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MODERN
SILAGE METHODS..,

« 7 ~
7 2
4 oe,

LATEST REVISED EDITION
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction and the
process of filling, to which is added complete and reliable
information regarding Silage and its composition;
feeding, and a treatise on rations, being a

FEEDERS’ AND DAIRYMEN’S GUIDE

PUBLISHED
AND COPYRIGHTED BY

THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO.

SALEM, OHIO
be S A

1911

Copyrighted 1911, by
THE SILvER MANUFACTURING Co.

CHICAGO
W. B. CONKEY COMPANY

1911

©ClLA281395

~t-, {3 v7 SF

a
H
3

PREP ACE,

\f This book has been written and published for the pur-
pose of furnishing our patrons and others with accurate
and full information on the subject of silo construction
and the making of silage. It has been the aim of the au-
thors to present the subject in a clear matter-of-fact man-
ner, without flourish or rhetoric or flight of imagination,
believing that the truth concerning the advantages of the
siloing system is good enough. The testimony presented,
which is purposely kept close to the experience of author-
ities on feeding subjects in and outside of experiment sta-
tions, will abundantly prove, we believe, that the equip-
ment of an American dairy or stock farm is no longer
complete without one or more silos on it.

The new chapters on “The Summer Silo,’ “The Use of
Silage in Beef Production,’ and “Concrete and Cement
Block Silos” will be found especially timely, and in other
respects the book has been brought up-to-date.

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reli-
able, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use
of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered
necessary, and in order that these may be more readily
comprehended by Agriculturists, a comprehensive glossary
or dictionary of such terms is included, following the last
chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or
can be studied previous to reading the book.

In the compilation of certain parts of the book we
have had the valuable assistance of Prof. Woll, of Wis-
consin Experiment Station, author of “A Book on Silage”
and ‘‘A Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.” Free use
of the former book has been made in the preparation of
this volume, as well as of experiment station publications
treating the subject of silage.

Hoping that this latest revision of ‘Modern Silage
Methods” will prove helpful to our patrons, and incidentally
suggest to them that the Ohio Silage Cutters and Blower
Elevators are manufactured by us, we are,

Very truly,
THE SILVER MFG. CO.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Sasa! no, a Na al ©, 6} @ Ge he) 8 eye) o%i0 eS dee Te eerie tare al eek hee te

CHAPTER A:

Advantages of the Silo—Preservation of a larger quantity
of original food value enabled by the use of the Silo
than any method known—Losses of nutritive value in
dry curing—Small losses in the Siloing process—The
Silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality—Economy of
making—Economy of Storage—No danger of rain—No
danger of late summer droughts—Food from thistles—
Value: incintensive farming... ..2. sis. «ama ee 11-22

CHAP TER.-LE
Summer Silos.

Necessary in supplementing summer pastures and in tiding
herd over period of drouth, heat and flies—Avoids la-
bor of soiling crop system—Purdue Station Experi-
ments—Comments by the agricultural press....... 23-27

CHAP hie R- EL,
Silage in Beef Production.

A substitute for roots for fattening cattle—Prevents “burn-
ing out” of steers—500-ton silo for steers only—Advan-
tages to the beef feeder—Experiments at the Ohio
and Indiana Stations—At the Kansas and Iowa Sta-
‘tions—Experience of one of largest beef cattle feeders
in Hast—Prof. Soule’s experiments in the South—Silage
2000 for stOcKers, ... oss 508 Sais iws Alb o Rica hes oes 28-41

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP EEROLY;
Silage System and Soil Fertility.

Helps maintain soil fertility—-Every crop grown robs soil
of fertilizing elements—Restoration has vital bearing
on our crop yields—Value of barnyard manure—Every
farm a manure factory with silage—Keeping fertility
SIE OPTRA <2 SO eee eS sila seae dss cp ra Mere so-ehe oO al wicllased PER 42-47

CHAPTER. V;
How to Build a Silo.

Silos—General requirements for silo structures—On the
size of silo required—On the form of silos—Relations
of horizontal feeding—Area and number of cows kept
—Location of the silo—Different types of silo struc-
tures—Round wooden silos—The silo roof—Modifica-
tions of the Wisconsin Silo—Plastered round wooden
Silos—Brick-lined Silos—Stave Silos—Cheap Stave
Silos—A modification of a Stave Silo—Connecting
round silos with the barn—Other forms of round silos—
Brick and stone Silos—Silos in the barn—Octagonal
Silos—Cost and estimates for different kinds..... 48-120

GHA PEER: Wal -
Concrete or Cement Silos.

“The silo of the future’ where permanence is desired—
Possibilities of reinforced concrete—Continuous hollow
walls—Importance of strong foundation——A Missouri
concrete silo—‘Forms” used for monolithic wail—Ce-
ment Blocks; how made—To maintain cement lining—
Reinforced cement blocks—Cement block silos de-
PERN RUMEN Migs we aioe ote as ce Ness ataod es ade cis oe tise ewes ae ates 121-132

CHAPTER, VII.

Silage Crops—tIndian Corn—Silos best adapted to corn
culture and preparation of land—vVarieties of corn for
the silo—Time of cutting corn for the silo—Metheds of
planting corn—Other silage crops............... 133-148

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

Filling the Silo—Indian Corn—Siloing corn “ears and all”
—The filling process—The proper distribution of cut
material in the silo—Size of cutter and power required
—Length of chain elevator required—Directions for
operating “Ohio” Blower Cutters—Danger from car-
bonic-acid poisoning in silos—Covering the siloed fod-
der—Use of water in filling silos—Clover for summer
silape—Freezine of silage... .. i... ce eee tee 149-166

CHAPTER RaIx.

How to feed silage—Silage for milch cows—Silage in the
production of certified milk—Silage for beef cattle—
for Horses—for Sheep—for Swine—Silage for poultry
—Additional testimony as to the advantage of silage—
Corn silage as compared with root crops—Corn silage
as compared with hay—Corn silage compared with
PURO OY Fo Grnc'c 10! Bao Se Bese Re ee ae OR ee 167-189

CHAP DE.

A feeder’s guide—Composition of the animal body—Com-
position of feeding stuffs—Digestibility of foods—Rela-
tive value of feeding stuffs—Feeding standards—How
to figure out rations—Grain mixtures for dairy cows—
Average composition of Silage crops of different kinds,
in per cent—Analysis of Feeding stuffs—Ready refer-

ey TT ae PS] SUAS PO a pe ue Re ER aaa pe ee 190-215
SE GV LG) SMO tr goat be sad bee ecexcs ss ae eee 216
PLO ATER Vos oy oS ER ete occas lot tae ore ie trae Cone 217-219

POU BURGsh o', aia 3G a eae ile Sa aie s POLS 5 Le er nea 220-224

Modern Silage Methods.

INTRODUCTION.

Twenty-five years ago few farmers knew what a silo
was, and fewer still had ever seen a silo or fed silage to
their stock. Today silos are as common as barn buildings
in many farming districts in this country, and thousands of
farmers would want to quit farming if they could not have
silage to feed to their stock during the larger portion of
‘the year. Twenty-five years ago it would have been neces-
sary to begin a book describing the siloing system with
definitions, what is meant by silos and silage; now all
farmers who read agricultural papers or attend agricultural
or dairy conventions are at least familiar with these
words, even if they do not have a chance to become famil-
jar with the appearance and properties of silage. They
know that a SILO is an air-tight structure used for the
preservation of green, coarse fodder in a succulent con-
dition, and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo.

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage
making, but want to state here at the outset that Indian
corn is pre-eminently the American crop suited to be pre-
served in silos, and that this crop is siloed far more than
all other kinds of crops put together. When the word
silage is mentioned we, therefore, instinctively think of
corn silage. We shall also follow this plan in the dis-
cussions in this book: when only silage is spoken of we
mean silage made from the corn plant; if made from
other crops the name of the crop is always given, as
clover silage, peavine silage, etc.

8 INTRODUCTION.

History of the Silo. While the silo in one form or
another dates back to antiquity, it was not until the latter
part of the seventies that the building of silos intended
for manufacture of silage began in this country. In
1882 the United States Department of Agriculture could
find only ninety-one farmers in this country who used silos.
During the last twenty-five years, however, silos have
gradually become general in all sections of the country
where dairying and stock-raising are important industries;
it is likely, if a census were taken of the number of silos
in this country today, that we would find between a half
and three-fourths of a million of them. The silo is today
considered a necessity on thousands of dairy farms, and we
find most of them in the states that rank first as dairy
states, viz.: New York, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsyl-
vania, etc. The farmers that have had most experience
with silage are the most enthusiastic advocates of the silo-
ing system, and the testimony of intelligent dairymen all
over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. Said a
New York farmer recently in one of our main agricultural
papers: “I would as soon try to farm without a barn as
without a silo,” and another wrote, “I wouldn’t take a
thousand collars for my silo if I eould not replace it.” The
well-known agricultural writer, Joseph E. Wing, says: “No
stock feeder who grows corn can afford to ignore the
silo.” “Buff Jersey,” an Illinois dairy farmer and writer
on agricultural topics, declares his faith in silage as fol-
lows: “I am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed,
and a cheaper one, than our pastures.” Another writer
says: “The silo to my mind presents so many advantages
over the system of soiling that it is bound to eventually
do away with the-use of soiling crops.” According to
the Cornell Experiment Station, the “silo, especially to the
dairy farmer, has become an almost necessary adjunct to
the equipment of the farm.”

Our first effort. in writing this book will be to pre-
sent facts that will back up these statements, and show
the reader the many advantages of the silo, over other

INTRODUCTION. 9

systems of growing and curing crops fer the feeding of
farm animals. We shall show that up-to-date dairy or
stock farming is well nigh impossible without the aid of
a silo. The silo enables us to feed live stock succulent
feeds the year around, and preserves the fodder in a bet-
ter condition and with less waste than any other system
can. We shall see the why and wherefore of this in the
following pages, and shall deal with the best way of mak-
ing and feeding silage to farm animals. We wish to state
at the outset that we do not propose to indulge in un-
warranted statements or claims that will not stand the
closest investigation. In the early days of the history
of the silo movement it was thought necessary to make
exaggerated claims, but this is no Ionger the case. Naked
facts are sufficient to secure for the silo a permanent
place -among the necessary equipment of a modern dairy
or stock farm. In discussing the silo we shall keep close
to what has been found out at our experiment stations,
and, we believe, shall be able to prove to any fair-minded
reader that the silo is the greatest boon that has come
to modern agriculture since the first reaper was manu-
factured, and that with competition and resulting low
prices, it will be likely to become more of a necessity to
our farmers in the future than it has been in the past.
We aim to convince our readers that the most sensible
thing they can do is to plan to build a silo at once if they
do not now have one. It is unnecessary to argue with
those who are already the happy possessors of a silo, for
it is a general experience where a farmer has only pro-
vided for immediate wants in building his silo that he will
build another as soon as he has had some experience
with silage and finds out how his stock likes it, and
how well they do on it.

Modern practice has proved that no man need say
“T cannot afford a silo,’ because any farmer who is at
all handy with hammer and saw can provide a silo large
enough for a medium-sized dairy with very little actual
outlay of money. And this same built-at-home silo will

10 INTRODUCTION.

earn for its owner money to build another, and enlarge
his herd.

We shall give directions for building several kinds
of such silos on the following pages. While they will
not be apt to last as long, and therefore are not perhaps
as economical in the long run as more substantially-built
silos, still they do excellent service until some experience
with making and feeding silage has been obtained, or
until the farmer can afford to put up a more substantial
structure.

We mention this fact here to show farmers who may
be considering the matter of building a silo, or who may
be inclined to think that the silo is an expensive luxury,
only for rich farmers, that the cost of a silo need not
debar them from the advantages of having one on their
farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent feed for their
stock through the whole winter. Farmers who have not
as yet informed themselves in regard to the value of the
silo and silage on dairy or stock farms, are respectfully
asked to read carefully the following statements of the
advantages of the silo system over other methods of pre-
serving green forage for winter or summer feeding.

It has been said that “Whoever makes two blades of
grass grow where but one grew before is a benefactor
to mankind.” A silo makes it possible to keep two cows
where but one was kept before, and who would not gladly
double his income? Does not this interest you?

GCHAL TEAR 7.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

The silo enables us to preserve a larger quantity of the
fjeod materials of the original fodder for the feeding of farm
animals than is possible by any other system of preservation
now known. Pasture grass is the ideal feed for live stock,
but it is not available more than a few months in the
year. The same holds true with all soiling crops.or tame
grasses as well. When made into hay the grasses and
other green crops lose some of the food material contained
therein, both on account of unavoidable losses of leaves
and other tender parts, and on account of fermentations
which take place while the plants are drying out or being
cured.

In cases of Indian corn the losses from the latter
source are considerable, owing to the coarse stalks of
the plant and the large number of air-cells in the pith
of these. Under the best of conditions cured fodder corn
will lose at least ten per cent. of its food value when
cured in shocks; such a low loss can only be obtained
when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in
the field under ideal weather conditions. In ordinary farm
practice the loss in nutritive value will approach twenty-
five per cent., and will even exceed this figure unless
special precautions are taken in handling the fodder, and
it is not left exposed to all kinds of weather in shocks
in the field through the whole winter. These figures
may seem surprisingly large to many farmers who have
left fodder out all winter long, and find the corn inside
the shock bright and green, almost as it was when put
up. But appearances are deceitful; if the shocks had
been weighed as they were put up, and again in the late

12 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

winter, another story would be told, and it would be
found that the shocks only weighed anywhere from a
third to a half as much as when they were cured and
ready to be put in the barn late in the fall; if chemical
analysis of the corn in the shocks were made late in the
fall, and when taken down, it would be found that the de-
crease in weight was not caused by evaporation of water
from the fodder, but by waste of food materials contained
therein from fermentations, or actions of enzymes. (See
Glossary.)

The correctness of the figures given above has been
abundantly proved by careful experiments conducted at a
number of different experiment stations, notably the Wis-
consin, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Colorado
experiment stations. A summary of the main work in
this line is given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage. In the
Wisconsin experiments there was an average loss of 23.8
per cent. in the dry matter (see Glossary), and 24.3 per
cent. of protein, during four different years, when over
86 tons of green fodder had been put up in shocks and
carefully weighed and sampled at the beginning and end
of the experiment. These shocks had been left out for
different lengths of time, under varying conditions of
weather, and made from different kinds of corn, so as to
present a variety of conditions. The Colorado experi-
ments are perhaps the most convincing as to the losses
which unavoidably take place in the curing of Indian corn
in shocks. The following account is taken from Prof.
Cook’s report of the experiments. As the conditions de-
scribed in the investigation will apply to most places on
our continent where Indian corn is cured for fodder, it
will be well for farmers to carefully look into the results
of the experiment.

“It is believed by most farmers that, in the dry cli-
mate of Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked
in good shape, cures without loss of feeding value, and
that the loss of weight that occurs is merely due to the
drying out of the water. A’ test of this question was made

LOSSES IN DRY CURING. 13

in the fall of 1893, and the results obtained seemed to
indicate that fully a third of the feeding value was lost
in the curing. This result was so surprising that the fig-
ures were not published, fearing that some error had crept
in, though we could not see where there was the possibility
of a mistake.

“In the fall of 1894 the test was repeated on a larger
seale. A lot of corn was carefully weighed and sampled,
{t was then divided into three portions; one was spread
on the ground in a thin layer, the second part was set up
in large shocks, containing about five hundred pounds of
green fodder in each, while the rest was shocked in small
bundles. After remaining thus for some months, until
thoroughly cured, the portions were weighed,) sampled
and analyzed separately. The table gives the losses that
occurred in the curing.

Large Shocks. | Small Shocks. |On the Ground.

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

When Shocked ..... Le a laser 294 | 77 186 | 42
Aéter Curing’ 2... 6. 258 | 150 64 | 44 Bor leone
Bossiun Weteht:.. 3... 694 Gintt Sadkinias 153 | 423
Per Cent of Loss..... 73 ot Toa} 43 82 | do

“So far as could be told by the eye, there had been
no loss. The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the stalks
on the inside of the bundles retained their green color,
with no sign of molding or heating. And yet the large
shocks had lost 31 per cent. of their dry matter, or feed-
ing value; the small shocks 438 per cent. and the corn
spread on the ground 55 per cent.

“On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses were
explained. The juice was acid, and there was a very
strong acid odor, showing that an active fermentation

14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

was taking place in this seemingly dry fodder. We had
noticed this strong odor the fall before and all through
fhe winter. When the fodder corn for the steers is put
through the feed cutter that same strong smell is present.

“It can be said, then, that the dryness of the climate
in Colorado does not prevent fodder corn from losing
a large part of its feeding value through fermentation.
Indeed, the loss from this source is fully as great as in
the damp climate in New England.

“As compared with the losses by fermentation in the
silo, the cured fodder shows considerably the higher loss.”’

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven
shocks cured under cover in the barn lost on an average
over 8 per cent. of dry matter and toward 14 per cent. of
protein. In an experiment at the Maine station over 14
per cent. of dry matter was lost in the process of slow
drying of a large sample of fodder corn under the most
favorable circumstances. “It is interesting to note that
this loss falls almost entirely on the nitrogen-free ex-
tract, or carbohydrates (see Glossary), more than two-
thirds of it being actually accounted for by the diminished
percentage of sugars.”

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under
cover with all possible care, it is evident that the aver-
age losses of dry matter in field-curing fodder corn, given
in the preceding, by no means can be considered exagger-
ated. Exposure to rain and storm, abrasion of dry leaves
and thin stalks, and other factors tend to diminish the
nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses from
fermentations, so that very often only one-half of the
food materials originally present in the fodder is left by
the time it is fed out. The remaining portion of the
fodder has, furthermore, a lower digestibility and a lower
feeding value than the fodder corn when put up, for
the reason that the fermentations occurring during the
curing process destroy the most valuable and easily
digestible part, i e., the sugar and starch of the nitrogen-

THE SILOING PROCESS. 15

free extract, which are soluble, or readily rendered sol-
uble, in the process of digestion.

2, Losses in the Siloing Process. As compared with
the large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian
corn there are but comparatively small losses in the silo,
caused by fermentation processes or decomposition of the
living plant cells as they are dying off. The losses in this
case have been repeatedly determined by experiment
stations, and, among others, by those mentioned in the
preceding. The average losses of dry matter in the fod-
der corn during the siloing period of four seasons
(1887-91) as determined by Prof. Woll at the Wisconsin
Experiment Station was about 16 per cent. The silos
used in these trials, as in case of nearly all the early
experiments on this point, were small and shallow, how-
ever, only 14 feet deep, were rectangular in form, and
not always perfectly air-tight, a most important point
in silo construction, as we shall see, and a portion of the
silage therefore came out spoilt, thus increasing the
losses of food materials in the siloing process. The
losses reported were, therefore, too great, and there is
now an abundance of evidence at hand showing that the
figures given are higher than those found in actual prac-
tice, and the necessary loss in the silo comes consider-
ably below that found in the early experiments on this
point. There are plenty of cases on record showing
that ten per cent. represents the; maximum loss of dry
matter in modern deep, well-built silos. The losses found
in siloing corn at a number of experiment stations dur-
ing the last ten years have come at or below this figure.
It is possible to reduce the loss still farther by avoid-
ing any spoilt silage on the surface, by beginning to feed
immediately after the filling of the silo, and by feeding
the silage out rather rapidly. Experiments conducted on
a small scale by Prof. King in 1894 gave losses of only
2 and 3 per cent. of dry matter, on the strength of which
results, amongst others, he believes that the necessary
loss of dry matter in the Silo need not exceed 5 per cent.

16 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

Summarizing our considerations concerning the rela-'
tive losses of food materials in the field-curing and silo-
ing of Indian corn, we may, therefore, say that far from
being less economical than the former, the silo is more
so, under favorable conditions for both systems, and that
therefore a larger quantity of food materials is obtained
by filling the corn crop into a silo than by any other
method of preserving it known at the present time.

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to -
fodder corn applies equally well to other crops put into
the silo. A few words will suffice in regard to two of
these, clover and alfalfa. Only a few accurate. siloing
experiments have been conducted with clover, but enough
has been done to show that the necessary losses in silo-
ing this crop do not much, if any, exceed those of Indian
corn. Lawes and Gilbert, of the Rothmasted Experiment
Station, England, placed 264,318 pounds of first and sec-
ond crop clover into one of these stone silos, and; took
out 194,470 pounds of good clover silage. Loss in weight,
24.9 per cent. This loss fell, however, largely on the
water in the clover. The loss of dry matter amounted
to only 5.1 per cent., very nearly the same amount of loss
as that which the same experimenter found had taken
place in a large rick of about forty tons of hay, after
standing for two years. The loss of protein in the silo
amounted to 8.2 per cent. In another silo 184,959 pounds
of second-crop grass and second-crop clover were put in,
and 170,941 pounds were taken out. Loss in gross weight,
7.6 per cent; loss of dry matter, 9.7 per cent.; of crude
protein, 7.8 per cent.

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at the
Wisconsin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G. Short
obtained the following results: Clover put into the silo,
12,279 pounds; silage taken out, 9,283 pounds; loss, 24.4
per cent.; loss of dry matter, 15.4 per cent.; of protein,
12.7 per cent.

There is nothing in any of these figures to argue
against the siloing of green clover as an economical pra¢

THE SILOING PROCESS. 17

tice. On the other hand, we conclude that this method
of preserving the clover crop is highly valuable, and, in
most cases, to be preferred to making hay of the crop.

No extended investigation has been made as to the
losses sustained in the siloing of alfalfa, but there can be
little doubt but that they are considerably smaller than
in making alfalfa hay, if proper precautions guarding
against unnecessary losses in the silo are taken. Accord-
ing to the testimony of Professor Headden of the Colo-
rado Experiment Station, the minimum loss from the fall-
ing off of leaves and stems in successful alfalfa hay mak-
ing amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases
where the conditions have been unfavorable, to as much
as 60 and even 66 per cent. of the hay crop. Aside from
the losses sustained through abrasion, rain storms, when
these occur, may reduce the value of the hay: one-half.
The losses from either of these sources are avoided in
preserving the crop in the silo, and in their place a small
loss through fermentation occurs, under ordinary favor-
able conditions, amounting to about 10 per cent. or less.

There is this further advantage to be considered
when the question of relative losses in the silo and in
hay-making or field-curing green forage, that hay or corn
fodder, whether in shocks or in the field or stored under
shelter, gets poorer and poorer the longer it is kept, as
the processes of decomposition are going on all the
time; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss in food sub-
stances is not appreciably larger six months after the silo
was filled than it is one month after, because the air
is shut out, so that the farmer who puts up a lot of fodder
corn for silage in the fall can have as much and ag val-
uable feed for his stock in the spring, or in fact, the fol-
lowing summer or fall, as he would have if he proceeded
to feed out all the silage at once.

“Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in
feeding value to one ton of hay. On this basis a much
larger amount of digestible food can be secured from an
acre of silage corn than from an acre of hay. The food

2 :

18 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can easily be pro-
duced on an acre of land planted to corn.’—(Plumb.)

3. Succulence. Succulent food is Nature’s food. We
all know the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and
the green dried fruit. In the drying of fruit as well as of
green fodder water is the main component taken away;
with it, however, go certain flavoring matters that do not
weigh much in the chemist’s balance, but are of the
greatest importance in rendering the food material pal-
atable. It is these same flavoring substances which are
washed out of the hay with heavy rains, and renders
such hay of inferior value, often no better than so much
straw, not because it does not contain nearly as much
food substances, like protein, fat, starch, sugar, etc. (see
Glossary), but because of the substances that render
hay palatable having been largely removed by the rain.

The influence of well-preserved silage on the diges-
tion and general health of animals is very beneficial, ac-
cording to the unanimous testimony of good authorities.
{t is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly
to green fodders. The good accounts reported of the pre-
vention of milk fever by the feeding of silage are ex-
plained by the laxative influence of the feed.

4, Uniformity. The silo furnishes a feed of uniform
quality, and always near at hand, available at any time
during the whole year or winter. No need of fighting thie
elements, or wading through snow or mud to haul it from
the field; once in the silo the hard work is over, and the
farmer can rest easy as to the supply of succulent rough-
age for his stock during the winter. An ample supply
of succulent feed is of advantage to all classes of ani-
mals, but perhaps particularly so in case of dairy cows
and sheep, since these animals are especially sensitive
to sudden changes in the feed. Also, stock raisers value
silage highly on this account, for silage is of special value
for feeding preparatory to turning cattle on to the watery
pasture grass in the spring. The loss in the weight of
cattle on being let out on pasture in spring, is often so

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 19

great that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back
where they were when turned out. When let out in the

spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether .

silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they are fed some
grain during the first week or two after they are turned
out. For more detailed information regarding the feeding
of silage for beef production, see chapter 3, page 28.

5. Economy of Storage. Less room is required for
the storage in a silo of the product from an acre of land
than in cured condition in a barn. A ton of hay stored
in the mow will fill a space of at least 400 cubic feet; a
ton of silage, a space of about 50 cubic feet. Considering
the dry matter contained in both feeds we have found that
8,000 pounds of silage contains about as much dry matter
as 2,323 pounds of hay, or 160 against 465 cubic feet, that
is, it takes nearly three times as much room to store
the same quantity of food materials in hay as in silage.
In case of field-cured fodder corn, the comparison comes
out still more in favor of the silo, on account of the
greater difficulty in preserving the thick cornstalks from
heating when placed under shelter. According to Pro-
fessor Alvord, an acre of corn, field-cured, stored in the
most compact manner possible, will occupy a space ten
times as great as in the form of silage. While hay will
contain about 86 per cent, of dry matter, cured fodder
corn often does not contain more than 60 and sometimes
only 50 per cent. of dry matter; the quantities of food
material in fodder corn that can be stored in a given
space are, therefore, greatly smaller than in case of hay,
and consequently, still smaller than in case of silage.

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed,
there is less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of
insurance. —

6. No Danger of Rain. Rainy weather is a disad-
vantage in filling silos as in most other farm operations,
but when the silo is once filled, the fodder is safe, and the
farmer is independent of the weather throughout the

Beason.

20. ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

If the corn has suffered from drought and heat during
the fall months, it is quite essential to wet the corn either
as it goes into the silo, or when this has all been filled, in
order to secure a good quality of silage; and unless the
corn is very green when it goes into the silo, the addi-
tion of water, or water on the corn from rain or dew, will
do no harm. If the corn is too dry when put into the silo,
the result will be dry mold, which is prevented by the
addition of the water, which replaces that which has dried
out previous to filling if this has been delayed.

A common practice among successful siloists is to
fill the silo when the lower leaves of the standing corn
have dried up about half way to the ears.. Generally, the
corn will be in about the proper condition at that time,
and there will still be moisture enough left in the plants
so that the silage will come out in first-class condition.

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time
of filling the silo, so that the heating processes, which take -
place soon after, and which expel a considerable portion
of the moisture, can take place, and still leave the corn
moist after cooling, when the silage will remain in prac-
tically a uniform condition for several years if left
undisturbed. But if, on account of over-ripeness, frosts, or
excessive drought, the corn is drier than stated, it should
be made quite wet as stated above, and there is little
danger of getting it too wet. The writer has filled silo
with husked corn fodder about Christmas, and as the
fodder was thoroughly dried, a 34-inch pipe was connected
with an overhead tank in the barn and arranged to dis-
charge into the carrier of the eutter as the cutting took
place, a No. 18 Ohio cutter being used for that purpose.
Although the full stream was discharged, and with con-
siderable force, on account of the elevation of the tank,
and the cut fodder in the silo still further wet on top with
a long hose attached to a wind force pump, it was found,
pn opening the silo a month later, that none too much
water had been used; the fodder silage came out in good
condition, was eaten greedily by the milch cows, and

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 7 21

'-was much more valuable than if it had been fed dry from
the field.

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the
case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of
rainy weather late in the season the silo will further-
more preserve the crop, so that the farmer may derive
full benefit from it in feeding it: to his stock. Frosted
corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will come out
a very fair quality of silage if well watered as referred to
above.

7. No danger of Late Summer Droughts. By using
the silo with clover or other green summer crops, early
in the season, a valuable succulent feed will be at hand
at a time when pasture in most regions is apt to give
out; then again, the silo may be filled with corn when
this is in the roasting-ear stage, and the land thus en-
tirely cleared earlier than when the corn is left to ma-
ture and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it
possible to finish fall plowing sooner and to seed the
land down to grass or winter grain.

8. Food from Thistles. Crops unfit for haymaking
may be preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable
food. This is not of the importance in this land of plenty
of ours that it is, or occasionally has been elsewhere.
Under silage crops are included a number of crops which
could not be used as cattle food in any other form than
this, as ferns, thistles, all kinds of weeds, ete. In case
of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry
his cattle through the winter.

9. Value in Intensive Farming. More cattle can be
kept on a certain area of land when silage is fed, than
is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect furnishes
a similar advantage over field-curing fodders, as does the
soiling system over that of pasturing cattle; in both the
siloing and soiling system there is no waste of feed, all
food grown on the land being utilized for the feeding of
farm animals, except a small unavoidable loss in case of

22 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.
‘

the siloing system incurred by the fermentation processes
taking place in the silo.

Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding,
as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be prac-
ticed to advantage where this is cheap. As the land in-
creases in value, more stock must be kept on the same
area in order to correspondingly increase the profits from
the land. The silo here comes in as a material aid, and
by its adoption, either alone or in connection with the
soiling system, it will be possible to keep at least twice
the number of animals on the land that can be done
under the more primitive system of pasturing and feeding
dry feeds during the winter. The experience of Goffart, “‘the
Father of Modern Silage,” on this point is characteristic.
On his farm of less than eighty-six acres at Burtin, France,
he kept a herd of sixty cattle, besides fattening a num-
ber of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure
us that he had ample feed on hand to Keep one hundred
head of cattle the year around.

We might go on and enumerate many other points
in which the siloing process has decidedly the advantage
over the method of field-curing fodder or haymaking; but
it is hardly necessary. The points given in the.preceding
will convince any person open to conviction, of the supe-
riority of the silo on stock or dairy farms. As we proceed
with our discussion we shall have occasion to refer to sev-
eral points in favor of silage as compared with dry feed,
which have not already been touched upon: We shall now,
first of all, however, discuss the Summer Silo; also the
wonderful progress of the use of silage in beef production,
and of its help in maintaining soil fertility. Afterwards,
we will proceed to explain the method of building Silos
and then discuss the subject of making and feeding silage.

CRAP TER, 11.
THE SUMMER SILO.

The summer silo is fast becoming popular and even
necessary because of its splendid aid in supplementing
summer pastures and tiding the herd over the period of
drouth, heat and flies. Experiment Stations that have
studied the subject, strongly advocate its use and some
of the leading agricultural papers have been speaking in
no uncertain voice as to its advantages.

“The summer silo is as certain to assert its value as
American agriculture is certain to go forward rather than
backward,” says Breeder’s Gazette of Chicago. “Pasture
as at present used—or abused—is a broken reed. An over-
grazed acre is the costliest acre that the farmer supports.
Even in ncrmal seasons grass rests in the summer time,
and unless a fall and winter pasture is laid by, little good
is derived irom grass lands after the flush of spring. The
silo supplements pastures, and carries the burden of the
winter’s feeding.”

Following the same line of thought Purdue Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 13 says:

“Too much dependence is usually placed upon pasture
for summer feeding. Pasturing high priced land is un-
profitable in these times. Few stop to consider the de-
structive effects of trampling, that, while a cow is taking
one bite of grass, she is perhaps soiling or trampling the
life out of four others. If sufficient silage is put up each
year part can well be used for summer feeding, which
will be found less laborious than the daily hauling of
green crops for the herd. The herd must not be allowed
to shrink in flow unduly, as it is practically impossible
to bring them back during the same lactation. The
young stock, destined for future producers, must not be
neglected on short pasture, for the labor and expense of

24 THE SUMMER SILO.

supplying their needs as above indicated for the herd, is
insignificant compared with the importance of their unim-
paired growth.”

There are many intelligent farmers who are providing
@ suecession of fresh soiling crops and using them to
great advantage in helping out short pastures. “But,”
says Professor Frazer of the Illinois Station, ‘there is
necessarily much labor attached to preparing the ground,
planting, raising, and harvesting the common crops used
for this purpose. There is usually much loss in being
obliged to feed these crops before they are mature and
after they are overripe. And for the farmer who can
make the larger investment, the most practical way of
all to provide green feed for summer drouth is to fill a
small silo with corn silage. It not only saves the labor
and inconvenience in the putting in and cultivation of
small patches of different kinds of crops, but also in har-
vesting from day to day in a busy season of the year.

“These soiling crops can be dispensed with and all
the feed raised from one planting in one field in the shape
of corn. The whole field of corn for the silo may be cut
at just the right stage of maturity when the most nutri-
ment can be secured in the best possible condition of
feeding. It also avoids the possibility of the soiling crops
failing to ripen at the exact period when the drouth hap-
pens to strike the pasture. For the silo may be opened
whenever the pasture fails, regardless of the date, and the
silage will remain in the best condition as long as needed.
When the pasture supplies enough feed again, what is
left in the silo may be covered over and thus preserved
without waste, and added to when refilling the silo for
winter use.”

Further evidence comes from the Purdue Station. Prof.
Skinner writes:

“Many successful farmers with limited areas of pasture
make a practice of filling a small silo for summer use. It
has been well established that silage properly stored in
a good silo when the corn or other crop is in the most de-

SUMMER FEEDING. 25

sirable condition, will keep in good condition for several
years. Many foresighted men taking advantage of this fact
plan to have silage on hand the year around. They are
thus prepared for any unusual conditions such as drouth,
scant pasture, excessively long winters, and it is altogether
practical and profitable. It is desirable to have a silo of
relatively small diameter for summer feeding as it is
necessary to feed considerable amount from off the top
of the silage each day in order to keep it from moulding
during the hot, damp weather.

There are three silos on the university farm and it is
our aim to avoid having all these empty at the same time.
A limited farm, greatly overstocked, makes it necessary
to supplement the pastures every year, and while soiling
crops are grown in abundance they cannot be relied upon
_because of the gravelly nature -of the sub-soil underlying
the farm, which means longer or shorter periods of drouth
annually.

It would be absolutely impossible to maintain the num-
ber of animals on the college farm that we are successfully
carrying without the silage to supplement our pastures
and soiling crops. Many Indiana men have come to look
on the silo as quite as important in supplementing the
pastures as it is in furnishing succulence during the winter
season.”

The dry pastures and burned-up hillsides following the
drouth of 1910 made a very strong impression as to the
importance of having good summer feeding. It was an
eloquent though severe plea for the summer silo and led
to some splendid testimony in its favor. The drouth “cut
down the milk flow in most of the herds nearly 50 per
cent. Not one farmer in a hundred had provided for this
emergency by a good supply of succulent food that would
make milk. It is the same old story over again. It seems
to take a tremendous lot of pounding on the part of Provi-
dence, to get it into farmers’ heads that a summer silo is
a grand thing. The Hoard’s Dairyman herd of: cows had |
50 tons or more of nice corn ensilage to turn to when
feed grew short and they have rolled out the milk nicely
right along. Besides, they: will keep at it. There is noth-
ing like a supply of ensilage for summer use. It is close
by and handy to the stable for use, when you want it.

26 THE SUMMER SILO.

And furthermore it will produce more milk than any other
kind of soiling feed.”

This is the experience of Wisconsin experimenters,
who find that silage holds milk-flow during drouth even
better than soiling. It is rational that it should.

The substance of a strong editorial in Wallace’s Farmer,
while referring particularly to the lesson of the 1910
drouth, applies with equal force wherever pasture is used

or cattle are fed. It is worth quoting here: “

“The question we are constantly asked is: ‘Will silage
keep through the summer?’ We are glad to be able to give
a direct answer to this, not theoretically, but from per-
sonal experience. We built a silo on one of the Wallace
farms and filled it in 1908, and made the mistake of build-
ing it too large. During the winter of 1908-9 the silage
was not all used. Last fall we put in new silage on top of
the old, and during the winter used.out of the new silage,
leaving the unused remainder in the bottom. We are now
feeding that silage, and the man in charge, an experienced
dairyman, tells us that after the waste on top was re-
moved, this two-year-old silage is as good as any he ever
used; that the cattle eat it as readily as anything and
eat more of it than they did during the winter.

“This is in entire harmony with every farmer we ever
heard of who uses summer silage. If silage will keep two
years without any waste except on the exposed portion
of the surface, then it will certainly keep one.

“Some people say: ‘We may not have another summer
like this.’ To this we reply that a period of short pastures
during July and August is the rule in all the corn belt
states, and lush grass at this season of the year is a rare
exception. Remember that seasons come in cycles of un-
known duration, and the time of their coming is uncertain;
that it always has been so, and it is safe to assume that
they always will until the Creator sees fit to change his
method of watering the earth. Therefore, well-made silage
in a good silo is just as staple as old wheat in the mill.
There will be a waste of several inches on the surface,
just as there is waste of several inches on the surface
of the hay stack or shock of corn fodder; but a man can
afford that waste, if he has the assurance that his cows
will not fail in their milk or his cattle lose flesh, even if
there should be little or no rain for thirty or sixty days.
When you put up a silo for summer use, you are going

SUMMER FEEDING. 97

into a perfectly safe proposition, provided, of course, you
build it right, and fill it properly.”

It is well to remember that less silage will naturally
be fed in Summer than in winter and in order to keep the
surface in fairly good condition, at least three inches of
silage should be taken off daily, where two inches suffice
in the winter. It will be found advisable therefore in building
the summer silo to keep the diameter proportionately
smaller.

CHa ha eh LiL

THE USE OF SILAGE IN BEEF
PRODUCTION.

In his “Feeds and Feeding,” published some years ago,
Prof. Henry says in one paragraph, with regard to feeding
silage to beef cattle:

“Because of its succulence and palatability, this for-
age is recommended as a substitute for roots for fattening
cattle.” In another paragraph:

“Tf the stockman desires a cheap, succulent feed for
his cattle in the winter time, he will find it in corn silage.
The same quantity of nutriment that a root crop yields
can be produced more economically in corn forage stored
in the shape of silage, and this article can be fed with
satisfaction to steers during the early stages of fattening.
At first as much as forty or fifty pounds of silage may be

given daily to each steer; when the full grain feeding .

period arrives, let the allowance be cut down to 25 or 30
pounds per day. A limited use of this feed will keep the
system cool and the appetite vigorous.”

The same writer is also authority for the statement
that the best and most economical way to prevent the
“burning out” of steers being well fattened on corn, was
to feed ensilage with the corn.

Accumulating experience in many parts of the country
covering a number of years indicates that Prof. Henry
was right, and it strongly approves the use of silage in
maintaining beef herds and in fattening steers. In the
minds of many farmers, the dairyman has long held a
monopoly on the profitable use of this succulent food, and
it is true that in cheapening production, of dairy products
and in maintaining the milk fiow and the perfect condi-
tion of his cows in those months when fresh grass is not
to be had for them, the silage system has reached its
highest development. Each year, however, has seen @

SILAGE FOR STEER FEEDING. 29
steady growth of sentiment in progressive stock-raising
communities favorable to a more profitable use of corn
fodder, and today many of the most prominent beef cattle
breeders and feeders are among the foremost users of
silage for feeding purposes.

It is no secret that a prejudice has existed against
silage in feeding circles. But the astonishing results
achieved by every doubter who tried the experiment is
“fact-evidence” of the most weighty nature and is serving
as a strong weapon against such prejudice.

One of the biggest and most substantial silos in Iowa
was erected in the fall of 1910 in Cherokee County, near
Quimby, in the northwestern part of the state. It is fifty
feet- high, twenty-six feet across and will hold approxi-
mately 500 tons of silage. It is built of cement blocks and
was erected for steer feeding purposes exclusively.

Many Experiment Stations have for some time been
carrying on experiments to show the comparative value
of silage and other feeds, and these have very generally
resulted with credit to corn silage, as an economical and
suitable feed for steers.

Prof. Herbert W. Mumford of the Illinois College of
Agriculture, Urbana, in a recent article calls attention
to the increasing interest in corn silage in connection with
the feeding of beef cattle... The silo is today an essential
feature in the successful dairyman’s equipment but its
adoption by cattle feeders has been noticeably slower.
Mr. Mumford says that “This is undoubtedly partly due
to the fact that dairying more naturally lends itself to
intensive methods while beef production has been more
universally profitable when pursued in a large way by
more or less extensive systems of farming. It is possible,
too, that the cattle feeder has expected too much of silage
and has confined the cattle too largely upon it. It is
growing in favor among the beef producers and we confi-
dently believe that it has a large place in the cattle feed-
ing of the future in the corn belt.

30 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

It furnishes the best means of storing the entire corn crop,
a part of which is now only partially utilized in the corn
belt, with minimum waste. Experiment stations have been
gradually but surely teaching us its usefulness in the
feeding of beef cattle. Practical feeders here and there
have been carefully trying it out, and with but very few
exceptions where the beef producer has erected a silo,
filled it with corn and fed it out to his beef cattle he has
become a silage-for-beef-cattle convert.

Silage is undoubtedly of especial value in the feeding
of beef breeding cows and in the wintering of calves
and young cattle intended for beef production. The
Illinois experiment station has determined the _ eco-
nomic importance of the silo in beef production in the
state when used in connection with the feeding of beef
cows and young cattle. This importance might be briefly
stated as follows:

“Corn silage when supplemented with oats and hay,
used for wintering calves intended for beef production,
will produce thirty-five pounds more gain per steer during
the season at the same cost of ration than when shock
corn similarly supplemented is fed. This extra gain is
worth 5 cents per pound, or $1.75 per calf. There are
over 700,000 calves wintered in Illinois each year.

“It should be borne in mind that the cattle feeders
who are apparently succeeding best with silage are those
who buy young, light-weight feeders weighing from 600
to 1,000 pounds, feeding them silage in largest amounts at
the beginning of the fattening period, providing abundant
shelter, and that in most instances the silage is withdrawn
from the ration several weeks before the cattle are fin-
ished, and who do not depend upon silage exclusively.
Several practical feeders have expressed the opinion that
the main utility of silage is to prepare cattle for heavy
feeding by putting them in condition to feed well; that
as an appetizer and a laxative it has great value in start-
ing cattle on feed.”

