Moral essays. With an English translation by J.W. Basore

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

EDITED BY

T. E. PAGE, UTT.D.
E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. W. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d.

SENECA

MORAL ESSAYS

I

i:

ipssr^^

SENECA

MOEAL ESSAYS

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

JOHN W. BASORE, Ph.D.

PRIXCETOS CXIVERSITY

IN THREE VOLUMES
I

LONDON : WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD
NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

MCMXXVIII

fin

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I

Introduction .
De Providentia
De Constantia
De Ira .
De Clementia ■^
Index of Names

PAGE

vii

48
106
356
450

INTRODUCTION

Sprung from the rich and talented Spanish family
of the Annaei, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, second son of
Seneca the rhetorician, became the most important
public and literary figure at Rome in the age of Nero.
His mother was Helvia, a lady of native intelligence,
some culture, and many \irtues. An elder brother,
Novatus, known after his adoption as Galho, was
governor of Achaia under Claudius, and sur\ives in
Christian annals (Acts xviii. 12-17) with undeserved
odium as the Roman official before whom the apostle
Paul was arraigned. Mela, the younger brother, of
more retiring disposition, but rated by his father
as the ablest of the three, lives only as the father
of a famous son — the epic poet Lucan, whose
precocious and flamboyant powers marked him out
as the prodigy of his distinguished, but ill-fated,
family, of which no chief member survived the
catastrophe of the Pisonian conspiracy. Lucan, his
father, and both his uncles were all objects of
Nero's vengeance.

The career of Seneca himself was marked by
spectacular shifts of fortune, amid which he appears
a puzzHng and at times a pathetic figure — the
victim alike of imperial hostility and favour. Born

INTRODUCTION

at Corduba about 4 B.C., he was brought to Rome
while still a child in arms. There, carefully nurtured
and broadly trained in rhetoric and philosophy,
he entered upon the senatorial career and gained
the quaestorship probably under Tiberius. By his
eloquence in the Senate, he is said to have aroused
the jealousy of Caligula and to have escaped death
only because, it was averred, he was already doomed
by ill-health to die. Of his ill-health we hear much
in his writings, but he outlived Caligula and missed
no opportunity to take pitiless revenge upon him
with his pen. Under Claudius he fell upon actual
disaster. Through the agency of the empress Mes-
sahna, Seneca, now estabhshed as a man of letters
and, apparently, of fashion, was accused of an intrigue
with the notorious Julia Livilla, sister of Caligula,
whom her uncle promptly upon his accession had
recalled from exile, and both were banished. After
he had spent eight weary and fretful years in dismal
Corsica, during which, however, he found some solace
in writing and study, Agrippina, now the wife of
Claudius, secured his recall in a.d. 49, and raised him
to the post of tutor to her young son, the future
emperor Nero. A year later he was praetor. From
this time Seneca's fortunes were linked with those
of Nero. He grew in honour, wealth," and power, and
for five years after Nero's accession was, along with
Burrus, the virtuous old praetorian, the emperor's
acknowledged confidant and guide. But gradually
his influence weakened, and after the death of
Burrus in a.d. 62 he sought unavailingly for obscurity

" There are many references to the lordly wealth which
Seneca amassed. Cf. Tac. Ann. xiii. 42.6; Juv. x. 16;
Dio, Ixi. 10. 2.
viii

INTRODUCTION

in retirement. Three years later, charged with
comphcity in the conspiracy of Piso, he was forced
to commit suicide, and met death with dignity and
Stoic fortitude.

The special significance of Seneca is, in brief,
that he revived the subject of philosophy in Latin
hterature, spiritualized and humanized Stoicism, and
became the exponent of a new style, that exploited
the short sentence, rhetoric, and declamation. The
artificiahties of his pointed style have found many
critics, both early and late. Cahgula« called his
speeches — not now extant — " prize declamations,
sand without hme," the archaist Gelhus ^ condemns
his influence, and Fronto '^ censures his literary affecta-
tions. QuintiUan** with truer discernment indicts
more severely his taste than his methods, for it is
in the excesses of rhetoric that he most often offends.*
That he was the most brilliant vvriter, as well as the
most independent thinker, of his day fevv will now
deny.

In philosophy Seneca's interests were purely
ethical. He was a bold, but inconsistent, moraUst —
a preacherrather than an exemplar of Stoic virtue.
His discourses are, in the end. Stoic sermons, informal
in structure, lacking too often the marks of ordered
presentation, but usually effective in the quickness
of their appeal. While ostensibly an adherent of
Stoic materiahsm, he shows the independence of an
eclectic and becomes particularly noteworthy in his

" Suet. Calig. 53. " xii. 2.

« Epist. p. 156 (Naber). <* x. 1. 130.

' An admirable analysis and discussion of Seneca's style
will be found in the Introductions A and B of Mr. Summers's
edition of Select Letters.

INTRODUCTION

conception of deity and the kindred doctrine of the
brotherhood of man, in both of which he went far
beyond his times. Although, utiUzing the Stoic
doctrine of a Unity out of a plurality of gods (as,
while there are many vii'tues, Virtue is one), he causes
confusion by his terminology, yet he verges con-
stantly toward the representation of God as a moral
and spiritual being, a beneficent Providence, instinct
with fatherly regard for the human race. Closely
linked with this conception is a bitter condemnation
of gladiatorial contests, slavery, and any form of
cruelty of man to fellow man.

Seneca was a voluminous writer of both prose and
poetry. Besides some epigrams, ten extant tragedies
are associated with his name, though one, the Octavia,
appears from internal evidence to be unmistakably
the work of a later poet. The other nine plays
are unique and notable specimens of Roman tragedy
adapted from Greek originals, of which, however,
they appear to be little more than rhetorical tra-
vesties. But their influence upon the dramatic
literature of Italy, France, and England, though dis-
torting, was profound. His extant prose works com-
prise a significant group of writings that are moral
in purpose, a quasi-scientific treatise — the Naturales
Quaestiones in seven books — and the Apocolocyntosis,
a satirical skit on the apotheosis of the emperor
Claudius. To the group of moral writings belong the
twenty books of the Epistulae Morales, a unit by
reason of their form, and a series of more formal com-
positions, which, developed with vague consciousness
of an argumentative second person, are likewise
united by a similarity of form. These quasi-dialogues
are the twelve treatises grouped together in the

INTRODUCTION

Ambrosian manuscript iinder the title Dialogi " and
traditionally known as Dialogues, the De dementia,
originally in three books, and the seven books of
the De Beneficiis, all of which it has been convenient
for the purpose in hand to combine under the com-
prehensive title of Moral Essays.

The chronology of Seneca's writings is in most
cases doubtful. Of the essays included in this volume,
the De Provideniia and the De Constantia are associated
by Waltz ^ with the early years of the exile (a. d, 41-42),
but equally -wise conjecture will place them later.
When Seneca Avrote the De Ira, Cahgula was un-
doubtedly dead, and Novatus, to whom it was dedi-
cated, had not yet been adopted by Junius Galho.
It shows bitter hostiUty to CaUgula, and may well
have been ^^Titten when the memorj- of his excesses
was fresh. By reason of the allusion to the age of
Nero (i. 9- l)j the De dementia may be definitely
assigned to the year a.d. 55 or 5Q.

Concerning LuciUus, to whom the De Provideniia,
the Naturales Quaestiones, and the Epistulae are ad-
dressed, Seneca himself supplies incidental informa-
tion. A native, probably, of Naples or Pompeii, by
his own energy he attained equestrian rank and
was appointed procurator of Sicily. He was a
student of philosophy, -vWth a leaning toward Epi-
cureanism, and a writer of both prose and poetry.
His name has gained some importance in literar}'
histon*' as the conjectural author of the Aetna, a
philosophical poem ascribed in the manuscripts to

" Quintilian used the term (x. 1. 129), but that he applied
it only to the treatises of the Ambrosian corpus may be
doubted.

* Vie de Seneque, p. 7, note.

INTRODUCTION

Virgil. Younger than Seneca, he seems to have
maintained with him a long friendship of pecuhar
loyalty. If, as Waltz supposes, the De Providentia
belongs to the early years of the exile, Seneca's
own fortunes may well have called forth the question-
ing of Lucilius concerning the ways of Providence
which gave excuse for the essay. In treating his
subject Seneca elaborates the thesis that no evils
can befall the good man, by interpreting adversities,
not as evils, but as wholesome opportunities provided
by a beneficent deity for the testing of virtue. The
discourse closes with a passage of restrained rhetoric,
giving Stoic approval of suicide as a reasonable
departure from trials too great.

Annaeus Serenus, the young friend, or relative, of
Seneca to whom are addressed the De Constantia
and two other treatises, is said to have been prefect
of Nero's nightwatchmen {praefectus Neronis vigilum).
He is mentioned by Tacitus " as an intimate friend
of Seneca, who with a show of loyalty screened the
indiscretions of Nero in his aflPair with Acte. Seneca
had for him the deepest affection and counselled him
in philosophy with fatherly solicitude. He apparently
was an Epicurean. Though much younger than
Seneca, he died first, probably in a.d. 62. Seneca
descants upon his premature death in one of his
Letters (Ixiii. 14), and refers feelingly to the bitter-
ness of his grief.

The essay itself is exceptional in its orderly ar-
rangement. After affirming the superiority of the
Stoics over other schools of philosophy, the author
takes as his text the Stoic paradox that the wise man
can receive no injury. This he proceeds to relieve
" Ann. xiii. 13.

INTRODUCTION

by an exposition of the true inwardness of the wise
man's fortunes. Setting up a distinction between
" injury " and " insult," he shows seriatim the
invulnerabihty of the wise man to both, and after
conditioned praise of Epicurus 's \iew, closes the
discussion with a justification of the Stoic position.

Of Seneca's brother Novatus, to whom the De Ira
is addressed, something has already been said. He
was much beloved for his amiabiUty, was an eminent
declaimer, if we are to trust Jerome," and at an
unkno>\'n date was adopted by the rhetorician Junius
Galho. He reached the consulship, was governor of
Achaia in a.d. 52, and died by his o^^ti hand in 66.

Seneca used authorities assiduously, and for the
elaborate disquisition On Anger had several avail-
able ; Sotion, his master in philosophy, had -sATitten
— e/jt opy/}?, and may well have been one. Though the
arrangement of the essay is noticeably faulty,* and j.
its style is fer\id with rhetoric, the wealth of its TC
illustrative matter gives it unusual interest. Book I.
deals with the outward aspects, the harm, and the
various definitions of anger ; Book II. discusses its
origin, its nature, and its remedies ; Book III. repeats
much that has been said before, and continues >\ith
the new topic of how to check the anger of others.

The De dementia, addressed to the emperor Nero,
was written just after the young prince had finished
his eighteenth year, and was intended to gxiide him
toward the ideal of a merciful and popular ruler. It
gives interesting evidence of Seneca's own pubhc

» In the statement of Jerome (ad a. Abr. 2080) the son
may be confused with his adoptive father.

" Compare the similarity of the topical divisions in ii. 18. 1
and iii. 5. 2.

INTRODUCTION

wisdom, of his tendency to flattery, and of his method
in dealing with his difficult pupil. Unfortunately,
more than half of the work has been lost.

The most important manuscript of the Dialogues
is the Codex Ambrosianus, at Milan, belonging to the
tenth or the eleventh century. This has been de-
signated A, and the readings of its later correctors,
A ^"^. An additional manuscript available for the
De Ira is the Codex Laurentianus (designated L) of the
twelfth or thirteenth century. The best manuscript
of the De dementia is the Codex Nasarianus (desig-
nated N) in the Palatine collection of the Vatican.
This belongs to the eighth or ninth century. Two
others of the twelfth century are the Codex Amplo-
nianus at Erfurt (designated A), which is not com-
plete, and the Codex Parisinus 8542 (designated T).
In the critical notes O is used to designate a con-
sensus of N, A, and other principal manuscripts.
For the complete apparatus the editions of Hermes
and Hosius may be consulted.

The texts adopted for translation are, for the
Dialogues, that of Hermes, Leipzig, 1905, for the
De Clementia, that of Hosius, Leipzig, IPOO. Except
minor changes in punctuation and orthography,
divergencies from these have been duly recorded
in the critical notes.

J. W. B.

Princeton, N.J.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Editions and Translations

The editio princeps was published at Naples in 1475.
This omitted the Apocolocyntosis, but contained some
spurious works along with some of the works of the elder
Seneca. Famous editions of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries were those of Erasmus, Justus Lipsius, and J. F.
Gronovius.

Noteworthy are the more recent editions of :

F. E. Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797-1811.

C. R. Fickert, Leipzig, 1842-1845.

F. Haase, Leipzig (Teubner), 1852.

M. C. Gertz, De Beneficiis and De dementia, Berlin,
1876 ; Diaiogi XII., Copenhagen, 1886.

C. Hosius, De Beneficiis and De dementia, Leipzig
(Teubner), 1900.

E. Hermes, Diaiogi XII., Leipzig (Teubner), 1905.

Select essays, with commentary, appear in the editions
of Hurst and ^Vhiting (New York, 1884), A. P. Ball ^'ew
York, 1908), and J. D. Duff (Cambridge, 1915).

WeU known are the older translations of Thomas Lodge
(London, 1614) and Roger L'Estrange (London, 1673).

Works for Reference

E. V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism, Cambridge, 1911.
A. Bougery, Seneque prosateur, Paris, 1922, pp. 1-205 (a
discussion of Seneca's art and influence).
S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

London, 1904 (particularly the chapter on the " Philosophic
Director ").

F. W. Farrar, Seekers after God (Seneca, Epictetus, and
Marcus Aurelius), London, 1874.

R. M. Gummere, Seneca the Philosopher and his Modern
Message, Boston, 1922.

F. L. Lucas, Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy, Cambridge,
1922, pp. 25-52 (" Seneca the Man "),

C. Martha, Les Moralistes sous V Empire Remain, Paris,
1907.

W. C. Summers, The Silver Age of Latin Literature,
London, 1920, pp. 175 ff.

Ren4 Waltz, Vie de Seneque, Paris, 1909 (the best life of
Seneca).

SENECA
MORAL ESSAYS

VOL. I

L. ANNAEI SENECAE DIALOGORVM

LIBER I

AD LVCILIVM

QVARE ALIQVA INCOMMODA BONIS VIRIS
ACCIDANT, CVM PROVIDENTIA SIT

(De Providentia)

1 1. Quaesisti a me, Lucili, quid ita, si providentia
mundus regeretur, multa bonis viris mala acciderent.
Hoc commodius in contextu operis redderetur, cum
praeesse universis providentiara probaremus et inter-
esse nobis deum ; sed quoniam a toto particulam
revelli placet et unam contradictionem manente lite
integra solvere, faciam rem non difficilem, causam
deorum agam.
2 Supervacuum est in praesentia ostendere non sine
aliquo custode tantum opus stare nee hunc siderum
coetum discursumque fortuiti impetus esse, et quae
casus incitat saepe turbari et cito arietare, banc in-
oflFensam velocitatemprocedere aeternae legis imperio

2

THE DIALOGUES OF
LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA

BOOK I

TO LUCILIUS ON PROVIDENCE

Why, though there is a Providence, some Misfortunes
befall Good Men.

You have asked me, Lucilius, why, if a Providence
rules the world, it still happens that many evils befall
good men. This would be more fittingly answered
in a coherent work designed to pynve thfiti {\ Prnvi-
dence does presiHe nvpr the universe, and that God

concerns himself with us. But since it is your wish
that a part be severed from the whole, and that I
refute a single objection while the main question is
left untouched, I shall do so ; the task is not difficult,
— I shall be pleading the cause of the gods.

For the present purpose it is unnecessary to show
that this mighty structure of the world does not
endure without some one to guard it, and that the
assembhng and the separate flight of the stars above
are not due to the workings of chance ; that while
bodies which owe their motion to accident often fall
into disorder and quickly colhde, this swift revolu-
tion of the heavens, being ruled by eternal law, goes

3

SENECA

tantum rerum terra marique gestantem, tantum '■
clarissimorum luminum et ex disposito relueentium ; i
non esse materiae errantis hunc ordinem nee quae ;
temere coierunt tanta arte pendere, ut terrarum
gravissimum pondus sedeat immotum et circa se
properantis caeli fugam spectet, ut infusa vallibus
maria molliant terras nee ullum incrementum flumi- :
num sentiant, ut ex minimis seminibus nascantur i

3 ingentia. Ne ilia quidem quae videntur confusa et
incerta, pluvias dico nubesque et elisorum fulminum ;
iactus et incendia ruptis montium verticibus eflfusa,!
tremores labantis soli aliaque quae tumultuosa pars
rerum circa terras movet, sine ratione, quamvis subita
sint, accidunt, sed suas et ilia causas habent non
minus quam quae alienis locis conspecta miraculo |
sunt, ut in mediis fluctibus calentes aquae et nova

4 insularum in vasto exsilientiiun mari spatia. lam
vero si quis observaverit nudari litora pelago in se
recedente eademque intra exigumn tempus operirij
credet caeca quadam volutatione mode contrahi imdas
et introrsum agi, modo ermnpere et magno cursu
repetere sedem suam, cum interim illae portionibus
crescunt et ad horam ac diem subeunt ampliores

" Seneca's rhetoric omits the intermediate step of the
transformation into rain.

ON PROVIDENCE, i. 2-4

on unhindered, producing so many things on land
and sea, so many brilhant Ughts in the sky all shining
in fixed array ; that this regularity does not belong
to matter moving at random, and that whatever
combinations result from chance do not adjust them-
selves with that artistry whereby the earth, the
heaviest in weight, abides immovable and beholds
the flight of the sky as it wliirls around it, and the
seas, flooding <* the valleys, soften the land, and
feel no increase from the rivers, and whereby huge
gro>vths spring up from the tiniest seeds. Even those
phenomena which seem irregular and undetermined
— I mean showers and clouds, the stroke of crashing
thunderbolts and the fires that belch from the riven
peaks of mountains, tremors of the quaking ground,
and the other disturbances wliich the turbulent ele-
ment in nature sets in motion about the earth, these,
no matter how suddenly they occur, do not happen
without a reason ; nay, they also are the result of
special causes, and so, in like manner, are those
things which seem miraculous by reason of the in-
congruous situations in which they are beheld, such
as warm waters in the midst of the sea-waves, and
the expanses of new islands that spring up in the
wide ocean. Moreover, if any one observes how the
shore is laid bare as the sea withdraws into itself,
and how within a short time the same stretch is
covered over again, he will suppose that it is some
blind fluctuation which causes the waves now to
shrink and flow inwards, now to burst forth and in
mighty sweep seek their former resting-place,
whereas in fact they increase by degrees, and true
to the hour and the day they approach in proper-

SENECA

minoresque, prout illas lunare sidus elicuit, ad cuius
arbitrium oceanus exundat. Suo ista tempori re-
serventur, eo quidem magis quod tu non dubitas de

6 providentia sed quereris. In gratiam te reducam cvun
diis adversus optimos optimis. Neque enim rerum
natura patitur ut umquam bona bonis noceant ; inter
bonos viros ac deos amicitia est conciliante virtute.

Amicitiam dico ? Immo etiam necessitudo et simili-
tudo, quoniam quidem bonus tempore tantum a deo
differt, discipulus eius aemulatorque et vera progenies,
quam parens ille magnificus, virtutum non lenis

6 exactor, sicut severi patres, durius educat. Itaque
ciun videris bonos viros acceptosque diis laborare,
sudare, per arduum escendere, malos autem lascivire
et voluptatibus fluere, cogita filiorum nos modestia
delectari, vernularum licentia, illos disciplina tristiori
contineri, horum ali audaciam. Idem tibi de deo
liqueat Bonum virum in deUciis non habet, experitur,
indurat, sibi ilium parat.

1 2. " Quare multa bonis viris adversa eveniunt ? "
Nihil accidere bono viro maH potest ; non miscentur
contraria, Quemadmodmn tot amnes, tantum superne
deiectorum imbrivun, tanta medicatorum vis fontimn
non mutant saporem maris, ne remittunt quidem, ita
adversarum impetus rerum viri fortis non vertit ani-
6

I

ON PROVIDENCE, i. 4-ii. 1

tionately larger or smaller volume according as they
are attracted by the star we call the moon, at whose
bidding the ocean surges. But let such matters be
kept for their fitting time, — all the more so, indeed,
because y_mi c\n nnt lack faith in Prn\-idence, but
complain of it. I shall reconcile you with the gods,
who are ever best to those who are best. For
Nfttnrp npvpr permits gnnrl to be injured by good ;
between good men and the gods there exists a
friendship brought about by virtue.

Friendship, do I say ? Nay, rather there is a tie
of relationship and a likeness, since, in truth, a good_
man differs from God in the element of time only ;
he is God's pupil, his imitator, and true offspring,
whom his all-glorious parent, being no mild task-
master of \artues, rears, as strict fathers do, vriih
much severity. And so, when you see that men who
are good and acceptable to the gods labour and
sweat and have a difficult road to climb, that the
wicked, on the other hand, make merry and abound
in pleasures, reflect that our children please us by
their modesty, but slave-boys by their forwardness ;
that we hold in check the former by sterner dis-
ciphne, while v,'e encourage the latter to be bold.
Be assured that the same is true of God. He does
not make a spoiled pet of a good man ; he tests
him, hardens him, and fits him for his own service.

You ask, " Why do many adversities come to good
men ? " No evil can befall a good man ; nppo^itps
do not mingle. Just as the countless rivers, the vast
fall of rain from the sky, and the huge volume of
mineral springs do not change the taste of the sea,
do not even modify it, so the assaults of adversity
do not weaken the spirit of a brave man. It always

7

SENECA

mum. Manet in statu et quicquid evenit in suum
colorem trahit ; est enim omnibus externis potentibr.

2 Nee hoc dico : non sentit ilia, sed vincit et alioqui
quietus placidusque contra incurrentia attollitur.
Omnia adversa exercitationes putat. Quis autem, vir
modo et erectus ad honesta, non est laboris adpetens
iusti et ad officia cum periculo promptus ? Cui non

3 industrio otium poena est ? Athletas videmus, quibus
virium cura est, cum fortissimis quibusque confligere
et exigere ab is per quos certamini praeparantur, ut
totis contra ipsos viribus utantur ; caedi se vexarique
patiuntur et si non inveniunt singulos pares, pluribus

4 simul obiciuntur. Marcet sine adversario virtus ;
tunc apparet quanta sit quantumque polleat, cum
quid possit patientia ostendit. Scias licet idem viris
bonis esse faciendima, ut dura ac difficilia non refor-
mident nee de fato querantur, quicquid accidit boni
consulant, in bonum vertant. Non quid sed quemad-
modum feras interest.

5 Non vides quanto aliter patres, aliter matres indul-
geant ? Illi excitari iubent liberos ad studia obeunda
mature, feriatis quoque diebus non patiuntiu: esse
otiosos et sudorem illis et interdum lacrimas ex-
cutiunt ; at matres fovere in sinu, continere in umbra
volunt, numquam contristari, numquam flere, num-

6 quam laborare. Patrium deus habet adversus bonos
8

1

ON PROVIDENCE, n. 1-6

maintains its poise, and it gives its o'vm colour to
everj'thing that happens ; for jt is mightier than all
external things. And yet I do not mean to say that
the brave man is insensible to these, but that he
overcomes them, and being in all else unmovedand
calm rises to meet whatever assails Tiim. All his
adversities he counts mere training. WTio, moreover,
if he is a man and intent upon the right, is not eager
for reasonable toil and ready for duties accompanied
by danger ? To what energetic man is not idleness
a pimishment ? Wrestlers, who make strength of
body their chief concern, we see pitting themselves
against none but the strongest, and they require of
those who are preparing them for the arena that they
use against them all their strength ; they submit to
blows and hurts, and if they do not find their match
in single opponents, they engage -with several at a
time. Without an adversary, prowess shrivels. We
see how great and how efficient it really is, only
when it shows by endurance what it is capable of.
Be assured that good men ought to act hkewise ; they
should not shrink from hardships and difficulties, nor
complain against fate ; they should take in good part

whatever h^^ppP^gj ^"^ C>ir>n1^ tui-r. if tr^ g^r>^ ]SJot

-what you endure^ but how you endure, is important.
Do you not see how fathers show their love in one
way, and mothers in another ? The father orders
his children to be aroused from sleep in order that
they may start early upon their pursuits, — even on
holidays he does not permit them to be idle, and he
draws from them sweat and sometimes tears. But
the mother fondles them in her lap, wishes to keep
them out of the sun, wishes them never to be un-
^^PPy> never to cry, never to toil. Toward good

9

SENECA

viros animum et illos fortiter amat et " Operibus,"
inquit, " doloribus, damnis exagitentur, ut verum
colligantrobur." Languentper inertiam saginatanec
labore tantum sed motu et ipso sui onere deficiunt.
Non fert ullum ictum inlaesa felicitas ; at cui assidua
fuit cum incommodis suis rixa, callum per iniurias
duxit nee ulli malo cedit sed etiam si cecidit de

7 genu pugnat. Miraris tu, si deus ille bonorum
amantissimus, qui illos quam optimos esse atque ex-
cellentissimos vult, fortunam illis cum qua exerceantur
adsignat ? Ego vero non miror, si aHquando impetum
capiunt spectandi magnos viros conluctantis cum

8 aliqua calamitate. Nobis interdum voluptati est, si
adulescens constantis animi irruentem feram vena-
bulo excepit, si leonis incursum interritus pertulit,
tantoque hoc spectaculum est gratius, quanto id
honestior fecit. Non sunt ista, quae possint deorum
in se vultum convertere, puerilia et humanae oblecta-

9 menta levitatis. Ecce spectaculum dignum ad quod
respiciat intentus operi suo deus, ecce par deo
dignum, vir fortis cum fortuna mala compositus,
utique si et provocavit. Non video, inquam, quid
habeat in terris luppiter pulchrius, si eo^ convertere
animum velit, quam ut spectet Catonem iam partibus
non semel fractis stantem nihilo minus inter ruinas

10 publicas rectum. " Licet," inquit, " omnia in unius

^ eo added by Goerenz.
10

ON PROVIDENCE, it. 6-10

men God has the mind of a_^th£r, he cherishes for
them a manly love, and he says, " Let them be
harassed by toil, by suffering, by losses, in order that
they may gather true strength." Bodies gro-vvTi fat
through sloth are weak, and not only laboiu-, but
even movement and their very weight cause them
to break do-ft-n. Unimpaired prosperity cannot with-
stand a single blow ; but he who has struggled
constantly %vith his ills becomes hardened through
suffering, and pelds to no misfortune ; nay, even if
he falls, he still fights upon his knees. Do you wonder
if that God, who most dearly loves the good, who
wishes them to become supremely good and \artuous,
allots to them a fortune that will make them struggle ?
For my part, I do not wonder if sometimes the gods
arp mnT-Pfl hy the Hpsjre to bchold great men WTCstle
•^th some calamity. We men at times are stirred
with pleasure if a youth of steady courage meets
with his spear an onrushing wild beast, if unterrified
he sustains the charge of a Hon. And the more
honourable the youth who does this, the more pleas-
ing this spectacle becomes. But these are not the
things to draw down the gaze of the gods upon us
— they are childish, the pastimes of man's frivolity.
But lo ! here is a spectacle worthy of the regard of
God as he contemplates his works ; lo ! here a con-
test worthy of God, — a brave man matched against
ill-fortune, and doubly so if his also was the challenge.
I do not know, I say, what nobler sight the Lord
of Heaven could find on earth, should he wish to
tiurn his attention there, than the spectacle of Cato,
after his cause had already been shattered more
than once, nevertheless standing erect amid the
ruins of the commonwealth. " Although," said he,

11

SENECA

dicionem concesserint, custodiantur legionibus terrae,
classibus maria, Caesarianus portas miles obsideat ;
Cato qua exeat habet ; una manu latam libertati
viam faciei. Ferrum istud, etiam civili bello purum
et innoxium, bonas tandem ae nobiles edet operas :
libertatem, quam patriae non potuit, Catoni dabit.
Aggredere, anime, diu meditatum opus, eripe te
rebus humanis. lam Petreius et luba concucur-
rerunt iacentque alter alterius manu caesi. Fortis
et egregia fati conventio, sed quae non deceat magni-
tudinem nostram ; tam turpe est Catoni mortem ab

11 ullo petere quam vitam." Liquet mihi cum magno
spectasse gaudio deos, dum ille vlr, acerrimus sui vin-
dex, alienae saluti consulit et instruit discedentium
fugam, dum studia etiam nocte ultima tractat, dum
gladium sacro pectori infigit, dum viscera spargit et
illam sanctissimam animam indignamque quae ferro

12 contaminaretur manu educit. Inde crediderim fuisse
parum certum et efficax vulnus ; non fuit diis immor-
talibus satis spectare Catonem semel. Retenta ac
revocata virtus est, ut in difficiliore parte se osten-
deret ; non enim tam magno animo mors initur quam
repetitur. Quidni libenter spectarent alumnum suum
tam claro ac memorabili exitu evadentem ? Mors illos
consecrat, quorum exitum et qui timent laudant.

1 3. Sed iam procedente oratione ostendam, quam

" After Caesar's victory at Thapsus (46 b.c), these two
supporters of the opposition, despairing of pardon, sought
death in hand-to-hand combat. Seneca accords with
Cassius Dio (xHii. 8. 4) in placing the incident before the
suicide of Cato at Utica.

* Cato stabbed himself, but accomplished death by
tearing open the hideous wound which his physician had
attempted to dress (Plutarch, Cato the Younger, Ixx. ;
Cassius Dio, xliii. 11. 5).
12

ON PROVIDENCE, ii. lO-iii. i

" all the world has fallen under one man's sway,
although Caesar's legions guard the land, his fleets
the sea, and Caesar's troops beset the city gates,
yet Cato has a way of escape ; with one single
hand he will open a wide path to freedom. This
sword, unstained and blameless even in civil war,
shall at last do good and noble service : the freedom
which it could not give to his country it shall give
to Cato ! Essay, my soul, the task long planned ;
deUver yourself from human affairs. Already Petreius
and Juba have met and he fallen, each slain by the
other's hand." Their compact with Fate was brave
and noble, but for my greatness such would be unfit.
For Cato it were as ignoble to beg death from any
man as to beg hfe." I am sure that the gods looked
on with exceeding joy while that hero, most ruthless
in avenging himself, took thought for the safety of
others and arranged the escape of his departing
followers ; while even on his last night he pursued
his studies ; while he drove the sword into his sacred
breast ; while he scattered his vitals, and drew forth
by his hand that hohest spirit, too noble to be defiled
by the steel.* I should hke to beheve that this is
why the wound was not well-aimed and efficacious —
it was not enough for the immortal gods to look but
once on Cato . His virtue was held in check and called
back that it might display itself in a harder role ;
for to seek death needs not so great a soul as to
reseek it. Surely the gods looked with pleasure
upon their pupil as he made his escape by so
glorious and memorable an end ! Death con-
secrates those whose end even those who fear must
praise.

