystallographic axis, and that in cases where the 
crystallographic axis does not exactly bisect the optical angle, 
this anomaly is accompanied by abnormal extinctions in the 
plane of the optical axes. 


BOTANY.: 


The Study of Plant Diseases.—Although the fungi them- 
selves have been studied in this country for many years, the dis- 
eases they produce have hitherto received little attention. One 


colleges and agricultural departments of colleges in the United 


usual thing to find professors teaching botany whose knowledge 
of the subject stops short of the.ability to handle the Compositæ. 
The Grasses and Sedges, to them, are little better than “ Crypto- 
gams,” and as to the latter, they are simply Cryptogams. From 
such botanists no study of plant diseases need be expected, 
Two recent publications ought to direct the attention of our 
botanists to this much-neglected field. Mr. Arthur's report, 
as botanist of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, 
N. Y., shows where and how good work may be done by those 


= 5 any 

the pages treating of the Pear Blight, and he cannot help feeling 

that the work there recorded is of a much higher order than that 
2 No. 5, 1886, p. 43... 2 Annalen der Physik und i Aa 
TaS PO ead E Eeay Ph nd Chemie, No. 6, 1886, p. 153 


P E 


kd 


7 1887] - Botany. : 277 


usually considered as belonging to the botanist. The work here 
“recorded is entitled to be called strictly scientific. 

` The second publication is Mr. F. L. Scribner's “ Fungus 
Diseases of the Grapevine,” issued by the Department of Agri- 
culture at Washington, D. C. Its principal contents are the 
Downy Mildew (Peronospora viticola), Powdery Mildew (Un- 
cinula spiralis), Black Rot (Physalospora bidwilltt), Anthracnose 
(Sphaceloma ampelineum), Grape-leaf Blight (Cercospora viticola), 
Grape-leaf Spot (Phyllosticta labrusceé). Some good plates ac- 
company the text, and add much to its value. As with the pre- 
ceding report, this one ought to show our younger botanists 
that there is an opportunity for them to do good work in botany 
even.—Charles E. Bessey. 


Vegetable Pathology.—Agriculture demands of botany a 
knowledge of the pathology of vegetation. It is not enough 
that the normal action of all parts of the plant should be under- 
stood; the abnormal and diseased actions must also be con- 
sidered. Unfortunately, the world is full of accidents, of noisome 
gases, of poisonous liquids, of freezing or scorching temperatures, 
of harmful insects, and of destructive fungi. The plant which is 
more or less affected by one or all of these is not the normal 
plant of the vegetable physiologist. The vegetable pathologist 
must build his science upon that of his fellow-worker in vegeta- 
ble physiology, and the results of the labor of both must be laid 

ore modern agriculture for its use. That botany which hopes 
to satisfy the demands of the advanced agriculture of to-day 
must include a knowledge of pathology.—Proc. Soc. Jor Promotion ` 

PrE Set. 


has been divided, and a new genus, Macrophoma, has been 
erected by Doctors Berlese and Voglino (Atti della Societa Veneto- 
Trentina di Scienze Naturali, vol. x.). The new genus also in- 
cludes species formerly referred to Sphæropsis and Sphæronema. 
- Ninety-nine species are enumerated, twenty-one of which are 


loge bring up the number of species to the following, viz.: 
Pyrenomyceteæ, 7564; Sphæropsideæ, 4078 ; Melanconiez, 606; 
Hyphomycetez, 3664; making a grand total of 15,912 species. 

A recent paper on Certain Cultures of Gymnosporangium, 
with notes on their Ræsteliæ, presented by Roland Thaxter to 


once 


278 General Notes, [March 


the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, contains much of 
interest to the mycologist. As a result of these cultures the 
author of the paper concludes to connect the species of Gym- 


cornuta ; G. claviceps, with R. aurantiaca ; G. clavarieforme, with 


Reestelia of G. globosum is still left in doubt——H. N. Patterson, 
of Oquawka, Ill., has brought out a handy check-list of North 
American Plants, including Mexican species which approach the 
United States boundary. It will prove very serviceable. 
Cooke’s “ British Desmids” has reached the seventh number, 
and continues to maintain its high character. When completed 
it will form an excellent companion volume to Wolle’s “ Desmids 
of the United States.” Part III. of Macoun’s “ Catalogue of 
Canadian Plants” is devoted to the Apetale, including the 


and corrections to Parts I. and II., while a very full index com- 
pletes the volume. The publication is creditable to the Geolog- 
ical and Natural History Survey of Canada. It is to be hoped 
that the work will be continued. The Eriogonous genus Las- 
tarriæa Remy, has lately been studied by Dr. Parry, who con- 

rms its generic rank. Three species are characterized. viz.: 


a 

America; L. stricta Philippi, ined., from Chili; Z. Znearis Philippi, 
ined., Chili——An interesting paper, by Thomas Meehan, on 
the Fertilization of Cassia marilandica, received some time ago, 
as been noticed before-in these pages. The author found that 
not a single seed was produced when the flower was protected 


need of a revision of the Ranunculi, the statement is made that 
“almost half a century ago the North American species of Ra- 
nunculus, as then known, were hastily compiled for Torrey and 
Gray’s Flora, with very little knowledge of original materials; 
and they have not been elaborated since.” Numbers 146 and 


fully in these pages hereafter-—-The Gardeners’ Chronicle 


ee 


ee a te er ee ae 


XIII. 


PLATE 


— š aAa 
GLEE, 
Lge 


77 


<a 


ORGANS OF SMELL IN INSECTS. 


1887] _ Entomology. : 279 


(London) has been reduced in price, now costing American 
subscribers about $4.60. The pages have been reduced slightly 
in size, and some changes have been made in the type and head- 
ing. This valuable journal (to botanists as well as to horticultu- 
rists) now enters upon its third series. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Hauser on the Organs of Smell in Insects.'—Although 
Hauser’s researches have been published in Germany several 
years, they were so carefully made and conclusive that our 
readers will, we feel sure, be glad to have laid before them in 
detail the facts which prove so satisfactorily that the antennz of 
most insects are olfactory rather than auditory in their functions. 
Kraepelin in 1883 confirmed Hauser’s views, and recently Will 
has published an excellent paper on the organs of taste in insects, 
especially wasps, etc., so that our knowledge of the senses of 

rthropoda has been ‘greatly extended and cleared up within the 
last few years. It now appears that few insects are known to 
have genuine ears, those of the locusts and grasshoppers being 
alone proved to be auditory organs. It appears that most insects 
(the ~ cea gino ones excepted) are probably deaf, while 
nearly all e very acute senses of smell, taste, aA touch. 

That Erien insects possess an unusually acute sense of smell no 
naturalist disputes. A point in debate, however, is the site of 
the organ of cine in these animals. The author attempts to 
settle the questio 

I. Physi sligical: Experiments. —First of all one should observe 
as exactly as possible the normal animal in its relation to certain 
smelling substances, whose fumes possess no corrosive power or 
peculiarities interfering with respiration ; then remove the antenna 
and try after several days to ascertain what changes have taken 
place in the relation of the animal to the substance. In order to 
come to no false results it is often necessary to let the animals 
operated upon rest one or two days, for immediately after the 
operation ae are generally so restless that a careful experiment 
is impossi 

e Patpa of the antennæ is borne by different insects in 
different ways; many bear it very easily, and can live for months 


afforded a very striking proof of this relation. 
Experiments made by placing the antennæ in liquid paraffine 
so as to cover them with a layer of paraffine, thus excluding the 
air, gave the same result as if the antenne had been removed. 
t Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaft. Zoologie, xxxiv., 1880. Three plates. 


$ 


280 ° , General Notes. [March 


The experiments may be divided, according to their object, 
into three groups. Experiments of the first kind were made on 
insects in their relation to strong-smelling substances, as turpen- 

tine, carbolic acid, etc., before and after extirpation of the 
- antennæ. i 


the antenne. 

1. Relation of insects to smelling substances before and after the 
loss of their antenne—Taking a glass rod dipped in carbolic 
acid and holding it within 10 cm. of Philonthus eneus, found 
under stones at the end of February, it raised its head, turned it 
in different directions, and kept making lively movements with 
its antennz. But scarcely had Hauser placed the rod close to it 
when it started back as if frightened, made a sudden turn, and 
rushed, extremely disturbed, in the opposite direction. When he 
removed the glass rod the creature busied itself for some time 
with its antenne, while it drew them, with the aid of its fore 
limbs, through its mouth, although they had not come into 
direct contact with the carbolic acid. There was the same reac- 
tion against oil of turpentine, and it was still more violent against 


After having many times carefully tested the relations of the 
normal animal to the substances mentioned, the antennze were 
removed from the socket-cavity. 

n the second day after eae experimented with the in- 


though he held the glass rod which had been dipped into it for 
one or two minutes before and over the head. The creatures re- 
mained riser: quiet and immovable, at the most slightly 
moving the palpi. 
ey showed otherwise no change in their mode of life and 
their demeanor; they ate with great eagerness flesh which had 
been placed before them, or dead’insects, and some were as active 
as usual as late as May 
ese beetles had, ~ proved by the E REET lost the sense 
of smell alone; how far the sense of touch was lost Hauser could 
not experimentally decide. 
The same results followed experiments with species of the 
genus Ptinus, Tenebrio, Ichneumon, Formica, Vespa, Tenthredo, 
turnia, Vanessa, and Smerinthus; also many species of Dip- 
tera and Orthoptera, besides Julus an and Lithobius, while many 
larve reacted in the same manner. 
SS Pypenescak eai the experiments with Carabus, Melolon- 
tha, and Silpha; there is no doubt that the species of er 
, pae through the extirpation of their antennæ, become m 


1887] _ Entomology. 281 


or less injured as to the acuteness of their powers of smelling; 
but they never sie themselves wholly unable to perceive strong- 
smelling substanc 

The pliewenient: of the substance acts for a longer time on 
those deprived of ‘their antennz, then they become restless, then 
_ they wander away from the glass tube held before them ; still all 
their movements are but slightly energetic, and the entire reac- 
tion is indeterminate and enfeebled. 

Experiments with the Hemiptera gave still more unfavorable 
results; after the loss of their antennæ they reacted to smells as 
: eagerly as those did which were uninjured. 

. Experiments on the use of the antenne in seeking for food—- 
Under this head experiments were made with Silpha, Sarcophaga, 
Calliphora, and Cynomyia. 

ilpha and its larva were treated in the following manner: 


long as the beetles were in possession of their antennz they in- 
variably after a while discovered the meat exposed in the bottle, 
while after the loss of their antennz they did not come in con- 
tact with it. 

In a similar way acted the species of Sarcophaga, Calliphora, and 
Cynomyia. Hauser, in experimenting with these, placed a dish 
with a large piece of decayed flesh on his writing-table. In a 
short time specimens of the flies referred to entered through the 
open window of the room. The oftener he drove them away 
from the meat would they swarm thickly upon it. Then closing 
the window and catching all the flies, he deprived them of their 
antennz and again set them free. They flew about the room, 
but none settled upon the flesh nor tried to approach it. Where 
a fly had alighted on a curtain or other object, the decayed flesh 
was placed under it so that the full force of the effluvium shou 
pass over it, but even then no fly would settle upon it. 

3. Experiments ‘testing the influence of the antenne of the males 
in “stein the. females——For this purpose Hauser chose those 
kinds in which the male antennz differ in secondary sexual char- 
acters from those of the female, and in which it is known tha 
; ~ readily couple in confinement, as Saturnia pavonia, Ocneria 
dispar, and Melolontha vulgaris. The two first-named insects did 

not couple after the extirpation of their antenna. Of Melolontha 
` vulgaris twenty pairs were placed in a moderately-sized box. 
On the next morning twelve pairs of them were found coupling. 
Hauser then, after removing the first lot, placed a new set o 
thirty pairs in the same box, cut off all the antennz of the males 
and those of a number of females. On the following morning 
only four pairs were found coupling, and at the end of three days 
five others were observed sexually united. 


282 _ General Notes. [March 


From these experiments Hauser inferred that those insects de- 
prived of their antennæ were placed in the most f: ble situation, 
such as they would not find in freedom; for the space in which 
the insects moved about was so limited that the males and females 
must of necessity meet. But at the same time the results of the 
experiments cannot absolutely be regarded as proving that the 
males, after the loss of their antennæ, were then not in condition 
to find the females, because in the case of the above-mentioned 
moths, under similar conditions, after the extirpation of the an- 
tennz no sexual union took place. If, however, the experiments 
made do not all lead to the results desired, Hauser thinks that 
the results agree with those of his histological researches, that in 
the greater number of insects the sense of smell has its seat in 
the antennz. His results also agree with those of Perris. 

TI. Histological Researches on the Organs of Smell in Insects — 
The organs of smell consist, in insects,—z.¢., all Orthoptera, Pseu- 
doneuroptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera, also in most Lepidop- 
tera, Neuroptera, and Coleoptera,— 

I. Of a thick nerve arising from the brain which is sent into 
the antenne. 

2. Of a sensitive apparatus at the end, which consists of staff- 
like cells, which are modified hypodermis cells, with which the 
fibres of the nerves connect. 

3. Of a supporting and accessory apparatus, consisting of pits, 
or peg- or tooth-like projections filled with a serous fluid, and 
which may be regarded as invaginations and outgrowths of the 
epidermis. 

Hauser adds a remark on the distribution of the pits and teeth 


* Hauser here uses the word taster, but this means us or feeler, It is prob- 
sey a pr i aes for teeth ( Xegel). ae 
1870 I obs i these sense-pits in the ant 


papie al eh I ER Y 


PA. 


~ 


tay, 


i} 


N9 

3B 

JNS 
ANV 


Dm rs LA 
WD 
p-- à LSS SS 
UD < Ss 
LL 


SES 


ORGANS OF SMELL IN INSECTS. 


1887]. Entomology. 283 


but on each joint, except the eight basal, there are about two 
hundred smali, hollow-curved teeth with a fine opening in front. 

In the Neuroptera (Chrysopa) there occur on the antennz, be- 
sides numerous very long tacir bristles, small pale, transparent: 
teeth. No pits could be detec 

In the Hemiptera (two ais of Pyrrhocoris only were ex- 
amined) only two kinds of tactile bristles occurred, but Hauser 
detected no pits, though Lespés states that they are present. 

Of iptera, Hauser examined more than sixty species. 
The pits in the Diptera brachycera (Muscide, etc.) are unexcep- 
tionally confined to the third antennal joint. Their number varies 


sesses two hundred of them. In flies of certain families the pits 
are compound and contain ten, twenty, and often one hundred 
olfactory hairs, partly arising from the coalescence of several pits. 
Such pits are usually divided by lateral walls into several cham- 
bers, whose connection is only indicated by their common outlet. 
Simple olfactory pits with a single olfactory style were observed 


also occur compound pits, receiving from two to ten nerve-termi- 
nations. 
The antennal pits of flies are always sac-like invaginations of 


ns 
(Fig. 2) is described at length as typical of those of brachycer- 
ous flies in general. 

The olfactory pits of the Tipulidæ seem to have a somewhat 
different structure, since the external passage is closed. It is cir- 
cular, surrounded with a slight chitinous wall and not covered 
with bristles. Such pits in their external appearance are like 
those of the locust (Caloptenus) and many Hymenoptera. They 
are situated usually on ihe third antennal joint. Pachyrhina pe 
tensis L. has about sixty of them, as have Tipula oleracea L. an 
Ctenophora. 

In the Lepidoptera, olfactory pits are much like those of flies. 
Hauser Jo in detail those of Vanessa io. Those of the 
moths were not examined, but they can be acd and satis- 
Betori. proved to be the site of the olfactory sense 

appendages dai a: of the cockroach (Periplaneta americana). I counted about 
ninety pits on eac ca stylet. They are much larger and much more numerous: than 
similar pits in antennæ of the same insect. compared them to similar pits in 


ing than hearing. in the pal . NAT., iv., Dec. 1870.) Organs of smell in the flies 
Epa aaea and in palpi, both labial and maxillary, of Perla were described in 
A. SP. 


284 General Notes. [March 


Historical researches in the Coleoptera generally gave a very 
unfavorable result, contrary to Lespés’s views. That author states 
that in the Carabidz the pits are found on the four first joints, 
but Hauser could discover them in none which he examined. 
Usually only tactile bristles occur, so also in the Cerambycide, 
Curculionide, Chrysomelidz, and Cantharide. 

Olfactory pits, however, without doubt occur in Silpha, Necro- 


small pits occur irregularly on the terminal joints; besides, in 
this species on each side of the terminal joint is an apparatus, 
which is like the compound pit generally occurring in the Dip- 
era 


Very remarkable pits occur in the anténnal lamellae of Melo- 
lontha vulgaris and other Lamellicorns. Only on the outer sur- 


teeth descri in Chrysopa. Similar teeth occur on the max- 
illary and labial palpi of beetles. Dytiscus marginalis possesses 
at the end of each terminal palpal joint a group of very small 


lontha vulgaris, etc. In Carabus violascens were detected on 
the maxillary palpi large, plainly microscopical, white disks 
ses a are surrounded with a great number of extremely small 
teeth. 

_ Whether the above-described organs on the palpi of beetles — 
should be considered as olfactory or gustatory in their nature 


& 


1887] Entomology. | 285 


can only be determined by means of sate experiments ; 
they pad receive taste-nerve termin 
e pe furnished vay tae pear for histologi- 


between thirteen thousand and fourteen thousand olfactory pits 
and about seven hundred teeth (Kegel). Fig. 6 represents a 
cross-section through the penultimate antemi joint of Vespa 
crabro; we can see how thick are the series of openings on the 
surface of the antennæ, and how regular is the distribution of 
the teeth. 

The distribution of the olfactory pits and olfactory teeth is 
thus seen to be very general; the deviations are so insignificant 
that there is no reason for the establishment of more than one 


X 
A earal pits with a small crevice-like opening occur in genera 
etA allied to Vespa and also in most Ichneumonidæ, Braconidæ, 
sand Cynipidæ. But the crevice- sais openings in these families 
are Eoasidershly longer and often are of a somewhat twisted 
shape. In all the species with Hansard antennz we can recog- 


pits of Apis mellifica, as well as those of Bombus and allied 
genera, differ from those T the Ichneumonidz in being not like 
crevices, but circular open 

The distribution ‘of the scsi peg or tooth-like projections 
(Kegel) seems to be much more limited than that of the pits in 
the Ichneumonide. Hauser could not find any. Apis mellifica 
possesses on each antennal joint only about twenty slender pale 
teeth, scarcely a third as many as in Vespa crabro; on the other 
hand Formica, of which genus several species were examined, 
seems to have far more teeth than pits ; they are relatively long, 


openings, which led into a bottle-shaped invagination of the in- 
tegument and contained an olfactory style. In the Tenthre- 
dinidz only teeth and no pits were to be detected. Sirex has on 
the under side of the nine last joints of each antenna a group of 
from two hundred to three hundred small teeth, which resemble 
those of Vespa sig Lyda has on the terminal joints: about 
one hundred teeth 

The author then discusses these facts from the Darwinian 


286 General Notes. [March 


point of view. His views we may present in a subsequent 
number of this magazine.—A. S. Packard. 


EXPLANATION OF, THE FIGURES. 


Ler G.—a, a, circular thickening oft the skin wing do, the ae - the 
elaine sats ax, thread-like continuation of the nerve-cell; 4, vesicle-like bottom of 


z, entrance into pe canal PE to the pit; , olfactory membrane; m, m”, mc. 
membrane-forming cell; 2, nerve of special sense; nc, nucleus of pek sense- or gan- 
glion-cell; 0, opening into the olfactory pit ; Ż, olfactory pit; cf, compound gel 
pw, wall of the pit; s, a large seta; sc, sense- or ganglion-cell; i olfactory o 
senyen, sometimes peg-shaped ; artile bristle. 

a 


Fic. Ifactory organ of Calop 
Fic. $ Longi tudi nal section through the third antennal See a a fly (Cyrto- 
—— a tabula), showing the compound m above and in 


pits fro 
. Vertical ners through a single en arbe pit in the pe uada of the horse- 
fly (Tabs bov. 
G. 4. Amai pit of Melolontha vulgaris, seen in vertical section. 
Fi = 5- Section through an olfactory pit of Vespa crabro. 
G. 6. Section through gia joint of Vespa crabro, showing the great number 
Olfactory pits of ha aiten a of Melolontha eo ata 
Fie. 8. Olfactory pits of the sion of Stenobothru 


tise mt melanie! pits of the antenna of Bombus. Fics. 7-11, after Kraepelin. 
2. Organ of smell of Anophthalmus. After Hauser. 


ZOOLOGY. 


Notes on the Larger Florida Planorbe es.—Having occasion 
lately to examine a number of Planorbes from Florida, I noticed 


give the species. I give below notes on all the species I have 
received from the State. 
Planorbis trivolvis Sa 


this species from several Pacific coast localities I found it 
- abundant and typical in eee Texas. It has, thus, a range 
. trivoluis. 


P. tumidus Pfr. is not an uncommon species in the peninsula, 
_ though hitherto overlooked, probably confused with (rit ted or 
— Mesi 


species in some characters, rom t the Aher known Planorbes, 
glabratus is quite distinct. ` Distribution probably the same as 
shy tumidus, but decidedly local, according to the information 


P daryi Waha k a is a form widely spread and apparently 


PLATE XV. 


hh 


AG 


ORGANS OF SMELL IN INSECTS. 


“ 


1887] oe Zoology. 287 


abundant in the peninsula, but usually zof rightly nára in cabi- 
nets. It varies greatly in form from typical duryi, which is four- 
whorled, carinated above to the aperture, and has only a fraction 
over one whorl visible on base, to a flatter, more discoidal form 


glabratus Say. Other specimens have the whorl ascending at 
aperture, and, as Say would put it, “labrum horizontally sub- 
rectilinear.” This form is usually marked “ dentus Say” in col- 
lections, sometimes “ corpulentus Say,” but the solidity, polished 
surface, etc., at once separate duryz in all its varieties from these 
shells and from zrivolvis Say. Somewhat malleated specimens 
are also found, and the uptilting of inner whorls mentioned in 
Wetherby’s description is a not uncommon variation in the typi- 
cal form. This species is ae on one hand to g/abratus Say, 
and in other characters approa 

P. scalaris Jay,—a snail which | is placed in a different genus 
by nearly every author who mentions it. After figuring in Palu- 
dina, in Physa, and in the exotic genus Ameria, it may finall 
be located in the Helisoma" section of Cusco: wtth all the fore- 
going species. Although the resemblance of P. scalaris to the 
young of normal Planorbis is quite marked it is probably not 
in any trye sense a case of persistence o f embryonic characters. 
Its derivation from some such discoidal species as the P. duryi is 
more likely.— Harry A. Pilsbry. 


Is Littorina litorea Introduced or Indigenous ?—In regard 
to the question as to whether Littorina litorea is introduced or in- 
digenous, Dr. Dawson has informed the writer of the article on 


sbly earlier. Dr. Dawson says, Torther, that Z. Ltorea “ is and 
has long been widely distributed in Northumberland Strait and 
its vicinity, and that specimens authenticating this may be found 
ey ~~ collections in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill Uni- 
rsity.” Dr. Dawson believes, from its wide distribution so far 
naire that “it is a — and probably aboriginal member of. 
the fauna of Acadi 
It is with great diffidence that the writer ventures to disagree 
with so thorough a student of these matters as Dr. Dawson. 
But he is unable to see that anything is proven by this new ad- 
dition to our knowledge of the distribution of the shell, except 
that it Ated ppor our shores earlier a more wey spread than 


di 
al large American species which have thei inner pias of pine sharply 
Ba, ba the la whether the a be rounded or angular in the adult. „All the 
F placed in the typical section of Planorbis in Land and Fresh-Water Shells, 
Il., except Aavanensis and liebmanni, which I have elsewhere shown to belong 
in Segmentina, and Subcrenatus Cpr., belong in the section Helisoma. 


288 General Notes. [March 


we supposed. We cannot perceive that it affects the evidence 
tending to show that it has been introduced.— W. F. Ganong. 


Development of Alpheus.—Mr. F. H. Herrick contributes to 
No. 54 of the Circulars of Johns Hopkins University an ac- 
count of his researches on the development of several species of 
the shrimp Alpheus. There is a small cup-shaped gastrula, and 
the early rudiments of the embryo have a V-shaped outline, the 
base of the V being formed by the rudimentary abdomen. The 
three nauplius appendages appear nearly simultaneously, and 
the upper lip grows out between the first and second antenne. 
The later history of the eyes is traced, but the optic invagination 
described by Reichenbach in Astacus and Kingsley in Crangon 
was not noticed. 


-Sea Isopoda.—In the 77 SP of the Zoological So- 
Se (vol. xii. pp. 77-141, pls. 16-27, 1886) the Rev. A. M. Nor 
man and the Rev. T. R. R. Stibbing enumerate and describe ihe 
deep-sea Isopoda of the families Apseudidæ, Tanaidæ, and An- 
thuridæ, which have been taken by the recent English ‘dredging 
expeditions in the “ Lightning,” “ Valorous,” and “ Porcupine.” 
In all, twenty-six species are enumerated, of which seventeen are 
new. Several new genera are characterized: Sphyrapus, a 
nella, Alaotanais, Cyathura, Anthelura, Hyssura, and Calathur. 


nea Harger and A. polita Stm. are referred to Cyathura carinata 
(Kr.). Anthura fraiata Stm. is made the of the new 
genus Calathura. Under the general account of the family Ta- 
naidæ are some very interesting remarks on the existence of 
two forms of males in this group: 


«anatomy of the genus Pliodon, which throws light on the rela- 
tionship of this mollusc, the affinities of which were uncertain 
before. He finds that it is distinguished from the Unionide by 

two posterior orifices, a rather long pallial sinus separating the 
branchial and pedal orifices; the mantle cavity is completely 
apaan into anal and branchial chambers by the branchiæ; and 

by the shapes of the labial palpi. The affinities are rather w 

Motela , Spatha, Triquetra, and other ee of the Genis 
Mutelidæ of H. and A. Adams. The terrestrial molluscan 
fauna of the region is not specially interesting, but that of the 
fresh-waters has been characterized as in its facies. 
this s aspect Pelseneer does not recognize. 


1887] Zoology. 289 


Nettle-Cells.—R. von Lendenfeld has a paper on the function 
of the nettle-cells of Coelenterata in the January number of the 
Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical Science. Nettle-cells are de- 
fensive structures situated in the ectoderm, and usually also in 
the endoderm, of all Polypomedusz. Their structure is some- 


Diagram of a nettle-cell with the surrounding nucleated columnar epithelium: z, 
cilia; ce, cnidocil; e, sub-epithelial muscle-cell ; f, tangential nerve-fibre ; /, longi- 
tudinal striated muscles ; m, mesodermal supporting lamella; 7, ganglion-cell ; sf, 
nerve connecting ganglion-cell with me, nettle-cell; , uncle of Hamann ; fc, 
palpocil connected with s, sense-cell; ¢, thread coiled up inside of nettle-cell,— 
After Lendenfield. 


what complicated. They consist each of a single cell hollowed 
within to contain a long spirally coiled thread, and produced 
at the surface into a strong process,—the cnidocil,—which 


2 


290 General Notes. [March 


tary and under control of the ganglion-cells. The contraction 
of the peduncle of Hamann withdraws the nettle-cell below the 
surface under certain circumstances. Contraction of the nettle- 


Some Rare Indiana Birds.—The present winter in Indiana 
has been remarkable for the occurrence in this State of several 
species of birds which are not often seen here. The rarest of 
these is perhaps the Evening Grosbeak ( Hesperiphona vespertina). 
On Saturday, January 22, Mr. Charles H. Bollman saw and shot 
a single specimen of this rare bird on the campus of the State 
University at Bloomington. On the same day, Mr. Cal. Meri- 


Ridgway Ornithological Club, who were enjoying a sleigh-ride in 
that part of Indiana. A few days later two other specimens were 


livan, and two each at Columbus and Greensburg. These no 
doubt represent not more than one-half of the number actually 
taken in the State. They were most abundant in November, and 
none have been reported since the Ist of January. Short-eared 
Owls have also been reported much more common than usual, _ 
~ and Bald and Golden Eagles have been taken with unwonted 

see Reni i ; 

In this connection it is proper to record the occurrence of the 


1887} Zoology. 291 
Florida Snake-Bird (/Votus anhinga) in this State. According to 
i full 


Mr. Fletcher M. Noe, of Indianapolis, a fine male, in 

plumage, was taken on the West Fork of White River, two 
miles south of Indianapolis, on August 25, 1886. A month 
later Mr. Noe received a specimen of the Western Grebe (Æch- 
morphus occidentalis), which was killed near the same place.—B. 
W. Evermann, Indiana State Normal School, February 14, 1887. 


Zoological News.—Birps.—At the recent Scientific Congress 
at Paris, M. de Montessus read a memoir upon the present state 
of ornithological science in Paris. Among other facts he men- 
tioned the capture of Syzoicus lodoisig, an Australian gallina- 
ceous bird, in the Department of Saone-et-Loire. Previously a 
specimen had been killed in Lombardy, and these are the only 
specimens known to have been taken in Europe, but are suf- 
ficent to cause the enumeration of the species among the casual 
` visitors to that country. 


Worms.—Mr. James E. Benedict describes one new genus and 
five new species of tubicolous Annelids in the “ Proceedings 
U. S. Nat. Museum for 1886.” “All of them are from the warmer 
waters of America, and were collected by the Fish Commission 
steamer “ Albatross.” 


Mottusca.—Paul Pelseneer, in the “ Bulletin Sci. Dépt. Nord,” 
II., vol. ix. (reprinted in the Annals and Magazine of Natural 
Histery for January, 1887), gives a review of the Gymnosoma- 
tous Pteropods. He recognizes only six genera, arranged in four 
families among the previously described species, but describes a 
new genus and species, Wotobranchea mcdonaldi, from off the 
coast of the Carolinas. Only a single specimen is known, which 
is in the United States National Museum. The foot-notes ap- 
pended to the reprint of the article add considerably to the 
value of the paper. 


EcuINopERMS.—Rev. J. G. Swan calls attention, in the Buletin 
of the United States Fish Commission, to the abundance of Holo- 
thurians in the region of Queen Charlotte Islands and in Alaska, 
and suggests that it may prove profitable to collect and cure 
them into trepang for the Chinese market. In China they com- 
manda price of about forty or fifty dollars a ton, and their prep- 
aration is not very difficult. 


SPONGES.—At a recent meeting of the Zoological Society of 
London, Dr. R. von Lendenfeld read a paper on the classifica- 
tion of sponges and their systematic position. His extensive in- 
vestigations in the rich sponge fauna of Australia, as well as on 
the collections of the “ Challenger” expedition, have given him 
facilities rarely excelled. He pro an arrangement in which 

VOL. XXI.—NO, 3. 20 


292 General Notes. [March 


forty-six families were described and the principal genera enu- 
merated. His paper also contained a tolerably complete bibliog- 
raphy of the subject, the size of which is shown by the fact that 
it embraced the titles of fourteen hundred and forty-six papers. 
The systematic position of the sponges was also discussed, 


EMBRYOLOGY. 


Haddon’s Introduction to the Study of Embryology.’ — 
This new work, now in press, is apparently designed to give the 
student a comprehensive outline of the science of embryology 
in a moderate compass, with such illustrations as will enable him 
to appreciate the fundamental similarity of many of the stages of 

e embryos of the different classes and orders of the Metazoa as 
represented by specific forms. A manual of this sort has been 
very much needed for the class-room, e monumental treatise 
of Balfour, in two volumes, already needs revision, so fruitful 
have been the labors of active embryological workers within the 
last five years, or since its completion. That activity itself has 
been very largely due to the stjmulus given to ontogenetic re- 
search by that singularly endowed genius, lost to us before he 
had had time to develop the germs of the great generalizations 
and suggestions which are so lavishly strewn through the pages 
of his great work. Balfour’s large work, also, is not adapted to 
` the purpose of a class-room manual, and can only be used as a 
book of reference or as a guide to the advanced student. In the 
first volume, and the early part of the second, the groups are 
treated of separately and not directly and comparatively, so that 
it is not well adapted to serve as a text-book for the laboratory 
in elementary wor ther elementary text-books use only ex- 
tremely modified forms, such as the chick and the mammal, as 
types ; other lower groups being scarcely alluded to. This tends 
to develop a bias in the mind of the student which it is hard for 
him to shake off, and in extending the range of his studies he 
finds himself almost unwittingly trying to attempt to apply his 
knowledge of the development of the higher forms to that of 
the lower, with the result that he becomes confused in making 
his comparisons. To overcome this difficulty we need an ele- 
mentary work which will contrast the higher and lower type at 


«ätea by Dr Jorns A. TENEN 
u Introduce of E ology, Alfred C. Had M.A., 
Professor in ihe Royal College of Science, Dublin in, K a ee a 


= 


1887] Embryology. 293 


and soon. These and kindred questions will evidently be fairly 
dealt with in Professor Haddon’s treatise, judging from the ad- ° 
vanced sheets of the first forty: pages of the work, which the 
editor of this department has had the opportunity of examining. 
The work will evidently be up to date, and many points upon 
which the earlier authors were uncertain will be cleared up. 

e newer views as to the origin of the middle germinal layer 
will be presented, and Duval’s discoveries in the development of 
the chick will receive the attention they deserve. The more 
recent discoveries in mammalian embryology and the discussion 
of karyokinesis, so far as it relates to embryology, will also find 
a place. n the whole, it may be said that this work is a timely 
one, which will be welcomed by all who are alive to the signifi- 
cance of the great issues of the embryological science of the 
future. The author and publisher are also to be congratulated 
upon the many new figures introduced,—many of them original, 
—and the excellent typographical appearance of the pages. The. 
style of the author is clear and terse, a matter that is not always 
as well attended to by the authors of elementary text-books as is 
desirable, in spite of the remarkable precedents before them in 
the clearly-written a manuals by such writers as Hux- 
ley, Clifford, and Tyndall. 


Development of Mysis.—Nusbaum gives (Biol. Centralblatt, 
vi. 663) a preliminary account of his observations on the develo: 
ment of Mysis. According to him the egg is surrounded by a 
blastema, and has the nucleus lying at the formative pole. The 
result of the first segmentation is to form two cells, one of which 
forms the blastoderm while the other sinks into the yelk. The 
larger central cells of the blastoderm later divide and give rise to 
cells which sink beneath the blastoderm, and together with the 

roduct of the first segmentation just mentioned are called 
“ Vitellophags.” After this process the rudiments of the embryo 
appear,—a caudal area from which extend forward the ventral 
bands, which diverge like a V and terminate in the oval cephalic 
lobes. Now, according to Nusbaum, a shallow invagination 
takes place in the caudal area, and the invaginated cells under- 
going a rapid proliferation form a solid entoderm. Behind this 
point the abdomen now grows out. The mesoderm, says Nus- 
baum, arises as two bands from the ventral bands. The vitello- 
phags at first lie just beneath the germinal area, but later they 
sink deeper into the i and as their name implies they feed 
upon the yelk. Nusbaum has some comparisons with the de- 
velupment of various ea which he thinks are similar in 
the formation of the germinal seng and his vitellophags he 
compares to similar cells in Scorpio and Oniscus, as well as to 
~ phagocytes of Metschnikoff. He ass describes a dorsal organ 
ch appears at first as a paired ectodermal thickening, the 


d 


t 


:294 General Notes. [March 


halves of which eventually unite on the dorsal median line. Of 
its function or meaning he expresses no opinion, but thinks it is 
the same as the dorsal organ well known in Tetradecapods. 
While we must wait for the publication of the final paper— 
promised in the Archives de Zool. Experimentale—before express- 
ing definite conclusions as to the accuracy of Mr. Nusbaum’s 
interpretations, it would appear as though he had fallen into 
several errors. First, his vitellophags are apparently ento-meso- 
derm, and their formation is the gastrulation. Second, the 
pana eaa described by Nusbaum can be reconciled with the 
formation of the ventral eal and his mesoderm, as shown by 
his figure, is clearly the early stage of the nervous system. Looked 
upon in this way, Nusbaum’s account is reconcilable with what 
is known of the development of other Crustacea; in any other way 
it is unintelligible. Nusbaum, it may be said in passing, is not the 
rst one who has mistaken the ventral flexure for an invagination. 
SoK 


Development of Spiders.—Morin gives (Biol. Beds em vi. 
658) an account of the development of Theridion, together 
notes on that of Pholcus, Drassus, and Lycosa. The naciaas 
lies at the centre of the egg, and not until the third segmenta- 
tion (eight cells) does the yelk segment. From this point the 
segmentation of the yelk pyramids accompanies that of the 
nucleus, through the stages of 16, 32,64, etc., until the 128-cell 
stage is reached.. Morin saw no polynuclear pyramids. At the 
128-cell stage the nuclei and the surrounding protoplasm have 
reached the surface and form the blastoderm. They then sepa- 
rate from the pyramids, and the yelk then forms a homogeneous 
unnucleated mass. The blastoderm now becomes thicker on the 
ventral surface, and from its centre cells are budded inwards, 
some of which remain between the parent cells and the yelk, 
while others sink into the yelk itself. The germ now consists 
of all three layers. Morin does not regard the primitive cumu- 
lus as of such importance in the formation of the germ layers. 
In his experience it does not appear until after they are formed; 
indeed, he could not find it in any stage in Theridion. In Pholcus 
it was aer chiefly of mesoderm-cells, the ultimate fate of 
which o form blood-corpuscles. In other points of the 
early development he agrees well with Locy (see this journal, 
xx. p. 676). The germinal area now becomes divided into seg- 
ments, and then the appendages appear, first the'four pairs of 

the 


walking-legs, next the maxillæ, an n the mandibles; the 


2 : r 
by caused and Schulgin in the scorpion. Its cavity is a+ 
remnant of the segmentation cavity. Now the splanchnopleure * 


1887] . . Psychology. 295 


becomes thrown into a series of folds (Balfour’s septæ) in the 
abdominal region, dividing the yelk into a series of lobes, the 
rudiments of the liver.” The proctodzum and stomodzum offer 
nothing for note. The mesenteron does not begin to take definite 
shape until a day or two before hatching. Then the entoderm- 
cells which are scattered through the yelk gather at the inner 
ends of the fore and hind guts, and later unite in the middle. A 
similar process gives rise to the liver epithelium. This process 


abdominal appendages, these becoming converted into their outer 
covering. The second pair of abdominal appendages disappear, 
the third and fourth are converted into the spinnerets, the spin- 
ning pom arising as ectodermal invaginations into their walls. 
— F. S. K. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


The Seat of Consciousness.—M. Steiner, of Heidelberg, pre- 
sented to the Academy of Science of Berlin, on January 7, 1887, 
a memoir on the consciousness of the cerebral hemispheres in 
fishes. The author, who has published a gees paper on the 
eee te comes to the following i SO 

In shes voluntary movements, a the ability to feed 
Doiie (proving the Griinenet of both reflex and direct 
sensations) persist after the removal of the hemispheres. 

2. In Batrachia these functions are bound to the hemispheres, 
excepting vision, which remains after their removal. 

: irds vision is also located in the hemispheres, but not 
cutaneous sensatio 
n the aisaiiealias finally, the cutaneous sensations also are 
located in the hemispheres 

The author pete es alada that in the Vertebrata the 
iste of the middle brain emigrate little by little into the 
hemispheres as fey develop; or, rather, that the evolution of 
hemispheres depends ona successive accumulation of functions 
which at first belong to the middle brain——A. Herzen in Revue 
Scientifique, No. 9, 188 7 


arkable Intelligence of a Rat.—As throwing light upon 
the question of the intelligence of the animal creation, in the 
exhibition of memory and reasoning power, beyond the mere 
pale of recognized instinct, I wish to give the readers of the 
AMERICAN NATURALIST a brief account of an interesting incident 
of which I was witness. On a very warm day in early summer 
I happened to be standing near a chicken-coop in a back yard 
when I noticed the head of a very gray and pricier rat thrust 

oo Limulus.—Za@. Nat. 


296 General Notes. [March 


from a neighboring rat-hole, and concluded to watch the move- 
ments of the veteran. After a careful survey of the surround- 
ings, our old rodent seemed to be satisfied that all was right and 
made a cautious exit from the home retreat. A fresh pan of 
water had been recently placed before the chicken-coop for the 
use of Mother “Chick” and her interesting brood. These all 


no poisonous or other deleterious matter, she gave a couple of 
squeaks, which quickly brought her young and thirsty brood to 
her side, and all fearlessly drank to their fill. Now, this old mother 


life the thought would keep coming, Does not this look very 
like reason?—¥ Croll Baum, 630 N. Broad St., Phila., Pa. 


Ants and Sunflowers.—While riding out, one day in July 
last, over the prairies north of Kirwin, Phillips County, Kansas, 
my attention was attracted by a number of ant-hills surrounded 
by sunflowers. closer examination showed that the hills were: 
inhabited by a large red ant, one-half to th ree-quarters of an inch 
long. Their hills were only two or three inches high and from 
one to two feet in diameter, but for a radius of two to four feet 
around each hill every particle of vegetation was cleared off, and 
around the outside of this cleared space grew a single row of 
ao affording considerable shade to the circular court 
within, < 


1887) T P 297 


e prairie was unbroken where these hills were seen, though 
cultivated fields were not far distant. Query, Where did the 
ants get their sunflower see 

There were three other gentlemen with me who observed and 
commented on this curious circumstance.—Erving L. Richardson. 


MICROSCOPY. 


The Embryoscope.—The embryoscope devised by Hartnack? 
represents an improved form of the drawing apparatus introduced 
y Professor His3 The magnifying power of this instrument 
may be made to vary at pleasure from four to seventy diameters, 
thus offering the same facilities for making exact contour draw- 
ings with low powers that the microscope affords with higher 
powers. 


For this wide range of magnification only two objectives are 
used. The height of the rod bearing the mirror, the object-table, 
the objective, and the camera lucida, is about 40 cm. The glass 

ted by C. O. WHITMAN, Ph.D., Mi veers Wisconsin, 


2 Edi 
Zeitschrift für Instrumentenkunde, Sept. 1 1881, p. 284. 
menschlicher Embryonen, Leipzig, "1880, AS 


298 General Notes. [March 


plate, G, resting on the étui, serves as a drawing surface. All 
' parts of the apraratus can be packed in an étui measuring 38 cm. 
X 22.5 0m. X 9.5 cm. o 

The magnifying power varies according to the relative positions 
given to the object-table, objective, and camera. e determina- 
tion of these positions for different magnifications should be 
made before using the instrument. For this purpose a millimetre 
scale may be placed on the object-table, and the camera and ob- 
jective moved until the picture projected on the drawing surface 
has the desired enlargement. The following table, showing the 
positions for given magnifications, was prepared by His. The 
numbers will vary somewhat for different eyes, hence the necessity 
of preparing one’s own table. : 


Upper Upper Diameter 
edge of edge of of field of 
Object- Camera- of vision. 
Carrier. carrier. 
Magnification. mm. mm, mm. 
4 235 5 32 
5 216 7 25 
Objective o 8 115 193 20 
10 100 218 15 
15 83 240 II 
f 15 13 65 oe 
| 20 12 88 == 
25 II 112 8.5 
Objective 1 3° hd 133 ay 
40 II 170 — 
50 10 — 
60 10 230 3 
L 70 10 — 


The lower objective is screwed into the upper, and the higher 
objective into the lower side of the carrier. Fora magnification 


Ryder’s Automatic Microtome.—This new instrument has 
been devised by Professor John A. Ryder, of the Biological De- 


1887] _ . Microscopy. 299 
place as fast as it is possible to move a vibrating lever up and 


down through a distance of three inches with the right hand. 
Nearly all other automatic microtomes are costly, unwieldy, large 


nor is the position of the block es ae Moreover, in none 


- of the automatic microtomes now in use is it possible to place 


the knife at right — or any ink aoe angle to the direc- 


tion in which the block to be cut is moved,—a great desideratum 
in botanical or other work in which an inclined knife is neces- 
. In order to supply an instrument serviceable especially to . 
teachers, as well as to all classes of students, botanists, patholo- 
gists, histologists, and zoologists, the designer has attempted to 
bring together all the desirable features of previously invented 
instruments, in as simple, convenient, and compact a form as 
possible, without sacrificing rapidity and efficiency of action. 
The working parts are an oscillating lever, which is provided 
with a clamp at one end into which the paraffine-holders ar 
adjusted, and at the other with a simple handle. This lever rests 
upon trunnions on either side, and these in turn rest in triangular 
notches at the top of the two pillars between which the lever 


300 General Notes. [March 


oscillates. At the cutting end of the lever a spring pulls the 
lever down and effects the sectioning and also the adjustment for 
the next section. The. lever is pushed over and adjusted for the 
successive sections by a hollow screw, through which passes the 
trunnion on the side away from the knife. This screw is fixed 


excursion. An adjustable sector by the side of the toothed 
i : ; 


thickness, If a given radius of the wheel is moved through the 
arc embraced by a single tooth, sections are cut having a thick- 
ness of only zg} yp Of an inch, or .0025 mm.,—a thickness which 


at Abe orc which adjusts the block for cutting } tly fifty threads to the inch 
and there are two hundred teeth on the periphery of the toothed wheel. The value 
of a single tooth is, therefore, Jy X hy = roys inch. l ror OFN 


$ 


1887] Microscopy. 301 


plate of the instrument just below the knife, and into this tray 
the celloidin sections may be allowed to drop as fast as cut. 

he paraffine-holders are square and seven-eighths of an inch 
in diametes, so that a block of that size may very rea adily be sec- 
tioned. For the botanist, one of these holders is provided with 
a movable side and screw for clamping objects, so that rather 
tough stems may be firmly held between blocks of cork, while 
the more delicate vegetable tissues, or such as must be embedded 
in fresh carrot, soaked in gum and hardened in alcohol, may also 
be firmly held for sectioning by the same device, provided the 
pieces of carrot are first trimmed into the right shape. The 
same style of holder is equally applicable for holding the corks— ` 
if properly trimmed—upon which tissues are embedded in cel- 
loidin or in gum. This style of holder also enables one to embed 
very long objects entire in paraffine,—such as earth-worms,—and 
to cut them as a single piece, provided the surrounding paraffine 
is carefully trimmed so as to have two opposite sides parallel. 
An object six inches long and three-fourths of an inch in diameter 


series of sections without losing any essential portions. This is 
accomplished by slipping the block through the quadrangular 
clamp for the distance of half an inch every time a half-inch of 
the object has been cut off in the form of sections. One-half 
inch is the length of block which can be cut at one time without 
readjusting the feed-screw which moves the block and vibrating 
lever over towards the knife, the whole being kept firmly in place 
against the face of the hollow screw by a strong spring which 
presses against the end of the trunnion on the outside of the 
iron pillar on that side of the instrument where the knife is fast- 
- ened, so that all the sections are of exactly the same thickness 
from first to last. Cutting up large objects in the manner above 
described is not possible with any other form of microtome yet 
constructed. 

Imost any section-knife—wide- or narrow-bladed—will fit 
‘into and be firmly held by ne knife-clamp, which is, however, 
intended more especially to an ordinary razor. The best 
razors for cutting sections oe been found to be those of the 
best make only, such as Wade & Butcher, or Joseph Rodgers & 
Sons, of Sheffield. Only such razors as hold an edge well should 

e use 
For ribbon-cutting by the paraffine method the block contain- 
ing the object, after it is trimmed and soldered to the paraffine 
with which the holder is filled, by means of a heated wire, is 
covered with a thin coat of soft paraffine or “ paraffine-gum,” 
and of which “ chewing-gum’’? is made. This enables one to cut 


l t Chewing- may be rendered available for this purpose if it is melted at a — 
temperature somewhat above boiling, when the sugar which it contains 7 separate 
as caramel, leaving the pure paraffine-gum, which may be drained off and used as 


302 Scientific News. [March 


ribbons of any desired length, since the softer paraffine at the 
edges of the successive sections sticks them together by their 
margins as fast as they are cut. 

The ribbons may be allowed to fall upon a slip of paper, which 
may be drawn out, as fast as the sections are cut, from under the 
bed-plate of the instrument, beneath which there is a space left 
for this purpose between the three toes or tripod upon which 
whole apparatus rests. The edge of the knife also remains in 
the same plane, no matter at what angle the cutting edge is 
placed with reference to the direction in which the block to be 
_ cut is moved, just as in the best forms of the sledge microtome. 

The advantages which this new instrument offers are, briefly, 
comparatively small cost, great efficiency, rapidity, and accuracy. 
One hundred sections per minute may very readily be cut with 

Its simplicity of construction, with few wearing parts, and 
slight liability to get out of order in the hands of inexperienced 
persons, will also commend it to the teacher and investigator. 
Experience has already shown that those once using it can 
scarcely ever be again induced to use the most efficient sledge 
or automatic microtomes of different design if they can have 
access to this instrument. This device is made by Mr. Zent- 
mayer, whose name is a sufficient guarantee of the workmanship 
employed in its construction. 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


— William Willoughby Cole, the Earl of Enniskillen, who died 
November 12, 1886, was the possessor of one of the largest col- 
lections of fossil fishes in existence. He was associated with Sir 
Philip Grey Egerton in preparing the catalogue of fossil fishes so 
useful to geologists. . i 
_ —Henry Woodward, of the British Museum, is preparing a 
third edition of Morris’s “ Catalogue of British Fossils,” to be 
issued by the Cambridge University Press this year. 

—C. E. Broome, an English mycologist, died at Bath, England, 
November 15, 1886. 

—Karl Goebel, professor of botany at Rostock, is called to 
Marburg to take the chair left vacant by the death of Professor 
Wigand. 

—Culver Hall, at Dartmouth College, caught fire, Sunday, 
February 20, and the geological and zoological collections of the 
college had a narrow escape from destruction. 
directed, if th :nipul : l ee ee a, T PO ee a aE. f come 


` 


ES 


1887] Scientific News. 303 


—Dr. Martin Websky, professor of mineralogy in the Uni- 
versity of Berlin, died November 27, 1886, aged sixty-two years. 

—Thomas H. Dodge has given the Worcester Lyceum and 
Natural History Association one thousand dollars to buy tents 
and build a pavilion for the summer classes managed by the 
association at Lake Quinsigamond. 

—Dr. R. W. Shufeldt has issued a catalogue of his various 
scientific papers and shorter notes. It embraces one hundred 
and three titles of articles already published, besides several 
more in press or well under wa 

—Professor Ernst Haeckel, of Jena, goes this year to the 
Mediterranean to continue his studies. 

—The lectures given by Sir J. W. Dawson during the past 
winter, before the Lowell Institute, in Boston, are to become the 
basis of a volume in the “International Scientific Series.” The 
subject is the development of plants in geological time. 
` —January 15 Professor Hermann Burmeister, the entomologist 
and palzontologist, completed his eightieth year. Since 1871 he 
has been settled in Buenos Ayres, and has done much towards 
the working up of the fauna of the Pampas formations. The 
University of Buenos Ayres has recently conferred upon him, as 
well as upon Carl Berg, professor of botany and zoology in the 
University, the degree of Doctor of Physical Sciences, in recog- 
nition of their labors. 

—R. Friedlander and Sohn, of Berlin, have begun the publi- 
cation of another help for students of natural history. It is 
entitled Soctetatum Littere, and aims to give, in the briefest shape, 
a catalogue of all articles relating to natural sciences published 
in the transactions of learned societies in all parts of the world. 
The first number contains eight pages, and indexes thirty journals. 
The numbers will appear monthly, and are sent post-free for the 
nominal sum of two and one-half marks. It is edited by Dr. 
Ernst Huth, of Frankfurt a. O. From its more limited field, it 
will not take the place of the well-known bibliographic lists in 
the Zoologischer Anzeiger. . 

—Mr. Alexander Agassiz was honored with the degree of 


< Doctor of Science by the University of Cambridge during his 


recent visit to England. 

—There were fifty-two different contributors to the first volume 
of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, twenty years ago. f these at 
least thirty-four are alive at the time of writing. Are scientific 
studies conducive to longevity? 

. Thomas Moore, the superintendent of the Botanic Gardens 
at Chelsea, London, died on the first day of this year. He was. 
well known among botanists. 

—L. Ranvier, the well-known histologist of Paris, has been 


304 | Scientific News. [March 


elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in the place of 
Charles Robin, 

—F. L. Cornet, who has been a special student of the Cre- 
taceous and Tertiary formations of Belgium, died at Mons on 

e 20th of January, aged fifty-two years. 

—Dr. K. Oebbecke, of Munich, is called to the chair of Min- 
eralogy and Geology at the University of Erlangen. 

—In the recent death of Professor Edward L. Youmans science 
has lost a most untiring advocate and disseminator. The value 


dered his labors more difficult. But in spite of these obstacles 
his success in his chosen field of instructor and disseminator of 
positive knowledge, was probably greater than that of any other 
American, 

—We much regret to have to notice the suspension of the 
German scientific periodical, Kosmos, a high-class journal con- 
ducted with much ability. 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 305 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 


Boston Society of Natural History.—March 2.—Mr. 3 
Walcott described a trip to the Grand Cañon of Colorado (illus- 
trated by the stereopticon), and Mr. J. H. Emerton showed parts 
of a restoration of a skeleton of Uintatherium and described the 
method of making paper models. 


New York Academy of Sciences.—January 17.—The bijaa. 
ing paper was read : “ On an Iron Meteorite that fell at Mazapil, 
Mexico, during the display of ‘ Bielid’ meteors, November 27, 
1885, with an account of its fall by Professor José A. y Bonilla, 
Director of the Zacatecas Observatory” (with exhibition of the 
specimen), by Mr. Wm. Earl Hidden 

January 10.—The sere business meeting was held, and the - 
question of raising the annual dues to ten dollars was discussed. 


The following paper was read: “Notes on the Growth of a 
Vinegar-plant in Fermented Grape-juice” (with specimens), by 
Dr. N. L. Britton 


Monday evening, March 7.—H. L. Fairchild addressed the 
academy a “Transformations of the Skin in the Animal . 
Kingdom 

Biological Society of Washington—March 5.—The fol- 


lowing communications were made: P. L. Jouy, “Corea: the 
Country and the People.” Prof. Frank Baker, “ Notes on some 
L es 


Unusual Muscular Variations.” Dr. ean, “ European 
and American Work in Deep-Sea acre 8 - Dre C Hart 
Merriam, ‘ eea to North rican Mammalogy. De- 
scription of New Species of Eolea” Dr. H. G. Beyer, “ Re- 


marks on the Preservation of Bottled Museum Specimens.” 


Appalachian Mountain Club.—Tuesday evening, March 1.— 
Mr. C. D. Walcott, Assistant U. S. Geological Survey, presented 

a paper entitled “A Trip to the Grand Cañon of the Colorado,” 
illustrated by the stereopticon. 


Kent Scientific Institute of Grand Rapids, Kent County, 
Michigan.—The following are the officers for 1887: President, 
E, S. Holmes; Te TEES W. A. Greeson; Secretary, C. 
Whittemore; Treasurer, S. L. Fuller; Corresponding Secretary, 
E. S. Holmes; Director of Museum, . A. Greeson; Curator, 
EL Moseley ; Librarian, E. L. Moseley. 
` Sedalia Natural ty.—November 8, 1886.—Pro- 


History Socie 
fessor G. C. Broadhead, formerly State Geologist of Missouri, 
read a paper on the “ Geology of Western Missouri. 


306 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [March, 1887 


December 13.—Mr. H. M. Specking spoke on the “ Study of 
Natural History and the Use of the Microscope.” 

January 10, 1887.—F. A. Sampson exhibited a fine skull of the 
Coryphodon from the Bad Lands of Dakota, and described it; 
Mrs. C. Demuth read a paper on “ Reptiles.” The following were 
elected officers for 1887: President, Dr. J. W. Trader; Vice- 
President, H. C. Sinnett; Corresponding Secretary, F. A. Samp- 
son; Recording Secretary, J. W. Walker. 


THE 


AMERICAN: NATURALIST. 


VOL. XXI APRIL, 1887. No. 4. 


ON OVIPOSITION AND NURSING IN THE BA- 
TRACHIAN GENUS DENDROBATES. 


BY HERBERT H. SMITH. P 


a T while at Santarem, on the Lower Amazon, my atten- 

tion was called to a brown frog which was very common in 
the damp forests of the highland, hopping about under the trees. 
I frequently saw it several miles from any stream or pool. The 
hunters told me that this frog carried its young on its back. I 
offered a high price to any one who would bring me a specimen 
with its young, but no one took advantage of my offer; and 


€ 


though I was collecting eyery day in the woods where the frog — 


was so common, I never saw the young at all. I finally con- 
cluded that my informants had confounded this species with the 
Surinam toad, which is probably found at Santarem, though I 
never saw it there; so I dismissed the subject from my mind. 
My specimens of the frog were lost, with other batrachians and 
»eptiles, on the voyage to New York, but I hope to determine 
the species with fresh examples at some future time. 

One day in October or November, 1884, I was camping in a 
lonely spot forty miles northeast of Cuyaba, in Western Brazil; 
the place was on the chapadao, or table-land, close to a deep, 
rocky ravine. All around were little tracts of damp meadow, 
such as are frequently seen even on the higher portions of the 
chapadao. Brazilians call such spots varzeas,a name also applied 
to the grass-lands on river-plains, to which these patches have 


only a superficial resemblance. The varzeas of the highland 
VOL. XXI.—NO. 4. 


2I 


308 Oviposition and Nursing in the Genus Dendrobates. [April 


always lie above a layer of hard rock, on which water accumu- 
lates in the rainy season, soaking the thin layer of loam and turf 
which covers it. At such times there may be half a dozen little 
streams flowing through a spot of varzea over smooth rocks, 
where the subsoil has been washed away; but in the long dry 
season, from May to October, the water evaporates, the ground 
_ dries up and cracks, the grass on it withers, and generally the 
streams disappear. The plants and animals of the varzeas are 
different from those of the rest of the table-land, the species 
being adapted to endure these periodical changes. The place 
that Iam speaking of is quite dry during four or five months of 
every year, and even the ravine at its side has no water; at that 
time the nearest stream is several miles away. 

Wandering over the meadow, now sodden with a recent rain, 
I observed a small frog of a kind which I had frequently seen 
on the varzeas. Some peculiarity in its appearance made me ex- 
amine it more attentively, when, to my astonishment, I saw that 
its back was covered with little black bodies, set close together 
like paving-stones on a street, if I may compare small with large; 
the entire upper surface of the frog, except the head, was con- 
cealed by them. I very quickly saw that these were tadpoles, 
so crowded in the small space that the tails and part of the bodies 
were hidden. They were moist and glistening, as if they had 
just been taken from water, though the sun was shining hotly 
over them. If my observation was correct, they were kept in 
place by a viscid secretion, either from their own bodies or from 
that of the parent. They moved slightly while I was watching 
them. i : 

Up to this time the frog, with its little colony, had remained 
quite still, so that I had a good opportunity to examine it; but 
when I attempted to secure it, it hopped into a patch of grass, 
where, despite of all my searching, I could not find it. I judge 
that it entered some hole among the grass-roots. Heartily appre- 
ciating the fact that a frog in the hand is worth two in the bush, 
_ I was obliged to content myself with an entry in my note-book 
of what I had seen and a resolve to observe the species more 
carefully in future. 

_ I frequently saw the frog after this, but could never get it with 
its young. Nearly a year after, my assistant, Mr. W. C. Smith, 


found a specimen with its colony of tadpoles on a varzea very 


aN 


1887] Oviposition and Nursing in the Genus Dendrobates. 309 


similar to'that I have described and in the same region; this he 
secured, and it is now in the possession of Professor E. D. Cope. 
Mr. Smith writes me: “Four of the young, I believe, dropped 
off and were lost; being in-a hurry, I threw the frog at once into 
a bottle of alcohol, and I did not observe how the young were 
attached to the back.” 

These very imperfect observations are all that I can give con- 
cerning the habits of this very singular batrachian, but I hope 
that they may serve to direct the attention of other naturalists 
to these species. The Santarem frog mentioned above was simi- 
lar in form to this one, though a good deal larger, and very likely 
it belongs to the same genus. In view of my observations on the 
chapadao species it seems probable that the information given by 
the hunters was correct, and that the Amazonian frog also carries 
its young on its back. 

In both cases there seems to be an evident adaptation of the 
habits to the surroundings. The Santarem forests are always 
moist and comparatively cool, but the absence of standing or 
running water in those parts where the frog is seen would pre- 
vent the ordinary disposition of its young. The varzeas, on the 
contrary, are wet and even partly flooded after rains; but even 
in the height of the rainy season the pools and streams may dry 
up if a few days pass without showers. If the young frogs were 
left in the water they would run the risk of being destroyed be- 
fore their development was completed. In the dry season the 
frog, like most other animals, disappears from the varzeas ; prob- 
ably it retires to some crevice where it can*remain sheltered until 
the rains set in again. Both the frogs observed with young were 
, seen at the beginning of the rainy season. 

It would be interesting to know how the young (or eggs) are 
first placed on the back of the parent and how they are nour- 
ished. . 

I may notice here that the bright spots on the legs of this frog 
and of other species serve in a very curious way to conceal the 
animals, They are only visible when the frog is hopping, and 
their sudden disappearance when the animal comes to rest causes 
one to lose sight of it altogether; for the eye naturally follows 
the bright colors, and perhaps they have the effect of momenta- 
rily dazzling it, so that the sombre general surface of the frog, 
very like the ground on which it sits, becomes for an instant 


310 Ovipdsition and Nursing in the Genus Dendrobates. [April 


invisible, just as a small dark object becomes almost invisible 
immediately after gazing at a scarlet cloth or a candle. I have 
noticed similar effects produced by color-spots in certain insects, 
especially the butterflies, which are often vividly colored on the 
inner surface of the wings, so that they are extremely conspicu- 
ous when flying; but as soon as the insect comes to rest these 
colors disappear, and the plain outer surface of the wings is, by 
contrast, momentarily invisible. 

Note sy E. D. Copz.—Examination of the specimens col- 
lected by Mr. Smith shows that they belong to a species of the 
genus Dendrobates, which 
I have described under the 


catus* Itagrees in most of 
its characters with D. trivit- 
tatus Spix.,but is very much 
smaller, not measuring half 
Daa F et its linear dimensions. As 

enarovates braccatus Fitzinger. Views from ; 

side and below. Copied from Steindachner, the specimens are, accord- 

(None of my specimens have so much. black ing to Mr. Smith, adult they 

below.—E. D. C.) ae 

: must be regarded as specifi- 

cally distinct. It is also related to the D. hahneli of Boulenger, 
but differs in the considerably shorter posterior limbs, . 

The singular manner in which this species carries its larvæ 
constitutes a method of nursing distinct from any of those enu- 
merated by Mr. Boulenger in'his table in the Annals and Maga- 
zine of Natural History for 1886, of which I give a copy, inserting 
the Dendrobates : 

I. The ovum is small and the larva leaves it in a comparatively early embryonic 

, . condition. 

A. The ova are laid in the water. 

Probably the majority of Batrachians ; all European forms except Alytes, 

B. The ova are deposited out of the water. 
a. In holes on the banks of pools, which become filled with water after heavy 

hus liberating the larvæ. 
ylus ocellatus, L.; L. mystacinus Burm. > Paludicola gracilis Blør, 
b. On leaves above the water, the larvæ dropping down when leaving the egg. 
i rufescens Gthr.; Phyllomedusa Jheringii Blgr. 
II. The yolk-sac is very large, and the young undergoes the whole or part of the 

m d assume an inde- 


losis within the egg; at any rate the larva does not 
pendent existence until after the loss of the external gills. 
* Proceedings Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1887, April. 
2 Proceed. Zool. Soc. London, 1883, p. 636, Pl. LVII., Fig. 4. 


name of Dendrobates brac- . 


Y 


1887] Oviposition and Nursing in the Genus Dendrobates. 311 
The ova are deposit ted in damp situations or on leaves, and the embryo 
aie the egg in the perfect air-breathing form. 
Rana oe Blgr.; Hylodes ag tp D. & B: 
e ova are carried on the 
a. erty the 
a. Round ‘the legs; the young leaves the egg in the tadpole i state. 
8. In a gular (the vocal) sac; the young is expelled in the perfect state. 
Rhinoderma. 
D: iA the fema. 
Attached i ‘the belly. 
ja ba reticulatus Gthr. 
p. Atta ched to the ba ck; 
aa. The young completes its i within the egg. 
Pipa. 
66. The free tadpole is carried on the parent. 
Dendrobates. 
; y- isy a dorsal pouch. 
~ The young leaves the pouch in the tadpole state. 
Nototrema marsupiatu m D. & B. 
he young leaves the pouch in the perfect state. 
Nototrema pestle Esp.4 Ofisthodelphys ovifera Weinl. 

- It approaches nearest to the habit of the Pipa monstrosa, which 
also carries the young on the back. But, as is well known, the _ 
skin itself and not a gelatinous secretion encloses the eggs in 
that species and retains the young until the metamorphosis is 
complete. The Dendrobates, however, furnishes a hint as to the 
origin of the temporary growth in Pipa. 

Several larvæ accompany one of the specimens of this species, 
which stated by Mr. Smith to have been adhering to its back 
when it was taken. They do not resemble those of Pipa, but 
rather those of Rana or Bufo. The branchial opening is on the 
left side, and no limbs are developed. The tail is long. The 
mouth is not peculiar. The decurved lower lip is present, and 
is furnished with two transverse series of bristle teeth. A single 
series of the same extends entirely across the superior labial 
region, above the upper horny jaw. The papille are rather 
long, and extend all round the inferior lip, and for a short dis- 
tance on each side at the lateral end of the upper lip, the series 
presenting an entering angle opposite the mouth. This species 
is described and figured* by Steindachner in the Verhandl. der 
k. k. zoblog. botan. Ges. in Vienna, 1864, p. 258, who refers it to 
the D. irivittitus (“ nigerrimus”), under the impression that the 
specimens before him are not adult. He states the latter were 
labelled Dendrobates braccatus by Dr. Fitzinger. This name is 
not adopted by Steindachner. 

* Plate XIIL, Fig. 2. 


312 The Taconic Question Restated. [ April 


THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. 
BY T. STERRY HUNT. 
(Concluded from page 250.) 


§ 29. It must be further noted that the term Taconic, unless 
qualified and limited as Upper Taconic, includes, besides this 
Cambrian, another and a not less important series of rocks which 
cannot be brought into parallelism with either Cambrian or Silu- 
rian, and is separated from the Upper Taconic by great lithologi- 
cal differences, as well as by stratigraphical relations and by 
geographical distribution. We have shown that Eaton long ago 
pointed out the well-marked stratigraphical discordance between 
the base of the First Graywacke and the Transition Argillite ; 
and it is also to be observed that the Lower Taconic, which con- 
sists of this Argillite (called by Emmons the Magnesian Slate, 
but including a band of roofing-slate), of the Primitive Lime- 
rock or Stockbridge limestone, and of the Primitive Quartz-rock 
or Granular Quartzite, is in many places wanting at the base of 
. the First Graywacke. Indeed, it is not recognized by its dis- 
tinctive characters along the western border of the Atlantic belt 
anywhere within the province of Quebec or in northern Ver- 
mont; where the Upper Taconic rests upon more ancient crystal- 
line hornblendic and chloritic rocks very unlike the Magnesian 
slate of Emmons, and where, moreover, neither the Primitive 
Lime-rock nor the Primitive Quartz-rock are known. 

That the green sandstones and conglomerates which make the 
basal beds of the Upper Taconic contain the ruins of these older 
crystalline rocks, was already noticed by Emmons, and is seen ` 
at many points, notably at Pistolet Bay, in Newfoundland, where 
a great body of these rocks, which were referred to the Sillery 
division of the Quebec group, rests directly upon a series of — 
hornblendic and chloritic rocks with serpentines. This imme- 
diate superposition of the Sillery sandstones to these crystalline 
schists was explained in Logan’s hypothesis by the double as- 
sumption that the green sandstone is the uppermost member of 
the so-called Quebec group and has escaped an imagined altera- 
tion, and that the immediately underlying crystalline rocks 
belong to the Lauzon or middle member of the same group, 


% 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 313 


which has been altered. When, subsequently, Logan traced the 
great Graywacke belt of Eaton southwestward into Vermont, and 
along the western base of the Taconic Hills to the Highlands of 
the Hudson, recognizing its identity with his Quebec group, and 
finding it, in its southward extension, to rest in many parts on 
the crystalline limestones of the Lower Taconic (the Primitive 
Lime-rock), he declared these to be the altered representatives 
of the Levis or Sparry Lime-rock, made by him the lowest 
division of the same Quebec group; the Lauzon, according to 
his hypothesis, while nearly four thousand feet in the vicinity of 
the city of Quebec, being elsewhere reduced to a very thin layer, 

or entirely wanting. 

§ 30. That the great crystalline series which forms the Lower 
Taconic of Emmons lies, as maintained by Eaton, beneath the 
horizon of the First Graywacke, from which it is separated by a 
stratigraphical discordance, is thus confirmed by Logan, as well 
as by J. erry, who, in 1867, described the Lower Taconic as 
Sai of quartzites, marbles, and talcose schists; and, later, 
by Marcou, who also notes the want of conformity between the 
Lower and Upper Taconic. That the horizon of the Lower 
Taconic is in fact below that of the First Graywacke is disputed 
by no one who has ever studied the region in question, and the 
` only ground on which it can be assigned to a higher horizon is 
by maintaining the old error of Mather, who conjectured this 
First Graywacke or Upper Taconic to be newer instead of older 
than the Trenton limestone,—a mistake now recognized by all 
who have investigated this Graywacke belt. 

We have elsewhere pointed out the grounds on which those 
who followed the erroneous view of Mather as to the horizon of 
the First Graywacke regarded the Lower Taconic quartzites and 
limestones as Trenton or post-Trenton in age. C. B. Adams and 
W. B. Rogers regarded the Red Sand-rock and its associated 
limestones near Burlington, Vermont, which are included in the 
First Graywacke, as of Medina (or Medina and Clinton) age. Fol- 
lowing this, Adams maintained, in 1846, that the quartzites and 
crystalline limestones of the Lower Taconic were but the altered 
equivalents of this First Graywacke, and Rogers proclaimed, in 
1851, that these crystalline limestones are “ probably Upper 
Silurian or Devonian,” while Edward Hitchcock, in 1861, con- 
ceived that they “ may be as recent as the Carboniferous rocks.” 


314 The Taconic Question Restated. [April 


The rocks of the same series have elsewhere been assigned to 
a still higher horizon. The schistose beds, though principally 
at the summit, are more or less interstratified with the under- 
lying limestones and quartzites of the Lower Taconic, and in 
many places include besides limonite both magnetite and hema- 
tite. Important beds of these latter ores along both borders of 
the triassic series in Pennsylvania, embracing those of the War- 
wick and Jones Mines, of Reading, Boyerstown, Dillsburg, and 
Cornwall, were, by H. D. Rogers, in 1839, referred to the “ middle 
secondary red sandstone” or trias, adjoining them; the peculiar 
characters of these crystalline schists being supposed to be due 
to “the metamorphism of the strata.” In 1858, however, Rogers 
correctly referred them to the horizon of what he called the 
Primal Slates. Lesley, in 1859, while apparently accepting this 
latter view, refers with approval to those who regard these ores 
“as of middle secondary and not of primary age ;” in accordance 
with which opinion the ores of Dillsburg are, by Frazer, in 1876, 
in his Report of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 
described as mesozoic, and by McCreath, in his report for 1881, 
are also referred to the same horizon. 

§ 31. The ground upon which J. D. Dana still defends the 
original position of Mather as to the horizon of the Lower 


Taconic crystalline limestones, while at the same time admitting © 


the now unquestioned pre-Trenton and Cambrian age of the 
Graywacke series, is by supposing that the apparent succession 
of eastward-dipping strata in certain sections in this region rep- 
resents their order of deposition, and, consequently, that the 
crystalline limestones are not below the Graywacke, as taught 
by Mather, but above it, and are apparently the altered repre- 
sentative of the Sparry Lime-rock. This, notwithstanding the 


` caution of Emmons, he confounds with the Stockbridge or crys- 


talline limestone of the Lower Taconic, and, therefore, from the 
organic remains, apparently of Ordovician age, found in the 
Sparry Lime-rock at the summit of the Upper Taconic, assigns 
the same age to the Lower Taconic limestone. 


§ 32. In some parts of the great valley of Pennsylvania the 


Cambrian Graywacke or Upper Taconic had been removed from 
the Lower Taconic before the Ordovician age, and now appears 
only in isolated areas. In like manner, the Ordovician limestones 
are represented only by small portions of fossiliferous strata 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. ` 315 


resting upon the Lower Taconic, and probably also upon the Gray- 
wacke itself. Here also the gray Oneida-Medina sandstone is 
found in discordant superposition upon the Lower Taconic. 

In regions outside of the great valley—to which the First 
Graywacke was apparently confined—are found many consider- 
able areas of the Lower Taconic rocks, conspicuous among 
which are those early noticed in the Carolinas and in Georgia. 
Among these is a long range described and mapped by Maclure 
in 1817 as a “ Transition belt.” This is connected at its northern 
end with the same rocks in the great valley of Pennsylvania, and 
extends from the Delaware to the Yadkin River, beyond which, 
after a little interruption, it appears on the Catawba, and forms 
the King’s Mountain belt in North and South Carolina; where 
these Lower Taconic rocks were described at length by the late 
Oscar Lieber as the Itacolumitic series. Without now referring 
to the other areas of these rocks in the Southern States, and to 
those which in New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Maine are found 
to the eastward of the great Appalachian valley, we may note 
the remarkable display of the same rocks at the mouth of the St. 
John River, in New Brunswick, and their reappearance in the 
Cobequid Hills, in Londonderry, Nova Scotia. To the westward, 
they are found on a considerable area in Hastings County, near 
the northern shore of Lake Ontario, where they were first de- 
scribed by the geological survey of Canada as the Hastings 
series. 

§ 33. These rocks are largely developed around Lake Supe- 
rior, where they were first recognized in northern Michigan by 
Houghton, and were described by Emmons in 1844, and again 
in 1855, as Taconic. They constitute the lower division of the 
Upper Copper-bearing series of Logan, and as seen on the north 
shore of the lake by the present writer were described as the 
Animikie series. These same rocks in northern Michigan have 
been, by Murray, Credner, and others, confounded with the Hu- 
ronian, but the rocks of the Menominee district, including great 
deposits of iron ores and marbles, were, by Irving, in 1883, re- 
garded as identical with the Animikie series, which the present 
writer, in 1884, referred to the Lower Taconic. These same rocks 

rthern Michigan were, in 1880, described by Rominger as 
part of a great system divided in ascending order into a Quartz- 
_ ite group (including a Marble series), an Iron-ore group, and an 


316 The Taconic Question Restated. [April 


Arenaceous Slate group, the rocks of all of which, from the de- 
scriptions, and the specimens which I have been permitted to 
examine, are apparently identical with the Lower Taconic as 
seen in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. This great system, accord- 
ing to Rominger, rests m some parts upon a gneissic and gran- 
itoid series (his Granitic group) and in others upon a great 
Dioritic group, chiefly of massive and schistose greenstones, 
with more or less chloritic varieties, and with closely associated 
serpentines, the whole group having the characters of the typical 
Huronian series. For many of the details respecting these rocks, 
elsewhere given more at length, I am indebted to the courtesy 
of Rominger in permitting me to consult his yet unpublished 
Report of the Geological Survey of Michigan for 1881-1884. 
It appears from a letter by Emmons to Marcou, dated December, 
1860, and published by the latter in 1885, that its author had 
long before “claimed that the Huronian was only the Taconic 
system.” 

It is now evident that two widely distinct and stratigraphically 
discordant series have, around the basin of Lake Superior, been 
confounded under the common name of Huronian. It should, 
however, be said that their distinctness was noted by Logan as 
early as 1847, when he described the lower division (Animikie 
—Lower Taconic) of his Upper Copper-bearing group (its upper 
division being the Keweenian) as resting, on the north shore of 
Lake Superior, unconformably upon the ancient greenstone and 
chloritic group, to which the present writer, in 1855, first gave 
the name of Huronian, and of which fragments are there fourid 
in the basal beds of the Lower Taconic. 

§ 34. Taconic (Lower Taconic) rocks, according to Emmons, 
are found near the Hot Springs of Arkansas, and probably occur 
elsewhere farther west at the base of the paleozoic. Many con- 
cordant observations show the existence of a similar series in 
Cuba, Trinidad, and Venezuela, and also in Brazil, where they 
constitute the Itacolumitic series, already compared by Oscar 
Lieber with that described by him in South Carolina. I have 
called attention to the presence in the Alps of a great series 
lithologically similar to the Lower Taconic, including the so- 
called lustrous schists or sericite schists, with granular marbles, 
anhydrite, quartzites, etc., as well displayed in the Mont Cenis 
tunnel and in the Apuan Alps. These crystalline rocks have 


I 887] The Taconic Question Restated. 317 


been by many European geologists regarded as altered strata of 
various ages, alike mesozoic and palzozoic, but are, in the opinion 
of Gastaldi, of Jervis, and many others, infra-Cambrian. Rocks 
lithologically and stratigraphically similar occur in Spain and in 
Norway, as I have elsewhere pointed out. 

§ 35. It now became necessary to give distinctive terms to the 
two great groups of strata which, although originally separated 
by Eaton, were at first united by Emmons in one system, after- 
wards divided by him into Lower and Upper Taconic. It is 
unfortunate that the distinctive name of “ Taconic slates” given by 
Emmons to the Upper Taconic division,—the First Graywacke 
or Cambrian,—solely for the sake of distinguishing it from the 
lithologically similar and often contiguous slates of the Second 
Graywacke or Ordovician (with which they had been confounded 
by his colleagues under the common name of Hudson River 
group), should have given rise to the false notion, entertained by 
some, that these Cambrian slates have a better title to the name of 
Taconic than the underlying Magnesian slate of Emmons—with 
its associated roofing-slate or Transition Argillite—and the 
still older crystalline limestones and quartzites ; all of which were, 
together with the “ Taconic slate” group, included from the first 
in the Taconic system of Emmons 

That the Taconic slate group or Upper Taconic was nothing 
more nor less than the Cambrian of the Appalachian valley has, 
we think, been made clear, and that the Lower Taconic is a 
wholly distinct and older ‘series is also apparent. Its granular 
quartzites, often flexible ; its crystalline limestones and dolomites, 
sometimes, like the quartzites, micaceous, and occasionally in- 
cluding amphibole and serpentine ; its schistose beds, intercalated 
throughout, abounding in hydrous, non-magnesian micas, and 
occasionally carrying chlorite, talc, serpentine, garnet, and pyrox- 
ene; the presence also in the series of cyanite, staurolite, tour- 
aiie rutile, diamonds, and graphite; finally, the great included 
beds of magnetite, of hematite, and of siderite and pyrite, both 
yielding limonite by epigenesis,—all serve to show the existence 
of a peculiar and well-defined series of crystalline rocks, which 
are from four thousand to ten thousand feet in thickness, and are 
not less distinct from the uncrystalline Cambrian Graywacke or 
Upper Taconic than from those older crystalline series, the Lau- 
rentian, Arvonian, Huronian, and Montalban; upon each of which, 


318 The Taconic Question Restated. [ April 


in different regions, it appears to rest in unconformable stratifica- 
tion. It is at the same timé overlaid in New Brunswick by the 
Cambrian (Menevian) slates of St. John, and in very many parts 
of the Appalachian valley by the Cambrian Graywacke, and 
elsewhere in that region by the Silurian (Oneida) sandstone, and 
apparently by the Ordovician (Trenton) limestone, as is also the 
case in Ontario. 

§ 36. It became evident to the writer after many years of 


. study of these rocks, that'the attempt to set aside this great 


factor in American stratigraphy,—already recognized by Maclire, 
by Eaton, and by Emmons,—and to regard it, in conformity with 
the fancies of the metamorphic school, alternately as altered 
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and 
even Triassic,—was, like similar attempts in British and in Euro- 
pean geology, a grave error. 

The distinctness and unity of this great series of crystalline 
stratified rocks being maintained, a name for it was needed, and 
that of Lower Taconic given by Emmons was at hand. His 
Upper Taconic had by himself, and by others, been recognized 
as the equivalent of what had been previously designated Cam- 
brian, a name which it was thought it should henceforth bear. 
To prevent confusion in nomenclature, to secure uniformity in 
terminology, and to connect the name of Emmons with his great 
achievements in American stratigraphy, the writer, in 1878, pro- 
posed for the Lower Taconic the name of Taconian, which he 
has since adopted. 

$ 37. These rocks, although below the recognized Cambrian 
horizon, and, unlike them, essentially crystalline, are not desti- 
tute of the evidences of organic life. There are many reasons, 
both direct and indirect, apart from the existence of Eozoon, for 
believing that “the dawn of life,” as Dawson has happily called 
it, began long before Taconian time. The typical Scolithus 
linearis of the basic quartzites of the Taconian ,—although, as 
I have long since pointed out, very distinct from the somewhat 
similar markings (probably of two or more distinct species) found 
in the Cambrian (Potsdam) of the Ottawa and Mississippi basins, 
—is the more significant from the fact that it is found throughout 
the Appalachian valley, and, moreover, that something very like 
it, if not identical, occurs in the Taconian limestone alike in Penn- 
sylvania and in South Carolina, as well as in the Taconian quartz- 


1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 319 


ites of Ontario. There also the limestones have yielded the re- 
mains of an organism, referred by Dawson to Zozoon canadense, 
filled not with a mineral silicate, as in the Laurentian serpentinic 
limestones, but with an earthy carbonaceous matter. To these 
should be added the occurrence of the remains of Lingula, found 
by Prime in the Taconian limestones of Pennsylvania, and of the 
remains of a keratose sponge in the argillite of this series, found 
by the writer in 1883 near Thomson, Minnesota. All of these 
facts (except the last) were insisted upon by the writer in 1876, 
.and again in 1880, when in discussing the question whether 
the Taconian series is to be referred to eozoic or to palzozoic 
time, it was said that while to draw the line between them will be 
as difficult as to define that between paleozoic and mesozoic, or 
between mesozoic and cenozoic, “we may hope to find in the 
Taconic series a fauna which will help to fill the wide interval 
. which now divides that of the eozoic rocks from the Cambrian ;” 
adding that “we should seek in the study of stratigraphical geol- 
ogy not the breaks dividing groups from each other so much as 
the beds of passage which serve to unite all these ponp in one 
great system.” 

38. We have thus endeavored in the preceding pages to re- 
state briefly the Taconic Question in some of its more important 
aspects. Further details, and the references to original sources, 
will be found in our recently published volume entitled ‘ Mineral 
Physiology and Physiography,” pp. 517-686. Therein appear the 
papers, published under the title of “ The Taconic Question in 
Geology,” in volumes i. and ii. of the “ Transactions of the Royal 
Society of Canada in 1883 and 1884,” in part rewritten and con- 
siderably augmented. In that volume will be found, on page 520, 
a tabular view (also published in the “ Report on the Progress of 
Geology by the Smithsonian Institution for 1883”), wherein the 
stratigraphical sequence of the rocks of North America, in- 
cluding the Taconian series, and its relations alike to the older 

e i$ 
crystalline rocks below and to the First and Second Graywackes 
above, is shown to have been correctly indicated as early as 1832 
by Amos Eaton, the preceptor of Ebenezer Emmons. Had the 
teachings of that great master in American geology been gener- 
ally followed, it is not too much to say that a half-century of 
confusion, TERE EE and controversy would have been 
_avoided. It is the great merit of Emmons that he sought, 


320 _ The Taconic Question Restated. [April 


though unsuccessfully and amidst cruel opposition and injustice, 
to uphold those teachings, and to the best of his ability to extend - 
the generalizations of Eaton; in a return to which, as we have at 
last learned, is to be found the solution of the vexed problem of 
American stratigraphy. 

In the tabular view above noticed the writer attempted to intro- 
duce for the first time into American geology the term Ordo- 
vician, proposed by Lapworth in 1879 for the group of strata 
between the proper Silurian of Murchison and the undisputed 
Cambrian of Sedgwick, which, though by the latter named Upper | 
Cambrian, has been alternately called by others Lower Silurian, 
Siluro-Cambrian, and Cambro-Silurian, and includes the Chazy, 
Trenton, Utica, and Loraine subdivisions of the New York sys- 
tem. This name of Ordovician has since been adopted by many 
- British and European geologists, and is now used by Mr. Charles 
D. Walcott, of the United States Geological Survey, whose im- 
portant generalizations regarding the American Cambrian, no- 
ticed in the above volume, pages 624, 625, are given at length in 
his recent work in 1886, entitled “Studies of the Cambrian 
Faunas of North America” (“ Bulletin No. 30 of the Geological 
Survey”), and constitute a precious contribution to our knowledge 
of the North American Cambrian. His table of the succession 
of the Cambrian, with its subdivisions, and the Ordovician, will 
be found on page 44 of that Bulletin." 

1 Since writing the above paper there has appeared in the American Fournal of 
Science for February, 1887, an abstract by Mr. Walcott of a paper read by him in 
January before the Philosophical Society of Washington, in which he puts forth 


Taconian rocks, as maintained by Mather, II. D. Rogers, and C. B. Adams, since 

resuscitated by J. D. Dana, supporting it apparently upon the assumption that certai 

white sandstones carrying Olenellus, found to the eastward of the Taconic ak, 

are identical with the Primitive Quartz-rock of Eaton, the basal division of the 

Taconian, While entertaining the highest regard for Mr. Walcott’s admirable work 

in palzeontology, the writer can see in his TEBE note no sigs for raig the 
usions already set forth in the preceding pages . 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables, 321 


HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. 
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D.” 
(Continued from page 133.) 


AUSTRALIAN SPINAGE (?). Chenopodium auricomum Lind. 
A NATIVE of Australia, Darling River to Carpentaria and 
Arnheim’s Land, a tall perennial herb furnishing a nutri- 
tious and palatable spinage.? It does not appear in any way su- 
perior to the Garden Orach, except, perhaps, for warm climates.3 
It is mentioned as under culture in England in 1867,4 but it has 
apparently not yet become common or general. 


Baim. Melissa officinalis L. 