The investigations of the Ohio and Indiana Stations

SILAGE FOR FATTENING. 31

regarding the use of corn silage for fattening beef cattle,
indicate that it can be used to good advantage, when
- stover and hay are high in price. The Farmer’s Guide of
Indianapolis thus comments on the matter:

“Forty-two head of steers, most of them grade Short-
horns, were used in an experiment in which 25 pounds of
silage per steer was fed daily. The ration which included
the silage gave almost exactly the same rate of gain as
did the dry ration.

“No difference in the finish of the two sets of cattle was
apparent. This was shown by the fact that although when
the cattle were at market, one pen contained only silage-
fed cattle and another only dry-fed cattle. A buyer of
wide experience, without knowing how the cattle had been
fed, purchased both lots at the same price. Other expert
cattlemen failed to note any difference between the two
lots.

“It is not to be expected that silage alone or silage and
other rough feed will produce a high finish in a short
feeding period, since not enough grain is present in the
silage for this purpose. Less shelled corn, however, was
required by the steers that received silage than by the
ones that received only dry feed.

“The results obtained by the Ohio station with the feed-
ing of silage to beef cattle are similar to the experience
of the Indiana station, where it was found that silage added
to the feeding ration was an advantage in the way of
providing succulence. Several practical feeders have made
a marked success with this feed and do not hesitate to
recommend it. In fact, one Ohio man has several large
silos, which he fills annually especially for feeding his
beef cattle.

“When it is figured that all the feeding value of the
corn plant is preserved in the form of silage; that there
is an immense saving in storage space; that it is easier
handled in feeding, and that all animals eat it with a
relish, it seems that the farmer might, with advantage,
give silage a little more consideration. A silo, well filled
will provide plenty of succulent, nutritious feed for live
stock during that period of the year when pastures are
short and during the winter months when green feed is
unobtainable.”’

The Indiana Experiment Station reports the results of
a six months’ feeding trial, wherein ‘one lot of steers was

32 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

fed a ration of shelled corn, cotton seed meal and a full
ration of corn silage. A second was fed a ration of shelled
corn, cotton seed meal, some hay and about one-half a ,
full ration of corn silage, while a third lot was fed all the
corn and clover they would eat. Corn was valued at
60 cents a bushel, cotton seed meal at $27 per ton, clover
hay at $8 per ton, and corn silage at $3 per ton. At the
beginning of the experiment the lots did not vary more
than 25 pounds in total weight and all steers were pur-
chased at the same price per hundred-weight. There were
ten steers in each lot, and hogs followed each lot to con-
sume feed left in the droppings.

The experiment opened Nov. 18, 1908, and closed May
17, 1909. During this period of six months the first lot
gained 4,658.3 pounds, or an average of 2.58 pounds per
day; the second, 4,211.6 pounds, or 2.33 pounds per day;
the third, 3,416.6, or 1.89 pounds per day. The lot receiving
the full silage ration, therefore, gained more than a half
pound more per day than the lot receiving no silage, while
that receiving half a full silage ration gained somewhat
less than half a pound more also than the lot receiving
no silage.

The cost of a pound of gain for the full silage fed lot
was $9.79; for the lot having a half silage ration, $11.35,
and for the clover and corn fed lot, $12.99. In the same
order the first lot sold at $7.25 per, hundredweight, or 99
cents higher than was necessary to sustain neither loss
nor gain on the proposition. The second sold at $7.15, or 54
-sents more than was necessary to sustain no loss, and the

£ ¢ _ at $6.90, or only 15 cents above the cost. The pork
x duced behind the first lot netted $107.23, behind the
second $124.61, and the third, $97.68. The net profit re-
sulting from feeding the ten steers receiving a full silage
ration, shelled corn and cotton seed meal, was $24.04 per
head, including the profit from the pork produced, that of
the ten steers fed a half silage ration, some hay and shelled
corn and cotton seed meal, $19.71 per head, and those re-
ceiving clover and shelled corn only, $12.64 per head, both

—_—-*

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 33

also including profit on the pork. The first lot, therefore,
appears at an advantage of $11.33 per steer over the lot
receiving no silage, while the second lot also appears at
an advantage of $7.07 per steer over this lot. Judging
from these results, the silo is a paying investment to the
beef feeder. The difference in net profit from feeding
these 30 steers the full silage ration and the corn and
clover ration alone, would amount to $339.90 in favor of
the full silage ration.”

Indiana and Ohio seem to have set the pace for feeding
silage to beef cattle, and an increasingly large number of
silos is being erected as a result of the stimulus given
to this kind of feeding. The Breeder’s Gazette of Chi-
cago says:

“Indiana feeders who have demonstrated to their own
satisfaction that silage is valuable for beef production
are expanding their operations this season, and have been
liberal buyers at Chicago, Omaha and Kansas City. South-
ern Michigan will feed an unusually large number of cattle,
owing to scarcity of lambs. Illinois has been a heavy pur-
chaser both at Kansas City and Omaha, and Chicago
could have sent five good feeding steers into nearby terri-
tory where one has been available.

“Continued high prices have encouraged cattle feeding
in sections where, according to confident prophecy, the
industry was on the wane.”

Quoting again from an agricultural publication:

“The Kansas stations report that steers fed a ration
with silage made better gains, and excelled those without
silage as prime beef. The Ontario Agricultural College
reports that more rapid gains and cheaper gains were
made on grain and silage than on grain and hay or grain
and roots.

“From results it appears that cattle receiving silage as
their sole roughness during the winter, made the largest
average gains, did not drift materially when turned on
grass after the first ten days, slaughtered out to better ad-
vantage than dry-fed cattle, and were in a thriftier and
better condition throughout the entire feeding period. This
would go to show that succulent foods can be fed to cattle
maintained as stockers and finished on grass. Larger re-
turns can be got from feeding silage to cattle than from

34 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

grazing them. This is only natural when we consider that
an aere of corn yielding eight tons of silage will keep four
cows 180 days, while an acre of pasture will keep only one
cow that long.”

It is a mistake for the feeder to regard either silage
or hay as a satisfactory substitute for the other, to the
extent of entirely replacing one with the other. Says Mr.
C. F. Curtiss of the Iowa Experiment Station:

“The chief cause of complaint in the use of silage
arises from the fact that it is too often regarded as a
complete ration. The use of silage does not dispense with
the use of grain, except in case of very moderate feeding
for maintenance, without much reference to grain. Where
good corn silage is used it may usually be substituted for
about two-thirds the hay and about one-third the grain
that would be used in full feeding, without the silage.

“Clover hay is well adapted to supplement silage to
correct the excessive acidity of heavy silage feeding and
also to furnish the protein nutrients in which silage is
lacking. It should not be left out of the ration when feed-
ing silage.”

Prof. Plumb of the Ohio Agricultural College has this
to say on the subject:

“Tf silage is fed under cover, and to cattle not wallowing
in mud or oozy manure, then good results will generally
come from its use. However, hay or other dry roughage
should also be fed. Silage fed twice a day and hay once
should give good results. When cattle are being finished
for shipment, then the amount of silage fed should be
reduced and the dry roughage increased, this to prevent
much shrinkage in shipping. However, in what is known
as rational feeding, but little shrinkage is apt to occur
from the use of the silage. In experiments with steers
fed different rations at the Virginia station, those fed
silage showed no appreciable shrinkage in the market
over those fed exclusively dry feed.

“In feeding experiments conducted at the Missouri
station in 1906-7 with steers weighing about 800 pounds
each at the beginning, those fed silage ate less dry matter
than those fed whole stover or shredded stover and gained
in weight, while the dry stover lots lost. The same sort
of results were also secured from feeding siloed stover
compared with air-dried material.”

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. . 30

_ One of the largest feeders of beef cattle in the East,
Hon. Humphrey Jones, scored a center shot for “silage-
for-beef” when he remarked:

“We carry upon the same land more than fifty per
cent. more cattle than we did before we had the silos, and
whatever the correct theory of the matter may be, this
solid hard fact is sufficient to satisfy us that very much
more can be got out of the corn plant fed in the form of
silage than when fed dry in any manner which is practi-
cable with us.”

Mr Jones has large stock farms at Washington C. H.,
Ohio. He is a heavy feeder of steers—feeds from 500 to
1,000 annually—and he makes ensilage a very large factor
in the ration. He speaks therefore from the standpoint
of practical experience, and being a thorough business
farmer, his statements can be relied upon as accurate.
On this subject Mr. Jones says:

“We have found in the experience of feeding all kinds
of cattle, from calves to three-year-olds, that we can get
as good gains from feeding ensilage as in any other method
of feeding that we were ever familiar with. We add to
our silage, of course, clover hay or alfalfa. We grow large
quantities of these. During most of the time we have
added to our corn soy beans cut in with it, because they
are very rich in protein. In addition to that we have fed
cottonseed meal with the silage, and it is an ideal way
to feed it, because cottonseed meal is a thing by which
cattle may be injured if it is not properly fed. When
sprinkled over the ensilage it is mingled with all that
mass of roughage, and you can feed from three to five
pounds of cotton seed meal for six months to cattle with-
out any serious effects at all. We advise starting with
about two pounds of cottonseed meal, and increasing up
toward the end of the period to about five pounds; and
with that, without the addition of a grain of corn, we have
been able to make gains as rapidly and put the cattle in
better finish than we were ever able to do in any other
way.

“Fifty bushels of corn to the acre will make about
ten tons of ensilage as it comes from the field, and about
eight tons as it comes out of the silo. There is a weight
of about 3,000 pounds of corn in that, which you see Is
about 20 per cent. of the total weight as fed to the cattle;

36 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

and the steer will eat about fifty pounds a day, which con-
tains ten pounds of corn; and he is getting it in a form
that he digests and utilizes every pound. If you add to
that two to five pounds of cottonseed meal, all our infor-
mation upon that matter is that it has a feeding value of
about two and one-half times shelled corn; so that if you
give a steer five pounds of cottonseed meal, he is getting
an equivalent of ten pounds or more of corn, in addition
to the ten pounds of actual corn fed in the ensilage. If he
digests and utilizes every pound of the twenty pounds of
corn, either in the form of cottonseed meal or shelled
corn, he will do well, if he has all the good roughage he
wants. In addition to that, this ensilage puts him in the
shape that he is when he is on grass. It is a succulent,
cooling food, that keeps his hair in the same condition
as when he is on grass, and it finishes him up evenly. Our
experience has been that they finish up more uniformly
on the ensilage than on dry feed. These gains, as you can
see, if they are made as rapidly on the ensilage, hay, and
cottonseed meal as they can be made in any other way,
must be made much more economically, because you are
utilizing there the stalk and the leaves and the husks of
the corn plant, which, as I have said, counting the corn
worth 40 cents a bushel, and fifty bushels to the acre, is
worth two-fifths as much as the ears; so you are feeding
about $12 or $13 worth that you are wasting in the ordi-
nary way of feeding.

“Briefly, therefore, it is our experience that the feed-
ing of ensilage to cattle is valuable. It has long been recog-
nized as an indispensable in the dairy, and I could never
understand why, if it was good to put fat in the milk pail,
it would not be good to put fat on the back. There is es-
sentially no difference in the process that takes place in
the digestive tract.”

Speaking of the feeding value of corn when put in the
silo, Mr. Jones continues:

“The putting of the corn in the silo isgmot going to in-
crease the feeding value of it a particle, but it will render
the grains more digestible. The food in a large silo is
always so hot that you can’t hold your hand in it, through
the process of fermentation; and it therefore puts the
grain in condition so that it is more easily and completely
digested. But with a practical feeder of cattle that is not.
a very material thing. It does not matter if the cattle
do waste a great deal of the corn; he has the hogs to

SILAGE-FED BEEF CATTLE, ov

gather it up. So there is no increased value in the grain
by putting it in the silo, notwithstanding the fact that the
steer will digest a larger per cent. of it. The only place
that the benefit or gain comes in is through getting the
full value of the stalks. You do get every pound of that,
because the steer will eat it up completely. Our experi-
ence covering a period of eight years is that the figure
of 40 per cent. value in the stalks is not too high; in
fact, I think it is low. Practically, I believe, the feeding
value of corn by putting it in a silo is doubled. We have
been able to carry twice as many cattle as we could
before.

With three-fourths of the feeders in the principal cattle-
feeding sections of Ohio, shock corn only is fed and the
corn stands out in the field all winter and is hauled to
the feed lot as needed. Many shocks twist down and par-
tially or wholly rot, all are soaked with the rains and
beaten by the winds, get hard and woody, and are thus
more or less damaged. It is a matter of common know-
ledge “among feeders that after the first of March the
fodder in shock corn is of little value. Under favorable
conditions, fattening cattle will eat only the best portions
of the fodder, and the great bulk of it is wasted and thrown
out to keep them up out of the mud. With all these things
taken into consideration the gain in feed value to the
average cattle feeder’ who uses shock corn, by reason of
siloing the corn is, in our judgment, not less than fifty
per cent.”

Silage-fed Beef Cattle in the South.

After exhaustive experiments conducted at the Vir-
ginia Station, Prof. Andrew M. Soule concludes that the
results obtained illustrate the value of silage as a main-
tenance food for winter feeding, whether the animals are
to be slaughtered immediately or carried over and grazed
during the summer; also, that silage can be used most
advantageously by stockmen in the South and that its
utilization would confer many advantages which are not
now enjoyed and would add very much to the profits se-
cured from the winter feeding of beef animals, no matter
what disposition is to be made of them. He adds that the
character of the silage has much to do with its efficiency
as a food stuff, and the skill and intelligence displayed

38 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

in combining it with suitable companion foods exercise a
determining influence on the results obtained under a
given set of conditions. The vast importance of silage
as an economic factor in the production of beef in the
South is clearly demonstrated by the results set forth
in the test in question.

“The test of 1906-7 covered a period of 149 days, during
which time the average ration consumed was between 8
and 9 pounds of concentrates, from 35 to 39 pounds of
silage and about 2 pounds of dry stover or hay. It was
found advisable to feed the small amount of dry food indi-
cated to overcome the laxative tendencies of the silage,
but it was surprising to find what a very small amount of
dry food accomplished this end.

Waste of Roughness.

“As in previous tests, there was no silage wasted. The
percentage of roughness wasted in the form of stover
varied from 30.1 to 44.1 per cent. of the total amount fed.
With the hay this varied from 1.7 to 4.5 per cent. For some
reason some of the groups did not eat the hay nearly as
well as the others. These results would indicate, roughly
speaking, that from 3 to 4 per cent. of the hay ordinarily
fed would be wasted, and at least one-third of the stover.
These figures but emphasize again the great advantage
of silage, which owing to its ease of mastication, palata-
bility and pleasant aroma, when properly made, provides
a most inviting form of roughness for cattle.

Shrinking of Silage-fed Cattle.

“It has generally been said that cattle fed on silage as
the principal roughness would lose very materially in live
weight when shipped long distances. The cattle in this
test were shipped to Jersey City under the usual condi-
tions, the shrinkage per group varying from 197 to 213
pounds. There was little to choose between the groups
in the actual loss observed. The actual loss per individual
amounted to only 41.2 pounds, which is a comparatively

SHRINKING OF SILAGEFED CATTLE. 39

slight shrinkage with any lot of cattle shipped such a
long distance. In fact, practical shippers and handlers
in this State figure the average shrinkage to Jersey City
at from 60 to 76 pounds.

“There does not seem to be any justification, therefore,
for claiming that silage fed cattle will drift more than
cattle fed in other ways. When these cattle were sent
to Jersey City a representative of the Station who accom-
panied them found the buyers much prejudiced against
cattle from the South, stating that they did not kill out
well, and that the meat was of a dark color, and the bone
very hard. Though these cattle presented as good an ap-
pearance as many of the corn fed animals shipped from
the West and on sale at the same time, the buyers per-
sisted in discriminating against them because of the belief
that silage fed cattle would not kill out advantageously
.or make a first-class quality of beef. The cattle followed
through the slaughter pens, however, killed out as well
and better in many instances than the corn fed cattle
from the West, and the meat was of superior quality, the
fat and lean being better blended, and the color particu-
larly good. This lot of cattle dressed out 56.9 per cent.,
which is very creditable, considering that they were ordi-
nary grade, and fed but 150 days on a ration which has
been regarded as eminently unsatisfactory for feeding
beef cattle to a finish. These figures seem to amply justify
the claim that silage is a most satisfactory roughness for
beef cattle, and that animals fed on it will ship well, kill
well and produce meat of fine quality. And these conclu-
sions seem justified even in the face of competition with
western corn fed cattle.

“The efficiency of silage as a valuable food for Southern
stockmen when fed under the conditions prevailing in this
test needs no further vindication in the light of the facts
here set forth, and should do much to encourage the pro-
duction of beef in sections where the natural conditions
by reason of the insufficiency of grass are supposed to be
a barrier to this phase of animal industry.

40 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION.

, Silage Good for Stockers.

“Experiments were also conducted for two years with
the object of ascertaining which was the best rations to
feed to animals which it is desired to maintain as cheaply
as possible and still keep in a growing, vigorous condition
throughout the winter. It is naturally essential that the
rations be not fattening in nature or the animals will drift
much worse when put on grass, but it seems very desirable
than some grains should be secured rather than feed the
animals very considerable quantities of expensive foods
as is now often the case, and have them actually lose in
live weight rather than make gains during the winter sea-
son. It has generally been held that silage alone could
not make a satisfactory winter ration for stockers, and
so this point has been carefully investigated in the present
experiment. It has generally been held that cattle fed a
watery succulent ration in the winter would drift very
badly when placed on grass. This matter will be discussed
under the appropriate heading, as the results obtained
this year are particularly encouraging and in a matter of
economy favor silage quite markedly.

Summary Results of 1905-6 and 1906-7.

“In conclusion, a summary of the results of feeding 124
head of cattle is presented. Sixty-eight of these cattle
were fed to a finish in the stall, and fifty-six were carried
through as stockers and finished on grass. The average
of the results obtained with such a large number of cattle
should be fairly reliable. The figures for both years cor-
respond quite closely and show straight silage, or silage
and grain to be the most economical ration for use with
stockers in the winter. Moreover very much larger profits
can be secured from handling stockers with the price of
foodstuffs as charged in this report than can be anticipated
from stall feeding. This does not mean that stall feeding
can not be practiced in some sections with advantage

RESULTS OF 1905-6 AND 1906-7. 41

where grass is at a premium or unavailable. It is proper
to reiterate that while the cost of finishing in the stall
is practically twice as much per pound of gain as on grass
that the figures are presented in an unfavorable light to
the stall finished cattle. These figures also seem to justify
the fact that cattle fed on silage yield a superior quality
of beef, do not drift materially when shipped long dis-
tances to market, will kill out a good percentage of dressed
meat as compared with animals finished in the west on
corn. These results also shown that on a margin of $1.00
and without taking into consideration the value of the
manure or the cost of labor, stall feeding can be practiced
in many sections advantageously even when ‘the animals
are charged the highest market prices for the foodstuffs
utilized. On the other hand, cattle handled as stockers
will produce a considerable quantity of manure and
may be made to consume cheap forms of roughness
made on the farm, will make large profits on a margin
of 50 cents, and will even make fair profits on a margin
of 25 cents when the pasture is charged to them at the
rate of $1.25 per acre.

“These facts are such as to justify us in recommending
farmers generally to build silos and utilize silage in their
winter feeding operations for practically all classes of
cattle as we believe it can be fed to advantage to calves
and yearlings and cattle to be finished either in the stall
or on grass. The construction of a silo is not a costly op-
eration and it furnishes food for several months in the
cheapest and easiest form to handle and convey to live
stock. It is palatable, easy of digestion and assimilation
and is highly relished by all classes of live stock. It is
made from a crop that is more widely cultivated than any
other in America and solves the difficult problem of secur-
ing satisfactory substitutes for grass in sections where
the latter does not thrive well. The results taken all in all
justify the high value we have placed on silage, and it is
believed that its extensive utilization will result in revo-
lutionizing the animal industries of the South.”

CHAP PER? 1¥V-.

THE SILAGE SYSTEM HELPS MAINTAIN
SOTE “eis La iy

When the cattle feeders of this country once thoroughly
realize that they can profitably feed and raise stock by
means of the silage system, the great problem of maintain-
ing and increasing soil fertility will very largely solve
itself, and exhausted soils will recuperate of their own
accord.

This statement is based on certain fundamental facts,
which Farmer’s Bulletin No. 180 covers briefly as follows:

“When subjected to proper chemical tests or processes
every substance found on our globe, no matter whether it
belongs to the mineral, vegetable or animal kingdom,
may be reduced to single elements, of which we now
know over seventy. Many of these elements occur but
rarely, and others are present everywhere in abundance.
United mostly in comparatively simple combinations of
less than half a dozen each, these elements make up
rocks, soils, crops, animals, the atmosphere, water, ete.
The crops in their growth take some of the elements from
the soil in which they grow and others from the air.
Many elements are of no value to crops; a few, viz., 13
or 14, are, on the other hand, absolutely necessary to the
growth of plants; if one or more of these essential ele-
ments are lacking or present in insufficient quantities in
the soil, the plant cannot make a normal growth, no matter
in what quantities the others may occur, and the yields
obtained will be decreased as a result.”

The problem of the conservation of soil fertility is
therefore largely one of maintaining a readily available
supply of the essential plant elements in the soil. Most of
these elements occur in abundance in all soils, and there
are really only about three of them that the farmer need
seriously consider—nitrogen, phosphorous and _ potash.

EXPERIMENT COVERING THIRTY YEARS. 43

Every time that a crop is grown it robs the soil of a valu-
able portion of these elements. A ton of clover hay for
instance, takes from the soil $10.55 worth of fertilizer.
One hundred bushels of corn contains 148 pounds of nitro-
gen, 23 pounds of phosphorous and 71 pounds of potash,
worth at present market prices, 15, 12 and 6 cents per
pound, respectively, or $28.72. That much fertilizer is re-
moved with every 100-bushel corn crop. Other crops vary
in proportion. It is clear, therefore, that unless these ele-
ments are put back into the soil in some way, it will pro-
duce steadily declining crops and soon become exhausted
or mined out. How to put them back at the least expense
is our problem, and it is not alone for the benefit of future
generations; it has a vital bearing on our own crop yields.

At the Illinois Experiment Station, an experiment cov-
ering 30 years shows the startling effect of continuous crop
farming:

“At this station the yield on a typical prairie soil has
decreased under continuous corn raising from 70 bushels
to the acre to 27 bushels to the acre during this period,
while under a system of crop rotation and proper fertiliza-
tion the yield on a portion of the same field has been in-
creased during the same period to 96 bushels per acre.
These yields are not of a certain year, but averages of
three-year periods. The 96 bushels was obtained in a
three-year rotation in which corn was followed by oats in
which clover was sown. The next year clover alone, fol-
lowed by corn again. Stable manure with commercial
fertilizers was applied to the clover ground to be plowed
under for corn. The difference in the yields obtained be-
tween the rotation system where fertility was applied
and the straight corn cropping without fertility was
69 bushels per acre, or over two-and-a-half times that of
the system of continuous corn raising. A large proportion
of this difference in yield is clear profit, as the actual
expense of producing the 96 bushels to the acre was but
little more than in growing the 27. If the results of these
two yields were figured down to a nicety, and the value

44 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. :

of the land determined by the net income, it would be
found that the well farmed acres would be worth an enor-
mous price as compared with a gift of the land that pro-
duced the smaller yield.”

Barn-yard manure makes splendid fertilizer. It is per-
haps the most important for soil improvement. ‘The rea-
son for this is that it supplies nitrogen, phosphorous and
potash and the decaying organic matter needed. In feed-
ing oats, corn, wheat or other crops to animals, it is well
to know that about three-quarters of the phosphorous and
nitrogen and practically ail of the potash go through the
body and are returned in the solid and liquid manure. It
is evident that the value or richness of the manure de-
pends largely on the crops or part of the crops fed to the
animals. Leguminous crops are rich in nitrogen and phos-
phorous. Three and one-half tons of clover will contain
as much phosphorous and 40 pounds more nitrogen than
100 bushels of corn, i. e.: 23 pounds phosphorous and 188
pounds nitrogen. Any system of farming where grain is
sold and only stalks and straw retained for feed produces
manure weak in both nitrogen and phosphorous. These
elements are divided in the corn plant on the 100-bushel
basis, about as follows:

100 Ibs. nitrogen in grain and 48 Ibs. in the stalk.

17 lbs. phosphorous in grain and 6 lbs. in the stalk.
19 lbs. potassium in grain and 52 lbs. in the stalk.

In other words, two-thirds of the nitrogen, three-fourths
of the phosphorous and one-fourth of the potassium are
in the grain or seed and one-third of the nitrogen, one-
fourth of the phosphorus and three-fourths of the potas-
sium are in the stalk or straw. In siloing the corn plant
the full value of the fertilizer, in both stalk and grain, is
obtained in the manure.

The value of manure depends very largely on the way
in which it is handled. Over half the value is in the liquid
portion.

Experiments were conducted at the Ohio Experiment
Station with two lots of steers for six months to ascertain

a ae

on eas ne

nbungahdeng

& NITROGEN A VALUABLE ELEMENT. 45

the loss through seepage. An earth floor was used for one
lot and a cement floor for the other lot. Manure was
weighed and analyzed at the beginning and end of the
experiments and it was found that that produced on the
earth floor had lost enough fertilizer through seepage
during the experiments to have paid half the cost of ce-
menting the floor.

Losses through weathering and leaching are also com-
mon and should be avoided. Experiments at the same
station, during 12 years, show that fresh manure produced
increase in crop yields over yard manure amounting to
about one-fourth of the total value of the manure.

Nitrogen is manure’s most valuable element measured
by the cost of replacing it in commercial fertilizer. It
heats when lying in heaps and the strong ammonia odor,
due to the combination of the nitrogen in the manure and
the hydrogen of the moisture of the heap, indicates that
in time all the nitrogen will escape in the form of am-
monia gas. It is said that a ton of manure contains about
10 pounds of nitrogen, worth $1.50 or $2.00, so that this
loss of nitrogen is a serious one.

An average dairy cow of 1,000 pounds weight, properly
fed, will throw off $13.00 worth of nitrogen and potash
a year in her urine. A horse will throw off $18.00 worth.
Urine has a greater fertilizing value than manure, and
together they become ideal.

Every farmer can have his own manure factory by
keeping live stock. Naturally, the more live stock the
farm can keep, the more manure he will have for returning
to the soil.

The silo here comes in as a material aid, and with its
adoption it is possible to keep at least twice as much live
stock on a given area of land. Pasturing cattle is becom-
ing too expensive a method. High priced lands can be
used to better advantage by growing the feeding crop and
siloing it, without any waste, to be preserved and fed
fresh and green the year around. This method, as we have

46 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY.

said, will insure the maximum supply of splendid fertiliz-
ing material.

But the silo does more—it converts the farm into a
factory as it were—i. e., it will become a creator of a fin-
ished or more nearly finished product instead of being the
producer of a mere raw material. The effect will be to
raise proportionately the price of every commodity offered
for sale.

“On the ordinary farm which markets cereal crops
only a part is ever sufficiently fertile to return a profit.
The other acres must be put by to regain fertility and are
so much dead capital while they are made ready for a
further effort. Not so with a farm devoted to beef as the
market crop. Every acre of it may be seen producing
year after year in an increasing ratio, and occasional
crops such as potatoes—which while they need a rich
soil for their development yet draw but lightly on fertility
and are very useful as cleaning crops—will yield bumper
profits in cash.”

This statement applies with full force to what is an-
other very desirable attribute of ‘the silo and the silage
system—that it will so increase the live stock of the farm
that many of the products heretofore sold in a raw state,
and which contain, and therefore carry away most of the
fertility of the farm, may now be fed at home.

A few examples will best serve to illustrate this state-
ment:

The fertilizing constituents in a ton of clover hay, as
above stated, amount nominally to $10.55. This would
mean then that every time the farmer sells a ton of clover
hay, he sells $10.55 worth of fertility. So much fertility
has gone from the farm forever. It would most certainly
be wise to feed the clover at home as a balance to the sil-
age ration, thereby keeping the fertility on the farm, and
making at the same time some finished product, as cream,
milk, butter, cheese or beef, the sale of which will not
carry away from the farm any great amount of fertility.

EXAMPLE OF A FINISHED PRODUCT. 47

The sale of a ton of butter, which is perhaps the best
example of a finished or manufactured product from the
farm, contains but 27 cents’ worth of fertility. Why then
is if not the part of wisdom to feed the clover hay, which
contains as above noted, $10.55 in fertility; timothy hay,
$9.05; corn, $7.72, and oats, $10.27, and convert the whole
into a finished product—butter, which when sold takes
but 27 cents in fertility away with it?

CHAPTER V.
HOW: "PO lB Ei AC SILO.

Before taking up for consideration the more impor-
tant type of silo construction, it will be well to explain
briefly a few fundamental principles in regard to the
building of silos which are common to all types of silo
structures. When the farmer understands these principles
thoroughly, he will be able to avoid serious mistakes in
building his silo and will be less bound by specific direc-
tions, that may not always exactly suit his conditions, than
would otherwise be the case. What is stated in the fol-
lowing in a few words is in many cases the result of
dearly-bought experiences of pioneers in siloing; many
points may seem self-evident now, which were not under-
stood or appreciated until mistakes had been made and
a full knowledge had been accumulated as to the condi-
tions under which perfect silage can be secured.

General Requirements for Sile Structures.

1. The silo must be air-tight. We have seen that
the process of silage making is largely a series of fer-
mentation processes. Bacteria (small plants or germs,
which are found practically everywhere) pass into the
silo with the corn or the siloed fodder, and, after a short
time, begin to grow and multiply in it, favored by the
presence of air and an abundance of feed materials in
the fodder. The more air at the disposal of the bacteria,
the further the fermentation process will progress. If a
supply of air is admitted to the silo from the outside, the
bacteria will have a chance to continue to grow, and
more fodder will therefore be wasted. If a large amount
of air be admitted, as is usually the case with the top

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. 49

layer of silage, the fermentation process will be more far-
reaching than is usually the case in the lower layers of
the silo. Putrifactive bacteria will then continue the
work of the acid-bacteria, and the result will be rotten
silage. If no further supply of air is at hand, except what
remains in the interstices between the siloed fodder, the
bacteria will gradually die out, or only such forms will
survive as are able to grow in the absence of air.

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring
in siloed fodder has been put forward lately, viz., that
these are due not to bacteria, but to “intramolecular res-
piration” in the plant tissue, that is due to a natural dying-
off of the life substance of the plant cells. From a practical
point of view it does not make any difference whether the
one or the other explanation is correct. The facts are
with us, that if much air is admitted into the silo, through
cracks in the wall or through loose packing of the siloed
mass, considerable losses of food substances will take
place, first, because the processes of decomposition are
then allowed to go beyond the point necessary to bring
about the changes by which the silage differs from green
fodder, and, second, because the decomposition will cause
more or less of the fodder to spoil or mold.

2. The silo must be deep. Depth is essential in build-
ing a silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under consider-
able pressure, which will cause it to pack well and leave
as little air as possible in the interstices between the cut
fodder, thus reducing the losses of food materials to a
minimum. The early silos built in this country or abroad
were at fault in this respect; they were shallow struc-
tures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps, and were longer than they
were deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to
weight heavily the siloed fodder placed in these silos, in
order to avoid getting a large amount of moldy silage.
In our modern silos no weighting is necessary, since the
material placed in the silo is sufficiently heavy from the
ereat depth of it to largely exclude the air in the siloed
fodder and thus secure a good quality of silage. In case

50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on the top is
smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the
silage stored, hence a smaller loss occurs while the silage
is being fed out, and since the silage is more closely
packed, less air is admitted from the top. As the silage
packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow one, the
former kind of silos will hold more silage per cubic foot
than the latter; this is plainly seen from the figures given
in the table on page 538. Silos built during late years have
generally been over thirty feet deep, and many are forty
feet deep or more.

3. The silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls,
which will allow the mass to settle without forming
cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will
settle several feet during the first few days after filling.
Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from
settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus formed
will cause the surrounding silage to spoil.

4, The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong,
so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles. The
lateral (outward) pressure of cut fodder corn when set-
tling at the time of filling is considerable, and increases
with the depth of the silage at the rate of about eleven
pounds per square foot of depth. At a depth of 20 feet
there is, therefore, an outward pressure of 330 pounds, etc.
In case of a 16-foot square silo where the sill is 30 feet
below the top of the silage the side pressure on the lower
foot of the wall would be about 16x330, or 5280 pounds.

It is because _of this great pressure that it is so diffi-
cult to make large rectangular silos deep enough to be
economical, and it is because the walls of rectangular
silos always spring more or less under the pressure of
the silage that this seldom keeps as well in them as it does
in those whose walls cannot spring.

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues
to settle, the stronger outward pressure there spreads
the walls more than higher up and the result is the wall

SIZE OF THE SILO. 51

may be actually forced away from the silage so that air
may enter from above; and even if this does not occur
the pressure against the sides will be so much lessened
above by the greater spreading below that if the walls are
at all open, air will more readily enter through them.

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop
and as the wood stretches but little lengthwise there
can be but little spreading of such walls, and in the case
of stave silos the iron hoops prevent any spreading, and
it is on account of these facts that the round silo is
rapidly replacing every other form.

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral
pressure in the silo; cases are on record where a filled
silo has burned down to the ground with the silage re-
maining practically intact as a tall stack.

Other points of importance in silo building which do
not apply to all kinds of silos, will be considered when
we come to describe different kinds of silo structures.
Several questions present themselves at this point for
consideration viz., how large a silo shall be built, where
it is to be located, and what form of silo is preferable
under different conditions?

On the Size of Silo Required.

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is
how large it shall be made. We will suppose that a
farmer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he wishes
to feed silage during the winter season, say for 180 days.
We note at this point that silage will not be likely to
give best results with milch cows, or with any other class
of farm animals, when it furnishes the entire portion of
the dry matter of the feed ration. As a rule, it will not
be well to feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head.
If this quantity be fed daily, on an average for a season
of 180 days, we have for the twenty-five cows 180,000
pounds, or ninety tons. On account of the fermentation
processes taking place in the silo, we have seen that

52 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

there is an unavoidable loss of food materials during the
siloing period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent.; we
must, therefore, put more than the quantity given into
the silo. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one
hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the silo;
we figure, therefore, that we shall need about 4 tons of
silage per head for the winter, but, perhaps, 5 tons per -
head would be a safer calculation, and provide for some
increase in the size of the herd.

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less,
to toward fifty pounds per cubic foot, according to the
depth in the silo from which it is taken, and the amount
of moisture which it contains. We may take forty pounds
as an average weight of a cubic foot of corn silage. One
ton of silage will, accordingly, take up fifty cubic feet;
and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular one-hun-
dred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then
have a height of 30 feet. If a square silo is wanted, it
might be given dimensions 12x12x35 feet, or 138x13x30
feet; if a circular silo the following dimensions will be
about right: Diameter, 16 feet; height of silo, 26 feet, etc.
In the same way, a silo holding 200 tons of corn or clover
silage may be built of the dimensions 16x24x26 feet,
20x20x25 feet, or if round, diameter, 20 feet, height, 32
feet, etc.

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily
computed as in case of a rectangular silo, we give on fol-
lowing page a table which shows at a glance the approxi-
mate number of tons of silage that a round silo, of a
diameter from 10 to 26 feet, and 20 feet to 32 feet deep,
will hold.

CAPACITY OF ROUND SILO. 53

APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS, FOR
WELL-MATURED CORN SILAGE, IN TONS.

DEPTH OF INSIDE DIAMETER OF SILO, FEET.

SILO, FEET. | 49] 42 | 14/15 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 28 | 24 | 25 | 26
ne. eb 2¢ | 38 | 51] 59] 67| 85/ 1051 115| 127| 128] 151| 163] 177
CT ae eee 98 | 401 55| 63| 72| 91] 112] 123] 135] 148] 161| 175| 189
RE ces 30 | 43 | 59] 671 77| 97 120| 132] 145] 158| 172] 187] 202
Cr ee "***1 391 4g | 62] 72] 82! 103] 128] 141| 154] 169| 184| 199] 216
Bn aa: 34 | 49 | 66] 76| 87| 110| 135| 149| 164| 179] 195) 212| 229
Se ee 3¢| 52 701 81| 90) 116] 143) 158! 174] 190| 206] 224) 242
SA ect 33 | 55 | 74| 85! 971 123] 152| 168] 184] 201) 219 2371 257
Ss CA ae 40 | 58 | 78! 90| 103| 130| 160| 177| 194] 212) 231) 251) 271
6 eae pte 42 | 61 | 831 95| 108! 137| 1691 196] 204] 293] 243] 264| 285
Viet ee a 45 | 64 | 88| 100| 114| 144| 178] 196| 215] 235| 265| 278) 300
BGer ee a eciae. 47 | 68 | 93| 105| 119| 151! 187| 206| 226 247) 269) 292) 315
PRS ee 49 | 70 | 96] 110 125] 158/ 195| 215| 236] 258) 282] 305! 330
Co Deane ge Agila 51 | 73 | 101/ 115| 1311 166/ 205| 226 258] 271| 295) 320) 346

The following table which has been reproduced from
a trade publication shows at a glance how much silage
is required to keep eight to forty-five cows for six months,
feeding them 40 pounds a day, and the dimensions of cir-
cular silos as well as the area of land required to furnish
the different amount of feed given, computed at 15 tons per
acre. The amount of silage given in the table refers
to the number of tons in the silo after all shrinkage has
occurred; as the condition of the corn as placed in the
silo differs considerably, these figures may vary in differ-
ent years, or with different crops of corn, and should not
be interpreted too strictly; the manner of filling the silo
will also determine how much corn the silo will hold;
if the silo is filled with well-matured corn, and after this
has settled for a couple of days, filled up again, it will
hold at least ten per cent. more silage than when it is
filled rapidly and not refilled after settling. To the per-
son about to fill a silo for the first time, it is suggested
that it requires a “good crop” to yield 15 tons per acre,
and as a “little too much is about right,” be sure to plant
enough to fill the silo full, being guided by the condition
of soil, etc., under his control.

54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Dimensions. | Capacity in Tons. 15 aay es ee eo
. feed per day.
10 x 20 28 3 8
"12 x 20 40) 3 it
1 x 24 49 345 13
12 x 28 60 4 15
14 x 22 61 414 1k ¢
14 x 24 67 42% 19
14 x 28 83 933 22
14 x 30 93 6 23
16 x 24 87 6% 24
16 x 26 97 7 26
16 x 30 119 8 30
18 x 30 151 1014 oT
18 x 36 189 121% 45

On the Form of Silos.

The first kind of silos built, in this country or abroad,
were simply holes or pits in the ground, into which the
todder was dumped, and the pit was then covered with a
layer of dirt and, sometimes at least, weighted with
planks and stones. Then, when it was found that a large
proportion of the feed would spoil by this crude method,
separate silo structures were built, first of stone, and
later on, of wood, brick or cement. As previously stated,
the first separate silos built were rectangular, shallow
structures, with a door opening at one end. The silos of
the French pioneer Siloist, August Goffart, were about
16 feet high and 40x16 feet at the bottom. Another French
silo built about fifty years ago, was 206x211%4 feet and 15
feet deep, holding nearly 1,500 tons of silage. Silos of a
Similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were built in
this country in the early stages of silo building. Experi-
ence has taught siloists that it was necessary to weight
the fodder heavily in these silos, in order to avoid tlie
spoiling of large quantities of silage. In Goffart’s silos,
boards were thus placed on top of the siloed fodder, and

i OR a

ON THE FORM OF SILOS. 5d

the mass was weighted at the rate of one hundred pounds
per square foot.

It was found, however, after some time, that this
heavy weighing could be dispensed with by making the
silos deep, and gradually the deep silos came more and
more into use. These silos were first built in this country
in the latter part of the eighties; at the present time
none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four feet deep are
built, no matter of what form or material they are made,
and most silos built are at least twenty-four to thirty
feet deep, or more.

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become
more and more general. These silos have the advantage
over all other kinds in point of cost and convenience, as
well as quality of the silage obtained. We shall, later
on, have an occasion to refer to the relative cost of the
various forms of silos, and shall here only mention a few
points in favor of the round silos.

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square
ones, because it takes less lumber per cubic foot capacity,
and because lighter material may be used in their con-
struction. The sills and studdings here do no work ex-
cept to support the roof, since thé lining acts as a hoop
to. prevent spreading of the walls.

2. One of the essentials in silo building is that there
shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the
silage, as both the cost and the danger from losses
through spoiling are thereby reduced. The round silos
are superior to all other forms in regard to this point,
as will be readily seen from an example: A rectangular
silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number of square feet
of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24 feet, and of the
same depth, or as a circular silo 30 feet in diameter and
of the same depth; but these silos will hold about the
following quantities of silage: Rectanguiar silo, 246 tons;
square silo, 276 tons; circular silo, 338 tons. Less lum-
ber will, therefore, be needed to hold a certain quantity
of silage in case of square silos than in case of rectangular

56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

ones, and less for cylindrical silos than for. square ones,
the cylindrical form being, therefore, the most economical
of the three types.

3. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after
a few days, if left exposed to the air; hence the necessity
of considering the extent of surface exposure of silage in
the silo while it is being fed out. In a deep silo there is
less silage exposed to the surface layer in proportion to
the contents than in a shallow one. Experience has taught
us that if silage is fed down at a rate slower than 1.2 inches
daily, molding is liable to set in. About two inches of the
top layer of the silage should be fed out daily during cold
weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling; in
warm weather about three inches must be taken off daily;
if a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily, there will
be less waste of food materials; some farmers thus plan
to feed off 5 or 6 inches of silage daily. The form of the
silo must therefore be planned, according to the size of
the herd, with special reference to this point. Professor
King estimates that there should be a feeding surface in
the silo of about five square feet per cow in the herd; a
herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet of
feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should
be 14 feet; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter
of 16 feet will be required; for fifty cows, a diameter of
18 feet; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 2514 feet, etc.

He gives the following tables showing the number of
cows required to eat 1.2 to 2 inches of silage daily in silos
24 to 30 feet deep, assuming that they are fed 40 lbs. of
Silage daily for 180 or 240 days.

DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE SILO. 57

RELATION OF HORIZONTAL FEEDING AREA AND NUMBER
OF COWS KEPT, FOR SILOS 24 AND 30 FEET DEEP.

FEED FOR 240 DAYs. FEED FOR 180 Days.

Silo Silo Silo Silo

NO. |24 feet deep.||30 feet deep.||24 feet deep.\|30 feet deep.

as Rate Rat Rat Rate

cows. |1.2 im. daily.|/1.5 in. ae 1.6 in. eas 2. At, daily.