But as the discussion progresses, I shall show how

13

SENECA

non sint quae videntur mala. Nunc illud dico, ista
quae tu vocas aspera, quae adversa et abominanda,
primum pro ipsis esse quibus accidunt, deinde pro uni-
versis, quorum maior diis cura quam singulorum est,
post hoc volentibus accidere ac dignos malo esse, si
nolint. His adiciam fato ista sic et recte^ eadem lege
bonis evenire qua sunt boni. Persuadebo deinde tibi,
ne umquam boni viri miserearis ; potest enim miser
dici, non potest esse.
2 Difficillimum ex omnibus quae proposui ^videtur
quod primum dixi, pro ipsis esse quibus eveniunt
ista quae horremus ac tremimus. " Pro ipsis est,"
inquis, " in exiliiun proici, in egestatem deduci, libe-
ros coniugem ecferre, ignominia affici, debilitari ? "
Si miraris haec pro aliquo esse, miraberis quosdam
ferro et igne curari nee minus fame ac siti. Sed si
cogitaveris tecum remedii causa quibusdam et radi
ossa et legi et extrahi venas et quaedam amputari
membra quae sine totius pernicie corporis haerere non
poterant, hoc quoque patieris probari tibi, quaedam
incommoda pro is esse quibus accidunt, tam me

^ et recte Petschenig from A : ire et Madvig.
14

ON PROVIDENCE, iii. 1-2

the things that seem to be evils are not really so.
This much I now say, — that those things which you
call hardships, which you call adversities and accursed,
are, in the first place, for the good of the persons
themselves to whom they come ; in the second place,
that they are for the good of the whole hiunan
family, for which the gods have a greater concern -h-
than for single persons ; again, I say that good men
are wilUng that these things should happen and, if
they are unwilling, that they deserve misfortune.
I shall add, further, that these things happen thus
by destiny, and that they rightly befall good men
by the same law which makes them good. I shall
induce you, in fine, never to commiserate a good man.
For he can be called miserable, but he cannot be so.
Of all the propositions which I have advanced,
the most difficult seems to be the one stated first, —
that those things which Ave all shudder and tremble
at are for the good of the persons themselves to
whom they come. " Is it," you ask, " for their own
good that men are driven into exile, reduced to
want, that they bear to the grave Avife or children,
that they suffer pubhc disgrace, and are broken in
health ? " If you are surprised that these things are
for any man's good, you must also be surprised that
by means of surgery and cautery, and also by fasting
and thirst, the sick are sometimes made well. But
if you will reflect that for the sake of being cured
the sick sometimes have their bones scraped and
removed, and their veins pulled out, and that some-
times members are amputated which could not be left
without causing destruction to the whole body, you
will allow yourself to be convinced of this as well, —
that iUs are sometimes for the good of those to whom

15

SENECA

hercules quam quaedam quae laudantur atque ap-
petuntur contra eos esse quos delectaverunt, simillima
cruditatibus ebrietatibusque et ceteris quae necant

3 per voluptatem. Inter multa magnifica Demetri
nostri et haec vox est, a qua recens sum ; sonat
adhuc et vibrat in auribus meis : " Nihil," inquit,
" mihi videtur infelicius eo, cui nihil umquam evenit
adversi." Non hcuit enim illi se experiri. Ut ex
voto ilU fluxerint omnia, ut ante votum, male tamen
de illo dii iudicaverunt. Indignus visus est a quo
vinceretur aliquando fortuna, quae ignavissimum
quemque refugit, quasi dicat : " Quid ego istum mihi
adversarium adsumam ? Statim arma submittet ; non
opus est in ilium tota potentia mea, levi comminatione
pelletur, non potest sustinere vultum meum. Alius
circumspiciatur ciun quo conferre possimus manum ;

4 pudet congredi cum homine vinci parato." Ignomi-
niam iudicat gladiator cum inferiore componi et scit
eum sine gloria vinci, qui sine periculo vincitur. Idem
facit fortuna : fortissimos sibi pares quaerit, quosdam
fastidio transit. Contumacissimum quemque et rectis-
simum aggreditur, adversus quem vim suam intendat :
ignem experitur in Mucio, paupertatem in Fabricio,
exihum in Rutilio, tormenta in Regulo, venenum in
Socrate, mortem in Catone. Magnum exemplum nisi
mala fortuna non invenit.

" A catalogue of stock types of virtue ; see Index under
the names.

16

ON PROVIDENCE, iii. 2-4

they come ; just as much so, my word for it, as that
things which are lauded and sought after are some-
times to the hurt of those who dehght in them,
being verj' much hke over-eating, drunkenness, and
the other indulgences which kill by giving pleasure.
Among the many fine sayings of our friend Demetrius
there is this one, which I have just heard ; it still
rings in my ears. " No man," said he, " seems to
me more unhappy than one who has never met with
adversity." For such a man has never had an
opportunity to test himself. Though all things have
flowed to him according to his prayer, though even
before his prayer, nevertheless the gods have passed
an adverse judgement upon him. He was deemed
unworthy ever to gain the victory over Fortune,
who draws back from all cowards, as if she said,
" Why should I choose that fellow as my adversary ?
He will straightway drop his weapons ; against him
I have no need of all my power — he will be routed
by a paltry threat ; he cannot bear even the sight
of my face. Let me look around for another with
whom to join in combat. I am ashamed to meet
a man who is ready to be beaten." A gladiator
counts it a disgrace to be matched vWth an inferior,
and knows that to vfin vvithout danger is to win
without glory. The same is true of Fortune. She
seeks out the bravest men to match with her ; some
she passes by in disdain. Those that are most
stubborn and unbending she assails, men against
whom she may exert all her strength. Mucins she
tries by fire, Fabricius by poverty, Rutihus by
exile, Regulus by torture, Socrates by poison,
Cato * by death. It is only evil fortune that dis-
covers a great exemplar.

VOL. 1 c 17

SENECA

6 Infelix est Mucius, quod dextra ignes hostium
premit et ipse a se exigit erroris sui poenas ? Quod
regem, quem armata manu non potuit, exusta fugat ?
Quid ergo ? Felicior esset, si in sinu amicae foveret
manum ?

6 Infelix est Fabricius, quod rus suum, quantum a re
publica vacavit, fodit ? Quod helium tarn cum Pyrrho
quam cum divitiis gerit ? Quod ad focum cenat
illas ipsas radices et herbas quas in repurgando agro
triumphalis senex vulsit ? Quid ergo ? Felicior esset,
si in ventrem suum longinqui litoris pisces et pere-
grina aucupia congereret, si conchylis superi atque
inferi maris pigritiam stomachi nausiantis erigeret, si
ingenti pomorum strue cingeret primae formae feras,
captas multa caede venantium ?

7 Infelix est Rutilius, quod qui ilium damnaverunt
causam dicent omnibus saeculis ? Quod aequiore
animo passus est se patriae eripi quam sibi exiBum ?
QuodSullae dictatori solus aliquid negavit et revocatus
tantum non retro cessit et longius fugit ? " Viderint,"
inquit, " isti quos Romae deprehendit felicitas tua.
Videant largum in foro sanguinem et supra Servilianum
lacum (id enim proscriptionis Sullanae spoliarium est)

" An ironical allusion to Sulla's assumption of the title
of Felix.

18

ON PROVIDENCE, in. 5-7

Is Mucius unfortunate because he grasps the
flames of the enemy with his right hand and forces
himself to pay the penalty of his mistake ? because
■with his charred hand he routs the king whom with
his armed hand he could not rout ? Tell me, then,
would he be happier if he were warming his hand in
his mistress's bosom ?

Is Fabricius unfortunate because, whenever he
has leism-e from affairs of state, he tills liis fields ?
because he wages war not less on riches than on
Pyrrhus ? because the roots and herbs on which he
dines beside his hearth are those that he himself,
an old man and honoured by a triumph, grubbed up
in cleaning off his land ? Tell me, then, would he
be happier if he loaded his beUy Avith fish from a
distant shore and with birds from foreign parts ? if
he aroused the sluggishness of his loathing stomach
with shell-fish from the eastern and the western sea ?
if he had game of the first order, which had been
captured at the cost of many a hunter's hfe, served
with fruit piled high around ?

Is Rutilius unfortunate because those who con-
demned him will have to plead their cause through
all the ages ? because he was more content to
endure that his country should be robbed of him
than that he should be robbed of exile ? because
he was the only one who refused anything to the
dictator Sulla, and when recalled from exile all but
drew back and fled farther away ? " Let those,"
says he, "whom your 'happy' era" has caught at
Rome, behold it. Let them see the forum streaming
with blood, and the heads of senators placed above
the pool of ServiUus — for there the victims of Sulla's
proscriptions are stripped, — and bands of assassins

19

SENECA

senatorum capita et passim vagantis per urbem per-
cussorum greges et multa milia civium Romanorum
uno loco post fidem, immo per ipsam fidem trucidata ;

8 videant ista qui exulare non possunt." Quid ergo ?
Felix est L. Sulla, quod illi descendenti ad forum gladio
summovetur, quod capita sibi consularium virorum
patitur ostendi et pretium caedis per quaestorem ac
tabulas publicas numerat ? Et haec omnia facit ille,
ille qui legem Corneliam tulit !

9 Veniamus ad Regulum : quid illi fortuna nocuit,
quod ilium documentum fidei, documentum patientiae
fecit ? Figunt cutem clavi et quocumque fatigatum
corpus reclinavit, vulneri incumbit, in perpetuam
vigiliam suspensa sunt lumina. Quanto plus tormenti
tanto plus erit gloriae. Vis scire quam non paeniteat
hoc pretio aestimasse virtutem ? Refice ilium et mitte

10 in senatum ; eandem sententiam dicet. Feliciorem
ergo tu Maecenatem putas, cui amoribus anxio et
morosae uxoris cotidiana repudia deflenti somnus per
symphoniarum cantum ex longinquo lene resonan-
tium quaeritur ? Mero se licet sopiat et aquarum
fragoribus avocet et mille voluptatibus mentem
anxiam fallat, tam vigil abit in pluma quam ille in
cruce ; sed illi solacium est pro honesto dura tolerare
et ad causam a patientia respicit, hunc voluptatibus
marcidum et felicitate nimia laborantem magis his

" The lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis, which was
passed under Sulla and provided severe punishment for
murder, gives point to Seneca's sneer.
20

ON PROVIDENCE, m. 7-10

roaming at large throughout the city, and many
thousands of Roman citizens butchered in one spot
after, nay, by reason of, a promise of security, — let
those who cannot go into exile behold these things ! "
Is Lucius Sulla happy because his way is cleared
by the sword when he descends to the forum ?
because he suffers the heads of consulars to be
shown him and has the treasurer pay the price of
their assassination out of the pubUc funds ? And
these all are the deeds of that man — that man who
proposed the Cornehan Law ! "

Let us come now to Regulus : what injury did
Fortune do to him because she made him a pattern
of loyalty, a pattern of endurance ? Nails pierce
his skin, and wherever he rests his wearied body he
Hes upon a wound ; his eyes are stark in eternal
sleeplessness. But the greater his torture is, the
greater shall be his glory. Would you hke to know
how httle he regrets that he rated \Trtue at such a
price ? Make him whole again and send him back
to the senate ; he will express the same opinion.
Do you, then, think Maecenas a happier man, who,
distressed by love and grie\^ng over the daily repulses
of his wayward vrife, courted slumber by means of
harmonious music, echoing faintly from a distance ?
Although he drugs himself yviih. wine, and diverts
his worried mind with the sound of ripphng waters,
and beguiles it \\ith a thousand pleasures, yet he,
upon his bed of down, will no more close his eyes'
than that other upon his cross. But while the
one, consoled by the thought that he is suffering
hardship for the sake of right, turns his eyes from
his suffering to its cause, the other, jaded vnih
pleasures and struggling with too much good fortune,

21

SENECA

11 quae patitur vexat causa patiendi. Non usque eo in
possessionem generis humani vitia venerunt, ut
dubium sit an electione fati data plures nasci Reguli
quam Maecenates velint ; aut si quis fuerit, qui audeat
dicere Maecenatem se quam Regulum nasci maluisse,
idem iste, taceat licet, nasci se Terentiam maluit !

12 Male tractatum Socratem iudicas, quod illam potio-
nem publice mixtam non aliter quam medicamentum
immortalitatis obduxit et de morte disputavit usque
ad ipsam ? Male cum illo actum est, quod gelatus
est sanguis ac paulatim frigore inducto venarura vigor

13 constitit ? Quanto magis huic invidendum est quam
illis quibus gemma ministratur, quibus exoletus omnia
pati doctus exsectae virilitatis aut dubiae suspensam
auro nivem diluit ! Hi quicquid biberunt vomitu
remetientur tristes et bilem suam regustantes, at ille
venenum laetus et libens hamiet.

14 Quod ad Catonem pertinet, satis dictum est sum-
mamque illi felicitatem contigisse consensus hominum
fatebitur, quem sibi rerum natura delegit cum quo
metuenda conlideret. " Inimicitiae potentium graves
sunt ; opponatur simul Pompeio, Caesari, Crasso.
Grave est a deterioribus honore anteiri ; Vatinio

" The difficult and none too admirable wife of Maecenas.
Seneca {Epist. cxiv. 6) remarks caustically upon their
relations that " Maecenas married his wife a thousand
times though he never had but one." Here the rhetorical
types are in descending scale: the heroic Regulus, the
effeminate Maecenas, the contemptible Terentia !

* The cup of hemlock which Socrates drained with good
cheer after discoursing on the immortality of the soul.
See the account in Plato's Phaeclo.

" As the pohtical tool of Caesar he defeated Cato in the
candidature for the praetorship in 55 B.C.
22

ON PROVIDENCE, in. 11-14

is harassed less by what he suffers than by the reason
for his suffering. Surely the human race has not
come so completely under the sway of vice as to
cause a doubt whether, if Fate should give the
choice, more men would rather be born a Regulus
than a Maecenas ; or if there shoxild be one bold
enough to say that he would rather have been born
a Maecenas than a Regulus, the fellow, although he
may not admit it, would rather have been born a
Terentia " !

Do you consider that Socrates was ill-used because
he drank doAvn that draught ^ which the state had
brewed as if it were an ehxir of immortal life, and
up to the point of death discoursed on death ? Was
he ill-treated because his blood grew cold, and, as
the chill spread, gradually the beating of his pulses
stopped ? How much more should we envy him
than those who are served in cups of precious stone,
whose wine a catamite — a tool for anything, an
unsexed or sexless creature — dilutes \vith snow held
above in a golden vessel ! They will measure out
afresh all their drink in vomit, with WTy faces tasting
in its stead their own bile ; but he will quaff the
poison gladly and with good cheer.

Touching Cato, enough has been said, and it will
be granted by the consensus of mankind that that
great man reached the pinnacle of happiness, — he
whom Nature chose to be the one with whom her
dread power should clash. " The enmity of the
powerful," said she, " is a hardship ; then let him
match himself at one and the same time against
Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. It is a hardship to
be outstripped by an inferior in the candidacy for
ofl&ce ; then let him be defeated by Vatinius." It is

23

SENECA

postferatur. Grave est civilibus bellis interesse ;
toto terrarum orbe pro causa bona tam infeliciter
quam pertinaciter militet. Grave est manus sibi
afferre ; faciat. Quid per haec consequar ? Ut
omnes sciant non esse haec mala quibus ego dignum
Catonem putavi."

1 4. Prosperae res et in plebem ac vilia ingenia
deveniunt ; at calamitates terroresque mortalium sub
iugum mittere proprium magni viri est. Semper vero
esse felicem et sine morsu animi transire vitam igno-

2 rare est rerum naturae alteram partem. Magnus vir
es ; sed unde scio, si tibi fortuna non dat facultatem
exhibendae virtutis ? Descendisti ad Olympia, sed
nemo praeter te ; coronam habes, victoriam non
habes Non gratulor tamquam viro forti, sed tan-
quam consulatum praeturamve adepto ; honore

3 auctus es. Item dicere et bono viro possum, si illi
nullam occasionem difficilior casus dedit in qua una*
vim animi sui ostenderet : " Miserum teiudico, quod
numquam fuisti miser. Transisti sine adversario
vitam ; nemo sciet quid potneris, ne tu quidem ipse."
Opus est enim ad notitiam sui experimento ; quid
qmsque posset nisi temptando non didicit. Itaque
quidam ipsi ultro se cessantibus malis obtulerunt et
virtuti iturae in obscurum occasionem per quam

4 enitesceret quaesierunt. Gaudent, inquam, magni
viri aliquando rebus adversis, non aliter quam fortes

^ una Gertz and Hermes omit,

24

ON PROVIDENCE, in. l4-iv. 4

a hardship to engage in civil war ; then let him
fiffht the whole world over for a just cause, ever
th ill success but with equal stubbornness. It
.-- a hardsliip to lay hand upon oneself ; then let him
do it. And what shall I gain thereby ? that all may
know that these things of which I have deemed Cato
worthy are not real ills."

Success comes to the conmion man, and even to
nunonplace abiUty ; but to triumph over the
calamities and terrors of mortal hfe is the part of a
great man only. Truly, to be always happy and to
pass through Ufe v\-ithout a mental pang is to be
ignorant of one half of nature. You are a great
man ; but how do I know it if Fortune gives you
no opportunity of shoAving j'our worth ? You have
entered as a contestant at the Olympic games, but
none other besides you ; you gain the crown, the
victory you do not gain. / You have my congratula-
tions— not as a brave mail, but as if you had obtained
the consulship or praetorship ; you have enhanced
your prestige. In hke manner, also, I may say to a
Efood man, if no harder circumstance has given him
e opportunity whereby alone he might show the
length of his mind, " I judge you unfortimate
because you have never been unfortunate ; you
have passed through hfe without an antagonist ; no
one \n\\ know what you can do, — not even yourself."
For if a man is to know himself, he must be tested ;
no one finds out what he can do except by trjang.
And so some men have presented themselves volun-
tarily to laggard misfortune, and have sought an
opportunity to blazon forth their worth when it was
about to pass into obscurity. Great men, I say,
rejoice oft-times in adversity, as do brave soldiers in

25

SENECA

milites bello. Triumphum ego murmillonem sub
Tib. Caesare de raritate munerum audivi querentem :
" Quam bella," inquit, " aetas perit ! "

Avida est periculi virtus et quo tendat, non quid
passura sit cogitat, quoniam etiam quod passura est
gloriae pars est. Militares viri gloriantur vulneribus,
laeti fluentem meliori casu sanguinem ostentant ;
idem licet fecerint qui integri revertuntur ex acie,

5 magis spectatur qui saucius redit. Ipsis, inquam,
deus consulit, quos esse quam honestissimos cupit,
quotiens illis materiam praebet aliquid animose
fortiterque faciendi, ad quam rem opus est aliqua
rerum difficultate. Gubernatorem in tempestate, in
acie militem intellegas. Unde possum scire quantum
adversus paupertatem tibi animi sit, si divitiis diffluis ?
Unde possum scire quantum adversus ignominiam et
infamiam odiumque populare constantiae habeas, si
inter plausus senescis, si te inexpugnabilis et in-
clinatione quadam mentium pronus favor sequitur ?
Unde scio quam aequo animo laturus sis orbitatem,
si quoscimique sustulisti vides .'' Audivi te, cimi alios
consolareris : tunc conspexissem, si te ipse consolatus

6 esses, si te ipse dolere vetuisses. Nolite, obsecro vos,
expavescere ista, quae dii immortales velut stimulos
admovent animis : calamitas virtutis occasio est.
lUos merito quis dixerit miseros qui nimia felicitate
26

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 4-6

warfare. I once heard Triumphus, a gladiator in
the time of Tiberius Caesar, complaining of the
scarcity of shows : " How fair an age," he said,
" has passed away ! "

True worth is eager for danger and thinks rather
of its goal than of what it may have to suffer, since
even what it will have to suffer is a part of its
glory. Warriors glory in their wounds and rejoice to
display the blood spilled with luckier fortune. Those
who return from the battle unhurt may have fought
as well, but the man who returns with a wound wins
the greater regard. God, I say, is shomng favour
to those whom he wills shall achieve the highest
possible virtue whenever he gives them the means
of doing a courageoiis and brave deed, and to this
end they must encounter some difficulty in life.
You learn to know a pilot in a storm, a soldier in
the battle-hne. How can I know with what spirit
you will face poverty, if you wallow in wealth ?
How can I know Avith what firmness you ^vill face
disgrace, ill fame, and pubhc hatred, if you attain to
old age amidst rounds of applause, — if a popularity
attends you that is irresistible, and flows to you
from a certain leaning of men's minds ? How do I
know with what equanimity you would bear the loss
of childi'en, if you see around you all that you have
fathered ? I have heard you offering consolation to
others. If you had been offering it to yourself, if
you had been telhng yourself not to grieve, then I
might have seen your true character. Do not, I
beg of you, shrink in fear from those things which
the immortal gods apply hke spurs, as it were, to
our souls. Disaster is Virtue's opportunity. Justly
may those be termed unhappy who are dulled by

27

SENECA

torpescunt, quos velut in mari lento tranquillitas
iners detinet ; quicquid illis incident, novum veniet.

7 Magis virgent saeva inexpertos, grave est tenerae
cervici iugum. Ad suspicionem vulneris tiro pallescit,
audacter veteranus cruorem suum spectat, qui scit se
saepe vicisse post sanguinem. Hos itaque deus quos
probat, quos amat, indurat, recognoscit, exercet ;
eos autem quibus indulgere videtur, quibus parcere,
molles Venturis malis servat. Erratis enim, si quern
iudicatis exceptum. Veniet et^ ad ilium diu felicem
sua portio ; quisquis videtur dimissus esse, dilatus

8 est. Quare deus optimum quemque aut mala vali-
tudine aut luctu aut aliis incommodis afficit ? Quia
in castris quoque periculosa fortissimis imperantur ;
dux lectissimos mittit, qui nocturnis hostes aggredian-
tur insidiis aut explorent iter aut praesidium loco
deiciant. Nemo eorum qui exeunt dicit : " Male de
me imperator meruit," sed " bene iudicavit." Item
dicant quicumque iubentur pati timidis ignavisque
flebilia : " Digni visi sumus deo in quibus experiretur
quantum humana natura posset pati."

9 Fugite delicias, fugite enervantem felicitatem, qua
animi permadescunt et nisi aliquid intervenit quod
humanae sortis admoneat, manent^ velut perpetua
ebrietate sopiti. Quem specularia semper ab afflatu

^ et Gruter inserts. * manent Hermes inserts.

28

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 6-9

an excess of good fortune, who rest, as it were, in
dead calm upon a quiet sea ; whatever happens will
come to them as a change. Cruel fortune bears
hardest upon the inexperienced ; to the tender neck
tlie yoke is heavy. The raw recruit turns pale at
the thought of a wound, but the veteran looks un-
daunted upon his own gore, knowing that blood has
often been the price of his victory. In like manner -
God hardens, reviews, and disciplines those whom
he approves, whom he loves. Those, however, whom
he seems to favom-, whom he seems to spare, he is
really keeping soft against ills to come. For you
are >\Tong if you suppose that any one is exempt
from ill. Even the man who has prospered long will
have his share some day ; whoever seems to have
been released has only been reprieved. Why is it
that God afflicts the best men with ill health, or
sorrow, or some other misfortune ? For the same
reason that in the army the bravest men are assigned
to the hazardous tasks ; it is the picked soldier that
a general sends to surprise the enemy by a night
attack, or to reconnoitre the road, or to dislodge a
garrison. Not a man of these will say as he goes,
My commander has done me an ill turn," but
instead, " He has paid me a comphment." In hke
manner, all those who are called to suffer what would
make cowards and poltroons weep may say, " God
has deemed us worthy instruments of his purpose to -
discover how much human nature can endure."

Flee luxury, flee enfeebhng good fortune, from
which men's minds grow sodden, and if nothing
intervenes to remind them of the common lot,
they sink, as it were, into the stupor of unending
drunkenness. The man who has always had glazed

29

SENECA

vindicaverunt, cuius pedes inter fomenta subinde
mutata tepuerunt, cuius cenationes subditus et parie-
tibus circumfusus calor temperavit, hunc levis aura non

10 sine periculo stringet. Cum omnia quae excesserunt
modum noceant, periculosissima felicitatis intemperan-
tia est : movet cerebrum, in vanas mentes imagines
evocat, multum inter falsum ac verum mediae cali-
ginis fundit. Quidni satius sit perpetuam infelici-
tatem advocata virtute sustinere quam infinitis atque
immodicis bonis rumpi ? Lenior ieiunio mors est,
cruditate dissiliunt.

11 Hanc itaque rationem dii sequuntur in bonis viris
quam in discipulis suis praeceptores, qui plus laboris
ab is exigunt, in quibus certior spes est. Numquid
tu invisos esse Lacedaemoniis liberos suos credis,
quorum experiuntur indolem publice verberibus ad-
motis ? Ipsi illos patres adhortantur, ut ictus
flagellorum fortiter perferant, et laceros ac semi-
animes rogant, perseverent vulnera praebere vulne-

12 ribus. Quid mirum, si dure generosos spiritus deus
temptat ? Numquam virtutis molle documentum est.
Verberat nos et lacerat fortuna ; patiamur ! Non
est saevitia, certamen est, quod quo^ saepius ad-
ierimus, fortiores erimus. Solidissima corporis pars est
quam frequens usus agitavit. Praebendi fortunae
sumus, ut contra illam ab ipsa duremur ; paulatim
nos sibi pares faciet, contemptum periculorum ad-

13 siduitas periclitandi dabit. Sic sunt nauticis corpora

^ quod quo Hermes, after Thomas : quo id Gertz : quod
A^ : quod si A^.

30

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 9-13

windows to shield him from a draught, whose feet have
been kept warm by hot apphcations renewed from
time to time, whose dining-halls have been tempered
bv hot air passing beneath the floor and circulating
round the walls, — this man will run great risk if he
is brushed by a gentle breeze. While all excesses
are hurtful, the most dangerous is unhmited good
fortune. It excites the brain, it evokes vain fancies
in the mind, and clouds in deep fog the boundary
between falsehood and truth. Would it not be
better, summoning virtue's help, to endure ever-
lasting ill fortune than to be bursting Avith unhmited
and immoderate blessings ? Death from starvation
comes very gently, but from gorging men explode.

And so, in the case of good men the gods follow
the same rule that teachers follow with their pupils ;
they require most effort from those of whom they
have the surest hopes. Do you imagine that the
Lacedaemonians hate their children when they test
their mettle by lashing them in public ? Their own
fathers call upon them to endure bravely the blows
of the whip, and ask them, though mangled and
half-dead, to keep offering their wounded bodies to
further wounds. Why, then, is it strange if God tries
noble spirits with severity ? No proof of \irtue is ever
mild. If we are lashed and torn by Fortune, let us
bear it ; it is not cruelty but a struggle, and the
oftener we engage in it, the stronger we shall be.
The staunchest member of the body is the one that
is kept in constant use. We should offer ourselves
to Fortune in order that, struggling with her, we
may be hardened by her. Gradually she will make
us a match for herself. Famiharity with exposure
to danger will give contempt for danger. ' So the

SENECA

ferendo mari dura, agricolis manus tritae, ad ex-
cutienda tela militares lacerti valent, agilia sunt
membra cursoribus ; id in quoque solidissimum est
quod exercuit. Ad contemnendam patientiam ma-
lorum animus patientia pervenit ; quae quid in nobis
efficere possit seies, si aspexeris quantum nationibus

14 nudis et inopia fortioribus labor praestet. Omnes
considera gentes in quibus Romana pax desinit,
Germanos dico et quicquid circa Histrum vagarum
gentium occursat. Perpetua illos hiemps, triste
caelum premit, maligne solum sterile sustentat ;
imbrem culmo aut fronde defendunt, super durata
glacie stagna persultant, in alimentum feras captant.

15 Miseri tibi videntur ? Nihil miserum est quod in
naturam consuetudo perduxit ; paulatim enim
voluptati sunt quae necessitate coeperunt. Nulla
illis domicilia nullaeque sedes sunt nisi quas lassitude
in diem posuit ; vilis et liic quaerendus manu victus,
horrenda iniquitas caeli, intecta corpora ; hoc quod
tibi calamitas videtur tot gentium vita est ! Quid

16 miraris bonos viros, ut confirmentur, concuti ? Non
est arbor solida nee fortis nisi in quam frequens
ventus inciu'sat ; ipsa enim vexatione constringitur
et radices certius figit ; fragiles sunt quae in aprica
valle creverunt. Pro ipsis ergo bonis viris est, ut
esse interriti possint, multum inter formidolosa

" Submission to the course of nature was a fundamental
Stoic doctrine.
32

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 13-16

biidies of sailors are hardy from buffeting the sea,
tb.e hands of farmers are callous, the soldier's muscles
have the strength to hurl weapons, and the legs of
;i runner are nimble. In each, his staamchest member
is the one that he has exercised. /By enduring ills
the mind attains contempt for the endurance of
them ; you will know what this can accomphsh in
our own case, if you will observe how much the
peoples that are destitute and, by reason of their
want, more sturdy, secure by toil. Consider all the
tribes whom Roman civilization does not reach — I
mean the Germans and all the nomad tribes that
assail us along the Danube. They are oppressed by
eternal winter and a gloomy sky, the barren soil
grudges them support, they keep off the rain with
thatch or leaves, they range over ice-bound marshes,
and hunt wild beasts for food. Are they unhappy,
do you think ? There is no unhappiness for those
whom habit has brought back to nature.** For what
they begin from necessity becomes gradually a
pleasure. They have no homes and no resting-
places except those wliich weariness allots for the
day ; their food is mean and must be got by the
hand ; terrible harshness of climate, bodies un-
clothed,— such for countless tribes is the life which
seems to you so calamitous ! Why, then, do you
wonder that good men are shaken in order that they
may grow strong ? No tree becomes rooted and
sturdy unless many a wind assails it. For by its
very tossing it tightens its grip and plants its roots
more securely ; the fragile trees are those that have
grown in a sunny valley. It is, therefore, to the
advantage even of good men, to the end that they
may be unafraid, to live constantly amidst alarms
VOL. I D 33

SENECA

versari et aequo animo ferre quae non sunt mala
nisi male sustinenti.