This aromatic perennial, a native of the Mediterranean coun- 
tries, has long been an inmate of gardens for the sake of its 
herbage, which finds use in seasonings and in the compounding 
of liqueurs and perfumes, as well as the domestic remedy known 
as balm tea. The culture was common with the ancients, as 
Pliny 5 directs it to be planted, and as a bee plant or otherwise 
it finds mention in the Greek and Latin poets and the prose 
writers.° It is mentioned in France by Ruellius? in 15 36; in 
England by Gerarde,® 1597, who gives a most excellent figure, 
and also by Lyte? in 1586,and Ray ™ in 1686. Mawe," in 1758, 
says great quantities are cultivated about London for supplying 
the markets. In the United States it is included among garden 
vegetables by McMahon * in 1806. 

As an escape the plant is found in England,” and sparingly in 
the Eastern United States." Bertero ® found it wild on the island 
of Juan Fernandez. 

But one variety is known in our gardens, although the plant 

2 Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 

2 Mueller, Sel. Pl., 1876, 49. 3 Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., 377. 

4 Gard. Chron., 1867, 1215. < S Pliny, lib. xxi. c. 41, 

6 Theocritus, Idyll., iv. 25; Dioscorides, iii. 118; Varro, iii. 16; Columella, ix. 
9; Virgil, Georgics, iv. ; as quoted by Grandsagne, Pliny, vol. xiii. p. 485. 


7 Ruellius, De Stirp., 1536, 733- . Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 558. 
9 Lyte, Död., 1586, 293. _ 0 Ray, Hist., i. 570. 
31 Mawe’s Gard., 1758. 12 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806. 


` 13 De Candolle, Geog. Bot., 681, 721. 
14 Gray, Syn. Fl. of N. A., ii., Pt. i., 361. 


322 History of Garden Vegetables. [April 


is described as being quite variable in nature. This would indi- 
cate that cultivation had not produced great changes. The only 
difference I have ever noted in the cultivated plant has been in 
regard to vigor, A variegated variety is recorded by Mawe* in 
1778 for the ornamental garden, and is yet to be found.? 

The names which have been given in various languages are: 
- English, dawme, Lyte, 1586, daulm, balm, Blackw., 1750; Danish, 
Iyjertensfryd, Vil, 1883; French, melissa, Ruel., 1536, melisse, 
Dod., 1616, melisse citronnelle, Vil., 1883 ; German, Meltssenkraut, 
Mutterkraut, Lyte, 1586, Cttronem-Melisse, Vil., 1883; Greek, 
melissovotanon, melissohorton, Sibth.; Holland, consihe de greyn, 
melisse, Lyte, 1586, citroen-melisse, Vil., 1883; Italy, cedronella, 
herba rosa, Lyte, 1586, melissa, Dod., ii, Vik, 1883; Spain, 
torongil, yerva eidrera, Lyte, 1586, corongil, oni Vil., 1883. 


BASELLA. Basella sp. 

The Basella species are natives of tropical Asia, and the leaves 
have been employed as a food in India and China. They have 
furnished a spinage plant to European gardeners now for many 
years. 

Basella alba L. 

This species is cultivated in Burmah 3 for spinage, in the Phil- 
ippines + seemingly wild and eaten by the natives. It is also cul- 
tivated in the Mauritius,’ and in every part of India,‘ where it 
occurs wild.” It was introduced to Europe in 1688,3 and was 
grown in England in 1691, but these references can hardly apply 
to the vegetable garden. It is, however, recorded in French 
gardens in 1824 and 1829.*° 

The vernacular names in Europe are: English, White Malabar 
Nightshade ; Flanders, Meier ; France, Baselle blanche, Epinard 
blanc de Amerique, Epinard blanc de Malabar; Germany, In- 
_ discher ee Spinat, Malabar Spinat; Italy, Basella; Spain, 
Basela. 

3 Mawe, l, ç: ` a wien de Pleine Terre, 13th ed., p. 692. 

3 Mason, v. 472-780; quoted 2 Pick. Ch. Hist., 696. 

4 Blanco ; quoted from Pick. Ch. Hist., 696. 

$ Bojer, Hort. Maurit., 1837,270. ®"Drury, Useful Plants of India, 66. 

7 Wight, ic., pl. 896. 3 Noisette, Man. du Jard., 559.. 

9 Mill. Dict., 1807. 2 L’ Hort. Franc., 1824; ‘Tenens, lg Has. 

1: —* Les Pl. Pot., 30. 


iS o History of Garden Vegetables. 323 


In the Mauritius, gandolle blanc ;* in the Indian languages, 
Bengali, sufed-pooin; in Telinga, aMu-datsalla; in Hindustani, 
pa ;* in Burmah, gyen daing,? etc. 


Basella cordifolia Lam. (B. lucida Lam.) 


This species is cultivated in all parts of India,3 and is the 
Calalue of Barbadoes. It was imported from China to France 
in 1839,5 and is now known under the name of Baselle de Chine 
a tres larges feuilles. Its greater expanse of leaves makes it more 
desirable as a spinage plant than the other species. 

he vernacular names in India are: Bengali, pooinshak ; Te- 
linga, pedda-batsella ; Hindustani, pooz.' 


Basella nigra Lam. 


This species is found in Cochin China and China, both wild and 
uncultivated,” and Livingston? says the leaves are much es- 
teemed when boiled. It is very likely but.a variety of the other 
species, 

Basella rubra L. 

This Indian species is cultivated as a spinage plant in- many 
places. In 1638,according to the “ Hortus Malabaricus,” seed was 
sent from Ceylon to the botanic garden at Amsterdam, and Ray, 
in 1704, describes it as cultivated in gardens. No mention of it 
in kitchen gardens, however, occurs before the present century. 
It is mentioned in French works on gardening in 1824, 1826, and 
1829," and in the Mauritius in 1827." Bretschneider * has found 
mention of it as a cultivated vegetable in Chinese authors of the 
sixteenth century, 1640, and 1742. Kaempfer describes it as 
a Japanese plant, and Rumphius as of Amboina. 

The European names are: Red Malabar Nightshade in Eng- 

sony, EG ies 
2 Pickering, Ch. Hist. of Pl., 696. Other names will be found in Birdwood, Veg. 
Prod. of Bomb., 177- 

3 Firminger, Gard. in Ind.; Drury, 1. c. 4 Maycock, Fl. Barb., 131. 

s Vilm., I. c é Drury, 1. 


7 Loureiro, Fl. Cochinch., 183. 8 Livingston, Hort. Trans., v. 54. 

9 Mill. Dict., 1807. 1 Ray, Hist. Suppl., 1704, iii. 358. 
u L’ Hort. Franc., 1824; Petit, 1826; Noisette, 1829. 

x2 Bojer, l. c. 33 Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 59, 83, 85. 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 4. 22 


324 History of Garden Vegetables. [April 


lish; in France, Baselle rouge, Epinard rouge d Amerique, Epi- 
nard rouge de Malabar ; in Germany, Rother Malabar-spinat. 

The extra European names I find are as follows; Mauritius, 
bredes gandolle ou d’ Angole;? in Japan, murasakki ;3 in India, 
poee sag ;* in Sanscrit, pootika; in Bengali, racta-bun-pooi,; in 
Telinga, yerra-batsalla ; in Ceylon, rat-niwitis 


Basit. Ocimum sp. 


Various kinds of basil have been grown in vegetable gardens 
since a remote period, for the sake of the aromatic foliage which 
serves as a seasoning. In 1778, Mawe names thirteen varieties, 
the broad-, narrow-, and fringed-leaved, the dark green, the large 
purple and the fringed purple, the tricolored, the curled- and the 
studded-leaved, the red- and the purple-flowered, the Jong-spiked 
and the short-spiked. At the present time Vilmorin describes 
ten kinds as serviceable for the kitchen garden. In 1612, “Le 
Jardinier Solitaire” devotes a section to directions for culture, 
and Quintyne, in 1693,° grew basil among hot-bed plants. Ac- 
cording to Miss Bird,’ the seeds are eaten in Japan. 


Ocimum basilicum L. 


This species is a very variable one, and furnishes a number 
of botanical varieties. It includes the large varieties of our gar- 
dens, in both the green- and purple-foliaged, the large-, medium-, 
and narrow-leaved. It is a native of tropical Asia, and is de- 
scribed for India by Drury, for Cochin China by Loureiro, for 
Amboinia by Rumphius, for Malabar by Rheede, etc. It 
was probably known to the ancients, but the commentators are 
often in doubt as to the name. Fee® thinks it the okimon of 
Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides, the ocitmum hortense 
of Columella and Varro. It reached England on or before 1548, 
according to McIntosh ;9 certain it is, it is not mentioned by 
Turner in his “ Libellus,” 1 538, and is well known to Lyte in 
1586. It occurs in all the American works on gardening; com- 
mencing with 1806. 

* Vi e 2 Bojer, l. c. ; 

3 Kaempfer, Amæn., 1712, 784. 4 Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1842, 155- 

5 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 177. 

* Quintyne, Comp. Gard., 1693, 188. 7 Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, i. 238. 

_ * Fee, Notes in Grandsagne’s Pliny. 9 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., ii. 237. 


J 


T E887]. ; history of Garden Vegetables. 325 


In our synonymy we can include all the varieties named by 
Vilmorin as in present culture, and all those mentioned in the 
vernacular by less recent writers. A careful examination seems 
to justify the following attempts : 


I, 


Ocimum mediocre. Fuch., 1542, 548. 

Basilica minor. Trag., 1552, 30. 

O. parvum. Matth., 1558, 268. 

O. medium vulgatius. Adv., 1570, 215; Lob. Obs., 1576, 268. 
O. secundum. Cam., Epit., 1586, 309 

O. medium. Lugd., 1578, 680. 

O. medium citratum. Ger., 1597, 547. 

Basilicum medium. Hort. Eyt 1613, Aést. ord., 7, fol. g. 
O. vulgaris. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 226. 

? O. basilicum L. Sp., 2d ed., 833. 

Basilic grand vert and grand v Vil., 1883, 31. 
Sweet Basil and Purple Sweet Basil. 


II. 


Ocimum magnum. Fuch., nom 549. 
Basilica major. Trag., 1552, 
O. max. caryophyllatum. Lob. ‘Obs: 1576, 268; tc, B61, L 


Ocimum. Cam., Epit., 1586, 308. 

O. maximum. atte d., 1587, 679. 

O. garyophyllatum majus. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 425. 

O. magnum. Ger., 1597, 547. 

? O. basilicum, var. 6. Lin., Sp., 2d ed., 833. 

Basilic a feuilles large, De C., Fl. Fran., 1815, iii. 570. 
III. 

Ocimum anisatum. Hort. Eyst., 161 3, “Est. ord., 14, fol. 2. 

Basilic anise. Vil, 1883, 32. 
IV. 

Sape latifolium crispum. Matth., 1598, 408. 

O. crispum viride. Hort. Eyst., 1613, “Est. ord., 7, fol. 10. 
O. foliis fimbriatis viridis. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 225. 
O. Sancto mauritanum. J. Bish, 1651, iii. 249.; 


326 History of Garden Vegetables. [ April 


O. Basilicum L., var. f. Benth. 
Basilic frise. Vil., 1883, 32. 


y 


Ocimum latifolium magnum. Hort. Eyst., 1613, Æst. ord., 7, 
fol. 10. 

- O. viride foliis bullatis. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 225. 

O. basilicum, var. di Liw, Sp., 2d ed., 833. ~ 

O. bullatum. Lam. ex De C; FI. Fran., 111, 570. 

Basilic a feuilles de laitue. Vil., 1883. 

In the European languages Basil or Sweet Basil is called, in 
Denmark, ġasilikum; in Flanders, ġasilik; in France, dasilic ` 
grand, B. aux sauces, B. des cuisiniers, B. romain, herbe royale ; 
in Germany, Basilicum; Basilen, Basilgram ;? in Italy, dastlico ; 
-in Portugal, manjericao ;* in Russia, wasili ;3 in Spain, albaca, 
albahacas 

Outside of Europe it is called, in Arabic, ryhan,' riban, habak ;5 
in Sanscrit, manjirika ;° in Bengali, dardoottulsee ; in Hindustani, 
kala-tulsee, pashana cheddu; in Tamil, ttrnoot-patchie; in Te- 
linga, vepoodipatsa ;7 in Persia, deban-shab, nazbro, ungooshtkunee- 
suckan,® etc. 

Ocimum gratissimum L. 

This species is recorded as indigenous from India, the South 
Sea islands, and Brazil? According to Loureiro’ it occurs in 
the kitchen gardens of.Cochin China., It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1752 by Mr. Miller2° Forskal™ gives as the Arabic 
name, hobokbok, In French gardens” this plant is called dasélic 
en arbre. Vilmorin thinks, however, that the French form may 
be the O. suave Willd., but of this he is not certain. 


Ocimum minimum L. 
This smaller species is a native of India, but is recorded from 
Cochin China and from Chili. From its compact form it is much 
_ grown in gardens, and has furnished several varieties. It is not 


* Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 31. 2 Camerarius, Epitome, 1586, 308. 
3 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., ii. 238. 4 Delile, Fl. Ægypt, illust. 
5 Forskal, Fl. Æg. Geri ! 


° Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 64, 241. 7 Drury, Useful Pl. of Ind., 326. 

$ sI iro, Fl. Cochinch. 
x Miller’s Dict., 1807. - F -1t Forskal, L c. 
22 Vilmorin, l. c.. a : 


» 369. 


į 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 327 


mentioned in Turner’s “ Libellus,” 1538, and hence had probably 
not reached England at this time. It has been known in Ameri- 
can gardens from the commencement of the present century, and 
probably earlier. 

The synonymy can be established as below: 


k 

Ocimum exiguum. Fuch., 1542, 547. 

O. minimum amaraci Paea caryophyllata, Adv., 1570, 215; 
Lob. Obs., 1576, 269. 

O. caryophyllatus. Lugd., 1587, 681. 
~ O. minus garyophyllatum. Ger., 1597, 547. 

O. garyophyllatum. Matth., 1598, 407. 

Basilico minore. Cast. Dirinte 1617, 64. 

O. minimum. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 226; J. Bauh., 1651, iii. 247; 
Ray, 1686, i. 541. 

O. mimimum. I, Sp, 833. 

Bush basil. Lyte, 1586; Ger., 1597; Ray, 1686; Burr, 1863. 

Basilic fin, vert and violet. Satins 1883, 33. 


II. 

Ocimum min. caryophyllatum. Hort. Eyst., 1613, Aést. ord., 
7, fol. 10. 

Basilic fin vert compact. Vil., Alb. de Clich., n. 43077. 

Compact Bush-basil. Vil., Veg. Gard., 1885, 19. 

Bush basil is called in India Sofed toolsee ;* in Italy, Basilico 
gentile, Basilico oe 2 in France, Basilic fin; in Spain, 
Albaca menuda, A. fina 

We certainly cannot vi in basil an illustration of great iod 
fications which have been produced by cultivation, nor can we 
suspect that there are any well-marked varieties of modern origi- 
nation. 
: Bean. Phaseolus vulgaris L. z 

When the bean was first known it was an American plant, and 
had a culture extending over nearly the whole of the New World, 
as it finds mention by nearly all the early voyagers and explorers, 
and while the records were not kept sufficiently accurate to jus- 
tify identification in all cases with varieties now known, yet the 

1 Speede, on oe of Gard., 184. 2 Cast. Durante, 1617. 

3 Vilmorin, 


328 History of Garden Vegetables, [April 


mass of the testimony is such that we cannot but believe that 
beans as at present grown were included. A partial list of such 
testimony I have given heretofore, and hence it need not be 
repeated. The marvellous number of varieties known are indi- 
cation of antiquity of culture, and when kept from crossing these 
varieties come true and perpetuate indefinitely characters which 
appear in the seed. From seed apparently on type, however, 
through atavism, other varieties may appear, and to one un- 
familiar with the types might be considered as sports, and as 
proof of the variable nature of the plant 
-Commentators have quite generally considered this species 
as among the plants cultivated by the ancients, and De Can- 
dolle who has given the subject much thought, thinks the 
best argument is in the use of the modern names derived 
from the Greek /asio/os and the Roman /aseolus and phasiolus. 
In 1542, Fuchsius* used the German word Faselen for the bean; 
in 1550, Roszlin5 used the same word for the pea, as did 
also Tragus® in 1552. Fuchsius gives also an alternative 
named welsch Bonen, and Roszlin welsch Bonen and welsch Phas- 
elen for the bean, and the same word, welsch Bonen, for the 
bean is given by Tragus, 1552,and Kyber,? 1553. This epithet, 
welsch or foreign, would seem to apply toa kind not heretofore 
known. Albertus Magnus,’ who lived in the thirteenth century, 
used the word /fase/us as denoting a specific plant, as “ faba et 
faseolus et pisa et alia genera leguminis,” “ cicer, faba, faseolus.” 
He also says, “ Et sunt faseoli multorum colorum, sed quodlibet 
granorum habet maculam nigram in loco cotyledonis.” Now the 
Dolichos unguiculatus L. is a plant which furnishes beans with a 
black eye, as grown by me, and appears the same with many 
varieties of the “ cow pea” of the Southern States, and is stated by 
_Vilmorin to be grown in Italy in many varieties. I have before 
me, as I write, two hundred and nineteen bottles of beans, each 
with a name (many, however, synonymes), and not one 
of these beans has a black eye. I have before me the seed of 


* Kitchen Garden Plants of Am. Origin, Am. ee May, 1885, 448, 452. 
_ 7 See Proc. of Am. Asso. for Adv. of Sc., 1885, xxx 
- 3 De Candolle, Orig. des PI. Cult., 271. «Fuchsus, De Hist. Stirp, 1542, 708. 
- 5 Roszlin, ERS 6 Tragus, De Stirp., 1552, 611. 
7 — paca. 1553, 
Albertus Magnus, De Vee -Joea ed., pp. 118, 167, 515. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 329 


Dolichos unguiculatus and twelve named varieties of the cow 
pea, and all have a circle of black about the white eye, also 
one variety of cow pea all black, with a white eye, and one red 
speckled form without the black. It seems, therefore, reasonable 
to conclude that the fase/us of Albertus Magnus was a Dolichos. 
In the list of vegetables Charlemagne ordained to be planted on 
his estates occurs the word fasiolum, without explanation." 

Passing now to the Roman writers, Columella? speaks of the 
“longa fasellus,’ an epithet which well applies to the pods of 
the Dolichos; he gives directions for field culture and not for 
garden culture, recommending the seeding to be four modii per 
jugerum, and he recommends planting in October. Pliny? says 
the pods are eaten with the seed, and the planting is in October 
and November. Palladius* recommends the planting of faselus 
in September and October, in a fertile and well-tilled soil, four 
modu per jugerum. Virgil’s5 epithet, “vilemque phaselum,” 
also indicates field culture, as to be cheap implies abundance. 

Among the Greek writers, Aetius,® in the fourth century, says 
the Dolichos and the phaseolus of the ancients were now called by 
all Zobos, and by some melar (smilax ?) kepea. This word /odos of 
Aetius is recognizable in the Arabic /oudta? applied to Dolichos 
lubia Forsk., a bean with low stalks, the seed ovoid, white, with 
a black point at the eye. Galen® says the /odos was called by 
some phasiolos. 

_ From these and other clues to be gleaned here and there from 
the Greek authors, Iam disposed to think that the low bean of 
the ancients was a Dolichos, and that the word phaselus referred 
to this bean whenever used throughout the middle ages in geal 
ing of a field crop. 

The Roman references to phaseolus all refer to a low-growing 
bean fitted for field culture, and so used. There is no clear indi- 
cation to be found of garden culture. Aetius seems the first 
among the Greeks to refer to a garden sort, for he says the /odos 
are the only kind in which the pod is eaten with the bean, and 


z Quoted from De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. cin 272: 
2 Columella, lib. x. 1. 378; lib. ii. c. ro; lib. xi. c. 2. 
3 Pliny, lib. xviii. c. 33. 4 Palladius, lib. x. c. 12; lib, xi. 

s Virgil, Georgics, i. 227. © Quoted by Bodzeus a Stapel, PAREPA A 1644, 925- 
7 Delile, Mem. sur les Pl. cult. en Egypte, 24. 
8 Galen, De Aliment, c. xxviii. 


330 ae History of Garden Vegetables. [April 


he says this /odos is called by some melax kepea (smilax hortensis), 
the dolichos and phaseolus of his predecessors. Galen’s use of the 
word /odos, or the pod plant, would hence imply garden culture 
in Greece in the second century. 

The word /oudbion is applied by the modern Greeks to the 
Phaseolus vulgaris, as is also the word /oéa in Hindustani. The 
word /uéia is applied by the Berbers, and in Spain the form a/ubia 
to the Phaseolus vulgaris: The words fagiuolo in Italian, phaseole 
in French, are used for the P, vulgaris. It is so easy for a name 
used in a specific sense to remain while the forms change, as is 
illustrated by the word squash in America, that we may inter- 
pret these names to refer to the common form of their time, to 
a Dolichos (even now in some of its varieties called a bean) in 
ancient times and to a Phasiolus now. 

Theophrastus? says the dolichos is a climber, and bears seeds, 
and is not a desirable vegetable. I find no other mention of a 
climber in the ancient authors. The word dolichos seems to be 
used in a generic sense. Theophrastus says zhe his dolichos, the 
intensive 2 being used after the o; but the dolichos of Galen is 
the faselus of the Latins, for he says that some friends of his had 
seen the dolichos (a name not then introduced at Rome) growing 
in fields about Caria, in Italy. We may hence be reasonably 
certain that the pole beans which were so common in the sixteenth 
century were not then cultivated. 

The English name kidney beans is derived evidently from the 
shape of the seed. Turner, 1551, is the first use of this name I 
note; but they were not generally grown in England until quite 
recent times. Parkinson, in 1629, speaks of them as oftener on 
rich men’s tables, and Worlidge, in 1683, says that within the 
memory of man. they were a great rarity, although now a com- 
mon delicate food. The French word haricot, applied to this 
plant, occurs in Quintyne,? 1693, who calls them aricos in one 
place, and aricauts in another. The word does not occur in 
“ Le Jardinier Solitaire,” 1612, and Champlain,* in 1605, uses the 
term febues du Bresil, indicating he knew no vernacular name of 
closer application. De Candolles says the word araco is Italian, 

* De Candolle, Orig. of Cult. P1., 278. 

? Theophrastus, c. 3. Bodæus a Stapel, 1644, 914. 

_ 3 Quintyne, Comp. Gard., 1693, 185, 142. : 
4 Champlain, Voy. Prince Soc. Ed.,64. 5 De Candolle, Orig, of Cult. Pl., 274. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. . 331 


and was originally used for Lathyrus ochrus. It is apparently 
thus used by Oribasius and Galen. 

The two species of Linnzeus, Phaseolus vulgaris and P. nana, 
correspond to the popular grouping into pole and dwarf beans. 
But there is this to be remarked, that Linnzeus synonymes for 
P. nana apply to a Dolichos, and not to a Phaseolus, for the de- 
scriptions of Phaseolus vulgaris italicus humilis s. minor, albus cum 
orbita nigricante of Bauhin’s* history answer well to the cow pea, 
as also does C. Bauhin’s? Smilax silique sursum rigente s. Phaseo- 
lus parvus italicus, and do not apply to the bush bean. The 
figures given by Camerarius3 in 1586, by Matthiolus,* 1598, and 
by Bauhin, 1651, are all cow peas, although the names given 
are those used for the true bean, thus indicating the same con- 
fusion between the species and the names which kept pace with 
the introduction of new varieties of the bean from America, for 
Pena and Lobel,5 in 1570, say that many sorts of fabas Phese- 
olosve were received from sailors coming from the New World. 


Phaseolus nana L. 


The first figure I find of the bush bean is by Fuchsius,® in 
1542, and his drawing resembles very closely varieties that may 
be found to-day,—not the true bush, but slightly twining. In 
1550, Roszlin’ figures a bush bean, as does Matthiolus® in 1558, 
Pinzeus? in 1561, and Dalechamp” in 1587. Matthiolus says the 
species is common in Italy, in gardens, and oftentimes in fields, 
the seed of various colors, as white, red, citron, and spotted. 
Dalechamp figures the white bean. The dwarf bean is not men- 
tioned by Dodonzus*™ in 1566 nor in 1616. A list of varieties 
cultivated in Jamaica is given, in 1837, by Macfadyen," which in- 
cludes the one-colored black, yellow, red, etc.; the streaked, in 
which the seeds are marked with broad, linear curved spots; the 
variegated, the seeds marked with rubiginose, leaden, etc., more 
or less rounded spots; and the saponaceous, with the back of 

è 


. ¥ Bauhin, Hist., 1651, ii. 258. 2 Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 339. 
3 Camerarius, Epit., 1586, 212. 4 Matthiolus, Op., ed. Bauhin, 1598, 341. 
5 Pena and Lobel, Adversaria, 1570, 394. 
6 Fuchsius, De Stirp., 1542, 708. 7 Roszlin, Kreuterbuch, 1550, 149. 
8 Matthiolus, Comm., 1558, 237. 9 Pinzeus, Hist. Plant., 1561, 140. 
1 Hist. Gen. Lugd., 1587, 472. 1 Dodonzus, Frument., 1566. 


** Dodonzus, Pempt., 1616. ™ Macfadyen, Jam., i. 283. 


332 History of Garden Vegetables. [April 


the seeds white, the sides and concavity marked with spots so. 
as to resemble a common soap-ball. 

Gerarde,? 1597, does not mention this bean in England, but it 
is mentioned by Miller,? in 1724, in varieties which can be iden- 
tified with those grown at the present time, five in all. In 1765, 
Stevenson’ names seven varieties ; in 1778, Mawe+ names eleven. 
In 1883, Vilmorin5 describes sixty-nine varieties and names 
others. 

Phaseolus vulgaris L. 

Pole beans are figured by Tragus® in 1552, who speaks of 
them as having lately come into Germany from Italy, and he 
calls them we/sch or foreign, and he enumerates the various 
colors, as red, purplish white, variegated, white, black, and yel- 
lowish. Dodonzus7? in 1 566 and 1616 figures the pole bean, as 
does Lobel? in 1576 and 1591, Clusius? in 1601, and Castor 
Durante” in 1617. In 1597, Gerarde™ figures four varieties in 
England, the white, black, red, and yellow, and Barnaby Googe” 
speaks of French beans in 1572, indicating by the name the 
source from which they came. In 1683, Worlidge*3 names two 
sorts as grown in English gardens, and the same varieties are 
given by Mortimer* in 1708. In France, in 1829, nineteen sorts 
are enumerated by Noisette," and in 1883, Vilmorin * describes 
thirty-eight varieties and names others. 

_ The bean is called in England kidney bean, Turner, 1551, 
Vilm., 1883; French bean, Vil., 1883; sperage bean, Ger., 1597, 
Googe, 1572; faselles, long peason, garden smilax, Romane beans, 
Lyte, 1586; in Denmark, havebonnen, Vilm., 1883; in Flanders, 
boon, Vilm., 1883; in France, febues, Cartier, 1536, fasiolis, Pin., 
1561, haricot, Quint., 1693, Vilm., 1883, phaseole, Vilm., 1883; 
_ in Germany, welsch Bonen, Fuch., 1542, Bohne, Vilm., 1883; in 
Greece, fasoulia, De C., 1883; in Holland, oon, Vilm., 1883; in 


* Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 1038. ? Miller’s Dict., 1807. 

3 Stev Gard. Kal., 1765, 66. 4 Mawe, Gard., 1778. 

5 Vilmorin, Les. Pl. Pot., 250. 6 Tragus, l. c. 

7I onæus, l. e. 8 Lobel, Obs., 1576, 511; ic., 1591, ii. 60. 
-. 9Clusius, Hist., 1601, ii, 222. 1° Castor Durante, Herb., 1617. 

= Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 1038. ™ Gard. Chron., 1864, 1181. 

*3 J. W. Gent., Systema-Hort., 1683, 197. 

"4 Mortimer, The Whole Art of Husbandry, 1708, 456; quoted from Gard, Chron., 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 333 


Italy, fagiuolo, Pin., 1561, Vilm., 1883; in Portugal, feijao, Vilm., 
1883; in Spain (in Castile), arvejas luengas, (in Aragon) judias, 
Oviedo, 1546, faxones fexoes, frejoles, Navarette, about 1500, fasi- 
olos, Cam., 1586, habichuela, judia, frijol, Vilm., 1883 ; in Sweden, 
Turkiska boner, Tengborg, 1764. 

In India, in Hindustani, daé/a, loba ; in Ceylon, ens, Bird- 
wood; in Cochin China, dau tlang, tau, Lour. 
_ In America, the Northern Algonquins, tuppuhquam-ash,—t.c., 
twiners, Elliott; in Carib, ca/aouana, Breton’s Dict.; in Chahta, 
tobi, Gray; in Chippeway, miskodissimin,—i.e., red-dyed seed, 
Gray; in Dakota, onmnicha, Gray; in Delaware, malachzit, 
Zeisberger ; in Huron, ogaressa, Sagard; in Kennebec Abnaki, 
a teba ‘kive, Rasle ; in Mohawk, osaheta, Gray ; Mojave, se-van, 
Whipple ; in the Narragansett, monasguisset (singular), Cotton, 
manusqussed-ash (plural), R. Williams; in Onondaga, onsahita 
and hosahita, Shea; in Pequod, mushquissedes, Stiles; in Peru, 
purutu, de Vega; on the St. Lawrence, sake, Cartier; the Shaw- 
anoes of Ohio, m’skochi-tha, Gray; the Cheyenne, monisk or 
monehka, Hayden ; in Virgina, okindyier, Haricot, peccatoas, peke- 
tawes, Strachey ;* Yuma, white beans, marigue, Whipple. 

In Mexican, e# of the Aztecs; when boiled in the green pod 
exotl, Bancroft. 

It should not be overlooked that this bean has been found in 
the ancient Peruvian tombs at Ancon;? that Verarząnus, an 

ian, in 1524, previous to the EA introduction of the 

bean to ioe in describing those met with on the New England 
coast, says, “ differing in colour and taste fro’ ours, of good and 
pleasant taste ;” and Harriot,t in 1586, when kidney beans were 
scarcely in general culture in England, notes in Virginia that the 
_ beans are different from those of England in that they are “ flat- 
ter, of more divers colours and some pied. The leaf also of the 
stem is much different.” 


* These Indian names mostly taken from Gray and Trumbull, Am. Jour. of Sc., 
August, 1883. 
- 2 Stevenson, Trav., i. 328; De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 273. 

3 Verarzanus, Hakluyt, Divers Voy. to 

4 Harriot, Pink. Voy., xii. 595. 


(To be continued.) 


334 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


METSCHNIKOFF ON GERM-LAYERS:.: 
TRANSLATED BY H. V. WILSON. 


Al of the most fundamental principles of the comparative 
embryology of to-day can be traced back, with a greater or 
less change of form, to the beginning of the century. Among 
such is the idea embodied in the following law, which was enun- 
ciated by the school of natural philosophers in Germany: “The 
evolution undergone by every animal from the beginning of its 
life corresponds to the evolution which is to be observed in the 
Series of animals.” The law as thus stated met with opposition 
from Von Baer (1),? who maintained that the embryonic stages of 
an animal are by no means to be compared with other adult forms, 
but with the embryos of these forms. He had finally to admit, 
however, that the difference between these two views is not 
nearly so great as it appears to be at first sight. 
lready animated by this philosophical generalization, embry- 
ology received a great stimulus from the parallel Louis Agassiz 
drew between the embryonic stages of existing animals and the 
main stages in the geological development of the animal king- 
dom. Agassiz himself failed to make the right deductions from 
this truth. 

While students of embryology were thus engaged in looking 
for general points of similarity, on the one hand, between embry- 
onic stages of animals and existing adult forms, and between 
embryos and extinct animals on the other, Huxley, in 1849, insti- 
tuted the comparison between the germinal layers of Vertebrates 
and the layers of the Ccelenterate type. To the latter he gave 
the names of ectoderm and endoderm. This idea did not re- 
main unnoticed in England, but was generalized and given a 
popular character by Herbert Spencer in one of his beautiful 
essays, entitled “ The Social Organism.” Let me quote from the 
English philosopher: “ Throughout the whole animal kingdom, 
from the Cælenterata upward, the first stage of evolution is the 
same. Equally in the germ of a polype and in the human ovum, 
the aggregated mass of cells out of which. the creature is to 

* The following paper forms the closing chapter of Professor Elias Metschnikoff’s 
 “ Embryologische Studien an Medusen,” Wien, 1886. 

2 Th ab os this article c ah bibliographi 1 list appended. 


1887 | Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 335 


arise, gives origin to a peripheral layer of cells, slightly differing 
from the rest which they include; and this layer subsequently 
divides into two,—the inner, lying in contact with the included 
yelk, being called the mucous layer, and the outer, exposed to 
surrounding agencies, being called the serous layer: or, in the 
terms used by Professor Huxley in describing the development 
of the Hydrozoa, the endoderm and ectoderm. This primary 
division marks out a fundamental contrast of parts in the future 
organism.” The share each layer takes in building up the devel- 
oping animal is then touched upon, after which the author pro- 
ceeds to draw an analogy between the layers of an animal body 
and the grades of society, in which he compares the ectoderm 
with the higher grades, the endoderm with the lower grades, and 
the mesoderm with “ers-étaz. 

Huxley’s theory for a long time found no supporters in Ger- 
many. In that country there was noticeable a certain reaction 
against the general application of the doctrine of the germinal 
layers. This reaction reached its greatest height in the well- 
known paper by Weismann on the embryology of the Diptera. 
- Such a tendency was in perfect accord with the doctrine of types 
then prevalent, according to which morphological comparisons 
could only be made within the limits of one and the same great 

oup. ; 

The similarities in the structure and development of animals 
were long regarded as the expression of a universal plan, which 
was of a purely ideal nature. In the last two decades it has 
been generally recognized that at the bottom of these similarities 
lies genetic relationship. The value of embryology as a key to 
this relationship was recognized by Darwin, who laid special 
emphasis on the view that the embryo, being less differentiated 
‘than the adult, ought to afford us valuable information concern- 
ing the structure of its ancestors; and that when the embryos 
of two animals are alike, the similarity is due to a common 
descent. He attempted to illustrate these general laws by con- 
crete examples, and where he met exceptions, he explained them 
by supposing the embryonic record to be obscured by larval 
adaptations and precocious inheritance. Darwin thus came to 
the conclusion that the parallel Agassiz had pointed out is due 
to the blood relationship of animals, and that this parallel is 
thoroughly revealed only in cases where the process of develop- 


K 


336 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


ment has not been altered by the introduction of any obscuring 
disturbance. 

The embryological principles of Darwin were developed in a 
deductive manner by Fritz Miller in his important little book, 
“Fur Darwin,” and were illustrated by many facts chosen from 
the life histories of the lower animals. The way Miiller looked 
at his facts revealed the manner in which the problems of com- 
parative embryology must be approached in future. He es- 
pecially emphasized his belief that individual development only 
repeats genealogical development in cases where the descendants 
(in the course of their embryology) travel without swerving the 
straight path which leads. up to their ancestral form, “ where, 
however, they do not stop, but press farther on.” “In the short 
space of a few weeks or months,” says Miiller, “the ever-alter- 
ing forms of the embryos and larve present to our eyes a more 
or less perfect picture of the changes through which, in the 
course of countless ages, the species has struggled up to its 
present condition.” In connection with Darwin’s ideas on the 
disturbance of the developmental process, Miiller formulated this 
proposition : “ The historical record preserved in the development 
of the individual is gradually lost, since there is always at work 
a tendency to make the path from the egg to the adult as 
straight as possible. The record is, moreover, falsified because 
of the struggle for existence in which the larve that lead an 
independent life have to take part.” 

This book of Miiller’s marked an epoch; and in part under 
its influence there was soon begun a very active overhauling of 
the facts of animal embryology, in which more attention was 
paid to the lower animals than to the higher Vertebrates, Inde- 
pendently of this movement, Kolliker, in 1865 (in the second 
_ part of his “ Icones Histologic,” p. 90), came to certain general 
conclusions, which essentially coincided with the views of Hux- 
dey. “Whatever the cause may be,” says Kölliker, “the uni- 
formity in structure of a Hydrozoan and a young Vertebrate 
embryo is a very striking fact; and if this question is pursued 
further with an eye to the structure and histological development 
of many animals, it is pretty certain that some simple law of de- 
velopment will be discovered. The problem was before long a 
subject of busy investigation. The forsaken theory of the germi- 
nal layers was again taken up in the realm of the Invertebrates, 


1887]  Metschnikof on Germ-Layers. 337 


and was enriched with many fresh facts, so that it soon became 
the password to the new road upon which embryology had 
entered. The theory received the greatest impulse from Kowal- 
evsky’s discovery of the development of Amphioxus(2). The 
embryology of this animal disclosed phenomena which linked 
together the development of Vertebrates and Invertebrates. As 
soon as Kowalevsky had discovered the two-layered ciliated 
larva of Amphioxus he began to look for analogous embryonic 
forms in other animals, and succeeded in establishing a great 
number of „very valuable facts. These investigations, having for 
their object the discovery of the most fundamental embryonic 
forms, such as might be compared with the early stages of Am- 
phioxus, were naturally followed out on animals of low grade 
with simply organized larvae. On the other hand, I turned my 
attention to the development of the higher Invertebrates, with 
the design of establishing here also the germ-layer theory. I 
first studied the embryology of Sepiola (4), found two germinal 
layers, and observed the part each played in building up the 
organism. Following up the investigation in the group of Ar- 
thropods, I failed to demonstrate satisfactorily the germinal 
layers in Insects, but found them in the higher Crustacea (5) 
(Nebalia), and particularly well in the scorpion (6). In the latter 
animal I at first (1866) found only two layers, but soon after 
(1868) discovered the third. I showed in the scorpion that the 
upper layer gives rise to the central nervous system; that the 
middle splits into two layers and forms a series of hollow seg- 
ments, by the fusion of which the body cavity arises; and that, 
finally, the under layer becomes the lining membrane of the ali- 
mentary canal. Supported by these facts, I concluded, in 1869 
{in a publication of the Educational Bureau), that the three layers 
of the scorpion embryo corresponded in all respects to the three 
Vertebrate layers. I was not deterred from this view by my 
belief at the time that the nerve-fibres were derived from the 
middle instead of the upper layer, since the peripheral nervous 
system of the Vertebrates was then generally considered to be 
mesoblastic. Thus the problems of comparative embryology 
were attacked on two sides, with the object of getting a good 
basis of facts. It was not until I had made out the main features 
in the formation of the germinal layers of the scorpion that 
Kowalevsky began to investigate the embryology of the Oligo- 


338 Metschmkoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


cheta and Insecta(3). He found in these animals the same 
three layers, and carefully studied their changes. The reju- 
venated germinal-layer theory had now gained a firm basis in 
the domain of the Invertebrates, and comparative embryology 
took a new direction, mainly under the guidance of German and 
Russian investigators. Since the idea of the germinal layers 
was taken from the higher animals, and was then applied to the 
Invertebrates, it was natural that misconceptions should arise, 
owing to such an anti-genealogical method. Some of these mis- 
conceptions have lasted until to-day ; for instance, in cases where 
the determination of the several layers is beset with doubt there 
is often too much stress laid upon purely topographical charac- 
teristics. The Orthonectide and Dicyemide afford two such 
cases. In these animals certain cells, whose function is genera- 
tive, are styled endoderm, merely because they lie beneath the 
external layer. Ed. van Beneden(14, 15) goes so far as to con- 
sider the topographical position as the one guide in determining 
the germinal layers. To quote his own words: “We designate 
as endoderm the layer or mass of cells which is enclosed, what- 
ever be the tissues derived from it.” Haeckel must in this re- 
spect be accredited with having made an important step forwards, 
when he sharply formulated the view, according to which the 
germinal layers, or at least the two chief layers, are to be re- 
garded as primitive organs(16). From this stand-point a structure 
in question could only be called endoderm when it possessed 
several characteristics of this primitive organ, and not when it 
merely agreed with the organ in topographical position. If, for 
example, the enclosed mass of cells in the Orthonectidze were 
digestive in function there would be no doubt that they repre- 
sented an endoderm; but since the cells in question are sexual 
cells, there is very considerable doubt. The main difficulty in 
the determination of the layers is due to the fact that the gene- 
alogy of the germinal layers does not rest on a safe basis, since 
we know nothing of the primitive condition of the Metazoa. To 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 339 


of the above-mentioned primitive organs, should only be given 
the rank of theories when they are in naro with our actual 
knowledge. 

The transitional stages between the Protozoa and Metazoa do 
not appear to exist at the present day. Endeavors have been made, 
however, to fill this gap in our knowledge by means of hypothetical 
organisms. There are two ways possible for such a transition to 
take place, —either by a differentiation of protoplasm around the 
separate nuclei of a multinucleate protozoan, or by the union of 
the several individuals of a protozoan colony into a many-celled 
individual. We will discuss the former method of transition first, 
and then take up the latter. A close relationship was some time 
ago supposed to exist between the ciliate Protozoa on the one 
hand, and the Turbellarians on the other, especially the larve of 
. the latter. On the supposed kinship between the two groups 
there have been built up hypotheses relating to the descent of 
the Metazoa. Such hypotheses have as their kernel the transi- 
tion of multinucleate Protozoa into Metazoa, and have been 
adopted by several investigators, among whom we must men- 
tion Jehring (19) and Saville Kent (20). From the stand-point 
here taken, the mouth and anus of the Infusoria are homologous 
with the like organs in the Metazoa. Indeed, Jehring believes 
that the water vascular system of the latter has been derived 
from the contractile vesicle of the Protozoa. Looking over the 
whole field of embryology, we find the formation of the blasto- 
derm in Insecta to be the process most in accord with this hy- 
pothesis. It is, in fact, on the first stages in the development of 
the Aphides that Kent mainly rests his belief. Considerations 
of this kind clearly show that such a hypothesis cannot be main- 
tained. While ignoring all the embryological facts of the lowest 
Metazoa, the theory harmonizes with the formation of the blasto- 
derm in the Insecta; that is, in a group which has suffered in. 
every respect great secondary changes. But even in this group 
there are forms that contradict the hypothesis, as, for example, 
the Poduridz, insects which in other respects occupy the lowest 
position in the class, and agree in the segmentation of the egg 
with Myriapods. When the facts are these, no value can be as- 
cribed to the homologies. drawn between the mouth, anus, and 
water vascular system of the Infusoria and Metazoa. 

On the other hand, the —— which supposes that colo- 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 4. 


340 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


nies of flagellate Infusoria were transformed into primitive Meta- 
zoa explains very clearly the most important phenomena of 
metazoan development. * On this view the segmentation of the 
egg, and especially the more primitive total segmentation, has 
been derived from the division which the Flagellata undergoes 
in building up a colony. In like manner the fact that the cells 
of so many blastospheres are ciliated is probably due to inherit- 
ance from the Flagellata. This hypothesis forbids our homolo- 
gizing the mouth and other “ organs” of the Protozoa with the 
like parts of the Metazoa, but on the other hand enables us, as 
Bütschli (21) first pointed out, to comprehend the origin of sex- 
ual multiplication. As a fact most embryologists, Ray Lankester © 
and Balfour among others, have adopted this second hypothesis, 
and after a prolonged trial it has become a basis for further specu- 
lations. 

Having progressed this far, we should ask ourselves whether 
it is not possible, with the help of our present knowledge, to de- 
termine more or less exactly the nature of those Flagellate colo- 
nies from which the Metazoa are descended. Bütschli (22) be- 
lieves the Metazoa have had a double origin,—the Sponges he 
derives from colonies of the Choano-Flagellata, the rest of the 
Metazoa from colonies of true Flagellata. Aside from the fact that 
there is very little ground for such a venturesome assumption, 
we must remember that the two groups (of Flagellata) are not 
sharply separated, and that the collar, which constitutes the main 
point of difference, is in some cases entirely retracted. As to the 
relationship of the Sponges to the Ceelenterates, I shall have a 
word to say farther on. 

Whether the Flagellata from which the Metazoa are descended 
had a collar or not, they were certainly able to take in solid bits 
of food. This is to be inferred from the great prevalence of 
. intracellular digestion among the lower Metazoa. Taking into 
account this characteristic of the Metazoa-Flagellata, I cannot 
believe with Bütschli that the process of nutrition is not worth 
considering in connection with the question of the metazoan de- 
scent. Bütschli is of this mind “because the physiology of nu- 
trition varies exceedingly in the group of Flagellata, without 

to the morphology” (“ Remarks on the Gastræa Theory,” 
p. 417). : Drusi on the contrary, that the further differentia- 
tions undergone by the ancestral colonies were ai no means 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 341 


independent of the method of nutrition. While in some colo- 
nies vegetable pigments were found to assist the process of as- 
similation, others, retaining the method of animal nutrition, gave 
rise to individuals whose special function it was to seize and 
digest food. That this conclusion is not purely deductive is 
gathered from a comparison of such Flagellate colonies as the 
Volvocinez and Protospongia. 

It would be much to the interest of further deductions if we 
possessed some actual knowledge of the development of these 
hypothetical colonies. That they must have been propagated 
sexually is clear from the multiplication of Volvox. Indeed, the 
existence of sexual multiplication is a strong argument in favor 
of the descent of the Metazoa from the Flagellata. As regards 
a sexual multiplication, the existing Flagellata divide and ex- 
hibit some variety in their division. The true Flagellata divide 
for the most part longitudinally, but transverse division occurs 
in some species, for example in Phalansterium consociatum ac- 
cording to Cienkowsky (24), and in Ph. digitatum according to 
Stein (25). In the Choano-Flagellata, also, both kinds of division 
have been observed, even in closely-related forms. Thus, ac- 
cording to Kent, Salpinggca campanula suffers longitudinal 
division (20), while all the other species of this genus divide 
transversely. “The simultaneous occurrence of longitudinal 
and transverse division in one and the same form has, however, 
been hitherto established only for certain Chlamydomonadine 
(23). Since in animals that ‘build up colonies the division of the 
individual plays an important part in determining the shape of the 
stock, it is important to learn how the hypothetical Metazoa-Flag- 
ellata behaved in this respect. Let us recall the generalization 
made in the second chapter, that the first three planes of segmen- 
tation lie in the three dimensions of space. We found this to be 
true for Medusz that suffer totally different developments (for 
hypogenetic as well as metagenetic Medusz, and regardless of 
the various ways of forming the endoderm, etc.) ; and it holds for 
animals in general, however different they may be, that undergo 
total segmentation. We are therefore justified in assuming that 
the same kind of division prevailed among the ancestors of the 
Metazoa. There is the more reason for this assumption in view 
of the many ways in which it is possible for an embryo to be 
built up, of which an idea may be obtained from plants and ani- 


342 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


mals with unequal segmentation. Even the formation of a blas- 
tosphere can take place without the occurrence of the typical 
first three divisions. Thus, in Volvox, all the divisions are 
meridional, the result being a plate-like embryo resembling 
Gonium. There is no segmentation cavity, and the blastoccele 
is formed by the gradual growth of the plate towards one pole 
(22, 23, 25). If we are to use the process of segmentation at all 
for genealogical purposes, the assumption adopted above seems 
inevitable. It is, moreover, not without the support of analo- 
gous cases in the organic world, as is learned from the divisions 
undergone by the Schizomycetes. Most of these forms divide 
transversely, but there are a few exceptions with longitudinal 
division, for example, a peculiarly branched species parasitic in 
Daphnia pulex, discovered and described by me as Dendrobac- 
terium oculatum. Besides such bacteria where there is but one 
kind of division, there are others where the cells divide in two 
meridional planes, as in the micrococci of gonorrhoea; and yet 
others like Sarcina, where the divisions follow the three dimen- 
sions of space and consequently agree with the total segmenta- 
tion of most Metazoa, and also with the assumed division of the 
hypothetical Metazoa-Flagellata. Since in the typical cases of 
total segmentation the segmentation cavity appears after the third 
division, and the embryo is very early transformed into a blas- 
tosphere, it is probable that the ancestors of the Metazoa swam 
about as blastosphere-like colonies, 

If we accept these peculiarities of the Metazoa-Flagellata as a 
basis for further speculations, we are enabled, it appears to me, 
to throw a certain light on the origin of the primitive organs. 
Embryology teaches us that the endoderm is formed in very dif- 
ferent ways among the Meduse. In recapitulating these various 
methods, I have first to state that the endoderm arises either 
at several points of the embryo or only at one point. In the 
first case the origin is multipolar, in the second unipolar (in the 
latter the pole is always at the hinder end of the larva). The 
multipolar type of formation appears either (a) as a multipolar 
immigration of the cells from the surface of the blastosphere 
into the interior ; (4) as a primary delamination by means of the 
transverse division of the cells of a blastosphere; (c) as a sec- 
ondary delamination following upon the formation of a morula; . 
or (d) as a mixed delamination, where the endoderm is in part 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 343 


formed by transverse division and in part by immigration. These 
methods of forming the endoderm are not all sharply separated ;. 
on the contrary, transitions exist between some of them. The 
unipolar type appears either (a) as an immigration of the blastula 
(or blastosphere) cells from the hinder end of the larva, or (6) as ` 
an invagination." 

The question is now, What is the stand-point from which a 
comprehensive and intelligible view may be got of these various 
methods of forming the endoderm, and which of the existing 
theories on the origin of the primitive organs is best able to ex- 
plain the facts? It is at once seen that on assuming the descent 
of the Metazoa from multinucleate Protozoa (Infusoria, or perhaps 
Heliozoa and Radiolaria), we become entirely unable to explain 
either immigration from the surface, or primary delamination, or 
invagination. It is unnecessary for me to go into a detailed criti- 

t Multipolar immigration is illustrated by Fig. 3. From various points of the 
blastula cells migrate into the interior; and, their number increasing, they here form 
a solid mass of endoderm, which is subsequently hollowed out to form the digestive 


e inner ends of the blastula cells are constricted off to form the endoderm 
They very soon arrange themselves in the shape of a hollow sphere, the cavity of 
which becomes the permanent draive cavity. Secondary delamination is the rule 


among Hydroids without a free medusa i It is essentially like mixed delami- 
nation, Fig. 1, but differs from it in the very late appearance of any histological dif- 
ference between the superficial layer of cells and the included or endoderm cells. 
Neither in this type nor in mixed delamination is there an obvious blastosphere, the 
cell immigration and transverse division commencing at a very early date. In both 


use. The 
doderm, which afterwards is hollowed out (Atlas, Plates II., III., IV.). Invagina- 
ros has hitherto only been found in the Acraspeda (Nausithoe, Pelagia, Plate X., 
tlas).—H. V. W. 


= 


344 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


cism of this hypothesis, which can lead us nowhere, and which 
must therefore be rejected. 

The Gastrza theory, as is well known, has rendered great ser- 
vice in reducing the different phenomena of development to a 
primary invagination; it very often simplifies the complicated 
appearances sometimes seen in the formation of the endoderm, 
for instance, in the Vertebrates. But it is when the theory is 
called upon to explain delamination that it finds itself in the 
midst of difficulties of which Haeckel was aware when he first 
formulated his views on this subject. “The greatest cause for 
doubt,” said he in his monograph on the “ Calcareous Sponges” 
(vol. i. p. 467), “seems to lie in the fact that the gastrula may 
come from the morula by two quite different roads. In the one 
case it arises by a central hollowing out of the morula, the gas- 
tric cavity thus formed breaking through to the exterior. In 
the other case a blastosphere is formed, a hollow sphere whose 
wall consists of a single layer of cells; and the gastrula results 
from a pushing in of one part of this wall, in other words, from 
an invagination.” Haeckel, however, thinks it possible to over- 
come this difficuli by assuming a “ secondary falsification of the 
ontogeny.” In his principal paper (17) he often repeats the asser- 
tion that delamination, in case it SoA occurs in the animal king- 
dom, is a ccenogenetic process, “which has secondarily arisen 
from the palingenetic process of invagination.” As to the way 
in which such a falsification came about there is no explanation 
offered. This is the more to be regretted, as Haeckel himself 
felt the difficulty his theory encountered in this matter. Haeckel 
and his school, the Hertwig brothers in particular, long disputed 
the existence of delamination, but must surely admit it now, since 


‘a member of this very school, O. Hamann (26), has lately ob- 


served the process of delamination in the Hydroids (after it had - 
been described by several previous investigators, among whom 
were Allman, F. E. Schulze, and myself). Hamann, however, 
will recognize no difficulty in this fact, and simply declares the 


| -delaminate planula to be a gastrula which has arisen by cceno- 


geny from an invaginate gastrula. “ Delamination,” states Ha- 
mann (l. c., p. 504), “is in all cases to be derived from invagina- 
tion.” “ In view of the elsewhere universal presence of a gastrula,” 
says he, farther on, “the doctrine, according to nyes a planula is 


but a transformed gastrula, will remain current.” And yet again, 


1887] > Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 345 


“We are justified in speaking of a form as a gastrula as soon 
as it can be made probable that the absence of both structures 
(blastosphere and gastric cavity) is of secondary origin. What we 
call a planula is, therefore, a gastrula formed by delamination.” 
These assertions are made without adducing any grounds for their 
probability, and without making it in the least degree conceivable 
how invagination can be abbreviated into delamination, or what 
coenogeny could effect for the origin of the latter. When one 
considers, moreover, that invagination is concentrated at one end 
_ of the embryo, and in the Medusz is confined to a relatively small 
area of the blastoderm, while primary delamination or multipolar 
invagination takes place at the most various points of the embryo, 
it is evident that a reduction of the two latter methods to the for- 
mer would meet with invincible difficulties. It is easy to under- 
stand how an invagination, originally confined to a small area, 

may gradually extend until, as is seen in various animals, it in- 
volves half the blastoderm. Further, one can see how a continu- 
ous layer of cells, destined to form the endoderm, may be changed 
into a cellular mass which is gradually enclosed by the growth of 
the ectoderm. But where the origin of the endoderm is an inter- 
rupted one,—that is, where the endoderm cells do not lie all to- 
gether, but alternate with ectoderm cells (compare the develop- 
ment of A‘ginopsis), or where the endoderm appears as the central 
segments of the blastoderm cells,—it is impossible to refer the 
„process to an abbreviated invagination. Multipolar immigration, 
to be sure, can be forcibly reduced to a number of invaginations, 
on which view each primitive gastric cavity would be represented 
by a single cell! It only needs to formulate such a hypothesis 
to demonstrate how utterly untenable it is; but, aside from this 
consideration, one would gain very little by accepting it, for pri- 
mary delamination would still remain totally unexplained. It is 
between unipolar immigration and invagination that a relation- 
ship can fairly be assumed to exist, as has been maintained by 
Claus and others. It is impossible for me, however, without a 
previous discussion of other questions, to decide which form must 
be regarded as the more primitive. 

Although its inability to explain the multipolar formation of 
endoderm is the weightiest objection to the Gastrza theory, it is 
by no means the only one. The theory was formulated at a 
time when the occurrence of intracellular digestion among the 


346 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


lower Metazoa was not known, when in fact digestion in all cases 
(Metazoa) was believed to be enzymatic: naturally it is now un- 
able to answer the questions suggested by our advanced physio- 
logical knowledge. The Gastræa theory would compel us to 
believe that a deep gap intervened between the one-layered blas- 
tosphere and the double-walled gastrula with its digestive cavity. 
This very awkward gap is, however, easily filled as soon as we 
abandon the Gastrzea theory and seek to explain the origin. of 
the endoderm in another manner. I need not dwell here upon 
the difficulties encountered by supposing all the known gastrula 
forms to be homologous. Such matters are not directly con- 
nected with our discussion of the primitive condition of the en- 

oderm, and besides I shall have something to say on this point 
in another place. 

The Planula theory of Ray Lankester (27) is based on the 
development of the Geryonidz, and considers the method of 
forming the endoderm here employed, by constricting off the 
inner ends of the blastosphere cells, as the primitive type. Lan- 
kester endeavors to derive invagination from a primary delamina- 
tion, such as occurs in Geryonia. But even were we satisfied 
with this derivation, there would still remain unexplained the 
cases where there is no actual delamination, but where the endo- 
derm is formed of cells which migrate from various points of 
the surface into the interior of the embryo. The significance of 
this latter origin receives additional strength from unipolar im- 
migration, the endoderm cells in both cases being blastoderm 
cells, which have arisen by longitudinal division from previous 
blastoderm cells. Moreover, the same objection must be raised 
to the Planula theory as to the Gastræa theory, namely, it rests 
on the assumption that digestion in the lower animals is enzy- 
matic, and herein contradicts our actual physiological knowledge. 
Lankester believes that the formation of a cavity into which a 

> secretion was poured preceded the formation of the 
endoderm. In other words, the inner segments of the blasto- 
derm cells functioned as digestive elements while the polyplast 
(blastula) was still one-layered. All these assumptions become 
quite inadmissible when once we learn that intracellular diges- 
tion persists in many of the lower Metazoa, and is even found in 
some Molluscs (Phylliroé). 
-W ee E T A a O 


+ 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 347 


sphere composed of similar cells, Balfour(28, 29) adopts the 
amphiblastula as the transitional form between the Protozoa and 
Metazoa. I will therefore speak of his view as the Amphiblastula 
theory. Since it must be looked on as a modification of the Gas- 
trea theory, it is open to the same objections as the latter. It is 
quite unable to explain the phenomena which occur when the 
endoderm does not arise as a single continuous structure, but as 
cells separated from one another by intervening ectoderm cells 
(the case of multipolar immigration especially). As regards the 
application of Balfour’s theory to the Sponges, its untenability 
is shown by the fact that in many Sponges (especially Calci- 
spongiz and Halisarcinz) the endoderm is a nutritive layer. 
This fact, already emphasized by early investigators and more 
than once by myself, has lately been confirmed by K. Heider (30) 
on Oscarella lobularis. The objection here raised, moreover, up- 
sets the arguments which Balfour used to prove the isolated 
position of the Sponges among Metazoa. 

Akin to the Amphiblastula theory is the Placula theory of 
Bütschli (22), not only because the latter author also believes in 
the separate descent of the Sponges, but because the placula 
in many respects may be considered as a flattened-out amphi- 
blastula. Bütschli appreciates the weak points of other theories 
which deal with the genealogy of the germinal layers, and at- 
tempts in a purely diagrammatic way to construct the connection 
between invagination and delamination. He deduces both meth- 
ods of forming the endoderm from the modification of a primary 
placula form. Abandoning the starting-point of other views,— 
the spherical colony of Flagellata,—our author adopts as his 
primitive form a Gonium-like one-layered plate, which for con- 
venience I shall style proplacula. “It therefore seems fair to 
assume that the two layers first arose in a protozoan colony, the 
cells of which were arranged in one plane so as to form a one- 
layered plate. All the cells then divided parallel to the surface, 
and there thus arose a two-layered plate, the layers being prob- 
_ ably as yet undifferentiated. To this stage of a two-layered plate 
we will give the name of placula.” Such a placula, by assuming 
a sac-like form, became changed into a gastrula. In other cases ` 
the proplacula, in consequence of a secondarily retarded cell- 
division, gave rise to a delaminate blastosphere. As a result of 
these assumptions there would exist a radical difference in blasto- 


348 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [April 


spheres, which in some cases would represent swollen-up placulæ, 
in others proplaculæ that have become spherical. In the devel- 
opment of existing animals the placula, according to Bütschli, 
appears as the flattened blastosphere stage found in Cucullanus 
(Bütschli), Rhabdonema (Götte), Lumbricus, Chiton (Kowal- 
evsky), Phoronis, and Ascidia mentula. Among adult animals it 
is represented by Trichoplax adhærens F. E. Sch. But Bütschli 
does not perceive that the flattened blastospheres of the Meta- 
zoa just mentioned agree with his placula in external form alone, 
and not in any essential or morphological respect. The funda- 
mental difference between the two lies in the fact that the two 
layers of the former have not been acquired by cell-division par- 
allel to the surface, which is the essence of the placula. In Pho- 
ronis, Ascidia, and, generally speaking, in the other animals cited 
above, the placula-like stage is attained by the flattening of a 
previously more or less spherical blastosphere, and not con- 
versely as the theory requires. According to the theory- the 
delamination of the Geryonidz, accomplished by a transverse 
division of the blastoderm cells, is a process similar to the for- 
mation of a placula or amphiblastula, such as is supposed to 
occur in other animals. If this be true, we should find in the 
formation of this so-called placula a transverse division of the blas- 
tomeres. But this is not the case. The endoderm cells of the 
flattened blastospheres are not split off from the ectoderm cells 
immediately above them, but arise by the longitudinal division 
of parent cells. We are thus forced to the conclusion that a 
placula stage does not appear in the development of existing 
animals endowed with a regular segmentation. There is, how- 
ever, a degree of similarity between the placula and a certain 
stage in the development of Ctenophores, where the endoderm 
has the form of a plate, and is covered by an interrupted layer 
of ectoderm. But this stage will scarcely be looked on by any 
one as embodying a primitive condition, and cannot, therefore, 
afford any basis for a morphological generalization. 

If, going farther back in the development, we regard the eight- 
celled embryo formed by the transverse division of the first four 
blastomeres as a short-lived placula, we thereby gain nothing; 
for we must bear in mind that the eight-celled stage of the de- 
_ laminating Geryonide is in all respects like the same stage of 
_ the invaginating Acraspeda, and must therefore be regarded as 


1887] _ Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 349 


homologous with it. If therefore the latter represents a placula, 
so must the former. But in this case the later delamination of 
the Geryonidz, by means of transverse division of the blasto- 
sphere cells, could no longer be explained as the expression of 
a placula stage, because this stage would already have been 
passed. 

Suppose, however, the assumption be correct that a placula 
stage occurs in the Metazoa with an invaginate gastrula. Then, 
since the placula theory can only explain the formation of 
endoderm, which takes place by means of a transverse division 
of the cells of a proplacula, all those cases would remain inex- 
plicable where—the cell-division being exclusively longitudinal— 
the endoderm is formed by multipolar or local immigration. 

According to Biutschli’s theory, the blastosphere in animals 
that suffer delamination should be formed, as in Volvox, from a 
plate-like proplacula stage. He thinks, indeed (p. 423), the 
statements of Fol justify him in assuming the occurrence of such 
a stage in Geryonia proboscidalis. But the assumption is unwar- 
ranted, for the sixteen-celled embryo of the Geryonide is in 
itself a typical blastula, produced from an eight-celled stage pre- 
cisely as in Medusze which form their endoderm by a totally 
different method. The eight-celled embryo has likewise been 
produced by just such an equatorial division as occurs in other 
Medusze and in most Metazoa with an equal segmentation. 
Among the latter Sycandra raphanus, according, to F. E. 
Schulze’s account, most nearly resembles Volvox as regards the 
stages preceding the blastosphere. In this sponge is founda 
plate-like eight-celled stage, which, however, can be of no value 
to the placula theory, since later on in the development there 
occurs an invaginate gastrula. 

The morphology of the interesting Trichoplax adherens F. E. 
Sch. (32) and its relations to the placula cannot be seriously 
discussed at the present time, since it is impossible to decide, 
with even a show of truth, what significance must be attached to 
the several layers of this animal. From the histological differ- 

, ence between the epithelial coverings of the two surfaces of the 
body, we cannot infer that different germinal layers were involved 
in the formation of these coverings, any more than in the Sponges 
where the same layer, the endoderm, appears in the chambers as’ 

‘flagellate epithelium and in the central cavity as flat epithelium 


350 The Origin of a Small Race of Turkeys. [April 


(for example, in Oscarula lobularis, according to K. Heider). The 
difficulties presented by Trichoplax are heightened not only by 
our ignorance of the development, but by our lack of any facts 
from which to determine the physiological functions of the sev- 
eral layers of the body. Thanks to the kindness of Professors 
F. E. Schulze and Claus, I was enabled in 1883 to study Tricho- 
plax both at Graz and Vienna, and to fully confirm the histologi- 
cal discoveries of the former investigator. My experiments on 
the manner in which the animal fed gave purely negative results, 
for it would take no solid food at all, thereby lending counte- 
nance to the view that Trichoplax depends on fluid nourishment 


one. 

Bütschli thinks the Placula theory is of more value from a 
physiological point of view than the other theories criticised by 
him. “Finally, it seems to me very important,” says Bütschli 
(l. c., p. 416), “ that the changes undergone by the assumed forms 
are easily comprehended, that they take place gradually, not by 
jumps, and are actually advantageous.” “Especially in this 
latter respect,’ adds Biitschli, “is the new view about to be de- 
veloped superior to its predecessors.” When, however, it comes 
to explaining physiologically the origin of the placula, no satis- 
factory reasons are given why it should arise. “I regret that I 
am unable to adduce,” Biitschli confesses himself (p. 419), “any 
plausible advantages to be gained by the plate on its becoming 
two-layered.” 

. (To be concluded.) 


THE ORIGIN OF A SMALL RACE OF TURKEYS. 
BY JOHN DEAN CATON, LL.D. 


Me effect upon the progeny of animals of inbreeding, or 
where the parents are nearly related, is a subject well 
worthy the attention of naturalists, though I am not aware 
that it has been the subject of careful study, especially among 
the lower forms of animal life. 

With man it has undoubtedly received much attention, but 
even here it has been rather of a desultory character than that 
careful and systematic attention which its practical importance 


1887] The Origin of a Small Race of Turkeys. 351° 


would seem to justify. It has received attention undoubtedly 
from breeders of domesticated animals, but even here, so far as 
I am aware, are wanting long-continued experiments and careful 
observation. The most that can be said is that a general im- 
pression prevails among breeders that the offspring of very near 
relatives is seriously impaired in constitution and form. Yet 
instances have been cited where for one or two generations, at 
least, an improvement has been observed in both of these respects, 
and I do not remember to have seen any statement of well- 
authenticated observations justifying the- general impression 
which undoubtedly prevails among the breeders of domestic 
animals. With the human race the fact of such deterioration 
resulting from the near relationship of the parents may be con- 
sidered as well established, and it may be possible from this rec- 
ognized fact the conclusion has been drawn that the same causes 
must produce the same effects among the lower orders of animals. 
This is a subject in which the professional breeder no less than 
the professional scientist should feel a deep interest, and itis tobe | 
hoped that some of these will institute careful and long-continued 
experiments which may throw valuable light on this subject. 

A few isolated cases would be far from conclusive, yet the 
result of each one would have its value. These experiments 
should not be confined to one species alone, but should cover 
the entire range of domesticated animals. 

In some species an actual improvement might be the result, 
while in others the most disastrous consequences might be 
observed. y 

With the hope of acquiring some light on this subject, some 
years since I disposed of all of my elk (Wapiti deer) excepting 
one pair, which were three years old, and when a large herd shall 
have been raised from this single pair we may be able to form 
some opinion of the effect of interbreeding upon this species of 
deer. The second fawn produced from this pair was a female, and 
she died yeaning when two years old, and since then there has not 
been sufficient time for the production of the inbred progeny; 
but even this experiment may not be entirely satisfactory, for the 
Wapiti deer I have found to be the most hardy and reproductive 
in domestication of any of the deer family. 

Ten years ago I sent a number of wild turkeys from: my 
grounds in Ottawa to Santa Cruz Island, situate in the Pacific 


a The Origin of a Small Race of Turkeys. [April 


Ocean about twenty miles off this coast. During my stay here 
this winter I have formed the acquaintance of Mr. J. P. Joyaux, 
who at that time had charge of the island, which was used princi- 
pally as a sheepwalk. It is about thirty miles long, and five to 
ten miles wide. There were no enemies upon the island with 
which the turkeys had to contend except a small gray fox, which 
was quite abundant. Six turkeys were received by Mr. Joyaux, 
two cocks and four hens. One of the cock’ died soon after 
their arrival. They were received in the winter. The next sea- 
son the four hens raised to maturity sixty-one birds, which when 
grown up were as large as their parents. The year following 
the produce was one hundred and twenty, of about the same size. 
I may here remark that the wild turkeys in my grounds at Ot- 
tawa, which have been hatched from eggs taken from the nest 
of the wild hen in the woods, have never bred till they were two 
years old, but some of the first generation raised in the grounds 
have bred when a year old, and generally the second or third 
generation have reproduced at a year old. Probably, therefore, 
not all of the hens of the first year’s brood bred the next year, 
and this may account for the smaller relative product the second 
' year than the first, and it is possible, and even probable, also, 
that Mr. Joyaux was unable to enumerate all of the second year’s 
produce. After that they had wandered away and reverted to 
the wild state, so that it was impossible to form any opinion of 
the increase, only that they have become very abundant, and are 
met with in the forests far away from the ranch where the first 
were turned loose, and if they are not as wild as the wild turkey 
is observed to be in his original haunts, it may be attributed to 
the fact that they are not hunted with dog and gun. 

In a very few years these birds bred upon the island were ob- 
served to have diminished very much in size, so that now it 
would be impossible to find a cock which would weigh over six 
pounds, which is less than one-third the size of their original 
ancestor or of the first and second generation bred there. 

Mr. Joyaux attributes this remarkable deterioration in size to 
inbreeding. He says their food is abundant, consisting of small 
acorns, a great variety of berries, an abundance of insects, and 
plenty of grass. While they do not get our domesticated grains, 
they find plenty of seeds of grasses and herbaceous plants in 
their season, and plenty of water everywhere. 


1887] The Origin of a Small Race of Turkeys. 353 


This is undoubtedly a case of pretty close inbreeding, the 
entire stock having descended from one male and four female 
ancestors. While I do not consider it conclusively established by 
"any means that this deterioration in size should be attributed 
solely to inbreeding, it is not unlikely that this cause may have 
had its influence; nor am I prepared to assign any other satis- 
factory cause for this remarkable result, Although the native 
wild turkey was never found on the west side of the Colorado, 
while it was abundant in Arizona, not far east of that river, there 
would seem to be nothing in the condition of this country es- 
pecially detrimental to their well-being here. The wild turkey 
which I have introduced in various places on the mainland north 
of San Francisco are reported to have done well. They are said 
to be prolific and healthy and to attain their normal size; and 
the domestic turkey, which is found all over the State, is said 
to do fairly well, although upon the table they are not as much 
admired as those raised in the Eastern States, nor are they in 
general as large or as fat. 

o epidemic has been observed among the turkeys on 
Santa Cruz Island; but, on the contrary, they seem to have been 
always healthy and vigorous. Their habit of flight as repre- 
sented to me is about the same as that observed of the Eastern 
wild birds in their native haunts. The flesh of these small birds 
is said to be good. 

I have been thus particular in my account of the introduction 
of the wild turkey upon the island of Santa Cruz because I think 
it entitled to some weight at least in the investigation of the 
question which I have suggested. 

It may be impossible to obtain facts which can throw much 
light upon the effects of inbreeding among wild animals in their 
unrestrained condition, especially those of monogamic or pro- 
miscuous habits, which is the case with most wild animals. 
Among quadrupeds where two are usually produced at a birth, 
so far as observed, the twins are usually male and female, and 
most probably they continue together in close intimacy till they 
attain a reproductive age; and here we might reasonably expect 
that inbreeding would very often occur, and yet there may be 
conditions which would disappoint this expectation, such as, for 
instance, the older males in the forest driving off the younger. 
In the case of quadrupeds where several are produced at a birth, 


354 Sonnets. ? [April 


we might expect that inbreeding might still more frequently 
occur, but, after all, it is only where animals are subjected to the 
control of man that it is possible to make observations which 
can give us any satisfactory results upon this subject; so that, as 
before suggested, our only hope for reliable information on this 
subject must rest with the breeders of domestic animals. Should 
they take interest enough in it to make careful and numerous 
and long-continued experiments with the various species of ani- 
mals under their control, something like certainty might be ob- 
tained where we have now nothing better than conjecture. 
SANTA BARBARA, CAL., February 24, 1887. 


SONNETS. 
CACTUS. 
(Prickly Pear.) 
KNOW an isle, clasped in the Sea’s strong arms, 

Sport of his rage and sharer of his dreams; 
A barren spot to alien eyes it seems, 
But for its own it wears unfading charms. 
From Spring’s first kiss to Autumn’s last caress, 
Gayly its moorlands bloom, from strand to strand; 
And many a favored nook, by west winds fanned, 
Holds flowers unmatched for tint and loveliness. 
But most I mind me of a lonesome shore, 
For countless gulls a harbor and freehold, 
Where, like some shipwreck’d buccaneer of old,— 
Cast on the sands, condemned to rove no more,— 
In spiny armature, secure and bold, 
The Cactus lies at length and guards its gold. 

NANTUCKET, July. 


Nore.—The island of Nantucket is the northern limit of Opuntia vulgaris. 


PARNASSIA. 
(Grass of Parnassus.) 
Oh, stately, calm, and pure, as best beseems 
One born in that far land of sun and song, 
Beloved of gods and men, whose vales along 


1887] Sonnets. 


Strayed once the sacred Nine, and by whose streams 

The great Pan piped ;—remote and strange it seems 

To find thee here, ’mid grasses rank and long, 

Where, by the hidden brook, serene and strong 

As Autumn’s smile, our clear-eyed Gentian gleams. 

Perchance it was her blue and fringéd eyes 

That lured thee from thy storied home to range, 

And tempted thee to give, in glad exchange 

For such a heaven, thy classic Grecian skies: 

It well may be, since beauty knows no clime, 

And love, immortal, conquers space and time. 
October. 

WITCH-HAZEL, 


What time the dainty darlings of the Spring, 

Summer’s ripe beauties, Autumn’s brilliant train, 

In swift procession trooped o’er hill and plain, 

Thro’ vale and grove, while every bird did sing 

His fitting song ;—we took no note of thee, 

O arch enchantress of stream-haunted woods, 

Waving aloft thy flowerless magic rods, 

And whispering to the winds their mystery ! 

But when the merry carnival is o’er, 

The banners furled, the gay robes laid away, 

Thou shinest forth in marvellous array, 

Charming our thoughts from all that passed before. 

Is it to witch old Winter with thy wiles, 

This burst of golden hair and sun-bright smiles ? 

ly Shaw Forman, 

November. 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 4. 24 


355 


356 Editors’ Table. [April 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 3 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. 


THE judicial attitude in all things is, in the present stage of 
human development, a far from common accomplishment. Phi- 
-losophy, however, requires it, and scientific men should be, if 
possible, philosophers. But it is precisely this class whose phi- 
losophy is most frequently put to the test by their fellow-men. 
To a majority of the human race the intellectual life is a shadow 
not worth pursuing, and those who pursue it are correspondingly’ 
disesteemed by them. The defect of the intellectual type of 
mentality in a community is a stage of development which is 
the parent of better things or worse things. From it may arise 
a society of philosophers, or of religious devotees, or of Helio- 
gabali and Vitellii. That the type of face that characterized the 
last of the imperial family of Rome is appearing in our streets 
is quite evident, and it will require the exertions of the devo- 
tional and intellectual classes to prevent it from becoming still 
morecommon. That Brother Jonathan should come to resemble 
a Nero would be an unexpected metamorphosis; yet signs are 
not wanting that such a degenerative process is not impossible. 
The unintellectual materialism which characterizes the majority 
of the wealthy classes of Americans will be watched with serious 
curiosity. Some of the wealthy will direct their stored energy 
to the improvement of their race; others will expend it in 
degenerative processes. Which type will prevail ? 

e excellent services of the religious world in directing 
human activity away from destructive channels should be per- 
ceived and sustained by the scientific community. Nevertheless, 
it cannot but be lamented that the work of the churches is often 
more profitably directed to instructing the people as to what they 
should zot do, and not sufficiently clearly as to what they should 
do. It is in the latter direction that weakness is often apparent. 
Nevertheless, the influence of the churches in this direction also 
is of incalculable benefit. 3 

_ It rests with the scientific world to bring out the facts of the 
_ universe, or, in other words, the truth. And knowledge of the 
truth is the only safe guide as to what men shall do and what 


1887] Recent Literature. 357 


It offers only light. Light may be refulgent, and men may 
“Jove darkness rather than light.” So the office of supplying 
to men the energy to act will never be an unimportant one. 
But let that energy be applied in the direction of light, and not 
in any other way. It is the disposition to set ancient dogma 
over modern light that furnishes the raison d'être of the odium 
antitheologicum. The enlightened mind revolts against this 
tyranny over intelligence, and excuses for its authors are not 
always at hand. Let science, however, avoid bigotry on her 
side, and she will gain by the contrast. She can afford to be 
judicial, remembering that the earlier stages of human as of lower 
evolution are all about us, and that they furnish plastic material 
ready to her hand. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Strasburger and Hillhouse’s Practical Botany.'—Some time 
ago we noticed briefly the original German edition of this book, 
which appeared under the name “ Das Kleine Botanische Prac- 
ticum.” We now repeat our conviction of its great value to the 
beginner, and trust that it will be widely used in this country. 
The additions made by the author and English editor have added 
greatly to its usefulness. | 


think it trifling to give particular directions as to the cleaning of 
cover-glasses, the placing of a drop of water upon the slide, etc. 
A dozen pages are devoted to instruments, reagents, etc., and 
then the student “learns to do by doing.” Studies of starch, 
aleurone, protoplasm, chromatophores, tissues, bundles, etc., fol- 
low one another in succession, the student being thus led over 
the field of general histology, after which he takes up in order 
the study of selected examples of the lower plants, the Bacteria, 
Algz, Fungi, Lichens, Mosses, Liverworts, Vascular Cryptogams, 
finally reaching the Gymnosperms and An rms. 
valuable feature of this edition consists of the lists of “ ma- 
z “« Handbook of Practical Botany,” for the botanical laboratory and private stu- 
dent, by E. Strasburger, Professor of i i 
“ Zellbildung und Zelltheilung,” etc. 
M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany and Vegetable Physiology Mason Science Col- 
sity of Cambridge. Revised by the author, and with many notes by author and 
editor. With one hundred and sixteen original and eighteen additional illustrations. 
Swan, Sonneschein, Lowrey & Co., Paternoster Square, 1887. 


358 Recent Literature, [April 


terial wanted” placed at the head of each chapter. In the ap- 
pendix are to be found a list of plants and parts of plants used 
for study and a list of the reagents necessary, with directions for 
their preparation and use. 

We cannot refrain from quoting a few sentences here and 
there from the book. In speaking of microscopes, the peasan 
remarks, “ As the English student will probably purchase a m 
croscope of home manufacture, it is desirable to state here that 
the larger and typically English stands are not to be recom- 
mended for student use. Their length of body makes it exceed- 
‘ingly difficult to use them upright without a special table; and 
the upright position is, all round, the more convenient for student 

work. or are mechanical appliances for moving the object- 
slide about on the stage of utility commensurate with their cost 
and the want of independence which they induce. Most of the 
English makers manufacture microscopes with tubes of about 
the ‘Continental’ length, but of better workmanship than the 
ordinary ‘ student’ stands, and suited for the addition of accessory 
illuminating and other appliances.” In another place, when 


inch. Razors, forceps, dissecting scissors (“for which fine em- 
broidery scissors will serve”), needle-holders and needles, scal- 
pels, small brushes, “a small vise, sath as used by watchmakers,” 
pipettes, glass tubes and rods, watch-glasses and glass disks for 
covering them, bell-jars and zinc frames for moist chambers, bell- 
jars for the microscopes, elder pith, “a tumbler of clean spring 
water,” and a saucer for dirty slides, are enumerated as the neces- 
Sary apparatus upon the table. 

It remains to be said that the English publishers have done 
their work well; the print, paper, and binding are ed what they 
should be for a laboratory manual.—Charles E. Besse 

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 
Gage, S. H.—Notes on Microscopical Methods. Ithaca, 1887. From the author. 


Mineral Resources of the ones States for the Year 1885. Washington, 1886. 
From the U. S. Geological Surv 


Stowell, T. B.—The o Meve of thé Domestic Cat. Ext. Amer. Philos. Soc., 
Nov. 5, 1886. From the author 
Taylor, H. C., Horsford, E Pa et ‘al-—Bulletin of the Amer. Geog. Soc., 1885, 
» Hennessy, H—On the Physical Structure of the Earth. Ext. Philos. Mag., Sept. 
1886. From the author. 
Lydekker, R. oe se the Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum. Part IV., 
1886, Ungulata, suborder Proboscidia, F author, 


Errara, L.—Une expérience sur l'ascension de la séve chez les plantes, 1886. 
From the author. 


Bugs ek A.—Ueber d ie Nahrung unserer Robben-Arten. Ext. Deutsche - 
Zeitung, July, 1886. From the author. Par 


> 


1887] | Recent Literature. 359 


Pergens, Ed.—Pliocine Bryozoen von Rhodos. 
Bech, 6 Gunther .—Flora von Stidbosnien. Annalen k. k. Naturhistorischen Hof Mu- 
1887. 


Soara pees eptilien und Batrachier von oe Azoren. Sitz. d. kon. Preus. Akad. 
d. Wiss. z. Berlin, 1887. From the 
Clarke, F. EA nnual Address of the paap. of the Chemical Society, 1886. 
From the suiii 
Scudder, S. H. _The Cockroach of the Past, 1886. From the author. 
acne he Z.—Review of Japanese Birds. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Sept. 1886. 
m the author. 
Thur Ed. -Report of the Gov. Central Museum. Madras, 1885-1886. From 
uthor. 


the 

Sutton, x B— Ligaments: their Nature and Morphology. London, 1887. - From 
the author. 

Colton, E P.—An Elementary Course in Practical Zoology. Boston, 1886. From 
the sag 

Shufeld W. —Contrib. to Science, and Biog. Résumé of the Writings of R. W. 
Sireielde 1887. From the author 

Barrois, C—Note sur la structure ER AREE R des montagnes du Menez, 1885. 
From the author. 


i tn —American Medicinal Plants. Fascicier } iii., iv., v. Boericke & Tafel, 
Phila., 1884. From the author. 

Cope, E. D. ical of Evolution, 1887. Arnold & Co., Phila. From the author. 

Scott, W. B—On some New Forms of the Dinocerata. Ext. Amer. Jour. Sci., April, 


E. 
Fraipart, F., and Lohest, M.—La Race humaine de Neanderthal ou de Canstadt. 
Bruxelles, 1886. From the ete 
Paulone, A.—Invertebrate Pudisontology of the Russian Geol. a 1886. Nos. 
I-10. The oe of the Aspidoceras aconithicum Zone 
Hanks, H. G.—Sixth Annual Report of the State iisanslogst of California. 
Parts I. and i, 1886 Fa the author. 
Anonymous.—. A Sketch of the Geological History of Licking County, Ohio, 1887. 
? From the cation 

Dawson, G. M.—On Cain Borings in Manitoba and N. W. Territ pra 

Whiteaves, ¥. F.—On some Marine Invertebrata collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson. 
Both from Cori Ro; T a ; pri 1886 
seca “8, O.—Tab Determination of Common Minerals, 1887.—Guide 
© Geologient Cotten of the Mus. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1886. Both 
rte the au 
ished eh Ueber sann Frösche, iian das Genus Palaeobatrachus, 
m the au 
Brot, as oe se on po Stomatopoln- Fhe Life History of the Hydrome- 
usæ.— Lucifer: A Study in Morphology. 


; Wilson iison, E. B.—The Development of onsen All from “ Selected Morphological 
hns Hopkins Uni 


Monographs. AO 
Leclercq, page —Une Visite au Volcan a Firilla; 1886. From the author. 


ight, T.— nthe, sem a of Bone Structure. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., | 
vol. iv, Ret om the author 
Newton, E. T. Gastornis m the Lower Eocene near Croydon. 


T.—On klaassenit 
Ext. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, ae ha the author. 
Jordan, D. S.—Preliminary List of Fishes of the West Indies. Proc. U. S. Nat. 
Mus., '1887.—Typical Specimens of Fishes described by Cuv. and Val. pre- 
served in the Mus. d’hist. Nat., Paris. From the author. 
Newberry, F- S—Earthquakes. Ext. School of Mines Quarterly, vol. viii. No. 1, 
1886. From the author. : : 


360 General Notes. [April 


me; G. oi ag Notizen Meo Reptilien. Fortsetzung I., II. Zool. An- 
eig ya B From the a 

How ae ye + Venigial Structures of the Reproductive Apparatus in the 
Male of ay ce Lizard. From the author 

Jastrow, F. SATE Perception of Dans by Discente Senses. Ext. “ Mind,” 
vol. xi. No. 44. From the author. 

Forbes, S. A Pye Poisons for the Codling Moth, 1887. From the author. 

A F—The Sou payaa = Value in Money. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird & 
Co., 1882. Pros the au 

Genth, F. A.—On an oe = Iron from East Tennessee. Ext. Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. From the author 

= mball, F. P.—Precious Metals of the “United States, 1886. From the author. 

P,.—Unoffcial yee of the Berlin International Congress of Geologists. 

Peas the author 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 


America. THE Muir Gtacier.—The Muir Glacier, which 
presents a front of one mile to an inlet at the head of Glacier 
Bay, Alaska (58° 50’ N. 136° 40’ W.), has been investigated by 
Mr. G. F. Wright. Near the mouth of the bay is a cluster of 
low islands, evidently formed of glacial débris, and forested. 


_ hundred and fifty feet high. Between these mountains the glacier 
is ten thousand six hundred and sixty-four feet wide. The angle 
of ice projects into water five hundred and sixteen feet deep, and 
is itself two hundred and fifty feet high. The surface of the ice 
ses to the east and north about one hundred feet to the mile. 