Tons. | {isin |] Tons. | age || Tons. | Wace || rons. | Tian:

Feet Feet. Feet Feet

10 48 12 48 10 36 10 36 9
15 2 15 te 12 54 13 54 11
20 96 te 96 14 72 15 72 12
25 120 19 120 16 90 16 90 14

OS a) emetsiem meet] 288 | 25 216 | 26 216 | 21
TO ese | aD ol sae 336 | 27 202 | 27 202 | 23
80...| 384] 34 384 | 29 288 | 29 288 | 25
90...| 4382 | 36 432 | 30 324 | 31 324 | 26
100...| 480] 38 480 | 32 360 | 33 360 | 28

In choosing diameters and depths for silos for par-
ticular herds, individual needs and conditions must decide
which is best. It may be said, in general, that for the
smaller sizes of silos the more shallow ones will be some-
what cheaper in construction and be more easily filled with
small powers. For large herds the deeper types are best
and cheapest.

One of the most common mistakes made in silo con-
struction is that of making it too large in diameter for the
amount of stock to be fed silage. Whenever silage heats
and molds badly on or below the feeding surface heavy

58 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

loss in feeding value is being sustained, and in such cases
the herd should be increased so that the losses may be
prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.)

Location of the Silo.

The location of the silo is a matter of great impor-
tance, which has to be decided upon at the start. The feed-
ing of the silage is an every-day job during the whole
winter and spring, and twice a day at that. Other things
being equal, the nearest available place is therefore the
best. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn
as possible. The condition of the ground must be con-
sidered. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best
plan to follow is to build the silo there, in connection with
the barn, going four feet to six feet below the surface, and
providing for‘door opening directly into the barn. The bot-
tom of the silo should be on or below the level where the
cattle stand, and, if practicable, the silage should be moved
out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While
it is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be
so located, in case the silage is used for milk production,
that silage odors do not penetrate the whole stable, at
milking or other times. Milk is very sensitive to odors,
and unless care is taken to feed silage after milking, and
to have pure air, free from silage odor, in the stables at
the time of milking, there will be a silage flavor to the
milk. This will not be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed
by most people, and some people cannot notice it at all;
but when a person is suspicious, he can generally discover
it. So far as is known this odor is not discernable in either
butter or cheese made from silage-flavored milk, nor does
it seem to affect the keeping qualities of the milk in any
way.

ats
ae

=" Different Types of Silo Structures.

Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick or cement, or
partly of one and partly of another of these materials.
Wooden silos may be built of several layers of thin boards

THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SILOS. 59

nailed to uprights, or of single planks (staves), or may be
plastered inside. The material used will largely be de-
termined by local conditions; where lumber is cheap, and
stone high, wooden silos will generally be built; where the
opposite is true, stone or brick silos will have the advan-
tage in point of cheapness, while concrete silos are likely
to be preferred where great permanency is desired or
where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, and lumber
or stone are hard to get at a reasonable cost. So far as
the quality of the silage made in any of these kinds of
silos is concerned, there is no difference when the silos
are properly built. The longevity of stone and concrete
silos is usually greater than that of wooden silos, since
the latter are more easily attacked by the silage juices
and are apt to decay in places after a number of years,
unless special precautions are taken to preserve them. A
well-built and well-cared-for wooden silo should, however,
last almost indefinitely.

As regards the form of-the silo, it may be built in
rectangular form, square, octagon or round. We have
already seen that the most economical of these is ordi-
narily the round form, both because in such silos there is
less wall space per cubic unit of capacity, and in case of
wooden round silos, lighter material can be used in their
construction. The only place where silos of square or
rectangular form are built now is inside of barns,
where they fit in better than a round structure. We shall
later on give directions for building silos inside of a barn,
but shall now go over to a discussion of the various forms
of round silos that are apt to be met with. More round
wooden silos have been built during late years in this
country than of all other kinds of silos combined, and this
type of silo, either built of uprights lined inside and out-
side with two layers of half-inch boards, or of one thick-
ness of staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the
future; hence we shall give full information as to their
building, and shall then briefly speak of the other forms
mentioned which may be considered preferable in ex-
eeptional cases.

60 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Round Wooden Silos.

Round wooden silos were first described, and their use
advocated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wisconsin
Station in July, 1891, and hence have come to be known
as “Wisconsin Silos.” The first detailed and illustrated
description of this type of silos was published in this bulle-
tin; since that time it has been described in several bulle-
tins and reports issued by the station mentioned, and in
numerous publications from other experiment stations.
All writers who have discussed the question of silo con-
struction agree that this form of silos is admirable, and
the best that can be put up where a durable, first-class silo
of a moderate cost is wanted. This type, and the one to be
described in the following, the stave silo, are practically
the only kind of wooden silos that have been built in this
' country during late years, except where unusual conditions
have prevailed, that would make some other kind of silo
structure preferable.

The following description of the Wisconsin silo is from
the pen of Prof. King, the originator of this type of silos,
as published in Bulletin No. 83 of the Wisconsin Station
(dated May, 1900).

The Foundation—There should be a good, substantial
masonry foundation for all forms of wood silos, and the ~
woodwork should everywhere be at least 12 inches above
the earth, to prevent decay from dampness. There are
few conditions where it will not be desirable to have the
bottom of the silo 3 feet or more below the feeding floor
of the stable, and this will require not less than 4 to 6
feet of stone, brick, or concrete wall. For a silo 30 feet
deep the foundation wall of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet
thick.

The inside of the foundation wall may be made flush
with the woodwork above, or nearly so, as represented in
Fig. 1, or the building may stand in the ordinary way, flush
with the outside of the stone wall, as represented in Fig.
2. In both cases the wall should be finished sloping as
shown in the drawings.

ILLUSTRATION. 61

Be OY rat PG ee ol ee
10 FEET.

Fig. 1. Showing method of placing all-wood silos on stone
foundations, with pit dug out to increase depth.

62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

So far as the keeping of the silage is concerned it
makes little difference which of these types of construc-
tion is adopted. The outward pressure on the silo wall
is greater where the wall juts into the silo, but the wall
is better protected against the weather. Where the project-
ing wall is outside, the silo has a greater capacity, but
there is a strong tendency for the wall to crack and allow
rain to penetrate it. Where this plan is followed it is
important to finish the sloping surface with cement, or to
shingle it, to keep out the water.

Bottom of the Silo.—After the silo has been completed
the ground forming the bottom should be thoroughly
tamped so as to be solid, and then covered with two or
three inches of good concrete made of 1 of cement to 3
or 4 of sand or gravel. The amount of silage which will
spoil on a hard clay floor will not be large, but enough to
pay a good interest on the money invested in the cement
floor. If the bottom of the silo is in dry sand or gravel
the cement bottom is imperative to shut out the soil air.

Tying the Top of the Stone Wall.—In case the wood
portion of the silo rises 24 or more feet above the stone
work, and the diameter is more than 18 feet, it will be
prudent to stay the top of the wall in some way.

If the woodwork rises from the outer edge of the wall,
then building the wall up with cement so as to cover the
sill and lining as represented in Figs. 3 and 4 will give
the needed strength, because the woodwork will act as a
hoop; but if the silo stands at the inner face of the wall,
it will be set to lay pieces of iron rod in the wall near the
top to act as a hoop.

Where the stone portion of the silo is high enough to
need a door, it is best to leave enough wall between the
top and the sill to allow a tie rod of iron to be bedded in
this portion. So, too, the lower door in the woodwork of the
silo should have a full foot in width below it of lining and
siding uncut to act as a hoop, where the pressure is
strongest.

ILLUSTRATION. 63

Fig. 2. Showing an all-wood round silo on stone foundation.
fet gk ae a method of sawing boards for the conical
roof.

64 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

5 Yi Ni
VLE
' M4
Ty Nt
i WW
t i Mi
: y
a v4
RN
a Y
4 Q%

2\ N

N Q

: N

Fig. 3. Showing method of construction for ventilating the
spaces between the studding in all-wood and lathed-and-
plastered silos.

ee eee

THE STONE FOUNDATION. 65

Forming the Sill.—The sill in the all-wood silo may
be made of a single 2x4 cut in 2-foot lengths, with the
ends beveled so that they may be toe-nailed together to
form circle (Fig. 5).

Setting the Studding—The studding of the all-wood
round silo need not be larger than 2x4 unless the diam-

——

[Sea ee, Eee >
RIAQARQQE SSR AAAS A a *qeERearx ww
Raw

OIL LILI LLL LLL LLL LLL ZED
SSS OSH HA HMHNMOoo ow

We CEMENT.
p= oe

Fig. 4. Showing construction of all-wood silo, and connece-
tion with wall, flush with outside.
5

66 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

eter is to exceed 30 feet, but they should be set as close
together as one foot from center to center, as represented
in Fig. 6. This number of studs is not required for strength
but they are needed in order to bring the two layers
of lining very close together, so as to press the paper
closely and prevent air from entering where the paper laps.

Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed, short
lengths may be lapped one foot and simply spiked together
before they are set in place on the wall. This will be
cheaper than to pay the higher price for long lengths. All
studding should be given. the exact length desired before
putting them in place.

Be. Showing method of making the sill of round wood
silos.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 67 -

To stay the studding a post should be set in the
ground in the center of the silo long enough to reach about
five feet above the sill, and to this stays may be nailed to
hold in place the alternate studs until the lower 5 feet of
outside sheeting has been put on. The studs should be
set first at the angles formed in the sill and carefully
stayed and plumbed on the side toward the center. When
a number of these have been set they should be tied
together by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around
the outside as high up as a man can reach, taking! care
to plumb each stud on the side before nailing. When the

Fig. 6. Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick-
lined or lathed-and-plastered silo.

68 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

alternate studs have beeen set in this way the balance may
be placed and toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the
rib, first plumbing them sideways and toward the center.
Setting Studding for Doors.—On the side of the silo
where the doors are to be placed the studding should be

L¥2
a

Fig. 7. Showing the construction of the door for the all-
wood silo.

othe vb

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 69

set double and the distance apart to give the desired width.
A stud should be set between the two door studs as though
no door were to be there, and the doors cut out at the
places desired afterwards. The construction of the door
is represented in Fig. 7.

The doors are usually made about 2 feet wide and
from 2% to 3 feet high, and placed one above the other
‘at suitable distances apart. It has been suggested that to
insure security a strip of tar paper should be placed the
entire length of the silo on the inside over the doors.

Silo Sheeting and Siding.—The character of the siding
and sheeting will vary considerably according to condi-
tions, and the size of the silo.

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet in-
side and not much attention need be paid to frost, a single
layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside of the
thick edge deep enough to receive the thin edge of the
board below, will be all that is absolutely necessary on
the outside for strength and protection against weather.
This statement is made on the supposition that the lining
is made of two layers of fencing split in two, the three
layers constituting the hoops.

If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter, there
should be a layer of half-inch sheeting outside, under the
siding.

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken
to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets
wet before painting.

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carry-
ing the work upward until staging is needed, following this
at once with the siding. Two 8-penny nails should be used
in each board in every stud, and to prevent the walls from
getting “out of round” the succeeding course of boards
should begin on the next stud, thus making the ends of
the boards break joints.

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be
tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each
one from side to side; the siding itself will bring them

70 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care
is taken to start new courses as described above.

Forming the Plate.—When the last staging is up the
plate should be formed by spiking 2x4’s cut in two-foot
lengths, in the manner of sill, and as represented in Fig.
8, down upon the tops of the studs, using two courses,
making the second break joints with the first.

The Lining of the Wooden Silo.—There are several
ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round silo,
but which ever method is adopted it must be kept in mind
that there are two very important ends to be secured with

ee.
Le
VA

Fig. 8. Showing construction of contcal roof of round silo,
where rafters are not used: The outer circle is the lower
edge of the roof.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 71

a certainty. These are (1) a lining which shall be and
remain strictly air-tight, (2) a lining which will be reason-
ably permanent.

All Wood Lining of 4-inch Flooring.—If one is willing
to permit a loss of 10 to 12 per cent. of the silage by heat-
ing, then a lining of tongued and grooved ordinary 4-inch
white pine flooring may be made in the manner repre-
sented in Fig. 9, where the flooring runs up and down.
When this lumber is put on in the seasoned condition a
single layer would make tighter walls than can be secured
with the stave silo where the staves are neither beveled
nor tongued and grooved.

In the silos smaller than 18 feet inside diameter the
two layers of boards outside will give the needed strength,
but when the silo is larger than this and deep, there would
be needed a layer of the split fencing on the inside for
strength; and if in addition to this there is added a layer
of 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper a lining of very superior
quality would be thus secured.

Lining of Half-inch Boards and Paper.—Where paper
is used to make the joints between boards air-tight, as
represented in Fig. 4, it is extremely important that a
quality which will not decay, and which is both acid and
water-proof be used. A paper which is not acid and water-
proof will disintegrate at the joints in a very short
time, and thus leave the lining very defective.

The best paper for silo purposes with which we are
acquainted is a 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured
by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It
is thick, strong, and acid and water-proof. A silo lining
with two thicknesses of good fencing have only small
knots, and these thoroughly sound and not black, will
make an excellent lining. Great care should be taken to
have the two layers of boards break joints at their cen-
ters, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches.

The great danger with this type of lining will be that
the boards may not press the two layers of paper together
close enough but that some air may rise between the two

72 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

sheets where they overlap, and thus gain access to the
silage. It would be an excellent precaution to take to
tack down closely with small carpet tacks the edges of the
paper where they overlap, and if this is done a lap of 4
inches will be sufficient.

Fig. 9. Showing the construction of the all-wood round silo
where the lining is made of ordinary four-inch flooring
running up and down, and nailed to girts cut in between the
studding every four feet.

THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 73

The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny
nails, two in each board and stud, and the second or inner
layer with 10-penny nails, the fundamental object being to
draw the two layers of boards as closely together as
possible.

Such a lining as this’ will be very durable because
the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner
layer of half-inch boards, and this will be kept wet by
the paper and silage until empty, and then the small
thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rotting
to set in.

A still more substantial lining of the same type may
be secured by using two layers of paper between three
layers of boards, as represented in Fig. 4, and if the cli-
mate is not extremely severe, or if the silo is only to be
fed from in the summer, it would be better to do away
with the layer of sheeting and paper outside, putting on
the inside, thus securing two layers of .paper and three
layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only
2 inches of lumber.

The Silo Roof.

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several
ways, but the simplest type of construction and the one
requiring the least amount of material is that represented
in Figs. 7 and 8, and which is the cone.

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter
no rafters need be used; and only a single circle like that
in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in
sections in the form of a circle and two layers spiked
together, breaking joints.

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the
inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing,
the boards having been sawed diagonally as represented
at H, Fig. 2, making the wide and narrow ends the same
relative widths as the circumferences of the outer edge
of the roof and of the inner circle.

74 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet
it will be necessary to use two or three hoops according
to diameter. When the diameter is greater than 25 feet
it will usually be best to use rafters and headers cut in
for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards to, which
are cut as represented at H, Fig. 2.

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles,
splitting those wider. than 8 inches. By laying the butts
of the shingles 4% to % of an inch apart it is not neces-
sary to taper any of the shingles except a few courses
near the peak of the roof.

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the
right exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a
strip of wood as a radius which works on a center set
at the peak of the roof and provided with a nail or pencil
to make a mark on the shingle where the butts of the
next course are to come. The radius may be bored with
a series of holes the right distance apart to slip over the
center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and reset as de-
sired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling
hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place.

Ventilation of the Silo.

Every silo which has a roof should be provided with
ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry,
and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls and
lining from rotting. One of the most serious mistakes in
the early construction of wood silos was the making of the
walls with dead-air spaces, which, on account of damp-
ness from the silage, led to rapid “dry-rot” of the lining.

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is im-
portant to provide ample ventilation for the spaces be-
tween the studs, as well as for the roof and the inside
of the silo, and a good method of doing this is represented
in Fig. 3, where the lower portion represents the sill and
the upper the plate of the silo. Between each pair of
studs where needed a 114-inch auger hole to admit air is

PAINTING THE SILO LINING. 5

bored through the siding and sheeting and covered with
a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the
top of the silo on the inside, the lining is only covered to
within two inches of the plate and this space is covered
with wire netting to prevent silage from being thrown
over when filling. This arrangement permits dry air from
outside to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs
and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the lining
and studding dry and at the same time drying the under
side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as
exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4’s
cut in 2-foot lengths there will be space enough left be-
tween the curved edge of the siding and sheeting and the
sill for air to enter so that no holes need be bored as de-
scribed above and represented in Fig. 3. The openings
at the plate should always be provided and the silo should
have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This ventilator
may take the form of a cupola to serve for an ornament
as well, or it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to
24 inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the
peak of the roof.

Painting the Silo Lining.

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it’ will
not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage
juices. This being true, when the lining is again exposed
when feeding the silage out, the paint greatly retards the
drying of the wood work and the result is decay sets in,
favored by prolonged dampness. For this reason it is
best to leave a wood lining naked or to use some antiseptic
which does not form a water-proof coat.

The cost of such a silo as that described in the fore-
eoing pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12
cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lining
consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing, with a
3-ply Giant P. & B. paper between, and with one layer of
split fencing outside, covered with rabbetted house siding.

76 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

[f built inside of the barn, without a roof and not painted,
the cost would be reduced 8 cents per square foot, or more.
Silos of this type, 30 feet deep, built outside, provided
with a roof and including 6 feet of foundation are stated
to cost as follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capac-
ity), $183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00;
21 feet diameter (206 tons capacity), $298.00; and 25 feet
diameter (300 tons capacity), $358.00.

Complete specifications and building plans for a 300-
ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages, are
given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage. The dimensions of
this silo are: Diameter, 26 feet; height, 30 feet.

According to our present knowledge this form of silo
is most likely the best that can be built; it is a somewhat
complicated structure, calls for more time and skill for
its construction, and costs more than other kinds of
wooden circular silos especially more than the stave silo
soon to be described; but once built needs but little at-
tention and it is durable and economical, being prac-
tically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed
fodder are reduced to a minimum.

Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo.

Several modifications of the Wisconsin Silo have been
proposed and have given good satisfaction; one is de-
scribed by Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bul-
letin No. 91, as follows:

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way
up there are three layers of sheeting against the studs
with tarred paper between. The upper half of the studs

has but two layers of sheeting. The sheeting was made

by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks and sawing to make
four boards. The silo rests on a stone wall 18 inches deep
and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches
inside diameter, and holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive
but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of this

4 sda ahi ae ane

PLASTERED ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 17

structure is as follows: As the work was all done by the
regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given
at estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00; 5
rolls of paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40;
labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was
so pleased with the service this one had rendered since
its construction, that he built another like it during the
summer of 1902. This silo is connected by a covered pas-
sage and chute with the feeding floor of the cattle barn.

The construction of this type of silo calls for as much
care in putting on sheeting, making doors and keeping
out the air at these places and at the foundation, as it
required with the more expensive forms previously de-
scribed. The need for outer siding will depend in a large
measure on circumstances. The farmer building the silo
(living in Central Indiana) has had no trouble with his
silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would
naturally be more necessary than in the southern part of
this state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary,
although it does materially add to the attractiveness of
the silo.

Plastered Round Wooden Silos.

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor
among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred
by many for either the original or the modified Wisconsin
silo, on account of their ease of construction and their
durability. In the experience of H. B. Gurler, a well known
Illinois dairyman, who has built several silos on his farm
in the course of the last dozen years, the walls of plastered
silos keep perfectly and there is no waste from moldy
silage along the wall; neither is there any difficulty about
cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a
gocd quality of cement is used. Gurler described the con-
struction of his plastered silo in a recent number of
Breeder’s Gazette, accompanying his description with build-
ing plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter
changed and improved in some points of minor impor-

78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

tance, and give below a brief description of the method of
building silos of this type. (See Figs. 914 and 10.)

The foundation may be made of stone, brick or ce-
ment, and is carried to the proper distance above ground.
Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled
at the ends so as to be toe-nailed together to form a
circle of the same diameter as the interior diameter of
the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded in asphalt
or cemented mortar, and on this the studding is erected,
using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside
sheeting was secured by having 6-inch fencing re-sawed,
making the material a little less than %-inch thick. On
this was nailed laths made from the same material, the

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eel Tgie of : Thea
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fevolt ae Seciion
flevelion Sele 4g =-/-0'-

Fig. 91. Elevation and section of plastered round wooden
silo.

PLASTERED ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 79

laths being made with beveled edges so that when nailed
onto the sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheet-
ing is put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the
laths, to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until
it is broken. The patent grooved lath might be used,
but they cannect be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better
than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting
or metal lath of one form or another, such as is now gen-
erally used in outside plastering of houses, nailed on strips
of 1x2’s which are placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto
the studding through the sheeting. Metal lath will not
take up moisture from the silage juices, and thus expand
and possibly cause the plaster to crack, as would be likely
to occur in case of ‘wooden laths. For outside sheeting
Concrete Jundblicn

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Fig. 10. Foundation plan and section of plastered round
wooden silo.

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BRICK LINED SILOS. 81

similar material as that used for inside sheeting may be
used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no
outside sheeting would be required, although it would add
greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being certain that the
inside sheeting, laths and cement offered sufficient resist-
ance to the outward pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put
on wooden. hoops outside of the studding, of the same
material as for the inside sheeting, putting it on double
thickness and breaking joints. The silo described, which
would hold 250-300 tons, cost $300, without a roof. Mr.
Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and
estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given
a wash of cement every three years and if any cracks that
may start be filled before the silo is filled again.

Brick Lined Silos.

As an illustration of silos of this type we give below
a description of the silo built in connection with the
Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experiment Station; the ac-
companying figures, 11 and 12, will show the exterior ap-
pearance of the barn and silo, and a plan of the eastern
half of the first floor of this barn.

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter
and 33 feet deep. It is a framed structure lined inside and
outside with brick. On 2x6-inch uprights, two wrappings
of %-inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put, breaking joints,
with no paper between. Brick is laid tight against this
lining, and on the brick surface is a heavy coating of
Portland cement (1 part cement, 1 part sand). On the
outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small
open space between (about % inch). The silo is filled
from the third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being
hauled directly onto this floor over the trestle shown to
the right in Fig. 11, and there run through the feed cut-
ter. When the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls’
through a box chute to the main floor where it is received
into a truck (Fig. 30) in which it is conveyed to the
mangers of the animals. :

HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

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THE STAVE SILO. 83

io.)

An illustration and description of the original round
silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station
in 1891 are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage, where
descriptions and illustrations of a number of other first-
class round wooden silos will also be found, like those
constructed at the Experiment Stations in New Jersey,
Missouri, and South Dakota.

Stave Silos.

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo

buildings, and partly for this reason, partly on account of
iis cheapness of construction, more silos of this kind have
been built during the past few years than any other silo
type.
-. Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been
favorably mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics,
as well as by experiment station men. In the recent bulle-
tin from Cornell Experiment Station, we find the stave
silo spoken of as “the most practical and successful silo
which can be constructed,’ and the Ottawa Experiment
Station is on record for the following statement in regard
to the stave silo: “From extensive observation and study
of silos and silo construction, and from experience here
with a number of different silos, it would appear that the
stave silo is the form of cheap silos that for various
reasons is most worthy of recommendation. It combines
simplicity and cheapness of construction with the requisite
conditions to preserve the silage in the very best condi-
tions for feeding.”

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large
railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory
silos should be built as well as a No. 1 water tank. The
first stave silos were built in this country in the begin-
ning of the nineties; they soon found some enthusiastic
friends, while most people, including nearly all writers
and lecturers on silo construction, were inclined to be
skeptical as to their practicability. It was objected that

—_—

84 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when,
the silo was filled with green fodder; that they would
shrink after having been left empty during the summer
months, so that the silo would fall to pieces, or at least
so that it could not again be made air-tight; and finally,
that the silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding
value thereby greatly lowered. In addition to this, it was
claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as much
as a first class ordinary all-wood silo of the same capacity,
which would not have the objectionable features of the
former.

In spite of these objections the stave silo has, how-
ever, gradually gained ground, until of late years it has
quite generally been adopted in preference to other kinds
of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central states.
This being a fact, it follows that the objections previously
made to the stave silos, cannot be valid, that the staves
do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink so as to
cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As re-
gards the danger from freezing of the silage, the criticisms
of the stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave
silos will be likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of
the Northern states or Canada; but, according to the testi-
mony of farmers who have had experience with frozen
silage, this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The
freezing does not injure the feeding value of the silage, or
its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is as
good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish.

Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous.

The main reasons why stave silos have been preferred
by the majority of farmers during late years are that they
can be put up easily, quickly and cheaply, and the expense
for a small silo of this kind is comparatively small. Many
a farmer has built a stave silo who could not afford to build
a high-priced silo, and others have preferred to build two
small silos for one large one, or a small one in addition
to an old, larger one that they may already have. Manu-

% © hy
anes alain telly Adie nee oie litt paladin anh apes"

THE STAVE SILO. 85

facturing firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of
stave-silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos
through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made
a special business of the building of stave silos, and havy-
ing had several years’ experience as to the requirements
and precautions to be observed in building such silos, these
firms furnish silos complete with all necessary fixtures,
that are greatly superior to any which a farmer would be
apt to build according to more or less incomplete direc-
tions.

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufactur-
ing firms will generally be more expensive than such a
farmer can build himself, because they are built better.
It does not pay to build a poor silo, however, except to
bridge over an emergency. Poor, cheap silos are a con-
stant source of annoyance, expense and trouble, whether
built square, rectangular or round. The cheap silos de-
scribed in other places of this book have not been given
for the purpose of encouraging the building of such silos,
but rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build
a permanent good silo, he is not necessarily barred from
the advantages of having silage for his stock, since a tem-
porary silo may be built at a small cash outlay.

We can therefore consistently recommend that parties
intending to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers
who have made silo construction a special business. These
firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with complete
directions for putting up the silos, and, if desired, also
skilled help to superintend their building. Perhaps a
large majority of the farmers of the country cannot, how-
ever, patronize manufacturers of stave silos because the
expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be pro-
hibitory. For the convenience of such parties and others
who may prefer to build their own stave silos, directions
for their construction are given in the following: The
specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, printed below, which
are taken from Woll’s Book on Silage, were furnished by
Claude & Starck, Architects, Madison, Wisconsin.

86 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Specifications for 100-ton Silo.
MASONRY.

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to
a depth of six inches; excavate for foundation wail to a
depth of 16 inches; in this trench build a wall 18 inches
wide and 20 inches high, of fieid stone laid in-rich lime
mortar. Level off top and plaster inside, outside and on
top with cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part sand.
Fill inside area with four inches of good gravel, thoroughly
tamped down; after the wood work is in place coat this
with one inch of cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part
clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished
well to the center and brought up at least 2 inches all
around inside and outside walls.

CARPENTRY.

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking
joints, and made from clear, straight-grained cypress, 2x6
inches, beveled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet,
mill-sized to the exact dimensions and dressed on all sides.
There shall be three doors in the fifth, eighth and tenth
spaces between the hoops, made by cutting out from staves
28 inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the
inside. (See Fig. 13.) The staves shall then be fastened
together with two 2x4-inch battens cut on inside to an
8-ft. radius and bolted to each stave with two 44-inch
diameter carriage bolts with round head sunk on inside
and nut on outside. The staves between the doors shali
be fastened together, top and bottom, with 34-inch diam-
eter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of staves
shall be squared and toe-nailed together.

Bottom Plates.—Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4-
inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10
inches radius outside. They shall be bedded in cement
mortar and the staves shall then be set on the foundation
and well spiked to these plates.

DOOR OF STAVE SILO. 87

Hoops.—Hoops shall be made from two pieces of
5z-inch diameter round iron with upset ends, threaded
8 inches, with nut and washer at each end; as a support
for the hoops a piece of 4x6 shall be substituted for
a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in it and the
ends of hoops passed through these holes and tightened
against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The hoops shall be
twelve in number starting at the bottom 6 inches apart
and increasing in distance 6 inches between each hoop

“46.
y

WOR

S, 4 s@ <)
PRR RAI XS ; WSS EK SSS
OOOT IS Kae 4,

Fig.43. Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed
out, and side view in place. The opening is largest on
the inside of silo. (Clinton.)

88 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is reached; from this point
up this distance shall be preserved as near as possible to
the top.

Roof.—Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch
clear siding lapping joints, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters, 2-feet
centers 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch plates. These
plates to be supported on two 4x4-inch pieces resting on
top of hoops. Three 1x4-inch collar beams shall be spiked

Fig. 14. A cheap roof of a stave silo. (Clinton.)

to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. See
Fig. 11.) Fig. 14 shows another simple construction of
roof on a stave silo.

PAINTING.

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be
painted two coats of good mineral paint; the entire inside
surface of the staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated
with hot coal tar.

MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 89

Note.—Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked
tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo examined
and cracks tightly caulked.

The method of construction specified in the preceding
may of course be modified in many particulars, according
to the conditions present in each case, cost of different
kinds of lumber, maximum amount of money to be ex-
pended on silo, etc.

The following directions for the construction of stave
silos are taken from two bulletins on this subject, published
by the Cornell and Ottawa Experiment Stations. For a
silo 20 feet in diameter, a circular trench 18 inches to two
feet wide and with an outer diameter of 22 feet is dug
about 2 feet deep, or below the frost line. The surface
soil over the whole included area, and for 2 feet outside, is
removed to a depth of 10 or 12 inches at the same time.
The trench is then filled to the level of the interior with
stone, well pounded down, the surface stone being broken
quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of sand
thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in and left
for a few days. This is followed by a coat of good cement
(1 part cement to 3 sand), care being taken when finished
to have the surface level and smooth.

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 15, which shows
a cross-section of one method of construction.

The posts (a, a, a, a) Should be of 6x6 material and
run the entire length of the silo. These should be first
set up vertically and stayed securely in place.

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2 by
4 scantling in the positions shown in Fig. 15, as b, b, b, b.
Boards nailed from these 2 by 4 scantling and to the
6 by 6 posts will form a rigid framework, across which
the planks for the scaffold platform may be laid. Be-
fore the scaffolding is all in place the staves should be
stood up within the inclosure; otherwise difficulty will be
experienced in getting them into position.

It is probable that no better material can be obtained
for the staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is

90 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

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Fig. 15. Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines
shew how scaffolding may be put up.

so expensive in the North, as to preclude its use in most
cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock, white pine, and
yellow pine, are usually the most available. At the pres-
ent time hemlock is one of the cheapest satisfactory
materials which can be purchased, and it is probably as
good as any of the cheaper materials. It should be sound
and free from loose knots.

If the silo is to have a diaméter of 12 feet or less, the
staves should be made of either 2 by 4 material, unbeveled
on the edges and neither tongued nor grooved, or of
2 by 6 material beveled slightly on the edges to make the
staves conform to the circular shape of the silo. If the

STAVES FOR SETTING UP SILO. oe

silo is to have a diameter of more than 12 feet, the staves
should be of 2 by 6 material, and neither beveled nor
- tongued and grooved on the edges. The staves should be
surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be pre-
sented which will facilitate the settling of the silage. The
first stave set up should be made plumb, and should be
toe-nailed at the top to one of the posts originally set.

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a ti Ut

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We Wn qi

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UID

ily

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Fig. 16. Shows how barrel staves may be used in setting

up a silo. They should be removed before the silo is filled.
Immediately a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed
at the top to the preceding stave set. It has been found
that the work of setting up and preserving the circular
outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel
staves (see Fig. 16.) For a silo 12 feet in diameter the
curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted;
for a 16-foot silo the flour barrel stave is best, and for a
silo 20 feet or more in diameter the stave of the cement

92 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

barrel is best. If when the silo staves are put in place
they are toe-nailed securely to the ones previously set:
if they are fastened firmly to the permanent upright posts
(Fig. 15, a, a, a, a); if the barrel staves are used as
directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand
until the hoops are put in place. However, if it becomes
necessary for any reason to delay for any considerable
time the putting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed
across the top of the silo.

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the
full length desired, a joint or splice must be made.

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be
used. A part of these should be used their full length and
part should be sawed through the middle, thus making
staves of 20 and 10 feet length. In setting them up the
ends which meet at the splice should be squared and toe-
nailed securely together. They should alternate so that

first a long stave is at the bottom then a short one, thus”

breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base.

For the hoops, %-inch round iron or steel rods are
recommended, although cheaper substitutes have been
found satisfactory. Each hoop should be in three sections
for a silo 12 feet in diameter, in four sections for a silo
16 feet in diameter. If the method of construction shown
in Fig. 15 is followed, the hoops will need to be in four
sections each, the ends being passed through the upright
6x6 posts, and secured by heavy washers and nuts. The
bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base of
the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two
feet from the first: the third hoop two and one-half feet
from the second, the distance between hoops being in-
creased by one-half foot until they are three and one-half
feet apart, which distance should be maintained except for
the hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet
apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before the
silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must be tight
enough to close up the space between the staves, thus
preventing any foreign matter from getting into the cracks

IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. 93

which would prevent the staves from closing up as they
swell, and allow air to enter. To hold hoops and staves
in place during the summer when the silo is empty, staples
should be driven over the hoops into the staves. If a suf-
ficient number of staples are used they will prevent the
sagging or dropping down of the hoops, and they will
hold the staves securely in place.

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few
days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite
intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If during
the summer when the silo is empty and the staves thor-
oughly dry the hoops are tightened so that the staves
are drawn closely together when the silo is filled and the
wood absorbs moisture and begins to swell, the hoops
must be eased somewhat to allow for the expansion.

The doors, 2 feet wide by 2% feet high, should be
located where convenience in feeding dictates. The lower
door should be between the second and third hoops at
the bottom, and other doors will usually be needed in every
second space between there and the top, except that no
door will be needed in the top space, as the silage when
settled will be sufficiently low to enable it to be taken out
at the door in the space below. Plans should be made
for the doors at the time the staves are set. When the
place is reached where it is desired to have the doors; a
saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points
where the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The
saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed out
on a bevel, making the opening larger on the inside of the
silo. (See Fig. 13). This will enable the door to be re-
moved and put in place only from the inside, and when set
in place and pressed down with silage the harder the pres-
sure the tighter will the door fit. After the silo is set up
and the hoops have been put on and tightened the cutting
out of the doors may be completed. Before doing this,
cleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal to the
width of the door, should be made which will conform to
the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should

94 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of
where the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 13.) After the
bolting, the door may be sawed out, and it is then ready
for use. When set in place at time of filling the silo a
piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and bottom will
fill the opening made by the saw and prevent the entrance
of any air around the door.

Another Door for Stave Silo.

Silage being heavy to handle, and pitch up, has made
continuous doors a popular feature of a few factory-built
silos, as it is much easier to get the silage out of the silo
for feeding. The illustration, Fig. 17, shows a method of
making a door in homemade silos which is continuous with
the exception of a narrow brace piece extending across
the opening, under each hoop, to give rigidity to the struc-
ture. These pieces should be securely toe-nailed at each
end to the staves. The jamb pieces, e, e, should be 2
inches thick, beveled off on the side away from the door,
securely spiked to the inside of the stave, as shown, so as
to leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should be taken
to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards,
being sawed the exact length, will fit alike and properly
all the way up, and if care be taken in this regard it will
not be necessary to replace them in the same order at
each successive filling of the silo. The door boards should
be matched, two inches thick the same as the staves, and
if surfaced and well seasoned there need be no fear of the
silage spoiling around such a door. A strip of acid and
water-proof paper may be placed in the rabbet, between
the ends of the door boards and the stave, as an extra
precaution, but if the carpenter work is well done it is not
absolutely necessary.

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave silo,
and, if not more than two feet wide, the fact that the door
section is straight instead of curved will make no differ-
ence,

SECTION OF SILO DOOR. 95

Fig. 17. 4,4, Staves. b, b, Door Boards. c, Brace 2V,
by 6, set in. d,d, Hoops. e, e, Jamb Pieces.

96 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

If the silo is built outside of the barn some sort of a
roof is desirable. This should be sufficiently wide to pro-
tect the walls of the silo as thoroughly as possible. A
very satisfactory roof is shown in Fig. 14. Two other con-
structions of a cheap roof for a stave silo are shown in
Figs. 18 and 19. The latter was built at the Indiana Ex-
periment Station at a total cost of $10.50, viz., lumber
$4.00, tin put on and painted $6.00 and hardware 50 cents.
Two 2x6 pieces (AA) were placed on edge and toe-nailed
to the top of the staves they rested on; the projection is
for supporting the carrier at filling time. They are tied
together by the short pieces E. The roof is in three
sections, G, H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame
A, A, and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full,

ey »
hi Ria atin. wrens

SN Lon
part i My Kae ate Win

LEE iN

Fig. 18. A cheap roof for stave silos.

CHECK ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 97

to allow filling to the top. The narrow middle section is
light enough to lift off on either side, and leaves the open-
ing for the carrier to deliver into.

On the framework B, B, and C, C, cheap sheeting
boards are nailed. This is then covered with tin, soldered

Fig.19. A CHEAP ROOF OF STAVE SILO.

A, B, and E, 2%6 in.; C, 2%4 m.; D, E, Enlarged Outside
End; Ff Hinges; iG; H, ft Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2
in. (Van Norman.)

joints and painted. The sections should be fastened down

by means of staples and hooks, or other device; the hooks

are used on this one. On the inner edge of G and H,

2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. Close to these are placed

similar strips, J, to which the cross-boards are nailed,
7

98 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

forming the section I of the roof. The tin on the section
I should come over to the side of J. On the other sec-
tions it should run up on the side of K, making a water-
tight joint: >

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 3 inches,
being the difference in height of A and C. C is notched
one inch at the outer end. (Van Norman.)

Cheap Stave Silos.

A foundation, bottom, and roofless stave silo was de-
scribed recently in Hoard’s Dairyman, which may prove
of interest and value to some readers. It was put up on
a leased farm, with the expectation of removing it on the
termination of the lease. It has the sky for a roof, the
ground for a bottom, and no foundation but a 2x6 spruce
scantling to secure a level base for the wall, while pro-
tecting them from rotting on the ground. The silo has
a diameter of 24 feet, and is as high as could be built from
2x4 scantling without splicing them. The 2x4 spruce
seantlings were set 18 inches apart from center to center,
upon a 2x6 sill, directly upon the ground. It was sheeted
on the inside with two thicknesses of 4%4x6 spruce, with
tar paper between. On the outside, at the bottom, half
way up, and at the top, were two, three, and two bands of
1x6 common fencing, respectively, and no other boarding.
The silo has a capacity of 250 tons, and was built at a
cost of $174.21. “We never had better silage than we are
now feeding out of this silo, though we did have to shovel
nearly a foot off of it a few days ago, when the silo was
opened.”

A Modification of the Stave Silo.

Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up,
but unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they may
be easily blown into a shapeless mass in case of a heavy
gale. The modification of the stave silo described in the
following has the advantage of being more rigid and sub-

MODIFICATION OF STAVE SILO. 99

stantial; it has been put up in a number of places in the
east, and has apparently given good satisfaction for sev-
eral years at least. In building this silo some good, tough
oak plank two inches thick and of any convenient length
are procured. Rock elm will do, although not as good as
oak. The planks are sawed into strips half an inch thick.
The foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and a little
larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake
is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just long
enough to act as a guide in setting scantling when erecting
sides. For sides 1144x4-inch hemlock of any desired length
is used. These are set up on the circumference of the
silo, perpendicular to the bottom, 3 feet and 7 feet up nail
on the outside one of the half-inch strips mentioned be-
fore, being sure to keep the circle regular. This will keep
upright pieces in place until the circle is completed. On
each hoop so started other half-inch pieces are nailed,
lapping them in different places until each hoop is three
inches thick. Other hoops are now put on in the same
manner, placing them one foot apart at bottom, up to the
three-foot hoop 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot
hoop, then increasing the distance between each hoop two
inches, until they are 30 inches apart, at which distance
they should be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should
be done on the hoop. When this is done, a silo will be
made of 114x4 inch, thoroughly hooped with wooden hoops
2x8 inches,

The inside may be covered with the best quality of
felt, well tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat of
thick coal tar is spread; over this another thickness of
felt is put while the tar coating is still green. The silo is
lined with 3%-inch Georgia pine ceiling, nailing thoroughly,
and the lining coated with two coats of coal tar, putting
on the first one quite thin, but using all the wood will take
in, and for a second coat tar as thick as can be spread.
Give plenty of time to dry before filling.

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with ver-
tical boarding, or it may have strips nailed on hoops and

100 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

be boarded with novelty siding. The latter method will
make a stronger and better looking silo. If the hoops are
well nailed to the staves when being made, we shall have
a silo in which it is impossible for the staves to shrink
or get loose. (Woodward.)

Peer, in his book “Soiling, Soiling Crops and Ensilage,”
reports that a New York canning factory who has for
years siloed their pea vines, corn husks and cobs, and win-
tered sheep thereon, put the refuse through a cutting box
into a rough plank silo about thirty feet in diameter. ‘‘The
planks were rough, just as they came from the saw mill,
set on end, and hooped with half-inch iron. No roof was
put on, and when the silage settled the staves were taken
down, the silage stood, and the whole mass kept in per-
fect form. The following year the staves (2x6 inch
planks) are set up again. As to the silage spoiling, there
is six or eight inches on the side that rots, and is thrown
into the manure heap. As to freezing, they experienced
no inconvenience from that. If the top freezes a little,
it is mixed with the unfrozen, fermentation sets up, and
the frozen part is thawed out by its own combustion.

Protection against freezing. If the silo is built out-
doors in any of the Northern states, it is necessary to pro-
vide some special means to keep the silage from freezing
in case this is considered a very objectionable feature.
The silo may be inclosed by a wide jacket of rough boards
nailed to four uprights, leaving the section of the silo
where the doors are easy of access; the space between the
silo and outside jacket is filled with straw in the fall; this
may be taken out and used for bedding in the spring, thus
allowing the staves to be thoroughly dried out during the
summer, and preventing the silo from rotting.

Number of staves required for stave silos.—The follow-
ing table will be found useful in calculating the number of
staves required for silos of different diameters, and feed-
ing areas which these will give:

TABLBD OF ARBAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES. 101

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.

