Modern silage methods

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PUBLISHERS’ STATEMENT

We DO NOT manufacture or handle silos, and are not
interested in silos in any way except from an educational
standpoint. This attitude enables us to discuss the various
types of silos in an entirely impartial manner.

We have been publishing educational literature on silos
and silage for over thirty years, fully two decades before
the farm papers of the country began to boost the subject.
This pioneer work explains why “Modern Silage Methods”
has become the standard text book now used in so many
State Agricultural Colleges for class-room use.

We do however manufacture the famous line of Silver’s
“Ohio” Silo Fillers and Feed Cutters as illustrated and de-
scribed in the back part of this volume, and if the reader will
kindly investigate and consider the merits of this line of
Silo Fillers when in the market, we will feel amply paid for
the trouble and expense of publishing this valuable book. _

Respectfully,
THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO.

Salem, Ohio, Nov. 2, 1914.

—————

MODERN
SILAGE, METHODS

LATEST REVISED EDITION
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction
and the process of filling, to which is added complete
and reliable information regarding Silage and its
composition; feeding, and a treatise
on rations, being a

FEEDERS’ AND DAIRYMEN’S GUIDE

PUBLISHED
AND COPYRIGHTED BY

THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO.
SALEM, OHIO, U.S. A.

Revised and Brought, Up-to-Date by
WILLIAM L. WRIGHT, Advertising Manager

Copyrighted November 1914, by =e
THE SILVER MANUFACTURING Co,

ie NOV 19 1914 iS A

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PREFACE.

This book has been written and published for the purpose of fur-
nishing our patrons and others with accurate and full information
on the subject of silo construction and the making of silage. It
has been our aim to present the subject in a clear, matter-of-fact
manner, without flourish or rhetoric, believing that the truth con-
cerning the advantages of the siloing system is good enough. The
testimony presented, which is purposely kept close to the exper-
ience of authorities on feeding subjects in and outside of experi-
ment stations, will abundantly prove, we believe, that the equip-
ment of a dairy or stock farm in almost any part of the world is
no longer complete without one or more silos on it.

The new chapter on “Silage Crops for the Semi-Arid Regions
and for the South” will be of widespread interest to thousands in
the Great Southwest, and the chapters on “The Summer Silo,”
and “The Use of Silage in Beef Production,” will be found espe-
cially timely. Chapter III. covers a great variety of silos made of
material other than wood. In all other respects the book has been
revised and brought up to date.

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reliable, and
bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use of a number of
scientific terms and phrases is rendered necessary, and in order
that these may be more readily comprehended by agriculturists,
a comprehensive glossary of such terms is included, following the
last chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can
be studied previous to reading the book.

In the compilation of certain parts of the book and in the
revision of the “Feeder’s Guide” we have had the valuable assist-
ance of Prof Woll, of California Experiment Station, formerly of
Wisconsin, author of “A Book on Silage” and “A Handbook for
Farmers and Dairymen.” Free use of the former book has been
made in the preparation of this volume, as well as of experiment
station publications treating the subject of silage.

Hoping that this latest revision of “Modern Silage Methods”
will prove helpful to our patrons, and incidentally suggest to them
that the “OHIO” Silage Cutters and Blower Elevators are manu-
factured by us, we are,

Very truly,
THE SILVER MFG. CO.

Ww

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREACH irs iit slatdete tte le silaele teehee eels \6le) ald al le idih sie ter enna 3
INDRODU CLO RWarts <le staiebietote tele Intent heii ete tolei) cleo} aleteielate iets eeaneae 7-10

CHAPTER I.

Advantages of the Silo—Preservation of a larger quantity of
original food value enabled by the use of the Silo than any
method known—Losses of nutritive value in dry curing—Small
losses in the Siloing Process—The Silo furnishes a feed of uni-
form quality—Economy of making—Economy of storage—No
danger of rain—No danger of late summer droughts—Food
from thistles—Value in intensive farming—Other advant-
UE OS a caceateare Yas Veda veya cya cs oh abapeverouahene ore ato.) ae ee 11-20

CHAPTER II.
How to Build a Silo.
Silos—General requirements for silo structures—On the size of
silo required—On the form of silos—Relations of horizontal
feeding—Area and number of cows kept—Daily ration of
silage for different kinds of stock—Location of the silo—
Different types of silo structures—Round wooden silos—The
silo roof—Ventilation of Silo—Painting the Lining—Modifica-
tions of the Wisconsin Silo—Plastered round wooden Silos—
Brick-lined Silos—Stave Silos—Cheap Stave Silos—Silo Doors—
A modification of a stave Silo—Connecting round silos with
the barn—Other forms of round silos—Octagonal Silos—Cost
and estimates! for) different. kinds... .<--ciescnen eee ee 21-81

CHAPTER III.
Silos Other Than Wood.

Monolithic concrete or cement silos—Horizontal and vertical re-
inforcement necessary—Continuous doorways—Method of tying
roof—Hy-Rib concrete reinforced silos—Metal-lath plastered
silos—Modifications, double and single wall—Cement Block
silos, one- and two-piece—Patented sectional block silos—
Cement Stave silos—Vitrified Tile silos—Brick silos, single and
double wall—All-Metal silos—Underground or Pit silos—Foun-
dations: arid Roots hore silosiae te ware eee. eee ne ee 82-110

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 5

CHAPTER IV.

Summer Silos.

Necessary in supplementing summer pastures and in tiding herd
over period of drouth, heat and flies—Reduces pasture acre-
age required—Avoids labor of soiling crop system—Oregon
results—Purdue Station Experiments—Solves summer drouth
problem—Permits night pasturing—Storage of surplus crops—
Comments by the agricultural press—Feeding of summer
SIUMEVEVE, = Gp UGE ARSE CORA CRERTORD CREE SPE Je O74) Sem 111-117

CHAPTER V.

Silage in Beef Production.

Value and Economy of Silage for fattening steers—Experiments
made twenty-five years ago—Beef producing area vastly in-
creased by use of silo—Stock-Yards are strong boosters for
silage—Results by Nebraska, Pennsylvania, Missouri, South
Carolina, North Carolina, Illinois, Indiana and South Dakota
Stations—Results in Saskatchewan, Kansas, Iowa, and Texas—
Results in the South...... So Ais RE cigs | Yen UA a aL Ag 118-129

CHAPTER: VI
Silage System and Soil Fertility.

Helps maintain soil fertility—Every crop grown robs soil of fer-
tilizing elements—Value of Such Fertility Lost—Restoration
has vital bearing on our crop yields—Stock, dairy and mixed
farming vs. hay and grain farming—Value of barnyard ma-
nure—Every farm a manure factory with silage—Keeping fer-
tility on the farm—Restoring Fertility in the South....130-138

CHAPTER VIL
Silage Crops. 5

Indian corn—Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation
of land—Varieties of corn for the silo—Time of cutting corn
for the silo—Dry Matter in Corn at Different Stages—Methods
of planting corn—All other silage crops............... 159-159

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.
Silage Crops for the Arid and Semi-Arid Regions.

Importance of Sorghum, Kafir and Milo for silage—Mixtures of
the sorghums and other crops—Cowpeas, field peas, soy beans,
alfalfa, beet leaves and tops, Russian thistle, ete.—Conditions
in the Great Southwest—Silage crops for the Southern
States tpicd bid {eis ejactaars eke enn @ ett Cité aera echendats teed ome SE een a 160-172

CHAPTER IX.

Filling the Silo—Indian Corn—Siloing corn “ears and all’’—The
filling process—Proper method of unloading—The proper dis-
tribution of cut material in the silo—Tramping—Size of cutter
and power required—Length of chain elevator required—Direc-
tions for operating “Ohio” Blower Cutters—Danger from car-
bonic-acid poisoning in silos—Covering the siloed fodder—Use
of water in filling silos—Clover for summer silage—Freezing
Obesilaee—— steamed: Silaee. nt oe crete is oe ele ele tas mensre eterna 173-189

CHAPTER X.

How to feed silage—Silage for milch cows—Silage in the pro-
duction of certified milk—Silage for beef cattle—for Horses
and Mules—for Sheep—for Swine—Silage for poultry—Addi-
tional testimony as to the advantage of silage—Corn silage as
compared with root crops—Corn silage as compared with hay—
Corn silage compared with fodder corn—Cost of Producing
Succulent Crops—How to Estimate Cost of Silage..... 190-211

CHAPTER, XI.

A feeder’s guide—Composition of the animal body—Composition
of feeding stuffs—Digestibility of foods—Relative value of
feeding stuffs—Feeding standards—How to figure out rations—
Grain mixtures for dairy cows—Average composition of Silage
crops of different kinds, in per cent—Analysis of feeding

stuffs—Ready reference tables id Skgatjate abode take olan eiecene RSE 212-240
GOSS ATES F590) 0 ERD Resta SE Die Obrien a 241-245
CONGHUBSTIONS heer ge OS Oi) ails Se aa Wnt ate att 246
TNE... 5. ;

ei eiialine\a\e\eials etel nin elosatetelert fa\cteisiciate nk eielsiae an eA 247-256

Modern Silage Methods.

INTRODUCTION.

Thirty years ago few farmers knew what a silo was, and fewer
still had ever seen a silo or fed silage to their stock. Today silos
are as common as barn buildings in many farming districts in this
country, and thousands of farmers would want to quit farming
if they could not have silage to feed to their stock during the
larger portion of the year. Thirty years ago it would have been
necessary to begin a book describing the siloing system with
definitions, what is meant by silos and silage; now all farmers
who read agricultural papers or attend agricultural or dairy con-
ventions are at least familiar with these words, even if they have
not had a chance to become familiar with the appearance and
properties of silage. They know that a SILO is an air-tight struc-
ture used for the preservation of green, coarse fodder in a succu-
lent condition, and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo.

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage making,
but want to state here at the outset that Indian corn is pre-
eminently the American crop suited to be preserved in silos, and
that this crop is siloed far more than all other kinds of crops put
together. When the word silage is mentioned we, therefore, in-
stinctively think of corn silage. We shall also follow this plan in
the discussions in this book; when only silage is spoken of we
mean silage made from the corn plant; if made from other crops
the name of the crop is always given, as clover silage, peavine
silage ,etc.

History of the Silo.—While the silo in one form or another
dates back to antiquity, it was not until the latter part of the
seventies that the building of silos intended for manufacture of
silage began in this country. In 1882 the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture could find only ninety-one farmers in this
country who used silos. During the last twenty-five years, how-
ever, silos have gradually become general in all sections of the
country where dairying and stock-raising are important indus-
tries; it is likely, if a census were taken of the number of silos
in this country today, that we would find between a half

/

8 INTRODUCTORY.

and three-fourths of a million of them. Wisconsin alone, ac-
cording to a report issued by the Orange Judd publications,
had 41,535 silos on Jan. 1, 1914, and figuring the same ratio
of increase for 1914 as for 1913, would have 52,554. The
same report showed 150,505 silos in thirteen dairy states of the
Mississippi valley and the 1914 increase figuring as above would
indicate a total of 170,857. The most rapid strides in silo build-
ing, however, have been made in the Southwest. On Sept. Ist,
1914, there were 8,560 silos in Texas and 4800 more under con-
struction. In Kansas there were 7,157 silos in March 1914 and
taking the report as authentic that there were only 60 silos in the
state in 1909, the increase in the five years amounts to 11,800 per
cent. Oklahoma silos increased 50 per cent. in 1915 alone. Not
only has the use of silos spread to every section of the United
States, but the corn belt has been pushed steadily northward, with
the result that the building of silos is making headway in Mani-
toba, Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia and the Canadian
Northwest generally. During the past two years there has been
a wonderful increase in the interest taken in the subject, an in-
terest fostered by the example set by the Canadian Government
Experimental Farms and the literature available from them.

The silo stands today among the most important, practical and
profitable adjuncts of the farm. It is a big dividend-paying in-
vestment—not an expense. It has long been considered a necessity
on thousands of dairy ‘farms and we find most of them in the
states that rank first as dairy states, viz.: New York, Wis-
consin, Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, ete. The farmers that have
had most experience with silage are the most enthusiastic advo-
cates of the siloing system, and the testimony of intelligent dairy -
men all over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. Said a
New York farmer recently in one of our main agricultural papers:
“I would as soon try to farm without a barn as without a silo,”
and another wrote, “I wouldn’t take a thousand dollars for my
silo if I could not replace it.”” The well-known agricultural writer,
Joseph E. Wing, says: “No stock feeder who grows corn can
afford to ignore the silo.” “Buff Jersey,” an Illinois dairy farmer
and writer on agricultural topics, declares his faith in silage as
follows: “I am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, and a
cheaper one, than our pastures.” Another writer says: “The silo
to my mind presents so many advantages over the system of

INTRODUCTORY. 9

soiling that it is bound to eventually do away with the use of
soiling crops.” Prof. Eckels, of the Missouri Agricultural College,
says: “I would not attempt to produce milk in this state or any
other state in the Corn Belt without being provided with a silo
of sufficient capacity to supply silage through the winter, and
preferably with sufficient capacity to contain enough for a sup-
plement for a short pasture in the summer.” Prof. Pew, of the
Iowa Experiment Station, says: “By the liberal use of silage the
cost of wintering the breeding herd of beef cows can be cut down
nearly one-third; also the cows will come through the winter in
better condition.”

Our first effort in writing this book will be to present facts
that will back up these statements, and show the reader the many
advantages of the silo over other systems of growing and curing
crops for the feeding of farm animals. We shall show that up-
to-date dairy or stock farming is well nigh impossible without
the aid of a silo. The silo enables us to feed live stock succulent
feeds the year around, and preserves the fodder in a better con-
dition and with less waste than any other system can. We shall
see the why and wherefore of this in the following pages, and
shall deal with the best way of making and feeding silage to
farm animals. We wish to state at the outset that we do not
propose to make any claims for the silo that will not stand the
closest investigation. In the early days of the history of the
silo movement it was thought necessary to make exaggerated
claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked facts are sufficient
to secure for the silo a permanent place among the necessary
equipment of a modern dairy or stock farm. In discussing the
silo we shall keep close to what has been found out at our experi-
ment stations, and, we believe, shall be able to prove to any fair-
minded reader that the silo is the greatest boon that has come
to modern agriculture since the first reaper was manufactured,
and that with competition and resulting low prices, it will be
likely to become more of:a necessity to our farmers in the future
than it has been in the past. We aim to convince our readers
that the most sensible thing they can do is to plan to build a silo
at once if they do not now have one. It is unnecessary to argue
with those who are already the happy possessors of a silo, for
it is a general experience where a farmer has only provided for
immediate wants in building his silo that he will build another as

10 INTRODUCTORY.

soon as he has had some experience with silage and finds out how
his stock likes it, and how well they do on it.

The life of the silo should always be carefully considered in
connection with its initial cost. A silo might be built for $150
which would last ten years, the cost exclusive of upkeep being $15
a year. With the use of better materials or construction on the
same size silo its life might be increased to twenty years at an
additional outlay of perhaps $50, which it will be readily seen is
much cheaper per year. Quality usually goes hand in hand with
price and the farmer who can afford it should not make the mis-
take of building anything but the best if he wishes to economize
to greatest advantage.

Modern practice has proved that no man need say “I cannot
afford a silo,” because any farmer who is at all handy with ham-
mer and saw can provide a silo large enough for moderate re-
quirements with very little actual outlay of money, and this same
built-at-home silo will earn for its owner money to build a better
one and enlarge his herd. Directions for building several kinds
of such silos are given in the following pages. It must not be
expected that they will last as long or will prove as economical
in the long run as more substantially-built factory-made silos,
still they give excellent service until the farmer can afford to
put up a structure of better quality. Experience in making and
feeding silage will be gained at much less cost by using a good
silo in the beginning.

We mention this fact here to show farmers who may be con-
sidering the matter of building a silo, or who may be inclined to
think that the silo is an expensive luxury, only for rich farmers,
that the cost of a silo need not debar them from the advantages
of having one on their farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent
feed for their stock through the whole winter. Farmers who have
not as yet informed themselves in regard to the value of the
silo and silage on dairy or stock farms ,are respectfully asked
to read carefully the following statements of the advantages of
the silo system over other methods of preserving green forage
for winter or summer feeding.

It has been said that “Whoever makes two blades of grass grow
where but one grew before is a benefactor to mankind.” A silo
makes it possible to keep two cows where but one was Kept be-

fore,-and who would not gladly double his income? Does not this
interest you?

CHAPTER I.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

The silo enables us to preserve a larger quantity of the food
materials of the original fodder for the feeding of farm animals
than is possible by any other system of preservation now known.
Pasture grass is the ideal feed for live stock, but it is not avail-
able more than a few months in the year. The same holds true
with all soiling crops or tame grasses as well. When made into
hay the grasses and other green crops lose some of the food ma-
terials contained therein, both on account of unavoidable losses
of leaves and other tender parts, and on account of fermentations
which take place while the plants are drying out.

In cases of Indian corn the losses from the latter source are
considerable, owing to the coarse stalks of the plant and the
large numbers of air-cells in the pith of these. Under the best
of conditions cured fodder corn will lose at least ten per cent. of
its food value when cured in shocks; such a low loss can only
be obtained when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in
the field under ideal weather conditions: In ordinary farm prac-
tice the loss in nutritive value will approach twenty-five per cent.,
and will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are
taken in handling the fodder, and it is not left exposed to all
kinds of weather in shocks in the field through the whole winter.
These figures may seem surprisingly large to many farmers who
have left fodder out all winter long, and find the corn inside the
shock bright and green, almost as it was when put up. But ap-
pearances are deceitful; if the shocks had been weighed as they
were put up, and again in the late winter, another story would be
told, and it would be found that the shocks only weighed any-
where from a third to a half as much as when they were cured
and ready to be put in the barn late in the fall; if chemical
analysis of the corn in the shocks were made late in the fall, and
when taken down, it would be seen that the decrease in weight
was not caused by evaporation of water from the fodder, but by
waste of food materials contained therein from fermentations,
or action of enzymes. (See Glossary.)

The correctness of the figures given above has been abund-
antly proved by careful experiments conducted at a number of
different experiment stations, notably the Wisconsin, New Jersey,
Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Colorado experiment stations. A

11

12 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

summary of the main work in this line is given in Prof. Woll’s
Book on Silage. In the Wisconsin experiments there was an aver-
age loss of 23.8 per cent. in the dry matter (see Glossary) and
24.5 per cent. of protein, during four different years, when over
56 tons of green fodder had been put up in shocks and carefully
weighed and sampled at the beginning and end of the experiment.
These shocks had been left out for different lengths of time, under
varying conditions of weather, and made from different kinds of
corn, so as to present a variety of conditions. The Colorado ex-
periments are perhaps the most convincing as to the losses which
unavoidably take place in the curing of Indian corn in shocks.
The following account is taken from Prof. Cook’s report of the
experiments. As the conditions described in the investigation will
apply to most places on our continent where Indian corn is cured
for fodder, it will be well for farmers to carefully look into the
results of the experiment.

‘It is believed by most farmers that, in the dry climate of
Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked in good shape, cures
without loss of feeding value, and that the loss of weight that oc-
curs is merely due to the drying out of the water. A test of this
question was made in the fall of 1895, and the results obtained
seemed to indicate that fully a third of the feeding value was lost
in the curing. This result was so surprising that the figures were
not published, fearing that some error had crept in, though we
could not see where there was the possibility of a mistake.

“In the fall of 1894 the test was repeated on a larger scale.
A lot of corn was carefully weighed and sampled. It was then
divided into three portions; one was spread on the ground in a
thin layer, the second part was set up in large shocks, containing
about five hundred pounds of green fodder in each, while the rest
was shocked in small bundles. After remaining thus for some
months, until thoroughly cured, the portions were weighed,
sampled and analyzed separately. The table gives the losses that
occurred in the curing.

Table I. Losses in Curing.

Large Shocks Small Shocks On the Ground
Total Dry Total Dry Total Dry
Weight | Matter | Weight | Matter | Weight! Matter
te ae Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs.
When Shocked .......... | 952 | 217 | 294 77 186 | 42
After! Gunns 6.4 bbsaneeke | 258 | 150 | 64) 44 | 33 ] 19
WOSS nie WV EIS... sbelsshane ste G94. lL, 26/0 230 55 155 | 23
Per Cent Or suoss = a sieiet leemCOm, ole ||, 28 45 82 gos

LOSSES IN DRY CURING. 13

“So far as could be told by the eye, there had been no loss.
The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the stalks on the inside
of the bundles retained their green color, with no sign of molding
or heating. And yet the large shocks had lost 31 per cent. of
their dry matter, or feeding value; the small shocks 43 per cent.
and the corn spread on the ground 55 per cent.

“On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses were explained.
The juice was acid, and there was a very strong acid odor, show-
ing that an active fermentation was taking place in this seemingly
dry fodder. We had noticed this strong odor the fall before and
all through the winter. When the fodder corn for the steers is
put through the feed cutter that same strong smell is present.

‘Tt can be said, then, that the dryness of the climate in Colo-
rado does not prevent fodder corn from losing a large part of its
feeding value through fermentation. Indeed, the loss from this
source is fully as great as in the damp climate in New England.

“As compared with the losses by fermentation in the silo, the
cured fodder shows considerably the higher loss.”

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven shocks cured
under cover in the barn lost on an average over 8 per cent. of
dry matter and toward 14 per cent. of protein. In an experiment
at the Maine Station over 14 per cent. of dry matter was lost in
the process of slow drying of a.,large sample of fodder corn under
the most favorable circumstances. “It is interesting to note that
this loss falls almost entirely on the nitrogen-free extract, or
carbohydrates (see Glossary), more than two-thirds of it being
actually accounted for by the diminished percentage of sugars.”

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under cover with
all possible care, it is evident that the average losses of dry mat-
ter in field-curing fodder corn, given in the preceding, by no means
ean be considered exaggerated. Exposure to rain and storm,
abrasion of dry leaves and thin stalks, and other factors tend to
diminish the nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses
from fermentations, so that very often only one-half of the food
materials originally present in the fodder is left by the time it
is fed out. The remaining portion of the fodder has, furthermore,
a lower digestibility and a lower feeding value than the fodder
corn when put up, for the reason that the fermentations occurring
during the curing process destroy the most valuable and easily
digestible part, i. e., the sugar and starch of the nitrogen-free ex-
tract, which are soluble, or readily rendered soluble, in the process
of digestion.

14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

2. Losses in the Siloing Process——As compared with the
large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian corn there
are but comparatively small losses in the silo, caused by fermen-
tation processes or decomposition of the living plant cells at they
are dying off. The losses in this case have been repeatedly de-
termined by exveriment stations, and, among others, by those men-
tioned in the preceding. The average losses of dry matter in the
fodder corn during the siloing period, of four seasons (1887-’91)
as determined by Prof. Woll at the Wisconsin Experiment Station
was about 16 per cent. The silos used in these trials, as in case
of nearly all the early experiments on this point, were small and
shallow, however, only 14 feet deep, were rectangular in form, and
not always perfectly air-tight, a most important point in silo con-
struction, as we shall see, and a portion of the silage therefore
came out spoilt, thus increasing the losses of food materials in
the siloing process. The losses reported were, therefore, too great,
and there is now an abundance of evidence at hand showing that
the figures given are higher than those found in actual practice,
and the necessary loss in the silo comes considerably below that
found in the early experiments on this point. There are plenty
of cases on record showing that ten per cent. represents the maxi-
mum loss of dry matter in, modern deep, well-built silos. The
losses found in siloing corn at a number of experiment stations
during the last ten years have come at or below this figure. It
is possible to reduce the loss still further by avoiding any spoilt
silage on the surface, by beginning to feed immediately after the
filling of the silo, and by feeding the silage out rather rapidly.
Experiments conducted on a small scale by Prof. King in 1894
gave losses of only 2 and 3 per cent. of dry matter, on the strength
of which results, amongst others, he believes that the necessary
loss of dry matter in the Silo need not exceed 5 per cent.

Summarizing our considerations concerning the relative losses
of food materials in the field-curing and siloing of Indian corn,
we may, therefore, say that far from being less economical than
the former, the silo is more so, under favorable conditions for
both systems, and that therefore a larger quantity of food ma-
terials is obtained by filling the corn crop into a silo than by any
other method of preserving it known at the present time.

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to fodder corn
applies equally well to other crops put into the silo. A few words

THE SILOING PROCESS. 15

will suffice in regard to two of these, clover and alfalfa. Only a
few accurate siloing experiments have been conducted with clover,
but enough has been done to show that the necessary losses in
siloing this crop do not much, if any, exceed those of Indian corn.
Lawes and Gilbert, of the Rothamsted Experiment Station, Eng-
land, placed 264,518 pounds of first and second crop clover into
one. of these stone silos, and took out 194,470 pounds of good
clover silage. Loss in weight, 24.9 per cent. This loss fell, how-
ever, largely on the water in the clover. The loss of dry matter
amounted to only 5.1 per cent., very nearly the same amount of
loss as that which the same experimenter found had taken place
in a large rick of about forty tons of hay, after standing for two
years. The loss of protein in the silo amounted to 8.2 per cent.
In another silo 184,959 pounds of second-crop grass and second-
crop clover were put in, and 170,941 pounds were taken out. Loss
in gross weight, 7.6 per cent.; loss of dry matter, 9.7 per cent.;
of crude protein, 7.8 per cent.

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at the Wiscon-
sin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G. Short obtained the fol-
lowing results: Clover put into the silo, 12,279 pounds; silage
taken out, 9,283 pounds; loss, 24.4 per cent.; loss of dry matter,
15.4 per cent.; of protein, 12.7 per cent.

There is nothing in any of these figures to argue against the
siloing of green clover as an economical practice. On the other
hand, we conclude that this method of preserving the clover crop
is highly valuable, and, in most cases, to be preferred to making
hay of the crop.

No extended investigation has been made as to the losses sus-
tained in the siloing of alfalfa, but there can be little doubt but
that they .are considerably smaller than in making alfalfa hay,
if proper precautions guarding against unnecessary losses in the
silo are taken. According to the testimony of Professor Headden
of the Colorado Experiment Station, the minimum loss from the
falling off of leaves and stems in successful alfalfa hay making
amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases where the con-
ditions have been unfavorable, to as much as 60 and even 66 per
cent. of the hay crop. Aside from the losses sustained through
abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may reduce the value
of the hay one-half. The losses from either of these sources are
avoided in preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place a

16 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

small loss through fermentation occurs, under ordinary favorable
conditions, amounting to about 10 per cent. or less.

There is this further advantage to be considered when the
question of relative losses in the silo and in hay-making or field-
curing green forage, that hay or corn fodder, whether in shocks
or in the field or stored under shelter, gets poorer and poorer the
longer it is kept, as the processes of decomposition are going on
all the time; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss in food sub-
stances is not appreciably larger six months after the silo was
filled than it is one month after, because the air is shut out, so
that the farmer who puts up a lot of fodder corn for silage in the
fall can have as much and as valuable feed for his stock in the
spring, or in fact, the following summer or fall, as he would have
if he proceeded to feed out all the silage at once.

“Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in feeding value
to one ton of hay. On this basis a much larger amount of digest-
ible food can be secured from an acre of silage corn than from
an acre of hay. The food equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can
easily be produced on an acre of land planted to corn.”—(Plumb.)

3. Succulence. Succulent food is nature’s food.—We all know
the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and the green dried fruit.
In the drying of fruit as well as of green fodder water is the
main component taken away; with it, however, go certain flavor-
ing matters that do not weigh much in the chemist’s balance, but
are of the greatest importance in rendering the food material pal-
atable. It is these same flavoring substances which are washed
out of the hay with heavy rains, and renders such hay of inferior
value, often no better than so much straw, not because it does
net contain nearly as much food substances, like protein, fat,
starch, sugar, ete. (see Glossary), but because of the substances
that render hay palatable having been largely removed by the rain.

The influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and
general health of animals is very beneficial, according to the unan-
imous testimony of good authorities. It is a mild laxative, and
acts in this way very similarly to green fodders. The good ac-
counts reported of the prevention of milk fever by the feeding of
silage are explained by the laxative influence of the feed.

4. Uniformity. The silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality,
and always near at hand, available at any time during the whole
year or winter. No need of fighting the elements, or wading

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 17

through snow or mud to haul it from the field; once in the silo
the hard work is over, and the farmer can rest easy as to the
supply of succulent roughage for his stock during the winter. An
ample supply of succulent feed is of advantage to all classes of
animals, but perhaps particularly so in case of dairy cows and
sheep, since these animals are especially sensitive to sudden
changes in the feed. Also, stock raisers value silage highly on this
account, for silage is of special value for feeding preparatory to
turning cattle onto the watery pasture grass in the spring. The
loss in the weight of cattle on being let out on pasture in spring
is often so great that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back
where they were when turned out. When let out in the spring,
steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether silage or dry
feed has been fed, unless they are fed some grain during the first
week or two after they are turned out. For more detailed in-
formation regarding the feeding of silage for beef production, see
chapter V.

5. Economy of Storage.—Less room is required for the storage
in a silo of the product from an acre of land than in cured condi-
tion in a barn. A ton of hay stored in the mow will fill a space of
at least 400 cubic feet; a ton of silage, a space of about 50 cubic
feet. Considering the dry matter contained in both feeds we have
found that 8,000 pounds of silage contains about as much dry
matter as 2,325 pounds of hay, or 160 against 465 cubic feet, that
is, it takes nearly three times as much room to store the same
quantity of food materials in hay as in silage. In case of field-
cured fodder corn, the comparison comes out still more in favor of
the silo, on account of the greater difficulty in preserving the thick
cornstalks from heating when placed under shelter. According to
Professor Alvord, an acre of corn, field-cured, stored in the most
compact manner possible, will occupy a space ten times as great
as in the form of silage. While hay will contain about 86 per cent.
of dry matter, cured fodder corn often does not contain more than
60 and sometimes only 50 per cent. of dry matter; the quantities
of food material in fodder corn that can be stored in a given space
are, therefore, greatly smaller than in case of hay, and conse-
quently, still smaller than in case of silage.

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed, there is
less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of insurance.

6. No Danger of Rain.—Rainy weather is a disadvantage in

18 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

filling silos as in most other farm operations, but when the silo
is once filled, the fodder is safe, and the farmer is independent of
the weather throughout the season.

If the corn has suffered from drought and heat during the fall
months, it is quite essential to wet the corn either as it goes into
the silo, or when this has all been filled, in order to secure a good
quality of silage; and unless the corn is very green when it goes
into the silo, the addition of water, or water on the corn from
rain or dew, will do no harm. If the corn is too dry when put into
the silo, the result will be dry mold, which is prevented by the
addition of the water, which replaces that which has dried out
previous to filling if this has been delayed.

A common practice among successful siloists is to fill the silo
when the lower leaves of the standing corn have dried up about
half way to the ears. Generally, the corn will be in about the
proper condition at that time, and there will still.be moisture
enough left in the plants so that the silage will come out in first-
class condition. is

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time of filling
the silo, so that the heating processes, which take place soon after,
and which expel a considerable portion of the moisture, can take
place, and still leave the corn moist after cooling, when the silage
will remain in practically a uniform condition for several years if
left undisturbed. But.if, on account of over-ripeness, frosts, or
excessive drought, the corn is drier than stated, it should be made
quite wet as stated above, and there is little danger of getting it
too wet. The writer has filled silo with husked corn fodder about
Christmas, and as the fodder was thoroughly dried, a %-inch pipe
was connected with an overhead tank in the barn and arranged
to discharge into the carrier of the cutter as the cutting took place,
a No. 18 Ohio cutter being used for that purpose. Although a full
stream was discharged, and with considerable force, on account
of the elevation of the tank, and the cut fodder in the silo still
further wet on top with a long hose attached to a wind force
pump, it was found, on opening the silo a month later, that none
too much water had been used; the fodder silage came out in good
condition, was eaten greedily by the milch cows, and was much
more valuable than if it had been fed dry from the field.

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the case with
second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of rainy weather late

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 19

in the season the silo will furthermore preserve the crop, so that
the farmer may derive full benefit from it in feeding it to his
stock. Frosted corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will
come out a very fair quality of silage if well watered as referred
to above.

tA

7. No danger of Late Summer Droughts.—By using the silo
with clover or other green summer crops early in the season, a
valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pasture
in most regions is apt to give out; then again, the silo may be
filled with corn when this is in the roasting-ear stage, and the
land thus entirely cleared earlier than when the corn is left to
mature and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it possible
to finish fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass
or winter grain.

8. Food from Thistles.—Crops unfit for haymaking may be
preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable food. This is
not of the importance in this land of plenty of ours that it is, or
occasionally has been, elsewhere. Under silage crops are included
a number of crops which could not be used as cattle food in any
other form than this, as ferns, thistles, all kinds of weeds, ete. In
case of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry
his cattle through the winter.

9. Value in Intensive Farming.—More stock can be kept on
a certain area of land when silage is fed, than is otherwise the
ease. The silo in this respect furnishes a similar advantage over
field-curing fodders, as does the soiling system over that of pas-
turage; in both the siloing and soiling system there is no waste
of feed, all food grown on the land being utilized for the feeding
of farm animals, except a small unavoidable loss in case of the
siloing system incurred by the fermentation processes taking place
in the silo.

Pasturing stock is an expensive method of feeding, as far as
the use of the land goes, and can only be practiced to advantage
where this is cheap. As the land increases in value, more stock
must be kept on the same area in order to correspondingly increase
the profits from the land. The silo here comes in as a material
aid, and by its adoption, either alone or in connection with the
soiling system, it will be possible to keep at least twice the number
of animals on the land that can be done under the more primitive
system of pasturing and feeding dry feeds during the winter.

20 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

The experience of Goffart, “the Father of Modern Silage,” on this
point is characteristic. On his farm of less than eighty-six acres
at Burtin, France, he kept a herd of sixty cattle, besides fattening
a number of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure
us that he had ample feed on hand to keep one hundred head
of cattle the year around.

10. Other Advantages.—Silage feeding does away with all ag-
gravating corn-stalks in the manure, and prevents their waste
as well. It excels dry feed for the cheap production of fat beef.
It keeps young stock thrifty and growing all winter and enables
the cows to produce milk and butter more economically. Its
use lessens the labor required to care for a herd, if it is con-
veniently attached to the barn or feeding shed. It allows the
spring pastures to be conserved until the opportune moment, and
can be fed at any time of the year as occasion demands. It enables
preservation of food which matures at a rainy time of the year,
when drying would be almost impossible. It does away with the
system of strictly grain farming where few of the elements are
returned to the soil. It increases digestive capacity, that is: the
chemical action that takes place is an aid to digestion that enables
the cow to eat more than she otherwise could digest and assim-
ilate, thus making more milk from the same food elements than
she could make from any other dairy food product.

We might go on and enumerate many other points in which
the siloing process has decidedly the advantage over the method
of field-curing fodder or haymaking; but it is hardly necessary.
The points given in the preceding will convince any person open
to conviction, of the superiority of the silo on stock or dairy farms.
As we proceed with our discussion we shall have occasion to
refer to several points in favor of silage as compared with dry
feed, which have not already been touched upon. We shall now,
first of all, however, proceed to explain the method of building
silos of all kinds, after which we will discuss the summer silo,
the wonderful progress of silage in beef production, and of its
help in maintaining soil fertility. The subject of silage crops
and of the making and feeding of Silage will then follow.

CHAPTER II.
HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Before taking up for consideration the more important type
of silo construction, it will be well to explain briefly a few funda-
mental principles in regard to the building of silos which are com-
mon to all types of silo structures. When the farmer understands
these principles thoroughly, he will be able to avoid serious mis-
takes in building his silo and will be less bound by specific direc-
tions, that may not always exactly suit his conditions, than would
otherwise be the case. What is stated in the following in a few
words is in many cases the result of dearly-bought experiences
of pioneers in siloing; many points may seem self-evident now,
which were not understood or appreciated until mistakes had
been made and a full Knowledge had been accumulated as to the
conditions under which perfect silage can be secured.

General Requirements for Silo Structures.

1. The silo must be air-tight.—We have seen that the process.
of silage making is largely a series of fermentation processes.
Bacteria (small plants or germs, which are found practically
everywhere) pass into the silo with the corn or the siloed fodder,
and, after a short time, begin to grow and multiply in it, favored
by the presence of air and an abundance of feed materials in the
fodder. The more air at the disposal of the bacteria, the further
the fermentation process will progress. If a supply of air is ad-
mitted to the silo from the outside, the bacteria will have a chance
to continue to grow, and more fodder will therefore be wasted.
If a large amount of air be admitted, as is usually the case with
the top layer of silage, the fermentation process will be more far-
reaching than is usually the case in the lower layers of the silo.
Putrefactive bacteria will then continue the work of the acid
bacteria, and the resuit will be rotten silage. If no further sup-
ply of air is at hand, except what remains in the interstices be-
tween the siloed fodder, the bacteria will gradually die out, or
only such forms will survive as are able to grow in the absence
of air.

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring in siloed

21

22 ; HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

fodder has been put forward lately, viz., that these are due not to
bacteria, but to “intramolecular respiration” in the plant tissue,
that is due to a natural dying-off of the life substance of the
plant cells. From a practical point uf view it does not make any
difference whether the one or the other explanation is correct.
The facts are with us, that if much air is admitted into the silo,
through cracks in the wall or through loose packing of the siloed
mass, considerable losses of food substances will take place, first,
because the processes of decomposition are then allowed to go
beyond the point necessary to bring about the changes by which
the silage differs from green fodder, and, second, because the de-
composition will cause more or less of the fodder to spoil or mold.

2. The silo must be deep. Depth is essential in building a
silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under considerable pressure,
which will cause it to pack well and leave as little air as possible
in the interstices between the cut fodder, thus reducing the losses
of food materials to a mininum. The early silos built in this
country or abroad were at fault in this respect; they were shallow
structures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps, and were longer than they
were deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to weight
heavily the siloed fodder placed in these silos, in order to avoid
getting a large amount of: moldy silage. In our modern silos no
weighting is necessary, since the material placed in the silo is
sufficiently heavy from the great depth of it to largely exclude
the air in the siloed fodder and thus secure a good quality of
silage. In case of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on
the top is smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the silage stored,
hence a smaller loss occurs while the silage is being fed out,
and since the silage is more closely packed, less air is admitted
from the top. As the silage packs better in a deep silo than
in a shallow one, the former kind of silos will hold more Silage
per cubic foot than the latter; this is plainly seen from the figures
given in the table on page 25. Silos built during late years have
generally been over thirty feet deep, and many are forty feet
deep or more.

5. The silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls, which will
allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. .
In a deep silo the fodder will settle several feet during the first
few days after filling. Any unevenness in the wall will prevent

SIZE OF THE SILO. 23

the mass from settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus
formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil.

4. The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong so as
not to spring when the siloed fodder settles. The lateral (out-
ward) pressure of cut fodder corn when settling at the time of
filling is considerable, and increases with the depth of the silage
at the rate of about eleven pounds per square foot for each foot of
depth. At a depth of 20 feet there is, therefore, an outward pres-
sure of 220 pounds; at 50 feet, 530 pounds, etc. In case of a 16-
foot square silo where the sill is 50 feet below the top of the silage
the side pressure on the lower foot of the wall would be about
16x550, or 5,280 pounds.

It is because of this great pressure that it is so difficult to
make large rectangular silos deep enough to be economical, and
it is because the walls of rectangular silos always spring more or
less under the pressure of the silage that this seldom keeps as
well in them as it does in those whose walls cannot spring.

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues to settle,
the stronger outward pressure there spreads the walls more than
higher up and the result is the wall may be actually forced away
from the silage so that air may enter from above; and even if
this does not occur the pressure against the sides will be so
much lessened above by the greater spreading below that if the
walls are at all open, air will more readily enter through them.

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop and as
the wood stretches but little lengthwise there can be but little
spreading of such walls, and in the case of stave silos the iron
hoops prevent any spreading, and it is on account of these facts
that the round silo is rapidly replacing every other form.

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral pressure
in the silo; cases are on record where a filled silo has burned down
to the ground with the silage remaining practically intact as a
tall stack.

Other points of importance in silo building which do not apply
to all kinds of silos, will be considered when we come to describe
different kinds of silo structures. Several questions present them-
selves at this point for consideration, viz., how large a silo shall
be built, where it is to be located, and what form of silo is pre-
ferable under different conditions?

24 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

On the Size of Silo Required.

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is how large it
shaJl be made. We will suppose that a farmer has a herd of
twenty-five cows, to which he wishes to feed silage during the
winter season, say for 180 days. We note at this point that silage
will not be likely to give best results with milch cows, or with
any other class of farm animals, when it furnishes the entire
portion of the dry matter of the feed ration. Variation in the size
of the animals will determine whether each cow is to receive
20, 50 or 40 pounds per day. As a rule, it will not be well to
feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head. If this quantity
be fed daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we have for
the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or ninety tons. On account
of the fermentation processes taking place in the silo, we have
seen that there is an unavoidable loss of food materials during
the siloing period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent; we
must, therefore, put more than the quantity given into the silo.
If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one hundred tons of
fodder corn must be placed in the silo; we figure, therefore, that
we shall need about four tons of silage per head for the winter,
but, perhaps five tons per head would be a safer calculation, and
provide for some increase in the size of the herd.

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less, to toward
fifty pounds per cubie foot, according to the depth in the silo
from which it is taken, and the amount of moisture which it
contains. We may take forty pounds as an average weight of a
cubic foot of corn silage. One ton of silage will, accordingly, take
up fifty cubic feet; and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular
one-hundred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then
have a height of 50 feet. If a circular silo is wanted the following
dimensions will be about right: Diameter, 14 feet; height of silo,
50 feet, ete. In the same way, a silo holding 200 tons of corn
or clover silage may be built of the dimensions 14x18x40 feet,
16x16x59 feet, or if round, diameter, 18 feet, height, 37 feet, ete.

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily computed
as in case of a rectangular silo, we give on following page a table
which shows at a glance the approximate number of tons of silage
that a round silo, of a diameter from 8 to 20 feet, and 20 feet to
50 feet deep, will hold.

Table III shows readily how much silage is required to keep

SIZE OF THE SILO. 25

Table Il—Capacity of Round Silos.

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos, for Well-Matured
Corn Silage, in Tons.

Meet or Inside Diameter of Silo, Feet.
Silo inside, Feet =
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eight to 156 cows for six months, feeding them an average of 40
pounds a day, and the dimensions of circular silos as well as the
area of land required to furnish the different amounts of feed
given, computed at 15 tons per acre. The amount of silage given
in the table refers to the number of tons in the silo after all
shrinkage has occurred; as the condition of the corn as placed
in the silo differs considerably, these figures may vary in different
years or with different crops of corn, and should not be inter-
preted too strictly; the manner of filling the silo will also deter-
mine how much corn the silo will hold; if the silo is filled with
well-matured corn, and after this has settled for a couple of days,
filled up again, it will hold at least 10 per cent. more silage than
when it is filled rapidly and not refilled after settling. To the
person about to fill a silo for the first time, it is suggested that

26 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Table I1l.—Showing Required Acreage and Stock Feeding Capacity
for Silos of Various Sizes.

Cows it will keep

Dimensions Capacity in Tons Bg a i+ peek 6 month
| |

1200 50 5. 8
10x 24 36 5. | 10
10 x 28 | 44 | 5, 11
10 x 52 53 5.4 14
10 x 40 | 75 4.6 19
12 x 20 | 45 3. 11
12 x 24 55 | 5.2 15
12x28 66 | 4.1 15
12x 52 84 | E. 20
12x 40 | 121 | 720 27
14x 20 60 | 4.2 15
14x22 | 66 4.5 17
14x 24 | "5 | 4.7 19
14 x 28 90 5.6 22
14 x 52 | 110 | 6.7 27
14 x 40 150 9.2 37
16x 24 95 | 6.2 24
16 x 28 iBUb 1.2 29
16 x 52 130 8.7 35
16 x 40 180 12: 49
18 x 50 150 10.2 41
18 x 56 190 13: 50
18 x 40 229 15.3 62
18 x 46 277 | 18.8 Teh
20 x 30 Pilg S39 12.5 50
20 x 40 279 | 18.8 Wika
20x 50 | 582 | 25.5 | 104
20 x 60 500 52. | 136

it requires a “good crop” to yield 15 tons per acre, and as a
“little too much is about right,” be sure to plant enough to fill

the silo full, being guided by the condition of soil, etc., under
his control.

On the Form of Silos.

The first kind of silos built, in this country or abroad, were
simply holes or pits in the ground, into which the fodder was
dumped, and the pit was then covered with a layer of dirt and,
sometimes at least, weighted with planks and stones. Then, when
it was found that a large proportion of the feed would spoil by
this crude method, separate silo structures were built, first of

stone, and later on, of wood, brick or cement. As previously

ON THE FORM OF SILOS. 27

stated, the first separate silos built were rectangular, shallow struc-
tures, with a door opening at one end. The silos of the French
pioneer siloist, August Goffart, were about 16 feet high and 40x16
feet at the bottom. Another French silo built about fifty years ago,
was 206x21% feet and 15 feet deep, holding nearly 1,500 tons of
silage. Silos of a similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were
built in this country in the early stages of silo building. Ex-
perience has taught siloists that it was necessary to weight the
fodder heavily in these silos, in order to avoid the spoiling of
large quantities of silage. In Goffart’s silos, boards were thus
placed on top of the siloed fodder, and the mass was weighted at
the rate of 100 pounds per square foot.

It was found, however, after some time that this heavy weight-
ing could be dispensed with by making the silos deep, and grad-
ually the deep silos came more and more into use. These silos
were first built in this country in the latter part of the eighties;
at the present time none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four
feet deep are built, no matter of what form or material they
are made, and most silos built are at least twenty-four to thirty
feet deep or more.

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become more and
more general. These silos have the advantage over all other
kinds in point of cost and convenience, as well as quality of the
silage obtained. We shall, later on, have an occasion to refer to
the relative cost of the various forms of silos, and shall here
only mention a few points in favor of the round silos.

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square ones, because
it takes less lumber per cubic foot capacity, and because lighter
material may be used in their construction. The sills and stud-
dings here do no work except to support the roof, since the lining
acts as a hoop to prevent spreading of the walls.

2. One of the essentials in silo building is that there shall be
a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the silage, as both
the cost and the danger from losses through spoiling are thereby
reduced. The round silos are superior to all other forms in
regard to this point, as will be readily seen from an example: A
rectangular silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number of square
feet of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24 feet, and of the same
depth, or as a circular silo 30 feet in diameter and of the same
depth; but these silos will hold about the following quantities of

28 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

silage: Rectangular silo, 246 tons; square silo, 276 tons; circular
silo, 338 tons. Less lumber will, therefore, be needed to hold
a certain quantity of silage in case of square silos than in case
of rectangular ones, and less for cylindrical silos than for square
ones, the cylindrical form being, therefore, the most economical
of the three types.

3. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after a few
days, if left exposed to the air; hence the necessity of considering
the extent of surface exposure of silage in the silo while it is
being fed out. In a deep silo there is less silage exposed to the
surface layer in proportion to the contents than in a shallow one,
Experience has taught us that if silage is fed down at a rate
slower than 1.2 inches daily, molding is liable to set in. About
“two inches of the top-layer of the silage should be fed out daily
during cold weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling;
in warm weather about three inches must be taken off daily;
if a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily, there will be less
waste of food materials; some farmers thus plan to feed off 5 or 6
inches of silage daily. The form of the silo must therefore be
planned, according to the size of the herd, with special reference
to this point. Professor King estimates that there should be a
feeding surface in the silo of about five square feet per cow in
the herd; a herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet
of feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should be
14 feet; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter of 16
feet will be required; for fifty cows, a diameter of 18 feet; for one
hundred cows, a diameter of 25% feet, ete.

In choosing diameters and depths for silos for particular herds,
individual needs and conditions must decide which is best. It
may be said, in general, that for the smaller sizes of silos the
more shallow ones will be somewhat cheaper in construction and
be more easily filled with small powers. For large herds the
deeper types are best and cheapest.

One of the common mistakes made in silo construction is that
of making it too large in diameter for the amount of stock to be
fed silage. Whenever silage heats and molds badly on or below
the feeding surface heavy loss in feeding value is being sustained.
and in such cases the herd should be increased so that the losses
may be prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.)

In this connection the following table furnished by the Animal

DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE SILO. 29

Husbandry Department of the Nebraska Station will be of interest.
It will be noted that for summer feeding at least 15 dairy cows,
or 21 beef cattle, for instance, will be necessary to consume the
525 pounds of silage that should be removed daily from a 10-foot
diameter surface to keep it from spoiling. In winter, 6 or 7 cows
would be sufficient.

Table I1V.—Rate of Feeding from Silos of Different Diameters.

Approximate minimum *Approximate number of the different kinds of stock

ara pounds to be fed daily to keep the silage from spoiling in summer

in

feet Summer Winter Horses pO Stok ast Dalry Sheep
fOprle. boP5e (101263: | «48 44 i), 2601) Dhan Pat ilies
12 Peas (tS yl, O8nl5 G8] BS hy oes gt eee
14 LOS a Bib O4 | 864 52° [> 44. ee oad
ete maton ly e703 2a" a2! “| 67 | ban sa BAG
18 BROOM it? BHO [pS }or4es | ¢ Bboy 68 Jpowed 2 SE?
20 | 2,100 | 1,050 | 191 | 175 | 105 | 84 | 53 | 700

*If the silo is to be used for winter feeding only, it will require
only one-half as many of each kind of stock to keep the silage in
good condition as where it is used for summer feeding.

The Nebraska Station also gives the following daily ration of
silage for various kinds and weights of stock. It should be re-
membered, however, that these amounts are only approximate
and vary considerably in different sections or under special tests.
At the end of a 90-day test at the Brookings, S. D., station in
1912, yearling steers were consuming 70 pounds of silage per head
daily. (See page 124.)

Table V.—Approximate Daily Ration of Silage.

Kind of Stock Weight Fed per day

Horses— Pounds Pounds

(CIRIVPSI Se oo ges n Ao eo Reletete E IpE REI 500 -

WiOGla PHOLSES: ffecs scales cicayeune © 1,200 ples

SUNG TOE SES) cietarstc ci cicnsie «se 1,300 10
Cattle—

Gailwestie ose eo He wart: 500 12

SECM CALELOLIAS Hteleraveutlaleid ie sscr 1,000 20

EP SEAIC OF WiSiea a susiicl® sad Bin Gt Seaeusieus 1,500 ~ 50

Dairy COWS......---+-+eeees 1,000 40

Fattening cattle.........++-- | 1,200 95
Sheep—

SOG SSIES D vias ian ve Welolaley: ayer eueie | Pore e 5

Fattening sheep......---+++- Syogede 3

30 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Location of the Silo.

The location of the silo is a matter of great importance, which
has to be decided upon at the start. The feeding of the silage is
an every-day job during the whole winter and spring, and twice
a day at that. Other things being equal, the nearest available
place is therefore the best. The silo should be as handy to get
at from the barn as possible. The condition of the ground must
be considered. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best
plan to follow is to build the silo there, in connection with the
barn, going four feet to six feet below the surface, and providing
for door opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the silo
should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if
practicable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the
cows at a single handling. While it is important to have the silo
near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used
for milk production, that silage odors to not penetrate the whole
stable, at milking or other times. Milk is very sensitive to odors,
and unless care is taken to feed silage after milking, and to have
pure air, free from silage odor, in the stables at the time of
milking, there will be a silage flavor to the milk. This will not
be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed by most people, and
some people cannot notice it at all; but when a person is sus-
picious, he can generally discover it. So far as is known this
odor is not discernible in either butter or cheese made from
silage-flavored milk, nor does it seem to affect the keeping qualities
of the milk in any way.

Different Types of Silo Structures.

Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick, cement, tile or metal,
or partly of one and partly of another of these materials. Wooden
silos may be built of several layers of thin boards nailed to up-
rights, or of single planks (staves), or may be plastered inside.
The material used will largely be determined by local conditions;
where lumber is cheap, and stone high, wooden silos will generally
be built;' where the opposite is true, stone or brick silos will have
the advantage in point of cheapness, while concrete and clay
block silos are likely to be preferred where great permanency is
desired or where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, and
lumber or stone are hard to get at a reasonable cost. So far as
the quality of the silage made in any of these kinds of silos is con-

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SILO STRUCTURES. 31

cerned, there is no difference when the silos are properly built.
The longevity of concrete and tile silos is usually greater than
that of wooden silos, since the latter are more easily attacked
by the silage juices and are apt to decay in places after a number
of years, unless special precautions are taken to preserve them.
A well-built and well-cared-for wooden silo should, however, last
almost indefinitely.

As regards the form of the silo, it may be built in rectangular
form, square, octagon or round. We have already seen that the
most economical of these is ordinarily the round form, both be-
cause in such silos there is less wall space per cubic unit of
capacity, and in case of wooden round silos, lighter material can
be used in their construction. The only place where silos of
square or rectangular form are built now is inside of barns, where
they fit in better than a round structure. We shall later on give
directions for building silos inside of a barn, but shall now go
over to a discussion of the various forms of round silos that are
apt to be met with. More round wooden silos have been built
during late years in this country than of all other kinds of silos
combined, and this type of silo, either built of uprights lined in-
side and outside with two layers of half-inch boards, or of one
thickness of staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the
future; hence we shall give full information as to their building,
and shall then briefly speak of the other forms mentioned which
may be considered preferable in exceptional cases.

Round Wooden Silos.

Round wooden silos were first described, and their use advo-
eated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wisconsin Station in
July, 1891, at a time when lumber of a good quality could be se-
cured at much less cost than at present. This type has come to
be known as the Wisconsin or King silo, named after the late
Prof. King, the originator. The first detailed and illustrated de-
scription was published in the above bulletin; since that time
it has been described in several bulletins and reports issued by
the Station mentioned and in numerous publications from other
Experiment Stations. This type, and the one to be described in
the following, the stave silo, are practically the only kind of
wooden silos that have been built in this country during late
years except where unusual conditions have prevailed that would
make some other kind of silo construction preferable.

32 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

The Kind of Woods for Silos——Conclusions drawn from Bulletin
No. 100, Iowa State College, place the merits of woods for silo
use as follows: 1, Redwood; 2, Cypress; 3, Oregon Fir; 4, Tam-
arack; 5, White Pine; 6, Long-leaf Yellow Pine.

The following description of the King silo is taken from Bul-
letins Nos. 85 and 125 of the Wisconsin Station:

The Foundation.—There should be a good, substantial cement
foundation for all forms of wood silos, and the woodwork should
everywhere be at least 12 inches above the earth, to prevent decay
from dampness. There are few conditions where it will not be
desirable to have the bottom of the silo 5 feet or more below the
feeding floor of the stable, and this will require not less than 4
to 6 feet of stone, brick, or concrete wall. For a silo 50 feet deep
the foundation wall of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick.

Bottom of the Silo.—After the silo has been completed the
sround forming the bottom should be thoroughly tamped so as to
be solid, and then covered with two or three inches of good con-
crete made of 1 of cement to 3 or 4 of sand or gravel. The
amount of silage which will spoil on a hard clay floor will not be
large, but enough to pay a good interest on the money invested
in the cement floor. If the bottom of the silo is in dry sand or
gravel the cement bottom is imperative to shut out the soil air.

The Superstructure.—The wood superstructure of the King silo
has a wall 5 or 6 inches thick, whereas the foundation wall is
18 to 24 inches thick; it is evident, therefore, that there must be
a shoulder of the wall 12 to 19 inches wide that must project
either into the silo pit or outward beyond the sill.