The main body of the glacier occupies a vast amphitheatre, with 
diameters ranging from ~ to forty miles. Nine main streams 
unite to form the grand trunk, and seventeen sub-branches can 
be seen. Rocky e Sui rising above the surface are smoothed 
and scored and have glacial débris upon them, showing that, like 
the islands in the bay, they have been recently covered by ice. 
On thé side from which sf ice approached these islands it is 

hundred feet higher than on the lee side. The ice in the 


| me million cate feet: enter the water daily, since he whale 
mile of v width and seven hundred feet of d depth move on at a 


1 Edited by W. N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia. 


1887] _ Geography and Travels. 361 


rate of forty feet per day. Evidences of the recession and di- 
minution of this glacier are numerous. 
American Notes.—Dr. Ten Kate has completed his explora- 


tions in Surinam, during which he visited the valley and grotto 


of the Guacharo, and has returned to Holland 

Mount St. Elias is, according to Mr. Séton Karr, not less than 
three miles east of the 141st meridian, and is thus in Canadian 
territory. e area of the Agassiz and Guyot Glaciers is esti- 
mated at not less than eighteen hundred square miles, but the 
Tyndall Glacier, issuing from the southwest face of the mountain, 
is the principal. r. Karr ascended one thousand feet higher 
than Lieutenant Schwatka. He thinks that the Jones River is 
produced by the melting of the glaciers, as he saw no break in 
the chain. 


o ` 

Africa. THE GERMAN AFRICAN AssociATIon.—Count Pfeil 
has made two important journeys for the German East African 
Association. On the first, after traversing the district of Makata, 
he entered that of Khutu, which has been acquired by the Asso- 
ciation. The second journey was principally occupied by the 
exploration of the Ulanga River, which he ascended for one hun- 
dred and fifty miles to 35° 5’ E. long. and 9° 5’S. lat. Below 
the Sugali Falls the river is known as the Rufiji. From Nga- 
homa towards its source in the mountains, northeast of Lake 
Nyassa, the direction of the river is first west and then south- 
west. The depth of its lower course varies from ten to more 


Dr. Lenz’s JourNEy.—Dr. Lenz reports great changes upon 
the Congo in the upper cataract region. The natives have toa 
great extent retreated from the river, and their place is occupied 
by trading settlements of Africans and Zanzibaris. Kibonge, 
two days above the last cataract, has some hundreds of home- 
steads and a few thousand inhabitants. Riba-Riba, named after 
its founder, a Mohammedan negro from Nyangwe, is also a 
large settlement.’ There are now enormous rice-fields in this 


Dr. Fiscner’s Last Journey.—The late Dr. G. A. Fischer’s 
journey in Eastern Equatorial Africa, though it failed in its main 
object, has added much valuable information respecting the east 
coast of Lake Victoria Nyanza. On his way out from Pangani 


Liwumba) does not join the Simiu, but loses itself in the plains, 
or, in the wet season, in a lake. Rounding Speke Gulf, the party 
entered the sparsely-wooded country of Shashi, with mountains 


i ye: 
i Pr G 


362 General Notes, ` [April 


. J. A. Wray has reached the water-edge of the picturesque 
crater lake Chala, on Mount Kilimanjaro. There is but one spot, 
on the west side, where this small lake, which is surrounded by 
wooded banks one thousand feet high, can be reached. The 
water is clear, cool, and sweet, there is no mark of higher water, 
and no apparent inlet or outlet. 

A monthly mail has been established between Zanzibar and 
the stations of the London Missionary Society on Lake Tan- 
anyika 


Dr. Rousjie believes that he has been able to identify all the 
peaks of Central Tunis mentioned by Ptolemy and to confirm his 
hydrography. 

Mr. J. T. Last has travelled from Blantyre to the Namuli Hills, 

Limb; 


panied from Zanzibar to the Congo by Tippoo Tip, and expects 
the restoration of the falls through time. ature states that 
upon his arrival at Stanley Falls with the first contingent of 
about two hundred and fifty of his men, Stanley will at once 
proceed to Emin Bey, taking with him probably a reinforcement 
from Tippoo Tip. : 


century, visited this lake, and it appears that it is identical 
Lake Rang-Kul, recently visited by Mr. Ney Elias in his 
across the Pamir from Yengi-hissar to Shignan. This 
opinion of Sir H. Rawlinson. The banks of the 
i with salts, yet the waters are sweet. A tribu- 


Sis 


1887] Geography and Travels. 363 


tary of the Murghab seems to communicate with the lake by an 
underground channel, but the Kashgar River does not, as was 
stated by Hwang-Tsang, communicate with the lake. It is said 


Cheragh-Tash, or “ lamp-rock,” a rock about one hundred feet 
high near the water’s edge. A light, probably phosphorescent, 
burns in this cave, Kir is said to be the sparkle of the diamond 
in the dragon’s fore 

Japan.—The very siiiebiniteas account of the physical geogra- 
phy of Japan, with remarks upon its people, contributed by Dr. 
E 


Japan, is itself too condensed to be capable of eon net con- 
i N 


the Tuscavera basin to the altitude of F ee ago (12,425 feet). 
These mountains are a vast earth-wave, the advanced frontier of 
Asia, igneous but not volcanic, since ioy pia a very hum- 
ble part, and fossils of the remotest periods are met with. The 
“ Radiolarian slate” is Palæozoic. The angle of descent of the 

oe is about 3°. The Japanese chain consists of a long 
series of folds, running, as a rule, in the same direction as the 
chain, but towards ae northeastward curving hook-like towards 
the Japan Sea. West of Tokio is a great transversal cleft or 
fissure in which even volcanoes, including Fujinoyama, have 
sprung up. The folds seem to have advanced from the Sea of 
Japan towards the ocean, but the great fissure resulted fom their 
encounter with another chain stretching from Tokio Bay to the 
Bonin Islands. Dr. Naumann writes as one enchanted by the 
beauty of Japanese scenery, and has much admiration for the 
people, though his estimate of the Japanese house is more 
matter-of-fact than that of Professor Morse. Farmhouses have 


a hole for the smoke of the fire to escape, as was the case in 


England in Saxon times and later, and even rich Japanese feel 
at home in small and perishable structures. 
ArFGHanistan.—Afghanistan is still so far an unknown country 


that Captains Maitland and Talbot found a well-defined aoe 


tract filling up the whole space between the Hindu-Kush and the 
high mountains about the sources of the Hari-rud and Murghab. 
This range runs east and west at a distance of from five to twelve 
miles from the towns of Tashkurgan, Mazar-i-sharif (now the cap- 
ital of Afghan Turkestan), and Balkh. It is hardly indicated on 
any map, and is not mentioned by apia travellers. The Ha- 
zanahs are a simple, good-natured people 

Astatic Notes.—M. Tchersky has published at St. Petersburg 
a geological map of the borders of Lake Baikal. 

The Russian Geographical Society has appointed a committee 


364 General Notes. [April 


t 


become mere pools of standing water. The water in the main 
stream has not overflowed for three years, while the Kurli arm of 
the delta is becoming filled. 

new glacier called the Mushkelof, discovered in the Khan- 
Tengri group, exceeds in size the well-known Ssmenof Glacier. 

Dr. Bunge and. Baron von Toll have succeeded in their attempt 
to reach the New Siberian Islands. The former explored Lja- 
chow, the latter Kotelny. Earlier the two explored five other 
islands. They returned to the mainland in October last. 

Major Macgregor has contributed to the Proc. Zool. Soc. an 
account of Colonel Woodthorpe’s expedition to the Irawadi. 
The ruling race in the district is that of the Buddistic Kamptis, 
who are Shans, and do not exceed twelve thousand in number. 


poor and almost without clothing. ° 


Australia and Oceanica. Tur New Britain Group.—In the 


p 
cano named The Mother. The latter shelters the harbor of 
Blanche Bay, which is surrounded by volcanoes, some still active., 
Vegetation is most luxuriant, and the forest-trees are covere 
with ferns, orchids, and lycopods. The natives are good agri- 
culturists, making the most possible of the almost inaccessible 
spot to which mutual hostility compels them to resort. Our 


seems to have none worthy of the name. Good harbors have 
recently been discovered at the northwest end of New Ireland, 


1887] - Geography and Travels, 365 


In New Britain betrothals take place at a very early age, but a 
high price is fixed on the girl, so that the man is often middle- 
aged before he can marry her. He may get impatient and ASi 
but in that case dare not return to his tribe. But elopement 
usually takes place when the price is nearly paid. The couple 
build a house in the bush; both families assemble, vow ven- 
geance, paint as if for war, and sally forth and burn the house, 
from which the culprits are absent; the couple come back to the 
village in the morning, and the rest of the money is eventually 
paid. The curious point is that if after all the waiting the woman 
will not live with the man he cannot recover the property he has 
given to her parents 

The writer describes in detail the ceremony of the duk-duk, 
who is supposed to be a spirit who appears at the break of the 
day of anew moon. Men covered with a tunic and a very high 
hat personate the duk-duk and irritate the young men with blows 
of cane and club. Cannibalism—at least in the form of eating 
enemies killed in battle—still exists in these islands. 

The Rev. George Brown, a Wesleyan missionary long resident 
in Duke of York Island, between New Britain and New Ireland, 
confirmed the charge of cannibalism, stating that when on one 
occasion he adventurously crossed New Ireland he saw at one 
house thirty-five human jaw-bones, some just picked, hanging 
on a rafter. The west coast of New Ireland was very well 
watered, and had large rivers. The standard of value among 
the people i is six feet of strung shells, and the natives have words 
signifying “ buy,” “sell,” “ borrow,” “ lend,” and “redeeming” a 

ledge, lend money at ten per cent., and have a word aca ea Pi 
to “ selling at a sacrifice.” 

New Guinea.—The Rev. I. Chalmers’s account of his journeys 
in New Guinea (Proc. Geog. Soc., February, 1887) contains, 
like all accounts of journeys in this region, far more ethno- 
graphical than geographical information. In 1878 Mr. Chalmers 
and his wife visited the whole coast from China Strait to Hall 
Sound; after this he went inland from Catamaran Bay to Dis- 
covery ‘Bay, and he made several inland trips from Port Moresby. 
He also voyaged ina native “lakatoi,” made of three dugouts 
lashed together, from Port Moresby westward to the Annie 
River, visiting the cannibal district of Namau, and becoming so 
extr emely friendly with the cannibals that the wonder was that 
they did not eat him for sheer love of him. Mr. Chalmers jests 
-about the “skullery,”—an open space near the dubu, or temple, 
provided with pins to hang skulls on. The skulls were all 
carved and gayly colored. The dubu was nearly two hundred 
feet long and about eighty feet high to the peak in front, where 
there was a large veranda, but diminished to nine feet. at the 
back. The aisle, hung with curtains of the frond of the young 
sago-palm, had a floor polished with blood and the tread of feet. 


366 General Notes. [April 


Inside there were six wicker gods with enormous frog-mouths 
and dugong-like bodies. 

The Empress Augusta River, in German New Guinea, has 
been navigated for two hundred and twenty-four miles by Ad- 
miral von Schleinitz in the “ Ottilie” The steam-launch pro- 
ceeded one hundred and twelve miles farther, and returned from 
want of fuel. This was in the dry season. 


GEOLOGY AND PALZ ONTOLOGY. 

Hummocks and Boulders of Decomposition in South- 
eastern Missouri.—Among the crystalline hills of Southeastern 
Missouri boulders of decomposition are frequently seen. In fact, 
it was owing to a small eminence—two hundred feet above the 


feldspathic rocks. Throughout the region the surfaces of the 


tude 38° N. 
The surface of the red granulite is commonly covered by its 


from twenty feet or less in width to forty or even one hundred 
feet. Some of the ridges are unbroken for a length of several 
hundred feet, while others are made up of a chain of hummocks, 
whose general trend as well as slope is southwest,—the same 
direction as that of the prevailing, but not numerous, joints 
shown in the adjacent quarries. Some of the parallel ridges or 
chains have flat, rounded surfaces, thus, PO in, fn ge, 
whilst others are like inverted U’s, separated by narrow fur- 
rows from one foot to five feet or more in width, and from 
ten to twenty feet deep, thus, NNAN, which represent deep 
weathering and removal along the lines of joints. These hum- 
mocks have perfectly the form of typical roches moutonnées— 
less only the frequent, although generally superficial, scratches 
—of modern glacier regions. I places, upon what we 
th 


2 regions. In man hat 
May call the roches moutonnées of Graniteville, ere are boulders, 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 367 


_ more or less rounded, still fitting into their original places, al- 
though bat decayed connecting rocky matter has long since 
been removed. Most of the boulders have spheroidal or ellip- 

soidal rare and resemble as much northern erratics, or perched 

blocks, as any seen within the drift zone of America or modern 

glacier regions of Europe. One of these boulders is about 

thirty feet long, fifteen feet broad, and twenty feet high, perched 

on top of a rounded hummock, and resting on only a few small 
ints. 

AW ea one compares the forms of these rocks south of the 

line of northern drift, and of others similar in the more southern 


rounded surfaces of Norway, still in contact with living glaciers, 
—where he may see how unimportant a factor is the land-ice in 
gnawing away the old crystalline rocks,—one is forced to look 
upon the structure of both as more or less of common origin,— 
atmospheric erosion, perhaps aided by iP „although the 


latter region has been swept off by a brush of ice which has 
left scratches behind—F W. Spencer, ppm of Missouri, 
Columbia, Mo. 


e Dinosaurian Genus Colurus.—This genus was de- 
scribed by Marsh, in 1871, from material obtained in the Ju- 
rassic deposit of Wyoming Territory. Characteristic bones not 
distinguishable as to genus from those described by Marsh are 
in my collection from New Mexico, probably from beds of Tri- 
assic age. They consist of nearly all parts of the skeleton, ex- 
cepting jaws and teeth, and but little of the skull is determinable. 
The material is much more complete than that described by 
Marsh. 

The remains show that the genus Coelurus is a Dinosaurian, 
and I cannot agree with Professor Marsh’s view “that Cœ lu- 
rus cannot be placed in any known order.”? The ilium has the 


xio: io 
Ceelurus is in fact allied to Megadactylus (Hitchcock) from the 
Trias of Massachusetts, differing principally, so far as determina- 
ble, in the form of the condyles of the femur. They are simple 
in Coelurus, but in Megadactylus the external condyle has the 
double character seen in Megalosaurus.3 
The —— are all of slender proportions, especially those 
of the neck and tail. These, with most of vets bones of the 
z Amer. Journ: Arts, : eX. 
3 S Cone T = Reps a S Soc., xiv., 1870, Plate eh 


7 


368 General Notes, [April 


limbs, are hollow, having large central cavities surrounded b 
thin walls, as in Megadactylus. There are four sacral vertebræ. 


says they are wanting; but he does not appear to have pos- 
sessed the most anterior of the series. In neither species is 
there a distinct third trochanter of the femur, but there is, not 
far below the great trochanter on the anterior face, a low, longi- 
tudinal, ridge-like angle. The femoral condyles have but little 
anteroposterior extent, which implies but little flexure of the 
knee. The humerus is a good deal smaller than the femur, but 
the disproportion is not so great as in Lzlaps. 

The form seems to have been that of a terrestrial reptile which 
walked readily on the hind legs, and was probably a great leaper. 
The extremely long neck is a striking peculiarity, giving propor- 
trons to the body about like those of the swan. The habits were 
probably predaceous and carnivorous. 

Two species are indicated by my collections, as follows: 

Celurus longicollis. Cervical vertebre one-third longer than 
those of C. fragilis Marsh; the sides of the centrum not sulcate; 
the anterior articular face of an anterior centrum not convex. 
The faces are oblique, showing that the head was carried above 
the level of the body. The caudal vertebre were all quite 
slender, indicating the length of the tail. 


Length of body of cervical vertebra 063 
Diameters of posterior cup { —. oP 


Length of centrum of dorsal vertebra i 
A rtical 
Diameters of posterior face { xs ni “020 


transverse O21 


Length of caudal centrum .OS1 
x vertical 

Diameters of posterior face { ER in 

Length of femur -215 
; antero-posterior.. .024 

Diameters of condyles { PERENE .030 


This reptile was about the size of a greyhound. 
Cælurus bauri 


of the C. longicollis. The femur is not so strongly grooved at the 


trochanteric ridge. 
Diameters of cervical centrum behind $ Vertical „ma 
WANEVETED a croin dnssrarors -O13 
Length of sacrum -073 
Diameters of anterior sacral centrum in front { VETtical------++-- -014 
wes one an w mat z ae transverse. s.s.s... .OI5 
y ne 022 


erie : :* Dedicated to Dr. Geor oe eee Ca, BA EAA AEE AE E no Te a j 


sal 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 369 


The horizon from which these species were obtained is proba- 
bly upper Trias. It becomes, therefore, important to re-examine 
the locality from which Professor Marsh obtained the Cælurus fra- 
gilis to determine whether its deposit is really of Jurassic age, as 
stated by Marsh. It is, however, not fixed beyond doubt that 
the New Mexican locality is Triassic. D. Co, ope. 


Geological News. GENERAL—M. Nouvy, in his “ Geolo 
of Jersey,” assumes that the island had an original granitic crust 
on which the gneisses were deposited in an intensely heated 
ocean. The sedimentary rocks are chlorite-schist, feldspathic 
schist (which is most common), metamorphic schist, and con- 
glomerate. There is much eruptive rock, varying from granitic 
to diorite. The author states that the age of the true granites 
~ now found cannot be proved, but that the other eruptive rocks 
are certainly later than the schists. No sedimentary rock exists 
between these Cambrian strata and the conglomerate, which he 
attributes to the Permian age. After a careful sifting of the evi- 
dence, he concludes that subsidence has occurred only since the 
Roman occupation, and that Jersey was probably still joined to 
Normandy in the sixth century. 


_ Devontan.—M. Ch. Deperet has studied the Devonian of the 
eastern chain of the Pyrenees. This formation forms a narrow 

band running 15° north of east, parallel to the general direction 
of the chain. The belt can be traced across the basins of the 
Aude and the Tet, from the elevated valley of the Aniége on 
the west to the plain of Reussillon on the east, and has a length 
of sixty kilometres, va a width of five kilometres at the moun- 
_tain-mass of Villefranche. The western part of this Devonian 
crest is nearly pitateaoeed. but the eastern part is cut up into 
fragments and thrown northwards by the granite-mass of Canigon. 


Mesozoic.—Dr. Carl Diener has published a monograph upon 
the Solos of the Lebanon. He has worked out the numer- 
ous lines of faulting and flexuring which have occurred, mainly 
during the Miocene, in the strata, which, both in the Leb- 
anon and Anti-Lebanon, are chiefly Cretaceous and Eocene 
Limestones. Jurassic beds occur " a narrow belt at the western 
base of Mount Hermon, which is to a great extent built upon 
the line of a great fault that Reiser with its western base. 
The limestone beds of this mountain belong to the age of the 
Lower Chalk of Europe, and are disposed in the form of a low 
arch with a north-northeast axis. There are other faults on the 
south and east flanks. Doubtless the system of disturbance here 
is identical with that which caused the Jordan-Arabah depres- 
sion; and the main line of fault of that depression enters the 
valley of the Leontes at the western base of Hermon. Here 


370 General Notes. [April 


the Lebanon Limestone and other Lower Cretaceous beds are 
nearly vertical and in contact with horizontal Upper Cretaceous 
beds. Dr. Diener throws some doubt on the former existence 
of glaciers in the district because he cannot find glacial stria- 
tions. 


Professor Owen recently read before the Geological Society of 
London a paper upon Galesaurus planiceps Owen. The characters 
of the skull and teeth have been brought to light. The reptilian 
nature of the fossil is indicated by the single occipital condyle 
and other features. The angle of the jaw is not produced beyond 
the articular element. In general shape and bony strength the 
mandible of Galesaurus resembles that of amammal. The crowns 
of four upper molars are triangular, the base is flanked by a short 
cusp before and behind, and the corresponding margins are finely 
crenulate. The incisors are eight in each jaw and partially inter- 
lock. The canines resemble those of a mammal. No trace of 
successional teeth was found. The teeth are implanted firmly in 
sockets. The author remarked on the earlier reptilian character 
exhibited by the oolitic mammal Amphitherium and by the ex- 
isting Myrmecobius. The specimens are from the Triassic of 
South Africa. 


The Triassic age of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation, 
New South Wales, has been proved by the discovery of a Mas- 
todonsaurus. i 


CæÆxozoic..—Among some fossils from Wadi Halfa, Nubia, is 
an upper right-cheek tooth of an Equus of Pliocene type, allied 
to the group containing Æ. sivalensis. 


P OcENE.—The Naulette jaw found in a cavern near Di- 
nant (Belgium) is remarkable for its excessive prognathism. The 
study of it has led M. Topinard to conclude that in the age of 
the mammoth and tichorhine rhinoceros there were numerous 
paee human races, to one of the lowest of which this jaw be- 


sand shells belonging to one hundred and seventy-one species, 


1887 | Mineralogy and Petrography. 371 


has recently stated that the same grottoes contain the bones of 
orty-two species of birds, fourteen of them birds of prey, the 
others the food-birds of the primitive race who inhabited the 


Among the recent species are the maigre, tunny, salmon, and 
trout. Altogether, in the six caverns once inhabited by quater- 
nary man, M. Gaudry reports eight hundred and forty thou- 
sand fragments, vertebrate and invertebrate, belonging to one 
hundred and eleven species of the former category and one hun- 
dred and seventy-one of the latter. 


Recent.—Professor J. D. Dana, in a recent article in the 
American Journal of Science, canes. in connection with the 
recent disturbances at Kilauea, Vesuvius, and Tarawera, that vol- 
canic action must be attributed to the hydrostatic pressure of the 
column of lava; the pressure of vapors escaping in underground 
regions from the lavas, or produced by contact with them, acting 
either quietly or catastrophically ; and the pressure of the sub- 
siding crush of the crust forcing up the lavas in the conduit. 


MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:. 


ical News.—The rocks occurring in equatorial 
ound by O. Mi 


ites, nepheline-tephrites and basanites, limburgites, melilite- 
basalts, augite andesites and feldspathic basalts among the 
younger ones. The granophyres contain an augite with partings 


which are so closely and peculiarly associated that the author 
thinks they might be due to the solution in the granophyre sub- 
‘stance of some foreign inclusion. The gneisses, schists, and am- 
phibolites also contain a diallagic and an orthorhombic augite. 
Among the granular constituents of two specimens of amphib- 
olite, prismatic crystals of scapolite were noticed. The porphy- 
ritic feldspathic constituent of the trachytes (acmite-trachytes) 
corresponds very closely to the soda-microcline of Forstner.3 

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, van tt Wisconsin, 

Bre Be ahrb. fr. Min., etc., Beil. Bd., iv. p. 57 
3 Cf. American Naiuralist, Notes, June, 1885, p - 600. 
VOL. XXI.—NO. 4. 25 


372 General Notes. [April 3 


Wollastonite and melanite, which were observed in some of the 
nephelinites, Migge thinks must be looked upon as having crys- 
tallized directly from the magma of the rock itself, and not as the 
result of the solution of inclusions. Unfortunately, the author was 
not able to study these rocks in the field, so that their geological 
relations are not definitely known. Bruno Doss* has recently 
made a very thorough investigation of the igneous rocks of Pal- 
estine, and as a result of his studies declares them to be labra- 
dorite basalts. Their olivine constituent occurs both in porphy- 
ritic crystals and in the ground-mass. The two generations are 
distinguished by the marked differences in their mode of alter- 
ation. The mineral of the first generation contains more iron 
than that of the second, and accordingly gives rise to decompo- 
sition products consisting principally of red iron compounds in- 
soluble in acids, while the latter class are merely serpentinized. 
Twins of olivine were observed in which,the twinning planes are 

co, and in less frequent instances oP. In three specimens 
pseudobrookite was detected. The fact that quartz and oli- 
vine may occur in the same rock is given additional interest by 
the discovery in Northern California of a quartz-basalt.. This 
rock is described by Mr. Diller? as possessing all the essential 
characteristics of ordinary basalts, with the addition besides of 
numerous grains of quartz, many of which are surrounded by a 
zone of glass and pyroxene. From the fact that quartz is also 
found in bombs, which must have existed as clots in the lava at 
the time of its eruption, Mr. Diller is forced to assume that the 


of the substances of lithophysz and of spherulites is essentially the 
same, and therefore the former cannot have been produced by 
the alteration of the latter.——Chrustschoff 5 has isolated zircon 
` * Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., vii., 1886, p. 461. 
* Amer. Jour. Sci., Jan. 1887, p. 45. 3 Ib., Jan. 1887, p. 36. 
; ist, 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 373 


from gneisses, granites, rocky. basalt, sanidine bombs, 
graywackes, an s described the characteristic peca aniis 
of crystals obtained To these different so 

that the crystals occurring in gneisses aa present rounded 
contours, while those in granite are always defined by sha 
crystal planes. He proposes to make use of this fact in distin- 
guishing gneisses with granitic habit from true granites 


Mineralogical News.—Ka/iophilite is the name proposed by 
Mierish* for a new mineral occurring in colorless needles in one 
of the Monte Somma bombs examined by him in the course of 
his work referred to in the March number of this journal. It is 
a potassium nepheline. An analysis yielded,— 
» SiO Al,0, CaO K,O Na,O 
37.48 32-43 2.18 27.20 2.26 
The author supposes that ordinary nepheline may consist of mix- 
tures of the isomorphous molecules K,AI],Si,O, and Nas A Si0e 
since this mineral always contains more or less potassium 


= 
a 


Scapolite—In no manner can t ifference in the views of 
the two schools of ir rae ae chemists be better learned than 
by an examination of the papers relating to the discussion now 


of the scapolite group of minerals. In an article in the Mewes 
Fahrbuch, Rammelsberg? gives his reason for considering this 
group of minerals as consisting of molecular combinations of nor- 
mal- (meta-), half- (ortho-), and di- (bi-) silicates of sodium, cal- 
cium, and aluminium in certain definite proportions. Sarkolite, 
for instance, he regards as a molecular compound made up of the 
three ortho-molecules in the proportions 3Na,SiO,, 27Ca,SiO,, 
10A1,(SiO,),; and Metonite, from Mt. Vesuvius, as a similar com- 
pound, in which the meta-silicates arë present in the proportions 
of one ee to six of the ortho-silicates, as,— 


Na, Na,SiO, 
efel SO } + fo years: } + 20NaCl. 
3Al (SiO,), 3Al,(SiO,), 
schermak,* on the other hand, regards the momhers of this 
group (like those of the plagioclase group) as isomorphous mix- 


he calls respectively the meionite and mariolite molecules, y 
t Tschermak’s Min. u. Petrog., erie? a . 1886, p: 156. 
2 Amer. Jour. Sci., III. xx., xx., 1880, p 
3 Neues =_— ach f: Min., etc., Beil, ee iv., 1886, p. 610; also Sitzb, Berl. 


374 General Notes. [April 


the combination of these two molecules in different proportions 
the various members of the group are formed, and by calculation 
the proportionate amounts of each present in any given case can 
readily be determined from the amounts of calcium and sodium 
found by analysis. Bastonite, a micaceous mineral character- 
izing certain sandstones and arkoses, is supposed by Renard to 

very similar to vermiculite, which Tschermak ene as an 
altered phlogopite. Its analysis yielded Klement 

SiO, AlO, FeO, FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O 

36.013: 2004. 20.08 373 trace’ Ogs 796 3.07 0.23 ~ 6.98 

—— According to the abd danse of Nordenskiold,? the pecu- 

liar fluid inclusions in Brazi n topaz, to which Dana gave the 
name ‘brewsterlinite,” are, ab Teati in some cases, inclusions ofa 
hydrocarbon, probably of the naphtha group. Schuster? has 
discovered that the draunzte from the manganese mines of Jakobs- 

rg, in Wermland, Sweden, is probably isomorphous i 
tallization with hematite and ilmenite. Its analysis yielded 
Igelstrom,s— 

SiO, MnO FeO Mg0O.CaO PbO (0) 

8.7 80.23 * t33 0.95 8.65 8.17 
If the iron, Tapen, calcium, and lead be supposed to replace 
manganese, the composition of the mineral may be reproar 
by the formula 11Mn,0,.3MnSiO,, corresponding very nearly to 
the result reached by Rammelsberg in his analysis of the ratnika 
from Elgersburg. 


Crystallographic News.—Recent measurements of crystals 
of vanadinite from Pinal County, Arizona, have yielded Mr. 
Penfield 5 results agreeing closely with those obtained by Urba® 
in his investigations of Carinthian crystals. Endlichite? [ Pb,Cl 
a + Pb,CI(VO,),] from the Sierra i 


ounty, New Mexico, was also examined. The axial ratio, as 


rhombohedral symmetry. The twinning laws of copper are also 
investigated, and the article concludes with plates containing fifty- 
* Min. u. ei Mitth., Dte 1886, p. 1. 
2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., r e Su 
3 Min. u. Petro Z. g. Mitth. 


5 Amer, Jour, Sci., aitain oad 8 
ri iy j ; 
uralist, Notes, uly, 1885, 
J man p 709. 


= 


= 


‘laws of thermo-chemistry.* 


1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 375 


four illustrations of copper crystals and crystal groupings.—— 
From new measurements of crystals of hyalosiderite, the iron-rich 
olivine, and forsterite, the pure magnesian variety, Max Bauer’ 
has recalculated the axial relations of these minerals. For the 
first he finds a:b:c = .46815 : 1: .58996; for the second, a:b c = 
.46476:1:.58569. On comparing these ratios with those ob- 
tained from measurements made on fayalite, the pure iron olivine, 
and other members of this series, the composition of which is 
known, it is found that an increase in the amount of the magnesium 
molecule present in any case is accompanied by a shortening of 
the a andc axes as compared with the b axis. In the same 
article Bauer describes twinning lamellæ in massive darite from 
several localities in Germany. The twinning plane is 6Px. é 
regards them as pressure twins like those found in calcite, 
cyanite, sphene, etc. 


Miscellaneous.—In the January number of the American 
Fournal of Science? Mr. G. F. Becker has an interesting article 


ture as characteristic of metamorphosed sediments.3 Porphyrite 
i i 


magma, and is merely the evidence of fractional crystallization 
of the various minerals. These conclusions are base 
theory of the solidification of minerals in accordance with certain 
In a letter to the Neues Fahrbuch 
für Mineralogie A. Schrauf explains his views on morphotropism 
and atometrie, which, so far as they relate to minerals, are briefly 
as follows. The form of crystallization of chemical mixtures de- 
pends principally upon the various amounts of their constituents. 
MgSO,+ 7H; ( E it ) F: t l z th th x h bi J t , 
while FeSO, + 7H,O (melanterite) is monoclinic. Mixtures of 
MgSO, + 7H,O and FeSO, + 7H,0O crystallize in the latter system 
until the proportion of magnesium in the mixture is to the amount 
of iron as three atoms to one atom (3MgSo, + FeSo,) + 7H,O, 
when it crystallizes in the orthorhombic system,—z.¢., the crystal- 
lization is determined by that substance which is in excess (by 
weight). In the compound (3MgSo, + FeSo,) + 7H,O the Mg and 

1 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1887, i. p. 1. 

2 Amer. Jour. Sci., January, 1887, p. 50. 

3 Cf. American Naturalist, Notes, December, 1886, p. 1050. 

4 Amer. Jour. Sci., 1886, p. 120. 
5 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1886,.i. p. 234. 


# 


376 General Notes. [April 


Fe are to each other as 72:56, Mg is in excess, and the substance 
crystallizes as does MgSo,+ 7H,O. In compounds containing 
less Mg (as 2MgSo,-+ FeSo,) + 7H,0O, the proportions of Mg 
and Fe are as 48: 56, and the crystallization is that of melanterite. 
Various conditions effect the crystallization of mixed bodies, but 
the most important of these, according to Schrauf’s opinion, is 
the one mentioned above. If this law is found to be general in 
its application, the present views in regard to the dimorphism of 
many compounds belonging to the so-called iso-dimorphous 
groups will have to be modified. 


BOTANY. 


Botanical Manuals for Students.—Nowadays we are urging 
students to collect and study plants from all the great groups, 
and thereby to familiarize themselves with the vegetable kingdom 
as a whole, but perhaps we too often overlook the difficulties 
which lie before them. Not the least of these is the want of sys- 
tematic manuals in which descriptions of the genera and species 
may be found. It is all very well to tell a student that the name 
and technical description are of much less importance than is the 
knowledge of structure and habits. It is true, no doubt, but, for 
all that, there is need of such works in every laboratory, to serve 
as guides, if for no other purpose. Unfortunately for the Amer- 
ican student, we are as yet poorly supplied with descriptive man- 
uals. In the following list I have enumerated the classes (and 
in some cases the orders under the classes) of the several great 
branches of the plant kingdom, giving for each the name of a useful 
systematic manual. I have not attempted to make a list of the 
works of this kind which are absolutely the best, for too often such 
works are too expensive for the limited means of the botanical 
departments of many schools and colleges. 


PROTOPHYTA. 
Myxomycetes.—Cooke’s Myxomycetes of Great Britain. 
ScHIZOMYCETES.—Grove’s Bacteria and Yeast Fungi. 
CyanopHycE2.—* Cooke’s British Fresh-Water Algz, pp. 203- 

282, and, doubtfully, pp. 1-30. 


ZYGOPHYTA. 
ZoosPOREH.—Cooke’s ai Fresh-Water Algz, pp. 67 (Pando- - 
; rina), 3 hr gh at an ge seh 135-145 (Con- 
fe st Bo oe Farlow w England Alga, 
pp. 41-44 (Ulvacee), ad és (Phzosporez). 
* Edited by Prof. Cuar.es E. Brssry Lincoln, Nebraska. 
year the work on the “ Fresh-Water a of North America,” fs 


p li, ay th eect When that appears it should be substituted fi 
“ British Fresh-Water Algæ” wherever the latter occurs in this list. 


1887] Botany. 377 
ee Wolle’s Desmids of the United 
tat 


pat ne Van Heurck’s Synopsis des Diato- 


Belgique. 
2S ei Cooke’s British Fresh-Water Alge, 
pp. 74-110 
Mucorini* Winter's Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen 
Flora. 
OOPHYTA. 


ZoOSPORE#.—Cooke’s_ British Fresh-Water Alga, pp. 56-67 
(Volvox, etc.), 132-134 (Sphzroplea). 3 
CEpoconiE&.—Cooke’s British Fresh-Water Algæ, pp. 148-177. 
CŒLOBLASTEÆ.— Antipi Cooke’s British Fresh-Water 
Algæ, pp. 115—126. 
Saprolegniaceæ* Winter's Rabenhorst’s Kryp- 
togamen Flor 
Fniomoghihordk. ` Winter’s Rabenhorst’s Kryp- 
togamen Flora, pp. 74-79. 
Peronosporeæ. Farlow’s Peronosporeæ of the 
United States. 


FucacEæ.—Farlow’s New England Algæ, pp. 99-104. _ 


CARPOPHYTA. 
CoLEocH#TE#.—Cooke’s British Fresh-Water Algæ, pp. 195- 
: 197. 
FLoRIDE#.—Farlow’s Dg England Algæ, pp. 106-183. 
ASCOMYCETES. ig ec aceæ. Bessey’s Erysiphei. 
Tuberaceæ. Cooke’s Hand-Book of British 
Fungi, pp. 738-750. = 
Helvellaceæ. Cooke’s Hand-Book of British 
Fungi, pp. 655-737- 
Pyrenomycetes. Winter's Rabenhorst’s Krypto- 
gamen Flora, vol. ii? 
Lichenes. Tuckerman’s North American Lichens 
Uredinee. Burrill’s Parasitic Fungi of Illinois. 
Ustilaginee. Winter's Rabenhorst’s Kryptoga- 
men Flora, pp. 79-131. 
- BasrpioMyceTes.—Winter’s Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora, 
- pp- 270-922, and Cooke’s Hand-Book of 
British Fungi, pp. 1-376, and 409-413. 
CHARACE&.—Halsted’s American Species of Characee. 
t The orders Mucorini and Saprolegniacez have not yet, been Spm coele in the pub- 
lication of the “ Kryptogamen Flora,” but no doubt they will be soo: 
2 Not yet quite completed. 


378 General Notes. [April 


BRYOPHYTA. 
Hepatic#.—Underwood’s North American Hepaticz. 
Muscr.—Lesquereux and James’s Mosses of North America. 


PTERIDOPHYTA. 
Underwood’s Ferns and their Allies. 


PHANEROGAMIA. 


There is no complete Phanerogamic Flora of the United States. 
The Gamopetale have been completed in Gray’s “ Synoptical 
Flora of North America.” For the remaining flowering plants 
we must make use of the various local Floras, as follows: 

For the Northeastern United States (z.e., north of North Caro- 
lina and Tennessee, and west to the Missouri River), Gray’s 
“Manual of Botany.” For the Southeastern United States (ze., 
south of the preceding, and west to the Mississippi River), 
Chapman’s “Flora of the Southern United States.” Wood's 
“Class-Book” is intended to include all the Phanerogams of 
both the foregoing regions. For the region west of the Sierra 
’ Nevada Mountains, Watson’s “ Botany of California,” or Rattan’s 
“ Popular California Flora.” For the Rocky Mountains and the 
Plains, Coulter’s “ Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany.” Strictly 
speaking, Coulter’s Manual is intended to cover Colorado, 
Wyoming, Montana, Western Dakota, Western Nebraska, and 
Western Kansas, but its usefulness’extends a couple of hundred 
miles farther in every direction. The Great Basin of Utah and 
Nevada and the Arizona-Texas region have no manuals as yet. 
For these ae Soe Watson’ ee ss ge of the Known Plants of 
Nevada and Uta U. S. Geol. Explor. of the goth Parallel, 
vol. v.) and e $ Catalogue of the Plants collected in 
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona” (U. S. Geog. 
Surveys West of the rooth Meridian, vol. vi.) will render good 


ice. 
Full titles of most of the foregoing works are given below, 
with approximate prices 


The Myxomycetes of Great Britain. M. C. Cooke. London, 
Williams & Norgate. $2.50. 

A Synopsis of the Bacteria and Yeast Fungi. W. B. Grove. 
London, Chatto & Windus. $1.25. 

British Fresh-Water Alge. M. C. Cooke. London, Williams 
& Norgate. $22.00. 

ome ee of New England. W. G. Farlow (Rept. U S 

rae oe £79). Washington. $2.50. 

7 Desmids of of the United S tates. Francis Wolle. Bethlehem, Pa. 


1887] Botany. 379 
ssa ttt aigi Ta de Belgique. Henri van Heurck. 


50. 
Bubeutioratts AE Flora: Die Pilze. George Winter. 
eipzig. Ed. Kummer. $16.00 
Enumeration of the Peronosporeæ of the Kias ea W.G. 
arlow. Botanical Gazette, Oct. and Nov., 

On Injurious Fungi: The Blights (Erysiphei).. C E Bessey. 
Seventh Biennial Rept. Iowa Agricultural College, 1877. 
GEA net of British pare M. C. Cooke. London, Mac- 

& $12 


an o. 
A riak of the Mok. American Lichens. Ed. Tuckerman. 
Boston, . Cassino. .00. 


Parasitic Fungi of Illinois: Uredineæ. T. J. Burrill. Bulletin 
tate Laboratory of Nat. History, vol. ii., 1885 
Classification and Description of the American Species of Char- 

aces. -B Halsted. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 
vol. xx., 1879. 
ge 2 be Catalogue of the North American Hepatice North 
. Unde cage Bulletin Ill. State Labo- 
sate of Nat. His istory, vol. i 
Manual of the Mosses of North ee E r SEE ‘and 
a: ames. Boston, Cassino & Co. $4.00 
Our Native Ferns ve their Allies. L; M. Underwood. Bloom- 
ington, Ill. $1.2 
— re Flora of North America. Asa Gray. New York, 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co. $6.00 
ag ‘of the Botany of the Northern United States. Asa 
: Gray. Same publishers. $2.00 
Flora of the Southern United States. A. W. Chapman. Same 
publishers. $4.00 
Manual of the Botany of the agent re Region. J. M. 
Coulter. Same publishers. $1.8 
Class-Book of Botany. A. Wood. New York, Barnes & Co. 


3 50. 
Botany of California. > Watson. Cambridge, Mass., Welch, 
-Bigelow & Co. .00. 
A ponies California Flora, V. Rattan. San Francisco, Ban- 
croit 
The two government reports (Watson’s and Rothrock’s) can- 
not probably be obtained from the government offices any longer. 
They may be bought of second-hand dealers for from $3.00 to 
$5.00 each.— Charles E. Bessey. 


The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries of North Amer- 
ican Fungi.—About the middle of March these pe centuries 
were received by subscribers from the hands o authors, 
Messrs. Ellis and Everhart. Century XVIII. is motel foe the 
great number of difficult micro-fungi which it contains. Thus, 


380 General Notes. [April 


of the genus Cercospora there are specimens of thirty-four 
of 


mens of half a dozen Polypori. Trametes, Hydnum, Radulum, 
Grandinia, Merulius, Hymenochete, Stereum, Corticium, Næ- 
malelia, and Exobasidium are represented by one or more species 
each,—that of the genus last named being the striking Æ. dis- 
coideum of Ellis, found on “the under-side of living leaves of 
Azalea viscosa.” 

Century XIX. is mainly devoted to the Uredinez, there being 
no less than twenty-three species of Æcidium, twenty-eight of 
Puccinia, and sixteen of Uromyces, besides eight more of various 
genera, making a sae of seventy-five. The remaining species 


are divided amon t or nine genera, of which Ustilago 
includes six, Peronospora three, Cystopus two, and Entomoph- 
thora two. It is scarcely necessary to ae that the specimens 


are highly acest, — Charles E. Bessey 


Tomato-Rot.—Dr. J. C. Arthur has ye studying eran 
and ascribes that observed in I o fermentation. 
“Fifth Annual Report of the New York Agricultural E ae 
ment Station,” he says, “ The fermentive action is evidently not 
begun until the resistance of the living tissues is greatly reduced 
or entirely lost. This may be brought about in several ways. 

ll fruit reaches this condition of inability to resist the inroads 
of disease-germs, or of germs of disintegration, when it becomes 
fully ripe,—literally dead-ripe. The condition may be prema- 
turely brought on by anything which decreases the vigor of the- 
plant, and thus enfeebles and shortens the life of its ripening 
tissues. A marked, p from several points of view an interest- 
ing, example of the early and extensive rotting of ripe fruit in 
plants Ep a debilitated by propagation for three sea- 
sons from seed successively selected from the feeblest plants of 
the preceding year is recorded by Mr. Goff, in which finally half 
the ripe fruit prematurely rotted. This kind of decay is very 
Eey sa ‘soft rot,’ and is well described by Mr. 
Goff : ‘The fruit becomes soft, and collapses without 
changing eN the skin finally bursts, permitting the contents 
to flow out, when it dries without detaching itself from the stem.’ 
f the fruit rests upon the ground it often cracks open, and the 

exposed surface becomes speedily covered with a white, velvety 
growth, composed of yeast and Oidium lactis, which for a con- 
siderable time prevents the contents from escaping. This white 
growth, with the associated bacteria, is only a more obvious de- 
the it of the active agents of fermentation which noros 


__ Dr. Arthur insists upon the necessity of diverimiaatiag betw 
the “ “soft rot” of ripe fruit and the other kinds which se 


a 


$ 


1887] Entomology. 381 


affect green fruit, and suggests that one means of avoiding the 
former “is to maintain the health and increase the vigor of the 
plants by judicious breeding.” 


Botanical News,—Fascicle V. of Millspaugh’s “ American Me- 
dicinal Plants” was delivered to subscribers a month or two ago. 
Like the preceding fascicles, 2 one reign oey plates, all 
of which are well done-——Professor Penhallow’s “ Mechanism 
of Movement in Cucurbita, Vitis, and Robinia” A Sa and Trans. 
Royal Soc. of Canada,” vol. iv , 1886) treats of the tendril-move- 
ments of the first and second, and leaf-movements of the last. 
(isig plates accompany the paper——The “ Additional Notes 

on the Tendrils of Cucurbitacee” (Can. Record of Science, Oc- 
eae 1886), by the same author, continues the work in the order 
mentioned. Twenty-two species belonging to nine genera were 
under observation. The principal inquiry in this paper was that 


of Botany, of the new “Index of Plant Names,” now under way. 
It is the intention to make a complete index of all genera and 


March Botanical Gazette is one by Dr. toe on ele 
It is an “essay at a rearrangement of our species,” and is sub- 
mitted in the hope of eliciting from botanists such observations 
and criticisms as will either confirm or invalidate the characters 
used 


ENTOMOLOGY. 

The Joint-Worm in New York. —Twenty-five years ago 
Isosoma hordei did a great amount of injury to wheat, barley, 
and rye in this State; in some localities the yield was reduced 
fully fifty per cent. But during recent years this insect has 
attracted almost no attention. The present generation of farmers 


- do not even know the characteristic signs of its ravages. There 


however, indications that the causes that have kept it in 


+ 


- check, whatever they may be, are ceasing to be effective. And 


it is more than probable that unless care is exercised by the grain- 
growers of the State, there will be a repetition in the near future 
of the great losses of a quarter-century ago. The insect has 
already become very abundant in the northern part of Tompkins 
County. But I am not aware that the farmers even suspected its 
presence until their attention was called to it at a recent farmers’ 
institute. The proprietors of a paper-mill at Ithaca have found 
that the straw received from certain localities is unfit for making 
paper, owing to the solidification of considerable portions of it 
by the injuries of this insect. In one lot of straw received from 

t This department is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell Areda Ithaca, 
N. Y., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should 


382 | General Notes. [April 


a packer at Lake Ridge one-twenty-fifth of the straws were in- 
fested, and the straw received from another locality was very 
badly injured. The matter is certainly worthy serious attention. 
Articles pa by Cook. and by Riley in the Rural New- Yorker 
some time since indicate that this pest is also increasing unduly 
in Michigan and in Ohio.— F. H. Comstock. 


Relations of Ants and Aphids.—The great benefits derived by 
ants from plant-lice have been long known. Many species of ants 
obtain a considerable proportion of their subsistence from Aphids 
and allied insects, honey-dew constituting the chief part of ‘their 
food. But in what way the plant-lice profit by this RE oe 
is probably only partially understood. The slight amount of 
protection afforded by the ants in occasionally iiie aNd 
rous insects away from colonies of Aphids can hardly be sufficient 
to account for the development of the apparatus for excreting 
honey-dew. The fact, now well known, that certain ants collect 
and preserve in their nests the eggs of Aphids during the winter, 
indicates that there are more important relations between the 
two groups of insects than appear at first sight. And this is con- 
firmed by the recent discovery by Professor Forbes that the corn 
plant-louse (Aplis maidis) is strictly dependent on an ant (Lasius 
alienus). This ant in the early spring mines along the principal 
roots of the corn, collects the wingless lice that have hibernated 
in the earth and conveys them into its burrows, and there watches 
and protects them. Experiments indicate that the plant-lice are 
unable to establish themselves upon the roots of corn without 
the aid of ants, even when i in great numbers at the base 
of the hill of corn — Z. Z. 


Sarracenia purpurea. —Dr. Riley has 


a similar species inhabits the watery liquor contained within 
the leaves of the common Northern pitcher-plant, S. purpurea. 
While taking a vacation in the pine-wood regions of Northern 
Michigan (Missaukie County) last August, I found this interest- 
ing plant very abundant in the swamps and marshes. About ten 
per cent. of the leaves contained larve that agree with the figure 
and peskan of the larva of S. sarraceniæ, but unfortunately 
was unable to rear the fly. Many of the leaves contained cir- 
cular holes, out of which some of the larvæ had doubtless 
ih to pupate. When the water contained within the leaves 
———— e ee 


iL 


1887 | Entomology. | 383 


be easily seen swimming about in search of food and ee 
themselves to any plump carcass that came in their wa 
placed in ordinary alee alcohol they would live bata 
three and four hour 
As is well a the prevailing color of the leaves of this 
plant is a livid red, and it is worthy of note that the commonest 
of the larger insects found within them belonged to that family 
which is said to be especially attracted by this color,—the Ves- 
æ or wasps. It is probable, also, that this color may have 
some attractive influence over various two-winged flies,—includ- 
ing the parents of the larve mentioned above.—Clarence M. 
Weed, Champaign, Tii. 


Bacteriological Studies in Arthropods.—M. E. G. Balbiani* 
finds that saprophytic bacilli, when inoculated into the blood, are 
pathogenic for a large number of Arthropods. Death follows 
in from twelve to forty-eight hours, according to external tem- 
perature, number and origin of spores, size, age, and ceed 
of the subject. They die with all of the symptoms which char- ` 
acterize the disease known as “ flacherie” in silk-worms, a malady 
determined by the development of various species of bacteria in 
the organism. Insects of the different orders are not equally 
susceptible; those which contain a small quantity of blood in 


which the relative proportion of blood is greater, and (above all) 
in which the pet is richer in corpuscles; this is specially the 
case with the Gryllide. 

The resistance is 5 dag to the corpuscles seizing by their pseu- 


tissue, which seize on and destroy the poisonous organisms. 


which exists between the two kinds of cells. Death is delayed 
if the spores are kept for more than six years in a state of desic- 
cation.— Four. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1887, p. 70. 


Ants and Ultra-Violet Rays.—Whilst Sir J. Lubbock con- 
siders that ants perceive the ultra-violet rays by means of their 
eyes, Graber finds, by removing these organs from Tritons, etc., 
that it is by the skin that these rays are perceived. Prof. A. 
Forel has made experiments in order to answer the question 
whether ants perceive these rays by means of their eyes, or by 
the skin; and he finds that it is mainly by the former organs, 
but admits that “ photodermatic” perception may accompany the 
optic sense. Camponotus ligniperdus and Formica fusca served 
for his experiments, and a “solution d’esculine” was used for 
absorbing the ultra-violet rays.—Z. c., p. 73. 

* Comptes Rendus, ciii..(1886) p. 952-54. 


384 General Notes. [April 


Light-Perception by Myriapods.—Fourteen years ago Pouchet 
showed that muscid larve without eyes were still sensitive to 
light, and Graber (as indicated above) has recently in some striking 
experiments extended the same conclusion. Prof. F. Plateau" 


his own puicaac hie on blind Myriapods 

His method of experiment was manifold. That of Pouchet, 
that of Graber, and two other modifications were employed in 
order to determine whether the blind Myriapods were able to 
perceive light, while in another series M. Plateau sought to de- 
termine the rapidity of perception. 

His chief results are summed up'as follows: The blind chilo- 
pod Myriapods perceive the daylight, and are able to choose be- 
tween it and darkness; in the chilopod Myriapods provided with 
eyes, and in those without these organs, a considerable time must 
elapse before the animals perceive that they have passed from 
relative or complete obscurity to daylight; the length of this 
period is not greater in the blind Myriapods than in those with 
eyes; owing to the general slowness of perception, blind Myria- 
pods, although sensitive to light, may cross a dark space of small 
extent without perceiving it, or being able to find it again when 
they have left it; the rapid search for a hole in the soil is ex- 
plicable, not only as a flight from light, but as an expression of 
the necessity for a damp environment, with which the greater 
part of the body may be in direct contact.—Z. c 


England.—At a meeting of the Ento- 
mological Society of London, held December 1, Miss Elenor 
A. Ormerod read a paper and exhibited specimens of the Hes- 
sian Fly (Cecidomyia destructor) taken in Hertfordshire, England. 
The specimens undoubtedly belonged to this species, as they had 
been compared with authentic American and Austrian examples. 


Function ‘of the Palpi in Chilopods and Spiders.—Felix 
Plateau has recently investigated the question of the function of 
these organs, and has published the account of his experimen 
in the Bulletin of the Zoological Society of France (1886, p. 512). 
He reviews the previous opinions on the subject, and experiment- 
pail pee epetrates that in Lithobius, etc. ae are used neither as 


as sensory, and have described organs of smell upon 
7 Jour. de LAnat. et de la. Physiol., xxii. (1886) pp. 431-57. 


1887 | Entomology. 385 


them. Some consider them as of use in the capture of food, and 
others think they play a part in the building of a web. Plateau’s 
experiments were upon five species belonging to as many genera, 
The results were that these species, when deprived of their palpi, 
spun normal webs and captured their prey as well as their un- 
mutilated fellows. He concludes that these appendages are to 
be placed, like those of the mandibulate insects, in the category 
of useless organs. His experiments on scorpions and Phalan- 


a new function. 


Necrology.—M. Maurice J. A. Girard died the 8th of Septem- 
ber last, in his sixty-fourth year, at Lion-sur-Mer (Calvados). Dr. 
Girard was the author of several important entomological works. 
The chief of these is his “ Traité Elémentaire g’ Entomologie.” 

is was completed only in 1885, and comprises three large 
volumes and an atlas of many plates. 

M. Jules Lichtenstein died on the 30th of November last, at 
Montpellier, France, at the age of sixty-eight. M. Lichtenstein 
was a vineyard proprietor, and made a special study of the habits 
of the Grape Phylloxera, and of allied Aphids. He was one of - 
the most prominent and original of the French writers on these 
subjects. 

Edgar, Freiherr von Harold, died August 1, 1886, at Possen- 
hofen, Bavaria. He is best known to American entomologists as 
one of the authors of the “ Catalogus Coleopterorum” and editor 
of the “ Coleopterologische Hefte.” . 


Entomological News.—The “ First Supplement to the List of 
Coleoptera of America, North of Mexico,” by Samuel Henshaw, 
is published in the Extomologica Americana, vol. ii., No. 11. The 
names of two hundred and thirteen additional species are given, 


Mr. Poulton exhibited the bright green blood of the pupa of 
merinthus tile, which is one of many Lepidopterous pups 


386 General Notes. [April 


agrees a chlorophyll-like pigment (called metachlorophyll 

by Mr. Poulton) in the blood. By means of a micro-spectro- 
scope the most characteristic absorption-band of the pene 
together with its resemblance to chlorophyll, was shown. 
well-known American entomologist, Mr. A. R. Grote, has ee 
presented by His Highness the Duke of Saxe Coburg-Gotha 
(brother-in-law of Her Majesty the Queen) with the large Silver 
Medal, Princeps Musarum Sacredos, for Art and Science. The 

January number of the Wiener Ent. Zeit. contains the second 
and concluding part of the Supplement to the Monograph of 
the Œstridæ by Dr. Brauer. In this part the characters of the 
fully-developed larvæ are discussed, and an analytical table of 
the genera given. There is also an analytical table for deter- 
mining the genera of the adult insects. 


ZOOLOGY. 


of Novaia Zemlia.—Anton Stuxberg contributes to 
the fifth volume of the scientific renj of the “ Vega” expedi- 
tion a review of the fauna of Novaia Zemlia. Of the sixteen 
mammals he enumerates two lemmings, one wolf, two foxes, the 
_ polar bear, and the reindeer as terrestrial; all the others are ma- 
rine. The birds number forty-one. The fishes are not enumer- 
ated, but one is struck with the relative proportions of the different 
orders of Hexapods. Of these the Diptera number eighty-two, 
the Hymenoptera forty-six, and the Collembola sixteen out of a 
total of one hundred and fifty-four. The only Myriapod is a spe- 
cies of Lithobius. The Arachnids number forty-eight. Of the 
Crustacea only the era are included. Of these there are 
ninety-six, sixty-one of this number being Amphipods. he 
Chztopods are one hundred ane twenty-three in number, the 
true Molluscs one hundred and twenty, the Echinoderms thirty- 
seven. The total is seven hundred and forty-two species. 


Pelagic Fauna of German Lakes.—Dr. Otto Zacharias read 
a paper at the late meeting of German naturalists and physicians 
in Berlin on the pelagic fauna of the North German lakes. The 

results of the exploration of fifty-six bodies of water were that 
iere Was a great similarity between their pelagic fauna and that 
e Swiss and Northern Italian lakes. Some novelties were 
a new species of Ceriodaphnia, two of Bosmina, etc. 
he: Pagu of his collections shows that there is a consider- 
PES similarity between these North German lakes and those of 

ur Northern States, so far as pelagic invertebrates are concerned. 


The Structure of Fungia.—Mr. Gilbert C. Bourne, who has 
been enabled by a grant of funds to visit the East Indies, gives 
in the January number of the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical 
—— a re of a species of 


eeoe5rG 
Bs 


1887 | s Zoology. 387 


mushroom coral occurring at the island of Diego Garcia. He 

did not succeed in finding the budding phase which has been 

described by Moseley, nor did he find any ova or spermatozoa. 
S 


shows that in these forms the tentacles are arranged in circles, 
there being seven circles in his species which correspond to the - 
seven orders of septa. In describing the internal structure Mr. 


layer is frequently called mesoderm, but it is far from proven 
that it is homologous with the layer called by that name in the 
higher Metazoa. The new term signifies middle jelly, and hence 
corresponds to the terms Gallertsubstanz and Gallertanlage of the 
Germans. The mesenteries are described, together with the mes- 
enterial filaments, which, by the way, our author has not seen 
protruded from the cinclides in the species studied by him. In 


of the animal to the skeleton are Fah, as confirmative of Von 
Koch’s views of the formation of the la 


The Life-History of the Hydromeduse.—Under this title Dr. 
W. K. Brooks presents an extensive paper in the third volume of 
the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural seat illustrating 
his points by eight plates. He describes the life-histories of 
Cunocantha, Liriope, Turritopsis, and Eutima, four genera which 
are taken as representatives of as many groups of Hydromeduse. 


Hydrozoa; a view diametrically opposite from that usually held. 
The various types of alternation of generations exhibited by 
these forms are placed in their proper sequence, and it is pointed 
out that, on the supposition that the primitive hydrozoan had a 
hydra-like condition, the modifications exhibited are utterly inex- 
plicable, while, if the reverse be assumed, these alternations are 
readily seen to be the results of a free swimming ancestral stage. 
The existence of a true gastrulation in the Ccelenterates is ques- 
tioned. A critical review of the literature of the development of 
the Hydromedusz is given. 


Hydra inside out.—Trembley’s oft-described experi- 
ment of turning the fresh-water Hydra inside out has but rarely 
been repeated, Professor Mitsikuri, of Tokio, being the only per- 
son who had been successful until a recent date. According to 
the accounts, the Hydra in this condition lived as well as before, 
its digestive layer functioning well as skin, while the skin took 

VOL, XXI,—NO, 4. 26 


388 General Notes. [April 


upon itself the capacity of assimilation. Recently M. Nussbaum 
took up the problem, and, according to his account as presented 
in the Biologisches Centralblatt, the layers do not thus change 
place. There appears, indeed, an ectoderm, but this arises, not 
from an alteration of the endoderm, which has taken an external 
position by the operation of turning inside out, but by a growth 
of ectoderm from that of the basal pore and from the tentacles. 
He further maintains that ectoderm is always ectoderm, and endo- 
derm can never be modified into any other layer. In regard to 
the reproduction of lost parts described by both Baker and Trem- 
bley, as well as many later observers, Nussbaum says that both 
layers must be present in order to have the missing portions re- 
produced. 


Renal Organs of Invertebrates.—Dr. McMunn has recently 
been investigating the subject of so-called renal organs in vari- 
ous molluscs as well as in the cockroach. The method was to 
boil the suspected organ in distilled water to dissolve the uric 
acid or urates. The solution was then evaporated, extracted 
with absolute alcohol, and then the residue was boiled again in 
water, filtered, and to the filtrate acetic acid was added in excess, 
and, after some hours’ standing, crystals of uric acid and urates 
were distinguished under a one-fifth objective. Other chemical 
tests were applied and with the same results. The conclusion 
was that the so-called urinary or Malpighian tubules of insects 
and the nephridia of Limax and Helix are in reality urinary in 
function, as has been heretofore believed. 

Migration of Frogs.—A peculiar migration of frogs takes 
place in the valley of the Red River of the North. The water 
of this river is green, like that of the Great Lakes, and the bot- 
tom is composed of soft clay several feet thick, which the frost 
never penetrates. To the west of the river, in Dakota, are nu- 


en y migrates to the sloughs, returning ex masse in the 
fall. I used to regard the exaggerated newspaper accounts of 
these migrations as fictions; but last autumn, in Fargo, I saw 


_ Brazilian Reptilia —Professor E. D. Cope recently read a 
paper on a collection made by Mr. H. H. Smith near Cuyaba, 
in the southern interior of Brazil. He derived from it a good 
many interesting results, especially to the knowledge of Geo- 


1887] ` Zoology. f 389 


ope, and Scartiscus caducus Cope. e er of species 
known and previously unknown is as follows: 

New. Total, 

Batrachia 9 18 

Lacertilia o 15 

Ophidia 3 29 

i L is 

12 62 


The Relative Weight of the Brain of Regulus satrapa and 
Spizella domestica compared to that of Man.—In the no- 
tices given by different writers on the relative weight of the brain 
to that of the body in different animals man has been given the 
foremost position. Thus, Landois* says the elephant has aéso- 
/utely the heaviest brain, but man has relatively the heaviest brain. 
Surely this writer must have overlooked the little golden-crested 


taken in their native habitat last summer, were weighed with a 
view of comparison, with these results: 


Body. Brain, 
Golden-crested kinglet ( Regulus satrapa)... ess... 974 4 
Chipping sparrow (Spizella domestica)......seseeesseseen 1734 og 
Designated in grains. 


As generally stated, man’s brain weighs 4} of that of the whole 
‘body. So far as the above figures show, the comparison bears 
out the following: the kinglet’s brain weighs 3}, the sparrow’s 
brain yy, or nearer 7, of that of the entire body respectively, 
the kinglet consequently having relatively the heaviest brain:— 
Foseph L. Hancock, Chicago, Il. 


Zoological News. Protozoa.—Dr. A. C. Stokes, of Trenton, 
N. J., describes eleven new species of American fresh-water 
Infusoria in the February number of the Journal of the Royal 
Microscopical Society, illustrating the same with a plate. Dr. 

okes thinks that identical species of Infusoria are not often 
found in the fresh waters of both the Old and the New Worlds, 
in which he will not receive the unanimous support of other 
workers in the same field. 


* Landois, Phys., second ed., p. 706. 


390 General Notes. {April 


So-called eyes have often been described in the Protozoa. The 
latest instance is that of Gymnodinium polyphemus, described by 
Pouchet at a recent meeting of the French Academy. In this 
species of Flagellate there is described a strongly-refringent lens 
seated in a cup of black or red pigment. The lens arises from 
the fusion of several refractive globules and the pigment-layer 
or choroid from the similar coalescence of pigment-granules. 
The animal, in swimming, always moves “ eye” forwards. 


SPoNGEs.—Students of the sponges are under a heavy debt to 
Dr. G. C. J. Vosmær, who has just completed the volume on the 
Porifera in Bronn’s “ Klassen und Ordnungen der Thierreichs.” 

his work forms the only general account of the sponges, and 
, will form a valuable book in the library of every naturalist. 

Carter claims that the sponges recently described from the 
fresh-water fauna of Central Europe and Southern Russia as be- 
longing to the genera Dosilia and Ephydatia in reality are mem- 
bers of the genus Carterius originally described by Mr. Potts 
from Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. 


CŒLENTERATA.—The reef-corals of the “Challenger” Expe- 
dition are described in vol. xvi. of the Reports by J. J. Quelch. 
The collection contained two hundred and ninety-three species, 
seventy-three of which, all but two from the Pacific and Indo- 


tr 
ids, absent in some Rugosa; some Cyathophyllide have no 
indication of a tetrameral type, while in some Astræids the septa 
are not multiples of six; the rugose character of only two sizes 
of septa is present in some Astraidz and absent in some Ru- 


tend towards the conclusion that atolls and barrier-reefs owe 
ir appearance at the surface to a movement of elevation. 


o 
twenty fathoms below the surface, and Mr. Guppy believes that 
they cannot come within the range of the constructive power of 
the breakers without the aid of an elevatory movement, To the 
_ breakers he (with Semper) ascribes the atoll form, the convexity 
being towards the prevailing currents. Large atolls begin to 
assume their shape bélow the surface. He claims to have in- 
dependently worked out the same conclusion to which Le Conte 

ane Floridan ; 


=, a : ide 
by the muddiness and on the. other by the depth of the water. 


1887] Zoology. 391 
ed pi fathoms. This accounts for the depths of some 


aces —Messrs. Danielssen and Koren have PENT ai 
Hyaster mirabilis, an Asterid with a central dorsal appendage, 
generally erect, but capable of motion. The describers conject- 
ure this to represent a larval stage of the Crinoidea, and suggest 
that further investigations may tend to prove that the Asteridea 
are developed from the Crinoidea. They also believe that all 
specimens of cluster-polyps yet found e mere varieties of 
Umbellula encrinus. 

Fossil remains of Holothurians are rare. Pocta describes 


allied: to Psolus. His paper may = io in vol. xcii. of the 
Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Acade 


Worms.—Marion describes two species of Balanoglossus in 
the Archives de Zool. Exp. (iv., 1886). One, which he calls 
B. hackst, is from Japan; the other, B. taladoti, is from the Med- 
iterranean. His descriptions are accompanied by many notes of 
the minute structure, but he does not express an opinion as to 
the systematic position of these forms. He alludes to the wide 
distribution of the genus as indicative of its antiquity, species 
being known from the North Sea, the west coast of France, the 
Mediterranean, Liberia, the Red Sea, Japan, the eastern coast of 
the United States, and Brazil. The cartilaginous support of the 
proboscis (Bateson’s notochord) bears a marked histological 
resemblance to cartilage as found in the Vertebrates. 

In the same number Poirier has a paper on the Diplostoma- 
tide, describing the structure of some of these parasites taken 
from the intestines of various Crocodilia. A detailed account is 
given of he eto ornata, a parasite in the common alligator 

. luci h America, which the author thinks should be 
placed with this aaa rather than with the Polystomidz, where 
it had siege ead been plac ed. 

Mr. E. C. Bousfield gives a full account of the habits and of 
the best peiko of observing the genus Dero, which differs 
from the Naiades in having a respiratory apparatus at the end 
.of the tail. He diagnoses seven species, of which four are 


new. 
Mr. J. J. Fletcher has described nine new earth-worms from 


by the possession of complete circles of setæ, and by the pres- 
ence of two cæcal appendages of the large intestine S segment 
xxvi. ; the other by incomplete circles of sete and no cæca. 

The second number of the Fournal of the T venton (N. J) J.) Nat- 
ural History Society contains an anonymous “ key” to the genera 


go General Notes. [April 


and species of North American Fresh-Water Polyzoa, illustrated 
by a plate of figures copied from various sources. 

In the same publication. Dr. T. O. Stevens gives a key to the 
gefiera and species of Rotifers recently described in the extensive 
monograph by Hudson an osse. In this connection it may 
be noted that no sooner is this large work completed than Mr. 
P. H. Gosse, one of the authors, describes (¥ournal Royal Micros. 
Society, February, 1887) twenty-four new species of Rotifera, 
illustrating them by two plates, 

At the Linnzan Society Mr. S. O. Ridley recently described 
Lophopus lendenfeldi, from near Sydney, N.S. W. This is the 
fourth species of fresh-water polyzoon on record from Australia. 


installment of Herman Frieles’s account of the Mollusca. It 
deals with the Pleurotomide, Cancellaridz, and Brachiopods, and 
is illustrated by six plates. The work will prove invaluable to 
systematic students of the molluscan fauna of the North Atlantic. 

Vol. xv. of the “Challenger” Reports is largely taken up 
with the Rev. R. Boog Watson’s report on the Scaphopoda and 
Gasteropoda. About thirteen hundred species were collected. 
The Chitons collected by the “ Challenger” were few. The 
really deep-sea forms belong to Leptochiton, of which four 
species were found, two of them new. These were taken at 


species added, the largest, C. magna, eleven hundred and fifty- 
five millimetres long. Inthe new genus Amphitretus the mantle 
is fused with the siphon in the median line, so that there are two 
Openings into the branchial sac. A. pelagicus was taken near 
Kermadec Islands. Twenty kinds of Octopus were found, 
_ eleven of which are described as new. Ten new species are 
added to Sepia, and specific characters are found in the shell or . 
sepiostaire. Two species of Taonius were found. T. suhmi was 
taken for a Clionid Pteropod by Willemoes-Suhm, and described 
as a new genus of Cephalopoda by Lankester. 
__ The Marseniade are a family the types of which were the 
Helix perspicua of Linnzus and the Bulla latens of Müller. The 
occur in all seas, and have the shell either altogether 
~ enveloped in the mantle or very partially exposed.. Six genera 
and thirty-three species are recognized in vol. xv. of the “ Chal- 


1887] : Zoology. 393 


CrusTAcEA.—Pelseneer gives a list of one hundred and ninety- 
seven aga actually known from Belgium. 

Dr. W. ooks’s description of the “ Challenger” Stomato- 
pods has ae peered: with other papers, in the volume of 
“Selected Morphological Monographs” just issued by the Johns 
Hopkins University. It is a paper of one hundred and sixteen 
quarto pages and sixteen plates. The collections embraced only 
fifteen species of adults, but of these eight proved to be new. 
Together with these is described a new mantis-shrimp from 
North Carolina,—not embraced in the “ Challenger” 
—under the name Lyszosquilla (Coronis) excavatrix. The great 
value of the paper lies in its wealth of descriptions of larval 
forms by which Dr. Brooks has been able to rearrange the genera 
on a phylogenetic basis. In this connection it may be mentioned 
that last summer Dr. Brooks was successful in obtaining the eggs 
of a species of mantis-shrimp (Gonodactylus) in the Bahamas. 
Unlike ‘all other crustaceans, these forms deposit their eggs, and 
do not carry them about with them. In this case the eggs were 
laid in the cavities of the coral-rock, and readily hatched in 


captivity. 
Mr. Pascoe faerie! ay es at the Linnzan Society speci- 
mens of a Balanus in which several individuals had united their 


shells into a common tube, aaa where the outer valves of each 
animal had lengthened, forming a series of irregular subsidiary 
tubes radiating from the apex of the primary one. 


ARACHNIDA.—Nalepa has a long and well-illustrated paper on 
the anatomy of the Tyroglyphid mites in vol. xcii. of the Sz#- 
sungsberichte of the Vienna Academy. 


TunicaTa.—M. Giard notes the oe of the yore 
Distaplia rosea Della Valle and Diazona hebridica Forbes and 
Goodsir on the French seaboard. 


FisHes.—M. A. Smith Woodward has investigated the anat- 

my and scientific position of the Liassic Selachian, Sgua/loraja 
Daty ondjia. Certain individuals, presumably Setiaten, are with- 
out the cephalic spine. He proposes a new family, to be placed 
between Pristiophoridz and Rhinobatid 

r. Ramsey describes the common few fiik of Port Jackson 

as new, under the name o neglecta, and points out the 
differences between it and S. antarctica Castlenau and S. a 
Lacépéde, the species to which it has previ viously been referred. 
Evidence is also given that Callionymus reevesii is not the female 
of C. curvicornis. 
Mr. Ogilby, of Sydney, describes Pimelopterus meridionalis. 

REPTILES AND BATRACHIA. —Mr. G. A. Boulenger describes as 
new three South African tortoises, T. trimeni, T. smithii, and 
T. fiski, all allied to T. geometrica. 


394 General Notes. [April 


The taxidermist of the Victoria Museum at Jaffna, Ceylon, 
who died from the bite of a cobra which he presumed to be 

armless, since its poison-bag was extracted, was for a while 
esnaciared by artificial sos Seat and stated that while para- 
lyzed by the poison he cou , hear, and feel everything, 
though utterly incapable of nisk Inflammation of the lungs 
caused his aaa and death. 

Mr. G. enger has discriminated two forms of Bombi- 
nator in Cerak Europe. 


Aves.—Mr. Seebohm inclines to the ae that the rea- 

son that the eggs of birds breeding in holes are white is that 
nature spares useless color, and he points aa “that there are 
traces of spots on the eggs of petrels and puffins, which breed 
in holes, a fact which tends to prove that it is only recently that 
they discontinued breeding in open places, like their relatives, 
the auks and gulls, which lay highly-colored eggs. He also 
points out that the females of pheasants and humming-birds, 
which breed in the open, are soberly colored, while the female 
kingfisher, who incubates concealed, is as gay as her mate. 


Mammatia.—M. A. T. de Rochebrune has shown that the 
Colobi are platyrhinous, like the apes of the New World. 

C. W. de Vis has described as a probably new species of tree- 
kangaroo a specimen obtained in the Danitree River District. 
It is named Dendrolagus bennettianus, and is stated to be more 
nearly allied to D. dorianus than to D. lumholtzi. 


: EMBRYOLOGY.: 


The Development of the Carnivora.?—A. Fleischmann has 
lately carried out some interesting new investigations upon the 
development of the Carnivora, under the direction of Professor 
E. Selenka, in the Zoological Institute at Erlangen, on which he 
reports as follows: 

_ Material was hard to obtain, in spite of the fact that cats and 

dogs are to be found as pets in every family. From one hundred 

to one hundred and fifty cats ee examined weekly during the 

rutting periods in February and June. Later it was found pos- 

sible to obtain materials from animals kept in confinement. 

Besides Di useful material was obtained through sportsmen 
from i wild-cats. 

er series p’ stages of the domestic cat was obtained by the 
successive extirpation of the horns of the uterus. The preserv- 
ative fluid was picro-sulphuric acid, to which one-tenth per cent. 
of chromic acid had been added. 

Tr Edited -2 ee a A. RYDER, Biological Department, University of Penn- 


ate e ab, ati Centralbl., vii. eh ae 


1887] Embryology. 395 


Fleischmann has not yet been able, in spite of great care and 
patience, to find the ova of the cat and dog in process of segmen- 
tation in the oviducts. The youngest ovum which he found was 
a somewhat oval blastosphere, upon which the germinal area was 
already very distinct. This was invested by a very distinct Rau- 
ber’s layer of cells. 

The youngest blastosphere of the cat was nearly spherical, and 
twelve days after the first copulation still presents the form of an 
oblong sphere. Through rapid growth at the poles it soon, how- 
ever, becomes citron-shaped ; the germinal area then forms a con- 
vex elevation on the middle third of the blastosphere. 

While the blastosphere of the dog retains the two-pointed, 
citron-shaped form, that of the cat retains that form for only a 
very short time, and gradually becomes barrel-shaped, in that the 
points of the blastosphere are pressed inward by mutual pressure 
in the successive sections of the uterine cornua, so that the ends 
of the growing se gs. ean are only feebly conical. The flat- 
tened extremities of the blastosphere are not undergrown by 


of them. At the outer margins of the flattened ends of the bar- 
rel-shaped ovum there is a delicate reticulum formed of elevations 
of the ectoderm, which has apparently arisen by pressure of the 
ends of e hollow ovum upon the folds of the uterine mucous 
membran 

Aod ‘the entire germinal area and at the opposite side of 
the blastosphere, on the twelfth day, there are already formed 
small projections and elevations of the ectoderm, which serve to 
attach the ovum to its nidus. Before the allantois has reached 
any considerable dimensions the subzonal membrane has thrust 
out villi in all directions, and into these grows the connective . 
tissue supporting the outer vascular layer of the allantoic sac. 

The primitive groove is formed in the germinal area at right 
angles to the long axis of the blastosphere ; the same direction 
is assumed by the medullary groove. At about the sixteenth 
day the entire germinal area changes the direction of its axis to 
one parallel with that of the axis of the ovum, a condition which 

the embryo maintains until birth. 

-~ In the primitive streak the mesoderm is formed exclusively 
from the outer walls of the primitive groove; in many sections 
one sees the mesoderm proliferating outward from the sides of 
the primitive streak between the two primary embryonic layers, 
and numerous cleavage figures indicate rapid growth in this 
region. The entoderm is always distinctly marked off from the 


the medullary groove the mesoderm is always sharply marked 
off from the other layers; a heaping up of the mesoderm on the ` 
entoderm as described by E. van Beneden is not apparent. 


396 | General Notes. [April 


The mesoderm is characterized in well-preserved germinal 
areas, from eleven to thirteen days old, as a solid mass of cells, 
which is composed of several layers of cells under the germinal 
area, but consisting, outside of the latter, of but a single layer of 
cells. 

The ccelom first appears as clefts in the mesoblast outside of - 
e Berin area, and is pushed in under the latter at a later 


A chordal canal is always developed, and opens at a number 
of points into the cavity of the umbilical vesicle or yelk-sac; 
and opening of this canal into the anterior end of the primitive 
streak was not discovered. Only in an advanced embryo, with 
ten somites, could a slight ectodermal depression be discovered 
at the anterior end of the primitive streak, but this was closed 
below by a máss of cells. 

In front of the medullary groove lies a completely closed mass 
of mesoblast; the interamniotic pore, described by E. van Ben- 
eden and Julin, was not observed in young germinal areas. 

The anterior amniotic fold in the cat, dog, fox, and mole is 
not covered by mesoderm, but consists wholly of ectoderm and 
entoderm. It follows from this that there is found a proamnion 
not only in Rodents, Bats, and Marsupials, but also in Carnivora 
and So ma which it may be concluded that it is a 
structure common to the Mammalia. The Seat micas attached 
to it by Van ponies the author cannot shar 

e Wolffian duct does not arise as a solid cord of cells, but, 
as the author observed in the Duck, as a diverticulum of the 
ceelom; that the ectoderm takes part in the formation of the 
Wolffian duct was not established. 

.- As respects the formation of the maternal placenta, the author 
fully confirms the statements of Bischoff, that the villi of the 
chorion grow into the uterine glands, cooing the latter. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 
riments ig F —In this Bulletin only a 
small part of the details of the experiment are given. A full 
account will appear in the Annual Report for 1886. 
experiments were undertaken— 
_ Ist. To produce flesh at least expense; 
2d. To produce flesh most rapidly, expense not being con- 


sidered; 
ges To produce most edible meat, time and expense not to be 
considered. 

Early in March eight sow pigs were selected and put in pens 
as follows : Pen I, two Berkshires and one Poland China; Pen 2; 


1887] Physiology. . 307 


consisted of the following: Pen 1 (cheap food), corn meal cooked 
with twice its weight of skimmed milk, giving a nutritive ratio 
of 1:5; Pen 2 (rapid fattening), pea meal cooked with twice its 
weight of skimmed milk, giving a nutritive ratio of I: 2. 
(for lean meat), equal parts corn meal and pea meal sistas with 
an equal weight of whole milk, giving a nutritive ratio of I: 3.6. 
The nutritive ratio of the rations given st cig lot is very 
narrow, and that of the third, also quite narr 
n several occasions lack of food bilaostied the substitution 
of raw whole corn for meal and corn meal for pea meal; but the 
time was so short and consequently the amount of food not 
properly in the ration thus consumed was so small that it could 
not materially affect the results. 
e experiment extended through ninety-two days. The 
weight of the pigs and the gain in weight for = interval be- 
tween weighings are shown in the following ta 


| R 
/ j > 
sa lob Ss) 5s) Sel ok | SS] sei es] se] Os 
=| 25 | of of Ss as & o122 | Re ga 
z S S~ | #0 | cA | sA | SA 25 2a 2a Z> | sos 
<8 |g 3°) Ss] 35S] no | ae) Ss | Se] Be | Si 
Í & e < 5 
bs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 
Weight... 212 | 450 | 504 | 532 coo | 638 | 642 | 655 
Pen 1 
Increase...... 238 54 28 28 38 4| 13% |4433 | 1.61 
a kone nea 194 | 434 | 476 | 520] 540) oo| 600] 606 
EN 2... 
esses. 240 42 44 20 60 o 6 | 2334 | 43535 | 1.59 
eight........| 192 | 366| 400 | 432| 438| 462| 474| 500 | 496% 
PEN 3..- | 
Increase...... 174 wi 33 6 | 24 12 26 | —3% | 30414 | 1.66 


Those fed upon corn meal and skimmed milk gained in flesh 
the most steadily. During the hot weather in July they all had 
variable appetites and gained little in flesh; those in Pen 3 lost 
three and one-half pounds during the last six days. 

By dividing the experiment into two sections of forty-two days 

each (for convenience in calculation, leaving out the eight days 
from June 8 to 16, in the middle), it will be seen that much the 
larger part of flesh was laid on during the first half of the trial : 


Pen r. | PEN 2. PEN 3. 


| 


First ue | Blew Last First | Last 
42 Days. | 42 Days. | 42 ide Boag Days. | 42 Tade @ Days. 
Gain in flesh—Pounds......| 238 | 1513¢ | 240 | 153% | 174 | 9634 


The cost of the food eaten by the pigs in Pen 1 and in Pen 2 was 
greater during the last than during the first forty-two days, —i.e., 


398 General Notes. [April 


more food was consumed to produce the smaller weight of flesh. 
The third lot ate more food during the first forty-two days, but 
gained nearly twice as much flesh as during the last forty-two 

ays. The following table exhibits the cost of the food con- 
sumed during these two periods and the cost of the food required 
to produce one pound of flesh: 


Pen 1. Pen 2. PEN 3. 


First Last First Last First Last 
42 Days. | 42 Days.| 42 Days. | 42 Days. 42 Days. 42 Days. 


Cost of food eaten .. | $7.96 | $9.99 | $13.56 $14.05 $17.18 $14.15 


st of food to pro- 
duce 1 Ib. of flesh.. | 0.0293} 0.0645) 0.0565 0.0918 0.0987 0.1505 


from each pen, the lean meat and fat were separated to determine 


h 
In the following table are shown the weights of the different 
parts of the carcass and the per cent. of lean meat in ham, 
shoulder, and side: 


malay Weight of Per cent. of Lean Meat in 
Pig from ee ee g 
i Pias Hams. — | Sides. | Hams, op vee Sides. pea 
Lbs. oz. | Lbs. oz.| Lbs. oa | Lbs. 
Ben 1 215 5 | 41 8/44 8 | 82 63.9 67.4 34.1 55-13 


Pen 2... 193 0 | 42 8/42 0) 


OZ, 
o 

71 8 61.8 | 61.9 29.0 50.90 
Pen 3.../ 200 4 | 38 2) 49 12 8 


56.1 | 50.5 | 25.9 | 44.17 


The corn meal and skimmed milk was found more valuable 
for the production of lean meat than the ration selected especially 
for this purpose. Not only did it cost less to produce it, but a 

produced in a given time. 
us expe: the corn meal and skimmed milk proved 
t ration for all the purposes for which the experiment was 
z ‘ Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, De- 


1887] Psychology. 399 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


x in Government.—The task which those persons have 
undertaken who desire to change the present relations of women 
to government in this country is a formidable one. We refer to 

the woman-suffrage movement. This journal does not enter the 
domain of politics; but the relations of the sexes have a history 
far older and deeper than human government, and, as a phenom- 
enon of Nature, they fall within our sco 

To those who have studied the sex problem from the scien- 
tific stand-point, the doctrine that the sexes are thoroughly dis- 


at 
the different functions imposed on each by Nature for countless 
ages should produce characteristic mental peculiarities follows 
from all laws of mental evolution. And those of eac 
have had opportunities of studying the other probably agree 
that such is the fact. A different opinion could only be enter- 
tained by persons whose opportunities have been small, or b 


bearing, is still further divé of success in these directions. 
Hence these labors have been undertaken by the male, who is not 
only free from these disabilities, but has additional adaptations 
for such work. The result of this division of labor has been to 
develop the distinctive qualities, and the latter have caused in 
turn still further divergence of function. It is demonstrated that 
the sexes of civilized man are more diverse than those of savage 
and primitive man, both physically and mentally. 

The practical question is, Do the peculiarities of women in- 
capacitate them from taking part in government? To answer this 
question we must examine ph nature of the social—and in so 


Man is necessary to woman for support and defence.. On this 
basis the superstructures of civilization rest. Exceptions to this 
law are relatively few and of but temporary duration. Primi- 


moral qualities has of course ameliorated the condition of the 
weak, and especially that of woman. The present pai ereer 
position of woman rests entirely on a foundation compose 

the moral qualities es = man. Should these qualities fail me 
her position reverts to its primitive stage. Under our present 
system, should she tad barbarously by one man, she can 
call in the aid of other men for her Pen. And this she 


400 General Notes. [April 


is very sure of getting if her cause is good, for the administra- 
tion of justice is one function of government. 

et us suppose that woman should share equally with man 
the administration of justice. Could she execute her decisions 


were on her side, would women stand as good a chance of justice 
from their own sex as from men? Knowledge of women an- 
swers in the negative. We think women generally would prefer 
to trust men for justice in preference to women. It is evident, 
then, that in those departments of government which most con- 
cern women, their aid is unnecessary. We do not touch on the 
many questions of government “support and protection,” into 
which women generally do not care to enter. 
rimitive reason w men protect and support women 
remains in as full force to-day as it ever did, and through it the 
latter get more than justice. And if the diversity of sex charac- 
ters continues to increase as it has been doing, these reasons wil 
grow stronger instead of weaker. We see no evil in sucha pros- 
ect. The passion, emotion, or sentiment of love is a great 
civilizer. Like the lower creation, man puts on his best dress 
under its peeing No greater evil can befall society than the 
undervaluation of this sentiment. The slurs upon it, which are 
so common in society and in the press, come from persons who 
either do not understand the order of nature, or who are for- 
bidden by some sinister destiny from conforming to it—C. 


Immortality of the Personal Consciousness.—A symposium 
on this subject was recently published in the Easter number of 
the Christian Register (Unitarian) periodical of Boston. Eighteen 

r: 


in this country), sent short articles expressing their views on 
the following hoe questions, proposes: by the editor of the 
Register: “1. Are there any facts in the possession of modern 
science which make it difficult a believe in the immortality of 
the personal consciousness? 2. Is there anything in the dis- 
coveries of science which would support or strengthen the belief 
in immortality? 3. Do you consider the question beyond the 
pale of science altogether ?” 

The replies are various, and may be classified as follows: 
=o i: TAR evidence from science is opposed to a belief in immor- 

ity 

a. No affirmative evidence mentioned. Leidy, Ward, New- 
B. Immortality a gift of God. T. S. Hunt. 
= Agnostic (1). 


3, Science not unfavorable (8). 


1887] Microscopy. 401 


Poa No affirmative evidence mentioned. Gray, Lesley, Dana, 
ould. 


B. ae derived from revelation. Young, Cook, Hill, 


4. Palen from science affirmative (5). 
A. No evidence cited. A. Hall. 

B. Evidence psychophysical. Pierce, Cope. 
c. Evidence spiritualistic. Wallace, Coues. 


MICROSCOPY. 
EYES OF MOLLUSCS AND ARTHROPODS.? 


weet 2: of Young Pectens from 1-3 mm. long. I. MoL- 
LUSCS.—I. Specimens are placed in a mixture of equal parts 
of eae and picro-sulphuric acid. After ten or fifteen 
minutes they are washed in thirty-five per cent. and seventy per 
ey: of alcoho 

The shells are then opened and the mantle dissected out 
with needles. Thus treated, the shape of the mantle is well pre- 
served, whereas if removed ‘before hardening it becomes much 
coiled and twisted. 

3. Each mantle edge may be cut, according to its size an 
curvature, into three or four pieces, and these will then lie suf- 
ficiently straight for convenient sectionin 

t is necessary to use a different reagent for nearly every part 
of the eye. 

The Rods.—Chromic acid gives the most varied results accord- 
ing to the strength, time of action, and temperature of the solu- 
tion, or by various combinations of these three. For instance, 
one-twentieth to one-fifth per cent. for thirty to forty hours failed 
to give any conception of the structure of the rods, while other 
parts of the retina, and of the eye itself, were well preserved ; 
but when allowed to act for half an hour at a temperature of 
from 50° to 55° C., perfectly preserved rods with their nervous 
net-works are = ained, while, on the other hand, the remaining 
tissues becom o granular and homogeneous as to be unfit for 
study. This jater asi allows the rods to be removed in flakes 
and their ends examined without the aid of sections. Jz is only 
in this way that the axial nerve-loops can be observed. 