1 5. Adice nunc, quod pro omnibus est optimum
quemque, ut ita dicam, militare et edere operas.
Hoc est propositum deo quod sapienti viro, ostendere
haec quae vulgus appetit, quae reformidat, nee bona
esse nee mala ; apparebit autem bona esse, si ilia
non nisi bonis viris tribuerit, et mala esse, si tantum

2 malis irrogaverit. Detestabilis erit caecitas, si nemo
oculos perdiderit, nisi cui eruendi sunt : itaque
careant luce Appius et Metellus. Non sunt divitiae
bonum ; itaque habeat illas et Elius leno, ut homines
pecuniam, cum in templis consecraverint, videant et
in fornice. Nullo modo magis potest deus concupita
traducere, quam si ilia ad turpissimos defert, ab

3 optimis abigit. " At iniquum est virum bonum
debilitari aut configi aut alligari, malos integris cor-
poribus solutos ac delicatos incedere." Quid porro ?
Non est iniquum fortes viros arma sumere et in castris
pernoctare et pro vallo obligatis stare vulneribus,
interim in urbe securos esse percisos et professos
impudicitiam ? Quid porro ? Non est iniquum no-
bilissimas virgines ad sacra facienda noctibus excitari,

4 altissimo somno inquinatas frui ? Labor optimos
citat. Senatus per totum diem saepe consulitur,
cum illo tempore vilissimus quisque aut in campo

" In Stoic dogma virtus was the sole good and dedectis
the sole evil. All things not related to these standards
were considered neither good nor evil, and, consequently,
negligible {a5id((>opa).

* The Vestal Virgins, who maintained the public
worship of Vesta.
34

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 16-v. 4

and to bear -with patience the happenings which are
ills to him only who ill supports them.

Consider, too, that it is for the common good to
have the best men become soldiers, so to speak, and
do service. It is God's purpose, and the wise man's
as well, to show that those things which the ordinary
man desires and those which he dreads are really
neither goods nor evils." It vnW appear, however,
that there are goods, if these are bestowed only on
good men, and that there are evils, if these are in-
flicted only on the evil. Blindness will be a curse if
no one loses his eyes but the man who deserves to
have them torn out ; therefore let an Appius and a
Metellus be deprived of the light. Riches are not
a good ; therefore let even the panderer EUus possess
them in order that men, though they hallow wealth
in temples, may see it also in a brothel. In no
better way can God discredit what we covet than
by bestowing those things on the basest men while
withholding them from the best. " But," you say,
"it is unjust that a good man be broken in health
or transfixed or fettered, while the wicked are
pampered and stalk at large with whole skins."
What then ? Is it not unjust that brave men should
take up arms, and stay all night in camp, and stand
with bandaged wounds before the rampart, while
perverts and professional profligates rest secure within
the city ? What then ? Is it not unjust that the
noblest maidens ^ should be aroused from sleep to
perform sacrifices at night, while others stained with
sin enjoy soundest slumber ? Toil summons the
best men. The senate is often kept in session the
whole day long, though all the while every worthless
fellow is either amusing himself at the recreation-

35

SENECA

otium suum oblectet aut in popina lateat aut tempus
in aliquo circulo terat. Idem in hac magna re publica
fit ; boni viri laborant, impendunt, impenduntur et
volentes quidem ; non trahuntur a fortuna, sequuntur
illam et aequant gradus. Si scissent, antecessissent.

5 Hanc quoque animosam Demetri fortissimi viri vocem
audisse me memini : " Hoc unum," inquit, " de vobis,
di immortales, queri possum, quod non ante mihi
notam voluntatem vestram fecistis ; prior enim ad
ista venissem, ad quae nunc vocatus adsum. Vultis
liberos siunere ? vobis illos sustuli. Vultis aliquam
partem corporis ? sumite ; non magnam rem pro-
mitto, cito totum relinquam. Vultis spiritum ? quidni ?
nuUam moram faciam, quo minus recipiatis quod

6 dedistis. A volente feretis quicquid petieritis. Quid
ergo est ? Maluissem offerre quam tradere. Quid
opus fuit auferre ? Accipere potuistis ; sed ne nunc
quidem auferetis, quia nihil eripitur nisi retinenti."

Nihil cogor, nihil patior invitus nee servio deo sed
assentior, eo quidem magis, quod scio omnia certa et

7 in aeternum dicta lege decurrere. Fata nos ducunt
et quantum cuique temporis restat prima nascentium
hora disposuit. Causa pendet ex causa, privata ac

S6

ON PROVIDENCE, v. 4-7

ground, or lurking in an eating-house, or wasting his

time in sonae gathering. The same is true in this

great commonwealth of the world. Good men

labour, spend, and are spent, and withal willingly.

Fortune does not drag them — they follow her, and

match her pace. If they had knowm how, they

would have outstripped her. Here is another

spirited utterance which, I remember, I heard that

most valiant man, Demetrius, make : " Immortal

gods," he said, " I have this one complaint to make

against you, that you did not earlier make known

vour will to me ; for I should have reached the sooner

that condition in which, after being summoned, I

now am. Do you wish to take my children ? — it was

for you that I fathered them. Do you wish to take

some member of my body ? — take it ; no great

thing am I offering you ; very soon I shall leave the

whole. Do you wish to take my life ? — why not ? I

shall make no protest against your taking back what

once you gave. With my free consent you shall have

whatever you may ask of me. What, then, is my

trouble ? I should have preferred to offer than to

relinquish. What was the need to take by force ?

You might have had it as a gift. Yet even now

you will not take it by force, because nothing can be

wTenched away from a man unless he withholds it."

I am under no compulsion, I suffer nothing against

my will, and I am not God's slave but liis follower,

and the more so, indeed, because I know that

everything proceeds according to law that is fixed

and enacted for all time. Fate guides us, and it

was settled at the first hour of birth what length

of time remains for each. Cause is linked with

cause, and all pubUc and private issues are directed

37

SENECA

publica longus ordo rerum trahit. Ideo fortiter omne
patiendum est, quia non, ut putamus, incidunt cuncta
sed veniunt. Olim constitutum est quid gaudeas,
quid fleas, et quamvis magna videatur varietate
singulorum vita distingui, summa in unum venit ;

8 aceipimus peritura perituri. Quid itaque indignamur ?
Quid querimur ? Ad hoc parti ^ sumus. Utatur ut
vult suis natura corporibus ; nos laeti ad omnia et
fortes cogitemus nihil perire de nostro.

Quid est boni viri ? Praebere se fato. Grande
solacium est cum universo rapi ; quicquid est quod
nos sic vivere, sic mori iussit, eadem necessitate et
deos alhgat. Irrevocabilis humana pariter ac divina
cursus vehit. Ille ipse omnium conditor et rector
scripsit quidem fata, sed sequitur ; semper paret,

9 semel iussit. " Quare tamen deus tam iniquus in
distributione fati fuit, ut bonis viris paupertatem et
vulnera et acerba funera ascriberet ? " Non potest
artifex mutare materiam ; hoc passa est. Quaedam
separari a quibusdam non possunt, cohaerent, in-
dividua sunt. Languida ingenia et in somnum itura
aut in vigiham somno similUmam inertibus nectuntur
elementis ; ut efficiatur vircumcuradicendus,fortiore
fato opus est. Non erit ilh planum iter ; sursum

^ parti Hermes : parati A.
38

ON PROVIDENCE, v. 7-9

bv a long sequence of events. Therefore everything
sliould be endured with fortitude, since things do
not, as we suppose, simply happen — they all come.
Long ago it was determined what would make you
rejoice, what would make you weep, and although
the hves of individuals seem to be marked by great
dissimilarity, yet is the end one — we receive what
is perishable and shall ourselves perish. Why,
therefore, do we chafe ? why complain ? For this
were we born. Let Nature deal with matter, whichf
is her own, as she pleases ; let us be cheerful and
brave in the face of everything, reflecting that it is
nothing of our own that perishes.

What, then, is the part of a good man ? To offer
himself to Fate. It is a great consolation that it is
together with the universe we are swept along ;
whatever it is that has ordained us so to hve, so to
die, bv the same necessity it binds also the gods.
One unchangeable course bears along the affairs of '
men and gods alike. Although the great creator
and ruler of the universe himself WTote the decrees
of Fate, yet he follows them. He obeys for ever, he '
decreed but once. " Why, however," do you ask,
" was God so unjust in his allotment of destiny as
to assign to good men poverty, wounds, and painful
death? " It is impossible for the moulder to alter
matter ; to this law it has submitted. Certain
qualities cannot be separated from certain others ;
they cling together, are indivisible. Natures that
are listless, that are prone to sleep, or to a kind of
wakefulness that closely resembles sleep, are com-
posed of sluggish elements. It takes sterner stuflF to
make a man who deserves to be mentioned >vith
consideration. His course will not be the level way ;

39

SENECA

oportet ac deorsum eat, fluctuetur ac navigium in
turbido regat. Contra fortunam illi tenendus est
cursus ; multa accident dura, aspera, sed quae molliat

10 et complanet ipse. Ignis aurum probat, miseria fortes
viros. Vide quam alte escendere debeat virtus ; scies
illi non per secura vadendum :

Ardua prima via est et quam vix mane recentes
enituntur equi ; medio est altissima caelo,
unde mare et terras ipsi mihi saepe videre
sit timor et pavida trepidet formidine pectus,
ultima prona via est et eget moderamine certo ;
tunc etiam quae me subiectis excipit undis,
ne ferar in praeceps, Tethys solet ima vereri.

11 Haec cum audisset ille generosus adulescens :
" Placet," inquit, " via ; escendo. Est tanti per ista
ire casuro." Non desinit acrem animum metu
territare :

Utque viam teneas nulloque errore traharis,
per tamen adversi gradieris cornua tauri
Haemoniosque arcus violentique ora leonis.

Post haec ait : " lunge datos currus ! His quibus
deterreri me putas incitor. Libet illic stare ubi ipse
Sol trepidat." Humilis et inertis est tuta sectari ;
per alta virtus it.
I 6. " Quare tamen bonis viris patitur aliquid mali
deus fieri ? " Ille vero non patitur. Omnia mala

" Ovid, Met. ii. 63 sqq. The speaker is Phoebus, thej
Sun-god, who seeks to dissuade the youthful Phaethoi
from his desire to drive the chariot of the Sun.

'' Ovid, Met. ii. 79 sqq.

40

ON PROVIDENCE, v. 9-vi. 1

uphill and dowTihill must he go, be tossed about,
and guide his bark through stormy waters ; he must
keep his course in spite of fortune. Much that is
hard, much that is rough will befall him, but he
himself vnW soften the one, and make the other
siuooth. Fire tests gold, misfortune brave men. See
to what a height virtue must cHmb ! you viiW find that
it has no safe road to tread :

The way is steep at first, and the coursers strain

To climb it, fresh in the early morn. They gain

The crest of heaven at noon ; from here I gaze

Adown on land and sea with dread amaze,

And oft my heart will beat in panic fear.

The roadwaj' ends in sharp descent — keep here

A sure control ; 'twill happen even so

That Tethys, stretching out her waves below.

Will often, while she welcomes, be affright

To see me speeding downward from the height."

Ha%ing heard the words, that noble youth replied,
■ I like the road, I shall mount ; even though I fall,
it ^^^ll be worth while to travel through such sights."
But the other did not cease from trying to strike his
bold heart with fear :

And though you may not miss the beaten track,
Nor, led to wander, leave the zodiac.
Yet through the Bull's fierce horns, the Centaur's bow
And raging Lion's jaws you still must go.*

In reply to this he said, " Harness the chariot you
offered ; the very things that you think affright me
urge me on. I long to stand aloft where even the
Sun-god quakes ^vith fear." The groveller and the
coward ^^•ill follow the safe path : ^^rtue seeks the
heights.

" But why," you ask, " does God sometimes allow
evil to befall good men ? " Assuredly he does not.

41

SENECA

ab illis removit, seel era et flagitia et cogitationes im-
probas et avida consilia et libidinem caecam et alieno
imminentem avaritiam ; ipsos tuetur ac vindieat :
numquid hoc quoque aliquis a deo exigit, ut bonorum
virorum etiam sareinas servet ? Remittunt ipsi hanc

2 deo curara : externa contemnunt. Democritus divitias
proiecit onus illas bonae mentis existimans. Quid
ergo miraris, si id deus bono viro accidere patitur
quod vir bonus aliquando vult sibi accidere ? Filios
amittunt viri boni ; quidni, cum aliquando et occi-
dant ? In exilium mittuntur ; quidni, cum aliquando
ipsi patriam non repetituri relinquant ? Occiduntur ;
quidni, cum aliquando ipsi sibi manus afFerant ? Quare

3 quaedam dura patiuntur ? Ut alios pati doceant ;
nati sunt in exemplar. Puta itaque deum dicere :

Quid habetis quod de me queri possitis, vos,
quibus recta placuerunt ? Aliis bona falsa circumdedi
et animos inanes velut longo fallacique somnio
lusi. Auro illos et argento et ebore adornavi, intus

4 boni nihil est. Isti quos pro felicibus aspicis, si non
qua occurrunt sed qua latent videris, miseri sunt,
sordidi, turpes, ad similitudinem parietum suoruni
extrinsecus culti ; non est ista solida et sincera
felicitas ; crusta est et quidem tenuis. Itaque dum
illis licet stare et ad arbitrium suum ostendi, nitent

" As, notably, did Lucius Junius Brutus and Manlius
Torquatus, exalting public duty.

* Cato is the favourite exemplar.
42

ON PROVIDENCE, vi. 1^

E\ il of every sort he keeps far from them — sin and

crime, evil counsel and schemes for greed, blind lust

and avarice intent upon another's goods. The good

man himself he protects and delivers : does any

>' t" require of God that he should also guard the

d man's luggage ? Nay, the good man himself

eves God of this concern ; he despises externals. -^

Dcmocritus, considering riches to be a burden to the

virtuous mind, renounced them. Why, then, do you

^vonder if God suffers that to be the good man's lot

\\ liich the good man himself sometimes chooses

sliould be his lot ? Good men lose their sons ; why

iii't, since sometimes they even slay them ? <• They

arc sent into exile ; why not, since sometimes they

' untarily leave their native land, never to return ?

. ey are slain ; why not, since sometimes they

voluntarily lay hand upon themselves ? '' Why do

they suffer certain hardships ? It is that they may

teach others to endure them ; they were born to be

a pattern. Think, then, of God as saying : " What

possible reason have you to complain of me, you

who have chosen righteousness ? Others I have

surrounded viith unreal goods, and have mocked

their empty minds, as it were, with a long, deceptive

dream. I have bedecked them with gold, and silver,

and ivory, but within there is nothing good. The

creatures whom you regard as fortunate, if you

could see them, not as they appear to the eye, but

as they are in their hearts, are wretched, filthy,

base — like their own house-walls, adorned only on

the outside. Sound and genuine such good fortune

is not ; it is a veneer, and that a thin one. So

long, therefore, as they can stand firm and make the

show that they desire, they glitter and deceive ;

43

SENECA

et imponunt ; cum aliquid incidit quod disturbet ac
detegat, tunc apparet quantum altae ac verae
6 foeditatis alienus splendor absconderit. Vobis dedi
bona certa, mansura, quanto magis versaverit aliquis
et undique inspexerit, meliora maioraque : permisi
vobis metuenda contemnere, cupiditates fastidire ;
non fulgetis extrinsecus, bona vestra introrsus obversa
sunt. Sic mundus exteriora contempsit spectaculo
sui laetus. Intus omne posui bonum ; non egere
felicitate felicitas vestra est.

6 ' At multa incidunt tristia, horrenda, dura toleratu . '
Quia non poteram vos istis subducere, animos vestros
adversus omnia armavi ; ferte fortiter. Hoc est quo
deum antecedatis ; ille extra patientiam malorum est,
vos supra patientiam, Contemnite paupertatem ;

• nemo tam pauper vivit quam natus est. Contemnite
dolorem ; aut solvetur aut solvet. Contemnite mortem ;
quae vos aut finit aut transfert. Contemnite for-
tunam ; nullum illi telum quo feriret animum dedi.

7 Ante omnia cavi, ne quid vos teneret invitos ; patet
exitus. Si pugnare non vultis, licet fugere. Ideo ex
omnibus rebus quas esse vobis necessarias volui nihil
feci facilius quam mori. Prono animam loco posui ;
trahitur, adtendite modo et videbitis quam brevis ad
libertatem et quam expedita ducat via. Non tam
longas in exitu vobis quam intrantibus moras posui ;
alioqui magnum in vos regnum fortuna tenuisset,

44

ON PROVIDENCE, vi. 4-7

Mhen, however, something occurs to overthrow and
uncover them, then you see what deep-set and
genuine ugliness their borrowed splendour hid. But
to you I have given the true and enduring goods,
wliich are greater and better the more any one turns
them over and views them from every side. I have
permitted you to scorn all that dismays and to dis-
■ n desires. Outwardly you do not shine ; your
. ds are directed inward. Even so the cosmos, re-
j; icing in the spectacle of itself, scorns ever}'1;hing
outside. Within I have bestowed upon you every
good ; your good fortune is not to need good fortune.
' Yet,' you say, ' many sorrows, things dreadful
and hard to bear, do befall us.' Yes, because I could
not ^vithdraw you from their path, I have armed
your minds to \\ithstand them all ; endiu-e with
+ "titude. In this you may outstrip God ; he is
•mp^from enduring evil, while you are superior
.M it. Scorn poverty ; no one lives as poor as he
was boni. Scorn pain ; it will either be reheved or
itrlieve you. Scorn death, which either ends you or
transfers you. Scorn Fortune ; I have given her no
weapon with which she may strike your soul. Above
all, I have taken pains that nothing should keep you
here against your ■\\ill ; the way out hes open. If
you do not choose to fight, you may run away.
Therefore of all things that I have deemed necessary
for you, I have made nothing easier than dying. I
have set hfe on a downward slope : if it is prolonged,
only observe and you will see what a short and easy
path leads to liberty. ' I have not imposed upon you
at your exit the weSrisome delay you had at en-
trance. Otherwise, if death came to a man as
slowly as his birth, Fortune would have kept her

45

SENECA

8 si homo tarn tarde moreretur quam nascitur. Omne
temp us, omnis vos locus doceat quam facile sit
renuntiare naturae ej munus illi suum impingere ;
inter ipsa altaria et sollemnes sacrificantium ritus,
dum optatur vita, mortem condiscite. Corpora opima
taurorum exiguo concidunt vulnere et magnarum
virium animalia humanae manus ictus impellit ; tenui
ferro commissura cervicis abrumpitur, et cum articulus
ille qui caput collumque committit incisus est, tanta

9 ilia moles corruit. Non in alto latet spiritus nee
utique ferro eruendus est ; non sunt vulnere penitus
impresso scrutanda praecordia : in proximo mors est.
Non certum ad hos ictus destinavi locum ; quacumque
vis pervium est. Ipsum illud quod vocatur mori, quo
anima discedit a corpore, brevius est quam ut sentiri
tanta velocitas possit. Sive fauces nodus elisit, sive
spiramentum aqua praeclusit, sive in caput lapsos
subiacentis soli duritia comminuit, sive haustus ignis
cursum animae remeantis interscidit ; quicquid est,
properat. Ecquid erubescitis ? Quod tam cito fit,
timetis diu ! "

I

46

ON PROVIDENCE, vi. 8-9

great dominion over you. Let every season, every
place, teach you how easy it is to renounce Nature and
Hing her gift back in her face. In the very presence
(tf the altars and the solemn rites of sacrifice, while
\(iu pray for life, learn well concerning death. The
fatted bodies of bulls fall from a paltry wound, and
creatures of mighty strength are felled by one stroke
of a man's hand ; a tiny blade mil sever the sutures
(if the neck, and when that joint, which binds to-
gether head and neck, is cut, the body's mighty
mass crmnples in a heap. No deep retreat conceals
tlie soul, you need no knife at all to root it out, no
tleeply driven wound to find the vital parts ; death
lies near at hand. For these mortal strokes I have
St t no definite spot ; anywhere you wish, the way is
open. Even that which we call dying, the moment
M lien the breath forsakes the body, is so brief that
it< fleetness cannot come within the ken. Whether
the throat is strangled by a knot, or water stops the
breathing, or the hard ground crushes in the skull of
one falling headlong to its surface, or flame inhaled
cuts off the course of respiration, — be it what it may,
tlie end is swift. Do you not blush for shame ?
You dread so long what comes so quickly ! " )\^

47

LIBER II

AD SERENVM

NEC INIVRIAM NEC CONTVMELIAM
ACCIPERE SAPIENTEM

(De Constantia Sapientis)

1 1. Tantum inter Stoicos, Serene, et ceteros sapien-
tiam professes interesse quantum inter feminas et
mares non immerito dixerim, cum utraque turba ad
vitae societatem tantundem conferat, sed altera pars
ad obsequendum, altera imperio nata sit. Ceteri
sapientes molliter et blande, ut fere domestici et
familiares medici aegi'is corporibus, non qua optimum
et celerrimum est medentur sed qua licet; Stoic
virilem ingressi viam non ut amoena ineuntibus
videatur curae habent, sed ut quam primum nos
eripiat et in ilium editum verticem educat, qui adeo
extra omnera teli iactum surrexit, ut supra fortunam

2 emineat. " At ardua per quae vocamur et confragosa
sunt." Quid enim ? Piano aditur excelsum ? Sed
ne tam abrupta quidem sunt quam quidam putant.
Prima tantum pars saxa rupesque habet et invii
speciem, sicut pleraque ex longinquo speculantibus
48

BOOK II

TO SERENUS ON THE FIRMNESS
OF THE WISE MAN

The Wise Man can receive neither Injury nor Insult.

iGHT say -with good reason, Serenus, that there is
_reat a difference between the Stoics and the other

lols of philosophy as there is between males and

ales, since while each set contributes equally to
nan society, the one class is bom to obey, the
ither to command. Other philosophers, using gentle
ind persuasive measures, are hke the intimate family
physician, who, commonly, tries to cure his patients,
ot by the best and the quickest method, but as he
is allowed. The Stoics, ha\ing adopted the heroic
course, are not so much concerned in making it
attractive to us who enter upon it, as in having it
•escue us as soon as possible and guide us to that
iofty summit which rises so far beyond the reach
of any missile as to tower high above all fortune.
' But," you say, " the path by which we are called
to go is steep and rugged." \Miat of it ? Can the
heights be reached by a level path ? But the way is
not so sheer as some suppose. The first part only
has rocks and cliffs, and appears impassable, just as
many places, when \-iewed from afar, seem often to

VOL. I E 49

SENECA

abscisa et conexa videri solent, cum aciem longin-
quitas fallat, deinde propius adeuntibus eadem ilia,
quae in unum congesserat error oeulorum, paulatim
adaperiuntur, turn illis quae praecipitia ex intervallo
apparebant redit lene fastigium.
3 Nuper cum incidisset mentio M. Catonis, indigne
ferebas, sicut es iniquitatis impatiens, quod Catonem
aetas sua parum intellexisset, quod supra Pompeios
et Caesares surgentem infra Vatinios posuisset, et
tibi indignum videbatur, quod illi dissuasuro legem
toga in foro esset erepta quodque a rostris usque
ad arcum Fabianum per seditiosae faetionis manus
traditus voces improbas et sputa et omnis alias
insanae multitudinis contumelias pertulisset.

1 2. Turn ego respondi habere te, quod rei publicae
nomine movereris, quam hinc P. Clodius, hinc
Vatinius ac pessimus quisque venundabat et caeca j
cupiditate correpti non intellegebant se dum vendunt
et venire. Pro ipso quidem Catone securum te esse I
iussi ; nullam enim sapientem nee iniuriam accipere
nee contumeliam posse, Catonem autem certius ex- j
emplar sapientis viri nobis deos immortalis dedisse |
quam Ulixen et Herculem prioribus saeculis. Hos i
enim Stoici nostri sapientes pronuntiaverunt, invictos
laboribus et contemptores voluptatis et victores

2 omnium terrorum. Cato non cum feris manus con-
tulit, quas consectari venatoris agrestisque est, nee
50

ON FIRMNESS, i. 2-n. 2

he an unbroken steep since the distance deceives the

: then, as you draw nearer, these same places,

oh by a trick of the eyes had merged into one,

'! en up gradually, and what seemed from a distance

I v/ccipitous is now reduced to a gentle slope.

Recently, when there happened to be some

uitntion of Marcus Cato, you, \\iih. your impatience

01 injustice, grew indignant because Cato's o^\-n age

had failed to understand him, because it had rated

liim lower than any \'atinius though he towered

>e any Pompey and Caesar ; and it seemed to

, shameful that when he was about to speak

inst some law in the forum, his toga was torn from

-houlders, and that, after he had been hustled

I lawless mob all the way from the rostrum to the

h of Fabius, he had to endure \ile language, and

tie. and all the other insults of a maddened

vd.

Vnd then I made answer that on behalf of the state

. had good reason to be stirred — the state which

■lius Clodius on the one hand, Vatinius and all

greatest rascals on the other, were putting up

sale, and, carried away by bhnd cupidity, did

realize that, while they were selhng, they too

e being sold. For Cato himself I bade you have

•oncem, for no wise man can receive either injury

insult. I said, too, that in Cato the immortal L — "

gods had given to us a truer exemplar of the wise '

man than earher ages had in Ulysses and Hercules.

For we Stoics have declared that these were wise

men, because they were unconquered by struggles,

were despisers of pleasure, and \ictors over all

terrors. Cato did not grapple with wild beasts —

Uie pursuit of these is for the huntsman and the

51

SENECA

monstra igne ac ferro persecutus est nee in ea
tempora incidit quibus credi posset caelum umeris
xinius inniti. Excussa iam antiqua credulitate et
saeculo ad summam perducto soUertiam cum ambitu
congressus, multiform! malo, et cum potentiae im-
mensa cupiditate, quam totus orbis in tres divisus
satiare non poterat, adversus vitia civitatis degene-
rantis et pessum sua mole sidentis stetit solus et
cadentem rem publicam, quantum modo una retrahi
manu poterat, tenuit, donee abstractus comitem se
diu sustentatae ruinae dedit simulque exstincta sunt
quae nefas erat dividi ; neque enim Cato post

3 libertatem vixit nee libertas post Catonem. Huic tu
putas iniuriam fieri potuisse a populo, quod aut
praeturam illi detraxit aut togam ? Quod sacrum
illud caput purgamentis oris adspersit ? Tutus est
sapiens nee ulla affici aut iniuria aut contumelia
potest.

1 3. Videor mihi intueri animum tuum incensum et
effervescentem ; paras adclamare : " Haec sunt quae
auctoritatem praeceptis vestris detrahant. Magna
promittitis et quae ne optari quidem, nedum credi
possint ; deinde ingentia locuti cum pauperem
negastis esse sapientem, non negatis solera illi et
servum et tectum et cibum deesse, cum sapien-
tem negastis insanire, non negatis et alienari et

" i.e., Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.
52

ON FIRMNESS, ii. 2-ni. 1

peasant ; he did not hunt down monsters with fire
and sword, nor did he chance to hve in the times
when it was possible to beUeve that the heavens
rt-ted on one man's shoulders. In an age when the
old credulity had long been thro^\-n aside, and know-
ledge had by time attained its highest development,
he came into conflict with ambition, a monster of
many shapes, with the boundless greed for power
w hich the division of the whole world among three
men * could not satisfy. He stood alone against the
\ices of a degenerate state that was sinking to
destruction beneath its very weight, and he stayed
the fall of the republic to the utmost that one man's
hand could do to draw it back, until at last he was
himself withdra^vn and shared the downfall which he
had so long averted, and the two whom heaven willed
-^hould never part were blotted out together. For
Cato did not survive freedom, nor freedom Cato.
Think you that what the people did to such a man
CDuld have been an injury, even if they tore from
liim either his praetorship or his toga ? even if they
t)espattered his sacred head with filth from their
n^ouths ? The wise man is safe, and no injury or
insult can touch him.

I imagine that I see you flaring up in a temper
and about to boil over ; you are getting ready to
exclaim : " This is the sort of thing that detracts
from the weight of the teachings of you Stoics. You
make great promises, promises which are not even to
be desired, still less believed ; then after all your
big words, while you deny that a wise man is poor,
you do not deny that he usually possesses neither
slave nor house nor food ; while you deny that a
wise man is mad, you do not deny that he does lose

53

SENECA

parum sana verba emittere et quicquid vis morbi
cogit audere, cum sapientem negastis servum esse,
idem non itis infitias et veniturum et imperata
facturum et domino suo servilia praestaturum mini-
steria. Ita sublato alte supercilio in eadem quae

2 ceteri descenditis mutatis rerum nominibus. Tale
itaque aliquid et in hoc esse suspicor, quod prima
specie pulchrum atque magnificum est, nee iniuriam
nee contumeliam accepturum esse sapientem. Mul-
tum autem interest, utrum sapientem extra indig-
nationem an extra iniuriam ponas. Nam si dicis
ilium aequo animo laturum, nullum habet privilegium,
contigit illi res vulgaris et quae discitur ipsa in-
iuriarum assiduitate, patientia ; si negas accepturum
iniuriam, id est neminem illi temptaturum facere,
omnibus relictis negotiis Stoicus fio."

3 Ego vero sapientem non imaginario honore ver-
borum exornare constitui, sed eo loco ponere quo
nulla permittatur iniuria. " Quid ergo ? Nemo erit
qui lacessat, qui temptet ? " Nihil in rerum natura
tam sacrum est, quod sacrilegum non inveniat, sed
non ideo divina minus in sublimi sunt, si exsistunt
qui magnitudinem multum ultra se positam non
tacturi appetant ; invulnerabile est non quod non
feritur, sed quod non laeditur ; ex hac tibi nota

4 sapientem exhibebo. Numquid dubium est, quin
certius robur sit quod non vincitur quam quod non

» While the Stoics preached, and sometimes practised,
the doctrine of participation in public affairs, they emphasized
the desirability of peaceful retirement as a means to the
higher activity of intellectual research. See Seneca, De
Otio, 5. 8; 6. 4.

54

ON FIRMNESS, iii. 1-4

^is reason, that he babbles crazy words, that he M-ill
.enture to do whatever his violent disorder impels
lira to do ; while you deny that a wise man is ever a
1 1\ e, you do not likewise go on to deny that he will
-old, that he -will do what he is ordered to do, and

■ .der to his master the services of a slave. So, for
all your lofty assumption, you reach the same level as
the other schools — only the names of things are
■hanged. And so I suspect that something of this
-ort lurks behind this maxim also, ' A wise man will
i-eceive neither injury nor insult ' — a maxim which, at
first sight, appears noble and splendid. But it makes
a great difference whether you place the wise man
beyond feehng injured or beyond being injured.
lor if you say that he will bear injury calmly, he has
no peculiar advantage ; he is fortunate in possessing
a common quaUty, one which is acquired from the
very repetition of injuries — namely, endurance. If
yuu say that he Avill not receive injury, that is, that
no one will attempt to injure him, then, abandoning
all other business, I am for becoming a Stoic." "

I assuredly did not intend to deck up the wise
man with the fanciful honour of words, but to place
him in the position where no injury may reach him.
'■ What then? " you say ; " will there be no one to
a--ail him, no one to attempt it ? " Nothing in the
world is so sacred that it will not find some one to
profane it, but holy things are none the less exalted,
even if those do exist who strike at a greatness that
is set far beyond them, and which they will never
damage. The invulnerable thing is not that which is
not struck, but that which is not hurt ; by this mark
I will show you the wise man. Is there any doubt j
that the strength that cannot be overcome is a truer*

55

SENECA

lacessitur, cum dubiae sint vires inexpertae, at merito
certissima firmitas habeatur, quae omnis incursus
respuit ? Sic tu sapientem melioris scito esse
naturae, si nulla illi iniuria nocet, quam si nulla fit.
Et ilium fortem virum dicam, quern bella non subi-
gunt nee admota vis hostilis exterret, non cui pingue

6 otium est inter desides populos. Hoc igitur dico,
sapientem nulli esse iniuriae obnoxium ; itaque non
refert, quam multa in ilium coiciantur tela, cum sit
nulli penetrabilis. Quomodo quorundam lapidum
inexpugnabilis ferro duritia est nee secari adamas
aut caedi vel deteri potest sed incurrentia ultro
retundit, quemadmodum quaedam non possunt igne
consumi sed flamma circumfusa rigorem suum liabi-
tumque conservant, quemadmodum proiecti quidam
in altum scopuli mare frangunt nee ipsi ulla saevitiae
vestigia tot verberati saeeulis ostentant ; ita sapientis
animus solidus est et id roboris collegit, ut tarn tutus
sit ab iniuria quam ilia quae rettuli.