How to Place the Frame on the Foundation.—Figure 1 illus-
trates two methods of placing the frame on the foundation. A
is the right way. B is the wrong way. In B Fig. 1 the shoulder
of the foundation wall projects into the silo pit. This method is
permissible when the silo floor is not more than 1 foot below the
top of the wall. If the floor of the silo is three feet or more below
the top of the wall as in B Fig. 1, then this shoulder interferes
with the proper settling of the silage and the silage moulds or
rots just above the shoulder next to the silo and usually below
the shoulder also. This rotting is commonly ascribed to the loosen-
ing of the sill or the foundation allowing air to enter. In most
cases, however, it is plainly not due to this cause, but is due to the
projecting shoulder which interferes with the settling of the

ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 33

Fig. 1—Showing two methods of placing the wood, brick lined or
lathed and plastered silo on a stone foundation. A shows the
silo set with upper portion flush with the inside of the stone
wall, and B shows the upper portion flush with the outside of
the stone wall. A is the right way; B is the wrong way.

silage. Many silos have been abandoned on this account, so
serious has been the loss from rotting. This shoulder should
never project into the silo pit.

Forming the Sill.—The sill may be made of a single 2x4 cut
into two foot lengths with the ends beveled so that they may be
toe-nailed together to form a circle. Two other methods are also
illustrated in Fig. 2, one being a double thickness with broken
joints and the other using pieces cut to the curvature of the silo.
It will be noted that the latter construction eliminates the air-
spaces between the silo and the outer sheeting which are evident
in the first two mentioned. These spaces admit air so that the
space between the studding is not a dead air space.

Setting the Studding.—The studding of the all-wood round silo
need not be greater than 2x4, but they should be set as close
together as one foot from center to center, as represented in
Fig. 6. This number of studs is not required for strength but
they are needed in order to bring the two layers of lining very

34 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Fig. 2.—Showing three methods of making a sill or plate for
Gurler or King Silo. A shows sill made of a single thickness
of 2x4’s cut in two-foot lengths; B shows sill made of two
thicknesses of 2x4’s laid to break joints; C shows 2x4 sawed
out of 2x6 plank. C is the best method, since the sheeting then
fits the sill making a tight joint, whereas in A and B a tight
joint between sheeting and sill or plate cannot be secured. Ob-
serve that the sill is placed near the inner edge of the founda-
tion.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. ° 35

close together, so as to press the paper closely and prevent air
from entering where the paper laps.

Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed, short lengths
may be lapped one foot and simply spiked together before they
are set in place on the wall. This will be cheaper than to pay
the higher price for long lengths. All studding should be given the
exact length desired before putting them in place.

WES .

EE tro agg

a CAR SSS

“
Ss

SSS

BSS
K

we

SSANXt( ys

DOPPLER IIOBBISNIOS

is

LLLC LA LY

Cea
SSS

Fig. 3.—Detail of construction of wall of King silo. Three thick-
nesses of %” sheeting inside with 2 thicknesses of acid-proof
paper, and on the outside one thickness of sheeting, 1 of tar
felt, and 1 of clap boards. Observe that the shoulder of the
foundation is outside.

36 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

To stay the studding a post should be set in the ground in the
center of the silo long enough to reach about five feet above the
sill, and to this stays may be nailed to hold in place the alternate
studs until the lower five feet of outside sheeting has been put on.
The studs should be set first at the angles formed in the sill and
carefully stayed and plumbed on the side toward the center. When
a number of these have been set they should be tied together
by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around the outside as
high up as a man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on
the side before nailing. When the alternate studs have bcen set
in this way the balance may be placed and toe-nailed to the
sill and stayed to the rib, first plumbing them sideways and
toward the center.

Setting Studding for Doors.—On the side of the silo where the
doors are to be placed the studding should be set double and the

Fig. 6.—Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick-lined
or lathed-and-plastered silo.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 37

distance apart to give the desired width. A stud should be set
between the two door studs as though no door were to be there,
and the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards. The con-
struction of the door is represented in Fig. 7.

The doors are usually made about 2 feet wide and from 2%
to 5 feet high, and placed one above the other at suitable dis-
tances apart. It has been suggested that to insure security a
strip of tar paper should be placed the entire length of the silo
on the inside over the doors.

LE LL ALLL LV LL IV LL VV LLL LEAL

Fig. 7.—Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood silo.

38 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Silo Sheeting and Siding—The character of the siding and
sheeting will vary considerably according to conditions and the
size of the silo.

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet inside and
not much attention need be paid to frost, a single layer of beveled
siding, rabbetted on the inside of the thick edge, deep enough
to receive the thin edge of the board below, will be all that is
absolutely necessary on the outside for strength and protection
against weather.

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken to paint
it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets wet before
painting.

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carrying the
work upward until staging is needed, following this at once with
the siding. Two 8-penny nails should be used in each board in
every stud, and to prevent the walls from getting “out of round”
the succeeding course of boards should begin on the next stud,
thus making the ends of the boards break joints. ;

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be tacked
to the studs above, taking care to plumb each one from side
to side; the siding itself will bring them into place and keep them
plumb the other way, if care is taken to start new courses as
described above.

Forming the Plate.—When the last staging is up the plate
should be formed by spiking 2x4’s cut in two-foot lengths, in the
manner of the sill, and as represented in Fig. 8, down upon the
tops of the studs, using two courses, making the second break
joints with the first. A still better method is to use 2x6 plank,
cut to the circle as shown in C, Fig. 2.

The Lining of the Wooden Silo.—There are several ways of
making a good lining for the all-wood round silo, but whichever
method is adupted it must be kept in mind that there are two
very important ends to be secured with a certainty. These are
(1) a lining which shall be and remain strictly air-tight, (2) a
lining which will be reasonably permanent.

Lining of Half-inch Boards and Papers—Where paper is used
to make the joints between boards air-tight, as represented in
Fig. 5, it is extremely important that a quality which will not
decay, and which is both acid and water-proof be used. A paper

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 39

which is not. acid and water-proof will disintegrate at the joints
in a very short time, and thus leave the lining very defective.
The best paper for silo purposes with which we are acquainted
is a 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured by the Standard
Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It is thick, strong, and acid
and water-proof. A silo lining with two thicknesses of good
fencing having only smal!l knots, and these thoroughly sound and
not black, will make an excellent lining. Great care should be
taken to have the two layers of boards break joints at their
centers, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches.
The great danwer with this type of lining will be that the
boards may not press the two layers of paper together close

Fig. 8—Showing construction of conical roof of round silo, where
rafters are not used. The outer circle is the lower edge of the
roof, the second is the plate, the third and fourth circles are
hoops to which the roof boards are nailed. The view is a plan
looking up from the under side.

40 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

enough but that some air may arise between the two sheets
where they overlap, and thus gain access to the silage. It would
be an excellent precaution to take to tack down closely with
small carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they overlap, and
if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be sufficient.

The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny nails,
two in each board and stud, and the second or inner layer with
10-penny nails, the fundamental object being to draw the two
layers of boards as closely together as possible.

Such a lining as this will be very durable because the paper
will keep all the lumber dry except the inner layer of half-inch
boards, and this will be kept wet by the paper and silage until
empty, and then the small thickness of wood will dry too quickly
to permit rotting to set in.

A. still mere substantial lining of the same type may be se-
cured by using two layers of paper between three layers of boards,
as representcd in Fig. 3, and if the climate is not extremely severe,
or,;if the silo is only to be fed from in the summer, it would
be hetter to do away with the layer of sheeting and paper outside,
‘putting on the inside, thus securing two layers of paper and three
layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only 2 inches
of lumber.

The Silo Roof.—Roofs on silos make big savings in keeping
the silage from drying out and blowing around. They keep

OOF SIDE VIEW.

2x” RALTER

USHER TING

MOTCH FOR
SALTER

y aeid TER OF BORRD.

fi : RALACS - TH
Fig. 9.—Showing construction and details of one style of roof.
(From Nebr. Bul. No. 138.)

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 41

the wind out and make the silo warm in winter, free from snow
and freezing, and the silage in good shape for feeding.

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several ways, but
the simplest type of construction and the one requiring the least
amount of material is that represented in Fig. 8, which is the cone.

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter no rafters
need be used, and only a single circle like that in the center of
Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in sections in the form
of a circle and two layers spiked together, breaking joints.

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the inner circle
and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, the boards having been
sawed diagonally, making the wide and narrow ends the same
relative widths as the circumference of the outer edge of the
roof and of the inner circle. Thus a 10-foot board 8 inches wide
would be sawed so as to make two 10-foot lengths, each being 6%
inches wide at one end and 1% inches wide at the other.

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet it will be
necessary to use two or three hoops according to diameter.

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles, split-
ting those wider than 8 inches. By laying the butts of the shingles
%to % of an inch apart it is not necessary to taper any of the
shingles except a few courses near the peak of the roof.

The prepared roofings, such as “Ruberoid” or “Paroid” or pre-
pared gravel roofing are preferred to shingles for a silo roof, since
they make a tighter roof which retains the heat in winter.

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the right
exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a strip of
wood as a radius which works on a center set at the peak of the
roof and provided with a nail or pencil to make a mark on the
shingle where the butts of the next course are to come. The
radius may be bored with a series of holes the right distance
apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and
reset as desired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling
hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place.

Ventilation of the Silo.

Every silo which has a roof should be provided with ample
ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry, and in the case
of wood silos, to prevent the walls and lining from rotting. One

42 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

of the most serious mistakes in the early construction of wood
silos was the making of the walls with dead-air spaces, which,
on account of dampness from the silage, led to rapid “dry-rot”
of the lining.

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is important to
provide ample ventilation for the spaces between the studs, as
well as for the roof and the inside of the silo, and a good method
of doing this is represented in Fig. 4, where the lower portion
represents the sil! and the upper the plate of the silo. Between
each pair of studs where needed a 14-inch auger hole to admit
air is bored through the siding and sheeting and covered with
a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the top of
the silo on the inside, the lining is only covered to within two
inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire n_tting
to prevent silage from being thrown over when filling. This
arrangement permits dry air from outside to enter at the bottom
between each pair of studs and to pass up and into the silo, thus
keeping the lining and studding dry and at the same time drying
the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as
exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4’s cut in
2-foot lengths there will be space enough left between the curved
edge of the siding and sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that
no holes need be bored as describ.d above and represented in
Fig. 4. The openings at the plate should always be provided and
the silo should have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This
ventilator may take the form of a cupola to serve for an orna-
ment as well, or it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24
inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the
roof.

A word of caution is sounded in the Wisconsin Bulletin No.
125 regarding the above method of ventilation:

‘Tt will be readily understood that if these ventilators betwecn
the studs are left open in winter they will act as chimneys; they
will maintain a constant draft between the studding, which will
cool off and freeze the silage more severely than it would if there
were no sheeting at all outside the studding. If the silage is for
winter feeding, and 99 per cent of the silage is so fed, then more
care should be exercised than at present in Wisconsin to prevent
this severe freezing. In order to do this, provision must be made
for closing these ventilators both at the top and at the bottom,

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 43

Fig. 4.—Showing the method of ventilating between studding. An
auger hole is bored through the outer siding just above sill,
between each pair of studding as at X, and a screen nailed
over hole inside to keep out mice. A similar hole is bored
through the inner sheeting between each pair of studs at the
top of the silo just under the plates, as at W. Auger holes are
used at X and W, so that the holes may be closed in cold
weather with corks.

44 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

so as to convert the hollow wall into a real dead-air space. There
is no need of building the wall air-tight outside, as shown in Fig.
3, with two thickness of sheeting with paper between, unless there
is provision for closing the ventilators in winter.

“The writer has seen a number of these silos in which the
silage froze severely. In most instances no attempt was made
to close the ventilators, and the few instances when it was at-
tempted only the lower ventilators on the outside were closed.
This is not enough for if the upper ventilators at W, Fig. 4, are
left open the hollow wall will cool off rapidly and the air space
serve no purpose as protection against frost.

“The invention of the King silo came in response to an urgent
demand for a type of construction that would avoid the corners
and other serious and aggravating defects of silos, as previously
constructed. It marked an epoch in silo building. Hundreds of
silos of this type have been constructed. They have not been
confined to Wisconsin, but have been widely distributed. They
have been in use the past ten years, and have demonstrated
their success. They are no longer an experiment. However, the
very wide and general use of this type of silo under a great
variety of conditions of climate and local environment has brought
out some of the demerits of this type of construction which at
the outset could not have been foreseen. For instance, the wood
lining has been found less satisfactory than cement, and hence
it is recommended that these silos be cement lined. Many of the
King silos are lathed and plastered and have proven very satis-
factory, having done service for ten years.

“Clap beards have been found unsatisfactory for the outer
siding and it is recommended that steel siding or some of the
roofing paper, ruberoid, or lath and plaster be used in their stead
as will be described later.”

Painting the Silo Lining.

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will not become
wholly or partly saturated with the silage juices. This being true.
when the lining is again exposed when feeding the silage out.
the paint greatly retards the drying of the wood work and the
result is decay sets in, favored by prolonged dampness. For this
reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked or to use some anti-
septic which does not form a water-proof coat.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 45

The cost of such a silo as that described in the foregoing
pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12 cents per square
foot of outside surface, when the lining consists of two layers
of half-inch split fencing, with a 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper beo-
tween, and with one layer of split fencing outside, covered with
rabbetted house siding. If built inside of the barn, without a roof
and not painted, the cost would be reduced 3 cents per square foot,
or more. Silos of this type, 50 feet deep, built outside, provided
with a roof and including 6 feet of foundations are stated to cost
as follows: 15 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity), $183.00;
15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 21 feet diameter
(206 tons eapacity), $298.00; and 25 feet diameter (500 tons
capacity), $358.00.

Complete specifications and building plans for a 300-ton silo,
of the kind described in the preceding pages, are given in Prof.
Woll’s Book on Silage. The dimensions of this silo are: Diameter,
26 feet; height, 30 feet.

According to our present knowledge this form of silo is most
likely the best that can be built; it is a somewhat complicated
structure, calls for more time and skill for its construction, and
costs more than other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially
more than the stave silo soon to be described; but once built
needs but little attention and it is durable and economical; being
practically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed
fodder are reduced to a minimum.

Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo.

Several modifications of the Wisconsin Silo have been proposed
and have given good satisfaction; one is described by ~ Prof.
Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows:

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way up there
are three layers of sheeting against the studs with tarred paper
between. The upper half of the studs has but two layers of
sheeting. The sheeting was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine
planks and sawing to -make four boards. The silo rests on a
stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high,
18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and holds-about 150 tons. An
inexpensive but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of
this structure is as follows: As the work was all done by the

46 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given at
estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00; 5 rolls of
paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40; labor, $20.00;
total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was so pleased with the
service this one had rendered since its construction, that he built
another like it during the summer of 1902. This silo is connected
by a covered passage and chute with the feeding floor of the
cattle barn.

The construction of this type of silo calls for as much Care
in putting on sheeting, making doors and Keeping out the air at
these places and at the foundation, as is required with the more
expensive forms previously described. The need for outer siding
will depend in a large measure on circumstances. The farmer
building the silo (living in Central Indiana) has had no trouble
with his silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would
naturally be more necessary than in the southern part of this
state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although it
does materially add to the attractiveness of the silo.

Plastered Round Wooden Silos.

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor among
farmers who have tried them, and are preferred by many for
either the original or the modified Wisconsin silo, on account of
their ease of construction and their durability. In the experience
of H. B. Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built
several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen years, the
walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and there is no waste
from moldy silage along the wall; neither is there any difficulty
about cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a
good quality of cement is used. Gurler described the construc-
tion of his plastered silo in Breeder’s Gazette, accompanying his
description with building plans of his silo. We have reproduced
the latter changed and improved in some points of minor im-
portance, and give below a brief description of the method of
building silos of this type. (See Figs. 10 and 11.)

The foundation may be made of stone, brick or cement, and
is carried to the proper distance above ground. Sills composed
of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled at the ends so as to be
toe-nailed together to form a circle of the same diameter as the

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 47

interior diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded
in asphalt or cemented mortar, and on this the studding is
erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside
sheeting was secured by having 6-inch fencing re-sawed, making
the material a little less than %-inch thick. On this was nailed
laths made from the same material, the laths being made with
beveled edges so that when nailed onto the sheeting horizontally,
the same way as the sheeting is put on, there are dove-tailed
joints between the laths to receive the cement, preventing its
loosening until it is broken. The patent grooved lath might be
used, but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better
than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting or
metal lath of one form or another, such as is now generally used
in outside plastering of houscs, nailed on strips of 1x2’s which are
placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through the
sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture from the silage
juices, and thus expand and possibly cause the plaster to crack,

WCET TT

TTT
MATHS UT
CO =

ee ES

fkevalion b heel te". Seciion

Fig. 10.—Elevation and section of plastered round wooden silo.

48 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

as would be likely to occur in case of wooden laths. For outside
sheeting similar material to that used for inside sheeting may
be used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no out-
side sheeting would be required, although it would add greatly to
the looks of the silo. Not being certain that the inside sheeting,
laths and cement offered sufficient resistance to the outward
pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of
the studding, of the same material as for the inside she ting,
putting it on double thickness and breaking joints. The silo de-
scribed, which would hold 250-300 tons, cost $500, without a roof.
Mr. Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and
estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash
of cement every three years and if any cracks that may start
be filled before the silo is filled again.

The Gurler silo uses much less lumber than the Wisconsin or
King silo, one thickness of sheeting instead of four or five thick-
nesses being sufficient. The Gurler must be cement lined, how-

Qnevet Foundation
lebooe! Hoges Yor fan's 6 = 4:0'spart Kew pl Bon
24'skeo's 12°” confers.

Fig. 11.—Foundation plan and section of plastered round wooden
Silo.

49

SILO.

THE “WISCONSIN”

‘punoASeLOJ UL O[IS poUl] Hog

‘UOTWeIG JUSWUITIOdX@ UISUODSIM ‘UIeg Arleq—g| ‘Big

50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

ever, but it is cheaper as to first cost and is the more durable.
It was designed primarily for use inside some other building,
whereas the Wisconsin silo is intended to stand outside.

Brick Lined Silos.

As an illustration of silos of this type we give below a de-
scription of the silo built in connection with the Dairy Barn of
the Wisconsin Experimental Station; the accompanying figures,
12 and 13, will show the exterior.appearance of the barn and
silo, and a plan of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn.

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter and 33
feet deep. It is a framed structure lined inside and outside with
brick. On 2x6-inch uprights, two wrappings of %-inch stuff, 6
inches wide, are put, breaking joints, with no paper between.
Brick is laid tight against this lining, ‘and on the brick surface is
a heavy coating of Portland cement (1 part cement, 1 part sand).
On the outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small
open space between (about % inch). The silo is-filled from the
third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly
onto this floor over the trestle shown to the right in Fig. 12, and
there run through the feed cutter. When the silage is taken out
for feeding, it falls through a box chute to the main floor where it
is received into a truck (Fig. 54) in which it is conveyed to the
mangers of the animals.

An illustration and description of the original round silo, with
a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station in 1891, are given
in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage, where descriptions and illustra-
tions of a number of other first-class round wooden silos will also
be found, like those constructed at the Experiment Stations in
New Jersey, Missouri, and South Dakota.

Stave Silos.

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo buildings.
and partly for this reason, partly on account of its cheapness of
construction, more silos of this kind have been built during the
past few years than any other silo type.

Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been favorably
mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, as well as by
experiment station men. In the recent bulletin from Cornell Ex-

51

BRICK LINED SILOS.

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HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

52

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THE STAVE SILO. 53

periment Station, we find the stave silo spoken of as ‘tthe most
practical and successful silo which can be constructed,’ and the
Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the following state-
ment in regard to the stave silo: “From extensive observation
and study of silos and silo construction, and from experience here
with a number of different silos, it would appear that the stave
silo is the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most
worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity and cheapness
of construction with the requisite conditions to preserve the
silage in the very best condition for feeding.”

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad
or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory silos should be
built as well as a No. 1 water tank. The first stave silos were
built in this country in the beginning of the nineties; they soon
found some enthusiastic friends, while most people, including
nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construction, were in-
clined to be skeptical as to their practicability. It was objected
that the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when the
silo was filled with green fodder; that they would shrink after
having been left empty during the summer months, so that the
silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could not again
be made air-tight; and finally, that the silage would freeze in
such silos, and its feeding value thereby be greatly lowered. In
addition to this, it was claimed that a substantial stave silo
would cost as much as a first class ordinary all-wood silo of the
same capacity, which would not have the objectionable features of
the former.

In spite of these objections the stave silo has, however, grad-
ually gained ground, until of late years it has quite generally
been adopted in preference to other kinds of silos, particularly in
the Eastern and Central states. This being a fact, it follows that
the objections previously made to the stave silos cannot be valid,
that the staves do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink
so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As re-
gards the danger from freezing of the silage, the criticisms of the
stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be
likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of the northern states or
Canada; but, according to the testimony of farmers who have
had experience with frozen silage, this is more an inconvenience
than a loss. The freezing does not injure the feeding value of

54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

the silage, or its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it
is as good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish.

Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous.

The main reason why stave silos have been preferred by the
majority of farmers during late years are that they can be put
up easily, quickly and cheaply, and the expense for a small silo
of this kind is cumparatively small. Many a farmer has built a
stave silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo, and
others have preferred to build two small silos for one large one,
or a small one in addition to an old, larger one that they may
already have. Manufacturing firms have, furthermore, made a
specialty of stave silo construction, and pushed the sale of such
silos through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made a
special business of the building of stave silos, and having had
several years’ experience as to the requirements and precautions
to be observed in building such silos, these firms furnish silos
complete with all necessary fixtures, that are greatly superior to
any which a farmer would be apt to build according to more or
less incomplete directions.

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufacturing firms
will generally be more expensive than such a farmer can build
himself, because they are built better. It does not pay to build
a poor silo, however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor,
cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense and
trouble, whether built square, rectangular or round. The cheap
silos described in other places of this book have not been given
for the purpose of encouraging the building of such silos, but
rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma-
nent good silo, he is not necessarily barred from the advantages
of having silage for his stock, since a temporary silo may be built
at a small cash outlay.

We can therefore consistently recommend that parties intend-
ing to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers who have
made silo construction a special business. These firms furnish
all necessary silo fittings, with complete directions for putting
up the silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend their
building. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country
cannot, however, patronize manufacturers of stave silos because
the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be pro-

THE STAVE SILO. 55

hibitory. For the convenience of such parties and others who
may prefer to build their own stave silos, directions for their
construction are given in the following: The specifications for a
100-ton stave silo, printed below, which are taken from Woll’s
Book on Silage, were furnished by Claude & Starck, Architects,
Madison, Wisconsin.

Specifications for 100-ton Stave Silo.
MASONRY.

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to a depth
of 6 inches; excavate for foundation wall to a depth of 16 inches;
in this trench build a wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of
field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster in-
side, outside and on top with cement mertar, 1 part cement to 1
part sand. Fill inside area with four inches of good gravel, thor-
oughly tamped down; after the wood work is in place coat this
with one inch of cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part clean
sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the
center and brought up at least 2 inches all around inside and
outside walls.

CARPENTRY.

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking joints,
and made from clear, straight-grained cypress, 2x6 inches, bev-
eled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the
exact dimensions and dressed on all sides. There shall be three
doors in the fifth, eighth and tenth spaces between the hoops,
made by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45-degree
bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 15.) The staves shall then
be fastened together with two 2x4 inch battens cut on inside to
an 8-ft. radius and bolted to each stave with two 4-inch diameter
earriage bolts with round head sunk on inside and nut on outside.
The staves bctween the doors shall be fastened together top and
bottom, with %-inch diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting
ends of staves shall be squared and toe-nailed together.
Bottom Plates.—Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4-inch
Pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius
outside. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves
shall then be set on the foundation and well spiked to these
plates. rte

56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Hoops.—Hoops shall be made from two pieces of %-inch diam-
eter round iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and
washer at each end; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4x6
shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored
in it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes and tight-
ened against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The hoops shall be twelve
in number starting at the bottom 6 inches apart and increasing
in distance 6 inches between each hoop until a space of 3 feet
6 inches is reached; from this point up this distance shall be
preserved as near as possible to the top.

WP

im

Fig. 15.—Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed out,

and side view in place. The opening is largest on the inside
of silo. (Clinton.)

THE STAVE SILO. 57

Roof.—Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch clear
siding lapping joints, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters, 2-feet centers
1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch plates. These plates to be
supported on two 4x4-inch pieces resting on top of hoops. Three

Fig. 16.—A cheap roof of a stave silo. (Clinton.)

1x4-ineh Collar beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters
to tie side of roof together. (See Fig. 12.) Fig. 16 shows an-
other simple construction of roof on a stave silo.

PAINTING.

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted
two coats of good mineral paint; the entire inside surface of the
staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with ‘hot coal tar.

Note.—Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked tightly
over doors and the entire inside of silo examined and cracks
tightly caulked.

The method of construction specified in the preceding may of
course be modified in many particulars, according to the condi-
tions present in each case, cost of different kinds of lumber, max-
imum amount of money to be expended on silo, ete.

The following directions for the construction of stave silos

58 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

are taken from two bulletins on this subject, published by the
Cornell and Ottawa Experiment Stations. For a silo 20 feet in
diameter, a circular trench 18 inches to two feet wide and with
an outer diameter of 22 feet is dug about 2 feet deep, or below
the frost line. The surface soil over the whole included area,
and for 2 feet outside, is removed to a depth of 10 or 12 inches
at the same time. The trench is then filled to the level of the
interior with stone, well pounded down, the surfaCe stone being
broken quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of
sand thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in and left
for a few days. This is followed by a coat of good cement (1
part cement to 3 sand), care being taken when finished to have
the surface level and smooth.

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 17, which shews a cross-
section of one method of construction.

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Fig. 17.—Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines show how
scaffolding may be put up.

MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 59

The posts (a, a, a, a) Should be of 6x6 material and run the
entire length of the silo. These should be first set up vertically
and stayed securely in place.

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2x4 scantling
in the positions shown in Fig. 17, as b, b, b, b. Boards nailed
from these 2x4 scantling and to the 6x6 posts will form a rigid
framework, across which the planks for the scaffold platform may
be laid. Before the scaffolding is all in place the staves should be
stood up within the inclosure; otherwise difficulty will be ex-
perienced in getting them into position.

It is probable that no better material can be obtained for the
staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is so expensive in
the North, as to preclude its use in most cases. Of the cheaper
materials hemlock, white pine, and yellow pine, are usually the
most available. At the present time hemlock is one of the cheap-
est satisfactory materials which can be purchased, and it is
probably as good as any of the cheaper ‘materials. It should be
sound and free from loose knots.

If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less, the staves
should be made of either 2x4 material, unbeveled on the edges
and neither tongued nor grooved, or of 2x6 material beveled
slightly on the edges to make the staves conform to the circular
shape of the silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more than
12 feet, the staves should be of 2x6 material, and neither beveled
nor tongued and grooved on the edges. The staves should be
surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be presented
which will facilitate the settling of the silage. The first stave set
up should be made plumb, and should be toe-nailed at the top
to one of the posts originally set. Immediately a stave is set in
place it should be toe-nailed at the top to the preceding stave set.
It has been found that the work of setting up and preserving the
circular outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel
staves (see Fig. 18). For a silo 12 feet in diameter the curve in
the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted; for a 16-foot silo
the flour barrel stave is best, and for a silo 20 feet or more in
diameter the stave of the cement barrel is best. If when the silo
staves are put in place they are toe-nailed securely to the ones
previously set if they are fastened firmly to the permanent ‘up-
right post (Fig. 17, a, a, a, a); if the barrel staves are used as
directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand until

60 ‘HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

the hoops are put in place. However, if it becomes necessary for
any reason to delay for any considerable time the putting on of
the hoops, boards should be nailed across the top of the silo.

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the full length
desired, a joint or splice must be made.

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be used.
A part of these should be used their full length and part should
be sawed through the middle, thus making staves of 20 and 10
feet length. In setting them up the ends which meet at the splice
should be squared and toe-nailed securely together. They should
alternate so that first a long stave is at the bottom then a short
one, thus breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base.

For the hoops, %-inch round iron or steel rods are recom-
mended, although cheaper substitutes have been found satisfac-
tory. Each hoop should be in three sections for a silo 12 feet in
diameter, in four sections for a silo 16 feet in diameter. If the
method of construction shown in Fig. 17 is followed, the hoops

— :
| =
esas yi)

id A N Ai

Fig. 18.—Shows how barrel staves may be used in setting up a
silo. They should be removed before the silo is filled.

IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. 61

will need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed
through the upright 6x6 posts, and secured by heavy washers and
nuts. The bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base
of the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two feet
from the first; the third hoop two and one-half feet from the
second, the distance between hoops being increased by one-half
foot until they are three and one-half feet apart, which distance
should be maintained except for the hoops at the top of the silo
which may be four feet apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly
tight before the silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must
be tight enough to close up the space between the staves, thus
preventing any foreign matter from getting into the cracks which
would prevent the staves from closing up as they swell, and allow
air to enter. To hold hoops and staves in place during the sum-
mer when the silo is empty, staples should be ‘driven over the
hoops into the staves. If a sufficient number of staples are used
they will prevent the sagging or dropping down of the hoops, and
they will hold the staves securely in place.

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few days
after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite intense the
nuts should be slightly loosened. If during the summer when
the silo is empty and the staves thoroughly dry the hoops are
tightened so that the staves are drawn closely together when
the silo is filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to
swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for the ex-
pansion.

The doors, 2, feet wide by 2% feet high, should be located
where convenience in feeding dictates. The lower door should
be between the second and third hoops at the bottom, and
other doors will usually be needed in every second space be-
tween there and the top, except that no door will be needed
in the top space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently
low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the space below.
Plans should be made for the doors at the time the staves are set.
When the place is reached wh-re it is desired to have the doors,
a saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points
where the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The saw
should be inserted so that the door can be sawed out on a
bevel, making the opening larger on the inside of the silo. (See
Fig. 15.) This will enable the door to be removed and put in

62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

place only from the inside, and when set in place and pressed
down with silage the harder the pressure the tighter will the
door fit. After the silo is set up and the hoops have been put
on and tightened the cutting out of the doors may be completed.
Before doing this, cleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal
to the width of the door, should be made which will conform
to the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should
be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of where
the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 15.) After the bolting, the
door may be sawed out, and it is then ready for use. When
set in place at time of filling the silo a piece of tarred paper
inserted at the top and bottom will fill the opening made by the
saw and prevent the entrance of any air around the door.

Another Door for Stave Silo.

Silage being heavy to handle and pitch up, has made contin-
uous doors a popular feature of a few factory-built silos, as it
is nuch easier to get the silage out of the silo for feeding. The
illustration, Fig. 19, shows a method of making a door in home-
made silos which is continuous with the exception of a narrow
brace piece extending across the opening, under each hoop,
to give rigidity to the structure. These pieces should be
securely toe-nailed at each end to the staves. The jamb piec-s,
e, e, should be 2 inches thick, beveled off on the side away
from the door, securely spiked to the inside of the stave, as
shown, so as to leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should
be taken to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards, being
sawed the exact length, will fit alike and properly all the way
up, and if care be taken in this regard it will not be necessary
to replace them in the same order at each successive filling of
the silo. The door boards should be matched, two inches thick
the same as the staves, and if surfaced and well seasoned there
need be no fear of the silage spoiling around such a door. A
strip of acid and water-proof paper may be placed in the rabbet,
between the ends of the door boards and the stave, as an extra
precaution, but if the carpenter work is well done it is not
absolutely necessary.

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave silo, and, if
not more than two feet wide, the fact that the door section
is straight instead of curved will make no difference.

SECTION OF SILO DOOR. r 63

Fig. 19.—a, a, Staves. b, b, Door Boards. c, Brace 2% by 6, set
in. d, d, Hoops. e, e, Jamb Pieces.

64 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

If the silo is built cutlside of the barn some sort of a roof
is desirable. This should be sufficicntly wide to protect the
walls of the silo as thoroughly as possible. A very satisfactory
roof is shown in Fig. 16. Two other constructions of a cheap
roof for a.stave silo are shown in Figs. 20 and 21. The latter
was built at the Indiana Experiment Station at a total cost
of $10.50, viz., lumber, $4.00; tin put on and painted, $6.00, and
hardware, 50 cents. Two 2x6 pieccs (AA) were placed on edge
and toe-nailed to the top of the staves they rested on; the
projection is for supporting the carrier at filling time. They
are tied togethcr by the short pieces E. The roof is in three
sections, G, H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame A, A,
and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, to allow filling
to the top. The narrow middle section is light enough to lift
off on either side, and leaves the opening for the carrier to

deliver into.

: Hr yy
* iT xh
G7, hy/

Yd 1

MS
HANNS

Fig. 20.—A cheap roof for stave silos.

CHEAP ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 65

On the framework B, B, and C, C, cheap sheeting boards
are nailed. This is then covered with tin, soldered ioints and
painted. The sections should be fastened down by means of
staples and hooks, or other device; the hooks are used on this
one. On the inner edge of G and H, 2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed.
Close to these are placed similar strips, J, to which the cross-
boards are nailed, forming the section I of the roof. The tin

Fig. 21.—A CHEAP ROOF OF STAVE SILO.

A, B, and BE, 2x6 in.; C, 2x4 in.; D, EH. Enlarged Outside End; F,
Hinges; G, H, I, Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2 in. (Van Norman.)

on the section I should come over to the side of J. On the
other sections it should run up on the side of K, making a
water-tight joint.

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 5 inches, being
the difference in height of A and C. C is notched one inch at
the outer end. (Van Norman.)

66 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

A Modification of the Stave Silo.

Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up, but
unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they may be easily’
blown into a shapeless mags in case of a heavy gale. The
modification of the stave silo described in the following has the
advantage of being more rigid and substantial; it has been put
up in a number of places in the East, and has apparently given
good satisfaction for several years at least. In building this
silo some good tough oak plank two inches thick and of any
convenient length are procured. Rock elm will do, although
not as good as oak. The planks are sawed into strips half an
inch thick. The foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and
a little larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake
is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just long enough
to act as a guide in setting scantling when erecting sides. For
sides 14%4x4-inch hemlock of any desired length is used. These
are set up on the circumference of the silo, perpendicular to the
bottom, 3 feet and 7 feet up nail on the outside one of the half-
inch strips mentioned before, being sure to keep the circle
regular. This will keep upright pieces in place until the circle
is completed. On each hoop so started other half-inch pieces
are nailed, lapping them in different places until each hoop is
three inches thick. Other hoops are now put on in the same
manner, placing them one foot apart.at bottom up to the
three-foot hoop, 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot
hoop, then increasing the distance between each hoop two inches,
until they are 50 inches apart, at which distance they should
be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should be done on the
hoop. When this is done, a silo will be made of 114%4x4-inch,
thoroughly hooped with wooden hoops 2x3 inches.

The inside may be covered with the best quality of felt,
wcll tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat of thick coal
tar is spread; over this another thickness of felt is put while the
tar coating is still green. The silo is lined with %-inch Georgia
pine ceiling, nailing thoroughly and the lining coated with two
coats of coal tar, putting on the first one quite thin, but using
all the wood will take in, and for a second coat tar as thick
as can be spread. Give plenty of time to dry before filling.

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with vertical

MODIFICATION OF STAVE SILO. 67

boarding, or it may have strips nailed on hoops and be boarded
with novelty siding. The latter method will make a stronger
and better looking silo. If the hoops are well nailed to the
staves when being made, we shall have a silo in which it is
impossible for the staves to shrink or get loose. (Woodward.)

Protection against freezing.—If the silo is built out-doors in
any of the Northern states, it is necessary to provide some
special means to keep the silage from freezing in case this is
considered a very objectionable feature. The silo may be in-
closed by a wide jacket of rough boards nailed to four uprights,
leaving the section of the silo where the doors are easy of
access; the space between the silo and outside jacket is filled
with straw in the fall; this may be taken out and us d for
bedding in the spring, thus allowing the staves to be thoroughly
dried out during the summer, and preventing the silo from
rotting.

Number of staves required for stave silos——The following
table (Table VI) will be found useful in calculating the number
of staves required for silos of different diameters, and feeding
areas which these will give:

Table VI.—Circumferences and Areas of Circles.

: Circumfer- Area, 4 Cirecumfer- Area,
“es eon ie cs | nee) eee Whee
8 BEAM) BOOS altho 21 he"), ensBew 346.4
9 RaW | 165.6 22 | 69.1 380.1
10 idea G85. || Dee lie om Bae 415.5
Hee) stG) *)': 95.0 22° 0 S95 PE Page A
Day h § BIT. i eae] 25 78.5 | 490.9
1 yoke 408 | PQ ho, 26.) wis Sime Lit Gro sOns
Py We 44 Oo). 155,9. «|| 27 84.8 572.6
15 471 | 179.7 ag TY gg te G15 8
16 50.3 | 201.1 | 29 91.1 660.5
AGEs! ls “GheA I< 227.0 30 942 | -706.9
18 56.5%.| 254.5 | 51 O74 ren TAS
19 59-7, «| 283.5 52 100.5 804.2
20 62.8 | 514.2 |

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter
by 3.1416.

68 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the
diameter by 0.7854.

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply the area
of the base (floor) by the height.

Example—aA silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet high is
wanted; how many staves 2x6 inches will be needed, and what
will be the feeding area in the silo and its capacity

The circumference of a circle 16 feet in diameter is 50.5 feet;
there will therefore be required 50.5+%4=101 staves, 2x6 inches,
26 feet high, or if staves of this height cannot be obtained, 135
staves 20 feet long, or 50 each of 12 and 14 feet long staves.
The feeding area will be 16X16 X0.7854=201.1 square feet, and
the cubical content of the silo, 201.1 26—5228.6 cubic feet. EHs-
timating the weight of a cubic foot of corn silage at 40 pounds,
5228.6 cubic feet of silage would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about

Fig. 23.—Showing method of bedding iron rods in stone, brick, or
con€rete walls, to increase the strength. The ends of rods
should be firmly linked together as shown.

OTHER FORMS OF ROUND SILOS. 6¢

t

100 tons, which is the approximate capacity of a round silo of
the dimensions given.

Connecting Round Silos with Barn.—The location of the silo
with reference to other farm buildings has already been dis-
cussed. The silo must be easy to get at from the stable, and
the silage, if possible, handled only once in being placed before
the stock. A round silo is most conveniently built just outside
of the barn and connected with this by means of covered pas-
Sageway. The method of joining silos to barns is illustrated in
numerous pictures of silos given in this book.

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, and ce-
ment silos are given in Prof. Woll’s “Book on Silage,’ and in
Bulletin No. 85 of Wisconsin Experiment Station by Prof.
King, as well as in numerous other pamphlets, and we shall
not take up further space here with the discussion thereof. The
same holds true with all other forms of silo construction than
those already explained. We wish to briefly mention, however,
the octagonal type of silo.

Octagonal Silos.

A number of octagonal silos have been built in recent y ars,
and find favor with their owners in most instances. If properly
put up and care taken to fasten the girts securely at the corners
with plenty of spikes, the octagonal silo is greatly superior to
the square type, and has nearly every advantage of the round
silo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy with
tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm help.

The foundation should be of stone or brick as described for
various other forms of silos, and should be laid out with proper
dimensions for the size decided upon. Brief details are here
given for an octagonal silo of about the same capacity as a
round silo, 20 feet in diameter and of equal height.

If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are in the
circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the horizontal girts
will be about 8 feet long, and will be much stronger and better
able to withstand the lateral pressure than the sides of a
square silo of equal capacity. Details of construction are shown
in the drawings, Figs. 25 and 26. The girts should be 5x8
inches and spiked at the corners with 6-inech spikes, up to

70 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

nearly one-half of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of
the way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should be 16
inches apart at the bottom for one-third of the height of the
silo. They may be 18 inches apart the second third of the dis-
tance, and above that the distance between them can be in-
creased till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double
row may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be used.
Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked at the
corners, so that the joints will not give. The horizontal girt
sections take the place of hoops in the round silo and must be
strong. Not less than six or eight spikes should be used at each
splice. One of the causes of failure in home-made silos of
every kind is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never
built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pressure on the
sides of a silo 50 or more feet deep, and does not realize the
disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo.

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular is to
first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the wall securely,

Fig. 25.— Perspective, showing construction of frame, and double
lining with paper between. The door is made of two thick-
nesses with paper between, as shown.

OCTAGONAL SILO. 7

by means of bolts set in the wall, and then erect at each corner
and on the inside a temporary post or scantling to serve as a
guide, braced in position so that it is perpendicular both ways,
and the girts then laid and spiked in position, one above the
other.

The lining is, of course, put on up and down and should be
matched and of good thickness, say 14% or 1% if but one layer
is used. If two layers, it need not be so thick, %-inch flooring,
and the outer layer not necessarily matched. The corners should
be fitted as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block out
the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and
grooves can be properly adjusted to each other.

John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer, recom-
mends, where one thickness of matched lumber is used in the
above manner, that the lining be thoroughly coated on the out-
side with heavy application of coal tar, or other similar sub-
stance, so as to prevent the air penetrating the pores of the
lumber, and causing the silage to dry onto the inner surface.

Any style of door can be used, but an effective continuous
door is shown in the illustration. If any of the girts be cut

Fig. 26—Showing method of laying sill and bolting same to foun-
dation for an octagonal silo.

72 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

out to make the door space larger, the remaining ones should
be correspondingly reinforced.

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple matter, and
a dormer window will assist in filling, although a trap door may
be used in case the filling be done with a blower. Any style
of siding may be used.

Such a silo if well built. will be durable, satisfactory. have
nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in addition will
be a much more stable structure, requiring no tightening of
the hoops from time to time.

Bills of material for a silo built to 21-foot circle and 50 feet
high are given below. The cost will, of course, vary with the
locality.

Bills of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x50 feet cutside meas-
urement:

RODIN CLD Isl OLMev TRAE Pes Bu tn o..as inc Sei arse asa ocenea cr, oekgn ieee cut 10 perches
(CUS panes Se SES eae 110 feet 5x8 )8 or 16 foot
900 feet 2x8 J lengths.

TER ELOS TRS! "hs 3's 01 GAB ESR AE ROS aa aaa Pr 250 feet 2x4x14 feet
SCHU TEER CCRC sacs Coc apace ORME RE tg oN kak ee eT ek 2500 feet
RUT Tie dees tenet > irae {hon ae 2800 feet 114%, inch thick, matched
Dormer Window

INAS AUT lS UGS appar e acta ose aeie WM oo toeasc Shes, Sucre e 300 Ibs.
SIME GO. 2. LB. 3 ae ieee Aa lle CR ea ES Foie See
IELARI ANE coo'5 te RDNCY WO Sig ge RR RC ene ae ee i 6 gallons

The “Ballard” silo is a lumber silo of the octagonal type, de-
signed to be built of material that can be found in any retail
lumber yard. It is one of the contributions of the Plan Book
Department of the Western Retail Lumbermen’s Association, of
Spokane, Washington, for the benefit of the customers of its
members; and its success has brought about its introduction
into a very extended territory.

Its features are its low cost, both in inaterial and labor;
its strength and rigidity: and the simple method of adapting
its construction to meet the varying climatic conditions of widely
separated localities. No skilled labor is required, no patented
materials are used, and the shape and details of construction

COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. (3

4! Ons
SY AIR SPACE Cf)
wy

Ee
B 2x8" UPRIGHT :

%3K 18"
BETWEEN SILLS ANCHOR BOLTS
ee eREAAED Se
SHIP LAP-sIKA sh ONCRETE WALL
OUTSIDE i o TO SECURE
1 * 4+ FLOORING

INSIDE R

5 Zz
5 Z)
fy 2
ne aibarinle © :

pO

CAST CONCRETE WALL+ FOOTINGS
9°

Fig. 5.—Showing foundation plan; also method of placing sill, ete.

are especially adapted for the “battery” system in which several
small silos are built in succession as the demand for silage in-
creases. There is a desirable saving of cost and an increase
in solidity and rigidity in the “battery” system that is of in-
terest. It is the “sectional book case” idea applied to the farm.

The illustrations shown by Figures 5, 22, 24 and 52 were pre-
pared from blue prints furnished by the above commpany and
apply to the 10x30 foot size holding 45 tons.

The anchor bolts shown in Fig. 5 are for attaching 4x$
bracing. Similar bolts are placed in the concrete wall to which
sill is firmly bolted. In Fig. 22, ribs No. 1 to © are spaced 12
inches apart. Ribs No. 6 to 12 are 18 inches apart; No. 12 to

74 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

1_ fo saa
S 6

ve
“a

---5------ 5
oS,

i]

1

44,
-N

Fig. 22.—Skeleton showing method of framing.

16, 24 inches apart, and No. 16 to
19, 52 inches apart. Fig. 24 shows the
method of jointing and spiking the
ends of chords, also the 2x8-inch up-
right support between the ribs. The
shiplap outside and the 1x4-inch floor-
ing inside are also shown.

ZA

LEE SN

The regular chord in ribs No. 2
to No. 18 and part of rib No. 19 is
shown in the larger drawing, Fig. 32.
The smaller drawing represents the
chord for ribs No. 1 and No. 19. The
Fig) 24 2enowine wlan %-inch bolt holes shown are for bolt-

of joints. ing sill or rib No. 1 to the foundation.

LKR

Another type of octagonal silo that has found favor in some
sections of the corn belt because of the fact that the material

COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 75

is easily obtainable from any lumber yard, is
built by simply placing one 2x4 on top of an-
other interlocking the corners and nailing
together. The 2x4’s are sawed at the proper
angle to fit silos from 10 to 20 feet in diam-
eter. The lining consists merely in placing
prepared roofing on the inside to make it
air-tight. It is said that this silo may be
built with but 15 to 20 tons capacity and at
any later time may be increased in capacity
by building it higher.

Fig. 32.— Pattern
for chords or
ribs. The small
size is used only The cost of a silo will depend on local

for silland plate conditions as to price of labor and mater-

ribs. ials; how much labor has to be paid for; the
size of the silo, etc. The comparative data for the cost of two
round silos, 13 and 25 feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given
by Prof. King, as shown in the following table:

Cost of Different Kinds of Silos.

Table VII.

13 Feet Inside Diameter | 25 Feet Inside Diameter

Kinds of Silo

Without With Without With
Roof Roof Roof Roof
|
SETI SILO! RL RS eo $151 $175 $264 $328
Pee eae SAO by dsc Lies, «i= Apspexer? aye 245 | 275 437 . 494
Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches
iiaU REL ete oh eee hang a iho 142 250 310 442
Brick-lined, 2 inches thick. Mo 190 239 569
Lathed and plastered Silo 135 185 244 565
Wood Silo with galvanized
DE eS. eas op « 168 185 308 432
Wood Silo with paper..... 128 222 Zoo Mt 558
BEAVC ED ILOMee ere. ene Fake 127 | 183 136 | 289
Cheapest wood Silo....... 101 144 195 240

76 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inquiries in regard
to the cost of silos of different kinds (not only circular ones)
built by farmers in different states in the Union. The results
of this inquiry are summarized briefly below.

The cheapest silos were those built in bays of barns, as would
be expected, since roof and outside lining are here already at
hand. Number of silos included, fourteen; average capacity,
140 tons; average cost of silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity.

Next comes the square or rectangular wooden silos. Number
of silos included, twenty-five; average capacity, 194 tons; av-
erage cost of silos, $285, or $1.46 per ton capacity.

The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones in
point of cost. Only seven silos were included, all but one of
which were made of wood. Average capacity, 257 tons; average
cost, $568, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The data for the six round
wooden silos are as follows: Average capacity, 228 tons; aver-
age cost, $340, or $1.52 per ton capacity. The one round cement
silo cost $500, and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diam-
eter, 50 feet; depth, 21 feet); cost, per ton capacity, $1.67.

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in first cost,
as is. shown by the data obtained. Number of silos included,
nine; average capacity, 288 tons; average cost, $577, or $1.93
per ton capacity.

The great difference in the cost of different silos of the same
kind is apparent without much reflection. The range in cost per
ton capacity in the 25 square wooden silos included in the pre-
ceding summary was from 70 cents to $3.60. The former figures
were obtained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter
with a 140-ton silo, built as follows: Dimensions, 14x28x18 feet;
2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12 inches apart; two thicknesses of
dimension boards inside, with paper between, sheeting outside
with paper nailed on studding; cement floor. Particulars are
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo beyond its
dimensions.

It may be in order to state, in comparing the average data .
for the cost of the different silo types, that the round silos were
uniformly built better than the rectangular wooden silos included,
and according to modern requirements, while many of the latter
were old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that the

COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. M6

figures cannot be taken to represent the relative value of rec-
tangular and round silos built equally well.

A good many figures entering into the preceding summaries
are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put on the silo is
to be paid for, for in some cases the cost of work done by the
farmers themselves was not figured in with other expenses. As
most farmers would do some of the work themselves, the figures
given may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay in
building silos. In a general. way, it may be said that a silo can
be built in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton
capacity; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden silo
for about $1.50, and a stone or cement silo for about $2 per
ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations according to
local prices for labor and materials.

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following comparative
figures as to cost of silos: Round stave silos, 75 cents per ton
capacity; round wooden silos, $1.25, and cement silos, $1.25 to
$1.50 per ton capacity.

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the kind of
lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, as in case of other
types of silos. It is evident that stave silos can as a rule be
built cheaper than other kinds of silos, both from the fact that
less material is used in their construction, and because the labor
bill is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built in
Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons. Other and
better built stave silos have been put up for $100 for a 100-ton
silo, and this may be considered an average price for such a
silo, made of white pine, hemlock or any lumber that is cheapest
in the particular locality where the silo is to be built. If built
of Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and doors,
the price of stave silos will in the North come to about $1.50 per
ton capacity, small silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a
little cheaper than this average figure.

Estimating Material and Cost of Silos.

Several writers on silo construction have published bills of ma-
terials used in the construction of silos of moderate sizes of
the following three types: Wisconsin Improved Silo, Modified
Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo. Farmers contemplating building

78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

a silo, can use these estimates for figuring out the approximate
cost of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost
of materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos built
in the open, on level land. On hillsides deeper walls may be
made to advantage, and where the silo is located within a build-
ing no roof will he needed. Consequently various factors may
alter the applications of these estimates, which are only offered
as suggestive with the hope they may prove helpful. The first
three estimates of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while
the others have heen furnished by Professors King and Withy-
combe.

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silos.

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons.

Brick—5375 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long.

Flooring for doors—52 feet, 4 matched. si

Sheeting—35000 feet, % inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot plank
sawed three times, dressed one side to uniform thickness for
inside lining of two layers.

Lining—1500 feet of same for outside.

Tar building paper—200 yards, water and acid-proof.

Nails—200 Ibs. 8-penny; 200 Ibs, 10-penny.

Spikes—20 Ibs.

Rafters—22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof.

Sheeting for roof—350 feet of 16 foot boards.

Shingles—3000. i

Shingle nails—12 Ibs.

Dormer window for filling through.

Paint—7 gallons, providing two coats.

Cement—2 barrels, for cementing bottom.

Estimate of Materials for a Modified Wisconsin Silo.

Same’ capacity as preceding.

Brick—550 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long.

Sheeting—6000 ft. % in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank sawed
three times, dressed to uniform thickness for inside lining of
two layers.

Tar building paper—200 yards water and acid-proof.

Nails—150 lbs. 8-penny.

Spikes—12 lbs.

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided for in
this construction. ;

ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS. 19

Estimate of Materials for a Stave Silo.
Size 12x28 ft. capacity 60 tons.

Bricks—1800 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 2 ft. deep.

Staves—77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides.

Staves—77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides.

Rods—10, 19% ft. long % in. iron, with % threaded ends and
nuts.

Staples—2 gross, 4%4x2 in.

Iron tighteners—20 holding ends of hoops.

Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof eccnter.

Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 13 ft. long, for roof next center.

Side rafters—48 ft. 2x4 pieces.

Roof sheeting—170 ft. common.

Tin sheeting—196 ft.

Cement for floor—2 bbls.

Estimate of Materials for a Wisconsin Improved Silo.
Size 50 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity 200 tons.

Stone foundation—7.5 perch.

Studs—2x4, 14 and 16 ft., 1491 ft.

Rafters—2x4,. 12 ft., 208 ft.

Roof boards—Fencing, 500 feet.

Shingles—6 M.

Siding—Rabbeted, 2660 ft.

Lining—Fencing, ripped, 2800 ft.

Tarred paper—740 lbs.

Coal tar—1 bbl.

Hardware—$6.00.

Painting (60 cents per square)—$13.20.

Cementing bottom—$5.00.

Carpenter labor (at $3 per M and board)—$33. 17.

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.59; it is an out-
side, wholly independent structure, except connected with the
barn in the manner shown in Fig. 20, with entrance and feeding
chute toward the barn.

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo.
12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity 49 tons.

1 2-3 yards of rock gravel.

4 barrels of sand.

1 barrel of cement.

2260 ft. tongued and grooved staves.

72 ft. 5x6, 24 ft. door frames.

358 ft. 5% in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight 465 lbs.
9 lugs.

54 nuts.

Preservative ($1.50).

80 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof and
painting are to be added to the preceding list.

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave silos
do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the latest practice
indicates that, if properly done, it is a decided advantage to
have the staves matched, also slightly beveled. The silo made in
this manner will not be so liable to go to pieces when empty.
This is the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous
cases are on record where stave silos standing in exposed places
have blown over when empty. It is recommended, therefore, that
stave silos be attached to the barn by means of a feeding chute,
and in the case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of
guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manufacturers of
stave silos now recommend these on some of their silos, and
make provisions for them.

Preservation of Silo.

A silo building will not remain sound for many ‘years unless
special precautions are taken to preserve it. This holds good
of all kinds of silos, but more especially of wooden ones, since
cement coating in a stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will
better resist the action of the silage juices than the wood-work
will be able to keep sound in the presence of moisture, high
temperature, and an abundance of bacterial life.

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some ma-
terial which will render the wood impervious to water, and pre-
serve it trom decay. A great variety of preparations have been
recommended and used for this purpose. Coal tar has been ap-
plied by a large number of farmers, and has been found effective
and durable. It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with
resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some
of the oil contained in the tar must previously be burnt off. The
tar is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited
and then thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil to
flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will
string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a stick
which has .been thrust into the blazing kettle, and afterward
plunged into cold water. The fire is then put out by plac-
ing a tight cover over the kettle. The kettle must be kept
over the fire until the silo lining has been gone over. <A

2.

PRESERVATION OF SILOS. 81

mop or small whisk broom cut short, so it is stiff, may serve for
putting on the tar.

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many with
good success. About half a gallon of coal tar and two-thirds
of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a time, stirring it while it
is being put on. Since gasoline is highly inflammable, care
must be taken not to have any fire around when this mixture
is applied. Asbestos paint has also been recommended for the
preservation of silo walls, and would seem to be well adapted
for this purpose.

Many silos are preserved by application of a mixture of equal
parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, or one part of the former
to two of the latter. This mixture, applied every other year, be-
fore filling time, seems to preserve the lining perfectly. In build-
ing round silos, it is recommended to paint the boards with hot
coal tar, and placing the painted sides face to face.