The Lens—The lens is best prepared for sections by either 
. sulphu ric or picro-sulphuric acid; by the first reagent its shape 
is best retained, and the lens itself is less liable to be drawn away 
from the surrounding tissue ; set reagent, however, brings 
out more sharply the configurat on of the cells and allows a 
better stain of the nuclei to take place. 

The Retinophore.—The retinophore are well preserved by 
nearly all the reagents; but in sublimate, in aps acid, or in 

2 Edited by C. O. WHITMAN, Ph.D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 

. 2 Dr. Wm. Patten, Mitth. a. d. Zodl. Station z. Neapel, vi. p- 733, 1886. 


402 General Notes. [April 


their combinations, they become slightly granular, and remain 
so closely packed that it is difficult to distinguish the cell 
boundaries. Chromic acid, one- ee per cent. for three or four 
days, contracts the cells and es preparations in which the 
boundaries and general pa cit of the retinophore are 
easily studied. 

Sections of the Eye—In order to obtain the best sections 
of the adult eye with a% the parts in the most natural position, 
it is necessary to treat them first with one-tenth per cent. of 
chromic acid for half an hour, then in one-twentieth per cent. 
for twenty-four hours ; one-tenth per cent. for twenty-four hours, 
and finally one-fifth per cent. for forty-eight hours or more. 
Next to this method, it appears that solutions of sulphuric acid 
(twenty drops to fifty grammes of water) give the best prepara- 
tions (for acca Casa of everything except the rods. 

e double layer of the sclerotica and the fibres penetrating 
it can Tu seen in alete of eyes treated twenty-four hours in 
one-fifth per cent. chromic acid. 

Maceration and Dissection—The pigmented epithelial cells of 
Pectens’ eyes and the cells of the cornea are easily isolated by 
treatment with Miiller’s fluid or bichromate of potash one-half 
per cent. for two or three days. For the maceration of all other 
elements weak chromic or sulphuric acid is used, For the outer 
ganglionic cells, which are very difficult to isolate, maceration 

ne-fiftieth per cent. chromic acid gives excellent results, after 
previously fixing the tissue in one-fifth per cent. for a few minutes. 

For the vetinophore, one-twentieth per cent. for four or five 
days proves ve L 

Sulphuric acid, five drops to thirty grammes of sea-water, gives 
the best results for the nerve-endings in the retinophoræ (not in 
the rods).and for the nervous inner prolongation of the outer 
„ganglionic cells. 

In order to isolate pieces of the cornea with the subjacent 

seudo-cornea and the circular fibres, on the outer surface of the 
lens, it is better to macerate the eyes in sulphuric acid as given 
above. The same treatment retains to perfection the natural 
shape of the lens, which may then be isolated and its surface 
ye to advantage. 

for the study of the circular retinal membrane 
the septum, and the retina itself, to isolate the latter intact. 
aceration in chromic acid either makes the retina too brittle 

or too soft, while the axial nerve-fibres remain so firmly attached 
to the retina that it is difficult to isolate it without injury. But 
this may be easily and feninagpe d done by maceration for one 
or'two days in the sulphuric acid solution. By this peste 
ie setina, together bp the ee stom and circular retinal me 

brane, may be detached 

Surface vi of the retina show the peripheral outer gangli- 


$ 


1887 ] Microscopy. 403 


onic cells. The argentea may be very easily separated in large 
sheets by “ora for four or five days in bichromate of potash 
of one per i 

Sulphuric aed is a most valuable macerating as well as pre- 
servative reagent. In weak solutions (forty drops to fifty grammes) 
entire molluscs, without the shell, have been kept in a perfect 
state of preservation for more than six months. For cilia and 
merve-endings it is exceptionally good. 

The eyes of Arca and Pectunculus may be macerated either 


weak solution which is allowed to act for a longer period. 
Chromic acid, one-fifth per cent. for ten or twelve ays gave 
most of the preparations from which the drawings of the nerve- 
endings were made. A few drops of acetic and osmic acid added 


epithelium of marine molluscs. Such preparations led to the 
discovery of the very delicate outward continuations of the pig- 
mented cover-cells in the compound eyes of Arca. 

. ARTHROPODS.—In order to demonstrate the presence of 
the corneal hypodermis in the faceted Arthropod eye, and the 
connection of the so-called “ rhabdom” with the crystalline cone 
cells, it is necessary to resort to maceration. In most cases it is 
hardly possible to determine these important points by means of 
sections alone 

The ommateum of fresh eyes, treated for twenty-four hours 
or more with weak sulphuric or chromic acid, or in Miller’s 
fluid, may be daily, removed, leaving the corneal facets with the 
underlying hypodermis uninjured. Surface views of the cornea 

epared in this way show the number and arrangement of the 
corneal cells on each facet. In macerating the cells of the om- 
mateum it is not possible to give any definite directions, for the 
results vary greatly with different eyes, and it is also necessary 
to modify the treatment according to the special point to be de- 
termined. It is as essential to isolate the individual cells as it is 
to study cross and longitudinal sections of the pigmented eyes. 
In determining the number and arrangement of the cells and the 
distribution of the pigment the latter method is indispensable ; 
it should not be replaced by the study of depigmented sections, 
which should be resorted to in special cases only. 

In fixing the tissues of the eye, it is not sufficient to place the 
detached head in the hardening fluid; the antenaz and mouth 


it is oo to do so with safety, the head should be cut open 
and all unnecessary tissue and hard parts removed. With 
Sr i material, one often finds individuals in which it is 
possible to pah: m the %ardened tissues of the eye 


VOL, XXI.—NO 


404 Scientific News. [April 


from the cuticula. This is of course a great advantage in cutting 
sections. The presence ofa hard cuticula is often a serious diffi- 
culty in sectioning the eyes of Arthropods: This difficulty can 
be diminished somewhat by the use of the hardest paraffine, and 
by placing the broad surface of the cuticula at right angles to the 
edge of the knife when sectioning. Ribbon sections cannot be 
made with very hard paraffine, but it is often necessary to sacri- 
fice this advantage in order to obtain very good sections. 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


ver a year ago the announcement was made that a human 
skull was found near Worcester, Mass., in such a position with 
regard to the bones of a mastodon as to indicate that they were 
contemporaneous. Regarding the authenticity of the mastodon 
bones there was no doubt, but certain facts seemed to indicate 
that the human skull was a “plant,” but one which was rather 
skilfully performed. It is now announced that those in Worcester 
who have been investigating the affair are convinced that the 


skull was placed where it was found by some one who had a. 


slight knowledge of archeology. As absolute proof is as yet 
lacking, no names are mentioned, but circumstances point strongly 
towards a person who is believed to be capable of such a fraud. 


—Prof. Herbert W. Conn, of os A will have 
charge of the biological instruction at the summer school at 
Martha’s Vineyard during the present season. 


— Random Notes on Natural History, a small monthly maga- 
zine started in 1884 by Southwick & Jencks, of Providence, 
R. I., has been discontinued. The three volumes published con- 
tain many notes on the natural history of Rhode Island. 

—The announcement has already been made in these pages 
that early in the present year Ginn & Co., of Boston, were. to 
_ Start a Fournal of Morphology, under the editorial charge of Dr. 

hitma 


to call the attention of all persons interested in the anatomy, | 


ies TINA or development of animals and plants to. the claims of 
this j It will be the endeavor to make it the equal and 
resentative in America of such periodicals in Europe as 
the Zeitschrift fir wis. wissenschafiliche Zoologie and the English 
pets Journal of Microscopical Science. The name of the 
editor is a guarantee that the contents will be of the highest 
character. The plates will be fully equal to those of the best of 


= “ie She. foreign journals. Such a journal has long been a desider- 
a atum, and iti is. the duty of svery American student to re it. 


ae Suto 
Saw e S AT, 


1887] | Scientific News. i 405 


The subscription price for the present has been fixed at six 
dollars per annum. i 


he was on his way to Japan. He died of local fever, which his 
constitution was not strong enough to resist. One of his former 
instructors writes, “It is a great loss to me; he was always a 
charming fellow.” He had published only preliminary results 
of his studies, which were chiefly in the line of the development 
of Arthropods,—spiders, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and, with Dr. 
Brooks, Limulus. 

—The announcement is made that those desiring aid for sci- 
entific research from the Elizabeth Thompson fund should make 
early application to the secretary of the trustees of the fund, 
Dr. C. S. Minot, Harvard Medical College, Boston, Mass. All 
applications should state clearly the amount wanted, the purpose 
or which wanted, and other details, to aid the committee i 
making their awards. The awards will probably be made in 
May. 


—S. H. Vines, the eminent English botanist, has been given 
the degree of D.Sc. by the University of Cambridge, England. 


—The Academy of Sciences of Berlin has recently made its 
awards for the furtherance of science, among which may 
noted three hundred and seventy-five dollars to Karl Brandt to 
continue his studies of the Radiolaria, two hundred and fifty 
dollars to Dr. Ludwig in furtherance of his Echinoderm investi- 
gations, and nine thousand dollars in aid of various scientific 
publications, most prominent of which are Dohrn’s “ Zoolo- 
gisches Jahresbericht” and Dr. Taschenberg’s “ Bibliothek.” 


—In a recent number of the Natural History Transactions of 
the Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne Societies 
occur twenty letters from the late Charles Darwin to Alban 
Hancock relating to the barnacles. They are interesting reading, 
especially since they display the caution with which Mr. Darwin 
worked. 
= —For five years the Women’s Education Society of Boston 
has supported the Marine Laboratory at Annisquam, of which 
frequent mention has been made in these pages. Recently a 
meeting was held in Boston, at which the further continuance of 
the laboratory was discussed. Remarks were made by and let- 

_ ters read from those who were acquainted with the work done 
-~ and it was the general sense of the meeting that the laboratory 


\ 


oe WM D a NA É EO E MERATE c 
ETT E - € vaiue or 


406 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [April 


be placed on a permanent footing, with paid assistants and every 
facility for elementary instruction, as well as original investiga- 
tion 


A board of directors was elected and various committees — 


appointed to take action as to finances, location, and other mat- 


—Dr. J. W. Fewkes has been in California during the present 
winter, engaged in studying the Meduse of the Pacific. 


—Dr. J. S. Kingsley, of Malden, Mass., will have a small lab- 
oratory for original biological research at Salem, Mass., during 
July and August of the present year. 

—The American Monthly Fournal of Microscopy has greatly 
changed its typographical appearance with the present volume. 
Under the editorship of Professor H. L. Osborn it is becoming 
more scientific and valuable. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


New York Academy of Sciences.—March 14.—Prof. W. P. 
Trowbridge presented notes upon the “Laws of Fatigue and 
Rest in Animal Mechanics, as applied to Boat-Racing.” 

March 28.—The following paper was announced : “ The Fauna 
and Flora of the Trias of New Jersey and the Connecticut Val- 
ley” (illustrated with specimens and drawings), by Dr. J. S. 
Newberry. 


Biological Society of Washingto: 
nications: Mr. L. O. Howard, “A Rock Creek Philanthro- 
pist; Mr. Charles Hallock, “ Trans-Continental Thorough- 
fare of the Moose,” with some description of its habits; Dr. 


_ April 2—Communications: Dr. Theobald Smith, “ Quanti- 
tative Variations in the Germ Life of Potomac Water during the 
Year 1886 ;” Dr. Edward Eggleston, “ Queries concerning Cer- 
tain Plants and Animals known to the earliest Colonists of 
North America;’ Prof. Otis T. Mason, “ Representations of 
Animal Forms in Eskimo Art ;” Mr. F. W. True, “ The Black- 
fish of our Southern Waters ;” Dr. H. G. Beyer, “ The Action 
of Caffeine on the Kidneys.” 


- Boston Society of Natural History.—March 16.—Professor 
F 3 o eaan . guide in geo- 


4 


n.—March 19.—Commu- 


: pe 
ESS a a aD Se enero eat SG Oe, eae P A Se gee 


1887] | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 407 


graphic investigation. Professor F. W. Putnam spoke of perfo- 
rated stones from Indian graves of California, illustrating his 
remarks by numerous specimens. 


Essex Institute.—February 21.—Professor Frederick W. Put- 


little Miami Valley. A partial account of these explorations 
appeared in the December number of this journal. 

March 21.—Mr. W. D. Northend spoke on the settlement of 
‘Massachusetts Bay Colony. 


s ; 

American Committee of International Congress of Geol- 
ogists.— Meeting at Albany, N. Y., April 6. The report of the 
secretary (Dr. P. Frazer) of the proceedings of the committee at 
its Philadelphia meeting in December last was read and approved. 
It was. agreed to recommend to American geologists for adop- 
tion the general system and scale of colors adopted by the Berlin 
Congress, with such minor modifications as may be subsequently 
agreed on, and such additions as American geology renders 
necessary. The sub-committees on special geology reported 
as follows: A paper on the Archean was read by Dr. T. S. 


day to be fixed by the executive committee. 
The former plan of preparing reports by sub-committees with 
rate chairmen was, on motion of Professor Cope, unanimously 


ciation for the Advancement of Science the coming summer, the 
e 


The following are the subjects and reporters: Quaternary, 
Recent, and Archæology, Major J. W. Powell, Director United 
States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.; Cainozoic (Ma- 
rine), Prof. E. A. Smith, State Geologist, University of Alabama, 


408 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [April, 1887 


2102 Pine Street, Philadelphia; Mesozoic, Prof. George H. Cook, 
State Geologist, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.; Upper 
. J. J. Stevenson, University of the City of New 
York, and Prof. H. S. Williams, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. iB 
Lower Palzozoic, Prof. N. H. Winchell, State Geologist, Uni- 
versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis; Archzan, Dr. Persifor Frazer, 
201 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia. 

In order that the geologists of this country should all be 
properly represented at the next Congress by their national 
committee, it is necessary that they should assist that committee 
as much as possible by communicatin® their views. They are 
earnestly, requested to do so, and in case of their failure they 
will have themselves to blame if their views are overlooked. 


THE 


~AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VoL, XXI. MAY, 1887. No. 5. 


THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE NATURAL 
SCIENCES IN SWEDEN. 


BY FILIP TRYBOM.* 


; N describing the progress of the zoological science in Sweden 

during the later decades, and that, too, in a country with 
such resources as the United States, I beg you to remember that 
though Sweden, the old country in the far north, was happy 
enough to be among the countries in which, during a compara- 
tively early period, the sciences were cultivated, the number of 
its inhabitants is less than that-of the State of New York alone, 
and that its wealth, and consequently the money which can be 
bestowed upon the sciences, always has been limited. 

The homes of the study of natural history in Sweden have 
been and are still the Universities of Upsala and Lund and the 
Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, created by Linneus. The 
predecessors of Linnzeus in Upsala, viz., the Rudbecks, father and 
son, were both eminent zoologists for their time, but the collec- 
` tions they brought together were totally destroyed by fire. Lin- 
nzus and his successors, Wahlenberg-included, who died in 1851, 
were at the same time professors of medicine and natural history, 
thus being obliged to spread themselves over a much too large 
field of work and study. As to Wahlenberg, he mostly devoted 
himself to botany during his long-lasting professorship. It was 
not until three years after his death, or in 1854, that the first 
professorship entirely devoted to zoology was established at the 

z Read before the Biological — of Washington, November 13, 1886. 
VOL, XXI,—NO. 


410 The Natural Sciences in Sweden. [May - 


University of Upsala, the first professor being W. Lilljeborg, who 
is now a professor emeritus, but who, despite his seventy years, 
still remains very active and industrious. At the University of - 
Lund Professor S. Nilsson and many of-his pupils had already 
been working up different branches of the Swedish fauna during 
the period previous to and contemporaneous with the above ` 
changes in Upsala. 

In a very close connection with the Academy of Sciences in 
Stockholm is our “ Riksmuseum” (corresponding to the National 
Museum in Washington). It belongs to the government, but 
the academy is its “ Board of Regents,” elects its curators, or, 
as they are called, intendents, etc. There are three zoological 
departments,—one containing the vertebrates, one the insects, 
and the third all the other invertebrates. Besides, there is one 
department for palzozoology. 

Our Swedish vertebrates had been made comparatively well 
known and described by S. Nilsson, Sundevall, Lilljeborg, and 
other zoologists more than twenty or thirty years ago; the in- 
sects had been studied during the first half of the century by 
Gyllenhaal, De Geer, Boheman, Zitterstedt, Dahlborn, and 
others. Compared with the insects, other classes of the inverte- 
brate animals were considerably neglected; but S. Lovén had 
written his “ Index Molluscorum litora Scandinaviz accidentalia 
habitantium ;” Düben, together with the Norwegian zoologist 
Koren, had edited their “ Review of Scandinavian Echinoderms,” 
etc. The zoological collections in the “Riksmuseum” were 
growing fast, and in Lund Professor S. Nilsson had brought to- 
gether good collections of our vertebrates, but in Upsala the 
zoological museum belonging to the university was in a bad con- 
dition when Lilljeborg was elected a professor. Meanwhile, 
there were, and are still, some old valuable collections, as the 
types of Linné’s “ Museum Ludovice Ulrice,” all with his own 

labels, and of the insects. described by Gyllenhaal, etc. The 
Sones Linnzan types consist mostly of molluscs; 
echinoderms, fishes, insects, and corals. Professor Lilljeborg, 
although he had very small appropriations at his disposal, estab- 
lished nearly a new museum of all classes of our Swedish ani- 
mals during his professorship. 
When the Swedish Arctic expeditions were first aed new 


ee impulses were pirea to Molosi studies and researches. The 


ł 


1887] The Natural Sciences in Sweden. 41i 


leaders, always accompanied by a staff of younger and enthusi- 
astic naturalists, brought home very large zoological collections, 
and in that way our “ Riksmuseum” grew. I believe it now con- 
tains the most complete series,of Arctic European and Asiatic 
invertebrates, especially of the marine ones. 

. Lovén was the first to start these expeditions, going, as he 
did, to Spitzbergen in 1837. Professor O. Torell made four 
expeditions to Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Greenland, the last one 
in 1861, The expeditions of Nordenskiold of more recent dates, 
following the lead of Lovén, are too well known to require any 
further mention. 

As the first expeditions mostly were directed to Spitzbergen, 
the animal life of that Arctic region, through their efforts, was 
made thoroughly well known. 

A short enumeration of the more important papers written in 
regard to the collections from there, so far as I now can remem- 
ber them without going to original sources, may not be out of 
place in order to show how much these expeditions have con- 
tributed to zoological science. 

The mammals of Spitzbergen have been described by Quen- 
nerstedt, Malmgren, and C. H. Andersen; the birds by Sunde- 
vall, Malmgren, and Newton; the fishes by Malmgren; the in- 
sects by Boheman and A. E. Holmgren; the spiders by T. 
Torell; the crustaceans by Goés, G. O. Sars, and Lilljeborg; 
the molluscs by Lovén and O. Torell; the Bryozoa by F. A. 
Smitt; the annulates by Malmgren, and some other orders of 
worms by Goés; the Oligochzta by G. Eisen. The geographical 
distribution of the animals living in the seas surrounding Spitzber- 
gen has been treated of by Malmgren, Lovén, and Quennerstedt. 

As to the zoological results of Nordenskiold’s later expedi- 
tions to the Arctic Asiatic seas and to Siberia during the years 
1875, 1876, and 1878-80, I only may mention that of his com- 
panions Stuxberg has worked up the myriapods, the crustaceans, 
the echinoderms, and the general distribution of animals in those 

waters, while Théel has reported on the birds, worms, and 
holothurians; Nordquist, another companion of Nordenskiold, 
has written up the mammals. Most of the insects which I col- 
lected in Siberia, 1876, were described by Professor J. Sahlberg, 
in Helsingfors, who during the same year travelled in the land 
of the exiles. The insects collected during the other expedi- 


‘ > 
412 The Natural Sciences in Sweden. [ May 


tions have been treated of by Maklin and Chr. Aurivillius; 
Collembola by T. Tullberg; spiders by L. Koch, Kramer, and 
Neuman; molluscs by Leche, Carl, Aurivillins, and Westerlund; 
worms by Wiren; and Tunicatagby Swederus. 

In order to investigate the animal life of the seas surrounding 
our coasts, the government detached a gunboat, and paid the ex- 
penses and salaries of the scientists for a series of years, the last 
being 1879. The zoological exploration of our seas and inland 
waters, as well as that of our woods and fields, is, furthermore, 
encouraged by means of yearly contributions of money by the 
Academy of Sciences in Stockholm and by the universities, this 
money being the interest of funds donated or willed by private . 
persons or special appropriations by the Diet. As travelling in our 
country is cheap, and as the expeditions mostly are limited to a few 
months, the amounts fixed for each party are usually rather small. 
Larger amounts appropriated for travels for scientific purposes 
in foreign countries, and the rules and conditions in regard to 
these, are very different for every one of them. As these usually 
are the objects of considerable competition, they are distributed 
alternately between the different sciences. Thus, to mention an 
example, my present visit to North America, with the object of 
studying the fisheries of this continent, is due to such a stipend 
awarded by the Academy of Agriculture, which virtually repre- 
sents an administrative department of economy, This stipend 
is disposed of alternately by the academy just mentioned, the 
Academies of Sciences and Antiquities, and the two old univer- 
sities, 

About ten years ago a Swedish zoologist, Dr. G. Eisen, travel- : 
ling by means of the same stipend, went to California, whence 
he sent home his report and the different collections made, while 
remaining -there himself. The last zoologist to receive it was 
Dr. C. Bovallius, who spent it in travels through Centro-America. 

The studies of our Swedish salt-water animals have been 
greatly facilitated of late by the establishment of a permanent 
station or headquarters for these studies in a locality well suited 
for the purpose, being, as it is, sheltered by islands in such a 
way that dredgings can be done almost at any season and weather 
on different adot bottom and in various depths, up to one 
hundred ,in a bay close to the station. The amount 
needed Dein its aiioa believe about thirteen thousand 


1887] The Natural Sciences in Sweden. 413 


dollars—was donated by a Swedish physician living in Brazil. 
The yearly running expenses—being only between five hundred 
and six hundred dollars—are paid by the government. In the 
laboratory there are eight working-rooms, with tables, micro- 
scopes, and small aquaria, sufficient for about a dozen students ; 
and ifthere be not zoologists enough to fill these places, botanists, 
geologists, or hydrographers are admitted. There, for instance, 
Professor Nathorst (the palzobotanist) made his experiments and 
investigations in regard to the impressions and tracks formed in 
the clay by decapods, worms, etc., most of which until recently 
were supposed to be fossil sea-weeds. A collection of marine 
animals from the coast province, where the station is situated, 
is still in progress of formation, but a very good and complete 
collection of this kind has already for many years been in ex- 
istence in the zoological department of the Gothenburg Museum. 

Up to the seventh decade of this century only a few of our 
Swedish zoologists were studying comparative anatomy, histol- 
ogy, or embryology; Clason in Upsala, G. Retzius in Stock- 
holm, Lindgren in Lund,—all three professors of anatomy in the 


medical faculties—and S. Lovén being nearly the only ones 


cultivating these branches. Since that time, or at least since 
T. Tullberg was appointed a professor in Upsala, succeeding 
Professor Lilljeborg, anatomy has been carried on as the main 
branch of the zoological studies at that university. The gov- 
ernment has made appropriations for the establishment of a 
special anatomical department with its own teacher, and this de- 
partment has now an extensive collection of anatomical prepara- 
tions, partly in alcohol, but mostly consisting of dried objects, as 
stomachs, guts, hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and milts, prepared 
according to the system of Brunetti, greatly improved by Pro- 
fessor Clason. About one hundred students attend the courses 
in anatomy and histology in this department every year. The 
ordinary professor lectures in two different courses, one consist- 
ing of the elements of anatomy and osteology, histology, etc., 
for the young medical students and for those intending to be- 
come school-teachers, the other for students intending to gradu- 
ate with zoology for their main science. The average number 
of students attending the latter course during the last years has 
been sixteen. Beginning with the Protozoa, the professor lec- 
tures on that group four hours a week during one term of twelve 


414 The Natural Sciences in Sweden. [May 


weeks, Within each of the chief divisions of the animal kingdom 
he treats separately of its anatomy, histology, and embryology, 
winding up by giving a review of the morphological classification 
of the group. Therefore a student, if not having had an oppor- 
tunity of attending more than one term of the lectures, will never- 
theless get a fair idea of the scientific treatment of at least one 
group in its entirety, and of the present state of our knowledge 
in regard to it, as well as of how much is still to be studied and 
investigated; he learns to recognize the common characteristics 
of the animals composing the group, and to judge of the probable 
courses its genera and species have followed in being evolved 
- from more generalized types. 

After having graduated with the degrees of candidate and licen- 
tiate of philosophy, and before becoming doctors, the students 
have to publish and in an official discussion defend a treatise 
relating to their special science. As I have the three last zoolog- 
ical dissertations handy, I brought them with me to this meeting 
as examples. The first one, by Wiren, is about the circulatory 
and digestive organs of some families of Annulata; the second, 
by Fristedt, on the Swedish sponges, and the third, by Appelldf, 
about Japanese cephalopods. 

At the recently established high school in Stockholm the 
study of zoology is carried on nearly on the same plan as in 
Upsala, but not to the same extent, nor with the same resources. 
Two young lady students—A. Carlson and C. Westling—at this 
high school have recently published some anatomical treatises, 
the only zoological papers ever written by any Swedish lady, as 

far as I know. 

The larger and more important works published by the Swe- 
dish zoologists of late years, as, for instance, Lovén’s Echino- 
derms, T. Torell’s Spiders, T. Tullberg’s Podurids and his histo- 
logical treatises, H. Théel’s “ Challenger” Holothurians. Lillje- 
borg’s Swedish Mammals and Fishes, Thomson’s Coleoptera, 
Neuman’s Hydrachnids, P. Olson’s Entozoa, etc., are more or 
less known on this side of the Atlantic, so that I need not 
mention them further. But the great work by Professor G. 
Retzius on the Morphology and Histology of the Ear of the 


_ Vertebrates, the most extensive Swedish zoological publication 


e o e aa failed to reach many of the natural 
Mer e ip thie. country, because he is a professor at an — 


$ 


I 887] Fiddler-Crabs, ` 415 


exclusively medical institution, and as this work is printed and 
published at his own expense, and not as a part of any public 
reports or proceedings. Professor T. A. Smith’s book on Sal- 
monides and Coregonides, just issued, may perhaps likewise not 
yet have been received here. 

Before leaving our Swedish zoologists I wish to mention the 
work that some of them are engaged in at present. Their Nestor, 
Professor S. Lovén, now seventy-seven years of age, is revising 
the Echinoderms described by Linnzus. Professor Lilljeborg 
is publishing his book on the Scandinavian Fishes, and, after 
having finished that work, he intends to publish a volume on the 
Entomestraca. Théel is working on the Holothurians collected 
on board the United States steamer “ Blake.” C. Bovallius is 
busy with the Hyperidz and the parasitic Isopods, C. Aurivillius 
with the Lepadidz, F. Fristedt with the Sponges contained in our 


“ Riksmuseum.” 
* 


FIDDLER-CRABS. 
BY J. M‘'NAIR WRIGHT. 


Y most intimate friends at the seaside are the ill-tempered 
but handsome fiddler-crabs,—Gelasimus of science. I en- 
joy their beauty and their ability, but am no doubt cordially 
hated by them for my interference with their domestic affairs. 
There is an intensity to their action which is seldom met with 
among the lower inhabitants of the shore. I have watched them 
by the hour and have never tired. Their holes dot the beach in 
favored localities, and near each hole is a small heap of sand — 
brought up from below by the industrious digger, whose cellar 
never seems large enough. I have noticed that there is a corre- 
spondence between the noise made in seating one’s self near a 
hole and the length of time that elapses before the worker ap- 
pears, and that his first appearance is made with extreme caution. 
There can be no question about his sense of hearing. A ra 
near the hole keeps him down a long time, conversation in the 
vicinity has the same effect, and then when he does venture to 
appear at his door, it is with the most timid air. He protrudes 
but a portion of his body and then carefully examines his sur- 


416 Fiddler- Crabs. [May 


roundings. A sharp, shrill whistle when he is out causes him to 
dart in like a flash, but repeat it several times and he gains cour- 
age and now exhibits his curiosity. His whole body becomes 
attention. He erects himself and elevates his stalked eyes,—a _ 
better picture of listening it would be difficult to find. 

It is the male fiddler that does the house-building. When 


-undisturbed he remains below from half a minute to two minutes, 


and then reappears with his large claw folded close against the 
body and on it an armful of sand. Reaching the door, he gives 
the arm a quick flirt and throws the sand with considerable accu- 
racy upon the heap. After discharging the load, the pert eyes 
are erected and Gelasimus looks about. If an animal’s actions 
express anything, he certainly listens at the same time, and, in 
my opinion, his interest centres in the stage of the tide. I have 
never seen a mention of this watchfulness, but hundreds of ob- 
servations have convinced me that the fiddler does keep watch 
of the tide. When the tide is well out he exhibits less concern, 
but makes his trips in and out of his hole as rapidly as possible ; 
but as the tide comes in his actions change: the watchfulness 
and the appearance of listening are more marked. When buta 
few minutes—it may be a quarter of an hour—remain before the 
incoming tide will cover his home, he stops digging and makes 
excursions for food, which he carries to his larder below. As 
the tide advances these excursions are shorter. He looks before 
each run, and seldom fails to bring in some toothsome morsel. 
In this connection I have noticed three points: he is never 
caught by a wave as it rolls up the beach, he never comes out | 
after a wave rolls over his dwelling, and he never stays in his 


: burrow a wave too soon. He does not close his door with his 
_ big claw, as sometimes said. He knows too well that this is not 


necessary, for the first wave that rolls over his home will fill- 


s up the hole with that very sand that he has so laboriously ex- 


“When the tide is well out the fiddler does not stop digging to 
collect food. His plan is to first build his house and then stock 


_ it with provisions. He will not, however, refuse to takeʻany food 


which comes in his way, even when most busily engaged in his 
excavations. When the proper time comes he finds his food in 
the line of foam and sea-weed left by the successive waves as they 
come up the beach. Here he finds a fine bill of fare,—flies, mos- 


* 


1887] Fiddler-Crabs. — 417 


quitoes, and the like, which are caught and left half drowned by 
the incoming wave. I once saw a fiddler running back to his 
hole and bearing a round red ball which looked like a drop of 
blood and which offered a brilliant contrast with his own pale 
tan color. I caught him at his door and took from him a living 
“lady-bird.” Released, the crab quickly disappeared below, and 
there he remained a long time, evidently afraid to come out. But 
the need of provision and the advancing tide at length drove him 
out. Coming up, he found his lady-bird lying just at his door; 
he snatched it eagerly and scuttled backwards down the burrow 
to put it with his other goodies. 

The muscular strength of these crabs is considerable. There 
is an enormous element of error in contrasting the work of any 
small animal with that of the “lords of creation,” but it is fasci- 
nating. Imagine a man in digging to take a load of earth or 
sand at each shovelful which equals one-fourth his own size and 
weight, throw it from six to twelve feet, and continue this be- 
tween two tides until he had a pile from eight to fourteen feet in 
height. What a Hercules he would be! I have often tried the 
strength of the fiddler in another way. When he is below I 
have laid a bit of stick or shell lightly over his hole. If this be 
very light, his upward rush removes it and he does not appear 
to have the slightest curiosity or alarm; nor is he delayed below 
by the darkening of his hole,—a curious fact when one considers 
his powers of sight. If the shell be a little larger, his first rush 
does not remove it, although it shakes with the shock. He re- 
tires, and is apparently alarmed, for an interval elapses before he 
comes up again, this time with more force. I have seen a crab 
thus dislodge a pebble twice the size of his body and much more 
than his entire weight, causing it to fly into the air two or three 
inches. He does not remove the obstacle with his big claw, for 
he immediately comes out with that loaded with sand as before. 
He charges against it and knocks it away with a blow like a 
miniature battering-ram. This covering the hole, if silently done, 
gei not seem to alarm the crab or excite its suspicion. 

idĝler, unlike most of his relatives, is a family crab. His 
wife Cannot dig or clean out the dwelling, for she lacks the large 
claw which is such a useful member in the male. She is not a 
gad-about. She is content to stay below, and is far less fre- 
quently seen than are the males. 


418 Fiddler-Crabs. [May 


The males are very pugnacious, rivalling the oft-described 
hermit-crabs in this respect. When two meet they almost inva- 
riably threaten each other, if they do not at once fall to blows. 
If the tide is almost up to their homes they seem to agree to 
postpone the battle, but at other times they quickly begin the 
fray. When the foe is in sight the crab, whose body has been 
close to the sand, its legs spread out, its big claw folded close 
against the body, at once puts its forces ona war-footing. The 
slender legs are drawn in, and, walking on the tips of his toes, 
he elevates his’ body high in the air- and puts his large claw, at 
once an organ of offence and defence, at an angle of forty-five 
degrees. His eyes are elevated, so as to obtain a clear view, and 
then he flings himself towards his opponent. As he does so he 
draws down his eyes for safety and still further extends his big 
claw, with which he tries to grasp his antagonist, who, in the 
mean time, has been going through similar preparations. The 
loss of a limb is- not such a serious affair to them as it is to 
larger warriors. The wound caused by the amputation soon - 
scars over, and when the next molt takes place a new limb ap- 
pears just like its predecessor, only smaller. At a subsequent 
molt it gains its proper size. 

The fiddler has no feature more curious than his power of 
packing or doubling himself up. The door to his underground 
home looks scarcely larger than his Square compact body, and 
yet, when alarmed, he goes into it like a flash. He runs to the 
opening and then folds down those curiously mobile eyes, packs 
away his eight walking-legs and his big and little claws, and 
disappears below. Unless you have actually watched him, you 
can hardly believe that the fiddler which you saw a moment 
before hurrying across the beach and waving his hands with 
__ those gestures which have given him his name has darted into 
that small opening. You are more inclined to think that, like 
the people in the fairy tales, he has donned his cap of invisibility 
and that this explains the mystery. ae 

A 


1887] _ Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 419 


METSCHNIKOFF ON GERM-LAYERS.' 
TRANSLATED BY H. V. ‘WILSON. 
(Concluded from page 350.) 


F we consider all that has been said on the theories in question, 
we cannot but see that they fail to establish the connection 
between the various embryological phenomena,—to combine them 
under one point of view, so to speak,—and that, moreover, they 
display a lack of physiological explanation. Some other theory 
must, then, be invented. In my studies on the Sponges (8) I very 
cautiously made a few remarks which, as I thought, agreed with 
what we knew of the way in which the endoderm was formed 
among the lower Metazoa, and which could be brought into har- 
mony with the phenomena of intracellular digestion. I stated 
my belief that the endoderm did not appear in the beginning as 
a sac-like stomach with a terminal opening, such as one finds in 
the gastrula, but that behind these structures lay a long historic 
process, recorded in the formation of a solid parenchyma, in which 
digestion is intracellular. This parenchyma did not appear all 
at once, but was gradually formed from superficial blastoderm 
cells that migrated into the central cavity. There finally arose 
a two-layered parenchymella, which, by abbreviation of the em- 
bryonic process, along with the advancing differentiation of the 
digestive apparatus, became changed into a gastrula. At that 
time (1879) it was impossible for me to refer to any highly- 
developed Flagellate with animal nutrition. I therefore tried to 
find some foundation for my views in the development of Volvox, 
and in this connection made the following remark: “ In my opin- 
ion it is time to begin looking for some low organisms in which 
the nutritive cells, perhaps after having taken in food, leave their 
usual position at the surface of the ‘colony,’ and come to lie 
within the central cavity” (p. 382). Shortly afterwards (July, 
1880) Saville Kent discovered a most interesting form of Flagel- 
late colony, which he introduced to science as Protospongia 
hackelii (20). The individuals of a colony are at first regularly 
arranged at the surface. Some of these assume a pronounced 
amceboid shape, and migrate into the interior of the mass of 


The numbers in this article refer to the bibliographical list appended, _ 


* 


420 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [May 


jelly, which serves to unite the members of a colony (Fig. 1, a). 
Here the amoeboid individuals remain, to divide and suffer further 
changes, which Kent interprets as evidences of sporulation 
(Fig. 2, s). Whether the adoption of the amceboid form, together 


with the migration into the jelly, is in any way connected with 
the state of nutrition, cannot be asserted at present, since the 
phenomena involved are quite unknown. In view of the fact 
that the sporulation is as yet an open question, I hazard a guess 
whether the numerous granules seen by Kent be not either bits 
of indigestible stuff about to be cast out, or else particles of food 
just taken in. It would be extremely interesting to study more 
closely the genus Protospongia (also the second Protospongia 
form described by Oxley, and consisting of numerous individ- 
uals), paying special attention to the phenomena of nutrition 
and propagation. Meanwhile we may accept the fact that this 


_ . Choano-Flagellate possesses two forms of individual, which nat- 


urally can pass one into the other,—a flagellate and an amceboid 
form, the latter of which is able to migrate from various points 
of the surface into the common mass of jelly. Protospongia 


: - ae thus offers such an unmistakable likeness to certain two-layered 


v — instance, the larva of Aplysina sulphurea de- 


* 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 421 


scribed by F. E. Schulze (33) ), that we may suppose the differ- 
entiation of an amceboid form of individual to have been the first 
step in the historic development of the endoderm. 

At any rate, I believe the peculiarities of Protospongia can be 
more easily harmonized with my view (called by some writers 
‘the Parenchymella theory) than with any of the above-discussed 
theories of other investigators. But how does the Parenchymella 
theory agree with the facts of embryology in general, and of the 
Medusz, as given in the preceding part of the book, in particular? 
In discussing this question we must, in the first place, recall the 
a priori conclusion to which I came regarding the multiplication 
of the hypothetical Metazoo-Flagellata. Reasoning from the 
fact that the first three segmentation planes (sagittal, frontal, and 
equatorial) in so many and various groups of animals follow the 
three dimensions of space, and consequently represent transverse 
and longitudinal division, I concluded that the ancestors of the 
Metazoa also possessed these two kinds of division. Gradually, 
however, the direction of division became more fixed, so that 
while one form divided exclusively or predominantly in a longi- 
tudinal plane another related form divided transversely. That 
such a condition of affairs as we have here sketched is not im- ' 
possible is shown by the life-history of the several species of 
Salpingoeca already referred to. We must therefore suppose 
that in our colonies of Metazoo-Flagellata certain of the super- 
ficial cells became amceboid and migrated into the centre of the 
colony, as occurs to-day in Protospongia, and that certain other 
cells divided transversely into two segments, one of which re- 
tained its position at the surface, while the other came to lie 
within the central space. Figure 3 illustrates these processes in 
a diagrammatic fashion. This double method of forming the 
endoderm, by the immigration of some cells and the cutting off 
of the central segments of others, is actually employed in those 
species that have a mixed delamination. For instance, Polyxenia 
leucostyla (Fig. 4). In the next place, transverse division became 
predominant in some forms (Fig. 5) and longitudinal division in 
others, in which latter case the en rm was formed by the 
immigration of superficial cells (Fig. 6). In this manner mixed 
delamination split up into primary delamination, on the ‘one 
hand, and multipolar immigration, on the other. Secondary 
delamination is to be regarded as a mere modification of mixed 


422 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [May 


delamination, from which it is distinguished by the late appear- 
ance of any difference between the ectoderm and endoderm cells. 

It is necessary to assume that multipolar immigration is a 
more primitive form than unipolar immigration (Fig. 7), since the 
contrary supposition leads us into great difficulties, as we have 
already seen. The transition from a multipolar to a unipolar 
immigration (where the seat of migration is always the hinder 


end of the larva) is, on the other hand, an easy conception, ` 
especially as the latter is prone to occur in blastula larve that 
are very active, while the former is observed in motionless or 
sluggish embryos. It is as well to recall here the great pre- 
' dominance in the metagenetic Medusz of cell-immigration over 
„transverse division. 

If there be no difficulty in deriving unipolar from multipolar 
immigration, there is likewise none in reducing invagination to 
the former. We learned in the third chapter that Laodice cruci- 

' ata is distinguished from other metagenetic Craspedota by the 
fact that the posterior pole of the blastula is occupied by a con- 
tinuous area of transparent cells, These cells, however, do not 
immigrate all at once, but one after another as in other Meduse 
(Fig. 8). There is then formed a parenchymatous endoderm, 
which gradually acquires a cavity, the endoderm becoming 

i . The stage with the area of transparent cells is 

strikingly like the blastula stage of Mausithoé marginata, Atlas, 

_ Plate X. (invaginate gastrula), in which the cells at the posterior 

_ pole likewise differ from the other cells of the body. Let us 

_ suppose the development of Laodice to be still further abbre- 
viated. The endoderm cells, still at the surface but already dif- 
ae ' d, will no longer immigrate one at a time, but will inə 
--vaginate in a body, and thus in a more direct way establish a 
> ee (Fig. 9). The invagination of those cells that are 


1887] | Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 423 


the first to differentiate, once accomplished, the neighboring parts 
of the blastoderm are also involved in the process, and the invag- 
inated sac gradually becomes larger. The next stage in the pro- 
cess of abbreviation is not to be observed in the Meduse. We 
may conceive it to consist in the still. earlier differentiation of 
the endoderm cells, as a result of which all the cells destined to 
invaginate are already marked out in the blastula as peculiar 
elements. The flattened blastospheres found in Lumbricus and 


the Ascidians, for instance, must be looked on as having been 
formed by some such abbreviation. In these blastospheres the 
ectoderm and endoderm areas are about equal. It needs no 
- explanation to see that this early differentiation of the endoderm, 
carried far enough, will lead to the amphiblastula, will then make 

itself perceptible in the segmentation, and will finally be ex- 
_ pressed in the structure of the egg itself. 

It has been generally acknowledged since Kowalevsky’s work 
on Euaxes that an amphigastrula (epibolic gastrula) may arise 
from an archigastrula by precocious differentiation. But it must 
also be admitted that a similar form (to the amphigastrula) may 
be derived from a mixed delamination by means of unequal seg- 
mentation. This latter view is supported by Polyxenia leucostyla. 
(The segmentation of this medusa is variable and in some eggs 
decidedly unequal, in which case the segmenting eggs strongly 

resemble epibolic gastrulz.) It is thus evident that amphigas- 
- trula may come by two different ways from two different starting- 
points, and this embryonic form is hence polyphylitic. 


424 Metschuikoff on Gerin-Layers. [ May 


From our point of view the endoderm must be regarded as an 
aggregate of cells, which were originally derived from the blas- 
tosphere by immigration or transverse division, and which then 
became associated together to form a mass of amceboid ele- 
ments. The gastric cavity, as well as the mouth, must be re- 
garded as later acquirements, whose appearance, however, in the 
ontogeny of certain forms has been so accelerated as to lead to 
the direct production of a gastrula. 

Balfour (29), who has declared against the parenchymella 
theory, admits “ that it fits in very well with the ontogeny of the 
lower Hydrozoa.” Now that our knowledge of the facts is 
much greater than it was when this quotation was written, the 
harmony is still more marked. Balfour says in the same place 
(vol. ii. p. 285) that the passage from the protozoan to the meta- 
zoan state postulated by this theory strikes him as “ very im- 
probable in itself.” But I cannot answer this criticism, since the 
assertion is made without any attempt to Support it by argu- 
ment. Much more precise are Bitschli’s objections, which, 
however, concern the physiological side of the question exclu- 
sively. After a short account of my views, he remarks as fol- 
lows (l. c., p. 418): “It seems to me that the endoderm cells, 
whose special business it is to take in food, would lose rather 
than gain by migrating into the interior of the colony. ‚Without 
the simultaneous formation of a mouth, for which neither this 
nor Lankester’s hypothesis can offer any reason, the immigration 
of the endoderm cells would be a decided disadvantage, since 
they then, so to speak, lock themselves in.” When I first de- 
scribed my theory of the formation of endoderm by immigra- 
tion (8), I referred to Volvox, in which the reproductive individ- 
uals leave the surface of the colony for the central cavity. At 
the present time I can also refer to the immigration of individu- 
als that takes place in Protospongia, and which is certainly not 
without advantage to the colony in general. There are, more- 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 425 


for the heaviest individuals, and consequently those laden with 
food, to move as near as possible to the centre. Another advan- 
tage would be gained if the nutritive persons were enabled to 
pursue their calling under the best possible circumstances. Now 
we know that many Flagellata pass from a monad into an amce- 
boid stage, and it is especially in the latter that they feed. I 
will quote Biitschli’s account (23): “In a large number of mo- 
nads food is only taken in at a particular spot, which is almost 
always at the base of the flagellum. There is no doubt of this 
fact, and it is equally true, on the other hand, that certain of 
these forms, which have been observed to pass occasionally into 
the amceboid condition, are, during this condition, able to take 
in food at other points of the body.” It is easily conceivable 
also that the nutritive individuals should multiply more rapidly 
than the others, and a connection might thus be established 
between an unusually large food-supply and multiplication. Still 
another cause for the occurrence of immigration is found when 
we consider that a colony could not increase its superficial area 
beyond certain limits. This fact must have exerted great influ- 
ence on swimming colonies especially. Since increase in the 
number of individuals in our colony was sure to lead to increased 
activity, it was manifestly advantageous that cells, for which no 
room could be found at the surface, should adapt themselves to 
a life in the interior. The difference between individuals of the 
same stock was probably for a long time a mere quantitative 
difference: the locomotor cells attracted particles of food by 
means of the currents set up by their flagella, and also took in 
some of the smaller particles, as in certain Ccelenterates to-day, 
where the ectoderm cells occasionally take in bits of food (9). 
The ameeboid individuals inside were, on the other hand, able to 
devour larger bodies, which the locomotor cells could not mas- 
ter. When thus engaged, the amceboid cells were very probably 
near the periphery, and no doubt made use of the numerous 
` pores penetrating the superficial layer in order to get at the bits 
of food lying on the surface. For analogies to such a perform- 
ance I may refer to the fact that in Halisarca pontica, under 
certain circumstances (8), foreign bodies are devoured by amee- 
boid cells, and that in many of the lower animals the same is 
done by mesoderm cells, The differentiation gradually made 
greater progress in the path thus marked out. The locomotor 
VOL. XXI,—NO. 5. 29 


426 Metschunikoff on Gerim-Layers. [ May 


cells lost more or less completely the nutritive function, which 
became concentrated in the amceboid phagocytes. The very 
fine pores between the outer cells became larger, and formed 
mouth-openings similar to those so richly scattered over the 
surface of a sponge. As the colony more and more took upon 
itself the character of an individual (of the second order), the 
superficial persons (of the first order) became differentiated into 
an ectoderm or kynoblast, while the internal amceboid persons 
united to form a phagocystoblast (parenchyma or meso-endo- 
derm). When the cells of the latter, acting independently, were 
not able to master unusually large particles of, food, they formed 
a plasmodium, such as is often observed around large foreign 
bodies in the endoderm of Siphonophores or in the mesoderm 
of many animals. The metazoon, now provided with two primi- 
tive organs, steadily increased its activity, and in consequence 
the need of an abundant food-supply was likewise increased, so 
that it became necessary to prey upon vegetable and animal 
organisms of considerable size. To do this some entrance 
larger than that afforded by the pores was required, and one or 
more unusually wide openings arose, which ultimately led to the 
formation of a mouth. 

The differentiation of originally uniform individuals into loco- 
motor individuals and phagocytes finds many analogies in exist- 
ing animals, In the lower Ccelenterates, such as Hydro-polyps, 
actinias, certain Meduse (Oceania, Phialidium, Cunina), the en- 
tire endodermal lining of the gastrovascular system is able to 
feed upon bodies in the intracellular fashion. In consequence 
of this each endoderm cell is at once a phagocyte and a loco- 
motor individual, in those cases at least where the endoderm 
cells are flagellate. In other Ccelenterates, for instance, in 

glaura among the Craspedota, in Siphonophores, and Ceteno- 
phores, the endoderm is differentiated into amoeboid epithe- 
lium cells, which alone take in food-particles, and into flagellate 
epithelium cells, whose business it is to keep the current going, 
but which cannot take in foreign bodies. In the Sponges we 
_ find similar phenomena. In many representatives of this class . 
the flagellate endoderm cells act also as phagocytes, while in 
some silicious sponges this latter rôle is exclusively in the hands 
of amæboid cells, the flagellate Sg mee serving only to keep 
mp the current of waten 2 < 


* 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 427 


It is evident enough that the migration of some individuals 
from the surface into the interior, which was probably filled with 
jelly, does not exclude the occurrence of transverse division in 
other individuals. It is also evident that the superficial portion 
of a cell which has thus divided might, when differentiation 
began, retain its original position, while the central portion lived 
on in the interior as a phagocyte. 

The transitional form between the Metazoa and Flagellata has 
been called by me in a previous publication Parenchymella. I 
would like now to change the name to Phagocytella, for the 
reason that the latter suggests a very characteristic peculiarity 
of the form in question. The Phagocytella, as we have already 
learned, was characterized by the possession of two primitive 
organs, a kynoblast and a phagocytoblast, which were not as yet 
so sharply separated from each other as are the germinal layers 
of most Metazoa. Very probably the phagocytoblast continued 
for a long time to receive recruits from the kynoblast, in the 
shape of immigrating cells. As regards the development of 
Phagocytella we feel safe in supposing that the eggs (sexual 
multiplication must already have been acquired) underwent an 
equal segmentation, in which the divisions of the blastomeres 
followed the three dimensions of space; and that a blastoccel 
appeared very early, which was gradually filled up by immigrant 
cells and by the central portions of other cells that had suffered 
transverse division. 

The Phagocytella theory is in harmony with our morphological 
and physiological knowledge of the Sponges. Indeed, it was in 
the study of this group that the theory had its origin. The em- 
bryology of the Sponges exhibits almost more variety than does 
the development of the Medusz; at least, although far from 
being sufficiently studied, it reveals the several processes of 
immigration, delamination, and invagination. In general, then, 
what has been said for the Medusz will describe the various 
ways in which the endoderm is formed among the Sponges. 
The primitive organs of the latter group, however, have pro- 
gressed relatively but a short distance from their original state; 
it,is for this reason that it is difficult to homologize the layers of 
a sponge with the germinal layers of other Metazoa. The “ endo- 
derm” often shades into the “ mesoderm,” the two structures 
being in the most intimate connection (8); I therefore think they © 


428 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [May 


must be regarded as together forming a phagocytoblast. This 
conception is not in the least weakened by the fact that the cells 
forming these layers do not appear all at once, but often gradually 
migrate from the ectoderm (for instance, in Halisarca). The 
organization of the Sponges presents no peculiarities such as 
to justify us, along with Balfour and Bütschli, in separating the 
group from the other Metazoa. In this respect, therefore, I fully 
agree with most students of the Sponges, more especially with 
K. Heider (30). The lack of a mouth-opening, or in other words, 
the presence of numerous pores of entrance, can only be accounted 
as an important distinction, when an unwarranted genealogical 
significance is ascribed to these structures. From the stand-point 
occupied by the Phagocytella theory, these peculiarities of the 
sponge body are easily explicable. Again, the predominant part 
_ played by the ameeboid cells in taking in food would only give 
cause for surprise in case it were possible to speak of a differ- 
entiated mesoderm in the Sponges. But in this group there 
still endures a phagocytoblast, which must be regarded as the 
common foundation of endoderm and mesoderm; and conse- 
quently the rôle of the amceboid cells presents no difficulties. 
About a year after I had given in my “ Studies on the Sponges”? 
a general sketch of my views, Balfour arrived at conclusions 
regarding the phylogeny of the Coelenterates which were in per- 
fect accord with the principles of the Phagocytella theory. 
“ Paradoxical as it may seem,” says the English embryologist 
(29) (p. 147, vol. i.), “it appears to me not impossible that the 
Cæœlenterata may have had an ancestor in which a digestive tract 
was physiologically replaced by a solid mass of amceboid cells. 
This ancestor was perhaps common to the Turbellarians also.” 
It is very surprising that Balfour, believing this, was so strongly 
in favor of the gastræa theory, and regarded the parenchymella 
theory .as oe in itself. More recently Gotte (34) has . 


_* As early as 1877, in a paper on the digestive organs of fresh-water Turbellaria 
(“ Memoirs of Natural mae J Suey of New N vol. v.), I wrote as fol- 
lo th ł animals, it is evident that in 
this respect there is a , fundamental similórity between the Wii representatives of 
two types of the Metazoa reen and Vermes); that is, between Sponges and 
Turbellaria. If we compare the larvæ of the first group, particularly the Amor- 
aes sited deicribed = Schmidt, with the lower Turbellaria, we are at once 
robability et two classes are much more closely related 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 429 


published, without referring to Balfour or myself, a repetition of 
the view that a close relationship existed between the ancestors 
of the Ccelenterates and Turbellaria (Accela), and that the endo- 
derm in the primitive Metazoa was in the shape ofa parenchyma. 
From this paper it may be inferred that the number of students, 
who feel themselves compelled to postulate a Phagocytella-like 
condition, is gradually increasing. The latest researches on the 
anatomy of the Accela (by.Kleinenberg, Pereyaslawzew, Yves, 
Delage, and myself) confirm the statement of Graff, that a me- 
soderm and nervous system are wanting in these Turbellaria. 
The fact also remains that the digestive organs of the Accela 
have preserved a very primitive condition, though it has recently 
been asserted that these worms possess an unmistakable digestive 
cavity. 

On the contrary, the true Aceela exhibit an endodermal plas- 
modium containing vacuoles of various sizes, which may imitate 
the appearance of a special digestive cavity. I was best able to 
make out these facts on a transparent pelagic form of great 
beauty, which I obtained at Messina (where it has been several 
times studied by Kleinenberg), and which fully convinced me of 
the truth of the statement just made. It appears from the em- 
bryological investigations of Miss Pereyaslawzew (35) and of 
Repiachoff (36), that in the Accela studied by them the seg- 
mentation is followed by a gastrula stage. The latter author 
concludes from this fact that the Accela are degenerated worms. 
But the formation of a gastrula is by no means to be uncon- 
ditionally regarded as a genealogically primitive process. In 
the development of the Medusz we saw that the gastrula (in one 
case as the archigastrula of Nausithoé and Pelagia, ip the other 
as the epibolic gastrula of Polyxenia leucostyla) might arise poly- 
phyletically from totally different methods of forming the endo- 
derm. It is quite possible, then, to regard the occurrence of a 
gastrula in the course of development as a secondarily acquired 
embryonic adaptation. Finally, I must remark that not until 
the work of Miss Pereyaslawzew and of Repiachoff has been 
published in full should an ultimate decision regarding the gas- 
trula of the Accela be expressed. 

Since my view supposes that gastrula forms may arise sinde- 
pendently in the course of embryonic development, on its adop- 
tion many difficulties encountered by the gastræa theory are 


430 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [ May 


either solved or escaped. In this connection I refer to my 
“Studies in Comparative Embryology” (10), where I have dis- 
cussed this side of the question. Blochmann (37) and Sedgwick 
(38) have recently endeavored to rescue the gastræa theory by 
once more propounding the view that the mouth and anus have 
both been formed from a slit-like blastopore. The evidence on 
which this view is based consists of Balfour’s study of Peripatus, 
and of observations on Aplysia and other Gasteropods. The 
authors believe, however, that a slit-like blastopore which gives 
rise to both mouth and anus, may be assumed to occur in the 
Metazoa generally. But the gastraa theory is not thus freed of 
its main burden, for, if we accept this assumption, the radial 
gastrule of the Echinoderms, Pilidium, and Polygordius must 
be looked on as larval forms secondarily modified to a great 
degree, while the embryos of the Gasteropods, Peripatus, Insects, 
and Worms with a slit-like blastopore would represent the con- 
dition of the primitive gastrula. In like manner the regular 
blastospheres of the former animals would have to be regarded 
as the modified descendants of the amphiblastulz, rich in yelk, 
of the latter. 

The genealogy of the anus, which is not satisfactorily eluci- 
dated by the theory just discussed, is to be traced in a series of 
stages such as we have assumed to occur in the development of 
the mouth. In the lower Metazoa we observe two (Ctenophora) 
or more openings for the exit of the excreta, just as in the 
Sponges there are numerous openings for the entrance of food. 
In some of the Medusz belonging to the family Lafceide 
(4Equorea, Tima) the numerous excretory openings of the gas- 
tro-vasculay system are seated on special papilla; some of the 
Polyclade possess similar excretory openings on various parts 
of the body. In Cycloporus (39) Lang observed the extrusion 
of some drops of fluid containing differently-colored concretions 
through such external openings of the digestive apparatus. This 


= Observation is all the more significant because the Polyclade 


possess, besides these openings, a special excretory system. 
While one portion of the phagocytoblast developed into the 
endoderm, in which the originally amceboid cells gradually as- 
_ sumed an epithelial character, another portion of the same prim- 
itive organ gave rise to the mesoderm. The latter originally 
appeared in the shape of solitary migratory cells, which contin- 


1887] Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. 431 


ued as before to function as phagocytes. This condition is found 
in many Ccelenterates (where, however, in certain cases, addi- 
tional cells migrate from the ectoderm, as in Corals, according 
to Kowalevsky and Marion), in Echinoderms, many Worms, etc. 
In some forms the whole mesoderm, in others only a part, per- 
manently retained the original phagocytoblast condition. With 
many of the latter it came to pass that the mesoderm was formed 
by means of special sacs, which were constricted off from the 
endoderm. The cells of which these sacs were built ceased 
more or less completely to play the part of phagocytes. Such 
a condition appears in the Ambulacraria and in Vertebrates. 
In other animals with a simpler development,—for instance, 
Worms, Molluscs, and many Arthropods,—such mesoderm sacs 
have been looked for in vain; so that in these animals it is pos- 
sible that the entire mesoderm has been derived from the origi- 
nal phagocytoblast without the aid of special endodermal sacs, 
though probably with some help from the ectoderm. In suc 
cases the mesoderm has been able gradually to differentiate itself 
into a somatopleure and a splanchnoplcure, without running 
through a sac-like stage. In Arthropods with a large amount 
of food-yelk the mesoderm is functional at a very early date, 
it being the habit of the mesoderm cells to devour the yelk- 
globules. Under such circumstances it can be understood how © 
the mesoderm, even within the most recent time, has often been 
taken for the endoderm. In its origin dependent on the pha- 
gocytoblast, in part also on the kynoblast, the mesoderm sooner 
(Ctenophora) or later acquires its freedom and appears as a special 
germ-layer, which plays an important part in the development of 
the embryo. In opposition to the authors who think the meso- 
derm had its origin in sexual organs or muscles, I believe it was 
originally a part of the phagocytoblast, and as such took part 
in the inception or absorption of food. The importance of the 
mesodermal phagocytes in physiological and pathological pro- 
cesses, as well as the morphology of the mesoderm, have been 
discussed by me in other papers (7, 9, 10, II, 12, 13), to which I 
may refer, and thus avoid repetition. 

In conclusion, I wish to say that not until we are enlightened 
to the utmost as regards the primitive condition of the Metazoa 
will it be possible to place comparative morphology on a safe 
basis. But so long as the question of the germinal layers is 


432 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [May 


investigated in the anti-genealogical manner, all questions of 
greater importance will present the most invincible difficulties. 
For this reason I think that, in the absence of actual knowledge, 
hypotheses dealing with the early history of the germ-layers are 
not wholly unjustifiable, 

LIST OF PAPERS REFERRED TO. 


1, BAER cot eee t der Thie 

2. KOWALEVSKY.— Entwick. d. Amphioxus Ihesi, Mém. de l'Acad. Im. de 
St. proms ay 1867. 

ee a Embryol. Studien an Wiirmen und Arthropoden, Mém. Acad. 


St. Pétersb., 1871. 
4. ee ega —Entwick. der Sepiola, Russische Dissertation, 1867. 


"$: Entwick. der Nebalia, Russische Dissertation, 18 

6. S Entwick. Beiträge, Mélanges biologiques de P Acad. Pétersb., 
t. vi., 1868. 

7. “ Ms cage neste Studien, 4. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 
xlii., 

8. a dvaja Studien, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxii., 1879. 

9. ee Untersuch. üb. die Intracellulére Verdauung, Arb. zool, Inst. 
zu mi Bd. v., 1883. Trans. in Quarterly Journal Mi- 

à Se Sci., vol. xxiv., A 

10. be Vergy faair. erare Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 

i u Untersuch. üb. die Mesoderm, Phagocyten roms Wirbel- 
thiere, Biolog. Diao: Bd. iii., 1883. 

12, 4 Ueber eine Sprsespilzkrankheit d. Daphnien, Virchow’s 
Archiv, B xcvi. p. 177, 1884. 

13. « Ueber die Bezeichnun d. oo aig zu Milzbrandbacillen, 


Ibid., Bd. xevii. p. 502, 1 
14. Ep, ba BENEDEN. —Dicyemidæ, Bulletin de YAra r. de Belgique, 1876. 


15. Dicyemidz, Archives de Biologie, t. iii., 1882. 
16. isis Gain zur Gastreea-Theorie, Jena. aa 1877. 
1. 7 Gastrza-Theorie, Jena. Zeit., Bd. vii 
18. oe Ursprung u. Entwick. d. Thierisch. Gitler 
` 19. VON eer —Vergl. Anat. des Nerv. Systems u sp ees d. Mollusken, 
1877. 


20, Kent.—Manual of the Infusoria, 1881-1882. 

21, BOTscHL1.—Studien üb. die ersten Entwicklungsvorginge d. Eizelle, 1876. 

22. T Bemerk. zur Gastræa-Theorie, Morph., Jahrb., Bd. ix., 1883. 

3a Protozoa in Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen der Thierreichs, Zweite 


24. CIENKOWSKY.—Ueber Palmellaceen u. einige Flagellaten, Archiv f. mikr. 

ee Anat., Bd. vii., 1871. 

a5. Senit Der Organismus d. Infusionsthiere, 1878. 
26. HAMANN.—Der Organismus d. Hydropolypen, Jena. Zeit., Bd. xv., 1882. 

% LANKESTER.—Notes on Oe e Seether: Satter, Mi Sey 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables, : 433 


> BaLFour.—Treatise on Comp. Embryol., 
. K. HEIDER.—Metamorphose von aku PR Arb. zool. Inst. zu Wien., 
Bd. vi., 1886. 


31. F. E. SCHULZE. —Metamorphose von Sycandra raphanus, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 4 
Bd. xxxi 78. 
3 aà rne adherens, Zool. Anz., Jahrg. vi., 1883. 
milie Aplysinidæ, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxx., 1878. 
ci GOTTE. ay reer eines Entwicklungsgesch. d. Thiere, ii., 1884. 
35. PEREYASLAWZEW.—Sur le developpement des Turbellaries, Zool. Anz., viii., 


N. 194, 1885. 
36. REPIACHOFF.—Turbellarien, Zool. Anz., viii., 1885. 
37- BLOCHMANN,—Beitrage z. Kenntn. d. Entw. d. Gasteropoden, Zeit. f. wiss. 
Zool., Bd. xxxviii., 1883. 

38. SEDGWICcK.—On the Origin of Metameric Segmentation, Quart. Jour. Micros. 
Sci., xxiv., 1884. Wie from Morph., Lab. in Univ. of Cam- 
bridge, el. ii. part i., 1884. 

` 39- LANG.—Die Polycladen, Fauna u. Flore d. Golfes von Neapel., 1884. 


HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. 


BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D. 
(Continued from page 333.) 
Tue Beer. Beta vulgaris, var. y L. 
HE beet is essentially a modern vegetable. It is not noted 
by either Aristotle? or Theophrastus, and although the 
root of the chard is referred to by Dioscorides and Galen,‘ yet 
the context indicates medicinal use. Neither Columella, Pliny, 
nor Palladius mention its culture, but Apicius,5 in the third cen- 
tury, gives receipts for cooking the root of the Beta, and Athe- 
nzus,° in the second or third century, quotes Diphilus Siccineus 
as saying that the beet root was grateful to the taste and a better 
food than the cabbage. It is not mentioned by Albertus Magnus? 
in the thirteenth century, but the word de¢e occurs in English 
recipes for cooking in 1390. 
Barbarus, who died in 1493, oaks of the beet as having a 
z Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 
2 Aristotle, Scaliger’s ed., 1566, 29. 3 Theophrastus, Bodzeus’s ed., 1644, 778. 
4 Ex Fuchsius, De Stirp., 1542, 807. 5 Apicius, lib. iii. c. 2, ii. 


us, De 
8 Barbarus in Dialed s Dioscorides, 1529, 124. 


434 History of Garden Vegetables. [May 


single, long, straight, fleshy, sweet root, grateful when eaten, and 
Ruellius,’ in France, appropriates the same description in 1536, 
as does also Fuchsius? in 1542; and the latter figures the root 
as described by Barbarus, having several branches and small 
fibres. In 1558, Matthiolus3 says the white and black chards 
are common in Italian gardens, but that in Germany they have 
a red beet with a swollen turnip-like root which is eaten. In 
1570, Pena and Lobel* speak of the same, but apparently as then 
rare, and in 1576, Lobel5 figures this beet, and this figure shows 
the first indication of an improved form, the root portion being 
swollen in excess over the portion by the collar. This beet may 
be considered the prototype of the long red varieties. In 1586, 
Camerarius® figures a shorter and thicker form, the prototype 
of our half-long blood beets. This same type is figured by Dale- 
champius? in 1587, and also a new type, the Beta Romana, which 
is said in Lyte’s “ Dodoens,” 1586,’ to be a recent acquisition. 
It may be considered as the prototype of our turnip or globular 
beets. 
Rep Beets. 
L 

Beta rubra. Lob., 1576, 124; ic., 1591, i. 248; Matth., 1598, 
371. 

B. rubra Romana. Dod. 1616, 620. 

Common Long Red. Mawe, 1778. 

Betterave rouge grosse. Vilm., 1883, 38. 

Long Blood. Thorb., 1828, 1886. 


II. 
Beta rubra, Cam. Epit., 1586, 256; Lugd., 1587, 533; Pancov., 
1673, n. 607. 
Betiola rossa. Cast. Dur., 1617, 71. 
Betterave rouge naine. Vilm., 1883, 37. 
h e beet. 
HI. 


- Beta erythorrhizos Dodo., Lugd., 1587, 533. 
* Ruellius, De Natura Stirpium, 1536, 481. 


* Fuchsius, I. c. 3 Matthiolus, Comment., 1558, 249- 
Pena and Lobel, Adv., 1570, 93. 5 Lobel, Obs., 1576, 124. : 
€ Camerarius, Epitome, 1586, 255. 7 Hist. Gen. Lugd., 1587, 532. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 435 


- Beta rubra radice crassa, alia species. J. Bauh., 1651, ii. 961. 
B. rubra . . . russa; Beta-rapa. Chabr., 1677, 303. 
Turnip-pointed red. Mawe, 1778. 

Turnip-rooted red. Bryant, 1783, 26. 
Early Blood Turnip. Thorb., 1828, 1886. 
Arabic, dangar. Delile. 


YELLow BEETS. 
E 


Beta quarta radice buxea. Cæsalp., 1603, ex Mill. Dict., 1807. 
Yellow-rooted. Mill. Dict., 807. 
Betterave jaune grosse. Vilm., 1883, 41. 


IL 


Beta rubra, lutea ; Beta-rapa. Chabr., 1677, 303. 

Turnip-pointed yellow. Mawe, 1778. 

Yellow Turnip. Thorb., 1828. 

Betterave jaune ronde sucre. Vilm., 1883, 41. 

One form we have omitted,—the Tak bottomed reds, —of which 
the Egyptian and the Bassano of Vilmorin, as figured, may be 
taken as the type. The Bassano was to be found in all the 
markets of Italy in 1841, and the Egyptian was a new sort 
about Boston in 1869.° I have ascertained nothing concerning 
the history of this type. 

The first step in improvement gained from the chard beets was 
a smoothening of the root, and the contrasts are to be seen in 
the figures given by the herbalists, commencing with Fuchsius. 
That this improvement was not continuous, but was contempo- 
raneous with the less improved forms, may be seen by contrast- 
ing the figure of Beta nigra, given by Delachamp in 1587, and 
that given in Blackwell’s “ Herbal” in 1758, in which the roots 
are figured practically as of like form. Cultivation and selection 
have given greater size, greater thickness, smoothness of form, 
and other changes characterized by the term quality, but the 
type changes appeared at once as attention was directed to the 
value of the root. 

The first appearance of the improved beet is recorded in Ger- 
many about 1558 and in England about 1576, but the name 

z Gard. Chron., 1841, 183. . 2 Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc., 1869, 70. 


436 History of Garden Vegetables. [May 


used, Roman beet, implies introduction from Italy, where the 
half-long type was known in 1584 certainly. We may believe 
Ruellius’s reference in 1536 to be for France. In 1631 it was in 
French gardens under the name of Beta rubra pastinaca,’ and 
the culture of “ betteraves” was described in “ Le Jardinier Soli- 
taire,” 1612. Gerarde? mentions the Romaine beete, but gives no 
figure, in 1597, and Bodzus a Stapel apparently knew only this 
kind in Holland in 1644. In 1665, in England, only the Red 
Roman was named by Lovell, and the Red Beet was the only 
kind noticed by Townsend,* a seedsman, in 1726, and a second 
sort, the common long red, is mentioned in addition by Mawe5 
in 1778, and by Bryant® in 1783. gin America one kind only was 
in McMahon's’ catalogue of 1806,—the red beet,—but in 1828 
four kinds are offered for sale by Thorburn? At present, Vil- 
morin’ describes seventeen varieties and names and partly de- 
scribes many others. 

The modern names of the beet are,—in France, betteraves pota- 
geres; in England, Garden Beet; in Germany, Sa/at-rube, Beete, 
Rothe rube ; in Spain, remolacha hortelana.° 


BENINCASA. Benincasa hispida Cogn. 


This cucurbit has been lately introduced into European gar- 
dens, but it has been grown ‘in Eastern Asia for a long period. 
According to Bretschneider," it can be identified in a Chinese 
book of the fifth century, and is mentioned as cultivated in Chi- 
nese writings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 
1503-8, Ludovico di Varthema* describes it in India under the 
name of comolanga. In 1859, Naudin ® says it is much esteemed 
in Southeastern Asia, and particularly in China, and that the size 
of its fruit, its excellent keeping qualities, the excellence of its 
flesh, and the ease of its culture should long since have brought 
it into our garden culture. He had seen two varieties ,—one, the 
cylindrical, ten to sixteen inches long, and one specimen twenty- 
_ ¥ Laurembergius, Hort., ous rgi. - * Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 251. 

3 Lovell, Herbal, 1655, 40. 4 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 22. 

i 5 Mawe, Gard., 1778. 6 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 26. 

Hasna Am. Gard. Aal; 1806. 8 Thorburn’s Cat., 1828. 


l T NOVICO zd., 16 
E arse arree aiam Ann, des Se. Nat, 4th ser., t. 12, p. 10: 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. - 437 


four inches long by eight to ten inches in diameter, from Algiers ; 
the other an ovoid fruit, shorter, yet large, from China. The 
long variety, the seed from France, I grew in 1884, the fruit, 
oblong cylindrical, resembling very closely a watermelon while 
unripe, but when ripe covered with a heavy glaucous bloom. 

This plant is recorded in herbariums as from the Philippine 
Islands, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Feegee Islands, Tahiti, 
New Holland, and Southern China; as cultivated in Japan and 
in China.” 

In India the Benincasa is called the Pumpkin, and White Gourd? 
or White Pumpkin? in English, by the natives chal koomra,? panee 
koomra, or petha ;* in Japan, Ro or jungaoo In France, D 
casa and Courge a la cire 

This species is the Cibuli of Rheede, Hort. Mal., 8, p. 5, 
t. 3; the Camolenga of Rumphius, Amb., 5, 395, t. 143; the 
Cucurbita Pe sid of Louriero, Cochinch., 593; Benincasa cerifera, 
Savi, etc. 

Bure. Bitum sp. 

These spinage plants are almost of too little consequence for 

mention, yet they are included by Vilmorin? among garden vege- 

The blites are mentioned by Petit? as grown by amateurs 
in France on account of the singularity of their fruit, which re- 
semble strawberries, and also by De Candolle’ in 1815. Hence 
the English name Strawberry blite, and the French, £pinards- 
fraises. They are not mentioned by Noisette in 1829, nor do the 
seed occur in American seed lists. The plant that commentators 
interpret as the blite was cultivated by the ancients, but the de- 
scriptions appear to us to be too indefinite to enable identification. 


Blitum capitatum L. 
This species, if Linnzeus’s synonymy can be trusted, was known 
to Bauhin * in 1623, and by Ray™ in 1686. Miller’s “ Gardeners’ 
- Dictionary” refers it to J. Bauhin," who received the plant in 1651. 
The species was during this time little known outside of botani- 
t Cogniaux, Cucurbitacee, De C. Monog., 1881, iii. 513. 
2 Firminger, Gard. in Ind., 126. 3 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 606. 
4 Royle, Illust. of the Bot. of the Him., 218. 5 ed Amoen., 1712, 811. 
6 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., p. 34, figured. 
7 Vilmorin, 1. c., 188 7. . : Petit, Dict. du Jard., 1826, 40. 
9 De Candolle, Fl. Fran., 1815, iii. 382. 1> Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 119, n. 7. 
z Ray, Hist., i. 197, n. 5, 7- 1z J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, ii. 973. 


438 - History of Garden Vegetables. [ May 


cal gardens. The first mention of its garden culture that I find 
is by De Candolle,? in 1815, for France. 


Bhitum virgatum L. 

This species was cultivated in France in 1815, and also at 
Geneva and in Germany, but probably only in a slight degree. 
It is also grown in the vegetable gardens at the Mauritius? 
Clusius3 grew it in 1595. Ray* in 1686 had probably never 
seen it in England, for he copies Clusius. 


Borace. Borago officinalis L. 

This plant, of such little consequence in our gardens, yet finds 
place in our seed lists. Native Of the Mediterranean countries, 
it was early cultivated for the use of the leaves and flowers in 
cooling drinks, in salad, and for garnishing. It occurs with blue, 
red, and white flowers, and also with variegated leaves, but the 
ordinary form is the blue flowered. Noisette 5 Says it is more 
used in Italy than in France, but in France Quintyne,® the royal 
gardener in 1690, made several sowings during the summer for 
the supplying of its tender leaves. Ainslie? says it is cultivated 
by Europeans in India, and it was among the plants enumerated 
by Peter Martyr® as planted at Isabella Island by the companions 
of Columbus. It occurs in American seed lists from 1806 to the 
present date, and on account of its general use in England in 
Elizabeth’s time probably came over with English colonists. 
The various colored flowering sorts of Borage are found noted 
or figured by nearly all the ancient herbalists. 

Borage is called in France dourrache officinale, b. batarde, fausse 
bourrache, langue-de-beuf, and langue d'oie; in Germany, Jor- 
retsch gurkenkraut; in Flanders, beruagie; in Italy, doragine, 
borrana; in Spain, borraja; in Portugal, borrajem ;9 in Greece, 
vourasa, armpeta, and arnopetra; in Egypt, lissan el tor., ie., OX 
tongue,” as also in Arabic.” 


= Brocort. Brassica oleracea botrytis, cymosa, Broccoli De C. 
The differences between the most highly improved varieties 


* De Candolle, Fl. Franc., l. c. 2 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 270. 

3 Clusius, Hist., 1601. 4 Ray, l. c., n. 6. 

5 Noisette, Man., 1829, 337. § Quintyne, Comp. Gard., 1704 ed., 182. 
7 Ainslie, Mat. Med., ii. 145. 8 Eden’s Hist. of Trav., 1577, 18. 
2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 54. Pickering, Chron. Hist., 263. 


* 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 439 


of the Brocoli and the Cauliflower are very slight; in the less 
changed form they become great. Hence two races can be de- 
fined, the sprouting brocolis and the cauliflower brocolis. The 
growth of the Brocoli is far more prolonged than that of the 
cauliflower, and in the European countries it is grown as a 
hyemial plant, bearing its heads in the year following that in 
which it is sown. It is this circumstance that leads us to sus- 
pect that the Romans knew the plant and described it under 
the name of cyma, “(Cyma a prima sectione præstat proximo 
vere,” “Ex omnibus brassice generibus suavissima est cyma,” 
says Pliny.* He also uses the word cyma for the seedstalk 
which rises from the heading cabbage. These excerpts indicate 
the sprouting brocoli, and the same additional use of the word 
cyma then as exists in Italy now with the word Jdrocoli, which, 
for a secondary meaning, is used for the tender shoots which at 
the close of winter are emitted by various kinds of cabbages and 
turnips preparing to flower.? 

It is certainly very curious that the early botanists did not 
describe or figure the brocoli. The omission is only explainable 
under the supposition that it was confounded with the cauliflower, 
just as Linnzus brought the cauliflower and the brocoli into one 
botanical variety. The first notice of the éroco/i that I find is 
quoted from Miller’s Dictionary, edition of 1724, in which he 
says it was a stranger in England until within these five years, 
and was called sprout colli-flower, or Italian Asparagus.3 In 
1729, Switzer* says there are then several kinds that he has had 
growing in his garden near London these two years, viz.: “that 
with small, whitish yellow flowers like the cauliflower; others 
like the common sprouts and flowers of a colewort; a third with 
purple flowers; all of which come mixed together, none of them 
being as yet (at least that I know of) ever sav'd separate.” In 
1778, Mawe’ names the Early Purple, Late Purple, White or 
Cauliflower-brocoli, and the Black. In 1806, McMahon® men- 
tions the Roman or purple, the Neapolitan or white, the green, 
and the black. In 1821, Thorburn’? names the Cape, the White, 
and the Purple, and in 1828, in his seed list, mentions the Early 

* Pliny, lib. xix. c. 41; lib. xx. c. 35. * Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., 1885, 95. 

3 Miller’s Dict., 1807, preface, p. I. 

4 Switzer, A Comp. Method for Raising Italian Brocoli, etc., 1729, 2. 

5 Mawe, Gard., 1778. é McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806, 

? Thorburn’s Calendar, 1821. 


440 History of Garden Vegetables. [May 


White, Early Purple, the Large Purple Cape, and the White 
Cape or Cauliflower-brocoli. 

The first and third kind of Switzer, 1729, are doubtless the 
heading brocoli, while the second is as probably the sprouting 
form. These came from Italy, and as the seed came mixed, we 
may assume that variety distinctions had not as yet become 
recognized, and that hence all the types of the brocoli now grown 
have originated from Italy. It is interesting to note, however, 
that at the Cirencester Agricultural College, about 1860, sorts 
of brocoli were produced, with other variables, from the send of 
the wild cabbage." 

“The Sprouting or n Gencol represents the first form 
exhibited by the new vegetable when it ceased to be the earliest 
cabbage, and was grown with an especial view to its shoots; 
after this, by continued selection and successive improvements, 
varieties were obtained which produced a compact white head, 
and some of these varieties were still further improved into kinds 
which are sufficiently early to commence and complete their 
entire growth in the course of the same year;, these last named 
kinds are now known by the name of Cauliflowers.”— Vi/morin? 

The names of the Brocoli are,—France, chaux brocolis, Chou- 
fleur d'hiver; Germany, broccoli, brockoli, spargelkohl; Flanders 
and Holland, drokelie ; Denmark, broccoli, asparages kaal; Italy 
cavol broccolo; Spain, brocult ;3 Arabic, sjami;+ India, chootee 
phool kobees 


Brussets Sprouts, Brassica oleracea, bullata, gemmifera De C. 
This vegetable, in this country only grown in the gardens of 
amateurs, yet deserving of more esteem, has for a type-form a 
cabbage with an elongated stalk, and bearing groups of leaf-buds 
in the axils of the leaves. Sometimes occurring as a monstros- 
ity, branches instead of heads are so developed, as I noted in 
1883. Quite frequently an early cabbage, after the true head is 
removed, will develop small cabbages in the leaf-axils, and thus 
is formed the Brassica capitata polycephalos of Dalechamp 1587, 
which he himself describes as a certain unused and rare kind. 
Authors? have stated that the Brussels Sprouts has been 
Sachsen 8, 1879, 217. * Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., iar oa 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 441° 


grown from time immemorial about Brussels, in Belgium, but, if 
this be so, it is strange that they escaped the notice of the early 
botanists, who would have certainly noticed a common plant of 
such striking appearance and have given a figure. Bauhin," in- 
deed, in 1623 gives the name Bras. ex capitibus pluribus conglobata, 
and adds that some plants bear fifty heads the size of an egg, but 
his reference to Dalechampius as a synonyme would lead us to 
infer that the plant known to him was of the same character as: 
that figured by Dalechampius, above noted. Lobel? again in 
1655 refers to a cabbage like a Brassica polycephalos, but as he 
had not seen it he says he will affirm nothing. Ray? again ‘in 
1686 refers to a like cabbage. 

A. P. Decandolle*+ in 1821 describes the Brussels Sprouts as 
commonly cultivated in Belgium, and implies its general use in 
French gardens, but BoothS says it is only since about 1854 that 
it has been generally known in England. A correspondent® of 
the Gardeners’ Chronicle in 1850, however, refers to the Tad sorts 
as generally preferred over the Dwarf by the market gardeners 
about London. In American gardens it is mentioned in 1806, 
and this implies its general use in Europe. ' 

But two classes are known, the Tall and the Dwarf, and but a 
few minor variations in these classes. The tall is quite distinct 
in habit and leaf from the dwarf, the former having less crowded: 
“sprouts” and a-more open character of plant, with leaves 
scarcely blistered or puckered. As, however, there is considera- 
ble variation to be noted in seedlings, furnishing connecting’ 
links, the two forms may legitimately be considered as one, the 
differences being no greater than would be explained by the ob- 
served power of selection and of the influences for modification 
which might arise from the influence of cabbage pollen. This: 
fact of their being but of one type, even if with several variables, 
would seem to indicate a probability that the origin is to be 
sought for in a sport, and that our present forms have been de- 
rived from the propagation of and selections from the seedlings 
derived from a suddenly observed variable of the Savoy cabbagé 
type, and, as the lack of early mention and the recent nature of 

* Bauhin, Pinax, 1623, iii. * Lobel, Stirp. Illust., 1655, 82. 

3 Ray, Hist., 1686, 794. 

4 Mem. upon the Cult, Brassica. Hort. Soc. Trans., p. 14. 

5 Booth, Treas. of Bot. 6 Gard. Chron., 1850, 116.. 

7 McMahon, Am. Gard. Ka!., 1806, 580. : 

VOL, XXI.—NO. 5. 30 


442 History of Garden Vegetables. [May 


modern mention presupposes, some time scarcely preceding the 
last century. 

The names given in various languages to thee Brussels Sprouts 
are as follows: France, chou de Bruxelles, ch. rosette, ch. a jets, ch. 
a jets et rejets, ch. spruyt de Bruxelles; Germany, rosenkohl, sprossen- 
koll; Flanders and Holland, spruitkool; Denmark, rosenkaal ; 
Italy, cavolo a germoglio ; Spain, bretones de Brusselas ; Portugal, 
couve de Bruxelas d'olhos repolhudos.* 


BucksHorn PLANTAIN. Plantago Coronopus L. 


A salad plant of very minor importance. It is mentioned as 
grown in gardens by Camerarius, 1586, and by very many of the 
other botanists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; is 
described by Ray? in 1686 as cultivated in England, and not dif- 
fering from the wild plant except in size and in the other accidents 
of culture. Townsend,‘ in 1726, says the seed is now “ in all the 
Seedsmen’s Bills, tho’ it is seldom in the Gardens.” It is de- 
scribed and figured by Vilmorin’ among French vegetables. 
During the three hundred years in which we find it pictured, we. 
find no evidence of any essential changes produced by cultivation. 

The names in the European languages are,—English, duckshorn 
plantain, star of the earth; in France, Corne-de-serf, courtine, 
pied-de-corbeau, pied-de-corneville ; in Germany, hirschhorn salat ; 
in Flanders, veversblad, hertshoorn ; in Italy, corno di cervo, coro- 
nopo, erba stella; in Spain, estrellamar, cuerno de ciervo. By the 
ancient botanists, Coronopus, Cornu cervinum, and Herba stella. 


Bunias. Sunias orientalis L. 


The young leaves and shoots are rather recommended by Vil- 
morin either as a salad or boiled. It is named by Tournefort 
Crambe orientalis, dentis leonis folio, erucaginis facie. Vilmorin 
gives its native country as Western Asia. I do not know of its 


De appearance in American gardens 


It is called in England 7% PE Rocket; in France, Bunias 
@ Orient, 


Burpock. Arctium lappa L. 
The use of the succulent stems of the Burdock as a spinage 


ae * Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883. Jorun, Epit., 1586, 276. | 
: aerate a ownsend, Seedsman, 1726, 18, 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 443 


is noted by many authors, as by Ray? in England in 1686, and 
Bryant? in 1783, as also by Gerarde? in 1633. Kalm,* before 
1770, records the use of the tender shoots as a salad in the 
region about Lake Champlain, and Bretschneiders the use of 
the roots and tender leaves in China in the fourteenth century. 
It remains for Japan to cultivate it as a common vegetable. “ This 
root,” says Kizo Tamari,° a Japanese commissioner to the New 
Orleans Exposition, “comes third in general estimation among 
our vegetables. It grows in some districts a foot in circumfer- 
ence and three feet in length, is soft and delicious. It will take 
a year to get such roots, but generally they do not exceed one 
inch and a half in diameter.” This is Japanese testimony; but 
Penhallow,? who spent a year or so in Northern Japan, says the 
roots are tasteless, hard, and fibrous. As grown at Geneva, 

.„ 1884, the testimony was not in favor of any desirable 
quality. It was introduced to Europe from Japan by Siebold,’ 
and the seed was offered in his trade list of 1856. 

In Japan it is called godo and uma busaki ;g in English, Edible 
Gobo; in France, Bardane geante a tres grandes feuilles ; in Ger- 
many, Japanische klettee ; in Italy, dappola.*° 

This long-cultivated plant presents no differences except in 
size from the neglected plant of our waysides and fence corners, 


Burnet. Poterium sanguisorba L. 


The young and tender leaves of the Burnet taste somewhat 
like a green cucumber, and are employed in salads. Itis rarely 
cultivated in the gardens, but occurs in all our books on garden- 
ing. Three varieties are described by Burr,—the Smooth-leaved, 
_ the Hairy-leaved, and the Large-seeded. This latter he deems 
but a seminal variation and a sub-variety only. The following 
synonymy seems clear: : 


Pimpinella S minor levis. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 
282. 