1 4. " Quid ergo ? Non erit aliquis qui sapienti
facere temptet iniuriam ? " Temptabit, sed non
perventuram ad eum ; maiore enim intervallo a
contactu inferior um abductus est, quam ut ulla vis
noxia usque ad ilium vires suas perferat. Etiam
cum potentes et imperio editi et consensu servientium
validi nocere intendent, tam citra sapientiam omnes
eorum impetus deficient, quam quae nervo tormentis-
56

ON FIRMNESS, ni. 4-iv. 1

sort than that which is unassailed, seeing that un- ^
tested powers are dubious, whereas the stabihty that
repels all assaults is rightly deemed most genuine ?
So you must know that the ^\^se man, if no injury
hurts him, will be of a higher tj^e than if none is
offered to him, and the brave man, I should say, is he
whom war cannot subdue, whom the onset of a hostile
force cannot terrify, not he who battens at ease
among the idle populace. Consequently I will assert
this — that the -v^ise man is not subject to any injury.
It does not matter, therefore, how many darts are
hurled against him, since none can pierce him. As
the hardness of certain stones is impervious to steel,
and adamant cannot be cut or hewed or ground, but
in turn blunts whatever comes into contact with it ; as
certain substances cannot be consumed by fire, but,
though encompassed by flame, retain their hardness
and their shape ; as certain cliffs, projecting into
the deep, break the force of the sea, and, though
lashed for countless ages, show no traces of its
wrath, just so the spirit of the wise man is im-
pregnable, and has gathered such a measure of
strength as to be no less safe from injury than those
things which I have mentioned.

" What then ? " you say ; " will there be no one
who will attempt to do the wise man injurv' ? "
Yes, the attempt will be made, but the injury will
not reach him. For the distance which separates
him from contact with his inferiors is so great that
no baneful force can extend its power all the way to
him. Even when the mighty, exalted by authority
and powerful in the support of their ser\itors, strive
to injure him, all their assaults on wisdom will fall as
short of their mark as do the missiles shot on high by

SENECA

ve in altum exprimuntur, cum extra visum exsilierint.

2 citra caelum tamen flectuntur. Quid ? Tu putas
turn, cum stolidus ille rex multitudine telorum diem
obscuraret, ullam sagittam in solem incidisse aut
demissis in profundum catenis Neptunum potuisse
cont.ingi ? Ut caelestia humanas manus effugiunt
et ab his qui templa diruunt ac simulacra conflant
nihil divinitati nocetur, ita quicquid fit in sapientem
proterve, petulanter, superbe, frustra temptatur.
" At satius erat neminem esse qui facere vellet."

3 Rem difficilem optas humano generi, innocentiam ;
et non fieri eorum interest qui facturi sunt, non
eius qui pati ne si fiat quidem potest. Immo nescio
an magis vires sapientiae ostendat tranquillitas inter
lacessentia, sicut maximum argumentum est im-
peratoris armis virisque pollentis tuta securitas in
hostium terra.

1 5. Dividamus, si tibi videtur, Serene, iniuriam a
contumelia. Prior ilia natura gravior est, haec levior
et tantum delicatis gravis, qua non laeduntur homines
sed ofFenduntur. Tanta est tamen animorum dissolutio
et vanitas, ut quidam nihil acerbius putent. Sic in-
venies servum qui flagellis quam colaphis caedi malit
et qui mortem ac verbera tolerabiliora credat quam

2 contumeliosa verba. Ad tantas ineptias perventum
est, ut non dolore tantum sed doloris opinione

" i.e., Xerxes. The incidents mentioned are associated
respectively with his prowess before Thermopylae and his
wrath expended upon the Hellespont ; cf. Herodotus, vii. 226
and 35.
58

ON FIRMNESS, iv. 1-v. 2

b' iwstring or catapult, which though they leap beyond
uur \-ision, yet curve do^^■nwards this side of heaven.
Tell me, do you suppose that when that stupid king "
darkened the day \\1th the shower of his darts, any
arrow fell upon the sun, or that he was able to reach
Neptune when he lowered his chains into the deep ?
As heavenly things escape the hands of man and
divinity suffers no harm from those Avho demoUsh
temples and melt down images, so every wanton,
insolent, or haughty act directed against the wise
man is essayed in vain. " But it would be better,"
you say, " if no one cared to do such things." You
are praying for what is a hard matter — that human
beings should do no ^vrong. And that such acts be
not done is profitable to those who are prone to do
them, not to him who cannot be affected by them
even if they are done. No, I am inclined to think
that the power of \^-isdom is better sho\\Ti by a display
of calmness in the midst of provocation, just as the
greatest proof that a general is mighty in his arms
and men is his quiet unconcern in the country' of the
enemy.

Let us make a distinction, Serenus, if you Uke,
between injury and insult. The former is by its
nature more serious ; the latter, a slighter matter —
serious only to the thin-skinned— for men are not
harmed, but angered by it. Yet such is the weakness
and vanity of some men's minds, there are those who
think that nothing is more bitter. And so you will
find the slave who would rather be struck with the
lash than the fist, who considers stripes and death
more endurable than insulting words. To such a
pitch of absurdity have we come that we are harrowed
not merely by pain but by the idea of pain, Uke

59

SENECA

vexemur more puerorum, quibus metum incutit
umbra et personarum deformitas et depravata facies,
lacrimas vero evocant nomina parum grata auribus et
digitorum motus et alia quae impetu quodam erroris

3 improvidi refugiunt. Iniuria propositum hoc habet
aliquem malo adficere ; male autem sapientia non
relinquit locum, unum enim illi malum est turpitudo,
quae intrare eo ubi iam virtus honestumque est non
potest. Ergo, si iniuria sine malo nulla est, malum
nisi turpe nullum est, turpe autem ad lionestis
occupatum pervenire non potest, iniuria ad sapientem
non pervenit. Nam si iniuria alicuius mali patientia
est, sapiens autem nullius mali est patiens, nulla ad

4 sapientem iniuria pertinet. Omnis iniuria deminutio
eius est in quern incurrit, nee potest quisquam in-
iuriam accipere sine aliquo detrimento vel dignitatis
vel corporis vel rerum extra nos positarum. Sapiens
autem nihil perdere potest ; omnia in se reposuit,
nihil fortunae credit, bona sua in solido habet con-
tentus virtute, quae fortuitis non indiget ideoque
nee augeri nee minui potest ; nam et in summum
perducta incrementi non habent locum et nihil eripit
fortuna nisi quod dedit ; virtutem autem non dat,
ideo nee detrahit ; libera est, inviolabilis, immota,
inconcussa, sic contra casus indurat, ut ne inclinari

5 quidem, nedum vinci possit ; adversus adparatus
terribilium rectos oculos tenet, nihil ex vultu mutat,
sive illi dura sive secunda ostentantur. Itaque nihil

31 sqq
60

Perhaps the superstitious gesture described by Persius, ii.
qq., as a charm against the evil ej^e.

ox FIRMNESS, v. 2-5

children who are terror-stricken by darkness and the
ufrliness of masks and a distorted countenance ; who
are provoked even to tears by names that are un-
pleasant to their ears, by gesticulation of the fingers,**
and other things which in their ignorance they shrink
from in a kind of blundering panic. Injury has as its
aim to \-isit e\'i\ upon a person. But -wisdom leaves no
room for e\il, for the only e\'il it knows is baseness,
which cannot enter where ^-irtue and uprightness
already abide. Consequently, if there can be no
injury -sWthout e\'il, no e\-il \vithout baseness, and if,
moreover, baseness cannot reach a man already
possessed by uprightness, then injury does not reach
the ^vise man. For if injury is the experiencing of
•^ome evil, if, moreover, the wise man can experience
no e\il, no injur}" affects a wise man. All injur}- is
damaging to him who encounters it, and no man can
receive injury ^vithout some loss either in respect to
his position or his person or things external to us.
But the ^^^se man can lose nothing. He has every-
thing invested in himself, he trusts nothing to fortune,
his own goods are secure, since he is content with
virtue, which needs no gift from chance, and which,
therefore, can neither be increased nor diminished.
For that which has come to the full has no room for
further growth, and Fortune can snatch away only
Avhat she herself has given. But virtue she does
not give ; therefore she cannot take it away.
\'irtue is free, in\iolable, unmoved, unshaken, so
steeled against the blows of chance that she cannot
be bent, much less broken. Facing the instruments
of torture she holds her gaze unflinching, her expres-
sion changes not at all, whether a hard or a happy
lot is sho^\'n her. Therefore the wise man will lose

61

SENECA

perdet quod perire sensurus sit ; unius enim in
possessione virtutis est, ex qua depelli numquam
potest, ceteris precario utitur • quis autem iactura
movetur alieni ? Quodsi iniuria nihil laedere potest
ex his quae propria sapientis sunt, quia virtute salva^
sua salva sunt, iniuria sapienti non potest fieri.

6 Megaram Demetrius ceperat, cui cognomen Pohor-
cetes fuit. Ab hoc Stilbon philosophus interrogatus ,
num ahquid perdidisset : " Nihil," inquit, " omnia
mea mecum sunt." Atqui et patrimonium eius in
praedam cesserat et filias rapuerat hostis et patria in
ahenam dicionem pervenerat et ipsum rex circumfusus
victoris exercitus armis ex superiore loco rogitabat.

7 At ille victoriam illi excussit et se urbe capta non
invictum tantum sed indemnem esse testatus est.
Habebat enim vera secum bona, in quae non est
manus iniectio, at quae dissipata et direpta fere-
bantur, non iudicabat sua sed adventicia et nutum
fortunae sequentia. Ideo ut non propria dilexerat ;
omnium enim extrinsecus adfluentium lubrica et
incerta possessio est.

1 6. Cogita nunc, an huic fur aut calumniator aut
vicinus impotens aut dives aliquis regnum orbae
senectutis exercens facere iniuriam possit, cui bellum
et hostis et ille egregiam artem quassandarum urbium

2 professus eripere nihil potuit. Inter micantis ubique

^ salva added by Madvig.
62

ON FIRMNESS, v. 5-vi. 2

nothing which he will be able to regard as loss ; for
the only possession he has is \-irtue, and of this he
can never be robbed. Of all else he has merely the
use on sufferance. WTio, however, is moved by the
loss of that which is not his ovm ? But if injury can
do no harm to anything that a %\-ise man owns, since
if his \lrtue is safe his possessions are safe, then no
injur\- can happen to the mse man.

^^Tien Demetrius, the one who had the appellation
of Poliorcetes, had captured Megara, he questioned
Stilbo, a philosopher, to find out whether he had lost
anything, and his answer was, " Nothing ; I have
all that is mine \\'ith me." Yet his estate had been
given up to plunder, his daughters had been out-
raged by the enemy, his native city had passed
under foreign sway, and the man himself was being
questioned by a king on his throne, ensconced amid
the arms of his \ictorious army. But he ^^Tested
the victory from the conqueror, and bore ^^-itness
that, though his city had been captured, he himself
was not only unconquered but unharmed. For he
had viith him his true possessions, upon which no
hand can be laid, while the property that was being
scattered and pillaged and plundered he counted
not his own, but the adventitious things that follow
the beck of Fortune. Therefore he had esteemed
them as not really his o\^'n ; for all that flows to us
from without is a slippery and insecure possession.

Consider now, can any thief or traducer or N-iolent
neighbour, or any rich man who \\-ields the power
conferred by a childless old age, do injury to this
man, from whom war and the enemy and that
I exponent of the illustrious art of wrecking cities
could snatch away nothing ? Amid swords flashing

63

SENECA

gladios et militarem in rapina tumultum, inter
flammas et sanguinem stragemque impulsae civitatis,
inter fragorem templorum super deos suos cadentium
uni homini pax fuit. Non est itaque, quod audax
iudices promissum, cuius tibi, si parum fidei habeo,
sponsorem dabo. Vix enim credis tantum firmitatis
in hominem aut tantam animi magnitudinem cadere ;

3 sed is prodit in medium qui dieat : " Non est quod
dubites, an attollere se homo natus supra humana
possit, an dolores, damna, ulcerationes, vulnera,
magnos motus rerum circa se frementium securus
aspiciat et dura placide ferat et secunda moderate, nee
illis cedens nee his fretus, unus idemque inter diversa
sit nee quicquam suum nisi se putet, et se quoque

4 ea parte qua mehor est. En adsum hoc vobis pro-
baturus, sub isto tot civitatium eversore munimenta
incussu arietis labefieri et turrium altitudinem cunicuhs
ac latentibus fossis repente desidere et aequaturum
editissimas arces aggerem crescere, at nulla machina-
menta posse reperiri, quae bene fundatum animum

5 agitent. Erepsi modo e ruinis domus et incendis undi-
que relucentibus flammas per sanguinem fugi ; filias
meas quis casus habeat, an peior publico, nescio ; solus
et senior et hostilia circa me omnia videns tamen in-
tegrum incolumemque esse censum meum profiteor.

» i.e., that the wise man can lose nothing, receive no
injury.
64

ON FIRMNESS, vi. 2-5

on every side and the uproar of soldiers bent on
pillage, amid flames and blood and the havoc of the
smitten city, amid the crash of temples falling upon
their gods, one man alone had peace. It is not for
you, therefore, to call reckless this boast of mine " ;
and if you do not give me credence, I shall adduce a
voucher for it. For you can hardly believe that so
much steadfastness, that such greatness of soul falls
to the lot of any man. But here is one * who comes
into our midst and says : " There is no reason why
you should doubt that a mortal man can raise himself
above his human lot, that he can \aew vrith. unconcern
pains and losses, sores and wounds, and nature's great
commotions as she rages all around him, can bear
hardship calmly and prosperity soberly, neither
yielding to the one nor trusting to the other ; that
he can remain wholly unchanged amid the diversities
of fortune and count nothing but himself his own,
and of this self, even, only its better part. See, here
am I to prove to you this — that, though beneath the
hand of that destroyer of so many cities fortifica-
tions shaken by the battering-ram may totter, and
high towers undermined by tunnels and secret saps
may sink in sudden downfall, and earthworks rise to
match the loftiest citadel, yet no war-engines can be
devised that mil shake the firm-fixed soul. I crept
just now from the ruins of my house, and while the
conflagration blazed on every side, I fled from
the flames through blood ; what fate befalls my
daughters, whether a worse one than their country's
own, I know not. Alone and old, and seeing the
enemy in possession of everything around me, I,
nevertheless, declare that my holdings are all intact
» i.e., Stilbo.
VOL. I V 66

SENECA

6 Teneo, habeo quicquid mei habui. Non est quod
me victum victoremque te credas. Vicit fortuna tua
fortunam meam. Caduca ilia et dominum mutantia
ubi sint nescio ; quod ad res meas pertinet, mecum

7 sunt, mecum erunt. Perdiderunt isti divites patri-
monia, libidinosi amores suos et magno pudoris im-
pendio dilecta scorta, ambitiosi curiam et forum et
loca exercendis in publico vitiis destinata ; feneratores
perdiderunt tabellas, quibus avaritia falso laeta
divitias imaginatur. Ego quidem omnia integra
illibataque habeo. Proinde istos interroga qui flent,
lamentantur, qui strictis gladiis nuda pro pecunia
corpora opponunt, qui hostem onerato sinu fugiunt."

8 Ergo ita habe, Serene, perfectimi ilium virum,
humanis divinisque virtutibus plenimi, nihil perdere.
Bona eius sohdis et inexsuperabihbus munimentis
praecincta sunt. Non Babylonios illis muros con-
tuleris, quos Alexander intravit, non Carthaginis aut
Numantiae moenia una manu capta, non Capitolium
arcemve, habent ista hostile vestigium. Ilia, quae
sapientem tuentur, et a flamma et ab incursu tuta
sunt, nullum introitum praebent, excelsa, inexpugna
bilia, diis aequa.

1 7. Non est quod dicas, ita ut soles, hunc sapientem
nostrum nusquam inveniri. Non fingimus istud

" Scipio Africanus the younger reduced Carthage in 116
B.C., Numantia in 133 B.C.

66

ON FIRMNESS, vi. 6-vii. 1

and unharmed. I still possess them ; whatever I have
had as my own, I have. There is no reason for you
to suppose me vanquished and yourself the \'ictor ;
your fortune has vanquished my fortune. Where
those things are that pass and change their o^^•ners,
I know not ; so far as my possessions are concerned,
they are Avith me, and ever will be with me. The
losers are yonder rich men who have lost their estates

the hbertines who have lost their loves — the prosti-
tutes whom they cherished at a great expenditure
of shame — politicians who have lost the senate-house,
the forum, and the places appointed for the public
exercise of their failings ; the usurers have lost their
records on which their avarice, rejoicing without
warrant, based its dream of wealth. But I have
still my all, untouched and undiminished. Do you,
accordingly, put your question to those who weep
and wail, who, in defence of their money, present
their naked bodies to the point of the sword, who,
when their pockets are loaded, flee from the enemy."
Know, therefore, Serenus, that this perfect man, full
of virtues human and diAine, can lose nothing. His
goods are girt about by strong and insurmountable
defences. Not Babylon's walls, which an Alexander
entered, are to be compared with these, not the
ramparts of Carthage or Numantia, both captured by
one man's hand," not the Capitol or citadel of Rome,
— upon them the enemy has left his marks. The
walls which guard the wise man are safe from both
flame and assault, they provide no means of entrance,
— are lofty, impregnable, godlike.

There is no reason for you to say, Serenus, as your
habit is, that this wise man of ours is nowhere to be
found. He is not a fiction of us Stoics, a sort of

67

SENECA

humani ingenii vanum decus nee ingentem imagi-
nem falsae rei concipimus, sed qualem conformamus,
exhibuimus, exhibebimus, raro forsitan magnisque
aetatium intervallis unum ; neque enim magna et
excedentia solitum ac vulgarem modum crebro gig-
nuntur. Ceterum hie ipse M. Cato, a cuius mentione
haec disputatio processit, vereor ne supra nostrum
exemplar sit.

2 Denique validius debet esse quod laedit eo quod
laeditur ; non est autem fortior nequitia virtute ;
non potest ergo laedi sapiens. Iniuria in bonos nisi
a malis non temptatur ; bonis inter se pax est, mali
tam bonis perniciosi quam inter se. Quodsi laedi
nisi infirmior non potest, malus autem bono infirmior
est, nee iniuria bonis nisi a dispari verenda est ;
iniuria in sapientem virum non cadit. Illud enim
iam non es admonendus neminem bonum esse nisi

3 sapientem. " Si iniuste," inquit, " Socrates dam-
natus est, iniuriam accepit." Hoc loco intellegere
nos oportet posse evenire, ut faciat aliquis iniuriam
mihi et ego non accipiam. Tamquam si quis rem,
quam e villa mea subripuit, in domo mea ponat, ille

4 furtum fecerit, ego nihil perdiderim. Potest aliquis
nocens fieri, quamvis non nocuerit. Si quis cum
uxore sua tamquam cum aliena concumbat, adulter

» Cf. 1. 3.
68

ON FIRMNESS, vii. 1-4

phantom glor\' of human natvu-e, nor is he a mere
conception, the mighty semblance of a thing unreal,
but we have shown him in the flesh just as we
delineate him, and shall show him — though per-
chance not often, and after a long lapse of years only
one. For greatness which transcends the limit of
the ordinary and common tA'pe is produced but
rarely. But tliis self-same Marcus Cato, the men-
tion of whom started this discussion," I almost think
surpasses even our exemplar.

Again, that which injures must be more powerful
than that which is injured; but ^^'ickedness is not
stronger than righteousness ; therefore it is im-
possible for the ^\ise man to be injured. Only the
bad attempt to injure the good ; the good are at
peace \nth each other, the bad are no less harmful
to the good than they are to each other. But if
only the weaker man can be injured, and if the bad
man is weaker than the good man, and the good
have to fear no injury except from one who is no
match for them, then injurj^ cannot befall the wise
man. For by this time you do not need to be
reminded of the fact that there is no good man
except the wise man. " But," some one says, " if
Socrates was condemned unjustly, he received an
injur)-." At this point it is needful for us to under-
stand that it is possible for some one to do me an
injury and for me not to receive the injury. For
example, if a man should steal something from my
country-house and leave it in my to\sTi-house, he
would have committed a theft, but I should have
lost nothing. It is possible for one to become a
MTong-doer, although he may not have done a MTong.
If a man hes with his wife as if she were another

69

SENECA

erit, quamvis ilia adultera non sit. Aliquis mihi
venenum dedit, sed vim suam remixtum cibo perdidit :
venenum ille dando sceleri se obligavit, etiam si non
nocxiit ; non minus latro est, cuius telum obposita
veste elusum est. Omnia seelera etiam ante effectum
operis, quantxmi culpae satis est, perfecta sunt.

6 Quaedam eius condicionis sunt et hac vice copulantur,
ut alterum sine altero esse possit, alterum sine altero
non possit. Quod dico conabor facere manifestum.
Possum pedes movere, ut non curram ; currere non
possum, ut pedes non moveam. Possum, quamvis
in aqua sim, non natare ; si nato, non possum in

6 aqua non esse. Ex hac sorte et hoc est de quo
agitur. Si iniuriam accepi, necesse est factam esse ;
si est facta, non est necesse accepisse me ; multa
enim incidere possunt quae submoveant iniuriam.
Ut intentatam manum deicere aliquis casus potest
et emissa tela declinare, ita iniurias qualescumque
potest aliqua res repellere et in medio intercipere,
ut et factae sint nee acceptae.

1 8. Praeterea iustitia nihil iniustum pati potest,
quia non coeunt contraria. Iniuria autem non potest
fieri nisi iniuste ; ergo sapienti iniuria non potest
fieri. Nee est quod mireris ; si nemo illi potest
iniuriam facere, ne prodesse quidem quisquam potest.
Et sapienti nihil deest quod accipere possit loco
70

ON FIRMNESS, vn. 4-vin. l

man's wife, he ■v^ill be an adulterer, though she will
not be an adulteress. Some one gave me poison, but
the poison lost its efficacy by being mixed ^^■ith food ;
the man, by giving the poison, became guilty of a
crime, even if he did me no injurj'. A man is no less
a murderer because his blow was foiled, intercepted
by the victim's dress. All crimes, so far as guilt is
concerned, are completed even before the accom-
plishment of the deed. Certain acts are of such a
character, and are linked together in such a relation,
that while the first can take place without the second,
the second cannot take place vvithout the first. I
shall endeavour to make clear what I mean. I can
move my feet without running, but I cannot run
without moving my feet. It is possible for me,
though being in the water, not to svvim ; but if I
svvim, it is impossible for me not to be in the water.
To the same category belongs the matter under dis-
cussion. If I have received an injury, it must
necessarily have been done. If an injury was done,
I have not necessarily received it ; for many things
can happen to avert the injury. Just as, for example,
some chance may strike down the hand while it takes
aim and turn the speeding missile aside, so it is
possible that some circumstance may ward off injuries
of any sort and intercept them in mid-course, vvith the
result that they may have been done, yet not received.
Moreover, justice can suffer no injustice, because
opposites do not meet. But no injury can be done
vvithout injustice ; therefore no injury can be done
to the Avise man. And you need not be surprised ;
if no one can do him an injury, no one can do him
a service either. The v\-ise man, on the one hand,"
lacks nothing that he can receive as a gift ; the evil

71

SENECA

muneris, et malus nihil potest dignum tribuere sa-
piente ; habere enim prius debet quam dare, nihil
autem habet quod ad se transferri sapiens gavisurus

2 sit. Non potest ergo quisquam aut nocere sapienti
aut prodesse, quoniam divina nee iuvari desiderant
nee laedi possunt, sapiens autem vieinus proximusque
dis consistit, excepta mortalitate similis deo. Ad ilia
nitens pergensque excelsa, ordinata, intrepida,
aequali et concordi cursu fluentia, secura, benigna,
bono publico nata, et sibi et aliis salutaria nihil

3 humile concupiscet, nihil flebit. Qui rationi innixus
per humanos casus divino incedit animo, non habet
ubi accipiat iniuriam — ab homine me tantum dicere
putas ? Ne a fortuna quidem, quae quotiens cum
virtute congressa est, numquam par recessit. Si
maximum illud ultra quod nihil habent iratae leges
ac saevissimi domini quod^ minentur, in quo im-
perium suum fortuna consumit, aequo placidoque
animo accipimus et scimus mortem malum non esse,
ob hoc ne iniuriam quidem, multo facilius alia
tolerabimus, damna et dolor es, ignominias, locorum
commutationes, orbitates, discidia, quae sapientem,
etiam si universa circumveniant, non mergunt,
nedum ut ad singulorum impulsus maereat. Et
si fortunae iniurias moderate fert, quanto magis

^ So inferior uss. and Pincianus : A omits.
72

ON FIRMNESS, viii. 1-3

man, on the other, can bestow nothing good enough
for the wise man to have. For a man must have
before he can give ; the e\-il man, however, has
nothing that the wise man would be glad to have
transferred to himself. It is impossible, therefore,
for any one either to injure or to benefit the wise man,
since that which is divine does not need to be helped,
and cannot be hurt ; and the wise man is next-door
neighbour to the gods and like a god in all save his
mortality. As he struggles and presses on towards
those things that are lofty, well-ordered, undaunted,
that flow on with even and harmonious current, that
are untroubled, kindly, adapted to the public good,
beneficial both to himself and to others, the wise
man will covet notliing low, will never repine. The
man who, relying on reason, marches through mortal
vicissitudes with the spirit of a god, has no vulnerable
spot where he can receive an injury. From man
only do you think I mean ? No, not even from For-
tune, who, whenever she has encountered virtue, has
always left the field outmatched. If that supreme
event, beyond which outraged laws and the most
cruel masters have nothing with which to threaten us,
and in which Fortune uses up all her power, is met
with calm and unruffled mind, and if it is realized
that death is not an evil and therefore not an injury
either, we shall much more easily bear all other
things — losses and pains, disgrace, changes of abode,
bereavements, and separations. These things cannot
overwhelm the wise man, even though they all
encompass him at once ; still less does he grieve
when they assault him singly. And if he bears
composedly the injuries of Fortune, how much

73

SENECA

hominum potentium quos scit fortunae manus
esse !

1 9. Omnia itaque sic patitur ut hiemis rigorem et
intemperantiam caeli, ut fervores morbosque et
cetera forte accidentia, nee de quoquam tam bene
iudicat, ut ilium quicquam putet consilio fecisse, quod
in uno sapiente est. Aliorum omnium non consilia,
sed fraudes et insidiae et motus animorum inconditi
sunt, quos casibus adnumerat ; omne autem fortui-
tum circa nos saevit et in vilia.^

2 lUud quoque cogita, iniuriarum latissime patere
materiam in^ illis per quae periculum nobis quae-
situm est, ut accusatore submisso aut criminatione
falsa aut irritatis in nos potentiorum odiis quaeque
alia inter togatos latrocinia sunt. Est et ilia iniuria
frequens, si lucrum alicui excussiun est aut praemium
diu captatum, si magno labore adfectata hereditas
aversa est et quaestuosae domus gratia erepta. Haec
efFugit sapiens qui nescit nee in spem nee in metum

3 vivere. Adice nunc quod iniuriam nemo inmota
mente accipit, sed ad sensimi eius perturbatur, caret
autem perturbatione vir ereptus erroribus, moderator
sui, altae quietis et placidae. Nam si tangit ilium

* in villa Madvig : in vitia A.
* in added by Madvig.

" The Stoics, exalting reason, held that virtue involved
both right living and right thinking. Thus, only the
"wise man," aiming at "virtue," achieved right thinking.

74

ON FIRMNESS, viii. 3-ix. 3

the more will he bear those of powerful men,
whom he knows to be merely the instruments of
Fortune !

All such things, therefore, he endures in the same
way that he submits to the rigours of winter and to
inclement weather, to fevers and disease, and the
other accidents of chance ; nor does he form so high
an estimate of any man as to think that he has done
anything with the good judgement that is found
only in the wise man.<* All others are actuated, not
by judgement, but by delusions and deceptions and
ill-formed impulses of the mind, which the wise men
sets dowTi to the account of chance ; but every power
of Fortune rages round about us and strikes what
counts for naught !

Consider, further, that the most extensive oppor-
tunity for injury is found in those things through
which some danger is contrived for us, as, for example,
the suborning of an accuser, or the bringing of a
false accusation, or the stirring up of the hatred
of the powerful against us, and all the other forms
of robbery that exist among ci\iUans. Another
common type of injury arises when a man has his
profits or a long-chased prize torn from his grasp, as
when a legacy which he has made great effort to
secure is turned aside, or the goodwill of a lucrative
house is withdrawn. All this the wise man escapes,
for he knows nothing of directing his life either
towards hope or towards fear. Add, further, that no
man receives an injury without some mental dis-
turbance, yea more, he is perturbed even by the
thought of it ; but the man who has been saved from
error, who is self-controlled and has deep and calm
repose, is free from such perturbation. For if an

SENECA

iniuria, et movet et impellit,^ caret autemira sapiens,
quam excitat iniuriae species, nee aliter careret ira
nisi et iniuria, quam scit sibi non posse fieri. Inde
tam erectus laetusque est, inde continue gaudio
elatus ; adeo autem ad ofFensiones rerum hominum-
que non contrahitur, ut ipsa illi iniuria usui sit, per
quam experimentum sui capit et virtutem temptat.

4 Faveamus, obsecro vos, huic proposito aequisque et
animis et auribus adsimus, dum sapiens iniuriae
excipitur ! Nee quicquam ideo petulantiae vestrae
aut rapacissimis cupiditatibus aut caecae temeritati
superbiaeque detrahitur. Salvis vitiis vestris haec
sapienti libertas quaeritur. Non ut vobis facere non
liceat iniuriam, agimus, sed ut ille omnes iniurias in
altum demittat patientiaque se ac magnitudine animi

5 defendat. Sic in certaminibus sacris plerique vicerunt
caedentium manus obstinata patientia f atigando . Ex
hoc puta genere sapientem eorum, qui exercitatione
longa ac fideli robur perpetiendi lassandique omnem
inimicam vim consecuti sunt.