Diameter, | Sireum: | ten, || piametar, | Gssume | Aree,

eet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
8 25.1 50.3° | 7A 66.0 346.4
9 28.3 63.6 22 69.1 380.1
10 a ee: | 78.5 23 Taco 415.5
(ak 34.6 95.0 24 75.4 452.4
12 37.7 3c 25 78.5 490.9
13 40.8 bs237 26 fl DWE 530.9
14 44.0 153.9 Pal 84.8 57236
15 47.1 179.7 28 88.0 615.8
16 50.3 201.1 29 91.1 660.5
ti’ Ls Re ag are 30 94.2 706.9
18 56.5 254-5 31 97.4 754.8
19 59.7 283.5 32 100.5 804.2
20 62.8 314.2

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the
diameter by 3.1416.

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the
diameter by 0.7854.

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply the
area of the base (floor) by the height.

Example.—A silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet high
is wanted; how many staves 2x6 inches will be needed,
and what will be the feeding area in the silo and its
capacity?

The circumference of a circle 16 feet diameter is 50.3
feet; there will therefore be required 50.83+14—101 staves,
2x6 inches, 26 feet high, or if staves of this height cannot
be obtained, 135 staves 20 feet long, or 50 each of 12 and
14 feet long staves. The feeding area will be 16x16
0.7854—201.1 square feet, and the cubical content of the
silo, 201.126—5228.6 cubic feet. Estimating the weight
of a cubic foot of corn silage at 40 pounds, 5228.6 cubic
feet of silage would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about 100
tons, which is the approximate capacity of a round silo
of the dimensions given.

102 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Connecting Round Silos with Barn.—The location of
the silo with reference to other farm buildings has already
been discussed. The silo must be easy to get at from the
stable, and the silage, if possible, handled only once in
being placed before the stock. A round silo is most con-
veniently built just outside of the barn and connected with
this by means of covered passage way. The method of
joining silos to barns is illustrated in numerous pictures
of silos given in this book. (See Fig. 20.)

Other Forms of Round Silos.

The various types of round, wooden silos have been
described at some length in the preceding, because per-
haps ninety per cent. of farmers who expect to build a
silo will build one of this kind, either one of the more
substantial and expensive original or modified Wisconsin
silos, or a stave silo. In some cases it seems more de-
sirable to build a round silo of other material than wood,
viz., of either stone or brick. The general principles that
must be observed in constructing silos of these materials -
are similar to those underlying the proper construction of
wooden silos. In order to strengthen the wall of the silo,
it is recommended to bed in the wall between the doors %
inch iron rods, bent to the curve of the silo circle, and
about 12 feet long. The two ends should be turned short
at right angles, so as to anchor better in the mortar. In
deep stone silos, which rise more than 18 feet above the
surface of the ground, it will be safest to strengthen the
wall between the two lower doors with iron tie rods, and,
if such a silo is built of boulders, it will be well to use
rods enough to have a complete line or hoop around the
silo about two feet above the ground, as represented in
Fig. 21.

Too great care cannot be taken in making the part of
the wall below and near the ground solid, and especially
its outer face, so that it will be strong where the greatest
strain will come. It is best also to dig the pit for the silo
large enough so as to have plenty of room outside of the

103

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ILLUSTRATION.

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104 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

finished wall to permit the earth filled m behind to be
very thoroughly tamped, so as to act as a strong backing
for the wall. This is urged because a large per cent. of
the stone foundations of wood silos have cracked more or
less from one cause or another, and these cracks lead to
the spoiling of silage.

Fig. 21. Showing method of bedding iron rods in stoue,
brick, or concrete walls, to increase the strength.

Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the strong-
est silo wall, because they bond much better than boulders
do, and when built of limestone they will not need to be
reinforced much with iron rods. It will be best even in
this case, however, to use the iron tie rods between the
lower two doors. (King.)

sane

BRICK SILOS. 108

Brick Silos.—In constructing a brick silo it will be well
to guard the following points; Make the foundation of
stone if practicable, and let the first course of brick come
flush on the inside with the stone work. Bed a five-eighths
inch iron hoop in the stone work in the upper part before
laying the brick, in order to keep the pressure of brick
from spreading the wall before the mortar becomes set and
hard. Make a two-inch air space in the walls up to within
one-third of the top. This will make a 14-inch wall of
three courses of brick. If, however, the silo is to be over
24 feet inside diameter, then a four-brick wall is really nec-
essary one-third the way up, then the next third of three
bricks and the last third of two bricks. The air space
should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron tie rods
should also be laid around in the wall between the doors,
as recommended in the stone work. It is also important
that the brick should be wet when laid, otherwise the
mortar in which they are laid will be dried out too rapidly.
The walls should be plastered over very smoothly with a
coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick,
and then every two or three years this should be well
white-washed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected
from the effects of acid in the silage. King recommends
that the floor jambs be made of 3x6’s or 3x8’s, rabbetted
two inches deep to receive the door on the inside. The
center of the jambs outside should be grooved and a
tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch out-
ward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure a
thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The
doors may be made of two layers of matched flooring with
tarred paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb,
se as to give a perfect smooth face next to the silage.

Stone Silos.—The stone should have a wall about two
feet thick below the surface of the ground, and this may
be laid in the cheaper grades of cement. Above the sur-
face a good grade of Portland cement should be used. A
thickness of wall of 18 inches at the surface of the
ground is desirable, but this may be gradually reduced

106 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

to 12 inches at the top, keeping the inner surface of the
silo perpendicular. It is important to have five-eighths inch
iron rods, with angles on the ends, laid in the wall at
intervals between each door, to keep the walls from crack-
ing or spreading before the mortar or cement is thoroughly
set. These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the
curve of the wall, and the angled ends should lap by each
other for three or four inches.

It will be well to place silos a distance below the sur-
face. This should not be deep enough on level land, how-
ever, to require great exertion to get out the silage. Under
such circumstances four feet is deep enough. (Plumb.)

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick,
and cement silos are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage,
and in Bulletin No. 83 of Wisconsin Experiment Station,
by Prof. King as well as in numerous other pamphlets,
and we shall not take up further space here with the
discussion thereof. The same holds true with all other
forms of silo construction than those already explained,
except the one kind, where silos are built in a bay of the
barn. In order to use the space economically, these silos
are built in a rectangular form.

Silos in the Barn.

A large number of silos have been built in the barn,
especially in the early days of silo construction. Where
the necessary depth can be obtained and where the room
can be spared, such silos can be built very easily and ata
less cost than a separate structure, since lighter materials
in construction may be used in this case, and no roof will
be required for the silo. Silos built in this manner have
generally the advantage of being near at hand. Since
feeding time comes twice a day, at least, throughout the
winter and spring, a few steps saved in hauling the silage
mean a good deal in the aggregate. Many farmers first
made silos of this kind, and, later on, when familiar with
the silage and siloing process, built additional separate
structures.

A RECTANGULAR SILO. 107

A very cheap rectangular silo may be constructed by
erecting strong 38x10 studding around a bay or part of a
bay, and lining with one ply good matched lumber one-
inch thick. Such a silo has been in use at the Ottawa
Station for eight years, and has given good results.

- The main objection to rectangular or square silos is
that it is very difficult to make the corners perfectly tight,
so that air will not enter at these points and cause more
or less of the silage to spoil here. Even if carefully built,
the lateral pressure in a silo filled with green fodder is
often great enough to cause the boards to spring and thus
let air in, unless special precautions have been taken to

Fig. 23. Corner of rectangular silo. (Whceeler.)

prevent it. One way of avoiding this difficulty is to par-
tially round off the corners, by placing a square timber,
split diagonally, in each of the corners. Another plan
is to bevel the edge of a ten-inch plank and nail it in the
corners, filling in behind with dry dirt or sand. Sawdust
has been recommended, but should not be used, as it will
draw moisture and cause the plank and silo lining to
decay. The space back of the plank may also be left
empty.

The arrangement for making the corners of a square
or rectangular silo air-tight shown in Fig. 28 was published
by the Geneva Experiment Station. The corners are
boarded up, as shown in the figure, a sheeting of paper

108 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

going between the two courses of boards. The partitions
at the corners can be put across after the first course of
boards, instead of after the lining is in place, as shown in
the illustration.

The silos of the form mentioned may be strengthened
at the corners by the arrangement recommended by Prof.
Spillman and shown in Fig. 24. Half-inch bolts are used

Vie

LEIS

é e

' '

e t

Fig. 24. Cross section of studding at the corner of a rec-
tangular silo. (Spillman.)

to hold the 2x4 and 2x6 together. The bolts are not more
than eighteen inches apart from the bottom up to about
the middle of the studding. Above the middle they may
be two feet apart; they may be reinforced by 30d. nails.

Octagonal Silos.

A number of octagonal silos have been built in recent
years, and find favor with their owners in most instances.
If properly put up and care taken to fasten the girts
securely at the corners with plenty of spikes, the octag-
onal silo is greatly superior to the square type, and has
nearly every advantage of the round silo, and can readily

OCTAGONAL SILO. 109

be constructed by anyone handy with tools with the assist-
ance of the ordinary farm help.

The foundation should be of stone or brick as de-
scribed for various other forms of silos, and should be
laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided upon.
Brief details are here given for an octagonal silo of about
the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet in diameter and
of equal height.

If the foundation-is laid out so that the corners are
in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the
horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be much
stronger and better able to withstand the lateral pressure
that the sides of a square silo of equal capacity. Details
of construction are shown in the drawings, Figs. 25 and 26.
The girts should be 3x8 in. and spiked at the corners

Fig. 25. Perspective, showing construction of frame, and
double lining with paper between. The door is made. of
two thicknesses with paper between, as shown,

110 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

with 6 inch spikes, up to nearly one-half of the height of
the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the way, fastened with 20
penny spikes. The girts should be 16 inches apart at the
bottom for one-third of the height of the silo. They may
be 18 inches apart the second third of the distance, and
above that the distance between them can be increased
till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double row
may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be
used. Care should be taken to have the girts securely
spiked at the corners, so that the joints will not give.
The horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the
round silo and must be strong. Not less than six or eight
spikes should be used at each splice. One of the causes
of failure in home-made silos of every kind is that the
ordinary carpenter, who has probably never built a silo be-
fore, has but a limited idea of the pressure on the sides
of a silo 30 or more feet deep, and does not realize ther
disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo.

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular
is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the
wall securely, by means of bolts set in the wall, and then
erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary post
or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position so that
it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts then laid and
spiked in position, one above the other.

The lining is, of course, ptt on up and down and
should be matched and of good thickness, say 1% or 1%
if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need not be so
thick, 74-inch flooring, and the outer layer not necessarily
matched. The corners should be fitted as nicely as possi-
ble, and it is a good plan to block out the corners, as
shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and grooves
can be properly adjusted to each other.

John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer,
recommends, where one thickness of matched lumber is
used in the above manner, that the lining be thoroughly
coated on the outside with heavy application of coal tar,
or other similar substance, so as to prevent the air pene-

aia ale Id test *

METHOD OF LAYING AND BOLTING SILL. i111

trating the pores of the lumber, and causing the silage to
dry on to the inner surface.

Any style of door can be used, but an effective con-
tinuous door is shown in the illustration. If any of the
girts be cut out to make the door space larger, the re-
maining ones should be correspondingly reinforced.

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple mat-
ter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, although

Fig. 26. Showing method of laying sill and bolting same
to foundation for an octagonal silo.

a trap door may be used in case the filling be done with
a blower. Any style of siding may be used.

Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory,
have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in
addition will be a much more stable structure, requiring
no tightening of the hoops from time to time.

Bills of materials for a silo built to 21-foot circle and
30 feet high are given below. The cost will, of course,
vary with the locality.

112 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Bills of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x30 feet outside
measurement:

Poundation arc 2 Se Ea ee eee 10 perches |
GPUS Sore SO ee ee 110 feet 3x8 ) 8 or 16 foot
900 feet 2x8 \ lengths.
ATLOES 2 ae ton sis ad ox See tatet oe Ioene. 230 feet 2x4x14 feet
Pabst SF. 350 ois 2 eh ee eee Dees 2500 feet —
SEATS Fo a ea ee Se 2800 feet 11% inch thick, matched
Dormer Window .
WaAliMeand Spikes: 3 Ww nop hts eee See Se eee oe 300 lbs.
MIN PISS ie 65 ot Se nee Se ee ee Se 4M
Pde Coos oN a Aas as Oates oe eee hee ee ...6 gallons

Cost of Different Kind's of Silos.

The cost of a silo will depend on local conditions as
to price of labor and materials; how much labor has ta
be paid for; the size of the silo, etc. The comparative
data for the cost of two round silos, 13 and 25 feet in
diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof. King, as
shown in the following table:

13 FEET INSIDE 25 FEET INSIDE
DIAMETER. DIAMETER.
KINDS OF SILO. == = i
Without With Without With

roof. roof. roof. roof.
SAE SL Olas ecactie anche aaa cence $151 $175 $264 $328
RIALS wdll Oirets cee rere cae sea doe 243 SA: 43 494
Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches
Waal <P Oat ee eR mee 7 Bo Oe 142 239 310 442
Brick-lined, 2 inches thick... 131 190 239 369
Lathed ana plastered silo.... 133 185 244 363
Wood Silo with galvanized
Mies, epee. western oe ae 168 185 308 432
Wood Silo with paper........ 128 222 235 358
Sil RZ RIA Se SU AIG Waseem ries eben rare a 127 183 133 289
Cheapest wood Silo.......... 101 144 195 240

——— —— = —

During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inquiries
in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds (not only
circular ones) built by farmers in different states in the

aber ty! of

COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 113

Union. The results of this inquiry are summarized
briefly below.

The cheapest silos are those built in bays of barns,
as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are
here already at hand. Number of silos included, fourteen;
average capacity, 140 tons; average cost of silos, $92, or
65 cents per ton capacity.

Next comes the square or rectangular wooden silos.
Number of silos included, twenty-five; average capacity,
194 tons; average cost of silos, $285, or $1.46 per ton
capacity.

The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones
in point of cost. Only seven silos were included, all but ”
one of which were made of wood. Average capacity, 237
tons; average cost, $368, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The
data for the six round wooden silos are as follows:
Average capacity, 228 tons; average cost, $340, or $1.52
per ton capacity. The one round cement silo cost $500,
and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diameter, 30
feet; depth, 21 feet); cost per ton capacity, $1.67.

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in
first cost, as is shown by the data obtained. Number of
silos included, nine; average capacity, 288 tons; average
cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity.

The great difference in the cost of different silos of
the same kind is apparent without much reflection. The
range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square wooden
silos included in the preceding summary was from 70 cents
to $3.60. The former figures were obtained with a 144-ton
silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter with a 140-ton silo, built
as follows: Dimensions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet stud-
dings, set 12 inches apart; two thicknesses of dimension
boards inside, with paper between, sheeting outside with
paper nailed on studding; cement floor. Particulars are
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo be-
yond its dimensions.

It may be in order to state, in comparing the average
data for the cost of the different silo types, that the round

114 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

silos were uniformly built better than the rectangular
wooden silos included, and according to modern require-
ments, while many of the latter were old and of compara-
tively cheap construction, so that the figures cannot be
taken to represent the relative value of rectangular and
round silos built equally well.

A good many figures entering into the preceding sum-
maries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put
on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the cost
of work done by the farmers themselves was not figured
in with other expenses. As most farmers would do some
of the work themselves, the figures given may, however,
' be taken to represent the cash outlay in building silos.
In a general way, it may be said that a silo can be built
in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton
capacity; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden
silo for about $1.50, and a stone or cement silo for about
$2 per ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations
according to local prices for labor and materials.

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following com-
parative figures as to cost of silos: Round stave silos,
75 cents per ton capacity; round wooden silos, $1.25 and
cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity.

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the
kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses,
as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that stave
silos can as a rule be built cheaper than other kinds of
silos, both from the fact that less material is used in
their construction, and because the labor bill is smaller.
One of the first stave silos described, built in Ontario,
Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons. Other and better
built stave silos have been put up for $100 for a 100-ton
silo, and this may be considered an average price for
such a silo, made of white pine, hemlock or any lumber
that is cheapest in the particular locality where the silo
is to be built. If built of Southern cypress, and complete
with conical roof and doors, the price of stave silos will
in the North come to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small

’
ee ee ee

ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS, 115

silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper
than this average figure.

Estimating Material and Cost of Silos.

Several writers on silo construction have published
bills of materials used in the construction of silos of
moderate sizes of the following three types: Wisconsin
Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo.
Farmers contemplating building a silo, can use these
estimates for figuring out the approximate cost of silos
of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost of
materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos
built in the open, on level Jand. On hillsides deeper walls
may be made to advantage, and where the silo is located
within a building no roof will be needed. Consequently
various factors may alter the applications of these esti-
mates, which are only offered as suggestive, with the
hope they may prove helpful. The first three estimates
of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while the
others have been furnished by Professors King and
Withycombe.

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin
Improved Silos.

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons.

Brick—3375 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long.

Flooring for doors—32 feet, 4 matched.

Sheeting—3000 feet, 1% inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot
plank sawed 8 times, dressed one side to uniform thick-
ness for inside lining of two layers.

Lining—1500 feet of same for outside.

Tar building paper—200 yards, water and acid-proof.

Nails—200 lbs. 8-penny; 200 lbs. 10-penny.

Spikes—20 lbs.

Rafters—22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof.

116 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Sheeting for roof—350 feet of 16 foot boards.
Shingles—3000.

Shingle nails—12 lbs.

Dormer window for filling through. Paint—7 gallons,

providing two coats.
Cement—2 barrels, for cementing bottom.

Estimate of Materials for a Modified
Wisconsin Silo.

Same capacity as preceding.

3rick—350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 ft. long.

Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 ft. long.

Sheeting—3000 ft. % in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank
sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for in-
side lining of two layers.

Tar building paper—200 yards water and acid-proof.

Nails—150 lbs. 8 penny.

Spikes—12 lbs.

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided
for in this construction.

Estimate of Materials for a Stave Silo.

Size 12x28 ft., capacity, 60 tons.
Bricks—1800 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 2 ft. deep.
Staves—77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides.

Staves—77 2x6, 12 ft., dressed 4 sides.

Rods—10, 19% ft. long % in. iron, with % threaded
ends and nuts.

Staples—2 gross, 1%x2 in.

Iron tighteners—20 holding ends of hoops.

Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center.

Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 13 ft. long, for roof next center.

Side rafters—48 ft. 2x4 pieces.

Roof sheeting—170 ft. common.

Tin sheeting—196 ft.

Cement for floor—2 bbls.

ven aaa ter nde

ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS. 117

Estimate of Materials for a Wisconsin
Improved Silo.

Size 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity 200
tons,

Stone foundation—7.5 perch.

Studs—2x4, 14 and 16 ft., 1,491 ft.

Rafters—2x4, 12 ft., 208 ft.

Roof boards—Fencing, 500 feet.

Shingles—6 M.

Siding—Rabbeted, 2,660 ft.

Lining—Fencing, ripped, 2,800 ft.

Tarred paper—740 lbs.

Coal tar—1 bbl.

Hardware—$6.00.

Painting (60 cents per square) $13.20.

Cementing bottom—$5.00.

Carpenter labor—(at $3 per M and board) $33.17.

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is an
outside, wholly independent structure, except connected
with the barn in the manner shown in Fig. 20, with en-
trance and feeding chute toward the barn.

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo.

12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity, 49 tons.

1 2-3 yards of rock gravel.

4 barrels of sand.

1 barrel of cement.

2260 ft. tongued and grooved staves.

72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames.

358 ft. 5 in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight
465 lbs.

9 lugs.

54 nuts.

Preservative ($1.50).

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof
and painting are to be added to the preceding list.

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave

118 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the
latest practice indicates that, if properly done, it is a
decided advantage to have the staves matched, also
slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will not
be so liable to go to pieces when empty. This is the
chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous cases
are on record where stave silos standing in exposed places
have blown over when empty. It is recommended, there-
fore, that stave silos be attached to the barn by means
of a feeding chute, and in the case of high or exposed
silos it is well to make use of guy rods or wires in addi-
tion. Indeed, some manufacturers of stave silos now rec-
ommend these on some of their silos, and make provis-
ions for them.

Preservation of Silo.

A silo building will not remain sound for many years

unless special precautions are taken to preserve it. This
holds good of all kinds of silos, but more especially of
wooden ones, since cement coating in a stone silo, even
if only fairly well made, will better resist the action of
the silage juices than the wood-work will be able to keep
sound in the presence of moisture, high temperature, and
an abundance of bacterial life.

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some
material which will render the wood impervious to water,
and preserve it from decay. A great variety of prepara-
tions have been recommended and used for this purpose.
Coal tar has been applied by a large number of farmers,
and has been found effective and durable. It may be put
on either hot, alone or mixed with resin, or dissolved in
gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some of the oil con-
tained in the tar must previously be burnt off. The tar
is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited
and then thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil
to flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when
it will string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length,
from a stick which has been thrust into the blazing kettle

‘PRESERVATION OF SILOS. 119

and afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is then

put out by placing a tight cover over the kettle. The
kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining has
been gone over. A mop or a small whisk broom cut short,
so it is stiff, may serve for putting on the tar.

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many
with good success. About half a gallon of coal tar and
two-thirds of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a time,
stirring it while it is being put on. Since gasoline is
highly inflammable, care must be taken not to have any
fire around when this mixture is applied. Asbestos paint
has also been recommended for the preservation of silo
walls, and would seem to be well adapted for this purpose.

Many silos are preserved by application of a mixture
of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, or one
part of the former to two of the latter. This mixture,
applied every other year, before filling time, seems to pre-
serve the lining perfectly. In building round silos, it is
recommended to paint the boards with hot coal tar, and
placing the painted sides face to face.

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up spec-
ial preparations for preserving the silos, which they send
out with the staves. These are generally simple com-
pounds similar to those given in the preceding, and are
sold to customers at practically cost price.

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by
one or the other of these methods will only keep sound and
free from decay if the silos are built so as to insure
good ventilation. Preservatives will not save a non-venti-
lated silo structure from decay.

Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have
seen by applying a whitewash of pure cement as often as
found necessary, Which may be every two or three years.
The same applies to stone and cement silos. The degree
of moisture and acidity in the silage corn will doubtless
determine how often the silo walls have to be gone over
with a cement wash; a very acid silage, made from im-
mature corn will be likely to soften the cement coating

120 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

sooner than so-called sweet silage made from nearly
mature corn.

A considerable number of wood silos are in use that
were not treated on the inside with any preservative or
paint and have stood very well. Indeed, some writers
maintain that if the silo is well protected on the outside,
a stave silo receives little if any benefit from inside
coatings.

‘
he Sadan SN

CHAPTER V4.
CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

In the preceding chapter we have attempted to deal
with wood, brick and stone in silo construction.

Of late years, however, a big demand has sprung up
for a more substantial structure. This is evidenced by
the large number of factory and other buildings spring-
ing up in all parts of the country made of concrete and
cement blocks. This construction is getting to be very
popular in so far as silos are concerned; especially is this
true where permanency is desired, such as on established
stock farms, etc.

Three forms of concrete silos are in successful use.
They are known as the Monolithic Concrete Silos, both
solid and hollow wall, and the Concrete Block Silos. In
the extreme north, the hollow wall type should be chosen
to prevent freezing; otherwise, the cost, fixed largely by
local conditions, should be the deciding feature.

In the past the high first cost of these forms of con-
struction has been the chief factor against their more ex-
tensive use, but this has been due to our insufficient knowl-
edge as to the best and most economical methods in
handling material. The price of lumber has been steadily
rising, while that of good Portland Cement has been de-
creasing, and good qualities can now be obtained at a fair
price; it seems, therefore, to be generally conceded that
the concrete or cement block silo will be the silo of the
future.

The chief advantages claimed for the concrete silos,
when properly built, are that they are absolutely air-tight
and water-tight, hence will neither shrink in hot, dry
weather nor swell up in damp weather; that they main-
tain a more even temperature because concrete is a great

12]

122 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

non-conductor of heat and cold; that the silage acids that
affect wood and metal have no effect on concrete; that
they are vermin proof; that they will last practically for-
ever and need no repairs, and that they are fire proof.

The general concensus of opinion among those who
have made a study of the matter seems to be well voiced -
in Bulletin No. 102 of the Agricultural Experiment Station
of the University of Illinois when it says: “From what we
know now the round wood silo plastered with cement
seems to be the best construction, but the indications are
that when we learn to handle concrete to the best ad-
vantage this will be the material for building silos.”

The United States Government has, in every state in
the Union, established Agricultural Experiment Stations
for the purpose of giving the American farmer and Ameri-
can Agriculture in general the benefits of the best and
most improved methods. Several of these stations have
investigated the subject of silo construction and we feel
that we cannot do better than quote some of their results.
The station at the University of Wisconsin very clearly
introduces the situation in their Bulletin No. 125 as fol-
lows:

“Cement is being more and more widely used in all
kinds of construction work. It is not strange, therefore,
that it is being tried in silo construction. Concrete has
been used for a long time in silo foundations, but it is
now being used in the superstructure also. As yet, how-
ever no careful work has been done to determine what
is the best method to follow in construction of silos in
concrete. Concrete in itself is very strong, much stronger
than ordinary brick or stone masonry, that is, providing
good cement is used and the concrete properly made.

“Reinforced concrete, or concrete steel, is very much
stronger than ordinary concrete. Reinforced concrete is
concrete in which steel rods or wires are imbedded in
such a way as to take the strain. By placing wires or
rods in the concrete it is possible to make the walls or
beams much thinner or lighter than would otherwise be

ILLUSTRATION. 123

possible and obtain the required strength. By reinforcing
the concrete with steel much cement is saved. In Europe,
and particularly in France, reinforced concrete has been
very extensively used and used with much boldness. A
simple instance will illustrate:

“A large elevator and mill in France was constructed
wholly of reinforced concrete, walls, floors, beams, and
posts. The mill is 112 feet high from foundation to roof.
The roof is used as a reservoir holding 100 tons of water.
The capacity of the elevator is 7,000 tons. The walls are
only 12 inches thick at the foot and 4 inches at the top.

Fig. 28. Large cement silo and barns at Posto Zootechnico Central (Ex-
periment Station) at Sao Paulo, Brazil, South America. Stlo being filled
with No. 17 Ohio Blower Machine.

124 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS. |

“To obtain best results in concrete it is necessary first
to use good cement, and, second, the work must be care-
fully and skillfully done. This is particularly true of re-
inforced concrete. The mixing of the concrete requires
skill as well as does the tamping of the concrete in the
forms. The proportion of sand to mix with the gravel or
crushed stone will vary somewhat with the character of
the gravel and the sand and it requires experience tp
know just the right proportions to use. The proportion of
cement to sand will vary with the cement and with the
sand. This again involves skill. The amount of water to
use will vary considerably with circumstances. If the
cement is too wet or too dry best results will not be ob-
tained. Experience and skill are again involved here.

“If it were possible to have the work skillfully done
a cement silo 16 feet in diameter and 35 feet high could
be built of reinforced concrete with walls only 2 or 3
inches thick and be abundantly strong. But labor sufti-
ciently skilled to do this would cost too much, so that
it would be cheaper to use twice as much cement; make
wall 6 or 8 inches thick and use less skilled labor. If the
work is carefully done using ordinary labor it is prac-
ticable to. build silos 16 feet in diameter and 35 feet high
with 6 or 8 inch walls if the steel rod is laid in the wall
every 2 or 3 feet.”

Reinforced concrete offers great possibilities for silo
building. The lateral pressure on the walls when the silo
is filled is very great, but the circular shape renders it
very easy to reinforce. The freezing of the silage has
heretofore been the one disadvantage of solid walls, espe-
cially in cold climates, but this has been largely overcome
by machines now on the market that easily and success-
fully build reinforced and continuous hollow walls. (See
pages 165 and 166 for special articles on frozen silage.)

The foundation, as in all other concrete structures, is
very important. Not only must it serve as an anchor to
protect the structure against wind pressure, but it must
also be very strong and firm or the great weight upon it

REINFORCED CONCRETE. 125

will cause it to settle unevenly, in which event the walls
are liable to crack and so admit air; consequently, spoiled
silage will be the result.

The Missouri State Board of Agriculture in its March,
1906, bulletin describes a concrete silo built by Mr. C. J.
W. Jones, Roanoke, Mo., in the summer of 1905, as follows:
“It is 16 by 40 feet inside measurement, it being 9 feet in
the ground. He first dug the hole and leveled the bottom.
Then started the inside form, which was made of old
pieces of fence boards stood on end around the circle and
held in place by thin limber boards tacked onto them. He
also had a center pole to guide by and brace to. The bot-
tom wall was made thick and tamped against the earth
bank. When the level of the ground was reached he care-
fully leveled up the work and started the outside form,
which was made of a band of iron, 20 inches wide and
53.43 feet long, rolled to form the circle and was fastened
with clamps at the ends. The silo being 16 feet in diame-
ter and the walls 6 inches thick, the form is then 17 feet
in diameter. This was leveled and the space between it
and the inner wall of boards filled with concrete and
tamped. When this hardened the form was _ loosened,
raised and screwed tight again after getting it level; the
space again filled and so on to the top. The inner wall
was raised as needed, being braced against the center
pole from all sides.”

The wall was reinforced to prevent cracking by build-
ing a wire rope into it every few feet. The door frames
were built into the wall while it was being made. The
material for the silo cost about $150.00.

We quote from Bulletin No. 125 of the Wisconsin
station:

“A common type of form used in making a continuous
wall or monolithic structure is illustrated in Fig. 41. A is
the outside form and B the inside form. These forms are
made as segments of the circle 6 or 10 feet in length and
1% to 3 feet deep. A form is made by taking two pieces
of plank 2x12 or 2x14, LL and UU, Fig. 41 A, sawing them

126 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

out to the curvature of the circle. These are placed hori-
zontally as girts and the short planks P are set vertically"
nailing them to the girts, LU. The form 41 B is made in
the reverse of 41 A.

“In building the wall, form B is set inside of form A
and 6 to 12 inches from it depending on the thickness de-
sired for the wall, and the concrete is filled in between the
forms.”

Se SSS LAS SS il

BL. Inside form

Fig. 41. Illustrates method of making form for construct-
ing concrete walls. The forms are made of plank and are
made in sections 4 to 10 feet long, requiring 5 to 8 sec-
tions to complete the circle.

—Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.

CEMENT BLOCKS. 127

Cement Blocks.

Continuing, the Bulletin just mentioned has the follow-
ing regarding cement block silos:

Cement blocks are now made in a great variety of
forms and these are being used to some extent in silo con-
struction. Walls built of cement blocks, however, are not
so strong as are walls in which the concrete is built in
place, making what is known as a monolithic structure.
When cement blocks are used it is necessary to use bands
or rods in the wall laying them between the courses the
same as in the stone or brick construction.

Cement blocks to be used in silo construction are
usually made with curved sides, the curvature being that
of the silo in question. A common type of block for this
purpose is illustrated in Fig. 39. The blocks are made
hollow, holes being left at H and H. The blocks are made
with a dovetailed tenon at one end, as at T, and a dove-
tailed mortise at the other end, as at M, so that when
the blocks are laid on the wall they interlock. The blocks
are sometimes made with a small groove near the outside
edge as G, G, and on every third or fourth course a small

Fig. 39. Illustrates a type of concrete block used in silo construction.
H. H. are holes left in blocks. T. and M. are dove-tailed tenon and
mortise so made that blocks interlock when laid on the wall. G. 1s a
groove made in block to imbed iron rod for reinforcing the wall. _

—Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.

128 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

rod (44-inch iron) is laid in this groove and embedded in
the masonry.

The cement block walls can be built more cheaply than
can the monolithic walls, providing the building is not
more than a mile or two from the factory where the blocks
are made, and in some instances the manufacturers will
move out their forms, mixers and other utensils for mak-
ing cement blocks and make the blocks at the building site
and still build more cheaply than the monolith can be
built. It is possible to do this because the work can be
done with greater facility on the ground level than up in
the air on scaffolding. Cement blocks are turned out
rapidly in a factory where all the facilities are at hand.

Cement blocks are usually made of finer materials
than are the solid monolithic walls. The blocks are made
of sand and cement; or if any gravel is used, it is very
fine gravel, whereas, in the continuous wall, monolithic
construction, coarser gravel or crushed stone is more
commonly used. This is one of the reasons why the
monolithic wall is stronger than the block wall.

The continuous wall may be made with holes or spaces
the same as the holes H, H, in the block, Fig. 39. This is

Fig. 40. Illustrates a tapering wood block used in making hollow con-
crete walls —Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station.

TO MAINTAIN THE CEMENT LINING. 129

accomplished by using short pieces of plank with smooth
sides tapering toward one end, as shown in Fig. 40. These
tapering wood blocks are set in the forms two or three
inches apart near the center of the wall and the concrete
filled in around them. After the first “set,” that is, after
a few hours the tapering blocks are drawn out leaving the
hollow walis and the fcrms are raised the next day or the
day following and the process repeated.”

To Maintain the Cement Lining.—The Cement Lining
or the Cement Block, if not properly cared for, is certain
to become porous or to crack, due to the action of the
acids in the silage. All such linings should be treated to
a wash of cement once about every two years. A good
wash is made by mixing Portland Cement with water, mak-
ing the mixture the consistency of white wash, and apply-
ing it with a white wash brush or spray pump, mixing
only a gallon or two at a time and applying it at once.

When filling the silo, it has been recommended to use
plenty of water around the edges next to the wall.

Fig. 42 illustrates a cement block silo built by Mr.
Alfred S. Dunlap, Centre, Ralls County, Mo. It is 16x32
feet inside and extends 18 inches into the ground. Writ-
ing to the Missouri State Board of Agriculture he says:
“The blocks are 6x6 inches by 2 feet long. Used 200 sacks
of Portland or Atlas brand cement in the foundation and
blocks. 1400 blocks were required to build it. Just what
the cost was I do not know, as my farm help worked at
making the blocks, commencing in the spring, and working
at odd times. It, perhaps, cost $275.00, but I did not haul
my sand and gravel more than 100 rods. I used a No. 14
cutter and a 10 horse-power traction engine, and did the
work of cutting to my entire satisfaction. We worked
three days and filled it about two-thirds full, and filled
with corn grown on bottom lands and very heavy.”

Mr. J. O. Bailey, Kirksville, Mo., writing to the same
Board of Agriculture gives an instructive description of
the building of his 16x32 silo.

“T made the blocks myself—size 8 by 8 by 24 inches,

130 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

curved enough so that 25 of them would lay a complete
circle, 16 feet in diameter in the clear. Proportioned the
cement and sand 1 to 5, i. e., 1 part cement to 5 parts
sand. It took about 50 yards of sand and 205 sacks of
cement. I also laid a No. 9 wire between each layer of

Fig. 42. Cement block silo. The kind built by Mr. Dunlap of
Centre, Ralls county, Mo.—Courtesy Hoard’s Dairyman.

—

131

ILLUSTRATION.

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132 CONCRETE OR CEMENT SILOS.

blocks up twenty feet. I don’t think now it is really
necessary to use the wire.

“T had a mason to superintend making of the blocks,
but any one with average intelligence can make the blocks
as good as a mason. The main thing is to get sand and
cement thoroughly mixed. It does not want to be too wet,
just moist enough to pack good in the mold. After the
blocks have been made half a day or so they should be
wet every day; this keeps them from drying too fast and
from cracking.

“T hired a mason to lay up the blocks; this is the only
skillful work about it, they have got to be laid up true.
I did not cement inside of silo. My silage spoiled some
around the outside. This is due to lack of moisture in the
silage and also in the wall. I should have wet the silage
and wall as the silo was filled, but was not fixed to do
this.

“My silo is built 31% feet below the surface and in the
last 4 or 5 feet of silage there was not a forkful spoiled.

“Two men can make 90 to 100 blocks a day after they
become accustomed to it, I used a wood mold which any
carpenter can make and will not cost over $1 or $1.50, at
most.

“Now as to the doors. I used 2x6 plank for the jambs
and set them flush with the outside of the wall; as the
blocks are 8 inches thick there are two inches on inside
for door to set in. The doors are ship-lap double with a
good quality of tar paper in between, also a layer of tar
paper on the side that sets against the jamb. The doors
are 2 feet square and every 4 feet. Total cost about
$225.00. The cost for labor to fill it I estimate at $50.00.”

“This is a cost of nearly $2.00 per ton capacity, but
inasmuch as it will last a great many years it may be the
cheapest kind in the long run.”

CHAPTER VII.
SlLEAGE-CROPS.

Indian Corn.—Indian corn is, as has already been
stated, the main silage crop in this country, and is likely
to always remain so. Before explaining the filling of the
silo and the making of silage, it will be well, therefore,
to state briefly the main conditions which govern the pro-
duction of a large crop cf corn for the silo, and to ex-
amine which varieties of corn are best adapted for silage
making.

Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation of
' land.—The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian corn
are well-drained medium soils, loams or sandy loams, in a
good state of fertility. Corn will give best results coming
after clover. The preparation of the land for growing
corn is the same whether ear corn or forage is the object.
Fall plowing is practiced by many successful corn growers.
The seed is planted on carefully prepared ground at such
a time as convenient and advisable. Other things being
equal, the earlier the planting the better, after the danger
of frost is ordinarily over. “The early crop may fail, but
the late crop is almost sure to fail.” After planting, the
soil should be kept pulverized and thoroughly cultivated.
Shallow cultivation will ordinarily give better results than
deep cultivation, as the former method suffices to destroy
the weeds and to preserve the soil moisture, which are the
essential points sought in cultivating crops. The culti-
vation should be no more frequent than is necessary for
the complete eradication of weeds. It has been found that
the yield of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as
well as by insufficient cultivation. The general rule may
be given to cultivate as often, but no oftener, than is nec-
essary to kill the weeds, or keep the soil pulverized.

133

134 SILAGE CROPS. |

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon as
the young plants break through the surface, and the soil
kept stirred and weeds destroyed, until cultivation is no
longer practicable.

Varieties of corn for the silo.—The best corn for the
silo, in any locality, is that variety which will be reason-
ably sure to mature before frost, and which produces a
large amount of foliage and ears. The best varieties for
the New England States, are the Leaming, Sanford, and
Flint corn; for the Middle States, Leaming, White and
Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the
Leaming, Sanford, Flint and White Dent will be apt to
give the best results, while in the South, the Southern
Horse Tooth, Mosby Prolific, and other large dent corns
are preferred.

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best adapt-
ed for the silo; for Northern Ontario, North Dakota and
Compton’s Early Flint; for Central Ontario, larger and
heavier-yielding varieties may be grown, viz., Mammoth
Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest White Dent. It is useless
to grow a variety for silage which will not be in a firm
dough state by the time the first frosts are likely to
appear.

In the early stages of siloing corn in this country, the
effort was to obtain an immense yield of fodder per acre,
no matter whether the corn ripened or not. Large yields
were doubtless, often obtained with these big varieties,
although it is uncertain that the actual yields ever came
up to the claims made. Bailey’s Mammoth Ensilage Corn,
“if planted upon good corn land, in good condition, well
matured, with proper cultivation,’ was guaranteed to pro-
duce from forty to seventy-five tons of green fodder to
the acre, “just right for ensilage.’” We now know that
the immense Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an
immature stage, as must necessarily be the case in North-
ern States, may contain less than ten per cent. of dry
matter, the rest (more than nine-tenths of the total
weight) being made up of water. This is certainly a re-

YIELDS OF SOUTHERN AND MAINE CORN. 135

markable fact, when we remember that skim-milk, even
when obtained by the separator process will contain
nearly ten per cent. of solid matter.

In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at
an immature stage, Prof. Robertson, of Canada, said at
a Wisconsin Farmers’ Institute, “Fodder corn sowed
broadcast does not meet the needs of milking cows. Such
a fodder is mainly a device of a thoughtless farmer to
fool his cows into believing that they have been fed, when
they have only been filled up.” The same applies with
equal strength to the use of large, immature Southern
varieties of fodder, or for the silo, in Northern States.

In comparative variety tests with corn in the North,
Southern varieties have usually been found to furnish
larger quantities per acre of both green fodder and total
dry matter in the fodder, than the smaller Northern vari-
eties. As an average of seven culture trials, Professor
Jordan thus obtained the following results at the Maine
Station.

COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SOUTHERN CORN AND MAINE
FIELD CORN GROWN IN MAINE, 1888-1893.

SOUTHERN CORN. MAINE FIELD CORN.

Maximum | 46,340| 16.58] 6,237| 69 |3,923| 29,400| 25.43|7,004| 78 | 4,945
Minimum | 26,295] 12.30) 3,234] 61 | 2,102) 14,212/13.55 | 2,415 | 70 |1,715
Average, | 34,761] 14:50| 5,036 | 65 | 3,251| 22'269| 18.75 | 4,224| 72 | 3,076

The average percentage digestibility of the dry sub-
stance is 65 per cent. for the Southern corn, and 72 per
cent. for the Maine field corn, all the results obtained for
the former varieties being lower than those obtained for
the latter. While the general result for the five years, so
far as the yield of digestible matter is concerned, is

136 SILAGE CROPS.

slightly in favor of the Southern varieties, the fact should
not be lost sight of that an average of 64% tons more of
material has annually to be handled over several times,
in case of these varieties of corn, in order to gain 175
pounds more of digestible matter per acre; we therefore,
conclude that the smaller, less watery, variety of corn
really proved the more profitable.

At other Northern stations similar results, or results
more favorable to the Northern varieties, have been ob-
tained, showing that the modern practice of growing only
such corn for the silo as will -mature in the particular
locality of each farmer, is borne out by the results of
careful culture tests.

Time of cutting corn for the silo.—In order to deter-
mine at what stage of growth corn had better be cut when
intended for the -silo, it is necessary to ascertain the
amount of food materials which the corn plant contains
at the different stages, and the proportion of different in-
gredients at each stage. From careful and exhaustive
studies of the changes occurring in the composition of the
corn plant, which have been conducted both in this coun-
try and abroad, we know that as corn approaches maturity
the nitrogenous or flesh-forming substances decrease in
proportion to the other components, while the non-nitro-
genous components, especially starch (see Glossary), in-
crease -very markedly; this increase continues until the
crop is nearly mature, so long as the leaves are still
green. Several experiment stations have made investi-
gations in regard to this point. As an illustration we
give below data obtained by Prof. Ladd, in an investiga-
tion in which fodder corn was cut and analyzed at five
different stages of growth, from full tasseling to maturity.