* Ray, Hist., 1686, 332. 2 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 55. 

3 Gerarde, Herbal, ong ol e 4 tyne Trav., 1770-71, iii. 21, 

5 Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 51. Am. Hort., Sept. 1886, 9. 

7 Penhallow, Am. = Feb. 1882, 120. 8 Siebold, Gard. Chron;, 1856, 300. 
9 Thunberg, Jap. 


zo Vilmorin, Les Pl, pee 1823, 28; The Veg. Gard., 1885, 234. 


+ 


444 History of Garden Vegetables. [May 


Poterium sanguisorba, var. B. Lin., Sp., 1411. 
Smooth-leaved. Burr, 1863, 319. 


H. 


Sanguisorba minor. Fuch., 1542, 790. 

Pimpinella and Bipinelia. Ang. Burnet, Ad., 1570, 320; Lob. 
obs., 1576, 412; ic; For. 718. 

Small or Garden Pimpernell, Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 152. 

Pimpinella minor, Lugd., 1587, 1087. 

Pimpinella sanguisorba minor hirsuta, Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, . 
282. 

Pimpinella vulgaris sive minor. Ray, 1686, 401. 

Poterium sanguisorba. Linn., Sp., 1411. 

- Hairy-leaved Burnet. Burr, 1863, 319. 

The garden culture of Burnet is implied in Lyte’s* name, 1586. 
Ray; however, a hundred years later, does not mention culture. 
In 1693,3 Quintyne grew it in the royal vegetable garden in 
France, and in 1726, Townsend‘? says it is “a good plant for 
Sallads,” and Mawe, in 1778, says it has long been cultivated 
as a salad plant; while Bryant,° in 1783, says it is so frequently 
¢ultivated in gardens that to describe it would be unnecessary. 
I find it recorded for American gardens in 1832, and it then 
was doubtless a long-known plant. It is now grown in the 
Mauritius. 7 

In France the Burnet is called pimprenelle petite ; in Germany, 
Sarten-pimpinelle ; in Flanders and Holland, pimpernel ; in Italy, 
Pam, selvastrello ; in Spain, pimpinela; in Portugal, pimpi- 

nella, 


g Lyte’s Dodoens, 1586, 152. 2 Ray, Hist., 1686, 401. 
-3 Quintyne, Comp. Gard., 1693. 4 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 33. 
5 Mawe, Gard., 1778. ê Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 107. ` 


ae :* Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 127. 
= (To be continued.) 


/ 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America, 445 


THE MESOZOIC AND CÆNOZOIC REALMS OF 
THE INTERIOR OF NORTH AMERICA. 


BY E. D. COPE.* 


N the following pages all the sources of information on the 
subject in hand have been Jaid under contribution. Chief 
among these are the reports of the United States geological 
survey of the Territories under F. V. Hayden, the United States 
geological survey of the fortieth parallel under Clarence King, 
and the United States geological survey west of the one hun- 
dredth meridian under Captain G. M. Wheeler, United States 
Engineers. The association of the author with the first and last 
named of these surveys ia the field, and the examination of large 
collections of vertebrate fossils made in the region reported on, 
furnish the opportunities in his Possession. 

The author does not recognize in the following pages a Qua- 
ternary division of geological time, but regards the present period 
as a continuation of the Cenozoic or Tertiary Realm, including 
all after the beginning of the glacial age under the name Plis- 
tocene, 
MESOZOIC REALM. 

This system is distinguished from the Palzozoic in, North 
America, as to the Vertebrata, as follows: 

Presence of Reptilia Dinosauria, Ichthyopterygia, Sauropte- 
rygia ? Pterosauria, Testudinata, and Lacertilia; presence of Mam- 
malia. Absence of Tunicata Antiarcha, Agnatha Arrhina, and 
Diplorhina,? of Pisces Placoganoidei, of Batrachia Ganocephala 
? Rhachitomi and Embolomeri,3 and of Reptilia Theromorpha.* 

From the Cenozoic system the Mesozoic differs in the presence 
of Reptilia Dinosauria, Sauropterygia, Ichthyopterygia; of Mam- 
malia Marsupialia Multituberculata ;5 and in the absence of Pisces 
Actinopteri, é Nematognathi, and Plectospondyli; of Aves Inses- 
sores, and Mammalia Diplarthra’ and Rodentia. 

* Read before the American Committee of the International Geological Congress 
at its meeting at Albany, April 6, 1887. The writer, previous to the adoption of the 
report of the proceedings of the committee for the previous year," objected to the 

of the word “ group,” as proposed by the Congress of Berlin, for the 
division of geological formations of first rank, and proposed to substitute the word 
“ realm” therefor; eg., the Archzan, Palzozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Realms, . 


446 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [ May 


The primary systems of the Mesozoic are four, viz.: 

Postcretacic, 

Cretacic, 

Jurassic, 

Triassic. 

TRIASSIC SYSTEM. 

The vertebrate fauna is characterized by the presence of Rep- 
tilia Belodontidz*® and Aétosauride, and of Mammalia Droma- 
theriidz ;9 also by the absence of Dinosauria Opisthoccela,? 
Orthopoda, Parasuchia,* and Eusuchia; of Batrachia Anura and 
Urodela; of Saurodont and of Physoclystous fishes. 

The division of the Trias into Muschelkalk and Keuper, so 
well marked in Europe, is not distinguishable in North America, 
our beds presenting the faunal characters of the Keuper or 
. upper Trias of that continent. They, however, present two 
divisions which are lithologically distinct in Nevada, to which 
Mr. King” has given the names Koipato for the lower and Star 
Peak to the upper. The latter is of marine origin, while the 
Trias of the Rocky Mountains and of the Atlantic slope is la- 
custrine. The Rocky Mountain Trias is exposed upturned along 
both the eastern and western slopes of north and south ranges, 
and the north and south slopes of east and west ranges. In 
Nevada it forms the mass of the Havalla, Pah Ute, and West 
Humboldt ranges. Its thickness is, according to King,— 


Colorado, east flank of n mountains 309 to 1200 
Nevada, Koipato bed 4000 to 6000 
- Nevada, Star Peak bed 10,000 


Triassic beds probably also occur in the Indian Territory.* 


JURASSIC SYSTEM. 

The vertebrate fauna is characterized as follows: 

Present: Reptilia Dinosauria Opisthoccela, Orthopoda, Meso- 
suchia; Testudinata Clidosterna; Ichthyopterygia Sauranodon- 
tide ;* Batrachia Anura; Mammalia ?Bunotheria Absent: 
Pisces Actinochiri, TRAE NTAN Percomorphi; Dinosauria 
Belodontidæ ; Reptilia Ch ecletsderes ;5 Aves Odontornithes ; 
: Mammalia Placentialia Ungulata, Creodonta, and Tillodonta. 
= * Triassic formations have not yet been detected in Texas, those recently referred | 

by Mr Hill of the United States Geological Survey to that age being the Permian 
of the Red River. Se ee 302.) 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America, 447 


The Jurassic bed constantly overlies the Triassic along the 
flanks of all the Rocky Mountain ranges, consisting of clays, 
shales, marls, and cherty limestones. In Colorado it has, accord- 
ing to King, a thickness of seventy-five to two hundred and fifty 
feet. It grows thicker westward, reaching seven hundred feet 
on the west flanks of the Sierra Madre, in New Mexico, and, 


according to King, consists in Nevada of— 
Feet, 
Slates 
Limestone 1500 to 2000 


The forms of vertebrates found apparently together at this 
horizon are represented in Europe by genera of different sub- 
divisions of the Jurassic. Hence it has not been possible to 
refer the Rocky Mountain beds to any of the latter, and Marsh 
has therefore designated them as the A//antosaurus beds2* 

A series of deposits lies between the Triassic and Cretaceous 
formations in the Middle Atlantic States, which have been sup- 
posed from the palzobotany to be of Jurassic age by Tyson”, 
What division, if any, of the European series they represent has 
not yet been ascertained, but they are regarded by Mr. McGee 
as belonging at the summit of the system. He names them the 
Potomac formation in an unpublished memoir.” . 


CRETACIC SYSTEM. 

Characteristics.—Presence of Saurodont® and Actinochirous 
fishes; of Reptilia Eusuchia, Testudinata Protostegide, Pro- 
pleuridæ, and Adocide ; of Aves Odontornithes. Absence of 
Pisces Ginglymodi** and Halecomorphi; of Reptilia Chorist- 
dera, Dinosauria Opisthoccela. 

This,formation has great extent piä thickness in North Amer- 
ica, and it displays a number of divisions, which differ both 
lithologically and faunally. These are the 
ills, 


Comanche. 
THE ComaNncHE has been recently named and described by 
Hill.7- It consists principally of limestones of varying character 


448 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [May ` 


which contain numerous marine invertebrata, which have been 
determined by White to represent a horizon of the Cretacic 
lower than the Dakota, and corresponding with some member of 
the Lower Cretacic of Europe. No vertebrates known. The 
formation is seen between the east and west Cross-Timbers of 
Texas, and the thickness is not givén. 

Tue Dakota? has not yet produced vertebrate remains, but 
abounds in plants which have, according to Lesquereux,”* the 
character of those of the Turonian or Lower Chalk of Europe, 
with an admixture of Miocene and recent types. Its beds con- 
sist of generally hard sandstone and conglomerate, and they 
occur almost everywhere along the flanks of the Rocky Moun- 
tain uplifts, forming distinct hog-backs. The thickness is from 
three to four hundred feet. 

Tue Benton.—These beds consist of dark-colored clays, more 
or less shaly, and have a thickness of from two hundred to four 
hundred and fifty feet. They contain vertebrate fossils, mostly 
fishes in poor preservation. The only vertebrate type observed 
in it which gives it character is a crocodilian reptile, with flat ar- 
ticular vertebral faces, provisionally referred to the genus Hypo- 
saurus.*5 The Benton formation is widely distributed, usually 
» present where the Dakota occurs, and lying conformably on it, 
and from its soft material, forming valleys. 

THE Niosprara.—Composed of harder and softer argillaceous 
limestones and chalky marls, varying from one hundred to two 
hundred feet in thickness.” The Niobrara is present with the 
-Dakota and Benton on the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, but 
has also a wide extent east and southeast of them, forming a 
large part of The Plains, and other large tracts in Texas.* It 
probably occurs in the valley of the Red River of the. North. 
It is a deep-water formation, and is very rich in fossils, verte- 
brate and invertebrate. Characterized as follows: 

Present: Pisces Isospondyli Saurodontide, and Actinochiri, 
Hemibranchi Dercetide;*7 Reptilia Sauropterygia with long 
nee Pythonomorpha, except Mosasaurus; Testudinata Pro- 

tostegidz ; Pterosauria Pteranodontide ; ** Aes Odontornithes. 
—— —— Crocodilia Proccela; Ryihenomore ait osasau- 


mete ig, ORE + 1...1 oe | 


x lays, and dark-colored 


; "Seepage 469 this mumber Awenicas NATURALIST. 


_ 1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 449 


marls, which lie conformably on the Niobrara beds both on the 
-flanks of the Rocky Mountains and on the northern parts of the 
Plains. Thickness (King), two hundred and fifty to three hun- 
' dred feet”? Represented in the East, according to Meek and 
Whitfield, by the lower green-sand marl of New Jersey, Dela- 
ware, etc. Invertebrate fossils very numerous; vertebrates less 
numerous in the interior basin, more so on the Atlantic slope. 
The predominant genera in the two regions are Mosasaurus and 
Elasmosaurus, the latter occurring also in the Niobrara. The 
distinctness of this horizon from the latter on grounds of verte- 
brate paleontology depends chiefly on the fauna of the Eastern 
beds. The distinctions are,— 

Presence of Reptilia Crocodilia Proccela; Pythonomorpha 
Mosasaurus.® Absence of Pisces Isospondyli Actinochiri ; Ptero- 
sauria Pteranodontidz ; Aves Odontornithes. 

It remains to be seen whether these differences will remain 
` under future investigation. 

Fox Hiits.—Formed of sandstones more or less argillaceous, 
varying in thickness from thirty feet (Cope), Montana, to fifteen 
hundred feet (King), Colorado, to three thousand to thirty-five 
hundred feet in Southwest Wyoming (King) The vertebrate 
fauna in the West is sparse, but in New Jersey it is very full. It 
is characterized in Montana by 

Presence of Pisces Holocephali * ; Haplomi (Ischyrhiza) ; Rep- 
tilia Pythonomorpha and Sauropterygia with short neck (Uro- 
nautes); 3* Crocodilia Proccela. 

In New Jersey it has the same characters, with the additions,— 

Present: Pisces Percomorphi Berycidz ; 3 Reptilia Testudinata 

ocidz and Pleurodira. Absent: Pisces Isospondyli Actino- 
chiri. 

Mr. King has combined the Benton, Niobrara, and Pierre into 
a single division, which he called the Colorado.” On palæonto- 
logical grounds there is as yet no more reason for uniting these 
without than with the Fox Hills group. If the Fox Hills is 
retained as distinct, the others should be also. However, future 
research may change the present aspect of the case. 

Total thickness of the Cretacic of the West, about four thou- 
sand nine hundred feet. 


450 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [ May 


POSTCRETACIC SYSTEM. 


This name was proposed and afterwards abandoned by White 
for the lacustrine formations which rest conformably on the upper 
beds of the Cretacic (Fox Hills), whose paleontology will not 
permit them to be ranged with the Cznozoic system. The Ver- 
tebrata are as follows: 

Presence of Pisces Ginglymodi and Halecomorphi; Reptilia 
Choristodera ; Mammalia Marsupialia Multituberculata. Absence 
of Pisces Isospondyli Saurodontidz and Actinochiri; of Reptilia 
Sauropterygia and Pterosauria. 

There are two well-marked epochs of the Postcretacic,—the 
Puerco and the Laramie 
_ Laramtre.—Present:3+ - Pisces Elasmobranchi Myledaphus ; 

Reptilia Dinosauria Goniopoda and Orthopoda. Absent: Mam- 
malia Placentialia. 

This formation has an immense extent on the morthers plains 
in the United States 35 and Canada; along the eastern flank of 
the Rocky Mountains, and on the western flanks of the same in 
New Mexico, and along the Lower Rio Grande in Texas and 
Tamaulipas.’ It consists of sandstones, marls, and lignite, whose 
base rests conformably on the Fox Hills beds of the Cretaceous, 
when the latter is present. Thickness: 


Feet, 
East flank of Rocky Mountains, Colorado (King) 3..........ssss000 1500 
Southwestern Wyoming (King) 5000 
Upper Missouri, Montana (Cope) 3 500 
Northwestern New Mexico (Baldwin and Cope) » 2000 


A formation has been observed along the Belly River, in Sas- 
katchewan, by the geological survey of the Dominion of Can- 
ada, which they call the Belly River.* It is overlaid by the 
Pierre, and would be placed in the system in accordance with 
this position between that formation and the Niobrara below it. 
But the flora and the fauna, vertebrate and invertebrate, are 
identical, or nearly so, with that of the Laramie. The expla- 
nation of this singular state of the evidence has not yet been 
reached. 


- EERS Mammalia Placentialia. Absent: Pisces 
Elas aeta ranchi ; Tapia Dinosauria Goniopoda and Ortho- 


The fauna of this horizon is well distinguished from that of 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 451 


the Laramie in the absence of the numerous Dinosauria of the 
latter, and the presence of numerous Placental Mammalia in the 
former. On these grounds I at first referred the formation to 
the Cznozoic series, but further reflection induced me to place 
it as now arranged. e reason is as follows: Although Pla- 
cental Mammalia are not now known otherwise from Mesozoic 
beds, the, other forms of the Puerco are especially Mesozoic in 
character. Such are the Choristodere Reptilia and the Multitu- 
berculate Marsupialia, neither of which occur above, while both 
occur below the Puerco, the Multituberculata down to the 
Trias inclusive. Then the Placentialia are entirely peculiar in the 
_ absence of the Diplarthra and of the Rodentia,» orders always 
found in the Cznozoic beds. Then the characters of the Con- 
dylarthra and Amblypoda and many of the Creodonta, which 
represent Tertiary types, are so peculiar that we are led to sus- 
pect that when the Cretacic Mammalia are fully known they 
cannot differ very widely from those of the Puerco. 

But one area of this formation is definitely known; this is in 
Northwestern New Mexico and Southwestern Colorado. It 
consists of sandstones and soapy marls, and has a thickness of 
eight hundred and fifty feet. It is immediately overlaid by the 
Wasatch Eocene, and rests on the Laramie. 

TOTAL THICKNESS of the Mesozoic system (greatest) : 


Feet. 

1 I 6,000 

Turassic 6,000 
Cretacic 4, 

steretacic. 5,8 50 

31,750 


CÆNOZOIC REALM. 
This Realm is distinguished from the Cretacic, as well as from 
the Mesozoic formations as a whole, in North America by the 


=, following peculiarities. In Vertebrata: 


By the prenes of ZATON Bank 
"i of Roden 
“ "a of Weikitópiik Fishes. 
ád ‘a of Plectospondylous Fishes. 
“ _. of Osteoglossid “ 
“ “ee haryn h 
“ absence of ston Ne ees ap eG 
* «of Orthopod and Goniopod Dinosau: 
s "a AE aka Reptilia. 


* 


452 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America, [ May 


The primary systems of the Caznozoic Realm are 

Plistocene, 

Pliocene, 

Miocene, 

Eocene. Ve 

Although open to conviction, I have not perceived the neces- 
sity for the term Oligocene for a supposed system between the 
Eocene and Miocene. In America the faunal distinction between 
the latter is so marked as to render a third name, for the present 
at least, unnecessary. 

The characteristic features of the faunz of these divisions are 
as follows: 

Eocene.—Mammatia. Presence of Tillodontia, Tzniodontia, 
Mesony chide, Amblypoda, Condylarthra, and Lophiodontide. 
Absence of Carnivora, Ruminantia,* Proboscidia, Leporidz, Pa- 
læotheriidæ (and Anthropomorpha Europe). Pisces. Presence 
of Osteoglossida and Gonorhynchide. 

Mi0cene.—Mammalia. Presence of Carnivora, of Rhinoce- 
rontide, Leporidz, Ruminantia,* and of Edentata. Absence of 
Tillodonta, Tzniodonta, Amblypoda, and Condylarthra. i 

PLIOCENE.— Presence of extinct families of Mammalia: Casto- 
roididæ, Glyptodontidæ, Megatheriidæ, and Eschatiidæ, and of 
extinct genera, as Holomeniscus and Hippotherium. 

PLISTOCENE.—Mammalia. All families are recent and most 
of the genera; many species also recent. 


EOCENE SYSTEM. 
The Eocene formations of the interior of North America are 
as follows :43 
Uinta, 
Bridger, 
-~ Wind River, 
Wasatch. 


These formations are cany successive in their relations. 
There are two others, contemporary with one or more of these, 
whose characters are due to physical causes. They are the 

 Amyzon beds, 
| 2 ae eg shales. ; 

i They differ from each other in the following faunal peculiarities 
‘ a * Le. , quadritubercular Selenodont Artiodactyla. 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 453 


WasaTcH.—Mammalia. Presence of Tæniodonta, Condy- 
larthra, and Pantodonta. Absence of Tillodonta, Dinocerata, 
Palæosyops, Hyrachyus, Amynodon, Achænodon, Triplopus, 
and suilline and selenodont Artiodactyla. 

This formation is characteristic of the region between the 
Rocky Mountains proper and the Wasatches, and has three 
principal areas. The most southern is in Northwestern New 
Mexico; the middle tract is in Southwestern Wyoming and 
Northeastern Utah ; the third tract is in Northwestern Wyoming, 
on the Big Horn River. 

Feet. 
Thickness in Northwestern New Mexico (Cope) 2500 
Thickness in Southwestern Wyoming ( Hayden) e 1500 
Thickness in Northwestern Wyoming (Wortman) 4000 

Winp River.s—Mammalia. Presence of Condylarthra, Tæ- 
niodonta, Pantodonta, Dinocerata, Palzosyops, and Hyrachyus. 

This fauna indicates the transition between the Wasatch and 
Bridger, since types are here associated which are elsewhere 
peculiar to the two horizons named. Thus, of the above zoolog- 
ical divisions the following are exclusively, Wasatch: Tænio- ` 
donta and Pantodonta. The remaining ones are Bridger, except- 
ing the Condylarthra, which probably occurs in beth Bridger 
and Wasatch. 

This formation is known from one area, which is on the head- 
waters of the Wind River, near the middle of Western Wyoming. 
The formation is, according to Hayden, not less than five thou- 
sand feet in thickness, 

Near the horizon of the Wind River beds must be placed the 
Green River Shales. This formation intervenes between the 
Wasatch and Bridger beds in Southwestern Wyoming, and differs 
entirely from both in lithological and palzontological characters. 
It consists of more or less finely-laminated calcareous or cal- 
ig oie ments: Be nave a depth of two thousand feet. 
been fine, indicating deep and still 


I 


2 = water. The Vertebrata obtained are almost exclusively fishes, 


two species of Crocodiles being the only exceptions. The fishes 
are clearly of Eocene character, and embrace some types (Gono- 
rhynchidz, Osteoglosside, and Chromididz) now restricted to 
the Southern Hemisphere faunæ.* Two of these types, together 
with two other genera of fishes, occur in the Bridger beds; and 
the two last named (Clastes and Pappichtlys) are also found in 


454 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [May 


the Wasatch. A probable second locality of this formation is 
known in Eastern Utah, in the Wasatch Mountains. The forma- 
tion is known as the Manti beds.47 

Bripcer.—Mammatia, Presence of Tillodonta, ? Condylarthra, 
and Dinocerata, Hyrachyus, Palzosyops, Amynodon, Triplopus, 
and Achznodon. Absence of Tzniodonta, Pantodonta, and 
selenodont Artiodactyla. 

Two divisions of this formation are sustained by Scott. These 
have been named the Bridger and Washakie respectively by 
Hayden, The former is represented by a single area, which is 
west of Green River, in Southwestern Wyoming. The latter is 
also known from but one area, which is also in Southwestern 
Wyoming, but is east of Green River. These divisions differ in 
the species they contain, very few, according to Scott, being 
common to the two. Amynodon is the only genus which in the 
Bridger seems to be confined to the Washakie division ; perhaps 
Triplopus has the same distribution. 

Another tract of the Bridger formation is known from Western 
Colorado, but to which of the two above divisions it is referable 
is unknown. 

The depth of the Bridger proper is, according to King, two 
thousand five hundred feet. I have given that of the Washakie 
as about twelve hundred feet. 

Uinta.—Mammatlia. Presence of Amynodon and Selenodont 
Artiodactyla. Absence of Pantodonta and Dinocerata (Scott). 

The facies of this fauna is more modern than that of the 
Bridger, and is clearly intermediate between it and that of the 
White River. One area is known, which is south of the Uinta 
Mountains, in the northeastern part of Utah. The thickness of 
the beds is not great, according to King.#9 

Amyzon Beps.’°—The exact horizon of this formation is not 
yet determined, but it is probably at the close of the Eocene or 
the opening of the Miocene. It is almost exclusively known 
palzontologically from fossil fishes, and these can be com 
with those of the Green River shales. The characters are; 
Presence of Catostomide, Siluridz, and Trichophanes, Absence 
of Osteoglosside, Gonorhynchidz, and Chromidide. , 
_ The only point of affinity with the Green River fauna is the 
Presence of Trichophanes, which is nearly related to Amphi- 
plaga of the latter. | | ees 


s 


188 7] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 455 


There are three widely-separated localities of this formation. 
One is in the South Park of the Rocky Mountains, Colorado, 
another at Elko and Osino, in Northeastern Nevada, and the 
third is in Central Oregon, where it lies, according to Condon 
immediately below the John Day formation. 

MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE Eocene Formations.—Where the 
Bridger beds rest on the Wasatch, which I only know to be the 
case in the Washakie basin, in Wyoming, they are conformable. 
The Uinta beds are, on the contrary, not conformable to the 
Bridger beds, according to King. The relations of the Wind 
River beds to the Wasatch remain undescribed. 


, 


MIOCENE SYSTEM. 


The formations of the Miocene in the interior of North Amer- 
ica are the following: 

Loup Fork, 

Ticholeptus, 

John Day, 

White River. 

These horizons represent succession in time. A formation 
whose relation with the Loup-Fork epoch is yet uncertain has 
been named “ The Dalles.” 5? The four series each possess well- 
marked faune, whose distinguishing features are enumerated 

ow. 

Waite River.—Vammalia. Presence of a few Lemuroidea (?) 
and Creodonta, Amynodon.(Scott and Osborn), Hyracodon, Cryp- 
- toproctide, Poébrotheriide, Tragulidz, Elotheriidz, and Meno- 
dontide. Absence of Felidæ, Ursidæ, and Rodentia, except 
_Sciuridz and Leporidz ; of Camelidz, Equidz, and Proboscidia.33 

There are three areas of this formation. The most extensive 
is the most southern, and occupies a large tract along the White 

River, in Northern Nebraska35 and Southern Dakota, and ex- 
tends westward into Wyoming and southwestward into North- 
eastern Colorado. The second is much smaller, and is situated 
in Central Dakota, two hundred miles north of the nearest 
point of the southern tract.5* The northernmost White River 
formation is in Soutlfern Canada, in the district of Assiniboia, 
and is intermediate in extent between the two previously-men- 
tioned areas.55 Some faunal differences have been noticed be- 
tween these areas, which may be due to geographical distribution, 


456 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [ May 


imperfect observation, or slight difference of age. Thus, in the 
Central Dakota area, Hyznodon, Hyracodon, and Poébrothe- 
rium have not yet been found. In the Canadian tract57 neither 
of these forms has been found, and a genus of Creodonta (Hemip- 
salodon) is as yet peculiar to it. The thickness of the beds is 
as follows: ; 


Feet. 
Nebraska (Hayden) 5 i ; 150 
Central Dakota (Cope) 200 


The White River series corresponds to the Oligocene of some 
authors. Thus there occur in both Europe and America at this 
period the genera Elotherium, Hyænodon, Cynodictis, Ischy- 
romys (= Sciuromys teste Schlosser in litt.), ? Pterodon (? Hemip- 
salodon teste Schlosser in litt.), and Agriochcerus (? Haplomeryzx). 
Other European Oligocene genera occur in the John Day series, 
as Meniscomys (= Sciurodon teste Schlosser in litt.) and (? = Ael- 
urogale) Archzlurus (Schlosser in litt.). 

Jous Day.—Mammatlia. Presence of Nimravidz, Poébrothe- 
riide, Tragulide, Elotheriide, Suide, Muridæ, and Saccomyide. 
Absence of Lemuroidea and Creodonta; of Hystricide, Felidz, 
Ursidz, Camelidz, Equidz, and Proboscidia.53 

This formation occupies a considerable tract on the upper part 
of the course of the John Day River in Oregon. King states 
that it extends north into Washington and south into Nevada, 
but, according to White, the beds from the latter State, to which 
King gave the name Truckee, are of later age. According to 
Marsh the John Day beds have a thickness of four or five — 
thousand feet. The vertebrate fauna is very rich. 

The beds in the valley of the North Fork of the John Day 
River present some faunal peculiarities, but their significance is 
unknown.? 

TicHo.ertus.°—Mammalia. Presence of Anchitherium, Pro- 
boscidia, and Camelidz, and the Oreodont genera Merycochcerus, 
Merychyus, Cyclopidius, and Pithecistes. Absence of ? Elothe- 
` riidæ, ? Poébrotheriidz, ? Nimravidz, and Cosoryx. 

This horizon requires further exploration, as but twenty species — 
have been thus far determined from it. But it is evidently inter- 
mediate in age between the John Day and Loup Fork epochs, 
with greatest affinities to the latter.© It differs from the latter 
in the presence of Anchitherium and numerous genera and 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 45> 


species of Oreodontidz, and in the absence of Cosoryx. Th 
formation is known from three regions: first, from Western Ne. 
braska; second, from the valley of Deep River, Montana; anq 
third, from Cottonwood Creek, Oregon. Its thickness has not 
yet been stated. 

Loup Forx.—Mammalia. Presence of Felidae, Camelida 
Equide, Proboscidia, Cosoryx, Glyptodontidz, and Hystriciday, 
Absence of Tragulidz, Oreodontidz (with very few exceptions), 
Poébrotheriide, Elotheriidz, and Nimravide. 

This formation has a wide extent throughout North America, 
The largest area overlies the White River® beds in Nebraska, 
Wyoming, and Colorado,” extending south and east of that for. 
mation into Kansas, where it rests on the Cretaceous. There iş 
a second area in Northern Central New Mexico, and one per. 
haps in Southern New Mexico, extending from the Rio Grandę 
to near the Arizona border.s There is another tract in Wash. 
ington County, Texas ; and yet another in Mexico, on the bound, 
aries of the states of Hidalgo and Vera Cruz.% According to 
King its thickness in Wyoming reaches two thousand feet, but 
it thins out gradually to the eastward, so as to have a thickness 
on the White River of about one hundred and fifty feet, accord. 
ing to Hayden. 

This formation was referred to the Pliocene series by King anq 
Hayden, and I have called it Upper Miocene. The latter view 
is supported by the presence of the following European Mioceng 
genera and species: Cosoryx, Paleomeryx (= Blastomeryx); 
Castor div. Steneofiber; Mastodon (Tetrabelodon) angustidens, 
The remaining Oreodontide (Merychyus) give it a facies older 
than Pliocene. 

This series has received the name of Niobrara® from Marsh, 
a term previously applied to a division of the Cretacic. It in, 
cludes the Humboldt,” and probably the North Park formations 
of King.® 

PLIOCENE. 

Under this head I include everything between the Miocene anq 
the glacial epoch. It includes the following divisions. Two of 
them are consecutive in time, viz. : 

Equus beds, 

Idaho. 


VOL. XXIL—NO. 5. 31 


458 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. [ May 


Two others are probably contemporary with one or both of 
the preceding, so that the names have only a provisional utility. 

Megalonyx beds. 

Truckee. 

IpaHo.°—Present : Mammals, Camelidz, Eguus excelsus; Fishes, 
Cobitidz, Percide, Siluridæ, Raiide, Mylocyprinus (Cyprinide), 
and peculiar species of existing genera of Cottidz, of Salmon- 
ide, Catostomidz, and Cyprinidae Absent: mammals, E/ephas 
primigenius, etc. 

ammalian fauna of this epoch is little known, owing to 
the rarity of remains. Its characters may be chiefly learned 
from the numerous fresh-water fishes it contains, by which it may 
be compared with the Equus beds, which also contain many 
fish remains. But one area of this epoch is known. It covers 
the southern part of Western Idaho, entering Eastern Oregon. 

TruckEE.—The typical locality of this formation is the Kaw- 
soh Mountains in Western Nevada. The formation was supposed 
‘by King to be identical with the John Day Miocene, but Dr. C. A. 
White informs me that it is of much later age. Vertebrate remains 
have been found, but have not been fully determined. Thickness 
(King), two thousand three hundred feet.” 

Equus Beps.”"—Present: Glyptodontide (Mexico), Megathe- 
riidez, Eschatiide; extinct genera, Holomeniscus, Mastodon 
(Mexico), Smilodon (Texas); extinct species, Elephas primi- 
genius ; Equus, four species; Lutra, Cervus, etc.; recent species 
of Thomomys, Arvicola, Castor, Canis,? Homo. Absent: Coso- 
ryx, Oreodontidz, Protolabididz ; Raiidz, Cobitidæ, Mylocypri- 
nus, and the fishes of the Idaho beds in general ; Castoroides and 
Amblyrhiza.” 

The- localities of this formation are widely distributed. In 
the presence of various extinct forms, above mentioned, it 
agrees with the Pampean fauna of South America, but differs 
in the presence of the northern existing genera and species 


with the extinct Elephas primigenius. The Argentine forms drop 


off successively as we travel northwards. Thus, Macrauchenia 
ceases in Bolivia, Toxodon in Nicaragua (Leidy), Glyptodon in 
the valley of Mexico (Barcena), where Elephas primigenius com- 
mences. Where the line should be drawn between the Pampean 
and Equus beds I do not know, but we can arbitrarily assume it 
to be the line of distribution of the Elephas primigenius. This will 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. EOT 


include the fauna of the valley of Mexico, which has also other 
forms common to the more northern areas. Such are four species 
of Equus, —one of Bos, one of Eschatius, one of Holomeniscus 
(Camelidæ), and one of Platygonus. 

The areas of the Equus beds are, then, the valley of Mexico,” 
Southwest Texas, Carson, Nevada,’ near Fresno, Southern 
California, the Oregon Desert, Western Nebraska,:and prob- 
ably other localities. The beds are nowhere of great depth. 

The presence of Homo in the beds of this epoch in Oregon 
was indicated by me in 1878.77 This discovery has been con- 
firmed by the discovery of obsidian implements in place, in 
Western Nevada, as affirmed in a recent publication” of Mr. G. 
K. Gilbert of the United States Geological Survey in Nature. 
This gentleman has expressed the belief that the beds of this 
age are not older than the glacial epoch, because they embrace 
the bases of some of the moraines of some of the ancient glaciers 
of the Sierra Nevada. It remains to be proven, however, that 
these moraines are of true glacial age, since they are of entirely 
local character. The presence of so many mammals of the fauna 
of the valley of Mexico would not support the belief in a cold 
climate. 

Tue Mecaonyx Bens. —This formation is chiefly represented 
in the caves of the Eastern States. Its fauna is as follows: Present: 
Megatherium, Mylodon, Megalonyx, Castoroides, Amblyrhiza, 
Anomodon, Arctotherium, Smilodon, Platygonus, Mastodon, of 
extinct genera ; and of recent genera, Sciurus, Arctomys, Jaculus, 
Arvicola, Erethizon, Hydrochcerus, Lagomys, Lepus, Scalops, 
‘Procyon, Canis, Mustela, Equus, Tapirus, Dicotyles, Cariacus, 
Bos, Didelphys. Absent: Glyptodontide, Eguus crentdens, occi- 
dentalis, and ġarcenæi; Eschatiide, Holomeniscus. 

It is not certain that this fauna does not owe its peculiarities 
to geographical causes only, and was not entirely cotemporane- 
ous with the epoch of the Equus beds. Its relations to that of 
the glacial epoch are not yet fully defined. 


PLISTOCENE SYSTEM, 
; . e . Ap re 
This system is represented by but few deposits in the interior 
of North America. Therefore it is touched on but lightly in 
this report. The consecutive epochs which it embraces are the 
following : 


460 Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. {May 


Later Glacial, 

Champlain, 

Early Glacial. 

The faunz of these periods have not yet been discriminated. 
As the Champlain was a time of submergence, the species of 
marine vertebrata may be properly attributed to it. Characteris- 
tics of the Plistocene fauna are the following: Present: Mastodon 
americanus, Cervalces americanus, Beluga vermontana, Trichechus 
rosmarus, Rangifer tarandus, Ovibos bombifrons, Bos americanus, 
? Felis atrox, Canis lupus, Ursus horribilis, Mallotus villosus. 
Absent: Megatheriidæ, Tapirus, Dicotyles, Platygonus, Ambly- 
rhiza, Arctotherium, Smilodon. 

The localities at which fossils of the glacial epoch occur are 
scattered over the entire continent east of the Plains, and their 
equivalents occur of course over the west. Many questions of 
exact contemporaneity of these different beds are as yet un- 
settled. 

TOTAL THICKNESS of the Cænozoic Realm: 


r Fi 
Eocene 12,000 
Miocene 7,000 
Pliocene ? 1,000 
Plistocene ? 1,000 
21,000 


AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCES. 


. The Work of the BEA Congress of Geologists, and of its Committees. 
pika by the American Committee; Dr. P. Frazer, Secretary, 1886. 
2, Cope: American Tilil, Danni 1886. 
3- Cope: Zbid., 1884, p. 
pe: phos eed. Ss clan Philosoph. Society, 1880, p. 38. 


Cope: Jbid., p. 687. 

6. Cope: F tes Report U. S. Geol. Survey Territories, ii., p. 244 A. 

7. Cope: Jdid., iii., p. 379. 

8. Cope: Proceedings Academy Philada., June, 1866. 

9. Osborn: Proceedings ee erican Philosophical Society, April, 1887. 

to, Marsh (Sauropoda z mer. Journal Sci. Arts, 1882, p. 83; Cope: Proceed, 
pensi Phila., 1883, p. 9 

11. Huxley.: Quarterly tes Geolog. Society, 1875, p. 427. 

52, A U. S. Geol. curv rvey goth Parallel, i., p. 269, 1878. 

13. Marsh: pens Four. Sci. Arts, ce sg 28. 

14. Marsh: /did., 1878, p. 459; 1887, 

15. Cope: Proceed. ee Soren es oe p. 350; Report U. S. Geological 

Survey Seer ili. p. 1 
_ 16. King: U. S. Geol. ee on Parallel, i., 1878, p. 295. 


1887] Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. 461 


17. Tyson: Report of the Geological Survey of Maryland. 
18. McGee: U. S. Geol. Survey, 1887 (unpublished). 
19. Cope: Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., ii., en p» 183. 
20. Marsh: U. S. Geol. Survey 4oth Parallel, vo 
21. Cope: Proceed. Amer. Assoc. Adv. eae 1yr. 
22. Hill: Amer. Journal Sci. Arts, 1887, p 
23. Meek and Hayden: Proceed. Academy Pili, 1857, May. 
24. Report U. S. Geol. Survey Pr vols. vi. and v 
25. Cope: Jéid., ii., 1875, p 

. Cope: American pba ae ri hs 469. 
27. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey Terrs. Sidhe 36. 
28. Marsh: Amer. Four. Sci. pris ” 1896, 


w+ 
pe: Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., v., 1879, p. 36. 
31. Cope: Jbid., iii., 1877, p. 568. 
pe: bid., cas 1875, p. 272. 
33. Cope: /did., v., 1879, pp. 38, 50; Saget Rendus Stenogr. du Congr. In- 
ternat. de Geologie Paris, 1878; 1880 
. Cope: Bulletin U. S. Geol. Susvey mee -» 1877, iii., p. 572. 
ca tayda: U. S. Geol. Survey of Nebraska, 1872. Ma 
36. G. M. Dawson: B. N. A. Boundary Commission, 1875, | pp- 152, 192. 
37. White: Amer. Journ. Sci. Arts, XXV., p. 207, 1883; 1. c., 1887, 18. 
38. King: U. S. Geol. Survey goth Parallel, i., 1878, p. 331. 
39- ae: American Naturalist, 1885, p. 985. 
40. Marsh: Amer, Sate . Sci. Aris, a 
the Cope: S. Geogr. l. Sur y We oot North Mer., 1877, iv., pt. Verte- 
a, Pity: gon U. S. Geol. oe Terrs., iii., 1885, p. 4; American Nat- 
roby 1882, 
Cope: aoe Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1882, p. 461. 
43. King: U. S. Geol. Survey goth Parallel, i., 1878, p. 360. 
44. Hayden: Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1871, p. 350; Cope: Zbid., 
iii., He P- 6; Vermilion poa group of King, l. c., i., p. 360. 
45- yden: Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1878, Pt. I., p. 259; Cope: 
Bull. + S. Geol. Survey Terrs., vi., 183. 
46. King: U. S. Geol. Surv. 4oth Parallel, 1., 1878, D- 379; 
47. Cope: Proceed. Amer. Philos. p. 61. 
48. Cope: Bulletin U. S. pot pa ay pig p p- ae Memoirs Natl. 
Academy Sciences, 1886-7. 
49. Report U. S. Geol. Survey goth Parallel, 1878, p. 405. 
50. Cope: Amer. Naturalist, 1879, May; Proceed. Amer. Philos. Society, 1880, 
p. 61. 
51. King: Report U. S. Geol. Survey 4oth Parallel, say P- 407. 
52. Condon: Pronet. pa Philosoph. Society, 1880, p. 61. : 
53. Cope: Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., 1879, a Cepa , 
54. Cope: Proceed. Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1883, p. 216. 
55. American Naturalist, SANA 163. 
56. Hayden: Leidy’s Extinct Mamm. Dakota and Nebraska, Pp- 13-16, 1869. 
57. McConnell: Annual Sass rt Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Canada, A. R. C. Sel- 
wyn, Dir., new series, i., 1885, C., p. 68. 
58. U. S: Geol. Survey goth Parallel, i., p. 413. 


462 Editors’ Table. [May 
59. Proceed. of Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1884, p. 572. 


61. ay Leidy’s Extinct Mamm. Dakota and Soa ta pp- 13-15. 
62. Cope: Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., 1873, p. 

63. Cope: nus ii., 1875, p: 19; Bulletin U.S Go Bese Ter, i p. 382. 
64. Cope:. Report U. S. Geogr. Geol. Survey W. of rooth Mer., iv., Pt. IL, p. 21, 
877 


I 

Proceed. Amer. Philosoph. Society, 1883, p. 308. 

66. King: U. S. Geol. Survéy goth Parallel, i., p. 425. 

67. King: Zbid., P. 439, 1878. 

68. King: Jid., P. 431. 

69. Cope: Proceed. Academy Philadelphia, 1883, pp. 135, 153- 

70. Hag U.S. Geol. pa W. of tooth Mer., i., 9 1808, p-- 412; White: Pro- 
ceeds, Nat. Museum, v., P. 9 

71. Marsh: Origin and AREE of Life in, North America, Amer. m Sci, 
pri 1377, D- 337- 
2, Cope: GU. S. Geol. Survey Terrs., 1879, V., P 47-8. 

73. Cope: Proceed. Amer. Philosoph. iS PEE 

74. Cope: Biocon Naturalist, 1885, p. 

75. Cope: A 1882, p. 195. 

76. palin U.S . Geo kan rvey Terrs., 1878, p. 388. 

77. American Naturalist, 1878, p. 125; 1883, p. 70. 

78. pe 1887, Mar 

79. Sp: Proceed, pra Philosoph. Society, 1885, p. 

80. Dawson: Geology and Resources of the sii eos 1874, P- an 
Gone : Report ra Survey Cansda, A. R. C. Selwyn, 1885,i., Rept. C., p. 

81. . Journ. Sci. Arts, 1877, p. 337; 1878, p. 411. sk sare 
beds of oe Bull. U. s. Gek Survey Terrs., v., 1879, p. 35. 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. 


To the student of natural science to-day a knowledge of 
German has become all-important. He must read the pro- 
ductions of our Teutonic cousins. Possibly next in importance 
of foreign tongues comes French, but there are many others of 
which one must have at least a smattering. There is, however, 
a limit to the linguistic attainments of the student of science, 
and soon some International Scientific Congress will have to 
decide the question of what language or languages shall be 
recognized. Every year sees the establishment of new journals 
in what might be termed “ outlandish” tongues. The languages 
of Scandinavia are bad enough, but what shall we do with-the 
facts buried in Russian, Fk Polish, Bohemian, and Hin- 


1887] Recent. Literature, 463 


garian treatises? Are they to be ignored? or must we all 
become polyglots? The writer recently asked an eminent Ger- 
man professor if he read Russian. His answer states the whole 
question. “No. Ifsome stupid writes his descriptions in Japanese, 
must I thereupon study Japanese ?” It is time to cry a halt in this 
direction. The possibility of a literature of science in Japanese 
is not so remote, unless there be some universal agreement in 
regard to the language in which scientific discoveries must be 
clothed in order to claim early recognition. 

We do not know the merits of “ Volapük” as a medium of 
scientific publication, but we suggest that the time is at hand 
when that or some other common language will have to be 
formally adopted by scientific authors. 


Dr. T. N. Git writes an article for the Forum (of New York) 
on the possible existence of a sea-serpent. He regards as unre- 
liable most of the stories of its alleged appearance, but says that 
if existing, it is more likely to be a snake-like Cetacean or shark 
than anything else. In the succeeding number, Professor R. A. 
Proctor, the astronomer, asserts the strong probability that the 
sea-serpent exists, and that, if so, it is likely to prove to bea 
remaining species of the Mesozoic saurians. If Professor Proc- 
tor were as good a zoologist as he is an astronomer, he would 
perceive that this supposition is quite outside the range of sci- 
entific probability, and that those of Professor Gill are much 
more likely to prove true. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Wortman on the Teeth of the Vertebrata."—We have in this 
ograph a work which students of odontography will find it to 


enable him to present the latest results of research among the ex- 
tinct as well as the recent Vertebrata. The subject is approached 
by analytic tables of the systematic arrangement of the various 
divisions of this branch of the animal kingdom. In the history 
of the origin of teeth he has sought ie latest embryological 
works, and gives us a well-digested account of the results. He. 


z Comparative Anatomy of the Teeth of the Vertebrata. By J. L. Wortman, M.D. 
Reprinted from The American System of Dentistry. Pp. 153. 1886. 


\ 


464 Recent Literature. [May 


advances a theory of dental succession which is opposed to the 
prevalent one, and which, as it appears to us, accounts better for 
the facts. It is thus stated (p. 500): “In the Batrachia and Rep- 
tilia there are many sets of teeth developed during the life of the 
individual, of which the first arises de novo, and all the succeed- 
ing ones are derived from that which precedes it. Altogether, 
I am disposed to regard the diphyodont mammalian dentition in 
the same light: those teeth which take their origin primarily 
from the epithelial lining of the mouth are strictly homologous 
with the first set of the lower vertebrates. This would include 
in the first set the deciduous incisors, canines, molars, and the 
first true or permanent molars. The second set of the batrachian 


nines, premolars, and second true molar. The third succession 
would be represented by the last molar of the diphyodont den- 
tition.” ; 

The monograph is well illustrated by wood engravings, 


Kedzie’s Gravitation, Solar Heat, and Sun-Spots.—Profes- 


attempts to account for the source of this energy. He regards 
it as the equivalent of the heat which is radiated from the suns 
of the universe into space in such prodigious quantities, which 


_* Solar Heat, Gravitation, and S By Prof . H. Kedzie. 8vo, 1886. 
SCG Ge e. 8vo, 


1887 ] | Recent Literature. 465 


Hence heat is thus changed at a proper distance from the sun. 
The only adverse criticism we have to offer to this theory follows 
Professor Kedzie’s assumption that the physical basis of universal 
` energy (the ether) is of infinite extent. If this be assumed, his 
other assumption, that it is fu// of energy, falls to the ground: 
it could never get full, and energy radiated into it would be truly 
lost and would never return. If, now, the ether be supposed to 
have a limiting boundary, Professor Kedzie’s theory has a much 
more certain basis, and, indeed, so far as regards the necessary 
return of energy, may be fully accepted. 

Professor Kedzie advances the theory that sun-spots are dy- 
namic shadows or regions of lower temperature. These are due 
to the diminution of the quantity of heat generated on the sur- 
face of the sun in consequence of the interception and appropria- 
tion as gravitation by the planets, of the energy returning to the 
sun from space.—C, 


Cope’s Origin of the Fittest." —Under the title of “ Origin 
of the Fittest” Professor Cope has collected into book form the 
various essays which he has published during the last twenty 
years upon the subject of evolution. During this time Professor 
Cope has won for himself a leading position among American 
naturalists, not only as an investigator, but as a thinker. To him 
is largely due the origin and growth of what is sometimes called 
the American school of evolution, or Neo-Lamarckism. It is in 
the essays embodied in the book before us that he has advanced 


of repetition and self-quotation. Published in this form, there 
cannot fail to seem a lack of unity. The reader finds difficulty 
in discovering any obvious thread to bind the essays into one 
book, and much of the interest and suggestiveness is lost thereby. 
Professor Cope promises us in the—let us hope not distant— 
future a systematic summary of the subject. But this book must 
be taken for what it is intended,—not as a separate publication 
or a connected summary, but simply as a collection of the writings 

or. * 


In the pages of this book may be found the views of the 
American Neo-Lamarckian school; for although it contains the 


* The Origin of the Fittest. By E. D. Cope, A.M., Ph.D. 8vo, November, 1886. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York. 


466 Recent Literature. [May 


views of others who have been associated with him in similar 


1. Darwin’s law of natural selection, or the survival of the 
fittest, is secondary to the question of the origin of the fittest; 
îe., variations. According to Darwin, organisms have an inhe- 
rent tendency to vary, and variations are fortuitous. 

2. Professor Cope denies any inherent tendency to vary. There 
are no tendencies except growth and heredity. 

3. Variations are due to 

(2) Physical and chemical effects of environment. 

(6) Use and disuse. The effect of use and disuse in the indi- 
vidual is plainly. seen, and can be shown in successive generations 
by palzontological evidence. 

c£) Consciousness implying effort producing motion. The 
object of the effort is to satisfy hunger or to give pleasure; the 
result is variation in the parts used. Sensibility is therefore an 
important factor in producing variation. 

e results of physical selection and of use and disuse are 
constant, those of natural selection more or less fluctuating. 

5. Separate groups may vary independently in the same or 
‘similar directions owing to the action of similar conditions. 

6. These features of variation appear usually in adults. But 
by acceleration they are inherited in younger stages. Embry- 
ology thus becomes crowded and many useless stages are 
skipped. By retardation variations may be inherited by later 
stages. 

Some of Professor Cope’s personal views most worthy of note 
are these: 


course room for great difference of opinion. The most important 
conclusions are those relating to physical selection and the effect 


PLATE XVI. 


PLATE XVII. 


Wk Bk ha thm 


aekre AAR E Sat oe 


$ 


a) al eee Recent Literature. 467 


most fundamental importance in producing the variations upon 


ut no one can read them without profit. 

nize that Professor Cope has attempted to answer a question 
lying below the law of natural selection. He has attempted to 
show why variations appear when they are needed and how it is 
that many animals may vary simultaneously in the same direc- 
tion. It is hardly time to pass judgment upon his views, but it 
certainly seems that the observations and suggestions embodied 
in this book remove many of the difficulties which have been 
found in the way of the descent theory when viewed from the 
stand-point of pure Darwinism. 


by Professor Cope heterology. Plate XVI. represents five types 
of the new world Iguanidz, and Plate XVII. as many of the 
old world Agamide —H.. W. Conn. 


species; they belong to the genera Pinus, Abies, Fagus, Liquid- 
ambar, Rhizomites, and Potamogeton. Several plants, referred 
to the Oligocene by Ludwig, are Pliocene. 

* Die Oberpliocaen Flora aus den Baugruben des Klaerbeckens bei Niederrad 


und der Schleuse bei Hoechst a. M. 47 pages, 4to, 4 plates. By Th. Geyler u. 
F. Kinkelin. Abhandl, d. Senckenberg. Naturforsch. Gesellsch., 1887. 


468 Gencral Notes. [May 


GENERAL NOTES. 
GEOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY. 


American Triassic Rhynchocephalia.—The reptilian genus 
Typothorax was described by the writer in 1875 in the Hook of 
Captain G. M. Wheeler to the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., from 

eculiar osseous dermal plates, which he found in the Taai 
a lands of New Mexico. Additional material recently ex- 
amined furnishes a-good deal of information as to the characters 
of this form, and indicates that its position is somewhere near to 
the genus Aétosaurus of Fraas, in the order Rhynchocephalia. 
This is an important addition to American palzontology, since 
undoubted members of this order have not been hitherto found 
on this continent, excepting perhaps the Champsosauride. 
pieces, which belong undoubtedly to the type species, 
Satay pha coccinarum Cope, include two ribs with corresponding 
ermal scuta, two femora, and some loose dermal scuta. There 
are tabiy other parts of the animal preserved. The ribs are 
remarkable for their wide expansion, so that their edges meet, 
forming a continuum; but they are not joined suturally. Each 
rib is overlaid by a band-like dermal scutum of similar length 
and width. The inferior face of one edge of the dermal scu- 
tum is bevelled so as to make a ga ping groove, while the 
plate and rib are obtuse and appressed at the opposite edge. 
T he 


adjacent pair of bones, thus forming an uninterrupted cuirass, 
as in the armadillo. The femur is curved, with a third trochanter 
and a bilobate external condyle. No distinct great trochanter. 
The dermal armature resembles that of Aëtosaurus, but differs 


of them in either genus. The surface of the scuta is sculptured 

20 shallow pits in Zypothorax coccinarum. The species is as 
as the Mississippi alligator. 

This, genus offers an interesting parallel in. the structure of its 


bryonic stages in that order. There ean be little doubt but that 
more complete korre of this genus and its allies will throw 
light on the origin of the order of Testudinata. 
It is important to observe that, like the Aétosaurus in Wiirtem- 
berg, the Typothorax accompanies the genus Belodon in the beds 
near the summit of the Trias.—£. D. Cope. - 


1887] Geology and Faleontology. 469 


Some New Teniodonta of the Puerco.—A right mandi- 
bular ramus from the upper beds of the Puerco formation in 
New Mexico indicates a species of Psittacotherium different 
from the two hitherto known (Hayden’s “ Report U. S. Geol. 
Surv. Terrs.,” Hi Bk. I, p. 196, 1885), and of larger size. 
One cutting anterior tooth (the ag hres external incisor) is 
preserved, and the alveolz of all the molars, with the entire 
second molar free from the jaw. These fragments indicate the 
most robust of all incisor-biters known, and an animal capable 
of doing great execution with the front teeth. The depth of the 
ramus at the symphysis is remarkable, equalling the length of the 
entire molar series p/us half the long diameter of the incisor. 
The long diameter of the incisor equals the space occupied by 
the anterior three molars; in P. mulifragum this oe covers 
but two molars. The enamel of the incisor is smooth; in P. mul- 
tifragum it is grooved. The premolar preserved is ilar to 
that of the P. multifragum in form, but is larger; it consists of 
an external larger and an internal smaller conical cusp an 
single compressed root; the m border of the enamel angu- 
lating upwards on each side. ength of entire me series, 

- .095 ; diameters of incisor,—anteroposterior, .028 ; transverse, 
50; 


transverse, .017; elevation of external cusp, . 
This species may be named EEES ARA odus 


The anterior part of the palate, with tw the characteristic 
teeth of the Pszttacotherium multifragum, pea a hiatus in our 
knowledge of the genus. powerful rodent-like incisor occupies 


the inner edge of the premaxillary bone. It is narrowed and 
produced posteriorly, but the enamel only covers a narrow part 
of each side besides the front, the entire surface being without 
angles. Enamel rugulose and delicately grooved. Posterior to 
this tooth is a diastema about as wide as its crown. This space 


whether truly such is uncertain. Its section is oval, and the 
ong axis is directed obliquely outwards and forwards. Its en- 
amel is delicately rugose and grooved, but a wide open channel 
‘on the anterior half of the external face is the most conspicuous 
peculiarity. The apéx of the crown is lost. No diastema be- 
hind this tooth. The e dimensions of this tooth are about those 
of the external incisor of Psittacotherium muttifragum, and the 
enamel is similarly marked.—£, D. Cope. 


Mr. Hill on the Cretaceous of Texas.—In our February 
number we referred to the reading of a paper by Mr. Robert 
Hill, of the United States Geological Survey, on the Cretaceous 
formations of Texas. In this paper Mr. Hill makes the impor- 
tant announcement of his discovery of a series of beds below the 


470 General Notes. [May 


Dakota formation, which fill the extensive hiatus which has 

hitherto existed in American geology in the region of the lower 

Cretaceous. The text of this paper having come to hand in the 

American Fournal of Science and Arts for April, further cin 
fo 


tions on it are possible. e formations discovered below the 
Dakota are referred to a single series, under the name of the 
Coma is is divided into,two divisio i eive 


new names; and these are again subdivided lithologically into 
five and four subdivisions respectively, several of which have 
been previously named by Marcou and others. The Comanche 
series is said to be “one of unbroken sedimentation and fauna 
continuity from base to top.” We fail to perceive, therefore, 
why they should be arranged in two divisions, each of which 
receives a new name, the more as no characters, faunal or litho- 
logical, are cited in support of them. 

n the same paper the Upper Cretaceous beds of Texas are 
reclassified, and the whole are arranged in an upper series, which 
includes the Cretaceous pany ee of the Gulf States. To this 
body of formations the name “ Gulf Series” is given. We must 
protest against the odei of this name also, not only be- 
cause no characteristic definition of the division is given, but 

€ 


taceous of the Atlantic States is sùsceptible of intercalation with 
the beds of the Gulf States, and the name “ Gulf Series” is not 
only inappropriate for them, but any name for them as a whole 
is unnecessary. is is because the Atlantic beds can be inter- 
calated with those of the interior of the continent. That some 

the Texan beds are identical with some of the latter is well 
known. Thus the Niobrara epoch is well represented in North-' 
ern Texas both by its well-known vertebrate fossils and its char- 
acteristic chalk, a fact apparently unknown to Mr. Hill. 

The Upper Cretaceous series is divided by Mr. Hill into four 
divisions, named respectively (beginning at the top) Navarro 
beds, Dallas Limestones, Eagle Ford Shales, and Timber Creek 
group. Of these the first two are probably identical with the 
Riply and Rotten Limestone beds of Mississippi and Alabama, 
and the Eagle Ford Shales are likely to prove to be the same as 
the Eutaw group of Hilgard, Tuomey, and others. The name 


sustained by any reasons, but, on the contrary, the writer refers 
to previous determinations by Shumard, without correction. 
‘here is enough good and new work indicated in this paper 
to satisfy the Doa of a discoverer, and to attract the at- 
tention and interest of geologists. But the author has failed to - 
appreciate the importance of observing the ordinary rules of 
nomenclature to a degree which is surprising.—. —E. D. Cope. 


1887] _ | Mineralogy and Petrography. 471 


MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY. 

Petrographical News.—A fe l 
have recently been described By Séhmidt? pie the dete side of 
the Central Alps in Switzerland. Near Iberg, in Canton Schwyz, 
a diabase porphyrite occurs cutting Eocene deposits. This por- 
phyrite presents all the characteristics of pre-Tertiary porphyrites. 
It offers another proof of the fact that texture in rocks depends 
more upon the conditions under which the rock magma solidified 
than upon the age during which it was erupted. The porphyritic 
crystals are oligoclase. Many of them consist merely of an outer 
shell of plagioclase substance, including material identical with 
that of the ground-mass. elaphyres from near Glarus contain 
olivine crystals, which have undergone the unusual alteration 
into bastite. essrs. Barrois and Offret3 have found that the 
rocks of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in Southern Spain are 
similar in many respects to those of the Ronda* Mountains. 
They consist principally of a series of highly-altered schists and 
limestones. The mica schists of this series contain in addition 
to their essential constituents the accessory minerals rutile, 
tourmaline, garnet, muscovite, kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite, 
and occasionally feldspar. Garnet and staurolite are among the 
oldest constituents, Their shattered condition shows that the 
rock in which they occur has been subjected to great pressure. 
The Cambrian schists of this region are divided into sericite 


rounding rock-masses. mong the Cambrian amphibolites is 
mentioned a variety ena glaucophane, with a Spaa 
blue tint instead, of a violet- blue color parallel to b. The c 
position of this. Siracoptant I is 
SiO, - AlO, FeO MgO CaO NaO  lossatred heat 
47-42 8.42 9.68 15.28 12.95 2.97 4.16 


——A dyke of diabase cutting the old red sandstone near Dum- 
barton, Scotland, is described by Lacroix as presenting a fine 
example of the existence in the same rock-mass of three distinct 

pes of structure,—the devitrified glassy, the porphyritic, and 
the ophitic, The analyses of several rocks from the neigh- 
borhood of Christiania, Norway, have recently been published.® 
The rocks analyzed are, with one exception, from the area occu- 


z Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin. 
2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc , 1887, i. 8. 


6 Jannasch, Ber. d. deuts. chen. ` Gesell., 1887, i. p. 167. 


472 General Notes. [May 


ied by the pradacite of Lang, and its contact zone. By com- 
parison of the composition of an unaltered slate with that of a 
hornfels produced by its alteration, 5 is seen that in this process 
water and carbon dioxide were driven off, and the ferric iron in 
_ the former was reduced to the BRON state in the latter. The 

brown mica of the hornfels contains 3.40 per cent. of titanic 
oxide. 


tes.—Although the interesting bodies known as light- 
statutes have been the subjects of numerous papers during 
the past century, it must be confessed that our knowledge in 
regard to them is not very extensive. The United States National 
Museum having recently become possessed of several fine speci- 
mens of the tubular varieties formed by lightning striking in loose 
sand, Mr. G. P. Merrill* has been enabled to s study these micro- 
scopically, and thus to add something to our previous knowledge 
of them. In all the cases examined the walls of the tubes con- 
sisted of glass, in which there were no traces of crystallization. 
Analyses of the glass and of the sand in which the fulgurites 
` are found and by the fusion of which they were produced, show 
that in every case the former contains more silica than the latter. 
The author argues that “had the lightning shown no selective 


—i.¢., to be a very poor conductor of electricity. It would then 
in consequence of this resistance become heated even to the 
point of fusion, while the better conductors would escape with 
little injury. The resulting glass would in this case have a 
higher percentage of = ces the surrounding sand. The 


sides County, Ill., yendi n Clarke: 


Loss on ignition SiO, Fe.0, .Al,O; CaO MgO K,O Na,O 
a Piai 0.33 9I 1.66 6.69 038 612 073 097 
Sand 1.01 84.83 9.88 £56 -013 L13 1.50 


The paper concludes with a very full bibliography of the subject. 


Mineralogical News.—A variety of the rare mineral carpho- 
coy ated is described by Lacroix? from the triassic cies of 
Macon {Saône-et-Loire}. It occurs as micaceous coatings 


Messe 2 United States National Museum, 1886, p. 83. 
2 Comptes us, ciii., 1886, p. 1037. 


1887] ` Mineralogy and Petrography. 473 


ai eon color on the walls of cavities and cracks. 


(e) 
— 
et 
D 
5 
=y 
= 
T 
O 
[e$] 
5 
jon 
= 
e g 
m 
5 
ea 
m 
w 
aa 


ina CE tube gives off 
water and sulphuric acid. Its composition is 
SO, = 30.18, P,O, = 2.72, Fe,O, = 48.52, H,O = 18 48. 


——RIn the same journal Gonnard? ene pleromorphs of 
quartz after fluorite. Curious blocks of milky quartz from St. 


but more frequently a piece of granite or a core of amorphous 
silica. Scattered through the blocks are found cavities of octa- 
hedral form, normal to the faces of which the quartz-fibres are 
arranged. Inside of the cavities are also occasionally little octa- 
hedrons of quartz with their faces parallel to the walls of the 


cavity. Several doubtful minerals have recently been exam- 
ined microscopically Lacroix.2 /terolite, which Dana 
supposed to be an altered lepidomelane, Lacroix found to be a 


mixture of several distinct minerals, of which the most impor- 
tant are a black mica anda strongly pleochroic pyroxene. In 


any other minerals which are usually found in eleolite syenites. 
Villarsite is shown to be merely a pseudomorph of chrysotile 
after olivine. Gamsigradite has the optical properties of horn- 
„blende, with a maximum extinction of 30° and pleochroism in 


rahedrite. He also describes hexagonal plates of ver which 
he thinks are orthorhombic crystals bounded by the planes 
OP, œP% and oP. ‘They are found in the clefts and druses of 
a quartz vein occurring on the contact between a lithium-mica 
_ granite and*a mica schist at the cde. Mine , Joachimsthal. 
connection with his work on mineral veins the same 

author? had occasion to examine the mica of the Schapbach 
gneisses and the augite of a diabase from near Andreasberg, 
Harz. In each he found a silver content of about 0.001 per 

z Comptes PR ciii., 1886, p. 1036. 2 Ib., civ., 1887, p: 97. 

3 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1887, i. P- 95- + Ib., p. ITE 

VOL. XXI.—NO. 5. 32 


474 General Notes. [ May 


The crystals of phenactte occurring at various localities 


phenacite from the Pike’s Peak region (as well as the amazon 
stone and smoky quartz from the same locality) is found in 
pockets in the neighborhood of the Crystal Peaks,? a chain of 
granite hills about fifteen to twenty miles northwest of Pike’s 
P e crystals from this place are usually small in size, the 
largest ever found measuring but 15 mm. in length. ost of 
the crystals are colorless, but those entirely imbedded in gangue 
have a faint wine color.——Mr. A. N. Alling3 has recalculated 
the physical constants for topaz from measurements of a crystal 
of this mineral from Thomas Range, Utah. The axial ratio as 
recalculated is a:b: = 0.5285 :1:0.47715. The optical 
angle, 2 V = 67° 18’; and the indices of refraction are P= 1.610. 
and y = 1.6176 for yellow light. 


Chemical Integration4—The author regards all chemical 
species known to us as units or integers produced by the iden- 
tification in volume, or, in other words, the integration of more 
elemental species. Rejecting the atomic hypothesis which he 
has long regarded as, in the language of J. P. Cooke, “a tem- 
porary expedient for representing the facts of chemistry to the 
mind,” the author designates the so-called molecular weights of 
species as their integral weights. They are, at the same time, 
equivalent weights, since they are the weights of equal volumes. 
The specific gravity at o° and 760 mm. of hydrogen gas, which 
is the unit of combining vedit, should, in his opinion, be made 
the unit of specific gravity for all species. The integral weights 
for gases and vapors are well known to be multiples. of this unit 
of specific gravity, and, believing the law of condensation by 
volume to be universal, the author conceives all liquid and solid 
species to be forme by the condensation or so-called polymen- 
zation of normal gaseous species often unknown to us. From 
this he concludes that the specific gravity of these liquids and 
solids should be calculated on the basis of hydrogen as unity. 
In this way the problem of the coefficient of condensation is 

solv e 

We had long Soe ana that the law of progressive series is 
also, ies that o umes, universal in chemistry, applying not 
only to related ere but to species differing in the pro- 

en. 


age a . Sci., xxxii., Feb. 1887, p. 130. 
2 W. B. one Bi 134. 3 Tb., xxiii., Feb. 1887. 
* Abstract of read before Nat. Acad. Sciences, . April 1 19, 1887. 


1887] Botany, 475 
in solid and in gaseous species, upon which several chemists 
have in late years insisted. 

The question of heterogeneous and of homogeneous differ- 


entiation or disintegration in gases is also discussed at length 


Miscellaneous.—By subjecting mixtures of zinc salts and 
sulphates of sodium or potassium to a high temperature Alex. 


_ cium, strontium, and barium carbonates crystallized as calcite, 

strontianite, and witherite. The first was accompanied by some 
aragonite. Lead carbonate crystallized as cerussite and hydro- 
cerussite, and cadmium carbonate formed little crystals corre- 
sponding to calcite. The same results were reached by heating 
solutions of the saline salts with ammonium carbonate at 140°. 
Brazilian zoaz possesses an electrical axis which does not 
correspond to any crystallographic axis——E. Cohen * has de- 
scribed pseudomorphs after the concretionary markasite occur- 
ring in the chalk at Riigen, Pomerania. The pseudomorphs 
are composed of a mixture of 9.88 per cent. silica, 11.93 per cent. 
_copiapite, and 78.19 limonite. 


BOTANY:.s 


mut in Oats.——Some recent experiments made at the New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station upon the smut ( Ustilago 
segetum) which affects the panicles of the oat are of such interest 


1 Comptes Rendus, civ., 1887, p. 120; Bull. d. 1. Soc. Chim. d. Paris, xlvii., Feb. 
1887, p. 146. 
2 Ib., ciii., 1886, p. 1083; Bull. d. J. Soc. Chim d. Paris, xlvii., Jan. 1887, p. 81 
3 K. Mack, Pogg. Annalen, 1886, No. 6, p. 153. 

4 Sitzb. d. Naturw. Ver. f. Neuvorpommern u. Rügen, 1886, 
5 Edited by Prof. CHARLES E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska. 


476 General Notes. [May 


that we reproduce here the substance of the account found in the 
fifth annual report of the station. 

After repeated observations it was found that the loss by smut 
the past year in an oat-field upon the station was about eight and 
a half per cent. The question of the transmission of smut from 
crop to crop was taken up. Seed was procured from a very 
smutty field in another county and sown upon plats of ground 
variously situated. The results were as follows: Plat A, 28.81 
per cent. ; plat B, 30.86 per cent. ; plat C, 11.68 per a ; plat D, 
21.49 per cent. The average for ‘all was 23.21 per 

Ten other plats were sown with seed from the same ‘field, but 
here the seed for each plat was treated with some substance sup- 
posed to be injurious to the spores of the smut. The results are 
given in the following table: 


Hours. Ee nr 
Plat E soaked in copper sulphate solution 17% 1.78 
ee E s é é 40 o 
"oD " iron sulphate solution 17% 16.51 
se H “ “6 se “ss 12. 15 
=e “caustic potash < 17% o 
Prg t sodium chloride * 17% 4.07 
ee n es potassic nitrate * 17% = =10,21 
-oL = cattle-urine 24 3:47 
MS cattle-urine + quicklime 24 3.38 
"No e castile soap + water and quicklime.......... 24 2.25 


Two of the applications, it will be noticed, proved to be effi- 
cacious remedies,—viz., the copper sulphate and the caustic pot- 
ash. The solution of coppe r sulphate consisted of four ounces 
dissolved in one gallon of water. The caustic io solution 
was made by dissolving half an ounce in one and a half pints of 
water. It is stated that the treatment of the grain with the va- 
rious substances seemed to produce no injurious effect upon the 
plants. 


Students as Collectors.—By the time this note comes to the 
readers of the NATURALIST hundreds of classes in botany will 

engaged in collecting material for study and for making into 
specimens. The amount of material gathered from the forests 
_and fields is no doubt enough each spring to make a pretty large 
herbarium. And yet, if all these dried plants were brought 
together, how few of them would be really desired by the pro- 
fessional botanists of the country! A few Ranunculacez; sev- 
krin oae: a ee ood many Sets and Rosaceæ; all the 


finds to be the easiest to obtain and aNs of all that come 
under his notice. The early sedges and grasses he pass 


* 


1887] Botany. 477 


When a spotted strawberry-leaf is brought, let the teacher tell 
something about its cause, even if it be but little. Let him show 


But many a teacher will say that such work is impossible to 
any but a professional botanist with a perfect acquaintance with 
all the plants of the flora. It is not necessary, however, that 
full details should be given regarding any plant brought by the 
pupil. He must be a poor teacher indeed who cannot suggest 
something to his pupil about a toadstool or a puff-ball. It is 
not necessary to know the species or even the genus to which 


the grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom, and who is not 
able to render a little aid to the pupil in whatsoever botanical 
class his plants may fall.—Charles E. Bessey. 


The Entomophthoreze.—According to a note in the Yournal 
of the Royal Microscopical Society, Dr. E. Eidam has recently 
made a revision of the Entomophthoreze (in Cohn’s “ Beit. zur 
Biol. der Pflanzen,” IV., 1886), and given diagnoses of the gen- 
era,—seven in all,—viz., Empusa, Lamia, Entomophthora, Ta- 
richium, Completoria, Conidiobolus, and Basidiobolus. He ` 
places the family in the Zygomycetes, in close proximity to the 
Mucorini, tracing a relationship to the latter through Piptoceph- 
alis and Syncephalis. 

Laboratory Notes.—The usefulness of a simple and inex- 


pensive eye-piece micrometer as a part of the outfit of each micro- 
scope in the laboratory can scarcely be fully appreciated until 


t 


478 General Notes. [May 


can be easily removed when not nee 

Cheap, and still efficient, cudture-cells for the growth of spores, 
pollen, etc., may be made by the use of the little vulcanite rings 
now sold by all opticians. A ring is fastened to a slide b 
means of gold size; when dry and firm a little oil is spread 
upon the ring, and upon this the cover-glass (bearing the hang- 
ing-drop, in which are the spores) is carefully laid, care being 
taken to secure an air-tight chamber. ; 

Very frequently a student wishes fo preserve a Specimen tem- 


tassic hydrate also. Some of the most satisfactory specimens I 
have ever seen have been obtained in this way. Of course, one 


must have good material to begin with. 


lichens of the genera Collema, Leptogium, or their allies. Any 
one who has previously studied the Nostocs will recognize them 


at once in the lichen sections, where they occur as “ gonidia.” 


One can, in fact, make use of lichens of this kind for supplying 
with certainty good and abundant specimens of Nostoc when the 
Protophytes are under consideration in the laboratory. 

One of the most instructive series of experiments as to the 
water in the plant which the student can undertake consists of 
weighing green Specimens of various kinds, and then, after care- 
ful drying, repeating the weighing to determine the loss of water. 


This can be done very satisfactorily in the winter, when the aie - 


1887] Botany. 479 


Botanical News.—A new monthly periodical, —Popular Gar- 
dening,—which first made its appearance last year, promises to 
become of interest to botanists as well as gardeners. It is pub- 
lished in Buffalo, N. Y.——-Rev. Francis Wolle, of Bethlehem, 
Pa., well known as a student of the fresh-water algz and 
author of a most useful work on the “ Desmids of the United 
States,” is preparing a treatise on the Fresh-Water Algz of North 
America, The work may be expected about the middle of the 
year. It will be illustrated by one hundred and fifty plates, con- 
taining two thousand figures. We trust that the enterprising 
author will be rewarded by an abundance of orders for the book, 
which necessarily must be somewhat expensive. In the Feb- 
ruary number of the Yournal of Botany Richard Spruce describes 
anew Hepatic (Lejeunea holt) from Ireland, and J. G. Baker a 
A recent 


nounced for early publication: An elementary class-book of 
botany, by Dr. ay, “to take the place,” according to the 
Botanical Gazette,“ of ‘How Plants Grow’ and the ‘ Lessons’ ;” 
an introduction to the study of lichens, by Henry Willey, of 
New Bedford, Mass.,—according to the Torrey Bulletin, “ it will 


include the collecting and mounting of lichens, their structure 


and organs, the distribution of North American species, the 


ae Bethlehem, Pa..—this work, of which mention has’ already been 
= made, will be fully illustrated with colored plates; a treatise on 
the natural families of plants (“ Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien”), 
by Professors Engler and Prantl, to be illustrated by many thou- 
sand wood-cuts to illustrate the structure; the anatomy and 


Physiology of Plants,” by Dr. S. H. Vines; “Outlines of Classi- 
ication ae Special Morphology of Plants,” by Dr. K. Goebel; 
“Grasses of North America,” by Dr. W. J. Beal; “ Microbes, 
“erments, and Moulds,” by E. L. Trouessart ; the new edition 
of Rabenhorst’s “ Kryptogamen Flora;” vol. i. “ Pilze, by Dr. 
_ Winter; vol. ii. “ Die Fampflanzen,” by Dr. Luerssen k vol. iv. 
“Die Laubmorse,” by Limpricht (these are appearing in parts, — 


480 General Notes. [May 


each containing sixty-four pages). Valuable exsiccati now 
publishing are: Ellis & Everhart’s “North American Fungi”; 
Linhart’s “ Ungarus Pilze”; “ Der Belgischen Muscineen,” by 
Aigret and François; Wittrock and Nordstedt’s “ Algæ Aquz 
Dulcis Exsiccate”; Krieger’s “Fungi Saxonici Exsiccati”; 
Winter’s “Fungi Europzi et Extraeuropei Exsiccati.”’ 
Recent catalogues of botanical works which will prove valuable 
to botanical book-buyers are as follows: “ A Catalogue of Bo- 
tanical Works,” by Dulan & Co., 37 Soho Square, London; 
“ Bulletin Trimestriel des Sciences Naturelles” of Paul Klinck- 
sieck, 15 Rue de Séores, Paris; “ Katalog No. 202, 
rich Lesser, of Breslau; “ Verzeidenis von Werken aus dem 
Gesamtgebeite des Botanik,” von List & Frank, Leipzig; Koeh- 
ler’s “ Katalog No. 448” (Flor, Anatomia et Physiologia Plan- 
tarum, Phanerogame, etc.) and No. 449 (Cryptogamz), Leipzig. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 
On the Emergence of a Caddice-Fly from the Water.— 


Wh 

extended at right angles to the body like a pair of oars. The 
insect was unable to crawl up the vertical side of the aquarium, 
and after clinging to it for a short time it would lose its hold and 
sink back to the bottom. After watching it for a time I lifted it 
from the water by means ofa stick. At this time its wings were 
in the form of pads, which were but little, if any, longer than the 
wing-pads of the pupa, as shown by the cast pupa-skin found 
floating on the water. The instant the creature was free from 
the water its wings expanded to their full size, and immediately 
it flew away several feet. In my efforts to catch the insect I 
found that it had perfect use of its wings, although they were so 
recently expanded. The time required for the insect to expand 
its wings and take its first flight was scarcely more than one 
second ; it was certainly less than two. As these insects nor- 
mally emerge from rapidly-flowing streams which dash over 
rocks, it is evident that if much time were required for the wings 
to become fit for use, as is the case with most other insects, the 
wave succeeding that which swept them from the water would 
sweep them back again and destroy them.— F. H. Comstock. 

Destruction of the Codlin-Moth by Arsenical Poisons.— 
In the first of a series of bulletins to be published by the State 

* This de is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca, 

om y ' ee gress x 


N. Y , to w. tE, should be sen 


1387) oo a ntomology. ; 481 


entomologist of Illinois Professor Forbes gives the results of a 
series of experiments made by him to test the efficiency of ar- 
' senical poisons in the protection of apples from the codlin-moth. 


seventy-five thousand dollars. He then goes on to show that at 
least seven-tenths of this loss may be prevented by a single re- 
medial measure so simple that any one may apply it, and without 
cost so far as its effect on the codlin-moth is concerned. 


efficient as Paris green; and the leaves on the trees which were 
sprayed with arsenic were scorched, while those to which Paris 
green was applied were entirely uninjured. : 

The time of year at which poisoning is most effective is in the 
spring, after the apples have begun to form, and while they are 
still upright. The poison lodges in the calyx, where, as is well 

nown, the egg of the codlin-moth is laid. The young larva is 
thus poisoned as soon as it begins to eat its way into the apple. 
Later in the season, after the apples have begun to hang down- 
wards, spraying will not deposit the poison where it will be 
reached by this insect. Moreover, it is dangerous to apply the 
poison late in the season, as it will lodge in the cavity about the 
stem of the apple, a position from which heavy wind and violent 
_ rain are not sufficient to remove it. 

The results of his experiments are given by Forbes with con- 
siderable detail. They show that by spraying once or twice with 
Paris green in early spring, before the young apples had dropped 
upon their stems, about seventy-five per cent. of the apples ex- 
posed to injury by the codlin-moth were saved. The incidental 
benefit to the crop in the protection of the trees against foliage- 


or ba 


eating insects, and also against the Apple Curculio, by thus — 


482 "General Notes. [May 


spraying will fully compensate for the small expense of the 
Paris-green application. This expense, when the spraying is 
done on a large scale, with suitable apparatus, only once or 
twice a year must fall below an average of ten cents a tree. | 


On the Life-History of a Dipterous Parasite of the Silk- 
worm.— [In the new journal published by the Imperial University, 
Japan,’ Professor Sasaki gives a very important paper on a dip- 
terous parasite of the silkworm. Aside from the economic bear- 
ing*of the paper, it is of interest to entomologists generally as 
giving a careful account of the habits of a parasitic insect which 
is peculiar in its mode of attack. 

The so-called “ Uji” disease, caused by the larva of a dipterous 
insect, Ugimya sericaria, plays terrible havoc among the silk- 
worms reared in May and July. When the silkworm is once 
infested by this parasite it dies either before or after it spins a 
cocoon; in the latter case the maggot eats its way out of the 
cocoon, thus leaving a round hole in it, with the consequence of 
making it unfit for reeling. In the spring or May brood of silk- 
worms some fifty to seventy per cent., or in extreme cases eighty 
per cent., are attacked by the parasite, and the damage done is 
correspondingly great. 

Fatal as the “ Uji” disease is to the silkworm, no systematic 
observations have hitherto been made on the habits and life- 
history of the maggot; but in this paper the insect is described 
in each of its stages, and considerable attention’ is given to ana- 
tomical features. We will notice, however, only that part which 
relates to the habits of the insect. 

The adult flies generally begin to appear in April. From this 
time to the middle of June they frequent mulberry-bushes. The 
eggs are laid on the under surface of the leaves, in close contact 
with the ramified veins. The eggs are fastened to the leaves and 


eggs laid upon leaves in the month of May, if undisturbed, will 
remain alive during the month of June, but later they are de- 
stroyed by the severe heat of the sun. At the time when the 
deposition of the eggs takes place most abundantly the silkworm 
is in its third or fourth moult. The eggs are taken into the body 
‘the silkworm at this time with its food. The small size of the 
egg and the hardness of the shell protect it from injury by the 
_ Jaws of the insect. 
_ In one to nine hours after the eggs are introduced into the 
digestive canal of the silkworm they hatch. The young larva 
“measures 0.3 and 0.2 millimetre in length and.breadth respec- 
tively. Its smaller anterior end is provided with a horny-hooked 
* Journal of the Col Science, Imperial University, Japan, vol..i., Part I. 
na S E T e 


1887 | Entomology. | 483 


jaw, while its broader posterior end has two spiracles, and each 
segment of the body is covered with a transverse row 

After remaining in the digestive canal from one to eight hours 
the larvæ pass out through the wall of the canal, and enter di- 
rectly into the ganglia which lie close beneath the canal, gener- 
ally leaving those ganglia free which are separated from the canal 
by the interposition of the silk-glands 

A single silkworm has usually one or two of its ganglia in- 
fested by the maggots, but sometimes more are found. In one 
case Sasaki found five ganglia thes infested by the parasite. 
Furthermore, a single ganglion may have more than one para- 
site in its interior. Nevertheless, usually but one reaches ma- 
turity. When the maggots once infest the ganglia the silkworm 
becomes generally weakened, and its body presents an unusual 
aspect from severe irritation of the nervous system. e seg- 
ments are swollen out like the caterpillars of some hawk moths, 

disease is usually known by the silkworm-growers as 

Fushidaka or Fushiko,—swelled segment. Generally the maggot 
remains in a ganglion more than a week, and when it has become 
two to five millimetres long, or even larger in size, it gets free 
and passes into the body cavity of the silkworm. After travelling 
through the mass of fat which occupies the greater portion of 
‘this cavity it searches for the portions of the tracheal system of 
its host, where the stigmata open. On reaching one of these 


opening made on entering, and sticking them together with its 
saliva. The mouth of this cup is directed towards the body 
. $ . . . e 


maggot, which rests in the newly-formed cup, projects its anterior 
end into the body cavity from the mouth of the cup, while its 
posterior end is directed towards the bottom of it. In this po- 


cup wiek the maggot hut inhabits biis a dark-brown color, 
partly produced by the action of the saliva upon the fats and 
muscles which build up the cup, bme partially by the fæces 
which the maggot voids. When the cup thus colored is formed 
inside a stigma there appears a jaiero or brownish-black 
tch around the stigma; so the presence of the patch is con- 
clusive evidence of the fact that the silkworm is infested by its 
parasite. The similar marking which occurs on the body of a 
pupa enclosed in a cocoon is always due to the same cause. As 
the maggot grows in size the cup enlarges in proportion, and the 


maggot remains in this abode until it attains its full maturity, no - 


matter whether the silkworm meanwhile turns into a pupa or 
not. The maggot usually leaves the cocoon of its host in the 


484 . General Notes, [ May 


morning, especially of bright and hot days. Before changing to 
a pupa it usually crawls into the ground, getting down through 
some cracks or fissures in the floor of the house where it comes 
out. It descends to a depth of three or four inches before trans- 
forming. There is but a single generation in a year. 


Entomological News.—The vine-growers of Algeria are now 
seriously troubled by the destruction caused by a Chrysomelid 
beetle, Haltica ampelophaga. In some places more than a third 
part of the whole production is destroyed by it. It feeds on 
grape-vine leaves only, eating them as fast as they appear, and 
ultimately killing the vine. As it is a very prolific insect, pass- 


logica Americana, vol. ii. No. 12).——Miss O 
` Report of Observations of Injurious Insects” has just appeared. 


ZOOLOGY. 


Artificial Parthenogenesis.—Two cases of parthenogenesis 
induced by artificial stimuli are of interest. The first is that 


hibia. Dr. Dewitz, with another purpose in view, placed some 
unfertilized frogs’ eggs in a solution of corrosive sublimate, and, 
to his great astonishment, the next morning found them swollen 
and segmented. Some showed but one division, while others 
had divided several times. A few were irregular’ in their seg- 


ea er 


mersion in the sublimate solution was sufficient to induce the 
I€ atation. : : 


1887] Pilar. 485 


Vitality of Encysted Forms.—Nussbaum, while studying 
the phenomena of digestion in Hydra, noticed that in the ex- 
crementa of the polyp there was a living embryo of shih 
the mother of which had just been eaten by the Hy 
nettle-cells which killed the parent had not been able fa affect 
the young. Led this, Nussbaum killed pregnant female 
Daphniæ with absolute alcohol and observed that the embryos 
afterwards developed, proving that the cyst was a great pro- 
tection. This immunity of the Daphnia embryo is, says Nuss- 
baum, of great importance to the perpetuation of both the Hydras 
as well as of the Daphnia itself. With their voracious appetites, 
a few Hydras would rapidly depopulate a pool, and then would 
have to eng themselves were it not for the protection afforded 
the embryos by these resisting cysts. A similar instance is 
afforded oe the seeds of many ‘plants which, as is well known, 
pass uninjured through the alimentary tracts of many fruit-eating 
animals. 

Sense-Organs of Sponges.— Von Lendenfeld describes, under 
the name synocils, some peculiar sense-organs in Grantia which 
had previously been described by Stewart as palpocils. From 


length, most numerous near the incurrent pores. These organs 


SS T $ 
Synocils of Grantia ciliata. After von Lendenfeld. 


consist of prolongations of the mesodermal intercellular sub- 
d are apparently covered with a delicate epithelium. 

At the base are several oval nuclei, each surrounded with an 
irregular envelope of protoplasm, which sends out root-like 
rocesses, one of which runs to the tip of the synocil (see cut). 


ee General Notes. [ May 


‘Von Lendenfeld Mats that the reason why these organs have 
escaped observation by all who. have studied living Sponges is 
that they are ordinarily retracted, and he recalls certain obser- 
vations which he had peee made on the retracted sense- 
organs of other sponges. He hints at interesting comparisons 
of these with some of the peculiar sense-organs “of the higher 
Metazoa, but without entering into any detail. 