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up special
preparations for preserving the silos, which they send out with
the staves. These are generally simple compounds similar to
those given in the proceding, and are sold to customers at prac-
tically cost price.

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by one or

the other of these methods will only keep sound and free from
decay if the silos are built so as to insure good ventilation.
Preservatives will not save a non-ventilated silo structure from
decay.
- Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have seen, by
applying a whitewash of pure cement as often as found neces-
sary, which may be every two or three years. The same applies
to stone and cement silos. The degree of moisture and acidity
in the silage corn will doubtless determine how often the silo
walls have to be gone over with a cement wash; a very acid
silage, made from immature corn, will be likely to soften the
cement coating sooner than so-called sweet silage made from
nearly mature corn.

A considerable number of wood silos are in use that were
not treated on the inside with any preservative or paint and
have stood very well. Indeed, some writers maintain that if
the silo is well protected on the outside, a stave silo receives little
if any benefit from inside coatings.

CHAPTER III.

MONOLITHIC. CONCRETE SILOS— METAL-LATH
AND STEEL-RIB PLASTERED SILOS—CEMENT
BLOCK AND CEMENT STAVE SILOS—VITRIFIED
TILE SILOS—BRICK SILOS—ALL-METAL SILOS.
UNDERGROUND SILOS.

Several types of silos in which cement plays an important
part are now in successful use in all parts of the country. Among
them are the monolithic reinforced concrete silos, both single
wall and double or hollow wall; metal-lath and steel-rib plas-
tered silos; cement block and cement stave silos of various
types; hollow brick or vitrified tile silos and brick silos. All of
these types, as well as the all-metal silos and pit or underground
silos will be discussed in this chapter.

When properly constructed so as to make the walls strong,
smooth and impervious, practically all of the types of silos men-
tioned above have beén used with success. There maybe a dif-
ference, of course, from the standpoint of permanence or dura-
bility just as there is a difference in the life of various woods
used. Aside from the really essential features, there are a num-
ber of desirable features attached to the various types outlined
herein; and when these are all carefully considered and bal-
anced by the prospective silo builder, the cost, fixed largely by
local conditions will probably be the deciding factor.

In the past, the high first cost of all forms of concrete con-
struction has been the chief influence against their more ex-
tensive use, but this has been due to our insufficient knowledge
as to the best and most economical methods in handling ma-
terial. .The price of lumber has been steadily rising, while that
of good Portland cement has been decreasing, and good qualities
can now be obtained at a fair price, so that this factor is largely
removed.

82

MONOLITHIC SILOS. 83

Monolithic Concrete or Cement Silos.

The monolithic silo has r.ference to the one continuous solid
mass or “as one stone” silo where the concrete is poured in forms.
Wherever the old forms of silo construction are well established
it is but natural that opposition to newer types should arise.
The concrete silo, therefore, in common with some of the other
types described in this chapter, had to gain headway in the
face of much adverse criticism.

Among the arguments against concrete were that the walls
were not air or moisture-proof; that they failed as heat re-
tainers and allowed the cont_nts to freeze very easily; and that
the silage acids affected the concrete causing soft, crumbly walls
that were easily cracked. In fairness to all concerned it may
be said that these arguments were greatly overworked. If
properly built and painted inside with a wash of pure cement,
concrete can be made both air-proof and moisture-proof; where
the wood silo gains asa non-conductor of heat, it loses in having
much thinner walls, and the double wall concrete silo largely
overcomes freezing. As to acidity, the experience of thousands
proves this to be practically a negligible quantity where a pure
cement or coal tar wash is applied every two or three years,
the acids having less effect on cement than on either metal or
wood. Among other claimed advantages of the concrete silo are
these: they neither shrink in hot, dry weather nor swell up in
damp weather; they maintain a more even temperature; they
are vermin proof; they will last practically forever and need
no repairs, and they are fire-proof.

Concrete grows stronger and tougher with age, outlasting al-
most every other known material. Reinforced concrete, selected
for great engineering projects such as long bridges, massive
dams and lofty skyscrapers, is considered the strongest and
most enduring construction known.

“Reinforced concrete or concrete steel is very much stronger
than ordinary concrete,” say Bulletin No. 125 of the University
of Wisconsin. “Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel
rods or wires are imbedded in such a way as to take the strain.
By placing wire rods in the concrete it is possible to make the
walls or beams much thinner or lighter than would otherwise
be possible and obtain the required strength. By reinforcing the
concrete with steel much cement is saved.

84 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

“Tf it were possible to have the
work skillfully done a cement silo 16
feet in diameter and 55 feet high
could be built of reinforced concrete
with walls only 2 oz 3 inches thick
and be abundantly strong. But labor
sufficiently skilled to do this would
cost too much, so that it would be
cheaper to use twice as much cement;
make wall 6 or 8 inches thick and use
less skilled labor. If the work is
earefully done using ordinary labor
it is practical to build silos 16 feet
in diameter and 35 feet high with 6
or 8 inch walls if the steel rod is laid

in the wall every 2 or 35 feet.”
Reinforced concrete offers great ,
possibilities for silo building. The
lateral pressure on the walls when the :
silo is filled is very great, but the Fig. 27.— Cement Silo

circular shape renders it very easy and No. 17 Ohio Cut-
to reinforce. The single or solid wall ter at Experiment
Station, Sao Paulo,

is most generally used. Good four-
inch wall silos have been built, but

Brazil.

the six-inch wall offers greater convenience in placing reinforce-
ment and justifies the use of more material. The saving of ma-
terial by making the wall lighter at the top would hardly offset
the trouble of varying the size of the forms. }

The double wall or hollow wall concrete silos were designed
partly to overcome the freezing of the silage which has been the
one disadvantage of solid walls especially in cold climates. Ma-
chines are now on the market that easily and successfully build
reinforced and continuous hollow walls. Iowa Bulletin No. 141,
referring doubtless to conditions in that section, states that “the
double wall concrete silo at present is made only with patented
forms. The inner wall is 5% inches thick, the outer wall 3%
inches thick, and the two tied together with steel ties with a
three-inch air space between. Circulation is prevented by insert-
ing horizontal tar paper partitions every 3% feet. This construc-
tion, besides being as satisfactory as the single wall method,

‘

REINFORCEMENT FOR SILOS. 85

places it entirely above any criticism in regard to freezing. The
patont forms being made of steel plate enable a very smooth job
to be secured. In general it would seem that the expense of a
double wall is not justified except in cold climates.”

The foundation, as in all other concrete structures, is very
important. Not only must it serve as an anchor to protect the
structure against wind pressure, but it must also be very strong
and firm or the great weight upon it will cause it to settle un-
evenly, in which event the walls are liable to crack and so admit
air; consequently, spoiled silage will be the result. Where there
is a good clay floor, a concrete floor in the silo is not necessary.

“The concrete silo when built as a monolith is practically a
unit. Its walls and roof are bound together by a net-work of
steel, laid in the concrete so as to withstand pressure from the
inside,’ says Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214. “A silo built this way
usually has walls six inches thick, which are reinforced in pro-
portion to their size and capacity. The greater the height of a
silo, the greater the pressure on the wall at the bottom.”

Any silo bonded by ce-
ment is subject to contrac-
tion and expansion due to
changes of moisture and
temperature and _ should,
therefore, be reinforced
both horizontally and ver-
tically. Perhaps the best
reinforcement is secured
by twisting No. 9 tele-
phone wire together and
forming a_ eable. This
Fig. 28.— Horizontal Reinforcing Offers a rougher surface

around silo door. than the steel rods and

forms a continuous band,
which is very effective. The reinforcement should be laid in the
wall about one or two inches from the outside surface. Vertical re-
inforcement should be used in silos 25 feet high or more and is also
convenient for binding the circular cables in place. Short three-
foot lengths of %-inch steel rods are most satisfactory for this
purpose as they can be hookcd together as the silo rises and not

No
SPLICE li HORIZON
PEINFORCEHENT |

86 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

be in the way in raising the forms. The size and spacing of hori-
zontal reinforcing needed for silos is shown in tables reproduced
herewith from Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214.

Table VIill.—Amount of Reinforcement Needed for Silos.

Size and Spacing of Horizontal Reinforcement Around Silo.

A = For Silos 14 ft, to 18 ft. in
For Silos 14 ft. to 18 ft. in te ane i
Distance in Feet Diameter, Using No. 9 Wire. Dismpter: Celie 4% inch Mild
measured om Top
of Silo
No. of Wires Distance Distance
in Cable Apart of Cables| No.of Rods | apart of Reds

Inches. Inches.
0— 5 2 | 12 at 18
5—10 2 10 1 18
10—15 2 8 il 14
15—20 4 8 1 12
20—25 4 6 1 10
25—50 4 6 1 8
50—S55 5 6 1 6
55—40 5 + 1 4

Vertical Reinforcement.
For Silos 14 ft. to 18 ft. Diameter
Belent oeailonn tt. Nd. of Wires in | Distance : Distance
Each Cable [Apart of Cables| N0-of Rods | apart of Rods

; Inches. Inches.

Oh SOM. Stites. 4 24 1 50
30—55 C 6 24 ak 20°

35—40 8 24 1 14

Figure 29 illustrates how a very satisfactory continuous door-
way can be made by forming concrete jambs,on both sides of the
opening, with a recess on inner side for the 2-inch plank doors to
fit against. The forms for these jambs should be erected between
the inner and outer forms of the silo wall, and it will be seen that
the 1-inch ladder rounds form the binder or horizontal reinforcing
across the door opening and should be in position and twisted
_around the vertical reinforcing rod. Spacers consisting of 2x4’s
at intervals of two feet, will hold the jamb forms apart rigidly
and prevent them from bulging from the pressure of the concrete.

CONTINUOUS DOORS FOR SILOS. 87

The vertical jamb forms may be made in sections of any con-
venient length, preferably from six to twelve feet.

|

\\\

arto re ee ee

ve
-
—"-
-

‘

Fig. 29.—Continuous Doorway, with concrete jambs, showing man-
ner of anchoring to the vertical reinforcing, and position of
plank doors.

—Courtesy Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago.

Care should be taken to have the wooden forms absolutely
vertical. All surfaces of wood which will come into contact with
the concrete should be planed and oiled, which will insure a
smooth surface and prevent the wood from adhering to the con-
crete. Full illustrated details regarding constructions of this
kind will be found in catalogs issued by several cement manufac-
turers.

Local cenditions largely govern the cost of concrete silos. The
ruling factors are the price of gravel and cement and the cost
of labor. An investigation was made during the spring of 1911
by a large concrete manufacturing company to ascertain the
actual cost of 78 monolithic silos scattered through Minnesota,

88 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

Wisconsin, Illinois, and Michigan. The total cost included ma-
terial, labor, superintendence and all miscellaneous expenses in-
curred in preparing the silos, ready to receive the crops. Where
sand and gravel were obtained on the farm the expense of haul-
ing plus a fair price for materials was included. The average
cost of the 78 silos was $2.30 per ton capacity. The 20 silos
having capacity 100 tons or less cost $2.89 per ton. 52 silos with
capacity from 100 to 200 tons cost $2.58 per ton. The remaining
26 silos having capacity of more than 200 tons each, cost $2.18
per ton capacity.

FRODS PLACED 2°
APART TYING FOOF

Saas o, ste VER T1ICA bn
Foo

Fig. 30.—Showing method of tying roof to wall, and of rein-
forcing across door opening.
—Courtesy Wisconsin Bulletin No. 214.

We quote from Bulletin No. 125 of the Wisconsin station.

“A common type of form used in making a continuous wall
or monolithie structure is illustrated in Fig. 51. A is the outside
form and B the inside form. These forms are made as segments
of the circle 6 or 10 feet in length and 1% to 3 feet deep. A
form is made by taking two pieces of plank 2x12 or 2x14, LL and
UU, Fig. 51 A, sawing them out to the curvature of the circle.
These are placed horizontally as girts and the short planks P are
set vertically nailing them to the girts, LU. The form 31 B is
made in the reverse of 51 A.

“In building the wall, form B is set inside of form A and 6 to
12 inches from it depending on the thickness desired for the wall,
and the concrete is filled in between the forms.”

The building of a concrete silo involves careful attention to
the construction and proper bracing of the forms or moulds, and
to the reinforcing and the bonding of the various courses. It is
therefore suggested that unless a farm -r has had some 2xperience

FORMS FOR CONCRETE SILOS. 89

Fig. 31.—Illustrates method of making form for constructing con-
crete walls. The forms are made of plank and are made in
sections 4 to 10 feet long, requiring 5 to 8 sections to complete
the circle. ’

—Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.

with other conerete work about the farm, he should not:attempt
to build the silo himself but should turn the job over to a con-
erete contractor under a guarantee for only a first-class silo.
The difficulty and expense connected with the preparation of
proper forms has led to the adoption of co-operative effort in
many sections. Some of the corn belt Agricultural Colleges make
a practice of loaning to farmers at a nominal cost a set of forms
together with the services of an expert. Manufacturers of mould
and mixing equipment are also attempting to supply farmers with
monolithic reinforced silos at minimum cost. One of these,
known as the MONSCO, has a standarized outfit, consisting of
seaffold-hoist with derrick, steel moulds for walls and chute, and
power mixer. The moulds are made in two circles each 5 feet in
height, divided into easily handled segments. Six feet of wall
per day is poured, reinforcement and ladder irons being installed

90 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

at the same time and chute also being poured. The walls are 6
inches thick from top to bottom. The reinforcement used is
American Steel and Wire Company cold-drawn triangular mesh,
woven in various weights. This mesh provides sufficient vertical
reinforcement to prevent temperature cracks.

Hy-Rib Concrete and Metal Lath Reinforced Silos.

The Hy-Rib Concrete Silo, so-called because of its steel-rib
basis, has recently met with considerable success. It applies to
silo building the principles of monolithic reinforced construction
so successfully used in other buildings. In this type of silo no
forms or framework for the walls are required. Sheets of stiff,
firm steel sheathing are used, having a rough open surface, and
one inch projecting ribs every four inches of height. These
sheets are about two feet wide by 10 or 12 feet long. The first
round of sheathing is, of course, properly imbedded and anchored
in the foundation wall.

Fig. 33.—Cross Section of Foundation of Hy-Rib Silo.—Courtesy
Trussed Concrete Steel Co., Youngstown.

_ The following printed matter has come to our attention and
gives more complete information on reinforced cement and concrete
silo construction. :

Bulletin No. 255, “Cement Silos in Michigan,” published by Ex-
periment Station, East Lansing, Mich. “Silo Construction in
Nebraska,” by Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr.
Bulletin No. 100, “Modern Silo Construction,” and No. 107, “The Iowa
Silo, published by Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Farmers’
Bulletin No. 405, “Cement Silos,’ and No. §89, “Home Made Silos,”
by the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.,
and booklets on “Concrete Silos,’ published by the Universal Port-
land Cement Co., Chicago, Ills., The Trussed Concrete Steel Co.,
Youngstown, Ohio, and Monolithic Silo and Construction Co.,
Chicago, Ills.

METAL-LATH PLASTERED SILOS. OL

The Hy-Rib Concrete Silo differs from the metal-lath silo in
that the latter requires a temporary framework of 2x4 studding
on which to tack the lath, whereas in the steel-rib silo, the sheets
of steel are thoroughly locked together at both sides and ends,
forming a firm, self-sustained framework or foundation of itself.
To this the concrete is applied in the form of a 1:2% waterproof
cement plaster to a total thickness of from 3 to 34% inches, as
shown in the illustration, Fig. 33. Indeed, the manufacturers
claim that they have silos of this construction in use 20x58 feet
in size with the walls at the thickest point not more than 2%
inches.

The Metal Lath Plastered Cement Silo also stands well to the
front, from the standpoint of strength, economy and practicabil-
ity. It is put up without forms except for the door posts and
studding, the cement being applied in the form of plaster to both
the inside and outside of the metal lath. This is accomplished by
tacking the lath to the inside of the temporary frame work of
2x4 studding and applying several coats of cement or plaster, the
studding then being removed and the outside plastered. Where
materials used in construction are excessively high in price, it
will prove cheaper to erect than the monolithic structure because
the walls are only about three inches thick. Skilled labor is re-
quired for this type of silo. Care must be taken to prevent the
various coats of cement from drying out rapidly, otherwise the
next coat will not form a perfect union and the strength of the
wall will be reduced. When properly constructed this silo will
be found amply strong for the work required.

After the good solid concrete foundation is finished, a four-or-
five-platform scaffold must be erected inside, before any other work
is done. The form for the continuous door frame should then be
built on the ground, complete with all reinforcing, and raised to po-
sition. 2x4 studding, with plates on top, are then placed in position
and fastened. The 24-gauge expanded metal or metal-lath is then
tacked to the inside with double-pointed tacks, beginning at the
top and at the door post. Each strip of lath should be tacked first
in the middle and should conform to the circular shape of the silo
before the ends are tacked. After the several layers of cement
or plaster have been applied and are dry, the studding may be
removed and additional horizontal reinforcement in the form of
strands of heavy wire should be placed around the silo, care being

92 SILOS: OTHER THAN WOOD.

taken to anchor same to vertical reinforcement in the door posts
before any mortar is placed. A silo 16 by 30 feet will require 150
pounds cf additional wire reinforcement. The silo should be
plastered on the outside at least one inch in thickness. A metal-
lath silo of the above dimensions, of about 120 tons capacity, can
be built for from $225 to $275. The cost of these silos has not
exceeded three dollars a ton capacity in any case, the average be-
ing considerably less than this amount.

Mr. George C. Wheeler of the Kansas Agricultural College Ex-
tension Service says: “The first round of the metal-lath which
forms the chief reinforcement of this silo, must have its edge em-
bedded 5 or 6 inches in the top of the foundation in order to in-
sure a perfect union between the foundation and the wall proper.
When the trench has been filled to within about 6 inches of the
top and the concrete brought to an approximate level, the lath,
which comes in strips 8 feet long and 18 inches wide, should be
stood on edge and concrete poured on both sides of it. Its posi-
tion should be on a circle having a radius 2 inches greater than
the inside radius of the finished-silo. As the strips of lath are
stood up and the mortar poured in, they should be carefully
curved and their exact position determined. The strips of lath
should be lapped about three inches at the ends, and when the
circle is completed the wall outside of the lath should be leveled.
The wall, while still green, should be smoothed up as much ag
possible.” :

Modifications — Double
and Single Wall.—A mod-
ification of this type of
metal lath construction is
shown in the illustration of
Fig. 54. In this it will be
seen that the lath or rib-
bed-steel is tacked to both
the inside and the outside
of the studding and plas-
tered or cemented, forming
a double or hollow wall
construction. This would

doubtless require less skill- a :

Sa Tabor! ERR! Wee ane Fig. 34.—Showing double wall met-
, i al-lath silo— Courtesy General

studding is removed, and Fireproofing Co., Youngstown.

the double wall would bet-

ter adapt it for cold climates. A’ single wall silo of

CEMENT BLOCK SILOS. 93

this same type is built by replacing the studding with % inch
vertical rods to which every rib of the metal is firmly wired. In
this way only one wall of the ribbed-steel is used and it is plas-
tered on both sides to a total thickness of about 2% inches.

Cement Block Silos.

The cement block silo is sometimes preferable to other types.
It will be found cheaper and easier to erect than the monolithic
conerete silo and although perhaps not so strong as the solid
wall, it is probably as good as any silo when properly con-
structed. The architectural effect is very pleasing, especially
where the rough exterior is used. The blocks should be well
made and plenty of reinforcement used. The reinforcement con-
sists of steel bands or rods laid in the wall between the courses as
in brick or stone construction. They should be entirely cov-
ered by mortar to protect them from rust.
Cement blocks are easily made at home or may be secured
at numerous factories. In many cases the manufacturers will
move out their forms, mixers and other utensils and make the
blocks at the building site at less expense than for the monolith.
This is because the work can be done with greater facility on
the ground level than up in the air on scaffolding. With a little
practice any mason can learn how to lay the blocks and follow
f specifications.

Mi La OLE The Nebraska Agricultural Experiment
j | . Station Bulletin, No. 158, has the follow-
Lea ing regarding ccment block silos: ‘There

o G are three general types of blocks which
can be used for silo construction, the solid
block, the hollow block and the two-piece
block. These blocks may have rough or
smooth outsides and may be either curved
or straight. The straight blocks, of
course, will need to be plastered on the
inside to produce a smooth surface to the
silo.

“When cement blocks are made very
fast, it is essential that the mixture of
which the body of the block is made be
Fig. 35.—Type of con- quite dry. Concrete when used in this

crete Bloat which Way is quite porous. If the face of the

can be used in silo blocks can: either be of a much richer
construction. - mixture than the body of the block or
b> made of very wet concrete and trow-

eled, a much better block for silo construction can be made. It is

94 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

preferable that the face of the block be both richer and wetter
than the body of the block; also, if the face of the block be trow-
eled it makes a block which will not absorb moisture. Whenever
it is not possible to make or obtain blocks of this nature the in-
side of the silo should be plastered after the walls are laid. If
the expense of plastering is too great, the walls can be washed
or painted with a mixture of one part cement and one part fine
screened sand. This will take the place of plastering as far
as sealing the-pores in the blocks is concerned, but does not
leave the wall as smooth as plaster.

“The solid block, such as is shown by ‘a,’ Figure 55, is ad-
visable only when a machine has to be made and one cannot
be constructed which will make the hollow blocks. This solid
block is more quickly made than the others, but requires more
material, is heavier and harder to handle, and conducts heat
and cold more reaGaily.”

The two-piece blocks such as shown by “b,” Figure 35, are
made to lay up in the silo wall so that the leg of one in the inside

wall will overlap the leg of one in the outside wall but in the

Fig. 36.—Showing how the two-piece cement block
is laid in the wall and the door frame.

course above it. Figure 56 shows that these blocks make nearly
a perfect dead-air space so that the silage is less apt to freeze,
as heat will not be transferred back and forth through the walls
as readily. Blocks made in the above manner can have a
wetter and richer mixture in the face than in the back and
the face can also be troweled. j

CEMENT BLOCK SILOS. 95

Fig. 37.—Illustrates a type of concrete block used in silo
construction. H H are holes left in ‘blocks. T and M
are dove-tailed tenon and mortise so made that blocks
interlock when laid on the wall. G is a groove made in
block to imbed iron rod for reinforcing the wall.

—Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.

The Nebraska Station has designed a special machine for
making these two-piece blocks and also a machine which will
make the single piece hollow block as shown in “ec,” Figure 35.
This block cannot be made as fast as the two-piece block but
is much easier to lay. It gives the troweled surface inside but
not outside nor does it give as perfect a dead-air space.

Fig. 38.—This form of block requires less material and does
not freeze so readily as the solid block. Note manner
of reinforcing by %-in. iron binders.

Commercial blocks like ‘‘d’’ Figure 35 are very common. They
may be either straight or curved to fit the curvature of the silo.
Being generally very porous they should be plastered on the
inside after being put into the wall. Curved blocks require less
plaster but plaster must be used anyway and a straight block
not exceeding 16 inches in length will make a good silo. The
usual dimensions of curved blocks are 8x8x16 or 24 inches.

Cement blocks’ are usually made of finer materials than are
the solid monolithic walls. The blocks are made of sand and
cement; or if any gravel is used it is very fine gravel whereas,
in the continuous wall monolithic construction, coarser gravel or

96 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

erushed stone is more commonly used. This is one of the
reasons why the monolithic wall is stronger than the block wall.

Good block silos can be put up with home-made blocks and
by home labor, but an experienced contractor is recommended,
if convenient. No blocks that are cracked, broken or crumbly,
should be used, and all blocks should have good water-resisting
qualities. A small amount vf water placed on the surface, if
readily absorbed, indicates a poor block for silo purposes.

The Iowa Bulletin No. 141 says that “the practice of using
wooden studs for the door frame'in mortar at the ends of the
blocks and at each side of the doorway and bolted to the steel
frame cannot be criticised too severely. This stud is placed
under conditions best adapted to cause rapid decay. Often it
is so constructed that it cannot be replaced without much diffi-
culty and thus the durability of the entire structure is impaired
by the use of a single part.” Fig. 39 illustrates a poured con-
crete door frame that avoids this difficulty.

Ends of rods bent.
Sewn when lapping

Fig. 39.—Continuous door opening for concrete block silo.
View shows the manner of fastening reinforcing rods
to the door frames, also of anchoring rods around a block
instead of lapping.

—Courtesy Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago.

FOUNDATION AND ROOF TYPES. 97

Foundations. — Concrete
block silos require heavier
foundation footings than do
clay block or wooden silos.
They should not be _ less
than 28 inches wide at the
bottom and 2 feet deep.
A mixture of one part ce-
ment, three parts sand, and
six parts broken stone or
course gravel will make a
cemenr pLasre® mixture for the footings and

foundation walls.

Fig. 40.—Two types of foun-
dation for cement block
silos.— Courtesy Nebraska
Station.

The Roof.—Figure 41 illustrates
the cornice work and forms for a
concrete roof to correspond in per- Fig. 41.—Illustrating how
manence and fire-proof qualities to build cornice for con-
paliMihelremainder of, ite silo1> Ad moncuek eee

block silo.—Courtesy Ne-
one-third pitch is recommended. braska Station.

Patented Reinforcements.—The weak point in any sectional
block construction is in the joints between the blocks and the
attempts to overcome this are demonstrated in many forms
of patented reinforced cement blocks now being used for
silo building. "Where the blocks are made of a poured or gravity
mixture, using the best quality of cement, sand and gravel ob-
tainable, they are extremely dense and strong. One of these,
known as the Hurst System. uses blocks 24x12x4 inches thick.
Running laterally through each block are two % inch round

98 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

steel rods, the ends
of which are turned
up two inches in small
recesses in each end
of the block. When
the blocks are laid
Sri ee ae f into the silo wall,
> ae ; cas ie these turned ends
and recesses match
corresponding ones
in the _ adjoining
block, as shown in
Fig. 42. A % inch
round steel link is

Fig. 42.—Showing one method of sec-
tional block reinforcement.—Cour-
tesy Hurst Silo Co., Chicago. then slipped over the

two turned ends

which are afterwards bent back and drawn tight and the recess
filled in with cement. This method of construction is said to be
very powerful and to give excellent results.

Another method similar to the above, known as the Harvey
system, uses reinforcing rods which are turned at right angles,
one turned vertically hooking over the other turned laterally.
Upright.rods are imbedded in each block and fit between blocks
of the course above. This permits the building of a double wall
if desired, the two walls being tied together with steel strips
running diagonally between the upright rods. é

Cement Stave Silo.

The cement stave silo is built of concrete slabs or staves 50
inches long, about 10 inches wide and 2% inches thick. They
have a curved interlocking edge and are built into a wall,
forming a wall of thickness of the block and bound together
with hoops on the outside. With good quality blocks, properly
treated with a water-proof wash so as to be impervious, this
type of silo is a success. It is claimed for them that all danger
of cracking due to contraction and expansion is eliminated.
For this reason although the steel hoops are not protected they
need no adjustment when once set.

VITRIFIED TILE SILOS. 99

Vitrified Tile Silos.

Vitrified clay blocks have during the past few years com-
manded considerable attention for building purposes. The dura-
bility of this material is indicated in a quotation from Sir Charles
Lyell’s Antiquity of Man.

“Granite disintegrates and crumbles into particles of mica,
quartz, and feldspar; inarble soon moulders into dust or car-
bonate of lime, but hard, well burnt clay endures forever in the
ancient landmarks of mankind.”

It is not surprising therefore that vitrified tile or blocks
are being used extensively for silo building. They have a hard,
glass-like crockery surface, impervious alike to gas, moisture,
acid or air; they withstand temperature fluctuations without
contraction or expansion; they give the advantages of a double
or triple wall with dead-air spaces; they are easily handled;
and when properly reinforced against the bursting pressure
of the silage they have no superior on the market.

Iowa Bulletin No. 141 states that “in clay blocks there are
many grades of quality ranging from almost worthlessness to
one of the highest quality of building material known. These
variations in quality are due mainly to three causes, quality
of raw material, method of burning, and defects in forming.

“Brick clays are made up principally of two classes of ma-
terial, one that melts at temperatures usually secured in the
hottest portions of the brick kilns, and one that remains firm
at these same temperatures. Proper portions of each of these
classes of material are essential. The former, called the fluxing
material melts and binds together particles of the latter, while
the latter preserves the desired form of the brick or block
throughout the burning process. It will be readily seen that as
the fluxing material fuses it will fill all of the space between
the other particles, and upon extreme heating it flows out over
the surface giving it a glassy appearance. This process is known
as vitrification.

“In all kilns the blocks nearest the fire become burned harder
than the other blocks and in any kiln only a portion of the
blocks will be fit for silo construction. For this reason silo
builders should not expect to secure such blocks at less than
standard prices plus a reasonable price for sorting.”

A variety of patented clay blocks and different methods of
reinforcement are now in use. Many of these have special
merits in the details. In general, the same methods of wire or
steel bands are used as with cement block silos. A _ study
of some of the patented blocks illustrated in Fig. 45 will bring

100 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

out many of the details of construction. A represents a block
with curved recess at top and bottom for reinforcing rods and

N

a flange on each side of the block
so that the bulk of the mortar
is confined in the wide groove
and only a very narrow strip
exposed. B calls attention to
the mitred groove at top and
bottom for reinforcing rods to
form a lock joint. The narrow
apertures on each side of block
form a tongue-and-groove mor-
tar joint when laid in the wall.
C and D illustrate the door jamb
and regular blocks of another
type. It will be noticed that
D gives plenty of room on top —
for mortar and _ reinforcement.
Still another type of silo is indi-
cated by the blocks BH, F, G, H
and I. E and F are door jamb
blocks. G is a glazed floor or
paving block. H and I show
two views of the regular wall
block. J illustrates the cast iron
door sill and K indicates the

Fig. 43—Group of Patented Clay Blocks of various manu-

facturers.

FOUNDATIONS FOR BLOCK SILOS. 101

reinforcement across door opening. L, M, N and O, P, Q show
two types of door jambs and regular blocks put out by another
manufacturer. N indicates the vertical reinforcement next to
the door around which the wall reinforcing steel is placed. The
galvanized iron tie R for the door opening is shown in position
on top of the block O.

Porous
—Backfilling

Tile below ground
line to be set on
end and. filled
with concrete

in, if necessary

Fig. 44.—Showing two methods of preparing the founda-
tion for clay block silos. (Courtesy Iowa Experiment
Station.)

.

The lowa silo is a hollow clay tile silo that was designed by the
Agricultural Engineering section of the Iowa Station. It is
very popular as it does not require special blocks. The Iowa
Silo is simple in construc-
tion, durable, efficient and
reasonably cheap where the
tile can be obtained. It is
built of regular clay hollow
building blocks’ similar to
those shown in the illustra-
tion of Figure 47. The tile
are laid in cement mortar
which contains just enough SEUR Te fark
lime to make the mortar stick “~~ ie!
well (one part cement, one-

MENT PLASTER.
en CT EUEL OR SAND.
tee Star os

Fig. 46.—Clay block silo
third part lime, two to three foundation. — (Nebraska

parts sand). Number three Bulletin No. 138.)

102 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

wire is laid in for reinforcement, the amount of wire used being
adjusted to meet the demands of the lateral pressure. The inside
of the tile may be plastered or simply washed with a cement
wash.

Fig. 47.—Five types of clay blocks Fig. 48.— Silo
which can be used for silo con- cornice for
StEUCHONWetLAC» ISD) xO Kae: “BY clay block
iS oe x16 8 SO” is’ 47x80 xe": silo.

Seems. pox b xo: and “ay7. vs
4’’x5”x16”. (Cuts from Nebraska
Bulletin No. 138.)

Figures 44, 46 and 48 illustrate methods of constructing the
foundation and cornice for clay block silos.

Brick Silos.

In constructing a brick silo it will be well to guard the fol-
lowing points: Make the foundation of concrete and let the
first course of brick come flush on the inside with the cement
work. Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the cement wall in
the upper part before laying the brick, in order to keep the
pressure of brick from spreading the wall before it becomes
set and hard. Make a two-inch air space in the walls up to
within one-third of the top. This will make a 14-inch wall of
three courses of brick. The air space should be in the outer
part of the wall. Iron tie rods should also be laid around in
the wall between the doors, as recommended in the foundation.
It is also important that the brick should be wet when laid,
otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be dried out
too rapidly. The walls should be plastered over very smoothly
with a coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick,
and then every two or three years this should be well white-
washed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected from the
effects of acid in the silos. King recommends that the door

BRICK AND ALL-METAL SILOS. 108

jambs be made of 5x6’s or 5x8’s, rabbetted two inches deep to
receive the door on the inside. The center of the jambs outside
should be grooved and a tongue inserted projecting three-fourths
of an inch outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure
a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The doors
may be made of two layers of matched flooring with tarred
paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb, so as to give a
perfect smooth face next to the silage.

Single Wall Brick Silo.—A 100 ton reinforced brick silo was
built in 1909 by the West Virginia Experiment Station at Mor-
gantown, and described in their Bulletin 129. The wall was laid
up the width of a brick or 4 inches thick with 20d annealed wire
nails imbedded in the cement mortar so that the ends projected
from the wall about 2 inches into the silo. When the cement
mortar had hardened, woven wire fencing was cut into pieces
of proper length and fastened close to the inside of brick wall
with the clinched nails. Two thicknesses of wire were used for
lower half of silo and one thickness for upper half. Each strip
lapped 2 inches over the one beneath. This wire was thor-
oughly covered with cement mortar of one part cement and three
parts sand. Prof. Atwood writes (Aug., 1914) that the silo
has given excellent satisfaction. He recommends, however, that
the wire fencing should have perfectly straight horizontal wires,
no coils, as the coils stand out from the brick work and necessitate
more plastering. Many silos of this type have been constructed
during the past two years, especially in the South.

All-Metal Silos.

The canned fruits and vegetables for our tables remain good
indefinitely so long as air is absolutely excluded. The admission
of air, in however slight degree, produces mold and rot, and
destroys a very considerable part of the food value.

Where tests have been made, silos made of metal or lined with
metal, have been found to most nearly approach the air-tight
containers in which we buy our canned vegetables, and if these
metal cans are good for our dainty table delicacies why are
they not good for our “canned corn” known as silage?

The fact that over 2,000 metal silos are now in use in this

104 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. ‘

country and that their sales are rapidly- increasing, is the best
evidence of the entire satisfaction they have given.

Metal silos are not new. They have been in use in Australia
for nearly 20 years. It is claimed for them that they are “wind-
proof, fire-proof, crack-proof, shrinkage-proof, vermin-proof, ex-
pansion and contraction-proof, collapse-proof, repair-proof; there
are no hoops to tighten, no anchors or guy wires to install; they
are highly rust-resistant; they are absolutely non-porous, hence
are moisture-tight and above all positively air-tight.”

Fig. 45.—Two large Metal Silos and Ohio Cutter at Wagner Bros.,
Groom, Texas.—Courtesy Perfection Metal Silo Co., Topeka,
Kansas. ,

The first commercial metal silo, erected in Iowa in 1907, is still
giving very satisfactory service. “It was built of interchangeable
sections, which were bolted together by means of flanges extend-
ing outwardly all around each section. This method of con-

ALL-METAL SILOS. 105

struction forms a rigid reinforcement of the silo wall, and pro-
vides an easy and practical means of increasing the capacity of
the silo at any time, by bolting on additional sections to the
top. It also makes it practical to move the silo by taking the
sections apart and re-erecting them in another location.”

Mr. Charles P. Buck, writing for the Kansas State Board
of Agriculture in 1914, says: “The metal silos are made air-
tight by sealing the joints between the sections with a cement
of an elastic nature, unaffected by moisture, cold or heat. The
silo also is provided with a means by which the doors, through
which the ensilage is thrown down into the feed boxes, are
sealed absolutely air-tight, thus avoiding one serious cause of
spoilage and loss.

“The two questions which usually arise regarding silos con-
structed of metal are regarding the action of the silage juices
on the metal and the radiation of the heat of fermentation
through the metal wall.

“Silage juice, after the fermentation, is slightly acid, con-
taining minute quantities of acetic and lactic acids. It is cus-
tomary to protect metal silos against the mild acids of this
‘juice by painting the interior with an asphaltum paint, which
forms a cheap, durable and reliable protection.

“The question of the effect of radiated heat loss during fer-
mentation is best answered by the results obtained in the 2,000
or more metal silos now in use. In these it has been found
that the silage next to the wall is as thoroughly fermented and
as well preserved and palatable as that in the center of the
silo. There probably is some heat lost by radiation, but there
is apparently sufficient heat produced during the fermentation
to supply all that is necessary despite the radiated loss.

“Practical use in the field has demonstrated that the metal
silo has every good quality which has been desired in a silo.
Once erected it is permanently air-tight and moisture-proof.
The form of construction so reinforces it that it is secure against
high winds, it requires practically no care or expense to main-
tain, and produces ensilage without mold or rot and consequent
loss.

“Properly constructed metal silos need no guy wires, cables
nor anchors. They are secured in a foundation of concrete in
much the same way as are modern structural steel smokestacks
of immense height.

“The leading manufacturers, have by careful experiments

106 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

found that it is possible to produce a metal that is fully re-
sistent to the chemical action of the silage juices, which thus
obviates the probability of any rust or corrosion of any kind.

“Properly constructed metal silos are so strong and rigid+as
to be readily insured against cyclones and wind storms. One
leading manufacturer, in fact, provides purchasers with such
insurance without cost. Metal silos are fireproof and are proof
against lightning without the necessity of lightning rods.

“The original manufacturer has silos in use in nine different
states, from Mexico to Minnesota, in all extremes of climatic
conditions, and over a considerable period of years. As a result
of the satisfactory experience, a great many types of metal
silos have been devised, from those riveted up like a railroad
water tank, various types of partly riveted and partly bolted
sections, to those of interchangeable sections with various types
of flanges. The type apparently most in favor, however, is
that first brought out. Numbers of metal silos are in use as irri-
gation water tanks during the sumnier when empty of silage.

“Any question of the durability of metal silos has long since
been completely answered by their continued use without appar-
ent defects, rust or corrosion of any kind. Their use is rapidly
growing in all sections of the country, Hast and Wiest, and results
are everywhere perfectly satisfactory.”

Manufacturers furnish metal silos in uniform sized sheets or
sections, finished complete ready to bolt into the silo. The
sheets are interchangeably matching and are about two feet
wide by 7% feet long. Different gauges of metal are used, some
having a strength of 45,000 pounds to the square inch. Lighter
material is used toward the top in proportion to the diminishing
pressure exerted by the silage. Appurtenances such as doors,
roofing sections, bar-iron, bolts, joint-cement, paint, ete, are
usually boxed or crated.

Painting.—Metal silos should be painted once a year, long
enough before filling to set well. The reason for this is given
by one manufacturer as follows::

“In the production of silage certain mild acids are formed
by fermentation, which, if no protection was offered would have
a tendency to cause the metal to corrode. To provide against
this, it is advisable to keep the inside of the silo painted with
some elastic, acid-resisting paint. Such paints are put up by
practically all of the best paint manufacturers. Any good paint,
with an asphaltum or gilsonite base, that is prepared so that
it will not dry too quickly, can be depended upon. We suggest
asphaltum or gilsonite, because such paints are thoroughly satis-
factory, and the cost is considerably less than that of some
other kinds.”

ROOF AND FOUNDATION. 107

The Metal Silo Roof.—The roof adds greatly to the appear-
ance of the metal silo and protects it against undue wind strain
or vibration. In northern climates it acts as a protection against
snow and freezing, and in warmer zones against the extreme
heat of the sun which would cause considerable loss between
feedings. It is an added expense, of course, and as rain is not
injurious to silage the roof is considered superfluous in some
sections of the Southwest. The permanent roof also prevents —
tramping or filling to the top of the silo, causing both spoilage
and loss of capacity. Despite these objections, however, the -
majority of purchasers seem to prefer the roof.

Foundation.—Too much care cannot be taken in building the
foundation of a metal silo. Solid ground is the first essential be-
cause the silo with its contents is very heavy. The foundation
wall and floor should be of concrete of ordinary 1:2:4 propor-
tions. The wall should be at least 12 inches thick and extend
6 inches below freezing point or about 5 feet in the ground—deep
enough to prevent the frost from heaving the silo out of level
and to prevent rats from digging under. The first row of metal
sheets should be imbedded in the center of the wall at least 12
inches deep.

Freezing in Metal Silos.—In extremely cold climates silage

Fig. 49.—Large Metal Silo on Sunny Slope Farm, Emporia. Kas.,
being filled with Silver’s Ohio No. 22 Cutter.

108 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

will sometimes freeze in any kind of silo, but it must be very
severe and protracted cold weather to freeze silage very deeply
because of its own generated heat. Metal silo manufacturers
contend that while the so-called double—or hollow—wall silos are
slower to freeze than some other types, they are also much
slower to thaw; that unlike other silos, freezing and thawing has
no injurious effects on the metal silo, or on its contents; that
silage freezing to the sides of ordinary silos requires to be
chipped away with danger of injury to the walls; whereas the
sun beating against the metal walls for a few hours on the cold-
est winter day melts the silage loose; and that metal silos are
giving satisfaction in northern territories where the thermometer
hovers around 20 degrees below zero for weeks at a time.

Detailed directions regarding the building of foundations
and the erecting of metal silos will be found in the catalogs
of metal silo manufacturers, which should be secured by anyone
interested in this type of silo.

Pit or Underground Silos.

Pit or underground silos date back to antiquity. For over fifty
years they have been demonstrating their value in Europe, not
only in preserving silage but in economy of construction. The
pit method of storing green feeds had been followed for many
years before the advent of the modern silo or silo filler. The fact
that the above-ground silo ever since its introduction has made
such rapid strides in comparison, would indicate that this type is
far more satisfactory in actual use.

In the United States the underground silo is distinctly a West-
ern type, having its highest degree of adaptability in those sec-
tions visited by sparse rain fall and where the water table is not
near the earth’s surface. These silos are therefore numerous in
Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado and the Western parts
of Kansas and Nebraska. Norton County alone in Kansas has
cver 100 pit silos. Some are in use in the semi-arid parts of
South Dakota as well as in Illinois, Michigan and other states.
They are NOT adapted to humid sections or to localities subject
to regular and heavy rain fall.

The underground silo is generally considered a temporary ex-
pedient cr makeshift and it seems to show up to best advantage

PIT OR UNDERGROUND SILOS. 109

where but very few cattle are fed. That it isa makeshift, however,
should not deter farmers from building such silos in case they can
not see their way clear to erect a better silo. Even a cheap silo
properly built serves a good purpose in demonstrating the value
of the silo and in helping its owner to come into possession of
better equipment and a silo more to his liking.

Analysis of comments in the farm press for the past two years
reveals a number of advantages claimed for this type of silo.
Among these advantages may be mentioned the following:

1. Little cash expenditure is required. Labor is the chief
item. Where labor is exchanged there remains only the cdst of
cement and sand for plastering the walls and making the concrete
collar around top. 2. It is easily constructed, requiring very little
skilled or outside help. 3. The silage keeps perfectly if well
packed. The temperature remains even winter and summer—no
freezing or thawing. 4. It will resist tornado and fire. It cannot
blow over or rot down. 5. Because inexpensive, two small deep
silos may be built, keeping one for summer feeding or for use
should crops fail entirely. 6. No expensive forms are required for
building. 7. No trouble with ill-fitting doors, or with loose hoops,
or cracks. 8. Anyone can make it who can dig a cistern. 9s A
more inexpensive silage cutting equipment may be used, enabling
each farmer to own his own machine so that it can stay on the
job and refill as silage settles, thus securing utmost capacity at
minimum cost. 10. The top surface is handy, where it can be
tramped regularly the first few days. 11. When built in the
right soil it will last just in proportion to how well it is con-
structed and cared for, bearing in mind the necessity of guarding
against caving in, seepage, etc.

The most common objection to the pit silo is the inconvenience
in getting the silage out of the hole, which would have to be deep
enough to secure pressure for proper packing and keeping quali-
ties, and should therefore be at least twice as deep as the diameter
of the silo. Some kind of hoisting apparatus would be necessary.
This would be too laborious and inconvenient unless operated by
a gasoline engine or other power which would, of course, increase
the expense.

The claim has been made that the extra cost of getting the
silage out of an underground silo would be more than’ offset by the

110 - SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD.

saving effected in filling, but this hardly holds true, as with
modern machinery it is little more expensive to fill a silo above
ground than one below the surface.

The failure of the silage to thoroughly pack by its own weight
is one of the principle draw-backs to the pit silo. This is on ac-
count of the lack of depth so much in evidence in structures of
this kind. é

Another objection to the silo is that poisonous gases are likely
to accumulate in the bottom and render the silo dangerous to en-
ter. Lowering a light would soon discover the presence of such
carbon dioxide gas which if present would immediately put the
light out. These gases are heavier than air and the air would
have to be agitated to dispel them since there is no air drainage
in an underground silo.

Again, unless the soil is dry and very hard or has excellent
drainage there would be the danger of water seeping into the
hole and thus spoiling the silage. The likelihood of caving in
either while building or after the first silage crop was taken out
would also have to be overcome.

Some of the essentials in building underground silos aside
from firm dry soil are that they should have a curb or collar ex-
tending from below frost line to a few inches above ground; that
they should be plastered from % to 2 or 3 inches thick and washed
with a cement coat to make them water- and air-tight, the walls
being sprinkled lightly before plastering, if dry; that the walls
should be smooth and ‘perpendicular for even, solid settling; that
a cover should be provided as a protection against children, ani-
mals or foreign matter and to insure free air circulation.

CHAPTER IV.
THE SUMMER SILO.

The summer silo is fast becoming popular and even necessary
because of its splendid aid in supplementing summer pastures and
tiding the herd over the period of drouth, heat and flies. Experi-
ment stations that have studied the subject, strongly advocate its
use and some of the leading agricultural papers have been speak-
ing in no uncertain voice as to its advantages.

“The summer silo is as certain to assert its value as American
agriculture is certain to go forward rather than backward,” says
Breeder’s Gazette of Chicago. ‘Pasture as at present used—or
abused—is a broken reed. An over-grazed acre is the costliest
acre that the farmer supports. Even in normal seasons grass
rests in the summer time, and unless a fall and winter pasture is
laid by, little good is derived from grass lands after the flush of
spring. The silo supplements pastures, and carries the burden of
the winter’s feeding.”

Among dairymen who have used summer silage for many years,
permanent pastures have been greatly reduced or even entirely
dispensed with. A prominent Indiana dairyman recently re-
marked, “My dairy last year returned me approximately $5,000
and yet I would go out of business if I had to give up the silo. I
would have to reduce the herd 50 per cent. if the summer silo was
not used.” That statement is merely based on the fact that enough
silage to keep a cow or steer during its pasture season can be
grown on from one-fourth to one-third the area required to keep
the same animal on pasture. Beef cattlemen are rapidly finding
out about this “greater efficiency per acre of corn silage as com-
pared with grass, and the similarity of the two feeds in their effect
on cattle,” and it leaves little room for doubt that “the silo will
greatly reduce the pasture acreage required and will have a
marked effect on beef production on high-priced land.”

Following the same line of thought Purdue Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 13 says:

Too much dependence is usually placed upon pasture for sum-
mer feeding. Pasturing high-priced land is unprofitable in these
times. Few stop to consider the destructive effects of trampling,

111

112 SUMMER SILO.

that, while a cow is taking one bite of grass, she is perhaps soiling
or trampling the life out of four others. If sufficient silage is put
up each year part can well be used for summer feeding, which
will be found less laborious than the daily hauling of green crops
for the herd. The herd must not be allowed to shrink in flow
unduly, as it is practically imp6ssible to bring them back during
the same lactation. The young stock, destined for future pro-
ducers, must not be neglected on short pasture, for the labor and
expense of supplying their needs as above indicated for the herd,
is insignificant compared with the importance of their unimpaired
growth.”

The Indiana Station states that “The most rapid and most econ-
omical gains ever made by two-year-old cattle fed experimentally
at this station were made by a load of 800-pound cattle fed from
March 17 to July 15, 1910, on a ration of shelled corn, cottonseed
meal, corn silage and clover hay. During this period the cattle
ate an average daily feed of 14.61 pounds of corn, 2.24 pounds of
cottonseed meal, 35.81 pounds of silage and 2.58 pounds of clover
hay. They relished.the silage as well in summer as in winter.”

There are many intelligent farmers who are providing a suc-
cession of fresh soiling crops and using them to great advantage
in helping out short pastures. “But,” says Professor Frazer of the
Illinois Station, ‘‘there is necessarily much labor attached to pre-
pairing the ground, planting, raising, and harvesting the common
crops used for this purpose. There is usually much loss in being
obliged to feed these-crops before they are mature and after they
are overripe. And for the farmer who can make the larger in-
vestment, the most practical way of all to provide green feed for
summer drouth is to fill a small silo with corn silage. It not only
saves the labor and inconvenience in the putting in and cultivation
of small patches of different kinds of crops, but also in harvesting
from day to day in a busy season of the year. ‘

“These soiling crops can be dispensed with and all the feed
raised from one planting in one field in the shape of corn. The
whole field of corn for the silo may be cut at just the right stage
of maturity when the most nutriment can be secured in the best
possible condition of feeding. It also avoids the possibility of the
soiling crops failing to ripen at the exact period when the drouth
happens to strike the pasture. For the silo may be opened when-
ever the pasture fails, regardless of the date, and the silage will
remain in the best condition as long as needed. When the pasture
supplies enough feed again, what is left in the silo may be covered

SUMMER FEEDING. 13

over and thus preserved without waste, and added to when refilling
the silo for winter use.”

Oregon Bulletin No. 136 says that “the summer silo is growing
in favor, and in many ways has advantages over the soiling sys-
tem. As soiling is now practiced, a carefully planned rotation is
necessary in order to have green feed always on hand. The acre-
age of each crop must necessarily be small, and frequent planting
at intervals of from ten days to two weeks must be made. If a
large field were planted and soiling started at the proper time to
get the maximum yield of food constituents and the greatest palat-
ability, the greater part of the crop would soon be beyond this
stage, as only a small part would be cut each day. By putting the
crop into the silo all could be cut at the proper stage of maturity,
and all at the same time. This would do away with the daily
chore of cutting small amounts.”

The dry pastures and burned-up hillsides following the drouth
of 1910 made a very strong impression as to the importance of
having good summer feeding. It was an eloquent though severe
plea for the summer silo and led to some splendid testimony in its
favor. The drouth “cut down the milk fiow in most of the herds
nearly 50 per cent. Not one farmer in a hundred had provided
for this emergency by a good supply of succulent food that would
make milk. It is the same old story over again. It seems to take
a tremendous lot of pounding on the part of Providence, to get it
into farmers’ heads that a summer silo is a grand thing,” says
Hoard’s Dairyman. “Our herd of cows had 50 tons or more of
nice corn silage to turn to when feed grew short and they have
rolled out the milk nicely right along. Besides, they will keep at
it. There is nothing like a supply of silage for summer use. It is
close by and handy to the stable for use when you want it. And
furthermore it will produce more milk than any other kind of soil-
ing feed.”

This is the experience of Wisconsin investigators, who find
that silage holds milk-flow during drouth even better than soiling.
It is rational that it should.

During the summers of 1910, 1911 and 1912 the comparative
value of soiling crops and silage were thoroughly tested out at the
Wisconsin Experiment Station. In these tests corn silage com-
peted with such soiling crops as green corn, peas, oats and red

114 SUMMER SILO.

clover. The two systems were practically on an equal footing so
far as influence on milk production was concerned, but the cost of
producing and feeding soiling crops was higher than that for
silage, due to the cost of seed and the great amount of labor in-
volved. The silage yielded more and better food from the same
area, was more uniformly palatable and there was less waste due
to uncontrollable weather conditions. The experiment indicated
that in case of scant pastures, dairymen would find it a matter of
great convenience, saving and profit to feed corn silage in prefer-
ence to soiling crops. The results of the above experiments were
published in Wisconsin Bulletin No. 255.

The summer drouth is with us to stay, and we might as well
prepare to meet the situation most intelligently. As a matter of
fact, we have never known a single season in our practical experi-
ence to go through from end to end without a drouth, and even
that in the best of what we might term our normal seasons. Major
EB. E. Critchfield, of Chicago, an agricultural expert, says that a
good deal of effort has been made in various localities to carry over
this particular season by soiling, but, he adds, we must remember
that the man who does this is not in any sense prepared for soil-
ing practice and it comes at a period when he is almost inordinate-
ly busy with other things and is, therefore, likely to fail of best
results.

If, however, he has a summer silo, or a good “heel” left in his
winter silo, he has in it a place of greatest convenience for feeding
and it is most likely to produce the best possible results.

Night pasturing has been found to be a very valuable practice
in connection with the summer silo. By running the cows into
pasture at night they are absolutely undisturbed by flies and other
insects, and by keeping them in a darkened yet well ventilated
barn during the day and feeding them from the silo, every adyvan-
tage of the pasture and absolute freedom from its annoyances is
secured.

Another very valuable attribute of the summer silo is that it
permits of saving crops in years of great plenty for other seasons
of less plenitude. The desirability of this practice becomes evident
when we recall how our mothers in years when fruit was very
plentiful and cheap, used to put up a sufficient quantity to last
for several years and we can hark back in our memories and tes-

BLUEGRASS PASTURES OF SOUTH. 115

tify as to the quality of the fruit and, therefore, the success of the
practice. Now, since the siloing of green stock food is nothing
more or less than a process of canning, it may be carried over
several years without any deterring influences.

The renovation of the bluegrass pastures of Middle Tennessee
and other Southern bluegrass communities is another wide field
of usefulness to which the summer silo in the South may profitably
be put. That the native bluegrass areas of this section have been
abused is plainly evident, says a bulletin recently issued by the
N. C. & St. Louis Railway. “Much of the pasture lands of Middle
Tennessee which once lay in vast stretches of perfect bluegrass
sod has been brought by continuous grazing to a comparatively
low state of yielding capacity. Like all other plants, and animals,
bluegrass has the disposition to lose vitality in the process of re-
production, and if grazed, even lightly, during the period of propa-
gation, serious injury is the result. Instead of reproducing itself
through the agency of its own seed, as is popularly supposed, blue-
grass propagates its kind chiefly at the root. With the appear-
ance of the first warm sun rays of early spring, long lateral joint-
ed rootlets are sent out from the parent root, from which spring
little shoots which appear on the surface of the soil as new grass.
If grazed during this process, the act of reproduction is arrested
and the old plant itself permanently injured. In order to renew
and maintain a perfect sod on the bluegrass lands of the South,
the process of reproduction must be allowed to operate undis-
turbed by removing all stock from the pastures for six weeks or
two months early in the spring. This period of rest should extend
from February 1 to 15 to April 1. One ton of silage per head of
either dairy or beef stock reserved from the winter supply, or a
small silo filled and retained for that purpose, would enable the
Southern bluegrass pasture owner to transform his meager pro-
ducing lands into a perfect sod with but little extra expense.”

The substance of a strong editorial in Wallace’s Farmer, while
referring particularly to the lesson of the 1910 drouth, applies
with equal force wherever pasture is used or cattle are fed. It is
worth quoting here:

“The question we are constantly asked is: ‘Will silage keep
through the summer?’ We are glad to be able to give a direct
answer to this, not theoretically, but from personal experience.
We built a silo on one of the Wallace farms and filled it in 1908,

116 SUMMER SILO.

and made the mistake of building it too large. During the winter
of 1908-9 the silage was not all used. Last fall we put in new
silage on top of the old, and during the winter used out of the new
silage, leaving the unused remainder in the bottom. We are now
feeding that silage, and the man in charge, an experienced dairy-
man, tells us that after the waste on top was removed, this two-
year-old silage is as good as any he ever used; that the cattle eat
it as readily as anything and eat more of it than they did during
the winter.