1 10. Quoniam priorem partem percucurrimus, ad
alteram transeamus, qua quibusdam propriis, pleris-
que vero communibus contumeliam refutabimus.
^ impellit Bentley : impedit A.

" In the Latin the language is priestly. That the wise
man can suffer no wrong is presented as a sort of divine
utterance which is to be received in solemn silence.

76

ON FIRMNESS, ix. 3-x. 1

injury reaches him, it does stir and incite him ; yet,
if he is a \vise man, he is free from that anger which is
aroused by the mere appearance of injury, and in no
other way could he be free from the anger than by
being free also from the injury, knowing that an
injury can never be done to him. For this reason he
is so resolute and cheerful, for this reason he is elate
with constant joy. So far, moreover, is he from
shrinking from the buffetings of circumstances or
of men. that he counts even injury profitable, for
through it he finds a means of putting himself to the
proof and makes trial of his \'irtue. Let us, I beseech
you, be silent " in the presence of this proposition, and
with impartial minds and ears give heed while the
wise man is made exempt from injur}' ! Nor because
of it is aught diminished from your wantonness, or
from your greediest lusts, or from your blind pre-
sumption and pride ! You may keep your vices — it is
the wise man for whom this liberty is being sought.
Our aim is not that you may be prevented from doing
injury, but that the wise man may cast all injuries
far from him, and by his endurance and his greatness
of soul protect himself from them. Just so in the
sacred games many have won the victory by wearing
out the hands of their assailants through stubborn
endurance. Do you, then, reckon the vnse man in
this class of men — the men who by long and faithful
training have attained the strength to endure and
tire out any assault of the enemy.

Having touched upon the first part of the dis-
cussion, let us now pass to the second, in which by
arguments — some of them our own, most of them,
however, common to our school — we shall disprove
the possibiht}' of insult. It is a sUghter offence than

77

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Est minor iniuria, quam queri magis quam exsequi
possumus, quam leges quoque nulla dignam vindicta

2 putaverunt. Hunc affectum movet humilitas animi
contrahentis se ob dictum factumve^ inhonorificum :
" lUe me hodie non admisit, cum alios admitteret,"
et " sermonem meum aut superbe aversatus est aut
palam risit," et " non in medio me lecto sed in imo
collocavit," et alia huius notae, quae quid vocem nisi
querellas nausiantis animi ? In quae fere delicati
et felices incidunt ; non vacat enim haec notare cui

3 peiora instant. Nimio otio ingenia natura infirma et
muliebria et inopia verae iniuriae lascivientia his
commoventur, quorum pars maior constat vitio inter-
pretantis. Itaque nee prudentiae quicquam in se
esse nee fiduciae ostendit qui contumelia afficitur ;
non dubie enim contemptum se iudicat, et hie morsus
non sine quadam humilitate animi evenit supprimentis
se ac descendentis. Sapiens autem a nullo con-
temnitur, magnitudinem suam novit nullique tantum
de se hcere renuntiat sibi et omnis has, quas non
miserias animorum sed molestias dixerim, non vincit
sed ne sentit quidem.

4 AUa sunt quae sapientem feriunt, etiam si non
pervertunt, ut dolor corporis et debiHtas aut amicorum

^ factumve Gertz : factumque A.
78

ON FIRMNESS, x. 1^

injury, something to be complained of rather than
avenged, something which even the laws have not
deemed worthy of punishment. This feehng is
stirred by a sense of humihation as the spirit shrinks
before an uncomplimentary word or act. " So-and-
so did not give me an audience to-day, though he gave
it to others " ; " he haughtily repulsed or openly
laughed at my conversation " ; "he did not give
me the seat of honour, but placed me at the foot of
the table," These and similar reproaches — what
shall I call them but the complainings of a squeamish
temper ? And it is generally the pampered and
prosperous who indulge in them ; for if a man is
pressed by worse ills, he has not time to notice such
things. By reason of too much leisure natures which
are naturally weak and effeminate and, from the
dearth of real injur}-, have gro^vn spoiled, are dis-
turbed by these sUghts, the greater number of which
are due to some fault in the one who so interprets
them. Therefore any man who is troubled by an
insult shows himself lacking in both insight and
behef in himself ; for he decides without hesitation
that he has been sHghted, and the accompamong
sting is the ine\-itable result of a certain abjectness
of spirit, a spirit which depreciates itself and bows
down to another. But no one can shght the wise
man, for he knows his o^vn greatness and assures him-
self that no one is accorded so much power over him,
and all these feelings, which I prefer to call rather
annoyances than distresses of the mind, he does not
have to overcome — nay, he does not even have them.
Quite different are the things that do buffet the
wise man, even though they do not overthrow him,
such as bodily pain and infirmity, or the loss of friends

79

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liberorumque amissio et patriae bello flagrantis
calamitas. Haec non nego sentire sapientem ; nee
enim lapidis illi duritiam ferrive adserimus. Nulla
virtus est, quae non sentiat se perpeti. Quid ergo
est ? Quosdam ictus recipit, sed receptos evincit
et sanat et comprimit, haec vero minora ne sentit
quidem nee adversus ea solita ilia virtute utitur dura
tolerandi, sed aut non adnotat aut digna risu putat.

1 11. Praeterea cum magnam partem contume-
liarum superbi insolentesque faciant et male feliei-
tatem ferentes, habet quo istum affectum inflatum
respuat, pulcherrimam virtutem omnium,^ magnani-
mitatem. Ilia, quicquid eiusmodi est, transcurrit ut
vanas species somniorum visusque nocturnes nihil

2 habentis solidi atque veri. Simul illud cogitat omnes
inferiores esse, quam ut illis audacia sit tanto ex-
celsiora despicere. Contumelia a contemptu dicta est,
quia nemo nisi quem contempsit tali iniuria notat ;
nemo autem maiorem melioremque contemnit, etiam
si facit aliquid, quod contemnentes solent. Nam et
pueri OS parentium feriunt et crines matris turbavit
laceravitque infans et sputo adspersit aut nudavit in
conspectu suorum tegenda et verbis obscenioribus
non pepercit, et nihil horum contumeliam dicimus.

^ followed by animi in A.
80

ON FIRMNESS, x. 4-xi. 2

and cluldren, and the ruin that befalls his country
amid the flames of war. I do not deny that the ^\^se
man feels these things ; for we do not claim for
him the hardness of stone or of steel. There is no
virtue that fails to realize that it does endure. What,
then, is the case ? The wise man does receive some
wounds, but those that he receives he binds up,
arrests, and heals ; these lesser things he does not
even feel, nor does he employ against them his accus-
tomed virtue of bearing hardship, but he either fails to
notice them, or counts them worthy of a smile.

Moreover, since, in large measure, insults come
from the proud and arrogant and from those who
bear prosperity ill, the ^^ise man possesses that
wliich enables him to scorn their puffed-up attitude —
the noblest of all the virtues, magnanimity. This
passes over ever^^thing of that sort as of no more con-
sequence than the delusive shapes of dreams and the
apparitions of the night, which have nothing in them
that is substantial and real. At the same time he
remembers this, — that all others are so much his own
inferiors that they would not presume to despise what
is so far above them. The word " contumely " is
derived from the word " contempt," for no one
outrages another by so grave a ^\Tong unless he has
contempt for him ; but no man can be contemptuous
of one who is greater and better than liimself, even if
his action is of a kind to which the contemptuous are
prone. For children will strike their parents in the
face, and the infant tumbles and tears his mother's
hair and slobbers upon her, or exposes to the gaze
of the family parts that were better covered over, i"
and a child does not shrink from foul language.
Yet we do not count any of these things an insult.
VOL. I G 81

SENECA

Quare ? Quia qui facit contemnere non potest.
3 Eadem causa est, cur nos mancipiorum nostrorum
urbanitas in dominos contumeliosa delectet, quorum
audacia ita demum sibi in convivas ius facit, si coepit
a domino ; et ut quisque contemptissimus et vel ludi-
briumestjita solutissimae linguae est. Pueros quidam
in hoc mercantur procaces et illorum impudentiam
acuunt ac sub magistro habent, qui probra meditate
efFundant, nee has contumelias vocamus, sed argutias.
Quanta autem dementia est isdem modo delectari,
mode ofFendi, et rem ab amico dictam maledictum
vocare, a servulo ioculare convicium !

1 12. Quem animum nos adversus pueros habemus,
hunc sapiens adversus omnes, quibus etiam post iu-
ventam canosque puerilitas est. An quicquam isti
profecerunt, quibus puerilis^ animi mala sunt auctique
in maius error es, qui a pueris magnitudine tantum
formaque corporum difFerunt, ceterum non minus vagi
incertique, voluptatium sine dilectu adpetentes,

2 trepidi et non ingenio sed formidine quieti ? Non
ideo quicquam inter illos puerosque interesse quis
dixerit, quod illis talorum nucumve et aeris minuti I
avaritia est, his auri argentique et urbium, quod illi J;
inter ipsos magistratus gerunt et praetextam r

fascesque ac tribunal imitantur, hi eadem in campo

\
^ puerilis added by Gertz,

82

ON FIRMNESS, xi. 2-xii. 2

And why ? because he who does them is incapable
of being contemptuous. For the same reason the
waggery of slaves, insulting to their masters, amuses
us, and their boldness at the expense of guests has
licence only because they begin \\-ith their master
himself; and the more contemptible and even
ridiculous any slave is, the more freedom of tongue
he has. For this purpose some people buy young
slaves because they are pert, and they whet their
impudence and keep them under an instructor in
order that they may be practised in pouring forth
streams of abuse ; and yet we call this smartness,
not insult. But what madness it is at one time to
be amused, at another to be affronted, by the same
things, and to call something, if spoken by a friend,
a slander ; if spoken by a slave, a plaj^ul taunt !

The same attitude that we have toward young
slaves, the wise man has toward all men whose child-
hood endures even beyond middle age and the
period of grey hairs. Or has age brought any profit
at all to men of this sort, who have the faults of
a childish mind with its defects augmented, who
differ from children only in the size and shape of
their bodies, but are not less wayward and unsteady,
who are undiscriminating in their passion for pleasure,
timorous, and peaceable, not from inclination, but
from fear ? Therefore no one may say that they
differ in any way from children. For while children
are greedy for knuckle-bones, nuts, and coppers,
these are greedy for gold and silver, and cities ;
while children play among themselves at being
magistrates, and in make-beheve have their bordered
toga, Uctors' rods and tribunal, these play in earnest
at the same things in the Campus Martius and the

83

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foroque et in curia serio ludunt, illi in litoribus
harenae congestu simulacra domuum excitant, hi ut
magnum aliquid agentes in lapidibus ac parietibus et
tectis moliendis occupati tutelae corporum inventa
in periculum verterunt. Ergo par pueris longiusque
3 progressis, sed in alia maioraque error est. Non im-
merito itaque horum contumelias sapiens ut iocos
accipit, et aliquando illos tanquam pueros malo
poenaque admonet, adficit, non quia accepit iniuriam,
sed quia fecerunt et ut desinant facere ; sic enim
et pecora verbere domantur, nee irascimur illis, cum
sessorem recusaverunt, sed compescimus, ut dolor
contumaciam vincat. Ergo et illud solutum scies,
quod nobis opponitur : " Quare, si non accepit
iniuriam sapiens nee contumeliam, punit eos qui
fecerunt? " Non enim se ulciscitur, sed illos emendat.

1 13. Quid est autem, quare hanc animi firmitatem
non credas in virum sapientem cadere, cum tibi in
aliis idem notare sed non ex eadem causa liceat ?
Quis enim phrenetico medicus irascitur ? Quis
febricitantis et a frigida prohibiti maledicta in malam

2 partem accipit ? Hunc affectum adversus omnis
habet sapiens, quem adversus aegros suos medicus,
quorum nee obscena, si remedio egent, contrectare
nee reliquias et effusa intueri dedignatur nee per
furorem saevientium excipere convicia. Scit sapiens

" Horace's "celsae graviore casu decidunt turres " {Carm.
ii. 10. 10 sq.) points the trend of the thought. According
to a Stoic commonplace wisdom lay in the observance of
the " Golden Mean.*'
84

ON FIRMNESS, xii. 2-xiii. 2

forum and the senate ; while children rear their toy
houses on the sea-shore vriih. heaps of sand, these,
as though engaged in a mighty enterprise, are busied
in piling up stones and walls and roofs, and convert
what was intended as a protection to the body into
a menace." Therefore children and those who are
farther advanced in life are alike deceived, but the
latter in different and more serious things. And so
the wise man not improperly considers insult from
such men as a farce, and sometimes, just as if they
were children, he will admonish them and inflict
suffering and punishment, not because he has received
an injury, but because they have committed one, and
in order that they may desist from so doing. For
thus also we break in animals by using the lash, and
we do not get angry at them when they will not
submit to a rider, but we curb them in order that by
pain we may overcome their obstinacy. Now, there-
fore, you will know the answer to the question with
which we are confronted : " Why, if the wise man
cannot receive either injury or insult, does he punish
those who have offered them?" For he is not
avenging himself, but correcting them.

But why is it that you refuse to believe that the
wise man is granted such firmness of mind, when
you may observe that others have the same, although
for a different reason ? What physician gets angry
with a lunatic ? Who takes in ill part the abuse of
a man stricken with fever and yet denied cold water ?
The wise man's feeling towards all men is that of the
physician towards his patients : he does not scorn
to touch their pri\'y parts if they need treatment,
or to \iew the body's refuse and discharges, or to
endure violent words from those who rage in delirium.

85

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omnis hos, qui togati purpuratique incedunt ut^
valentes, coloratos male sanos esse, quos non aliter
videt quam aegros intemperantis. Itaque ne suceen-
set quidem, si quid in morbo petulantius ausi sunt
adversus medentem, et quo animo honores eorum
nihilo aestimat, eodem parum honorifice facta.

3 Quemadmodum non placebit sibi, si ilium mendicus
coluerit, nee contumeliam iudicabit, si illi homo
plebis ultimae salutanti mutuam salutationem non
reddiderit, sic ne suspiciet quidem, si ilium multi
divites suspexerint — scit enim illos nihil a mendicis
difFerre, immo miseriores esse, illi enim exiguo, hi
multo egent — et rursus non tangetur, si ilium rex
Medorura Attalusve Asiae salutantem silentio ac
vultu arroganti transierit. Scit statum eius non magis
habere quicquam invidendum quam eius, cui in magna
familia cura optigit aegros insanosque compescere.

4 Num moleste feram, si mihi non reddiderit nomen
aliquis ex his, qui ad Castoris negotiantur nequam
mancipia ementes vendentesque, quorum tabernae
pessimorum servorum turba refertae sunt ? Non, ut
puto ; quid enim is boni habet, sub quo nemo nisi
malus est ? Ergo ut huius humanitatem inhumani-
tatemque neglegit, ita et regis : " Habes sub te
Parthos et Medos et Bactrianos, sed quos metu
contines, sed propter quos remittere arcum tibi non

^ ut added by Weidner.
86

ON FIRMNESS, xiii. 2^

e ^vise man knows that all who strut about in togas
d in purple, as if they were well and strong, are, for
all their bright colour, quite unsound, and in his eyes
they differ in no way from the sick who are bereft of
self-control. And so he is not even irritated if in
their sick condition they venture to be somewhat
impertinent to their physician, and in the same spirit
in which he sets no value on the honours they have, he
sets no value on the lack of honour they show. Just
as he ^\-ill not be flattered if a beggar shows him
respect, nor count it an insult if a man from the dregs
of the people, on being greeted, fails to return his
greeting, so, too, he wiil not even look up if many
rich men look up at him. For he knows that they
differ not a whit from beggars — yea, that they are
even more ^\Tetched ; since the beggar wants little,
the rich man much. And, on the other hand, he
will not be disturbed if the King of the Medes or
King Attalus of Asia, ignoring his greeting, passes
him by in silence and with a look of disdain. He
knows that the position of such a man is no more to
be envied than that of the slave in a large household
whose duty it is to keep under constraint the sick
and the insane. The men who traffic in ^\Tetched
human chattels, buying and selhng near the temple
of Castor, whose shops are packed \\-ith a throng of
the meanest slaves — if some one of these does not call
me by name, shall I take umbrage ? No, I think not.
For of what good is a man who has under him none
but the bad ? Therefore, just as the wise man dis-
regards this one's courtesy or discourtesy, so will he
like\vise disregard the king's : " You, O king, have
under you Parthians and Medes and Bactrians, but
you hold them in check by fear ; they never allow

87

SENECA

contigit, sed hostes teterrimos, sed venales, sed novum
5 aucupantes dominum." Nullius ergo movebitur
contumelia. Omnes enim inter se difFerant, sapiens
quidem pares illos ob aequalem stultitiam omnis
putat ; nam si semel se demiserit eo, ut aut iniuria
moveatur aut contumelia, non poterit umquam esse
securus. Securitas autem propriuni bonum sapientis
est ; nee committet, ut iudicando contumeliam sibi
faetam honorem habeat ei qui fecit ; necesse est
enim, a quo quisque contemni moleste ferat, suspici
gaudeat.

1 14. Tanta quosdam dementia tenet, ut sibi con-
tumeliam fieri putent posse a muliere. Quid refert
quam habeant, quot lecticarios habentem, quam one-
ratas aures, quam laxam sellam ? Aeque inprudens
animal est et, nisi scientia accessit ac multa eruditio,
ferum, cupiditatium incontinens. Quidam se a cine-
rario impulsos moleste ferunt et contumeliam vocant
ostiari difficultatem, nomenculatoris superbiam, cu-
biculari supercilium. O quantus risus inter ista
toUendus est ! quanta voluptate implendus animus ex
alienorum errorum tumultu contemplanti quietem

2 suam ! " Quid ergo ? Sapiens non accedet ad fores,
quas durus ianitor obsidet ? " Ille vero, si res
necessaria vocabit, experietur et ilium, quisquis erit,
tanquam canem acrem obiecto cibo leniet nee
indignabitur aliquid impendere, ut limen transeat,

88

ON FIRMNESS, xiii. 4-xiv. 2

u to relax your bow ; they are your bitterest
v.iiemies, open to bribes, and eager for a new master."
Consequently the ^^ise man \n\\ not be moved by any
man's insult. For men may all differ one from
another, yet the wise man regards them as all aUke
because they are all equally foohsh ; since if he should
once so far condescend as to be moved either by
insult or injury, he could never be unconcerned.
Unconcern, however, is the peculiar blessing of the
wise man, and he \\'ill never allow himself to pay to
the one who offered him an insult the compliment of
admitting that it was offered. For, necessarily,
whoever is troubled by another's scorn, is pleased by
his admiration.

Some men are mad enough to suppose that even
a woman can offer them an insult. What matters
it how they regard her, how many lackeys she has
for her htter, how hea\-ily weighted her ears, how
roomy her sedan ? She is just the same unthinking
creature — wild, and unrestrained in her passions —
unless she has gained knowledge and had much
instruction. Some are affronted if a hairdresser
jostles them, and some call the rudeness of a house-
porter, an usher's arrogance, or a valet's loftiness an
insult. O what laughter should such things draw !
With what satisfaction should a man's mind be filled
when he contrasts his ovm repose with the unrest
into which others blunder ! " WTiat then ? " you say,
" will the wise man not approach a door that is
guarded by a surly keeper ? " Assuredly, if some
necessar}' business summons him he will make the
venture, and placate the keeper, be he what he may,
as one quiets a dog by tossing him food, and he will
not deem it improper to pay something in order that

89

SENECA

cogitans et in pontibus quibusdam pro transitu dari.
Itaque illi quoque, quisquis erit, qui hoc salutationum
publicum exerceat, donabit ; scit emi acre venalia.
Ille pusilli animi est, qui sibi placet, quod ostiario
libere respondit, quod virgam eius fregit, quod ad
dominum accessit et petit corium. Facit se adver-

3 sarium qui contendit, et ut vincat, par fuit. " At
sapiens colapho percussus quid faciet ? " Quod Cato,
cum illi OS percussum esset ; non excanduit, non
vindicavit iniuriam, ne remisit quidem, sed factam
negavit ; maiore animo non agnovit quam ignovisset.
Non diu in hoc haerebimus ; quis enim nescit nihil
ex his, quae creduntur mala aut bona, ita videri

4 sapienti ut omnibus ? Non respicit, quid homines
turpe iudicent aut miserum, non it qua populus, sed
ut sidera contrarium mundo iter intendunt, ita hie
adversus opinionem omnium vadit.

1 15. Desinite itaque dicere : " Non accipiet ergo
sapiens iniuriam, si caedetur, si oculus illi eruetur ?
Non accipiet contumeliam, si obscenorum vocibus
improbis per forum agetur ? Si in convivio regis
recumbere infra mensam vescique cum servis igno-
miniosa officia sortitis iubebitiur ? Si quid aliud ferre
cogetur eorum quae excogitari pudori ingenuo

2 molesta possunt ? " In quantumcumque ista vel

" It was supposed that the sphere of heaven revolved
about the earth from east to west, and that while the sun,
moon, and planets were swept along in this revolution,
they also moved in their own courses in the opposite
direction.

90

ON FIRMNESS, xiv. 2-xv. 2

may pass the threshold, remembering that even on

ae bridges one has to pay to cross. And so to the

!ow, be he what he may, who phes this source of

venue at receptions, he -will pay his fee ; he knows

that money will buy whatever is for sale. The man

has a small mind who is pleased ^^^th himself because

he spoke his mind to a porter, because he broke his

iff on him, made his way to his master and demanded

fellow's hide. Whoever enters a contest becomes

the antagonist of another, and, for the sake of \ictor}%

is on the same level. " But," you ask, " if a >vise

man receives a blow, what shall he do ? " WTiat

Cato did when he was struck in the face. He did

not flare up, he did not avenge the >vTong, he did not

even forgive it, but he said that no ^^Tong had been

done. He showed finer spirit in not acknowledging it

than if he had pardoned it. But we shall not linger

long upon this point. For who is not aware that

none of the things reputed to be goods or ills appear

to the wise man as they do to men at large ? He does

not regard what men consider base or WTetched ; he

does not walk with the crowd, but as the planets

make their way against the whirl of heaven," so he

proceeds contrary' to the opinion of the world.

Therefore leave off saying : " Will the wise man,
then, receive no injury if he is given a lashing, if he
has an eye gouged out ? Will he receive no insult
if he is hooted through the forum by the \ile words
of a foul-mouthed crowd ? If at a king's banquet he
is ordered to take a place beneath the table and to
eat with the slaves assigned to the most disreputable
service ? If he is forced to bear whatever else can
be thought of that will offend his native self-respect?"
No matter how great these things may come to be,

91

SENECA

numero vel magnitudine creverint, eiusdem naturae
erunt. Si non tangent ilium parva, ne maiora qui-
dem ; si non tangent pauca, ne plura quidem. Sed
ex imbecillitate vestra coniecturam capitis ingentis
animi, et cum cogitastis quantum putetis vos pati
posse, sapientis patientiae paulo ulteriorem terminum
ponitis. At ilium in aliis mundi finibus sua virtus

3 collocavit nihil vobiscum commune habentem. Quaere
et aspera et quaecumque toleratu gravia sunt
audituque et visu refugienda. Non obruetur eorum
coetu et qualis singulis, talis universis obsistet. Qui
dicit illud tolerabile sapienti, illud intolerabile, et
animi magnitudinem intra certos fines tenet, male
agit ; vineit nos fortuna, nisi tota vincitur.

4 Ne putes istam Stoicam esse duritiam, Epicurus,
quem vos patronum inertiae vestrae assumitis puta-
tisque mollia ac desidiosa praecipere et ad voluptates
ducentia, " Raro," inquit, " sapienti fortuna inter-
venit." Quam paene emisit viri vocem ! Vis tu

5 fortius loqui et illam ex toto summovere ! Domus
haec sapientis angusta, sine cultu, sine strepitu, sine
apparatu, nullis adservatur ianitoribus turbam venali
fastidio digerentibus, sed per hoc limen vacuum et
ab ostiaris liberum fortuna non transit. Scit non esse
ilhc sibi locum, ubi sui nihil est.

" Epicurus's doctrine that the highest pleasure was peace
of mind (drapa^ia) fostered naturally inaction and aloofness
from affairs ; \d6e ^nhaas was the watchword of his
followers. Cf. Seneca, De Beneficiis, iv. 4. 1 : " deus aversus
a mundo aliud agit aut, quae maxima Epicuro felicitas
videtur, nihil agit."

* Epicurea, p. 74, xvi (Usener).

92

ON FIRMNESS, xv. 2-5

lether in number or in size, their nature will
main the same. If small things do not move him,
neither A^ill the greater ones ; if a few do not move
him, neither will more . But from the measure of your
own weakness you form your idea of an heroic spirit,
and, ha%'ing pictured how much you think that you
can endure, you set the Hmit of the wise man's endur-
ance a httle farther on. But his virtue has placed
lum in another region of the universe ; he has nothing
in common with you. Therefore search out the hard
things and whatever is grievous to bear — things from
which the ear and the eye must shrink. The whole
mass of them will not crush him, and as he with-
tands them singly, so will he withstand them
united. He who says that one thing is tolerable for
the wise man, another intolerable, and restricts the
greatness of his soul to definite bounds, does
him wTong ; Fortune conquers us, unless we wholly
conquer her.

Do not suppose that such austerity is Stoic only.
Epicurus, whom you claim as the advocate of your
pohcy of inaction,** who, as you think, enjoins the
course that is soft and indolent and conducive to
pleasure, has said, " Rarely does Fortune block the
path of the \\ise man."* How near he came to
uttering a manly sentiment ! Will you speak more
heroically and clear Fortune from his path altogether?
This house of the wise man is cramped, ^^^thout adorn-
ment, without bustle, -without pomp, is guarded by
no doormen who, with venal fastidiousness, dis-
criminate between the \isitors ; but over its thresh-
old, empty and devoid of keepers. Fortune does
not pass. She knows that she has no place there,
where nothing is her own.

93

SENECA

1 16. Quodsi Epicurus quoque, qui corpori plurimuin
indulsit, adversus iniurias exsurgit, qui id apud nos
incredibile videri potest aut supra humanae naturae
mensuram ? Ille ait iniurias tolerabiles esse sapienti,
nos iniurias non esse. Nee enim est, quod dicas hoc

2 naturae repugnare. Non negamus rem incommodam
esse verberari et impelli et aliquo membro carere,
sed omnia ista negamus iniurias esse ; non sensum
illis doloris detrahimus, sed nomen iniuriae, quod non
potest recipi virtute salva. Uter verius dicat vide-
bimus ; ad contemptum quidem iniuriae uterque
consentit. Quaeris quid inter duos intersit ? Quod
inter gladiatores fortissimos, quorum alter premit
vulnus et stat in gradu, alter respiciens ad clamantem
populum significat nihil esse et intercedi non patitur.

3 Non est, quod putes magnum, quo dissidemus ; illud
quo de agitur, quod unum ad vos pertinet, utraque
exempla hortantur, contemnere iniurias et, quas
iniuriarum umbras ac suspiciones dixerim, con-
tumelias, ad quas despiciendas non sapiente opus est
viro, sed tantum consipiente, qui sibi possit dicere :
" Utrum merito mihi ista accidunt an inmerito ? Si
merito, non est contumelia, iudicium est, si inmerito,

4 illi qui iniusta facit erubescendum est." Et quid est
illud quod contumelia dicitur ? In capitis mei levi-
tatem iocatus est et in oculorum vahtudinem et in
crurum gracilitatem et in staturam. Quae con-
tumelia est quod apparet audire ? Coram uno ali-

94

I

ON FIRMNESS, xvi. 1-4

But if even Epicurus, who most of all indulged the

tit -h, is up in arms against injury, how can such an

;Utitude on our part seem incredible or to be beyond

the bounds of human nature ? He says that injuries

.lie tolerable for the ^^•ise man ; we say that injuries

(1. < not exist for him. Nor, indeed, is there any reason

V hv you should claim that this wars against nature.

\\ e do not deny that it is an unpleasant thing to be

l)t aten and hit, to lose some bodily member, but we

(It nv that all such things are injuries. We do not

divest them of the sensation of pain, but of the name

of injures which is not allowable so long as \irtue is

unharmed. Which of the two speaks more truly

\\ t' Avill consider : as to contempt, at any rate, for

■ iiiry both think alike. Do you ask, then, what is

diiference between the two ? The same differ-

e that distinguishes two gladiators, both very

brave, one of whom stops his wound and stands his

:>und, the other, turning to the shouting crowd,

ces a sign that he has no wound, and permits no

1 erference. There is no need for you to suppose

that our difference is great ; as to the point, and it

he only one that concerns you, both schools urge

; to scorn injuries and, what I may call the shadows

1 suggestions of injuries, insults. And one does not

d to be a wise man to despise these, but merely

lan of sense — one who can say to himself : " Do

r do I not, deserve that these things befall me ?

it I do deserve them, there is no insult — it is justice ;

^'' I do not deserve them, he who does the injustice

he one to blush." And this insult, so called, what

i ~ 1 : ? Some j est at the baldness of my head, the weak-

UL:^s of my eyes, the thinness of my legs, my build.

But whv is it an insult to be told what is self-evident ?

95

SENECA

quid dictum ridemus, coram pluribus indignamur, et
eorum aliis libertatem non relinquimus, quae ipsi in
nos dicere adsuevimus ; iocis temperatis delectamur,
immodicis irascimur.

1 17. Clirysippus ait quendam indignatum, quod
ilium aliquis vervecem marinum dixerat. In senatu
flentem vidimus Fidum Cornelium, Nasonis Ovidii
generum, cum ilium Corbulo struthocamelum de-
pilatum dixisset ; adversus alia maledicta mores et
vitam convulnerantia frontis illi firmitas constitit,
adversus hoc tam absurdum lacrimae prociderunt ;
tanta animormn inbecillitas est, ubi ratio discessit.

2 Quid, quod ofFendimur, si quis sermonem nostrum
imitatur, si quis incessum, si quis vitium aliquod
corporis aut linguae exprimit ? Quasi notiora ilia
fiant alio imitante quam nobis facientibus ! Senec-
tutem quidam inviti audiunt et canos et alia ad quae
voto pervenitur ; paupertatis maledictum quosdam
perussit, quam sibi obiecit quisquis abscondit. Itaque
materia petulantibus et per contumeliam urbanis
detrahitur, si ultro illam et prior occupes ; nemo

3 risum praebuit qui ex se cepit. Vatinium, hominem
natum et ad risum et ad odium, scurram fuisse et
venustum ac dicacem memoriae proditum est. In
pedes suos ipse plurima dicebat et in fauces concisas ;
sic inimicorum, quos plures habebat quam morbos,
et in primis Ciceronis urbanitatem efFugerat. Si hoc
potuit ille duritia oris, qui assiduis conviciis pudere

" Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 44, describes a sea-monster, called
a " ram " (aries), which was not a nice creature. The
shift to " wether." coarsens the insult.