The data given below show how rapidly the yield of
food materials increases with the advancing age of the
corn, and also that increase during the later stages of
growth comes largely on the nitrogen-fed extract (starch,
sugar, etc.).

TABLE OF CHEMICAL CHANGES: 137

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE CORN CROP.

Tas- | Silked Milk Glazed,| Ri
] , ] pe,
YIELD PER ACRE. seled, | Aug.9|Aug. 21| Sept. 7|Sept. 23
July 30 Sener >

Pounds|Pounds}Pounds/Pounds}Pounds

(GUGSSUNVICIGHE. ee 0. bu a 18045 |25745 [32600 |32295 |28460
Mater ithe Crop’... 2... 16426 |22666 {21957 |25093 |20542
Mi GMENLALLER paris. ews Ses cs > 2619 | 3078 | 4643 | 7202 | 7918
AUST Seo Sanat ae 138.9] 201.3} 232.2} 302.5) 364.2
Mele Protein «28. o's ose ss 239.8| 436.8] 478.7} 643.9] 677.8
Bere HEDEL . A doc os cw oe 514.2} 872.9] 1262.0] 2755.9] 1734.0
Nitrogen-free Extract
(starch, sugar, etc.) ....| 653.9} 1399.3] 2441.3] 3239.8] 4827.6
Cera eee tA! a is care Be Sisson 72.2| 167.8) 228.9) 260.0) 314.3

The results as to this point obtained at several ex-
periment stations have been summarized and are given
in the following table, showing the increase in food in-
gredients during the stages previous to maturity.

We thus find that the largest amount of food ma-
terials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn is
well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total
growth in height it has, as shown by results given in
the last table, attained only one-third to one-half of the
weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity;
hence we see the wisdom of postponing cutting the corn
for the silo, as in general for forage purposes until rather
late in the season, when it can be done without danger
of frost. ‘

The table given in the preceding, and our discussion
so far, have taken into account only the total, and not the
digestible components of the corn.

It has been found through careful digestion trials
that older plants are somewhat less digestible than young
plants. There is, however, ne such difference in the
digestibility of the total dry matter or its components as
is found in the total quantities obtained from plants at
the different stages of growth, and the total yields of

138 | SILAGE CROPS.

digestible matter in the corn will therefore be greater
at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any
earlier stage of growth. Hence we find that the general
practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time when the
corn is in the roasting-ear stage, when the kernels have
become rather firm, and are dented or beginning to glaze,
is good science and in accord with our best knowledge on
the subject.

INCREASE IN FOOD INGREDIENTS FROM TASSELING
TO MATURITY.

; Gain in per cent.
Stage of Maturity. between first

3 and last cutting.
EXPERIMENT

Variety. zs me
‘ =a |OD/O one)

STATION. First Tice a ge 2 .\32
Cutting. Cutting. |ZFelIzsalaalah

AS OR |Om|Og

|
|
|

Cornell, N. Y.| Pride of the
North Bloom |Mature /|150) 90)129/169

% ~ <0 Prade ofthe Nearly
North a mature |217 134/374/300

Geneva, N. Y.|/King Philip Tasseled |Mature |389)183/335/462
New Hamp. |Av.of 4var.| “ Glazed 112} 50] 84/18
Pennsylvania |Av.of 10 var. “ Mature |155
Vermont Av.ott2vatle Glazed {122} 50

‘é se “ 73 6é Bloom “é 204 81
Amerace Ob auctrellscet 2k... hier os whee em Ane 193| 98/230) 265

Other reasons why cutting at a late period of growth
is preferable in siloing corn are.found in the fact that
the quality of the silage made from such corn is much
better than that obtained from green immature corn, and
in the fact that the sugar is most abundant in the corn
plant in the early stages of ear development, but the
loss of non-nitrogenous components in the silo falls first
of all on the sugar, hence it is the best policy to post-
pone cutting until the grain is full-sized and the sugar has
largely been changed to starch.

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity

METHODS OF PLANTING CORN. 13

in the first chapter to delay the cutting so long that the
corn plant becomes too dry, for the reason stated. Silage
does not spoil when too wet, but will mold if too dry.
Experience will be the best guide, but the foregoing pages
should enable the reader to form the right idea as to
time for filling, which to secure the best results, is nearly
as important as to have material with which to fill the
Silo.

Methods of Planting Corn. When the corn crop is
intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer
than is ordinarily the case when the production of a large
crop of ear corn is the primary object sought. Thin seed-
ing favors the development of well-developed, strong
plants, but not the production of a large amount of green
forage. The number of plants which can be brought to
perfect development on a certain piece of land depends
upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of
the season, especially whether it is a wet or dry season,
as well as other factors, hence no absolute rule can be
given as to the best thickness of planting corn for the
silo. Numerous experiments conducted in different parts
of the country have shown, however, that the largest
quantities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob-
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two
feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants
six or eight inches apart in the row.

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield
obtained is concerned, whether the corn is planted in
hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds
in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably
to plant the corn in drills if this is done by means of a
corn harvester or sled cutter, as is now generally the
case. The yield seems more dependent on the number
of plants grown on a certain area of land than_on the
arrangement of planting the corn. Hills four feet each
way, with four stalks to the hill, will thus usually give
about the same yield as hills two feet apart, with stalks
two stalks to the hill or drills four feet apart with-stalks

140 SILAGE CROPS.

one foot apart in the row, etc. The question of planting
corn in hills or in drills is therefore largely one of greater
or less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the
two methods. This will depend on the character of the
land; where the land is uneven, and check-rowing of the
corn difficult, or when the land is free from weeds, drill
planting is preferable, while, conversely, on fields where
this can be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply
be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check-
rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is econom-
ical production and preservation of a good quality of feed,
the economy and certainty in caring for the growing
crop is of considerable importance, and generally planting
in hills not too far apart will be found to facilitate this,
especially during wet season.

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broadcast,
whether intended for the silo, or for production of ear
corn; when sown broadcast, the corn cannot be kept free
from weeds, except by hand labor. More seed is moreover
required, the plants shade each other and will therefore
not reach full development, from lack of sufficient sunshine
and moisture, and a less amount of available food con-
stituents per acre will be produced.

Other Silage Crops.

Clover. Clover is second to Indian corn in impor-
tance as a silage crop. We are but beginning to appreciate
the value of clover in modern agriculture. It has been
shown that the legumes, the family to which clover
belongs, are the only common forage plants able to con-
vert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that may
be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other
legumes, therefore, draw largely on the air for the most
expensive and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and
for this reason, as well as on account of their deep roots,
which bring fertilizing elements up near the surface, they
enrich the land upon which they grow. Being a more

- be
0 a 2.2. eEeEIEEes sc _—Ec_ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
=

CLOVER SILAGE. 141

nitrogenous food than corn or the grasses, clover sup-
plies a good deal of the protein compounds required by
farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for
the production of milk, wool or meat. By feeding clover,
a smaller purchase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs,
like flour-mill or oil-mill refuse products, is therefore ren-
dered necessary than when corn is fed; on account of its
high fertilizing value it furthermore enables the farmer
feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land.

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed
for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher pro-
tein contents it has an advantage over corn silage in
point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin dairy
farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover estimates
the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1,
against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average
yield per acre of green clover is about twelve tons.

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of
its succulence and greater palatability, as well as its
higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is mainly
due to the fact that all the parts of the clover plant are
preserved in the silo, with a small unavoidable loss in
fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves and tender
parts, which contain about two-thirds of the protein com-
pounds, are often largely lost by abrasion. .

Clover may easily and cheaply be placed in a modern
silo and preserved in a perfect condition. The failures
reported in the early stages of silo filling were largely
due to the faulty construction of the silo. Clover does not
pack as well as the heavy green corn, and therefore, re-
quires to be cut and weighted, or calls for greater depth
in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficiently ex-
cluded.

When to Cut Clover for the Silo.—The yield of food
materials obtained from clover at different stages of
growth has been studied by a number of scientists. The
following table giving the results of an investigation con-
ducted by Professor Atwater will show the total quan-

142 SILAGE CROPS.

tities of food materials secured at four different stages
of growth of red clover.

YIELD PER ACRE OF RED CLOVER—IN POUNDS.

STAGE OF Green Dry | Crude | Crude | N-free | Crude Aah
CUTTING. Weighi Matter | Protein Fiber. |Extract} Fat. zs

Just before
bloom. oa: 3,070 | 1,3
Full bloom...| 2,650 | 1,4
Nearly out
of bloom...| 4,960 | 1,75
Nearly ripe. .| 3,910 | 1,52

| 023} 837 | 31 129
3] 108 | 484) 746 | 36 98

Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of hay per acre
from clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds when
three-fourths of the heads were dead. The yields of dry
matter in the two cases were 2,526 pounds, and 2,427
pounds respectively. All components, except crude fibre
(see Glossary), yielded less per acre in the second cut-
ting. Jordan found the same result, comparing the yields
and composition of clover cut when in bloom, some heads
dead, and heads all dead, the earliest cutting giving the
maximum yield of dry matter, and of all components ex-
cept crude fibre.

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for
the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single heads
are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for hay-making,
and we notice that the teachings of the investigations
made are in conformity with this practice.

Many farmers are increasing the value of their corn
silage by the addition of clover. A load of clover to a
load or two loads of well-matured corn is a good mixture..

Alfalfa (lucerne) is the great, coarse forage plant of
the West, and during late years, it has been grown con-
siderably in the Northern and Central States. In irrigated
districts it will yield more food materials per acre of land
than perhaps any other crop. Four to five cuttings, each
yielding a ton to a ton and a half of hay, are common in

COW PEAS. 143

these regions, and the yields obtained are often much
higher. In humid regions three cuttings may ordinarily
be obtained; each of one to one and a half tons of hay.

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay,
alfalfa is also of considerable importance as a silage crop
in dairy sections of the Western States. As with red
clover, reports of failure in siloing alfalfa are on record,
but first-class alfalfa silage can be readily made in deep,
modern silos, when the crop is cut when in full bloom,
and the plants are not allowed to wilt much before being
run through a cutter and siloed. In the opinion of the
dairymen who have had large experience in siloing alfalfa,
sweet alfalfa silage is more easily made than good al-
falfa hay.

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover
refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favor-
ably with clover silage, both in. chemical composition and
in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-forming substances
(protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage,
and makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, espe-
cially young stock and dairy cows.

Cow Peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the
West, and when properly handled make excellent and
most valuable silage. The cow peas are sown early in
the season, either broadcast, about 1144 bushels to the
acre and turned under with a one-horse turning plow, or
drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut with
a mower when one-half or more of the peas on the vines
are fully ripe, and are immediately raked in windrows
and hauled to the silo, where they are run through a feed
cutter and cut into inch lengths.

Cow pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals
after they once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor;
farmers who have had considerable practical experience
in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea
silage has no equal for cows and sheep. It is also a good
hog food, and for all these animals is considered greatly
superior to pea-vine hay. In feeding experiments at a

144 SILAGE CROPS.

Delaware experiment station six pounds of pea-vine silage
fully took the place of one pound of wheat bran, and the
product of one acre was found equivalent to two tons of
bran.

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate
loads of cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into the
silo, which will make a very satisfactory mixed silage. A
modification of this practice is known as Getty’s method,
in which corn and cow peas are grown in alternate rows,
and harvested together with a corn harvester. Corn for
this combination crop is preferably a large Southern vari-
ety, drilled in rows 4% feet apart, with stalks 9 to 16
inches apart in the row. Whippoorwill peas are planted
in drills close to the rows of corn when this is about six
inches high, and has been cultivated once. The crop is
cut when the corn is beginning to glaze, and when three-
fourths of the pea pods are ripe.

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these
run through the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas are
carefully leveled off and trampled down in the silo, and
about a foot cover of green corn, straw or cottonseed
hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. As in case of all
legumes, it is safest to wet the cover thoroughly with at
least two gallons of water per square foot of surface.
This will seal the siloed mass thoroughly and will pre-
vent the air from working in from the surface and spoil-
ing considerable of the silage on top.

A similar effort of combining several feeds for the
silo is found in the so-called Robertson Ensilage Mixture
for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in Canada. This
is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and
horse beans in the proportion of 1 acre corn, % acre horse
beans, and %4 acre sunflowers. The principle back of the
practice is to furnish a feed richer in protein substances
than corn, and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities
of expensive protein foods like bran, oil meal, etc. Feed-
ing experiments conducted with the Robertson Silage
Mixture for cows at several experiment stations have

ooo

SOJA BEANS AND SORGHUM. 145

given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain
ration of milch cows without causing loss of flesh or
lessening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds
of this silage may be considered equivalent to three or
four pounds of grain feeds. The practice has not, how-
ever, been adopted to any great extent, so far as is known,
owing to the difficulty of securing a good quality of silage
from the mixture and of growing the horse beans success-
fully.

Soja beans (soy beans) are another valuable silage
crop. According to the U. S. Department of Agriculture
the soy bean is highly nutritive, gives a heavy yield, and
is easily cultivated. The vigorous late varieties are well
adapted for silage. The crop is frequently siloed with
corn (2 parts of the latter to 1 of the former), and like
other legumes it improves the silage by tending to counter-
act the acid reaction of corn silage. Of other Southern
crops that are used for silage crops may be mentioned
Kaffir corn, chicken corn and teosinte.

Sorghum is sometimes siloed in the Western and Mid-
dle States, and in the South. It is sown in drills, 3144 inches
apart, with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and
is cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or before.
According to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and
non-saccharine sorghum are excellent for silage. The
sorghums are less liable to be damaged by insects than
corn, and they remain green far into the fall, so that the
work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the
corn is ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre
of green sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-half as
much again as a good crop of corn. These considera-
tions lead Professor Shelton to pronounce sorghum greatly
superior to corn as silage materials, in Kansas, and gen-
erally throughout the Central Western States. The Ottawa
(Can.) Station states that sorghum, where it can be grown
makes an excellent crop for silage. It needs to be cut,
the best length, as in the case of corn being three-quarters
of an inch long, or less.

146 SILAGE CROPS.

Sorghum, like corn, contains an excess of carbohydrates
and is somewhat deficient in protein. Its value i8 in-
creased therefore by the addition of some leguminous crop
such as cow peas.

Miscellaneous Silage Crops. In Northern Europe,
especially in England, and the Scandinavian countries,
meadow grass and after-math (rowen) are usually siloed;
in England, at the present time, largely in stacks.

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar-
beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a low
cost, stock raisers and dairymen have a most valuable
aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the pulp is
taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent. of
water; it packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided
and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore
be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in
siloing corn, and especially clover and other crops of
similar character. If pulp is siloed with other fodder
crops, it is preferably placed uppermost, for the reason
stated. Beet tops and pulp are often siloed in alternate
layer in pits 8 to 4 feet deep, and covered with boards
and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed
in such silos as there will then be much smaller losses
of food materials than in case of shallow silos or trenches
in the field.

Wheat, rye and oats have been siloed for summer feed-
ing with some success. A recent correspondent in Hoard’s
Dairyman tells of sowing some 23 acres of rye and 9 acres
of wheat in the fall of 1907 and filling one silo with the
rye the following May and the other with wheat early in
June, just when they were headed out but before the grain
was actually formed. Several acres of oats and peas were
put into a third silo the first week in July. In cutting
the rye and wheat it was necessary to take the precaution
of cutting into short lengths and of carefully treading
and packing it in the silo, in order to insure its keeping
qualities. “It has kept very well until entirely consumed

MISCELLANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. 147

by the cattle, and we have no reason to suppose that it
would not have kept if we had not used it up when we
did. But our experience has been that neither the rye nor
the wheat is equal to corn silage for feed. In fact the
cows did not eat the rye as clean as they should have dene
and fell off somewhat in milk. When we began on the
wheat, however, they did better and we believe the wheat
to be better material for silage than rye.”

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low
in ash and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see Glossary).
Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn
silage.

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in the
agricultural literature of the siloing of a large number of
plants, or products, like vetches, small grains (cut green),
cabbage leaves, sugar beets, potatoes, potato leaves, tur-
nips, brewers’ grains, apple pomace, refuse from corn and
pea canning factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines;
even fern (brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been
made into silage, and used with more or less success as
foods for farm animals.

At a recent convention of the California Dairy Asso-
ciation the president, Mr. A. P. Martin, stated that the best
silage he ever made, besides corn, was made of weeds. A
piece of wheat which was sowed early, was drowned out,
and the field came up with tar weed and sorrel. This was
made into silage, and when fed to milch cows, produced
most satisfactory results.

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and
profitable thing to have on a farm even if silage crops are
not regularly raised to fill it. There are always waste
products, green or half-dry, with coarse materials like
swale hay, that are generally used for compost or bed-
ding, which may be made into palatable silage. A mix-
ture, in equal parts, of rag-weed, swamp grass or swale-
hay, old corn stalks or straw, and second-crop green
clover, nearly three-fourths of which would otherwise be
almost useless, will make a superior silage, surprising
to those who never tried it.

148 SILAGE CROPS.

The following description of the contents filled into
a New York silo, which was used as a sort of catch-all, is
given by the same writer: 1, 18 in. deep of green oats;
2, 6 in. of red clover; 3, 6 in. of Canada field peas; 4,
3 in. of brewers’ grains; 5, 2 feet of whole corn plants,
sowed broadcast, and more rag-weed than corn; 6, 5 in.
of second-crop grass; 7, 12 in. of sorghum; 8, a lot im-
mature corn cut in short lengths. The silage came out
pretty acid, but made good forage, and was all eaten up

clean. Damaged crops like frosted beets, potatoes, cab-

bages, etc.; rutabagas which showed signs of decay, and
clover that could not be made into hay because of rain,
may all be placed in a silo and thus made to contribute
to the food supply on the farm.

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California,
viz., for rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in
feeding cattle. The foxtail which almost takes the first
crop of alfalfa in many parts of California, is a nutritious
grass, but on account of its beards, is dangerous to feed.
By siloing the crop the grass is said to be rendered per-
fectly harmless; the alfalfa-foxtail silage thus obtained
is eaten by stock with great relish and without any in-
jurious effects. (Wall).

ow Mla

———

CHAPTER VIII.
HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.
Filling the Silo.

A. Indian Corn. As previously stated, corn should
be left in the field before cutting until it has passed
through the dough stage i. e., when the kernels are well
dented or glazed, in case of flint varieties. Where very
large silos are filled and in cases of extreme dry weather
when the corn is fast drying up, it will be well to begin
filling the silo a little before it has reached this stage,
as the greater portion of the corn would otherwise be
apt to be too dry. There is, however, less danger in this
respect now than formerly, on account of our modern deep
Silos, and because we have found that water applied
directly to the fodder in the silo acts in the same way as
water in the fodder, and keeps the fermentations in the
silo in check and in the right track.

Cutting the Corn in the Field. The cutting of corn
for the silo is usually on small farms done by hand by
means of a corn knife. Many farmers have been using
self-raking and binding corn harvesters for this purpose,
while others report good success with a sled or platform
cutter. If the corn stands up well, and is not of a very
large variety, the end sought may be reached in a satis-
factory manner by either of these methods. If, on the
other hand, much of the corn is down, hand cutting is to
be preferred. A number of different makes of corn har-
vesters and corn cutters are now on the market; and it
is very likely that hand-cutting of fodder corn will be
largely done away with in years to come, at least on large
farms, indeed, it looks as if the day of the corn knife was
passing away, and as if this implement will soon be rele-
gated to obscurity with the sickle of our fathers’ time.

149

150 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

If a corn harvester is used, it will be found to be a
great advantage to have the bundles made what seems
rather small. It will take a little more twine, but the
loaders, the haulers, the unloaders, and even the Silage
Cutter itself will handle much more corn in a day if the
bundles are small and light, and it will be found to be
economy to see that this is done.

A platform cutter, which was used with great suc-
cess, is described by a veteran Wisconsin dairyman, the
late Mr. Charles R. Beach.

“We use two wagons, with platforms built upon two
timbers, eighteen feet long, suspended beneath the axles.
These platforms are about eighteen inches from the ground
and are seven feet wide. The cutting knife is fastened
upon a small removable platform, two feet by about three
and one-half feet, which is attached to the side of the large
platform, and is about six or eight inches lower. One row
is cut at a time, the knife striking the corn at an angle of
about forty-five degrees. One man kneels on the small
platform and takes the corn with his arm; two or three
men stand upon the wagon, and as soon as he has gotten
an armful, the men, each in turn, take it from him and pile
it on the wagon. If the rows are long enough a load of
one and one-half to two tons can be cut and loaded on in
about eight or ten minutes. The small platform is de-
tached from the wagon, the load driven to the silo, the
platform attached to the other wagon, and another load
is cut and loaded. None of the corn reaches the ground;
no bending down to pick up. One team will draw men,
cutter, and load, and I do not now well see how the method
could be improved. With a steam engine, a large cutter,
two teams and wagons, and ten men we filled our silo
22x24x18 feet (190 tons), fast, in less than two days.”

Professor Georgeson, has described a one-horse sledge-
cutter which has given better satisfaction than any fodder-
cutter tried at the Kansas Experiment Station. It is
provided with two knives, which are hinged to the body
of the sled, and can be folded in on the sled, when not in

CUTTING AND HAULING THE CORN. 151

use. It has been improved and made easier to pull by
providing it with four low and broad cast-iron wheels.
It is pulled by a single horse and cuts two rows at a time.
Two men stand upon the cutter, each facing a row; as the
corn is cut they gather it into armfuls, which they drop
into heaps on the ground. A wagon with a low, broad
rack follows, on which the corn is loaded and hauled to
the silo.

Similar corn cutters have been made by various man-
ufacturers of late years and have proved quite satisfac-
tory, although they require more hand labor than the corn
harvesters and do not leave the corn tied up and in as
convenient shape for loading on the wagons as these do.
It is also necessary to use care with the sledge type of
corn cutter, as numerous cases are on record where both
men and horses have been injured by getting in front of
the knives, which project from the sides.

Fig. 27. Low-down rack for hauling fodder corn.

A low-down rack for hauling corn from the field is
shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 27). It has
been used for some years past at the Wisconsin Station,
and is a great convenience in handling corn, saving both
labor and time. These racks not only dispense with a
man upon the wagon when loading, but they materially
lessen the labor of the man who takes the corn from the
ground, for it is only the top of the load which needs to
be raised shoulder-high; again, when it comes to unload-
ing, the man can stand on the floor or ground and simply
draw the corn toward him and lay it upon the table of the

152 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

cutter, without stooping over and without raising the corn
up to again throw it down. A plank that can easily be
hitched on behind the truck will prove convenient for
loading, so that the loader can pick up his armful and,

walking up the plank, can drop it without much exertion. ©

If wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be
shocked in the field to protect it as much as possible from
rain before hauling it to the cutter.

Siloing Corn, “Ears and All.”

The best practice in putting corn into the silo, is to
silo the corn plant “ears and all,’ without previously husk-
ing it. If the ear corn is not needed for hogs and horses,
or for seed purposes, this practice is in the line of econ-
omy, as it saves the expense of husking, cribbing, shelling
and grinding the ear corn. The possible loss of food ma-
terials sustained in siloing the ear corn speaks against
the practice, but this is very small, and more than coun-
terbalanced by the advantages gained by this method of
procedure. In proof of this statement we will refer to an
extended feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Pro-
fessor Woll at the Wisconsin Station in 1891.

Corresponding’ rows of a large corn field were siloed,
“ears and all,’ and without ears, the ears belonging to
the latter lot being carefully saved and air-dried. The
total yield of silage with ears in it (whole-corn silage)
was 59,495 pounds; of silage without ears (stover silage)
34,496 pounds and of ear corn, 10,511 pounds. The dry
matter content of the lots obtained by the two methods
of treatment was, in whole-corn silage, 19,950 pounds;
in stover silage 9,484 pounds, and in ear corn, 9,122
pounds, or 18,606 pounds of dry matter in the stover
silage and ear corn combined. This shows a loss of 1,344
pounds of dry matter, or nearly 7 per cent., sustained by
handling the fodder and ear corn separately instead of
siloing the corn “ears and all.”

In feeding the two kinds of silage against each other,

er PN :
ee eae

-
ieee eee

THE FILLING PROCESS. 153

adding the dry ear corn to the stover silage, it was found
that seventeen tons of whole-corn silage fed to sixteen
cows produced somewhat better results than fourteen tons
of stover silage, and more than two tons of dry ear corn,
both kinds of silage having been supplemented by the
same quantities of hay and grain feed. The yield of milk
from the cows was 4 per cent. higher on the whole corn
silage ration than on the stover silage ration, and the
yield of fat was 6.9 per cent. higher on the same ration.
It would seem then that the cheapest and best way of pre-
serving the corn crop for feeding purposes, at least in case
of milch cows, is to fill it directly into the silo; the greater
portion of the corn may be cut and siloed when the corn
is in the roasting-ear stage, and the corn plat which is to
furnish ear corn may be left in the field until the corn
is fully matured, when it may be husked, and the stalks
and leaves may be filled into the silo on top of the corn
siloed “ears and all.” This will then need some heavy
weighting or one or two applications of water on top of
the corn, to insure a good quality of silage from the rather
dry stalks. (See page 152.)

An experiment similar to the preceding one, conducted
at the Vermont Station, in which the product from six
acres of land was fed to dairy cows, gave similar results.
We are justified in concluding, therefore, that husking,
shelling, and grinding the corn (processes that may cost
more than a quarter of the market value of the meal) are
labor and expense more than wasted, since the cows do
better on the corn siloed “ears and all” than on that siloed
after the ears were picked off and fed ground with it.

The Filling Process.

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the silo,
has still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous mass, so
that it will pack well in the silo and will be convenient
for feeding.

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and
all, may be run through an “Ohio” Ensilage Cutter.

154 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

The corn is unloaded on the table of the cutter and
run through the machine, after which the carrier or
blower elevates it and delivers it into the silo. The length
of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different farm-
ers and with the variety of corn to be siloed. Care should
be taken in this respect, however, for the length of cut
has much to do with the quality of the silage. Experience
has demonstrated that the half inch cut, or even shorter,
gives most satisfactory results. The corn will pack and
settle better in the silo, the finer it is cut, thus better ex-
cluding the air and at the same time increasing the ca-
pacity of silo, some say 20 to 25 percent. Cattle will
also eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and the
majority of farmers filling silos now practice such cutting.

The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge
of the silo at all times, thus keeping it high and packing
it there, letting the center take care of itself. The weight
of the silage packs it in the center.

If the corn is siloed “ears and all,” it is necessary to
keep a man or boy in the silo while it is being filled, to
level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners;
if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will be thrown
farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come
nearest the discharge; as a result the corn will not settle ©
evenly, and the different layers of silage will have a dif-
ferent feeding value. Several simple devices, such as
funnel-shaped hoppers, adjustable board suspended from
roof, etc., will suggest themselves for receiving the silage
from the carrier and directing it where desired in the
silo. With the blower machines, the new flexible. silo tube
shown in the back of this book, is a most happy solution
of an otherwise disagreeable job. At the same time it in-
sures perfectly equal distribution of the cut feed; the
leaves, moisture and heavier parts being always uniformly
mixed as cut.

PROPER DISTRIBUTION OF CUT MATERIAL. 155

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material
in the Silo.

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has
been elevated or blown into the silo is a matter which
should have proper attention at the time of filling. If
the cut material is allowed to drop all in one place and
then have no further attention the constant falling of the
material in one place will tend to make that portion solid
while the outside will not be so, and besides the pieces of
ears and heavier portions will continually roll to the out-
side. As a result the silage cannot settle evenly, and good
results will not follow. As the filling progresses, the cut
material should be leveled off and the common and most
successful practice is to keep the material higher at the
sides than at the center and do all the tramping at and
close to the sides, where the friction of the walls tends
to prevent as rapid settling as takes place at the center.
For this reason, no tramping, or at least, as little as
possible, should be done, except close to the walls. In
modern deep silos, the weight of the silage accomplishes
more than would any amount of tramping, and all that is
necessary, is to see that the cut material is rather evenly
distributed, for better results in feeding, and to assist the
settling by some tramping at the sides. With the new silo
tube, this distribution is really reduced to the mere guid-
ing of the mouth of the tube by hand.

Size of Cutter and Power Required.

The “Ohio” Cutters are made in a variety of sizes,
suited to all requirements.

The cutter used in filling the silo should have ample
capacity to give satisfaction and do the work rapidly; a
rather large cutter is therefore better than a cutter that
is barely large enough. The size required depends on
the rapidity with which it is desired to fill the silo and
on the power at hand. Where a steam engine is avail-
able it is the cheapest power for filling a large silo, as the

156 “HOW TO. MAKE SILAGE.

work can then be finished in a few days. For small farms
and silos, where an engine is not to be had, a two or
three-horse tread-power may be used, but it will be found
that the work of filling will progress much more slowly
than when steam power, such as is suitable for threshing,
is used. The filling may be done as rapidly as possible,
or may be done slowly, and no harm will result if, for
any reason the work be interrupted for some time. More
silage can be put into a silo with slow, than with rapid
filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can, of
course, fill his silo and then refill after the silage has
settled, so that the silo will be nearly full after all settling
has taken place.

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an
outfit, he will wish to do the filling as rapidly as possible,
as a matter of economy. It is, therefore, desirable for
the farmer to own his own machine, and that being the
case, a smaller machine will suffice; whereas if the
machine be hired the largest possible capacity will be
desired.

This has created a demand for various sizes of cutters,
and to meet this demand, the “Ohio” Ensilage Cutters
are made in six sizes, with knives eleven to twenty-two
inches long, and with Metal Bucket Elevators, or Blower
Elevators, as desired, adaptable to any height of silo.
The traveling feed table (supplied on all but the smallest
size “Ohio” Ensilage Cutter, No. 11) and the bull-dog grip
feed rolls are valuable features and practically do away
with the labor of feeding the heavy green corn, besides
increasing the capacity of the machines about one-third,
on account of its being so much easier to get a large
amount of material past the feed rolls.

The Metal Bucket Elevator is the older style of ele-
vator. It delivers the cut silage corn into the silo through
a window or opening at the top and must be longer than
the silo is high as it is necessary to run the carrier at
somewhat of an angle. The length of the carrier required
may be obtained by adding about 40 per cent. to the per-

SIZE OF CUTTER REQUIRED. 157

pendicular height from the ground to the window; thus for
a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is required, and for a 380 ft.
silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will be necessary.

The metal Bucket Elevators for the “Ohio” Cutters
are made both straight away and with swivel base, which
enables the operator to set the cutter in the desired posi-
tion, and as the swivel base gives the carrier a range of
adjustment extending over nearly a half circle, the carrier
can be run directly to the window, or in the case of two
silos setting side by side, both can be filled with one set-
ting of the cutter.

The No. 12 “Ohio” Monarch Cutter, with carrier (the
number of the machine indicates the length of knives and
width of throat), has a capacity of 8 to 12 tons of green
corn per hour, and requires 4 to 6 horse-power to run it to
full capacity, although it can be operated successfully
with less power, by feeding in proportion to the power at
hand. The Blower machines require more power to oper-
ate successfully than do the Carrier machines. The 14,
17, 19 and 22 inch “Ohio” Cutters have correspondingly
larger capacities, and in the case of the larger sizes the
amount that can be cut is only limited by the amount that
can be conveniently gotten to them. .The largest sizes
can be run by an ordinary threshing engine. These ma-
chines have been on the market for upwards of twenty-
five years, and have been brought to a wonderful state
of perfection. For durability, ease and reliability of oper-
ation, capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the
most practical means of filling the silo.

The Nos. 14, 17 and 19 “Ohio” Cutters are the sizes
mostly in use by farmers and dairymen, and the travel-
ing feed table, which is long enough to receive a bundle
of corn, is a most valuable feature, and has become almost
universal on the “Ohio” machines used for silo filling. It
decreases the labor of feeding and makes any size of ma-
chine about equal in capacity to the next size larger with-
out it.

The newer and more modern method of elevating fod-

158 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

der in filling silos, is the use of the Blower Elevator which
blows the cut fodder into the silo through a continuous
pipe. Blower Elevators (see illustration of “Ohio” Blower
Cutter, Fig. 29) have been in use to an increasing extent
for several years, and today there is absolutely no doubt
as to their superiority for elevating the material. Where
sufficient power is available there is no difficulty in ele-
vating the cut fodder into the highest silos.

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat more
power than the old style Carrier, they have numerous

Fig. 29.This illustration shows a No. 19 Monarch Self-Feed Blower Cutter
filling three forty-foot silos, 500 tons capacity, at the Ingleside Farms,
Thorndale, Chester county, Pa. At the time the photograph was taken,
this machine had just replaced an exploded fly-whcel cutter which nearly
killed one of the workmen. |

BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. 159

advantages over the latter, and the majority of machines
now being sold are equipped with Blowers. We mention
below some of the features that have served to bring the
“Ohio” Monarch Blowers to the notice and favor of farm-
ers and dairymen so rapidly.

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down or
moved, as all that is necessary is to remove the pipe,
(which is in sections of various lengths from four to
ten feet as desired), which requires but a few moments.
This operation requires but little time as compared with
that occupied in setting up or taking apart the chain
elevator.

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing
all of the corn in the silo and there is no litter around
the machine when the filling is finished.

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn
is made much finer, and it therefore packs closer in the
silo, thus enabling more fodder to be stored in the silo;
the corn is all knocked off of the pieces of cobs and dis-
tributed through the cut fodder better, and the pieces of
the heavy butts and joints are also split and knocked to
pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a fine condition
so that it is eaten up cleaner by the stock.

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more
durable than the chain elevator.

Many have been skeptical as to-the ability of the Blower
to elevate the material as rapidly as the “Ohio” Machines
cut it. This proposition, however, has been proven en-
tirely feasible and successful, and there positively need
be no fear on this point if the following points are kept
in mind.

The machine must be run at the proper speed as
recommended by the manufacturers. A fan can only
create a sufficient blast by running fast enough to force
the air through the pipe at the rate of nine or ten thou-
sand feet per minute. Green corn is heavy stuff and re-
quires a strong current of air to carry it through 30 or
40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 30 tons per hour. [ft

160 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

will be seen, therefore, that unless proper speed be main-
tained there will be no elevation of the material what-
ever. If the power at hand is not sufficient to maintain
full speed when the cutters are fed to full capacity, all that
is necessary is to feed the machine accordingly, in other
words, to cut down the capacity to the point where full
speed can be maintained, as is necessary with other kinds
of machinery, such as threshing machines, grinding mills,
etc.

In setting a Blower Machine it is necessary to have
the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that the
current of air within the pipe will lift the material. This
is especially true where the pipe is long, say 20 feet or
more, because the green fodder being heavy will settle
down onto the lower side of the pipe, if this has much
slant, and the wind blast will pass over the fodder, thus
allowing it to lodge, whereas if the pipe be perpendicular,
or nearly so, no stoppage will occur. It is also necessary
to see that full speed is attained before beginning to
feed the machine, and also to stop the feeding while the
machine is in full motion so that the Blower will have
an opportunity to clear itself before shutting off the power.

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent back
pressure, as the tremendous volume of air forced into the
silo with the cut fodder must have some means of escape.

If these few points are kept in mind, there can be no
possible doubt as to the successful operation of the Blower
Elevator; and, as previously stated, there is absolutely no
doubt as to their superiority for elevating silage. Scores
of “Ohio” Blower Machines are in successful use in all
parts of the country. .

(N. B. At the end of this volume will be found illus-
trations and descriptions of several sizes and styles of
“Ohio” Cutters, which the reader can refer to, in addition
to the illustrations given here.)

Danger from Carbonic-Acid Poisoning in Silos.—As
soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic-acid

COVERING THE SILOED FODDER. 161

gas is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight the gas will
gradually accumulate directly above the fodder, since it
is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the con-
ditions given. If a man or an animal goes down into this
atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is
the case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well.
Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred in filling
silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more
days, and men have then gone into the silo to tramp down
the cut corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left
open when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus venti-
lated, carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since the
gas will then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic acid
being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordi-
nary air, it cannot be directly observed, but may be readily
detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the
light goes out when lowered into the silo there is an
accumulation of carbonic acid in it, and a person should
open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going
down into it.

After the silage is made and the temperature in the
silo has gone down considerably, there is no further evo-
lution of carbonic acid, and therefore no danger in enter-
ing the silo even if this has been shut up tight. The
maximum evolution of carbonic acid, and consequently the
danger of carbonic-acid poisoning comes during or directly
after the filling of the silo.

Covering the Siloed Fodder.

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have been
recommended and tried, with varying success. The orig-
inal method was to put boards on top of the fodder, and
to weight them heavily by means of a foot layer of dirt
or sand, or with stone. The weighting having later on.
been done away with, lighter material, as straw, hay,
sawdust, etc., was substituted for the stone or sand.
Building: paper was often placed over the fodder, and
boards on top of the paper. There is no special advan-

162 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

tage derived from the use of building-paper, and it is now
never used. Many farmers run some corn stalks, or green
husked fodder, through the cutter after the fodder is all
in. In the South, cotton-seed hulls are easily obtained,
and form a cheap and most efficient cover.

None of these materials or any other recommended for
the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of
silage, some four to six inches of the top Jayer being
usually spoilt. Occasionally this spoilt silage may not be
so bad but that cattle or hogs will eat it up nearly clean,
but it is at best very poor food, and should not be used by
any farmer who cares for the quality of his products. The
wet or green materials are better for cover than dry sub-
stances, since they prevent evaporation of water from the
top layer; when this is dry air will be admitted to the fod-
der below, thus making it possible for putrefactive bacteria
and molds to continue the destructive work begun by the
fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the silage to
spoil.

Use of Water in Filling Silos——During late years the
practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has
been followed in a large number of cases. The surface
is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water
added. In applying the method at the Wisconsin Station,
Prof. King, a few days after the completion of the filling
of the silo, added water to the fodder corn at the rate of
about ten pounds per square foot of surface, repeating the
same process about ten days afterwards. By this method
a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple
of inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent
evaporation of water from the corn below, and will pre-
serve all but a few inches at the top. The method can be
recommended in cases where the corn or clover goes into
the silo in a rather dry condition, on account of drouth
or extreme hot weather, so as not to pack sufficiently by
its own weight. While weighting of the siloed fodder has
long since been done away with, it may still prove ad-
vantageous to resort to it where very dry fodder is siloed,

CLOVER SILAGE. 163

or in case of shallow silos. Under ordinary conditions
neither weighting nor application of water should be nec-
essary.

There is only one way in which all of the silage can
be preserved intact, viz., by beginning to feed the silage
within a few days after the silo has been filled. This
method is now practiced by many farmers, especially
dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall
pastures.

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the silo-
ing system is brought to perfection, provided the silo
structure is air-tight, and constructed so as to admit of
no unnecessary losses of nutrients. Under these con-
ditions there is a very considerable saving of food ma-
terials over silage made in poorly constructed silos, or
over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have al-
ready seen.

Clover Silage.

Green clover may be siloed whole or cut, but the
late? method is to be recommended. The clover should
not be left to wilt between cutting and siloing, and the
silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unneces-
sary losses by fermentation.

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory
silo crops; ordinary red or medium clover is most used
in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover;
the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and
may therefore be siloed later than these. Alfalfa, or
lucerne, is, as previously stated, often siloed in the West.
Under the conditions present there it will generally pro-
duce much larger yields than corn, and, preserved in
a silo, will furnish a large supply of most valuable feed.
Prof. Neale and others recommended the use of scarlet
clover for summer silage, for Delaware and States under
similar. climatic conditions.

Says a Canadian dairy farmer: “If we were asked
for our opinion as to what will most help the average

164 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

dairy farmer, I think we would reply: Knowledge of a
balanced ration, the Babcock test, and a summer silo;
then varying the feed of individual animals according
to capacity; as shown by scales and close observation.”

Clover for Summer Silage.

By filling the clover into the silo at midsummer, or be-
fore, space is utilized that would otherwise be empty;
the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding in
the latter part of the summer and during the fall, when
the pastures are apt to run short. This makes it pos-
sible to keep a larger number of stock on the farm than
can be the case if pastures alone are to be relied upon, and
thus greatly facilitates intensive farming. Now that stave
silos of any size may be easily and cheaply put up, it
will be found very convenient at least on dairy farms,
to keep a small separate silo for making clover silage
that may be fed out during the summer, or at any time
simultaneously with the feeding of corn silage. This
extra silo may also be used for the siloing of odd lots of
forage that may happen to be available (see page 60).
It is a good plan in siloing clover or other comparatively
light crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn
on top that will weight down the mass below, and secure
a more thorough packing and thereby also a better quality
of silage.

In several instances where there has still been a
supply of clover silage in the silo, green corn has been
filled in on top of the clover, and the latter has been
sealed and thus preserved for a number of years. Corn
silage once settled and “sealed,” will also keep perhaps
indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo, without
deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or palatability.

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says:
“Silage will keep as long as the silo is not opened, and
has been kept in good condition for seven years. This
is a special advantage for Kansas dairymen, as in years
ef heavy crops the surplus can be stored in silos for

‘ _ FREEZING OF SILAGE. 165

years of drouth, making all years good crop years for
silo dairymen.”

F reezing of Silage;

Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of
annoyance and loss to farmers in Northern States, and
‘in the future, with the progress of the stave silo, we
shall most likely hear more about frozen silage than we
have in the past. As stated in the discussion of the stave
silo, however, the freezing of silage must be considered
an inconvenience rather than a positive detriment; when
the silage is thawed out it is eaten with the same relish
by stock as is silage that has never been frozen, and
apparently with equally good results. If frozen silage
is not fed out directly after thawed it will spoil and soon
become unfit to be used for cattle food; thawed silage
will spoil much sooner than ordinary silage that has not
been frozen and thawed out. There is no evidence that
silage which has been frozen and slowly thawed out, is
less palatable or nutritious than silage of the same kind
which has been kept free from frost.

“Freezing of silage,” says Iowa State College Bulletin
No. 100, “is due to loss of heat; first, through the silo
wall; and second, to the air in contact with the feeding
surface.

“It may be impartially said that, as far as the pre-
vention of freezing is concerned, the stave, stone, single
wall brick and concrete silos are of about equal merit.

“The second cause of freezing mentioned, that is, the
loss of heat from the silage surface, is too often the cause
of unnecessary freezing. If air above the silage is confined,
no serious loss of heat can possibly take place. When the
top of the silo is open and a free circulation of air permit-
ted, it is almost impossible to prevent the surface from
freezing in severe weather. A personal investigation of
silos in cold weather proved conclusively that those pro-
vided with a tight roof did not contain nearly as much
frozen silage as those left open.”