“This is in entire harmony with every farmer we ever heard
of who uses summer silage. If silage will keep two years without
any waste except on the exposed portion of the surface, then it
will certainly keep one.

“Some people say: ‘We may not have another summer like
this.’ To this we reply that a period of short pastures during July
and August is the rule in all the corn belt states, and lush grass
at this season of the year is a rare exception. Remember that
seasons come in cycles of unknown duration, and the time of their
coming is uncertain; that it always has been so, and it is safe to
assume that they always will until the Creator sees fit to change
his method of watering the earth. Therefore, well-made silage
in a good silo is just as staple as old wheat in the mill. There
will be a waste of several inches on the surface, just as there is
waste of several inches on the surface of the hay stack or shock
of corn fodder; but a man can afford that waste, if he has the
assurance that his cows will not fail in their milk or his cattle lose
flesh, even if there should be little or no rain for thirty or sixty
days. When you put up a silo for summer use, you are going into
a perfectly safe proposition, provided, of course, you build it right,
and fill it properly.”

This editorial isin line with further evidence which comes
from the Purdue Station. Prof. Skinner writes:

“Many successful farmers with limited areas of pasture make
a practice of filling a small silo for summer use. It has been well
established that silage properly stored in a good silo when the
corn or other crop is in the most desirable condition, will keep in
good condition for several years. Many foresighted men-taking
advantage of this fact plan to have silage on hand the year round.
They are thus prepared for any unusual conditions such as drouth,
scant pasture, excessively long winters, and it is altogether prac-
tical and profitable. It is desirable to have a silo of relatively
small diameter for summer feeding as it is necessary to feed con-
siderable amount from off the top of the silage each day in order
to keep it from moulding during the hot, damp weather. r

“There are three silos on the university farm and it is our aim
to avoid having all these empty at the same time. A limited farm,
greatly overstocked, makes it necessary to supplement the pas-
tures every year, and while soiling crops are grown in abundance
they cannot be relied upon because of the gravelly nature of the

SUMMER FEEDING. pip Uy

sub-soil underlying the farm, which means longer or shorter
periods of drouth annually.

“It would be absolutely impossible to maintain the number of
animals on the college farm that we are successfully carrying
without the silage to supplement our pastures and soiling crops.
Many Indiana men have come to look on the silo as quite as im-
portant in supplementing the pastures as it is in furnishing suc-
culence during the winter season.”

It is well to remember that less silage will naturally be fed in
summer than in winter and that on the exposed surface molding
is liable to set in more quickly. In order to keep the surface in
fairly good condition, at least three inches of silage should be
taken off daily, where two inches suffice in the winter. Where the
size of herd permits, some farmers plan to feed off as much as five
or six inches daily in summer. Feeding at the rate of 30 pounds
per head daily and removing silage to a depth of two inches from
the surface means only about four square feet of surface needed
for each head per day. A silo for 20 cows should therefore not
exceed ten feet in diameter. It will be found advisable in building
the summer silo to keep the diameter as small as is practicable.
The higher the silo the more firmly the corn is packed and the
better it will keep.

Silage soon dries out or spoils in hot weather when exposed,
but not so soon where it is finely cut and well packed, because this
more nearly excludes the air, thus reducing the amount necessary
to be removed daily. By having the cutting knives sharp and set to
cut 14-inch lengths the exclusion of air is so nearly complete that
very little more silage needs to be removed in summer than in
winter. If possible silage in summer should be fed in the shade
because the hot sun acts very quickly and dries out and sometimes
spoils the silage before the cattle eat it.

CHAPTER V.
THE USE OF SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

The day has passed to question the usefulness of the silo to
the cattle feeder. Further experiments will simply emphasize its
necessity. Millions of dollars could be added to the profits of the
land-owners and beef-raisers of this country by heeding the teach-
ings of the numerous experiments already made.

Experiments at several stations during the past four or five
years have proved beyond question the value and economy of corn
silage in the ration for fattening steers. Silage-fed steers have re-
peatedly made the heaviest and cheapest gains, have attained the
highest finish during the feeding period, and have brought more
money on the market. Numerous extensive trials have shown that
the very best and cheapest dry rations have failed to equal a good
silage ration, properly balanced, either in amount or cheapness of
gains.

Until recent years the dairy industry apparently held the mo-
nopoly on the profitable use of this succulent feed. It is refreshing
to note the awakening among cattle feeders to its wonderful ad-
vantages in beef production. The “discovery” of the use and value
of silage for beef making is, however, not new as many suppose.
It was tested out by Prof. Thomas Shaw at the Ontario Agricul-
tural College fully 25 years ago and the experience of many Cana-
dian beef growers has for 20 years backed up the facts that good
beef could be made from corn silage alone and meal, that it could
be made more cheaply than on other feeds, and that corn stover
was intended to be first a food and then a fertilizer, rather than
merely a fertilizer.

The beef producing area of the United States will be vastly
increased by the use of the silo. Now that the Kansas Agricul-
tural College has shown that kafir and sorghum are fully equal to
corn for silage, even the dry land sections of the southwest are
put on a beef-fattening basis. This means that over one hundred
and fifty million acres are added to the area that can profitably
produce finished beef cattle. This is a significant fact when it is
considered that the growing scarcity and the consequent high
prices of beef in late years has been such as to admit of foreign

118

SILAGE AND THE BEEF SUPPLY. 119

competition. “There was a time,” says Breeder’s Gazette, “when
meats were produced as cheaply in the United States as any-
where. That condition no longer exists. To produce meats in
the United States costs more money now than to produce them in
South America, New Zealand, or Australia. Probably meat pro-
duction even in Great Britain is less costly than with us.”

The situation is clearly stated by H. M. Cottrell, Agricultural
Commissioner of the Rock Island Lines, as follows:

“An adequate supply of beef for the United States can be
secured only by the stockmen throughout the country adopting
silage as the basis of their feed rations both while growing cattle
and while fattening them. The cost of making beef with grain
and dry forage is greater than the majority of the consumers can
pay for it and farmers find it more profitable to sell grain than to
feed it. A careful feeding test showed that taking a steer from
birth to three years of age when he was marketed fat, it required
58 pounds of feed for each pound of gain. An average of a large
number of feeding tests in many states showed that with dry
feeds 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of hay were required for
each pound of gain made while fattening beef animals. Grain is
worth at least one cent a pound and hay is worth half a cent. Fig-
ure for yourself the cost of making beef with dry feeds.

“Silage saves a large proportion of grain needed in fattening
animals. It saves the need for any grain while cattle are growing.
Silage fed cattle gain faster than those on dry feed. They finish
quicker and the meat is better marbled. Cattle fed silage while
fattening require 50 per cent less grain to make each 100 pounds
of increase in weight than do cattle fed under the best methods of
ary feeding. Silage makes 50 per cent saving of grain over ordi-
nary methods of feeding. On high priced land, silage is of special
advantage, as it nearly doubles the carrying capacity of the land.

“Forty per cent of the feed value of a corn plant is in the stalk
and 60 per cent in the ear. The stalks that grow on nearly ninety-
five million acres of land are wasted annually in this country and
the feed value of the stalks on nearly eight million acres are but
partially utilized each year. This annual waste amounts to prac-
tically a billion dollars, the greatest economic waste in any one
line of business in the world. Silos could convert all this wasted
material into one of the best beef producing feeds.

“Under the ordinary way of roughing beef cattle through the
winter a herd averages 200 pounds less in weight per head in the
spring than it did in the fall. It costs considerable even with these
methods to carry stock cattle through the winter and every one
loses in value. Stock cattle fed silage and a little dry forage will
gain 100 pounds a head through the winter and increase in value.
There are about 37,000,000 beef cattle in the United States. More

120 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

than half of them are roughed through. Silage-feeding would
make a difference of 500 pounds of edible beef every winter on
each of these.”

Men at the various stock yards are now strong boosters for
the silo and claim that it is a big factor in replenishing the cattle
supply. During the past two or three years, the use of silage has
become general throughout almost the entire Southwest. The re-
sults have been that the cattle now go through the winter in ex-
cellent condition and develop good flesh with a limited supply of
grain, cotton seed meal and cake. Cattlemen of the Southwest
say that the silo has solved the problem of winter feed and put
the old range country in a position to get both the breeders’ and
the feeders’ profit from cattle. During the past few years silage-
fed cattle have topped the market repeatedly with record prices
and it is no longer necessary to conceal their identity at the mar-
ket to evade discrimination. Indeed the discrimination, if any,
now leans the other way. This weighty kind of ‘“fact-evidence”
which affects the pocket-book, has served as a strong weapon to
dispel the prejudice that formerly existed against silage in feed-
ing circles.

Before proceeding to mention a number of important feeding
trials that have helped to bring about this condition, we wish to
quote a short article from Farmers’ Bulletin 556 of the United
States Department ‘of Agriculture as follows:

“Silage stands first in rank of all the roughages for finishing
cattle. Formerly, during the era of cheap corn and other econcen-
trates little attention was given to the roughage, as it was usually
considered merely a ‘filler’ and of very little economic value in
feeding. No especial care was taken in selecting any particular
kind, nor was the quality of it seriously considered. As the prices
of the concentrated feedstuffs advanced, the feeder looked about
for methods of cheapening the cost of producing beef and soon
found this could be accomplished by using judgment in selecting
his roughage with respect to the grain fed. This has continued
until at the present time the roughage receives as much attention
as the concentrated feed, and has been made to take the place of a
large amount of the latter. The feeding of silage came into gen-
eral use with the advent of expensive grain and is becoming more
popular each year. With the present prices of feedstuffs there is
hardly a ration used for feeding cattle which cannot be cheapened
by the use of this succulent feed. By combining it with other
feeds the efficiency of the ration is increased to such an extent
that the amount of the daily gains is invariably greater and the

EXPERIMENT STATION RESULTS. 121

cost of producing a pound of gain is lessened. The heaviest daily
gains are usually made during the first stage of the feeding period,
and silage can then be used to advantage in large quantities with
a small amount of grain, but as the feeding progresses the amount
of silage should be lessened and the grain increased. In some
places the price of hay and stover is so high that the greater the
proportion of silage used in the ration the more profitable is the
feeding.

“Silage is a quick finishing roughage in that it produces large
daily gains and produces a glossy coat and a soft, pliable skin.
Moreover, it can be used to advantage at times for carrying cattle
for a longer time so as to pass over a period of depression in the
market, or to carry the cattle along in thrifty condition so they
can be finished at a later period.”

When we consider the varied conditions under which the ex-
periments of the Agricultural Stations and others have been
made, it is surprising to find the results so similar and all pointing
to the one conclusion.

The Nebraska Station finds in Bulletin 152 that corn silage
made larger and more profitable gains with steers than did corn
stover, used one-third less grain, and produced better finished
steers, which were worth more per hundred.

A summary of results at the Pennsylvania Station—Bulletin
124—-shows that net profits during the 1912-15 cattle feeding tests,
not including pork, ranged from $11.22 per head for steers fed
silage and hay, to $14.09 per head for steers fed corn silage as a
sole roughage. Corn silage at $3.50 a ton proved much cheaper
as a sole roughage than when fed with hay valued at $12.00 a ton.
This Station realized a value of $6.20 a ton for silage when used
for steer feeding.

The Missouri Station found in a steer feeding experiment,
where corn silage was compared with hay that they could make a
saving of $1.07 per hundred pounds of beef by using silage.

Bulletin 169 of the South Carolina Experiment Station gives
results that are of much value to cattle feeders, not only in the
South, but in practically all parts of the country. In this test com-
paring silage, corn stover and cotton seed hulls, the corn silage
gave by far the best returns, not only in feeding profits, but in
the quality of the beef and the shape in which it reached the mar-
ket. The silage fed group produced gains even on a poor market
that would warrant an earning on the silage of $6.86 per ton.

122 -SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

Results at the North Carolina Station given in Bulletin 222
show that “Beef cattle fed on corn silage as the roughage portion
of the feed in conjunction with cotton seed meal will not only use
the meal more economically during a continuous feeding period,
but they will finish in better condition and command a higher
price than cattle fed on dry roughage. In all of the lots where
corn silage was fed as a whole or a part of the roughage, the daily
gains were more uniform throughout the feeding period than the
gains made by the lot fed cotton-seed hulls.”

Prof. H. P. Rusk of the Illinois Experiment Station, says that
“one of the most common mistakes in the use of silage is attempt-
ing to make it take the place of part or all of the concentrates in
the ration.

“Corn silage is a roughage and not a concentrate. Its profit-
able utilization in the finishing ration depends not so much upon
its nutritive value as on its cheapness, its palatability and succu-
lent nature, the steer’s ability to consume large quantities of it,
and the possibility of utilizing the entire corn plant, a large por-
tion of which would otherwise be wasted.

“Used in its proper combination with other feeds, corn silage
is one of the most economical roughages available in the corn belt.
However, it should be remembered that corn silage, like corn it-
self, is low in protein and must be fed in combination with some
highly nitrogenous feed in order to offset this deficiency. This
fact was demonstrated in the early studies made on silage at the
Purdue experiment station when a ration of shelled corn, clover
hay and corn silage was fed in comparison with a similar ration
to which cotton seed meal was added in sufficient quantities to
balance the nutrients. The lot receiving cotton-seed meal made an
average daily gain of 2.7 pounds during the 150-day feeding period
while the lot that did not receive cottonseed meal made an average
daily gain of only 1.8 pounds. The cost of gains was $9.11 per cwt.,
where cottonseed meal was fed as compared to $11.07 per cwt. in
the lot to which it was not fed. A noteworthy fact shown in the
results of this experiment is that the addition of 2.6 pounds of
cottonseed meal to the daily ration did not decrease the steer’s
capacity for other feeds. In fact, the steers receiving the balanced
ration consumed a little over four pounds of feed more per head
daily than those not receiving cottonseed meal. This effect is one
that is commonly noted when rations lacking in protein are bal-
anced with some highly nitrogenous concentrate, or even when
the common non-leguminous roughages in such rations are re-
placed by clover or alfalfa hay.

“Where liberal allowances of corn silage are used, a leguminous
roughage such as clover hay or alfalfa hay cannot be relied upon
to furnish sufficient protein. The only way to properly balance
such a ration is to add some nitrogenous concentrate such as cot-

INDIANA STATION RESULTS. 123

tonseed meal or linseed oil meal. This fact is demonstrated by the
results of a feeding trial conducted at the Illinois experiment sta-
tion during the winter of 1910-1911. In this experiment each of
three lots of two-year-old steers received a full feed of broken
ear corn and corn silage; in addition one lot was fed all the alfalfa
hay it would clean up, another lot clover hay, and third lot was
fed enough cottonseed meal to balance the ration. The lot re-
ceiving corn, alfalfa hay and silage made an average daily gain
of 2.35 pounds; the lot fed corn, clover hay and silage made an
average daily gain of 2.09 pounds; while the lot receiving cotton-
seed meal in the place of a leguminous roughage made a gain of
2.59 pounds per head daily and returned a larger profit than either
of the other lots.

“Aside from failure to properly balance the ration, probably
the most common mistake in feeding silage to fattening cattle
is the practice of beginning with a small amount of silage and
gradually increasing as the feeding period advances. This is just
the reverse of the method that should be followed.”

At the Indiana Station, the 175 day feeding trials conducted
from Nov. 20, 1913 to May 14, 1914, rendered strong evidence in
favor of feeding corn silage and cheap roughage. Seven lots of
10 grade Shorthorns each, were fed various combinations of
shelled corn, soybean meal, cottonseed meal, oat straw, clover and
alfalfa hay—with and without silage. The test showed little dif-
ference in the feeding value of soybean meal and cottonseed meal,
either in finish or profits.

The most profitable lot of steers received shelled corn, cotton-
seed meal, silage and oat straw. Including pork, the profit per
steer was $12.94; without pork, $4.94. This lot not only made the
most profit, but also made the fastest gains, the average daily gain
per steer being 2.54 pounds for the six months.

Excluding pork, three lots lost money. Two of these, Lots 2
and 3, did not receive silage. The other lot received silage, but
the cost of gains was greatly increased by the consumption of
about $54.00 worth of alfalfa hay.

This experiment confirmed previous findings at both the In-
diana and Illinois Stations regarding the economy of silage, and
the profitable use of oat straw or other cheap roughage, when
fed in connection with corn, cottonseed meal and silage, instead
of such costly roughages as alfalfa or clover hay. The oat straw
was found to give as good results as clover hay.

For several years the silage-fed cattle at the Indiana Station

124 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

have finished out better than those not receiving silage. This
again held true in this test. The only difference in the rations of
Lots 2 and 4 was the addition of silage to the latter. Lot 4 not
only finished better and sold for 10 cents per cwt. more, but in-
cluding pork, made $4.22 more profit per head than the steers that
had no silage. Not including pork, the profit per head was $7.58
in favor of silage.

Two experiments in feeding corn silage to steers were con-
ducted at the South Dakota Experiment Station at Brookings in
1912, running three and four months respectively. The results
showed that neither corn fodder from the field, nor fodder silage,
nor a one-half ration of silage and hay proved as valuable for
wintering steers as first class corn silage (fodders cut from same
field, at same time as corn for silage), as it required more pounds
of dry matter for a pound of gain with these than with silage lot.

Hay with silage proved to be better than hay or silage alone
as a roughage. No bad results were received by feeding steers
all the corn silage they would eat without other grain or rough-
age. At the end of the experiment they were consuming an aver-
age of 70 pounds per head daily.

Further tests were conducted at the same station for 146 days
in 1912-13 to determine the relative feeding value of oil meal, cot-
tonseed meal and dried distilled grains when fed with corn silage
as the sole roughage. The largest and most uniform gains were
made with oil meal and silage. The cost of producing 100 pounds
of gain in these tests was as follows: With corn silage and oil
meal, $5.86; with corn silage and cottonseed meal, $6.64; with
corn silage and dried distilled grains, $5.50; with corn silage and
oats, $6.68; with corn silage and shelled corn, $8.22. It will be
seen that the distilled grains ration made a cheaper gain than the
oil meal ration, but the cheap gain is not always the best gain
as the steers receiving oil meal were in better condition than the
other lot. The average gains per head daily for the 146 days were
2.45 for oil meal and 2.17 for distilled grains. Silage was valued
at $4.00 a ton; oil meal and cottonseed meal at $32.00 a ton, dried
distilled grains at $24.00 a ton, oats and shelled corn at 1 cent a
pound. Prof. Wilson, who conducted the test, says that the ex-
periment calls attention ‘“‘to the value of corn silage when prop-
erly supplemented with high protein feed. I believe when we feed
our corn crop in the form of silage, we will be able to make beef
at a profit under almost any conditions likely to present them-
selves. The old custom of stocking cattle through the winter will
soon be a practice of the past.”

Supt. T. J. Harrison, of the Experimental Farm, Indian Head,
Saskatchewan, writes: ‘Last season (1913) we conducted feed-
ing experiments in which ensilage was fed in comparison with

KANSAS STATION RESULTS. 125

mixed hay. The steers fed on the ensilage made a gain of 2.5
pounds a day, while the lot fed mixed hay gained about 1.9. The
silage-fed steers when sold also brought about 15 cents per cwt.
more than the hay-fed steers, because of the fact that they were
better finished.”

The Kansas Experiment Station in May, 1913, concluded the
most important feeding demonstrations that have been made for
some years, in order to determine the comparative feeding value
of silage made from corn, kafir and cane or sweet sorghum. The
trials were made with both beef and dairy cattle and showed with
both that, pound for pound, the silage from all three crops had
practically the same feeding value. These demonstrations not
only benefit Kansas, but indicate that feeders may make kafir and
_ cane silage the foundation feeds for fattening beef cattle through-
out the entire Southwest.

The test with beef cattle was made with Hereford calves, ten
in each lot. Below is the record:

Corn Kafir Sorghum
Silage. Silage. Silage.
Ration— et Lot 2 Lot 3
Omicini ValWiGtec acess sess OSE $ 7.80 $ 7.80
Walueror theslot kis oii ois. 525.40 921.65 590.90
Originally Weishtas,. ks. cose 4,172 lbs. 4,124 lbs. 4,281 lbs.
Feed Consumed:
Warm SUAS isles sles’ ore 5 DOL Se ta era eks eel ae Soe rene
Serie Gee feos ave we ce chy cynics #5, sip 50: S65 lbs. vetepuate cutee
SCCORSORSMUMUGSUAL Cs o.oo ete cie cee See ccayssle ee 50,£55 lbs.
Cottonseed meal.......... 927 lbs. 927 lbs. 927 lbs.
Details:
TEM ia GU Nh sh = 0 re 5,700 lbs. 5,751 lbs. 5,865 lbs.
TIS Le UT cus eivie ssp sjo1¢ 016 0,5» 1,528 lbs. 1,627 lbs. 1,584 Ibs.
Average daily gain....... 1% lbs. 1.62 Ibs. 1.58 Ibs.
@ostitot Weed a.tt). . espe sisie. $ 55.05 $ 54.96 $ 54.94
Daily cost by head...... 0.055 0.0549 0.0549
Cost rot Sains. 4... stitetsis teste 5.60 S101 5.46
Value, hundredweight.... 7.50 7.60 7.50
Final value by lot....... 427.50 437.07 439.87
Profit by the lot....... -. 47.05 60.46 51.03

_ It will be seen that kafir silage made 28 per cent more profit
than corn silage, and sweet sorghum silage made 8 per cent more
than corn silage. Corn silage has usually produced better gains
than either kafir or sorghum silage, due to the acidity and lack of

126 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

feeding value heretofore connected with the latter. The Kansas
tests showed plainly that these drawbacks have been due to the
cutting of the kafir and sorghum when too immature. These crops
for the above feeding tests were cut three weeks later than corn.
The seeds were practically mature, but the stalks were green and
filled with sap. Professors Reed and Fitch report that at all times
during the test, the silage from cane contained less acid than the
silage from corn.

In the dairy test, which also covered two years, it was found
that corn silage as a milk producer was only slightly superior to
kafir silage with cane silage a close third. Cows gave daily per
head one-sixth of a pound more milk on corn silage than on
kafir silage and gained slightly more in weight on the kafir silage.
Corn silage produced an average daily yield of one-half pound per ~
cow more than cane silage. These differences are so small that
they show the feeds to be practically equal. The choice of crop to
plant depends upon the probable yield per acre. Kafir and cane
being drouth-resistant crops can be grown over a wider territory
than corn and they produce from one-third to one-half more ton-
nage to the acre, so that each acre of kafir or cane would yield
considerably more milk than an acre of corn silage. The cane
silage was found superior to either kafir or corn silage for gain
in live weight, due to more carbo-hydrates and sugar, or fattening
nutrients. All the silage was of good quality and the cows ate it
with relish. The cane silage seemed most palatable. Cement and
stave silos were used with no difference in results as to quality.

Prof. O. E. Reed, who made the dairy tests, says that “the
time of cutting cane and kafir for silage is all-important in
making good silage from these crops. The crops should be prac-
tically mature; that is the seed should be mature. At this time
the stalk is still filled with sap and will make good silage. If
put up too green, it will make sour silage. The crops should be
put up before frost if possible, but it is better to let the crop stand
until after frost than to put it up too green. After a heavy frost,
the crop should be cut and siloed immediately. If it dries out too
much, sufficient water should be added to cause it to pack well.”

The lowa Experiment Station in Circular No. 6 gives the fol-
lowing results of feeding corn silage for fattening cattle. The
experiments were in charge of Prof. Evvard.

“Corn silage should be put into the feeding program of every
Iowa beef producer if he wants to fatten cattle economically and
efficiently. That corn silage is our most profitable cattle roughage

IOWA STATION RESULTS. 127

has been clearly demonstrated at the Experiment Station as well
as upon hundreds of Iowa farms.

The addition of corn silage to the ration not only decreases very
materially the cost of gains, but usually makes them more rapidly.
The steers are finished more quickly and ordinarily sell for a
higher price than where clover is used as the roughage.

Fattening cattle of all ages utilize silage as their roughage
ration. It is as good for the calf and yearling as for the two and
three year old. All profit from its use.

Silage is practically one-third to two-fifths as valuable as
clover hay for beef production. Silage at $3.20 a ton and clover
hay at $7.66 a ton were equally efficient in fattening two-year-old
steers in 1911-12 in our station tests. Ordinarily when clover is
selling from $10 to $15 per ton, silage is worth from $35.50 to $6.00.

That the corn grain which is put into the silo is not wasted
our feeding records clearly show. Cattle receiving silage do not
eat as much grain as hay fed cattle, the decrease being approxi-
mately equal to the amount of corn found in the silage.

For a short feed, silage is pre-eminently our most abundant
and efficient roughage. The gains are not only more rapid than
where clover or alfalfa is fed, but are made more cheaply. Fur-
thermore, the selling price is markedly enhanced. Actual experi-
ment has shown that as compared to clover in a ninety-day feed,
silage cattle, rightly fed, will sell from ten to seventy-five cents
higher per hundred weight.

For a long feed silage is quite efficient, producing, as compared
to clover, both cheaper gains and a higher quality of finish.

Protein supplements must be fed with silage in order to make
it an efficient fattening food. Cattle cannot be fattened econom-
ically on corn and corn silage. It is imperative and absolutely
essential that protein concentrates such as cottonseed meal, cold
pressed cottonseed cake, linseed oil meal or similar feeds be fed.

The average daily silage, hay and grain consumption of a two-
year-old steer weighing 1,000 pounds at the start, during a five-
month full feeding period will approximate:

Shelled corn, 15 to 16 pounds;

Cottonseed meal or linseed meal, 2.7 to 5.6 pounds;

Clover or alfalfa hay, 5 to 5 pounds;

Corn silage, 22 to 35 pounds.

With silage as lone roughage the consumption will be about 28
to 35 pounds. It requires practically one and three-quarters to
two and three quarters tons of corn silage for a five months’ feed
for a two year old.

In the absence of any dry roughage such as clover, alfalfa or
oat straw, corn silage may be used as the lone roughage. Some
dry corn stover should be utilized if possible. In case of lone
silage feeding, however, one had best increase the protein concen-
trates slightly.

128 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

In what quantities throughout the feeding period shall we feed
silage? Our experience clearly shows that silage should be fed
very heavily in the early part of the feeding period to insure most
efficient results. The grain at this time may be somewhat lim-
ited. We put our steers upon a full feed of good quality silage
the very first day and have never had any difficulty. Silage is
a roughage and may be so handled without danger. To insure
quick and economical finishing, the silage is best decreased some-
what at the close of the feeding period and the grain increased
accordingly. Cattle, when nearly finished, tend to eat too much
of the bulky, watery, palatable silage, thus leaving too little room
for concentrated grains, a consumption of which is highly im-
perative at this time.

The shrinkage of silage fed cattle is not heavy as is ordinarily
supposed. Silage fed cattle do not shrink any more than dry hay
fed ones. Our results clearly indicate that cattle receiving both
silage and dry roughage during the feeding period, shrink less
than those fed on either dry feed or silage alone.”

The Texas Station has conducted two experiments recently in
which the value of cotton seed meal and silage was tested for
fattening cattle. The results of these experiments, and those ob-
tained by other Stations and commercial feeders along the same
lines, indicate this combination to be one of the most profitable
rations that can be used for feeding cattle in Texas.

The first experiment covered a period of 119 days during the
winter of 1911-12. 40 head of range-bred three- and four-year
old, grade Shorthorn and Hereford steers were used. The silage
fed was about 75 per cent. Milo Maize, 15 per cent. Indian corn,
and 10 per cent. sorghum. During the last 20 days of the test
the percentage of Indian corn was increased. The test showed
that a ration of cotton seed meal and silage may be used far more
profitably than a ration of cotton seed meal and cotton seed hulls
for fattening cattle. Silage was a much cheaper feed than cotton
seed hulls and yielded slightly larger gains. The silage fed steers
showed considerably better finish and brought 20c a hundred-
weight more on the market than the hulls-fed steers. The net
profit on the silage-fed steers was $10.40 a head and the net
profit on the hulls-fed steers was 67c a head.

The second experiment, during the winter of 1912-13 lasted
139 days. 28 head of well graded steers were used, divided into
four lots. A summary of results showed that the ration of cotton
seed meal and silage was considerably more profitable than either
the ration of cotton seed meal and hulls or the one of cotton seed
meal, hulls and silage. It was found that 1 2-3 tons of silage was
equivalent to one ton of cotton seed hulls in feeding value. Silage
realized a value of $8.16 a ton. Cotton seed meal at $27.00 per
ton was more profitable than cotton seed at $17.00 a ton in supple-
menting the silage to form a fattening ration. The shrinkage in
shipment to market was much greater in the hulls-fed lots than
in the lots fed silage as roughage. During the first 107 days of

RESULTS IN THE SOUTH. 129

the test the silage was about 90 per cent. sorghum and 10 per
cent. cow-peas. During the remaining 32 days, it was composed
of Indian corn. This test was based on the following values per
ton: Cotton seed meal, $27.00; cotton seed hulls, $7.00; cotton
seed, $17.00; silage, $2.50.

At the Amarillo Sub-Station in Texas a test was made to com-
pare cotton seed meal and grass with cotton seed meal and silage.
The silage steers made 400% better gains.

Mr. Henry H. Johnson uses 15 silos of 200 to 250 tons each for
fattening annually about 4,000 steers on his 25,000 acre ranch in
Oklahoma. Mr. Johnson says, “No farmer, large or small, can
afford to be without a silo. It is the only way to feed cattle at
a minimum cost. Any other way will cost a man from eight to
ten dollars a head more. Silage increases the flow of milk at least
half and young cattle will make faster growth on silage than on
any other kind of feed.”

A battery of four monolithic silos—the largest in the West—
was built in 1912, on the 14,000 acre beef ranch of Horace Adams,
Maple Hill, Kan. Each was 20x60 feet. They hold 500 tons each
and cost $3,500, and are to store feed for producing fine beef
cattle.

The South abounds in just the protein feeds that are needed
to properly supplement silage. Cowpeas, soybeans, peas, vetch,
red clover, lespedeza, oil meal, cotton seed meal, gluten feed,
clover, alfalfa, wheat, bran or oats are all good. The South has
splendid natural conditions for stock raising. Regarding the
value of silage, Prof. Andrew M. Soule of the Georgia Agricul-
tural College says:

“For more than fifteen years I have either conducted person-
ally or supervised experiments on the wintering of beef cattle
with silage as the principal form of roughness. In that time it
has proved to be cheapest and most efficient coarse feed avail-
able for use in the south. Cattle fed on silage for a period of
134 days made an average gain in the stable of 1.06 pounds, those
fed hay and grain a gain of .27 pounds, those fed stover and grain
.08 pounds, those fed silage and grain made a gain of 1.22 pounds.
These cattle were allowed to run on grass for 81 days. The aver-
age daily gain for the silage and grain cattle for both the stable
and the grass period was 1.56 pounds, the stover and grain cattle
1.19 pounds, the hay and grain cattle 1.15 pounds. The most
economic gains from stable feeding were made by the silage and
grain fed cattle.

Under good management a grain ration as low as 2 pounds per
day will make substantial gains in the winter and maintain good
gains on grass. Three pounds of grain combined in the propor-
tion of two pounds of corn and one of cottonseed meal will make
an excellent grain ration.”

CHAPTER VI.

THE SILAGE SYSTEM HELPS MAINTAIN SOIL
FERTILITY.

When the cattle feeders of this country once thoroughly realize
that they can profitably feed and raise stock by means of the
silage system the great problem of maintaining and increasing
soil fertility will very largely solve itself and exhausted soils will
recuperate of their own accord.

This statement is based on certain fundamental facts, which
Farmer’s Bulletin No. 180 covers briefly as follows:

“When subjected to proper chemical tests or processes every
substance found on our globe no matter whether it belongs to the
mineral, vegetable or animal kingdom may be reduced to single
elements, of which we now know over seventy. Many of these
elements occur but rarely, and others are present everywhere in
abundance. United mostly in comparatively simple combinations
of less than half a dozen each, these elements make up rocks,
soils, crops, animals, the atmosphere, water, etc. The crops in
their growth take some of the elements from the soil in which
they grow and others from the air. Many elements are of no
value to crops; a few, viz., 13 or 14, are, on the other hand, abso-
lutely necessary to the growth of plants; if one or more of these
essential elements are lacking or present in insufficient quantities
in the soil, the plant cannot make a normal growth, no matter in
what quantities the others may occur, and the yields obtained
will be decreased as a result.”

_ The problem of the conservation of soil fertility is therefore
largely one of maintaining a readily available supply of the essen-
tial plant elements in the soil. Most of these elements occur in
abundance in all soils, and there are really only about three of
them that the farmer need seriously consider—nitrogen, phos-
phoriec acid and potash. Of these, the latter two are mineral com-
pounds which are very often lacking in the soil in sufficient
quantity to give profitable crops and they must therefore be sup-
plied in the form of manures or fertilizers. The nitrogen is partly
obtained from the air by leguminous crops, but the supply from
this source is limited and the proper enrichment of the soil often
demands the addition of this compound.
130

VALUABLE FERTILIZING ELEMENTS. je |

Every time that a crop is grown it robs the soil of a valuable
portion of these fertilizing elements. A ton of clover hay, for in-
stance, contains 41.4 pounds of nitrogen, 7.6 pounds of phosphorus
and 44 pounds of potash. These elements form the basis of the
market value of commercial fertilizers and because of the enor-
mous quantity of fertilizer now used they each have a definite and
fairly stable market value. For our purposes in this discussion
we place these values as follows: 18 cents a pound for nitrogen,
5 cents a pound for phosphoric acid and 5 cents a pound for
potash. It should be remembered that these values are likely to
differ to some extent in various localities according as they are
affected by the item of transportation. At the present time, be-
cause of the European War, it is hard to estimate the value that
should be placed on these elements, as the sources of most of our
nitrogen and potash are very largely controlled by the warring
nations, and for this reason our values will be found very con-
servative and even very low. But taking one year with another
and reaching over a period of years it is fair to assume that the
prices of 18, 5 and 5 cents a pound respectively will be found ap-
proximately correct. Now, figured on this basis, it will be found
that each ton of clover hay takes from the soil $10.23 worth of
fertility. A 100-bushel corn crop contains 148 pounds of nitrogen,
23 pounds of phosphoric acid and 71 pounds of potash valued at
$51.54. In other words, that much fertility is removed from the
soil with every 100-bushel corn crop. In the same manner, the
fertility in a ton of wheat has a value of $9.79; a ton of wheat
bran, $14.06; a ton of alfalfa hay, $10.07; a ton of timothy $5.97
and a ton of oats, $8.85. Other crops vary in proportion.

The above figures may be startling to some who have been
growing and selling these crops. The question may come up, do
these figures actually mean that we can get returns of $14.06 by
the application of one ton of wheat bran to our land as a fertilizer?
Such is not their meaning, however. They do mean that if a
farmer seeks to restore to the soil the same amount of fertility
as was extracted by his 100-bushel corn crop, such fertilizer
would cost him on the market not less than the amount stated
above, viz.: $31.54. The same relative values obtain with the
other crops mentioned.

It is clear, therefore, that unless these elements are. put back
into the soil in some way, it will produce steadily declining crops

132 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.

and eventually will become exhausted or mined out. How to put
them back at the least expense is the problem confronting many
sections of this country today, and it is not alone for the benefit
of future generations; it has a vital bearing on our own crop
yields.

The soil is the farmer’s bank and the fertility of that soil is
his capital. Many a farmer finding it impossible to “break na-

@TOCK, DAIRY AND MIXED FARMING (160 ACRES) GRAIN AND HAY FARMING (160 ACRES)
PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAND PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAND

Manure

Manuro
Milk and Cheese ]

PLANT FOOD — N-NITROGEN -PA=PHOSPHORIC ACID-P-=POTASH
PRODUCED RETURNED PRODUCED RETURNED

Nothing

Clover
Alfalfa

NOTHING

TOTAL -13,5001bs

Fig. 50.—Comparison of years’ results of grain and hay farming
vs. stock, dairy and mixed farming.—Courtesy Family Herald
and Weekly Star, Montreal.

ture’s bank” has practiced farming methods that have meant
a continual draining, year after year, of his capital—fertility—
failing the while to understand the constantly smaller yields of
the particular crops grown. This is the usual result of exclu-
sive grain and hay farming and is graphically shown in the ac-
companying chart, Fig. 50. The chart also illustrates the results
of stock, dairy and mixed farming, where most of the crops are
grown for stock and manufactured into finished priiucts such as
milk, cheese and beef, and where the fertility is returned to the

EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS. CRCPPING. 133

land by means of manure and the legumes. It will be observed
that where this latter system is practiced the nitrogen in the
soil is actually increased, whereas the phosphoric acid and potash
are reduced to a very small extent.

The startling effect of continuous crop farming is shown by
an experiment covering 30 years at the Illinois Experiment Sta-
tion:

“At this station the yield on a typical prairie soil has de-
ereased under continuous corn raising from 70 bushels to the
acre to 27 bushels to the acre during this period, while under a
system of crop-rotation and proper fertilization the yield on a
portion of the same field has been increased during the same
period to 96 bushels per acre. These yields are not of a certain
year, but averages of three-year periods. The 96 bushels was
obtained in a three-year rotation in which corn was followed by
oats in which clover was sown. The next year clover alone,
followed by corn again. Stable manure with commercial fertil-
izers was applied to the clover ground to be plowed under for
corn. The difference in the yields obtained between the rotation
system where fertility was applied and the straight corn cropping
without fertility was 69 bushels per acre, or over two-and-a-half
times that of the system of continuous corn raising. A large
proportion of this difference in yield is clear profit, as the actual
expense of producing the 96 bushels to the acre was but little
more than in growing the 27. If the results of these two yields
were figured down to a nicety, and the value of the land de-
termined by the net income, it would be found that the well
farmed acres would be worth an enormous price as compared
with a gift of the land that produced the smaller yield.”

Henry says that “with sharp competition confronting every
one who cultivates the soil, the careful saving of farm manures
and their judicious application are vital factors in farming oper-
ations, and as essential to continued success as plowing the land
or planting the crop. * * * When one must choose between com-
mercial fertilizers and barn-yard manures, it is reasonable to
estimate that the latter have a value of at least two-thirds the
former, based on their nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con-
tents.” These manures benefit the soil because the vegetable
matter they contain acts as a mulch and forms humus, but so far

134 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.

as feeding the plants is concerned their worth rests upon the
elements of fertility they contain.

It will, therefore, be seen that barn-yard manure has a high
value as a fertilizer. It is perhaps the most important for soil
improvement. The reason for this is that it supplies nitrogen,
phosphorus and potash and the decaying organic matter needed.
In feeding oats, corn, wheat or other crops to animals, it is well
to know that about three-quarters of the phosphorus and nitrogen
and practically all of the potash go through the body and are re-
turned in the solid and liquid manure. It is evident that the value
of richness of the manure depends largely on the crops or part
of the crops fed to the animals. That which originates from the
use of concentrated feeding stuffs usually has a high value. That
which comes from the use of straw or other coarse forage has a
lower value. Leguminous crops are rich in nitrogen and phos-
phorus. Three tons of white clover will contain 8 pounds more
phosphoric acid and 17 pounds more nitrogen than a 100 bushel
corn crop, i. e., 51 pounds phosphoric acid and 165 pounds nitro-
gen. Any system of farming where grain is sold and only stalks
and straw retained for feed produces manure weak in both nitro-
gen and phosphorus. These elements are divided in the corn
plant on the 100-bushel basis, about as follows:

100 lbs. nitrogen in grain and 48 lbs. in the stalk.
17 lbs. phosphorus in grain and 6 lbs. in the stalk.
19 Ibs. potassium in grain and 52 lbs..in the stalk.

<e

In other words, two-thirds of the nitrogen, three-fourths of the
phosphorus and one-fourth of the potassium are in the grain or
seed and one-third of the nitrogen, one-fourth of the phosphorus
and three-fourths of the potassium are in the stalk or straw. In
siloing the corn plant the full value of the fertilizer, in both stalk
and grain, is obtained in the manure.

The value of manure depends very largely on the way in which
it is handled. Over half the value is in the liquid portion.

Experiments were conducted at the Ohio Experiment Station
with two lots of steers for six months to ascertain the loss
through seepage. 'An earth floor was used for one lot and a
cement floor for the other lot. Manure was weighed and analyzed
at the beginning and end of the experiments and it was found that
that produced on the earth floor had lost enough fertilizer through

NITROGEN A VALUABLE ELEMENT. 135

seepage during the experiments to have paid half the cost of
cementing the floor.

Losses through weathering and leaching are also common and
should be avoided. Experiments at the same station, during 12
years show that fresh manure produced increase in crop yields
over yard manure amounting to about one-fourth of the total
value of the manure.

Roberts, compiling data from various sources, gives the value
of manure produced under average conditions by a horse as
$24.06 a year and that of a cow as $52.25 a year, or $2.49 and
$2.45 a ton respectively. This value is surely high enough to
justify reasonable protection and care.

Nitrogen is manure’s most valuable element measured by the
cost of replacing it in commercial fertilizer. It heats when lying
in heaps and the strong ammonia odor, due to the combination of
the nitrogen in the manure and the hydrogen of the moisture of
the heap, indicates that in time all the nitrogen will escape in the
form of ammonia gas. It is said that a ton of manure contains
about 10 .pounds of nitrogen, worth $1.50 or $2.00, so that this
loss of nitrogen is a serious one.

An average dairy cow of 1,000 pounds weight, properly fed,
will throw off $13.00 worth of nitrogen and potash a year in her
urine. A horse will throw off $18.00 worth. Urine has a greater
fertilizing value than manure, and together they become ideal.

Every farmer can have his own manure factory by keeping
live stock. Naturally, the more live stock the farm can keep, the
._ more manure he will have for returning to the soil.

The silo here comes in as a material aid, and with its:adop-
tion it is possible to keep at least twice as much live stock on a
given area of land. Pasturing cattle is becoming too expensive
a method. High priced lands can be used to better advantage
by growing the feeding crop and siloing it, without any waste, to
be preserved and fed fresh and green the year around. This
method, as we have said, will insure the maximum supply of
splendid fertilizing material.

But the silo does more—it converts the farm into a factory
as it were—i. e., it will become a creator of a finished or more
nearly finished product instead of being the producer of a mere

136 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.

raw material. The effect will be to raise proportionately the price
of every commodity offered for sale.

“On the ordinary farm which markets cereal crops only a
part is ever sufficiently fertile to return a profit. The other
acres must be put by to regain fertility and are so much dead
capital while they are made ready for a further effort. Not so
with a farm devoted to beef as the market crop. Every acre of
it may be seen producing year after year in an increasing ratio,
and occasional crops such as potatoes—which while they need a
rich soil for their development yet draw but lightly on fertility
and are very useful as cleaning crops—will yield bumper profits
in cash.”

This statement applies with full force to what is another very
desirable attribute of the silo and the silage system—that it will
so increase the live stock of the farm that many of the products:
heretofore sold in a raw state, and which contain, and therefore
carry away most of the fertility of the farm, may now be fed at
home.

A few examples will best serve to illustrate this statement:

The fertilizing constituents in a ton of clover hay, as above
stated, amount nominally to $10.23. This would mean then that
every time the farmer sells a ton of clover hay, he sells $10.23
worth of fertility. Sa much fertility has gone from the farm for-
ever. It would most certainly be wise to feed the clover at home
as a balance to the silage ration, thereby keeping the fertility on
the farm, and making at the same time some finished product, as
cream, milk, butter, cheese or beef, the sale of which will not
carry away from the farm any great amount of fertility.

The sale of a ton of butter, which is perhaps the best example
of a finished or manufactured product from the farm, contains
but 27 cents’ worth of fertility. Why then is it not the part of
wisdom to feed the clover hay, which contains as above noted,
$10.25 in fertility; alfalfa hay, $10.07; timothy hay, $5.97; corn,
$51.54; and oats $8.85 and convert the whole into a finished
product—as butter, which when sold takes away with it but 27
cents in fertility for each ton? Or if more desirable, why not
convert these crops into beef, every 100 pounds of which when

shipped from the farm carries away fertility to the extent of only
51 cents?

FERTILITY IN THE SOUTH. 137

Restoring Fertility in the South.

In the Southern states the productive capacity of the farm
lands has been materially reduced because of the continued drain
upon their native fertility without adequate replacement. This
loss is recognized by practically all agricultural observers. A
parallel fact is that up to 1900 the production of live stock in the
south also showed a steady decrease. Statistics from the Federal
census show that with the opening up of the great cattle ranges
of the West and the consequent cheap beef, the southern pro-
ducer could not compete on his relatively high priced land. Dur-
ing the 50 years preceding 1900, Texas cattle for instance in-
creased from 550,114 to 7,279,955 while Tennessee cattle decreased
in the same period from 750,762 to 676,183. Since 1900, the great
Texas ranges have been largely broken up and occupied by a
farming population with the result that in 1910 the Texas cattle
supply showed a 15% decrease since 1900, whereas the Tennes-
see cattle showed a 25% increase. This condition obtained gen-
erally in the South as compared with the West.

Now because the Southern producer could not compete with
the Western ranges, he was forced into the growing of cotton,
_ grain, hay and such other crops as he could readily dispose of on
the market at the greatest profit—a system that naturally re-
sulted in taking from the soil a great deal of fertility and putting
little or nothing back into the soil in return. The fact that the
future beef supply of this nation must come from the general
farm, introduces “the most potent reasons why the Southern
farmer should make immediate preparation to engage more ex-
tensively in the production of beef to meet the strong demand
that is now being made and that will continue to be made upon
the farms of the country. The silo is the logical source of cheap
food supply on the high priced lands of the South, and is quali-
fied as well to meet the crippled feeding situation, occasioned in
many communities by careless methods of cultivation, and on
such lands of poorer quality as will‘not justify the application of
sufficient fertilizers to produce paying crops. The silo increases
the stock carrying capacity of the pasture, and with its common
adoption and use by the farmers of the South will come more live
stock on the Southern farm, and in that respect no modern
farm institution promises to become a more important and help-

138 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.

ful factor in building up the soils of the agricultural communi-
ties of this vast region.”

In summing up the foregoing chapter therefore, it will be gen-
erally conceded that the cheapest and most effective method of
building up the soil and maintaining it in a good state of fertility
is to follow a good rotation, grow plenty of legumes and apply
the barnyard manure to the land. Their value in building up
the soil is one of the strongest reasons for keeping live stock.
The grain and roughage is fed on the farm and the stock give
it back to the land in fertilizer. The farmer who hauls his
grain and hay to market must obtain fertilizer from some other
source and this is often costly. Now, if the keeping of live stock
is a good thing for the farm, any system that permits double or
triple the number of live stock to be kept on the same acreage
is naturally much better. THE SILAGE SYSTEM DOES JUST
THAT.

CHAPTER VII.
SILAGE CROPS.

Indian Corn.—Indian Corn is, as has already been stated, the
main silage crop in this country, and is likely to always remain so.
Before explaining the filling of the silo and the making of silage,
it will be well, therefore, to state briefly the main conditions which
govern the production of a large crop of corn for the silo, and to
examine which varieties of corn are best adapted for silage
making.

Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation of land.—
The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian corn are well-
drained medium soils, loams or sandy loams, in a good state of
fertility. Corn will give best results coming after clover. The
preparation of the land for growing corn is the same whether ear
corn or forage is the object. Fall plowing is practiced by many
successful corn growers. The seed is planted on carefully prepared
ground at such a time as convenient and advisable. Other things
being equal, the earlier the planting the better, after the danger of
frost is ordinarily over. “The early crop may fail, but the late
crop is almost sure to fail.” After planting, the soil should be kept
pulverized and thoroughly cultivated. Shallow cultivation will
ordinarily give better results than deep cultivation, as the former
method suffices to destroy the weeds and to preserve the soil
moisture, which are the essential points sought in cultivating crops.
The cultivation should be no more frequent than is necessary for
the complete eradication of weeds. It has been found that the yield
of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as well as by insufficient
cultivation. The general rule may be given to cultivate as often,
but no oftener, than is necesary to kill the weeds, or keep the
soil pulverized.

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon as the
young plants break through the surface, and the soil kept stirred
and weeds destroyed, until cultivation is no longer practicable.

Varieties of corn for the silo.—The best corn for the silo, in any
locality, is that variety which will be reasonably sure to mature
before frost, and which produces a large amount of foliage and

139

140 SILAGE CROPS.

ears. The best varieties for the New England States are the
Leaming, Sanford, and Flint corn; for the Middle States, Leaming,
White and Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the
Leaming, Sanford, Flint and White Dent wil be apt to give the best
results, while in the South, the Southern Horse Tooth, Mosby
Prolific and other large dent corns are preferred.

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best adapted for
the silo: for Northern Ontario, North Dakota and Compton’s Early
Flint; for Central Ontario, larger and heavier yielding varieties
may be grown, viz., Mammoth Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest White
Dent. It is useless to grow a variety for silage which will not be
in a firm dough state by the time the first frosts are likely to
appear.

Conditions from coast to coast are so varied that it is impossible
to assign particular varieties as best adapted to certain localities.
Specific information on this point can be obtained from the
Agricultural Experiment Station of practically every state or
province in the United States and Canada.

In the early stages of siloing corn in this country, the effort
was to obtain an immense yield of fodder per acre, no matter
whether the corn ripened or not. Large yields were doubtless
often obtained with these big varieties, although it is uncertain
that the actual yields ever came up to the claims made. Bailey’s
Mammoth Ensilage Corn, “if planted upon good corn land, in good
condition, well matured, with proper cultivation,” "was guaranteed
to produce from forty to seventy-five tons of green fodder to the
acre, “just right for ensilage.”’ We now know that the immense
Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an immature stage, as
must necessarily be the case in Northern States, may contain
less than ten per cent. of dry matter, the rest (more than nine-
tenths of the total weight) being made up of water. This is cer-
tainly a remarkable fact, when we remember that skim milk, even
when obtained by the separator process will contain nearly ten per
cent. of solid matter.

In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at an imma-
ture stage, Prof. Robertson, of Canada, said at a Wisconsin
Farmers’ Institute, “Fodder corn sowed broadcast, does not meet
the needs of milking cows. Such a fodder is mainly a device of a
thoughtless farmer to fool his cows into believing that they have

YIELDS OF SOUTHERN AND MAINE CORN. 141

been fed, when they have only been filled up.” The same applies
with equal strength to the use of large, immature Southern
varieties of fodder, or for the silo, in Northern States.

In comparative variety tests with corn in the North, Southern
varieties have usually been found to furnish larger quantities per
acre of both green fodder and total dry matter in the fodder than
the smaller Northern varieties. As an average of seven culture
trials, Professor Jordan thus obtained the following results at the
Maine Station.

Table [X.—Comparative Yields of Southern Corn and Maine Field
Corn Grown in Maine, 1888-1893.

SOUTHERN CORN. MAINE FIELD CORN.
Dry Digestible Dry Digestible
Substance. Matter. Substance. Matter.
Green Greens |
Fodder. P - Fodder. Pp P
er 7 er er Z er
Cent. oe. Cent. EE Cent. sees Cent aes
Maximum..| 46,340 | 16.58 | 6,237 | 69 | 3,923 | 29,400} 25.43 | 7,064 | 78 | 4,945
Minimum..| 26,295 | 12.30 | 3,234 | 61 23102 .|_ 14,212 | 13.55.) 2,415.4) 70) | 15715
Average....| 34,761 | 14.50 | 5,036 | 65 | 3,251 | 22,269] 18.75 | 4,224 | 72 | 3,076

The average percentage digestibility of the dry substance is
65 per cent. for the Southern corn, and 72 per cent. for the Maine
field corn, all the results obtained for the former varieties being
lower than those obtained for the latter. While the general result
for the five years, so far as the yield of digestible matter is con-
cerned, is slightly in favor of the Southern varieties, the fact
should not be lost sight of that an average of 6% tons more of
material has annually to be handled over several times, in case of
these varieties of corn, in order to gain 175 pounds more of diges-
tible matter per acre; we therefore conclude that the smaller, less
watery, variety of corn really proved the more profitable.

At other Northern stations similar results, or results more
favorable to the Northern varieties, have been obtained, showing
that the modern practice of growing only such corn for the silo as
will mature in the particular locality of each farmer, is borne
out by the results of careful culture tests.

142 SILAGE CROPS.

Time of cutting corn for the silo.—In order to determine at
what stage of growth corn had better be cut when intended for the
silo, it is necessary to ascertain the amount of food materials
which the corn plant contains at the different stages, and the
proportion of different ingredients at each stage. From careful
and exhaustive studies of the changes occurring in the composition
of the corn plant, which have been conducted both in this country
and abroad, we know that as corn approaches maturity the nitro-
genous or flesh-forming substances decrease in proportion to the
other components, while the non-nitrogenous components, especi-
ally starch (see Glossary), increase very markedly; this increase
continues until the crop is nearly mature, so long as the leaves
are still green. Several experiment stations have made investi-
gations in regard to this point. As an illustration we give in
Table X data obtained by Prof. Ladd, in an investigation in which
fodder corn was cut and analyzed at five different stages of
growth, from full tasseling to maturity.

Table X.—Chemical Changes in the Corn Crop.

Tas- x
Silked Milk, Glazed, Ripe,
PAUSE ea Pe Jair 3 Aug.9 | Aug. 21 | Sept.7 | Sept. 23

Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.

Gross ‘weieltsvit ite) ee [18045 |25745 |32600 |32295 |28460
WialterntingthesCropenserietecr 16426 |22666 |27957 |25093 |20542
Dry Matter: (14) cyacro pracieta spats | 2619 | 3078 | 4643 | 7202 | 7918
ONS) aan oe one ake | 158.9] 201.3] 232.2] 302.5] 364.2
Cruden -Proteimises Ac wis Seenveniee | 259.8] 436.8] 478.7] 643.9] 677.8
Mikes. Crees tte, DEI S ee | 514.2] 872.9] 1262.0] 2755.9] 1734.0
Nitrogen-free Extract | | |
(starch, sugar, etc.)....... | 655.9] 1599.3] 2441.3] 3239.8] 4827.6
Grude Wblatarer is ser sae er | 72.2] 167.8] 228.9] 260.0] 314.3

The data given above show how rapidly the yield of food
materials increases with the advancing age of the corn, and also
that increase during the later stages of growth comes largely on
the nitrogen-fed extract (starch, sugar, etc.).

TABLE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES. 143

This difference in food
value from the time the corn
is tasseled out until it is ripe
is illustrated in the accom-
panying chart, Fig. 51, by
Prof. Palmer of the North
Dakota Agricultural College.