* According to Plutarch, Cicero, 9 and 26, his neck was
covered with wens. He suffered also from some deformity
or disease of the feet : cf. Quintilian, vi. 3. 75.

96

ON FIRMNESS, xvi. 4-xvii. 3

nething is said in the presence of only one person

1 we laugh ; if several are present, we become

• igriant, and we do not allow others the liberty of

- } ing the very things that we are in the habit of

'-aying about ourselves. Jests, if restrained, amuse

us ; if unrestrained, they make us angry.

Chrysippus says that a certain man grew indignant
because some one had called him ' ' a sea-wether . ' ' " We
saw Fidus Comehus, the son-in-law of Ovidius Naso,
shed tears in the senate, when Corbulo called him a
plucked ostrich. In the face of other charges, damag-
ing to his character and standing, the composure of his
countenance was unruffled, but at one thus absurd
out burst his tears ! Such is the weakness of the
mind when reason flees. Why are we offended if any
one imitates our talk or walk, or mimics some defect
of body or speech ? Just as if these would become
more notorious by another's imitating them than by
our doing them ! Some dislike to hear old age
spoken of and grey hairs and other things which
men pray to come to. The curse of poverty galls
some, but a man makes it a reproach to himself if
he tries to hide it. And so sneerers and those who
point their wit with insult are robbed of an excuse
if you anticipate it with a move on your part. No
one becomes a laughing-stock who laughs at himself.'
It is common knowledge that Vatinius, a man born
to be a butt for ridicule and hate, was a graceful and
witty jester. Jle uttered many a jest at the expense
of his own feet and his scarred jowls.'' So he escaped
the wit of his enemies — they outnumbered his afflic-
tions— and, above all, Cicero's. If the man who,
through constant abuse, had forgotten how to blush,
was able, by reason of his brazen face, to do this, why

VOL. I H 97

SENECA

dedidicerat, cur is non possit, qui studiis liberalibus
et sapientiae cultu ad aliquem profectum pervenerit ?
4 Adice quod genus ultionis est eripere ei, qui fecit,
factae contumeliae voluptatem ; solent dicere : " O
miserum me ! Puto, non intellexit." Adeo fructus
contumeliae in sensu et indignatione patientis est.
Deinde non deerit illi aliquando par ; invenietur qui
te quoque vindicet.

1 18. C. Caesar inter cetera vitia, quibus abundabat,
contumeliosus mira libidine ferebatur omnis aliqua
nota feriendi, ipse materia risus benignissima : tanta
illi palloris insaniam testantis foeditas erat, tanta
oculorum sub fronte anili latentium torvitas, tanta
capitis destituti et emendicaticiis capillis aspersi de-
formitas ; adice obsessam saetis cervicem et exili-
tatem crurum et enormitatem pedum. Immensum
est, si velim singula referre, per quae in parentes
avosque suos contumeliosus fuit, per quae in uni-
verses ordines ; ea referam, quae ilium exitio
dederunt.

2 Asiaticum Valerium in primis amicis habebat,
ferocem virum et vix aequo animo alienas con-
tumelias laturum ; huic in convivio, id est in contione,
voce clarissima, qualis in concubitu esset uxor eius,
obiecit. Di boni, hoc virum audire, principem scire et
usque eo licentiam pervenisse, ut, non dico consulari,

98

ON FIRMNESS, xvii. 3-xvin. 2

should any one be unable to do so, who, thanks to the
liberal studies and the training of philosophy, has
attained to some growth ? Besides, it is a sort of
revenge to rob the man who has sought to inflict an
insult of the pleasure of having done so. " Oh dear
me ! " he will say, " I suppose he didn't understand."
Thus the success of an insult depends upon the
sensitiveness and the indignation of the \ictim. The
offender, too, will one day meet his match ; some
one will be found who will avenge you also.

Gains Caesar, who amid the multitude of his
other vices had a bent for insult, was moved by the
strange desire to brand every one with some stigma,
while he himself was a most fruitful source of ridicule ;
such was the ugliness of his pale face bespeaking
his madness, such the wildness of his eyes lurking
beneath the brow of an old hag, such the hideousness
of his bald head with its sprinkhng of beggarly hairs.
And he had, besides, a neck overgrown with bristles,
spindle shanks, and enormous feet. It would be an
endless task were I to attempt to mention the
separate acts by which he cast insult upon his
parents and grandparents and upon men of every
class ; I shall, therefore, mention only those which
brought him to his destruction.

Among his especial friends there was a certain
Asiaticus \'alerius, a proud-spirited man who w^as
hardly to be expected to bear with equanimity
another's insults. At a banquet, that is at a public
gathering, using his loudest voice. Gains taunted
this man with the way his wife behaved in sexual
intercourse. Ye gods ! what a tale for the ears of
a husband ! what a fact for an emperor to know ! and
what indecency that an emperor should go so far as to

99

SENECA

non dico amico, sed tantum marito princeps et

3 adulterium suum narret et fastidium ! Chaereae
contra, tribune militum, sermo non pro manu erat,
languidus sono et, ni facta nosses, suspectior. Huic
Gaius signum petenti modo Veneris, modo Priapi
dabat aliter atque aliter exprobrans armato mollitiam ;
haec ipse perlucidus, crepidatus, auratus. Coegit ita-
que ilium uti ferro, ne saepius signum peteret ! Ille
primus inter coniuratos mamun sustulit, ille cervicem
mediam uno ictu decidit ; plurimum deinde undique
publicas ac privatas iniurias ulciscentium gladiorum
ingestum est, sed primus vir fuit, qui minime visus

4 est. At idem Gaius omnia contumelias putabat, ut
sunt ferendarum impatientes faciendarum cupidis-
simi ; iratus fuit Herennio Macro, quod ilium Gaium
salutaverat, nee impune cessit primipilari, quod
Caligulam dixerat ; hoc enim in castris natus et
alumnus legionum vocari solebat, nullo nomine mili-
tibus familiarior umquam factus, sed iam Caligulam

6 convicium et probrum iudicabat cothurnatus.^ Ergc
hoc ipsum solacio erit, etiam si nostra facility
ultionem omiserit, futurum aliquem qui poem
exigat a procace et superbo et iniurioso, quae vitis

^ cothurnatus Pincianus, cf. Suetonitis, Cal. 52 : contur-l
batus A.

" i.e., in Greek fashion. Gaius was given to eccentricj
ostentation in dress (Suet. Cal. 52).

*> i.e., a commander of the first company of the third-Hne^
reserves of a Roman legion.

" Reared in camp, he had been nicknamed "Caligula"'
by the troops because he wore the soldier's low boot {caligfa).i

100

ON FIRMNESS, xviii. 2-5

report his adultery and his dissatisfaction in it to the
woman's very husband — to say nothing of his being
a consular, to say nothing of his being a friend ! On
the other hand, Chaerea, a tribune of the soldiers, had
a way of talking that ill-accorded with his prowess ;
his voice was feeble and, unless you knew his deeds,
was apt to stir distrust. When he asked for the
watchword, Gaius would give him sometimes "Venus,"
sometimes " Priapus," seeking to taunt the man of
arms, in one way or another, with wantonness. He
himself, all the while, was in shining apparel, shod with
sandals," and decked with gold. And so Chaerea
was driven to use the sword in order to avoid having
to ask for the watchword any more ! Among the
conspirators he was the first to lift his hand ; it was
he who with one blow severed the emperor's neck.
After that from all sides blades showered upon him,
avenging pubhc and private wrongs, but the first
hero was Chaerea, who least appeared one. Yet
this same Gaius would interpret everything as an
insult, as is the way of those who, being most eager
to offer an affront, are least able to endure one. He
became angry at Herennius Macer because he ad-
dressed him as Gaius, while a centurion of the first
maniple ^ got into trouble because he said "Cahgula."
For in the camp, where he was born and had been the
pet of the troops, this was the name by which he was
commonly called, nor was there ever any other by
which he was so well kno^vn to the soldiers. But
now, having attained to boots, he considered " Little
Boots " * a reproach and disgrace. This, then, will
be our comfort : even if by reason of tolerance we ,
omit revenge, some one will arise to bring the im- /
pertinent, arrogant, and injurious man to punish-

101

SENECA

numquam in uno homine et in una contumelia con-
siununtur.

Respiciamus eorum exempla, quorum laudamus
patientiam, ut Socratis, qui comoediarum publicatos
in se et spectatos sales in partem bonam accepit
risitque non minus quam cum ab uxore Xanthippe
immunda aqua perfunderetur. Antistheni mater
barbara et Thraessa obiciebatur ; respondit et deorum
matrem Idaeam esse.

1 19. Non est in rixam eonluctationemque venien-
dum . Procul auf er endi pedes sunt et quicquid horum ab
imprudentibus fiet (fieri autem nisi ab imprudentibus
non potest) neglegendum et honores iniuriaeque vulgi
in promiscuo habendae. Nee his dolendum nee iUis

2 gaudendum ; ahoqui multa timore contumeharum aut
taedio necessaria omittemus pubhcisque et privatis
officiis, ahquando etiam salutaribus non occurremus,
dum muUebris nos cura angit ahquid contra animum
audiendi. Ahquando etiam obirati potentibus de-
tegemus hunc affectum intemperanti hbertate. Non
est autem hbertas nihil pati, fallimur ; libertas est
animum superponere iniuriis et eum facere se, ex
quo solo sibi gaudenda veniant, exteriora diducere a
se, ne inquieta agenda sit vita omniimi risus, omnium
linguas timenti. Quis enim est, qui non possit con-

3 tumeliam facere, si quisquam potest ? Diverso autem

0 As notably the Clouds of Aristophanes.

» Since the worship of Rhea (or Cybele), " Mother of
the Gods," was associated with Cretan (or Trojan) Mt.
Ida, the Athenian might call her irreverently a " barbarian."

102

ON FIRMNESS, xvin. 5-xix. 3

ment ; for his offences are never exhausted upon one
individual or in one insult.

Let us turn now to the examples of those whose
endurance we commend — for instance to that of
Socrates, who took in good part the pubhshed and
acted gibes directed against him in comedies," and
laughed as heartily as when his vrife Xanthippe
drenched him with foul water. Antisthenes was
taunted with ha\'ing a barbarian, a Thracian woman,
for his mother ; his retort was that even the mother
of the gods was from Mount Ida.**

Strife and \vTanghng we must not come near. We
should flee far from these things, and all the provoca-
tions thereto of unthinking people — which only the un-
thinking can give — should be ignored, and the honours
and the injuries of the common herd be valued both
alike. We must neither grieve over the one, nor rejoice
over the other. Other\\-ise, from the fear of insults
or from weariness of them, we shall fall short in the
doing of many needful things, and, suffering from a
womanish distaste for hearing anything not to our
mind, we shall refuse to face both pubUc and private
duties, sometimes even when they are for our well-
being. At times, also, enraged against powerful men,
we shall reveal our feelings ^^ith unrestrained liberty.
But not to put up with anything is not liberty ; we
deceive ourselves. Liberty is ha\ing a mind that
rises superior to injur}', that makes itself the only
source from which its pleasures spring, that separates
itself from all external things in order that man
may not have to hve his life in disquietude, fearing
everybody's laughter, everybody's tongue. For if
any man can offer insult, who is there who cannot ?
But the truly wise man and the aspirant to msdom

103

SENECA

remedio utetur sapiens afFectatorque sapientiae.
Imperfectis enim et adhuc ad publicum se iudicium
derigentibus hoc proponendum est inter iniurias ipsos
contumeliasque debere versari ; omnia leviora accident
expectantibus. Quo quisque honestior genere, fama,
patrimonio est, hoc se fortius gerat, memor in prima
acie altos ordines stare. ContumeHas et verba pro-
brosa et ignominias et cetera dehonestamenta velut
clamorem hostium ferat et longinqua tela et saxa
sine vulnere circa galeas crepitantia ; iniurias vero ut
vulnera, aha armis, alia pectori infixa, non deiectus,
ne motus quidem gradu sustineat. Etiam si premeris
et infesta vi urgere, cedere tamen turpe est ; ad-
signatum a natura locum tuere. Quaeris quis hie
4 sit locus ? Viri. Sapienti ahud auxihum est huic
contrarium ; vos enim rem geritis, ilU parta victoria
est. Ne repugnate vestro bono et hanc spem, dum ad
verum pervenistis, ahte in animis libentesque mehora
excipite et opinione ac voto iuvate. Esse ahquid in-
victum, esse aliquem, in quem nihil fortuna possit, e
re pubhca est generis humani.

104.

ON FIRMNESS, xix. 3-4

will use different remedies. For those who are not
perfected and still conduct themselves in accordance
with pubUc opinion must bear in mind that they
have to dwell in the midst of injury and insult ;
all misfortune \N-ill fall more hghtly on those who
expect it. The more honourable a man is by birth,
reputation, and patrimony, the more heroically he
should bear himself, remembering that the tallest
ranks stand in the front battle-line. Let him bear
insults, shameful words, civil disgrace, and all other
degradation as he would the enemy's war-cry, and
the darts and stones from afar that rattle around
a soldier's helmet but cause no wound. Let him
endure injuries, in sooth, as he would wounds —
though some blows pierce his armour, others his
breast, never overthro\\Ti, nor even moved from
his ground. Even if you are hard pressed and beset
A\-ith fierce violence, yet it is a disgrace to retreat ;
maintain the post that Nature assigned you. Do
you ask what this may be ? The post of a hero.
The wise man's succour is of another sort, the
opposite of this ; for while you are in the heat of
action, he has won the victory. Do not war against
your o\\-n good ; keep alive this hope in your breasts
until you arrive at truth, and gladly give ear to the
better doctrine and help it on by your belief and
prayer. That there should be something unconquer-
able, some man against whom Fortune has no power,
works for the good of the commonwealth of
mankind.

105

LIBER III

AD NOVATVM

DE IRA

LIBER I

1 1. Exegisti a me, Novate, ut scriberem quemad-
niodum posset ira leniri, nee immerito mihi videris
hunc praecipue affectum pertimuisse maxime ex om-
nibus taetrum ac rabidum. Ceteris enim aliquid quieti
plaeidique inest, hie totus concitatus et in impetu
doloris est, armorum sanguinis suppliciorum minima
humana furens cupiditate, dum alteri noceat sui neg-
legens, in ipsa irruens tela et ultionis secum ultorem

2 tracturae avidus. Quidam itaque e sapientibus viris
iram dixerunt brevem insaniam ; aeque enim impotens
sui est, decoris oblita, necessitudinum immemor, in
quod coepit pertinax et intenta, rationi consiliisque
praeclusa, vanis agitata causis, ad dispectum aequi
verique inhabilis, ruinis simillima, quae super id quod

3 oppressere franguntur. Ut scias autem non esse sanos
quos ira possedit, ipsum illorum habitum intuere ;
nam ut furentium certa indicia sunt audax et minax
106

BOOK III
TO NOVATUS ON ANGER

BOOK I

You have importuned me, Novatus, to write on the tnn"'^
subject of how anger may be allayed, and it seems »'^9«''
to me that you had good reason to fear in an especial
degree this, the most hideous and frenzied of all the
emotions. For the other emotions have in them some
element of peace and calm, while tliis one is wholly
violent and has its being in an onrush of resentment,
raging with a most inhuman lust for weapons, blood,
and punishment, giving no thought to itself if only
it can hurt another, hurling itself upon the very
point of the dagger, and eager for revenge though^'**"'*
it may drag down the avenger along with it. Certain ''''*"^*^'
wise men, therefore, have claimed that anger is
temporary madness. For it is equally devoid of self-
control, forgetful of decency, unmindful of ties,
persistent and diligent in whatever it begins, closed
to reason and counsel, excited by trifling causes, unfit
to discern the right and true — the very counterpart
of a ruin that is shattered in pieces where it over-
whelms. But you have only to behold the aspect
of those possessed by anger to know that they are
insane. For as the marks of a madman are un-
mistakable— a bold and threatening mien, a gloomy

107

SENECA

vultus, tristis frons, torva facies, citatus gradus,
inquietae manus, color versus, crebra et vehementius
acta suspiria, ita irascentium eadem signa sunt :

4 flagrant ac micant oculi, multus ore toto rubor ex-
aestuante ab imis praecordiis sanguine, labra qua-
tiuntur, dentes comprimuntur, horrent ac surriguntur
capilli, spiritus coactus ac stridens, articulorum se
ipsos torquentium sonus, gemitus mugitusque et
parum explanatis vocTbus sermo praeruptus et con-
plosae saepius manus et pulsata humus pedibus et
totum concitum corpus ' ' magnasque irae minas agens,' '
foeda visu et horrenda facies depravantium se atque

6 intumescentium — nescias utrum magis detestabile
vitium sit an deforme. Cetera licet abscondere et
in abdito alere ; ira se profert et in faciem exit,
quantoque maior, hoc eflPervescit manifestius. Non
vides ut omnium animalium, simul ad nocendum
insurrexerunt, praecurrant notae ac tota corpora
solitum quietumque egrediantur habitum et feritatem

6 suam exasperent ? Spumant apris ora, dentes acu-
untur attritu, taurorum cornua iactantur in vacuum
et harena pulsu pedum spargitur, leones fremunt,
inflantur irritatis colla serpentibus, rabidarum canum
tristis aspectus est. Nullum est animal tam horren-
dum tam perniciosumque natura, ut non appareat in

7 illo, simul ira invasit, novae feritatis accessio. Nee
ignoro ceteros quoque afFectus vix occultari, libidinem
metumque et audaciam dare sui signa et posse
praenosci ; neque enim ulla vehementior intrat

" Conjecturally an iambic fragment.
108

ON ANGER, I. I. 3-7

brow, a fierce expression, a hurried step, restless
hands, an altered colour, a quick and more violent
breathing — so likemse are the marks of the angry
man ; his eyes blaze and sparkle, his whole face is
crimson Avith the blood that surges from the lowest
depths of the heart, his Ups quiver, his teeth are
clenched, his hair bristles and stands on end, his
breathing is forced and harsh, his joints crack from
wTithing, he groans and bellows, bursts out into
speech vrith. scarcely intelhgible words, strikes his
hands together continually, and stamps the ground
ivith his feet ; his whole body is excited and " per-
forms great angr}'^ threats " " ; it is an ugly and
horrible picture of distorted and swollen frenzy — you
cannot tell whether this \ice is more execrable or
more hideous. Other vices may be concealed and
cherished in secret ; anger shows itself openly and
appears in the countenance, and the greater it is,
the more visibly it boils forth. Do you not see how
animals oT every sort, as soon as they bestir them-
selves for mischief, show premonitory signs, and how
their whole body, forsaking its natural state of repose,
accentuates their ferocity ? Wild boars foam at the
mouth and sharpen their tusks by friction, bulls
toss their horns in the air and scatter the sand by
pawing, lions roar, snakes puff up their necks when
they are angn,', and mad dogs have a sullen look.
No animal is so hateful and so deadly by nature as
not to show a fresh access of fierceness as soon as it
is assailed by anger. And yet I am aware that the
other emotions as well are not easily concealed ; that
lust and fear and boldness all show their marks and
can be recognized beforehand. For no violent agita-
tion can take hold of the mind without affecting in

109

SENECA

concitatio, quae nihil moveat in vultu. Quid ergo
interest ? Quod alii affectus apparent, hie eminet.

2. lam vero si effectus eius damnaque intueri velis,
nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit. Videbis
caedes ac venena et reorum mutuas sordes et urbium
clades et totarum exitia gentium et principum sub
civili hasta capita venalia et subiectas tectis faces nee
intra moenia coercitos ignes sed ingentia spatia regio-
num hostili flamma relucentia. Aspice nobilissimarum
civitatum fundamenta vix notabilia ; has ira deiecit.
Aspice solitudines per multa milia sine habitatore
desertas ; has ira exhausit. Aspice tot memoriae
proditos duces mali exempla fati ; alium ira in cubili
suo confodit, alium intra sacra mensae iura percussit,
alium intra leges celebrisque spectaculum fori lan-
cinavit, alium filii parricidio dare sanguinem iussit,
alium servili manu regalem aperire iugulum, alium
in cruce membra distendere. Et adhuc singulorum
supnlicia narro ; quid, si tibi libuerit relictis in quos
ira viritim exarsit aspicere caesas gladio contiones et
plebem immisso milite contrucidatam et in perniciem
promiscuam totos populos capitis damnatos^

^ damnatos restored by Madvig, after which a leaf or
more of the MS. has been lost.

" i.e., base defendants bring countercharges of baseness.

* The proscriptions of Sulla, Marius, and the triumvirs,
and the destruction of such cities as Carthage, Corinth, and
Numantia give point to the rhetoric,

« Cf. the fate of Clitus, De Ira, iii. 17. 1.

^ Perhaps a reference to the murder of Tiberius Gracchus.

« In the lost portion of the text Seneca seems to have
discussed the reason of anger, citing ancient definitions of
110

ON ANGER, I. I. 7-II. 3

some way the countenance. Where, then, Ues the
difference ? In this — the other emotions show,
anger *ta«ds out .

Moreover, if you choose to view its results and Kd«"vxft
the harm of it, ho plague has cost the human race «ff*'*'^
mor^ dear^ _You will see bloodshed and poisoning,
the \'ile countercharges of criminals," the downfall
of cities and whole nations given to destruction,
princely persons sold at public auction, houses put
to the torch, and conflagration that halts not within
the city- walls, but makes great stretches of the
country glow with hostile flame.* Behold the most
glorious cities whose foundations can scarcely be
traced — anger cast them doA\Ti. Behold solitudes
stretching lonely for many miles without a single
dweller — anger laid them waste. Behold all the
leaders who have been handed down to posterity as
instances of an e\'il fate — anger stabbed this one in
his bed, struck do\^■n this one amid the sanctities of
the feast,'' tore this one to pieces in the very hpme
of the law and in full view of the crowded forum,**
forced this one to have his blood spilled by the
murderous act of his son, another to have his royal
throat cut by the hand of a slave, another to have
his limbs stretched upon the cross. And hitherto
I have mentioned the sufferings of individual persons
only ; what if, lea\'ing aside these who singly felt
the force of anger's flame, you should choose to view
the gatherings cut dovm by the sword, the popu-
lace butchered by soldiery let loose upon them, and
whole peoples condemned to death in common ruin *
» * « ♦ ♦ « «

the passion and giving his own. Lactantius, De Ira Dei,
17, supplies significant evidence for the context.

Ill

SENECA

4 tamquam aut curam nostram deserentibus aut
auctoritatem contemnentibus. Quid ? Gladiatoribus
quare populus irascitur et tam inique, ut iniuriam
putet, quod non libenter pereunt ? Contemni se
iudicat et vultu, gestu, ardore a spectatore in ad-

6 versarium vertitur. Quicquid est tale, non est ira,
sed quasi ira, sicut puerorum, qui si ceciderunt,
terram verberari volunt et saepe ne sciunt quidem,
cur irascantur, sed tantum irascuntur, sine causa et
sine iniuria, non tamen sine aliqua iniuriae specie
nee sine aliqua poenae cupiditate. Deluduntur itaque
imitation e plagarum et simulatis deprecantium
lacrimis placantur et falsa ultione falsus dolor toUitur.

1 3. " Irascimur," inquit, " saepe non illis qui lae-
serunt, sed iis qui laesuri sunt ; ut scias iram non ex
iniuria nasci." Verum est irasci nos laesuris, sed
ipsa cogitatione nos laedunt, et iniuriam qui facturus

2 est iam facit. " Ut scias," inquit, " non esse iram
poenae cupiditatem, infirmissimi saepe potentissimis
irascuntur nee poenam concupiscunt quam non
sperant." Primum diximus cupiditatem esse poenae
exigendae, non facultatem ; concupiscunt autem
homines et quae non possunt. Deinde nemo tam
hmnilis est, qui poenam vel summi hominis sperare
non possit ; ad nocendum potentes sumus. Aristo-

" The speaker here criticizes Seneca's definition of anger,
drawn from Posidonius, which has been preserved by
Lactantius {I.e.): "ira est cupiditas ulciscendae iniuriae."
112

ON ANGER, I. II. 4-ni. 2

as if either forsaking our protection, or despising
our authority. Tell me, why do we see the people
grow angry ^\-ith gladiators, and so unjustly as to
deem it an oiFence that they are not glad to die ?
They consider themselves affronted, and from mere r^cck. a*
spectators transform themselves into enemies, in^^'^'***'*
looks, in gesture, and in %dolence. Whatever this
may be, it is not anger, but mock anger, like that
of children who, if they fall do^-n, want the earth
to be thrashed, and who often do not even know
why they are angry — they are merely angry, without
any reason and \\'ithout being injured, though not
without some semblance of injury and not ^\^thout
some desire of exacting punishment. And so they are
deceived by imaginary blows and are pacified by the
pretended tears of those who beg forgiveness, and
mock resentment is removed by a mock revenge.

" Wq^ often get angry," some one rejoins, " not 3».<j«r- ••
at those who have hurt us, but at those who intend >^<^"^ *
to hurt us ; you may, therefore, be sure that anger '^•"*7*
is not born of injury."" It is true that we do get
angry at those who intend to hurt us, but by the
very intention they do hurt us ; the man who
intends to do injury has already done it. " But,"
our friend replies, " that you may know that anger
is not the desire to exact punishment, the weakest
men are often angry at the most powerful, and if
they have no hope of inflicting punishment, they
have not the desire." In the first place, I spoke of
the desire to exact punishment, not of the power to
do so ; moreover, men do desire even what they
cannot attain. In the second place, no one is so
lowly that he cannot hope to punish even the loftiest /
qf men ; we all have power to do harm. Aristotle's
VOL. I I 11.^

SENECA

3 telis finitio non niultum a nostra abest ; ait enim
iram esse cupiditatem doloris reponendi. Quid inter
nostram et hanc finitionem intersit, exsequi longum
est. Contra utramque dicitur feras irasci nee iniuria
irritatas nee poenae dolorisve alieni causa ; nam

4 etiam si haec efficiunt, non haec petunt. Sed dicen-
dum est feras ira carere et omnia animalia^ praeter
hominem ; nam cum sit inimica rationi, nusquam
tamen nascitur, nisi ubi rationi locus est. Impetus
habent ferae, rabiem, feritatem, incursum ; iram
quidem non magis quam luxuriam, et in quasdam

5 voluptates intemperantiores horaine sunt. Non est
quod credas illi qui dicit :

Non aper irasci meminit, non fidere cursu
cerva nee armentis incurrere fortibus ursi.

Irasci dicit incitari, impingi ; irasci quidem non magis

6 sciunt quam ignoscere. Muta animalia humanis
affectibus carent, habent autem similes illis quosdam
impulsus. Alioquin si amor in illis esset et odium,
esset amicitia^ et simultas, dissensio et concordia ;
quorum aliqua in illis quoque exstant vestigia, ceterum
humanorum pectorum propria bona malaque sunt.

7 Nulli nisi homini concessa prudentia est, providentia,
diligentia, cogitatio, nee tantum virtutibus humanis
animalia sed etiam \itiis prohibita sunt. Tota illorum
ut extra ita intra forma humanae dissimilis est ;

^ animalia added by Vahlen.
^ Madvig inserts si before amicitia and dissensio.

" De A.nitna, 403 a 30 : dia<p£povTijos 8' &c dpiixaivro (pvcnKos
re Kai dia\eKrLi:6s eKaarov avrSiv, olov opyj] tl ecrriv ' 6 fjikv yap
6pe^LV avTiXi'TT-qaews ij tl toiovtov, 6 8i ^icnv rod irepl KapSiav
ai/xaros ■^ $epfx.od. Cf. Rhetor, ii. 2.

* Ovid, Met, vii. 545 sq., where he describes the effect
of a plague.

114

ON ANGER, I. in. 3-7

definition " differs little from mine ; for he says that
anger is f!Te~desire to fepa.y suffering. To trace the
difference between his definition and mine would take
too long. In criticism of both it may be said that
wild beasts become angry though they are neither
stirred by injury nor bent on the punishment or the
suffering of another ; for even if they accomplish
these ends, they do not seek them. But our reply "''f" "'
must be that wild beasts and all animals, except man, '" '*'**'"
are not subject to anger; for while it is the foe of
reason, it is, nevertheless, born only where reason
dwells. Wild beasts have impulses, madness, fierce-
ness, aggressiveness ; but they no more have anger
than they have luxuriousness. Yet in regard to
certain pleasures they are less self-restrained than
man. You are not to believe the words of the
poet :

The boar his wrath forgets, the hind her trust in flight.
Nor bears will now essay the sturdy kine to fight"

Their being aroused and spurred to action he calls
their " wrath " ; but they know no more how to be
wToth than to pardon. Dumb animals lack the
emotions of man, but they have certain impulses
similar to these emotions. Otherwise, if they were
capable of love and hate, they would also be capable
of friendship and enmity, discord and harmony ; and
some traces of these quaUties do appear in them also,
but the qualities of good and bad are peculiar to the
human breast. Wisdom, foresight, diligence, and
reflection have been granted to no creature but man,
and not only his wtues but also his faults have been^
withheld from the animals. As their outward form
is wholly different from that of man, so is their inner
~ 115

SENECA

regium est illud et principale aliter ductum. Ut vox
est quidem, sed non explanabilis et perturbata et
verboruin inefficax, ut lingua, sed devincta nee in
motus varios soluta, ita ipsum principale parum
subtile, parum exactum. Capit ergo visus speciesque
rerum quibus ad impetus evocetur, sed turbidas et
8 confusas. Ex eo procursus illorum tumultusque
vehementes sunt, metus autem sollicitudinesque et
tristitia et ira non sunt, sed his quaedam similia.
Ideo cito cadunt et mutantur in contrarium et, cum
acerrime saevierunt expaveruntque, pascuntur et ex
fremitu discursuque vesano statim quies soporque
sequitur.

1 4. Quid esset ira satis explicitum est. Quo distet
ab iracundia apparet ; quo ebrius ab ebrioso et
timens a timido. Iratus potest non esse iracundus ;

2 iracundus potest aliquando iratus non esse. Cetera,
quae pluribus apud Graecos nominibus in species
iram distinguunt, quia apud nos vocabula sua non
habent, praeteribo, etiam si amarum nos acerbumque
dicimus, nee minus stomachosum, rabiosum, cla-
mosum, difficilem, asperum, quae omnia irarum
differentiae sunt ; inter hos morosum ponas licet,

3 delicatum iracundiae genus. Quaedam enim sunt
irae, quae intra clamorem considant, quaedam non
minus pertinaces quam frequentes, quaedam saevae
manu verbis parciores, quaedam in verborum male-

116

ON ANGER, I. III. 7-iv. 3

nature ; its guiding and directing principle is cast
in a. different mould. They have a voice, it is true,
but it is unintelligible, uncontrolled, and incapable
of speech ; they have a tongue, but it is shackled and
not free to make many different movements. So
likewise in them the ruling principle itself is lacking
in fiijene^s and precision. Consequently, while it
forms impressions and notions of the things that
arouse it to action, they are clouded and indistinct.
It follows, accordingly, that while they have violent
outbreaks and mental disturbances, they do not have
fear and anxiety, sorrow and anger, but certain
states_similar to them. These, therefore, quickly
pass and change to the exact reverse, and animals,
after showing the sharpest frenzy and fear, \\-i\\ begin
to feed, and their frantic bellowing and plunging is
immediately followed by repose and sleep.