Organ of Smell in Crepidula.—The organ of smell, or os- 
phradium, of gasteropod molluscs is a patch of sensory epithe- 
lium, which is placed in close relationship with the two normal 
gills with which these animals are provided. In many forms, 
however, one of these gills is aborted, and occasionally its place 
is taken by another branchial organ (e, £., Patella), which has no 
rinse to the typical branchiz. In many forms there is also 
what is known as the rudimentary gill; but Spengel has shown 
that this i is not respiratory in its function, but is rather a sensory 

organ, variously modified in its appearance. Dr. H. L. Osborn 
describes (Zool. Anzeiger, x. I 18) this osphradium as it occurs in 
Crepidula fornicata. In this species the gill fills almost the entire 
mantle-cavity, but on the left of the gill-ridge is a low ridge of 
eighteen or twenty papillz, each with a globular head and a 
short peduncle. This is the osphradium. The ridge from which 


each papilla. In addition to this Dr. Osborn notices the exist- 
ence of a peculiar high epithelium clothing the osphradial ridge, 
_ which differs from that on any other part of the mantle, and 
forms what appears to be a specialized organ. In this connection 
it may be mentioned that an investigation of the relations of 
osphradium to branchiz in the limpet Acmza would be produc- 
tive of important results in settling the affinities of the family. 


A Larval Galeodes.—The Arachnida of the sub-order Soli- 
fugz are so little known that Croneberg’s recent description of 
a larval stage of one (Zool. Anzeiger, No..247, 1887) is worthy of 

nti 


had been forced into the ra ene on as the 
foresee $ is now more ovoid, while the latter, as well as append- 
ages, are greatly distended. The cephalo-thorax at abdomen 


gery o Zoology. , aay 


now show a weak segmentation, but the appendages as yet Jack 


` and fourth pairs of feet. No trace of it occurs in the adult. . Its 
unction is extremely problematical, and Croneberg only recalls 
similar organs in the embryos of Asellus. 


curved horns with the other. Each half then proceeded to 
develop an envelope and the missing horn or horns 


dylophora whitelegget. He also shows that the name Hydra 


EcuinopEerms.—P. H. Carpenter, in a note in Nature, says that 
the cysts on Comatula rosea, which he regarded as indicative of 
the existence of a British species of Myzostoma, prove not to be 
caused by those animals, but by a problematical organism re- 
sembling an egg in an early stage of segmentation, but in the 
poor state of the material at hand not capable of being carefully 


hand 
of the Echinoderm fauna of Bering Sea. . 
Worms.—Villot gives (Ann. Sci. Nat., VIL, i.) a supplementary 
revision of the hair-worms (Gordiacez), which changes somewhat 
his former paper of a dozen years ago (Arch. Zool. Exp) He 


ane s : General Notes. [May 
robe Leidy’ s Gordius subspiralis as being really G. aguaticus, 

- whilé the species described by the American author under the 
latter name is something else. Leidy’s Gordius robustus is prob- 
ably G. violaceus Bair 

U. Drago a (Bull. Soc. Ent. ltal; xix., 1887) a new 
eee and species of Oligochete worm (Epithelphusa catanensts), , 

hich occurs as a San: on the gills of the Sicilian land-crab 
| Thelphusa fluviatilis. It belongs to the family Enchytrzidz. 

Kennel has a paper (Zool. Fahrbuch, ii.) on the Jand-leeches of 
tropical America, enumerating three species, of which Cy/icobdella 
, coccinea belongs to a genus before known from the same region, 
while Lumbricobdella schefferi is a new genus, as well as a new 
species. The paper goes considerably into habits as well as struc- 
ture, but contains no reference to Dr. Whitman’s recent she on 
the land-leeches of Japan, epi noticed in these colum 

R. von Lendenfeld notices (Zool. Fahrbuch, Sha occurrence 
of Tænia ecchinococcus in Australia, and concludes, he 
culiarities of its distribution, etc., that the dingo, or ‘dative dog, 
is largely responsible for its dissemination. 


pagan: —At the meeting of the Linnzan Society of Lon- 
don a paper was read by Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, of Leiden, upon the 
rare barnacle Dichelaspis pellucida Darwin. The genus Dich- 


of the Indian Ocean. Darwin obtained his specimens from the 
scales of one of these Hydrophidz, and since his description was 
published no other specimen has been recorded until the present 
one, which was likewise ae attached to another of these snakes 
from the Mergui Archipela 

Maurice Leger desepioes ‘dhe Sci. Nat., VII., i.) two cases of 
monstrosities in the spiny lobster (Palinurus). In one instance 
the antennula of one side is terminated by three flagella, while 
in the other the fourth left thoracic foot has three branches 
arising from the coxa, each with the normal number of joints. 
In cases like these it seems difficult to draw any pa mor- 
phological conclusions, for in zoology teratology does not seem 
to have the value it has in botany. The paper is illustrated with 
a well-drawn plate. 
Garpini has a paper on the anatomy of the Cypridina, illus- 
_ trated by five plates, in the nineteenth volume of the “ Bulletin 
of the Italian Entomological Society.” The paper is chiefly 

riptive, and enters but little into comparisons. 


Birps.—The second English specimen of the Harlequin duck 
(Cosmonetta histrionica) was taken in Northumberland in Decem- 
ber last. It is normally a member of the Arctic fauna, being 

cireumpolar i in its range. 


* 


1887] Embryology. : : 489 


Fisnes.—Prof. C. Gilbert has an important paper on rare and 
little-known ee Percide in the “ Proceeds. of the U.S. 
National Museum.” Several new species from’ Southwestern 
rivers are Bibid. 

Pr Heilprin describes, in a very imperfect manner, 
catfish which he supposes to be new, from Lake Okeechobee, 


Florida. It is a pity that Professor Heilprin did not, in his 
eae imitate some of the numerous good ee ok to 
be a n American ichthyological literature. 


r. G. A. Boulenger - recently described some new species 
of Eske from the Cong 


BATRACHIA AND READE G. A. Boulenger has pub- 
lished, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, a list of 
the species from the department of Rio Grande do Sul of Brazil. 
He enumerates: Testudinata, 6; Crocodilia, 1; Lacertilia, 143. 
Ophidia, 42; Batrachia anura, 27; do. Urodela cæciliidæ, 1. 
Total, 63 Reptilia, 28 Batrachia. 

Professor Cope describes, in the “ Proceedings of the U. S. 
National Museum,” a new species of water-snake, of the genus 
Tropidonotus, allied to the 7: woodhouset, which he calls T. bisectus. 
It is oy known from a specimen which was killed in the grounds 

of the armory, near the National Museum, in the city of Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Dr. G. A. Boulenger has distinguished two species of the 
genus Bombinator in Europe. The B. dombina Linn. is yellow 
below, has closely-placed dermal tubercles, etc., and inhabits 
high ground. The B. z igneus Linn. inhabits lower levels, and is 
black below, with large crimson splotches, and has the ‘dermal 
tubercles sparse, etc. 


EMBRYOLOGY. 


The Embryology of the Monotremata and Marsupialia.— 
In Nature for March 31, 1887, the following abstract is given of 
the first part of a memoir by W. H. Caldwell, with the above 
title, which was presented at the meeting of the Royal Society 
held on March 17 last. Deeming the poets one of unusual 
interest, FE author’s abstract is here given in 

“(1) The Egg-Membranes. —In Sosousiians. in very young 

ova, a eee ne membrane exists “fea the single row of follicular 
cells and the substance of the ovum. This membrane, which I 
will call the vitelline membrane, at first j increases in thickness with” 
the growth of the ovum, and through it pass numerous fine 
toplasmic processes connecting the protoplasm of the follicular 
cells with that of the ovum, and serving to conduct food-granules, 
which,, appearing in (fie neighborhood of the nuclei of the cells, 

t Edited b oiia — A. RYDER, Biological Department, University of Penn- 
sylvania, Philadelp 
L. XXI.—NO. k 33 


490 General Notes. [May 


travel thence to the ovum; food-granules also appear in the 
outon of the germinal vesicle, and travel away from it; 
e the horseshoe-shape of the elk-mass as seen in section. 

se “The t time during which food-granules are thus passing from 
the follicular cells to the ovum may be called ‘the yelk-forming 
perio 

4 tr is succeeded by a period during which the vitelline mem- 
brane again becomes thin, the follicular cells are reduced to a 
single layer, and the cells are very thin and flat. This period 
may be called ‘the absorption-of-fluid pra since during it 
the ovum absorbs large quantities of fluid through the thin 
vitelline membrane and single layer of thin follicular cells, and 
thereby i increases largely in size. 

is is in turn succeeded by a third period, during which the 

follicular cells again become active, multiply, increase greatly in 
size, and give rise, between themselves and the vitelline mem- 
brane, toa deeply-staining homogeneous layer, which I will call 
the chorion. This period may be called ‘the chorion- -forming 
period. All these these periods are gone through while the 
ovum is still in the follicle. 

“Upon the bursting of the follicle and the reception of the 
ovum in the Fallopian tube, a few of the follicular cells remain 
attached to the chorion; the majority are left behind within the 
burst follicle. 

“During the passage along the Fallopian tube the vitelline 
enbi again increases in thickness, and the chorion, also 
increasing in thickness, absorbs fluid and becomes że albumen 
layer. Outside this now appears a new structure, zie shell or 
shell-membrane, of tough, parchment-like consistency,’ not 
staining with reagents. I have not yet traced the deposition 
of the shell to the activity of any special glands; but I can say 
that the shell-membrane does not increase at the expense of the 
chorion or albumen layer. 

“ After reaching the uterus both vitelline membrane and shell- 
membrane increase in thickness, but the albumen diminishes and 
di serving, ap arently, for the nutrition of the ovum. 
Immediately beneath the vitelline membrane a new layer is now 

seen in hardened preparations; but it may be shown that this 
layer is aed fluid, yielding a coagulum which stains deeply 

ents, the fluid being apparently derived, through the 
initia, from the uterine glands, 

“Tn Marsupialia = history of the vitelline membrane, save 
that ‘the egg ing period’ is not marked off from the ‘ab- 
sorption-of-fluid’ period, is similar to that in Monotremata. I 
have not been able to trace the beginning of the ‘chorion’ while 
the ovum is still in in the ovary in Marsupialia; but in an ovum of 

ž «Tn the laid of Echidna I have not detected calcic but 

s gives rie rise to gas when A win te ai salts, but that of Orni- 


1887] Embryology. 491 


Phascolarctos from the uterus I found a chorion like that of 


As in Monotremata, a coagulable, and, when coagulated, 
deeply-staining fluid makes its appearance between the vitelline 
membrane and ovum (blastoderm). 

“The shell-membrane persists until the developing ovum be- 
comes fixed to the. walls of the uterus, after which it disap- 
pears.” 


The paper then compares the egg-membranes just described 
-with those of Placentalia and those of Vertebrata generally. 
va 


he ye This unenclosed area in front of the primitive streak 
probably includes a region where the hypoblast (yelk) has sec- 
ondarily broken through the epiblast. existence of such a 


- marked out by the growing epiblast and the posterior lip of the 
blastopore, before the closing of the primitive-streak region, or 


492 : Scientific News. [May 


to this area minus the secondary extension, caused by the pro- 
jecting yelk in the Monotremata.” 


lies between the inner face of the zona pellucida and the ex- 
ternal zona or granulosa-membrane.—Ep. | 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


mencing Wednesday, August 31, 1887, under the presidency of 
the eminent chemist, Sir Henry E. Roscoe. The local commit- 


local committee (38 Barton Arcade, Manchester, England) at an 
early date, so that the necessary arrangements may be made. 


—The American Association for the Advancement of Science 
will meet this year in New York City. The meeting will begin 
August 10 and continue one week. This is the first time that a 
meeting has been held in New York, and a large attendance is 
expected. Arrangements have been made by which the various 
sessions will be held in the buildings of Columbia College. The 


~~ r Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. 4tes Heft, 4to. Wiesbaden, 


1887] Scientific News. 493 


all needed arrangements, due announcements of which will be 
made. The permanent secretary is Professor F. W. Putnam, of 
Salem, Mass. The attention of members is called to the new regu- 
lations regarding communications to be read at the meeting, and 
which resulted in the publication of the Proceedings of the Buffalo 
meeting more promptly than in any recent year. 

—The next annual meeting of the American Society of Micro- 
scopists will be held in Pittsburg, Pa., commencing August 30, 

e 


ville College, Waterville, Me., or the secretary, Dr. D. S. Kellicott, 
119 Fourteenth Street, Buffalo, N. Y., will furnish all desired 
information ee ate the society or the meeting to any one who 
may apply to 

—Ent eee will be pleased to learn that Mr. Samuel H. 
Scudder’s “ Butterflies of New En gland,” a work proposed many 
years ago, is rapidly approaching com pletion. It will be, as far 
as possible, exhaustive, and will be illustrated by from seventy to 
a hundred plates, besides several hundred cuts in the text. 


—It is the present intention of the United States Fish Com- 
mission to send the steamer “Albatross” to the Pacific shores 
next year to conduct there investigations similar to those which 
have been carried on for the past fifteen years along the Atlantic 
coast of the United States. The Commission is now engaged in 
preparing, in connection with the Signal Service and Light-House 
Board, temperature charts of the Atlantic from Maine to Florida. 
These are to have isothermals of ten days’ means, and it is hoped 
that they will throw considerable light upon the migrations of 
the more important of the economic fishes. 


—The second edition of the late Professor Balfour's “ Treatise 

we Comparative Embryology” is rena by the Spee as 
“ reprint without alteration” of t rst edition. An examina- 

fa, however, reveals a very serious inei in that sie pages 
of the new edition are not the same as those of the old, a matter 
of considerable importance when one wishes to refer to some 

tem For this alteration there is no excuse 

—The botanical collections of the late Thomas Moore have, 
been acquired eb the Royal Herbarium at Kew. They are espe- 
cially rich in fern 

—Among the recent deaths of scientific people we notice those 
of Poker Vincenzio Tenore, the botanist, at Naples; Dr. Cor- 
nelius Marinus van der Sande ‘Lacoste, the ‘student of mosses, at 
Amsterdam, January 15, at the age of seventy-two; Dr. A. 
korny, the botanist of Vienna, at Innspruck, December 29, 1886, 
at the age of sixty-one; Dr. August Wilhelm Eichler, Professor of 
Botany at Berlin and author of the “ Flora Braziliensis,” March 2, 


494 Scientific News. [ May 


at the age of forty-eight; Dr. G. Kirchenpaur, of Hamburg, the 
author of several works on zoophytes, March 8; Valère Liénard, 
anatomist and assistant to Felix Plateau, at Brussels, August 20, 
1886, aged thirty-one; Dr. Eduard Becher, entomologist, at Vi- 
_ enna, November 11, 1886; Dr. J. E.Schddler, anatomist and student 
of the Entomostraca, at Berlin, November 19, 1886; Jules Lich- 
tenstein, entomologist and student of the aphides, at Montpellier, 

rance, November 30, 1886, aged sixty-eight; Adolf Werne- 
burg, student of Lepidoptera, at Erfurt rt, January 21; Professor C. 

ering; student of Lepidoptera, at Stettin, February 1, age 

eighty-five. 

—wWith the present volume (the third) of Extomologica Ameri- 
cana Mr. John B. Smith resigns the editorship, his place being 
taken by the Rev. George D. Hulst, of Brooklyn, N. Y 


—Harper & Bros. announce for early publication an edition of 
Charnay’s “ Ancient Cities of the New World,” translated from 
the French by J. Gonino and Helen S. Conant. The work deals 
with Charnay’s explorations in Central America, under the patron- 
age of the Lorillards. 


—At the sale of the library of the late A. T. Stewart, Audo- 
bon’s “Birds” brought thirteen hundred and fifty dollars, and 
Catlin’s “ North American Indian Portfolio” forty dollars 


—Mr. S. E. Cassino, of onon will publish gran in 1888 a 
new edition of his “ Directory,” which will give names and 
addresses of the scientists of the world. The same house also 
announces for early publication Strasburger’s “ Botanische Prac- 
ticum,” translated by Rev. A. B. Hervey. : 


—Baron Eggers is to conduct a series of botanical explora- 
tions during the coming year in the higher mountains of San 
Domingo, the flora of which is almost entirely unknown. 

—The Royal Society is to introduce a new feature in the 
“ Philosophical Transactions” the present year. They will in the 
future be published in two parts, —one containing papers relating 
to T mathematical, the other to the natural, sciences. 

r. C. Gottsche has been elected custodian of the mineral- 
EY i iiectione of the Natural History Museum at Hamburg. 


—The new university building at Ser will be dedicated with 
appropriate ceremonies May 18. The king of Sweden will be 
present, and representatives are e from many European 
universities. The building was begun i in 1879, and is the finest 
structure devoted to higher education in Euro 

—Engelmann, the well-known publisher of oo announces 

a large work on the “ Natural Families of Plants,” edited by Pro- 
feson A Engler, of Breslau, and Karl Prantl, of Aschaffenburg. 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 495 


The collaborators will be numerous, embracing such well-known 
names as Cohn, Eichler, Luerssen, Pfitzer, etc., thus insuring a 
thoroughly reliable work. It is estimated that the whole work 
will make some five thousand pages, illustrated with several 
thousand wood-cuts. It will be published in parts of forty-eight 
pages each, at a subscription price of a mark and a half each 


wn-Séquard, of Paris, has been elected President of 
the Feach Zoological Society, in the place of the late Paul 
Bert. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 


Boston Society of Natural History.—April 6, 1887.—Dr. 
Edward G. Gardiner spoke of the development and homologies 


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mu : 

read the results of his studies of fossil batteries Fossil but- 
terflies, he said, are very rare. About thirty thousand specimens 
of fossil insects are now in collections, the celebrated beds at 
Florissant, Colorado, furnishing about half of these. Of this 
large number only sixteen are butterflies, nine of these being 
from the European tertiaries and seven from Florissant. These 
sixteen belonged to three existing families, the American species 
all being members of the Nymphalidz, while the European were 
divided among this family and the Hesperidz and Papilionide. 
The European species showed many resemblances to the forms 
found in the East Indies and sub-tropical America to-day, while 
the American specimens were more American in relationship. 


` show the structure of antenne, palpi, legs, and wing-nervures, 
but it was possible to detect the pattern of the color-markings, 
and even to draw some of the scales on the wings. Suggestions 
as to the possible food-plants, based on the present habits as well 
as on contemporaneous flora, were given. 


esex [Mass.] Institute.—April 13, 1887.—The paper of 
Tan emer ing was upona trip to Alaska by William Chase. It 
was illustrated by lantern-views, and detailed, sg ees other things, 
the appearance of the Muir Glacier, of Glacier 


Brooklyn Entomological Society—March 1, 1887.—Mr. 
A. C. Weeks described the pee of the moth Tarache 


96: Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [May 


delecta. The striped larva, which somewhat resembles that of 
Alypia octomaculata, feeds upon the leaves of Hibiscus moscheutos. 
Mr. Weeks also spoke of the effect of the weather upon the time 
of emergence of imagines from the pupal state. 


and from it radiate from three to five long and undulating gal- 
leries. The larval galleries are greatly curved. 


long, black anthers of Cassia marilandica never seem to shed 
their pollen unless the membrane at the apex is broken by humble- 

, who pierce it to get at the contents. A plant covered with 
gauze neither shed pollen nor produced seed. 

eptember 14.—Miss H.C. DeS. Abbott read a paper on Sapo- 
Nine, a compound which is always a constructive and formative 
element of the plant containing it, and one which, by its action 
On other elements, probably aids in nutrition. It is absent when 
the floral elements are simple, and increases in quantity as they 
are of higher grade. Chemical constituents are evolved part 
passu with the evolution of the plant, and are a fit basis for bo- 
tanical classification. Mi tt also called attention to two 
‘new substances obtained by her from a Honduras plant, and to 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 497 


chichipatin, a new dye. The Rev. Dr. McCook called attention 
to the longevity of some arthropods. e had kept a tarantula 
alive since 1882, The queen of Sir J. Lubbock’s colony of ants 
was seven years old in 1882. Dr. Leidy remarked that Muy- 
bridge’s photographs of lions in 9 a — showed spots, 
though none could be detected by the 

September 27.—Miss Fielde sent a a relative to 
the spiritist gerne of Chinese women. 

H. C. Lewis read a paper upon the results 
of his last two Aima geological work in Europe. Glacial action 
was essentially identical on both sides of the Atlantic. The ice- 
sheet which once covered the greater part of Ireland was com- 
posed of confluent glaciers, ie distinct ies glaciers occurred 
in non-glaciated areas. There seem to have been five centres of 
glaciation. No evidence of ree great marine submergence was 
discovered. Ice coming from Scotland across the North Channel 

seems to have joined the Irish sheet, and a mass of ice filled the 
Irish Sea, overriding the Isle of Man and Anglesea. Wales had 


fessor Lewis enunciated the principle that whenever marine shells 
occurred in glacial deposits at high levels it was not owing to 
submergence of the land, but to the advance of the ice out of 
the sea on to the land. He also believed that there had been but 
one advance of the ice. Probably the land had been elevated 
ve hundred feet, with a fall of temperature of about 10° 

Fahr. Professor Heilprin exhibited a series of fossil shells of the 
genus Fulgur, showing the derivation of the forms from each 
other. Miss L. E. Holman told of a new mode of multiplication 
of amcebe. A smaller one was a by a larger and after- 

wards released ; it then threw out spor 

October 17. —Professor Heilprin fied attention to the 
covery, in the Miocene beds of Tampa, Fla., of three pear ‘of 
Partula, a genus now confined to a small group of Polynesian 
islands. The probability of a former connection between the 
Atlantic and Pacific was spoken of. A fossil cowry from Florida 
was distinguished from all we probes forms by the presence of a 
sulcus from the mouth around the 

October 24.—Mr. Meehan ane some facts of local plant dis- 
tribution. In one case, under the shelter of a blackberry-bush 
in a cleared spot in a wood, twenty-two species not found in 
other parts of the wood had sprung up. Professor Ryder ex- 
hibited a curious fish, related to Gastrostomus, dredged by the 
“ Albatross” in fifteen hundred and nine fathoms. Professor 
Scott presented a paper on Mesonyx and Pachyzen 

November 2.—Professor Ryder spoke Asar deian the last ex- 
periments in oyster culture carried on by the United States gov- 
ernment. Mr. Meehan gave reasons for the belief that cold 


498 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ May 


alone would a account for the effect produced on plants at the 
close of the y 


by the oil-drops in them. Dr. Koenig described a silicate allied 
to black garnet, but with eight per cent. of titanic oxide. Dr. 
Dolley stated that the organ in Porpita supposed by Conn and 

eyer to be a sense-organ was, in truth, a mucous gland furnish- 
ing a plentiful secretion to the tentacles. Mr. Ford exhibited 
oak to Bite the incgease of size of Arca pexata as it goes 

orth and east 

pasas 16.—Professor Heilprin described some miocene 
shells from Cumberland County, N. J. The specimens estab- 
lished the fact that these New Jersey beds belong to the lowest 
miocene. The same speaker showed a curious gastropod, which 
has a two- -story shell, a dome being secreted by the mantle above 
the true spine. Dr. Koenig stated ‘that “ schorlemite” was simply 
a modification of garnet. Professor Ryder described the extru- 
sion of the polar globules from fish-ova. aper, “On an Un- 
described — from West Tennessee,” was presented from 
Dr. F. A. Gen 

November i De Dolley called attention to the action of 
fibres of spider-web in starting lateral branches of stalactites. 
Professor Ryder gave the results of his investigation of the 
hepatic tubules of Oniscus. Professor Koenig placed on record 
the occurrence of a manganese-zinc serpentine at Franklin, N. J. 

November 30.—Miss H. C. DeS. Abbott announced the dis- 
covery of Hematoxylin, or logwood dye, in Sarica indica. In 
the bark it is more plentiful than in the logwood of commerce. 
ema Ryder said he was in possession of facts which proved 

t pathological changes might be transmitted and become 
DP ceokolotieal. 
ecember DRE een Capp e described a new Aplysia 

from the west coast of Florida. The presentation to the Acad- 
emy of the collection of land-shells made by the late Mr. Brown, 
ot Princeton, was announced. 

oy 8, 1887.—Professor Ryder described cph funnel- 


ei a was grai Dr. oe announced to be a nat sad prod- 
uct, and to consist of molybdenite. Mr. Meehan exhibited a 
form of fungus (Cordiceps taylori) which is found on the heads 
of Australian caterpillars. Professor Heilprin described a new 
Ictalurus from Lake Okeechobee, Fla. 

_ January 22—Dr. Fetterolf presented a slab of Mauch Chunk 
red shale from the base of the Carboniferous. It had a fine am- 


1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 499 


e late Dr. fe ea. Professor sei called attention to certain 
cells  apacpegeaae surrounding the yelk of fish-ova. These take 


thrown into the circulation. Dr. H. H. Rusby gave an account 
of his exploration of the coca region of Bolivia. His collection 
included two hundred and fifty to three hundred kinds of un- 
known drugs. A paper on “ New Generic Forms of Cretaceous 
Mollusca,” ‘by Dr. C. A. White, was presented. 

January 25, 1887.—Professor Ryder called attention to the exist- 
ence of pathological growths in the lower animals, and described 
a lobulated tumor from the heart of an oyster, a mass of organic 
tissue formed in the fore part of a shad’s alimentary canal, and 
the degeneration of the Wolffian bodies of a goldfish. A letter 
from Miss A. M. Fielde, describing the geology of Southeastern 
China, and accompanied by specimens of the rocks, was read. 
Granite, trap, and unfossiliferous red sandstone were among the 
rocks. Miss Fielde also announced the collection, around Swa-. 
tow, of several forms of rhizopods identical with those described 
by Dr. Leidy from Philadelphia. Dr. McCook stated that Formica 
fusca, the.ant enslaved by F. sanguinea and Polyergus lucidus, 
builds, when exposed to the attacks of the latter, a formicary, 
which is quite flat and has all its entrances concealed by grass 
and chips of bark. When the same species deems itself secure 
it forms a mound, over which openings are scattered without 
attempt at concealment. 


` National Academy of Sciences.—The following papers were 
read at the meeting commencing April 19, 1887: “ On Chemical 
Integration,” by T. Sterry Hunt; * Results of the Investigation 
of the Charleston Earthquake,” by C. E. Dutton and Everett 
Hayden; “ On some Phenomena of Binocular Vision,” by Joseph 
LeConte; “ The Ha pn = the Hot Ton of the Yellow- 
stone Park, ” by W. G. Farlow; “On the Fore Limb and Shoul- 


 der-Girdle of Eryops, A on ooh Vertebrates of the Triassic,” 
E. bs 


y . Cope; “On the Rainless Character of the Sahara,’ 
Elias Loomis; “The Color of the Sun,” by S. P. Langley; “A 
New Map of the Spectrum, © by Si Š Langley; “ Chemical Con- 
stitution and Taste,” by Ira Remsen; “ On a New Class of Com- 
pounds analogous to the Phthaleins,” by Ira Remsen ; “On the 


Decomposition of Diazo-compounds by ae by Ira Rem- 
A 


sen; “On the Ancestry of the Deaf,” Bell; “On the 
Notation of Kinship,” by A. G. Bell; “On the Determination of 
Orbits of Planets and Comets,” by J. W. Gibbs; “On the Ser- 
pentine of Syracuse, New York,” by G. H. Williams; 3 D the 
Barometric Oscillation—Diurnal and Annual,” by A. W. Greely ; 


500 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [May, 1887 


“On the Floridian Geology,” by W. H. Dall; “On the Taconic 
System of Emmons,” na D. Walċott; “ Is there a Huronian 
Group?” by R. D. Irv “On the Brain of Ceratodus, with 
Remarks on the General orhcloey of the Vertebrate Brain,” 
by B. G. Wilder; Cee of the Ichthyological System,” by 
Theodori Gill. 

The following new aaura were a Prof. H. P. Bow- 
ditch, Boston; Prof. eorge Cook, New Brunswick ; Prof. 
EG Mendenhall, Terre Hau 

Dr. A. W. Hoffmann, Berlin, was elected foreign correspond- 
ent. 


THE 


AMERICAN NATURALIST. 


VOL. XXI. JUNE, 1887. No. 6, 


ARAUJIA ALBENS AS A MOTH-TRAP. 
BY ROBERT E C STEARNS.” 


de plant which I have to notice because of its peculiarity as 

an insect-trap, rather than on account of its botanical aspect 
or relations, is referred by botanists to the order Asclepiadacez. 
This order includes the so-called Milk-Weeds, as well as a great 
number of other curious, interesting, and economically important 
forms. 

The species under consideration—formerly Physianthus, now 
Araujia albens—is a native of Buenos Ayres; it has been pretty 
widely distributed. Its rapid growth, hardy habit, and clean, 
shining leaves have made it a favorite for ornamental purposes 
where an attractive, quickly-spreading vine is desired. It has 
been introduced into this country, to the East and North, in 
the vicinity of Boston, in Massachusetts, and as far west as the 
neighborhood of San Francisco, in California. It appears to 
thrive equally well in these widely remote regions. 

In November, 1880, I noticed, one day, three or four moths 
fluttering in rather a peculiar way upon or around the blossoms 
of a large Araujia vine that covered one side of the porch of my 
house, in Berkeley, California. I found, upon closer examina- 
tion, that they were fastened to the flowers, and, upon still more 
careful scrutiny, that the proboscis was, in each case, submerged 
in the flower, and the end of it hidden in the interior of the blos- 
som. Besides the living moths, there were several dead ones 

t Read before the Biological Society, Washington, D. C., February 19, 1887. 

34 


OEN 


502 Araujia Albens as a Moth-T; rap. [June 


attached to other blossoms. Knowing that many of the plants 
of the family to which Araujia belongs are poisonous, my first 
thought was that the moths attached to the blossoms, living and 
dead, were intoxicated or had been poisoned by some peculiar 
property of the nectar. 

Physianthus, or Araujia, as a moth-trap had long before been 
observed and made known, though I was not aware of it. The 
matter, however, was new to me, and the investigation full of 
interest, and an ample reward for the trouble. My curiosity was 
again revived the following year, upon what may be called the 
recurrence of the late moth season; and further investigations 
followed it. 

My note-book about this time reads : “‘ Saturday, November 5, 


_ 1881, detected the first entrapped moths of the (second) season, 


nine in number; some dead, others apparently just caught. Sun- 
day, November 6, eight or nine more; some just alive, others 
just caught. This morning (Monday, November 7), five more. 
Tuesday, November 8, a windy and cold day, two. Wednesday, 
November g, windy and cold, two;” and so on. 

The trapping seasons—for there appear to be ¢wo—occur in 
August and November. It may be that there are zwo flights of 
the principal species of moths that frequent these flowers,—one, 
the first in early autumn, with apparently a gap; then again, the 
second and last flight, as indicated, later in the year. 

My note-book shows that in the summer of 1883 the first 
flowers on my Araujia vine opened about August 19, and the 
first trapping of the season—a Jee—occurred on the following 


24th day of said month. August 25, a moth; the 26th, two 
_ moths, etc. 


The plant continues to bloom for some time after the flights 
of the moths have ceased, though the number of the flowers 


_ gradually decreases with the closing of the autumnal season. 
On turning to the figure of the flower it will be noticed that it 5 


a trumpet-shaped, flaring at the mouth, where the petals divide, 


~ then uniting and forming a tube, which is swollen into a bulbous 
n _ form where the corolla joins the calyx. Now, this enclosing 
=~ tube being pulled off, we are able to see the stamens with the 


ae side wing-like processes and the exterior spurs pressing against 


he gymnecium and hiding the ovaries and pollen-masses, as- 
heretofore B OSENG in the figures. The moth, in pursuit of | 


er 


1887] 


Araujia Albens as a Moth- Trap. 


Fic, 1. 


504 Araujia Albens as a Moth-Trap. [June 


the nectar, first reaches that portion contained in the pockets 
between the bases of the spurs; then in search of more, having 
already thrust the proboscis down the tube of the flower, de- 
scribing a curve between the exterior of the stamineal crown or 
mass and the inside of the bulb of the perigonium, it then has 
to push the proboscis upward in order to reach.that portion of 
the flower where the anther-cells, pollen-masses, and glands are 
in close juxtaposition. Having satisfied its hunger, or otherwise, 
upon attempting to withdraw the proboscis, as the moth can 
only make a direct pull, it (the proboscis) not being provided 
with any muscular arrangement by which the curved motion 
made in entering, as just described, can be reversed,—to repeat: 
upon attempting to withdraw its proboscis, dy a direct pull, it 
becomes wedged in between the edges of what may be termed 

_ the anther-wings, or, rather, the edges thereof, and is held tight, 
very much in the same way that an old-fashioned boot-jack grips 
a boot. The more the moth pulls, the tighter or firmer the grip, 
and escape is impossible, unless the flower has reached such 
a degree of maturity that its substance has become somewhat 
_ softened or wilted. 


DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. 


In Fig. 1 we have a spray of nieces ym or ooe which gives an idea of the 
general form of the plant, its leaves and flow 


- o a 2. Fi, 3. 
In Fi igs. 2 and 3, a flower, each with a moth upon it, showing a back- and side- 
view of the i insect in repose. 


FIG. 4. 


In Fig. 4, the perianthum or perigonium, constituting a single flower or blossom. 


FIG. 5. 


In Fig. 5, the stamineal mass or corona-staminea : A, anther-wings; B, exterior 
spur-like processes to stamen. 
Fig. 6 


» gymnecium, showing ovaries, A; stigma, B; pollen-masses, C; and 
glands, D. 


Fic. 7. Fic. 8. 


Fic. g. 
Fig. 7, stamen, showing wing-like processes, A, A, and exterior spur, 

In Fig. 8 a side-view of the stamen figured in 7is shown. A, A, side-views of 
wings; B, spur. 


_ Fig. 9, oral view, showing how the spurs A, A, A, A, A head in against the wings 
B, B, the upper edges of which are seen in pairs, B, B. 


506 : Araujia Albens as a Moth-Trap. [June 


The riper flowers, apparently, are not sought by the moths; 
probably the tempting nectar has lost its sweetness or bouquet, 
or, perhaps, in some way has become changed, or, may be, has 
been absorbed by the flower in the process of ripening. I have 
in several instances plucked flowers to which living moths were 
attached, and have pinned such flowers to the floor of an insect- 
box, and subsequently found that the moths had freed themselves. 
The tissues of the flower begin to soften and wilt very soon after 
Separation from the plant. In cases where the moths had freed 
themselves as above, they seldom lived many hours, and appeared 
to have died from exhaustion caused by their efforts to escape. 
As between.the moth and the flower, the release or death of the 
former seems to be reduced to the single point, namely, whether 
the moth or the flower has the greater vitality. ; 

As some plants are exceedingly sensitive, I thought it pos- 
sible that the flowers of Araujia might be so. I accordingly 
experimented with a bristle, to learn whether the rigidity of the 
anther-wings might not be owing to irritability caused by the 

proboscis of the moth, but was unable to detect any effect of 
this kind-as resulting from friction. By following the same 
movement or curve that a moth has to follow with its proboscis 
in reaching up towards the more interior structure of the flower, 
and then following the further motion that is made by the moth 
when it tries to withdraw its proboscis, my bristle was held fast 
between the edges of the wing-like extensions, the same as is 
the proboscis of a captured moth. 

As pertaining to the foregoing remarks, I will mention the 
following species of Lepidoptera, etc., as determined by various 
entomological friends, taken by me during three seasons—1880- 

_83—from the blossoms of Araujia - 

Colias chrysotheme var., Colias kewaydin, Pamphila sylvanus, 
D eis carye@, Pyrameis hunteri, Pyrgus syrictus, Syrichthus 
-~ tessellatus, Plusia pasipheia, Plusia gamma, Agrotis c-nigrum, 

Heliothis sp. 


Oak Other insects are often found upon or within the flowers, such 
i _as bees, ants, and beetles, but seldom as prisoners. Among the 
latter the little (beetle) Zhroscus sericeus Le Conte was detected. 


_ Of the species above named, probably two-thirds of the lepi- ` 
dopterous forms that are caught belong to the three species 


-Plusia pasipheia pheia, Plusia gamma, and Agrotis c-nigrum. 


s 


f 


1887] Biological Instruction in Universities. -o Eoy 


The list I have submitted contains e/even species, as named. 

The species of moth which is most frequently trapped on this 
side of the continent, I have been told, is Plusia precationis. It 
will be noticed that two species of this genus are included in my 
California list. 

As to the simple, ingenious, and effective mechanism exhib- 
ited in the structure of the flowers of Araujia, whether the same 
is a device of nature to insure fertilization, through the agency 
or assistance of the insects it catches, and consequent perpetua- 
tion of this plant species, is a question I am unable to answer. 
Upon the theory of utility, we can hardly conceive of its being 
without a purpose, or that the peculiar phenomena of plant and 
insect association in the instance before us are without function, 
aim, or result, other than the trapping of the insects before men- 
tioned. 


‘BIOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES.: 


BY C. O. WHITMAN.” 


‘HE discussion of biological instruction in relation to univer- 
sities would seem properly to fall to those whose professional 
standing and experience lend weight to their words; but there 
are some aspects of the question which lie open to all whose con- 
nections with university life have been such as to afford more or 
less varied opportunities for observation and reflection. 

At our last annual meeting Prof. Farlow discussed the ques- 
tion in relation to elementary instruction in colleges and schools. 
It was made very clear that “ the college instructor must still regard 
the student who studies under him as a school-boy whose capacity 
for observing and investigating natural objects has been blunted by 
a one-sided course of instruction at school.’ The charge is a most 
grave and startling one; but I think no one would venture to 
question its entire justice. 

We know exactly where the evil lies, but I think the remedy is 
too generally sought in the wrong direction. It is, in my opin- 
ion, a great mistake to suppose that it lies within the power of 


? Read before the American Society of Naturalists, December 29, 1886. : 
2 Director of the Lake Laboratory, Milwaukee. 


508 Biological Instruction in Universities. [June 


teachers to abandon methods that lead to such deplorable re- 
sults, Place in every one of these fitting-schools to-day teachers 
who know full well the injurious effects of the methods em- 
ployed, and they would be powerless to abolish the system and 
replace it bya better. They represent only one of the factors— 
and that not the most important one—which must co-operate to 
effect the needed reform. Prof. Farlow suggests that “ improve- 
ment in the quality of college graduates who could teach biology 
in schools, if there was any demand for it, gives room for hope.” 
This suggestion brings back at least a part of the responsibility 
for unsatisfactory methods of teaching to the doors of our col- 
leges and universities. In this direction, more than in any other, 
lies the remedy for the evils complained of. Our higher institu- 
tions of learning represent the creative and directive factor; and 
to them we must look, first of all, for the supply of competent 
teachers, and, in the second place, for the creation of that healthy 
public sentiment which will give support and protection to 
teachers and school boards in carrying out the desired reforms. 
The interest of the educated public must be aroused to the 
supreme importance of cultivating the observing powers of the . 
young before any suitable provision for their training can be 
expected. . 

But how shall the capacity for observation be brought into ` 
general respect and esteem? Evidently the universities must 
move first. The stream does not rise higher than its source, and 
it can hardly be considered a reproach to our preparatory schools 
if they do not attach great importance to methods of training, the 
value of which is not made apparent in the requirements for ad- 
mission to college. Itis the fashion to speak of the “ cramming 
system” as the Pandora’s box of all the evils we discover in 
school methods. But where in this country is the college or 
university which does not foster the system in its rankest forni ? 
Tt is difficult to see why the system is not as good for the 
_ schools as for the universities ; and it seems pertinent to ask how 
the latter, while harboring it, can ever expect to eradicate it in the 
former. But is it, after all, the system itself against which com- 
plaints should be directed? We all have to “cram,” more or 
less; and the process is perfectly legitimate and harmless within 
ceiid limits. School education begins in cramming, and all 
— life we go on stuffing the mind with facts, of which 


1887] - Biological Instruction in Universities. 509 


comparatively few can be assimilated and turned to immediate 

_ practical account, while others are simply stored up in the crude 
undigested state. Observation itself is largely a process of cram- ` 
ming; and every investigator knows that science always keeps a 
large stock of these unassimilated facts on hand. the observer 

` places a high value on first-hand knowledge, he knows also how 
to appreciate results obtained by others, and how to make these 
his stepping-stones. 

But let me not be misunderstood. I do not underestimate 
the difference between feeding and cramming, while insisting that 
both processes are legitimate. The trouble now is, that we have 
too much cramming and altogether too little feeding, as a direct 
result of a one-sided course of instruction. The field of instruc- 
tion must be broadened so as to'include those branches of knowl- 
edge which are now generally acknowledged to afford the best 
means of developing the powers of observation and comparison. 
The biological sciences hold this position in the estimation of all, 
or nearly all, who are competent to judge. Elementary training 
in these branches should begin in the primary schools, as they 
do in Germany, and be carried on through the grammar and 
high schools. 

This important reform can only be effected through influences 
emanating from our higher educational institutions. They must 
make such a reform not only possible, but also necessary. So 
long as they usurp the functions of the schools, and persist in de- 
voting a large share of their time to that elementary training 
which ought to begin in the primary and end in the high schools, 
so long shall we decry in vain the evils of present methods and 
courses of school instruction. Turn over to the schools the 

_ work that belongs to them, then require it of them, and they will 
find the means to accomplish it readily enough. By all means let 
biological instruction in universities be pitched on a higher key. 
Emerson hit the truth very squarely when he said, “ Colleges 
have their indispensable function,—to teach elements. But they 
can only highly serve us when they aim not to drill, but to create.” 
Is it presumption to assert that our higher educational system, 
so far as biology is concerned, aims too low? Then it must be pre- 
sumption to affirm a truth susceptible of the clearest demonstra- 
tion. Fortunately, I may assume that such a demonstration is 
not required here. But if any one doubts the assertion, let him 


s 


510 _ Biological Instruction in Universities. [June 


compare the best organized biological department this country 
affords with that found in the best German universities. The 
student who repairs to Berlin, Leipzig, Heidelberg, Würzburg, 
Freiburg, Munich, and Jena, finds there institutions that aim to 
make good the title they wear,—institutions that strive to repre-: 
sent every department of knowledge at its best, and to provide 
room for every form of intellectual activity. Whatever his special 
bent, he finds in the lecture-courses and the laboratories precisely 
what he needs. Representing his specialty, he sees men known 
and revered. throughout the scientific world for their contribu- 
tions to knowledge. He is recognized, not as an irresponsible 
school-boy, to be marked for absences, ranked for recitations, and 
rewarded, after a prescribed number of years of study and decent 
behavior, with a “ graduating” degree; but asa man who knows, 


‘or ought to know, his purpose, and who, if he ever expects to 


attain the distinction of a degree, must demonstrate his eligibility 
thereto by making some worthy contribution to the advancement 
of knowledge in his own chosen field. Professor and student 
both work together to the same great end —the advancement of 
science. The influences surrounding one arouse every latent 
energy, and kindle a love and zeal for work that fairly blaze with 
enthusiasm. The ideal catholicity of aim that everywhere pre- 
vails, and the whole-souled consecration of energy to research, 
create an intellectual atmosphere that is all aglow with inspira- 
tion. And what an imposing array of scholarship is here organ- 
ized for pushing on the work of each department! Does not the 
enormous productivity of the twenty-one workshops of science 
represented in the universities of the German empire proclaim 
with an emphasis that makes argument superfluous, the impor- 
tance of high aims in the organization of each and every depart- 
ment of instruction? In Germany, as here and everywhere, the 
character of the preparatory schools is determined by that of the 
academic system. But university influence does not stop with 


the enforcement of eight or nine years of rigid discipline in the 
‘gymnasium ; it pervades the entire school-system, and is thus in — 


a very large measure directly responsible’ for the methods and 


courses of instruction pursued. 


The simple secret of this dominating influence is devotion to. 
research as the prime means and the chief end of higher educa- 
tion. It is this same crowning feature which creates and keeps _ 


ae 


18073 Biological Instruction in Universities. at GEE 
dive pöpulär respect for the investigator and his methods, and 
which makes biological training not only a possible but also a 


recognized essential of school-work. 


With such an example before us, it ought to be unnecessary 
to urge the practical lesson it teaches. But we are under the 
spell of our “ historical roots,” and there seems to be a too gen- 
eral conviction, or conceit, that we are doing fairly well under the 
circumstances. In some quarters, allusion to the superiority of 
the German system is enough to raise a storm of indignation 
against the “grumbler.” And yet we go on year after year 
sending students abroad to complete their biological education ; 
and in nine cases out of ten they turn their backs on the land 
of “historical roots” and repair to Germany. The proverbial 
thoroughness of the Germans, their mastery of methods, the 
wealth of their literature, and the liberality with which they pro- 
vide for instruction and assistance in every branch of knowledge, 
appeal to the strongest instincts and needs of every student who, 
having resolved to devote his life to the unremunerative service 
of science, and having availed himself of the best that home in- 
struction affords, still finds himself too poorly equipped for special 
work. ; ! 

I am well aware that within the last five or ten years there has 
been some improvement in this country, both in the methods and 
the aims of biological instruction. I have in mind especially 
zoological instruction, but have good reason to believe that the 
same is true of the botanical side. But unless my observation is 
greatly at fault, we are almost wholly indebted to German sources 
for these improvements. A few of our best colleges and univer- 
sities—unfortunately not all—have in the service of the biologi- 
cal departments men trained in European laboratories, who, in 
spite of the exorbitant demands made upon their time and energy 
for elementary courses, undertake to provide for instruction in 
modern methods of research, and to introduce students into 

„speçial lines of work. It is certainly one of the hopeful signs, 
that the incredulity which such methods and courses first en- 
countered is fast lapsing into passive resignation. But I think 
it is to be regretted that such praiseworthy aims should meet 
with mere indifferent toleration instead of hearty co-operation 
and encouragement,—and this too in the very places where their 
high value ought to receive its first recognition. 


512 Biological Instruction in Universities. ° [June 


It is certainly time that the higher side of biological instruc- 
tion should receive more attention, and it is unquestionably one 
of the first duties of an institution, which strives to be a univer- 
sity in reality as well as in name, to see to it that the productive | 
side of the department is encouraged and maintained at a level 
of high respectability. Scientific activity flourishes only when 
research is made the dominant aim, and when, for the realization 
of the aim, the working forces are organized with a view to rep- 


, resenting every important side of the department, and on a basis 


which provides for giving the larger share of energy to produc- 
tive investigation. For the efficiency of the department, then, we 
have this double test,—/igh aims and comprehensive organization. 

What constitutes a properly organized corps of instructors, and 
what should be the paramount aim in any given department of 
science, are questions for the specialists in that department. It 
is the position, the scope, and the tendencies of the sciences rep- 
resented which claim foremost consideration in such questions. 
The value of any plan of organization will depend, not upon 
whether it will provide for the more general needs ascertained by 
experience, but upon its capacity for expansion and its ability 
to supply needs not already clamored for. Any organization 
trimmed to provide merely what the uninstructed public ask for 
can never fulfil its highest function, which is to create and direct, 
not to adapt and conform. An educational institution which 
limits itself to elementary instruction may advertise itself as a 
university ; but where is the educated public that does not see 
through the mask of such ill-founded pretensions ? 

It has been said that in German universities too exclusive 
regard is paid to the promotion of scientific and literary activity. 
I wish that academic administration in this country could be 
justly charged with such a fault. But our boasted “ practical” 
wisdom has never been known to err in the same laudable direc- 


tion. We hear altogether too much about the necessity of pro- 


viding for the general purposes of education ; but seldom any 
allusion to the fact, which appears so eminently practical to some 


_ of us, that a liberal provision for the higher ends of education is 


the only means by which those general purposes can be success- 
fully reached. Leta department be organized with a view to the 
fulfilment of its higher functions, and you place it on the only 
basis that admits of the healthy exercise of its non-productive — 


1887] Biological Instruction in Universities. 513 


functions. Take care of the creative functions, and the vegeta- 
tive functions will take care of themselves. The precept is as 
pertinent to the life of a university as to that of an individual. 
The question then reduces itself to this, —How can a biological 

department be most efficiently and comprehensively organized for 
the fulfilment of its higher purposes? Every special question 
which the subject presents finds its solution in the same direc- 
tion. Take, for example, the preparation of students for teaching 
biology. It is plainly not a question of turning the biological - 
department into a sort of factory for the manufacture of teachers 
of the stamp which may just now have the highest market value. 
The question is not how to fit, but how to equip—not how 
young men can be fitted to teach natural history as it happens 
to be taught now, but how they can be most thoroughly pre- 
pared for improving and renovating existing methods and sys- 
tems. The best teachers have always been investigators ; hence 
the aim should be, on the part of one who proposes to follow 
teaching as a profession, to become an investigator, and, on the 
part of university instructors, to make as many investigators as - 
possible. This may be an ideal plan, which, in the majority of 
cases, cannot be fully carried out on either side; but this, to my 
mind, so far from being an objection, is its best recommendation. 
All that I claim is, that the most satisfactory results are to be ob- 
tained by working in this direction. A plan is not necessarily 
impractical because its fullest realization is impossible; and in 
the organization of any department of instruction in a university, 
the highest results are never attained where anything less than 
ideal aims are tolerated. 

_ A practical question of great importance here presents itself : 
What should be the attitude towards, and what the advice to, 
students who have a strong predilection for biological research, 
but who will be dependent for their support on the salaries which 
they may earn? I believe the policy of discouraging such a 
purpose has been carried to a dangerous extreme in this country. 
Those who know by personal experience what it costs to venture 
in this direction need no apology for the impatience which is 
aroused, when they see the real difficulties increased by the in- 
cubus of discouraging advice and an indifferent, unsympathetic, 
chilling attitude. Such advice may do little harm to one who 
has the self-reliance to “plant indomitably on his instincts, and 


514 Biological Instruction in Universities. [June 


there abide till the huge world comes round to him,” and the 


courage to defy every obstacle which timid counsels can conjure 
up; but it works like a damper on the aspirations of many a less 
resolute mind, and has unquestionably done much to retard the 
progress of biological work in this country. When those who 
speak for our leading universities tell us that these institutions 
are the best places for the prosecution of research, and that we 
must look to them for most of the work in pure science, we 
would fain believe it; but when, in the next breath, they proceed 
to give us solemn warning that we are under the curse of Adam, 
and that,“ the first business of every man is to win his bread,” we 
begin to suspect that, if the intentions are all right, the policy 
may be all wrong. When, still further, we are advised that our 
first concern should be to bring “żo the educational exchange 

es which are always in demand, and which always receive 
remuneration,” we begin to see that, if such councils are to pre- 
vail, the days of “ our long apprenticeship to the learning of other 
lands” are not yet numbered. How utterly unworthy appears 
such advice by the side of Emerson’s inspiring exhortations to 
self-reliance! Some men never bow to Adam’s curse, nor rebel 
against it; but, busy with higher purposes, ignore it. Such a 


man was Tii Agassiz. One such example, one such counsel- 


lor, puts to shame a world of those who place policy above the 
noblest aims of life. You might as well command the waters of 
Niagara to turn baċk as attempt to still the intellectual hunger 
of such men by pointing out the difficulties and disappointments 
which they are likely to encounter if they obey their instincts. 

I am certain that every man who places the pursuit of pure 
science above public applause and the allurements of wealth, in 
a word, above every mercenary consideration, must be filled with 
surprise and regret at the avowal of such sentiments by those 
who are shaping the destinies of our higher educational establish- 
ments. Is that what is needed in a country that can boast of 
nothing higher than the performances of mechanical skill, where 
there is little market for anything above a bread-and-butter 

mediocrity, and where there is so little appreciation for any 
‘science which cannot be converted into immediate wealth? Just 
_ imagine what a dreadful misfortune it would be for this country 


_ “if we should find in the course of a few years a superabundance — 
of men with rare senses of a kind for which there is no Ae: > ue 


\ 


1887 | | Biological Instruction in Universities. ee 2 | 


mand!” Is it possible that any one who realizes the destitution 
of this country in respect of men devoted to science, and who is 
aware of the fact that the number must be increased a hundred- 
fold before a position of fair respectability can be reached, can 
take alarm at the disposition sometimes shown by graduate 
students to engage in special lines of research? Whoever fears 
the tendency of modern science to specialization must have 
failed to catch the full significance of this tendency. Such coun- 
sellors have fallen into the same error against which they warn 
others. For, instead of looking at the subject broadly and in the 
light of history, they fix their eyes on some real or imaginary 
excesses. They find a few narrow-minded men engaged in very 
special lines of investigation—men who know their specialty 
well, but little else—and they infer that narrowness and special- 
ization necessarily go together. The term specialization has thus 
been degraded, and specialists find themselves heirs to an oppro- 
brium for which the only foundation is a vulgar misconception. 
Every specialist who stands on the approval of his own con- 
science is well able to bear his cross; but he cannot look with 


. indifference on the tendency to superficiality which such a mis- 


conception directly encourages. I have in mind more than one 
aspirant for scientific fame who, from sheer fear of being too 
special, has fallen a victim to the curse of superficiality. Certainly 
missionary work is not very far from our doors, and if I am the 
least qualified of all to undertake such work, I trust I shall not 
transgress the bounds of propriety in urging others to do it. 

en we remember that specialization has marked every step in 
the progress of science, and that every advance in the future 
must inevitably carry us still farther in the same direction, we can 
hardly wonder that those who, as spectators, see the grand army 
of workers splitting up into more and more numerous divisions, 
as the necessity for more special work arises, should regard the ` 
whole movement as one tending to weakness and narrowness. 
But those who march in the ranks can have no excuse for such 
a groundless fear. They at least ought to know that there’ is 
just as little reason for making specialization a synonyme for 
narrowness as for connecting generalization with shallowness. 


None can know better than they that specialization is the only 


proper basis for generalization, and that the two are indissolubly 
related as means to end. But there are hangers-on who wear 


f 


516. : Biological Instruction in Universities. [June 


the uniform and are ambitious to grab the honors without shar- 
ing the work. They are a most dangerous foe, for their preten- 
sions are a source of deception to honest people. These are the 
men who, under the delusion ‘that shallowness is breadth, flit 
from point to point, snatching a little here and a little there, 
learning a little of everything and not much of anything, aiming 
to amaze the vulgar with glib talk and profuse writing, while 
they disgust every conscientious worker. To such the hard toil 
of special work is irksome drudgery, proper enough for minds of 
small calibre, but quite foreign to the philosophical province to 
which they aspire. You would never recognize these impostors 
by the names they desecrate ; for some of them call themselves 
zoologists, and insist that staring at the outside of things is the 
only proper method of teaching or investigating ; and a few, see- 
ing that biologist is a word of many meanings, and therefore just 
adapted to their versatile character, flourish that title. The dis- 
tinctive mark of the whole genus, as you will always learn on 
close acquaintance, is a single eye set in the hindhead instead of 
the forehead. They know nothing of the tendencies of the bio- 
logical sciences, and are therefore as incapable of steering their 
own craft as of directing others. The backward vision incapaci- 
tates them from ever understanding either the needs of the future 
or the lesson of the past. They would organize a biological de- 
partment on a basis suited to the times of Linnzus; because, 
forsooth, Linnzeus was a great man, whose mind could compass 

a “ Systema Nature” which embodied all that was then known of 
the distinctive characters of minerals, plants, and animals. This 
was natural history in the broadest acceptation of the phrase, and 
it is only the breadth, as pure surface expansion, that these men 


look at. They cannot, or will not, see that our intellectual 


horizon has been extended in proportion as science has made it 


‘necessary to sacrifice superficial breadth to profundity. 


The misfortune is that these opinions are so generally accepted, 
as the state of biological instruction in the four hundred or more 
institutions of the country calling themselves colleges and univer- 
sities abundantly shows. Argument will never dislodge them; 
they can be reached only through the leavening influence of high 


examples. A single biological department organized on a basis 


broad enough to represent every important branch at its best, and 


provided with the means necessary to the freest exercise of its _ l x 


1887 | Biological Instruction in Universities, S17 . 


higher functions, would furnish just the example we stand in 
need of. It is clear enough where we ought to look for such 
examples, but it is not soclear where or when we shall find them. 
We have often heard of the “coming university,” but still it 
comes not. Men and money are all that is required to create 
such a department, and the country has both. We wait only for 
the rare conjunction of wisdom, will, and means for the realiza- 
tion of the long-postponed expectation. 

Having considered the general aims and principles which 
should determine the organization of a biological department, 
some of the more dangerous prejudices in the way of improve- 
ment, and the source and direction of reform, it remains to notice 
more precisely the ground to be covered by such a department. 
As before remarked, the nearest approach to an ideal organiza- 
tion is to be found in German universities. The biological 
sciences are distributed among five separate institutes, called, re- 
spectively, the botanical, the zoological, the physiological, the 
anatomical, and the pathological. Each institute consists of a 
spacious edifice, containing special and general laboratories pro- 
vided with instruments and other necessaries for instruction and 
investigation, lecture-rooms, library,and museum. The zoologi- 
cal institute has, besides, its aquaria, terraria, and garden; and 
the botanical institute has, of course, its experimental garden. At 
the head of the official staff of each institute is the professor, with 
two or more able assistants, and other subordinates trained to aid 
in laboratory work. But this is not all, for we often find as many 
as three or four, and sometimes as many as five or six, professors, 
ranking as ordinary, ordinary and honorary, and extraordinary, 
all engaged in the work of a single institute. It is a common 
thing to find the lecture-work in any given subject divided among 
three or four eminent investigators, in such a manner that each 
special side of the subject has its special course of lectures ex- 
- tending through one or more entire semesters. This is the case, 
for example, with histology and embryology, subjects which are 
often pointed out in this country as the dangerous extremes 
of specialization. This division of labor has thus been carried 
much farther than a superficial glance would lead one to suppose. 
And has this principle been carried too far? and are there now 
signs of a reaction? Absolutely nothing of the kind. On the 
contrary, the marvellous rapidity with which the biological sci- 

VOL. XXI.—NO. 6. 35 


518 Biological Instruction in Universities. [June 


ences are developing carries it still farther every day. And as 
the process goes on instruction becomes more thorough and, at 
the same time, more comprehensive, while investigation marches 
on with increased speed from one achievement to another: Spe- 
cialization is a terror only to those who do not understand it. 
A German specialist devotes ten or fifteen years to the study of 
the development of the chick or the frog, and a German univer- 
sity provides courses of lectures on just such special subjects as 
these. Does that appear narrow? Those who imagine that 
such profound special study means intellectual narrowness could 
profitably spend five years in the study and contemplation of the 
facts presented in one of those embryological monographs. In 
the course of such an experience they might discover that the 
embryologist’s conception of a chick is a little too broad for their 
‘idea of a barn-yard fowl. By the time they had followed this 
unpretentious creature through the animal kingdom, studied the 
comparative lessons of its anatomy, histology, embryology, and 
physiology, they would begin to comprehend what a fearfully 
general thing specialization really is. It might occur to them 
that more thorough methods of research have made it necessary 
to limit the field of original work while broadening immensely 
the field of vision. 

The natural history of the last century, as I have said, included 
mineralogy as well as botany and zoology. In course of time 
mineralogy dropped out, while zoology and botany were drawn 
into the closer relation denoted by biology. The word biology 
was proposed as long ago as 1802,. simultaneously, but inde- 
pendently, in France and Germany, by Lamarck and Treviranus. 
Since that time both divisions of biology have grown to some- 
thing more than single sciences. Each represents now a great 
department of knowledge, embracing half a dozen or more dis- 
tinct sciences. Zoology—leaving aside botany—is subdivided 
into anatomy, histology, embryology, phylogeny, taxonomy, and 
physiology. Cytology is a new offshoot, developed from em- 
_bryology and histology, and forming a common basis for the 
botanical and zoological sciences. 

A lengthy paper might profitably be devoted to the considera- 
tion of the scope of these several sciences, with a view to show- 
_ ing how extensive ought to be the provision for instruction and 
investigation i in each. It is not my intention, however, to pursue 


1887] Biological Instruction in Universities, 519 


the subject further here. ‘It suffices for the present to say that 
no one of them can be adequately represented by less than two 
instructors; and some of them require, at least, as many as four 
or five. 

It must be evident to all that no approximation to such a 
standard of organization is anywhere to be found ih this country. 
It is a common error to suppose that zoological instruction is liber- 
` ally provided for by one professor and one assistant. You will 
find that this idea, or a worse one, still regulates the policy of 
our leading colleges and universities. The result is that we find 
the professor trying to make a single course of lectures cover 
anatomy, histology, embryology, cytology, physiology, distribu- 
tion, evolution, and in fact everything that can be legitimately 
squeezed in. Allowing that there are circumstances which make 
it appear advisable to spread so exceedingly thin,—and that is 
fully enough to concede,—is it not perfectly evident that, where 
this is the best that can be offered, no claim can be justly made 
to providing for the higher needs of lecture-courses? But what 
shall be said of those institutions which aim to take foremost 
rank among our universities, and yet regard zoology as too nar- 
row a field for one man, requiring the professor to shoulder the 
burden of directing the instruction in zoology and botany, and in 
some cases physiology too? And ought we to let it go un- 
mentioned that some colleges and universities of high respecta- 
bility still abide in the typical Linnean stage of development, 
leaving one man to grapple with the whole system of nature? 
Still greater marvels of persistent ancestral types might be placed 
before you, but certainly they would not improve the picture. 

Our need is a few creditable examples, and to those who know 
what such examples call for we must look for oar ultimate 
attainment. 


~ 


1520 - History of Garden Vegetables. [June - 


HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. 
BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D." 
(Continued from page 444.) 

CABBAGE. Brassica oleracea capitata L. 


HE headed cabbage, in its perfection of growth and its mul- 
titude of varieties, bears every evidence of being of ancient 
origin. It does not appear, however, to have been known to 
Dioscorides, or to Theophrastus, of the Greeks, nor to Cato, 
among the Romans; but a few centuries later their presence is 
indicated by Columella? and Pliny,’ who, in his “ Tritianon” 
kind, speaks of the head being sometimes a foot in diameter, 
and going to seed the latest of all the sorts known to him. The 
descriptions are, however, obscure, and we may well believe that 
if the hard-headed varieties now known had been seen in Rome 
at this time they would have received mention. Olivier de 
Serres, quoted by A. Soyer,‘ says, “ White cabbages came from 
the north, and the art of making them head was unknown in the 
time of Charlemagne.” Albertus Magnus,’ who lived in the 
thirteenth century, seems to refer to a headed cabbage in his 
“ Caputium,” but there is no description. The first unmistakable 
reference to a cabbage that I find is by Ruellius, in 1536, who 
calls them capucos coles or cabutos, describes the head as globular 
and often very large, even a foot and a half in diameter. Yet 
the word cabaches and caboches used in England in the fourteenth 
century indicates the cabbage as then known and distinguished 
from coles? Ruellius also describes a loose-headed form called 
Romanos, and this name and description, when we consider the 
difficulty of heading cabbages in a warm climate, would lead us 
to believe that the Roman varieties were not our present solid- 
heading type, but loose-headed, and perhaps of the Savoy class. 
_ Our present cabbages are divided by De Candolle® into five 
types or races,—viz., the flat-headed, the round-headed, the egg- 
£ Director of the vy York Agricultural Experiment ies Geneva, 
Columella, lib. x. 1. 138. 3 Pliny, lib, xix. c. 41. 
4 Soyer, kaan 61. 
5 Albertus Magnus, De Veg., lib. vii. c. go. 
é Ruellius, De Natura gin 1536, 477. 
7 The Forme of Cury, 1390, Warner’s sn Culin., 1791. 
3 A. P. De R s, Memoir, Lond. Hort. Soc. Trans., 1821. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 521 


‘shaped, the elliptic, and the conical. Within each class are 
many sub-varieties. In Vilmorin’s standard work, “ Les Plantes 
Potagéres,” 1883, fifty-seven kinds are described, and others 
mentioned by name. In the “ Report of the New York Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station” for 1886, seventy varieties are 
described, excluding synonymes. In both cases the Savoys are 
treated as a separate class, and are not included. The his- 
tory of these forms, as well as I can make out, will now be 


iven. 

The Flat-Headed Cabbage-——The type, the “ Quintal.” The 
first appearance of this form that I find is in “ Pancovius Her- 
barium,” 1673, No. 612. A “common flat-winter,” probably 
this form, is mentioned by Wheeler,’ 1763; the “ flat-topped” 
is described by Mawe? in 1778. The varieties that are now 
esteemed are remarkably flat and solid. 

The Round Cabbage—tThe type, the “Early Dutch Drum- 
head.” This appears to be the earliest form with which we are 
acquainted, as it is the only kind figured in our early botanies, 
and was hence presumably the only, or, perhaps, but the prin- 
cipal, sort known during several centuries. The following 
synonomy is taken from drawings only, and hence there can be 
-no mistake in regard to the type: 


Brassice@ quartum Senus. Ta 1542, 416. 
87. 


Caulis capitulatus. oe 1552, 17. 

Brassica capitata. Matth., 1558, 247; Pinzus, 1 ae 163; 
Cam. Epit., 1586, 250. 

Kol oder Kabiskraut. Pictorius, 1581, 90 

Brassica alba sessilis glomerata, aut fat Lactuce habitu, 

Lobel ic., 1591, i. 243. 
; Brassica capitata albida. Lugd., 1587, i. 521; Dod. Pempt., 
1616, 6 

Pa capuccia. Cast. Dur., 1617, 7 

Brassica capitata alba. Bodzus, ibe 777; J. Bauhin, 1651, | 
ii. 826; Chabreus, 1677, 269 

The descriptive synonymy includes the “losed” cabbage, a 
great round cabbage of Lyte’s “Dodoens,” 1586; the White 
cabbage cole of Gerarde, 1597; the White Cabbage of Ray, 
1686; the chou pomme blanc of Tournefort, 1719; the English 
of Townsend, 1726; the Common white of Wheeler, 1763; the 


x Wheeler, Bot. and Gard. Dict., 1763, 79- 2 Mawe, Gard., 1778. 


522 History of Garden Vegetables. [June 


English, or late, of Stevenson, 1765; the Common round white 
of Mawe, 1778, etc. 

The Egg-Shaped.—tThe type of the “ Sugar-Loaf.” Vilmorin* 
remarks of this variety, the Sugar-Loaf, that, although a very 
old variety, and well known in every country in Europe, it does 
not appear to be extensively grown anywhere. It is called 
chou chicon in France, and dundee kobee in India It is men- 
tioned by name by Townsend, in 1726; by Wheeler,‘ in 1763; 
by Stevenson,’ in 1765; by Mawe,° in 1778, etc. Perhaps the 
large-sided cabbage of Worlidge7 and the long-sided cabbage 
of Quintyne® belong to this division. 

The Elliptic Cabbage.—The type is the “ Early York.” This 
is first mentioned, so far as f can ascertain, by Stevenson5 in 
1765, and he refers to it as if a well-known sort. According to 
Burr, it came originally from Flanders. There are now many 
varieties of this class. 

The Conical Cabbage——The type isthe “ Filderkraut.” This 
_ race is described by Lamarck? in 1783, and, if there is any con- 
stancy between the name and the variety during long periods, is 
found in the Battersea, named by Townsend” in 1726, and a 
whole line of succeeding writers. 

It is certainly very singular that but one of these races of 
cabbage received the notice of the older botanists (excepting 
the one flat-topped given by Chabræus in 1677), as their char- 
acteristics are extremely well marked, and form extreme con- 
trasts between the conical or pointed and the spherical headed. 
We must, hence, believe that they either originated or came into 
use within a recent period. How they came, and whence they 
came, must be decided from a special study, in which the effect 
of hybridization may become a special feature. From the study 
of sports that occasionally appear in the cabbage-garden, the 
_ suggestion may be offered that at least some of these races have 
been derived from crossings with some form of the Chinese cab- 

* Vilmorin, The Veg. Gard., 1885, 110. 

“umd Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1842, 112. 
an, 1726, 26. 
pitas Bot. and Gard. Dict., 1765, 79. 


6 Mawe, Gard., 1778. 7 J. W., Gent. Syst.-Hort., 1683, 202 
ê Quintyne, Comp. Gard., 1693, 189. 
° Don, Gard. Dict., 1831, i. 223. _ % Townsend, Seedsman. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 523 


bage, whereby form has become transferred while the character- 
istics of the Chinese species have disappeared. On the other 
hand, the Savoy class, believed to have origin from the same 
source as the cabbage, have oval or oblong heads, which have 
been noted by the herbalists. 

The Cabbage is called, in France, Choux cabus, chou capu, chou 
en tête, chou pomme, chou pomme a feuille lisse; in Germany, 
Kopfkohl, Kraut; in Flanders, kaduiscool; in Holland, slutkool ; 
in Denmark, hoved kaal; in Italy, cavolo cappuccio; in Spain, 
col repollo ; in Portugal, couve repolho ;* in Sweden, husvudkal? 

The ancient names were, in France, capucos coles, or cabutos, 
Ruel., 1536; chou cabus, Lyte, 1586; in Germany, Kappiskraut, 
Adv., 1570; Kapskraut, Pin., 1561; in Italy, cavolo cappuccio and 
cappuzzino, Pin., 1561; in Spain, repolho and colhes morcianos, 
Pin., 1561. 


CAPER. Capparis spinosa L. 
. 


The caper, although rarely grown in this country, forms an 
object of extensive culture in the Mediterranean region for the 
sake of the flower-buds, which enter into commerce for use as a 
pickle or appetizer. The Greeks of the Crimea eat the shoots 
as well as the buds, and in Egypt the fruit, which in this va- 
riety is very large, is eaten by the Arabs.* In Sindh and the 
Panjab, India, the fruit is also pickled and eaten.s According 
to Ruellius,® Aristoteles and Theophrastus describe the plant as 
not cultivated in gardens; but in his time (1536) it was in the 
gardens of France. Unger’ says it was known to the ancient 
Greeks, and the renowned Phryne, at the first period of her 
residence in Athens, was a dealer in capers. The plant has 
become widely distributed, and was introduced into South Caro- 
lina about 1755.8 

There are two forms now known,—the spined and the un- 
armed. The.former is the most esteemed, although C. zzermis 
is also grown in France. Both kinds have been known for a 
long time, as the following partial synonymy indicates : 


z Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 103. 2 Tengborg, Hort. Culin., 1764, 23. 

3 Pallas, Trav., iv. 224. 4 Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, ii. 29. 
5 Priadi, Forest Flora, 14- 5 Ruellius, De Nat. Stirp., 1536, 561. 
7 Unger, Plants used as Food ae Man, U. S. Pat. of Rept., 1859. 


8 Hist. of the Mass. Hort. Soc., 29. 


524 History of Garden Vegetables. [June 


I. 
Capparia. Ruellius, 1536, 


561. 
C. spinosa, fructu minore, Jola rotundo. Bauh., Pin., 1623, 480. 
C. spinosa. J. Bauh., 1051, 
; ; 7 


Il. 


Capparis non spinosa fructu majore. Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 480. 
C. non spinosa, J. Bauhin, 1651, ii. 63; Tourn., Inst., 1719, 
261. 


C. inerme. Naud. & Decaisne, Man., 

Caprier, variete sans epines. Vilm., TE 55. 

The Caper-tree is called, in France, caprier; in Germany, 
Kapernstrauch ; in Flanders and Holland, kapperboom ; in Italy, 
cappero; in Spain, alcaparra ; in Portugal, alcaparreira. 

In Arabic, £abar, or kabbar ;? in Agghan, kaaria ; in Thibet, 
kabra ; in Panjab, kaur, kiari, kakri, kandee, taker, ber, barari, 
bauri, bassar; in Sindh, kalvari.3 


CARAWAY. Carum carui L. 


The seeds of caraway were found by O. Heer‘ in the débris 
of the lake habitations of Switzerland, which establishes the 
antiquity in Europe. This fact renders it more probable that 
the Careum of Pliny5 is this plant, as also its use by Apicius 6 
would indicate. It is mentioned as cultivated in Morocco by 
Edrisi in the twelfth century; and in the Arab writings, quoted 
by Ibn Baytar, a Mauro-Spaniard of the thirteenth century, it 
is likewise named; and Fluckiger and Hanbury think the 
use of this spice connected at about this period. It is not 
noticed by St. Isidore, Archbishop of Seville in the seventh cen- 
tury, although he notices dill, coriander, anise, and parsley; nor 
is it named by St. Hildegard in Germany in the twelfth century. 
But, on the other hand, two German medicine-books of the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries use the word cumich, which is 
- still the popular name in Southern Germany. In the same 
riod the seeds appear to have been used by the Welsh physicians 

* Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 55- sees Fl. Zgypt, illust 

-3 Brandis, Forest Flora, 14. O. Heer, Gard. Chron., 1866, 1068. 

5 Pliny, lib. xix. c. 49. eae a a 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 525 


of Myddvai, and caraway was certainly in use in England at 
the close of the fourteenth century, and is named in Turner’s 
“ Libellus,” 1538, as also in “The Forme of Cury,’ 1 

Caraway appears as a wild plant in Iceland, Scandinavia, Fin- 
land, Arctic, Central, and Southern Russia, Persia, and in Siberia ; 
also Eastern France, Spain, Central Europe, America, and the 
Caucasus, as well as in the Western Himalayas. It is largely 
cultivated in a distinct variety in Morocco. In commerce the 
seed is received from Finmark, Finland, and Russia, Prussia, 
Holland, and Morocco. 

This plant is cultivated in gardens for its under leaves, which 
are used for flavoring soups and salads, and for its seeds, which 
are often mixed with bread, or in making “ seed-cakes,” and in 
Germany are put into certain cheeses. The root is tender, and 
is better than a parsnip, as was observed by Parkinson and Ray ; 
and Vilmorin, in 1883, says it can be so used, but this use now 
is probably very infrequent. 

‘Caraway is called, in France, carvi, anis des Vosges, cumin des 
pres; in Germany, Kummel; in Holland, karvit; in Denmark, 
kommen ; in'Italy, carvi ; in Spain, carvi, alcaravea ; in Portugal, 
alcaravia ;? in Arabic, karaoweh,; or curweeyas 


Carpoon. Cynara cardunculus. L. 


The cardoon is indigenous in the Mediterranean region, but 
has become naturalized elsewhere, as in Banda Oriental, where 
several hundred square miles have become covered by one 
mass of these prickly plants, and are impenetrable by man or 
beast. The cultivated plant is little grown in England or 
in America, but in France, Italy, and generally in Europe the 
stalks and inner leaves, rendered white and tender by blanching, 
are in esteem. To the ancient Romans it was well known and 
cultivated for the footstalks, as at present. Pliny’ complains of 
the great price that monstrous-grown specimens brought at 
Rome, and that especially fine varieties came from Carthago and 
Corduba, in Spain. In more recent times, Ruellius,® in 1536, 
speaks of the use of the herb as a food, after the manner of 

1 Pharmacographia, (ie 304. = Vilmorin, Les Pl.. Pot., 72. 

3 Delile, Fl. Ægypt, i 4 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bombay, 39, 237. 

5 Darwin, Voy. of a ag i. 153. © Targioni-Tozzetti, Hort. Trans., 1854, I 

7 Pliny, lib. xix. c. 43. 8 Ruellius, De Nat. Stirp., 1536, 643. 


t 


526 History of Garden Vegetables. [June 


asparagus. Matthiolus, in 1558, says there are many varieties 
in the gardens which are commonly called Cardoni by the 
Hetruscans, and that, diligently cultivated, these: are. tender, 
crisp, and white, and are eaten with salt and pepper. In 1623 
Bauhin? calls the plant Cinara spinosa, cujus pediculi esitantur. 

Vilmorin? describes five varieties, —the Cardon de Tours, the 
Cardon plein inerme, the Cardon a’ Espagne, the Cardon Puvis, 
and the Cardon & cotes rouges. 

The first of these, the Cardon de Tours, is very spiny, and we 
may reasonably believe it to be the sort figured by Matthiolus+ 
in 1598, under the name of Carduus aculeatus. It is named in 
French works on gardening in 1824, 1826, 1829, etc.5 Its Eng- 
lish name is Prickly Solid Cardoon ; in Spain it is called Cardo 
espinoso. It holds the first estimation with the market-gardeners 
of Tours and Paris. 

The Cardon plein inerme is scarcely spiny, is a little larger 
than the preceding, but otherwise closely resembling. J.Bauhin® | 
had never seen spineless cardoons. It is spoken of in 1824, in 
French books on gardening. It is called, in English, Smooth- 
Solid Cardoon, and has also names in Germany; Italy, and 
Spain. 

The Cardon d’Espagne is very large and not spiny, and is 
principally grown in the southern portions of Europe. We 
may reasonably speculate that this is the sort named by Pliny 
as coming from Corduba. “Cardons d’Espagne” have their cul- 
tivation described in “ Le Jardinier Solitaire,” 1612. A “Spanish 
cardoon” is described by Townsend’ in England in 1726, and 
the same name is used by McMahon’ in America in 1806. It is 
the Cynara integrifolia of Vahl. 

he Cardon Puvis, or Artichoke-leaved, is spineless, and is 
grown largely in the vicinity of Lyons, France. It finds men- 
tion in the French books on gardening of 1824, 1829, etc., as 
previously enumerated. 
ardon à cotes rouges, or Red-stemmed, is so named from 
having the ribs tinged with red. It is called a recent sort by 
Burr in 1863. 


* Matthiolus, Com., 1558, 322 2 Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 383. 
3 Vilmorin, Les PI. Pot., 1883, 3, 59: 4 Matthiolus, Op., 1598, 496. 
5 L'Hort. Mi; 1824; Petit, Dict. du Jard., 1826; Noisette, Man., 1829. 
6 J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, 50. 7 Townsend, Seedsman, 1726, 29. 


® McMahon, A m. Gard. Kal., 1806. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 527 


` From a botanical point of view we have two types in these 
plants,—the armed and the unarmed; but these characters are 
by no means to be considered as very cohakee as in the Smooth- 
Solid we have an intermediate form. In an olericultural point 
of view we have but one type throughout, but a greater or less 
perfection. A greater acquaintance with the wild forms would, 
doubtless, show to us the prototypes of the variety differences 
as existing in nature. 

The cardoon is called, in France, cardon, cardonette, chardon- 
nerette, chardonnette ; in Germany, Cardy, Carde; in Flanders, 
ardoen, cardonzen ; in Denmark, kardon ; in Italy, Spain, and 
Portugal, cardo. 


Carrot. Daucus carota L. 


The carrot and the parsnip, if known to them, seem to have 
been confounded in the descriptions by the ancients, and we find 
little evidence that the cultivated carrot was known to the Greek 
writers, to whom the wild carrot was certainly known. The 
ancient writers usually gave prominence to the medical efficacy 
of herbs; and if our supposition be correct that their carrots 
were of the wild form, we have evidence of the existence of the 
yellow and red roots in nature, the prototypes of these colors 
now found in our cultivated varieties. Pliny, who was a natu- 
ralist, says they cultivate a plant in Syria like staphy/inos, the 
wild (?) carrot, which some call gingidium, yet more slender and 
more bitter, and of the same properties, which is eaten cooked 
or raw, and is of great service as a stomachic; also a fourth 
kind, resembling a pastinaca somewhat, called by us Gallicam, 
but by the Greeks daucon. This comparison with a parsnip and 
the name is suggestive of the cultivated carrot. Galen, a Greek 
physician of the second century, implies cultivation of the carrot 

when he says the root of the wild carrot is less fit to be eaten 
than that of the domestics In the thirteenth century, however, 
Albertus Magnus (lib. vii. tract. ii. cap. 1-4) treats of the plants 
under field culture, garden culture, orchard culture,and vineyard 
culture, and yet, while naming the parsnip, makes no mention of 
the carrot,—if the word pastinaca really means the parsnip. I 
am willing to believe, however, that the fastinaca of Albertus 

* Theophrastus, Bodzeus a T ed. 1644, IIIQ, 1122. 

s Pliny, lib. tx. c. 16; lib. tit. c, 27. 3 Matth., Op., 1598, 570. 


528 History of Garden Vegetables. [June 


_ Magnus is the carrot, for in the sixteenth century Ammonius" 
gives the name for the carrot pastenei, as applying to Pastinaca 
sativa and agrestis. Barbarus, who died in 1493, and Virgelius? 
both describe the carrot under the name Pastinaca; and Apicius,’ 
a writer on cookery in the third century, gives directions for 
preparing the Carota seu pastinaca, which can only apply to the 
carrot. Dioscorides? uses the word Carota as applying to the 
Pastinaca silvestris in the first century. Columella+ and Palladiuss 
both mention the fastinaca as garden plants, but say nothing but _ 
what can better apply to the carrot than the parsnip. Macer . 
Floridus® also treats of what may be the carrot under Pastinaca, 
and says no roots afford better food. 

We hence believe that the carrot was cultivated by the 
ancients, but was not a very general food-plant, and did not 
attain the modern appreciation ; that the word fastinaca, or cari- 
otam, or carota, in these times was applied to both the cultivated 
and the wild form; and we suspect that the word Gallicam, used 
by Pliny in the first century, indicates that the cultivated root 
reached Italy from France, where now it is in such exaggerated 


m. 

The Stsaron of Dioscorides and the Siser of Columella and 
Pliny may have been a form of the carrot, but we can attain no 
certainty from the descriptions. The fact that the grouping of 
the roots which occurs in the Skirret, into which authors trans- 
late Siser, is not mentioned by the ancients,—a distinction almost 
too important to be overlooked,—and that the short carrot was 
called Szser by botanists of the sixteenth century, are arguments 
in favor of the Siser being a carrot. On the other hand, we 
should scarcely expect a distinction being made between Pasti- 
naca and Siser, were both as resembling in the plant as are the 
two forms of carrot at present. 

The carrot is now found under cultivation and as an escape 
throughout a large portion of the world. In China it is noticed 
in the Yuan dynasty, as brought from Western Asia, 1280-1368,7 
and is classed as a kitchen vegetable in the sixteenth, seven- 

7 Ammonius, Med. one 1539, 186. 2 In Ruellius’s gepen 1529, 174. 
3 Apicius, lib. iii. c. 4 Columella, lib, xi. c. 3. 
5 Palladius, lib. c. 
mi oridus, De Viribus Herb., 1l. 1284, ae ed., 1832; Æmelius Macer, 
Pictorius a, 1581, 95, but a parsnip figured by Pict 
7 retechensbiles , On the Study, etc., 17. 


x 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 529 


teenth, and eighteenth centuries by various Chinese authors. 
In India the carrot is said to have first come from Persia, and 
now cultivated in abundance in the Mahratta and Mysore coun- 
tries? The carrot is enumerated among the edible plants of 
Japan by Thunberg, and -earlier by Kaempfert The kind now 
described by a Japanese authority 5 are an inch and a half in diam- 
eter at the crown and nearly two feet and a half long, of a high 
color. It is now cultivated in the Mauritius, where it has also 
become spontaneous. It is recorded in Arabia by Forskal,7 and 
was seen growing—both the yellow and the red—by Rauwolf 
at Aleppo in the sixteenth century. In Europe its culture was 
mentioned by nearly all the ancient herbalists and by writers on 
gardening subjects, the red or purple kind finding mention by 
Ruellius? in 1536. In England the yellow and dark red, both 
long forms, are noticed by Gerarde*® in 1597, and the species is 
supposed to have been introduced by the Dutch in 1 558: In 
the “ Surveyors’ Dialogue,” 1604, it is stated that carrot-roots are 
then grown in England, and sometimes by farmers.” In the 
New World carrots are mentioned at Margarita Island by Haw- 
kins in 1565 *3 (and this implies that they were well known in Eng- 
land at this date); are mentioned in Brazil by Nieuhoffin 1647 ;*4 
in Virginia in 1609*5 and 1648 ;*° and in Massachusetts in 1629.77 
In 1779 carrots were among the Indian foods destroyed by Gen- 
eral Sullivan near Geneva, N. Y.% So fond of carrots are the 
Flathead Indians, of Oregon, that the children cannot. forbear 
stealing them from the fields, although honest as regards other 
articles.” 

The types of the modern carrot are the tap-rooted and the 
premorse-rooted, with quite a number of sub-types, which are 

* Bretschneider, Bot. Sin., 59, 83, 85; also Smith, Mat. Med., 51. 

2 Ainslie, Mat. Med., i. 57. 3 Thunberg, Fl. Jap., xxxiii. 117. 

4 Kaempfer, Amcen., 1712, 822. 

5 Kizo Tamari, Comm. to New Orleans Expos., Am. Hort., September, 1886, 9. 

6 Bojer, Hort. Maurit., 160. 7 Forskal, Fl. Aig.-Arab., xciii. 

8 Gronovius, Orient., 32. 

1 Gerarde, Herbal, 1597, 872. 

11 Booth, Treas. of Bot. t Gard. Chron., 1853, 346. 

13 Hawkins, Voy. Hak. Soc., ed. 27. ™ Nieuhoff, Hak. Voy. 

A True Decl. of Va., 1610, 13. 1$ A Perf. Descr. of Va., 1649, 4. 

17 Higginson, Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., Ist ser., i. 118; Wood, New Eng. Prosp., 
Ist ed., ii. 

18 Conover, Early Hist. of Geneva, 47. 9 Pacific R. R. Rept., i. 295. 


_ 2 Ruellius, De Nat. Stirp., 1536, 699. 


Bo- 1 History of Garden Vegetables. [June 


very distinct in appearance. The synonymy in part is as below. 
First, for the sharp-pointed forms, which are ancient,— 


I. The long, taper-pointed forms, 
Pastinaca sativa prima. Pens 1542, 682 (very little improved). 
. Roszlin, 1550, 1 
Staphylinus. Tragus, eee 
Cam. Epit., 1586, 509 ery highly improved); Matth., 
1598, 549 
Pushes sativa Diosc. Daucus Theophrasti. Lob. ic., 1 591, 


O. 
eee sativa atrorubens. ree feih > ZE 3. 
Pastinaca sativa tenuifolia. gE, 597. 5 
Pastinaca tenuifolia sativa. Dod, 1616, 78. 
Pastinaca sativa rubens. Dod., 1616, 78. 
Long yellows, reds, and whites of modern growing. 


II. The half-long, taper-pointed forms. 

? Pastinaca sativa altera. Fuch., 1542, 683 (very poor). 

Siser. : Matth. Com., 13 58, et ee 1561, 147 

\Siser alterum. Cam. E pit, 1586, 227. 

Carota. Cast. Dur., ; OS: 

Blanche des siebe Vilmona, 1883, 70. 

Danvers half-long of American ‘gardens. 

The premorse forms offer a number of sub-types which are 
very distinct, some being nearly spherical, others cylindrical, 
and yet others tapering, but all ending abruptly at the base, the 
tap-root starting from a flat, or nearly flat, surface. Their ap- 
pearance seems to be modern. 