The results as to this point
obtained at several experi-
‘ ment stations have been sum-
marized and are given in the
Table XI, showing the in-
> erease in food ingredients
SAME SIZE TASSELED OUT AS WHEN RIPE during the stages previous to

asseceon
@u7

KERNELS GLAZED

KERNEL IN MILK STAGE

SILKED OQuT

BUT NOTE DIFFERENCE IN FOOD YALUE
Paime re. N Dak Agr Coileye maturity.
Progra.
Table XI.—Increase in Food Ingredients from Tasseling to
P Maturity.
Gain in per cent.
Stage of Maturity between first
and last cutting
EXPERIMENT .
STATION va, ee) a
First Cutting Last Cutting |, = se 3.\20
62\5é\5E|82
Cornell, N. Y....|} Pride of the North} Bloom ....... Mature.......| 150} 90) 129) 169
Cornell, N. Y....| Pride of the North] Bloom....... Nearly mature! 217} 134) 374; 300
Geneva, N. Y....| King Philip....... Tasseled..... Mature. cones 389) 183) 335) 462
New Hampshire.| Av. of 4 varieties.| Tasseled..... Glazed........ 112) 50) 84} 130
Pennsylvania....} Av. of 10 varieties.| Tasseled..... Mature....... TO [tee Rare icles: 0
Vermont......... Av. of 2 varieties.| Tasseled..... Glazed). d2.535 122} 50).
Vermont......... Av. of 2 varieties.| Bloom....... Glazed.,....,0-. 204; 81}.
POUCH ASE UL TLLALS! Serastje cleat easeriee este siecle tr efascis is/aefeig a hiameisesanrils 193} 98] 230) 265

We thus find that the largest amount of food materials in the
corn crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a
corn plant has reached its total growth in height it has, as shown
by results given in the last table, attained only one-third to one-
half of the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity;
hence we see the wisdom of postponing cutting the corn for the
silo, as in general for forage purposes until rather late in the
season, when it can be done without danger of frost.

144 SILAGE CROPS.

The table given in the preceding, and our discussion so far,
have taken into account only the total, and not the digestible
components of the corn.

It has been found through careful digestion trials that older
plants are somewhat less digestible than young plants. There is,
however, no such difference in the digestibility of the total dry
matter or its components as is found in the total quantities ob-
tained from plants at the different stages of growth, and the total
yields of digestible matter in the corn will therefore be greater
at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any earlier stage
of growth. Hence we find that the general practice of cutting corn
for the silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage,
when the kernels have become rather firm, and are dented or be-
ginning to glaze, is good science and in accord with our best
knowledge on the subject.

Other reasons why cutting at a late period of growth is prefer-
able in siloing corn are found in the fact that the quality of the
silage made from such corn is much better than that obtained
from green immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most
abundant in the corn plant in the early stages of ear development,
but the loss of non-nitrogenous components in the silo falls first
of all on the sugar, hence it is the best policy to postpone cutting
until the grain is full-sized and the sugar has largely been changed
to starch.

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity in the
first chapter to delay the cutting so long that the corn plant be-
comes too dry, for the reason stated. .Silage does not spoil when
too wet, but will mold if too dry. Experience will be the best
guide, but the foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the
right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the best results
is nearly as important as to have material with which to fill the
silo.

Methods of Planting Corn.—When the corn crop is intended for
the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer than is ordinarily
the case when the production of a large crop of ear corn is the
primary object sought. Thin seeding favors the development of
well-developed, strong plants, but not the production of a large
amount of green forage. The number of plants which can be
brought to perfect development on a certain piece of land depends

*
METHOD OF PLANTING CORN. 145

upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of the season,
especially whether it is a wet or dry season, as well as other fac-
tors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the best thickness
of planting corn for the silo. Numerous experiments conducted in
different parts of the country have shown, however, that the
largest quantities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob-
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two feet apart,
or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants six or eight inches
apart in the row.

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield obtained is
concerned, whether the corn is planted in hills or in drills, when
the land is kept free from weeds in both cases, but it facilitates
the cutting considerably to plant the corn in drills if this is done
by means of a corn harvester or sled cutter, as is now generally
the case. The yield seems more dependent on the number of plants
grown on a certain area of land than on the arrangement of plant-
ing the corn. Hills four feet each way, with four stalks to the
hill, will thus usually give about the same yield as hills two feet
apart, with stalks two stalks to the hill or drills four feet apart
with stalks one foot apart in the row, ete. The question of plant- °
ing corn in hills or in drills is therefore largely one of greater or
less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the two methods.
This will depend on the character of the land; where the land is
uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or when the land
is free from weeds, drill planting is preferable, while, conversely,
on fields where this can be done, the corn may more easily and
cheaply be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check-
rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is economical pro-
duction and preservation of a good quality of feed, the economy
and certainty in caring for the growing crop is of considerable
importance, and generally planting in hills not too far apart will
be found to facilitate this, especially during wet season.

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broadcast, whether
intended for the silo, or for production of ear corn; when sown
broadeast, the corn cannot be kept free from weeds, except by
hand labor. More seed is moreover required, the plants shade each
other and will therefore not reach full development, from lack of
sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a less amount of available
food constituents per acre will be produced.

146 SILAGE CROPS.

Other Silage Crops.

Clover. We are but beginning to appreciate the value of clover
in modern agriculture. It has been shown that the legumes, the
family to which clover belongs, are the only common forage plants
able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that
may be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other
legumes, therefore, draw largely on the air for the most expensive
and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason, as
well as on account of their deep roots, which bring fertilizing ele-
ments up near the surface, they enrich the land upon which they
grow. Being a more nitrogenous food than corn or the grasses,
clover supplies a good deal of the protein compounds required by
farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for the pro-
duction of milk, wool or meat. By feeding clover, a smaller pur-
chase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil-
mill refuse products, is therefore rendered necessary than when
corn is fed; on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore
enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land.

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed for nearly
all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein contents it has
an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production.
A Wisconsin dairy farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover
estimates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1,
against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average yield per
acre. of green clover is about twelve tons.

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of its succu- .
lence and greater palatability, as well as its higher feeding value.
The last-mentioned point is mainly due to the fact that all the
parts of the clover plant are preserved in the silo, with a small
unavoidable loss in fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves and
tender parts, which contain about two-thirds of the protein com-
pounds, are often largely lost by abrasion.

Contrasting results in the use of clover for silage seem to in-
dicate that it keeps better in a cool climate than under warm or
temperate conditions. At the Agassiz Experiment Station in Brit-
ish Columbia three cuttings of red clover yielded 32 tons of green
forage to the acre and made cheaper silage than the corn plant.
In practically every instance in this region where clover has been
used in the silo the results have been satisfactory. Prof. Harry

CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 147

Hayward of the Pennsylvania Experiment Station states that as
a result of experiments carried on there he believes a small amount
of clover will go much farther in the silo than it will if pastured.
Attempts at the Wisconsin Experiment Station to make silage out
of the whole clover plant without chopping were not satisfactory.
By running the green clover through cutter, however, and tramp-
ing it thoroughly, fairly good results were obtained.

The latest experiments on the question of using clover as silage
have been conducted at the Montana Experiment Station by Prof.
R. W. Clark. His results showed that second crop clover made
into silage during September and October after being frozen, kept
well until May and June the following year. After the weather
became warm, however, it grew dark in color, strong in odor and
was not relished by the cows. During the winter months the cat-
tle uniformly had a keen appetite for it.

In milk production 2.35 pounds of clover silage was required to
equal one pound of good clover hay, this difference being due
largely to the difference in moisture content. In calculating the
results, timothy hay was placed at a value of $10 a ton, clover
hay at $6, clover silage at $2.50 a ton, and grain at $20 a ton.

An average of the three experiments, which were conducted
with precautions to make up for the varying individually of the
cows, showed the cost of producing 100 pounds milk was 73.9
cents on clover hay and 735.4 cents on clover silage. The cost of
a pound of fat on the hay was 17.9 cents, while on the silage it
was 17.8. The daily production of milk on clover hay was 22.8
pounds and 0.93 pound of fat, compared to 24.8 pounds and 0.97
pound of fat on the clover silage.

The general indications seem to be that clover silage has a
value of about $2.55 a ton under Montana conditions and when it
is necessary to save the crop in this way or else have it lose value
on account of weather conditions, it may very well be preserved
in the silo.

Under corn belt conditions where corn has already become
established as the favorite silage crop, probably little clover will
be used. Very frequently, however, the clover crop is threatened
with damage by rain or too intense sunshine, and it may be easily
and cheaply placed in a silo regardless of the weather and pre-
served in a perfect condition. The failures reported in the early

148 SILAGE CROPS.

stages of silo filling were largely due to the faulty construction of
the silo. Clover does not pack as well as the heavy green corn,
and, therefore, requires to be cut and weighted, or calls for greater
depth in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficiently excluded.

The clover should not be left to wilt between cutting and silo-
ing, and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unneces-~
sary losses by fermentation.

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory silo crops;
ordinary red or medium clover is most used in Northwestern
States, along with mammoth clover; the latter matures later than
medium or red clover, and may therefore be siloed later than these.

When to Cut Clover for the Silo.—The yield of food materials
obtained from clover at different stages of growth has been studied
by a number of scientists. The following table giving the results
of an investigation conducted by Professor Atwater will show the
total quantities of food materials secured at four different stages
of growth of red clover:

Table XIl.—Yield Per Acre of Red Clover—in Pounds.

Crude
Fat

Crude

N-free
Fibre 7

tract

Just before bloom..,.| 3,570 | 1,385 | 198 | 384 | 664 | 24 | 115

Paliecplogim'.. eee | 2,650 | 1,401 | 189 | 390 | 682 | 33° | 107
Nearly out of bloom..| 4,960 | 1,750 | 250 | 523 | 837 | 31. | 129
Nearly iPiDe,. a «<n tidnist | 5,910 | 1,523 | 158 | 484 | 746 | 36 | 99

Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of hay per acre from
clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds when three-fourths of
the heads were dead. The yields of dry matter in the two cases
were 2,526 pounds, and 2,427 pounds respectively. All compon-
ents, except fiber (see Glossary), yielded less per acre in, the sec-
ond cutting. Jordan found the same result, comparing the yields
and composition of clover cut when in bloom, some heads dead,
and heads all dead, the earliest cutting giving the maximum yield
of dry matter, and of all components except crude fibre.

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo
when in full bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to
wilt, that is, when right for hay-making, and we notice that the

CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 149

teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this
practice.

Many farmers are increasing the value of their corn silage by
the addition of clover. A load of clover to a load or two loads of
well-matured corn is a good mixture.

Clover for Summer Silage.—By filling the clover into the silo
at midsummer, or before, space is utilized that would otherwise be
empty; the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding in the
latter part of the summer and during the fall, when the pastures
are apt to run short. This makes it possible to keep a larger num-
ber of stock on the farm than can be the case if pastures alone
are to be relied upon, and thus greatly facilitates intensive farm-
ing. Now that stave silos of any size may be easily and cheaply
put up, it will be found very convenient at least on dairy farms,
to keep a small separate silo for making clover silage that may be
fed out during the summer, or at any time simultaneously with
the feeding of corn silage. This extra silo may also be used for
the siloing of odd lots of forage that may happen to be available
(see page 159). It is a good plan in siloing clover or other com-
paratively light crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn
on top that will weight down the mass below, and secure a more
thorough packing and thereby also a better quality of silage.

In several instances where there has still been a supply of
clover silage in the silo, green corn has been filled in on top of the
clover, and the latter has been sealed and thus preserved for a
number of years. Corn silage once settled and “sealed,” will also
keep perhaps indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo, with-
out deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or palatability.

Says. a Canadian dairy farmer: “If we were asked for our
opinion as to what will most help the average dairy farmer, I think
we would reply: Knowledge of a balanced ration, the Babcock
test, and a summer silo; then varying the feed of individual ani-
mals according to capacity; as shown by scales and close observa-
tion.” Prof. Neale and others recommended the use of scarlet
clover for summer silage, for Delaware and States under similar
climatic conditions.

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says: “Silage will
keep as long as the silo is not opened, and has been kept in good
condition for seven years. This is a special advantage for Kansas

150 SILAGE CROPS.

dairymen, as in years of heavy crops the surplus can be stored in
silos for years of drouth, making all years good crop years for silo
dairymen.”

Alfalfa (lucerne) is the great, coarse forage plant of the West,
and during late years it has been grown considerably in the North-
ern and Central States. In irrigated districts it will yield more
food materials per acre of land than perhaps any other crop. Four
to five cuttings, each yielding a ton to a ton and a half of hay, are
common in these regions, and the yields obtained are often much
higher. In humid regions three cuttings may ordinarily be ob-
tained, each of one to une and a half tons of hay.

Much has been written regarding the mixture of alfalfa with
other crops in the silo to secure a balanced ration. It is true that
there is perhaps no crop better than alfalfa for balancing corn
silage. But the best practice among Western feeders and colleges
is to supply this ration in the dry form. In this way it furnishes
the necessary roughage to neutralize the succulence of the silage,
and enables the feeder to balance his feed to suit the needs of dif-
ferent animals or different classes of stock.

Alfalfa finds its greatest friend in the silo in seasons when for
any reason it cannot be properly cured. It may then be siloed and
preserved to great advantage.

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay, alfalfa is
nevertheless of considerable importance as a silage crop in dairy
and beef sections of the Western States. As with red clover, re-
ports of failure in siloing alfalfa are on record, put first-class
alfalfa silage can be readily made in deep, modern silos, when the
crop is cut when in full bloom, and the plants are not allowed to
wilt much before being run through a cutter and siloed. In the
opinion of the dairymen who have had large experience in siloing
alfalfa, sweet alfalfa silage is more easily made than good alfalfa
hay.

A general summary of alfalfa silage experiments at the Col-
orado experiment station states that under the best of ordinary
conditions, for every hundred pounds of feeding value in green
alfalfa at the time it is cut, 77 pounds will be saved if the hay is
well cured and put in a stack under good conditions. If it is put
into the barn, 86 pounds will be saved and 90 pounds if it is made
into first-class silage. The extra cost of putting it up as silage is

CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 151

believed to be somewhat balanced up by the fact that alfalfa can
be put into a silo even under bad weather conditions. In general
the results from the use of alfalfa as a silage crop have indicated
that it makes first-class feed and keeps well for the first few
months, but that after this time there is a tendency to decompose,
take on a bad odor and lose considerable of its feeding value.

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to
alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favorably with clover
silage, both in chemical composition and in feeding value. It is
richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than clover silage, or
any other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed for farm
animals, especially young stock and dairy cows.

Additional information regarding the use of alfalfa as a silage
crop will be found in chapter eight of this book, entitled “Silage
Crops for the Semi-Arid Regions and for the South.”

Cow Peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the West, and
when properily handled make excellent and most valuable silage.
The cow peas are sown early in the season, either broadcast, about
1% bushels to the acre and turned under with a one-horse turning
plow, or drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut with
a mower when one-half or more of the peas on the vines are fully
ripe, and are immediately raked in windrows and hauled to the
silo, where they are run through a feed cutter and cut into inch
or half inch lengths.

Cow pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they
once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor; farmers who have
had considerable practical experience in feeding this silage are of
the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal for cows and sheep.
It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is considered
greatly superior to pea-vine hay. In feeding experiments at a
Delaware experiment station six pounds of pea-vine silage fully
took the place of one pound of wheat bran, and the product of one
acre was found equivalent to two tons of bran.

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate loads of
cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into the silo, which will
make a very satisfactory mixed silage, much richer in muscie
building material than pure corn silage. A modification of this
practice is known as Getty’s method, in which corn and cow peas
are grown in alternate rows, and harvested together with a corn

152 SILAGE CROPS.

harvester. Corn for this combination crop is preferably a large
Southern variety, drilled in rows 4% feet apart, with stalks 9 to
16 inches apart in the row. Whippoorwill peas are planted in driils
close to the rows of corn when this is about six inches high, and
has been cultivated once. The crop is cut when the corn is begin-
ning to glaze, and when three-fourths of the pea pods are ripe.

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these run through
the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas are carefully leveled off
and trampled down in the silo, and about a foot cover of green
corn, straw or cottonseed hulls placed on top of the siloed mass.
As in case of all legumes, it is safest to wet the cover thoroughly
with at least two gallons of water per square foot of surface. This
will seal the siloed mass thoroughly and will prevent the air from
working in from the surface and spoiling considerable of the
silage on top. ee ee

Robertson Silage Mixture.—A similar effort of combining
several feeds for the silo is found in the so-called Robertson Silage
Mixture for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in Canada.
This is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and
horse beans in the proportion of 1 acre corn, % acre horse beans,
and % acre sunflowers. The principle back of the practice is to
furnish a feed richer in protein substance than corn, and thus
avoid the purchase of. large quantities of expensive protein foods
like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experiments conducted with the
Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several experiment stations
have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that. this
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain ration of
mileh cows without causing loss of flesh or lessening the produc-
tion of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be consid-
ered equivalent to three or four pounds of grain feeds. The prac-
tice has not, however, been adopted to any great extent, so far as
is Known, owing to the difficulty of securing a good quality of
silage from the mixture and of growing the horse beans success-
fully.

Soy beans are another valuable silage crop. According to the
U. S. Department of Agriculture the soy bean is highly nutritive,
gives a heavy yield, and is easily cultivated. The vigorous late
varieties are well adapted for silage. On account of their highly
nitrogenous character, soy beans are most economical when

SOY BEANS AND SORGHUM. 153

mixed with corn, and like other legumes they improve the silage
by tending to counteract the acid reaction of the corn. The mix-
ture also produces a more nearly balanced ration than either crop
alone, and avoids the necessity of using purchased concentrates
such as grain, bran, cottonseed, ete. Some have found that the
soy beans save et least half the grain bill. The crops may be
mixed to best advantage for both cutting and feeding, by placing
the soy beans on top of the corn as it enters the silage cutter, in
the proportion of two, three, four or five parts of corn, as desired,
to one part of soy beans. The latter should be siloed when the
pods are well formed and the seeds are nearly grown. Of other
southern cropsthat are used for silage may be mentioned chicken
corn and teosinte.

Sorghums.— Sorghum crops, both saccharine and non-
accharine (sweet and non-sweet), can be used for silage with good
results. The saccharine sorghums include the Amber, Orange,
Sumac and Gooseneck groups. The non-saccharine varieties em-
brace the Kafir and White Milo groups, and the Dhoura group.
Their drouth-resistant qualities have done much to make sorghum
the leading crop in the drier parts of the South and West—they
remain fresh and green through drouths that would ruin corn.
They are also less liable to be damaged by insects than corn. The
yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-
half again as much as a good crop of corn. The Ottawa (Can.)
Station states that sorghum, where it can be grown, makes an
excellent crop for silage. It needs to be cut, the best length, as in
the case of corn, being about one-half inch. :

While the sorghums are adapted for growing on almost any
kind of soil they produce best on fairly heavy, well drained loams,
rich in humus; but when grown on gumbo, hard-pan, sandy or
other poor soils, they are more successful than most other crops.

Sorghums usually yield well with little care. They are excel-
lent to plant on prairie sod or alfalfa sod. For silage, sorghum:
should be planted in rows like corn and cultivated; in fact, the
crop is handled throughout like corn.

In experiments at the Tennessee Station, A. M. Soule found that
“as fine a quality of silage can be made from sorghum as from
any other crop and there seems to be little choice between ‘the
feeding values of sorghum and corn silage for beef production.”

154 SILAGE CROPS.

He states that “farmers who experience difficulty in making good
silage either cut the crops too green or else have improperly con-
structed silos.”

Sorghum, like corn, contains an excess of carbohydrates and is
somewhat deficient in protein. Its value is increased therefore by
the addition of some leguminous crop such as cow peas.

Reports in the agricultural press indicate that many feeders
make a practice of combining their kafir, milo or sorghum in the
silo with corn, or with cow peas, field peas or other legume,
and with success.

Further information regarding the sorghum crops for silage,
including the latest experiments along that line, will be found in
Chapter VIII., where silage crops for the Semi-Arid Regions are
discussed.

Sorghum bagasse is the name given to the crushed stalk of
sorghum cane, and has been used with some success as silage.
In Prof. Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding,” he says: ‘The bagasse, or
waste, of the sorghum syrup factories, which has considerable
feeding value, should not be wasted, but may be satisfactorily
ensiled.”’ Naturally, bagasse is a little dryer than most crops as
they are put into the silo, and the addition of water would greatly
assist in packing it tight enough together to keep gut the air and
thus prevent spoiling. Corn may be mixed with the bagasse if
desired. As a safeguard against spoilage, the bagasse should be
siloed as soon as it comes from the mill and in considerable quan-
_tity each day.

Feterita is a comparatively new semi-arid crop that has abso-
lutely proved itself as an early maturing drouth-resistant feed.
Its superiority over any similar crop was conspicuous under the
severe conditions of 1914 throughout Oklahoma. It is generally
conceded to be almost exactly the equal of kafir corn and milo
maize in food value and in its proportion of various elements, and
since both of these crops make excellent silage it will doubtless
follow in the same class. A large number of silo owners in
Oklahoma and Texas are trying out this crop at the time this book
goes to press.

Teosinte.—This forage plant in tassel and appearance closely
resembles corn with no ear formed. Stock relish it and its food
value is high. It is very juicy and succulent and has been suc-

VARIOUS CROPS FOR SILAGE. 155

cessfully siloed, but is not so good for this purpose as corn. Burk-
ett says that if allowed to mature and used as dry fodder it makes
a very heavy yield, running several tons of dry matter to the acre.
It demands a rich soil with a good deal of moisture, and is partial
to hot climates, but unlike sorghum and kafir, it cannot resist
drouth.

Kale.—The Oregon Experiment Station at Corvallis reports very
palatable silage from a mixture of eight tons of Kale and two tons
of mixed hay, cut short and well packed. Kale is not well adapted
for a silage crop, however, on account of its high water content,
and should only be put in the silo to avoid a loss in the spring.

Sudan Grass, a wonderful drouth-resister, supposed to be the
parent stock of the cultivated sorghums, is making rapid strides
as a hay and fodder crop throughout Colorado, Oklahoma, South-
ern California and the Southwest generally. The seed is hard to
distinguish from Johnson grass. For large yields it should be
planted in rows from 30 to 36 inches apart, using from 2 to 4
pounds of seed to the acre, and cultivated. On account of its new-
ness and the heavy demand for seed, data is not available as to
its feeding value. It is the general opinion of feeders, however,
that it will make an excellent silage crop, if allowed to mature
properly before being placed in the silo.

Devil Grass or Broncho Grass and Fox Tail have sometimes
proved a problem to alfalfa growers in California. Some feeders
have found that the beards of the Devil Grass and Fox Tail are
rendered harmless by cutting and siloing them along with the oat
hay, barley or wheat hay and second cutting of alfalfa and that it
makes a silage superior to alfalfa and grain hay silage alone,
leaving the ground available for a crop of corn.

Vetches are relished by livestock of all kinds. They are ex-
cellent for milk production and have splendid fattening properties.
Being of the legume family, they are best adapted for hay, but
when conditions are unfavorable they may be cut into short
lengths and well packed in the silo and will make a very agree-
able feed. They should be cut the same time as for hay.

Peanuts are especially valuable if mixed with kafir corn in the
silo, as they make a much better balanced feed than kafir corn
alone.

156 ' .. SILAGE CROPS.

Broom Corn.—Excellent results have been obtained in North-
west Oklahoma and Southwest Kansas by cutting the broom corn
stalks after the tops have been removed and preserving them in the
silo. Such silage contains no grain, and is, of course, greatly in-
ferior to other crops that contain grain, but it is a practical way
of saving this feed, that otherwise would be, to a large extent,
lost.

Johnson Grass is a tall vigorous grass, closely related to the
sorghums. As a silage crop it has not been used except to a lim-
ited extent, but it has possibilities worth investigating. One of the
southern Agricultuial Colleges, partially filled a. silo with Johnson
grass in 19135 and claim good results, so that ‘further tests will
be made with it.

Miscellaneous Silage Crops.—In Northern Europe, especially in
England, and the Scandinavian countries, meadow grass and after-
math (rowen) are usually siloed; in England, at the present time,
largely in stacks.

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar-beet pulp can
be obtained in large quantities and at a low cost; stock raisers and
dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the
silo. As the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90
per cent. of water; it packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely
divided and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore
be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in -siloing
corn, and especially clover and other crops of similar character.
If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is preferably placed
uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp are often
siloed in alternate layers in pits 5 to 4 feet deep, and covered with
boards and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed in such
silos as there will then be much smaller losses of food materials
than in case of shallow silos or trenches in the field.

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash
and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see Glossary). Its feeding
value is equal to about half that of corn silage.

The Colorado Station has found that two tons of pulp are the
equivalent of one ton of beets, which confirms the Nebraska test
showing the feeding value of sugar beets to be practically equiv-

WHEAT, RYE AND OATS. 157

alent to corn silage, pound for pound, for dairy cows. The use of
beet tops for silage is discussed on page 166 of this book.

Wheat, rye and oats have been siloed for summer feeding with
some success. They should be cut in 4 inch lengths and well
tramped around the edges. A recent correspondent in Hoard’s
Dairyman tells of sowing some 25 acres of rye and 9 acres of wheat
in the fall and filling one silo with the rye the following May and
the other with wheat early in June, just when they were headed
out but before the grain was actually formed. Several acres of
oats and peas were put into a third silo the first week in July.
In cutting the rye and wheat it was necessary to take the precau-
tion of cutting into’ short lengths and of carefully treading and
packing it in the silo, in order to insure its keeping qualities. “It
has kept very well until entirely consumed by the cattle, and we
have no reason to suppose that it would not have kept if we had
not used it up when we did. But our experience has been that
neither the rye nor the wheat is equal to corn silage for feed.
In fact the cows did not eat the rye as clean as they should have
done and fell off somewhat in milk. When we began on the wheat,
however, they did better, and we believe the wheat to be better
material for silage than rye.”

Oats and peas may be put into the silo and they make a very
satisfactory silage. As a rule, those plants which have a hollow
stem, like oats, do not keep well in the silo unless great care is
taken to have them very well tramped, as the hollow stems carry
too much air. If the late summer and fall are not too dry it will
be possible to produce a crop of cow peas for ensilage, planted
after oats harvest.

Oats have been put in the silo to kill mustard seed before the
latter plants were matured, but after maturity the seeds are so
well protected that it is doubtful if the heating and fermentation
would destroy them.

When legumes such as alfalfa, clover, vetch and peas are put
into the silo, they should be ensiled with some such crop as corn,
rye or oats. The legumes alone do not contain enough sugar to
afford the production of sufficient acid to prevent the high protein
content of the legume from decaying. The corn, rye or oats, mixed
with the legumes, would provide sugar for the production of suf-
ficient acid to preserve both plants. The rye should be mixed

158 SILAGE CROPS.

with the legume in the proportion of two-thirds legume and one-
third rye. In this way, rye may be sown for fall and spring pas-
ture, cut for silage and the ground plowed and used for some other
crop.

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in the agri-
tural literature of the siloing of a large number of plants, or
products, like vetches, small grains (cut green), buckwheat, arti-
choke tops, cabbage leaves, sugar beets, potatoes, potato leaves,
turnips, brewers’ grains, apple pomace, refuse from corn and pea
canning factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; even fern
(brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been made into silage,
and used with more or less success as foods for farm animals.

The value of fern, or common brake, for silage is very doubt-
ful. It grows on the wild pasture lands throughout Western Ore-
gon and has practically no feeding value. The Corvallis, (Ore.)
Station says that it is very dangerous when fed to horses because
of a stringent quality which causes a serious nervous disorder.
Where farmers are troubled with a large quantity of fern in their
hay crop they should use a crop rotation, including a cultivated
crop, which will soon get rid of the fern and permit the raising
of profitable crops. :

A Wisconsin farmer has been using Canada thistles as silage
for several seasons.. He claims that after they have been cut up
and placed in the silo for a week or two, they become very soft
and palatable and says that the cattle eat this food ravenously
to the last scrap and never seem to get enough of it.

Russian Thistles have been used for silage to a considerable
extent in the Dakotas west of the river, and in Colorado, Wyoming
and other semi-arid sections, with good results. They have strong
drouth-resistant qualities and are very nutritious. Analysis shows
them to closely resemble alfalfa in food value with about 18%
protein. The plant is eaten with relish by all kinds of live stock.
The Russian thistle has usually been considered a detriment and a
pest. Farmers are advised against raising them either for silage
or forage, or allowing them to take possession of their places. But
the very fact that they thrive most abundantly in dry years, just
when silage crops are most likely to be scarce, is the soundest
reason why the pest should be turned to good account in the silo
and this is just what hundreds of farmers are doing.

MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 159

As to the use of weeds it is a known fact that live stock of all
kinds will eat nearly any kind of weeds in certain seasons and
under certain conditions, and thrive on them. At a recent conven-
tion of the California Dairy Association the president, Mr. A. P.
Martin, stated that the best silage he ever made, besides corn,
was made of weeds. A piece of wheat which was sowed early,
was drowned out, and the field came up with tar weed and sorrel.
This was made into silage, and when fed to milch cows, produced
most satisfactory resuits.

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and profitable
thing to have on a farm even if silage crops are not regularly
raised to fill it. There are always waste products, green or half-
dry, with coarse materials like swale hay, that are generally used
for compost or bedding, which may be made into palatable silage.
A mixture, in equal parts, of rag-weed, swamp grass or swale hay,
old corn stalks or straw, and second-crop green clover, nearly
three-fourths of which would otherwise be almost useless, will
make a superior silage, surprising to those who have never tried
he

The following description of the contents filled into a New
York silo, which was used as a sort of catch-all, is given by the
same writer: 18 in. deep of green oats; 6 in. of red clover; 6 in.
of Canada field peas; 3 in. of brewers’ grains; 2 feet of whole corn
plants, sowed broadcast, and more rag-weed than corn; 5 in. of
second-crop grass; 12 in. of sorghum; and a lot immature corn
cut in short lengths. The silage came out pretty acid, but made
good forage, and was all eaten up clean. Damaged crops like
frosted beets, potatoes, cabbages, etc.; rutabagas which showed
signs of decay, and clover that could not be made into hay because
of rain, may all be placed in a silo and thus made to contribute to
the food supply on the farm.

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California, viz., for
rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in feeding cattle. The
foxtail which almost takes the first crop of alfalfa in many parts
of California is a nutritious grass, but on account of its beards,
is dangerous to feed, if cut when nearly ripe or later. By siloing
the crop the foxtail will be rendered harmless; the alfalfa-foxtail
silage thus obtained is eaten by stock with great relish and with-
out any injurious effects. (Woll.)

CHAPTER VIII.

SILAGE CROPS FOR THE SEMI-ARID REGIONS
AND FOR THE SOUTH.

In those parts of the Southwest including the Great Plains
region, where limited precipitation, evaporation and temperature
conditions combine to make moisture conservation the vital prob-
lem, the silo is finding one of its greatest fields of usefulness.

It is generally conceded that when it can be grown success-
fully, corn is pre-eminently the silage crop. In many sections,
however, corn does not mature or make sufficient yield, either in
fodder or grain, to justify its use as compared with other crops
well adapted to the siloing system, which do not require nearly so
much moisture, and it is of these crops that we wish to speak in
this chapter. Stockmen are beginning to realize that they must
have a permanent feed supply, one that will produce a good yield
even under drouth conditions, or the live stock industry itself
cannot be permanent, and the haphazard method of depending
entirely on Nature’s offerings for the present need is fast becom-
ing obsolete. With the ability of Western Kansas, for instance,
to produce crops such as kafir, milo, saccharine sorghum and the
broom corns, there is no reason why there should ever be a short-
age of feed such as the farmers of that section experienced in
the winter of 1911-12.

The sorghums are the crops of first importance as silage in
the regions where moisture is the controlling factor in crop pro-
duction. The sweet sorghums have usually been considered a
poor substitute for corn in the silo, but the conditions under
which they are grown in regions of light rainfall, to a large ex-
tent, overcome the difficulty which is found in other sections of
the country. If they are allowed to mature quite fully before they
are cut for the silo, they do not form an abnormal amount of
acid as they do when cut too green, or when grown under heavy
rainfall conditions.

For convenient reference the matter that follows has been
classified under various states, although it should be remembered
that the discussion relative to one state is very often applicable to

160

CROPS FOR KANSAS. 161

other sections where similar moisture and temperature conditions
prevail.

Kansas.—The conditions covered by Prof. Reed of the Kansas
Experiment Station are, therefore, representative of many other.
regions:

“There is a prevailing opinion among many farmers and:
users of silos that the sweet sorghum is unfit for silage, that on
account of the high sugar content there will be a large amount
of acid formed, and the silage will be too sour to feed. It is true
that this plant does contain a large amount of sugar, and the
silage will become very sour if the crop is put up too green. In
most cases where unsatisfactory results have been obtained by
ensiloing sweet sorghum, it has been due to the fact that the
crop was put in too green. Last year the Kansas Experiment
Station obtained twelve and one-half tons of sowed cane per
acre as against five tons of corn that was listed. These crops
were put into the silo at the proper time, and they both made
good feed. Quite contrary to the general opinion and experience
it was found thal the acid content of the sweet sorghum silage
was less than that of the corn silage at all times. This silage
was fed to dairy cows and they did not show any preference
between the two kinds of silage. The excellent quality of the
sweet sorghum silage was accounted for from the fact that it
was put up at the right time.

“Sorghum crops should be almost mature when they are
cut for silage. If cut too early the stalk will contain entirely too
much juice. At the time the seed hardens, the stalk of the sweet
sorghum and kafir plant will be well filled with sap, yet will not
contain an excess so as to cause the silage to sour in the silo.”

Even the most stunted kafir can be saved with the silo. At
the Kansas Station, kafir that was so stunted in its growth by
reason of drought that it yielded only a ton to the acre, with no
grain whatever, was made into silage and was eaten readily
by the stock. It served to furnish a succulent feed, where other-
wise all of their feed would have been of a dry nature.

Oklahoma.—James A. Wilson, director of the Oklahoma Sta-
tion, writes that “for ensilage purposes we have used sorghum
cane considerably during the past few years. The nonsaccharine
sorghums, such as kafir and milo, make very excellent silage. We

162 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

have also had good success with the sugar cane or Amber cane.
“There is this difference, however, that should be observed in
filling the silo with the above crops, namely, that the kafir corn
and milo maize should be allowed to fully mature, that is, allow-
ing the sap to carry the sugar up into the stalk which is usually
done just before the plant is fully matured. While in the case
of sugar cane, we have found it best to cut this on the green
side before the maximum amount of sugar has been deposited
in the plant, otherwise, we find that sugar cane ensilage sours.”

Bulletin No. 181 of the Oklahoma Station says: “Silos are
not luxuries but necessities in Oklahoma. The silo does not
only preserve fodder in its best form for feeding, but provides
the cheapest of feeds for cattle and sheep. The whole corn or

sorghum crop be stored up—butt, stalks and all—so that hardly
any is lost.

“Silage is much relished by stock, especially by cattle and
sheep. It is palatable, cheap and succulent, thins and cools the
blood, improves the handling qualities of skin and hair, tones
up the digestive system, and improves the health generally.
Breeding females are put in good condition for producing healthy
offspring, and after parturition are better able to give plenty of
milk than when on a dry ration. To a large extent it is a pre-
ventive of digestive troubles, and with dairy cows it lessens con-
siderably the chancés of milk fever and garget. The legumes,
such as alfalfa, cow peas, clover, soy beans, while they can be
made into silage, are not satisfactory when mixed alone, as they
will not pack sufficiently, but when mixed with a good propor-

tion of corn or kafir fodder make a first-class, well balanced
silage.”

Texas.—Sorghum is a sure crop in Texas and will produce
a fine quality of ensilage. Texas Bulletin No. 11 says that the
heavy growing varieties such as the Orange and African cane
are preferred. It is planted in drills three feet six inches apart
and cultivated. If it is planted early, two good crops can be
secured in one season on the same ground if the stubble is
cultivated after the first crop is cut off. This crop should also
be allowed to mature until the seed are hard.

An authority on silage conditions in Texas, connected with
the Frisco Railroad System, writes that “Sorghum is the most

OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS CROPS. 163

valuable plant that we have for silage. For this purpose it is, of
course, grown in drills or rows, in the same way that corn is
grown. It does not make quite as good grade of silage as corn,
but it makes so much more to the acre that it is preferable. We
frequently get two cuttings to the season, but if we get only one,
the yield is so much more than the corn that any difference
in nutritive value is overcome. Some farmers practice mixing
sorghum and corn, but I do not think this is desirable in the
South. Cow pea vines and sorghum would make a most excellent
mixture for silage purposes, except the pea vines have a disad-
vantage of being difficult to handle; but the sorghum being rich
in carbohydrates and the pea vines rich in protein matter, the
mixture, as you will readily see, is an exceedingly good one.

“I receive letters sometimes from parties who seem to have
a doubt as to whether silage can be made successfully in this
elimate, but there is no part of Texas in which it is not an entire
success, and silos ought to be constructed and used much more
widely than they are in this State. Sorghum silage is eaten
readily by horses and mules of the farm, as well as by cattle,
and it can be made to form an important part of the ration of
the farm work stock, as well as the stock intended for the butcher.
including hogs.”

Texas Station Bulletin No. 11 says that the crops most de-
sirable for the silo in Texas are corn, sorghum, cow peas, alfalfa
and ribbon cane tops. Indian corn is the crop most generally
used for the silo in that state. Sorghum, kafir and milo are also
used extensively. Prof. Burns says that these four crops are
sometimes planted in rows together, the result being a mixed
silage of high quality. Kafir and milo are chiefly used in the
semi-arid sections of the state where Indian corn does not thrive
well. “All crops planted especially for the silo should be grown
a little more thickly than when planted to harvest in the ordinary
way, and they should become very well matured before being cut.
Experience indicates that the best results are secured from
corn and sorghum just as the grain begins to harden. The
other crops will make a good ensilage at the same time they
would be cut for hay. Combinations of corn and cow peas or
sorghum and cow peas planted at the same time and in the same
row make splendid ensilage and supply a nearly balanced ration
with which very little grain is needed.”

164 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

New Mexico.—Prof. Simpson of the New Mexico Station writes
regarding silage crops in that state as follows: “Just as corn is
used for the leading crop in the Corn Belt states, nonsaccharine
sorghums, as kafir corn and milo, are used in this country. They
are much more successfully grown here than corn, as they with-
stand the drought better and are not bothered by the worms.
Kafir corn and milo silage has been proven to be very good in
feeding value; and especially is this true in New Mexico, as the
larger part of the feeds which must be used with silage are of
a nitrogenous character. Alfalfa is our leading hay crop, and
bran, cottonseed meal, wheat, oats, kafir and milo are the prin-
cipal grains used in feeding. Of course, we have practically two
conditions in New Mexico that are absolutely opposite; the irri-
gated sections and the dry-farming sections. In the irrigated
valleys kafir corn and milo grown for silage make a very heavy
yield and will undoubtedly stand first for silage crops. In the
dry-farming sections the same two crops prevail, as more suc-
cess comes from them than any other crops. I have been over a
great deal of the dry-farming country in the last two weeks
(October, 1912), and in most sections they have a very good
crop of kafir and milo this year. The tonnage will be heavy
wherever it is used for silage. However, I am afraid that there
is going to be a great deal wasted feed in those sections, because
of the fact that they have few silos. Some of the people are
putting their crops in silos, but others are simply growing it as
fodder. If we could get a large percentage of the crops raised
in the dry-farming sections this year into silos and fed to stock,
especially dairy cattle, I conscientiously believe that it would
mean a great advantage in the settling up and improving of the
country. Most of the silos in the dry-farming country are noth-
ing more than underground types, but they serve the purpose very
well where the person has no money to put up another kind.

“We have a great variety of crops, both in the irrigated and
the dry-farming section, which make fairly good silage, and by
utilizing them a great saving will be accomplished. Of course,
there is no advantage in putting alfalfa into the silo, if it can
be made into first-class hay. However, oftentimes when it is
time for the second or third cut, our rains are so persistent that
it is impossible to get it into first-class hay. This can still be
made into good feed by making into silage, and the farmers will

NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA CROPS. 165

be able to utilize the full value of it. Some report that they have
had very good success by putting barley, wheat, or rye crops into
the silo and cutting them a little green. However, as the stalks
contain so much air, they must be carefully tramped and wet
down to keep, and do not make first-class silage, although. they
are good.

“In sections where sugar beets are grown, the tops are put
into the silo with good success, with not only a large saving
made on the crop, but they make excellent silage.

“Cow peas and soy beans are grown in some localities very
successfully, and they make first-class silage. Sorghum is an-
other crop which makes very good silage, if allowed to mature
fairly well. It grows abundantly, both in the irrigated and the
dry-farming secticns and yields heavily.

“While there are a few other crops which undoubtedly will
prove to be good for silage, they have not yet been tried out. We
have a great many grasses which, some of them, may prove valua-
ble for silage.”

Arizona, Colorado, etc.—A. E. Vinson of the Arizona Station
says that: “In certain sections of the semi-arid countries where
dry-farming can be practiced or flood-water utilized in growing
corn and sorghum, the silo will probably be found to enable the
feeder to use more advantageously the natural pastures, which
during part of the year produce more than enough forage for the
herds and flocks that can be permanently maintained upon them.

“The advantages to be anticipated from silos in Arizona are
several. A supply of succulent feed could be kept available for
the short winter period of poor pasture ana again for the long
period of summer drouth. This is especially important where
dairying is practiced, and when there is a scant supply of irri-
gating water tor the pastures in late spring and early summer.
In some localities it might be possible to grow fodder corn or
sorghum with the summer rains. This forage could be siloed
and fed to range stock during the drouth of the next year or used
to fatten them for the market. It has been found that as much
as three and one-quarter tons per acre of sorghum can be
produced by dry-farming methods in some parts of Arizona. This
could be preserved as ensilage in succulent condition until

needed.”

166 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

Beet leaves and tops may be utilized to good advantage in
Colorado, Arizona and other sections by means of the silo. They
should be washed free of dirt and sand, well drained and some-
what dry. The writer quoted above says that “this material
sometimes contains as much as 3% per cent of oxalic acid in the
dry substance, of which one-half or more may be soluble in water.
Oxalic acid has the property of withdrawing lime from other
substauces, with which it forms an insoluble oxalate. For that
reason it is best not to feed beet leaves or beet leaf ensilage to
growing stock since it is apt to produce unduly soft bones by
rendering insoluble the lime necessary for their nutrition. Even
for mature animals the oxalic acid should be rendered harmless
by adding one or two pounds of slaked lime per ton of leaves
and tops when they are siloed. Since beet leaf ensilage has
marked laxative properties, it must be combined with a liberal
amount of straw or other dry forage. It is best adapted for
feeding steers, but may also be given to sheep. Dairy cows are
said to prosper on it, provided it does not exceed one-third of the
total ration.”

At the Colorado Station, nine feet of beet tops were placed in
a 12x30 foot silo, after being run through a silage cutter. The
tops had been frozen and were not in good condition, but they
came out in the same condition as when put in. “Twenty-five
pounds of the beet top silage was offered each cow of the dairy
herd in place of the twenty-five pounds of sugar beet previously
fed, the balance of the ration remaining constant. They ate the
tops rather reluctantly, some of them finally consuming their
entire allowance, others never doing so. That the tops had a
greater laxative effect than corn silage was apparent when a
change to the latter was made.” Beet pulp is siloed to some ex-
tent. A high silo used for this purpose “should be provided with
special drainage for carrying away the large quantity of water
given off by the pulp. (See also page 156.)

“There are a great many Russian thistles all over the dry-
farming sections, and these are becoming a great pest,’ says Prof.
Simpson. ‘There have been a few endeavors to make silage from
them, and with a fair degree of success. * * * Of course, we
do not advocate planting thistles for silage, but it makes a good
maintenance ration when made into silage, and this is one of the

ARIZONA AND COLORADO. 167

best methods of eradicating the pest, because the plants are not
allowed to go to seed.”

The Russian thistle when young and tender is relished by cat-
tle, but “as it reaches maturity and its feeding value becomes
greater its hardening needles cause it to be avoided by stock. In
the process of siloing, the needles are softened and the plant is
again rendered palatable. The plants are very bulky in propor-
tion to the substance which they contain, and apparently large
quantities of them will be reduced to small bulk in the silo. The
entire plant should be pulled to avoid waste in harvest. Unless
finely cut, the thistles cannot be packed in the silo sufficiently
to exclude air and prevent spoilage.’* M. B. Hassig, Cope, Col-
orado, who siloed several tons of Russian thistles, states: ‘I had
twelve feet of silage made of Russian thistles on top of corn
silage. I covered this with dirt, but not as much as I shall-after
this, as the air penetrated the earth and spoiled about two feet
of the silage. The balance was well preserved and relished by
the cattle.”

He adds that after the thistle silage was exhausted the cattle
consumed the corn silage with greater relish.

Corn is the preferable silage crop for all sections of Colorado
in which it will equal other fodders in yield. Colorado Bulletin
No. 8 recommends for the irrigated sections the following varie-
ties: Iowa Silver Mine, Iowa Gold Mine, Improved Leaming,
Pride of the North, Colorado Yellow Dent, and Ratekin’s Yellow
Dent, and for the unirrigated districts, the White Australian.
Squaw corn, Parson’s High Altitude corn, Colorado Yellow Dent
and Colorado White Dent.

Owing to the good quality of alfalfa hay, the abundance of root
crops and the difficulty of getting good yields of corn, the silo
is not used to any great extent in Utah, although some experi-
mental work along this line is planned by the Station at Logan
in the near future.

Alfalfa and cow peas, already discussed in Chapter VII, are
not usually made into silage, except as they are mixed with corn
or sorghum. If siloed alone, they should be very well matured
and thoroughly packed. Mixed in proportion of one part cow peas

*Colorado Bulletin No. 8.

168 CROPS FOR SEMI-ARID REGIONS.

and three or four parts of corn or sorghum, they keep better
and make a more balanced feed than the corn or sorghum alone.
The cow peas may be planted in the same row with these crops
and gathered with a harvester or they may be planted alone and
mowed. In the latter case they should be mixed by placing the
cow peas or alfalfa on top of the corn while entering the silage
cutter. The cow peas may be foiked from an extra wagon, in any
desired proportion, usually one part to two, three or four parts
of corr or sorghum. Prof.-Reed says that “it is very desirable
to put in the first crop of alfalfa in case it get rained on, but if
alfalfa can be put up for hay it will be worth more in that form
than in silage. Alfalfa hay has a market value and there is a
growing demand for same, and since the crops such as Kafir,
sweet sorghum, and corn fodder have no market value, they
should best be made into silage instead. Alfalfa hay when put
in the silo alone will not*keep for a great length of time. The
exact reason for this has not been determined. Alfalfa silage
that was in the silo for two years at the Kansas State Agri-
cultural College, became very dark, and when it came in con-
tact with the air had a very offensive odor. Cattle would eat a
little of it, but not enough to count it as a good feed. If it be-
comes necessary to put the first crop of alfalfa in the silo, ar-
rangements should be made to feed it out within a few months
after it is put up.”

The Canada field pea, so extensively grown in the San Luis
Valley of Colorado and in other sections of the southwest, shows
an analysis only slightly less than the cow pea, and it exceeds
corn silage in vichness. The field pea, like alfalfa, should be
siloed when mature enough for hay, and should be finely cut and
thoroughly packed in the silo.

The Spineless Cactus in the warm arid regions of the South-
west is capable of very large yields. It is claimed that the leaves
or slabs as a fodder make superior beef and they are a good
food for milch cows; the cactus is very rich in sodium, potash
and magnesia, the principal salts found in milk. It is a green,
fresh and delicious stock food throughout the entire year. For
best results, it should be run through a feed cutter. Mr. Luther
Burbank used an “Ohio” cutter in demonstrating this cactus at
the California State Fair recently.

WASHINGTON CROPS. 169

The prickly pear, both spiny and thornless, are grown along
the coast and interior valleys of California and in the warmer
parts of Arizona and southern Texas. As with cactus, best feed-
ing results are produced by running through a feed cutter and
fed in combination with dry roughage.

Mr. David Griffiths, Government Agriculturist at Washington,
says: “A number of attempts have been made to make silage
of prickly pear, but so far as I am aware none of them have been
entirely successful. The material is very succulent and can be
fed in the green, succulent state any day of the year, and the
necessity of making it into silage is not the same as that for
ordinary crops which perish at the close of the season. It is a
Warm country crop and can be fed at any time of the year without
making it into silage.”

In Washington, says Prof. Nystrom of the Pullman Station,
“while corn is the best crop, we have been getting good success
by using peas and oats, vetch and oats, barley and peas and
clover. In some localities also alfalfa has been put in whole, and
good silage has resulted. We advocate the use of the corn
wherever it will grow; a large part of this state is not fitted for
the growing of corn, but will grow Canada field peas and oats.
In such localities we advocate this crop for the silo. Most of the
crops that are used in a silo have been cut up, that is, run through
an ensilage cutter, and good silage has resulted.” Alfalfa, kale,
corn and clover, barley and vetch, and clover and rye grass are
other crops mentioned in Bulletin No. 46 from the Pullman Sta-
tion, as being used in that state.

Silage Crops in the South,

Japanese cane has been found best adapted for growing
throughout Florida, Louisiana and the southern parts of Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi and Texas, or in any sections in which the
velvet bean will mature seed. This will be up to 200 or 250
miles north of the Gulf of Mexico.

Japanese cane makes a good silage. It keeps well and is
relished by cattle. It has been used in feeding experiments with
the dairy herd at the Florida station with quite satisfactory re-
sults. The cost of silage from this crop should not exceed

170 SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH.

$1.75 or $2.00 per ton. It is rich in carbohydrates, but poor in
protein, and care should, therefore, be taken to balance the ration
when feeding.

Prof. Scott of the Florida Station at Gainesville, says: “Per-
haps the best silage crop that we grow here in Florida is the
Japanese cane. This produces a heavier tonnage per acre than
any other crop that we can grow. and at the same time is prac-
tically double that which can be secured from sorghum or corn.
Then, too, Japanese cane is a much cheaper crop to produce
than sorghum or corn, due to the fact that one planting of cane
will last for fifteen or twenty years, while sorghum or corn must
be planted every year. * * * The Japanese cane stalks should
be well matured before being harvested, and this is not likely to
occur until early in November. If Japanese cane is cut and put
in the silo during September, very unsatisfactory results are likely
to occur, and what silage may be saved will be of very poor
quality, due to the fact that at this time of the year there is very
little feeding value in the Japanese cane, since the formation
of sugar does not take place until the crop begins to mature, and
the nearer we can let it stand in the field until frost, the higher
the percentage of sugar in the stalks.

“A great many have been disappointed in using sorghum for
silage. However, I believe that 95 per cent of the failures with
sorghum silage has been due to the fact that the sorghum
was put in the silo before it was fully matured. To make good
silage the sorghum must be fully matured, that is, the seed
should be in the hard dough stage. :

“Without question sorghum makes good silage. I have no
doubt that it is as good as corn, ton for ton. Whether one should
grow sorghum or corn for silage will depend somewhat on local
conditions. Our soil conditions vary in all sections of the state.
Some of our soils are not the best for the growing of heavy crops
of corn. On this class of land sorghum produces a much heavier
tonnage per acre. Therefore it is advisable to grow sorghum. On
the better corn lands it is just possible that as heavy crops of
corn can be produced. Where it is possible to grow a heavier

tonnage of corn per acre it will no doubt be the better crop to
grow.”

Prof. Milton P. Jarnagin of the Georgia Agricultural College

SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH. 17g |

writes us as follows: “For a number of reasons the production
of silage is one of the most important phases of stock husbandry
in the South. There has been an ill-founded opinion that since
there is such a long growing season in the cotton section, silage is
not of so much importance as in some of the northern sections.
From experimental work we believe that it is impossible to pro-
duce 100 pounds of beef or a gallon of milk as economically
without silage as can be done with it.

“Alternate rows of sorghum and corn will give us from three
to five tons of silage per acre depending on the quality of the
land, more than can be secured from corn alone. We believe that
sorghum and corn silage is equal to corn silage alone, though it
is vastly superior to all sorghum silage. Aside from the increased
tonnage, sorghum is much more drought resistant than corn.
Even in extremely dry weather, we have never failed to get a
fairly satisfactory yield of silage where sorghum constituted one-
half of the crop. In addition to this, the sorghum carries con-
siderable juice so that we are able to allow the corn to stand
until it has developed the maximum amount of nutrients before
harvesting. The sorghum then gathers sufficient moisture and
weight to insure good packing and keeping.

“We have gotten better results from the use of Red Head
sorghum than any of the other varieties. It has a thick, heavy
stalk, with heavy foliage, and at the same time it has the ability
to stand up better than most other varieties. Any heavy stalk
and vigorous growing variety of corn is satisfactory. During the
past two years we have gotten better results from Cocke’s Prolific
than from Virginia ensilage corn on the College Farm.”

For Alabama, Mr. S. I. Bechdel, dairyman at the Experiment
Station at Auburn, recommends the use of a good prolific corn in
connection with pea-vines or soy beans, although sorghum is now
used to a considerable extent throughout the state. Some of the
farmers in the southern part of the state are enthusiastic over
the use of sorghum as a silage crop because it enables them to
get some other crop off earlier in the spring and get sorghum
in in time to make silage before frost.

Corn and sorghum in about equal parts are recommended in
Louisiana for good silage. Planting corn or sorghum during the
latter half of June on land from which oats or other crops have

172 SILAGE CROPS IN THE SOUTH.

already been taken will produce from 5 to 15 tons an acre for-
the silo.

Sugar cane tops and green leaves made excellent silage at
the Baton Rouge Station according to Bulletin No. 145. Analysis
showed that a ton of cane top silage carries the equivalent of
more feed units (protein, fat and carbohydrate) than 5% bushels
of corn. Out of an 18 ton yield from an acre, hauled to the mill,
about six tons would be tops and leaves. Four tons of this would
be suitable for silage, with feed units equal to 22 bushels of corn.
The gain in making silage of this is very evident. Furthermore,
this four tons of tops and leaves, if burned, would destroy $5.75
worth of nitrogen, whereas if siloed and fed to live stock a large
part of it would go back to the soil.

Frof. Staples, of the Experiment Station at Baton Rouge,
writes regarding Louisiana conditions as follows: “The best and
most profitable crops that we can grow in this state for silage
are corn, soy beans, peas and sorghum. The corn and soy beans
make the best combination, as the corn is rather dry at some
seasons and the soy beans being rather too moist supply the
necessary amount of moisture to make the corn and beans to-
gether a most excellent combination of feed-stuffs for filling. the
silo.

“The peas are also very good for combination with the corn,
but are somewhat troublesome to handle on account of the vines
entangling around the corn stalk and making it very hard to
handle, both by the binder when cutting and by the man hauling
and feeding the silage cutter. Sorghum is very good feed when
used as silage, but does not contain as large a per cent of feeding
nutrients as the above mentioned crops.”

CHAPTER IX.
HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.
Filling the Silo.

A. Indian Corn.—As previously stated, corn should be left in
the field before cutting until it has passed through the dough
stage, i. e., when the kernels are well dented or glazed, in case
of flint_varieties. Where very large silos are filled and in cases
of extreme dry weather when the corn is fast drying up, it will
be well to begin filling the silo a little before it has reached this
stage, as the greater portion of the corn would otherwise be apt
to be too dry. There is, however, less danger in this respect
now than formerly, on account of our modern deep. silos, and be-
cause we have found that water applied directly to the fodder in
the silo acts in the same way as water in the fodder, and keeps
the fermentations in the silo in check and in the right track.

Cutting the Corn in the Field.—The cutting of corn for the
silo is usually on small farms done by hand by means of a corn
knife. Many farmers have been using self-raking and binding
corn harvesters for this purpose, while others report good success
with a sled or platform cutter. If the corn stands up well, and
is not of a very large variety, the end sought may be reached in
a satisfactory manner by either of these methods. If, on the
other hand, much of the corn is down, hand cutting is to be
preferred. A number of different makes of corn harvesters and
corn cutters are now on the market; and it is very likely that
hand-cutting of fodder corn will be largely done away with in
years to come, at least on large farms, indeed, it looks as if the
day of the corn knife was passing away, and as if this implement
_- will soon be relegated to obscurity with the sickle of our fathers’
time.