166 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

The difficulty of the freezing of the silage may be
avoided by checking the ventilation in the silo and by
leaving the door to the silo carefully closed in severe
weather. If the top layer of silage freezes some of the
warm silage may be mixed with the frozen silage an
hour or two before feeding time, and all the silage will
then be found in good condition when fed out. A layer
of straw may be kept as a cover over the silage; this
will prevent it from freezing, and is easily cleared off
when silage is to be taken out.

Silage From Frosted Corn.

Experiments were conducted at the Vermont Station
in October, 1906, with immature corn, mature corn not
frosted, and mature corn frosted hard or frozen and the
leaves whitened. No ill results were noticeable in the
butter product. It was found that “the effect of frosting
corn, and still more of freezing it, appears very slightly
to have been to depress its feeding value when made into
silage.” The testimony seemed in favor of running frost
risks in order to gain a greater maturity, rather than to
silo the immature product.

Steamed Silage.

While fermentation in silage causes a small unavoid-
able loss, it develops flavors and softens the plant tissue.
Excessive fermentation causes high acid. Steam has been
used with much success to check it in such cases, says
Farmer’s Bulletin No. 316. It is piped at the bottom and
middle of the silo until the whole mass is hot.

Steaming seems beneficial and silage so treated is con-
sidered much better than that which is not steamed. Stall
fed animals have eaten from 50 to 75 lbs. of silage per day.

CHAPTER IX.
HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm ani-
mals, dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats,
swine, and even poultry. It should never be fed as sole
roughage to any one of these classes of stock, however,
but always in connection with some dry roughage. The
nearer maturity the corn is when cut for the silo the more
silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well
to avoid feeding it excessively.

The silo should always be emptied from the top in
horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to
expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It
should be fed out sufficiently rapidly to avoid spoiling
of the silage; in ordinary Northern winter weather a
layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily.

Silage for Milch Cows.

Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. Woll
in his Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the
silo in this country, the dairymen, more than any other
class of farmers, have been among the most enthusiastic
siloists, and up to the present time a larger number of
silos are found in dairy districts than in any other re-
gions where animal husbandry is a prominent industry.
As with other farm animals, cows fed silage should re-
ceive other roughage in the shape of corn stalks, hay,
etc. The quantities of silage fed should not exceed forty,
or at outside, fifty pounds per day per head. It is
possible that a maximum allowance of only 25 or 30
pounds per head daily is to be preferred where the
keeping quality of the milk is an important considera-
tion, especially if the silage was made from somewhat

167

168 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

immature corn. The silage may be given in one or two
feeds daily, and, in case of cows in milk, always after
milking, and not before or during same, as the peculiar
silage odor may, in the latter case, in our experience
reappear in the milk. (See below.)

Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secre-
tion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows
will usually drop considerably in milk toward spring, if
fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk through the
whole remaining portion of the lactation period. If silage
is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow
of milk before turning out to grass, and the cows will
be able to keep up well in milk until late in summer,

Fig. 30. Silage Truck.

or early in the fall, when they are dried up prior to
calving. Silage has a similar effect on the milk secre-
tion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well-
matured corn, is more like these feeds than any other
feed the farmer can produce.

The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes
been objected to when the milk was intended for the
manufacture of certain kinds of cheese, or of condensed
milk, and there are instances where such factories have
enjoined their patrons from feeding silage to their cows.
When the latter is properly prepared and properly fed,

SILAGE FOR “CERTIFIED MILK.” 169

there can be no foundation whatever for this injunction;
it has been repeatedly demonstrated that Swiss cheese
of superior quality can be made from the milk of silage-
fed cows, and condensing factories among whose pat-
rons silage is fed have been able to manufacture a
superior product. The quality of the silage made during
the first dozen years of silo experience in this country
was very poor, being sour and often spoilt in large
quantities, and, what may have been still more important,
it was sometimes fed in an injudicious manne.

being made to subsist on this feed as sole roughage.
Under these conditions it is only natural that the quality
of the milk should be impaired, and that manufacturers
preferred to entirely prohibit the use of it rather than
to teach their patrons to follow proper methods in the
making and feeding of silage. There is an abundance of
evidence at hand- showing that good silage fed in moder-
ate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of but-
ter experts, silage not only does not injure the flavor of
butter, but better-flavored butter is produced by judicious
silage feeding than can be made from dry feed.

Silage in the production of ‘certified milk.”—In an-
swer to a question raised whether there is any objection
made to the milk when the cows are fed silage, Mr. H. B.
Gurler, the well-known [Illinois dairyman, whose certified
milk sent to the Paris Exposition in 1900, kept sweet
for one month without having any preservatives added
to it, and was awarded a gold medal, gave the following
information: “No, there is not. I have had persons who
knew I was feeding silage imagine they could taste it. I
caught one of the leading Chicago doctors a while ago.
He imagined that he could taste silage in the milk, and
I was not feeding it at all. When I first went into the
business I did not feed any silage to the cows from
which the certified milk was produced. I knew it was
all right for butter making, as I had made butter from
the milk of cows fed with silage, and sent it to New

170 : HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

York in competition with butter made from dry food, and
it proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first
winter I had samples sent down to my family in De
Kalb from the stable where we fed silage and from the
stable where we were making the certified milk for Chi-
cago, and in which we fed no silage. I presume I made
one hundred comparative tests that winter of the milk
from these two stables. My wife and daughter could
not tell the difference between the two samples. In the
large majority of cases they would select the milk from
the cows fed silage as the sweeter milk.”

It will serve as an illustration of the general use of
silage among progressive dairymen in our country, to
state that of one hundred farmers furnishing the feed
rations fed to their dairy cows, in an investigation of this
subject conducted by Prof. Woll in 1894, sixty-four were
feeding silage to their stock, this feed being used a
larger number of times than any other single cattle food,
wheat bran only excepted.

An interesting experiment as to the effect of silage
on milk was recently conducted by the Illinois Station,
where a herd of 40 cows was divided, one lot being fed
40 lbs. of silage a day, the other clover hay and grain.
Samples of milk were submitted to 372 persons for an
opinion. Sixty per cent. preferred the silage-fed milk, 29
per cent. non-silage-fed milk, while 11 per cent. had no
choice. They were able to distinguish between the two
kinds, but found nothing objectionable about either. The
summary of the test was that when silage imparts a bad
or disagreeable flavor to milk produced from it, almost
invariably the cause is that the silage has not been fed
properly, or that spoiled silage has been used.

It has been contended that the acetic acid in ensilage
has a tendency to make milk sour more quickly. A user
of ensilage for 14 years, took a gallon of milk from a cow
fed ensilage for 42 days and a gallon from another that
had received no ensilage and set them side by side in a
room having a temperature of 40 degrees. Both gallons
of milk began to sour at the same time.

SILAGE RATIONS FOR MILCH COWS. 171

The combination in which corn silage will be used
in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local
conditions; it may be said in general that it should be
supplemented by a fair proportion of nitrogenous feeds
like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal,
gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may be of
some help to our readers a number of balanced rations
or such as are near enough balanced to produce good
results at the pail, are presented below.

Silage Rations for Milch Cows.

No. 1. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 4
lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.

No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs.; corn
meal, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts, 3 lbs.;
orl meal 1 “lb:

No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover and timothy mixed,
10 lbs.; wheat shorts, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.; corn
and cob meal, 3 Ibs.

No. 4. Corn silage, 20 Ilbs.; corn stalks, 10 Ilbs.; hay,
4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 3 lbs.; ground
oats, 3 lbs.

No. 5. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover hay, 10 lbs.; oat feed,
4 Ibs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.

No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; corn stalks, 5 Ibs.; oat straw,
5 lbs.; dried brewers’ grains, 4 lbs.; wheat shorts,
4 lbs.

No. 7. Corn’ silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 3
lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; oats, 3 lbs.

No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn stover, 8 lbs.; wheat
bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 2 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.

No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs.; clover and timothy hay, 15
lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal,
2 lbs.; cotton seed meal, 1 lb.

No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs.; corn stover, 10 lbs.; hay,
5 lbs.; wheat shorts, 2 lbs.; oat feed, 4 lbs.; corn meal,
2 Ibs.

172 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

No. 11. Clover silage, 30 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 10 lbs.;
oat straw, 4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt sprouts,

2 lhs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.

No. 12. Clover silage,. 40 Ibs.; hay, 10 lbs.; roots, 20 lbs.;
corn meal, 4 lbs.; ground oats, 4 Ibs.

The preceding rations are only intended as approxi-
mate guides in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy farmer
knows that there are hardly two cows that will act in
exactly the same manner and will need exactly the same
amount of feed. It is then important to adapt the quan-
tities and kinds of feed given to the special needs of the
different cows; one cow will fatten on corn meal, where
another will be able to eat and make good use of two
or three quarts of it. In the same way some cows will
eat more roughage than others and do equally well on it
as those that get more of the food in the form of more
concentrated and highly digestible feeding stuffs. The
only safe rule to go by is to feed according to the
different needs of the cows; to study each cow and find
out how much food she can take care of without laying
on flesh, and how she responds to the feeding of foods
of different character, like wheat bran and corn meal,
for instance. The specimen rations given in the preced-
ing can, therefore, only be used to show the average
amount of common feeds which a good dairy cow can
take in and give proper returns for.

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy cattle
has increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. Few owners
of stock of this class, who have properly-built silos, and
well-preserved silage, would discard silage as an adjunct
to feeding. Silage certainly promotes milk flow. One
great argument in favor of its use lies in the cheapness
of production per ton, and the ability to store and secure
a palatable, nutritious food in weather conditions that
would seriously injure hay or dry fodder. :

There is one important point that owners of milk
cattle should bear in mind, and that is when the silo is
first opened only a small feed should be given. In chang-

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 173

ing from grass or dry feed to silage, if a regular full
ration is given, the silage will perhaps slightly affect
the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if the change
is from dry feed it may cause too great activity of the
bowels.

Silage for Beef Cattle.

Silage may be fed with advantage to beef cattle, in
moderate quantities, up to about forty pounds a day.
The health of the animals and the quality of the beef
produced on moderate silage feeding, leave nothing to
be wished for. If the silage is made from immature
corn care must be taken not to feed too large quan-
tities at the start, and to feed carefully, so as not to make
the animals scour. Prof. Henry says in regard to the
value of silage for fattening steers: “As with roots,
silage makes the carcass watery and soft to the touch.
Some have considered this a disadvantage, but is it not
a desirable condition in the fattening steer? Corn and
roughage produce a hard dry carcass, and corn burns out
the digestive tract in the shortest possible time. With
silage and roots, digestion certainly must be more nearly
normal, and its profitable action longer continued. The
tissues of the body are juicy, and the whole system must
be in just that condition which permits rapid fattening.
While believing in a large use of silage in the preliminary
stages, and its continuance during most of the fattening
period, I would recommend that gradually more dry feed
be substituted as the period advances, in order that the
flesh may become more solid. Used in this way, I believe
silage will become an important aid in steer feeding in
many sections of the country. Results from Canada, Wis-
consin, and Texas experiment stations show the broad
adoption of this food for stock feeding purposes.

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full
grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions
as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas
Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for

174 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

breeding bulls, unless fed a few pounds only as a relish;
fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to lose virility and
become slow and uncertain breeders.

Fuller information on this subject is given in Chapter
III of this book, entitled, “The Use of Silage in Beef Pro-
duction.”

Silage for Horses.

When fed in small quantities, not to exceed fifteen
pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It-
should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at
first and gradually increased as the animals become
accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed
with cut straw, two-thirds of straw and one-third of
silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this mixed feed.
Some horses object to silage at first on account of its
peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on
top of the silage and feeding only very small amounts
to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. Other
horses take it willingly from the beginning. Horses
not working may be fed larger quantities than work
horses, but in neither case should the silage form more
than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the horses.
Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the
spring in better condition than when fed almost any other
food.

Professor Cook says in regard to silage as a horse
food: “It has been suggested by even men of high
scientific attainments that silage is pre-eminently the
food for cattle and not for other farm stock. This is
certainly a mistake. If we raise fall colts, which I find
very profitable, then silage is just what we need, and
will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares
in first-class trim for the hard summer’s work. I find
silage just as good for young colts and other horses.”

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder
gives his experience in regard to silage for horses as

a SILAGE FOR HORSES. 175

follows: “Last year we had nearly two hundred horses,
including Clydesdales, standard-bred trotters, and Shet-
land ponies. They were wintered entirely upon straw
and corn silage, and this in face of the fact that I had
read a long article in a prominent horse journal caution-
ing farmers from the use of silage, and citing instances
where many animals had died, and brood mares had
aborted from the liberal use of corn silage.

“Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent,
our stallions and brood mares, as well as all the young
stock, we fed two full rations of silage daily, and one
liberal ration of wheat or oat straw. The result with
our brood mares was most phenomenal, for we now
have to represent every mare that was in foal on the
farm, a weanling, strong and vigorous, and apparently
right in every way, with only one exception, where the
colt was lost by accident. Of course there may have been
something in the season more favorable than usual, but
this was the first year in my experience when every colt
dropped on the farm was saved.”

The following experience as to the value of silage
as a food for horses and other farm animals comes from
the Ohio Station: “Our silo was planned and filled with
special reference to our dairy stock, but after opening
the silo we decided to try feeding the silage to our horses,
calves and hogs. The result was eminently satisfactory.
We did not find a cow, calf, horse, colt, or hog that re-
fused to eat, or that did not eat it with apparent relish,
not only for a few days, but for full two months. The
horses were given one feed of twenty pounds each per
day in place of the usual amount of hay, for the period
above named, and it was certainly a benefit. Their appe-
tites were sharpened, and the healthfulness of the food
was further manifest in the new coat of hair which came
with the usual spring shedding. The coat was glossy,
the skin loose, and the general appearance was that of
horses running upon pasture.”

Doctor Bailey states that silage has as good an effect

176 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

on work and driving horses as an occasional feed of
carrots or other roots, and Rew informs us that there
is a demand for silage in London and other English
cities, especially for omnibus, cab, and tram horses. Ac-
cording to the testimony of Mr. H. J. Elwes, the cart
horses fed silage “looked in better condition and brighter
in their coats than usual at this time of the year.”

From experiments conducted at Virginia Station, Prof.
Nourse concluded that “it would appear that silage
would make a good roughage for horses, when used in
connection with hay or stover or grain, but that these
animals should become accustomed to the food by de-
grees, and that this is as important as when changing
from old to new corn, or from hay to grass.”

What has been said about silage as a food for horses
will most likely apply equally well to mules, although
only very limited experience has so far been gained with
silage for this class of farm animals.

Silage for Sheep.

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep
men, says Prof. Woll in his Book on Silage; sheep do
well on it, and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the
spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and vigor-
ous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well
adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; for
fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the
silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of
pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds
per head. Prof. Cook reports as follows in regard to the
value of silage for sheep: “I have fed ensilage liberally
to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased
with the results. I make ensilage half the daily ration,
the other half being corn stalks or timothy hay, with
bran or oats. The sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly
I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino
ewes. Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last
spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be

Pn eee

SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 177

the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main
cause. It is positively proved that ensilage is a most
valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our
domestic animals.”

Mr. J. S. Woodward, a well-known New York farmer
and Farmers’ Institute Worker, who has made a specialty
of early-lamb raising, says in an address before the New
York Agricultural Society, regarding silage as a feed for
lambs: “In order to be successful in raising fine lambs
it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have
plenty of succulent food. Nothing can supply the de-
ficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are
good. Turnips, rutabagas, mangolds are all good. Corn
silage is excellent. Could I have my choice I would pre-
fer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage
alone for succulent food I would give four pounds per
hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed,
at the forenoon feed; but when feeding both silage and
roots I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the
afternoon.”

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning silage
for sheep: “Of late years we have annually put up
3,200 tons of corn ensilage, and this has been the prin-
cipal ration of all the live stock at Springdale Farm, our
Shropshire sheep having been maintained on a ration
of ensilage night and morning, coupled with a small
ration of clover hay in the middle of the day. This we
found to fully meet the requirements of our flock until
after lambing, from which time forward we of course
added liberal rations of wheat bran, oats, and old-process
linseed meal to the ewes, with a view of increasing their
flow of milk and bringing forward the lambs in the most
vigorous possible conditions. Our flock-master was some-
what anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now
that he saved 196 lambs from 122 ewes, his face is
wreathed in smiles, and he gives the ensilage system the
strongest endorsement.” Mr. Turner states that, after

becoming accustomed to the silage, his horses, cattle, and
12

178 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

sheep would all push their noses down through the hay,
if there was silage at the bottom of the manger, and
little or no hay would be eaten until the silage was first
taken.

O. C. Gregg, superintendent of farmers’ institutes for
Minnesota, has been conducting some experiments on
feeding ensilage to sheep. He gives the result in one of
our American exchanges as follows:

“We made preparations to use ensilage in the feeding
of our flock during the past winter. We have now some
facts to report which seem to verify the thought that we
had—that ensilage will enter as a large factor in the fu-
ture production of good mutton in Minnesota. Our en-
silage has been fed (beginning gradually) in troughs.
These troughs can be readily cleaned by being turned
over, that the center piece prevents any chance of the
sheep jumping over them and so soiling the food. The
troughs are also wide enough so that two rows of sheep
will feed from them without undue crowding. We have
enough of these troughs, so that when the flock is feeding,
each sheep has a reasonable space to feed quietly. This
in itself is an advantage that every feeder of stock will
understand.

“As a result-so far, the sheep are in better condition
than we have ever had them before, and, in fact, to use
an English term, they are in “blooming” condition. We
do not consider that they are any too fleshy, but in a
good, bright, healthy state. The wool is evidently of
good quality, and the flock will shear heavily. The sheep
are high grade Shropshires. Good shepherds have esti-
mated that they will furnish between seven and eight
pounds of wool per head. There are a few young ewes
in- the flock which we do not consider in this estimate.
The ewes are beautiful to look at, square on the back,
bright of eye, active in appearance, and when the time
comes for the feeding of ensilage they are anxious for
their feed, and in case there is any lapse in time, they
soon make their wants known by bleating about the

SILAGH FOR SHEEP. 179

troughs. The flock has been fed ensilage and good hay
in the morning, with oat hay in reasonable abundance in
the afternoon or evening. We have about ninety head of
breeding ewes, including the lambs referred to, and they
have been fed two grain sacks full of ensilage each day.
This is not by any means heavy feeding, and it might be
increased in quantity. This is a matter which we must
learn from experience. We have fed the ensilage with
care, not knowing what the results would be if fed heav-
ily. Next winter we plan to add ensilage to the feed for
our fattening flock. From the little experience we have
had so far, we think the effects will be good, and that we
shall be able to improve the quality of mutton by adding
ensilage to the other feeds that we shall use in finishing
our fattening flock.”

The following interesting experience illustrating the
value of silage for sheep-feeding is given by Mr. William
Woods, a celebrated English breeder of Hampshire-
Downs: “Last year, in August, I found myself with a
flock of some 1,200 Hampshire-Down ewes, and about
twelve or fourteen acres of swedes, on a farm of 4,000
acres, and these were all the roots there were to feed
them and their lambs during the winter. Knowing how
we should suffer from want of milk after lambing in Jan-
uary and February, I thought I would try (which no
doubt has often been tried elsewhere, though not in this
district) the effect of ensilage on ewes after lambing,
having heard by hearsay that it increased the milk of
cows nearly 30 per cent. I at once set to work to ir-
rigate what water meadows I could spare, and in the
month of October had a crop of grass that, had it been
possible to make it into hay, would have made a ton of
hay to the acre. I bought from the Aylesbury Dairy Com-
pany one of their Johnson’s ensilage rick presses, and
put some seventy or eighty tons of cut meadow grass
under pressure. It must, however, be borne in mind
that second cut water meadow grass is some of the
poorest stuff that is consumed, either green or in hay,

180 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

and, therefore, my ensilage was not as good, and conse-
quently not as favorable a trial, as if it had been made
of better material.

“In January, when well into lambing, I opened the
stack, and began to feed it to the ewes that had lambed.
At first they hardly cared to eat it, but by degrees they
seemed to like it more. They had a night and morning
meal of best sainfoin hay, and a small lot of ensilage
with the cake given at midday. After three weeks’ trial
what the shepherd observed was this: That when best
sainfoin hay worth £4 a ton, was put up in the cages, and
ensilage in the troughs at the same time, half the sheep
would go to the hay and half to the ensilage, although
there was sufficient accommodation for the whole flock
at either sort, and we now observe that with the ewes
that are most constant to the ensilage, their lambs are
nourished better than the others. We have not lost a
single lamb from scours, and have some 470 lambs from
380 ewes lambed as yet, which I think proves the value
of the experiment. As soon as the stuff arrives in carts
the ewes are crazy for it, and almost come over the
hurdles, so eager are they to get at this new sort of
feed, which, as I have stated, is only water meadow
grass ensilage.”

Silage for Swine.

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a
food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavor-
able reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried
feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On the
other hand, a number of hog-raisers have had good suc-
cess with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It
is possible that the differences in the quality of the
silage and of the methods of feeding practiced explain
the diversity of opinions formed concerning silage as
hog food. According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Cur-
tiss, the great American authority on the swine industry,
states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations

ES ea Baty

Le ell}

SILAGE FOR POULTRY. 181
of our swine. Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in re-
gard to silage for hogs: “We have fed our sows, about
twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of
ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought
up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very bene-
ficial to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows
that are nursing the young, equal to when they are run-
ning on clover. We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed,
they become more robust, and take to nursing much
sooner and better than they did in winters when fed on
an exclusively dry diet. We also feed it to our sheep.
To sixty head we put out about six bushels of ensilage.”’
Dr. Bailey, the author of “The Book on Ensilage,” fed
large hogs ten pounds of silage, and one pound of wheat
bran, with good results; the cost of the ration did not
exceed 2 cents per day. He states that clover silage
would be excellent, and would require no additional grain.
Young pigs are exceedingly fond of silage. Feeding ex-
periments conducted at Virginia Experiment Station show
that silage is an economical maintenance feed for hogs,
when fed in connection with corn, but not when fed alone.

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to
feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing
it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds.
The diet of the hog should be largely made up of easily
digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can
only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to ex-
ceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in case
of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed
with care to brood sows, keeping the system in order,
and producing a good flow of milk.

Silage for Poultry.

But little experience is at hand as to the use of
silage as a poultry food; some farmers, however, are
feeding a little silage to their poultry with good success.
Only small quantities should of course be fed, and it is
beneficial as a stimulant and a regulator, as much as

182 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in Orange Judd
Farmer, concerning his experience in making and feed-
ing silage to fowls. Devices similar to that here de-
scribed have repeatedly been explained in the agricultural
press: “Clover and corn silage is one of the best winter
foods for poultry raisers. Let me tell you how to build
four silos for $1. Buy four coal-oil barrels at the drug
store, burn them out on the inside, and take the heads
out. Go to the clover field when the second crop of the
small June clover is in bloom, and cut one-half to three-
eighths of an inch in length, also one-half ton of sweet
corn, and run this through the feed cutter. Put into the
barrel a layer of clover, then a layer of corn. Having
done this, take a common building jack-screw and press
the silage down as firmly as possible. Then put on this
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and keep
on putting in clover and corn until you get the barrel
as full as will admit of the cover being put back. After
your four barrel silos are filled, roll them out beside the
barn, and cover them with horse manure, allowing them
to remain there thirty days. Then put them away, cov-
ering with cut straw or hay. When the cold, chilling
winds of December come, open one of these ‘poultrymen’s
silos,’ take about twenty pounds for one hundred hens,
add equal parts of potatoes, ground oats, and winter rye,
place same in a kettle and bring to a boiling state. Feed
warm in the morning and the result will be that you will
be enabled to market seven or eight dozen eggs per day
from one hundred hens through the winter, when eggs
bring good returns.”

Additional Testimony as to the Value
of Silage.

Corn Silage compared with root crops.—Root crops
are not grown to any large extent in this country, but
occasionally an old-country farmer is met with who grows
roots for his stock, because his father did so, and his
grandfather and great-grandfather before him. This is

CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO ROOTS. 183

what a well-known English writer, R. Henry Rew, says
as to the comparative value of roots and silage, from the
standpoint of an English farmer:

“The root crop has, for about a century and a half,
formed the keystone of arable farming; yet it is the root
crop whose position is most boldly challenged by silage.
No doubt roots are expensive—say #10 per acre as the
cost of producing an ordinary crop of turnips—and pre-
carious, as the experience of the winter of 1887-8 has
once more been notably exemplified in many parts of the
country. In a suggestive article in the Farming World
Almanac for 1888, Mr. Primrose McConnell discusses the
question: ‘Are Turnips a Necessary Crop?’ and sums
up his answer in the following definite conclusion:

“Everything, in short, is against the use of roots,
either as a cheap and desirable food for any kind of live
stock, as a crop suited for the fallow break, which cleans
the land at little outlay, or as one which preserves or
increases the fertility of the soil.’

“If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restricted
ensilage comes in usually to assist the farmer in supply-
ing their place..* * * When one comes to compare
the cultivation of silage crops with that of roots, there
are two essential points in favor of the former. One is
their smaller expense, and the other is their practical
certainty. The farmer who makes silage can make cer-
tain of his winter store of food, whereas he who has only
his root crop may find himself left in the lurch at a time
when there is little chance of making other provision.”

We have accurate information as to the yields and
cost of production of roots and corn silage in this country
from a number of American Experiment Stations. This
shows that the tonnage of green or succulent feed per
acre is not materially different in case of the two crops,
generally speaking. But when the quantities of dry mat-
ter harvested in the crop are considered, the corn has
been found to yield about twice as much as the ordinary
root crops. According to data published by the Pennsyl-

184 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

vania Station, the cost of an acre of beets in the pit
amounts to about $56, and of an acre of corn in the silo
about $21, only half the quantities of food materials ob-
tained, and at more than double the cost.

When the feeding of these two crops has been de-
termined, as has been the-case in numerous trials at ex-
periment stations, it has been found that the dry matter
of beets certainly has no higher, and in many cases has
been found to have a lower value than that of corn
silage; the general conclusion to be drawn, therefore, is
that “beets cost more to grow, harvest and store, yield
less per acre, and produce at best no more and no better
milk or other farm product than corn silage.”

Corn silage compared with hay. A ton and a half of
hay per acre is generally .considered a good average
crop in humid regions. Since hay contains about 86 per
cent. dry matter, a crop of 1% tons means 2,580 pounds
of dry matter. Against this yield we have yields of 5,000
to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice to three and a
half times as much, in case of fodder corn. An average
crop of green fodder will weigh twelve tons of Northern
varieties and eighteen tons of Southern varieties. Esti-
mating the percentage of dry matter in the former at 30
per cent., and in the latter at 20 per cent., we shall have in
either case a yield of 7,200 pounds of dry matter. If we
allow for 10 per cent of loss of dry matter in the silo there
is still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be credited to the
corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of course,
higher than that of growing hay, but by no means suffi-
ciently so to offset the larger yields. It is a fact gen-
erally conceded by all who have given the subject any
study, that the hay crop is the most expensive crop used
for the feeding of our farm animals.

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Experi-
ment Station (England) said, respecting the relative value
of hay and (grass) silage: “It is probable that when
both (i. e., hay and silage) are of the very best quality
that can be made, if part of the grass is cut and placed

CORN SILAGE COMPARED TO HAY. 185

in the silo, and another part is secured in the stack
without rain, one might prove as good food as the other.
But it must be borne in mind that while the produc-
tion of good hay is a matter of uncertainty—from the
elements of success being beyond the control of the
farmer—good silage, by taking proper precautions, can
be made with certainty.”

A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay
will be mentioned in the following:

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the
New Hampshire Station, the silage ration, containing
16.45 pounds of digestible matter, produced 21.0 pounds of
milk, and the hay ration, containing 16.83 pounds digest-
ible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk; calculating the
quantities of milk produced by 100 pounds of digestible
matter in either case, we find on the silage ration, 127.7
pounds of milk, on the hay ration, 109.38 pounds, or 17
per cent. in favor of the silage ration.

In a feeding experiment with nmtilch cows at the
Maine Station, in which silage likewise was compared
with hay, the addition of silage to the ration resulted
in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, which
was not caused by an increase in the digestible food
materials eaten, but which must have been due either to
the superior value of the-nutriments of the silage over
those of the hay or to the general psychological effect of
feeding a great variety of foods. 8.8 pounds of silage
proved to be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds of hay
(mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible material be-
ing the same in the two cases.

In another experiment, conducted at the same station,
where silage was compared with hay for steers, a pound
of digestible matter from the corn silage produced some-
what more growth than a pound of digestible matter from
timothy hay. The difference was small, however, amount-
ing in the case of the last two periods, where the more

186 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. pen

accurate comparison is possible, to an increased growth
of only 15 pounds of live weight for each ton of silage fed.

Corn Silage compared with fodder corn. The cost of
production is the same for the green fodder up to the
time of siloing, in case of both systems; as against the
expense of siloing the crop comes that of shocking, and
later on, placing the fodder under shelter in the field-
. curing process; further husking, cribbing, and grinding
the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since this is the
most economical way of handling the crop, and the only
way in which it can be fully utilized so as to be of as
great value as possible for dry fodder. Professor King
found the cost of placing corn in the silo to be 58.6 cents
per ton, on the average for five Wisconsin farms, or, add-
ing to this amount, interest and taxes on the silo invest-
ment, and insurance and maintenance of silo per ton,
73.2 cents. The expense of shocking and sheltering the
cured fodder, and later cutting the same, will greatly
exceed that of siloing the crop; to obtain the full value
in feeding the ear corn, it must, furthermore, in most
cases, be ground, costing ten cents or more a bushel of
70 lbs. The advantage is, therefore, decidedly with the
siloed fodder in economy of handling, as well as in the
cost of production.

The comparative feeding value of corn silage and
fodder corn has been determined in a large number of
trials at different experiment stations. The earlier ones
of these experiments were made with only a couple of
animals each, and no reliance can, therefore, be placed
on the results obtained in any single experiment. In the
later experiments a large number of cows have been in-
cluded, and these have been continued for sufficiently
long time to show what the animals could do on each feed.

A few experiments illustrating the value of silage as
a stock food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two lots
of steers on a silage experiment. One lot of four steers
was fed on corn silage exclusively, and another similar

SILAGE AS A STOCK FOOD. 187

lot corn silage with shelled corn. The former lot gained
222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the latter lot 535
pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per day per head for the
silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day for the silage
and shelled-corn-fed steers. Prof. Emery fed corn silage
and cotton-seed meal, in the proportion of eight to one,
to two three-year-old steers, at the North Carolina Ex-
periment Station. The gain made during thirty-two days
was, for one steer, 78 pounds, and for the other, 85.5
pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head per day.

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. Hiram
Smith, in 1888 gave the following testimony concerning
the value of silage for milch cows: “My silo was opened
December ist, and thirty pounds of ensilage was fed to
each of the ninety cows for the night’s feed, or 2,700
pounds per day, until March.10, one hundred days, or a
total of 135 tons, leaving sufficient ensilage to last until
May 10th. The thirty pounds took and well filled the
place of ten pounds of good hay. Had hay been fed for
the night’s feed in place of the ensilage, it would have
required 900 pounds per day for the ninety cows, or a
total for the one hundred days of forty-five tons.

“Tt would have required, in the year 1887, forty-five
acres of meadow to have produced the hay, which, if
bought or sold, would have amounted to $14.00 per acre.
The 1385 tons of ensilage were produced on 8% acres of
land, and had a feeding value, as compared with hay,
of $74.11 per acre.” As the conclusion of the whole mat-
ter, Mr. Smith stated that “three cows can be wintered
seven months on one acre producing 16 tons of ensilage,
while it required two acres of meadow in the same year
of 1887 to winter one cow, with the same amount of ground
feed in both cases.”

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural
College, gives a powerful plea for silage in the following
simple statement: “The single fact that the product of
about two acres of ground kept our herd of fifty cattle

188 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

five weeks with no other feed of the fodder kind, except
a small ration of corn fodder given at-noon, speaks whole
cyclopedias for the possibilities of Kansas fields when
the silo is called in as an adjunct.”

In conclusion. We will bring our discussions of the
silo and its importance in American agriculture, to a
close by quoting the opinions of a few recognized lead-
ers on agricultural matters as to the value of silo and.
silage.

Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard’s Dairyman,
and a noted dairy lecturer: ‘For dairying of all the year
around the silo is almost indispensable.”

Prof. Hill, the director of Vermont Experiment Sta-
tion: “It was long ago clearly shown that the most eco-
nomical farm-grown carbohydrates raised in New England
are derived from the corn plant, and that they are more
economically preserved for cattle feeding in the silo than
in any other way.”

H. C. Wallace, editor Creamery Gazette: ‘While not
an absolute necessity, the silo is a great convenience in
the winter, and in times of protracted dryness almost a
necessity in summer.”

Prof. Carlyle, of Wisconsin Agricultural College: “A
silo is a great labor-saving device for preserving the cheap-
est green fodder in the best form.”

C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers’ Institutes in
Wisconsin, and a well-known lecturer and authority on
dairy topics: “A farmer can keep cows profitably with-
out a silo, but he can make more profit with one, because
he can keep his cows with less expense and they will
produce more.”

Prof. Deane, of Ontario Agricultural College: “The
silo is becoming a greater necessity every year in On-
tario.”

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world
wherever the silo is in use, the evidence points in favor
of silage, there no longer being an argument against it,

ECONOMY IN PRODUCTION OF FEED MATERIALS - 189

in connection with the dairy, and especially in latitudes
where corn can be grown.

Economy in production of feed materials means in-
creased profits. Competition establishes the price at which
the farmer and dairyman must market his products; but
by the study of approved and modern methods the farmer
can regulate his profits.

CHAPTER X.
A FERDERS | GUIDE:

It has been thought best, in order to increase the
usefulness of this little book to practical farmers, to
add to the specific information given in the preceding as
to the making and feeding of silage, a brief general outline
of the main principles that should govern the feeding
of farm animals. This will include a statement of the
character of the various components of the feeding stuffs
used for the nutrition of farm stock, with tables of
composition, and a glossary of scientific agricultural
terms often met with in agricultural papers, experiment
station reports, and similar publications. Many of these
terms are used constantly in discussions of agricultural
topics, and unless the farmer has a fairly clear idea of
their meaning the discussions will often be of no value
to him. The information given in the following is put
in as plain and simple language as possible, and only
such facts are given as are considered of fundamental
importance to the feeding of farm stock.

Composition of the Animal Body.

The most important components of the animal body
are: water, ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly de-
scribe these components:

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal
body than any other substance. It makes up for about
a third to nearly two-thirds of the live weight of farm
animals. The fatter the animal is the less water is found
in its body. We may consider 50 per cent. of the body
weight a general average for the water content of the
body of farm animals. When it comes to animal products
used for food purposes, there are wide variations in the
water content; from between 80 and 90 per cent. in case
of milk, to between 40 and 60 per cent. in meat of various
kinds, about 12 per cent. in butter, and less than 10 per
cent. in fat salt pork.

Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal
body which remains behind when the body is burned.
The bones of animals contain large quantities of min-

190

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 19h

eral matter, while the muscles and other parts of the
body contain only small amounts; it must not be con-
cluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor im-
portance for this reason; both the young and full grown
animals require a constant supply of ash materials in
their food; if the food should not contain a certain mini-
mum amount of ash materials, and of various compounds
contained therein which are essential to life, the animal
will turn sick very soon, and if the deficiency is not
made up will die, no matter how much of other food com-
ponents is supplied. As both ash and water are either
present in sufficient quantities in feeding stuffs, or can
be easily supplied, the feeder does not ordinarily need
to give much thought to these components in the selec-
tion of foods for his stock.

Protein is not the name of any single substance, but
for a large group of very complex substances that have
certain characteristics in common, the more important
of which is that they all contain the element nitrogen.
Hence these substances are also known as nitrogenous
components. The most important protein substances
found in the animal body are: lean meat, fibrin, all kinds
of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in fact the
entire working machinery of the animal body. The casein
of milk and the white of the egg are, furthermore, protein
substances. It is evident from the enumeration made that
protein is to the animal body what the word implies, the
most important, the first.

Fat is a familiar component of the animal body; it
is distributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, but
is found deposited on certain organs, or under the skin,
in thick layers, in the case of very fat animals.

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air;
it must manufacture its body substances and products
from the food it eats, hence the next subject for consider-
ation should be:

Composition of Feeding Stuffs.

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our farm
animals are composed of similar compounds as those
which are found in the body of the animal itself, although
the components in the two cases are rarely identical,
but can be distinguished from each other in most cases
by certain chemical reactions. The animal body through
its vital functions has the faculty of changing the various
food substances which it finds in the food in such a way

192 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

that they are in many instances different from any sub-
stances found in the vegetable world.

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally
enumerated and taken into account in ordinary chemical
fodder analysis, or in discussions of feeding problems
are Water (or Moisture, as it is often called), ash ma-
terials, fat (or ether-extract), protein, crude fiber, and
nitrogen-free extract; the two components last given are
sometimes grouped together under the name Carbohy-
drates. These components are in nearly all cases mix-
tures of substances that possess certain properties in
common; and as the mixtures are often made up of
different components, or of the same components in vary-
ing proportions, it follows that even if a substance is
given in a table of composition of feeding stuffs, in the
same quantities in case of two different feeds, these
feeds do not necessarily have the same food value as far
as this component alone is concerned.

Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs,
whether succulent or apparently dry. Green fodders con-
tain from 60 to 90 per cent. of water, according to the
stage of maturity of the fodder; root crops contain be-
tween 80 and 90 per cent., while hay of different kinds,
straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have water con-
tents ranging between 15 and 8 per cent.

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues
and feeding stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, or
in refuse feeds made up from the outer covering of grains
or other seeds, viz., from 4 to 8 per cent.; less in the
cereals and green fodder, and least of all in roots. A
fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding
young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited
amount of foods low in ash should be fed to such animals;
refuse feed from starch and glucose factories which have
been treated with large quantities of water should, there-
fore, be fed with care in such cases.

Fat or ether-extract is the portion of the feeding
stuff which is dissolved by ether or benzine. It is found
in large quantities in the oil-bearing seeds, more than
one-third of these being composed of oil or fat; the oil-
mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially cotton
seed meal and old-process linseed meal; other feeds rich
in fat are gluten meal and feed, grano-gluten and rice
meal. The ether-extract of the coarse fodders contains
considerable wax, resins, and other substances which have
a low feeding value, while that of the seeds and by-products
from these are essentially pure fat or oil.

<> Ts

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 193

Protein or flesh forming substances are considered of
the highest importance in feeding animals, because they
supply the material required for building up the tissues
of the body, and for maintaining these under the wear
caused by the vital functions. Ordinarily the feed ra-
tions of most farmers are deficient in protein since most
of the farm-grown foods (not including clover, alfalfa,
peas and similar crops) contain only small amounts of
these substances. The feeding stuffs richest in protein
are, among the coarse foods, those aiready mentioned;
among the concentrated fsods: cottonseed meal, lin-
seed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, grano-gluten, buck-
wheat, middlings, and the flour-mill, brewery, and distillery
refuse feeds. The protein substances are also called nitro-
genous bodies for the reasons given above, and the other
organic (combustible) components in the feeding stuffs
are spoken of as rnon-nitrogenous substances. The non-
nitrogenous compcnents of feeding stuffs, therefore, include
fat and the two following groups, crude fiber and nitrogen-
free extract.

Crude fiber is the framework of the plants, forming
the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger pro-
portion present thereof the less valuable the food is. We
find, accordingly, that the fodders containing most crude
fiber are the cheapest foods and least prized among feed-
ers, as, e. g., straw of the various cereal and seed-pro-
ducing crops, corncobs, oats and rice hulls, cotton-seed
hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. These feeding stuffs,
in so far as they can be considered as such, contain as
a rule between 35 and 50 per cent. of crude fiber. Con-
centrated feeding stuffs, on the other hand, often con-
tain less than 5 per cent. of crude fiber, and in the cereals
only a couple of per cent. of crude fiber are found.

Nitrogen-free extract is a general name for all that
is left of the organic matter of plants and fodders after
deducting the preceding group of compounds. {It in-
cludes some of the most valuable constituents of feeding
stuffs, which make up the largest bulk of the food ma-
terials; first in importance among these constituents are
starch and sugar, and, in addition, a number of less well-
known substances of similar compositions, like pentosans,
gums, organic acids, etc. Together with crude fiber the
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of substances known
as carbohydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is
heat-producing substances, since this is one important
function which they fill; they are not as valuable for

194 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

this purpose, pound for pound, as fat, which also is often
used for the purpose by the animal organism, but on ac-
count of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates
are found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of
food materials second to none in importance. Since it
has been found that fat will produce about 2% times as
much heat as carbohydrates on combustion, the two com-
ponents are often considered together in tables of com-
position of feeding stuffs and discussion of the feeding
value of different foods, the per cent. of fat being multi-
plied by 2%4 in such cases, and added to the per cent. of
carbohydrates (i. e., crude fiber plus nitrogen-free extract)
in the foods. As this renders comparisons much easier,
and simplifies discussions for the beginner, we shall adopt
this plan in the tables and discussions given in this Guide.

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being
oxidized or burned in the body, but also furnish ma-
terials for energy used in muscular action, whether this
be voluntary or involuntary. They also in all probability
are largely used for the purpose of storing fatty tissue
in the body of fattening animals, or of other animals that
are fed an excess of nutrients above what is required
for the production of the necessary body heat and mus-
cular force.

To summarize briefly the use of the various food
elements: Protein is required for building up muscular
tissue, and to supply the breaking down and waste of
nitrogenous components constantly taking place in the
living body. If fed in excess of this requirement it is
used for production of heat and energy. The non-nitro-
genous organic components, i. e., carbohydrates and fat,
furnish material for supply of heat and muscular exer-
tion, as well as for the production of fat in the body or
in the milk, in case of milch cows giving milk.

Digestibility of foods. Only a certain portion of a
feeding stuff is of actual value to the animal, viz., the
portion which the digestive juices of the animal can
render soluble, and thus bring into a condition in which
the system can make the use of it called for; this digesti-
ble portion ranges from half or less to more than 96
per cent. in case of highly digestible foods. The rest is
simply ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., the less of
digestible matter a food contains, the more the value
of the digestible portion is reduced. Straw, e. g., is
found, by means of digestion experiments, to contain be
tween 30 and 40 per cent. of digestible matter in all, but
it is very doubtful whether an animal can be kept alive

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. 195

for any length of time when fed straw alone. It very
likely costs him more effort to extract the digestible
matter therefrom than the energy this can supply. An
animal lives on and produces not from what he eats but
from what he digests.