What anger is has now been sufficiently explained, i
The-difference betiveeu it and irascibility is evident ; '
it is like the difference between a drunken man and
a drunkard, between a frightened man and a coward.
An angry man may not be an irascible man ; an
irascible man~msLj, at times, not be an angry man.
The~^other"eategories which the Greeks, using a
multiphcity of terms, estabhsh for the different kinds
of anger I shall pass over, since we have no distinct-
ive words for them ; and yet we call men bitter and
harsh, and, just as often, choleric, rabid, braAvlsome,
captious, and fierce — all of wliich designate different
aspects of anger. Here, too, you may place the
peevish man, whose state is a mild sort of irascibility.
Now there are certain kinds of anger which subside
in noise ; some are as persistent as they are common ;
some are fierce in deed but inclined to be frugal of

117

SENECA

dictorumque amaritudinem efiFusae ; quaedam ultra
querellas et aversationes non exeunt, quaedam altae
gravesque sunt et introrsus versae. Mille aliae species
sunt mali multiplicis.

1 5. Quid esset ira quaesitum est, an in ullum aliud
animal quam in hominem caderet, quo ab iracundia
distaret, quot eius species essent ; nunc quaeramus
an ira secundum naturam sit et an utilis atque ex
aliqua parte retinenda.

2 An secundum naturam sit manifestum erit, si
hominem inspexerimus. Quo quid est mitius, dum
in recto animi habitus est ? Quid autem ira crudelius
est ? Quid homine aliorum amantius ? Quid ira
infestius ? Homo in adiutorium mutuum genitus est,
ira in exitium ; hie congregari vult, ilia discedere ;
hie prodesse, illanocere ; hie etiam ignotis succurrere,
ilia etiam carissimos petere ; hie ahorum commodis
vel impendere se paratus est, ilia in periculum,

3 dummodo deducat, descender e. Quis ergo magis
naturam rerum ignorat quam qui optimo eius operi
et emendatissimo hoc ferum ac perniciosum vitium
adsignat ? Ira, ut diximus, avida poenae est, cuius
cupidinem inesse pacatissimo hominis pectori minime
secundum eius naturam est. Beneficiis enim humana
vita constat et concordia, nee terrore sed mutuo
amore in foedus auxiliumque commune constringitur.

1 6. " Quid ergo ? Non ahquando castigatio neces-
saria est ? " Quidni ? Sed haec sine ira, cum ratione ;

* i.e., not entirely discarded by the wise man.
118

ON ANGER, I. IV. 3-vi. 1

•ds ; some are vented in bitterness of speech and
-es ; certain kinds do not go beyond a word of
complaint and a show of coohiess, others are deep-
seated and weighty and brood in a man. There are
a thousand different shapes of the multiform evil.

Hitherto we have inquired what anger is, whether it
beloflgs taany other creature than man, how it differs
fronijrascibility . and in how many aspects it appears ;
let u&-now mquire whether anger is in accordance 5<^cu'j«»'«
with nature ; whether it is expedient and ought, ^ '*"/''
therefore, in some measure to be kept."

Whether it is in accordance with nature will ^^
become clear if we turn our eyes to man. \\'hat is
more gentle than he while he is in a right state of
min4 ? But what is more cruel than anger ? What
is more loving to others than man ? \Miat more
hostile than anger ? Man is bom for mutual help ; ^'^'^"'^
anger for mutual destruction. The one desires
union, the otherdTsunion ; the~bne to help, the other
to harm ; one would succour even strangers, the
other attack its best beloved ; the one is ready even
to expend himself for the good of others, the other
to plunge into peril only if it can drag others along.
Who, therefore, has less knowledge of the ways of
Nature than the man who would ascribe to her best
and most finished work this cruel and deadly \ice ?
Anger, as I have said, is bent on punisliment, and that "^
such a desire should find a harbour in man's most
peaceful breast accords least of all with his nature.'*""^*''**'
For human hfe is founded on kindness and concord,
and is bound into an alliance for common Tielp, not
by terror, but by mutual love. '""

" WhaOhen ^ '' yon say ; " is not^con-ection some- ,
times necessary?" Of course it is; but with

119

SENECA

non enim nocet sed medetur specie nocendi. Quem-
admodum quaedam hastilia detorta, ut corrigamus,
adurimus et adactis cuneis, non ut frangamus sed ut
explicemus, elidimus, sic ingenia vitio prava dolore

2 corporis animique corrigimus. Nempe medicus primo
in levibus vitiis temptat non multum ex cotidiana
consuetudine inflectere et cibis, potionibus, exercita-
tionibus ordinem imponere ac valetudinem tantum
mutata vitae dispositione firmare. Proximum est,
ut modus proficiat ; si modus et ordo non proficit,
subducit aliqua et circumcidit ; si ne adhoc quidem
respondet, interdicit cibis et abstinentia corpus ex-
onerat ; si frustra molliora cesserunt, ferit venam
membrisque, si adhaerentia nocent et morbum
diffundunt, manus adfert ; nee ulla dura videtur

3 curatio, cuius salutaris effectus est. Ita legum prae-
sidem civitatisque rectorem decet, quam diu potest,
verbis et his mollioribus ingenia curare, ut facienda
suadeat cupiditatemque honesti et aequi conciliet
animis faciatque vitiorum odium, pretium virtutium ;
transeat deinde ad tristiorem orationem, qua moneat
adhuc et exprobret ; novissime ad poenas et has
adhuc leves, revocabiles decurrat ; ultima suppUcia
sceleribus ultimis ponat, ut nemo pereat, nisi quern

" i.e., the poles or saplings from which spears were made.
120

ON ANGER, I. VI. 1-3

, retion, not "with anger . For it will not hurt,
L-ut wTU heal under the guise of hurting. As we
apply the flame to certain spearshafts " when they
are crooked in order to straighten them, and com-
press them by dri\-ing in wedges, not to crush them,
but to take out their kinks, so through pain applied
to body and mind we reform the natures oT men
that are distorted by vice. ^lanifestly, a p¥ysician,
in the case ot shghfSisorders, tries at first not to
make much change in his patient's daily habits ; he
lays down a regimen for food, drink, and exercise,
and tries to improve his health only through a change
in the ordering of his life. His next concern is to
see that the amount is conducive to health. If the
first amount and regimen fail to bring rehef, he
orders a reduction and lops off some things. If still
there is no response, he prohibits food and disburdens
the body by fasting. If these milder measures are
unavailing he opens a vein, and then, if the limbs
by continuing to be attached to the body are doing
it harm and spreading the disease, he lays violent
hands on them. No treatment seems harsh if its
result is salutar)-. Similarly, it becomes A guardian <^>^»-ce>
of the la^v, the ruler of the state, to heal human ^ '^"^
nature by the use of words, and these of the milder
sort, as long as he can, to the end that he may per-
suade a man to do what he ought to do, and win over
his heart to a desire for the honourable and the just,
and imptant in his mind hatred of vice and esteem of
virtue. Let him pass next to harsher language, inT^
which he will still aim at admonition and reproof.*^
Lastly, let him resort to punishment, yet still making
it hght and not irrevocable. Extreme punishment
let him appoint only to extreme crime, so that no

121

SENECA

4 perire etiam pereuntis intersit. Hoc uno medentibus
erit dissimilis, quod illi quibus vitam non potuerunt
largiri facilem exitum praestant, hie damnatos cum
dedecore et traductione vita exigit, non quia de-
lectetur ullius poena — procul est enim a sapiente tam
inhumana feritas — sed ut documentum omnium sint,
et quia vivi noluerunt prodesse, morte certe eorum
res publica utatur. Non est ergo natura hominis
poenae adpetens ; ideo ne ira quidem secundum

5 naturam hominis, quia poenae adpetens est. Et
Platonis argumentum adferam — quid enim nocet
alienis uti ex parte qua nostra sunt ? — : " Vir bonus,"
inquit, " non laedit." Poena laedit ; bono ergo
poena non convenit, ob hoc nee ira, quia poena irae
con ve nit. Si vir bonus poena non gaudet, non
gaudebit ne eo quidem adfectu, cui poena voluptati
est ; ergo non est naturalis ira.

1 7. Numquid, quamvis non sit naturahs ira, ad-
sumenda est, quia utilis saepe fuit ? Extollit animos
et incitat, nee quicquam sine ilia magnificum in bello
fortitudo gerit, nisi hinc flamma subdita est et hie
stimulus peragitavit misitque in pericula audaces.
Optimum itaque quidam putant temperare irain, non
toUere, eoque detracto, quod exundat, ad salutarem

" Republic, i. 335 d.
122

ON ANGER, I. VI. 4-vii. 1

man will lose his life unless it is to the benefit even
of the loser to lose it. In only one particular will
he differ from the physician. For while the one
supphes to the patients to whom he has been unable
to give the boon of Ufe an easy exit from it, the other
forcibly expels the condemned from Ufe, covered
with disgrace and pubhc ignominy, not because he
takes pleasure in the punishment of any one — for the
wise man is far from such inhuman ferocity- -but that
theyjaaay prove a warning to all, and, since they were
rin\villing to be useful while aUve, that in death at
any-xate. they may be of ser\-ice to the state. Plan's
nature, then, does not crave vengeance ; neither,
therefore, does anger accord with man's nature,
because anger craves vengeance. And I may adduce
here the argument of Plato — for what harm is there
in using the arguments of others, so far as they are
our own ? " The good man," he says, " does no
injujgt-" " Punishment injures ; therefore punish-
ment is not consistent with good, nor, for the same
reason, is anger, since punishment is consistent with
anger. If the good man rejoices not in punishment,
neither will he rejoice in that mood which takes
pleasure in punishment ; therefore anger is contrary
to nature.

Although anger be contrary to nature, may it not
be right to adopt it, because it has often been useful ?
It rouses and incites the spirit, and without it bravery
performs no splendid deed in war — unless it supplies
the flame, unless it acts as a goad to spur on brave
men and send them into danger. Therefore some
think that the best course is to control anger, not to
banish it, and by removing its excesses to confine it
withia- bejoeScial bound-!-, keeping, however, that

123

SENECA

modum cogere, id vero retinere sine quo languebit
actio et vis ac vigor animi resolvetur.

2 Primum facilius est excludere perniciosa quam
regere et non adnoittere quam admissa moderari ;
nam cum se in possessione posuerunt, potentiora

3 rectore sunt nee recidi se minuive patiuntur. Deinde
ratio ipsa, cui freni traduntur, tam diu potens est
quam diu diducta est ab adfectibus ; si miscuit se
illis et inquinavit, non potest continere quos sum-
movere potuisset. Commota enim semel et excussa

4 mens ei servit quo impellitur. Quarundam rerum
initia in nostra potestate sunt, ulteriora nos vi sua
rapiunt nee regressum relinquunt. Ut in praeceps
datis corporibus nullum sui arbitrium est nee resistere
morarive deiecta potuerunt, sed consilium omne et
paenitentiam irrevocabilis praecipitatio abscidit et
non licet eo non pervenire, quo non ire licuisset, ita
animus si in iram, amorem aliosque se proiecit ad-
fectus, non permittitur reprimere impetum ; rapiat
ilium oportet et ad imum agat pondus suum et
vitiorum natura proclivis.

1 8. Optimum est primum irritamentum irae pro-
tinus spernere ipsisque repugnare seminibus et dare
operam, ne incidamus in iram. Nam si coepit ferre
transversos, difficilis ad salutem recursus est, quoniam
nihil rationis est, ubi semel adfectus inductus est ius-
124.

ON ANGER, I. VII. 1-viii. 1

part wTthout which action will be inert and the mind's
force-aKuLeneFg^y-Woken, ^^,

In the first place, it is easier to exclude harmful
passions than to rule them, and to deny them admit-
tance than, after they have been admitted, to control
theiQa;|:_J"or when they have established themselves
in possession, they are stronger than their ruler and
do noL^ermit themselves to be restrained or reduced.
In thje^se<3ond place. Reason herself, to whom the^ti .
reins^f power have been entrusted, remains mistress "^*'^'
only so long as she is kept apart from the passions >^
if once slie mingles with them and is contaminated,
she becomes unable to hold back those whom she
might Jiaye^cteared from her path. For when once
the mind has been aroused and shaken, it becomes the
slave of the disturbing agent. There are certain
things which at the start are under our control, but
later hurry us away by their violence and leave us
no retreat. As a victim hurled from the precipice "^
has no control of his body, and, once cast off, can
neither stop nor stay, but, speeding on irrevocably,
is cut off from all reconsideration and repentance
and cannot now avoid arriving at the goal toward
which he might once have avoided starting, so with
the mind — if it plunges into anger, love, or the other
passions, it has no power to check its impetus ; its
very weight and the downward tendency of vice
needs must hurr}- it on, and drive it to the bottom.

TheJiest^jourse is to reject at once, the^ first incite-
ment to anger, to resist even its small beginnings, and
to take pains to avoid falling into anger. For if it
begins to lead us astray, the return to the safe path
is difficult, since, if once we admit the emotion and
by our own free will grant it any authority, reason

SENECA

que illi aliquod voluntate nostra datum est ; faciet de

2 cetero quantum volet, non quantum permiseris. In
primis, inquam, finibus hostis arcendus est ; nam cum
intravit et pprtis se intulit, modum a captivis non ac-
cipit. Neque enim sepositus est animus et extrinsecus
speculatur adfectus, ut illos non patiatur ultra quam
oportet procedere, sod in adfectum ipse mutatur ideo-
que non potest utilem illam vim et salutarem proditam

3 iam infirmatamque revocare. Non enim, ut dixi, se-
paratas ista sedes suas diductasque habent, sed
afFectus et ratio in melius peiusque mutatio animi est.
Quomodo ergo ratio occupata et oppressa vitiis
resurget, quae irae cessit ? Aut quemadmodum
ex confusione se liberabit, in qua peiorum mixtura

4 praevaluit ? " Sed quidam," inquit, " in ira se con-
tinent." Utrum ergo ita ut nihil faciant eorum quae
ira dictat an ut aliquid ? Si nihil faciunt, apparet
non esse ad actiones rerum necessariam iram, quam
vos, quasi fortius aliquid ratione haberet, advocabatis.

6 Denique interrogo : valentior est quam ratio an
infirmior ? Si valentior, quomodo ilh modum ratio
poterit imponere, cum parere nisi imbecilliora non
soleant ? Si infirmior est, sine hac per se ad rerum
effectus sufficit ratio nee desiderat inbecilUoris auxi-

6 lium. " At irati quidam constant sibi et se continent."
126

ON ANGER, I. VIII. 1-6

be£Qxn£S-filno_avajl ; after that it \\ill do, not what-
ever you let it, but whatever it chooses. The enemy,
I repeat, must be stopped at the ven,' frontier ; for
if he has passed it, and advanced within the city-
gates, he Avill not respect any bounds set by his
captives. For the mind is not a member apart, nof~^
does it_N-ie\vJthe passions merely objectively, thus/
forbidding them to advance farther than they ought, .;?/)Wics t
but it is itself transformed into the passion and \St>.tl>^**^
therefore, unable to recover its former useful and
sa\ing power when tliis has once been betrayed and
we^li^iied. For, as I said before, these two do not
dwell separate and distinct, but passion^and reason ^
are onh^ the transformatiQii of the mind toward the
betler-op^th«-w©rse. How, then, Mill the reason, after
it has surrendered to anger, rise again, assailed and
crushed as it is by ^■ice ? Or how shall it free itself
from the motley combination in which a blending
of all the worse quahties makes them supreme ?
" Rut/' <;ayg gr>mp .oooL^li fhf>rf> are those who control
themselves even in anger." You mean, then, that
they doT^one of the things that anger dictates, or
only some of them ? If they do none, it is e\ident
that anger is~nbt essential to the transactions of hfe,
and yet you were advocating it on the ground that
it is something stronger than reason. I ask, in fine,
is anger more powerful or weaker than reason ? If it
is more powerful, how -oill reason be able to set limita-
tions upon it, since, ordinarily, it is only the less
powerful thing that submits ? If it is weaker, then
reason without it is sufficient in itself for the accom-
plishment"~Df-DTrr ta^k?, and requires no help from a
thingness powerful. Yet you say : " There are those
wHo^eventhough angry, remain true to themselves

127

SENECA

Quando ? Cum iam ira evanescit et sua sponte
decedit, non cum in ipso fervore est ; tunc enim
7 potentior est. " Quid ergo ? Non aliquando in ira
quoque et dimittunt incolumes intactosque quos
oderunt et a nocendo abstinent ? " Faciunt. Quan-
do ? Cum adfectus repercussit adfectum et aut metus
aut cupiditas aliquid impetravit. Non rationis tunc
beneficio quievit, sed affectuum infida et mala pace.

1 9, Deinde nihil habet in se utile nee acuit animiun
ad res bellicas. Numquam enim virtus vitio adiu-
vanda est se contenta. Quotiens impetu opus est,
non irascitur sed exsurgit et in quantum putavit opus
esse concitatur remittiturque, non aliter quam quae
tormentis exprimuntur tela in potestate mittentis sunt

2 in quantum torqueantur. " Ira," inquit Aristoteles,
** necessaria est, nee quicquam sine ilia expugnari
potest, nisi ilia implet animum et spiritum accendit ;
utendum autem ilia est non ut duce sed ut milite."
Quod est falsum. Nam si exaudit rationem sequi-
turque qua ducitur, iam non est ira, cuius proprium est
contumacia ; si vero repugnat et non ubi iussa est
quiescit, sed libidine ferociaque provehitur,taminutilis
animi minister est quam miles, qui signum receptui

3 neglegit. Itaque si modum adhiberi sibi patitur, alio
nomine appellanda est, deslt ira esse, quam efFrenatam

" It is not known where.
128

I

luHtc't-^

ON ANGER, I. vni. 6-ix. 3

nnd are self-contrnllefl " But when are they so ? Only
when anger gradually vanishes and departs of its ovra.
accord, not when it is at white heat ; then it is the
more powerful of the two. " What then ? " you say ;
" do not men sometimes even in the midst of anger
allow those whom they hate to get off safe and sound
and refrain from doing them injury ? " They do ;
but when ? When passion has beaten back passion,
and either fear or greed, has obtained its end. Then
there is peace, not wrought through the good offices
of reason, but through a treacherous and e\-il agree- <
ment between the passions.

Again, anger embodies nothing, useful, nor daes^ ,/
it kindlejthe mind to warlike deeds ; for virtue, h^mi^^fHie ua
self^uffiLcient, never needs the help of vice. When-
ever there is need of \iolent effort, the mind does
not become angry, but it gathers itself together and
is aroused or relaxed according to its estimate of the
need ; just as when engines of war hurl forth their
arrows, it is the operator who controls the tension
•wdth which they are hurled. " Anger," says
Aristotle," " is necessary, and no battle can be won
without it — unless it fills the mind and fires the soul ;
it must serve, however, not as a leader, but as the
comjaoja soldier." But this is not true. For if it
hstens to reason and follows where reason leads, it
is no longer anger, of which the chief characteristic is
wilfulness. If, however, it resists and is not sub-
missive when ordered, but is carried away by its
own caprice and fury, it will be an instrument of
the mind as useless as is the soldier who disregards
the signal for retreat. If, therefore, anger suffers
any limitation to be imposed upon it, it must be
calledTby some other name — ^it has'ceased to be anger ;
VOL. I K 129

SENECA

indomitamque intellego ; si non patitur, perniciosa
est nee inter auxilia numeranda ; ita aut ira non est
4 aut inutilis est. Nam si quis poenam exigit non
ipsius poenae avidus sed quia oportet, non est
adnumerandus iratis. Hie erit utilis miles qui scit
parere consilio ; adfectus quidem tam mali ministri
quam duces sunt.

1 10. Ideo numquam adsumet ratio in adiutorium
improvidos et violentos impetus, apud quos nihil ipsa
auctoritatis habeat, quos numquam comprimere possit,
nisi pares illis similisque opposuerit, ut irae metum, I

2 inertiae iram, timori cupiditatem.^ Absit hoc a I
virtute malum, ut umquam ratio ad vitia confugiat ! *
Non potest hie animus fidele otium capere, quatiatur
necesse est fluctueturque, qui malis suis tutus est, qui
fortis esse nisi irascitur non potest, industrius nisi
cupit, quietus nisi timet : in tyrannide illi vivendum
est in alicuius adfectus venienti servitutem. Non
pudet virtutes in clientelam vitiorum demittere ?

3 Deinde desinit quicquam posse ratio, si nihil potest
sine adfectu, et incipit par illi similisque esse. Quid
enim interest, si aeque adfectus inconsulta res est
sine ratione quam ratio sine adfectu inefficax ? Par
utrumque est, ubi esse alterum sine altero non potest.
Quis autem sustineat adfectum exaequare rationi ?

^ ut . . . cupiditatem Oertz and Hermes omit.
130

ON ANGER, I. IX. 3-x. 3

for I understand this to be unbridled and ungovern-
able. If it suffers no limitation, it is a baneful thing
and is not to be counted as a helpful agent. Thus
eitlier anger is not anger or it is useless. For the
man who exacts punishment, not because he desires
punishment for its ow-n sake, but because it is right
ti 1 inflict it, ought not to be counted as an angry man.
The ai£eful_soldier \n\\ be one who knows how to obey
(uders ; the passions are as bad subordinates as .
tliL'V are leaders.

C un-equently, reasim_JSKQl_ne.Y.er- call to its-help
Itlind and \-iolent impulses over which it vnW itself
lia\-e no control, which it can never crush save by
:-etting against them equally powerful and similar
impulses, as fear against anger, anger against sloth,
arced against fear. May \'irtue be spared the
calamit}'' of having reason ever flee for help to \'ice !
It is impossible for the mind to find here a sure
repose ; shattered and storm-tossed it must ever be
if it depends upon its worst qualities to save it, if it
cannot be brave Avithout being angry, if it cannot
he industrious without being greedy, if it cannot be
tpiiet without being afraid — such is the tyranny
under which that man must live who surrenders to
the bondage of any passion. Is it not a shame to
(1- crrade the \-irtues into dependence upon the vices ?

_ain, reason ceases to have power if it has no power
^ art from passion, and so gets to be on the same
k vel with passion and like unto it. For what differ-
ence is there, if passion without reason is a thing as
unguided as reason without passion is ineffective ?
Both are on the same level, if one cannot exist with-
out the other. Yet who would maintain that passion
i^ on a level with reason ? " Passion," some one

131

SENECA

4 " Ita," inquit, " utilis adfectus est, si modicus est."
Immo si natura utilis est. Sed si impatiens imperii
rationisque est, hoc dumtaxat moderatione con-
sequetur, ut quo minor fuerit, minus noceat : ergo
modicus afFectus nihil aliud quam malum modicum est.

1 11. " Sed adversus hostes," inquit, " necessaria est
ira." Nusquam minus ; ubi non efFusos esse oportet
impetus sed temperatos et oboedientes. Quid enim
est aliud quod barbaros tanto robustiores corporibus,
tanto patientiores laborum comminuat nisi ira in-

2 festissima sibi ? Gladiatores quoque ars tuetur, ira
denudat. Deinde quid opus est ira, cum idem pro-
ficiat ratio ? An tu putas venatorem irasci feris ?
Atqui et venientis excipit et fugientis persequitur,
et omnia ilia sine ira facit ratio. Quid Cimbrorum
Teutonorumque tot milia superfusa Alpibus ita
sustulit, ut tantae cladis notitiam ad suos non nuntius
sed fama pertulerit, nisi quod erat illis ira pro virtute ?
Quae ut aliquando propulit stravitque obvia, ita

3 saepius sibi exitio est. Germanis quid est animosius ?
Quid ad incursum acrius ? Quid armorum cupidius,
quibus innascuntur innutriunturque, quorum unica
ilhs cura est in alia neglegentibus .'' Quid induratius
ad omnem patientiam, ut quibus magna ex parte non
tegimentacorporum pro visa sint,non sufFugia adversus

" Leading nations of a vast horde of barbarians, who,
migrating from northern Germany (113-101 b.c), alarmed
Italy by their repeated victories over Roman armies. Marius
defeated the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae in 102 b.c, and in the
following year, with Catulus, annihilated the Cimbrians on
the Raudine Plain.

132

I

ON ANGER, I. X. 4-xi. 3

says, " is useful, provided that it be moderate." No,
only by its nature can it be useful. If, however, it will
not submit to authority and reason, the only result of
its moderation \W11 be that the less there is of it, the
less harm it will do. Consequently laadgrate passion^
ig nothings else-tJiaa-A-jmoderate evil. /

" But_against-.the__enemyj" it is said, " anger is .^^ho^er
necessary..", ,No where is it less so ; for there the
attacl^_pught not to be disorderly, but regulated and
under eonfrol. What else is it, in fact, but their
anger — its own worst foe — that reduces to impotency
the barbarians, who are so much stronger of body
than we, and so much better able to endure hard-
ship ? So, too, in the case of gladiators skill is their
protection, anger their undoing. Q£_jidiat- .use,
further, is anger, when the same end may be accom-
phshed by reason ? Think you the hunter has anger
towar^Tv^TTd beasts ? Yet when they come, he takes
them, and when they flee, he follows, and reason
does it all without anger. The Cimbrians and the
Teutons " who poured over the Alps in countless
thousands — what wiped them out so completely that
even the news of the great disaster was carried to
their homes, notby a messenger, but only by rumour,
except that they substituted anger for valour ?
Anger, although it will sometimes overthrow and lay
low whatever gets in its way, yet more often brings
destruction on itself. Who are more courageous
than the Germans ? Who are bolder in a charge ?
Who have more love of the arms to which they are
born and bred, which to the exclusion of all else
become their only care ? Who are more hardened
to endurance of every kind, since they are, in large
measure, pro\'ided with no protection for their bodies,

133

SENECA

4 perpetuum caeli rigorem ? Hos tamen Hispani Galli-
que et Asiae Syriaeque molles bello viri, antequam
legio visatur, caedunt ob nullam aliam rem opportunos
quam iracundiam. Agedum illis corporibus, illis
animis delicias, luxum, opes ignorantibus da rationem,
da disciplinam : ut nil amplius dicam, necesse erit

6 certe nobis mores Romanes repetere. Quo alio
Fabius affectas imperii vires recreavit, quam quod
cunctari et trahere et morari sciit, quae omnia irati
nesciunt ? Perierat imperium, quod tunc in extremo
stabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum ira sua-
debat : habuit in consilio fortunam publicam et aesti-
matis viribus, ex quibus iam perire nihil sine universo
poterat, dolorem ultionemque seposuit in unam utili-
tatem et occasiones intentus ; iram ante vieit quam

6 Hannibalem. Quid Scipio ? Non relicto Hannibale et
Punico exercitu omnibusque, quibus irascendum erat,
bellum in Africam transtulit tam lentus, ut opinionem

7 luxuriae segnitiaeque malignis daret ? Quid alter
Scipio ? Non circa Numantiam multum diuque sedit
et hunc suum publicumque dolorem aequo animo
tulit, diutius Numantiam quam Carthaginem vinci ?
Dum circumvallat et includit hostem, eo compulit, ut

" A reference to the famous tactics of Quintus Fabius
Maximus, Cunctator, who, appointed dictator after the battle
of Lake Trasimenus (217 b.c), harassed Hannibal by his
dilatory policy.

'' During the winter of 205-204 b.c. Scipio lingered in
Sicily, perfecting plans for his expedition into Africa.

" P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, conqueror of Carthage
(146 B.C.).

•* Through the winter, spring, and summer of 134-133 b.c.

134

ON ANGER, I. XI. 4-7

with no shelter against the continual rigour of the
climate ? Yet these are they -whom the Spaniards
and the Gauls and men of Asia and Syria, uninured
to war, cut down before they could even glimpse a
Roman legion, the \-ictims of nothing else than anger.
But mark you,_iMUie^ give, discipline to those bodies,
give reason to those minds that are strangers still to
pampered ways, excess, and wealthy and we Romans —
to mention nothmg further — shall assuredly be forced
to retWil to the ancient Roman ways. How else did
Fabius restore the broken forces of the state but
by knowing how to loiter, to put oiF, and to wait "
— things of which angry men know nothing ? The
state, which was standing then in the utmost
extremity, had surely perished if Fabius had ventured
to do all that anger prompted. But he took into
consideration the well-being of the state, and,
estimating its strength, of which now nothing could
be lost ^\•ithout the loss of all, he buried all thought
of resentment and revenge and was concerned only
with expediency and the fitting opportunity ; Jie
conquered anger before he conquered Hannibal.
And what of Scipio ? Did he not leave behind him
Hannibal and the Carthaginian army and all those
with whom he had reason to be angry, and dally so
long ^ in transferring the war to Africa that he gave
to evil-minded people the impression that he was
a sensualist and a sluggard ? What, too, of the other
Scipio ? " Did he not sit before Numantia, idling
much and long, and bear unmoved the reproach to
himself and to his countr}' that it took longer to
conquer Numantia than to conquer Carthage ?
But by blockading and investing '^ the enemy he
forced them to such straits that they perished by

135

SENECA

8 ferro ipsi suo caderent. Non est itaque utilis ne in t
proeliis quidem aut bellis ira ; in temeritatem enim
prona est et pericula, dum inferre vult, non cavet.
Ilia eertissima est virtus quae se diu multumque
circumspexit et rexit et ex lento ac destinato provexit.

1 12. " Quid ergo ? " inquit, " vir bonus non iras-
citur, si caedi patrem suum viderit, si rapi matrem ? "
Non irascetur, sed vindicabit, sed tuebitur. Quid
autem times, ne parum magnus illi stimulus etiam
sine ira pietas sit ? Aut die eodem modo : " Quid
ergo ? Cum videat secari patrem suum filiumve,
vir bonus non flebit nee linquetur animo ? " Quae
accidere feminis videmus, quotiens illas levis periculi

2 suspicio perculit. Officia sua vir bonus exsequetur
inconfusus, intrepidus ; et sic bono viro digna faeiet,
ut nihil faciat viro indignum. Pater caedetur, de-
fendam ; caesus est, exsequar, quia oportet, non quia ^

3 dolet. " Irascuntur boni viri pro suorum iniuriis." ^
Cum hoc dicis, Theophraste, quaeris invidiam prae-
ceptis fortioribus et relicto iudice ad coronam venis. j
Quia unusquisque in eiusmodi suorum casu irascitur, -
putas iudicaturos homines id fieri debere quod
faciunt ; fere enim iustum quisque affectum iudicat

4 quem adgnoscit. Sed idem faciunt, si calda non

* The words irascuntur . . . iniuriis Gertz places here ; in
AL they appear after adgnoscit below,
136

ON ANGER, I. XI. 8-xn. 4

r o^vn swords. Ang«r, therefore, is not expedient
I in battle or in war ; for it is prone to rashness,
while it seeks to bring about danger, does not
d against it. The truest form of ^^-isdom is to "-^ '
;- a wide and long inspection, to put self in sub-
on, and then to move forward slowly and in a
■ lirection.