. The spherical. The earliest mention I find of this type is 
in France in 1824, 1826, and 1829,—the Courte de Pollande* It 
is figured by Decaisne & Naudin, and, in a more improved form, 
-by Vilmorin in 1883.3 

II. The cylindrical, The carrots of this type are remarkably 
distinct, and have for types the Carentan and the Coreless of 
Vilmorin. The first was in American seed-catalogues in 1878. 

II. The tapering. Quite a number of varieties belong. to 
this class, of which the Early Horn is the type. This was men- 
tioned for American gardens by McMahon‘ in 1806, and by suc- 
ceeding authors. 
= ¥ L’Hort. Fran., 1824; Petit, Dict. du Jard., 1826; Noisette, Man., 1829. 

? Decaisne & Naudin, Man., iv. 125. 3 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, ae 

— Aa Gard. Cal., 1806, 313. 


1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 531 


In view of the confusion in early times in the naming of the 
carrot, it is desirable to offer a list of the names used by various 
authors, with the dates. The first, or long carrot, was called, in 
England, carrot, Lyte, 1586; in France, carota, Ruel., 1536, car- 
rottes, pastenades, Pin., 1561, pastenade jaulne, pastenade rouge, 
Lyte, 1586, carotte, racine jaulne, Ger., 1 597; in Germany, Pas- 
tenei, Ammon., 1539, Pastiney, Pastinachen, Fuch., 1542, geel 
Ruben, rohte Ruben, weissen Ruben, Trag., 1552, Mohren, Rosz., 
1550, Moren, Pin., 1561, gelbe Ruben, weissen Ruben, Rauwolf, 
1582, rot Mohren, weisse Mohren, Cam., 1 586; in Dutch, geel 
peen, pooten, geel mostilen, caroten, Lyte, 1586; in Italy, carota, 

in, 1561, carota and carotola, Cam., 1586, pastinaca, Ger., 
1597, Dod., 1616; in Spain, canahoria, Ger., 1597, and paste- 
nagues, cenoura, Dod., 1616. 

The half-long, taper-pointed carrot was called Siser by Mat- 
thiolus in 1558; in French, carottes blanche, Pin., 1561; but his 
other names applicable to the Skirret are the chervy, giroles 
aut carottes blanches, Cam. Epit., 1586; in Germany, Gierlin sive 
Girgellin, Cam., 1586; in Italy, carota bianca, Cam., 1586, 
carotta, carocola, Cast. Dur., 1617; in Spain, chirivias, Cam., 
1586, who says planted in gardens and even in fields throughout 
Germany and Bohemia. 

he modern names for the carrot, in Europe, are, in France, 
carotte, faux-chervis, girouille, pastenade; in Germany, Mohre, 
elbrube, Carotte ; in Flanders, wortel ; in Holland, wortel, peen ; 


in Denmark, guleroden ; in Italy, carota; in Spain, zanahoria ; 


in Portugal, cenoura ;* in Greece, karotta, or staphulona2 

In extra-European countries: in rabic, gesar,3 istufleen, 
Juszir-ul-bostanee ; in Bengali, gajar ; in Egypt, dazar ; in India, 
sager;* in Japan, kofuk, vulgo nisji et jabu nensin;5 in Persia, 
zardak ; in Sanscrit, grinjuna, canjara; in Telugu, gazeragedda. 

The various forms of the carrot have probably their proto- 
types in nature, but as yet the evidence is a little deficient. We 
may suspect the general resemblance of the A/fringham to the 
Japanese variety already mentioned may be somewhat more than 
accidental, and to signify the original introduction of this variety 
from Japan. We have, in the attempts at amelioration, noted 

z Vilmorin, l. c., 60. 2 Pickering, Ch. Hist., 190. 

3 Delile, Fl. Ægypt, illust. 4 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 162. 

5 Kaempfer, Amæn., 1712, 822; Thunb., Jap.; 117. . 


532 The Progress of North American Paleontology. [June 


the appearance of forms of similar types as those under cultiva- 

tion. The presumptive evidence is in favor of the view that all 

cultivated types are removes from nature, not new originations 

by man; yet the proof is not as decisive as could be wished.” 
(To be continued.) 


REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF NORTH AMERI- 
CAN PALAZZONTOLOGY FOR THE YEAR 1886. 


BY JOHN BELKNAP MARCOU. 


iip year which has just passed has been fairly prolific in palæ- 
ontologic works and promises well for the future of Ameri- 
can palzontology.. With the exception of the death of the 
veteran palzontologist and conchologist, Isaac Lea, of Philadel- 
phia, we have to deplore the loss of no eminent workers in this 
branch of science. 

I have extended this review so as to include the vertebrates, 
which I had not touched in my similar work for previous years, 
and, although my slighter acquaintance with the subject has 
made it much more difficult for me to get the material together, 
I trust that it will be found a welcome addition by those inter- 
ested in this branch of the science. 

T. H. Aldrich publishes a “ Preliminary Report upon the Ter- 
tiary Fossils of Alabama and Mississippi” in the Geol. Sur. Ala- 
dama, Bull. No. 1, p. 18. In the Your. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. His., 
vol. viii. p. 256, he has “ Notes on the Distribution of Tertiary 
Fossils in Alabama and Mississippi.” 

J. A. Allen has an article “On an Extinct Type of Dog from 
Ely Cave, Lee County, Va.,” in the Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., at 
Harvard College, vol. x. p. 1. Professor Shaler appends a note, 
from which one would infer that he considers the remains de- 
scribed to be of Pliocene age. 


H. M. Ami, in the Canad. Rec. Sci., vol. ii. p. 304, has a note 


“On the Occurrence of Scolithus in Rocks of the Chazy Forma- 
tion about Ottawa, Ontario.” 

Charles A. Ashburner and Angelo Heilprin have, in the Proc. 

t Joigneaux, Traite des Graines 

2 See Proc. of Soc, for P. of Ai. B, 1886, p. 68, for an article of mine on this 
EER 


s 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 533 


and Collections Wyoming His. and Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 254, an 
article entitled “ Report on the Wyoming Valley Carboniferous 
Limestone Beds, by C. A. Ashburner, Geologist in Charge of the 
Anthracite Survey, and Corresponding Member of the Wyoming 
Historical and Geological Society, accompanied by a Description 
of the Fossils contained in the Beds, by Angelo Heilprin.” 

L. W. Bailey has a “ Report of Explorations and Surveys in 
Portions of the Counties of Carleton, Victoria, York, and North- 
umberland, New Brunswick, 1885,” in the Azn. Report Geol. and 
Nat. Surv. Canada, new ser., vol. i. pp. 18-309. 

Mariano Barcena, in the ‘Anierican NATURALIST, vol. xx. P 
633, has a note on “ The Fossil Man of Peñon.” 

W. H. Barris, in the Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. v. p. 
I5, criticises a paper on the “ Geology of Scott County, Iowa, 
and Rock Island County, Ill., by A. S. Tiffany.” 

G. Baur, in the Morphologisches Fahrbuch, Band xii. Heft 11, 
p- 299, has an article entitled “ Ueber die Kanale im Humerus der 
Amnioten.” In the Biologisches Centralblatt, Band vi. p. 353, he 
has “Ueber die Morphogenie der Wirbelsaule der Amnioten.” 

J. P. Bishop gives a notice “On Certain Fossiliferous Lime- 
stones of Columbia County, N. Y., and their Relation to the Hud- 
son River Shales and the Tagomié System” in the Amer. Jour. 
Seh; 3d ser., vol. xxxii. p. 438. 

F. Brauer, in the Annalen des kk. Naturhistorischen Hofmu- 
` seums, redigirt von Franz Ritter von Hauer, Band i. No. 2, 
p. 87, criticises some of S. H. Scudder’s works in an article en- 
titled “ Ansichten über die palaozoischen Insecten und deren 
Deutung.” 

W. C. Brégger, in an article called “ Om alderen af Olenellus- 
zonen i Nordamerika,” Geol. Forenings i Stockholm Forhand, 
No. 101, Bd. viii. H. 3, p. 182, attempts to prove that the Olenel- 
lus beds are older than the Paradoxides beds. 

R. E. Call has an article “ On the Genus Campeloma Rafinesque, 
with a Revision of the Species, Recent and Fossil,” in the Budd. 
Washburn College Laboratory Nat. His., vol. i. No. 5, p. 159. 

E. Canu has an article on “ L’articulé problématique des dé- 
pots tertiaires de Florrisant; Planocephalus aselloides Scudder,” 
in the Soc. Geol. du Nord. Annales, vol. xii. p. 148. 

P. H. Carpenter has a “ Note on the Structure of Crotalocrinus” 
in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Fits. F. ser., vol. xviii. p. 397. 


VOL. XXI.—NO. 6, 


534 The Progress of North American Paleontology. [June 


R. Chalmers has a “ Preliminary Report on the Surface Geol- 
ogy of New Brunswick” in the Ann. Report Geol. and Nat. His. 
Surv. Canada, new ser., vol. i. p. I, gg. 

E, W. Claypole, in the Proc. and Coll. Wyoming Hist. and Geol. 
Soc., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 239, has a “ Report on Some Fossils from 
the Lower Coal-Measures near Wilkesbarre, Luzerne County, 


E. A. Congdon has “Remarks upon a Deposit of Infusorial . 
Earth on the South Shore of Clove Lake, Staten Island,” in the 
Proc. Nat. Sci. Assoc. Staten Island, May 8, 1886. 

E. D. Cope has “Second Continuation of Researches among 
the Batrachia of the Coal-Measures of Ohio” in the Proc. Amer. 
Phil. Soc., vol. xxxii. p. 405. In the Trans. Vassar Bro. Inst., 
vol. iii. pt. 1, p. 60, he has an address entitled “ The Genealogy 
of the Vertebrata as learned from Paleontology.” He has notes 
on “The Sternum of the Dinosauria;” “Corrections of Notes 
on the Dinocerata,” in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. pp. 
153 and 155. In the Geol. Mag., new ser., Decade iii. vol. iii. p. 
49, is an article entitled “ Prof. E. D. Cope on a New Type of 
Perissodactyle Ungulate from the Wasatch Eocene of Wyoming 
Territory, United States of America;” on p. ‘141 of the same 
magazine he has a note on “ Edestus and Pelecopterus.” In the 
AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 367, he has a note on “ The 
Vertebrate Fauna of the Ticholeptus Beds ;” on p. 451 he has an 
article on “The Plagiaulacidz of the Puerco Epoch.” In the 
Geol. Mag., new ser., Decade iii. vol. iii. p. 238, he has “ Notes 
on Phenacodus;” on p. 239 he has a “ Note on Erisichthe.” He 
has a report on the “ Vertebrata of the Swift Current Creek 
Region of the Cypress Hills” in the Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. 
Hist. Surv. Canada, 1885, published May, 1886. He has a note 
on “ The Long-spined Theromorpha of the Permian Epoch” in the 
AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. P- 544; on p. 611 he has an 
article on “ The Phylogeny of the Camelide;” on p. 1027 he has 
- “An interesting Connecting Genus of Chordata:” on p. 1044 he 
describes “ A Giant Armadillo from the Miocene of Kansas.” In 
the Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. Philad., vol. Xii, 2d ser., p. 243, he 


'_ has an article “On the Intercentrum of the Terrestrial Verte- 


brata.” He also published a book on “ The Origin of the Fittest, 
Essays on Evolution,” published in New York. In the Zrans. 
Am, Phil. Soc., vol. xvi. p. 285, he has a “ Systematic Catalogue 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 535 


of Species of Vertebrata found in the Beds of the Permian Epoch 
in North America, with Notes and Descriptions.” In the Proc. 
Amer. Phil. Soc. for 1885, p. 234, he has an article “On the Struc- 
ture of the Brain and Auditory Apparatus of a Theromorphous 
Reptile of the Permian Epoch.” 

F. W. Cragin has “ Notes on the Geology of Southern Kansas” 
in the Bull. Washburn College Laboratory Nat. Hist., vol. i. No. 
3, P. 85. 

K. M. Cunningham, in Science, vol. vii. p. 35, calls attention 
to a“ New Find of Fossil Diatoms.” 

T. Nelson Dale, in the Proc. Canadian Inst., 3d ser., vol. iv. p. 
69, has a note on “ New England Upper Silurian.” 

James D. Dana, in the Proc. A. A. A. Sih, woe xxxiv. p: 216, 
and in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d Ser., vol. xxxi. p. 241, has an arti- 
cle “On Lower Silurian Fossils from a Limestone of the Origi- 
nal Taconic of Emmons.” In the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 
xxxii. p. 236, he has a note on “The Taconic Stratigraphy and 
Fossils.” 

eek H. Darton, in Sci., vol. vii. p. 78, has a note entitled 
the “ Taconic Controversy in a Nutshell.” In the Amer. Four. 
Sci., 3d set., vol. xxxi: p. 209, he has an article “On the Area of 
Upper Silurian EE near Cornwall Station, Eastern Central 
Orange Cou 

W. Davies, in the Geol. Mag., new ser., Decade iii. vol. iii. 
p. 141, has a “ Note on Prof. E. D. Cope’s suis upon Edestus 
and Pelecopterus, etc.” 

Sir J. W. Dawson has an abstract of a paper “ On the Fossil 
Flora of the Laramie Series of Western Canada” in the AMERI- 
CAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 635, and in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d 
ser., vol. xxxii. p: 242. In the Geol. Mag., new ser., Decade iii. 
p. 503, he has an abstract of a paper “ On Canadian Examples of 
Supposed Fossil Algæ.” 

William B. Dwight, in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. 
p. 125, has an article on “ Recent Explorations in the Wappinger 
Valley Limestone of Dutchess County, N. Y., No. 5, Discovery 
of Fossiliferous Potsdam Strata at Poughkeepsie, N. Y.,” and 
a note on this subject is also placed in the Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. 
Xxxiv. pt. I, p. 204. 

R. W. Ellis has a “ Report on the Geological Formations of - 
Eastern Albert and Westmoreland Counties, New Brunswick, 


536 The Progress of North American Paleontology. [June 


and of Portions of Cumberland and Colchester Counties, Nova 
Scotia, embracing the Spring Hill Coal Basin and the Carbon- 
iferous System north of the Cobequid Mountains,” in the Geol. 
and Nat. Hist. Surv. Canada Ann. Rep., new ser., vol. i. p. 1 e. 
Robert Etheridge, Jr., and P. Herbert Carpenter have pub- 
lished a “ Catalogue of the Blastoidea in the Geological Depart- 
ment of the British Museum (Natural History), with an Account 
of the Morphology and Systematic Position of the Group and a. 
Revision of the Genera and Species;” in _ this many American 


- forms are described and discussed. 


John Eyerman, in the American Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. 
p. 72, has a note on “ Footprints on the Triassic Sandstone (Jura- 
Trias) of New Jersey.” 

Charles L. Faber has some “ Remarks on Some Fossils of the 
Cincinnati Group” in the Four. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 
ix. p. 14. 

H. Filhol has “ Observations sur le mémoire de M. Cope 
intitule Relations des Horizons renfermant des débris d’animaux 
vertébrés Fossiles en Europe et en cio ee in the Aun. Sci. 
Geol., vol. xvii. p. I. 

> W. Ford has “ Notice of a New Denna of Lower Silurian 
Brachiopoda,” and “ Note on the recently proposed Genus Bil- 
lingsia,” in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. p. 466, and 
vol. xxxii. p. 325. He has also published a “ Note on the Age 
of the Swedish Paradoxides Beds” in the Amer. Four. Sci, 3d 
ser., vol. xxxii. p. 473. In connection with W. B. Dwight he 
has published a “ Preliminary Report of S. W. Ford and W. B. 
Dwight upon Fossils obtained in 1885 from Metamorphic Lime- 

stones of the Taconic Series of Emmons, at Canaan, N. Y. (A) 
Explanatory Statements with Reference to the Palæontological 
Investigations at Canaan, N. Y., by W. B. Dwight. (B) Joint 
Report on the Fossils” in the American Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 
Fasi: p. 248. 

A. F. Foerste describes the fossils of “The Clinton Group of 
Ohio” in the Bull, Sci., Laboratories Denison University, vol. i. p. 63. 

C. E. Grant and Sir J. W. Dawson have “ Notes on B 
! Fossils from Anticosti” in the Can. Ree. Sci., vol. ii. p. 44. 

L. P. Gratacap hds a note on “ Fish Romae and Tracks in 
the Triassic Rocks at Weehawken, N. J.,” in the AMERICAN NAT- 
URALIST, vol. XX. p. 243. 


s 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 537 


James Hall has “Bryozoa of the Upper Helderberg Group, 
Plates and Explanations. Published in advance of the Report 
-of the State Geologist for 1886, and of vol. vi., Pal. N. Y., 1886, 
pls.i—xii. pp. I-29. Albany, 1886.” 

F. L. Harvey has a note “On Axthracomartus trilobitus Scud- 
der” in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philada., p. 231, September, 
1886. 

Angelo Heilprin has “ Notes on the Tertiary Geology and 
Paleontology of the United States”. in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 
p- 57, March, 1886, Philadelphia. In the Trans. Wagner Fiú 
Institute Sci, p. 65, Philad., 1886, he has “Explorations on 
the West Coast of Florida and in the Okeechobee Wilderness, 
with Special Reference to the Geology and Zoology of the Flo- 
ridian Peninsula. A Narrative of Researches undertaken under 
the Auspices of the Wagner Free Institute of Science of Phila- 
delphia.” Many new species without illustrations are described 
in this paper. He has also a note “On Miocene Fossils from 
Southern New Jersey” in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 
p- 351, December, 1886. 

L. E. Hicks has a note on “ The Permian i in Nebraska” in the 
AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 881. 

E. W. Hilgard has a note on “ Dr. Otto Meyer and the South- 
western Tertiary” in Sczence, vol. vii. p. 11. In the Amer. Four. 
Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. p. 398, is an abstract of a paper entitled 
“Making Deposits of the Remains of Birds, Squirrels, and other 
Small Animals,” from William’s “ Mineral Resources of the 
United States for the Years 1883-4.” 

Franklin C. Hill has an article “ On the Mounting of Fossils” 
in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 353. 

G. J. Hinde, in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., p. 271, March, 1836, 
has an article on “ Hystricrinus Hinde versus Arthroacantha 
Williams, a Question of Nomenclature.” 

Arthur Hollick publishes “ Remarks on Some Fossil Eésréi 
from Kreischerville and New Jersey” in the Proc. Nat. Sci. Assoc. 
Staten Island, February 13, 1886. 

Joseph F. James has “Cephalopoda of dhe Cincinnati Group ;” 
“ Description of a New Species of Gomphoceras from the Trenton 
of Wisconsin ;” and “ Note ona Recent Synonyme in the Palzon- 
tology of the Cincinnati Group,” in the Your. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
vol. viii. pp. 235 and 255, and vol. ix. p. 39. 


f 


538 The Progress of North American Paleontology. {June 


T. Rupert Jones has an article “ On Palzozoic Phyllopoda,” 
and one “On Some Fossil Ostracoda from Colorado,” in the 
Geol, Mag., new ser., Decade iii. vol. iii. pp. 456 and 145 

Geo. F. Kunz has an article on “ Agatized and Jasperized 
Wood of Arizona” in the Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. xxviii. p. 362. 

G. W. Lamplugh, in the Quart. Four. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 
xlii. pt. 3, p. 276, has an article “ On Glacial Shell Beds in British 
Columbia.” 

D. W. Langdon publishes “ Observations on the Tertiary of 
Mississippi and Alabama, with Descriptions of New Species,” in 
the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. p. 202. 

Joseph Leidy has “ Mastodon and Llama from Florida ;” “ An 
Extinct Boar from Florida;”’ and “ Caries in the Mastodon,” in 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., pp. 11, 37, and 38, March, 1886. 

Lennox has a note on “The Fossil Sharks of the Devonian” 
in the Proc. Canadian Inst., 3d ser., vol. iii. p. 120. 

Richard Lydekker has published “Catalogue of the Fossil 
Mammalia in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell 
Road S. W., part iii., containing the Order Ungulata, suborders 
Perissodactyla, Toxodontia, Condylarthra, and Amblypoda.” 
This contains many American species. 

A. McCharles has published a paper entitled “The Extinct 
Cuttle-Fish in the Canadian Northwest. A Paper read before 
the Canadian Institute, Toronto, March 4, 1885.” 

John Belknap Marcou has published “ Department of the In- 
terior, U. S. National Museum, Serial No. 40, Bulletin of the 
United States National Museum, No. 30, published under the 
direction of the Smithsonian Institution. Bibliographies of 
American Naturalists, III. Bibliography of Publications relating 
to the collection of Fossil Invertebrates in the United States 
National Museum, including Complete Lists of the Writings of 
Fielding B. Meek, Charles A. White, and Charles D. Walcott. 
Washington, 1885.” Four hundred copies of an extract from 
this were published under the title “ Annotated Catalogue of the 
Published Writings of Charles Abiathar White, 1860-1885. Ex- 
tracted from Bull. 30, U. S. National Museum, pp. 11-181, 1885.” 
. iy the Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. ix. p. 250, he has a “ Supple- 
ment to the List of TIARA and Cenozoic Invertebrate Types 
in the Collections of the National Museum.” In the AMERICAN 
Naroxauisr, vol. ne 505, he has a “ Review of the Progress 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 539 


of North American Invertebrate Paleontology for 1885 ;” and, 
finally, a “ Record of North American Invertebrate Palzontology 
for the Year 1885, from the Smithsonian Report for 1885. Wash- 
ington, 1886.” 

George F. Matthew has “ Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. 
John Group continued, No. 3. Descriptions of New Genera and 
Species (including a Description of a New Species of Solenopleura, 
by J. F. Whiteaves),” in the Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 
for the year 1885, vol. iii. section iv. p. 29. He has a “Synopsis 
of the Fauna in Division 1, of the St. John Group, with Prelimi- 
nary Notes on the Higher Faunas of the same Group;” in the 
Bull. Nat. His. Soc. New Brunswick, No. 5, p. 25, he publishes a 
note on “The Structural Features of Discina acadica (Hartt) 
of the St. John Group,” and one on the “ Discovery of a Ptera- 
spidian Fish in the Silurian Rocks of New Brunswick,” in the 
Canadian Rec. Sct., vol. ii. No. 1, p.g, and No. 4, p. 251. Inthe . 
Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. pp. 72 and 472, he has a “Ptero- 
pod of the St. John Group (from a Letter by Mr. G. F. Matthew, 
dated St. John, New Brunswick, December 8),” and a “ Note on 
the Occurrence of Olenellus kjerulfi in America.” He has an 
“ Additional Note on the Pteraspidian Fish found in New Bruns- 
wick” in the Canad. Rec. Sci., vol. v. No. 5, p. 323. 

Otto Meyer and T. H. Aldrich have published in the Four. 
Cin, Soc. Nat. His., vol. ix. p- 40, an article on “ The Tertiary 
Fauna of Newton oid Wautubbee, Miss.” 

Otto Meyer, in the Geol. Sur. Alabama, Bull. No. 1, pt. 2, 
p. 63, has “ Contributions to the Eocene Palzontology of Ala- 
bama and Mississippi.” In the Amer. Four. Sci, 3d ser., vol. 
xxxii. p. 20, he has “Observations on the Tertiary and Grand 
Gulf of Mississippi.” In the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 
637, he has “ Notes on the Variation of Certain Tertiary Fossils 
in Overlying Beds.” ; 

Fred. K. Mixer and Herbert U. Willies have a note on “ Fish 
Remains from the Corniferous near Buffalo” in the Bull. Buffalo 
Soc. Nat. Sci., vol. V. p. 84. 

D R Moore has an article on “ Fossil Corals of Franklin 
County, Indiana,” in the Bull. Brookville Soc. Nat. His., No. 2, p. 
50; and in No. 1, p. 44, he has “ Two Hours among the Fossils 
of Franklin County, Ind.” 

Charles Morris has an article on “ Methods of Dicer in 


` 


540 Tne Progress of North American Paleontology. [June 


Organisms” in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada., P. 25, March, 
1886. 

J. S. Newberry, in the Bull. Torrey Botanical Club, vol. xiii. pp. 
33 and 77, has “ The Flora of the Amboy Clays,” and “ Descrip- 
tion of a Species of Bauhinia from the Cretaceous Clays of New 
Jersey.” In the Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. v. p- 133, he has an 
abstract of a paper on “ The Cretaceous Flora of North America, 
Illustrated by Drawings and Lantern Views.” 

H. Allyne Nicholson has an article “On Some New or Im- 
perfectly-known Species of Stromatoporoids” in Ann. and Mag. 
Nat. Hist., 5th ser., vol. xviii. p. 8, London. Several American spe- 
cies are described. He has also published “ A Monograph of the 
British Stromatoporoids, pt. 1, General Introduction. The Palæ- 
ontological Society, Instituted 1847, vol. for 188 5. London, 1886.” 

Henry F. Osborn has “A New Mammal from the American 
Triassic” in Science, vol. viii. p.540. In the Proc. Acad. Nat. 
Sci., p. 359, December, 1886, he has “ Observations upon the 
Upper Triassic Mammals, Dromatherium and Microconodon.” 

Richard Owen has an article “ On a New Perissodactyle Un- 
gulate from Wyoming” in the Geol. Mag., new series, Decade iii. 
vol. iii. p. 140. 

A. S. Packard has an article on “ Geological Extinction and 
some of its Apparent Causes,” and on the “ Discovery of Lamel- 
late Thoracic Feet in the Phyllocarida” in the AMERICAN NatTu- 
RALIST, vol. xx. pp. 29 and 155, and in the Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 
Philad., vol. xxiii. p. 380. 

J. Hayes Panton has “ Fragmentary Leaves from the Geological 
Records of the Great Northwest ;” “ Gleanings from the Geology 
of the Red River Valley ;” “Gleanings from Outcrops of Silurian 
Strata in the Red River Valley ;” and “ Notes on the Geology of 
Some Islands in Lake Winnipeg,” in the Manitoba Hist. and Set. 
Soc. Winnipeg Trans., Nos. 4, 3, 15, and 20. 

Julius Pohlman has an article on “ Fossils from the Waterlime 
Group near Buffalo, N. Y.” in the Bul. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., vol. 
V. P. 23. 

F. W. Putnam has a note on the “ Discovery of a Mastodon 

Skull at Shrewsbury” in the Proc. Boston Soc. Nat Hist, vol. 
xxiii. p. 242. 

H. Rauff has a note “On the Genus Hindia Dune.” in the 


_ Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., sth ser., vol. xviii. p. 169. 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 541 


Eugene N. S. Ringueberg has descriptions of “ New Genera 
and Species of Fossils from the Niagara Shales” in the Bull, 


. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci, vol. v. p. 1 


C. Rominger has an article “On the Minute Structure of 
Stromatopora and its Allies” in the Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., 
p..39, March, 1886. 

Oscar Schmidt has published in the /nternational Scientific 
Series “ The Mammalia in their Relation to Primeval Times. New 
York, 1886 ;” this is a translation of his German work. 

W. B. Scott has an article “On Some New Forms of Dinoce- 
rata” in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. p. 303. 

S. H. Scudder, in the Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. iii. No. 
13, pp..431, 438, and 430, has “ The Oldest Known Insact Larva, 
Mormolucoides articulatus, from the Connecticut River Rocks ;” 
“ Note on the supposed Myriopodan Genus Trichiulus;” and “ A 
Review of Mesozoic Cockroaches.” He has also published an 
article entitled “ The Cockroach of the Past,’ reprinted from 


_ “The Structure and Life History of the Cockroach (Periplaneta 


orientalis), by L. C. Miall and Alfred Denny, pp. 205-219. Lon- 
don, 1886.” In the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxi. p. 310, he 
describes a “ New Carboniferous Arachnidan from Arkansas.” 
Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 31, is a “Systematic Review of our 
Present pasted ag Fossil Insects, including Myriapods and 
Arachnids;” this appeared first in German as a portion of “ Zittel’s 
Handbuch der Paleontologie,” I. Abtheilung Paleozoologie, Bd. ii. 
p. 721. 

H. M. Seely has a note on “ The Genus Strephochetus, Distribu- 
tion and Species,” in the Amer. Four, Sci., 3d ser,, vol. xxxii. p. 31. 

N. S. Shaler has a “ Preliminary Report on the Geology of the 
Cobscook Bay District, Maine. Published by permission of the 
Director of the U. S. Geol. Survey,” in seis Amer. Four. Sci., vol. 
xxxii. p. 35. 
A. H. Smith has a note on “ The Railway Cutting at Gray’s 
Ferry Road” in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 253, Septem- 
ae 1886. 

M. Stirrup has an article “On Some Fossils from the Palaeozoic 

Rocks of America, principally from the State of Indiana,” in the 


_ Manchester Geol, Soc. Trans., vol. xviii. p: 331. 


T. Thorell has an article “On Proscorpius osbornei Whitfield” 
in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. p. 269 


me 


“542 The Progress of North American Paleontology. [June 


A. S. Tiffany has a work on the “Geology of Scott County, 
Iowa, and Rock Island County, Ill., and the Adjacent Territory, 
showing the Geographical and Vertical Range of the Fossils 
of the Niagara Corniferous and Hamilton Groups of Rocks, and 
the Chemung Group at Burlington, Iowa, with Supplement. 
Davenport, Iowa, 1885.” 

E. O. Ulrich has “ Descriptions of New Silurian and Devonian 
Fossils, Contributions to American Paleontology, vol. i. p. 3, 
May, 1886, Cincinnati.’ He has a “Report on the Lower 
Silurian Bryozoa, with Preliminary Descriptions of some of the 
New Species,” and “ Remarks upon the Names Cheirocrinus and 
Calceocrinus, with Descriptions of three New Generic Terms and 
one New Species,” in the rgth Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. 
Surv. Minnesota, pp. 57 and 104. 

Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer have published “ Re- 
vision of the Palzocrinoidea, Part III. Discussion of the Classifi- 
cation and Relations of the Brachiate Crinoids, and Conclusion 
of the Generic Descriptions, Second Section,” in the Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Phila., p.65, March and September, 1886. The author’s 
edition contains, in addition to the article in the Proceedings, an 
index of all generic and specific names used in connection with 
the Palzeocrinoidea. 

M. E. Wadsworth has a note “ On a Supposed Fossil from the 
Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior” in the Proc. Boston 
Soc. Nat. His., vol. xxiii. p. 208. 

C. D. Walcott has an article on the “ Classification of the Cam- 
brian System of North America” in the Amer. Four. Sci., 3d ser., 
vol. xxxii. p. 138. He has also published a “Second Contribu- 
tion to the Cambrian Faunas of North America,” Bull. 30, U. S. 
Geol. Surv. Washington, 1886. 

L. F. Ward has a “ Note on a few Imperfect Leaf Impressions 
from Northern California” in Bu. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 33, 
p. 16. In the Amer. Four. Sci, 3d ser., vol. xxxi: p. 370, he 
has a note “On the Determination of Fossil Dicotyledonous 
Leaves.” 

Ç. A. White has published “ On the Fresh Water Invertebrates 
of the North American Jurassic,” Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 29, 
_ Washington, 1886, and “ On the Relation of the ae Mol- 
luscan Fauna to that of the Succeeding Fresh-Water Eocene and 
_ other Groups,” Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 34. Washington, 1886. 


1887] The Progress of North American Paleontology. 543 


R. P. Whitfield has a reply to Professor Thorell’s criticism, 
entitled “ Professor Thorell and the American Silurian Scor- 
pion,” in Sczence, vol. vii. p. 216. He has published “ Brachio- 
poda and Lamellibranchiata of the Raritan Clays and Greensand 
Marls of New Jersey,” Monographs of the U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 
ix. Washington, 1885 ; this appeared also as a publication of the 
Geol. Surv. of New Fersey. Trenton, 1886. In the Bull, Amer. 
Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 293, he has a “ Notice of Geological 
Investigations along the Eastern Shore of Lake Champlain, con- 
ducted by Prof. H. M. Seely and Presdt. Ezra Brainerd, of Mid- 
dlebury College, with Descriptions of the New Fossils discovered 
by R. P. Whitfield.” In the American NATURALIST, vol. xx. 
1041, he has a notice on the same subject. In the Bul Man. 
Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 346, he has also a “ Notice of a New 
Fossil Body, probably a Sponge related to Dictyophyton.” 

H. S. Williams has a criticism of Prof. James Hall’s “ Palæon- 
tology,” vol. v. part i., entitled “ Devonian Lamellibranchiata and 
Species-making,” in the Amer. Four. Sci, 3d ser., vol. xxxii. p. 
192. In the Proc, A. A. A. Sy vol. xxxii. part i. p. 222, he has 
an article “ On the Classification of the Upper Devonian.” 

H. N. Williams has “ Notes on the Fossil Fishes of the Genes- 
see and Portage Black Shales” in the an Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., 
vol. v. p. 81. 

S. G. Williams has “Westward Extension of Rocks in the 
Lower Helderberg Period in New York” in the Proc. A. A. A. S., 
vol. xxxiv. part i. p. 235, and “The Westward Extension of 
Rocks of Lower Helderberg Age in New York” in the Amer. 
Four, Sci., 3d ser, vol. xxxi. p. 139. 

N. H. Winchell has a “ Notice of Lingula and Paradoxides 
from the Red Quartzites of Minnesota, Abstract,” in the Proc. 
A. A. A. S., vol. xxxiv. part i.p.214. “The Taconic Controversy 
in a Nutshell” in Science, vol. vii. p. 34. He describes “ New 
Species of Fossils” in the rgth Annual Rep. Geol. and Nat. His. 

Surv. Minnesota for the year 1884, p. 313, and gives a list of 
“ Specimens Registered in the Genial Museum in 1885” on pp. 
125-6. 

A. Woodward has published “ The Bibliography of the For- 
aminifera, Recent and Fossil, including Eozoon and Recep- 
taculites, 1565—January 1, 1886,” in the rgth Annual Rep. Geol. 
_ and Nat. Fist. Surv. Minnesota for the year 1885, p. 167. 


544 The Dipnoan Brain. | [June 


L. Woolman has a note on the “ Oriskany Sandstone in Ly- 
coming County, Pa.,” in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philad., p: 296, 
September, 1886. 


THE DIPNOAN BRAIN." 
BY BURT G. WILDER. 


HIS paper includes an account of the brain of Ceratodus 
(Neoceratodus Gill), substantiated by photographs and prep- 
arations of three unusually well-preserved specimens in the Mu- 
seum of Cornell University; an admission of the writer’s own 
earlier errors in respect to the brains of “ fishes,” especially in 
disregarding the membranous portions of the ccelian parietes; a 
criticism of Huxley’s paper in the Zool. Soc. Proc., January 4, 
1876 (the later paper of Beauregard does not discuss the structure 
of the brain); a tabular statement of the resemblances and dif- 
ferences between the Dipnot and other groups, particularly the 
Plagiostomes and Amphibia; a reiteration of belief (Am. Assoc. 
Proc., 1875, 189) in the paramount value of cardiac and enceph- 
alic chiarite for the discrimination of more comprehensive 
groups; a reference to the morphological significance of the 
aula or mesal division of the prosoccele; a list of points requir- 
ing further investigation. 

The brain of Ceratodus agrees with that of Protopterus (as de- 
scribed and figured by Fulliquet in the Recueil Zool. Suisse for 
- 1886, and as seen in a recent dissection by the writer) in the im- 
portant point that zhe prosencephal consists mainly of a pair of 
large lobes whose cavities ( proceles or “lateral ventricles’) are 
connected only by a comparatively small aula, as in Amphibia and 
the higher vertebrates. Unlike Protopterus, however, between 
the dorsal parts of these lobes there is a Jong and thick supraplex, 
which, through an interruption of the proper nervous parietes 
for nearly the whole length, sends into each lobe a prolongation 

covered, like all plexes, by the lining endyma. In mammals, 
ofa paper On the Brain of Ceratodus, with Remarks upon Classifica 
General 


* Abstract 
tion and the Morphology of the Vertebrate Brain,” read, by invitation, biter 
_ the National Academy of TO ator 1887. 
a ea? A f 


1887] The Dipnoan Brain. 545 


birds, and reptiles such an interruption for plexal intrusion, when 
it exists, extends caudad from the porta or lateral orifice of the 
aula, and is known as the rima (“great transverse fissure” of 
anthropotomy). In Ceratodus alone, so far as known to the 
writer, is there a frerima,—that is, a rima extending cephalad 
from the margin of the porta. The brain examined by Huxley 
was evidently ill preserved; the supraplex was mistaken for a 
tela vasculosa (the writer’s audatela). Finally, it would appear 
that the margins of the rima on each side, after the supraplex 
was pulled out, were supposed to be artificial, so as to lead to 
the supposition that the dorsal portions of the cavities of the 
lateral lobes formed a single large “ ventriculus communis.” In 
the writer’s specimens the lobes are separated as high as the 
plexus by a firm, membranous guast-falx, and the prosencephalic 
region of the cranial floor presents a distinct mesal ridge, which 
is absent in Protopterus. In Ceratodus the olfactory lobes are 
_pedunculated instead of sessile, as in Protopterus; but in both 
genera (and apparently also in Lepidosiren) they lie in the plane 
of the general brain-axis, and the proper cerebral outgrowths 
are ventral in position instead of dorsal, as in the Amphibia, 
Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. Among other features not be- 
fore recorded of Ceratodus is the precommissure and a thick 
valvula reaching more than half-way to the floor of the en- 
cephaloceele (general cavity of the brain). The conarium is 
very large and saccular, and closely attached to the supraplex. 
As stated by Huxley, the tip of the conarium is lodged in a 
distinct depression (the conarial fossa) in the roof of the cranial 
cavity, and the mesencephal does not present any marked fur- 
row between paired optic lobes. Of the resemblances from 
which Huxley concludes that, “ in its cerebral [encephalic] char- 
acters, Ceratodus occupies a central place in the class Pisces” 
[Ichthyopsida, excluding Amphibia], some are trivial, others 
apply to more than one group, and others are founded upon 
errors of observation or interpretation. So far as the brain is 
concerned, Ceratodus has no néar affinity with the Plagiostomes, 
much less with the Holocephals, Ganoids, Teleosts or Marsipo- 
branchs. In the writer’s opinion, the Dipnoi form a class co- 
ordinate with the Amphibia, with which, on the whole, they are 
most nearly allied. The heart needs further study, and the 
pa is unknown. 


546 The Dipnoan Brain. [June 
In a shark, Scymnus, as figured by T. J. Parker (New Zealand 


Inst. Trans., xv. 1882; Nature, December 30, 1886), each lateral | 


portion of the peosencepliai, between the unpaired part and the 
olfactory lobe, presents a fusiform and nearly symmetrical dilata- 
tion. In 1876 the writer called attention (Am. Four. Sci., xii. 105) 
to the fact that in the lamprey the only part which can be regarded 
as a cerebral hemisphere lies /a¢evad of the olfactory lobe (caudad 
when the paired portions are at a right angle with the meson); 
also that in most sharks and rays the “ hemisphere” projects on 
the opposite side of the olfactory crus, and usually unites with 
its platetrope (lateral homologue). In Dipnoi the cerebral out- 
growth is ventral. In either of these directions in which what 
may be regarded as the special organ of the mind is projected 
among these low or generalized forms there would seem to be 
mechanical obstacles to any considerable expansion; but dor- 
sally there is opportunity for comparatively unlimited extension, 
and it is in this direction that the hemispheres begin to develop 
in the Amphibia and attain such enormous growth in Birds and 
Mammals. This revolution, so to speak, of the hemisphere 
about the olfactory axis accords with other considerations which 
have led Spitzka and the writer independently to consider the 
prevailing idea that the olfactory lobes are mere appendages of 
the cerebrum as nearly the reverse of the trut 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 


The figures are tracings from photographs, with slight modifications. The pro- 
portions and leading features are therefore accurate. ere are some points of dif- 
ference between the two brains, and some conditions which may be artificial; these 
will be referred to in connection with the several figures. Attention is called to 
the fact that, to one familiar with the brains of Amphibia, Reptiles, na the lower 
Mammals, the cephalic portion (prosencephal) of the Ceratodus brain looks more 
natural when held upside-down ; this is due to the unusual relative Sras of the 
olfactory tract and the cerebral hemis sphere. 

The following apply to the three fig The dotted areas represent cut or arti- 
ficial surfaces; the heavy line, forming the ental margin of the cut surfaces, repre- 
sents the endyma, which lines the cavities and is reflected over the plexes. The 
pa (esually lighter) which forms the ectal margin of the cut surfaces, and the out- 

parts not cut, represents the a, from which vessels are given off to form 
‘he. plexes. At some places—e.g., the metaplex, or membranous roof of the meta- 
cele, and the dorso-caudal wall of the saccular conarium—the parietes consist only, 
or ame sa of the m and the endyma; at other places—e. Ss the greater 
of the 

oe 


y reien oani tuent the parietes is very thin. 
f of the mesocele gion and the parts caudad 


` 


1387] The Dipnoan Brain. 547 


af it the double outline indicates the existence of a peculiar, thick, almost etal 
nous, and appar ently non-vascular envelope, the nature and relations of which a 
undetermined. No attempt has been made to show the arachnoid. From what fag 


ven of the region of the optic lobes; the 
diacæle to the larger part of the “third ventricle ;” the au/a, which is com 
confounded with the third ventricle; is really the mesal division of the proso scaler’ or 
irregular cavity of the prosencephal; its other divisions are eg procele (* lateral 
ventricle”) and rhinocele (* olfactory ventricle’) on each s 


Fic. 1. 


ul 
np "solars 


f 3 
ee ae 


X 
$ 


Dr E » . Mey 
P , í end 
| Zeer Be sees: 
a N \ 
Y 
Fic. 1.—Medisection of the brain of No. 425 ine 2). The natural "9 surfaces 
are those of the mesal aspect of the meee! lobe and crus and of the larger part 


of the “cerebral hemisphere.” The supraplex in this specimen is very me com- 
ne r the prerima, through which it finds entrance into the proceeles, as seen 
n Fig 


Bice 2, 


Fic. 2.—Part of the same brain (X z the left prosoccele exposed so as to show 
the extent of the plexus after its entranc e area marked Zora is the lateral 
i of the aula, and is more er called “ foramen of Monro;” hph indi- 


ce 
aes the hypophysis. 


548 Terias Lisa. [June 


Fic. 3.—Transection of No. 424, just cephalad of the conarium (X 3). In this 
the plexus is not so thick in the dorso- 
Fic. 3. ventral directi paat bet its RTE 


Sis ee a (covered, like all plexes, i endyma) ar 
Se se bulky, and cause the dorsal and att? 
: Bas ah n inde margins of the rima (æg, v) to be far apart. 


Between the mesal surfaces of the lobes 
is a line representing the membranous but 
tough falx, the exact relations of which to 
th 


more “eee continuous with the cavity 
of olfactory lobe. The lateral furrow ' 

(f) may be significant, but may also be the dee of alcoholic shrinkage. It does not 

` appear in No. 425 l 


TERIAS LISA. 
(At Ship Island, Gulf of Mexico.) 


RAIL habitant of yonder shore, 
From off the leaf that sheltered thee 
What wondrous craft thy being bore 
Safe through the cyclone of the sea! 
Thy citron-yellow wings are bright, 
d soft the rosy fringe they wear, 
And rays of gloom and silver bright 
Adorn thee, blossom of the air! 


The Cassia, on whose silken flower 
Thy fragile life its being fills, 
What hast thou garnered of its dower 
To waft thee where thy spirit wills ? 
f What dream of flowers of fairer hues, 
Of lights more beautiful than dawn, 
Of winds of balm and honey-dews 
Allured thee ever on and on? 


Thou didst but ask, O faëry sprite, 

A blossom cup, the morning beam, 
Companions for thy circling flight, 

And love to share thy rainbow dream! 


1887] Editors’ Table. 549 


Here on the white, sea-drifted shore 
Thy feeble, fluttering life I scan; 

Thou tellest the lesson o’er and o’er,— 
Thou art the history of man. 


BILOXI, MISSISSIPPI. 


Laura F. Hinsdale. 


EDITORS’ TABLE. 
EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. ` 


Why does not some master-mind arise and give us a complete 
work upon unnatural history? Such a treatise is a great desid- 
eratum, for its publication would be a great boon to the scientific 
world. Were there such a work in existence no doubt Congress 
could be induced to make a liberal appropriation and furnish 
copies gratis to all who should apply for them. The saving this 
would afford to publishers and the relief it would vouchsafe to 
readers and editors would be inestimable, for then that innumer- 
able throng longing to get their names and their lucubrations in 
print would have no excuse for existence ; all their “ discoveries” 
would be forestalled. No more would audiences be bored with 
fanciful theories of the way in which the ancient Egyptians carved 
all the Pyramids out of solid rock; nor would editors be com- 
pelled to wade through manuscripts proving “ incontestably” that 
albinos were always the result of fright in the pregnant mother, 
because albinos are most abundant in rabbits, and every one 
knows that rabbits are the most timid animals in the whole 
world.— Q. £E. D. : 

As was intimated in the opening sentences, a complete unnat- , 
ural history requires a master-mind and abilities of no common 
order. There*are, it is true, many works which fall but little 
short of perfection in this line; but, still, a careful search reveals 
lapses which ruin them as complete encyclopædias of misinfor- 
mation. Usually the failure arises from the fact that the author 
is utterly unconscious of the nature of the treatise he is pro- 
ducing. He works in sober earnest, thinking to surprise the 
whole world; and he would do so were it not that in an evil 
hour he allows a few really credible facts to creep in. The 
qualifications necessary are an instinctive ability, not to be ac- 

L. XXL : 37 


“x 


550 Editors’ Table. [June 


quired by any education, to discriminate between the false and 
the true, always appropriating the former and rejecting the latter, 
a love of the marvellous, and a power to quickly assimilate the 
erroneous. The work must, of necessity, be largely a compila- 
tion, for an intellect capable of producing the work would be 
lacking in the imaginative side, and could not possibly evolve it 
in its entirety from its inner consciousness. It must be able to 
trace results from no adequate cause. The syllogism must be 
ignored. There must be a realization of the magnitude of small 
things, and a capacity to tear a given statement from its sur- 
roundings and set it forth in all its nakedness, without regard to 
the incongruity of its new position. To all these points must be 
added a proper modicum of self-esteem, a conviction that all the 
so-called leaders of science are totally wrong, and that the author 
alone is infallible. 

uch a man as we have drawn would produce a perfect work ; 
but where shall he be found? Several times we have thought 
ourselves on the right track. We have turned over page after 
page fully persuaded that the desired work was before us, or, at 


- least, that the author was capable of producing it; but, alas! it 


is like the American epic, it has yet to be written. The man 
who described six new genera and thirteen new species of thun- 
der and lightning gave promise, but, unfortunately, he is dead. 
Who of the living will rise and fill the gap time can only decide. 
The prize offered for the successful work is a large one,—Im- 
mortality, along with Pedro Carolino, the author of “ English as 
she is Spoke.” The candidates are many, but, so far, all have 
shown lucid intervals, or have evinced a disinclination for the 
task, and have turned to less laborious fields just as they had 


- aroused a hope that here was at last the long-looked-for wonder. 


When he comes he will receive an ovation from the world of 
science, which is tired of being told that clams travel on the 
ottom of water-areas by means of suction through their open 


shells; that the hippopotamus was designed to dredge out the 


channels of tropical rivers; that the strongylus is a parasitical 
action of the intestines ; that the bill of the woodpecker has a 


force of bill proportionately to a twenty-ton trip-hammer ; that 
the Mound-builders used the British inch in laying out their 


earth-works ; that the Anglo-Saxons are the ten lost tribes of 
Israel; t the SA originated in a cold climate Borne, 


1887] Recent Literature. 551 


they hibernate in a warm one; that the flesh of the sponge is 
washed off merely by being drawn from the water; that the 
nettle-cells of the hydroids are shot out with actecelesiie ve- 
locity to lasso the prey; that—but we forbear. We only hope 
and pray for a relief, or even a respite, from the continual shower 
of unnatural history which is being poured out upon a long-suf- 
fering world of science. 


On a former occasion we referred to the gross injustice which 

has been perpetrated by the State of Michigan in the matter of 
its late geologist, Professor Rominger. This gentleman, by eco- 
-nomical methods, saved enough of his small appropriation to 
pay for the publication of his report. When the report was 
completed the State refused to publish it and retained the surplus 
in the treasury, where Professor Rominger had, with too great 
faith, allowed it to remain. The State should either publish the 
report or return the money to Professor Rominger. Michigan 
cannot afford a transaction like this to stain her history, and, in 
view of her general intelligence and liberality to learning, it is 
surprising that the injustice has not been corrected long ago. 


WE understand that the fine exhibition of basaltic columns at 
Llewellyn Park, Orange, N. J., is undergoing destruction. It is 
being used as a quarry for paving and macadamizing material. 
This is to be greatly regretted, and we hope that the persons 
controlling the park will endeavor to put an end to the desecra- 
tion. It is one of the principal attractions to visitors and resi- 
dents in the neighborhood, and the authorities of the park will 
do well to see that it is preserved. 


RECENT LITERATURE. 


Trou s Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds.‘—This work 
is intended for. ie general reader, and not for the specialist in 
science. In the words of the author, “ There is much to be done 
before modern society is practically on a level with the achieve- 
ments of science; many prejudices must be uprooted, and many 
false notions must be replaced by those which are sounder and 

1 The International Scientific Series. Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds. By E. L. 
Trouessart, With ohe hundred and seven illustrations. New York, D. Appleton & 
Company, 1886. 12mo, pp. xii. 314 


552 Recent Literature. [June 


more just.” This is the laudable task the author sets before 
mser - 

The general plan of the book may be understood from an 
enumeration of the headings of the several chapters, as follows: 
Parasitic Fungi and Moulds; Ferments and Artificial Fermenta- 
tions ; Microbes or Bacteria; Microbes of the eRe of Domes- 
tic Animals ; Microbes of Human Diseases; Protection against 
Microbes ; Laboratory Research, and Culture of ore: Poly- 
morphism of Microbes; The Microbian Theory compared with 
other Theories set forth to explain the Origin of Contagious 
Diseases. 

In turning over these chapters, so admirably planned to accom- 
plish the author’s purpose, one is pained to note the evident want 
of acquaintance of the author with his subject. A book of this 
kind should have been intrusted to a specialist, who could have 
done something to popularize the difficult subject, and not to 
one who has no specialty, unless it be that of dabbling in every- 
thing, “palzontology, bibliography, zoology, general biology, 

raphical distribution, vertebrates, mammals, ornithol 
The result is a book which is so full of errors of interpretation as 
to greatly lessen its value. 

It is difficult to criticise a book like this in detail, and it is 
perhaps needless, as no ordinary revision could eliminate its 
faults. Nothing less tida a rewriting of most of the chapters 
would make the book what it should be. A few examples, how- 
ever, will serve to show the kind of work done by the author. 

e 11, we are told that in the mushroom “the part which 
we eat and call the umbrella represents the flower or floral 
peduncle of other plants.” Fig. 18, which is intended to illus- 
trate Peronospora infestans, is not that species at all, but evidently 
the one on the grape. Fig. 23 is printed upside down. On 
page 128 occurs a most marvellous jumble ; an attempt is there 


regions, and, anou nnig as it may seem, Protococcus is re- 
garded as a microbe ! 

It would be cod to leave the impression that this book 
has no value whateve t may prove to be to some mind the 
suggestion from whic h will eventually spring the desire to know 
more about the “ infinitely little” things. Should it do so we 
should not condemn it too severely, although we might still 

wish that it had yon more carefully prepared.— Charles E. Bessey. 


Economic Pei Little attention has been given in 


5 rca AE Scientists’ riari t 1883. 

ry -book of British Fu "e perce pee by William* Delisle 
Er FRGS., author of “ Brighter ke in,’ etc., etc. London, Swan, Sonnes- 
Sra igo & Co., Paternoster Square, 1 887. 


res7) + Recent Literature, — 553 


this country, and little more in England, even, to the study of the 
fungi from an economic, or more properly a culinary, stand-point. 
Dr. M. A. Curtis, of North Carolina, was reputed to be an ex- 
pert in distinguishing the edible from the inedible species, but 


scarcely anything now remains to us of his work, for he pub- 


A 
Text-Book of British Fungi,” by W. D. Hay, is intended to 


ance with the larger fungi may be inferred from this sentence 


versus); Orange Jelly-sprout (Zremella mesenterica); Oyster of 
the Woods (Agaricus ostreatus), etc. On the other hand there 
are some good selections of English names; among these are 
the following, viz.: Bolet (species of Boletus), Polypore (species 
of Polyporus), Lactar (species of Lactarius), Ink-cap (species of - 
Coprinus). 

A valuable feature of the book is found in the appendix, which 
is, devoted to the preparation of fungi for the table re th 
ambitious cook may obtain many suggestions as to the prepara- 
tion of appetizing dishes from many a common fungus, with the 
French name thrown in. Thus we have recipes for Pratelles a 
la Bourgeoise, Pratelles à la Provençale, Bolets à la Citoyenne, 
Oaktongue a |’Americaine, Puffball à la Lyonnaise, Puffball a la 
Grande Duchesse, etc. 


554 Recent Literature. [June 


The plates, of which there are sixty-nine, consist of the wood- 
cuts of Cooke’s “ Handbook” arranged upon the pages. Not 
more than a dozen or so of these plates have any connection with 
the text, and they are consequently of no sort of value. Evi- 
dently the publisher had these on hand, and put them in to fill 
up. They add thickness to the book, and doubtless add also to 
its cost.— Charles E. Bessey. 


echinoderms, ccelenterates, and sponges. This arrang tseems 
to have been carefully considered in the adaptation of the work to 
the needs of those who will most use it,—students in academies 


and high schools,—and here this has a marked advantage over 


work is really a valuable one for beginners in zoology, and 
deserves the success with which we understand it is meeting. 


Lydekker’s Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia.2—Mr, Richard 
Lydekker, formerly of India, has recently followed up his ex- 


tensive series of papers upon the fossil fauna of Hindustan by a. 


_ _.* An Elementary Course in Practical Zoology. By Buel P. Colton. Boston, 
Re Heath & Co, 1886. aes es c 
* Catalogue of the Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum (Natural History). 
| Lydekker, B.A.F.G.S., etc. London, Svo. 1885. Printed by 
us. 


- 


order of the Trustees Brit. Mus. 


- 


1887] Recent Literature. S55 


upon that adopted by Professor Flower, but is modified to make 
it include the host of extinct forms here dealt with. In his pref- 


ace the author avows himself one of that school of sig he 


o use generic terms ina wider sense. The toniet and 
Tebuan beds are classed as Pliocene, i Eppelsheim beds a as 


dogs as a subiamily Cases of the Urside. The Frobasiiaes 
include three species of Dinotherium, twenty-six of Mastodon, 
and eighteen of Elephas. 


Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 
1883.—This report contains twelve hundred pages of ee 
matter and numerous illustrations, among whic! 
pag mentioned the eleven plates of Cetaceans, which ar 

rue’s suggestions to praragan -keepers and others relative 

to oles examples these animals. The report proper 
occupies only ninety-five pie including a statement of the re- 
sults of the inquiry into the history and statistics of food-fishes 
and an account of the progress of pisciculture. bs the a iad 
dices we find papers by Stone, Tanner, Smiley, Duff, Day, 
Ljungman, Lundberg, Verrill, Bush, Eisen, Shufeldt, Seal, Ma- 


ports mS oa illustra 
Gustav Eisen’s “ Oligochaetological Researches” and Dr. Shu- 
feldt’s = Ji weii of Amia eao are valuable special papers. 


Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sci- 
ence, Vol. II.—This volume contains fifteen biographies of de- 
ceased members of the National Academy, ara the well- 
known names of Louis Agassiz, Lagi Wyman, J. P. Kirtland, 
J. L. Le Conte, A. Guyot, and J. W. Draper. 


RECENT BOOKS AND. PAMPHLETS: 


Maiden, F. H.—Report of the Australian Museum. N. S. W., 1885. 
garea —Ueber die Abstammung n Hausthiere, me evoridertt Beriicksicht- 
i Hu March, 1885. ri einen in die 
Pclangenichank geziichteten eke beinige en face. SB. - Nat, Freunde. 
Berlin, 1886. Both from the aut 


556 : Recent Literature, [June 


Hunt S.—A New Basis for D tenisty; a Chemical Philosophy. Boston, S. E. 
ERA 1887. From the author 

Lydekker, R.—The Fossil Vertebrata = India. Ext. Records Geological Survey 
of India, vol. xx. From the 

Boulenger, G. A.—On two niad e of Bombinator.—On the South African 
Tortoises allied i Test EE -—Remarks on Prof. W. K. Parker’s paper on the 
Skull of the Chameleon. All from Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1886. 

Boulenger, G. A.—Catalogue of the Lizards inthe British eae vol, iii.,,1887. 
From the trustees Brit. Mus ; 

Boulenger, G. A.—A Synopsis of the Reptiles and Batrachians of Rio Grande do 
Sul, Brazil. 


reise O. P.—List of daha dig sae in Vigo ears Ill., in 1885 and 1886. 
Ext. The ac Natu From the author 


Adams, H. B.— College > William and sii Circulars*of Information of 
the Bureau ex Etch No. 1, 1887. 
Stowell, T. B.—Natural Hion in Sa Schools. From the author 
Homes, G. B:-—On an sesype = the Frog’s Vertebral Golan: R. tem- 
raria. Ext. eteran r, 1886. From the author. 


Allen, F. A.—The West Indian ea Wod tropicalis. ok on Squalodont 
Remains from Charleston, S. C. 


Cope, Æ. D.—Synopsis of the srs - ne Se obtained by H. H. Smith, 
Matto Grosso, il. r. Philos. Soc., March 13, 1887.—On Aai waeine 
and Affinities of the p es on idee. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886. 


Ti ide to the Recognition of the Shenae Orders of Cryptogams. 
Cate - W. Sever, 1886, From the publisher 
Parker, W. K. or the Morphology of Birds. _ Ext. Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xlii., 1887. 
From the 
Mendenhall, " PE Curves of Composition. 1887. From the 
Tare 
der, F. A—On the Origin of Heterocercy and the Evolution of the Fins and 
ri A i of ian Washington, 1884. Ext. Ann. Rep. Fish and Fisheries 
From the auth 
san A.—La Cao n Parasitaire. Ext. du Bull. Scien. du Dép. du Nord. 
1887. From the author, 
Walcott, C. e n Age the Roofing-Slates` n Revita Byarna 
County, N Er, persai Contribution ta the Studies on the Cambrian Faunas 
f North Am merica, U. S. Geol. Surv. From the au Pei 
Cail, R. E.—Description of a New Strepomatid.—Description of a New Risso 
No tes on = ra Mollusca of Kansas, Bull. Washburn Coll. Lab., 7886. 
From the au 
Hay, R agers Cas in Eastern Kansas. From the author 
ie mi 5. PIES Summary of Progress in Mineralogy wai Petrography. From 


Sy Ti =a —Uric Acid. Medical News, 1885.—Notes on the Urine of the Tor- 
toise. Both from the author 

Crosby, W. O. \ On the Great Dikes at Paradise, near — Ext. Proc. Bost. 
Barton, G. a at. Hist. 1886. From the authors 

Parker, T. aR the Blood- igure of PESE antarcticus. ‘Ext. Philos. Trans. 
_ Roy. Soc + 1886. From the author 


Wiedersi Aba Bau dec Mens en, als Zeugniss r seine Vergangenheit. 
Fran, -—Lehrbuch der \ vena ichenden Anatomie der Wir belthiere. 
Jena, 1 From the author. 


oe —- a de Faults of Southwest Virginia. Ext. Amer. Jour. of Science, 
- Daws a ©. eo the Occurrence of Jade in Bh Columbia Ext. Ca- 


188 37] Recent Literature. < oey 
aez Record of Science.—On the Fossil Plants of the Laramie of Canada. 
uthor 


ns. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1886. Both from the a 
as a P.—Does Science demonstrate the eaen of a „Supreme Being ?— 
eredit in; ; 


rch. adie Go 
Theologies, —Sinning against the Holy Spirit. All from the author. 
Schlosser, = i läontologische Not Ueber das ee rie der Cope’ schen 
Creodonta zu den übrigen Ficischfieiaet, From the author 
gages Keds G. die Primero de Zoologia. Appleton & Co., - 1886. From the 


frear, Zs —Co: ome, eave of Soiling Rye.—Composition hs Food-Value of Desic- 
cated A Apple-Pom Bull. Penna. State Coll. Agric. From the author. 
ee Dhami et pratar Source of the Mississippi. 1886. Rep. from 


Medtarrich J. P.—A Contribution to the rant cs of the Prosobranch Gas- 
ropods. Stud. Biol. Lab, Johns Hopkins Uni 
Sauer W. B.—On the ee and Structure of the Pineal Eye in Lacertilia. 
Rep. yagi Air Micros. Sci. From Professor Moseley. 


Swan, R. F, e Fifth ual m Rek of the Board of Control of the New 
York Keres Experiment Station. 1886. 
Bateson, W.—On Morphology of me p EO TEA —On the Ancestry of =e 


Chordata. ia from the Morphol. Lab. Univ. Cambridge. 1886. Fro 
the Sya Library 

Johnson, Alice. —On the Fate of the Blastopore in the Newt.—On the Develop- 
ment of the Newt. Stud. Morph. Lab. Univ. Camb. 1886. 

Weldon, W. F. R.—On = Suprarenal Bodies.—On Dinophilus 


Heathcote, F. G. —On a Peculiar Sense-Organ in Scutigera Siiri Early 
Development of Fatur terrestris. 

Amer. Assoc. Adv, Science —Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Baie: Thirty-fifth meeting, 1886. Buffalo, N. Y. 


Andree, A.—Die Oligocinschichten im Elsass. Strassburg. From the ‘alee 
Scribner, F. L.—Report on the Fungus Diseases of the Grape-Vine. 1886. Fr 
uthor. 


True, F. W.—A New Su sd Sens Genus Dipodomys. Proc. U. S. National Mu- 
seum, 1885. Fro 

Meyer, O.—Beitrag zur "iors det Fauna des Alttertiars von Mississippi und 
Alabama. hice fend uthor. 

Whitfield, R. P.— 9 Oioligial Iu nvestigations along the Eastern Shore ot 

ike Cham andai po iads of a New Fossil Body, orga a Sponge related to 

: ictyophyton. Bull. Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., 

Pilsbry, H. A.—Description of a New Hydrobia. Saige the author. 

Atkinson, G. F.—A Family of Young Trap-Door a Entomologica Amer- 
icana, 1886.—A New Trap-Door 5 pider. Amer. Nat., 1886.—Descriptions of 
some New Trap-Door Spiders, their Nests and Food. All from the author 

Trouessart, M.—Sur la Présence du Genre z S psoriques Citos ou 
Symbiotes chez ia Oiseaux, Fioke the 

Davidson, T.—A Fhe tl of Recent PER e Trans. Lins: Soc. London, 

1886. From the author. 

Whiteaves, F 5 pilaststions of the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian Rocks of 
Canada. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1886. 

Boehm, G. ipie Gattungen Pachymegalodon und State From the author. 

Fish Commission, U. S. A.—Report of the Commissioner for 1884, with Special sci- 
entific reports by J. W. Fewkes, J. A. Ryder, Chittenden & Cummins, O. Hermes, 

and C. Kerbe: ‘ 


Co ielocr: H.—Die Cates VI. Theil. From the author. 


558 General Notes. [June 
Ward, L. F.—Broadening the Way to Success.—Moral and Material Progress Con- 
trasted. 


Russell, I, C—Geological History of Lake Lahontan. Monographs U. S. Geol. 
Survey, vol. xl. From the Department. 

Wright, R. Ramsay.—Biology in Medical Education. Ext. Canadian Practitioner, 
1887. From the author. 

Marsh, C. D.—Outline of Laboratory Work in Zoology. No date. From the 
author. 


Thompson, E. H.—Archzological Research in Yucatan. ‘Ext. Proc. Am. Antiqua. 
Socy., 1886. From the author. 

Shufeldt, R. W.—The Camera and Field Ornithology. Ext. The Auk, 1887. 
—The Veterinary Service of the United States Army. Ext. Jour. Comp. Med. 
and Surg., 1887. From the author 

Haddon, A. C.—Suggestions respecting the Epiblastic Origin of the Segmental 
Duct. Ext. Proc. Roy. Dublin Socy., 1887. 

Lockwood, Samuel.—Raising Diatoms in the Laboratory. Ext. Jour. N. Y. Micros. 
Socy., 1886. From the author. 


GENERAL NOTES. 


GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.: 


Miscellan 
most reliable data, the lengths of various rivers, and gives the 
following as the eight longest: (1) Missouri-Mississippi, 4194 
miles; (2) Nile, 4020; (3) Yang-tsze-kiang, 3158; (4) Ama- 
zon, 3063; (5) Yenisei-Selenga, 2950; (6) Amur, 2920; (7) 
Congo, 2883; (8) Mackenzie, 2868. The map of Hum hreys 

Abbot is the authority for the Missouri-Mississippi, which 
_ Kioders gives as 3658 miles. 


AMERICAN Notes.—Governor Fontana, of Chubut, has recently 
explored the Chubut and its tributary, the Charmate, passing 
through the Andes by a very low pass, since the confluence of 

e two mentioned rivers is only eighteen hundred feet above 
sea-level, and at sixteen hundred feet above the sea the valley 
of the Cercorado, a river flowing into the Pacific, was reached. 
On their return the party found a large lake, through which the 
river Senguel flows. The Welsh colony on the Lower Chubut 
will probably colonize on this lake. 

: jon Jose Santelices has ascended Licancaur, a volcano on the 
eastern boundary-line of the Chilian province of Antofogasta. 
_ Tambos— uses of a single room, with a low, stone bench—are 
found on the Inca road which leads to the summit. The crater 
=~ Was found to have a bottom thirteen hundred feet in diameter, 
_ with a pond four hundred feet by three hundred and fifty feet in 

its centre. On its banks there are remains of some thirty large 
stone houses built by the Indians, and a large quantity of fuel 
ee _ * Edited by W. N. LOCKINGTON, Philadelphia.  ' 


p 


1887] _ Geography and Travels. 559 


was found there,—whether carried there by the Peruvians or by 
the Calchaquis, who opposed them, is not certain. 


Arrican Notes.—The Wagenia, or Wenga, who live near 
Stanley Falls, are stated by O. Baumann, of Dr. Jenz’s Expe- 
dition, to be on friendly terms with Tippoo Tib, and thus far to 
have not been demoralized by the influence of the Arabs. 

Stanley reached Bansa-Manteka, below Stanley Pool, before 
March 29. He intends to ascend the Mburu, which is now 
known to be navigable for some distance. From the head of 


vans. 

Tippoo Tib has discovered a tribe of people whose money 
consists of copper spears. These people make highly-artistic 
metal-work, and manufacture enormous spear-heads of very thin 
copper, which are passed from hand to hand like bank-notes. In 


hundred miles from its mouth. he river flows in a general 
southward direction through a well-wooded country, and the 
rapids, which stayed farther ascent, occur in about 3° 30’ N. 
latitude and 22° E. longitude. As this is north of the latitude 
reached upon the Welle by Dr. Junker, it looks as though the 
latter river must certainly be cut off from joining the Mobangi. 

It is evidently premature to suppose that the Welle is identical 
with the Mobangi, although Dr. Junker followed its course to 
22° 47’ 40" E. and 3° 13’ 10” N. latitude. Its level is not accu- 
rately known, and it may turn into the Congo by some other 
course, or even find its way to Lake Tchad. 

Four months later than the advices brought by Dr. Junker, 
Emin Pasha, accompanied by Dr. Vita Hassan, ten Egyptian 
officers, three Greeks, and four negroes, visited the capital of 


into their hands. 
Lieutenant Wissmann has been exploring in the land of the 


560 General Notes. [June 


Baluba and the basin of the Lubilash. He and De Macar, the 
commander at Luluaburg, visited the residence of Mona Tenda, 
near the Lukula. The people are Bashilange, and the country 
is densely populated. The eastern bank of the Lukula belongs 
to the Baluba, and forms an undulating prairie, which, though 
barren in appearance, has a numerous population. Wissmann 
intends to go north and explore the region where the Lulongo, 
uapa, and Lomami have their sources. 
R 


agascar into an extensive internal water-way of great commercial 


value. 

The “Bolletino” of the Italian Geographical Society publishes 
a detailed account of the Italian possessions on the Red Sea. 
Assab and the surrounding district is absolutely annexed, while 
Massowa, Emberemi, the -el-Kader Peninsula, Gherar, the 
Taulud Island, and the Dahlak Archipelago are garrisoned and 
administered by Italy, and the coast from Annesley Bay to Assab 
is under. Italian protection. 

Dr. Colin contributes to the Revue d’ Anthropologie a paper on 
the Malinkes of Bambouk, once a ruling race upon the Upper 
Niger, but now divided into numerous little states, and appar- 
ently without a religion, though they were once Mohammedan. 
_ Their territory is about six hundred kilometres long and from 
eighty to one hundred and fifty in width. 

Don Manuel Iractier has paid two visits to the newly-acquired 
Spanish territory on the east coast of Africa. On his last journey 
(1884-85) he traversed four thousand miles between the equator 
and 3° N. latitude, penetrating from the seaboard to’ about 20° 
E. longitude, and surveying to their sources all the streams be- 
tween the Rio del Campo and the Gaboon. Of these by far the 
largest is the Muni, which debouches in Corisco Bay, after re- 

ceiving the waters of the Utamboni, Noya, and other affluents, 
_ and draining nearly six thousand square miles. 
ajor Serpa Pinto and Lieutenant Cardoso have arrived in 
Lisbon, after exploring the region between Mozambique and 
_ Lake Nyassa. The Lienda, a tributary of the Rovuma, was 
> found not to rise in Lake Nmaramba, but to flow through that 
basin from Mount Songe, farther to the west. 


1887] | Geography and Travels. 561 


Asiatic. Notes.—Messrs. James, Younghusband, and Fulford 
eae recently travelled from Mukden, the capital of South Mant- 
uria, up one of the tributaries of ‘the Yalu, and through the 
ae chain of mountains by a pass two thousand seven hundred 
feet high to the Chang Peishan, or ever-white mountain. This 
is a recently extinct volcano, with a clear lake in its crater. The 
loftiest of the peaks around this crater is seven thousand five 
hundred and twenty-five feet above the sea. The sides are com- 
posed of disintegrated pumice. This mountain is the centre of 
the river-system of Manchuria, since the rivers Yalu, Tumen 
and Sungari all have their sources there. Descending the Sun- 
gari, the party went to Kirin, and thence to Tsitsihar, the capital 
of Northern Manchuria. Southeast of Tsitsihar they crossed a 
high and taiating steppe, with numerous brackish lakes, 
from the earth of the shores of which soda and salt are ob- 
tained. 
M. Potanin left the Koko-Nor June 25, 1886, crossed the Gobi 
from south to north, and discovered four ae mountain-ranges 


cree es from the region drained by the Hoang-ho is composed 
hree mountain-ranges, with passes twelve thousand eight 
eae feet high and valleys ten thousand feet above the sea. 
On his way north he fell in with the a tribe of 
leg. He surveyed the country passed ov 
Sr. E. Modigliani has visited Nias, an sage some thirty miles 
from the west coast of Sumatra. The natives are abe! savages, 
everywhere addicted to head-hunting, and the rajah of Bavolo- 
valani had no idea of collecting skulls except from the living: 
subject. Owing to local feuds the explorer did not go far into 


and they work jda brass, ‘und gold for themselves. They have 


Take: Their shields are heavy and coated with buffalo-hide, 
and they make curious iron helmets. Their swords are sheathed 
in wood, and have a globular wicker or rotang basket in front. 
Every young man must have cut off one head,—no matter if of 
man, woman, or child. 

MM. Bonvalot and Capus, the French travellers who have 


the French Geographical Society that the country between Te- 
heran and Meshed belongs to the steppe region of Central Asia 
by its fauna, flora, and geology. The journey between these 
places was, for most of the way, on the edge of an immense 
basin, the bottom of which is the Khevir, or great salt desert. 


562 General Notes. [June 


From the bridge of Saugil to the Thian Shan, from west to east, 
such a thing as a forest is not known. 

Manipur is a valley surrounded by mountain-ranges which 
have a rain-fall as high as or higher than one hundred and 
twenty inches. The valley has but thirty-nine inches of rain- 
fall. The snow-line is low here. The whole valley, three thou- 
sand feet high, was covered with hoar-frost in December, and 
Sarameti, under thirteen thousand feet high, has, the natives say, 
snow all the year. Dr. G. Watt correlates the lowness of the 
snow-line with the immensity of the rain-fall, which in winter is 
a snow-fall. This great rain-fail accounts for the volume of 
water brought down by the Irawadi, while a river travelling for 
hundreds of miles in Thibet would pick up but a small quantity. 

General J. T. Walker recently read before the Geographical 
Society of London a paper upon the Lu River of Thibet, the 
Lu Kiang or Lu-tse-Kiang of the Chinese. This river is gen- 
erally held to be the source of the Salween, but General Walker 


inwards between high mountain-ranges. e south coast of 
Huon Gulf consists of primitive and metamorphic rocks, with 
sedimentary rocks and volcanic formations. further survey 


afterwards made of the coast, from Astrolabe Bay to the mouth 
of the Empress Augusta River, led to the discovery of a series 
of bays, harbors, islands, and rivers. 


days of Moorish occupation, for it is crossed by numerous moun- 


£ 


1887] | Geology and Paleontology. 563 


of Charles III. it is probable that the population barely reached 
eight millions. Some figures given by Sr. Costanzo Stella in the 
London Times show clearly the progress of the country. The 
agricultural population, which was but three million six hundred 
and fifteen thousand eighty-five years ago, is now nine million 
three hundred and twenty-eight thousand, and the area cultivated 
has increased from fifty-three million acres to one hundred and 
ninety-three million five hundred thousand. The head of cattle 
have doubled since the commencement of the century, and the 
industrial population has trebled. In 1860 exports and imports 
together were only tyenirive million eight hundred thousand 
pounds, whereas they are now fifty-six millions. The wine of 
Spain, which two decades ago could not be broùght into the 


hundred and sixty-one million two hundred and fifty-six peon, 
rof. Miguel Marazta has discovered, in the Manes of Rebas 
Ce span): at ‘the end of the Eastern Pyrenees, a race of 
e than four feet high. All eek i hair, broad 
rg realy dele | jaws, flat noses, and rather oblique eyes. 
A few hairs take the place of a beard in the males, and the sexes 
are very muchalike. The lips do not quite cover the large, pro- 
jecting incisors. They live by themselves, intermarry, an 
no chance of improvement. Are they the remnants of some old 
Mongoloid stock ? 

The last French census (May, 1886) shows an increase of only 
one per cent. per annum, and the last German census one of .71 
per cent. per annum. In both cases this is a decrease in the rate, 
Germany, as well as France, having commenced to proportion its 
increase to the means of subsistence. 


GEOLOGY AND PALZZONTOLOGY. 


The Sea-Saurians of the Fox Hills Cretaceous.—Th 

tiles of the sea of the Fox Hills epoch possess considerable 
interest as being the last of their race; for the next epoch (the 
Laramie) saw, as is well known, the beginnin of the lacustrine 
conditions which prevailed throughout the interior of Nort 

America, in one region or another, during the subsequent ages of 
Cenozoic time. The vertebrate fauna was more or less changed, 
especially so as regards the inhabitants of the waters. The most 
important modification of this kind with which we are acquainted 
is the extinction of the order Sauropterygia from the interior 
waters of North America. I have made some attempt to collect 
remains of these animals, but without any great success, for two 
reasons. One of these is the rarity of the specimens; the other 
is the disarticulated condition in which they are usually found. 


Z 


564 tee General Notes. [June 


propodial bones. In the Polycotylinz they are wider than long, 
and angular in form, resembling those of Ichthyosaurus. In the 
Plesiosaurine they are well-differentiated elements, as in Mosa: 
saurus, or marine turtles. There are two genera of Polycoty- 
line, both American, as follows: 
Neurapophyses and all diapophyses and parapophyses 3 
coéssified with vertebral centra Polycotylus. 
Neurapophyses and other processes articulating freely 
with centra 


Piptomerus. 

Of these, Piptomerus is represented by numerous remains in 
the Fox Hills beds of New Mexico. ther species occur, which 
present the following characters: 


Neural arches loosely articulated ‘ Plesiosaurus. 
Neural arches codssified, parapophyses free................. Orophosaurus. 
th neural arches and parapophyses codssified Uronautes. 


Of these genera, Uronautes has been previously obtained in 
the Fox Hills bed of Montana. The probable character of the 


scribed is adult, the two genera are quite distinguishable. The 
other characters of the genera and of the species are as follows: 

Liptomerus Cope, g. n.—Cervical vertebre short, slightly bi- 
concave; dorsal vertebre very short, nearly amphiplatyan; nu- 
tritive canals many, large. In the known species the articular 
surface is reflected on the sides of the centrum, so as to restrict 
the width of the dense layer. In the known species there is 


pophysis in the cervical vertebre. Free extremities of para- 
d. 


eae ph 
tural surfaces of articular fosse generally not roughened. Dor- 
sal centra much compressed ; neurapophysial fossa very oblique, 
* Quarterly Journal Geological Society London, 18 4, P- 436. 
Soc eadings Academy Philada., 1876, p. 345. isco 


1887] Geology and Paleontology. 565 


with a large foramen below its a margin. Two or more 
small foramina on the inferior surfac 


roam ican weeausvesec: FOLTS 

Diameters of a cervical vertebra, { vertical .023 
k transverse .030 

an ooh nemo E ESERIA .0125 

Diameters of a dorsal vertebra, 4 vertic .029 
CANS VETSCs. gic. eensss pecacspee S027 

length org 

Diameters of a propodial bone, pa .043 
.020 


An abundant species in New hesia 

Piptomerus microporus, sp. nov.— —Dorsal ae ac larger, and 
with a comparatively small ee foramen adjacent to the 
neurapophysis. Cervical vertebre (if c correctly identified) less 
robust than those of P. m hter aat and with the neur- and 
parapophysial fossæ separated by a narrow plane-surface. 


sot cic eg esses MEAE -016 

Diameters of cervical centrum, 4 transv -035 
parece .0215 

Diameters ‘of dorsal centrum, ac oo E Ee =e 


foramina are of very large size, and are well separated. 


bs ai serbo ketececevece 013 
Diameters of cervical centrum, < vertical o 
transverse :03 I 


Several eeri but dalie vertebræ are contained in the col- 
lection. New 

Orophosaurus pamespore sp. nov.—Represented by parts of 
three cérvical vert smile with large Bragt sito: fosse looking 
downwards and outwards, which present a coarse su surface 
of the fundus. The basis of the aey connate e 
is compress ssed, and between it and the margin of the 
physial oa is an oe longitudinal angle. A very small nu- 
tritive foram t the base of the neurapophyses. No other 
lateral ating 

The vertebrae are more robust than those of Piptomerus, and 


are Saabs from the lateral surfaces by a shallow groove. 
Lateral aters with irregular, shallow, pore-like fossz. ~ 
VOL . 6. 38 


566 ~ General Notes. "> piang 


DERE of articular face of cervical eis ROS En a PA 
SEEN series 046 
para of parapophysial fossa of ee 018 
Ssverse 024 


New Mex 

In addition to these species, I have vertebre of three other 
species of Plesiosauride from the Fox Hills bed of New Mexico, 
which are not sufficiently well preserved for description. One 
of these is nearly allied to the Uronautes cetiformis Cope, but is 


t 
antigua Leidy, Enchodus, sp., Galeocerdo pristodontus Ag., Ot- 
us, sp., and other characteristic forms. The characters observed 
in the cervical vertebræ of the six species of Sauropterygia of 
the Fox Hills formation, confirm a hypothesis proposed by the 
writer in 1879." This is that the necks of the species grew Aari 
with lapse of geological time, and as the sea shallowed. The 
long-necked forms are in America confined to older horizons of 
e cretaceous.—Z£. D. Cope. 


The Marsupial Genus Chirox.—This genus was described 
by the writer in 1883,’ from a few teeth of the upper jaw ‘pond 


Chirox plicatus Cope, palate with dentition, viewed from below; 4 natural size. 
in the Puerco formation of New Mexico. Since then a palate 
-= with the entire molar series of one side and nearly all that of 


merican Nataralist, 1879, p- 
2 See ae ngs Am er. Philos. ibs cok 321. 


“. Geological News.—SILURIAN AND Devonran.—H. A. 


ë 


t 


1887] a Geology and Paleontology. ; 567 


the other has been obtained. This shows that the teeth de- 
scribed are premolars, and that there are two true molars, which 
resemble those of Polymastodon and Neoplagiaulax. The pre- 
molars are a good deal like those of Plagiaulax, as described to 
me by Professor Osborn, and the question arises whether the 
dentition in question does not belong to Ptilodus. There are 
two reasons for answering this question in the negative. First, 


d 
opposing the peculiar-cutting fourth premolar of the inferior 
series; second, the only tooth which could oppose such an infe- 
rior premolar is the first molar, and this is not worn obliquely, as 

i 


in Plagiaulacide, but transversely, as in Polymastodon. 


the Mesozoic character of the Puerco fauna.—EZ. D. Cope. 


Nich- 
olson describes, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural Hist re 
some new and imperfectly-known Stromatoporide. Four of the 
species of Clathrodictyon occur in the Devonian and one in the 
Silurian of Canada. 

- Bureau has taken casts of some markings upon a mudd 
surface, and found that he had well-characterized Bilobites. Yet 
markings were made by the tail of a shrimp in swimming. 


Mesozoic.—Mr. A. S. Woodward notes the undoubted pres- 
ence of a columella in the skull of Ichthyosaurus, and figures 
the same (P. Z. S., June, 1886). Professor Cope had first given 
a diagrammatic outline of the bone. 

Mr. J. Carter, in a recent communication to the London Geo- 
logical Society, adds fifteen or sixteen species to the fossil Deca- 
poda of Great Britain. These occurred in the Oxford Clay at 
St. Ives. Only one had previously been recorded as British, 
seven were new to science, and nearly all are Macrura. 


TerTIARY.—The fossil Mammalia of Maragha, in Northwest- 


ern Persia, include many species identical with those of Pikermi, 


Greece. The deposit was discovered thirty years ago, and the 
Ae s 


568 General Notes. [June 


chiefly of reddish marls of fluvio-lacustrine origin. A Hip- 
parion, probably identical with the Pikermi Æ. gracile, is t 
most abundant. Giraffa attica, Paleoryx pallasi, Sus erymanthius, 
Mastodon pentelici, and Helladotherium duvernoyi are among the 
‘remains, as is also the French Felis brevirostris. 

The lower jaw of a Machærodus has been described from the 
“ Forest-Bed” at Kessingland, Suffolk, England. The describer, 
Mr. J. Backhouse, stated his belief that hitherto no lower jaw of 
the genus had been found in England. 

Mr. Lydekker has given to the Geological Society of London 
a.list of the Cetacea of the Oxford Crag. These include Bal- 

æna (4 sp.), Megaptera (3 sp.), Balznoptera (4 sp.), Cetotherium 
(4 sp.), and Herpetocetus scaldiensis, together with nineteen species 
of Physeteridz, one Squalodont, and three Delphinide. There 
; are seven species of Mesoplodon. 

Out of seventy-eight species or varieties of ,chilostomatous 
Bryozoa from a deposit in New Zealand, which was considered 
Miocene by Tenison-Woods, sixty-one are known living, and it 
would thus seem that too remote an age has been assigned to 
the deposit. 


beds, which are situated to the east of Lake Urumia, consist 


MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.« 


Petrographical News.—The second? paper devoted to the 
study of the massive rocks belonging to the “ Cortland series” 
on the Hudson River, near Peekskill, has recently appeared in 
the American Fournal of Science; In this paper the author, Dr. 


_ imbedded smaller crystals of plagioclase. Under the microscope ' 
__ the former is seen to possess a “ shagreen” surface, due to numer- 


i ous oval indentations. All the feldspar of the norites is filled with 


x little inclusions of plates, rods, and dots, These seem not to be 
arranged in any definite position with regard to crystallographic 

See Edited by Dr. W. S. BAyLEy, Madison, Wisconsin, 

_ * Of American Naturalist, March, 1886, p. 275. 

vi 1 Amer. Jour. Sejemea, minii February, p. 135; March, ws rot. 


1887] -~ Mineralogy and enaA 569 


deposits of this region were also examined. This ore is com- 
posed essentially of ocililedrát crystals of magnetite imbedded 


ark green mineral with the Caton AE and optical char- 
De si hercynite (or pleonaste, with a very low percentage 
of magnesium). This mineral is also found disseminated in small 


Ue ahedral crystals in the rock adjoining the ore veins. Associ- 
ated with the magnetite and hercynite of the ore occur also 
fibrolite and corundum. 


garded merely as an altered peridotite. The remains of bronzite 
crystals can still be detected in the rock, and consequently the 
view of Professor Sterry Hunt, that it must be looked upon as 
an altered sediment because of its intimate association with sed- 
imentary beds of gypsum, can no longer be maintained. Ina 
preliminary “ Note on the Volcanic and Rseitinted Rocks of the 
‘Neighborhood of Nuneaton,” England, T. H. Waller? mentions 
the occurrence there of ashes (tufa) composed of pieces of feld- 
spar, a little quartz, and grains of some basic rock; a felsite with 
‘porphyritic crystals of quartz, in which lines of secondary fluid 
inclusions are well exhibited ; a diabase porphyrite with augite 
twinned according to both twinning laws,—viz., parallel to oP 
and «Px ; and, finally, indurated quartzites with the individual 
quartz grains enlarged by the addition of new quartz material | 
whose optica = orientation is identical with that of the original 

ins. connection with the statement of Dr. Williams in 
regard to he seepentine of Syracuse, it may be of interest to call 
attention to an article in which J. H. Tee cites several exam- 
ples to prove that “some beds of a common series have been 
changed into serpentine, while others fesse over) sig poera 
schist.” He thinks that many of the serpentines of Cornwall, 
which have heretofore been regarded as having eena by the 
alteration of intrusive sheets of picrite, may as well be considered 
as having originated in some other manner. 


r. Jo ur. Science, xx., 1880, p. 218. 
. i Galena, March, 1887, p 232. 
3 Geological Magazine, Jay, 1886, p- 322. 
4 Ib., August, 1886, p 


570 General Notes. [June 


Meteorites.— Very recently the name giovanite has been pro- 
posed by Meunier’ for a brecciated? meteoric stone which fell at 


intosh the following figures: : 


Olivine: SiO, = 37.90; MgO = 41.65; FeO = 19.66; MnO,CoO = 0.42. 
Iron: Fe = 82.45; Ni = 16.40; Co = 1.09; P= 0.05. 