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the price of
different feeding stuffs varies greatly with the locality
and season, it is impossible to give definite statements
as to the relative economy which will hold good always;
it may be said, in general, that the feeding stuffs richest
in protein are our most costly and at the same time our
-most valuable foods. Experience has shown to a cer-
tainty that a liberal supply of protein is an advantage
in feeding most classes of farm animals, so that if such
feeding stuffs can be obtained at fair prices, it will pay
to feed them quite extensively, and they must enter into
all food rations in fair quantities in order that the
animals may produce as much milk, meat, or other farm
products, as is necessary to render them profitable to
their owner. The following statement shows a classifica-
tion of feeding stuffs which may prove helpful in decid-
ing upon kinds and amounts of feeds to be purchased
or fed.

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. |

COARSE FEEDS.

1 2 3
- Low in protein. Medium in pro- | Low in protein.
i i h oe High in carbohy-
High in carbohy- | wedium in carbo- deities
drates. hydrates. 5
50 to 65 per cent. | 55 to 65 per cent. | 85 to 95 per cent.
digestible. digestible. digestible.
Hays, straws, Clovers,
corn fodder, pasture grass, Paieae poe
corn stover, vetches, pea mangolds tur-
silage, cereal and bean fod- :

fodders. der. 7

196 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS——CONTINUED,

Very high

[
: High in pro- irly high i Low in
protein fy on pro- | scr : = in cones
(above 40 Der (95.40 per ct.) (12-25 per ct.) | (below 12 per
cent.) hd , cent.)
Dried blood. | Gluten meal. | Malt sprouts.| Wheat.
Meat scraps.| Atlas meal. Dried Barley.
Cotton-seed Linseed meal.| brewers’ Oats.
meal. Buckwheat erains. Rye.
middlings. | Gluten feed. Corn.
Buckwheat Cow pea. Rice polish.
shorts. Pea meal. Rice.
Soja-bean. Wheat shorts.| Hominy
Grano-gluten. | Rye shorts. chops.
Oat shorts. Germ meal.
Wheat mid- Oat feeds.
dlings.
Wheat bran.
Low-grade
flour.

Feeding Standards.

Investigations by scientists: have brought to light the
fact that the different classes of farm animals require
certain amounts of food materials for keeping the body
functions in regular healthy activity; this is known as
the maintenance ration of the animal, an allowance of
feed which will cause him to maintain his live weight
without either gaining or losing, or producing animal
products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc. If the animal
is expected to manufacture these products in addition,
it is necessary to supply enough extra food to furnish
materials for this manufacture. The food requirements
for different purposes have been carefully studied, and
we know now with a fair amount of accuracy how much
food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects
sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods,
and almost infinite possible combinations of these, it
would not do to express these requirements in so and
so many pounds of corn or oats, or wheat bran, but they
are in all cases expressed in amounts of digestible pro-
tein, carbohydrates and fat. This enables the feeder to
supply these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he

ee ey Se a ee Pe ey ee

Pe ee Ce ee ee eee a

PPO ENS

pa Lae

A PRACTICAL FEEDING RATION. 197

has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards com-
monly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are
those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann.
Those standards give, then, the approximate amount of
dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat
which the different classes of farm animals should re-
ceive in their daily food in order to produce maximum
returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible
protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good
results. The proportion of digestible nitrogenous. to
digestible non-nitrogenous food substances therefore be-
comes important. This proposition is technically known
as Nutritive Ration, and we speak of wide nutritive ratio,
when there are six or more times as much digestible
carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible
protein, and a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the
two kinds of food materials is as 1 to 6, or less.

The feeding standards given in the following tables
may serve as a fairly accurate guide in determining the
food requirements of farm animals; and it will be noticed
that the amounts are per 1,000 pounds live weight, and
not per head, except as noted in the case of growing
animals. They should not be looked upon as infallible
guides, which they are not, for the simple reason that
different animals differ greatly both in the amounts of
food that they consume and in the uses which they are
able to make of the food they eat. The feeding standard
for milch cows has probably been subjected to the closest
study by American experiment station workers, and it
has been found in general that the Wolff-Lehmann stan-
dard calls for more digestible protein (i. e., a narrower
nutritive ration) than can be fed with economy in most of
the dairy sections of our country, at least in the central
and northwestern states. On basis of investigations con-
ducted in the early part of the nineties, along this line,
Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called American
practical feeding ration, which calls for the following
amount of digestible food materials in the daily ration of
a dairy cow of an average weight of 1,000 pounds.

Digestible protein......... 2.2 lbs.

Digestible Carbohydrates. .13.3 Ibs. carbohydrates- fat
PDAIPERTIDIC. Tat) hab. .e 5.650 ee el DSe y } <2%4, 14.9 Ibs.
Total digestive matter.....17.1 Ibs. protein-+-carbohy-

drates-tfatw2y,.
PONE EVEN TATIO:. o's ced esl es 3 1:6.9 Be

198 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS.

(WOLFF-LEHMANN.)
Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight.

ie SLECCES AGresCanvStallee etic sere a
ie Shiehtly* worked. och. c. bon oe

BF moderately worked .........

of heavily: worked! sec

Fattening steers, Ist period........
ih ee gaa ri Rete rae eae

Milch cows, daily milk yield, 7 lbs.

ce ce be ce ee 99 ce

ce ee “ce ee ce 27.6 ce :

4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds.........
ce ce finer ce

see eres eees

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs.........

6. Fattening sheep, 1st period.........
ce ce 2nd ce

see eee eee

i.Horses lahthy Worked: <isc. os cee
oe moderately worked.........
4h Nea il s7WwOrIkGGe. ses oie aie

8. Brood sows, with Digss....5 23. <2...
9. Fattening swine, Ist period.........
i Es FANN Nasa Meme Rant tee
ce ce 3d ce

10. Growing cattle:

eee ee ene

DAIRY BREEDS.
Avr. Live Weight

Age, Months. Per Head.
2- 3 THAIS Stan
3- 6 BOOMS ee Se
6-12 BOT ase co eae
12-18 RD. mea sota ocab eee
18-24 She rater he

~ubstance.

Total Dry

BOS Daren ings Selo rate A thes

=
oy

WNODm Nou woop) @
Re

Nutritive
(Digestible)
Substances.

Crude Protein.

SONNE NWN NNES

nNonr WS wo Ob

Carbo-
hydrates.

—
a

WWEHO DRO WHO oO
Sooo (SciSotodne co:

ee
S
Oo

12'5

me
ie)
o

12.8
12.5
12.5

=
iw)
=)

css 5S sss SS © Ss Sess SSS SSSSss

Ether Extract.

Total Nutritive

—

IA OO F

arpa
baICw PMA AAR F

feet ee et ee
COAL L990

Ret EE Do
pe OVOVOO Fs
bow -~1bo co
Fe fk pt pk

Substances.

| Nutritive Ratio.

ae
TN PSARAA WM Ml WO PIDAR BMH VOI

pee EP See Spe EP Se Pee Bee eee
owiD atomwo apm &

me NNON RRO woING

‘oli

COATS Pur
CVE COON

199

FEEDING STANDARDS.

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS—CONTINUED.

“ONVY OATTAINN |

a i sa a

Speci Ken loth le. Pe seey a eke ee

“soouRysqus Q eee Le eS oS IS SSSI She Sel
SS NS 6515 osca 06
CATV TELOM, | 3S Ada Seite Aaa OANA senna
@m |joeIyxG 10 D ee es Ete sd Cal Salto ie) ssi Sco Cen Soe Se siete
Pag JOVNXA TOT 2 AMSSS Ssoso ssccoo HSSSS HSSSoS
S38 [soyerpsq Ee
Boe -oqiep | 2
iN iy [eee eee =
AQ s |ulojorg epnig| 2 MECN R Seer OI oo | OE OOD Rs eg 7 NE Go ON Be, Oo TAs, ii BON ORCS
ahepy oe 2 THANG OaANaHS Hoan Mincna Mid Hoses
ee
: : D
sourqsans Sac tio | g RARER KARAS KRSNA TRERR sknes
lie re Oe ee ee) ne aM a, eC ME rion he ls MPG ict Oe i aie hao Ga a KheC
PSE Beet iter es PAM) Va TE are chted ibs MON ce geek ciety Ay “Gh RineBaL ri Rav lei ah ate none mnae TL sea
py eC eS ORE ac Mad es DEY Dg MA ag Eo SSE NE a at ONS ROP mR era See chek Pe
Seana a ariel sists Wa Ms ot ete Welieet colgee ee ge Ger Aamo rats logte pe earit ae hel ee BU athe heat Mepe Cet orauy te
SUS Strat vewiet sal) ohh’ 25 & eaabhey a arse Ae poo ose pestars ss. rok gercgettiee Mog: abhi oh teh a Phiay ia eee chiee tance
Reba gh Maoh FW Ge, Tes ee a Si sone eee emrecunlg RS ge Sala a eau cot oo ai eater
DoVse snes Tiree Se ante Ne Gs Dewees is Wes aya oe
Se are oo fos, Seis Ss ah a 2 datas cea ink
ea
‘SS ioe HOor LO HO > dot .HOncoiw HOMO
8 Shisieo Sone SHomIa yo HOAKS SSF Roo
wh A OO LO Db o> a non ay mon men
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A a a =
i) fz fx -
ts a a Z oe
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Si. . o 8 o © AZ a
i <) 2 o 2 o = Br me
Sm ws Ho} to] FA =
o : nS n n Ps : Ca
ba SMO MOM B OoorisS ow = COTNAE WM py HIDOoOM gp cos coKORN
= Ltn ho, es [RL A al Pete bed aUbme st Tenth Cre User eT m (= pentian oaetealiea
> + Ved eo CI09 . HOM 19 = HOO 10 pen OS Rar dl Srelor) 3 led 1a O00
fs : ee
[o) bg (2) (2) fo) io)
fy NX be fe ial a
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cam st 5 a :
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OT LT a TT Le eee ee

200 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

How to Figure Out Rations.

We shall use the practical American feeding ration
as a basis for figuring out the food materials which
should be supplied a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds; in
order to insure a maximum and economical production of
milk and butter fat from her. We shall suppose that a
farmer has the following foods at his disposal: corn
silage, mixed timothy and clover hay, and wheat bran;
and that he has to feed about forty pounds of silage per
head daily, in order to have it last through the winter and
spring. We will suppose that he gives his cows in addi-
tion five pounds of hay and about six pounds of bran.
If we now look up in the tables given on pages 211 to
215, the amounts of digestible food components contained
in the quantities given of these feeds, we shall have:

T otal Digestible T otal Nut.
Dry Mir. Pro. Carb. & fat. Dig. Mtr. Ratio.
40 lbs.cornsilage, 10.51bs. .48lbs. 7.11bs. 7.58
5 lbs. mixed hay, 4.2 22 2.2 2.42
6lbs. wheat bran, 5.3 12 2.8 3.52

mee

20.0 1.42 12.1 13.52 1: 8.5

We notice that the ration as now given contains too
little total digestible matter, there being a deficit of both
digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat, it will evidently
be necessary to supply at least a couple of pounds more
of some concentrated feed, and preferably of a feed rich
in protein, since the deficit of this component is propor-
tionately greater than that of the other components. In
selecting a certain food to be added and deciding the
quantities to be fed the cost of different available foods
must be considered. We will suppose that linseed meal
can be bought at a reasonable price in this case, and
will add two pounds thereof to the ration. We then have
the following amounts of digestible matter in the ration:

T otal Digestible Total Nut.

Dry Mtr. Pro.Carb.& fat. Dig. Mtr. Ratio.

Ration as above, 20.0lbs. 1.42lbs. 12.1 ]bs. 13.25 1:6.4
2lbs.oilmeal(O.P.) 1.8 .62 1.0 1.62

Total, 21.8 2.04 13.2 16.14 1:6.4

Amer. prac. feeding ration, 2.2 14.9 171 6) ea

Wolff-Lehman
standard, 29.0 2.5 14.1 16.60 Fee

|
4
.
|
|
7
4
7

HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. 201

The new ration is still rather light, both in total and
digestible food materials; for many cows it might prove
effective as it is, while for others it would doubtless be
improved by a further addition of some concentrated food
medium rich in protein, or if grain feeds are high, of more
hay or silage. The feeding rations are not intended to be
used as infallible standards that must be followed blindly,
nor could they be used as such. They are not only meant
to be approximate gauges by which the farmer may know
whether the ration which he is feeding is of about such
a composition and furnishes such amount of important
food materials are most likely to produce best results,
cost of feed and returns in products as well as condition
of animals being all considered.

In constructing rations according to the above feeding
standard, several points must be considered besides the
chemical composition and the digestibility of the feeding
stuffs; the standard cannot be followed directly without
regard to bulk and other properties of the fodder; the
ration must not be too bulky, and still must contain a
sufficient quantity of roughage to keep up the rumination
of the animals, in case of cows and sheep, and to secure
a healthy condition of the animals generally. The local
market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest impor-
tance in determining which foods to buy; the conditions
in the different sections of our great continent differ so
greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be
made. Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds
are the cheapest feeds in the south and in the east, and
fiour-mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the
cheapest in the northwest.

The tables given on pages 211 to 215 will be found of
great assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed
rations; the tables have been reproduced from a bulletin
published by the Vermont Experiment Station, and are
based upon the latest compilations of analyses of feeding
stuffs. A few rations are given in the following as samples
of combinations of different kinds of feed with corn silage
that will produce good results with dairy cows. The
rations given on page 171 may also be studied to advan-
tage in making up feed rations with silage for dairy cows.
The Experiment Stations or other authorities publishing
the rations. are given in all cases.

202 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWS.

Mixtures to be fed with one bushel of silage and hay,

or with corn stover or hay.

Massachusetts Experiment Station.

100 lbs. bran.

100 Ibs. four and middlings.
150 lbs. gluten feed.

Mix and feed 7 quarts daily. }

3x8

100 lbs. bran.
100 lbs. flour idan =

100 lbs. gluten or cottonseed meal.

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.

100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten meal.

150 lbs. corn and cob meal.
10€ lbs. bran.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.

New Jersey Experiment Station:

100 lbs. bran or mixed feed.
150 lbs. gluten feed.
Mix and feed 9 quarts daily,

200 lbs. mait sprouts.

100 lbs. bran.

100 lbs. glutenfeed. °

Mix and feed 10 to 12 ats. daily

6
125_lbs. gluten feed.

100 lbs. corn and cob meal.
Mix and feed 5 to 6 ats. daily.

(1) 40 Ibs. corn silage,

5 lbs. gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers’ grains, 2 Ibs.

wheat. bran.

(2) 35 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 5 lbs. wheat —
bran, 2 libs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and hominy

meal.

(8) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. wheat
bran, 2 lbs. malt sprouts, 1 lb. each of cottonseed meal

and hominy meal.

(4) 40 Ibs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers’ grain,

4 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. oil meal.
Maryland Experiment Station:

(1) 40 Ibs. silage, 5

Ibs. clover hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings, and 1 lb. gluten

meal.

(2) 30 Ibs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea

hay, 3 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal.
Michigan Experiment Station:

(1) 40 Ibs. silage,

8 lbs. mixed hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed’ meal.

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn meal,
4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2 Ibs. oil meal.

(3) 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran, 4

lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. oil meal.

ee a ee ee eee ee eee IE TI ee TE Se Fe a ee ee Oe ee ee eT REE ee ee ee ae ee ee ee

GRAIN MIXTURES FOR DAIRY COWS. 208

(4) 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 10 lbs. bran.

Kansas Experiment Station: (1) Corn silage 40 lbs.,
10 lbs. prairie hay or millet, 4% lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cot-
tonseed meal.

(2) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs.
bran, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal, 2 Ibs. cottonseed meal.

(3). 40:clbs. corn” silage, 5 dbs... sorghum: hay; 3° Ibs.
corn, 1% lbs. bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed
meal,

(4) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. millet, 4 lbs. corn, 1 Ib.
gluten meal, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal,

(5) 30 Ibs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2% lbs.
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2% lbs.
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1144 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(64%) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oats straw, 2 lbs. oats,
4 Ibs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(7) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn.

(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. Kafir
corn.

(9) 20 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn,
3 lbs. bran.

(10) 40 Ibs. corn silage, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn,
3 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, 1 lb. cottonseed meal.

Tennessee Experiment Station: 30 Ibs. silage, 10
lbs. clover or cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 Ibs. of
corn, 2 lbs. cotton seed meal.

North Carolina Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs. corn
silage, 10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 Ibs. cottonseed meal.

(2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay,
41%4 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(3) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat
bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed hulls.

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay.

(5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs. field
peas ground.

(6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 Ibs.
ground corn, 4 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cottonseed meal (ration
fed at Biltmore Estate to dairy cows. Silage is fed to
steers and cows, and corn, peas, teosinte, cow peas, millet
and crimson clover are used as silage crops. These crops
are put into the silo in alternate layers. “Will never stop
using the sile and silage.”

South Carolina: 30 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3
Ibs. cottonseed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls.

Georgia Experiment Station: 40 lbs. corn silage, 15
Ibs. cow pea hay, 5 Ibs. bran.

204 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

Ontario Agr. College: 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover
hay, 8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley.

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada): 30 Ibs. corn
silage, 20 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal.

The criticism may. properly be made with a large
number of the rations given in the preceding, that it is
only in case of low prices of grain or concentrated feeds
in general, and with good dairy cows, that it is possible
to: feed such large quantities of grain profitably as those
often given. In the central and northwestern states it
will not pay to feed grain heavily with corn at fifty cents
a bushel and oats at thirty cents a bushel or more. In
times of high prices of feeds, it is only in exceptional
cases that more than six or eight pounds of concentrated

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SILAGE CROPS OF DIFFERENT
KINDS, IN’ PER’ CENT.

Corn Silage—

Mature cor ..%.. T3201 16 B52) co os ee

Immature corn... 2.) 79.1) 1.4) - 17 \.6.04) ieee

Ears removed...... 8007 a Be 8 4565) a ee
Clover, Silage. eck. » 72-0 1. 226:)> 4221" 8-4 Ge
Soja bean silage ..... TAD | DB OE Top OT eae
Cow-pea vine silage...) 79-32) 2.940°2 7 7 0.0" 7 Be aa
Field-pea vine silage.| 50.0 | 3.6! 5.9 | 13.0 | 26.0] 1.6
Corn cannery refuse-

BSS 5 A, ak kee or re 83.8 $60) 1 Bae OBO 2 A) Acree eerie
Corn cannery refuse- | |

BGS ty tee soe 74.1 oo 1.84 At Oa
Pea cannery refuse ..| 76.8 |~ 1.3 | 2.8] 6.5 | 11.3] 1.38
Sorghum silage ...... to. 4 i a | Bl SG Aa aes | be
Corn-soja bean silage| 76.0 | 2.4] 2.0|° 7.2] 11.1] .8
Millet-soja bean silage| 79.0 | 2.8) 2:8] 7.2} 7.2/1.0
Rye silape (a6: R80. Sats 16°) 72.4) BeBe] 2 0e2 aes
Apple pomace silage..| 85.0 .6-) 1:2 1.38.80) eaS ree
Cow-pea and soja

beai-mixed +y,...0% 69:82)": 425" |. 3.85). 95) Se aaee
Carn kernels*; ht ese 4153-4 201.0 b 6.00 fe 166) eae G ae
Mixed grasses |

CTOWEH ) nem, cee 18.4) 71 1031 4 O28 36504 ee
Brewers’ grain silage.| 69.8 | 1.2 | -6.6:4, 4.7.) 15, fae

eee Se eh. ee Oh ee Se

Oa li ae

et ere!

—

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 205

feeds can be fed with economy per head daily. Some
few cows can give proper returns for more than this
quantity of grain even when this is high, but more cows
will not do so. The farmer should aim to grow protein
foods like clover, alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as
practicable, and thus reduce his feed bills.

The table on preceding page gives actual chemical an-
alyses of the products mentioned and includes the entire
100 per cent of the contents and weight. The following table,
compiled by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkin-
son, Wis., shows the average amount of digestible nutri-
ents in the more common American fodders, grains and
by-products, and is the table that should be used in formu-
lating rations. The tables give the amounts of digestible
nutrients contained in 100 lbs. in pounds, and the figures
can, therefore, be taken as per cents in figuring out the
amount of digestible nutrients in any given amount of
food material, and it is by such methods that the tables
given on pages 211 to 215 are obtained.

Compiled by the editors of Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkin-
son, Wis.
ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFES.

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN THE
MORE COMMON AMERICAN FODDERS, GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS.

(Compiled by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis.)

ites DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN

“wa 100 POUNDS.

a Pa

NAME OF FEED. £8 Ether

4 |Protein| | varates. |. (Crude’

mr Fat.)

A a ——

GREEN FODDERS. Tebse abs: Lbs. Lbs.

Pasture Grasses, mixed.....| 20.0 | 2.5 | 10.2 0.5
Tee et Oni sh rete ces, 20.7 i30 tiv6 0.4
(Oe | Oey CN ee eae ne ae 20°63), OG ie 0.4
PSUR OV ETN re td oe Sabie 29.2 2eg LE: Seon Goma | at
Jeska Fea io RM Sp a ga mye Oke | eae 0.5
ast Cae Sie ee 16.4 1.8 8.7 Qe
PIO AeA Gre. xe sly order 24.9 | 3.2 Eis O15
Pyare WOdderao 0%... tens Safes: 2.6 18.9 et)
Peer OM Cet aI 3 is ae Sees Da Doe) 4: Saal 0.4
AG 2A nS aN eR 14.0 1.5 8.1 0.2
eae CODES Gl s\ G Aiea 16.0 1.8 hat (2
SVEVE pg] £2 Th pa 10:22" 220-6 yas

206 A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN
100 POUNDS.

NAME OF FEED.

DRY MATTER I
100 pouNpDS

Protein eat ws ee
hydrates | (conde Fat)

SILAGE. ishs: yibe Lbs Lbs.
hSiiatinn 3! ek Scho? 2 ci Ose ak er eee 20.9 0.9 1.3 0.7
Corn, Wisconsin analyses..| 26.4 bs 14.0 0.7
MS ABEND So ool io vam Sn Sa 23.9 | 0.6 14.9 0.2
Heda lower ccs. in eee tie 28.0 2.0 125 Po
oF CI Oe eae eR i Reece rer UE a8) 8.5 1.9
Ug By Poo ae a ge ate NR 20.7 ia 8.6 0.9
SSE eb EGE AG ce veh one 2 eres 206 4 eee us ie

DRY FODDERS AND HAY.

Gorn Podder227 eae eee 57.8 es, 34.6 iE
Corn Fodder, Wis. analyses.| 71.0 a8, 40.4 2
CBr SiOvet . 254 ee 09.5 LA a 0.7
Sorehnum: Fodder’... >... 09.7 i oes. 37.3 0.4
ReaiClover.+.4 22 oS 84.7 6.8 35.8 1:%
PULP Sheree, Go ae ee SEO.) ola 39.6 [ae
PRAT ICE See ts eee Fe 85.2 6.2 46.6 1.5
RE ASTASS wk 78.8 4.8 as Se)

ene eae ene an | 893 rds 38.6 Lede
Real skAGS oe tony pe 82.4 aa | 1.4
Jolson Grasse. sis. ee aees 87.7 Bee 7.8 0.7
Wharsh Warass\ 00.0 ce See: 88.4 2.4 29.9 0.9-
NTE ets 3 So ea ee SS ee ears ae oe ay eas i
OaecHagnn we toceor sot 91.1 4.3 46.4 hen
OfPand (Peastlaye oc. 28 85.4 9.2 36.8 1-2
Crenant Grass = seats et oo 90.1 4.9 42.33 1.4
Prenie karassas: ae 87.5 aco 41.8 1.4
Med CO as. seks ee 91.1 4.8 46.9 jee |
C210] 6 1s (ae eae Pe ae ee eS 86.8 2.8 43.4 | 1.4
Timothy and Clover ....... 85.3 4.8 39.6 1.6
Wirtelin ped ee ree 88.7 | 12.9 AT 5 1.4
Wihrite aisyees as. Sees 85.0 3.8 4), 1.2

STRAW.

ESAUIOY 056 Gane sb eee 85.8 0.7 41.2 0.6
CD Dies cide oc aed is ee 90.8 bee 38.6 0.8
GROVE, in ee eo ee 92.9 0.6 40.6 0.4
WRN BE ces anes ce age 90.4 0.4 n6.0 0.4

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 207
Z = |DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS
ze In 100 PouNDS.

2 Aree in aoe

NAME OF FEED, E 2 5 4s ose
»S| 2 eS | 6h5
A=) ao | S25 ja ~
ROOTS AND TUBERS. sLbs.'| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
Pep MeONEeSh ils 5 oer. hte ken. wee ee -20.0; 2.0} 16.8 0.2
Roc .cominon: yo. or: 2 5 ey -13.0 |- 1.2 8.8 0.1
ee eae oe aed, ope el eo eto] ee ae Re opera 8 26 0.1
SOC Ta 6 ESISE RMS © Geet Se a Rye Tea O87 LS 0.2
[AD TGN RICE 2) ORM a ce ar ae ha ana ee 9.1) 4) 2-64 0.1
| 25 STIs it ete Ae MPa nd aa RO tt ae rile hot EL 0.2
eraOe segs en eh se i eo EOL Ee Oe TES 0.1

ELS TIS) De 1222 SR ROG Wire + Re Fee Oe CEA ei Se 0.2?
Neen Gee PES Pe nitts etic rede Bates sien a EO Ae 0.2
Smeets PObALOES Vil. Ane Rec ern, oe 29.0} 0.9} 22.2 0.3

GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. ie 8

EER AA Ss a a 89.1} 8.7} 65.6 1.6
Brewers Gtdains, dry: Si so< 7622020. OO ol We el Omar ets o.1
- Brewers (Grits, Wet ice. neti. ve DAS Oil Ose 1.4
MADE DEOUES 2c ks oG ee songs oy eee 89.8) 18.6| 37.1 7
LES UTC! O41) el hs a et ce eS a ae 87.4] 7.7| 49.2 1.8
Hickweneatbred <koo Ses, ed ea 89.5} 7.4] 30.4 1.9
Buckwheat. Middlines ..s.62.-...08. 87.3 | 22.0] 33.4 5.4
eT RES chin oot eo Ake woe eesGRE TO 89.1} 7.9] 66.7 43
Cor. and«Cob—Meal:: .. sce. 89.0} 6.4} 63.0 3.0
ReaD Secs itn ices Moke act 89.3| 0.4} 52.5 0.3
SSM ETC aE) Pepe aeetonce pt anon Say Ror ae 90.9} 7.41 59.8 4.6
elas Gluten: Meal... 3 ee 1990! 246) 388 | 115
lnGer iCal 18 soe ae eT at es oe 88.0 | 32.1 | 41.2 RS
GeranOi Meal): ee 90.0 | 20.2) 44.5 8.8
Gluten Feed... 2. 0: pe oe ON cases Se 90.0} 23.3 50.7 Dak
lerminy CDG... chao ke es es 88.9} 7.5! 55.2 6.8
StarcnwPecd: Wet. sues. ss otis eae 34.6) .5.5) 21.7 23
ROGECOTESSCEO oo sis eee tise ete ee, role aT ihe SS Ras 8 Oe ae
Gettem Seed: Meakin ie Pe oo OPS iat) aloo 8.4
@Gottommseced Hulls ke 2s. bai ck 88.9} 0.3] 33.1 eG
UB cleo ebel bt wet ler | Cro mae eats fen i nae 89-75).15:6> gees ett.o
= BC PE CASS ae ade cae ae oe eee 85.2} 18.3} 54.2 1.1
Pile Uae atey eS Skies Oe betes 90.8 | 20.6] 17,1 | 29.0
hil. Weal, Old’ procese..7.2 685 6. va 90.8 | 29.3} 32.7 7.0
Oil Meal, new process............. 89.9 | 28.2} 40.1 2.8

208 : A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

2 |DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS
= g In 100 PoUNDs.
Bz ; senate
NAME OF FEED; Se limses 3 20%
ge) og $8 | pau
~S| 6 | £9. | 886
| 4 A, 54 |e
GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS. | Lbs.} Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs
Clevetand Oil Weal i). -> Sa | 89.6 | 32.1 | 25.1 2.6
PITT LOE thie can ee eee Ae ee 84.8) 7.8} 57.1 eB §
WHEE Ty csrioe ete lies Wek I 0 clues ee 86.0} 8.9} 45.0 on
I PS Mg OR CORT a UR a ee en yy Sok IT 89.0} 9.2} 47.3 42
Wat Heed of Shorts sae ree 92.3 | 12.5 | 46.9 2.8
BST AED Ts PR Oe ae er ae Dah Rd Mat 93.5| 8.9 | 38.4 5.1
PSG Ace MR Oe eh at ae Gea eee 89.5| 16.8 | 51.8 02%
Oar Dainy Pred ya. ton Pcie es Cet 92.5| 94 | 501 3.0
Beate hee Sook i eee kc wet ee 88.4] 9.9 | 67.6 1.1
Rive eran. + seats ee ee eas 88.4 11.5 | 50.3 2.0
MAE ORE on ck ees el AT ae oe 89.5| 10.2 | 69.2 Li
MERE ORGS ce kin Gok ke cased ee 88.1/12.6 | 38.6 3.0
Wheat Middlings 2 Yan. i> cess ces 87.9| 12.8 | 53.0 3.4
WIIEGE Shorts Sash 65.8 os ot sees oc 88.2.) 12.2) 1 50:0 aes
WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS.
Kind of Feed. oe Oa
Cotton Seed Meal? oo5.525i2. 1.4 pounds 0.71 quarts
Linseed: Meal, old process . At ¥ 0.90 %
Ghoten Mieak aon. 2 ahs oe tee 1.8 % 0.55 :
Gluten Feed os. ce oe 1:3 vp 0.71 s
Gernt Oil Meats: Po 2.32 |. Stadia . 0.71 *
Brewers Grams: .:.22.2...5. 0.6 “4 1.70 S
Wratt Prouts, 2. ines ct oto ce 0.6 oe 1.70 4
Rea Talia fe ee 0.5 * 2.00 1
Wheat Middlings, standard..| 0.8 n ea “3
Wheat Middlings, flour ..... ene s 0.83 %:
iGotm-iwetnels.. oo oe. Fite LY 0.60 i
Sor leat... oo ecawtusse ts & Bae ise 5: = 0.70 =f
Corn and Cob Meal: .:2 ey: 1.4 “f 0.67 a
Corn Bran. crates cutee. 0.5 a 2.00 ‘i
Jae AP EREIG ec nics tn it fe 0.90 ee
Oats (erognd) Ho. 220s eon 0.7 . 1.40 ¥3
Witeat erels 2-15 io Ses 1.9 oe 0.53 x
Pi) Dairy Feed |): 1%, 026 cscs ote 0.7 * 1.43 =
Quaker Dairy Feed ......... | 1.0 se 100-4
Victor Corn and Oat Feed.. "| 0.7 5 1.43 =

—— ee

_— -_-

_—_—

=e oe 2

ee ae. ae ee eee Re

hil tie

eae Eee le es ee ae
'

—— ae oe ee

PIG eee ee

Chi Tat et a
‘ -

w.'

SOILING CROPS.

209

SOILING CROP ADAPTED TO NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND

STATES.

(Lindsey.)

(For 10 cows’ entire soiling.)

Red clover....

Grass and
clover

Vetch and
oats

Peas and
oats:

Barnyard
millet
Soja bean (me-
dium green)

CORM HS Skies :

Hungarian...
Barley and {
peas

TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING

Seeds Per Acre.

10 lbs.red clo.
3 bu. oats.
cee: Ibs. vetch.

1%4 bu. Can’da
14bu.oats..
ly 6é sé

8
18 ‘eé

114 bu. peas .
1% bu. barley

‘ April 20

Time of

Seeding. ees

Time of Cutting.

Sept. 10-15 |% acre May ate May 30

“* 10-15 |%
Jul. 15-Aug.1)/% ‘‘

Sept. |% ‘“‘

t april 20 |“
‘é 80 iy 66

6 30 |%4 “é

auby 15) tA <s
t Aug.5 {1 “

June 1- June 15
June 15 - June 25

June 15 - June 30

June 25 - July 10
July 10- July 20
June 25 - July 10

July 10- July 20
July 25 - Aug. 10
Aug. 10 - Aug. 20

Aug. 25 - Sept. 15
Aug. 25-Sept. 10
Sept. 10-'Sept. 20
Sept. 20- Sept. 30

OGE Oct. 20

SOILING CROPS.

(Phelps. )
Amount Approxi- Approximate
Kind of Fodder. of Seed mate Time ‘ F
Per Acre. jof Seeding. Time of Feeding.
AOR Ve LOGAET ences calsses 214 to'3 bu. |Sept. 1 May 10-20
a Wheat todders 3.2. 2... 2%4 to'3 bu. |Sept. 5-10 | May 20-June 5
Sree MOO VICI: o oreteley ere sie avcle cess 20 Ibs. July 20-30 | June 5-15
4. Grass (from grass
b } i lands) eerreeoereeeeseer ieee eereseee lessee teeeens June 15-25
5. April 10 | June 25-July 10
6. Oats and peas...... 2 bu. each 20 | July 10-20
. “* 30 | July 20-Aug. 1
QP PENT AIAN. 5's, o olsse cicte ce 1% bu Junel Aug. 1-10
Se Clover To wie (ft LOM 3) |/o ccecaibe ole lore! lio Seohavele sie eco Aug. 10-20
10. Soja beans (from 3) ..|l1 bushel |May 25 ae 20-Sept. 5
TIS AG OW ID CASe ec :ca steer eceiec 1 “s June 5-10 |Sept. 5-20
12. Rowen grass (from
SUASSL ANAS) ree false e Meceiloletehertisus lersveve waters le Sept. 20-30
13. Barley and peas...... 2bu. each |Aug. 5-10 | Oct. 1-30

The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and

regions under “approximately similar conditions.

A FEEDER’S GUIDE.

COST OF A POUND OF DIGESTIBLE DRY MATTER IN

DIFFERENT FEEDING STUFFS.

Cost Per

FEEDS. 100 Lbs.

S@rn-meal o> Sess oe ore $0. 80
Ome eet. Sale ore 78
eter eta ca att Shere Ca .90
rovermer fe. esa ae 85
Quaker dairy feed............ 85
bia OoGaarar heed fo. ons sk ee 1.00
Ori and wate teed es .85
Hominy cuop.. sot. ork | .90
Wheat ban. cin ecco ae dre 85
Witteatianiddlings yx, ve Ae, 4). .95
Mixed (wheat) feed ......... | 90

Cottonseed meal . 52 fs
Linseed meal, old process .....|
Linseed meal, new process .... |

Flax meal

Chicacosluten meal.+.7.....2.
Cream gluten meat, o. 2 -yoc05 8:
Kine stuten meals .o.2 ....23 <5
Buffalo gluten feed...........
Diamond gluten feed.........

ery er ae ery eer a ye
bo
=)

Total

Digestible
Nutrients.

70.4

CO KE AST 2 OT CT et 0 00 COO

Cost Per
Pound for
Digestible
Nutrients.

Cents.

Fh te Rt et ep ps pp
: (ou)
leo)

5.1

‘ovo ‘so7eIp|™ DOW teint lelamie mo mw S HO ODM HD OC 6) 6 OD G2 SO NI S319) 4

St ES 02S ENS Blodoidwisnas
Fr rs

OANA OOCr SO eS eed aieee ert
=

. 2
Cal SAS a MEAG Ah gl” ec OG (peep ite mcarrces cybcni | CECI la ry Pa a ei ee aaa ail hue guen Lhee le, -le'y aie coe eaten we
2 “AGOUIED [SIS SHAN HHS |S SAND OD HAD 0 | SOA H HID [FIO OG IED 99 HID
5 = =
3 BD SS SOS SSS |S ONAN OTS | SIRO HOM EAS SR HRA HOUDO
i: ‘uyo101g ESTAR WHSE D/BISANHWNSr w BIST Nist oo BIS TN THID OW AS
8 SSS eSooSooCos| jocoscoossS ZisoseooooonnBlosocosoosooon
4H tl eae we = a ms :
3 ‘yeW |VW|lao1wNor~mno|= (OOD IDE MOM 3 |= 1D Sr HD CD. 00 I~ By HKonoowon
foe} Aag [B10 = ee ee se el, ye ee a eee eee Oy) el rw = rx)
A =
o
o
a

percentages, since the weights

it is only necessary to find the kind and

s. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs.

of dry matter, 0.35 lbs. of protein and 3.11bs. carbohydrates.

GD €O GD Sa CO AI SO 1 NI

Geers fale an ve 8a 6 Or Cay Re

SOO nTAA OD 19

Seleiay tharos, on | tH OO CO B= 8010 Of I eS

cet 2 ert ele Perce > a7 Aan ee ek eee ee
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READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 211
IN VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS.

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212 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS.——CONTINUED.

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READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 213

VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS—CONTINUED.

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914 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED IN POUNDS——CONTINUED.

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CONCLUSION.

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of
this book is to place before the farmer, dairyman and
stockman such information as will be valuable and prac-
tical, in as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to
make a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the
financial condition of the farmer. That the silo is a prime
factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of
doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an
adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct
to successful and profitable methods, its value is difficult
to overestimate.

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an
innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better methods
in general; it stimulates its owner and spurs him on to
see just how good and far-reaching results he can obtain
from his revised system of management. _it invites a
little honest effort, and coupled with this it never fails.
It enables its owner not only to do what he has been
unable to do before, but things he has done without its
help the silo enables him to do at less cost than before.
The solution of the problem of cost of manufacture is
necessary to every successful producer, and as the propo-
sition is constantly changing, the solutions of our fore-
fathers, or even of a generation ago, no longer avail. The
silo is not an enticing speculation by means of which
something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound busi-
ness proposition, and has come to stay. The voices of
thousands of our best farmers and dairymen sing its
praises, because it has brought dollars into their pockets,
and increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and
their homes.

Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not need
a silo? Is it not worthy of your best thought and con-
sideration? You owe it to yourself to make the most you
can out of the opportunities before you. DO IT NOW!

216

— —_— ee ee

ftps £4 is x

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; a *

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. 217

GLOSSARY.

Ad libitum. At pleasure; in case of feeding farm ani-
mals, all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff.

Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest
importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the
material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, casein of
milk, and other animal products are manufactured. An-
other name for albuminoids is flesh-forming substances
or protein.

Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains
when it is burned, the incombustible part of foods. The
ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of young
animals, and in the case of milch cows a portion thereof
goes into the milk or milk ash.

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms usually in
the form of a jointed rod-like filament, and found in putre-
fying organic infusions. They are widely diffused in
nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity. Certain
species are active agents in fermentation, while others
appear to be the cause of certain infectious diseases.

Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs,
containing the various nutrients in such proportions and
amounts as will nurture the animals for twenty-four hours,
with the least waste of nutrients.

By-Products. A secondary product of an industry;
cottonseed meal is a by-product of the cotton oil industry;
skim milk and butter milk are by-products of butter
making.

Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients rich in carbon
and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion
in which they form water. The most important carbohy-
drates found in feeding stuffs are starch, gums and crude
fiber (cellulose.)

Carbon. A chemical element, which, with the elements
of water makes up the larger part of the dry matter of
plants and animals.

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the com-
bustion of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds of fer-
mentations and therefore occurs in the siloing of fodders.

Cellulose. See Crude fiber.

Crude fiber. The frame work forming the walls of
cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin,
the latter being the woody portion of plants and wholly
indigestible.

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which
is digested by animals, 1. e., brought in solution or semi-

218 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED.

solution by the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as
nourishment for the animal and furnish material for the
production of meat, milk, wool, eggs, etc.

Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remain-
ing after the water contained therein has been removed.

Ensilage. An obsolete word for Silage. Used as a verb,
likewise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also sometimes
incorrectly used for the purpose of placing green fodders
into a silo.

Enzemes. An unorganized or chemical compound of
vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermentation, as,
pepsin, or rennet.

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dis-
solved by ether; mainly fat or oil in case of concentrated
feeding stuffs; in coarse fodders, fat, mixed with a num-
ber of substances of uncertain feeding value, like wax,
chlorophyll (the green-coloring matter of plants), etc.

Fat. See Ether extract.

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the
amount of various digestible substances in a combina-
tion of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good results as
regards production of animal products, like beef, pork,
milk, etc.

Indian corn. Zea Mays, the great American cereal and
fodder-producing plant.

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined
with oxygen it forms water, with oxygen and carbon it
forms carbohydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phosphorus)
it forms the complex organic nitrogenous substances
known as protein albuminoid substances.

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and capable
of fixing the gaseous nitrogen of the air, so that it be-
comes of value to the farmer and will supply nitrogenous
food substances to farm animals. Examples, the different
kinds of clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc. Of the highest
importance agriculturally, as soil renovators, and in sup-
plying farm-grown protein foods.

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-fifths
of the air. The central element of protein. See under
Hydrogen.

Nitrogen- free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff
remaining when water, fat, protein, crude fiber, and ash
are deducted. It includes starch, sugar, pentosans, and
other substances. It is so called because it does not con-
tain any nitrogen.

ss et Wii ee Mil in A ad.

oY thi el La A as
’ ’ s

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED. 219

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitro-
gen (which see).

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food con-
stituents capable of nourishing animals.

Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein
to the sum of digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration,
the per cent. of fat being multiplied by 2%, and added to
the per cent. of carbohydrates (crude fiber plus nitrogen-
free extract).

Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter which
is destroyed on combustion (dry matter minus ash).

Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state
in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in
combination of hydrogen in water; oxygen is also a rarely-
lacking component of organic substances. See Carbo-
hydrates and Hydrogen.

Protein. A general name for complex organic com-.
pounds mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Crude protein includes all
organic nitrogen compounds, while true protein or albu-
minoids (which see) only includes such nitrogenous sub-
stances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming muscle
and other tissue in the animal body.

Ration. The amount of food that an animal eats
during twenty-four hours.

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including
such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn fodder,
roots, etc. Concentrated feeding stuffs are sometimes
called grain-feeds or concentrates, in contradistinction to
roughage.

Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. For-
merly called ensilage.

Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preservation
of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As
verb, to place green fodders in a silo.

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a
barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as
rye, corn, oats, Hungarian grass, etc.

Starch. One of the most common carbohydrates in
feeding stuffs insoluble in water, but readily digested and
changed in sugar in the process of digestion.

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing consider-
able water, like green fodder, silage roots and pasture.

Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out during
the summer and early fall to help out short pastures.

Summer silo. A Silo used for the making of summer
silage.

INDEX

PAGE
Advantages: of: the’ Silos. 2 et elo Sea nee es eee 11, 182
Alfalfa. sta ee. 55 oo tiecate sitio amare ota eee lee Beet alae ner 142
Analyses: ‘ot -feeding Stuitsert i oe oes aN aes 205
Animal poy, COmposition Gt thes 6152-2) Be eee 190
72s | 1 eRe Be Rane MECN Og SER aL ah SOURS UM MONT IBE Oa) of 192
Average composition OL Ssilaweverops: 222 heh ee ee 204
Beeiepulp WSiaee ess wx ota oe eee eee ates ee ss ee ee 146
Beeckssscost Of per ACTC. Mes fe eee ae ee 184
Beet cattle, Silase €0r 3.3 ose sce See oe ee ee eee 173
BIGWEL GICVALOIS: |i. 2 ia Vinee hoe yee aloe ta eee 159
STICK SILOS), cise aco wera wietal io me Sic, TS onc ee 105
Capacity Of Tuund Silos. ai Ac.0e Se). oe et os oe eee 53
Carbonic-acid poisoning in silos, danger from......... 160
Cement block silos, how made, reinforcing, etc. of.... 127
Gement Tinimns. how to aaintain. ss430 oo Se. eee pee 129
Certified milk, silage in production of.....2)5...4....5% 169
Chemical composition ‘of Silage... ...%..0. 5.5.3 se. ee 204
Chute<tor >a round wooden. slo... 552 2. estas ee gee 102
Cireles? circumferences, and areas Of... 2.0... 0... 27. oe 101
CUO Vie ee EATS soos, (Soke Shoe nese hie ESeee pia Bie eae a ee ei ee 140, 1638
CIGVEESIASEC- -COSL “Ol: He wou fre haan ccs eur ee a ee 141
Cleaver: ‘time ‘of cutting for the silo <0 he. tee 141, 142
Clover yield per acre Ob. v5 cr 4 he ne oe Cee ee ee 142
COMETECE: JSIIGS 4 Wee Fane hae oa de eA Cee eee 121, 126
Concrete silos, forms used for making................ 131
Conserving soil fertility with silage system........... 42
COLD, Cultins Of “in The Held. 27202 ec. Ry. Se ne 149
Cor tad. Preparation “OF oc. ts ote sc 3 ee ees ee Las
Cari: methods of plants’. ce 2254 eves 2 bos ee 139
Corn silave: "ys: fodder corn; 2. 2)a se ee Oa eee 186
Corn saiaer evs. Way on 6 Sea oe oe ee ee eee 184
Corn siace ivs; TEOOts ol rt ae ew bate Cae ee as eee 182
Corn, silome ‘of, “ears and alle tc. fone to s tee 152

Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn.
Corners of square silos, methods of excluding air from 107

Costof ecis=per aere we oi eee en oe eae oo ereee 184
Cost of a pound of digestible dry matter in different
feedine Stites sisi Ee eee as Ce ee oe 211
SP OUCIISION. <6 okt ae ee oh, Ce a eee oC DC 216
COS {OLICOTN SHAS fy iris Mee SoS an dead es 186
BNSh wh sO! .22c5. ee es ee cee, ie ee LID TES
Covering: ‘silage: :..6... fis wee ees Savon 0) es ee ee 161
Camr-Deansilace:. 2278S. Vasko ile Roehl. eee 143
Comparative. losses in dry cUTINGs. 20... 9. beiee seeas 15
220

Ss ~- —- t .\

INDEX. 221

PAGE
Ome. Cle Of “CULLING, TOT SHOG AA. sg. os eos 0 tls Some we 136
Composition of the animal DOWY 25 ...06 ei va ee ee 190
Womposition Of the Sllaze Crops. 6. ios oo 2 ae yes 204
SOMmPOPION OL TeCGiIN es SLUMS cries dedie so nue Ua Oe we eee 191
Orie mel eee sae cee 4 fer Satter 6 Me SUS eee ere. 193
GUtLEr. GR POWCL: SIZO. OLS Go ccceldie a ctv bce ssc ee 155,15
Dennition “Ol LECrINS ISCO. Sore oa, oe Sele ks he sea ees Be we 217
Description: of Ohio” silage ‘cutters... ee: 156, 228
PSST yn elie CHOOUGE sn oo ss vin.c ere Sic ctslt niece nis s Mae scone ees 194
PI OES HOT SRLS see eo sic ons cis aie otc. Cia s aiatee wine ale Wales 68, 95
ren atite SiO” TM-TIIMES OL. % os « 65 sic tose 8 aes sees a5 2B wh alee) s 25
eA GSe ee ait COON: Ol CORN @ tet oes as ¥ oie sushs toee hers A
EC HIOIY. tO, SSUORAR CS. sists, gio eet as se 2S okie bs elar cet e's Satare ee 19
MPSVEALOES PMEUMIATIC f.'. cede esl see eel a so oe me euels 159, 160
Ensilage, see Silage.
Estimating of materials: for silOs. 22. oh. e cw wa ees se 115
PORES ETT 5 OE. oe atin hope Seatsuchobsun ss wis. sete! aye sale wa chats 190
MeEsdine sStilic” + COMPOSITION OL. Yai). 2.5.6 us oe eae aoe aes 191
PSS I bATIATE SS +o) eed oleic oiaipis sss, eye Gus Sess ye we ene os 196-199
Beebe Oh U LES eae eee Me a tran at co cer vss wade paves Siete ores 167
Field-curing of fodder corn, losses in.............. a ig ea
MDE SEO ese ns, ores crarsia oe snd e's Ree Ris aneltee os 20, 149, 155
PO GMEL LOM CISEIOS: 4 oves oo sicistageie Saceclars #)d oh mo auhee mye iat 21
Pood ineredients, increase. in... ss oc cb. cee c cece wisi wis ob 138
PU Se rie Oe ttle hie tyes are, cob 808 hile alana) Behera isle love sa orebabanese © 165
Grain mixtures Tor Gairy COWS «<<<! <tc sles oie eieis:ecm encare ot 200
TMG td PECHOCTS “ore cic o eiete coo caetareie slovenia’ othe wre thd sree eien 192
Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for Se ag eee are ee 151
Pas Or Oris, Diativin= OF COLMCIN: oo 0%. oF aye Piece 3: ons wrens 139
History of the NG Saat A OA 2e RA BS ANS PRUs cia See ead reg Shree oa i
PariZonial - Iris, -SiOS soW1bL. oo vice sin eles, a1 thease: gras es coe 109
PS esa SIS OPOls <6. haieiry a sis 6.6 suerte sa eo mecsce,¢ nee -caasiee 174
ESO TOUCH SIAC oo eon eG aiece ty ose ale aco wie ace Ritts hare a cae 167
Pwo HeUTe) Ot TATIONS .5...0%% «5 accge sets yee setae 200
indian Corl, Soll: adapted fOr.) 2.5 ie ge ae) 2 Lae vp 8s 133
Pmian corn, Mmecnogs OF planting 20.05.0255 2 ake es 139
Mra aM UE ET BO re et acne st gos chy cBav ahh ale as uma eho mane e eisai 133
Indian corn, Chemical changes 1m... i oa. ck ce oe 137
Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tassel-
PEPER AP CTICN SS Cire oct oveletn co erieieiaisvere sls als 6.00 ere wi, si s,e ereuare 138

Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo... 184
Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn,

Ineleside farms, SUOS es cee ce cs keeles news cnvecs's 158
PHEEOUMOTION sxe de;eieie ot eee es diercis e'o.a bin, 8 0-9 See ein aabers oe 9
Peter LOT, (LLORS! 5 155086 sis. 0's ce area] oS. 6 oe ore ayo hehe, Maino eee © 70, .75
AERIS CMY LEY PY OUTING 56 a, cc: s.e oa ievelonesetteieleoele's «Dies «0 11, 14
Losses in the siloing process...... hageuateroaie eros esaeks tee

222 INDEX.

PAGE
LLOsses- 2p Biome -“Alfalta. . = ,.4-ciccs aie ec eee ee ies 17
Low. wargons-for-hauling corn:+ 3. <2 of eee eeee eee 151
Lucerne, see Alfalfa.
Materials for the: sil; oo.. Stic os oe Or oe 2 ee 89
Metal bucket chain clevatorss 2. 4% wteec% ore oe 257
Mileh: cows; silagé rations. f0f 3. 0)... soe eee ee Lid
Mileh cows: silage: fOr aie. os iF as Ss caw ee eee 167
Nantel MALLEE” ..2. el aeieaa tae eee eee be Yana eee 190
Modification: af “Wisconsin” isilo:.: =o. hn. Sei Sh oe 76
Miscellancous= SUAZEC. “COPA ioe bis ole ees ecco » oe wo eee 146-148
New Jersey Experiment Station silo.................. 158
Witropen-free CxXtTaet: i ieds kaa ee eek hee ee eee ee 193
No daneer. OF TRIM} 6..s5 os ooo eee ae ee ee eo 19
Number of staves required for stave siloS............. 100
INGUTTEL VO. ReBEIO yo Se Sahn Sate on owes ane tare She a 197
Getaconal Silos. ocd cs as cee ci sang aes = - a 108
Gpinions of reeosnized leaders... 3. 2... as oe ee 188
“Ohio” silage cutters, description of.............. 155, 160
Paintine the’ silo Uinitte. 3 css). a5... 5. «gigs to ee ee 75
Plastered: round wooden -sulos..... ...20 02.2 224 Se eee 17
Plantene-Corn,-MetnGds Of-5525.5) 265% \29,e0>, 22 See ee 139
Plantins corn, thickness Of °..0.. 2 2..-2 22s Here eee 139
ENenmaric : ClOVaLOFS ...5..F% Se. ice oa ce eee a 159
SHMUILCYINEN'S -SUOS A. oe Sogn is yiewassions On beeneeee eee 182
SUIT Y: “SUAS LON. os sx/go-tn nets. oe ee ge ee 181
Preparation Of Corn land - 252. 4. 36 os = Qe cee ee 133
Preservation Of SIlOS.: = sf... os =s See oe eee 118, 120
PPOUCIY @ ooo. ic DR ek wes CK Spe ers ike ae ee 193
Rack,Miow-down, for hauling corm...:......2..+.ie.e«s 151
Rations,. how to figure Out.........cccceesccsececceas 200
Rations, silage, for dairy COWS........eesseceeeseeeees 171
Ready reference tableS...........ccee scence cecees 211, 215
Relative value. of feeding. stulis.. ... 21.2242. eee 195
Reinforced concrete: silo constriction... ©. .<. 2.65% wn 125
RMSE SEG LIC: SUVs 5.5 cw eae See Sak Poca seks ele ip te erent 73, 88, 96) oa
PerHOSTIOS. «05.0.4 5 exe S Cb eae eps oe oe 53
Sheep silace: fOr. ... 2. cas see sings soe t+ os eee Pee 176
Shrinking of silage-fed cattle..............-eeeeseees 38
Sitnce, AMA ooo. mete oss se one Ses 2.5 heh ee 142
Silage and soil fertility ............. sees oeseccwceee 42
SIRO CATE oF ion wk Se eteed ain joenne fyi ho\ ne’ sae 0 lah See ee 168
Silage, chemical composition Of...............+-2e0s . 204
Silage, ClOVEr. aa sik os dye wi ee wl See wie sta oe ee Se 140
Silare, GOst, OF 66 oko de siete tee wel s share de 141
BNal6 CLODE. .o sc cc nets sen sei ee ee ee eee .o- 188
Silaze, feeding of ....00.. 06.2. 65. eens pate 167

Silaze for HOrses . .niieo en's <hcdle mte es yels ge nee ees eee

—- v

: PAGE
Pee ueOr, TOUCH. COWS scot wok cieiee cle Ok eked een? 167, 171
PERUSE OE TOUTE Ysa ec cis eos nie abs at Shemeralehs ote AN Ta een Dok 181
Paliteres HOt SHCA Dis ce ose bie itn see be sds cw bees 176
eee LON HIPC MEMEO tee fete wile meio ee ce a ek RS 173
Pee 2 C0) Re PRC een et tate ens tak a gia $a; pe ABET hoo c ak SOS 180
Bilacse-fed peet-cattie in theeSouth.:. fo.%. ys ie oe ees 37
PURER Pree Ani e 20m er ak ahr uk vip tcadiac. fi totaieigaitis omens Bok 165
MMO OE TOP SS EGG OTS ora) is, oo oa b's G05 wa 0 b'> Shae in Cie telane 40
Set pene NCR CUP BEEN Seen coer ar tne 2 5 a) ar Siu ts dope ha aew Gane e ovate 167
Silage, quantities of, required for different herds..... 54
Blac PATIOS 1Or THPGH. COWS: 4 oio-60) acc coc oe eis bees 171
Silase:-use Gf im, beet production..:; 3.650. eas ss hee eke 28
SRO eT UC AIA ERLE ST ae yng ee Reo a's idk oa ara) 'e we? Gos wae OE 166
SUT SY UE TEn 1 1a ARR, 0.8 Pan ea eee Peace Ae ae eg a eS 23
ROS ee AMOS Odile a, 598 cea towicnkca we 4 case aie Mee ihe Saks 54
“SUS CTS RE CS SGRA Ie MELO UE BG lp geh a NEIENS pl ap ee eR ee me 48
Silos. Seneral- Tequirements. LOM is So. 68 Bel slo eR 48
Siler eGn Lie. LOrningl.qctit cn wae iet ae ois Sue. See See oS 54
SOS Gee ita PEOCERS Ls aan te mre a ea bers de SE eine Sane 153
SEL pee IET Ec PL VIVE nae ia artitaras, aad er ate, Sie GPR Road Sade a GW ees 149
pad POET UID De. CU MTOM te tele Verte Sie oe Sadlest diate euls, A oP e als tas clsia tes Re 103
ie SeLOUME ALeSLONG <tc st. oo ark stare Gace eee Bihe dies Oe 103
ae OEE WOOGIE: gos: caves Sissies ene aes siete hale BGs wad ~ aoehs 53
ear eee mare PA te ie none arcuate tre" Slater orasueisiain ete ein tee ex 121-126
SU Da ee 2 C1100 BPO) YG" Go Sa RE a oa SU ee Age RRR SA: 127
Re i EE OME 5, 21ers aes “nigh shave opanahe spep hast Ate cae Os 103
MAR ROSE. Olle Merete wna Beare eo 16, (7,-81,. 96, 98, 122; 115
SM SeSrPRRS I eC MOTNO Ui So hase sate. cso p ehbuayre ae) wns: ies er obc vdeeie ee ora alae 58
BOs, (BUCCINCALIOUS 2LOR. cs staves. ss <7oce. 0% ann 60, 76, 81, 86, 108
Silos, square, methods of excluding air from corners of 107
Bn REO IUENG acre er cligs 20 3c eh eheae, era: Kare at Ree to a rae wi nee 105
Sies.- Valievin- Intensive. Carmine. %..6 oe. es tee eae 21
Sead SEMEN ET UAC OTE CEs soba cto -i che ocievs, ahots oor ie. aie» wien dhe eregare sates 24
SOAS Wit. cUOLVZONGA! BATES F472 o's ae Se co Slele Orage ote ea elere 109
SOS LOUMMATIONI OL = 5s. 5aiei. grate se onseke 32 60, 61, 68, 65, 86, 109
eae eT ee TOM ITLLC EH a:5 iced ee ore elniocee Guarentee see ode @ S's 51
“OTE Ue 1G aR 2) 6 eae Cee Nn er ae es ane eer ae ee 81
JSST SS rat Cy Gs Sorat Ge ee 105
eee AERTS GNRERNS 3, 2 ccsie ties tas cvencuatie Glue ec ncs ana\ we¥ le aua sven eo ocete 106
Se CEPA ITIL ae ache) aha ete Te latatat or mah 5.0.04 se ale pave wosce cate 108
=17e Of cutter and power required... 6. Ses oss ee eee 155
Ree AEST CSTE Gi alee oo sens hte cress nicl 0-000 os. e obs 00d auaed's olaceie or 145
Southern and Northern varieties of corn, comparative
MA UNE wine oh caecates ctaoe bog he tet iste atnln wie cad: 4 one Wie, A debiw aheteicere 135
Soil fertility maintained with silage...............6-. 42
ene CORN ta bler OL nie ses xe ois ave 6 5 doce aac Sh emiere 8 <re 209
Soiling crops, time of planting and feeding........... 209

224 INDEX.

PAGE.
Soja Beans ..... Sidleod ¥ a's bjacd 38 0 Seb bs he REO ee Re ee 145
specincations for-a stave slla.e... 3. aes ee aes 86
Stave ‘SIOB- "sc cies’ ood 8S hace tis Park 6 oe eee 83, 98
Stave silos, calculation of staves required for........ 101
Stave. SLO, NOOE VOL: 55 ces ao cae ry thane StS ee 88
Stave silos; -specificationsfor. 0)... fo. es mae eee 86
Staves, calculation of number required............... 101
SPCAMCG SURZO:.. 5. Sica cte ere Pr et ek ee 166
mleers,. Silage’ for: |. ae seen Salata n/ Sa "aue Ak ee Oe Se is
Scockers; silage: “200d fore s. Mn. Hae oe es ee ee 40
SPOTS OSES: 1, or05 ter assse ear eretE EIS Bea ree Ce wie ea oe 105
SUCCHIEREE >. ala at sis es PR eee ek re a eee 18
Sunimer silo, advabtaces ‘Of B60) oor Ae oe eee 23
SuMMany TERUIIST A. cis BAS dealers cde ke eee Re 40
WING! SWASCN LOM ca God a eocettere, 0c ere scwietabde aha) eee 180
Thieknessor plantin’ sCOrn ic... eset wee ee 139
ime ol Hlline thes silo... Ve. vec moore dee ee nee 20, 149
Time.of cutting ‘corn for the silo. ...¢-3.< 204. eae 136
Use. of silaze in beef production. 2.:. 25). .4.c6 4. see 28
Value<in intensive farming. s.i0. 26... 5 eta te pe eee 21
Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo........... 134
WAStG. /OF -TOULRDERS Ss Ufc a lkaivo ceo «de Le eee eee 38
Water use ot in filling silos... <. ss sé. wae Oe 1s eee 162
Weicht; of concentrated feeds... .. 024 ..c. ase cee eee 208

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, description of 80, 82
Wietds: Of ClOVET “DED AGCTO. 26 (cas sux ee OA a eal 140

15 Years’ Experience with the Silo
By F. L. Allen.

MAPLE CREEK FARM

Trumbull Co., Ohio.
The Silver Manufacturing Co., Saiem, Ohio.

Gentlemen:—Complying with your request I submit the fol-
lowing aS embracing my experience of 15 years with the silo,
and in feeding silage for milk and beef:

Economy of the Silo.

The silo cannot be looked upon as the only essential ele-
ment of success in farm practice, yet there are many distinct
advantages to be gained from its use. In the first place it en-
ables one to use the entire corn crop. The analysis of the corn
plant shows that nearly one-half its food value is in the stalk
and leaves after the ear has been removed. It also shows that
there is the most digestible matter in the crop just at its matur-
ity, before it dries and hardens. By the usual methods of hand-
ling the crop, a large part—frequently all—of the fodder is
wasted, and a distinct loss is incurred by allowing the fodder
to dry out. The use of the silo enables the feeder to avoid
these losses, for he can take the entire crop from the field just
at the time when it contains the most digestible food value,
place it under cover at the barn convenient for feeding, succu-
lent, digestible, palatable, in such condition that it will all be
consumed.

We value the silo as the source of an abundant supply of
cheap, succulent food for the winter months or seasons of
drouth. Silage, if properly put up, will Keep for an indefinite
time. We have fed it four years old as ‘‘good as new.’’ It is
worth while to have it on hand ready to supply the need at
any time.

Silage Differs in Composition.

Many farmers seem to forget that the silo merely preserves
what is put into it. One can never get anything out of a silo
that he doesn’t first put in. If soft, immature corn is put into
a silo, the silage will be sour, washy stuff, with little ‘‘body’’
to it, and its feeding will be a disappointment. On the other
hand, if good, mature, well-eared corn is siloed, the result will
be a strong, nutritious food, highly satisfactory.

Chemical analysis of the corn plant shows that it nearly
doubles in feeding value between the time it reaches its full
growth (tasseled) and maturity. The feeding value of silage
will correspond with the maturity of the corn siloed.

Silage Not a Perfect Food.

Probably most will agree that good blue grass pasture is
the cheapest and most satisfactory, all-around food for growth
or milk. Now, if we will compare the analyses of blue grass
pasture and good silage, we will find them almost identical
except in the matter of protein, in which element silage is
deficient. 2

Water. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
BASTUTC), SEASS > cig aid sve eres O 2.6 10.6 5
PULA Cre mretcvorelars oh cleieciets eaters 79 122 11.8 6

Fifteen Years’ Experience With the Silo—Continued.

By comparing the analyses we will see that to make silage
an economical food, and to get the most out of it, it is neces-
sary to feed in connection with it some food rich in protein.
It has been our experience that by using the succulent silage
as a basis for our ration and adding sufficient protein to dupli-
cate the analysis of pasture grass, we can have very nearly
Summer food and secure very nearly summer results in the
winter. We have a theory that inasmuch as silage is a sum-
mer food—that is, has the succulence of summer food—summer
conditions of warmth should be provided to go with the food.
Nature in wisdom provides the succulent grasses for the warmth
of summer and dried grasses for the cold of winter. Possibly
many disappointments can hbe_ traced to a failure to provide
suitable conditions for the feeding of silage.

Cost of Silage.

Silage is one of the cheapest foods the stockman can use.
The cost of growing an acre of corn to maturity will be about
as follows: se of land, $5; plowing, $2; fitting, $1; planting,
50 cents; seed, 25 cents; cultivating, $1.25. Total cost of an acre
of corn at maturity, $10. It will be seen at once that these
are very liberal allowances, giving the farmer a good income
from his investment, and good wages for all time spent in
producing the crop. On good land, with good care, in a fairly
favorable season, a crop of 16 to 20 tons per acre is not at all
unattainable, making the silage cost on the ground, 50 to 60
cents per ton. With modern machinery and good management,
it can be put into the silo for 35 to 40 cents per ton. Indeed,
with our large machinery and strong force of men, we have put
it into the silo for less than 30 cents. Interest on the cost of a
silo, and deterioration of the silo, will add 10 cents more, mak-
ing the total cost of a ton of silage $0.95 to $1.10.

Fifty pounds of silage per day is a good ration for a grown
animal. Forty days feed for a dollar! And an acre of good
corn will feed three or four animals 200 days, or through the
winter. Surely there is no cheaper food.

Filling the Silo.

; We have found that we fill the silo much cheaper by using
machinery of large size, and employing a sufficient force of men
to keep it running to its full capacity. Our machine, which is
a company affair, is a 24-inch ‘‘OHIO,’’ and will handle about
all the corn that can be got to it. Our force consists of five or
six teams and wagons, according to the distance of hauling,
six men in the field to load the wagons, two men at the cutter
to help driver unload, and one man in the silo. The corn is
cut with a harvester and tied in bundles as large as a man
can lift. We divide our help in the field in to two companies
or gangs, three men loading half the wagons and three the
other half. Thus they are not in each other’s way, and three
men can hand the bundles up to the loader as fast as he can
place them. We load the wagons beginning at the rear end,
building up a _tier of bundles against the rear standard, then
another, till the load is completed, and placing them so that
butts will be toward the machine in unloading. Loaded in this
way the bundles do not overlap and bind each other, and three
men at the machine, each taking a bundle in turn, and placing
it‘in the cutter, can feed the largest machine to its full capacity,
and unload a wagon in a surprisingly short time. In a trial we

226

;

Fifteen Years’ Experience With the Silo—Continued.

have unloaded a 3800-pound load, cut it in %-inch lengths, and
elevated it into a 45-foot silo in a fraction over three minutes
With good corn we can put in 20 tons per hour, at a cost of
less than 30 cents per ton. The more modern blower Has many
advantages over the old carrier and very rapid work may be
done by some of the new machines.

Silage for Milk.

It is generally admitted that the silo is a good thing in the
dairy. In the dairy section of Ohio it has found a place on most
dairy farms and is considered indispensable, especially for win-
ter milk. It is our practice to feed silage the year round, ex-
cepting perhaps a couple of months in the early summer, when
the pasture is at its best, and we have come to value it nearly,
if not quite, as highly to supplement summer pastures as for
the winter ration.

Silage for Beef.

While most persons are now ready to admit that silage is a
desirable food in the dairy, many yet question its value in the
production of beef. Theoretically the ration that will produce
a large flow of milk ought to promote the growth of the young
beef animal. Our experience proves the truth of the theory
so far as silage is concerned. Just as the milch cow in the
winter approximates summer results in milk, when silage is
used as a basis of the ration, so the young steer approximates
summer results in growth on the same ration. We have had
steers make an average gain of three pounds per day for a
short time on a silage ration balanced with protein grain, such
as the gluten feeds.

One thing has not been mentioned and that is the health
and thrift of the animals, whether milch cows or steers. Our
animals always shed in March, are always in condition and
ready to make rapid gains on the first grass of spring. We
have fed silage to horses, brood sows and poultry, with very
satisfactory results. Yours truly,

F. L. ALLEN.

Publishers’ Note.

In talking with Ex-Governor Hoard of Wisconsin recently,
he mentioned the fact that he has made a practice for the past
three years of putting about 30 bbls. of water on top of his
silage after filling, with very satisfactory results. It seems to
settle the whole mass and especially the top, and causes a
very thin crust to form, thus sealing the silo with scarcely a
eart full of waste.

The ‘Ohio’? Blower Machine will elevate the water and
spread it over the top perfectly.

227

“Ohio” Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter

Showing New Metal Bucket Carrier, Set for Right-
Angle Delivery

Fig. 784, No. 11

No. 11 With two 11-in. knives, cuts %, 1, 1% and 2 inches,
weight 440 Ibs........ Hee waaivewt’ see an sles mates ae ate
No. 11 With four 11-in. knives, cuts 4%, %, % and 1 inch,
weight 440 lbs............

Reversible carrier with angle or straight delivery;
also straight delivery carrier with reversible at-
tachments, in 12-ft. lengths or more, can be
supplied for these machines.

Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, with two knives,
can also be furnished.

Machines are regularly equipped with four cutting
knives, but when desired can be supplied with
Shredder blades instead, at slight extra cost.
Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238.

For full information, prices, étce., see our large
Feed and Ensilage Cutter Catalog.

228

Smallest Size Ensilage Cutter.

The illustration on the opposite page is a good representation
of the smallest size ensilage cutter and it shows also the new
metal bucket carrier set for right angle delivery. This is the
style carrier manufactured for this machine, and it can be set
at right or left angle, or straightaway.

Construction of the Carrier.

The sides of the trough are tied together by wood strips and
they are reinforced by iron rods. The hangers at top have
adjustment which is to set the tension in the chain. The chain
is malleable links of standard make, and the attachment link
is our special design and admits of the bucket being full width
of the trough. The buckets are heavy sheet metal and are
two inches high. The metal hood at bottom and a tail piece
under the chain catch the cut ensilage and prevent it spilling
out. It will carry the ensilage away as fast as it comes from
the machine.

Uses of Elevators.

The first and principal use of elevators of this kind is to convey
cut ensilage into the silo. Other uses are to deliver dry cut
feed, of whatever kind, into bays, bins, lofts, and other places
away from the machine, which saves the expense of a man.

Has Capacity to Fill 50-ton Silos.

The cutter is substantial, has large capacity, and is adapted
to cut all kinds of dry feed as well as ensilage. It has capacity
to fill 50-ton silos, and even larger ones, but as this work neces-
sitates a force of men and teams, and taking into account the
liability of frost, owners of silos usually give preference to a
larger machine, so that the cutting may be done quickly and
not lag.

Shredding Fodder.

By substituting shredder blades for the cutting knives, perfect
shredding can be accomplished. A. sample of the shredded
material as it comes from the machine is shown in the illus-
tration on page 238. A full description accompanies the illus-
tration.

Capacity.

Dry feed 2500 to 3000 pounds; ensilage, three to four tons per

hour.
Speed.
450 to 600 revolutions per minute.

Power.
Two-horse.

Pulley.

Size sent 12x4-inch face; diameters, 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches
can be furnished.

Weight.

No. 11 Cutter, 440 Ibs. Reversible carrier, 12 feet long; 200
pounds; extensions, per foot, 8 pounds.

229

“Ohio” Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter
Equipped with Self-Feed Table and Blower Elevator

Fig. 803, No. 11

IND: 20 hier tear d Cutter, complete as illustrated; weigh
Shas Sir asatsliovene sae ahe es Telepeeiene ois sia aicie Oe eeneie ee sine
No. 11 Plain Table Cutter complete; weight 925 Ibs......
These machines are equipped with Blower and
Hood, but no pipe. They have two il-inch
Knives and cut %, 1, 1% and 2 inches.
7-inch galvanized pipe comes in 4, 6 and 10-ft.
LOWES) vis 525 iene wees .o5s coke sleas aeie Wie We lap ane eeaste, SYolenciat oniehouetolle
Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, can be supplied.
Machines are regularly equipped with cutting
knives, but when desired can be supplied with
Shredder Blades instead, at slight extra cost.
Shredder Blades are illustrated and described
on page 238.
For full information and prices, see our large Feed
and Ensilage Cutter catalog.

230

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DESCRIPTION
The Illustration.

__ On the opposite page is shown our No. 11 Feed and En-
silage Cutter, equipped with Blower Elevator and Self Feed
Table. This addition has been made in order to meet a growing
demand for a Blower Cutter to be operated with light power—

‘four to six horse. The machine is also made with plain table

instead of Self-Feed.
Adaptability.

This Cutter has long been our most popular size for general
farm use. It is adapted for cutting all kinds of dry feeds as well
as ensilage, is strongly and durably built, has large capacity and
requires but slight power to run.

Direct Blast Blower.

The fan wheel is heavy and carries three blades or paddles,
which are fastened absolutely rigid. The fan case is made of
heavy steel, and is closely riveted. ‘The general construction
is identical with that of the Blower so successfully used for the
past eight years in connection with our ‘‘Monarch’’ Machines.
An auger conveys the cut material into the Blower.

Materials and Construction.

The frame throughout is of the best hardwood, rigidly put
together. It is nicely striped and finished in the natural; the
iron work is maroon and the whole machine is varnished, giving
a very attractive appearance. The Knives are made of a high
carbon steel, are carefully tempered and very durable. They
are securely bolted to solid knife heads and are readily ad-
justable. The knife shaft is of steel, 1% inches in diameter.
The shaft bearings are long and well babbitted. The feeding
mechanism is excellent. As the upper feed roller rises to
allow the feed to pass through, the cog wheels remain in proper
mesh without binding, making an easy-running, durable device.
The throwout or feed lever is also very simple and easy of
operation. Its use enables the operator to stop the feed in-
stantly in case of accident or otherwise.

The Pipe and Pipe Connections.

The pipe is 7 inches in diameter and is made of galvanized
steel with standing seam on the outside, running lengthwise,
being very rigid. It is made in 4, 6 and 10-foot lengths with
7-inch slip joints and a clamping band at each joint. A swivel
joint connection at the fan case allows the pipe to turn in any
direction. Included with each machine is a hood or elbow which
is to connect to upper end of pipe and convey the cut ensilage
into the silo.

Set Pipe Nearly Perpendicular for Ensilage;

Dry Feed Can Be Blown in Any Direction.

If lateral delivery is desired, suitable’ elbows can be fur-
nished at slight cost. For green Silage it is necessary to carry
the pipe nearly perpendicular to height of opening and the
hood at top will direct the silage into silo. Dry cut or shredded
fodder may be blown in almost any direction by proper use
of suitable elbows.

Shredding Fodder.

The new patented shredder blade should be run at 600 to
700 revolutions per minute while shredding, and is a notable
advance in construction, enabling the operator to shred dry
fodder or corn stover with the blower. There is a great saving
in power also, aS compared with the tooth or saw-blade type
of shredder, besides saving the leaves in much better condition.
See illustration of shredded material on page 238.

Capacity.

The machine will cut and elevate from 3 to 5 tons ensilage

per hour.

Power.
Plain table, 5 or 6 horse; Self Feed, 6 or 7 horse.
d

ed.

650 to 750 revolutions per minute.
Pullev.

10 in. diameter by 6 in. face. Choice of other diameters
when wanted. 931

“Ohio” Monarch Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter

Showing New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier

(64 ae
Fig. 794, Nos. 12, 14, 17, 19 and 22

No. 12 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1000 Ibs.
No. 14 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1050 lbs.
No. 17 Cuts ¥% in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1100 Ibs.
No. 19 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1150 lbs.
No. 22 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1200 Ibs.
12-ft. Straight Carrier for Nos. 12, 14 and 17; 240 lbs...
12-ft. Straight Carrier for Nos. 19 and 22; 355Ibs. ....
12-ft. Swivel Carrier for Nos. 12, 14,and17; 315l1bs. ..
12-ft. Swivel Carrier for Nos. 19 and 22; 480 lbs. ......

Carrier over 12 ft. for Nos. 12, 14 and 17 per ft;10 Ibs..

Carrier over 12 ft. for Nos. 19 and 22;14lbs. .........

Wood cover for Carrier, with hooks and eyes to
fasten, can be furnished for all sizes.

Extra Gears, to cut 4 inches long, with two knives,
can also be supplied.

Machines are regularly equipped with four cutting
knives, but when desired can be supplied with
Shredder Blades instead at slight extra cost.
Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238.

For full information, prices, etc., see our large Feed
and Ensilage Cutter Catalog.

232

\
5
;

The illustration opposite shows a No. 17 “Ohio” Mon-
arch Self-feed Cutter with metal bucket swivel carrier
attached. Carriers are furnished in any length that may
be required.

The machines are made in five sizes, with capacities
and required powers as listed below.

They are also manufactured with Blower Elevator, as
shown in illustration on page 234.

The “Ohio” machines are supreme in the Ensilage Cut-
ter field, due to their wonderful capacity, great durability
and easy-running-and-feeding qualities.

It is significant that the “Ohio” self-feed mechanism has
been copied by all other manufacturers, which proves its
value. The table is 8 feet long, and the largest bundles of
corn can be thrown on it and without further attention are
carried to the feed rolls and thence to the knives.

No. 12—Capacity, 8 to 10 tons per hour; power, 4 to 6
horse steam.

No. 14—Capacity, 12 to 15 tons per hour; power, 4 to 6
horse steam.

No. 17—Capacity, 15 to 20 tons per hour; power, 6 to 8
horse steam,

No. 19—Capacity, 20 to 25 tons per hour; power, 8 to 10
horse steam.

No. 22—Capacity, 25 to 30 tons per hour; power, 10 to 12
horse steam.

Speed— 450 to 600 revolutions per minute, pulley 12x6
inches; choice of other diameters when wanted.

233

“Ohio” Monarch Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter
With Blower Elevator

This is a very fine view of the machine
in its entirety. The hood over the cutting
cylinder is closed down ready for action.
Cite gearing is protected by guards, as
shown.

Fig. 802, Nos. 19 and 22

No. 12 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1500 Ibs.
No. 14 Cuts 4% in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1550 Ibs.
No. 17 Cuts % in., % in., % in. and i in.; weight 1600 Ibs.
No. 19 Cuts 4% in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1650 Ibs.
No. 22 Cuts %4 in., % in., % in. and 1 in.; weight 1700 lbs.
Regular equipment for above machines includes
blower, covered pulley and distributer, but no
pipe.
10-inch galvanized pipe comes in 4, 6, 8 and 10-foot
lengths (weight 4 pounds to foot.)

Extra gears, to cut 4 inches long, with 2 knives,
can also be furnished.

Machines are regularly .equipped with 4 cutting
knives, but when desired, can be supplied with
shredder blades instead, at slight extra cost.
Shredder blades are illustrated on page 238.

For full information, prices, etc., see our large Feed
and Ensilage Cutter Catalog.

234

The machine illustrated on opposite page is representa-
tive of the ‘Ohio” Monarch Self-feed Blower Ensilage
Cutter. As previously stated, these machines are made in
five sizes, Nos. 12, 14, 17, 19 and 22; the blower is a part
of the machine.

The -construction throughout is heavy and powerful.
The frame is strong and rigidly put together; the steel
knife shaft is heavy, running clear through the machine
and carrying the drive pulley, knife heads and fly wheel.
Four steel paddles are fastened to this fly wheel, in such
a way that it is absolutely impossible for them’ to become
loosened in any way. A heavy, well-riveted sheet steel
fan case acts as a covering for the whole.

The characteristic feature of the “Ohio” Monarch
Blower is its immense capacity, using so little power. The
power is applied primarily to the main shaft, and all the
heavy work—cutting and elevating—is done direct from
this shaft, so that not an ounce of power is wasted through
short belts, transmission gears, etc. Moreover, the liabil-
ity of breakage and wear is reduced to a minimum.

The pipe is 10 inches in diameter, in convenient
lengths, and made of galvanized steel. A swivel joint con-
nection of the fan case allows it to turn in any direction.

The new patented “Ohio” silage distributor (see page
237) is included with each machine.

No. 12—Capacity, 8 to 10 tons per hour; 6 to 8 horse
power.

No. 14—Capacity, 12 to 15 tons per hour; 8 to 10 horse
power.

No. 17—Capacity, 15 to 20 tons per hour; 10 to 12 horse
power.

No. 19—Capacity, 20 to 25 tons per hour; 12 to 14 horse
~ -:power,

No. 22—Capacity, 25 to 30 tons per hour; 14 to 16 horse
power.

Speed— 650 to 700 revolutions per minute. Pulley 12x8
inches, leather covered. Choice of other diam-
eters when wanted,

235

New Steel Truck

For Mounting “Ohio” Ensilage Cutters

Fig. 815

This new steel truck is suitable for mounting all sizes
of “Ohio” Silage Cutters with traveling feed tables, both
Blower and Carrier style, and it is recommended as a
thoroughly practical, economical and satisfactory mount-
ing for all parties who wish to move their machines fre-
quently or regularly. All parts are interchangeable, and
in case of accident may be readily replaced.

Full description and price in our Feed and Ensilage
Cutter Catalog.

236

Patented ‘‘Ohio’’
Silage Distributer
Furnished FREE with all

“Ohio’’ Monarch Blower
machines.

“Ohio’’ Silage Distributer. The new distributer furnished
with each machine is a curved, jointed elbow, 5 feet long, open
on the outer side so as to prevent back pressure. Firmest at-
tachment to the pipe is secured by two clamping bands around
the upper end of the pipe. There is a hinged joint at the middle
of the curve, which allows the outer end to be raised and
lowered by means of a rope reaching to the ground, thus di-
recting the cut material toward any point across the silo. By
means of the swivel at the bottom of the pipe the hood can be
turned to the right or left and in this manner the cut ensilage
may be evenly distributed over the entire silo during the process
of filling. This device is patented, and a distinctive feature to
be had only vith ‘‘Ohio’’ Blowers.

Our New Silo Tube can be hung from the distributor or
roof of silo. It catches the silage and delivers it in a compact
mass at the bottom of the silo. This insures perfectly equal
distribution of the cut feed, the leaves, moisture and heavier
parts being always uniformly mixed as cut. It is flexible in
character and is to be guided by hand. The man inside the
silo will appreciate this tube, as its use eliminates the objection-
able features heretofore connected with his part of the work.

Important!
The cut ensilage should be directed to the outer edge of the silo
at all times, thus keeping it high and packing it there, letting
the center take care of itself. The weight of the silage packs
it in the center. 937

The New “Ohio” Shredder
Showing a Sample of Shredded Cor Stalks

Speed, 600 to 700 revolutions

The illustration above shows a regular ‘‘Ohio’’ machine
equipped with our Patented Shredder Blades instead of with
Knives. These Shredder Bkades are interchangeable with cut-
ting Knives on all sizes of cutters from No. 9 up, so that by
purchasing the Blades extra the user has two machines in one,
with little extra cost.

When shredded properly, corn is much more readily eaten
and with much less waste than when fed whole. Shredded dry
fodder is considered much better than dry cut fodder, for the
reason that it is split and torn, thus doing away with the trou-
blesome sharp edges.

The new Shredder Blade successfully reduces the fodder
to the proper condition, with the same power, speed and capacity
as the regular ‘‘Ohio’’ Cutter. The blades have projecting steel
teeth—no two in succession travel in the same path. Unlike the
saw-blade or tooth Shredders, they do not pulverize and waste
the leaves, but split and tear the stalks perfectly. The shredded
corn in the picture was made with two blades on the cylinder
and it is reduced to a nice condition; hence four blades will
shred it much finer.

The greatest saving in this new shredder is that perfect
work can be done at normal speed (600 to 700 revolutions),
which means that the same power which runs the cutter will
run the shredder—and that nothing extra but the shredder
blades are needed to make two machines in one.

238

OPP OF THE SILVER MFG: CO,

Salem, Ohio, U. S. A., Jan. 1, 1911.

In issuing the foregoing we have spared neither pains
nor expense in producing reliable data and information
from best authorities in order to produce a book entirely
comprehensive and worthy of the subject.

In testimony of our efforts we mention with some pride
that “Modern Silage Methods” has been furnished on many
occasions to be used as a Text Book in the classes of our
Agricultural Colleges throughout the States and recently
the plates were furnished on request to the Director Gen-
eral of Agriculture at Lisbon for the purpose of reproduc-
ing the book in the Portuguese language.

We charge a nominal price merely to help pay postage
and to keep curiosity seekers and others not directly inter-
ested from answering our advertisements.

We do not make silos of any description.

In describing our machines we have endeavored to
give in condensed form such information as would enable
beginners and others interested to form an estimate of
what their cutting equipment would cost, and if the reader
‘contemplates the purchase of an ensilage cutter, we ask
that the merits of the “Ohio” be investigated. We solicit
your inquiries regarding cutting outfits and shall be glad
to supply latest catalog upon application.

Respectfully,
THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CoO.

239

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