If a corn harvester is used, it will be found to be a great ad-
vantage to have the bundles made what seems rather small. It
will take a little more twine, but the loaders, the haulers, the
unloaders, and even the Silage Cutter itself will handle much more
corn in a day if the bundles are small and light, and it will be
found to be economy to see that this is done.

173

174 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

Corn cutters have been made by various manufacturers of
late years and have proved quite satisfactory, although they re-
quire more hand labor than the corn harvesters and do not leave
the corn tied up and in as convenient shape for loading on the
wagons as these do. It is also necessary to use care with the
sledge type of corn cutter, as numerous cases are on record where
both men and horses have been injured by getting in front of
the knives, which project from the sides.

Fig. 52.—Low-down rack for hauling fodder corn.

A low down rack for hauling corn from the field is shown in
the accompanying illustration (Fig. 52). It has been used for
some years past at the Wisconsin Station, and is a great con-
venience in handling corn, saving both labor and time. ‘These
racks not only dispense with a man upon the wagon when
loading, but they materially lessen the labor of the man who
takes the corn from the ground, for it is only the top of the load
which needs to be raised shoulder-high; again, when it comes to
unloading, the man can stand on the floor or ground and simply
draw the corn toward him and lay it upon the table of the
cutter, without stooping over and without raising the corn up to
again throw it down. A plank that can easily be hitched on
behind the truck will prove convenient for loading, so that the
loader can pick up his armful and, walking up the plank, can
drop it without much exertion.

If wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be shocked in
the field to protect it as much as possible from rain before haul-
ing it to the cutter.

“EARS AND ALL.” 175

Siloing Corn, ‘‘Ears and All.’’

The best practice in putting corn into the silo is to silo the
cern plant, “ears and all,” without previously husking it. I£ the
ear corn is not needed for hogs and horses or fer seed purposes,
this practice is in the line of economy, as it saves the expense of
husking, cribbing, shelling and grinding the ear corn. The possi-
ble loss of food materials sustained in siloing the ear corn speaks
against: the practice, but this is very small, and more than coun-
terbalanced by the advantages gained by this method of pro-
cedure. In proof of this statement we will refer to an extended
feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Professor Woll at
the Wisconsin Station in 1891.

Corresponding rows of a large corn field were siloed, “ears
and all,’ and without ears, the ears belonging to the latter lot
‘being carefully saved and air-dried. The total yield of silage
with ears in it (whole-corn silage) was 59,495 pounds; of silage
without ears (stover silage) 34,496 pounds, and of ear corn, 10,511
pounds. The dry matter content of the lots obtained by the two
methods of treatment was, in whole-corn silage, 19,950 pounds;
in stover silage, 9,484 pcunds, and in ear corn, 9,122 pounds, or
18,606 pounds of dry matter in the stover silage and ear corn
combined. This shows a loss of 1,544 pounds of dry matter, or
nearly 7 per cent, sustained by handling the fodder and ear corn
separately instead of siloing the corn “ears and all.”

In feeding the two kinds of silage against each other, adding
the dry earn corn to the stover silage, it was found that seven-
teen tons of whole-corn silage fed to sixteen cows produced some-
what better results than fourteen tons of stover silage, and more
than two tons of dry ear corn, both kinds of silage having been
supplemented by the same quantities of hay and grain feed. The
yield of milk from the cows was 4 per cent higher on the whole
corn silage ration than on the stover silage ration, and the yield
of fat was 6.9 per cent higher on the same ration. It would seem
then that the cheapest and best way of preserving thescorn crop
for feeding purposes, at least in case of milch cows, is to fill it
directly into the silo; the greater portion of the corn may be cut
and siloed when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, and the
corn plat which is to furnish ear corn may be left in the field

176 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

until the corn is fully matured, when it may be husked, and the
stalks and leaves may be filled into the silo on top of the corn
siloed “ears and all.” This will then need some heavy weighting
or one or two applications of water on top of the corn, to insure
a good quality of silage from the dry stalks. (See pages 175
and 185.)

An experiment similar to the preceding one, conducted at the
Vermont Station, in which the product from six acres of land
was fed to dairy cows, gave similar results. We are justified in
concluding, therefore, that husking, shelling, and grinding the corn
(processes that may cost more than a quarter of the market
value of the meal) are labor and expense more than wasted, since
the cows do better on the corn siloed ‘ears and all’ than on that
siloed after the ears were picked off and fed ground with it.

Table XIII.—Yield of Digestible Matter in Corn.

YIELD PER ACRE
CONSTITUENT
Ears Stover Total Crop
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Protein yreed ck ESSE. ohe were eieee 244 83 327
Carbohydrates. ais sta<'sxe seme sets 2,501 1,473 3,774
Bhat: G2 cere ers ce ea reo eee ree 125 22 147
Dotalye Hae ioe kes tase wer eeicts 2,670 1,578 4,248

The difference in the feeding value of the corn plant when
siloed with and without ears is well illustrated in Table XIII. pre-
sented by the Pennsylvania State College, which shows that 63
per cent. of the digestible food materials present in the corn plant
are found in the ears and 37 per cent. in the stover.

The Filling Process.

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the silo, has
still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous mass, so that it will
pack well in the silo and will be convenient for feeding.

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and all, may be
run through a Silver’s “Ohio” Silage Cutter.

THE FILLING PROCESS. eG

The corn is unloaded on the self-feed table of the cutter and
run through the machine, after which the carrier or blower ele-
vates it and delivers it into the silo.

By far the easiest method of unloading is to drive across the
end of the traveling feed table as shown in the illustration Fig.

55. This brings the bundles into proper position for the feeder
to simply slide them endwise onto the feed table requiring little

or no lifting. By starting at the front of load and moving up as
the unloading proceeds one man can handle the work very much
quicker in this way and with far less labor, and two men can
also work to advantage if desired. This method of feeding should
be practiced wherever the setting of cutter or engine permits
driving the machine from the opposite or front end. Its labor-
saving advantages will be readily seen when contrasted with the
plan of feeding from the side of cutter as shown in Fig. 49, page
107, where the entire weight of each load, perhaps one to two
tons, is lifted waist-high and thrown forward.

To secure best results from the standpoint of both men and
equipment, regular steady feeding should be practiced at all
times. A little judgment used at this point in properly lapping
the bundles so as to keep up a constant and uniform supply will
not only produce larger capacity but will relieve the heavy uneven
strain to which a silage cutter is usually subjected.

Fig. 55.—Showing one of easiest methods of unloading corn at
cutter.

178 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

The length of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different
farmers and with the variety of corn to be siloed. Care should
be taken in this respect, however, for the length of cut has much
to do with the quality of the silage. Experience has demonstrated
that the half inch cut, or even shorter, gives most: satisfactory
results. The corn will pack and settle better in the silo, the finer
it is cut, thus better excluding the air and at the same time in-
creasing the capacity of the silo, some say 20 to 25 per cent.
Cattle will also eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and the
majority of farmers filling silos now practice such cutting.

The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge of the
silo at all times, thus keeping it high and packing it there, letting
the center take care of itself. The weight of the silage packs it
in the center.

If the corn is siloed “ears and all,” it is necessary to keep
aman or boy in the silo while it is being filled, to level the sur-
face and tramp down the sides and corners; if left to itself, the
heavier pieces of ears will be thrown farthest away and the light
leaves and tops will all come nearest the discharge; as a result
the corn will not settle evenly, and the different layers of silage
will have a different feeding value. Several simple devices, such
as funnel-shaped hoppers, adjustable board suspended from roof,
etc., will suggest themselves for receiving the silage from the car-
rier and directing it where desired in the silo. With the blower
machines, the new flexible silo tube, shown in the back of this
book, is a most happy solution of an otherwise disagreeable job.
At the same time it insures perfectly equal distribution of the cut
feed; the leaves, moisture and heavier parts being always uni-
formly mixed as cut.

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material in the Silo.

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has been ele-
vated or blown into the silo is a matter which should have proper
attention at the time of filling. If the cut material is allowed to
drop all in one place and then have no further attention the con-
stant falling of the material in one place will tend to make that
portion solid while the outside will not be so and besides the
pieces of ears and heavier portions will continually roll to the
outside. As a result the silage cannot settle evenly, and good

SIZH OF CUTTER REQUIRED. URS

results will not follow. As the filling progresses, the cut material
should be leveled off and the common and most successful prac-
tice is to keep the material higher at the sides than at the center
and do all the tramping at and close to the sides, where the fric-
tion of the walls tends to prevent as rapid settling as takes place
at the center. In modern deep silos, the weight of the silage
accomplishes more than would any amount of tramping, and all
that is necessary, is to see that the cut material is rather evenly
distributed, for better results in feeding, and to assist the settling
by some tramping at the sides. With the new silo tube, this
distribution is really reduced to the mere guiding of the mouth of
the tube by hand.

Tramping.

Always bear in mind that the more thoroughly the air is ex-
eluded, the better will be the silage. This is accomplished by
adding water if the crop is over ripe and by a thorough tramp-
ing as the silo is being filled. Pay especial attention to the edges.
If you have spoiled silage around the edges of a good silo it is be-
eause it was not tramped sufficiently at this point. Keep one or
two men tramping continually at the extreme edges close to the
walls of the silo. A little more trouble and expense in proper
tramping will save much spoiled silage. Tramp the edges.

Size of Cutter and Power Required:

The cutter used in filling the silo should have ample capacity
to give satisfaction and do the work rapidly; a rather large cut-
ter is therefore better than a cutter that is barely large enough.
The size required depends on the rapidity with which it is desired
to fill the silo and on the power at hand. Where a steam engine
is available it is the cheapest power for filling large silos, as the
work can then be finished very rapidly. For small farms and
silos, the gasoline engine has rapidly replaced the two or three
horse tread powers formerly popular for carrier machines, and
the gasoline tractors of 12 to 25 horse are now used to a consid-
erable extent for blower machines. Ordinary steam threshing
engines will still be found most dependable, however. The filling
may be done as rapidly as possible, or may be done slowly. and

180 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

no harm will result, if for any reason the work be interrupted for
some time. More silage can be put into a silo with slow, than
with rapid filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can,
of course, fill his silo and then refill after the silage has settled,
so that the silo will be nearly full after all settling has taken
place.

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an outfit, he
will wish to do the filling as rapidly as possible, as a matter of
economy, and will, therefore, seek the largest possible capacity.

It is important to be able to get an outfit when it is needed.
An early frost or a spell of hot, dry weather may so affect the
crop that it is necessary to fill the silo several days before the
usual time. For this reason a man should own his own cutter
and engine, especially if he cuts enough silage each year to war-
rant the expenditure. Usually it is easier to hire an engine than
a cutter. Many find it wise, therefore, to buy the latter and de-
pend on being able to rent the former when it is needed. Where
individual ownership is not possible, the next best move is for
two or three neighbors to purchase the necessary machinery in
partnership.

The size of the cutter to purchase depends also on how it is ;
to be used. For private use, when the silo is not large, a small
silo filler will suffice;, for a neighborhood machine where two or
three farmers combine, a larger size will be desirable; in either
case if the silos are of large size or the cutter is to be used for
jobbing work at other farms the larger sizes will certainly prove
more profitable. In some sections, community cutters have be-
come popular where from eight to fifteen farmers purchase com-
plete equipment for their own use. With fifteen or twenty men
and several teams on the job there is always friendly rivalry as
to the size of loads, speed in unloading, etc., and periodic efforts
to choke or stall the cutter are sure to result. It’s a special
feature of the game that should be considered and only the
largest capacity cutter should be selected in such cases if supreme
satisfaction is desired.

These conditions have created a demand for various sizes of
eutters, and to meet this demand Silver’s “Ohio” Silage Cut-
ters are made in six sizes, Nos. 11, 12, 15, 17, 19 and 22” Ghe
number of the machine indicates the length of knives and width

BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 181

of throat), and equipped with metal bucket elevators or blower
elevators as desired, adaptable to any height of silo. The blower
machines require more power to operate successfully than do the
carrier machines, although the largest sizes can be run by an
ordinary threshing engine. The traveling feed table and the bull
dog grip feed rolls are valuable features and practically do away
with the lahor of feeding the heavy green corn, besides increasing
the capacity of the machines about one-third, on account of its
being so much easier to get a large amount of material past the
feed rolls. These machines have been on the market for upwards
of twenty-five years, and have been brought to a wonderful state
of perfection. For durability, ease and reliability of operation,
capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the most practical
means of filling the silo.

The Metal Bucket Elevator is the older style of elevator. It
delivers the cut silage corn into the silo through a window or
opening at the top and must be longer than the silo is high as
it is necessary to run the carrier at somewhat of an angle. The
length of the carrier required may be obtained by adding about 40
per cent. to the perpendicular height from the ground to the win-
dow; thus for a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is required, and for a
50 ft. silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will be necessary.

The Metal Bucket Elevators for Silver’s “Ohio” Silage Cutters
are made both straight away and with swivel base, which en-
ables the operator to set the cutter in the desired position, and
as the swivel base gives the carrier a range of adjustment ex-
tending over nearly a half circle, the carrier can be run directly
to the window, or in the case of two silos setting side by side,
both can be filled with one setting of the cutter.

The Nos. 15, 17 and 19 Silver’s “Ohio” Silage Cutters are the
sizes most in use by farmers, stockKmen and dairymen. The
traveling feed table, first adopted by the “Ohio,” which is long
enough to receive a bundle of corn is a most valuable feature
and has become almost universal on the ‘Ohio’ machines used
for silo filling. It decreases the labor of feeding and makes any
size of machine about equal in capacity to the next size larger
without it.

The newer and more modern method of elevating fodder in
filling silos, is the use of the Blower Elevator which blows the

182 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

cut fodder into the silo through a continuous pipe. Blower Ele-
vators (see illustration of Silver’s “Ohio” Blower Cutter, Fig. 55)
have been in use to an increasing extent for several years, and
today there is absolutely no doubt as to their superiority for ele-
vating the material. Where sufficient power is available there is
no difficulty in elevating the cut fodder into the highest silos.

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat more power
than the old style Carrier, they have numerous advantages over
the latter, and the majority of machines now being sold are
equipped with Blowers. We mention below some of the features
that have served to bring Silver’s “Ohio” Monarch Blowers to the
notice and favor of farmers and dairymen so rapidly.

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down or moved,
as all that is necessary is to remove the pipe, (which is in sec-

Fig. 53—Shows Silver’s No. 19 “Ohio” Monarch Self Feeder Blower
Silage Cutter filling a group of five silos, owned by S. M.
Shoemaker, Burnside, P. O., Eccleston, Md. The machine had
just completed storing 1700 tons of silage.

BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 183

tions of various lengths from four to ten feet as desired), which
requires but a few moments. This operation requires but little
time as compared with that occupied in setting up or taking apart
the chain elevator.

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing all of the
corn in the silo and there is no litter around the, machine when
the filling is finished.

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn is made
much finer and it therefore packs closer in the silo, thus enabling
more fodder to be stored in the silo; the corn is all knocked off
of the pieces of cobs and distributed through the cut fodder better,
and the pieces of the heavy butts and joints are also split and
knocked to pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a fine condi-
tion so that it is eaten up cleaner by the stock.

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more durable
than the chain elevator.

The “Ohio” direct drive construction with pulley, knife cylin-
der and fan all on main shaft, is unique among silage cutters and
is thoroughly covered by patents. Its large fan permits full
capacity at low speed so that it never explodes or blows up.
The feeding mechanism can be started, stopped or reversed
with a single lever. The reverse is entirely by wood friction.
There is not the slightest strain on the machine; not a gear tooth
changes mesh. The machine cuts all kinds of fodder from % to 4
inch lengths as desired, with a perfectly adjusted shear cut.

Many have been skeptical as to the ability of the Blower to
elevate the material as rapidly as the “Ohio” Machines cut it.
This proposition, however, has been proven entirely feasible and
successful, and there positively need be no fear on this point
if the following points are kept in mind.

The machine must be run at the proper speed as recommended
by the manufacturers. A fan can only create a sufficient blast
by running fast enough to force the air through the pipe at
the rate of nine or ten thousand feet per minute. Green corn
is heavy stuff and requires a strong current of air to carry it
through 50 or 40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 30 tons per
hour. It will be seen, therefore, that unless proper speed be
maintained there will be no elevation of the material whatever.
If the power at hand is not sufficient to maintain full speed when

184 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

the cutters are fed to full capacity, all that is neccessary is to
feed the machine accordingly, in other words, to cut down the
capacity to the point where full speed can be maintained, as is
mecessary with other kinds of machinery, such as threshing
machines, grinding mills, ete.

In setting a, Blower Machine it is necessary to have the
pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that the current of
air within the pipe will lift the material. This is especially
true where the pipe is long, say 20 feet or more, because the
green fodder being heavy will settle down on to the lower side
of the pipe, if this has much slant, and the, wind blast will pass
over the fodder, thus allowing it to lodge, whereas if the pipe be
perpendicular, or nearly so, no stoppage will occur. It is also
necessary to see that full speed is attained before beginning to
feed the machine, and also to stop the feeding while the machine
is in full motion so that the Blower will have an opportunity
to clear itself before shutting off the power.

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent back pres-
sure, as the tremendous volume of air forced into the silo with
the cut fodder must have some means of escape.

If these few points are kept in mind, there can be no possible
doubt as to the successful operation of the Blower Elevator;
and, as previously stated, there is absolutely no doubt as to their
superiority for elevating silage. Scores of Silver’s “Ohio” Blower
Machines are in successful use in all parts of the country.

(N. B. At the end of this volume will be found illustrations
and descriptions of several sizes and styles of Silver’s “Ohio”
Silage Cutters, which the reader can refer to, in addition to the
illustration given here.)

Danger from Carbonic-Acid Peisoning in Silos——As soon as
the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic-acid gas is evolved,
and if the silo is shut up tight the gas will gradually accumulate ~
directly above the fodder, since it is heavier than air and does -
not mix with it under the conditions given. If a man or an
animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of
asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions in a deep
cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred
in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or
more days, and men have then gone into the silo to tramp

COVERING THE SILOED FODDER. 185:

down the cut corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left
open when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus ventilated,
carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since the gas will
then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic acid being without odor
or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it cannot be directly
observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lan-
tern or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into the silo
there 1s an accumulation of carbonic acid in it, and a person
should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going
down into it.

After the silage is made and the temperature in the silo has
gone Gown considerably, there is no further evolution of car-
bonie acid, and therefore no danger in entering the silo even if
this has been shut up tight. The maximum evolution of carbonic
acid, and consequently the danger of carbonic-acid poisoning
comes during or directly after the filling of the silo.

Covering the Siloed Fodder.

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have been recom-
mended and tried, with varying success. The original method
was to put boards on top of the fodder, and to weight them
heavily by means of a foot layer of dirt or sand, or with stone.
The weighting having later on been done away with, lighter ma-
terial, as straw, hay, sawdust, etc., was substituted for the
stone or sand. Building paper was often placed over the fodder,
and boards on top of the paper. There is no special advantage
derived from the use of building-paper, and it is now never
used. Many farmers run some corn stalks, or green husked
fodder, through the cutter after the fodder is all in. In the South,
cotton-seed hulls are easily obtained, and form a cheap and most
efficient cover.

None of these materials or any other recommendcd for the
purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of silage,
some four to six inches of the top layer being usually spoilt.
Occasionally this spoilt silage may not be so bad but that cattle
or hogs will eat it up nearly clean, but it is at best very poor
food and should not be used by any farmer who cares for the
quality of his products. The wet or green materials are better

186 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

for cover than dry substances, since they prevent evaporation
of water from the top layer; when this is dry air will be ad-
mitted to the fodder below, thus making it possible for putre-
factive bacteria and molds to continue the destructive work
begun by the fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the
silage to spoil.

Silage will settle several feet in an ordinary silo. If possible,
after filling the silo full, let it settle for three or four days, and
then fill again to the top, wetting the top on each occasion with
about one and one-half gallons of water to every square foot
of surface. After your silo has been filled and the top thoroughly
wet, leave it alone. Do not get on top of it, and do not dig down
through the top to examine it. The more this is done, the more
silage you will lose.

Use of Water in Filling Silos.—During late years the practice
of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in
a large number of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly
and a considerable amount of water added. In applying the
method at the Wisconsin Station, Prof. King, a few days after
the completion of the filling of the silo, added water to the
fodder corn at the rate of about ten pounds per square foot of
surface, repeating the same process about ten days afterwards.
By this method a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage,
a couple of inches thick, will form on the tcp, which will pre-
vent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will pre-
serve all but a few inches at the top. The method can be recom-
mended in cases where the corn or clover goes into the silo in
a rather dry condition, on account of drouth or extreme hot
weather, so as not to pack sufficiently by its own weight. While
weighting of the siloed fodder has long since been done away
with, it may still prove advantageous to resort to it where very
dry fodder is siloed, or in case of shallow silos. Under ordinary
conditions neither weighting nor application of water should be
necessary, but where the corn has become too mature and dried
up, on account of drouth, or delay in building ,the silo, it is a
great relief to know that good silage can be made from such
corn by an application of considerable water. ‘Water is now
generally added by running a stream into the blower as the
eut corn is elevated into the silo or in the silo itself-after each

FREEZING OF SILAGE. 187

load or half day’s run. Frosted corn can also be made into a
good quality of silage if a liberal amount of water is added as
directed.

There is only one way in which all of the silage can be pre-
served intact, viz., by beginning to feed it within a few days
after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by
many farmers, especially dairymen, who in this manner supple-
ment seant fall pastures.

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the siloing system
is brought to perfection, provided the silo structure is air-tight,
and constructed so as to admit of no unnecessary losses of
nutrients. Under these conditions there is a very considerable
saving of food materials over silage made in poorly constructed
silos, or over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have already
seen.

Freezing of Silage.

Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of annoyance
and loss to farmers in Northern states, and in the future, with
the progress of the stave silo, we shall most likely hear more
about frozen silage than we have in the past. As stated in the
discussion of the stave silo, however, the freezing of silage must
be considered an inconvenience rather than a positive detriment;
when the silage is thawed out it is eaten with the same relish
by stock as is silage that has never been frozen, and apparently
with equally good results. If frozen silage is not fed out directly
after thawed it will spoil and soon become unfit to be used for
eattle focd; thawed silage will spoil much sooner than ordinary
silage that has not been frozen and thawed out. -There is no evi-
dence that silage which has been frozen and slowly thawed out
is less palatable or nutritious than silage of the same kind which
has been kept free from frost.

Frozen silage should be avoided, not because it is unwhole-
some, but because it is too cold. The warmer the silage can be
kept the more palatable it will be and the less energy will be
required to raise it to the body temperature of the animals.
Frozen silage also has a tendency to make the cows laxative,
but not overmuch. It does not seem to bring Gown the milk
flow as might be supposed. Sheep seem to be affected more read-

188 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

ily than cattle by eating it and they are also more susceptible to
the effects of moldy orespoiled silage.

“Freezing of silage,’ says Iowa State College Bulletin No. 100,
“is due to loss of heat; first, through the silo wall; and second,
to the air in contact with the feeding surface.

‘It may be impartially said that, as far-«as the prevention
of freezing is concerned, the stave, stone, single wall brick and
concrete silos are of about equal merit.

“The second cause of freezing mentioned, that is, the loss of
heat from the silage surface, is too often the cause of unnecessary
freezing. If air above the silage is confined, no serious loss of
heat can possibly take place. When the top of the silo is open
and a free circulation of air permitted, it is almost impossible
to prevent the surface from freezing in severe weather. A per-
sonal investigation of silos in cold weather proved conclusively
that those provided with a tight roof did not contain nearly as
much frozen silage as those left open.”

The difficulty of the freezing of the silage may be avoided by
checking the ventilation in the silo and by leaving the door tu
the silo carefully closed in severe weather. If the top layer of
silage freezes some of the warm silage may be mixed with the
frozen silage an hour or two before feeding time, and all the
silage will then be*found in good condition when fed out. A
layer of straw may be kept as a cover over the silage; this will
prevent it from freezing, and is easily cleared off when silage is
to be taken out.

Covering over the exposed surface of the silage with old
blankets or hanging a lantern in the silo are other methods of
keeping out the frost.

Silage from Frosted Corn.

Experiments were conducted at the Vermont Station in Octo-
ber, 1906, with immature corn, mature corn not frosted, and mature
corn frosted hard or frozen and the leaves whitened. No ill
results were noticeable in the butter product. It was found
that “the effect of frosting corn, and still more of freezing it,
appears very slightly to have been to depress its feeding value

STEAMING SILAGE. 189

when made into silage.’ The testimony seemed in favor of run-
ning frost risks in order to gain a greater maturity, rather than
to silo the immature product.

Steamed Silage.

While fermentation in silage causes a small unavoidable loss,
it develops flavors and softens the plant tissue. Excessive fer-
mentation causes high acid. Steam has been used with much
success 1o check it in such cases, says Farmer’s Bulletin No. 516.
It is piped at the bottom and middle of the silo until the whole
mass is hot.

Steaming seems beneficial and silage so treated is considered
much better than that which is not steamed. Stall fed animals
have eaten from 50 -to 75 lbs. of silage per day, but the safer
method is to feed less than 50 Ibs. pr day.

CHAPTER X.

HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm animals,
dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats, swine, and
even poultry. It should never be fed as sole roughage to any
one of these classes of stock, however, but always in connection
with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when
cut for the silo the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but
it is always well to avoid feeding it excessively.

The silo should always be emptied from the top in horizontal
layers, and the surface kept level, so as to expose as little silage
as possible to the air. It should be fed out sufficiently rapidly
to avoid spoiling of the silage; in ordinary northern winter
weather a layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily.

Silage for Milch Cows.

Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. Woll in his
Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the silo in this
country, the dairymen, more than any other class of farmers,
have been among the most enthusiastic siloists, and up to the
present time a larger number of silos are found in dairy dis-
tricts than in any other regions where animal husbandry is a
prominent industry. As with other farm animals, cows fed
silage should receive other roughage in the shape of corn stalks,
hay, ete. The quantities of silage fed should not exceed forty,
or at outside, fifty pounds per day per head. It is possible
that a maximum allowance of only 25 or 30 pounds per head daily
is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an
important consideration, especially if the silage was made from
somewhat immature corn. The silage may be given in one or
two feeds daily, and, in case of milch cows always after milking,
and not before or during same, as the peculiar silage odor may,
in the latter case, reappear in the milk. (See below.)

Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secretion of
milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually
190

KEEPS UP MILK FLOW.. 191

drop considerably in milk toward spring, if fed on dry feed,
causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of
the lactation period. If silage is fed there wlil be no such marked
decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, and the
cows will be able to keep up well in milk until late in summer,

Fig. 54.—Silage Truck Designed for carting silage from the silo
to the feeding alley. Smooth rounded corners inside. Saves
time, labor and silage.

The overhead carrier is also used to some extent for the same
purpose.

or early in the fall, when they are dried up prior to calving.. Silage
has a similar effect on the milk secretion as green fodder or
pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, is more like these
feeds than any other feed the farmer can produce.

The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes been ob-
jected to when the milk was intended for the manufacture of
certain kinds of cheese, or of condensed milk, and there are in-
stances where such factories have enjoined their patrons from
feeding silage to their cows. When the latter is properly pre-
pared and properly fed, there can be no foundation whatever for
this injunction; it has been repeatedly demonstrated that Swiss
cheese of superior quality can be made from the milk of silage-
fed cows, and condensing factories whose patrons are feeding
silage have been able to manufacture a superior product. The
quality of the silage made during the first dozen years of silo

192 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

experience in this country was very poor, being sour and often
spoilt in large quantities, and, what may have been still more
important, it was sometimes fed in an injudicious manner, cattle
being made to subsist on this feed as sole roughage. Under these
conditions it is only natural that the quality of the milk should
be impaired, and that manufacturers preferred to entirely pro-
hibit the use of it rather than to teach their patrons to follow
proper methods in the making and feeding of silage. There is
an abundance of evidence at hand showing that good silage fed
in moderate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter experts,
silage not only does not injure the flavor of butter, but better-
flavored butter is produced by judicious silage feeding than can
be made from dry feed.

Silage in the production of “certified milk.’”—In answer to
the question whether there is any objection made to the milk
when the cows are fed silage, Mr. H. B. Gurler, the well-known
Illinois dairyman, whose certified milk sent to the Paris Expo-
sition in 1900, kept sweet for one month without having any
preservatives added to it, and was awarded a gold medal, gave.
the following information: ‘No, there is not. I have had per-
sons who knew I was feeding silage imagine they could taste it.
I caught one of the leading Chicago doctors a while ago. He
imagined that he could taste silage in the milk, and I was not
feeding it at all. When I first went into the business I did not
feed any silage to the cows: from which the certified milk was
produced. I knew it was all right for butter making, as I had
made butter from the milk of the cows fed with silage, and sent
it to New York in competition with butter made from dry food,
and it proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first winter
I had samples sent down to my family in DeKalb from the stable
where we fed silage and from the stable where we were making
the certified milk for Chicago, and in which we fed no silage. I
presume I made one hundred comparative tests that winter of the
milk from these two stables. My wife and daughter could not tell
the difference between the two samples. In the large majority of
cases they would select the milk from the cows fed silage as the
sweeter milk.” }

It will serve as an illustration of the general use of silage
among progressive dairymen in our country, to state that of

SILAGE FOR “CERTIFIED MILK.” 193

one hundred farmers furnishing the feed rations fed to their
dairy cows, in an investigation of this subject conducted by Prof.
Woll in 1894, sixty-four were feeding silage to their stock, this
feed being used a larger number of times than any other single
eattle food, wheat bran only excepted.

An interesting experiment as to the effect of silage on milk
was conducted by the Illinois Station, where a herd of 40 cows
was divided, one lot being fed 40 lbs. of silage a day, the other
clover hay and grain. Samples of milk were submitted to 572
persons for an opinion. Sixty per cent preferred the silage-fed
milk, 29 per cent non-silage-fed milk, while 11 per cent had no
choice. They were able to distinguish between the two kinds,
but found nothing objectionable about either. The summary of
the test was that when silage imparts a bad or disagreeable
flavor to milk produced from it, almost invariably the cause is.
that the silage has not been fed properly, or that spoiled silage
has been used.

It has been contended that the acetic acid in silage has a
tendency to make milk sour more quickly. A user of silage
for 14 years took a gallon of milk from a cow fed silage for 42
days and a gallon from another that had received no silage and
set them side by side in a room having a temperature of 40
degrees. Both gallons of milk began to sour at the same time.

The combination in which corn silage will be used in feeding
milch cows will depend a good deal on local conditions; it may be
said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair pro-
portion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground
oats, linseed meal, gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may
be of some help to our readers a number of balanced rations or
such as are near enough balanced to produce good results at
the pail, are presented below.

Silage Rations for Milch Cows.
No. 1. Corn silage, 35 Ibs.; hay, 8 Ibs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.;
ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 Ibs.

No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 2
Ibss; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 3 Ibs.; oil meal, 1 lb.

194 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover and timothy mixed, 10 lbs.;
wheat shorts, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.; corn and cob meal, 3
lbs.

No. 4. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 Ibs.; hay, 4 Ibs.;
wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 Ibs.

No. 5. Corn silage, 40 Ibs.; clover hay, 10 Ibs.; oat feed, 4 Ibs.;
corn meal, 5 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 Ibs.

No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; corn stalks, 5 Ilbs.; oat straw, 5 Ibs.;
dried brewers’ grains, 4 lbs.; wheat shorts, 4 lbs.

No. 7. Corn silage, 55 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; wheat
bran, 4 lbs.; oats, 5 lbs.

No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn stover, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.;
gluten meal, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.

No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; clover and timothy hay, 15 lbs.; corn
meal, 5 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.; cotton seed
meal, 1 lb.

No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs.; corn stover, 10 lbs.; hay, 5 Ibs.;
wheat shorts, 2 lbs.; oat feed, 4 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs.

No. 11. Clover silage, 30 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 10 lbs.; oat straw,
4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.

No. 12. Clover silage, 40 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; roots, 20 Ibs.; corn
meal, 4 lbs.; ground oats, 4 lbs.

The preceding rations are only intended as approximate guides
in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy farmer knows that there are
hardly two cows that will act in exactly the same manner and
will need exactly the same amount of feed. It is important,
therefore, to adapt the quantities and kinds of feed given to the
special needs of the different cows; one cow will fatten on corn
meal, where another will be able to eat and make good use of
two or three quarts of it. In the same way some cows will eat
more roughage than others and do equally well as those that
get more of the food in the form of more concentrated and highly
digestible feeding stuffs. The only safe rule to go by is to feed
according to the needs of the different cows; to study each cow
and find out how much food she can take care of without laying
on flesh, and how she responds to the feeding of foods of dif-
ferent character, like wheat bran and corn meal, for instance.

SILAGE RATIONS FOR MILCH COWS. 195

The specimen rations given in the preceding can, therefore, only
be used to show the average amount of common feeds which a
good dairy cow can take in and give proper returns for.

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy cattle has
increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. Few owners of stock
of this class, who have properly-built silos, and well preserved
silage, would discard silage as an adjunct to feeding. Silage
certainly promotes milk flow. One great argument in favor of its
use lies in the cheapness of production per ton, and the ability
to store and secure a palatable, nutritious food in weather con-
ditions that would seriously injure hay or dry fodder.

There is one important point that dairy farmers should bear
in mind, viz., when the silo is first opened only a small feed
should be given at first. In changing from grass or dry feed to
silage, if a regular full ration is given, the silage will perhaps
slightly affect the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if
the change is from dry feed it may cause too great activity of
the bowels.

Silage for Beef Cattle.

Prof. Henry says in regard to the value of silage for fattening
steers: “As with roots, silage makes the carcass watery and
soft to the touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage, but
is it not a desirable condition in the fattening steer? Corn and
roughage produce a hard dry carcass, and corn burns out the
digestive tract in the shortest possible time. With silage and
roots, digestion certainly must be more nearly normal, and its
profitable action longer continued. The tissues of the body are
juicy, and the whole system must be in just that condition which
permits rapid fattening.” ;

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full grown
ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given for.
steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Station suggests that
eorn silage is not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed a few
pounds only as a relish; fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to
lose virility and become slow and uncertain breeders.

Fuller information on this subject is given in Chapter V of
this book, entitled, “The Use of Silage in Beef Production.”

196 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

Silage for Horses.

Silage has been fed to horses and colts for a number of years
with excellent results. These points should be kept in mind
however: Never feed moldy silage; it is poisonous to horses.
Avoid sour silage nade from immature corn. Feed regularly,
once or twice a day, starting in with a light feed and gradually
increasing as the animals become accustomed to the food.

The succulence of silage produces as good an effect on horses
in the winter months as do the fresh spring pastures. Some
farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two thirds of straw and
one-third of silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this
mixed feed. Some horses object to silage at first on account of
its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top .
of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with,
they soon learn to eat and relish it. Other horses take it
willingly from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed
larger quantities than work horses, but in neither case should
the silage form more than a portion of the coarse feed given
the horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the
spring in better condition than when fed almost any other food.

Professor Cook says in regard to silage as a horse food:
“It has been suggested by even men of high scientific attainments
that silage is pre-eminentiy the food for cattle and not for other
farm stock. This is certainly a mistake. If we raise fall colts,
which I find very profitable, then silage is just what we need,
and will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares in first-
class trim for the hard summer’s work. I find silage just as
good for young colts and other horses.”

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder gives his
experience in regard to silage for horses as follows:

“Last year we had nearly two hundred horses, including
Clydesdales, standard-bred trotters, and Shetland ponies. They
were wintered entirely upon straw and corn silage, and this in
face of the fact that I had read a long article in a prominent
horse journal cautioning farmers from the use of silage, and
citing instances where many animals had died, and brood mares
had aborted frem the liberal use of corn silage.

SILAGE FOR HORSES. 197

“Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent, our stallions
and brood mares, as well as all the young stock, we fed two
full rations of silage daily, and one liberal ration of wheat or
oat straw. The result with our brood mares was most phenom-
enal, for we now have to represent every mare that was in foal
on the farm a weanling, strong and vigorous, and apparently
right in every way, with only one exception, where the colt was
lost by accident. Of course there may have been something in
the season more favorable than usual, but this was the first
year in my experience when every colt dropped on the farm was
saved.”

The following experience as to the value of silage as a food
for horses and other farm animals comes from the Ohio Station:
“Our silo was planned and filled with special reference to our
dairy stock, but after opening the silo we decided to try feeding
the silage to our horses, calves and hogs. The result was
eminently satisfactory. We did not find a cow, calf, horse, colt,
or hog that refused to eat, or that did not eat it with apparent
relish, not only for a few days, but for full two months. The
horses were given one feed of twenty pounds each per day in
place of the usual amount of hay, for the period above named,
and it was certainly a benefit. Their appetites were sharpened,
and the healthfulness of the food was further manifest. in the
new coat of hair which came with the usual spring shedding.
The coat was glossy, the skin loose, and the general appearance
was that of horses running upon pasture.”

Many letters have appeared in Breeders’ Gazette on this sub-
ject. An Iowa writer, A. L. Mason, states that he has fed
silage to horses for seven winters with no injurious effects. He
fed once a day, from 20 to 40 pounds according to size of horse
and 10 pounds to suckling colts. Another Iowa writer, F, A.
Huddlestum, after five years’ feeding, to stallions, mares in
foal and colts, reports excellent results. He says: “I am now
wintering 20 draft brood mares outdoors and their ration is 20
pounds silage once a day, five ears corn twice a day, and some
tame hay in the rack. I have never seen any that looked better.”
Geo. McLeod, of Iowa, writes: “We keep about 50 horses and all
are fed silage. The work horses are each fed a bushel basketful
and so is the Shire stallion. No bad effects. The boys are
eareful that no moldy silage goes to the horses.” Another writer,
B. D. R., says: “I am feeding 9 head, including a registered

198 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

stallion, five colts of various ages and three work horses. I give
each horse and colt a peck of silage a day.” These writers with-
out exception warn against the use of moldy silage.

Mr. P. W. Moir, a well known Iowa breeder of pure bred
horses, erected a large silo in 1911 for feeding horses exclusively.
As to results he stated that “It has been very satisfactory, as I
had the very choicest of silage. We fed it to the brood mares,
as well as the colts, and they did fine with it and came out in
the spring looking good. Other neighbors around here feed it and
I have heard of no bad results. I have broken up one of my
pastures, as I can get along without the grass and I expect to
have enough corn from this pasture to fill both silos.”

Silage for Mules——What has been said about silage as a
food for horses will most likely apply equaily well to mules,
although only very limited experience has so far been gained
with silage for this class of farm animals.

Results of a test made at the N. C. Experiment Station,
Raleigh, N. C., showed “that work mules will eat 20 to 50 pounds
of corn silage per day and when the ration is properly balanced
by the use of other feed-stuffs that 2% to 3 lbs. of silage could be
substituted for 1 lb. of clover hay or cow pea hay. Results show
that silage and ear corn or silage or corn and cobmeal is not so
satisfactory as silage and a grain ration higher in protein value
such as bran, cottonseed meal or oilmeal.”

Silage for Sheep-

Despite the popular conception that silage is more or less dan-
gerous to feed to sheep, especially breeding ewes, its great value
and entire safety has been demonstrated as a fact by long and
careful tests at the experiment stations, notably at the Purdue
Station. The evidence is conclusive that from the standpoints of
palatability, succulence and economy no other feed can compare
with good silage. Succulence, probably the most important ele-
ment in the winter ration of the breeding ewe, is necessary to
secure or maintain the freshness, vigor and health so desirable in
the flock.

Though good silage may be a safe and desirable feed, it does
not follow that silage which is very acid, spoiled or decomposed,

SILAGH FOR SHEEP. iS9

is not dangerous or even deadly in its effects when fed to lambs.
Some time after the close of one of the early experiments at
Purdue, four lambs died from the effects, supposedly of eating
spoiled silage. The cause was assigned to poisonous products
resulting from decomposition of the silage, which was favored
by the exposure of the silage to the air in warm weather and the
low condition of the silo.

Feeding an abnormal amount of silage, close confinement, lack
of exercise and lack of an experienced shepherd to handle the ewes
at lambing time often prevent maximum results, and silage feeding
has for this reason been unjustly condemned at times.

The Indiana Station has been conducting experiments with
feeding silage to pregnant ewes since 1907. A three year experl-
ment was commenced that year with two lots of ewes, one lot
being fed silage along with hay and grain and the other lot hay
and more grain, but no silage. The silage ration was limited the
first year, increased to 4 pounds the second year, and the third
year the ewes were given all they could clean up, which was prac-
tically 4.6 pounds. Even with this amount no harmful results
were observed either in the ewes or the lambs.

The experiment showed that the general thrift and appetite
of the silage ewes was superior to that of the lots fed hay and
grain alone. The former made each year a larger gain over winter
than did those on dry feed. The latter averaged for the three
years a gain of 6 pounds, while the silage ewes gained IS 65)
pounds, or more than twice as much. Yet the Station Bulletin
states definitely that this gain was not mere fat like corn feeding
will produce, but that the ewes were in good condition to produce
strong, vigorous lambs. It was a noticeable fact, that “right
straight through the whole three years, the lambs from the ewes
having the succulent feed, i. e., silage, averaged nearly ten per
cent. larger at birth. As to the cost of feed, the ration including
silage proved the more economical, while more satisfactory results
were obtained. The lambs from these two lots of ewes were all
fed out for an early market, and those from each lot did equally
well, gaining nearly half a pound per day until they were sold.”

Prof. King says that the same station has also “tested the value
of corn silage for fattening lambs and found that the lambs were
very easily kept on feed, made as rapid gains and finished as well

200 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

as lambs fed rations not containing silage. The average of three
trials at that station showed that there was an average reduction
in cost of gain of 61 cents per hundred pounds.”

Wiliam Foy, of Foy & Townsend, Sycamore, Ill., probably the
most extensive silage feeders in the world, feeds 20,000 sheep and
lambs a year on his 1400 acre farm. He makes silage his principal
feed and uses thousands of tons. Even during the winter of
1910-11, so disastrous in mutton feeding operations, his stock actu-
ally paid out. Foy said: “The use of silage last winter averted
a loss of approximately $1 per head on the entire output of our
plant; in other words, it earned us that much money. * * #*
You cannot feed hay to sheep or cattle at $15 to $17 a ton. Even
if it were possible, that policy would be questionable when a ton
of silage produces as many pounds of gain as a ton of hay and
costs $3 to $4. Weight for weight, I prefer silage, as it is more
palatable. With hay at current abnormal prices we would have
been forced out of business had silage not been available.”

Speaking of the advantages of silage, Mr. Foy says: “It saves
one-third of the corn that would be needed if only hay was used
as roughage, and obviates the use of hay entirely. The stock is
maintained in healthy condition; in fact, I never had a sick sheep
or even a lamb while feeding silage. When starting them on it,
care is necessary, but once accustomed to the feed, they thrive.
I figure at a 10-ton yield the product of an acre of silage to be
worth $50, and allowing $15 for cost of production we get ap-
proximately $55 out of an acre of corn. What the resultant
manure pile is worth, is open to conjecture. I will say, however,
that none of mine is for sale, and I could dispose of every pound
at $1 per ton. The principal disadvantage is the lack of finishing
quality and extra time needed to get the stock in marketable
condition. This can be remedied by using corn or corn meal to
put on a hard finish and it is our present practice. Saving one-
third the corn is an item not to be sneezed at in these days cf
big feed bills and narrow margins.”

Anthony Gardner of Hutchinson, Kans., one of the largest sheep
‘feeders in the state, says silos are indispensable. He has two
concrete silos aggregating 1500 tons capacity and uses silage for
sheep exclusively. It not only increases his profits per lamb, but
enables him to more than double his operations. During the

SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 201

winter of 1911-12, Mr. Gardner fattened 10,000 lambs on silage.
Without this feed, he states that 4,000 would have been his limit.
Aside from this feature the silo saved his corn crop from the hot
winds of 1911 and allowed him to male the best use of the kafir
he grew that season. Mr. Gardner’s feeding operations are on $100
land—too high-priced for pasturage or range purposes. In the fall
of 1910 his silos were filled with corn, and 7,500 lambs were fat-
tened with ensilage and grain. Corn was also the principal crop
in 1911, but to test out kafir, he topped off one of the silos with
100 tons of it, and it proved sp successful that in 1912 he planted
80 acres to kafir and cow peas sowed together, which on account
of the increased bulk is about a third of what it took in acreage to
fill with last year’s corn crop. Mr. Gardner’s silos cost about
$1,000 each, and their owner figures that they cut nearly a third off
the cost of his yearly feeding operations. He feeds ordinarily two
pounds of silage and 1% pounds of grain a day (corn, bran and
cottonseed meal) with kafir fodder for roughage.

After marketing his 10,000 lambs early in 1912, he was offered
$6.50 a ton for silage remaining on hand, but instead of selling, he
picked up a bunch of 1,800 poorly wintered lambs at low figures
which by means of silage he estimated later in the season would
bring him a profit of about $1.50 per head.

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men, says
Prof. Woll in his Book on Silage; sheep do well on it, and silage-
fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs
being strong and vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn
is not well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; for
fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an
advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day
and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. Prof. Cook reports
as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep: ‘Formerly
I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of
late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a
lamb. While ensilage may not be the entire cause of the change,
I believe it is the main cause. It is positively proved that ensilage
is a most valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our
domestic animals.”

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning silage for sheep:
“Of late years we have annually put up 3,200 tons of corn ensilage,

202 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

and this has been the principal ration of all the live stock at
Springdale Farm, our Shropshire sheep having been maintained on
a ration of ensilage night and morning, coupled with a small ra-
tion of clover hay in the middle of the day. This we found to fully
meet the requirements of our flock until after lambing, from which
time forward we of course added liberal rations of wheat bran,
oats, and old-process linseed meal to the ewes, with a view of
increasing their flow of milk and bringing forward the lambs in the
most vigorous possible condition. Our flock-master was somewhat
anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now that he saved 196
lambs from 122 ewes, his face is wreathed in smiles, and he gives
the ensilage system the strongest endorsement.”

O. C. Gregg, superintendent of Farmers’ Institutes for Minne-
sota, has been conducting some experiments on feeding silage to
sheep. He gives the result in one of our American exchanges as
follows:

“The ewes are beautiful to look at, square on the back, bright
of eye, active in appearance, and when the time comes for the
feeding of silage they are anxious for their feed, and in case there
is any lapse in time, they soon make their wants known by bleat-
ing about the troughs. The flock has been fed silage and good hay
in the morning, with oat hay in reasonable abundance in the after-
noon and evening. We have about ninety head of breeding ewes,
including the lambs referred to, and they have been fed two grain
sacks full of silage each day. This is not by any means heavy
feeding, and it might be increased in quantity. This is a matter
which we must learn from experience. We have fed the silage
with care, not knowing what the results would be if fed heavily.”

Silage for Swine-

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for
swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavorable reports being
at hand. Many farmers have tried feeding it to their hogs, but
without success. On the other hand, a number of hog-raisers have
had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine.
It is possible that the difference in the quality of the silage and of
the methods of feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions
formed concerning silage as hog food. Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great

SILAGE FOR SWINE. . 203

American authority on the swine industry, states that silage is
valuable to add to the winter rations of our swine. Mr. J. W.
Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs: ‘We have
fed our sows, about twenty-five in number, for four winters; equal
parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up
to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them.
It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the
young, equal to when they are running on clover. We find, too,
when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take
to nursing much sooner and better than they did in winters when
fed on an exclusively dry diet. We also feed it to our sheep. To
sixty head we put out about six bushels of ensilage.’”’ Young pigs
are exceedingly fond of silage. Feeding experiments conducted at
Virginia Experiment Station show that silage is an economical
maintenance feed for hogs, when fed in connection with a little
corn, but not when fed alone.

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only
very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing it with corn meal,
shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should be
largely made up of easily digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds
like silage can only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to
exceed three or four pounds per head per day. As in case of breed-
ing ewes, silage will give good results when fed with care to
brood sows, keeping the system in order, and producing a good
flow of milk.

Silage for Poultry:

But little experience is at hand as to the use of silage as a poul-
try food; some farmers, however, are feeding a little silage to their
poultry with good success. Only small quantities should, of course,
be fed, and it is beneficial as a stimulant and a regulator, as much
as food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in Orange Judd Farmer,
concerning his experience in making and feeding silage to fowls.
Devices similar to that here described have repeatedly been ex-
plained in the agricultural press: “Clover and corn silage is one
of the best winter foods for poultry raisers. Let me tell you how
to build four silos for $1. Buy four coal-oil barrels at the drug
store, burn them out on the inside, and take the heads out. Go to
the clover field when the second crop of the small June clover is

204 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

in bloom, and cut one-half to three-eighths of an inch in length,
also one-half ton of sweet corn, and run this through the
feed cutter. Put into the barrel a layer of clover, then a layer
of corn. Having done this, take a common building jack-screw
and press the silage down as firmly as possible. Then put on this
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and keep on putting
in clover and corn until you get the barrel as full as will admit of
the cover being put back. After your four barrel silos are filled,
roll them out beside the barn, and cover them with horse manure,
allowing them to remain there thirty days. Then put them away,
covering with cut straw or hay. When the cold, chilling winds of
December come, open one of these ‘poultrymen’s silos,’ take about
twenty pounds for one hundred hens, add equal parts of potatoes,
ground oats, and winter rye, place same in a kettle and bring to a
boiling state. Feed warm in the morning and the result will be
that you will be enabled to market seven or eight dozen eges per
day from one hundred hens through the winter, when eggs bring
good returns.”

Additional Testimony as to the Value of Silage.

Corn silage compared with root crops—Root crops are nov
grown to any large extent in this country, but occasionally an old-
country farmer will grow roots for his stock, because his father
did so, and his grandfather and great-grandfather before him.
This is what a well-known English writer, H. Henry Rew, says
as to the comparative value of roots and silage, from the stand-
point of an English farmer:

“The root crop has, for about a century and a half, formed the
keystone of arable farming; yet it is the root crop whose position
is most boldly challenged by silage. No doubt roots are expensive
—say £10 per acre as the cost of producing an ordinary crop of
turnips—and precarious, as the experience of the winter of 1887-8
has once more been notably exemplified in many parts of the
country. In a suggestive article in the Farming World Almanac
for 1888, Mr. Primrose McConnell discusses the question: ‘Are
Turnips a Necessary Crop?’ and sums up his answer in the follow-
ing definite conclusion:

““Everything, in skort, is against the use of roots, either as a

CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO ROOTS. 205

cheap and desirable food for any kind of live stock, as a crop suit-
ed for the fallow break, which cleans the land at little outlay, or
as one which preserves or increases the fertility of the soil.’

“Tf the growth of turnips is abandoned or restricted, ensilage
comes in usually to assist the farmer in supplying their place.
* * * When one comes to compare the cultivation of silage
crops with that of roots, there are two essential points in favor of
the former. One is their smaller expense, and the other is their
practical certainty. The farmer who makes silage can make cer-
tain of his winter store of food, whereas he who has only his root
crop may find himself left in the lurch at a time when there is lit-
tle chance of making other provision.”

We have accurate information as to the yields and cost of pro-
duction of roots and corn silage in this country from a number of
American experiment stations. This shows that the tonnage of
green or succulent feed per acre is not materially different in case
of the two crops, generally speaking. But when the quantities of
dry matter harvested in the crop are considered, the corn has been
found to yield about twice as much as the ordinary root crops.
According to data published by the Pennsylvania Station, the cost
of an acre of beets in the pit amounts to about $56, and of an acre
of corn in the silo about $21, only half the quantities of food ma-
terials obtained, and at more than double the cost.

When the feeding value of these two crops has been compared,
as has been the case in numerous trials at experiment stations, it
has been found that the dry-°matter of beets certainly has no
higher, and in many cases has been found to have a lower, value
than that of corn silage; the general conclusion to be drawn, there-
fore, is that “beets cost more to grow, harvest and store, yield less
per acre, and produce at best no more and no better milk or other
farm product than corn silage.”

Corn silage compared with hay.—A ton and a half of hay per
acre is generally considered a good average crop in humid regions.
Since hay contains about 86 per cent. dry matter, a crop of 1%
tons means 2,580 pounds of dry matter. Against this yield we
have yields of 5,000 to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice to
three and a half times as much, in case of fodder corn. An aver-
age crop of green fodder will weigh twelve tons of Northern varie-

206 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

ties and eighteen tons of Southern varieties. Estimating the per-
centage of dry matter in the former at 50 per cent,. and in the
latter at 20 per cent., we shall have in either case a yield of 7,200
pounds of dry matter. If we allow for 10 per cent. of loss of dry
matter in the silo there is still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be
eredited to the corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of
course, higher than that of growing hay, but by no means suffi-
ciently so to offset the larger yields. It is a fact generally con-
ceded by all who have given the subject any study, that the hay
crop is the most expensive crop used for the feeding of our farm
animals.

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Experiment Station
(England) said, respecting the relative value of hay and (grass)
silage: “It is probable that when both (i. e., hay and silage) are of
the very best quality that can be made, if part of the grass is cut
and placed in the silo, and another part is secured in the stack
without rain, one might prove as good food as the other. But it
must be borne in mind that while the production of good hay is a
matter of uncertainty—from the elements of success being beyond
the control of the farmer—good silage, by taking proper precau-
tions, can be made with certainty.”

A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay will be
mentioned in the following:

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the New Hamp-
shire Station, the silage ration, containing 16.45 pounds of digesti-
ble matter, produced 21.0 pounds of milk, and the hay ration, con-
taining 16.85 pounds digestible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk;
calculating the quantities of milk produced by 100 pounds of di-
gestible matter in either case, we find on the silage ration, 127.7
pounds of milk, on the hay ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 per cent. in
favor of the silage ration.

In a feeding experiment with milch cows at the Maine Station,
in which silage likewise was compared with hay, the addition of
silage to the ration resulted in a somewhat increased production
of milk solids, which was not caused by an increase in the digesti-
ble food materials eaten, but which must have been due either to
the superior value of the nutrients of the silage over those of the
hay or to the general psychological effect of feeding a great vari-
ety of foods. 8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat superior

CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO HAY. 207

to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible
material being the same in the two cases.

In another experiment, conducted at the same station, where
silage was compared with hay for steers, a pound of digestible
matter from the corn silage produced somewhat more growth than
a pound of digestible matter from timothy hay. The difference
was small, however, amounting in the case of the last two periods,
where the more accurate comparison is possible, to an increased
growth of only 15 pounds of live weight for each ton of silage fed.

Corn silage compared with fodder corn.—The cost of produc-
tion is the same for the green fodder up to the time of siloing, in
case of both systems; as against the expense of siloing the crop
comes that of shocking, and later on, placing the fodder under
shelter in the field-curing process; further husking, cribbing, and
grinding the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since this is the
most economical way of handling the crop, and the only way in
which it can be fully utilized so as to be of as great value as pos-
sible for dry fodder. Professor King found the cost of placing
corn in the silo to be 58.6 cents per ton, on the average for five
Wisconsin farms, or, adding to this amount, interest and taxes on
the silo investment, and insurance and maintenance of silo per ton,
75.2 cents. The expense of shocking and sheltering the cured fod-
der, and later cutting the same, will greatly exceed that of siloing
the crop; to obtain the full value in feeding the ear corn, it must,
furthermore, in most cases, be ground, costing ten cents or more
a bushel of 70 lbs. The advantage is, therefore, decidedly with the
siloed fodder in economy of handling, as well as in the cost of pro-
duction.