Luis Potosi, Mexico, in 1885. It weighs ninety-two pounds. Its 
composition (analysis by Mackintosh) is: Fe = Ni,Co 
9.07; P=0.24; schreibersite=0.60. It resembles in character 
the irons of Augusta County, ’Va., of Glorieta+ Mountain, and 
others of the class caillite (Meunier). In a cylindrical cavity in 
this meteor can still be seen the broken end of a copper chisel. 


~* Comptes Rendus, civ., Jan. 1887, p. 193. « 
* Cf. American Naturalist, Jan. 1887, p- 73; and Dec. 1885, p. 1213. 
3 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxiii. p. 228. 
* Cf. American Naturalist, Jan. 1887, p. 73. 
-5 Amer, Jour. Sei., xxxiii., 1887, p. 221. i l ; 


+ 


1887] eo l Mineralogy and Petrography. 571 


- José A. y Bouilla, secie of the Astronomical Observatory at 


Zacatecas, this meteor represents part of the comet Biela-Gam- 
bert, lost since 1852. It is characterized by the freshness of its 


pact graphite. For some time after its fall it remained red-hot. 


discovery by inca of little globules of a stony matter in 
the ashes of Krakat Upon examination they are found to be 
made up = little ues of augite and plagioclase in a vitreous 
ground-mass. The author calls attention to the similarity be- 
tween diese bodies and the chondra of certain meteorites. 


ent Publications.—lIt is unfortunate that a treatise written 
Trea for the use of students should contain so many inac- 
curacies as are noted in the recent “ Elements of Geology” 


are, to say the least, misleading, and the definitions of the vari- 
ous rock types are unsatisfactory. An excellent text-book of 
Mineralogy, by Max Bauer, appeared about a year ago. It is 
by far the best book for general use in the class-room that has 
yet been published. The chapters on the development of the 
principles of crystallography are to be recommended as es- 
pecially well adapted n the use of those beginning the study 
of the subject.—Ferdinand Henrich’s® text-book of Mathe- 
matical SUNETE will fill a long-felt want of those who 


_ constants, twinning planes, etc. The work is well written, and 


the directions given in it are all clearly and concisely expressed. 
Wherever it can aid the explanation oF a difficult point examples 


1 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxiii., 1887, p. 115. °? Cf Amer. Naturalist, Jan. 1887, p. 73. . 
3 Comptes Re ndus, civ., 1887, p. 95. 

4 Geological Studies, or "Elements of Geo logy. Chicago: Griggs, I 

s Lehrbuch der Mineralogie. Berlin und Leipzig, 1886, F Gaeta (D: Collin). 
§ Lehrbuch der Krystallberechnung. Stuttgart, 1886. 


572 General Notes. . [June 


are introduced and calculations are made in full, just as in ordi- 


naturally merits as being the method which is now almost uni- 
versally used by the most eminent crystallographers. 

_ Among the publications of the last few months which contain 
more or less of interest in mineralogy and petrography may be 
mentioned— 

Professor A. Kenngott, M.D.—Handworterbuch der Mineralo- 
gie, aeons und Palacontologie, It. Breslau, 1887. Eduard 
Trew 

Dr. ya ‘Rieman. —Taschenbuch für Mineralogen. Berlin, 1887. 
H Sprogs 
Tou G- Aliaemiogische und petrographische Tabellen. 
biae Freytag. 

. Dana.— Manual of rst hg ck = Petrography* 4th ed., 
1887. New York: John Wiley & Son 

Professor W. O. Crosby.—Tables for the Determination of 
Common Minerals, chiefly by the Physical Properties, with con- 
firmatory Chemical Tests.” Boston, 1887. A. Crosby. 

Professor A. H. Che ster.—Catalogu ue of Minerals ‘Alphabeti- 
cally Arranged, with their Chemical Composition and Synonyms.’ 
Mew York: 1886. John Wiley & Sons. 

ae Sierry Hunt—Mineral Physiology and Physiography.? 
Boston, 1886. S. E. Cassino. 

' Professor W. O. Crosby.—Geological Collections. Mineralogy. 
ton Soc. Nat. History, 1386. 

A. C. Lawson.—Report on the Geology of the Lake of the 
Woods Region. Part CC. Annual Report of the Geological 
and Natural wage Sie of Canada. Montreal, 1885. 

= C. D. Lawton.—Mineral Resources of Michigan for 1885. By 
authority. Tanas 1886. Thorp & Godfrey. 

Mineral Resources of the United States for 1885. Washing- 
ton, 1886. Government Printing Office 
` Dr. P. Groth.—Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde. Leipzig, 1887. 
Engel mann. 


BOTANY. 


: A Couple of Botanical Estrays.—A botanical discovery of 
_ Some interest has recently been made in the neighborhood of 


a - Towa ree Two species of Lycopodium have been found. So. 


- far as the writer can learn, this is the first record of such plants 


n within the limits of Iowa. Lycopodium ag been so p in all 


* Reviewed in Science, 1887, p. 304. 
_ ® Reviewed in Science, February, 1887, p. 
= Edited by Prof. Cuan E. BESSEY, ea i ; 


1887] - Botany. . Re 573 


no more. 
To account for this isolated station, this peculiar distribution, 

y. One is remind colopendrium, Shortia, and 
the like. Probably other stations will be found to the north 
which may serve to put these little specimens in geographical 
connection with their kin. This can hardly be the last tarrying- 
place of a plant which must at one time have covered all the 
‘northern portions of the State.—T. H. McBride, Iowa City, May 
7, 1887. 


The igin of the Tomato from a Morphological Stand- 
point..—There are two methods by which the cultivator can 
determine the origin of vegetables which have been long in 
cultivation. He can follow the history of the plant to its intro- 
duction into gardens and may then be able to identify it with a 
wild species, or he may reason from inference from the morphol- 
ogy and direction of variation of the plant in hand. The latter 
method may be illustrated by the tomato. _ 

I will suppose, for my purpose, that no record exists as to the 
introduction of the tomato, or in regard to its characters, at any 
time before the present. 

The fruit of the large tomato is seen at once to be extremely 
variable. This variability lies mostly in size, form, and number 
of cells. The number of cells, as seen in a cross-section of the 
fruit, may be taken as a measure of size and form. Fig. 1 r 
resents a cross-section in which ten partial cell-divisions project 
from the walls of the fruit. This is a section of a Trophy. If 


its character. We examine critically every large-fruited sort, 
* This paper is a revision and extension of one which first appeared in the Ameri- 
can Garden. ee 


574 _ General Notes. [June 


pletely the Pear tomato and the Criterion. Below the Pear in 
point of development is the Plum tomato, Fig. 8. It approaches 
more nearly a spherical form, and is almost uniformly two-celled. 
Still lower is the Cherry tomato, Fig. 9,—the smallest and sim- 
plest of them all, and two-celled. This is our nearest approach 
to the wild type. The first tomato known to man could have 


this gives us reason to suppose that they may have existed in 
wild nature also. Granting this, they nevertheless give evidence 
of development from the Cherry tomato, as we have seen from 


Fig. 11. This figure shows the complete cell-division whic 


‘Separates the normal tomato into halves. This variation is the 


beginning of the flat and angular tomatoes. Small developments 


_ from it are Green Gage, Improved Large Yellow, and White 
_ Apple. As the fruits increase in size by the interposition of new 
Cells, they take on abnormal shapes. Adventitious cells are often 
pushed into the centre of the fruit, giving rise to the familiar 


than a ring, as in the illustration. Most of the large 


ae varieties of tomatoes give unmistakable evidence of development 


PLATE XVIII. 


1887] Botany. } 375. 


_We cannot so positively determine the color of the original 
tomato. Five-sixths or more of all our tomatoes are in various 
shades of red. From this fact we infer that red is the strongest 
and prevailing, hence the original, color. 

The classification of cultivated tomatoes, upon morphological 
principles, may be represented as follows: 


LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUM Miller, “ Gard. Dict.” (1 768). 
$ A. Cerasiforme—Cherry tomatoes (L. cerasiforme Dunal, 
“Hist. Solan.,” 113). Fruit spherical, two-celled,— 
the original type. 
$ B. Pyriforme—Pear and Plum tomatoes (L. pyriforme Dunal, 
-C 112). Fruit oblong or pyriform, two-celled, con- 
spicuously pendent. 
$$ A. Vulgare—Plant weak, requiring support; leaves or- 


Cherry tomato, through the type of Improved 
Large Yellow, etc. Tom Thumb may be taken as 
the type of the group. 

Group 2. Apple-shaped tomatoes. Fruit nor- 
mally more or less rounded on top, most of the 
irregularities being due to the interposition of ad- 
ventitious cells in the centre of the fruit. Direct 
d 


est seen in this group. The Paragon may be taken 
as a type of the group. 

Group 3. Oblong tomatoes. Fruit usually as 
long or longer than broad, the sides very firm. 
Developments from the pear-shaped variation. 
Criterion, in its normal forms, may be considered 
the type. 


576 General Notes. [June 


the aspect of potatoes, represented by French Up- 
right and the New Station. 
Another species, Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium Dunal, “ Solan. 
Syn.,” 3, the Current tomato, is cultivated as a curiosity.—Z, H. 
. Bailey, Fr., Agricultural College, Mich. 


Experiments with Lima Beans in Germination.'—After 
reading some of the suggestive writings of Darwin, I began a 
few experiments with some Lima beans. About forty seeds were 


_ _* Read at the Montreal meeting of A. A. A. S. in 1882, and only a very brief 
abstract printed, without illustrations. > : 


PLATE XIX. 


E < | Entomology. — 577 


_but in time all of these perished without bringing any green leaves 
_ to the surface.— W. F. Beal, Agricultural College, Mich, 


. 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. 


No. 1. The first of those to come up, where the hilum was placed uppermost, 
usually took the form of this figure. ‘ 

No. 2. This represents one of those in which. the hilum was placed uppermost. 

No. 3. In this case the seedling is still struggling to send its plumule to the sur- 
face. The cotyledons, which were at d have been rubbed off by the 
movements of the young plant through the sand. 

0. 4. One plant is here represented in which the partially-exhausted cotyledons 
had been rubbed off. 

0. 5- represents one specimen in which the cotyledons have disappeared 
and the plumule has decayed. 

No, 6. In this case the cotyledons have disappeared; the plumule and primary 
leaves were still green; some of the roots were still fresh in the soil, though the 
lower end of the radicle was elevated nearly three inches above the surface of the 
sand. : 


OJ- 
were much like this figure, and likely to succeed in becoming good 
No. 8. Nine out of twenty-five planted as a i n 
 Yadicle-with its roots nearly straight up out of the soil, sometimes as much as two 
and one-half inches, when the seedli perished. 
[All the figures were made by Will. Holdsworth. ] 


Six out of twenty-five planted in open ground with the hilum uppermost 
od plants. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


known as “ Water-Boatmen.” Of these, the more abundant 


ected with 
attracted my attention. Other duties interfered with the com- 


_-__¥This department is edited by Prof. J. H. Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
-N. Y., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. 


578 General Notes. [June 


the surface. The ventral aspect of the body at such times is 
covered with a film of air; and the space between the head and 
prothorax, and that between the prothorax and mesothorax, are 
also filled with air, as well as a space beneath the wings. t 
the quantity of air thus carried about by the insect is insufficient 
to account for the long period during which it remains beneath 
the surface of the water. By observing a Corisa when anchored 
near the bottom of a pond or aquarium, it will be seen that it 
clings by means of its anterior legs, and that the posterior legs 
are extended laterally and are frequently moved as when swim- 
‘ming. The result of this movement is to cause a current of 


little, and is not, therefore, purified to any considerable extent by 
the free gases in the water. Correlated with this are habits very 
different from those of Corisa. The Notonecta, when at rest, 
almost invariably floats with the tip of its abdomen projecting 
from the water, in order that it may easily change the air under 
its wings. 


that the Notonecta can, in an emergency, avail itself of a method 

_ of purifying its supply of air, which, with the Corisa, is normal. 

_ I doubt, however, whether the Votonecta could keep itself alive 
in this way for a long period —¥ H. Comstock. 


1887] . Entomology. — 579 


would again be taken and mated, and so on, for several genera- 
tions. (2) Exactly the same process just described would be 
gone through, after substituting throughout the words ‘ medium- 
sized’ for ‘largest.’ (3) Similarly, after substituting the word 
for ‘largest.’ The result will be to obtain a precise 
measure of the diminution of rate at which a divergence from 
h erage race proceeds in successive generations of 
continually-selected animals.” —Extomologist, vol. xx p. 60. 


. 


Ears of Insects.—A correspondent calls attention to the state- 


acter. .. . As to their probable functions, we possess no satis- 
factory indication; but it seems particularly improbable that 
they are auditory organs.” And again, “It is certain that they 
are of much importance, but their physiological rôle is, we repeat, 


follows: “I find that, by leaning too heavily upon a 


~ writes as foll 
considerable amount of negative evidence collected last year 


and the year preceding, I made an error last summer in the life- 
history of the corn plant-louse, Aphis maidis. We have suc- 
ceeded this spring in finding the eggs of this species in the nests 
of Lasius alienus, in fields of corn infested by the lice the pre- 


-vious year, have hatched these eggs in the office, and have reared 


580 General Notes. [June 


them upon corn-roots exposed in glass tubes until all question 
of their specific character is removed. e also find that the 


but, like so many other insects at this season, the ants probably’ 


Exposition of Insects.—There will be held in Paris, begin- 
ning on the 27th August and lasting until 28th September, 
1887, an exposition of useful insects and their products, and of 


Entomological News.—Mr. L. O. Howard gives, in the 


Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vol. xiii. 


: Dr. Gustav Mayr publishes a paper on the 
ants of the United States of America, in the Verh. k. k. Zo0l,-Bot. 
_ Ges. in Wien, pp. 419-468. This paper is a synonymical and 
_ descriptive list of forty-eight pages, in which one hundred and 


- ——Dr. Riley has published Bulletin No. 10 of the Division of 


: : Entomology, U.S. Dept. Agr., entitled “Our Shade-Trees and 
their Insect Defoli i 


| a i tia sits ch affect the trees of the Capital, with means 


. 


efoliators, being a consideration of the four most. 


J 


them.” 2 The imported elm-leaf-beetl the bag: 


1887] Zoology. 581. 


worm, the white-marked tussock-moth, and the fall web-worm 
are the insects discussed. The Proceedings of the Natural 
History Society of Wisconsin for April devotes oar 2 P to 
a piper y on the special senses of wasps, by G. E G 
Peckham 


ZOOLOGY. 


The Fauna of Liverpool Bay.—A short time ago, at the in- 
= oTe of Professor W. A. Herdman, of Liverpool, England, 
“Liverpool Marine Biological Committee” was formed, the 
te of which was to explore the fauna of Liverpool Bay and 
the adjacent seas. The first report of this committee has re- 
cently been published, and occupies three hundred and seventy 
pages, with ten plates and two maps, of vol. xl. of the “ Proceed- 


of the Irish Sea are very considerable. The specimens collected 
were turned over to specialists to work up, and from their reports 
and lists of species it has been found that of the nine hundred 
and thirteen species recorded, two hundred and thirty-five were 
_ new to the region embraced; sixteen were never before reported 
from the British seas, and of these seven species and three varie- 
ties are new to science. Of the special reports on the different 
groups we can only allude to Professor A. Milne Marshall’s ex- 
cellent sketch on shallow-water faunas, and that of the Rev. H. 
H. Higgins on pioneers in local biology. Professor W. A. Herd- 
man in a supplementary paper deals with variability in the tuni- 
cates, while J. H. Gibson discusses the systematic value of the 
spines of the polychztous worms, oats to the conclusion that 
they are of but moderate importance. There are a few notes on 
the attempted introduction of the quahog (Venus mercenaria), 
which does not appear to have been successful. Among the 
projects outlined for the future is a Sid mar examination of the 
fauna between tide-marks. This littoral zone is to be divided 
into belts, corresponding to its daia above low-water mark, 
and each belt is to be examined separately with a view of 
ascertaining, among other points, the daily SRE e which 
uires., 


The Systematic Position of the anra dae a 
Vosmaer, in the concluding portion of his volume on the Porifera 
in Bronn’s “ Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs,” discusses 

e various views held as to the relationships of the sponges, and 
advances some ideas of his own, which, from his familiarity with 
the subject, are worthy of attention. He divides the sponges 

VOL. XXIs—NO. 6, 39 


582 General Notes. [June 


into two great groups, Calcarea and Non-Calcarea, maintaining 
that the two are perfectly distinct, and that there are no osculant 


groups first mentioned. 

As to the origin of the sponges, Vosmaer claims that our em- 
bryological knowledge is still insufficient to decide, but still that 
there is some reason for the belief that their ancestor was a free- 
swimming form, which may have been like the larva of some 
silicious sponge. The larva of Sycandra is too aberrant to hold 
the position of representative. First to be settled is the point 
whether the sponges are to be regarded as Protozoa, Ccelenter- 
ates, or an independent group. Vosmaer takes the latter view, 
and quotes in support Balfour, Heider, Bütschli, and Sollas, but 
fails to refer to Hyatt, who antedates them all in holding this 
opinion. His reasons are both structural and embryological. 
He fails to see that the sponges are degenerate Ccelenterata,—as 
is held by most continental students,—and claims that while the 


` stage. - That the sponges have indirectly descended from the 
Protozoa Vosmaer thinks probable, but he is at a loss for the 


generated to at least a considerable extent when the forms 
entered shallower cases. 


Parasitic Sea-Anemones,—Prof. A. C. Haddon enumerates 
(Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Socy., v. pp. 473-481, 1887) the known 


two genera Peachia and Philomedusa, the «latter of which will 
now have to lapse into synonymy. Peachia parasitica is a small 
sea-anemone an inch or two in length, which is usually formed, _ 
as its name implies, parasitic in the folds around the mouth of 
the large brown or purple jelly-fish, Cyanea arctica, Haddon 

ias some remarks on the number of tentacles and mesenteries 
_ in these forms, which lead him to the conclusion that the three 
families in which these parasitic sea-anemones occur are more 


1887] Zoology. 583 


closely related than is usually thought to be the case. A de- 
tailed account of the British species of Halcampa is promised. 


Chzetono 
and some of the foreign species of Chzetonotus in the Microscope 


Chetonotus, a step of doubtful propriety, while no mention is 
made of the other genera of the class Gastrotricha, to which these 
worms belong. Dr. Stokes’s paper has been reprinted in Pelletan’s 
Journal de Micrographie. 


tomy of Pseudoscorpions.—Croneberg gives (Zool. An- 
zeiger, No. 246) a preliminary account of the anatomy of Chernes, 
one of the Pseudoscorpions. The sucking pharynx is moved by 
dilator muscles, the contraction being effected by the elasticity 
of the strongly chitinized wall. The cesophagus is narrow, but 
widens out for the short stomach, and then at once contracts to 
form the intestine. With the stomach are connected the three 


Description of a New Species of Fruit-Pigeon (¥anthenas 
Jouyi) from the Liu Kiu Islands, Japan. 

Fanthenas jouyi, sp. nov. 

Diacnosis: Similar to Yanthenas ianthina (Temm.), but with 
i nd neck and the anterior por- 
tion of the interscapilium; metallic reflections on scapulars and ` 
back bronzy green, not purple as in ¥ zanthina. 


584 General Notes. 2 [June 


Dimensions: Wing, 253 mm.; tail-feathers, 188 mm.; exposed 
culmen, 23 mm.; tarsus, 35 mm.; middle toe, with claw, 51 mm. 
Synonymy: Carpophaga tanthina Seebohm, Ibis, 1887, p. 179 
(part). 
HABITAT: Liu Kiu Islands, Japan. 

Type: Tokio Educational Museum, C. TaSaki coll., February 
3, 1887. 

Other specimens of this very distinct species have been ob- 
tained by Mr. H. Pryer’s collectors in the Liu Kiu Islands. I 
take great pleasure in dedicating it to my friend, Mr. P. L. Jouy. 

I wish also to express my indebtedness to the authorities of 
the Tokio Educational Museum for the opportunity to describe 
this interesting novelty.— Leonhard Stejneger. 


Zoological News.—Protozoa.—J. H. Siddall, in his report 
on the Foraminifera of the Liverpool Marine District (supra), 
gives the following account of the method of collecting these 
orms. Foraminifera, he says, “may always be got by care- 
fully scraping the surface of the velvety brownish mud at the 
bottom of pools left by the tide... . The oozy mud may be 
got rid of by washing through a fine muslin net, and the resid- 
uum put into small bottles filled with sea-water. The bottles 
should be kept uncorked in a cool place, out of direct sunlight, 
when the Foraminifera will creep up the sides of the bottle and 
live there for months.” 


Sponces.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan and Dr. G. J. Hinde are 
having an animated discussion in the pages of the Annals and 
Magazine of Natural History over the name to be applied to the 
fossil sponge Hindia of Tennessee. 

Mr C 


VERTEBRATA—FISHES.— Linophryne lucifer, recently described 
in the P. Z. S. of London, by Robert Collett, is a singular, small 
Ceratian with an enormous head and mouth, a single cephalic 
tentacle to represent the spinous dorsal; immensely long and 
slender teeth on the jaws and vomer (also teeth on upper 


s- 
pended from the trunk, and projecting backward beyond the 
ail. There is a long tentacle on the throat. The specimen 
was taken off Madeira. 
__G. A. Boulenger has recently described a Ctenopoma, a Cla- 
rias, and a Mormyrus, from the Lower Congo. All have native 
names; also three new South American Characinoids. 


- 


1887] , Zoology. 585 


REPTILES AND Batracuta.—Mr. G. A. Boulenger describes a 
new Calamaria, from Borneo, in the Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 
(March). He also notes that Elaphis grabowskyi Fischer, from 
Southeastern Borneo, is identical with Æ. teuiurus Cope. The 
latter snake has a wide range, since his have been obtained 
from Pekin, Darjeeling, Siam, and Sumatra. 

Mr. G. Boulenger makes some remarks (Ann. and Mag. 
Nat. Hist., March) upon the fresh-water turtle recently described 
by Mr. E. P. Ramsey in the Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. This 
tortoise (Carettochelys) was obtained in the “Fly River, New 
Guinea, and is stated to be one of the most striking discoveries 
made in recent herpetology during the last twenty years. It 
differs from all fresh-water turtles by the structure of the limbs, 


clawed. Epidermic scutes are absent. Mr. Boulenger makes it 
the ed of a family of Pleurodira,—Carettochelydide. 

. Boulenger has recently described Rana martensi, from 
jon: Ixalus asper, from Perak; and Geomolge fischeri, from 
the river Ussuri, in Mantchuria. ‘Also a new frog, of the genus 
Megalophrys, from Perak. 


Birps.—Mr. F. E. Beddard states that the air-sacs of Casu- 
arius resemble those of Apteryx much more closely than those 
of Rhe 


a. 
The same anatomist has examined the structure of the syrinx 
in various Caprimulgida. Though the Guacharo (Steatornis) 
stands alone in having a purely branchial syrinx, yet Podargus 
and Batrachostomus are transitional between Steatornis and 

other Caprimulgide. 
ose interested in pterography will find, in the Proceedings 


_ Zool. Soc. London, April, 1886, a valuable paper, with illustra- 


tions, upon the disposition of the cubital c coverts. r. Good- 


coverts with certain structural peculiarities omic ra myo- 
te, ar and pterographica 

B. Tristram (P. Z. S. January, 1886) describes Dafila 
Mariig a fourth species o of the genus, from Sidney Island, 


: Pheenix ret (lat., 4.30° S.; lon., 171.20° 
Mr. P. 


W.). 

ater has described a new flamingo (Phenicopterus 
syn from Tara arapaca, Chili. Three specimens were obtained 
by Carlos Rahmer, at a height of about twelve thousand feet, at 
the pa of the Tsluga Volcano. The bill is shorter and smaller 
than in Ph. andinus, the naked space at the lores wider, the upper 
mandible narrower, and there is less black at the tip. The legs 
of the species are 


Mammats.—The British Museum has lately received, along 
with the magnificent collection of East Indian birds donated by 


586 General Notes. [June 


Mr. A. O. Hume, about four hundred examples of mammals, 
referable to two hundred and six species. The collection is 
SAA SP valuable, since it comprises four Separate series, 

tained, respectively, at Sambhur in Rajpo Manipur 
; (northwest: of Birmah), Tenasserim, and the Malay ' Peninsula. 
Šambhur fixes the limit at which the fauna begins to lose its 


Manipur. Semnopithecus jomoralis is added to the Tonia 


fauna, and among the Malay p pra is a beautiful new Sciu- 
ropterus (S. davidsoni).—P. Z. S., January, 1886, Mr. O. Thomas. 
Mr. R. A. Sterndale notes the certain occurrence of a natural 


hybrid between Ovis hodgsoni and O. vignei, due to a ram of the 
former and larger species appropriating the ewes of a herd of 
the latter. The ram was killed by wolves, and in course of time 
the hybrids, crossed with O. vignet, showed signs of reversion to 
that type. 

Part I. of vol. clxxvi. of the Philosophical Transactions of the 
Royal Society of London contains two portions of W. K. Parker’s 

the structure and development of the skull in the 

Mammalia. The first part is devoted to the Edentata, the second 
to the Insectivora. Thirty-nine plates illustrate these treatises. 

Mr. O. Thomas describes (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., February) 
Pseudochirus forbest, a new Papuan phalanger similar to Ps. ca- 
nescens Waterhouse. An adult male was 280 mm. long without 

which measured 230 mm. It was found in the Astro- 

labe Modna of Southeastern New Guinea, at a height of two 
thousand feet. 

Mr. Thomas also diagnoses Nesonycteris woodfordi and Pteropus 
grandis, two new fruit-eating bats from the Solomon Islands. 

Dr. Monticelli contributes to the Proceedings of the London 

Zoological Society a list of the South Italian Chiroptera, including 
_ eighteen species. 

Mr. O. Thomas has described and figured, in the Proc. Zool. 
Soc., two skulls of Mustela pennantii, eee though both adult, 
exhibit variations such as have often given foundation for the 


: a the anterior part of the skull, and narrowed the pos- 

terior narial passage in the older skull. 

> of the most singular of rodents i is a phillipsi, - 
m Somali-land. a sof a t the size Of a mouse, oat from 


1887] : Embryology. : : 587 


a tiny puppy. The ears are simple, round holes, without a 
conch, and the eyeballs are barely half a millimetre in diameter. 
Another species, H/. glaber, was described by Rüppell forty years 
ago. It is a burrower, the skin passing across the mouth inside 

the incisors. 


EMBRYOLOGY.: 


Suggestion respecting the Epiblastic Origin of the Seg-* 

mental Duct.—In a recent paper? with the above title, Prof. 

A. C. Haddon, of Dublin, offers a very suggestive explanation 
È 


Dr. Perényi observed the same mode of development to obtain 
in Rana esculenta and Lacerta viridis3 

“The origin of the segmental duct from the epiblast being 
now known to occur in Elasmobranchs, Anura, and Rodents 
we are justified in assuming that this is a general and probably 
primitive mode of formation. With the above-mentioned ex- 


somatic meso 
e duct arises, in the Rodents, as a linear proliferation of 
the epiblast, in the region opposite to the intermediate cell-mass 
_ (‘ Grensstrang’ of Hensen). Flemming _ out that the area 
is of riebi length, not even being symmetrical. The separa- 
tion of this solid cord of cells from the piis takes place from 
before backwards, and first occurs at a time when the meso- 
blastic somites are still entirely continuous with the ventral 
ERPE and splanchnic) mesoblast. Hensen, Spee, and Flem 
conjectured that ~*~ primitive kidney is itself déweloped 
kom the epiblast in these mammals; but of this they produce 
t Edited by Prof. JoHN A. RyDER, Biological Department, University of Penn- 
irna omer elphia. 
fe entific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, v., pt. vi., 1887, pp. 
wie [The 2 pl; xe would here, for the first time, record the fact that he has found the 
anterior ends of the segmental ducts intimately connected with the epiblast in young 
embryos of the catfish (Amiurus corer Se that the mode of origin of the seg 
mental duct spoken of above very probably applies also to the Teleostei.] 


588 General Notes. - [June 


no direct evidence. It is more probable that the nephridia are 
of mesoblastic origin, as in other vertebrates. 

“Van Wijhe finds that in the ray the pronephros ( Vorneire) 
arises at the commencement of Balfour’s stage I., as a continu- 
ous evagination from the somatopleure on each side of the body 
throughout five somites. When the hinder end of this evagina- 
tion reaches the skin it fuses therewith, and the place of fusion 
is the rudiment of the duct of the pronephros (segmental duct). 
This grows posteriorly, gradually separating from the skin, so 
that its latest-formed end is always fused with it. The meso- 
nephros (Urniere) is developed shortly after the appearance of 
the pronephros. 

“In the frog Perényi finds that the duct develops as a canal- 
like separation from the inner (nervous) cell-layer of the epiblast, 
which later associates itself with the mesoderm cells of the inter- 
mediate cell-mass (Grenzstrang). 

“According. to the usually-received account, formation of the 
segmental duct may take place in two ways,—(r1) either by the 
‘closing in of a continuous groove of the somatic peritoneal epi- 
thelium (Cyclostomi, anterior end only; Lepidosteus, Teleostei, 
Amphibia); or as a solid knob or rod of cells derived from the 
somatic mesoblast, which grows backwards between the epiblast 
and the mesoblast (Cyclostomi, posterior portion; Elasmo- 
branchii, Amniota).” 


giving especial prominence to the views of Balfour on this dif- 
ficult problem as discussed in his “ Comparative Embryology,” 
vol. ii. He then refers at length to the view propounded by 


: entation,” and cites , who says, “In certain 
Polyclades [Turbellaria] ramifications of the intestine open to 
the exterior by excretory pores, either on the dorsal surface 
(Planaria aurantiaca d. Ch.), or on the lateral edge (as in a very 
interesting new genus of the family of Proceridz), thus forming 
_ acomplete analogy with the excretory pores which are found at 
the edge of the bell in certain Medusæ. 

“ The aquiferous system characteristic of other Platy-elminthes 
does not occur in the Polyclades. The secretory organs of these 
animals are formed after the type of those of the Ccelenterata. 
‘Excretion in the two groups is ae pete by means of diver- 
ticula from the intestine which open fo the exterior.” 

__ Van Wijhe’s view is briefly summarized to the effect that the 
primitive Craniota had no pronephric duct, the pronephros open- 
ing outwards by a pore from the gland. Later, this orifice mi- 
grated backward and its outer border developed into the duct, 
and, approaching the cloaca, blended with and opened into it. 
_ He also thinks that the epiblastic origin of the segmental duct 

will not be welcome to those who think that the Chordata were 


1887] Embryology. 589 


descended from Annelids; but, a his part, he cannot admit the 
relationship between these t 

rofessor Haddon then des his own view, as follows: 
“Without at all committing myself to a belief in the ancestry 


now that the epiblastic origin of the segmental duct has been 
established. 

“It is perfectly well known that the nephridia of all inverte- 
brates open directly to the exterior, and in the ance worms 
there are typically a pair of nep ridia for each s 

“It is generally admitted that the early (not m the 
primitive) Chordata were segmented, and it is not unreasonable 


tubules in ontology. The peripheral orifices of the nephridia 
must either have opened directly to the exterior or from the first 
debouched into a longitudinal canal. Various theories have been 
framed to explain the latter arrangement, but the former con- 
dition is undoubtedly more easily conceived, one difficulty in 
this supposition pees —What has become of the primitive 
external openings ? 

“ Accepting the proposition that in the primitive Chordata 
nephridia opened directly to the exterior, we have only to as- 
sume that the lateral area along which they opened was grooved, 
and that this groove extended posteriorly as far as the anus. 

“From the analogy of the neural groove there is no great dif- 
ficulty in further supposing that the nephric groove was converted 

_ into a canal, which, becoming separated from the overlying epi- 
blast, might sink into the deeper-lying parts of the body. 

suggestion may be hazarded concerning the advantage 

of Savatie the nephric groove into the nephric duct, it may 

be pointed out that the lateral openings of the nephridia would 


pure water for respiratory purposes is emphasized by the now 
acknowledged fact that each cleft was provided with its own 
sense-organ (now metamorphosed into the ‘thymus gland’). 
The development of the duct from before backward supports 
this vi Sako 

“From recent researches on the lamprey (Shipley), newt 
(Alice Jolson), Alytes (Gasser), and frog (Spencer), it has been 
proved that in these forms the blastopore never closes up, but 
persists as the anus (ż.e., the opening of the mesenteron into the 


oaca). 

“We are justified in assuming the persistence of the blasto- 
pore as the anus in early Chordata; thus, if the nephric groove 
were continued round to the anus it would practically open into 


590 | General Notes. | {June 


the extreme hinder end of the mesenteron,—in other words, into 
the urodæum (Gadow). 
“ Probably about the same time that the nephric groove was 
being converted into the nephric canal (segmental duct) the 
roctodæum was being invaginated. e latter would push 
before it the posterior orifice of the nephric canal. 
“ The nephridia themselves appear to be of mesoblastic origin. 
It is possible that the Archinephros extended throughout the 


Pp 
preaoeen in the Eeoa a the segmental 
duct in ontogeny is not Son a difficulty, as it can be 
para alleled W many other o 
“On the hypothesis iust PPRS out the nephridia always 
open by their original epiblastic pores,—primitively, directly to 
the exterior; secondarily, into a canal separated from the epi- 
blast: also the ar na aan teas could be equally effectively func- 
tional throughout the whole period of its modification.” 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Folk-Lore.—No other branch of anthropology is making \ 
more rapid progress than Folk-Lore, “or the popular gg RE 
of observed facts and the customs aisle therefrom.” rR 
Temple is the last to develop a scheme of the abject, on the 
spirit basis, as applicable to India. Itis so comprehensive that 
it is given below in full, and may be easily adapted to any area: 


SPIRIT BASIS OF BELIEF AND CUSTOM. 
: I. RELIGION. 
A. Spirit- Worship. 
Ancestor-worship. 
Ancestors become ——— 
Spirits as guardian 
Badges or Peaki 
Spirits are mortals. 
Spirits cause disease ə 
Effects of this belief. 
nts intended to scare spirits. 


Articles which scare spirits : 


Fire, - Breath, Colors, 
Water, Beating, Brooms, Coral, 
* Metal, = * Canes, ross, 
Urine, -- Blood, Circles, Crown, 
oAsches,... Bead,  — Clothes, ancing, 


1887] Anthropology. ? : 591 


Dung, Garlic, Po Salutation, 
Earth, (Glass, 2 Lim Shells, 
Eggs, Grass, Lifting g, Spirits, 
Feasting, Grain, Noise and music, Spittle, 
Feathers, Honey, Oil, Sulphur, 
Flags, Horns, Ornam ents, Sugar, 
Flowers, Incense, Precious stones, Tattooing, 
Fruit, Indecency,. Ribbons, Threads, 
Food, Kiss, Salt, Umbrellas. 


uv: 

Vij, or a of Lightning. 
Epidemic-spirits, 
Earth-spirits : 


Vetal, Bhairoba, Jakhai, ; Mukai, 
Bramapurush, Cheda, Jokhia, Navlai. 
Water-spirits. 
Underground-spirits. 


Spirits generally. 
Features, character, and mode of living spirits. 


Spirit-haunts : 
Funeral-places, Groves, hills, heaths, 
Boundaries House-roofs, 
Roads and cross-roads, Looking-glasses, 
Stones, trees, caverns, River-banks and sea-shores, 
Deserts and waste-places, Unclean place 
Empty houses, Water- or ie AOR 


C. Spirit-Possession. 
Into whom they enter. 


Fear chief disposing cause. 
Spirit-entries : 
Head, Mouth, Yawning, Feet, Nose. 
Hair, Sneezing, Hands, Ears, 
Spirit-seasons : 
ting. 
Times of sagan and bargain. 


Auspicious events, 
New-moon and full-moon days. 
Effect of mee ER Black art. 
How spirits are kept off. Evil eye. 
Exorcists, Ceremonial impurity. 


592 General Notes. 


D. Stone-Worship. 


E. Tree- and Plant-Worship. 
Trees as old homes of men. 
Sacred groves. 

Food- or fruit-trees : 
oo 
ango, 


Re trees, 
Incense-yielding trees, Plan 
Healing trees and plants, 


F. Animal-Worship. 


Pomegranate, 
Betel-palm, 


[June 


Aenor 
Dat 


F Edea and evergreen trees, 
rshi 


Grseworshin 


Metempsychosis. 
Home-haunters : 
Ape, Fly, Dove Crow Mouse, 
Ant, Cock, Rat Frog Serpent. 
Tomb-haunters : 
Bat, Owl. 

Man-eaters : ; 
Alligator, Tiger, Crocodile, Lion, Bear, Vulture, 
Dog, Wolf, le Eel, Hyena, Tortoise. 

Healers 

S, $ Deer, Peacock, Horse, 
Cow, Parrot, Hog, Swan, Cat, 
Goat, se, Fish, Camel, Kite 
Sheep, Buffalo, Jackal, Elephant, Spider. 

G. Man-Worship. 

Apotheosis : 

Devarshis, or ‘Bhagats, Sons-in-law, 

Guests, Prostitutes and low women, 
Husbands, Dead kings and dead pious. 

Kumaukas, 

H. Classes of Gods. 

Primitive theology, go Planet-worship, 

House-gods, Fire-wors. Water-worship, 

House-goddesses, Sun-worship, -worship, 
i -gods -WO 


hip, Mountain-worship. 
* 


i 
; = ain NERS x 
a ee N 


1887] Anthropology. 593 


K. Priestly Classes. 


Aged relations, Potters 
Castemen, Washermen, 
Headmen, Dancing-girls, 
Women, : Early tribes or lower pent 
L. Offerings. 
Origin of religious offerings. 
Human sacrifices, Animal sacrifices. 


M. Object of Ritual is to Scare Spirits. 
Spirits attack the object of worship. 


Baptism, urial, 
Confirmation, Consecration of new house, 
Matrimony, Consecration of new image, 

ick, Nagbali. 
The dying, 

N. Festivals. 
Makarsankranti, Varshapratipada, Dasara, 
Ratha Saptami, manavami, ivali, 
Mahashivrata, Gokulashtami, Palipretipais, 
Holi, or Hutashani, Shravani, Bhaubija. 
To prevent attacks of spirits. 
II. CUSTOMS. 


P. Birth-Customs. 
Peril of childbirth varies with race. 
Birth-rites : 
Deshasth Brahmans, 
Kolaba Kunbis, 
Puna Ramoshis. 

Fifth- or sixth-day birth-rites : 
Bombay Yajurvedi Brahmans, 
Khandesh Bhils. 

The cleansing of the mother. 

The Solio of the child. 
ing. 


Nam 
Spirit-scarers used in birth-rites : 
Piece Yellow, Noise, Liquor, Metal. 
Feasting, Water, ed, ri 
Couvade. 
Q. Marriage. 


Hindu marriage-rites. 


504 General Notes. [June 


Child-marriage : 
High-class child-marriage, 
Middle-class child-marriage, 
Lower-class child-marriage. 


bianka i Wife-stealing, 
Polygam Polyandry. 
kamisa used in Hindu marriage : 
Fire, Yellow, Oil, Eating together, Noise, 
Rice, Knots, Horse, Cocoanuts, Red 
Cock, Sugar-cane, Dancing, Metal, Circles, 
ung, Water, Black, * Shells, Fruit, 
Marriage with trees, Cloth, Liquor, Grass, 
Hoisting, Earthen-pots, espace la objects. 
R. Womanhood. 
S. Pregnancy. 


Bombay Yajurvedi Brahmans, 
Thana So as 


Thana 
T. Funeral. 
Descriptive funeral-rites : 
Death-day rites, Special funeral-rites, 
After-death ceremonies, Commemorative rites. 


Meaning and origin: 
Belief that man has git spirits. 
Early and Brahmanic 
ane fe to keep Spirit ye his former haunts. 


Spirit-scarers in Hindu funeral : 


Fire, Colors, Cow, Horse, 
Urine, Flowers, Sag basil and nim, 
Grain, aa , Circle, 
Sacred grass Wat Leather, 
Feasting and cleansing =i mourners. be T. M ason. 


PSYCHOLOGY. 


Evolution and Idealism.—Evolution must be regarded as 
having ar ed abolished Berkeleyan idealism. If the ex- 
ternal or objective universe is only subjective, the ‘evolution of 
: universe must have been a reflection of that of mind; but as ` 

minds have been, and are, in various stages, at any given period 
vod the history of evolution, there must have been many universes 
, one and the e time. Consider for a moment the meta- 
physi of the baneyar. The various domestic fowls, and the 

ee eee es must each be the ; author 


1887] Microscopy. 595. 


5 
° 
fes] 
=} 
et 
oO 
Q 
oO 
Qo 
M 
5 
et 
0 
=] 
E 
= 
(e) 
5 
3 
m 
=} 
Has 
es] 
in 
= 
3 
ou. 
oO 
mt 
wn 
aa 
(e) 
° 
Qu. 
> 
om 
< 
Ss 
S 
=. 
° 
a, 
n 
a 


tion requires also acquired ideas, the field of controversy between 
the intuitional and experiential theories is narrowed to these 


. ment of the proposition; but without evolution by experience, 
man would never have acquired the power necessary to do this. 
—E. D. Cope. 


MICROSCOPY.: 

O. Schultze’s Method of preparing the Amphibian Egg.2— 
For hardening-fluids the following mixtures were found to give 
perfectly satisfactory preparations, when used in the manner 
described below : 


1. Chrom-osmio-acetic Acid. 


Chromic acid (1%) 25 parts. 
Osmic si a A Io “ 
Water. ; mi 
Acetic acid (2%) 5“ 
2. Chrom-acetic Acid. 

Chromic acid (1%) 25 
Acetic " (2 si ) ‘ec 
Water. "QO «6 


The eggs are left in one of these fluids twenty-four hours, 
then washed in distilled water, which should be often changed. 
The egg-envelopes are next removed by the aid of needles, and 
the eggs are then ready for surface-study, 

For the purpose of sectioning the eggs are transferred from 
the water used in washing to 50% alcohol, then to 70%, 85%, 
and 95 %, leaving them twenty-four hours in each grade. The 
last grade should be changed several times. The eggs are then 

ified in turpentine one to two hours, and then placed in par- 
affine that melts at 50° C. for one-half to one hour. 


* Edited by C. O. WHITMAN, Ph.D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 
2 O. Schultze, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., xlv., H. 2, p. 185, April, 1887. 


596 General Notes. [June 


Schultze states that the success of the method depends on 
following precisely the directions given as to time. If the e 
remain longer, either in alcohol, turpentine, or paraffine, the 
results may be entirely unsatisfactory. If the conditions are 
strictly followed the eggs have the consistency of the paraffine, 
and cut finira without ribbing: 3 in sections 34, mm. thick. 

For staining borax-carmine was used, directly after washing, 
akur hours. The eggs were next placed in acid alcohol 
of seventy per cent. (five drops of the pure acid to 100 ccm. of 
the alcohol) to remove a part of the color 

The first hardening fluid does not penetrate well, and is not 
well adapted for fixing the central parts of the egg. 


Baskets for the Suspension of Objects in Paraffine.—Mr. 
H. Garman recommends the use of wire baskets for suspending 
objects in paraffine. Such a basket is easily made by coiling 


Fic. I. FIG. 2. FIG, 3. 


annealed wire as shown in Fig. 1, beginning at the centre of the 
bottom, and working outwards to the margin, then making the 
handle (2), and finishing with a triangular base (4). In use it is 
placed in the melted paraffine, the triangular base suppo rting 
and keeping it ee the bottom of the paraffine basin; and it 
can be removed by means of the proectiog handle, which is 
. rai eeh ah Ae i t does not interfere with the glass 


- 


1887] Microscopy. 597 


cover of the basin. For very small objects a hammered-wire 
spoon, like that used by Dr. Mark, is mounted in the same way 
as the basket (Fig. 2). This method of nibpeetiang objects in 
paraffine has resulted from attempts to avoid long handles, or 
other belongings of the baskets, that prevent the close fitting of 
the plates of glass used to cover the paraffine dishes 


A New Section-Smoother.'—Dr. P. F. Mall recommends a 
section-smoother constructed on the following principle. It con- 
sists of a rubber rod, about 14% cm. in diameter, which rotates 
loosely on a solid axis. The rod is so placed that it hangs a little 
below and in front of the edge of the knife (Fig. 1). When the 


PIG k FIG 2. 


knife passes over the object the rod is raised to an extent equal 


` to the thickness of the section, and is thrown above and a little 
behind the edge of the knife (Fig. 2), so that the section is pre- 
vented from rolling as it slides upon the knife. When the knife 
-is shoved back preparatory to making the next section the rod 
rolls over the preparation, and, in consequence of the play of its 
axis, is kept free from edge of ‘the knife. The section does not 
stick to the rod, as is the case in Jung’s section-smoother. 


K New Paraffine Im bedding Apparatus tus.—Those who have 
had much experience in imbedding in paraffine are aware of the 
difficulties and risks which attend the imbedding of delicate 
objects on account of the danger of overheating the imbedding 
mass. The trouble with thermostats, or heat-regulators, is that 
they get out of order and give trouble, cor from the difficulty 
which arises from the variations in the pressure of the gas in the 
pipes which supply the burners, and which is entirely beyond 

col ostat. 


l EA avoid this, Dr. C. S. Dolley, of the Soga Sa 
oF the University of Pennsylvania, began a series of experim 


AR * Archiv f. Anat, u. Physiol, Anat. Abth., E 
VOL, XXL—NO, 6, 40 


me 


598 General Notes. [June 


with copper bars, which were heated at one end by means of a 

unsen burner, so that the heat conveyed by conduction to the 
remote end of the bars gradually diminished in intensity because 
of its being constantly radiated into the surrounding air, accord- 
ing to well-known laws stated in the text-books on physics. It 
was found that, with the room at an approximately constant tem- 


c 
cup filled with hard paraffine, the latter could be kept just at the 
point of fusion for a long time without endangering the objects 
to be imbedded. These results showed that it was possible to 
utilize an apparatus of this type for imbedding purposes. 
is led the writer of this to begin a set of experiments with 
avery simple modification of the foregoing type of apparatus, 


WAS SSNS 


-with the suk of getting rid of the usual water-bath entirely in 
the process of imbedding, and to also use the paraffine itself as 
a means to indicate how far away from the source of heat it 
would be safe to allow an object to remain while it was being 
saturated. 

This object was effected in the following manner: A triangular 

sheet of copper, slightly less than one-sixteenth of an inch thick, 

eighteen inches long, and ten inches wide at one end and running 
to a sharp point at the other, as shown at s in the accompanying 
figure, is supported horizontally upon two legs at the wide end, 


oe small Bunsen iaaa er, with an aperture o of about on ie 
of an inch, and connected with the gas-supply of the building by _ 
_ means ofa rubber tube. If the flame is allowed to burn steadily 
at about half its full force, and permitted to play upon the copper 
_ plate at a distance c of about one inch from its extreme point, as 
hown in the figure, the whole plate will soon be heated, but the 
temperature will be found to gradually diminish towards the wide > 
end. Ata distance of Wout iwole to tirnica inches from the 


1887] Microscopy. s 599 


point where the flame acts upon the copper plate the temperature 
will remain steadily at about 56° C. (133° F.), with the tempera- 
ture of the room at 22° C., or 71° F. As long as the tempera- 


at the same point. This constancy is due to the fact that the 
heat which is conducted through the copper plate with constant 
rapidity from its source—the burner—is radiated into the sur- 


nearly constant. 

In order to use the paraffine itself as an indicator of the proper 
temperature, and in that way dispense with a thermometer alto- 
gether, if desirable, it was necessary to use a new type of cup in 
which to melt the paraffine. The paraffine-cup or trough (P) 
shown in the figure is made of copper, tin-lined, and is six inches 


e flame. _ 
ions and possibilities of this new device will be 
z, A $ a f 


DO aaa Scientific News. | [June 


For imbedding delicate objects, small cups made of tin-foil, 
pressed into shape in circular, tapering moulds, may satis- 
factorily employed with this apparatus, in the same way as the 
troughs. 

The device described above can be made by any coppersmith 
for about two dollars.— Fon A. Ryder. 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


1887 | Scientific News, — 601 


—Toeplitz and Deuticke, of Leipzig, announce a new journal, 
the Cextralblatt fur Physio olo ogie. It is edited by Dr. Sigmund 
Exner, of Vienna, and Dr. Johannes Gad, of Berlin, and is issued 
under the auspices of the. Physiological Society of Berlin. The 
first number appeared April 2, and the subsequent numbers will 
follow every two weeks. The subscription price is sixteen marks 


' ayear. 


r. W. Spengel, who has recently ee the position of 
Director in the Bremen Museum, goes to the University of 
Giessen as Professor of Zoology. 


—Professor C. Klein, of Gottingen, goes to the taisot of 
Berlin as successor to the pa Professor Websky, whose death 
was announced in our March number. The chair i Mineralogy 
thus left vacant at Göttingen is E filled by Dr. T. H. Liebsch, for- 
merly of Königsberg. 


—Professor A. Ludwig, of Giessen, has been called to Bonn 
to fill the chair left vacant by the retirement of the venerable 
Professor Dr. Franz Leydig. 


house in the line of science. 


—Dr. R. W. Schufeldt calls attention in the Auk for April to 
the valuable assistance that can be derived from the photogra~ 
phic camera in field ornithology. 


—Dr. Pelletan’s Yournal de. Micrographie begins this year the 
publication of a series of portraits of French scientific worthies. 

e faces of J. Béclard and Mathias Duval have’ so far appeared, 
bar they hardly answer the sen of portraits “ magni- 
fiquement gravés ou photogravés .. . formeront autant d’ceu- 
vres dart.” They are rather poorer than rhe series of “ Leaders 
of Science” published by the English Science Monthly. 


—At a recent meeting of the Marine Biological Laboratory 
(which, as noted in the April number of the NATURALIST, is to be 


a the successor of the Annisquam Laboratory) it was voted in- 
expedient to ia to open the station this year. It was 


voted to grant Mr. Van Vleck the use of the apparatus, etc., now 
at -Annisquam for the present summer. 


_ —John T. Ogden, for many years a well-known dealer in mi- . 


ae _¢roscopical goods in Boston, died in that city May 3, 1887. 
was born in Woodbury, N. J., pane; 1811, and in early life bare a 
civil e ir 


* 


602 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [June 


—The various scientific and educational institutions in and 
near New York City have appointed a local committee of arrange- 
ments for the coming meeting of the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science, with the following officers: Presi- 
dent, Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, President of Columbia College; Vice- 


Morris K. Jessup, Dr. Henry McCracken, George William 
Curtis; Local Secretary, Professor Henry Leroy Fairchild. Miss 
Winifred Egerton is the president of the ladies’ section of the 
local committee. 


—Recent deaths: Dr. Franz Herbich, a ae and custo- 
dian of the Klausenberg Museum, died Jan ry 15; J. J. Kickx 
Professor of Botany at Ghent, died March iy: 


—Dr. Albert Kellogg, the well-known botanist of California, 
died in Alameda, in that State, on the 31st of March, at the age 
of seventy-four. He was born in New Hartford, Conn., and 
went to California in the early years of the great migration to 
the Pacific coast. He soon abandoned his professional work and 
devoted himself to the investigation of the botany of California, 
with which he has been identified for over thirty years. He was 
one of the founders of the California Academy of Sciences, and 
in the Proceedings and Bulletins of the Academy the results of 
his researches have appeared from time to time. He visited 
Alaska in 1867 as surgeon and botanist of the special expe- 
dition of that aed Prof. George Davidson being the scientific 
director. Dr. Kellogg’s name fills a prominent place in all of the 
leading works relating to West North American Botany. He 
was a man of singular genuineness and simplicity of character, 

as guileless as a child, and abounding in kindly spirit and good- 
will towards all—R. £ C. S. 


PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC ‘SOCIETIES. 


ociety of Natural History.—April 20, 1887.—Dr. 


F Amory y Jefes A k note in which he took exceptions to 


e by Dr. E. G. Gardiner in his paper 


— (Archiv fir poisteoniche Anatomie, 1884) relative to the Ro 


i Q: Ja 
ity’ of Minerals, Plants, and soa 


ee : Salted called attention = the recent address of President Judd of the 
Geological Society as reported in Mature, and pointed out the 


speci ETER SA of the Ponte cea advanced to show that the lines 


c and the inorganic departments of 


>. 


| 1887] ; Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 603 


nature are false, and showed the absurdity of the claim that 
lants have more “vitality” than`animals, and minerals more 
“vitality” than plants 
May 4, 1887 A meeting.—The annual reports of the 


following result: President, F. W. Putnam; Vice-Presidents, 
John Cummings, Geo. L. Goodale ; Curator, Alpheus Hyatt; 
Honorary teat y S. L. Abbot; Secretary and Librarian, 
Edward Burgess; Treasurer, Charles W. Scudder, and a board 
of twenty Councillors, The retiring president, Mr. S. H. Sc udder, 
then gave an interesting paper of his investigations of the distri- 
bution of the cabbage butterfly (Pieris rape) over America. 
Awhile ago he sent òut several hundred circulars to selected 
persons, and points requesting all available data regarding this 
pest, and the paper read was the outcome. Mr. Scudder found 
nothing earlier than the historic introduction near Quebec, but _ 
was of the opinion that there was some evidence of its later in- 
troduction at other points. A feature in the dissemination of the 
species was its more rapid advance along the line of railways. 


tural Science Association of Staten Island.—New Brigh- 
ton, April 9, 1887. —Steps were taken to form a local committee 
to represent the association in all matters that may arise a the 
meeting of the American Association in New York next 
August. Dr. N. L. Britton made remarks upon the fungi coed 
by the members of the association during the past two years, 
most of which had been named by Mr. J. B. Ellis. Ten printed 
lists of the fossils found in the drift of Staten Island, by L. P. 
Gratacap, were distributed. 


Indiana Academy of Science.—This society held its second 
field-meeting near. Waveland, Teen wth County, Ind., May 19 
and 20. er thirty members were present. 

Thursday, ioth, the aay was spent exploring the wild and 
rugged region along Sugar Creek, known as “ Shades of Death. š 

In the evening Prof. T. C. Mendenhall, of Rose Polytechnic In- 
stitute, Terre Haute, delivered an address on “ Weather Predic- 
tion.” 


Friday was devoted to an exploration of the valley of Clifty 
Creek wa Pine Hills. The evening session was occupied in 
discussing the natural history of the region visited, and some of 

e results are of value to science. 

” Ihe next mee will be held, the last week in December, at 
: es 


-Biological Society of Washington —April 16, 1887 ee a5 
 followi g communications were read: W. H. Dall, “Notes on 


604 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [June, 1887 


recent Exploring Trip in Florida;” H. G. Beyer, U.S.N., “On 
the Action of Caffeine upon the Kidneys;’ C. H. Merriam 


2 Ravages of the Bobolink in the Rice-Fields of the South.” 


roe 
prominens in Birds;’ W. T. Hor naday, : Civilization as an Ex- 
terminator of Savage arise! ar Willia am H. Dall,“ A Genus of 
Mollusks new to North Am 
ay 14.—The following catiiwsibicatioes were read: Marshall 
McDonald, “ The Causes of Certain Failures in the Culture of 


Pitta ore È, 
the hiina of Tsushima ;” F, H. Knowlton, “The Recent Shower 
of Pollen in Washington, —the sorcalled ‘Sulphur-Shower;’” 
W. B. rows, Engineer G. W. Baird, U.S.N., and others, 
“ Does the Flying-Fish Fly ?” 


thuary, 1887. 7 wees 


Vol. XXI., No. 


AMERICAN 
NATURALIST 


‘ A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


jingle Numbers, 35 Cents. 


Å 


Yeariy Subscription, $4.00. 


CONTENTS: 


ee BACTERIA AND THEIR RELATION TO 
SAPROPHYTES. Theobald Smith . .. .. . 


JN SOME POPULAR eas IN REGARD TO THE 
ESKIMOS. Tohkn Mi 


ran oF SEX. [Mhustrated.] Fx/ius 
Nets 


PES SAN ee a ee E ERE 


See we ee eR A mc ie E a mene Ro wry pele S Awe 


DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF DIPODOMYS, 
WITH SOME Ss oF Irs Hastirs, [IHus= 

‘trated.} tephen 

HistoRY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. Æ. Lewis Stur- 
tevani 


eS S S E E E ear ale E te EE a Ea S ome E ye kA 


PE We OO OR T eae hee 


EDITORS TABL 
American Bloc Instruction Seip eu ee oe 
PEREAT No 
Geography pp Travels —America: Alaska; The 
Source of the Mississippi—Europe: Moresnet; 
casus.—Asia and the Islands: Australia; 
\frica German 


ontology — Primitive abe 
--The New jersey. Cretaceo 


POP Tk te ast eam ried, ane Cee ile, ee ee, ko eae 


5 “News ye eon News,— Meteorites. —Cry 


Ca aS NR A caer A PP ea aes WO REN, oA” IN RN 


PAGE 


zo 
59 


Mineralo, Gay and Fetrasraphy. er 


| 


Rrtany P Tlen 
—The Tree- Trank a its 5 Branches- The Article 
* Schizomycetes’ in oe Base lopedia Britannica.— 
Botanical Jourmals -> ns ok un 
Extomology.—Preliminary Descrigtt ons of Ti 
New North American Myriapods.—Mimicry a a 
terpilla 


and 
on cine Distribution of 
lations of 


re ae ya vicinis. —Loological NewS... - - 

Embryology — ~The F ioctl the taped 
velopment of Rotifers — Fhe Gestation of Armadib- 
ba o e ae 


Anthropology. — Chinese | Jade i in An a a 


nim 


gh ea PRO ee a a 
oscopy.—Orienting Objects in Paraffine ne [Ti- 
ineteated Orientation of Small Objects for See- 
tion-Cuttin. #0 
Psychology.—The Perception of Space by Dis- 
parate Senses roz 


Bea er ee an] 


SCIENTIFIC NEWS 
PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. . - . - 4 


x B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. 


10 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. 


-ali the 


$ A 


oS pleasant to the taste, and 


PECULIARITIES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
JENSEN'S CRYSTAL PEPSIN: 


NATURE OF THE 


IMITATIONS, ETC. 


HE champion pepsin of the world! The 
only pepsin found worthy to be imitated! 
Even the wealthiest 
could not resist the temptatio 
One party used glue as a PO adulter- 
ant for the production of scale pe 


cheapness. 

clares fae to the speeccm that they use mr 
pounds of d albumen, peptonized by tw 

undred e PREN A third party wrap 
their imitations in an exact fac-simile of m 
circular, making full use of all my testimonials. 
The great inj te these imitations cause my 
preparations ca 


l 


lies in that it is a tz, the 
lodged is om dissolved, thereby obtaining 

When thereto is added my 
recent PERE in precipitating se this 
solution all of the 


a 
— a ng chemists | di 


upon albuminoids, have inspired physicians of 


ffering from retention of urine, in 
introduction of a catheter failed to produce the 
i It was found that the bladder 


se 16 grains of Dr. Jensen’s Pepsin dissolved 
water, a large amount of a dark, viscid, fetid 


ugh faid readily zn by the catheter. — London 


Medical Rec 
Dr. Edwin Rosenthal, acting on the sugges 
tion of Dr. L. Wolf, has used an eito 
aap aT solution of pepsin as an applica- 
m to the membranes of diphtheritic patients, 
t which there seemed to be no other help tha 


Q 
or 


soon on the road to convalescence. 
tion he used w 


Jensen’s pics 2j: 


The solu- 


eart i saline matter, 
leaving a a ti t , containing 
all of th le, and, finally, is farther 
conce ntrated o drying it upon: glass plates until 


_ brittle scales are formed, the reason for-its a 
ST power can easily be understood. 

also in keeping qualities all S the 
bek er pepsins is owing to its scaly and brittle 
texture, it being the only organic medicine in 
_ the materia medica produced for the market in 
scales. 
It is also perfectly soluble "pos the T 

practically inodorous. 


jins 


Acidi Hydrochloric., C. P., gtt. xx; 
Aquæ q. s, ft., 15}. 


M. S.—Apply copiously every hour with a 
ircat op. — From the Medical Bulletin 


Formula for Wine of Pepsin: 


Carl Jensen's Pepsin, gr. T92; 
Sherry or Port Wine, we 
2 erin. ci Ziss ; 

. Lartaric., gr 


R 


Sig.—f3zj after meals. This is three grains 


of the = in each teaspoonful. 
For tacks of colic it has afforded 
present pr shes a pie doses have been gives 
en other remedies have 


. 


February, 1887. ` Vol. XXI., No. 2. 


THE 


T AMERICAN 
NATURALIST 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


Single Numbers, 35 Cents. Wearly Subscription, $4.00. 


CONTENTS: 


PAGE PAGE 
MORE ABOUT THE SEA-HORSE. Samuel Lockwood. 111 Mineralogy rained Petrozraphy. — Rosenbusch’s 
THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. T. Sterry eee rene 8 ee ee 72 
ee a S Iit Botany—A Stu ae. the Growing Parts of the 
4 = Stem of Pinus strobus ster ROG) ag is 178 
eT PEEN ER E Ta RES —Critical Remarks on the Literature 
x ee a f the Organ of Sae, in Arthropods 
THE EAST GREENLANDERS. John Murdoch. + . 133 oology—Mimiery in Amphipods.— s 
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX (continued). [Illus- Cladocera.—The Myzostomata.—Anatomy of Ec 
rated.] aye Were ae Ss 138 norhynchi.—Argulus and Mortality of Fishes orks 
| Irish Red Deer—The Birds of India.—The Zoology 
Eprrors’ TAB : of British Burmah ription of a New Species of 
sera Nat ee Blo ge aA a Wood-Rat from Certos Island, off Lower Californi 
The Vertebrate Paontigy of the U.S. re (Neotoma bryanti sp. nov.).—Zoological News . . 185 __ 
ee Liméryolegy.—Notes on Two Forms of Cestoid 
RECENT LITERA Embryos [Hlustrated|.—Development of Scor- os : 
-  Ridgeway's EAE of Colors.—Recent Books pions,—Polar Globules in the Crustacea . . . . . 19S 
3 a FESR Pe ee eae = a Bae Penis nt Men.—The eases -o 
GENERAL NOTE l 204. | 
Geology and Fateontoiegy —Notes upon Warping PETE fe on the- Practical Study of 
of the Earth's Crust in its Relation to the Origin of Mads e ee a ee w7 
the Basins of the Great D A Formations of o 
S ENG o o aa ee ee ae eae E 
the Belly River of Canada.—The Cross-Timbers of e ; 28 | 
i Be ee ee 163 | PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES... . . 20g -. 


J B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. 


_ London: ro Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. 


J. I iosia Compas: p $ Du tat phi 2 I, Of Se i s m a 


PECULIARITIES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
JENSENS CRYSTAL PEPSIN: 


NATURE OF THE 


IMITATIONS, ETC. 


HE champion pepsin of the world! The 
only pepsin found worthy to be imitated ! 
Even the wealthiest ESS chemists 
could not resist the temptation 
One party used glue as a m adulter- 
ant for the production of scale pepsin; another 
arty has now succeeded in flooding the market 
with their imitations of my scale pepsin, owing 
to its extreme cheapness. This party now de- 
clares (not to the a ession} that they use =: 
pounds of dry egg albumen, peptonized by tw 
dred hogs’ oo hi 


between the genuine and the spurious artic 
When prescribing my pepsin, most eases. 
now underline my name thus, —_—_— Crystal 
Pepsin, and no misconception can excuse sub- 
stitutions. The great reputation we this pepsin 
lies in that it is a peptone pepsin, z.¢., the 
texture of the stomachs in which the ferm 
lodged is entirely dissolved, thereby eect 
a sa in. When theretois added m 
improvement in precipitating from this 
olution all = ust = y and saline matter, 


ent is | 


upon albuminoids, have inspired physicians of 

a suggestive mind to try it also as a solvent for 

diphtheritic membranes and on prs blood 
th 


inthe bladder. Th e novel 
uses has already become generally known to 
the protean all over the wo Physicians 


samples will receive ae returns. 

Dr. Hollman (Neder!. Weekbl., 18, p- 272) 
reports the case of an old man, aged 8o years, 
suffering from retention of urine, in whom the 
introduction of a catheter failed to produce the 
desired result.. It was found that the bladder 
contained coagulated albuminoid masses mi 


fluid readily escaped by the catheter.—Zondon 
w : 


Medical Record. 

Dr. Edwin Rosenthal, acting on the sugges- 
tion of Dr. Wolff, has used an ROS 
muppet solution of pepsin as an applica- 
ti mbranes of diphtheritic RPPN 
for eeu Aar seemed to be no other 
— and reports that it sea =. a 

charm, dissolving the oe aoe a 

free aération cel the blood, an ing them 

oon on the road to ian ihe solu- 
as he used was 


t, containing B Jensen's Pepen „3j; 

all or he SO -o and, a. is farther pase : es nae ai mas: 
ORREN By g H upas piese plates noki 'M. S.—Apply copiously every hour with a 
bei Tee ea the u a throat-mop.— From the Medical Bulletin 
— eek can easily be understood. Wh ; 

in keeping qualities all of the Formula for Wine of Pepsin: 
x ormer psins is owing to its scaly and brittle] Ẹ Carl Jensen’s Pepsin, gr 19 
texture, it being the only organic medicine in Sherry or Port Wine, Sviss 


materia medica produced for the market in 


scales. 
Pad is sao Pey eke spon the tonne, 


3 inodor Ua. 


_titioug it commands a higher price — 


1S, never? 


_Glycerin. puris., Ziss ; 
Acid. Tartaric., gr. v. 


Sig.—fzj after meals. This is three grains 
of the pepsin in each teaspoonful. 


For. napa attacks of colic it has afforded 


Bx purity and solu- 


ae = combined with its great digestive power | failed. 


ARL be 


w doses have been given 
in short interval when other remedies have 


J ENSEN. 


EE 2039 GREET ETE, 


March, 1887. 


Vol. XXI., No, 


THE 


AMERICA 
NATURALI 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


3- 


Single Numbers, 35 Cents. 


Yearly Subscription, $4.00. 


CONTENTS: 


wight, 1887, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 


J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. 


London: tc Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. 


Bias a Pav. df E e PEN 


prua. t inkin T 
r 


PAGE PA 
THE MASSASAUGA AND ITS HABITS. O. P, Hay. 211 —Voleanic Bombs.— 
IN ae 
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX (concluded). [Ellus< revpeain asses Tasei mo i 
Hated.) Juus Melon. -o -G p n oo e y.—The Study of Plant Diseases.— Vege- 
THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED (continued). ubie ‘Pato a ee ee . 
E ere OA se 38 Entomology.—Hauser on the Organs of Smell in 
Insects tia shake Se Se ini 
NOTES ON THE GLACIATION OF THE PACIFIC 
Coast. G. Frederick Wri ree 5 so Zoology.— Note the Larger Florida Plan- 
NOTES ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF Monachus tropi- — a boa Introduced or Indige- 
calis, THE WEST INDIAN SEAL. Ottustrated.) 1] mons Development ot Alphens — Den Ser tee 
Henry L. Ward . 257 da.—Molluses of Lake Tanganyka,—Echinoderm 
Morphology.— Nettle-Cells ripe ae e 
EDITORS) TAB Indi Birds.—Zoological Nev P eee 
The Use of FET Names for Fungi 264 a : oe : 
Simonrtation of Rabbits from Australia . pe Eméryology.— Haddon's Introduction to the Study 
is of Embryology.—Development of Mysis.—Develop- 
RECENT LITERATURE. ment of Spiders.. 1. . 298 
Physiology of Plants >. >. 266 ' 
Tans BY AAT wae he ga of Consciousness. Re Ea 
es NOTES. “n 
and Palgzontology.—A Landslide at Brant- ei a Ana fe . 
at SRPA B ok 3 ee 
ford, reg psa the — of dees upon Ryder’s Automatic Microtome [PMustrat ar. = 
Wielding Stra gara a 
PE OE ; het : CIE WEIPIC NEWS -n na nn O + goa 
> ie basslines of Canaan, Columbia County, N. Y.. . 267 | PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. .. 305. 


PECULIARITIES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
JENSEN'S CRYSTAL PEPSIN: 


NATURE OF THE 


IMITATIONS, ETC. 


HE champion pepsin of the world! The 
only yem re worthy to be imitated! 
Even the we = uring chemists 
could not resist em temptatio 
One party used glue as a ene adulter- 
ant for the production of scale pepsin; another 
now succeeded in flooding the market 
with their imitations of = scale pepsin, owing 
to its extreme chea This party now de- 
clares (not to the kaa) that they use sixty 


great injury these imitations cause my 
preparations can easily be understood. 
The protection chiefly relied upon is through 


between the genuine and the spurious article. 
When prescribing my me 
now underline my name t 


most physicians 
hus, JENSEN'S Crystal 
= Pepsin, and no misconception can excuse sub- 
The great reputation of this pepsin 
es m that it is a pepsin, z.e., the 
texture of the stom 
~ om is entirely dissolved, thereby ES 
all the pepsi WwW ereto is m 
_. Tecent improvement in precipitating as this 
_ Solution all of the earth saline matter, 
_ leaving only the azotized constituent, containin ng 
all of the peptic aes and, finally, is further 
upon glass plates antil 


EE Medica produced for the market in 


Hi is also perfectly alee upon the tongue, 
t to the taste, and practically in odorous. 
h it Keren a higher price than 


the profession’s vigilance in discriminating | 


ne 
+ tra 
achs in which the ferment is 


M. S.— 
k throat-mop.—from the Medical Bulletin. 
y 


of the pepsin in each teas 


upon albuminoids, have inspired physicians of 


the bladder e suc ese novel 
uses has already become generally known to 
the profession all over the wor Physicians 


writing for samples will receive prompt returns 

Dr. Hollman (Nederl. Weekbl., 18, p. 272) 
reports the case of an old man, aged 8o years, 
suffering from retention of urine, in whom the 


contained coagulated albuminoid masses mixed 
with blood. A few hours after the injection of 
about 16 grains of Dr. Jensen’s Pepsin dissolved 
n water, a large amount of a dark, viscid, fetid 
fai id AEF PRX by the catheter.— Londi 
Medical 
Dr. Edwin Rosenthal, acting on the su 
tion of Dr. Wolf, has used an died 
concentrated solution of pepsin as an applica- 
tion to the membranes of diphtheritic patients, 
for which there seemed to be no other help than 


re 
ing the membranes, admitting a 
free aération of the Pee and placing them 
soon on the road to conya 
tion he used was: 
R rs s Pepsin, Zj; 
aen +G P, ptt ir: 


hos q- 5 
—Apply copiously every hour with a 


Formula for Wine of Pepsin: 


ic., gr. v. 

Sig.—f3j after meals. This is three grains 
poonful, 

For meas nia of lie it has afforded 


te pein 


bed. <u purity and solu- 
Salta eth ts great ~~ 


; ARL L = ENSI SEN, 


ve short interval: when other remedies ee S 
failed. 


April, 1887. . 


THE 


AMERICAN 
NATURALISI 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


Vol. XXI., No. 4. | 


Wearly Subscription, $4.00. 


On OVIPOSITION AND NURSING IN THE BAT 
CHIAN GENUS DENDROBATES. astrea] 


ENTS: 


Hren H Smh o ee ee 
THE Een Question “RESTATED (concluded). 
Sey EE ee ee 312 
era OF cage VEGETABLES (continued). Æ. 
owes TOn o ee 921 
as ON GERM- eas [IHastrated.] 
Translated by H. V. Wiko. s- == -er 334 
THE Ortes or A SMALL Bac OF TURKEYS. John 
‘ Derm Cate a ee 50 
SONNETS Cac STUS S PAENASGI A.—WIICH-HAZEL. 
Emily Shaw. Formam. . = <w p 354 
Eprrors” TABLE. 
The Odium mnie gat ede ae ee aan 
Recenr LITER 
“onde A se ‘Hillhouse's eri Botany. -- 357 
Recent Books and Pamphlets .....+.-.- . 358 
GENERAL NOTES. 
Geograp hy and Travels. — America: 2 The age = 
` cier; American Notes 
. Association; Dr. Lents s Journe 7: De Fischers Last 
Journey; African Notes:—Asia: The Dragon Lake; 
Japan: Agian an; Asiatic oo ten Ge and 
Oceanica: The New Britain Group; New Guinea . 360 
Geolagy a Frugunacks and — 
ders Deco omposition in Southeastern Miss 
_ The Dinosaurian Genus Ceiarus.— Geological iNews, 366 


PAGE 
Minerology and Petragrapky.— Petrographical | 
ews, — Mineralogical News.— Crystallographic | 
hows. eS NISMENANeOUS oy lo er ee qr | 
Botany.—Botanical — e a —-The 
Yip ktnerah me Nine Par vies of North 
American Fun ngi.—Tom ical News . 376 | 
Entomology. ie se in New York— =~ 
Relations of Ants and: Aphids. os s Larvee in 
tudies i 


Surracents PES — Bacteriological $ 
Arthropods.—A nd Ultra-Violet nays —Light- 


Perception by ‘Mya he I yino 

England.— Function of the Palpi in Chilopods and 

S =N ogy.—Entomological gsr 
Zoology. — Fauna of Novaia Zem i 


Ha.—Pelagie © 
es.—The Stracture of Fungia. 


Neicht of 

and Spiseri onesies ‘compared a that of Man— 

Zo ologicz ab NN 36 
A e e Development of < Carnivora, vata; 394 4 

a 

ey. Sai in Goverment Tamor oi 2 

ae E erso A TS nes 


ceeding 


F: wy 
PAYINI P= 


jb j. B. Lippincott Company: 


J B. ‘LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. 


London: ro Henrietta Street, Covent Gasgen. 


Entered at Philadelphia Post-Office as ver 


a : all the pepsin. 


PECULIARITIES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
JENSENS CRYSTAL PEPSIN: 


NATURE OF THE 


IMITATIONS, 1 ETC. 


The 
nly pepsin found worthy to be imitated! 
Even ra ; wealthiest sari: chemists 
could not resist the temptati 
One used glue as a Cspot adulter- 
ant for the production of scale pepsin; another 
party has now succeeded in flooding the market 
with their imitations of my scale pepsin, owing 
to its extreme cheapness. This now de- 
clares (not to the profession) that they use sixty 
pounds of dry egg 


HE champion pepsin of the world! 


e my 
preparations can e ood 

The protection chiefly relied upon is through 

the p s vigilance in discriminating 

en the genuine and the ” rious article. 

ost physicians 

Crysta 


ptio 
stitutions. The great reputation of this pepsin 
Ties in that it is a ie pepsin, Że., the 
texture of the stomachs in which the ferment is 
lodged is entirely Bave, sete obtaining 
added my 
recent improvement in precipitating from this 
— all s the = a d saline matter, 


+ con niainine 


> 


~  allof the peptic principle, and, pay is further 
concentrated 


a ing oniy t 


digesti 
it surpasses also in keeping qualities all of the 


a _ former pepsins is owing to its scaly and brittle 


texture, it being the only organic medicine in 


ce the materia medica produced for the market in 


es. 
It is also perfectly soluble upon the tongue, 

; pleasant to the taste, and practically inodorous. 
_ _ Although it commands a higher price than | 
any other Pepsin in the market, it is, neverthe- | 
less, the most prescribed.- Its purity and solu- 
bility, combined with its great digestive power | 


eR L 


albumen, peptonized by two | ; 
thi 


ee 2039 GREEN RRP 


upon albuminoia, have inspired physicians of 


uses has alread 
the profession all over t 
writing for samples will receive prompt returns. 
Dr. Hollman (Nederl. Weekbl., 18, p- 272) 
reports the case of an old man, aged 8o years, 
suffering from retention of urin ne 


about 16 grains of Dr. Jensen’s Pepsin dissolved 
water, a large amount of a dark, viscid, fetid 
‘ia readily taie by the catheter.— London 
Medical Rec 
Dr. eae ee acting on the sugges- 
tion of Dr. L. Wolff, has used an acidulated 
concentrated ieilatio of pepsin as an applica- 
tion to the membranes of dipakai patients, 
which i there seemed to be 


soon on the road to convalescence. 
tion he used was 


The solu- 


B Jensen's Pepsin, 3j; 
Acidi H yärochloric, C P., gtt. xx; 
Aque q. s. ft., £13}. 


Apply copiously every hour with a 


M. S.— 
throat-mop.— From the Medical Bulletin. 
2 


Formula for Wine of Pepsin: 
R Tae idae s Pepsin, gr. Rott 
Port 


Wine, a 
Sow eer Ais 
Acid. Tartaric., gr. v 


Sig.—fgj after meals. This is three grains 
of the pepsin in each teaspoonful. 

For severe attacks of colic it has afforded 
| present relief, after a few doses have been given 
in short intervals, when other remedies kane 
| failed. 


JENSEN, 


THIS NUMBER CONTAINS THE TITLE AND CONTENTS TO VOL. XX, 


May, 1887. 3 n Vol. XXI., No. 


FHE 


AMERICAN 
NATURALIST 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


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CONTENTS: 


PAGE a 
THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE NATURAL SCI- a —Some New T-eniodonta of the: 
ENCES JN SWEDEN. Filop Trybom -ss =e 499 Puerco.— Mr. Hill on the Cretaceous of Texas. . _ 
i: : eco and Petrography. — Peivsgmmsbicat 
- : Gi ss 5 ` 
FIDDLER-CRABS. $ M'Nair Wright 415 News Piipari es.—Mineralogical N he 
TSCHNIKOFF ON GERM-LAYERS Someni cal Integration.—Miscellaneous . >... o.. 
A Translated by H. V. Wilson. . . 419 _ Botany. —Smut i in e - Students as Pepe i 
pey "a GARDEN VEGETABLES (cont b B. : he oo Re a ot 
car ae ee mia Exntomology.—On the igh = a Caddice- 
THE MESOZOIC AND CÆNOZOIC REALMS OF THE Fly from the Water.—Destruction of the Codlin- 
INTERIOR OF NORTH AMERICA. Æ. D. Cope. . 445 Moth by Arsenical Poisons.—On the “ite nry of 
EDITORS’ TAB a — Parasite of re Silkworm.—Entomologi- 
A Universal Langage eee wk wie yo ee 462 tal NewS. < Goce et ete ee a 
"The Sea-Serpent. > -ero ronn 463 ieke ry.-Artincial Parthenogenesis. Shier of 
RECENT LITER! - Encysted. Forms.—Sense-Organs of | es [H 
ortman on ie ak of the a, ee 463 lustrated].—Organ of Smell in T 
Larval Galeodes. —Zoological News eee 
Kedzie's anne Solar Heat,and Sun-Spots. . 464 
Cope’s Origin of the Fittest. ‘iiustrated.) 465 Embryology. Bir P of the Monotre- 
Geyler and poe é Pliocene Florat:  : -<-> is mata and Marsupialia. -...- +--+... aoe 
CENTRAL NOTES. ScreNtivnic sews. -o n a oe 


Geology and Palgontology.—American Triassic PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES ..- ee 


J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. 


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amd at Philadelptäa Post-Offce: as onde 


NATURE OF THE 


PECULIARITIES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
JENSEN'S CRYSTAL PEPSIN: 


IMITATIONS, ETC. 


HE champion pepsin of the world! The 
only pepsin found worthy to be imitated! 
Even the wealthiest 
could not resist the temptati 
sed glue as a dora adulter- 
! a for the production of scale pepsin; another 
_ party has now succeeded in flooding the market 
_ with their imitations of — aw pepsin, owing 
to its extreme chea tty now de- 
clares (not to the sai aa they use sixty 
_ pounds of dry egg 
- hundred hogs’ och. third party wrap 
- their imitations in an exact Pouax of my 
_ circular, making full use of all my testimonials. 
‘The great injury these imitations cause my 
parations can easily be understood. 


“now underline my name thus, JENSEN’S Crystal 
Pepsin, and no misconception can excuse sub- 
stitutions. The great reputation of ihis pepsin 


. recent — in precipitating from this 
ee - — eart any — saline matter, 
: 


meS chemists | di 


albumen, peptonized by two | į 


The protection chiefly relied upon is through | 


upon albuminoids, have inspired physicians of 


uses has 
e TS all over the world. 
ek for samples will receive prompt returns. 
Dr. Hollman — Weekbl., 18, p. 272) 
reports the case of an 
suffering from reten 


about 16 grains of Dr. Jensen’s Pepsin dissolved 


n water, a large amount of a dark, viscid, fetid 
fina readily escaped by the catheter.—London 
Medical Record. 

Dr. Edwin Rosenthal, acting on the sugges- 
tion of Dr. L. Wolf, has used an acidulated 


for which there seemed to be no other help than 
tracheotom rts that it acted like a 
charm, ao the membranes, admitting a 
free a€ration of the blood, and placing them 
soon on the — to convalescence. The solu- 


t, containing 
, and, finally, is farther 
. concentrated cy drying ita zio ee plates until 
"brittle scal its 
: digestive sees can easily be un 
a it surpasses i 


arous, 


hough ; ‘commands a -o price than 
other pern ah it is, neverthe- | 
most ts purity and solu- | 


ined with ee digestive power 


CARL. = 


PH ĦILADELPHIA. 


tion he used w 
RK Jensen’s tek > 3)3 
Acidi Hydrochloric., C. P., att. xx: 
Aquæ q. s. ft., 13). 
M. S.—Apply DEE every hour with 


S5.— Ty a 
throat-mop.— From the Medical Bulletin. 


Formula for Wine of Pepsin: 


Sig. “= after meals. This is three grains 
of the pepsin in each teas 

For severe aitacks of colic it has afforded 
present relief, after a few doses have been given 


fin short intervals, when — remedies i 
failed 


J EN SEN, 


AMERICAN 
NATURALIST 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL 
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. 


| Single Numbers, 35 Cents. Yearly Subscription, $4.00. 


e o CONTENTS: 


4 AGE 
| ARAUJIA ALBENS AS A MoTH-TRapP. [Hins- Geology and Paleontology —The Sea-Saurians or 
E trated.) ober? E. C. Stearns. 2... 501 the for Hills Cretaceous.—The Marsupial Genus 
F BIOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION IN UNIVERSITIES. C. O. Chirox [IMustrated].—Geological News . . . . 563 
: WOR ee ee a Lee Oe as 5307 Mineralogy and Petrography. — Petrographical 
Sron ae Gi Garoan VEGETABLES (continued). Æ. ‘News —Meteorites ~—Recent Publications... . . 568 
Eae r e s aa a a 520 Botan — Couple of Botanical Estrays—The 
Origin of the Tomato fro pe Magnes Stand- 
N H AMERICAN 
neyo og toe FEAR an. Yoke Bel- pomt [htustrared ].— Experiments with Lima 
Lime Da a o - Beans in Germination [Illustrated]. .... . . 572 
THE DIPNOAN BRAIN. [Illustrated.] Burt G. Boer Fe o ros rast oem sent hat i eee 
j a ae ee ee e ee ie 544 of Anis and A hids,—E) 
= ids.— Exposition of Insects.—Ento- 
Terras LISA Loira F Himidi.. -on ee sasl mOlostent News. -oa aoan ee 577 
f Eprvors’ TABLE. ¢ Lavdle, ogy: -me gwar = Liverpool Bay. —The 
: i a ystematic maa e omate ic Sea- 
® Unnatural mey 549 —— —— onotus.—Anatomy of Pseudoscor- 
T RECENT LITERATURE. pio eiption ofa pr age of Fruit i 
—. Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds. . . 551 from. Japan. —Zo0 a S sar 
i Meee ere a’ n 552 ed : P ee 
E Coton Elementary Course of Sae a 554 : AEK 5 > E Toa 
i Lydekker's Catalogue of Fossil Mamm ene Or igin of the Rie oe at o o aO 587 
Report of the Ds f Fis eg po E PS -—Fok-Lore.  .. -an sa 
pe, Se ee 555 Pyschoiogy.— Evolution and Idealism . -H 
Biographi cal Memoirs of the National Academy of _ Micro sap —0. Schultze’s Method of preparing 
e a a ed ole 555 the Amphibian E gg.—Baskets for the S ; 
seg TOs and Pamphlets ....-.++-+, 555 | Objectsin Paraffine [itustrated).—A' New Sede 
ey rae ee T ibed- 
Sare ph ay mae Traveis.— Miscellaneaus.— ne bes inc New [Hlustrated] Se Se 595 
otes —African Notes.—Asiatic Notes.—Euro So ee ea, en 
tes 


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A Practical Treatise on the Art of emacs, Metals 
from their Ores. 


Br J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS, M. INST.C.E., F.C.S., F.G.S., Eto. 


Ancien Élève de l'École des Mines, Paris. 


REVISED AND age conse BY THE AUTHOR AND 
- BAUERMAN, F.G.8. 


I ee Royal 8x0, 848 pages, Cloth. With 232 Illustrations, drawn to Scale, and 
duced in many instances from Working Drawings. Price, 39.00. 


GENERAL CONTENTS. 


& TREATISE on FUELS and REFRACTORY MATERIALS. 

A DESCRIPTION of the SRA METALLIFEROUS MINERALS, with 
their DISTRIBUTIO 

doppi of the amount of each METAL annually produced Uvougi- 

world, obtained from official sources, or, where this has not 
sig miee from authentic private information. 

The METHODS of ASSAYING the diferent ORES, together with the 
PROCESSES of METALLURGICAL TREATMENT, aapi 
IRON, COBALT, NICKEL, ALUMINIUM, COPPER, TIN, TI- 
MONY, ARSENIC, ZINC, MERCURY, BISMUTH, LEAD, erraien 
GOLD, and PLATINUM. 


he progress of invention in all branches of metallurgical industry during 
the last ten years has led to the enJargement of the volume, both in the number 
of pages and illustrations. Large additions have been made in the section devoted 
to Iron, and many notable additions will be found under the heads of Copper, 
Lead, Silver, and Gold, dealing with ihe newer developments in processes for the 
_ smelting and ruatan of these metals from their ores. 


r Published by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, 
a TIS and TIT Market Street, Philadelphia. 
"Sent, EER on Dox of price.