The comparative feeding value of corn silage and fodder corn
has been determined in a large number of trials at different experi-
ment stations. The earlier ones of these experiments were made
with only a couple of animals each, and no reliance can, therefore,
be placed on the results obtained in any single experiment. In the
later experiments a large number of cows have been included, and
these have been continued for sufficiently long time to show what
the animals could do on each feed.

Comparative Cost of Producing Silage-——The Oregon Agricul-
tural College Bulletin No. 156, comparing the total digestible nu-
trients of silage with other succulent feeds based largely on figures

208 - HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

from Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding” shows that one ton of corn
silage is equal to 1.0 ton of artichokes, 1.4 tons of parsnips, 1.5
tons of sugar beets, 1.8 tons of rutabagas, 1.8 tons of carrots, 2.2
tons of turnips, 2.4 tons of mangels, or 2.5 tons of kale. These
figures do not take into consideration the palatability or the stim-
ulation on milk secretion that any of these feeds might exert.

Table XIV., compiled by the same station, may be of interest:

Table XIV.—Cost of Production of One Acre of Succulent Crops
in Western Oregon.

Corn
Kale Roots Silage
Value of manure, at $1.00 per load....... $12.00 $12.00 $ 6.00
Applying manure, at 30c per load....... 3.60 3.60 1.80
DOMUDUSTALS KANE my eteteete fe ete sete levers rete ote Afi -75 Py 3)
PTO WALT E ae ov ane 5: diet teo Sreusis sa pened oe. ona eee eget ahs Buse 2.00 2.00 2.00
EEE DAGATTON. OL iSGCO) USE eras oie ciel sveie ene oreta 1.40 1.40 1.00
SCOR Re Set like ne ela cash: eek: Ss AR a To .25 1.20 .50
5 SASH AYE) gle Meteors ie Dec NCO res a or oncenei Tet 5.00 50 .50
GUTELVACLOM, Coe eres bie ea a enea teers ahs, cher eha eke 2.00 7.00 2.00
iar Vest——(CORN ile SULO)). snc:a <rstsuc.s ws tetas ote alir(aisy) 15.00 10.00
Depreciation and interest on machinery
Ande ShOPASes ie Bis I Sal ate cei .60 -60 3.75
$45.10 $44.05 $28.30
Average yield per acre (tons).......... 25 20 10
PGOSEADERUMEOTIA © lots ise aie dvadehe Rie whan ea, rele sre $ 1.80 $ 2:20 $ 2.83
Average yield per acre. digestible nutri-
ENUS, CDOUNGS)” «ates a sush oic ctere sie) eterta ene ves 3480 3440 3260

Cost per 100 pounds digestible nutrients. $ 1.30 $ 1.28 $ 0.86

The above table shows the cost of preparing the seed bed, seed-
ing, harvesting, and interest and depreciation on machinery, and
storage to be as follows: For one acre of kale, $45.10; for one
acre of roots, $44.05; and for one acre of corn, $28.30. The cost
per ton of the kale is least, and that of the corn silage is greatest,
but the cost per hundred pounds of digestible nutrients in the kale
is 51 per cent. more, and in the roots, 47 per cent. more, than in the
corn silage.

Table XV. gives an outline for arriving at the cost of producing
silage from start to finish. The table was prepared by the Texas
Agricultural Experiment Station. Many farmers in figuring the
cost of producing crops fail to consider the value of their own
labor, the rent of the land, the depreciation of fences surrounding

COMPARATIVE COST OF PRODUCING SILAGE. 209

the crop, etc. For example, the depreciation of a fence estimated
to last ten years should be figured at 10 per cent. of its value.

Table XV.—Outline for Arriving at the Cost of Producing Silage.

Coe Acres | Dr. | Cr

Plowing (breaking) at $...... per ACKER... sberaaee
1D WIS Ch ONEST Ey Bet SA ee DETEACL Cis iss. axoucieapsss ohotets lc cmeererenete
Harrowing at $...... per Vvacre: Terese eee
Commercial fertilizer .... lbs. at $.... per acre..
Other fertilizer ...... oF ae: Fh ot a per Aere: ae
Piamtine at Si... DEN) ABELESs svayecas aehere eens
SOCOM (Ora eis. ss DOGS AGES. 3 635.05 \ese ais Seat eene een eae
binst ‘cultivation. at $...... Der (;ACVe wns seuss esiea ae
Second cultivation at $...... per /Aenes & Feeley a
Third cultivation at $...,. o.. Peri Acre: sees lone oe
Fourth cultivation at $...... per ACre ssh). seiae rae
Mirth cultivapionJat $x 2 « DEV VE). 5,5. shes eee ge
Harrowing at $...... DEL PACT rs jit coin mitmere ens eaeee
Harvesting (row binder) at $...... pervacre... 1s.
ELS inNe tOVSiloy $s a .o% DeMtON, Siete oiae per acre.
Cutting and filling silo at $.... per ton, $.... per
OOTGES Wiel eee eX eas ucp'ce =, fhxy o ba ot clay asthe sbegnrofisy a lelepeiisies MevemR Nae ISed
Tnterest on investment in silo, engine and cutter
SUG ta neunTe. 2 JOST MCCTEN MLC cote R Ag Dates Ch abi Aric CRELE ratytbes clay ec
Depreciation on silo, engine and cutter at 10 per
(Qare in acucie Nolte ey OI RCAC RCRA honey CRU Cicacaee mane aA ccrsne Be
Rent of land at $...... DeErWaGuesr., Merce weet shoes
Taxes on land, implements, silo, engine and cutter.
Depreciation of fences, at ...... per Cent, o.cu. en
Total cost of producing ...... tons silage from
Re ate ADERES DES. ones) DOP COM tee. eee eee
Total feeding value of ...... tons silage from
SV tues ACT ES Bb Sisto nie wrx) OT eCOM este, otvercaveMere ere
Total profit or loss, per ton $...., per acre $... |

A few experiments illustrating the value of silage as a stock
food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two lots of steers on a silage
experiment. One lot of four steers was fed on corn silage ex-
clusively, and another similar lot corn silage with shelled corn.
The former lot gained 222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the lat-
ter lot 535 pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per day per head for the
silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day for the silage and shelled-
corn-fed steers. Prof. Emery fed corn silage and cottonseed meal,
in the proportion of eight to one, to two three-year-old steers, at
the North Carolina Experiment Station. The gain made during
thirty-two days was, for one steer, 78 pounds, and for the other,
85.5 pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head per day.

210 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. Hiram Smith,
in 1888 gave the following testimony concerning the value of
silage for milch cows: “My silo was opened December 1st, and
thirty pounds of ensilage was fed to each of the ninety cows for
the night’s feed, or 2,700 pounds per day, until March 10, one hun-
dred days, or a total of 135 tons, leaving sufficient ensilage to last
until May 10th. The thirty pounds took and well filled the place of
ten pounds of good hay. Had hay been fed for the night’s feed in
place of the ensilage, it would have required 900 pounds per day
for the ninety cows, or a total for the one hundred days of forty-
five tons.

‘It would have required, in the year 1887, forty-five acres of
meadow to have produced the hay, which, if bought or sold, would
have amounted to $14.00 per acre. The 135 tons of ensilage were
produced on 8% acres of land, and had a feeding value, as com-
pared with hay, of $74.11 per acre.” As the conclusion of the
whole matter, Mr. Smith stated that “three cows can be wintered
seven months on one acre producing 16 tons of ensilage, while it
required two acres of meadow in the same year of 1887 to winter
One cow, with the same amount of ground feed in both cases.”

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural College,
gives a powerful plea for silage in the following simple statement:
“The single fact that-the product of about two acres of ground
kept our herd of fifty cattle five weeks with no other feed of the
fodder kind, except a small ration of corn fodder given at noon,
speaks whole cyclopedias for the possibilities of Kansas fields
when the silo is called in as an adjunct.”

In conclusion.—We will bring our discussion of the silo and its
importance in American agriculture, to a close by quoting the
opinions of a few recognized leaders on agricultural matters as to
the value of silos and silage.

Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard’s Dairyman, and a
noted dairy lecturer: “For dairying of all the year around the silo
is almost indispensable.”

Prof. Hill, the director of Vermont Experiment Station: “It was
long ago clearly shown that the most economical farm-grown car-
bohydrates raised in New England are derived from the corn plant,

ECONOMY IN PRODUCTION OF FEED MATERIALS. 211

and that they are more economically preserved for cattle feeding
in the silo than in any other way.”

EiGs Wallace, formerly editor Creamery Gazette, now business
manager Wallace’s Farmer: “While not an absolute necessity, the
silo is a great convenience in the winter, and in times of protracted
dryness almost a necessity in summer.”

Prot. Carlyle, formerly of Wisconsin Agricultural College, now
director Experiment Station, Moscow, Idaho: “A silo is a great
labor-saving device for preserving the cheapest green fodder in
the best form.”

C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers’ Institutes in Wisconsin,
and a well-know lecturer and authority on dairy topics: “A farmer
can keep cows profitably without a silo, but he can make more
profit with one, because he can keep his cows with less expense
and they will produce more.”

Prof, Deane, of Ontario Agricultural College: “The silo is be-
coming a greater necessity every year in Ontario.”

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world wherever
the silo is in use, the evidence points in favor of silage, there no
longer being an argument against it, in connection with the dairy,
and especially in latitudes where corn can be grown.

Economy in production of feed materials means increased
profits. Competition establishes the price at which the farmer
and dairyman must market his products; but by the study of ap-
proved and modern methods the farmer can regulate his profits.

CHAPTER XI.
A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

It has been thought best, in-order to increase the usefulness of
this little book to practical farmers, to add to the specific infor-
mation given in the preceding pages as to the making and feeding
of silage, a brief general outline of the main principles that should
govern the feeding of farm animals. This will include a statement
of the character of the various components of the feeding stuffs
used for the nutrition of farm stock, with tables of composition,
and a glossary of scientific or technical terms often met with
in agricultural papers, experiment station reports, and similar
publications. Many of these terms are used constantly in discus-
sions of agricultural topics, and unless the farmer has a fairly
clear idea of their meaning, the discussions will often be of no
value to him. The information given in the following is put in as
plain and simple language as possible, and only such facts are
given as are considered of fundamental importance to the feeder
of farm stock.

Composition of the Animal Body.

The most important components of the animal body are: Water,
ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly describe these components.

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal body than any
other substance. It makes up about a third to nearly two-thirds
of the live weight of farm animals. The fatter the animal is, the
less water is found in its body. We may consider 50 per cent, of
the body weight a general average for the water content of the
body of farm animals. When it comes to animal products used for
food purposes, there are wide variations in the water content;
from between 80 and 90 per cent., in case of milk, to between 40
and 60 per cent. in meat of various kinds, about 12 per cent. in
butter, and less than 10 per cent. in fat salt pork.

Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal body which
212

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 213

remains behind when the body is burned. The bones of animals
contain large quantities of mineral matter, while the muscles and
other parts of the body contain only small amounts; it must not
be concluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor impor-
tance for this reason; both young and full-grown animals require
a constant supply of ash materials in their food; if the food should
not contain'a certain minimum amount of ash materials, and of
various compounds contained therein which are essential to life,
the animal will very soon turn sick, and if the deficiency is not
made up will die, no matter how much of other food components
may be supplied. As both ash and water are either present in
sufficient quantities in feeding stuffs, or can be easily supplied, the
feeder does not ordinarily need to give much thought to these
components in the selection of foods for his stock except in the
ease of young animals fed corn (which is lacking in ash ma-
terials), and in feeding milch cows and steers which require an ad-
dition of salt in order to do well.

Protein is the name of a large group of very complex substances
that have certain characteristics in common, the more important
of which is that they all contain the element nitrogen. The most
important protein substances found in the animal body are: lean
meat, fibrin, all kinds of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in
fact the entire working machinery of the animal body. The casein
of milk and the white of the egg are, furthermore, protein sub-
stances. It is evident from the enumeration made that protein is
to the animal body what the word implies, the most important,
the first.

Fat is a familiar component of the animal body; it is dis-
tributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, but is found de-
posited on certain organs, or under the skin, in thick layers, in the
case of very fat animals.

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air; it must manu-
facture its body substances and products from the food it eats,
hence the next subject for consideration should be:

Composition of Feeding Stuffs.

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our farm animals
. are, generally speaking, composed of similar compounds as those

214 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

which are found in the body of the animal itself, although the
components in the two cases are rarely identical, but can be dis-
tinguished from each other in most cases by certain chemical re-
actions. The animal body through its vital functions has the
faculty of changing the various food substances which it finds in
the food in such a way that they are in many instances different
from any substances found in the vegetable world.

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally enumerat-
ed and taken into account in ordinary chemical fodder analysis, or
in discussions of feeding problems are: Water (or moisture, as it
is often called), ash materials, fat (or ether-extract), protein, fiber,
and nitrogen-free extract; the two components last given are
sometimes grouped together under the name carbohydrates. These
components are in nearly all cases mixtures of substances that
possess certain properties in common; and as the mixtures are
often made up of different components, or of the same compon-
ents in varying proportions, it follows that even if a substance is
given in a table of composition of feeding stuffs, in the same quan-
tities in case of two different feeds, these feeds do not necessarily
have the same food value as far as this component alone is con-
cerned.

Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs, whether succu-
lent or apparently dry. Green fodders contain from 60 to 90 per
cent. of water, according to the stage of maturity of the fodder;
root crops contain between 80 and 90 per cent., while hay of dif-
ferent kinds, straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have water
contents ranging between 20 and 5 per cent.

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues and feeding
stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, or in refuse feeds made
up from the outer covering of grains or other seeds, viz., from 4 to
8 per cent.; less in the cereals and green fodder, and least of all
in roots. A fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding
young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited amount of
foods low in ash should be fed to such animals; refuse feed from
starch and glucose factories which have been treated with large
quantities of water should, therefore, be fed with care in such
cases.

Fat or ether-extract is the portion of the feeding stuff which is
dissolved by ether or benzine. It is found in large quantities in

COMPOSITION, OF FEEDING STUFFS. 215

the oil-bearing seeds, about one third of these being composed of
oil or fat; the oil-mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially
cottonseed meal and old-process linseed meal; other feeds rich in
fat are gluten meal and feed, dried distillers’ grains, and riee meal.
The ether-extract of the coarse fodders contains considerable wax,
resins, and other substances which have a low feeding value, while
that of the seeds and by-products from these are essentially pure
fat or oil.

Protein or flesh-forming substances are considered of the high-
est importance in feeding animals, because they supply the ma-
terial required for building up the tissues of the body, and for
maintaining these under the wear caused by the vital functions.
Ordinarily the feed rations of most farmers are deficient in protein
since most of the farm-grown foods (aside from clover, alfalfa,
peas and similar crops) contain only small amounts of these sub-
stances. The feeding stuffs richest in protein are, among the coarse
foods, those already mentioned; among the concentrated foods;
cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, buckwheat
middlings, and the flour-mill, brewery, and distillery refuse feeds.
The protein substances are also called nitrogenous bodies for the
reasons given above, and the other organic (combustible) compo-
nents in the feeding stuffs are spoken of as non-nitrogenous sub-
stances. The non-nitrogenous components of feeding stuffs, there-
fore, include fat and the two following groups, fiber and nitrogen-
free extract.

Crude fiber (or simply fiber) is the framework of the plants,
forming the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger proportion
present thereof the less valuable the food is. We find, according-
ly, that the fodders containing most fiber are the cheapest foods
and least prized by feeders, as, e. g., straw of the various cereal
and seed-producing crops, corncobs, oat and rice hulls, cottonseed
hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. These feeding stuffs, in so
far as they can be considered as such, contain as a rule between
35 and 50 per cent. of fibre. Concentrated feeding stuffs, on the
other hand, generally contain less than 10 per cent. of fibre and in
all cereals but oats only a few per cent. of fibre are found.

Nitrogen-free extract is a general name for all that is left of
the organic matter of plants and fodders after deducting the pre-

216 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

ceding groups of compounds. It includes some of the most val-
uable constituents of feeding stuffs, which make up the largest
bulk of the food materials; first in importance among these con-
stituents are starch and sugar, and, in addition, a number of less
well-known substances of similar composition, like pentosans,
gums, organic acids, etc. Together with fiber the nitrogen-free
extracts forms the group of substances known as carbohydrates.
A general name for carbohydrates is heat-producing substances,
since this is one important function which they fill; they are not
as valuable for this purpose, pound for pound, as fat, which also
is often used for the purpose by the animal organism, but on ac-
count of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates are
found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of food materials
second to none in importance. Since it has been found that fat
will produce on combustion about 214 times as much heat as car-
bohydrates, the two components are often considered together in
tables of composition of feeding stuffs and in discussions of the
feeding value of different foods, the per cent. of fat being multi-
plied by 2% in such cases, and added to the per cent. of carbo-
hydrates (i. e., fiber plus nitrogen-free extract) in the foods. As
this renders comparisons much easier, and simplifies calculations
for the beginner, we shall adopt this plan in the tables and discus-
sions given in this Guide.

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being oxidized
or burned in the body, but also furnish materials for energy used
in muscular action, whether this be voluntary or involuntary.
They also in all probability are largely used for the purpose of
storing fatty tissue in the body of fattening animals, or of other
animals that are fed an excess of nutrients above what is required
for the production of the necessary body heat and muscular force.

To summarize briefiy the use of the various food elements:
Protein is required for building up muscular tissue, and to supply
the breaking-down and waste of nitrogenous components con-
stantly taking place in the living body. If fed in excess of this
requirement it is used for production of heat and energy. The
non-nitrogenous organic components, i. e., carbohydrates and fat,
furnish material for supply of heat and muscular exertion, as well
as for the production of fat in the body or in the milk, in case of
milk-producing animals.

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 217

Digestibility of foods.—Only a certain portion of a feeding stuff
is of actual value to the animal, viz., the portion which the diges-
tive juices of the animal can render soluble, and thus bring into
a condition in which the system can make the use of it called for;
this digestible portion ranges from one-half or less to more than
96 per cent. in case of highly digestible foods. The rest is simply
ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., the less of digestible matter a
food contains, the more the value of the digestible portion is re-
duced. Straw, e. g., is found, by means of digestion experiments,
to contain between 50 and 40 per cent. of digestible matter in all,
but it is very doubtful whether an animal can be kept alive for any
length of time when fed straw alone. It very likely costs him
more effort to extract the digestible matter therefrom than the
energy this can supply. An animal lives on and produces not from
what he eats but from what he digests and assimilates.

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the prices of different
feeding stuffs vary greatly with the locality and season, it is im-
possible to give definite statements as to the relative economy
which will always hold good; it may be said, in general, that the
feeding stuffs richest in protein are our most costly and at the
same time our most valuable foods. Experience has shown to a
certainty that a liberal supply of protein is an advantage in feed-
ing most classes of farm animals, so that if such feeding stuffs
can be obtained at fair prices, it will pay to feed them quite ex-
tensively, and they must enter into all food rations in fair quanti-
ties in order that the animals may produce as much milk, meat,
or other farm products, as is necessary to render them profitable
to their owner. The following statement shows a classification of
feeding stuffs which may prove helpful in deciding upon kinds and
amounts of feeds to be purchased or fed:

218

A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

Table XVI.—Classification of Cattle Foods.—A. Coarse Feeds.

Low in protein. |Medium in_ protein. Low in protein.
High in carbo- | Medium in carbo-| High in carbo-
hydrates. _ hydrates. | hydrates.
50 to 65 per cent. 55 to 65 per cent. 85 to 95 per cent.
digestible. digestible. digestible.
Hays, straws, Clovers, alfalfa, Carrots, potatoes,
corn fodder, | pasture grass, sugar beets,
corn stover, vetches, pea mangolds,
silage, cereal and bean fod- turnips.
fodders. der.
B. Concentrates.
Very high High in pro- | Fairly high in Low in —
in protein tein protein protein
(above 40 per (25-40 per (12-25 per | (below 12 per
cent.) cent.) cent.) cent.)
Dried blood. Gluten meal. Malt sprouts. | Wheat.
Meat scraps. Atlas meal. Gluten feed. Barley.
Cottonseed Linseed meal. Cow pea. Oats.
meal. Buckwheat Pea meal. Rye.
middlings. Wheat shorts.|Corn. .-
Buckwheat Rye shorts. Rice polish.
shorts. Oat shorts. Rice.
Soy bean. Wheat Hominy
Dried distillers’ | middlings. chops or
and brewers’ | Wheat bran. feed.
grains. | Low-grade Germ meal.
flour. Oat feeds.

The Feed Unit System.

This system furnishes a convenient and accurate method of
comparing the feed consumption of different farm animals and of

determining the relative economy of their production.

It has been

found, for example in the case of dairy cows, that some cows
produce a certain amount of milk and butter-fat much more
cheaply than others, so far as their feed consumption is con-

TABLE OF FEED UNITS. 219

cerned; they are economical producers and should preferably be
used for dairy production and as foundation stock for the dairy.
Heifer cows from such cows will be likely to be large and profit-
able producers. By the feed unit system a simple, definite figure
is obtain for the total feed eaten by farm animals, including that
eaten on pasture.

An example will readily illustrate the application of the sys-
tem. For instance, it has been found that 1.1 pounds of wheat

Table XVI!.—Table of Feed Units.

Pounds of Feed

Feeding Stuffs. required to equal
| 1 unit.
Concentrates— Aver-
Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried| age. Range.

brewers’ grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts,
Peas, Unicorn Dairy Ration, molasses beet

TSRIALITCVIN “otpay Nc, 2 caretieiseh he a uear et annus, eool elcencl & touete eae: ats Pen etenen neLahens ROE e RSS AP caper
CottonssSeedsmeal. Veo oe UR ee Pau Baten seen ORSPaltehroocatans sets
Dil meal, Ajax Flakes (dried distillers’ grains),

Sluice Teed: SOy "WeANS’. ./a0 « steals cists ac anwar estos (01510 oa (aa i fa

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed,
malt sprouts, International Sugar Feed,
Quaker or Sugarota Molasses or Dairy Feed,
Sucrene Dairy Feed, Badger Dairy Feed,

Schumacher Stock Feed, molasses grains.... ED elses Bae
Alfalfa meal, Victor feed, June Pasture, alfalfa
molasses feeds 2 i. a... 6. ih w bo aia anise) oye be Muncene a eusae Se Pen lsvaties taetahere oye
Hay and Straw—
PMU Peale Nan CLONE MAW i cee eucnans: oie) nisl syst suai eter eas.astay ences 2.0 1.5—3.0
Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and
Beanh aie area wt O DiMA. < «a enens: ody paler sueheetens aetna 2.5 2.0—3.0
Timothy ‘hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay......... 3.0 2.5—8.5
Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut
STEAL © oRet- Monier apoyo: oda} ol ip i@x onch ase: she] Ghoyane>dneu sh ahapeeeuacnieeueiereas 4.0 3.5—6.0

Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds—
Gmesirerapliiaitiaye Sk is tee ties s Rete Sth AEA ane toe centers
Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats,

RAMONE Vee VO LUGS Clare) exaitel onsite: 1s) © stan SGA Aloensese nel scales
PAW et Ea) SUTRAS Sie us ferefents retells Ls) 2 ie bile spb oe le B ebale ofS yet ete ee
Gormusiiase PEA: VINESIARES... oi 0). ete cyriimiehe aleve ayelae
MVGtbrPewers- Srainsis! aloe. te. Beg! eas.
Potatoes). skim mills, utter wail. ssc ass « enepapeietey.
ENTE E Sencha tae velar cid are to aylate. ehedevanckenlet diewehake) cwseatel slauetio. 4
AUG OPSES. LRUASIIEE dela’ os = = cPalaps Maleeeave Biba lss adel te ehs ove
FEU AS: ahs a at wlataly s SN SWemehenl Gs shana: ojeter eps) Sgeteltch a lorchs
PROVASHECES VET CCTL, TAPCO. cieeui sie lees! oleic slele Sleds ese
Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey.............. SO | Wicyerdn Seine
Turnips, mangels; fresh beet pulp...:....5...5. 12.5 |10.0—15.0

eer ee mens ae

s)im)\s)\m 6) aie (ofa) e

eae eS ves!
SSoscoSoSo0 SC

H

Pasture, 8 to 12 units per day, on the average
varying with kind and condition.

220 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

bran, or 2.5 pounds of hay of average quality, can be substituted
to a limited extent for a pound of grain in ordinary dairy rations,
without changing appreciably the yield or the composition of the
milk produced by the cows, or influencing their live weights or
general condition. These quantities of the different feeds are,
therefore, considered of similar value and equivalent to one feed
unit. If a cow ate 750 pounds of hay, 150 pounds of bran, and 90
pounds of ground corn during a certain month, she received 750
divided by 2.5, or 500 feed units, in the hay eaten, 150 divided by
1.1 or 136 in the bran, and 90 in the ground corn, making a total
of 526 feed units eaten.

If she yielded one pound ‘of butter-fat a day in her milk on
this feed, or 30 pounds for the month, she produced 50 divided
by 5.26, or 5.70 pounds of butter-fat per 100 feed units consumed
in her feed. There are great differences among cows in the
returns made per unit of feed, and data obtained as given above
show in a striking manner whether a cow is an economical pro-
ducer or whether she required an excessive amount of feed to
make her production.

Through this information, along with that as to the capacity
of the cow for dairy production furnished by a milk scale and a
Babcock tester, a farmer can find out definitely the rank of the
different cows in the herd as dairy producers and may thus know
which ones, if any, are not profitable animals and should be sent
to the butcher.

Feeding Standards.

Investigations by scientists have brought to light the fact that
the different classes of farm animals require certain amounts of
food materials for keeping the body functions in a regular healthy
activity; this is known as the maintenance ration of the animal,
an allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain his live
weight without either gaining or losing, or producing animal
products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, ete. If the animal is expected
to manufacture these products in addition, it is necessary to supply
enough extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture. The
food requirements for different purposes have been carefully
studied, and we know now with a fair amount of accuracy how
much food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects

A PRACTICAL FEEDING RATION. 221

sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods, and
almost infinite possible combinations of these, it would not do to
express these requirements in so and so many pounds of corn, or
oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases expressed in
amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat. This en-
ables the feeder to supply these food materials in such feeding
stuffs as he has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards
commonly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are those
of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. Those standards
give, then, the approximate amount of dry matter, digestible pro-
tein, carbohydrates, and fat, which the different classes of farm
animals should receive in their daily food in order to produce
maximum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible
protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good results.
The proportion of digestible nitrogenous to digestible non-nitro-
genous food substances therefore becomes important. This pro-
portion is technically known as nutritive ratio, and we speak
of wide nutritive ratio, when there are six or more times as much
digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible
protein, and of a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the two
kinds of food materials is as 1 to 6, or less.

The feeding standards given in the following tables may serve
as a fairly accurate guide in determining the food requirements
of farm animals; and it will be noticed that the amounts are per
1,000 pounds live weight, and not per head, except as noted in the
case of growing animals. The standards should not be looked
upon as infallible guides, which they are not, for the simple rea-
son that different animals differ greatly both in the amounts of
food that they consume and in the uses which they are able to
make of the food they eat. The feeding standard for milch cows
has probably been subjected to the closest study by American
experiment station workers, and it has been found, in general,
that the Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for more digestible protein
(i. e., a narrower nutritive ratio) than can be fed with economy
in most of the dairy sections of our country, at least in the
central and northwestern states. On basis of investigations along
this line conducted in the early part of the nineties, Prof. Woll,
of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called American practical feeding
ration, which calls for the following amount of digestible food

222 . A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

materials in the daily ration of a dairy cow of an average
of 1,000 pounds. i iT taf
Disestiblepproteine: :V.s.. tis ki te Sloe shy feet nuk eee ae
Digestible carbohydrates ......... afi ahewe lt tag see ae ae
Disestibleveait ct .# clas Sian. cee ee SPAR RRR orice SAO S /
Totaly digestiiile “matter «sua. Subs «ce TGs, tet hee ae

(protein + carbohydrates +fatx2%)
INUEBICIVIG SLEILIO!. <2). qratae cs ree nies Sets ces oo wate a ata Otello ental

FEEDING STANDARDS. 223

Feeding Standards for Farm Animals.
(W olff-Lehmann.)

Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight.

Nutritive
o (Digestible) n
2 Substances 3
zlel2|2|e8| 2
S| Sulegiaped (Neen
Pp g Bb 3 2
en jee 4 = Zz Ss
S)| Se) Bee irae eee
| 2, | Osi SS lee lies Zz
| |
lbs. |lbs.| Ibs. |Ibs.| Ibs
SPeSccens: 2b PESt imi stall.c 1. .s.sreces 18 | 0.7 8.0 | 0.1 8.9 j1:11.8
id sShisbtly+woOrkked: -\ Yer es net a. 22) DAP VOLON KOSS aml aed le Tee:
4 moderately worked......... 25 2/0 | 115 ROSb ead us G55
: MC AV ALY) WOTKE Gis, <j0ic) we sh trince « 28 | 258°] 13.0 | O:8 77 |2s (b:3
2. Fattening steers, st period: .5.... 30 | 2.5 | 15.0) 0.5 | 18.7 j1: 6.5
; 2nd else deuce 30 | 3.0 |14.5] 0.7) 19.2 j1: 5.4
és ie 3d Sete Wloyey sfacarars 26 |. 2.0 | LON Os Te LOLa is) 622
3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs.| 25 |1.6]10.0]0.3 | 12.3 |1: 6.7
ef “ < i: Se WAGE 92) R220) te OnO 74) | LAC On eG20)
a ef $ < SOT deme (ee9! 11225: | as On | Oso monde lrsiont
“S Se rs x SS 2G" ese) 323 LS OR OES puso aa livnaL 5
4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds Sieve. 20 | 1.2 | 10.5 | 0.2 | 12.2 |1: 9.1
fimer tT Cs exons Bo |) deol ia on hOeeon| wletean Mecsaeo
5. Breeding ewes, with lambs....... 25 | 2.9) PoCON Obs ES ie sbs6
6. Fattening sheep, 1st period....... 30 | 350 | 18:0] 0.5 | 19.2 |1: 5.4
He s 2nd RIO Orc 26 |3.5]14.0]0.6]19.4 j1: 4.5
iteectorses: Jishtly WoOrkKed® «scises sss ZO? | AS Oko: OP4aa lO |e: TiO!
h moderately worked........ 24 |.2.0)11.0 | 056) 14.5.1 6.2
ss Heavily: “WoOrke dj. x .+s1s10. fe oe | eo seo) | Ose) ued a|tese GeO
Ss Brood. Sows, with pigs... .....6 es. 22 | 2.5) 25.5 | 04 | 19:0 |Ls 6:6
9. Fattening swine, 1st period....... 36) 4a eo LONOad |oweenties O.9)
“ os 2nd TSE rics O21) 450) QA ONNOLS: | 29.2) b> 6.8
as = 3d SECO ok 25 | 2.7 128.0) 0.4) 22.0:/1: 7.0
10. Growing cattle:
Dairy Breeds.
Av. Live Weight
Age, Months. Per Head.
2- 3 LSE eS. tele = 2a 4.0 ise O) |} 2a0Mee 8) lis <4cb
3- 6 DOD) ie Aoyersuee ri PANS L012. Si Ae On eS 2 bse bed:
6-12 EON EER ian Neen oe ccs om, |2e0! | L2.o Osontinlioat: es (G58
12-18 OD: tases ra temaie Oi || Leon|lecotl Ol4a tal aeee er Tab
18-24 Bio Dh 9, tes ohatienierers Zo feb Wt 260) Oso eae ie 8.5

A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

224

Feeding Standards for Farm Animals—Continued.

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14. Growing swine:

Breeding Animals.

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THOOooan HONCHO ODN

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HOneo trot Oo
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CHINO OON
ri

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Non 19 OOO

HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. Pods,

How to Figure Out Rations.

We shall use the practical American feeding ration as a basis
for figuring out the food materials which should be supplied a
dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, in order to insure a maximum
and economical production of milk and butter-fat. We shall
suppose that a farmer has the following foods at his disposal:
Corn silage, mixed timothy and clover hay, and wheat bran; and
that he has to feed about forty pounds of silage per head daily,
in order to have it last through the winter and spring. We will
suppose that he gives his cows, in addition, five pounds of hay
and about six pounds of bran daily. If we now look up in the
tables given on pages 257 to 241, the amounts of digestible food
components contained in the quantities given of these feeds, we
shall have:

Total Digestible Nutr.
Dry Mtr. Pro. Carb. & Fat Ratio.
405 Ibs. corn .-silage....a0s< 10.5 Ibs. .48 lbs. faainss
HylbSi« mixed shay: cn. 42. 4.2 22 e 232
6 lbs. wheat bran....... 5.3 12 2.8
20.0 1.42 12.1 LISS

We notice that the ration as now given contains too little total
digestible matter, there being a deficit of both digestible protein,
carbohydrates and fat; it will evidently be necessary to supply
at least a couple of pounds more of some concentrated feed, and
preferably of a feed rich in protein, since the deficit of this
component is proportionately greater than that of the other
components. In selecting a certain food to be added and deciding
on the quantities to be fed, the cost of different available foods
must be considered. We will suppose that linseed meal can be
bought at a reasonable price in this case, and will add two pounds
thereof to the ration. We then have the following amounts of
digestible matter in the ration:

226 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

Total Digestible Nutr.
Dry Mir. erp: Carb. & Fat Ratio,
Ration as above........ 20.0 lbs. 1.42 Ibs. 12.1 lbs. 1:6.4
2 Tbs) ‘onl-meal COs2)) a... 1.8 .62 1.0
TNO -<scid shat tue side eae 21.8 2.04 151 » Hore
Amer. prac. feeding
TALIOUMAEL. 2 sothictescld ciaters bye 2.2 14.9 1:6.9
W olff-Lehmann
standard (Sos ve... UP 29.0 205 14.1 Tay

The new ration is still rather light, both in total and digestible
food materials; for many cows it might prove effective as it is,
while for others it would doubtless be improved by a further
addition of some concentrated food medium rich in protein, or if
grain feeds are high, of more hay or silage. The feeding rations
are not intended to be used as infallible standards that must be
followed blindly, nor could they be used as such. They are only
meant to be approximate gauges by which the farmer may know
whether the ration which he is feeding is of about such a com-
position and furnishes such amounts of important food materials
as are most likely to produce best results, cost of feed and re-
turns in products as well as condition of animals being all con-
sidered. h

In constructing rations according to the above feeding stand-
ard, several points must be considered besides the chemical
composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs; the stand-
ard cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk and other
properties of the fodder; the ration must not be too bulky, and
still must contain a sufficient quantity of roughage to keep up
the rumination of the animals, in case of cows and sheep, and
to secure a healthy condition of the animals generally. The
local market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest impor-
tance in determining which foods to buy; the conditions in the
different sections of our great continent differ so greatly in this
respect that no generalizations can be made. Generally speaking,
nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the cheapest feeds in the
South and in the East, and flour-mill, brewery, distillery, and
starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest.

GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 227

The tables given on pages 256 to 240 will be found of great
assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed rations; the
tables have been reproduced from a bulletin published by the
Vermont Experiment Station, and are based upon the latest com-
pilations of analysis of feeding stuffs. A few rations are given
in the following as samples of combinations of different kinds of
feed with corn silage that will produce good results with dairy
cows. The rations given on page 195 may also be studied to
advantage in making up feed rations with silage for dairy cows.
The experiment stations or other authorities publishing the ra-
tions are given in all cases.

SAMPLE RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS.

Massachusetts Experiment Station—Mixtures of grain mix-
tures to be fed with one bushel of silage and hay, or with corn
stover or hay.

1 2

100 lbs. bran.

100 lbs. flour and middlings. 100 lbs. bran or mixed feed.

150 lbs. gluten feed. 150 lbs. gluten feed.

Mix and feed 7 quarts daily. Mix and feed 9 quarts daily.
3 |

100 lbs. bran. | 4

100 lbs. flour middlings.

100 lbs. gluten or cottonseed 200 lbs. malt sprouts.

meal. 100 lbs. bran.

Mix and feed 7 to § quarts daily. | 100 lbs. gluten feed.
Mix and feed 10 to 12 qts. daily.

5
100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten 6
meal.
150 lbs. corn and cob meal. 125 lbs. gluten feed.
100 Ibs. bran. 100 lbs. corn and cob meal.

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. | Mix and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily.

New Jersey Experiment Station.—(1) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 Ibs.
gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers’ grains, 2 lbs. wheat bran.

(2) 35 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs, mixed hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran,
2 lbs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and hominy meal.

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran,
2 Ibs. malt sprouts, 1 lb. each of cottonseed meal and hominy
meal.

228 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

(4) 40 Ibs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers’ grain, 4 lbs. wheat
bran, 2 lbs. oil meal.

Maryland Experiment Station.—(1) 40 Ibs, silage, 5 Ibs. clover
hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings and 1 Jb. gluten meal.

(2) 50 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea hay, 5 lbs.
bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal.

Michigan Experiment Station.—(1) 40 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. mixed
hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 Ibs. cottonseed meal.

- (2) 30 lbs. silage, 5 Ibs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn meal, 4 Ibs. bran,
2 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2 Ibs. oil meal.

(3) 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran, 4 lbs. corn
meal, 3 lbs. oil meal.

(4) 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 10 lbs. bran.

Kansas Experiment Station.—(1) Corn silage 40 lIbs., 10 lbs.
prairie hay or millet, 4% lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(2) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs. bran, 2 Ibs.
Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage 5 lbs. sorghum hay, 3 Ibs. corn, 1% Ibs.
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 Ibs. millet, 4 lbs. corn, 1 Ib. gluten
meal, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(5) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2% Ibs. bran, 3 Ibs.
gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2% Ibs. bran, 3 lbs.
gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(61%4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oat straw, 2 lbs. oats, 4 Ibs.
bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 Ibs. cottonseed meal.

(7) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 Ibs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn.
(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 Ibs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. kafir corn.
(9) 20 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. bran.

(10) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. oats,
2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, 1 lb. cottonseed meal.

Tennessee Experiment Station.—30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover or

GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 229

cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. of corn, 2 lbs. cottonseed
meal.

North Carolina Experiment Station—(1) 40 Ibs. corn silage,
10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(2) 50 Ibs. corn silage, 5 Ibs. orchard grass hay, 4% Ibs. cot-
tonseed meal.

(3) 50 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 Ibs. wheat bran, 5
lbs. cottonseed hulls.

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay.

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 Ibs. field peas
ground.

(6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 Ibs. ground
corn, 4 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cottonseed meal (ration fed at Biltmore
Estate to dairy cows). Silage is fed to steers and cows, and corn,
peas, teosinte, cow peas, millet and crimson clover are used as
silage crops. These crops are put into the silo in alternate layers.
“Will never stop using the silo and silage.”

South Carolina.—30 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3 Ibs. cotton-
seed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls.

Georgia Experiment Station.—40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow
pea hay, 5 Ibs. bran.

Ontario Agr. College.—45 Ibs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover hay,
8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley.

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada).—30 Ibs. corn silage, 20
Ibs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal.

The criticism may properly be made with a large number of
the rations given in the preceding, that it is only in case of low
prices of grain or concentrated feeds in general, and with good
dairy cows, that it is possible to feed such large quantities of
grain profitably as those often given. In the central and north-
western states it will not pay to feed grain heavily with corn at
fifty cents a bushel and oats at thirty cents a bushel or more. In
times of high prices of feeds, it is only in exceptional cases that
more than six or eight pounds of concentrated feeds can be fed
with economy per head daily. Some few cows can give proper
returns for more than this quantity of grain even when this is
high, but more cows will not do so.

230 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

The following rule for feeding good dairy cows is a safe one to
be guided by: Feed as much roughage (succulent feeds like silage
or roots, and hay) as the cows will eat up clean, and in addition,
1 pounds of grain feed (concentrates) a day per head for every
pound of butter fat they produce in a week (or one-third to one-
fourth as many pounds as they give milk daily).

The farmer should aim to grow protein foods like clover,
alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as practicable, and thus reduce

his feed bills.

Average Composition of Silage Crops of Different Kinds, in

Per Cent.
CG ieteeen|
Water | Ash spend ma Fiber Free meee
tract
| | | | | |
Corn Silage— | | | | | |
Mature Gorm <a... .-nctee [e326 2, 2s | De Be | eee een
ImiMaAkUINe COUN) |p cis poe cree eS a fe SM AL SS
HANS ePEMOVed! asn.e cutest 1380.7 eee Meal 5:60 1 oro eneee
CLOVCTY SUA Ca ferereesiraske ores < |e 7220" [2.67 | "4.27 |S e8ra "| Wille Gir ee
falta, JAPON ja. sc ccts chee Fedora Jia aera] PAYA aa pee salle Mealreeess> (eb A
Soy bean silage.......... oe | TAZ 2S | a ONT al NG Los eae
Cow pea vine silage........ | 9.3" |2:9'5|\ 2.70 Gt eA eGente es
Field-pea vine silage....... | 50:0 |, 3:6.) 5.9. | 13:0" | S260 5 ales
Corn cannery refuse husks.| 83.8 | .6 | 1.4 | 5.2 (EA eed
Corn cannery refuse cobs..| 74.1 Pie | ee = 3) ba cig: | melita Ln i
Pea cannery refuse........ | 26:8.) 13.) 22-8) ]° 6) oe sid
Soreitum!) silage. .sseseer \ 7G) | S28: [6.41 secon eames
Keri COVMESIae ei. 2 ase ante OT.2) | 2S QAEA| APE | Sealey eels
IMAG SSAC casas cpamieu ome 74.6 | Je8 i 2.2. | 79) eo eel
Corn-soy bean silage....... GOA oetocr2e by | Coe |e deleien | ammmee
Millet-soy bean silage...... TOW 2s We 2. || hoes TZ EO
Ryersilaze: AGG: .\ReL ee. S018 [AG s| 22401: “5s 9.2 Aa
@atesilaigeyicaccetisk Heats a | oTL.4y | e208]: 2-31) W6ds lps algletak
Apple pomace silage....... 85:00) Gels 2 ole cot 8.8. |. tal
Cow-pea and soy bean mixed] 69.8 | 4.5] 38] 95] 111] 1.3
Brewers’ grain silage...... ("G98") 1224.0 Gle 4 a eee
Beet Pulp silage .......... |M90I92 | 4.30 S ae aes 3.8 | 4
| | |

The table shown above gives actual chemical analysis of
the products mentioned and includes the entire contents of the
various feeds. The following table, showing the average amount

ANALYSIS OF FEEDING STUFFS. 231

of digestible nutrients in the more common American fodders,
grains and by-products, is the table that should be used in formu-
lating rations. The table gives the number of pounds of digestible
nutrients contained in 100 lbs. of the feeds, and these figures can,
therefore, be used in figuring out the amount of digestible
nutrients in any given amount of a food material; it is by such
methods that the tables given on pages 236 to 240 are obtained.

Analysis of Feeding Stuffs.

Table Showing Average Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in the
More Common American Fodders, Grains and By-products.

(Compiled by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkinson,

Wis).
is Digestible Nutrients in 10) Pounds
NAME OF FEED 23 | | Eth
ME O =a) ' 1 ee | Sther
ae Protein | ivavetas | aniieunee
| | |
Green Fodders. |. Lbs. | - Lbs. | Lbs: Lbs.

Pasture Grasses, mixed...... !. 20.0 DAS) | 10.2 0.5
Modder. ‘Gorn -2).,.'... cesecs ss os 20.7 1.0 11.6 0.4
SOME TMIATII, cere Peta eles ctetctercva afers.s 20.6 0.6 122, 0.4
MMONGVICT” hfiete:. ct. «fete ca cere: 29.2 2.9 14.8 0.7
JAIGT SINE. ot 5 BNO Rhoae Seaton ao eee 2852 3.9 pare 0.5
COuY IEESY, Aa re gree SIS ERE ee | 16.4 1.8 8.7 0.2
SSOVMPISCHMIY Fors fal 3 ce ncteee ons sec | 24.9 3.2 11.0 0.5
Orie eWOdGer Peas ol. crete sc we 37.8 2.6 18.9 1.0
PES VEEEEO CLOGS crete oe 6 jstzverereis\cks'e.6 | 2b s fee Del 14.1 0.4
IRAE. 42-3 Oh ca aa eee [PAO = «Dee | ee Se 0.2
IREAST ANGE OAS os cles cea sles ae 16.0 1.8 | foal | 0.2
[eck 2 I f0.2 » |) 2086 TS

3 fe le

Silage |
WHR gs eats Peli crdadosles 3 20:9 --|-- O98) - TDS bea Ose
Corn, Wisconsin analysis.....| 26.4 | 1.3 | 14.0 | 0.7
SHE ict Gat, one OO oie 23:9 - |< O16 14.9 0.2
ede Clover) sei 60... nites sw leis 28-0. {» -~2.0:~ tes des, “| Ge
J NTEE KE ORS ee One Ee ete «sl 3.05 «i+ <8. = | 1.9
GO Wane CaN. Atenss bslctida wstals BON oi. leone | eeS:G | 0.9
SOVSISCAM sashes ok oles eile 25.8: | PT : 8.7 : 1.3

232

A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds

Bin
ie!
NAME OF FEED B5 ae Ether
ze Protein | i varaten aa
BS
|
Dry Fodders and Hay. | Lbs. | Lbs Lbs. | Lbs.
Gorn) MoG@der rac ce-sibtoretese 57.8 Dep 34.6 gE
Corn Fodder, Wis. anal...... 71.0 out 40.4 12
Gorn esto very «comics cus eisisioteule Cae 59.5 abi 32.4 0.7
Sorghum Fodder ..........-. 59.7 ia 3St.a 0.4
Red MOlovens.. 1. 6 coett oe ction ets | 84.7 6.8 35.8 Lag
WAUenlicameeressie cis (eevee cis eteietens 91.6 11.0 39.6 1
Bae Wren tee nara: crete Fesoheliaroveitetannyeas 85.2 6.2 46.6 15
lek ra SS a cnicsa Deine or 78.8 4.8 Bilao 2.0
(GOW a, cues coos ciniwlence asian 89.3 10.8 38.6 ial
Grab AGiraSSinvescrae sts @ brekegsta terrors 82.4 5.7 39.7 1.4
HohmsonWGrass! ae ceseeias eles 87.7 2.4. 47.8 0.7
Marshes Grass oc. see ces cael © 88.4 2.4 29.9 0.9
IWEGTIRETE Steer or, Net ere Cre ae eae 92.3 4.5 Ey re 1.3
Qentee ETO aie canis oie bine! bie eon eke ere 91.1 4.3 46.4 es
@atrancdmBean lary stciis ss <aier 85.4 9.2 36.8 ia?
OreMardciGTaASs 0.526 aise ecene 90.1 4.9 42.3 1.4
Prainie: Grassi... <adsks seas 87.5 oo 41.8 1.4
REDE LOD Packets os epacrosisenciseers 91.1 4.8 46.9 1.0
ATMO Lhe eeavaeehes =: 4 ces tik a ale ele 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4
Timothy and Clover......... 85.3 4.8 39.6 1.6
WietCH has het tsaisicna Martace 88.7 12.9 47.5 | 1.4
White nbDaisye fb. «shane or | 85.0 3.8 40.7 le pad
| |
Straw | |
Bare neten hist: ate aya bee 8.8 | 0.7 41.2 |-..0.6
(Oye ht Bo ee Sota eee Rees ey aco 90.8 1:2 | S86 ysanaos
TEI CSN | Cee ARIE A AAA Cee eae 92.9 0.6 40.6 | 04
DWAIN ati a depos fa rors tuto be corte ore d | 90.4 | 0.4 36:3 | {1k sO
Roots and Tubers. |
ATI CMOMGSS socues wikis = cre nreheintaters | 20.0 20 {16.8 9 oe
Beets COMMON ciiysis ott ie lores Oe | ae 3:5 Be Om
Beats msugaritre. t.abicck ie. 13.5 alal 10:27 I 205K
CArQOHS ch tetas cisoiektepic edb os 11.4 0.8 6.3; Ore
Mantels ete Ben scccldtes sisi ee OOF uni 5.4 ~ GOH!
Parsnips: i) ov Otsct . -Oeeockees ala 6 1.6 14.2 heat Oe
Potatoes: (4. Rao Reeskes [Bb 220 | Pak OS, 16.3 |. Oa
Rutabaras these icteee bes tlt | 10" | 8 ees
Turnips 4. fees iste Peer c.. be 9:58 [1 > Lee Oar ee
Sweets Potatoes if asen cee 29:0 le 0:9) 22:2) [1s AGS
| | | |

ANALYSIS OF

FEEDING STUFFS.

233

Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds

Ba
EE |
NAME OF FEED $3 4 Ether
BE | Protein aydeaten | Extract
- |
Grain and By-Products. Lbs. | Lbs | Lbs. Lbs.
ISAieleay | ho Ago ie oC aeEae $9.1 8.7 | 65.6 1.6
Brewers’ Grains, dry....... 91.8 15.7 36.3 5.1
Brewers’ Grains, wet....... 24.3 3.9 9.3 1.4
NMallth SpTOUWUS es scene cou © a 89.8 18.6 Sel: eG
Buck wHedtrr. ps sy 2ile diets site 023.5 87.4 Cate 49.2 | 1.8
Buckwheat Bran .......... 89.5 7.4 30.4 1.9
Buckwheat Middlings ..... 87.3 22.0 30.4 5.4
(Gioinc hs Abiandhy Oita eee eee 89.1 7.9 | 66.7 | 4.3
Corn and Cob Meal........ 89.0 6.4 63.0 3.9
WOT CODLET Siok isco. ttels oes | 89.3 04 | 525 | 038
Corns EraMie s.. ik cisieretwns «So 90.9 7.4 59.8 4.6
Atlas Gluten Meal......... 92.0 24.6 38.8 11.5
Glintieme Wheel”. 2 hrasre. sateen hs | 88.0 32.1 | 41.2 2.5
peGenin Ole Weak... dens sives a 90.0 20.2 44.5 8.8
Guimben. ped. . ip ij. oe Sees & | 90.0 23.3 50.7 2.7
ELOmMany, CROP, ot... .srercieeys or06-< | 88.9 lee 55.2 6.8
Starch Feed, wet .......... 34.6 5.5 21.7 2.3
loinkosel SOU EPG cnc oo bon ocor 0 shea slney bese 30.0 | 17.3
Cotton Seed Meal ......... S18 a St oe, | lOO he eee
Cotton Seed Hulls......... Stes) S| eS: BAM slip glad.
@Wocoamant Meal ...5 060i coe a 89.7 TDG oS.on ee Op
WOW CAS Uamiccareke eis cles se orale S52 faa sl GAZ re ae
lame HS eed. 2A vere ec ca ek 90.8 20.6 icles |e 2220
Oil Meal, old process....... COS 2es- [--s2te | 1
Oil Meal,.new process...... ly S999 lm 28.2% 3]? 40 tee 28
Cleveland Oil Meal ........ | 89.6 32.1 25a | P 2t6
GHG OUN S502 555k bse sk ee 5 3 SAS eres ore PL
INTGTIGS: os 5s EOL eee 86.0 8.9 45.0 a
Cane? . 52a RRA ee cee eee lp 89:0. |Easo:2 AT." || 9 ABD
Oat Feed or Shorts........ 92.3 12:5 46:9°- |, 2.8
OMI S tars at ,. «ac cee a byes Ly O85 We Tete ly 4 Bok
TRESS) 25 Je tae eee ee eee 89.5 TGS ee lessen OG
Quaker Dairy Feed.......... 925) | | 9455 |) =~ SON |e 5.0
TESA) --n! (babes eee eee 88.4 | 9.9 | 67.6. | fal
FEV MMESTIA Maes) rowel ecis os. 2 tie Geos o cam (oo. Uae lee lalthass Ss. 0 rae eae)
NVILLCHEMMR Atel oT 6 «sedan he Soe) aOR GOL |e leg
Wemicat Oran ies st. [SS 6 -12:6- |" 38.6" [s 63.0
Wheat Middlings .......... S257 (co Yel | emer Ets pes lien 4-953 14 0 he) manent
WYMEAtESHOEES: Joes. cline ap Neremtage 88:27: el22n Blee 5030 3.8
| |

234 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

Average Weight of Concentrated Feeds.

KIND OF FEED One Quart Equals One Pound Equals
| |
BaiGlOvaw Lele ae. Srctearivecerererereraret 1.1 pounds. | 0.9 quarts.
Beet El py eGricGeer oc lec. ietec's 0.6 Me Lar *
Brewers’ Grains, dried....... 0.6 BE | Hea S
Corn, andt@ob Meal. . 5.1 sev | 1.4 0.7 *¢
Gorm rams eee is cakia lees | 0.5 ge 2.0 v
Wri eNO eee et cates tierclets aka) 3 0.7 tS
CORI WOLS ce Bet ore bins co Pteses Belov ean Fs 0.6 =
Cotton Seed Meal ........... Une! 0.7 cS
Distillers’ Grains, dried...... | 0.6 < | ilar se
Gernite Ome Nien ss .)tttcn eels 1.4 a 0.7 a
FENN Hera el EN SY os [Maas RIE soe eae 1.3 0.7 Pe
Gilvnsine EN tae aa peesoro op ||bae J's ‘ Orso 2
VOTE y EGG "a's. ive are enctveroia cee Lat Z: 0.9 ea
HO VDairy WEE wi. ocacients os 0.7 ‘ 1.4 ‘§
Linseed Meal, old process.... ale | - 0.9 :
NATE SOT OWLS asics econ ietcleets ciecote 0.6 eee 5
Wat PCC ON Zoe et cbab eter shies 0.8 - lees es
MAESRST OMIT ee) «'2.-.c Beate rain 0.7 sf 1.4 bi
@atSrew hole ween. bck alae ite « 0.9 ee
Quaker Dairy Weed 02) 0. sce ale) ‘e 1.0 re
Victor Corn and Oat Feed.... 0.7 1.4 35
IWWilveartets Paras cs. oh ocho odeiaeion P05 fe 2.0 ne
Wheat Middlings, standard... 0.8 “ flee Fe
Wheat Middlings, flour...... | 12 rf 0.8 os
WieaIt P SWOLES a'eiacitietertcrdiiese 1.9 zu | SOEs 3

23

SOILING CROPS. +)
Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States.
(Lindsey.)
(For 10 cows’ entire soiling.)
- Seeds Time of Time of
Kind. per Acre. | Seeding. Area, Cuttine.
TFUViC van arate erstapenere 2 tUIE <so/ehena.e ea. ‘Se t. 10-15)14 acre/May 20-May 30
SVR cee rele mene! s)|21, eRe aren elcie’ 6. ove m ee 7 10-15) % “June 1-June 15
Red clover waz :|2051bs, 3.6.2 Jul. 15-Au.1)/% “ |June 15-June 25
Grass and i’ ¢ jee thy: | ee S E se
pk. timothy. ep “« \June -June 30
clover .--- //19 ips. red clo.
Vetch and = {3M oats. -/( April 20% “* |June 25-July 10
oats oereree oe ; ce 4 “tf se “e
- (/50 oe 30| %4 July 10-July 20
Peas and ie Lee aN April 20/% “ |June 25-July 10
BEASH e 9. = x 8 1% * eR “ 30/% “ |July 10-July 20
Barnyard { Ll SDECCK asic ni. 35 May 10|/\% “ |July 25-Aug. 10
Taw eT kes Ue eae ee oa rr ae a | s 25 “ JAug. 10-Aug. 20
Soy bean (me-
dium green)./18 quarts .. 2 20/4, “ |Aug. 25-Sept. 15
Gorn §j18 s ae s 20; 1% “ jAug. 25-Sept. 10
Aa ie (j18 * ae oe 30) 14 “ |Sept. 10-Sept. 20
Sea iene ere pee “ioe ccs July 15|/% “Sept. 20-Sept. 30
arley an o u. peas.. “
peas. 2 { 1% bu. barley. t Aug. 5) 1 Oct. 1-Oct. 20
Time of Planting and Feeding Siloing Crops.
(Phelps.)
Amount Approxi- Approximate
Kind of Fodder. of Seed mate Time Time of
per Acre. | of Seeding. Feeding.
PemECSCL LOOGMET = «ops yer: ss0ce 21% to 3 bu.|Sept 1 May 10-20
2. Wheat fodder....... 2% to 3 bu.|Sept 5-10|May 20-June 5
PeOIOVEN: 5c chs. 5 ¢ Srensush creas 20 lbs. July 20-30|June 5-15
4. Grass (from grass
VAS "es sie orton dese So toate Balloredideh aod Bic June 15-25
5. Aprils oO June 25-July 10
6. > Cats and peas..... 2 bu. each. "a 20 |July 10-20
ae He 30 July 20-Aug. 1
Se UMN ATIAN 6. 2. aicregs ee |vou DU, June 1 Aug. 1-10
9. Clover rowen : |
GRY TOES) Par seca cuciachey | utuenatN >: (ph. =Veveheal WAY suegseeene sass: « Aug. 10-20
10. Soy beans (from 3)..|1 bushel. May 25 Aug. 20-Sept. 5
HGR OW, SOCAS —-,,).0).- 0,» ore.0 1 . June 5-10 Sept. 5-20
12. Rowen grass (from
SIE WER eas Bo ea nillin done SGC Re Rose aioe Ger eee Sept. 20-30
13. Barley and peas..... 2 bu. each. |Aug. 5-10 Oct. 1-30

The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and
regions under approximately similar conditions.

‘

In Varying Weights of Feed, in Pounds.
These tables save calculations of percentages, since the

READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.
weights and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to

Note.

of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. of dry matter, 0.36 lbs. of

gives the exact food contents in pounds, as in the first table, 15 lbs.
protein and 3.1 lbs. of carbohydrates.

find the kind and desired amount of a certain feed, and the table

236

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er ee 2a = 2 a = .
13132 mR DOMAINS és WNC RON zh ln AMutaAMocr| © iH HoOMooWcOd
* wp. arn sat ieeR eR eet et) (Nee ena! Telus aie e fagh yee elt eb ke So Wed: jem ce 6 Oe eh a Pamela BS ta
Heisrasoast SHaistisKrad SHNdidt aod SHANK OOH
Aiq [8}0OL Mi = dod Fa — Sen ral
ees S50 0850-0
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3 Fenty [inst ose vein. lobral| gir) piso ax soa saw aw os) neiiea| Neees Jon ekie Weare
mel 3 BP ihance wom sooth amelie, rs. a se Moma |) ieee Meee Kes Re
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fai ~| mip Ya uw ce: 6 Ne) ol Tae ew fone, ALR phe neece 1e whe Meigs ak ol ee eis ore tie sean
50 b Bde eal Fey bs cc, A ies (RaDL”, toate ame cemeteries eaes
be Helo 6 SORE ORE Gas od Magn ese eo Otero 5 coke oAcltoel Mel eipaeeees oct 3525s
Ay & x x x
AWOSwWowMmowoo NwWSowMwcimone NANwWowonwnco
MOAN oDoD MHAN oe FANN FS

237

READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued.

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Bie ne) (ap ae Jes te) a” .S

READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued.

238

‘oy ‘so}yeIp GUSTS Seo CHUB LEO SONS r OP PAO EO EO ASS THEO Ror ib CRORES
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239

READY RETERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued.

a
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READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

240

Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued.

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rm

GLOSSARY.

Ad \ibitum. At pleasure; in case of feeding farm animals all
they will eat of a particular feeding stuff.

Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest importance
in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the material from which
flesh, blood, skin, wool, casein of milk, and other animal products
are manufactured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh-forming
substances or protein. ,

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains when it is
burned, the incombustible part of feeds. The ash of feeding stuffs
goes to make the skeleton of animals, and in the case of milch
cows a portion thereof goes into the milk as milk ash.

The Babcock test. This test, by which the per cent. of butter
fat in milk and other dairy products can be accurately and quickly
determined, was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. Babcock of Wiscon-
sin Agricultural College.

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms. They are widely
diffused in nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity. Certain
species are active agents in fermentation, while others appear
to be the cause of certain infectious diseases.

Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs, containing
the various nutrients in such proportions and amounts as will
nourish the animals for twenty-four hours, with the least waste
of nutrients.

By-products. A secondary product of an industry; cottonseed
meal is a by-product of the cotton oil industry; skim milk and
butter milk are by-products of butter making.

Carbohydrates (or carbhydrates). A group of nutrients rich in
earbon and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in
which they form water. The most important carbohydrates found
in feeding stuffs are starch, sugar, gums and fiber (cellulose.)

Carbon. A chemical element, which with the elements of
water, makes up the larger part of the dry matter of plants and

animals.
241

242 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED.

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the combustion
of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds of fermentations and
therefore occurs in deep silos in the siloing of fodders.

Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated
by rennet or acids.

Cellulese. See fiber.

Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the rations of
farm animals embracing such feeding stuffs as wheat bran, corn,
oil meal, ete.; synonymous with grain feeds, or concentrated feeds.

Corn fodder or fodder corn. Stalks of corn which are grown
for forage and from which the ears or nubbins have not been re-
moved.

Corn stover or stalks. The dry stalks of corn from which the
ears have been removed.

Crude fiber. See Fiber.

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which is di-
gested by animals, i. e., brought in solution or semi-solution by
the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as nourishment for the
animal and furnish material for the production of meat, milk,
wool, eggs, etc.

Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the
water contained therein has been removed.

Ensilage. An obsolete word for silage. Used as a verb, like-
wise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also sometimes incorrectly
used for the practice of placing green fodders into a silo.

Enzyme. An unorganized or chemical compound of vegetable
or animal origin, that causes fermentation, as, pepsin or rennet.

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dissolved by
ether; mainly fat or oil in case of concentrated feeding stuffs; in
coarse fodders, fat, mixed with a number of substances of uncer-
tain feeding value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter
of plants), ete.

Fat. See ether extract.

Feed unit. A quantity of different feeding stuffs that has been
found to produce similar results in feeding farm animals as one

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS US&ZD. 243

pound of grain (corn, barley, wheat or rye). For list of feed units,
see page 219.

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the amount of
various digestible substances in a combination of feeding stuffs
best adapted to give good results as regards production of animal
products, like beef, pork, milk, ete.

Fiber. The frame work forming the walls of cells of plants.
It is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the woody
portion of plants and wholly indigestible.

Glucose or fruit sugar. The form of sugar. found in fruits,
honey, ete., also in the alimentary canal.

Indian corn. Zea mays, the great American cereal and fodder-
producing plant.

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined with oxygen
it forms water, with oxygen and carbon it forms carbohydrates
and fat; with oxygen, carbon and nitrogen (with small amounts
of sulphur and phosphorus) it forms the complex organic nitro-
genous substances known as protein or albuminoid substances.

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and indirectly capable
of fixing the free nitrogen of the air, so that it becomes of value
to the farmer and will supply nitrogenous food substances to
farm animals. Examples, the different kinds of clover, alfalfa,
peas, beans, vetches, ete. Of the highest importance agriculturally
as soil renovators, and in supplying farm-grown protein foods.

Maintenance ration. An allowance of feed sufficient to main-
tain a resting animal in body weight so that it will neither gain
nor lose weight.

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-fifths of the
air. The central element of protein. See under hydrogen.

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remain-
ing when water, fat, protein, fiber, and ash are deducted. It in-
cludes starch, sugar, pentosans, and other substances. It is so
called because it does not contain any nitrogen.

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitrogen
(which see).

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food constituents
capable of nourishing animals.

244 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED.

Net nutrients. The portion of the digested part of the food
that remains after the amounts required for mastication, digestion
and assimilation have been used up. It is this portion only that is
of real value to animals and furnish material for building up of
tissue or elaboration of animal ,products.

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to the
sum of digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration, the per cent.
of fat being multiplied by 2%, and added to the per cent. of
carbohydrates (fiber plus nitrogen-free extract).

Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter which is de-
stroyed on combustion (dry matter minus ash).

Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state in the air,
of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in combination of hydro-
gen in water; oxygen is also a rarely-lacking component of or-
ganic substances. See carbohydrates and hydrogen.

Protein. A general name for complex organic compounds
mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. Crude protein includes all organic nitrogen compounds,
while true protein or albumenoids (which see) only includes such
nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming
muscle and other tissue in the animal body.

Ration. The amount of feed that an animal eats during twen-
ty-four hours.

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including -such
feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn fodder, roots, ete. Con-
centrated feeding stuffs are sometimes called grain-feeds or con-
centrates, in contradistinction to roughage.

Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. Formerly
called ensilage.

Silo. An airtight structure used for the preservation of green,
coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As a verb, to place green
fodders in a silo.

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a stable or
enclosure, with fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, oats, rye,
Hungarian grass, ete.

Starch. One of the most common carbohydrates in feeding

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 245

stuffs, insoluble in water, but readily digested and changed to
sugar in the process of digestion.

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing considerable water,
like green fodder, silage, roots and pasture. :

Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out during the sum-
mer and early fall to help out short pastures.

Summer silo. A silo used for the making of summer silage.

CONCLUSION.

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of this book is
to place before the farmer, dairyman and stockman such informa-
tion as will be valuable and practical, in as concise and plain a
manner as possible, and to make a plea in behalf of the silo as an
improver of the financial condition of the farmer. That the silo
is a prime factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of
doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an adjunct,
and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct to successful and
profitable methods, its value is difficult to overestimate.

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an innovation
it becomes a stepping-stone to better methods in general; it stim-
ulates its owner and spurs him on to see just how good and far-
reaching results he can obtain from his revised system of manage-
ment. It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this it
never fails. It enables its owner not only to do what he has been
unable to do before, but things he has done without its help the
silo enables him to do at less cost than before. The solution of
the problem of cost of manufacture is necessary to every success-
ful producer, and asthe proposition is constantly changing, the
solutions of our forefathers, or even of a generation ago, no longer
avail. The silo is not an enticing speculation by means of which
something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound business
proposition, and has come to stay. The voices of thousands of our
best farmers and dairymen sing its praises, because it has brought
dollars into their pockets, and increased enjoyment to them in
their occupations and their homes.

Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not need a silo?
Is it not worthy of your best thought and consideration? You owe
it to yourself to make the most you can out of the opportunities
before you. DO IT NOW!

246

INDEX

PAGE
ar etxe ere reamtore till iis SILOS: <po7hs oxocels onccers bisbers cles ae e-sleps cree 26
NERC SiO tea thh Ga SUL Ole eire is ee) «s/o cl aieleysie, ¢s):<) a olexepekens Swepsaw ghelarter 1 203
Mae Pe LAC Peper. coals, avers) eltawwrenei L Fay « knees Foye aforensca. obras SE Cars roca herpes 150
MOSER AST MOSM eters hone sy c4e la oko. «parents obys ancy fai scn crsrhe seco al vais bass 105-108
EMA SOS Ofer PeCGdmMen SEU Ss a) «, «1s enerstepasiy, steraty.s ext Rrom ae axchakhengucris 201
Aimar body, “Composition: Of thes yt. ckycertetepe darth Seve eer) betes 22
~Amproximate daily ration Of SHAE). ~ < cya nye eucteye le) oye Vw otereid lover ors 29
NCD ase ees Riletat lat sisies cy cis. /eVaherai eroiial’n. a's) oh) aAEES Sas Maa PRDLasON® © Ba © stnd Siew of 214
AMvieraze Composition Of SIIASE CLOPS. .... 2 us os oc cco cs os. w sialenl ole 250
Eas asse, SOLE Mui, fOr SUuaAke. oshctests ess ese cares. SUL IO 154
AMAA» COCLALSON AI: SLO) vat remeeeta ies elt eee EDS, SSIS, OFS, 72-75
Been cattle: silagwe LOM t. oc och ee IT. BO SE at, a, 118-194
Beemsupply for United (States Sai AA Mae Les. AIS 119
FCCLA WCOSE NOL, ! OCT? AICLO rt ors) ue octet eraner st sel, Hla th omer oa 208
ESSE POT PIO SAW Wess tad sac revcheWe voretcsonetatavetete tetera eters, ctake Mace a Ta AG rele 156-166
PEO WWOL *CLSVATOLS! ©.) ets violet cia che srataletetaatactater dete ORG, ie ME PRT one 183
Bigearass pastures of ‘the South... .e02oe. Pen. 20) PH: abs}
EetcOm Of the SIO <a50o joo Kea deletes dente tens ote awe. 52
BSC eM ITE Cs SILOS = x vote: seh al of al ot oan chs Shares voters haON ee bce Aone 50
EMT ORASTIOS eras cee amdclstar sot data. ca OS, RIP, ae RARE 102-103
Bmildin=s up fertility intthe South... eos. ses: HAP, OFie 298.8 LOT
ROOM COLN LOM SUases sa asad ssc ado ete ee ARIA AO OMT of 156
WArerIs Spineless. TOM SIMS sen cede cde occide soe as oes us ahe 168
MEP AGA PtEIStleS LOM SIAR Cs ascites wes cee cide clas a ch ama ictolslensuper 15
ACN ANeSE: LOM Slll seer jarse Wa cise): isiel + ore eqsisse'e sfols ofatertiereieinc)e 169
Wey. Of TOM: SUOS mc netsiere: o/cacre) oo eis el tiene syousio a efatererslsfereetsrsis 28
Carbonic acid poisoning in silos, danger from............ 110, 185
Wultles Uaillky SUAMer VATION LOL ater tice sic.ce slsvarerc we sills aie + eist see 29

Wement DlLOGI SiO. Semercrertceuie ce Sicte.e a0o) sVakararal a si'ecsuetel bat oieqerahare, ersisce 93-98

248 INDEX.

PAGE,
Cement block silos, how made, reinforcing, etc., of.......... 93-98
Gement lining, how ‘to maintain... |-seek. ee --ee 94, 102
@Gement Stave Silos) \)2acce erie eer aad ee ee 98
Gertified’ milk, silage in productionvotys....-.-.- 1-5 - hls 192
Chart showing fertility removed from soil..................... 132
Chemical Composition Of (Silaeeire nici). aie wintete/aisis)-letei-t= eect 230
Circles, circumferences, and areas of............+.-+--+-.---- 67-68
@lover Silaee sa kisce< ais cfeteiers ofl despots ole eefeceee ls eke eee ee 146, 149
Glover sila ee, cCOSt: OF «ciate cpsiscletolsvaue ele petiole) tet oie ee 147
@lover; time: of cutting for the silom- i --)- <= seine eee 148
@lover; yield per ACre sw oj. sete reitelceele! sbats' oto) rite ete eee 148
Comparative cost of producing silage..................... 207-209
Comparative feeding value of corn, kafir and cane............ a5
Comparative: losses in dry CUning).).). 0c. «> 2 «he eee ay
Composition of the animal DOGy-.. here seis sical aie ele deters eee 212
Gomposition of ‘silage Crops «oc. Ao.) ae sites oes oneal one renee neta 230
Composition Of feeding Stutisiy.s./.\)ctetetetete’ otetele etetetetel netenctenenn arenes 214
(Lo) 01s) hots) (0) «anew A LMR RE hc Cie uot yi iG Mio. cidethc Gyuroua. geo fy cx 0 246
Conerete monolithic Silos....%. +. «ae oc cole ee eee 82-89
Conerete 'Silos wie 5 oe cbc a = oe ane t's oe hee Det eee een ee 82-89
Gonerete silos; forms used for making. .-... .20 14-1 epleee er 87-89
Gonneeting round silos: with barn... -<\-.\--\. see slebeite- eae 69
Conserving soil fertility with silage system................ 130-138
Gorn, cutting of,/in the=flelds < <,.,<..,00,+,-,«,2.«,< «tala ete ee ee 173
Corn. Jand; preparation Of |... ...0c«-,ssesesesten Hoan ee ee eae
Gorn, methods of plamtimge........ ..s,-..\c.6 0,c.s.c.lereese 21+ eke te ee ed 144
Corn, silage vs. fodder Corn. ... .,<.« sissies selel< cele ete ae eee 207
Gorn silage VS. 0 Way «ad « <s2.0.6-«:0,0.c,e:0,0/¢.016,4.0.0.0,0 1s Se a ee ee 205
Gorn ‘silage VS. NOOES!-/-<,.)-)-[> ere) openereucien tesco shores <ievel-se eee see 204
Gorn) siloine’ of, “ears and all? ...0rcc.-scrcl-.- persevere eee ee 176
Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn.
Corn; time: of cutting forlsilo’ o.oo .6 we eee see CR ae eee 142
Gost. Of beets per ACKesiene ocmieiscusleisielee » ortechcle eters ice een 208
Cost ofeorn. silaze+); .ceeiercicier<6 tic ano eee 207-210
Cost OF SILOS) < inicieuateomiieeeich © + o1e.e es SRO ee eee 75-717
Goverine " 'silaee:':,. 22.1 sone soled ie bs oors Ce ee eee 186
Cow=pea. SUA sic Sielsdie's sees: hee ee eee 151
Crops for the “Silo. coe ee sci eee eee 139-159
Crude fiber’. eid is. aacoen diepacci sence obtener ais sas Sia ie eee ee 215

Cutter and ipower SiZevOf. «ciate s esos eee eee eee 180-182

INDEX. 249

PAGE.
SIE TOMBE EIS BUISCUt an. 5s css co tees ees ctasceececeecs 212, 241
Wesceription art Ohio” silaze cutters.) 2.222... 2 lk 180, 257-264
VM RAS SOCESIAMe mad ase cae eos ece bedi t ress SUR AL 155
MieKen tat ye SUOLESILOESTRUCLUTES 2... sve Ov wed sewccens dee oak 50
RTE stot tol tats Vaare tam OO CSA srs cc cys cos oyna 20s /dso.8 0 eres 0,6, 6 dle warevarclle od viecelebee 217
Digestible dry matter in different feeding stuffs.......... 236-240
ID DOES, TOE SHNGSL <5 es its aS el Geri EN SRE Nemes ee e ..62-65
Hoiomwaycmeannumuous, tor block Silos... .is..c...c<sccceecece 96
DOO WARVS.. CONLIMIMOUS, for cement ‘Silos: :.o..0 0.2. k ese cc we ec 87
COLE SOME eTIME SM Olin: Seccccihcttolek woe ced cee ee eee. a Wes Ua
Wry Maver COMMaAbmirerent StAZES<. i foes. cscs ccc ke ce cee 145
Seed Lie SMR. OL COTM ...<<is. src sie wise lets Sle oc. o.sievaie) eleheba.o.0yain Favs 176
NGOROMUVMOLISTOLAZE 1c ccc ote ee coe os os ia Se ear ee os ae ae ily
BM eREAUOUS we MGUIUNGbIG x. -) spokevoreisrs csa.cve oidlare! Gcle.s:dheeSieles wee e's wae 181-184
Ensilage, see Silage.
SPM A ER ON A CCLIALSef Ol Sil OG. >. «, «css. ccd hrarhisl ele vie ope-v w 4508.0 © oe 78-80
Bee US area G) Com Ok Ciers tate cy tere rose rotor niael aisweucvale uncero esos e(aNe ols bm aon! ds 212
[SSRI ES LAI ITIG eres ee Ramen ak ee 8 Se ee ee tee ee ere 190
files CONDE MES UTA REO SY Weta cea, cit Prat ne eret rer ore: ears, stercts ASI cuciusy ccd 220-222
Means Stiits. CON’DPOSIEI ONS Ohwmmtiaiaticaieihn is /a)tie c t.c.2 6 sole wlstereps 213
Heeqine Value Of COLn, Kafiry ANG CAME. cbc so cx fopectrene tee, o$0) sy0 IO entye 125
MMe ako LOL. Silat acc, cca 5s pnore te eee ie TA Dae Sake Ne se 158
ameretenl iis Van baile tr onc ict rieNe evs ale eas “asain Seen eee cael ence earn eich can ene Sane & 132
Bratuiiieyetra) 1 OO lb SesObr DCCL ac «0 teas cinch cieedee eects ee cone nae 136
EHO G In OTEATON, Ofa WUE LOR eco a apelsdeyaidte + See oacancpeneyshopehers lay sgane ose 136
Samar NEN ATEN LETS SSOULIN sate, tte sc) c-e w tretetare bat hed Sheraconesl Seis bs oe ena eee Oe s
ea ae LOTR SILA Cora le acaek eet foe be es eee tas pe be aa ones 154
Breld-curing of fodder corn, losses: in... ssf ees ye pe 12-15
IPSULES OE SIGE S AS. 5 ee eh eee mcr ace Tah NAC ecey Se ROP EOHE 173
Miooraplan Of silos and) model barn’ o.. 19-5 ee ee peels = oes te 51
RMEPATA MENTIONS GELISTAGS. ctcvovcl taveke’ 6 olictal. ot raiel ot at teve with eben Gaal east eas 19, 158
aoeminer COLeNUS: AMCRECASGMIM <.c,s cass + «vam 2s oe eiela. ec v legend) am a) eus 143
IRMA AEE Luts ss + isis 5:0, are tesleyttere oie 24 ow nie, Sco eeci erscn eta. yegs oan ehaney = 58
PaemaTF UNM MEOW 9, Fin eiccorehatehs, Steere +. cts 6 eos wiser eee eacdepele bacpauaes) = 30
TPIS TADS, Gea vee] oy Ms bh a heear8 Kote ce elo J. ceca ea ine RRR chee har aT RACER RAR 89
RACTIVE AOL OT) SLOSS «sco erecta rs at ooss eu eve nebo) = ep sve suave: sealer shoe yen «caaenotn Ne 32
PET TEOT SILAS Ge 5,2. .51c, aspsaeyccelsvoreucasysearsce. sie R Las See seen. seats 155
ERECTA ES VOLUSIA OT serra ep tleynastied =) 52.5) 91 a) eVSh oy su 51 ec SERED Skate Bes 67, 107, 188

250 INDEX.

PAGE.
Georgia Station results... 2.50565 cle ou oe oe yin a=) eee 129
Grain mixtures for dairy COWS.......-...s-+seseee eee erences 225
Guide, a feeders’... . ow. .8isneenw sas canes ¢ sees see 212
GHITIer, SilOpys eve ers, «ie, «15)s. 2) 0, ahr, mention peeve hepetesele a do. Bee 46-48
Harvey system of reinforcement.............-..+++esseeeeeas 98
Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for..........+++++++++00: 174
Elis or drills, planting Of COUN) Wy opie ciiel sted seis ee 144
History. Of the Silos. o.<. ccc cece sls » elm ele/ainelnmisus @]~! ilar omen eee ake
Home-made silos, Ballard... <5... -mepis csteie els se eee ee he
Horizontal @irts, Silos with e.s ose © a6 eee «b= cinielstel to sie) 73
Horizontal reinforcement for concrete silOS...........-...-+-+- 86
Horses, daily silage ration £OR.. 2. «ecm: «rere ile 29
Torses, Silage LOL. «spices ste veletresieie cleo. He gem piste tees 196
How to build a& SilOs occ... css sels os sole oe 6 5 otra sue tugnel sree Ree 21
Flow. to- feed Silage s,s < cic «s,0 «0's «57010 yore ole ebay a caiomas eee tenn en 190
How to figure out rations..... EPO ood ot robe rei cai d 225
How to place frame on the foundation... 2. o-oo o2
Euurst system of reinforcement. .. 0. 4.6 +6 si = ale)s mieteisgys) oie hae 97
Hy-Rib and Metal-Lath reinforced silos.............-..--.-- 90
Miimois*Station=resullitis: soe ee cks 2 eee ace eevee Miele aftertaste t22
Therease*in number ‘of silos so) £05 he Io Seisie cle eae ee 8
finidian ‘corn! <. \ ss. Pade AO ada Meridor As 139
Indian corn, chemical changes ims cree 2e Se ee eee
Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tasseling to
PIPENOSS! oc Are ee as air ee ee MAS
Indian corn, methods of plantine ya... - oc creer ne reer 144
Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn.
Indian: corn; ‘Soilsadapted forme. ciaeses vel oes ot Cele arene eeneters 139
Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo............ 140
Indianav Station resulesis seeild fae cme coos cert ccleaner LLPAS)
Imbtroduction to... sctaSatiee tie olole s ic ea ee ee ee een it
Towasilo™ thes seis. . toes eins Die bide italic ate 101
lowavStation results...) sece dele et arente © sls eiktelabslnte ste sees tee tee 126
Japanese icane Lor ‘SUA! cc iere-cyersy- ns w><'o aloes leat a Se ee 169
ToOhnSon SASS LOL SUAS <lectelercts: otehet s: anata vchereroketousten eeeaeaeey = Ate 156

INDEX. PAS

é

PAGE.
LES SUE OTE” SHE NEEL S66 Bits vO. SIERRA aE roe ct ar a Se 153, 160
EMOTE ACM aaNet tect c's so sare es | ke wey EO ORES th 155
RTS Se SUDO MMECS UES tere css sci Soe Se, SURO Ae BAO) 125
ESE OTM VS COTISTIN USULO) pet. siele s\o-a.s ais essa wc else lases od aceell eee, oL
ARCS VAMC Te EE OLLGIUS 0s, 5. ehshassvexesereicesavehars-overaitebeotieis Rete ea: ea TEL 19
PEALE OR SILOS Maxetloie ctoehessyasa seiercvaveteiaio\o-eversra see see okt MOM EGs ee L 58-40
EEA OT Pe LCM SLO Fa ketale wails \ <hcystisuarsvari-arereie! eva, cncrnvet arsteleeaielem «thls Bill 50
ORO Se I EERE RCRETS END SF cretiatls c¥e V0 ln yaileye Vaile vorells «see cleats Mk. BOO. EER 12-13
MES Ses eS OLN Ss OLO CESS ais) oca5.<je\sicysrsreidelaie ald « Sa heater. Da bloetel cies 14
POSSE MIM SULOUI ED clttal fete povaysrcietaye kia fave reves itplee yao ee ee ae. 15
Lowewasons for hauling COTM... 62.8. TORS. ee. UD. 174
Lucerne, see Alfalfa.
fpbemcetalc) SALOME UME MSOs \ eiec tte sa seboocc ee ee eee eee be cee: ae
Misia DUCKEe, Chain elevators tence ec cele ccc paves nedgeccun 180
Rt tuum SOE ae tare tamiaten citar nics ss Lic bak ee ens ee ce dos 90-92
WE OMMCOMSm Slams LO, Mensiok ere erties okie cls Ue io oe ee elnekeee ee we 190
Minlehecow Sa Silas e era tlOns hOmwecace case cee eoce nalts cw eraes 193
TARA) 1S te SES iat era nr nk te ce i i a 153, 160
VINEE MITTEUCLCTSn sects shits) «foserctapelctclonste pha olers:c lees evere ie Wieletetorec otaretete Sua 212
MESeeHANGOUS SUASE: ‘CLOPS . acne wens a's oe devcices awe ce cece 156-159
RaSSouri Station) TEsults) ca as..,-eetwe miosis aes watiaeiawader 121
Modrication of “Wiseconsin’) Siloyotth. ja. aotia. asus Satalleacls Fa 45
Monolithic: concrete or, cement, Silosiia« cae) ee citia. el eed dee 85
Se OUI EM PORN As Sey hound ocieud oiaioie.s.o eda Blea nar Gh AYE Ass: Tea ni EE 198
PRESIAs STALION FESUICS.. hc 5 siete sis, Varsieiare es 6m dine ble Speers Ste eat iyAlh
MPI DAStULINE AMO. SUMMEr SILOS sn crie cccic.c sercive ses esters sicis © 114
POINTES. SXUTAGCEN otc siee xicis aicie (eid. winter ste, oeie.cos eieretelevsiels egies as 215
INandanser from late summer drouths..........---.c«s+s-+,- 19
MCE CT OL TAM: ive ci ts sa Seale ccs seidisiw's © sisleis.aiwietsiereeetee cs Sys 17
MirnaO@arolina StatioN reSUlts. ficc.cccc eres sean e cs Sere esas 122
MAMET G) Ce SILO Sic, a: is. che a\ > say arauvi(ciavantrans| ccuel Tete! «) cre velaneteloye onenepatentilere< renee
Number of staves required for stave SilOS...........+eeseeeee 67
PAIN VC CEULTO! «sue. bo cva's ov erexteesenereire ies B clens sa. 1Ses ssp PicteeVe atoms eee) ors 218
MD PSeANG NCASMLON SILAS eras sce ajo an’ < exeuwisy sfoe> ceenrh-syegs ae oda Ld
Oagee wieait nO ely CeLOry SUWAE C . srerettelaiens gel an crepe ar¥ anata Shenoy <b dened tnel 157

252 INDEX.

PAGE
Octagonal (Silos -ss.2.5 Jeo des Seis eis ieee eee ee ee he seta 69-75
“Ohio” silaze cutters, Gescription ah. a. 444s s t-te 180, 257-264
Opinions of recognized leaders ... 5... .. - sstapieel- <jies eee 209
Painting the silo lining ....3.:520s24.0)-eok eu Ce 44-45
Patented. cement. blo¢KS.... <.aecessuikewce oh cele eiee eerie 97-98
Patented forms for. Silos. icc. se<scencecmocuse sue. te -aeeere 89
Peanuts: for silage. ....4<cicsiewuieu iow) jo ea one eae 155
Peas’ and oats for silage... ~..0.,<¢-s6s.20s2- ee nn eee 157
Pennsylvania Station results: .3 23.4.0)... eee ee ee 121
Pit’ or-underground siloss2;. ose ne ne acti een ee eee 108-110
Plastered round wooden silos’. os, . 7. . stasis sietielastei- ice, See 46-47
Planting. corn, methods of...2:... sccm .<s«.~ «se eiaalee eee eee 144
Planting corn, thickness ‘Of. .-..d2620- ¢-s5: oe See 144
Pneumatic elevators... ©.¢2.20.0-%> 4: ++ Ghee 181
“Poultrymen’s: SilOS” J.4.<i: «20 + » + seule eens Bee EE ee 203
Poultry, Silage for =... ..< 0s os.ss <onle eee nec oie De eee 203

Preparation ‘of corn lands. 2:10... .s.00 6 oe ee ee ee 139

Preservation, -of Silos: .c:cac 6s oie c1exeu ee ie ee 80
Protection against freezing, stave Silo.........+.+. sense eae 67
BYGt@it: 6 c.0'es vicina ose a cule eens Sas ees OO Oe 214
Rack, low-down, for hauling corn. ........tese. Alea eee 174
Rate of feeding from silos of different diameters.............. 29
Rate of feeding silage from surface...............2222.005. .28, 29
Ration of silage; daily osicca ssa tek te oe mre mereka ees ees eee 29
Rations, how to’ figure: Out: 3.4.24 eet oe oe ee ee eae 225
Rations, (silage, for @airy COWS: .. ce) eee one ee 193
Ready reference. “tables, -) 2s eek ee ee 236-240
Reinforced concrete silo construction..................s00-: 84-90
Reinforcement for conerete: Suas.; .nccsics-is le hee 86
Reinforcing for stone, brick or cement silos.................. 84, 86
Relative-value of feedinie StUPES .). «ea cicsicues cats eee 217
Restoring fertility inthe South:...>.....20 22. -o2 See 137
Robertson's ‘silage mixtures. .ih3. 2 sehen Geka eee 152
Renovation of Tennessee blue grass pastures................- 115
ROOL Lor tHeLSilO ws tee ertee cnleie rns Sone a eee eee 39, 40, 57, 64, 97, 107
Round: SiMOSe cc sass bie oe ooteake soles eos eee on OR ae re eee 51-69
Russian thistles: for silage: too. 2... eee ee eee 158--166

Rye, wheat*"and oats\for ‘silage’.(sis.\-02 oe. Dee eee ee ee 157

INDEX. 253

PAGE
SS aL Gite Welle UAIELOMENESUIES!: <5 5.6 2/5... 5, 0 occ oa speleystele © Sneed o Pelee 124
ELE eT OUTROS COOLS. 5c. c ois ofs.o1s ose oc sc ci sialehia <pale cletd atic 36
SMITE MSO OTIS tela. crejels s1o/2 Sicucrec ince « olf syonewiae oot’ e MOMS 55
SHGCU MACVMSE A EOTALION LOT... «cs ce occ cvgiwelsies sisig oie Setloaenig 29
Sty@eiay. SUL SS: TOSS Eee eRe ey ee eee eee 198-202
SoM aa AT AER en SLO Se teretelalgue e civjaie aie S00 pre “snoife vege dig skews» SHoel RIE NT eS 174
ase eee Pe ecet ew nknrso Sin wis"s is oo « o wte jw sfareae aye ereidees GS MbtNig'e Bits 150
SMT SOM MBOMEILEEY x10 cis le se sac «0 «lorelevet@erd wale £0) Medios 130-138
Seema poroxiMate daily TatiON OL. sec «fcc c.ec--0 eel. aee. 29
SSUIGRERE) GRIME OS DC Ceo LO Ce ese sey Won pe ere 191
Sioa Cheniiedl CONMIOSITION . OF so. occ ss oc :0.0.0 oc a coins dhaudienela « bate 230
SMgiee, GLNEES 5 oe Sigel co ST ee RCC ne ae et oes 146
STMEGe, CUE GE BeBe ao pe eo ene 125, 147, 207-210
SV 2B, (CONGR TRE AB old Os ORES CCC ROE REnT cos is een atari 151
SHES TARTS SoS ee GOO ee SCO Oe Cenc I ICRI nse ar ts ons is eae 139
Silage crops for semi-arid regions and for South............ 160
Sl ae ONISe ROTEEE DCm SODIE NN Io. 3 eis sees coy ae op Piso Sua. p do's oo aha) ooh AS Tebe vs 169
Pelee wdeu thy top feeds Gedlye. hoki gex% occ gh iva 46s 4 2000030 28, 29
Silage-teds beck cattle insther Souths « «sucess oie bin oGythetieleetele eles 129.
Sribeketens aVeleco hha Yee 01 SiC a ee eNOS CREIGIOn Gn chtte Pecan cro Lory Ge PP Rares eee 190
SHAG, TOM WEEE CAtCTS cio cae: op nl cembeta ss PIS ciaede TORSTEN 118, 194
SAMS etOl. MOLSES) tsa csueiet ab custo niche eons ate = Sate SEs. 195
SMacte fOr, Mile COWS< «Per sys beaieeeds cewiresads - iets «tls Se 189, 193
Sr S LOM sTVLULG Sigs ones loner is oie ors SSR che Isto A Ses = BO ME St ede g 198
AHO LtOr DOULETY) occersd oc mis ee oe eis Sah Oe © ale Slated. 's 202
Mimi OmtOT SHEED es cS eidogie pepe eve ewe e watt om Oate dome eilaeie s 197
EOE TOL ASWAN Cus. om cles vine a's » op bie s eee Cul Ok eee sok Othe OP Ets 201
Sa cia! SERSSAlaK0) DESIR CERT BORE anRIr am mn reonennp cho te 67, 107, 188
ean eeeree fy OI TrOStCE. COTM oe so5 eee ous 0 we 00 ato heotens atte tote et RIERA = 188
Bete O Ws EOL LOCO araperey-ye.0%,-ieyean,snsicasy-uskokeac cisintexnjcursehanate oteeeks teenie 190
een Sesh Oya LO WIM USC aie oh -).ane10s,<,* sour eusicleueusscasuc (eho dene iene yrhns © EASES iol EST) ceP= ds nh
Silage, quantities of, required for different herds...........- 26, 29
Silage, rations for milch COWS...........-++ee+seeee> Porsqtee « 193
Silage—Robertson’s Silage Mixture...........---+sseseeeeee 152
Silage, sorghum, milo and Kafir.........0. 2 -siisewsieee- sci 155, 160
Silage spoils quickly in summer.........---+ee-seeeee ee eeees 117
REM CMETUIGK:, -iiisa hop rio eee ir ovine ep op wins egal gee atelete g 191
Silage, use of, in beef production.........--..s+eeeeeeeees 118, 194
Stace steamed ©. .2s2---wleaw nae sos nla are bieialese alates Gl se lewis). . 188
Silo helps reclaim blue grass Pastures........-.2+e+eeee sence mba 3)

254 INDEX

PAGE,
Silo:must. bevair-tight Accent. icles + orm esi ee oh eee roe ne PA
Silo “must? be wdeeps ek ti eee eee a ee cies crerereteue e ercree cre = nema 22
Silo must have smooth perpendicular walls................-. 22;
Silo... stieeting: ‘amd. Sidimes 17. sie ictelate atetere crete sere! eset ol = cette terete 58
Silo. walls Imust-be -rieid and «sStrongens ob oaicc enicle o+. teeereee De
Silo; SUMIMOF. © ods.c.54 He es Sie eee ele ee ee eleva eee ae eee eee a la ka
Silo; Surplus Crops Stored: Me). <1 cielo ole o eles aterette iets omeener manent 114
Silo; tthe Ballard octagonal: si <ke asc see see sete eens acters 12-15
Silo rte! SLOW aa = Secs teva care ee ehare ate rere here le tepetepete teeter eae ole tect eke ene ee 101
Silds; acreage to flla.csd irctotetsslofelomioteteretette eens cask Siero eae 26
Silos, all=métal. .. <<. 4 t4n ce cee See ee te ote ese e ne teria 105-108
SilGs, Sbvick actin kas fas ce ces See ee ee Dn ee ne eee 102-103
SUOSMDLICK PME. Sco e dave dt vareetele old date le Ricteltet os teen 50
Silos, “cement bloGk. s. 2.4.62 020s0s0se se se eet n te eee 93-98
Silos, (Cement. StaVe. ...0s sees es soe oe eh aie Oe ee ee eee eee 98
Silés, ‘concrete castor Vek Aah. AO ae Sia eieeee eee eres 82-89
SHOSAGOSt (Of ..c6.5 oa:s.08 hea ae oie a wicievesier 45, 46, 48, 64, 75-79, 87-92.
STlOS PLOT OL aioe ete wissen. & wwe aa ew oid level Cu eltanD ete (ote Cay eet ates Pes eee ese 26
Silos, foundation (Of -.<sasees.cetes tee 52, 33, 35, 43, 48, 90, 977 102
Silos, Zzeneral requirements for’... 222% tes seme allo etietemvarsresinrs ar
Silos #homie=madey Ballard sews oo ovat ole creat s MART ate eee 72
Silos Show. to. “build. occas os.cd 0s was tie 6 cule ee Slee ere nee rene rat eee tenes 21
Silos, how to place frame on foundation of..................-- 95
Silos, Hy-Rib or Metal-lath reinforced.............cs+eceeees 90
Silos; kinds of “wood. fOLrecns ovdn oie tans 0205.05.04 syereenelere cree . 32
Silds, lining. off-wo0dens.: .1..4..006%%5.000505 te ete motels 38
Silos location~O£- Ha00k 4 ees osen tees (602.46 oe ee eee eee A 30
Silos, nmetaltlath: {fh. Hls5 o.a0 Ge ds os o26 eG oP eee ee he ee ee 90-92
Silos, «monolithic: concrete... icc. .nnnntid sees eee ee aaa eee 82-89
SHOS, SU MDS WO Beak che 6 eI aeM reins era te tors Fe. etaterete ene ee eee 8
SilGsoctaizonal Use. Me vedic Chae Ux dco oho ee eee 69
Silosiions ithe Vforni "Of4 See aR. see Se eee 26
Sil6s, proper idiameterofss 40 een Stee. NO eee 28, 29
Silosisroof vor (Oss «0% ek chee EIS, . PRE 39, 40, 57, 64, 97, 107
Silos, round, capacity .... A 25
Silos; round: wooden 2% eek eee eee ee ee eee 8 PRB GE
Silos; size: Wequired:« << ccsdcae ssc oc v1dss 6ese meee eee AS eee 24
Silos, specifications for os. caecs HOO 51,' 45, 50,55, 72) TSF
Silos; steel; ribbed: plastered. wns sous ss osc eke tie eee 90-92
SilOs; -SUpPELrStrUWE tures: 03/42 hes EAE ee eal a Ee een o2

INDEX. 255

PAGE.
SUITE. Se VE TSS a ern a 173
SHIGE, TIe oiianey sore Wall (hc ec 18, 143, 174
Beosmiureesmetnods of making sill for... .. 2. cs. occ cue ene e cue 54
SHES, WHIGheenowincl (Gia Sh aes ee eee eee eee eee ene meee 108
Som eRe MOUM OL OTS DUG. <0 2 cree. ¢eic'c sw sine oo « on csaheneertethatere 108-110
Siasmvelucesm intensive farming... ..... +. sesbes uch cee 19
SHLOS, WSU HEC AO) Rein eee Seen ics sc hiucanaacos 41-44
Rema mmmnaT est TTS Cet LNs 2 Shayatoncirayra niet ess xsi, avah'yo dae ach ORR REE e ee 99-102
SOS MLE OGEZONCAL YOILES «dc iecccacars oo ducie ate are lars © eustemaisicte terete 16)
SiaesOm CULLETHANt. POWER TEQUITEGs occas no cie toleteretoeiche teiee ane ele 178
EEO Le SLLOME CC MUUG SO tev ope wise! sisua hare neve alte Seo era Sparer ete Rete rerene aseiete eis 24
OENITMEUACT ODS seCaOLOk Oine cecke rors Riesohecroneters noelee Reach ee eernTe or alia ies ons 205
Soiline crops; time of planting and feeding..........)......... 255
Soilkfertility maintained swith silaielc mc cecc toe eee rel eee lel 150
SOWA CANS!) fessretehrtansss ow Pare ees a8 Se seas cod ood oon ree 152
SOM inure DAS ASSO! i.e otetelescle’clcleisperend as A'scclacs sicla cccleie ucts sract eae mepe ens 154
Samsineiea: Sneha es see Oe a 153, 160
SouLhscaroinay Station: TESUMtS |). sas oe oe et oh re coon oeenene e eeeneieye ial
SoutheDakota. Station: results:; va astosteee | tee etn eae Sea, Meee 124
Southern and Northern varieties of corn, comparative yield of. 141
SPeCiiCations- for a). Stave SiO. aaa wees Cees eee Sane, selene 55
See WOW SLLOSS go: oxehes craves oxchanar dhsyo.01ey ovenes oh er eR Tors Mica tet en the eaee tara Vote yeee 50-69
Stave silos, calculation of staves required for................ 67
SEA ENRICH TOC MOIEEIN Sick Sele. 0 CUMRO SE on eomine moms Buccs 57
Sravee silos; Specifications LOM, «6s tle sons siete et ees Gdate Chee ae 55
REIMTUC CE SILLS: Socess Sevelanstalle: valepesater tevansueta eietaie itis -eotebemmlemmnen.ole Sietats 188
SHE SIEriD DEM eDlAaStered ;SulOSs w,.10%cas< so cpeneveiemene <ccwo-veteet usge a's cei ole aie 90-92
SEGRE, ERR do) Oa eo TOG COD Oo mao oo aap bon ao OO On. 118, 194
SOEkwvarTds, boosters) LOM Sian... oie cscs kaso ceesmysueorsiayend oe 120
SMA TTISTRG Gs sorsaiet < ctans ietekevorare ele wc \epevade ste) a aOR otis, oo) cualie¥entr oe lereneielete 16
SPARSE TASS) LOL SIAR! a crens ve yeiene aarey sale mvs Scho nanes ia st-veus re pepeueicieheja.arels 155
ROMANIA STS & CLE OULELL +! cceret sta Seeco 6 o Mite ae ue eee aay sepsis are ease esate emits: decent 114
SMTMET! SiO. AC VAIEAS eS) OL iterate ve leislalaatelete sence etalavelel sft niietaie alalal
Sarpolus erops) stored Im SilO 6 .isejocjo2. ones o cuaeiciae = s)*sin\siniele + 114
SEVER ME SINC @, LOT hs w cles 2 elt the atehetevelel = Atlets Weletale:«falete ate ofatetefct vs niet oye, 201
MIST e LOL SilaeGis oo cad pinteun oblate crass alsrsielaves cys © ¢cjsimiateta etebctketetete 154
Mee Stato TOSUIES A eee toters, 1 cha ci ciers.c, sumer eve pios on acaensy oy storens 128
Mhickness of plantinS*cOrms...-.. 5. - 2. cece ne ses we ee esses 144

Time of cutting corn for the silo....... IT HEA or RO 142

256 INDEX.

Time of filline the silo... sceicme etter pay 90 Site: eee ac ee
Thistles for silage...... wisi 6 gielet afer aot at sia eee acs, & sie s: 0, ote 8 oral aeRO
Truck “fOr tsnagse \sMse ieee cere Sess eee ches ca ee
ndereroundsor pitisilos..o- >see ee ELL anh 108-110 :
PINGeLSrouMd ‘SIUWOS) 2% 101015 c.5 wie eosieee tele nNes 5y aie eee ee eee RN
Wniform quality of feed.--.e. ..-- Uavle la se s)0 0 wha os) auaipasia oe eh fa
Use of silage in beef production.......... ERASE PRS PER TS ee
Value in intensive farming............. POOOE I ne orptp ota [Sins
Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo

Ventilation of the silo.......... se shlaps agent Sears

Vertical reinforcement for concrete sSilOs........,..... We ois iene ys
VetChes fOr sSilaeey csc isa ic. wesc ereee sae eee ole wwckehe wes a > aber pone
Mitriieditile Silos alts tox ae aida ceetaerenee ante ec ni wees ee (QD
Waste: products: for silage. scy.. icc. 1) eee 6 Gein eee
Water, use of, in filling silos...... ol wrt ie Prarie r scent de OC See
Wieedsstonesilaseuecysodetise G0 ee Mn Tres Glee ts ‘it eR
Weight of concentrated feeds ....,...0dh:ss ¢ ach co a 2
Wheat, ryciand oats for (silage .j..2/2., aves « dcueberseeee golt

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, description ofta: acne

Wields of clover Pex AChE si iicrccereranctetere een wee Ieee F F Pe

.
ry
~
ha
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-
te -
= 3 a”
= i, -
eon: weed x
: ie a -
Pa J « . <
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© aS ry! oo wis 3 a

Silver’s Pony Blower Silo Filler

Operates with six horse gasoline engine.
Capacity three to five tons silage an hour.
Self Feed with new Friction Reverse
Cylinder Cutting Mechanism with direct

5 PATENTED
suction to blower. eerks 10D dao GoM.

\ SVERS PONY BLOWER
i ae

Silver’s
Pony Blower

is an inexpen-
sive Silo Filler for
the individual use of
the farmer who de-
sires a light power
Blower without any
of the disadvantages common to the fly wheel type of Cutter.

The size and design of this Cutter makes it especially adapted
for general farm use in cutting all kinds of crops. It is very
compact and light; at the same time it is of ample strength and
capacity for filling silos and will satisfactorily operate with a six
or eight horse gasoline engine.

Direct Suction Into Blower—The construction of this machine
is a departure from former types of Blower Silo Fillers. The
material is drawn airectly from the knives into the fan case by
suction without the use of any conveying mechanism whatever.
This feature has been thoroughly tested out through two silage.
cutting seasons to the complete satisfaction of users.

Capacity is ample for silos up to fifty and seventy-five tons. It
will cut and elevate three to five tons silage an hour. Where speed,
or liability of frosts, or a large force of men and teams are factors:
in the case, we recommend a larger machine.

Feeding Mechanism with Friction Reverse—The machine is
equipped wit. the well-known “Ohio” Self Feed Apron and bull-
dog grip feed rollers all controlled by a single lever which stops,
starts or reverses the feed rolls and table at a touch. The reverse
consists of a wood friction mechanism and operates without the
slightest strain.

The Drive Pulley, Cutting Cylinder, Fly Wheel and Blower Fan
are all on the 1 9/16 in. main shaft, utilizing every ounce of power
applied. Knives have cutting edges of high carbon tool steel, care-
fully tempered. Suitable guards cover the knives and other
moving parts. Fan Case is heavy sheet steel, electrically welded.
7 in. galvanized pipe is used. The machine has two knives ana
four lengths of cut. ‘“‘Ohio” Shredder blades for dry fodder are
interchangeable with knives.

The machine can be furnished with or without special truck for
mounting. Send for printed matter on Silver’s Pony Blower.

See Silver’s “OHIO” Silo Fillers. Pages 260 to 264.

257

No. 770 Clover Cutter. No. 778 Lever, 11” No. 783 Cuts % to
Cuts ¥%” Iengths, for Knife. Wt. 50 Ibs. 2”. Hand or Power.
Poultry.

Send for SPECIAL Printec
LINE of SILVER’S “OHIO’

In addition to Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers,
as described in the following pages, we
manufacture a complete line of Feed Cutters
and Fodder Shredders in various sizes and
styles. A few representative machines are
shown on this page.

- Whether you cut 40 tons of silage each
a age season or 4,000 tons you can make a selection
0. 83 oot and Bay ; “ e593 48 .
Weretalile Cutter: from Silver’s famous “Ohio” line that will

Cuts and Slits. just suit your requirements,

Metal Bueket Carrier
for No. 11 Cutter. De-
livers to Right, Left or Silver’s Round Ineclosed Steel Carrier
Front, Straight Delivery for No, 11 Ohio Cutter.

258 .

No. 8% and 10%. No. 9S Cuts 4 to No. 1188S with Self Feed
For Hand or 2”. 1to2H. P. Table. Cuts 4 to 2”.
Power. 4 lengths Gasoline. Wt. 410 3 to 4 Tons Silage an
Cut. Strong and Ibs, Hour. 2 to 3 H. P. Gas,
Durabte. With or without Carrier.

Matter on the FAMOUS
CUTTERS and SHREDDERS

Whether you feed one animal or 1,500 you
will find that the “Ohio” offers just the size
and style that will fit your needs and your
purse.

“Quality First” is the motto that has made
these machines popular the world over.

If you are interested in fodder cutting or
shredding machinery, do not fail to secure our
special printed matter on “The Famous OHIO No. 832 Root Cut-

ter and Pulper.
‘Cutters and Shredders.” Slits and Pulps.

“Ohio” Shredder Blades

Replace Knives on
Metal Bucket Carrier, Straight or Swivel Cutters trom No. 9 Up.

Delivery, for “Ohio” Monarch _ Silo We also make other
Fillers Nos. 12, 15 and 17. styles of Shredders.

259

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261

Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers

Points of Merit in
a Nut Shell

Strength and
Durability — Solid
hardwood frames,
“mortised, tenoned,
double pinned, with
iron rod and nut re-
inforcement. They
cannot warp. All
castings and steel on
machine are very heavy. “Ohio” Cutters made twenty years ago
are still in regular service.

The solid foundation upon which “Qhio”
superstructures are reared.

“Ohio” Capacities—Have no equal on the market. They are all
based on half-inch cut. The throat opening is very large and high.
The fan surface is two to four times as great as on other machines.
“Ohio” capacity ratings are based on work by the day or season—
not by ten-minute tests.

Self-Feed—The “bull-dog grip” of upper and lower rollers has
made “Ohio” capacity and easy feeding qualities famous. A
stationary comb prevents the material from winding around the
lower roller. The traveling table was first adopted by the “Ohio”
and has since been copied by all others. Its entire surface is

The sure, positive “bull-dog grip” of “Ohio” Feed
Rollers is famous. The Single lever gives absolute
eontrol of rolls and table, stopping, starting or
reversing the feed at a touch,

262

movable, avoiding all
friction due to dragging
the fodder by means of
hooks, ete.

Direct Drive — With
drive pulley, Knife cylin-
der and blower fan all
on one shaft. One com-
pact set of gears does
the work. The direct
-drive avoids trouble and
Dies repair bills). "The
powerful lift of fan is
done at low speed—no
danger of blow-ups or
explosions — no make- Auger side of machine with fan case
removed. The auger prevents feed from

shitt | tran sm isisiiomn entering blower in bulky, irregular
mechanism. quantities.

Cutting Cylinder—The solid wall of corn steadily forced against
the cutting knives cannot spring them away from Cutter Bar on
the “Ohio,” because of bearings at each end of knives. This is im-
possible on the fly wheel type where springing results in uneven
eutting, with long pieces of leaves to form air pockets in the silo.
Investigate the new bearings and ring oiling-device, exact adjust-
ments, etc.

Simplicity and Protection—Only six gears and six sprockets on
the entire machine—the gears are perfectly housed—iron or steel
guards cover all moving machinery—there is a uniform movement
of feed table and rolls on any length of cut.

One Lever Controls All—A single
lever, almost human, controls
the entire feeding mech-
anism—stopping, starting
or reversing at will. It is
easily accessible. A _ six-
year-old boy can operate
it.

Reverses by Friction—
No strain—no breakages
—it took three years to
perfect, but it is worth it.
Our new special wood
friction clutch device in-
stantly reverses without
the slightest strain—not
The friction gear wheel and outsidea sear tooth chang2s
guards are nenieved re Se ee: mesh. Friction is coin-
ioe teas fall cared" atiena! to reverse Posed of ee can oi
not a gear tooth changes mesh. The wood segments easily re
peer of all reverses on the market, placed by the user.

263

Simplicity of Fam Case Side—The auger carries feed
evenly to blower instead of in bulky irregular quantities.
The main shaft bearings are conveniently adjusted. All
drive chain on the machine is No. 72%, and is inter-
changeable,

Safety—The “Ohio” never explodes—it has an _ enor-
mous powerful blast at low speed—650 to 700 R. P. M.

Guards for Protection of Operator cover all Moving
parts.

Other Features—Blows to highest silos. Cuts all crops.
Is very easy running. Makes highest quality of silage.
Is ready to move anywhere by taking down pipe. Suit-
able for pit silos by simply removing the blower. Made
in five popular sizes. ©Oua-ity class of users everywhere.
Converted into first class Shredder by replacing knives
with “Ohio” shredder blades.

New “Ohio” Elbow—This large circle
curved elbow is furnished free with each
“Ohio”? Monarch Blower Machine. It is
seven feet long, of steel, and open on under
side to prevent back pressure,

The Silo Tube delivers the leaves, mois-
ture and heavier parts at any desired point
in silo, uniformly mixed as cut and with a
strong, self-packing
force. The tube is of a
heavy galvanized steel. The three-foot
sections telescope together, and have chain
connections, readily detachable.

This view shows the Blower side of
“Ohio” Monarch Silo Fillers; also the
special steel truck on which they are
mounted. It will be noted that the
opening in fan case now has a sliding guard.

264

View of Head Office and Works of The Silver Manufacturing Co.

Located in Salem, Ohio, U

Pennsylvania and Erie Railroads. This is
the home of Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers and Feed Cutters.

The plant is new and modern in every particular, having been thorou
past year. The machine shop and erecting room alone have

ghly remodeled and greatly enlarged during the
a ground floor space of approximately one and one-half acres.

Modern
Dilage Methods

LIBRARY OF CONGRES

mI
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