What then ? " vou ask ; " \\\\\ the good man not
3e angrv if his father is murdered, his mother out- ,
agedJjfiforeJhis eyes ? " No. he will not be angry, »
)ut he ^^■ill_ avenge them, will protect them. Why, ^«^ "^^
noreover, are you afraid that fiUal affection, even ■ =•'

thout anger, may not prove a sufficiently strong
nceEtive for him ? Or you might as well say :
* What then ? if a good man should see his father or
lis son under the knife, ^\•ill he not weep, Avill he not
'aint ? " But this is the way we see women act
rhenever they are upset by the slightest suggestion
if danger. The good man will perform his duties
disturbed and unafraid ; and he %\-ill in such a way
io all that is worthy of a good man as to do nothing --
that is unworthy of a man. My father is being
tturdered — I will defend him ; he is slain — I will
.venge him, not because I grieve, but because it is
tty duty. " Gcod. men are made angry by the
injuries of those they love." When you say this,
rheophrastus, you seek to make more heroic doctrine
anpopuTar^^-you turn from the judge to the by-
standers. Because each indixidual grows angry when
uch a mishap comes to those he loves, you think that
men vriW judge that what they do is the right thing
to be done; for as a mle every -man decides that
that is a justifiable passion which he acknowledges
as JuSLDwn. But they act in the same way if they

137

SENECA

bene praebetur, si vitreum fractum est, si calceus luto
sparsus est. Non pietas illam iram sed infirmitas
movet, sicut pueris, qui tam parentibus amissis flebunt j

5 quam nucibus. Irasci pro suis non est pii animi sed '
infirmi ; illud pulehrum dignumque, pro parentibus,
liberis, amicis, civibus prodire defensorem ipso officio
ducente, volentem, iudicantem, providentem, non
impulsum et rabidum. Nullus enim afFectus vindi-
candi cupidior est quam ira et ob id ipsum ad vindi-
candum inhabilis ; praerapida et amens, ut omnis
fere cupiditas, ipsa sibi in id in quod properat op-
ponitur. Itaque nee in pace nee in bello umquam j
bono fuit ; pacem enim similem belli efficit, in armis j
vero obliviscitur Martem esse communem venitque

6 in alienam potestatem, dum in sua non est. Deinde
non ideo vitia in usum recipienda sunt, quia ali-
quando aliquid efFecerunt ; nam et febres quaedam
genera valetudinis levant, nee ideo non ex toto illis
caruisse melius est. Abominandum remedi genus
est sanitatem debere morbo. Simili modo ira, etiam
si aliquando ut venenum et praecipitatio et nau-
fragium ex inopinato profuit, non ideo salutaris iudi-
canda est ; saepe enim saluti fuere pestifera.

1 13. Deinde quae habenda sunt, quo maiora eo
meliora et optabiHora sunt. Si iustitia bonum est,

" Cf. Shakespeare, King Henrij IV, Pt. 2, Act 1, Sc. 1

In poison there is physic ; and these news.
Having been well, that would have made me sick,
Being sick, have in some measure made me well.

138

ON ANGER, I. xii. 4-xm. 1

are not well supplied with hot water, if a glass goblet
is broken, if a shoe gets splashed ^\-ith mud. Such
anger comes, not from affection, but from a weak-
ness— the kind we see in children, who ^^■ill shed no
more tears over lost parents than over lost toys. To
feel anger on behalf of loved ones is the mark of a
weak mind, not of a loyal one. For a man to stand
forth as the defender of parents, children, friends,
and fellow-citizens, led merely by his sense of duty,
acting yoTiintarily, using judgement, using foresight,
moved ireither by impulse nor by fury — this is noble
and becbmirig. Now no passion is more eager for j
revenge than anger, and for that ver}' reason is unfit r'
tojtakg it) being unduly ardent and frenzied, as most
lusts are, it blocks its own progress to the goal toward
which it hastens. Therefore it has never been of
advantage either in peace or in war ; for it makes
peace seem like war, and amid the clash of arms
it forgets that the War-god shows no favour and,
failing to control itself, it passes into the control
of another. Again, it does not follow that the vices }
are to be adopted for use from the fact that they'T"
have sometimes been to some extent profitable. For
a fever may bring relief'ih certain kinds of sickness,
and yet it does not follow from this that it is not
better to be altogether free from fever. A method
of ciiTfiJthat makes good health dependent upon
disease must be regarded ^\'ith detestation. In
like manner anger, like poison, a fall, or a ship-
^^Teck, even if it has sometimes proved an unexpected
good, ought not for that reason to be adjudged whole-
some ; for ofttimes poisons have saved life."

Again, if aiiy_quality is worth having, the more of it
there is, the better and the more desirable it becomes.

139

SENECA

nemo dicet meliorem futuram, si quid detractum ex

2 ea fuerit ; si fortitude bonum est, nemo illam de-
siderabJt ex aliqua parte deminui. Ergo et ira quo
maior hoc melior ; quis enim ullius boni accessionem
recusaverit ? Atqui augeri illam inutile est ; ergo
et esse. Non est bonum quod incremento malum fit.

3 " Utilis," inquit, " ira est, quia pugnaciores facit."
Isto modo et ebrietas ; facit enim protervos et audaces
multique meliores ad ferrum fuere male sobrii ; isto
modo die et phrenesin atque insaniam viribus neces-

4 sariam, quia saepe validiores furor reddit. Quid ?
Non aliquotiens metus ex contrario fecit audacem,
et mortis timor etiam inertissimos excitavit in proe-
lium ? Sed ira, ebrietas, metus aliaque eiusmodi
foeda et caduca irritamenta sunt nee virtutem in-
struunt, quae nihil vitiis eget, sed segnem alioqui

3 animum et ignavum paullum adlevant. Nemo iras-
cendo fit fortior, nisi qui fortis sine ira non fuisset.
Ita non in adiutorium virtutis venit, sed in vicem.
Quid quod, si bonum esset ira, perfectissimum quem
que sequeretur ? Atqui iracundissimi infantes
senesque et aegri sunt, et invalidum omne natura
querulum est.

I 14. " Non potest," inquit, " fieri " Theophrastus
" ut non vir bonus irascatur malis." Isto modo quo
140

i

ON ANGER, I. xiii. 1-xiv. 1

If justice is a good, no one will say that it becomes
a greater good after something has been AvithdrawTi
from it ; if bravery is a good, no one ^\•ill desire it
to be in any measure reduced. Consequently, also,
the greater anger is, the better it is ; for who would
oppose the augmentation of any good ? And yet,itis -
not profitable that anger should be increased ; there-
fnreTTBat Anger sluiuld exist either. That is not a
goo4_ which _by increase becomes an evil., " Anger
is profitable," it is said, " because it makes men
more warlike. " By that reasoning, so is drunkenness
too ; for it makes men forward and bold, and many
have been better at the sword because they were
the worse for drink. By the same reasoning you
must also say that lunacy and madness are essential
to strength, since frenzy often makes men more
powerful. But telLJILe^Jioes not fear, in the opposite
wayj sometimes make a man bold, and does not the
terror of death arouse even arrant cowards to fight ?
But anger, drunkenness, fear, and the Hke, are base
and fleeting incitements and do not give arms to
virtue, which never needs the help of vice ; they
do, however, assist somewhat the mind that is other-
wise slack and cowardly. No man is ever made
braver through anger, except the one who would
never have been brave without anger. It comes,
then, not as a help to virtue, but as a substitute for
it. And is it not true that if anger were a good, it
would come naturally to those who are the most
perfect ? But the fact is, children, old men, and the
sick are most prone to anger, and weakness of any
sort is by nature captious.

" It is impossible," says Theophrastus, " for a
good mag not to be angry with bad men." Accord-

141

SENECA

I

melior quisque, hoc iracundior erit ; vide ne contra
placidior solutusque afFectibus et cui nemo odio sit. '

2 Peccantis vero quid habet cur oderit, cum error illos i
in eiusmodi delicta compellat ? Non est autem pru-
dentis errantis odisse ; alioqui ipse sibi odio erit.
Cogitet quam multa contra bonum morem faciat,
quam multa ex is, quae egit, veniam desiderent ;
iam irascetur etiam sibi. Neque enim aequus iudex
aliam de sua, aliam de aliena causa sententiam fert.

3 Nemo, inquam, invenietur qui se possit absolvere, et
innocentem quisque se dicit respiciens testem, non
conscientiam. Quanto humanius mitem et patrium
animum praestare peccantibus et illos non persequi,
sed revocare ! Errantem per agros ignorantia viae
melius est ad rectum iter admovere quam expellere.

1 15. Corrigendus est itaque, qui peccat, et ad-
monitione et vi, et molliter et aspere, meliorque tarn
sibi quam aliis faciendus non sine castigatione, sed
sine ira ; quis enim cui medetur irascitur ? At
corrigi nequeunt nihilque in illis lene aut spei bonae
capax est. Tollantur e coetu mortaHum factxiri
peiora quae contingunt, et quo uno modo possunt

2 desinant maH esse, sed hoc sine odio. Quid enina

142

ON ANGER, 1. XIV. 1-xv. 2

ing to this, the better a man is, the more irascible .
he'^wiTr^ ; on the contrary, be sure that none is -/-^
more peaceable, more free from passion, and less
given toT^te. Indeed, -what reason has he for
hating ^^Tong-doers, since it is error that drives y
them to such mistakes ? But no man of sense ^^"ill^ ' f^' ^
hate^jhe erring ; otherwise lie ^\ill hate himselL -"^^^ * *■
Let him rettect how many times he offends against
morall1yriio%v many of his acts stand in need of
pardonj_theii he will be angry with himself also.
For no just judge %\ill pronounce one sort of judge-
menFTnThls^wn case dfrd* a different one in the case
of others. No one will be found, I say, who is able
to acquit himself, and any man who calls himself
innocent is thinking more of ^ntnesses than con-
science. How much more human to manifest
toward ^\Tong-doers a kind and fatherly spirit, not
hunting them do^\•n but calhng them back ! If a man
has lost his way and is roaming across our fields, it
is better to put him upon the right path than to
drive him out.

And so the man who does wTong ought to be set j^
right both by admonition and by force, by measures
both gentle and harsh, and we should try to make him
a better man for his own sake, as well as for the sake
of others, stinting, not our reproof, but our anger.
For what physician %sill show anger toward a patient ?
" But," you say, " they are incapable of being
reformed, there is nothing pliable in them, nothing
that gives room for fair hope." Then let them be
removed from human society- if they are bound to
make worse all that they touch, and let them, in the
only way this is possible, cease to be e\il — but let this
be done without hatred. For what reason have I for

143

SENECA

est, cur oderim eum, cui turn maxime prosum, cum
ilium sibi eripio ? Num quis membra sua tunc odit,
cum abscidit ? Non est ilia ira, sed misera curatio.
Rabidos effligimus canes et trucem atque immansue-
tum bovem occidimus et morbidis pecoribus, ne gre-
gem poUuant, ferrum demittimus ; portentosos fetus
exstinguimus, liberos quoque, si debiles monstrosique
editi sunt, mergimus ; nee ira, sed ratio est a sanis
3 inutilia secernere. Nil minus quam irasci punientem
decet, cum eo magis ad emendationem poena pro-
ficiat, si iudicio lata est. Inde est, quod Socrates
servo ait : " Caederem te, nisi irascerer." Admoni-
tionem servi in tempus sanius distulit, illo tem-
pore se admonuit. Cuius erit tandem temperatus
affectus, cum Socrates non sit ausus se irae com-
mittere ?

1 16. Ergo ad coercitionem errantium sceleratorum-
que irato castigatore non opus est ; nam cum ira
delictum animi sit, non oportet peccata corrigere
peccantem. " Quid ergo ? Non irascar latroni ?
Quid ergo ? Non irascar venefico ? " Non ; neque
enim mihi irascor, cum sanguinem mitto. Omne

2 poenae genus remedi loco admoveo. Tu adliuc in
prima parte versaris errorum nee graviter laberis sed
frequenter ; obiurgatio te primum secreta deinde
publicata emendare temptabit. Tu longius iam pro-
cessisti, quam ut possis verbis sanari ; ignominia

144

ON ANGER, I XV. 2-x\i. 2

hating a man to whom I am offering the greatest
ser\"ice when I save him from himself ? Does a man
hate the members of his own body when he uses the
knife upon them ? There is no anger there, but the
pitying desire to heal. Mad dogs we knock on the
head ; the fierce and savage ox we slay ; sickly
sheep we put to the knife to keep them from infect-
ing the flock ; unnatural progeny we destroy ; we
drown even children who at birth are weakly and
abnormal. Yet it_ is not anger, but ^gjison that
separates the harmful.from the sound — For the one
who administers punisliment nothing is so unfitting
as anger, since punishment is all the better able to
work reform if it is bestowed with judgement. This
is the reason Socrates says to his slave : "I would
beat you if I were not angry." The slave's reproof
he postponed to a more rational moment ; at the
time it was himself he reproved. Will there be any
one, pray, who has passion under control, when even
Socrates did not dare to trust himself to anger ?

Consequently, there is no need that correction
be given in anger in order to restrain the erring .
and the A^icked. For since anger is a mental sin,
it is not right to correct wrong-doing by doing
^vrong. " What then ? " you exclaim ; " shall I not
be angry ^vith a robber ? Shall I not be angry ^vith
a poisoner ? " No ; for I am not angr}' >\'ith myself
when I let my o^^^l blood. To every: form of punish-
ment ^\•ill I resort, but only as a remedy. If you are
hngering as yet in the first stage of error and are
lapsing, not seriously, but often, I shall try to correct
you by chiding, first in private, then in public. If you
have aheady advanced so far that words can no
longer bring you to your senses, then you shall be
VOL. I L 145

SENECA

contineberis.^ Tibi fortius aliqmd et quod sentias
inurendum est ; in exilium et loca ignota mitteris.
In te duriora remedia iam solida nequitia desiderat ;

3 et vincula publica et career adhibebitur. Tibi in-
sanabilis animus et sceleribus scelera contexens, et
iam non causis, quae nvunquam malo defuturae sunt,
impelleris, sed satis tibi est magna ad peccandimi
causa peccare, perbibisti nequitiam et ita visceribus
immiscuisti, ut nisi cum ipsis exire non possit ; olim
miser mori quaeris ; bene de te merebimur, aufere-
mus tibi istam qua vexas, vexaris insaniam et per
tua alienaque volutato supplicia id quod unum tibi
bonum superest repraesentabimus, mortem. Quare
irascar cui cum maxime prosum ? Interim optimum

4 misericordiae genus est occidere. Si intrassem vale-
tudinarium exercitus ut sciens aut domus divitis, non
idem imperassem omnibus per diversa aegrotantibus ;
varia in tot animis vitia video et civitati curandae
adhlbitus sum ; pro cuiusque morbo medicina quae-
ratur, hunc sanet verecundia, hunc peregrinatio,

6 hunc dolor, hunc egestas, hunc ferrum. Itaque etsi
perversa induenda magistratui vestis et convocanda
classico contio est, procedam in tribunal non furens
^ Hermes, after Pincianus, inserts non.

" The meaning of perversa vestis is not clear, but the
phrase evidently implies some unusual manner of wearing
the toga aflfected by the magistrate presiding at a trial
on a capital charge.

'' By an old custom, when a citizen was arraigned on a
capital charge before the centuriate assembly, the trumpet
was sounded in various public places and before the house
of the accused.

146

ON ANGER, I. XVI. 2-5

held in check by public disgrace. Should it be
necessary to brand you in more drastic fashion, AN-ith a
punishment you can feel, you shall be sent into exile,
banished to an unkno^^-n region. Should your >vicked-
ness have become deep-rooted, demanding harsher
remedies to meet your case, to chains and the state-
prison we shall have resort. If ^vith mind incurable
you link crime to crime and are actuated no longer
by the excuses -which \\i\\ never fail the evil man,
but WTong-doing itself becomes to you pretext
enough for doing ^\Tong ; if you have drained the
cup of AWckedness and its poison has so mingled
with your \itals that it cannot issue forth without
them ; if, poor ^^Tetch ! you have long desired to
die, then we shall do you good serWce — we shall
take from you that madness by which, while you
harass others, you yourself are harassed, and to you
who have long wallowed in the suffering of yourself
and others we shall gladly give the only boon still
left for you, death ! Why should I be angry with a -f
man to \vhoin.I.am giving ^'^'^gp^-^^^****^^ Help 1 Some-
times the truest form of. pity_ is.to -kill. If with
the training of an expert physician I had entered a
hospital or a rich man's household, I should not have
prescribed the same treatment to all, though their
diseases differed. Diverse, too, are the ills I see
in countless minds, and I am called to cure the -V-
body pohtic ; for each man's malady the proper '
treatment should be sought ; let this one be
restored by his o^\ti self-respect, this one by a
sojourn abroad, this one by pain, this one by poverty,
this one by the sword ! Accordingly, even if as
a magistrate I must put on my robe a\\Ty <» and
summon the assembly by the trumpet,^ I shall

147

SENECA

nee infestus sed vultu legis et ilia sollemnia verba
leni magis gravique quam rabida voce concipiam et
agi lege^ iubebo non iratus sed severus ; et cum
cervicem noxio imperabo praecidi et cum parricidas
insuam cuUeo et cum mittam in supplicium militare
et cum Tarpeio proditorem hostemve publicum im-
ponam, sine ira eo vultu animoque ero, quo serpentes

6 et animalia venenata percutio. " Iracundia opus est
ad puniendum." Quid ? Tibi lex videtur irasci iis
quos non novit, quos non vidit, quos non futuros
sperat ? Illius itaque sumendus est animus, quae
non irascitur, sed constituit. Nam si bono viro ob
mala facinora irasci convenit, et ob secundas res
malorum hominum invidere conveniet. Quid enim
est indignius quam florere improbos^ quosdam et eos
indulgentia fortunae abuti, quibus nulla potest satis
mala inveniri fortuna ? Sed tam commoda illorum
sine invidia videbit quam scelera sine ira ; bonus

7 iudex damnat improbanda, non odit. " Quid ergo ?
Non, cum eiusmodi aliquid sapiens habebit in manibus,
tangetur animus eius eritque solito commotior ? "
Fateor ; sentiet levem quendam tenuemque motum ;
nam, ut dicit Zenon, in sapientis quoque animo, etiam
cum vulnus sanatum est, cicatrix manet. Sentiet

^ lege added by Gertz, after Pincianus.
^ improbos added by Gemoll.

148

ON ANGER, I. XVI. 5-7

advance to the high tribunal, not in rage nor in
enmity, but -with the \-isage of the law, and as I
pronounce those solemn words my voice ^vill not be
fierce, but rather grave and gentle, and not M-ith
anger, but ^vith sternness, I shall order the law to
be enforced. And when I command a criminal to
be beheaded, or sew up a parricide in the sack," or
send a soldier to his doom, or stand a traitor or a
public enemv upon the Tarpeian Rock, I shall have
no trace of anger, but shall look and feel as I might
if I were kilUng a snake or any poisonous creature.
" We_Jiax^__to_be_angryyl'-you-say, "in order to
punisL.'l_Athat-I~ Think you the law is angry \vith
men it does not know, whom it has never seen, Avho
it hopes wiU. never be ? The spirit of the law, there-
fore, we should make our ovm — the laiv which shows
not "ailgef but determination. For if it is right for
a good man to be angry at the crimes of ^^•icked
men, it will also be right for him to be envious of
their_grosperity, And what, indeed, seems more
unjust than that certain reprobates should prosper
and become the pets of fertune — men for whom
there could be found no fortune bad enough ? But
the good man \vi\\ no more \iew their blessings with
en\y than he views their crimes with anger. A
good judge condemns vvTongful deeds, but he does
not hate them. " What then ?" you say ; "when the
Avise-^wsm shall have something of this sort to deal
■with, will not his mind be aifected by it, will it not
be moved from its usual calm ? " I adrnit that it v^ill ;
it will experience some shght and superficial emotion.
For as Zeno says : " Even the wise man's mind will
keep its scar long after the wound has healed." He will
» i.e., to be drowned.

149

SENECA

itaque suspiciones quasdam et umbras afFectuum,
ipsis quidem carebit.

1 17. Aristoteles ait affectus quosdam, si quis illis
bene utatur, pro armis esse. Quod verum forpt,
si velut bellica instrumenta sumi deponique possent
induentis arbitrio. Haec arma, quae Aristoteles vir-
tuti dat, ipsa per se pugnant, non expectant manum,

2 et habent, non habentur. Nil aliis instrumentis opus
est, satis nos instruxit ratione natura. Hoc dedit
telum firmum, perpetuum, obsequens, nee anceps nee
quod in dominum remitti posset. Non ad providendum
tantum, sed ad res gerendas satis est per se ipsa
ratio ; etenim quid est stultius quam hanc ab iracundia
petere praesidium, rem stabilem ab incerta, fidelem

3 ab infida, sanam ab aegra ? Quid, quod ad actiones
quoque, in quibus solis opera iracundiae videtur
necessaria, multo per se ratio fortior est ? Nam cum
iudicavit aliquid faciendum, in eo perseverat ; nihil
enim melius inventura est se ipsa, quo mutetur ; ideo

4 stat semel constitutis. Iram saepe misericordia retro
egit ; habet enim non solidum robur sed vanum
tumorem violentisque principiis utitur, non aliter
quam qui a terra venti surgunt et fluminibus paludi-
busque concepti sine pertinacia vehementes sunt.

5 Incipit magno impetu, deinde deficit ante tempus
fatigata, et, quae nihil aliud quam crudelitatem ac

" Cf. the citation in chap. ix.
150

ON ANGER, I. XVI. 7-xvii. 5

erience^ttiereforejCertainsugge'^tions and shadows J^
: lassion, but from pas-ion itself he %nll be free. '

Aristotle'savs'' that certain passions, if one makes a
per use of them, serve as arm^. And^ tills would be
- if, Uke the impTehients of war, they could be put
and laid aside at the pleasure of the user. But
the9e-ii-a«aa9 -■'which Aristotle would grant to virtue
figlit under their o%\ti orders ; they await no man's
gesture and are not possessed, but possess. Nature i^
has given to us an adequate equipment in reason ; we ^
need no other implements. This is the weapon she
has bestowed ; it is strong, enduring, obedient, not
double-edged or capable of being turned against its
owner. Reason is all-sufficient in itself, ser\"tng not '
merely for counsel, but for action as well. WTiat,
really, is more foohsh than that reason should seek
protection from anger — that which is steadfast from
that ^hif h' is "wavering , that which is trustworthy
from that which is untrustrvvorthy, that which is well
from thatJivhich, is sick ? Even in matters of action,
in which alone the help of anger seems necessary, is
it not true that reason, if left to itself, has far more
power ? For reason, ha\'ing decided upon the '
necessit}- of some action, persists in her purpose,
since she herself can discover no better thing to put
in her place ; therefore her determinations, once
made, stand. But anger is oftert forced back by
pit}' ; for it has no enduring strength, but is a
deligtve^inflation. \iolent at the outset. It is like
the \Ainds that rise from off the earth ; generated
from streams and marshes they have vehemence,
but do nol Tast^ So anger begins Avith a mighty
rush, then breaks down from untimely exhaustion,
and though all its thoughts had been concerned %vith

151

SENECA

nova genera poenarum versaverat, cum animadver-
tendum est, iam fracta lenisque est. Affectus cito

6 cadit, aequalis est ratio. Ceterum etiam ubi perse-
veravit ira, nonnumquam, si plures sunt qui perire
meruerunt, post duorum triumve sanguinem occidere
desinit. Primi eius ictus acres sunt ; sic serpentium
venena a cubili erepentium nocent, innoxii dentes

7 sunt, cum illos frequens morsus exhausit. Ergo non
paria patiuntur qui paria commiserant, et saepe qui
minus commisit plus patitur, quia recentiori obiectus
est. Et in totum inaequalis est ; modo ultra quam
oportet excurrit, modo citerius debito resistit ; sibi
enim indulget et ex libidine iudicat et audire non
vult et patrocinio non relinquit locum et ea tenet
quae invasit et eripi sibi iudicium suum, etiam si
pravum est, non sinit.

1 18. Ratio utrique parti tempus dat, deinde advqca-
tionem et sibi petit, ut excutiendae veritati spatium
habeat ; ira festinat. ^ Ratio id iudicare vult quod
aequum est ; ira id aequum videri vult quod iudicavit.

2 Ratio nil praeter ipsum de quo agitur spectat ;.
ira vanis et extra causam obversantibus commovetur.
Vultus illam securior, vox clarior, sermo liberior, cultus
dedicatior, advocatio ambitiosior, favor popularis ex-
asperant ; saepe infesta patrono reum damnat ; etiam

152

ON ANGER, I. xvii. 5-x\iii. 2

cruelty aiicLiuiheiud-of forms of torture, yet when
the time is ripe for punishment it has already become
crippled and weak. Passion quickly falls, reason is
balanced. But even if anger persists, it ^\"ill often
happeii that having taken the blood of two or three
victims it ^^•ill cease to slay, although there are more
who deserve to die. Its first blows are fierce ; so
serpents when they first crawl from their lair are
charged with venom, but their fangs are harmless
after they have been drained by repeated biting.
Consequently, not all who have sinned ahke are
punished alike, and often he who has committed the
smaller sin receives the greater punishment, because
he was subjected to anger when it was fresh. And
anger is altogether ujibalanced ; it now rushes
farther than itsEould, now halts sooner than it ought.
For it~m3utges its own impulses, is capricious in
judgement, refuses to listen to e\'idence, grants no
opportunity for defence, maintains whatever position
it has seized, and is never AWlling to surrender its
judgement even if it is wTong. p^

Keason^rants a hearing to both sides, then seeks
to postpone action, even ifs o^\^\, in order that it may
gain time to sift out the truth ; but anger is pre-
cipitate. Reason -wishes the decision that it gives
to be just ; anger wishes to have the decision which
it has given seem the just decision. Reason considers
nothing except the question at issue ; anger is moved
by trifling things that lie outside the case. An over-
confident demeanour, a voice too loud, boldness of
speech, foppishness in dress, a pretentious show of
patronage, popularity ^\ith the pubhc — these inflame
anger. Many times it \*ill condemn the accused
because it hates his lawyer ; even if the truth is

153

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si ingeritur oculis Veritas, amat et tuetur errorem ;
coargui non vult et in male coeptis honestior illi
pertinacia videtur quam paenitentia.

3 Cn. Piso fuit memoria nostra vir a multis vitiis in-
teger, sed pravus et cui placebat pro constantia rigor.
Is cum iratus duci iussisset eum, qui ex commeatu sine
commilitone redierat, quasi interfecisset quem non
exhibebat, roganti tempus aliquod ad conquirendum
non dedit. Damnatus extra vallum productus est et
iam cervicem porrigebat, cum subito apparuit ille

4 commilito qui occisus videbatur. Tunc centurio
supplicio praepositus condere gladium speculatorem
iubet, damnatum ad Pisonem reducit redditurus
Pisoni innocentiam ; nam militi fortuna reddiderat.
Ingenti concursu deducuntur complexi alter alterum
cum magno gaudio castrorum commilitones.^ Con-
scendit tribunal furens Piso ac iubet duci utrumque,
et eum militem qui non occiderat et eum qui non

5 perierat. Quid hoc indignius ? Quia unus innocens
apparuerat, duo peribant. Piso adiecit et tertium.
Nam ipsum centurionem, qui damnatum reduxerat,
duci iussit. Constituti sunt in eodem illo loco perituri

6 tres ob unius innocentiam. O quam sollers est
iracundia ad fingendas causas furoris ! " Te," inquit,
" duci iubeo, quia damnatus es ; te, quia causa dam-

" That grave inflexibility of sou]
Which Reason can't convince, nor fear control.

Churchill, Gotham, iii. 335 f.
154

ON ANGER, I. xviii. 2-6

piled up before its ven' eyes, it loves error and clings
to it ; it refuses to be con\-inced, and ha\-ing entered
upon wTong it counts persistence to be more honour- i
able than penitence.

There was Gnaeus Piso, whom I can remember ; a
man free from many %'ices, but misguided, in that
he mistook inflexibihty " for firmness. Once when he
was angry he ordered the execution of a soldier who
had returned from leave of absence A\ithout his
comrade, on the ground that if the man did not pro-
duce his companion, he had killed him ; and when the
soldier asked for a httle time to institute a search, the
request was refused. The condemned man was led
outside the rampart, and as he was in the act of pre-
senting his neck, there suddenly appeared the very
comrade who was supposed to have been murdered.
Hereupon the centurion in charge of the execution
bade the guardsman sheathe his sword, and led the
condemned man back to Piso in order to free Piso
from blame ; for Fortune had freed the soldier. A
huge crowd amid great rejoicing in the camp escorted
the two comrades locked in each other's arms. Piso
mounted the tribunal in a rage, and ordered both
soldiers to be led to execution, the one who had done
no murder and the one who had escaped it ! Could
anything have been more unjust than this ? Two
were dpng because one had been proved innocent.
But Piso added also a third ; for he ordered the
centurion who had brought back the condemned man
to be executed as well. On account of the innocence
of one man three were appointed to die in the self-
same place. O how clever is anger in de\'ising
excuses for its madness ! ^'^"You7*"it"say^,"r order
to be executed because you were condemned ; you,

155

SENECA

nationis commilitoni fuisti ; te, quia iussus occidere
imperatori non paruisti." Excogitavit quemadmodum
tria crimina faceret, quia nullum invenerat.

1 19. Habet, inquam, iracundia hoc mali ; non
vult regi. Irascitur veritati ipsi, si contra voluntatem
suam apparuit ; cum clamore et tumultu et totius
corporis iactatione quos destinavit insequitur adiectis

2 conviciis maledictisque. Hoc non facit ratio ; sed si
ita opus est, silens quietaque totas domus funditus
tollit et familias rei publicae pestilentes cum coniugi-
bus ac liberis perdit, tecta ipsa diruit et solo exaequat
et inimica libertati nomina exstirpat. Hoc non
frendens nee caput quassans nee quicquam indecorum
iudici faciens, cuius turn maxime placidus esse debet

3 et in statu vultus, cum magna pronuntiat. " Quid
opus est," inquit Hieronymus, " cum veHs caedere
aliquem, tua prius labra mordere ? " Quid, si ille
vidisset desilientem de tribunali proconsulem et fasces
lictori auferentem et suamet vestimenta scindentem,

4 quia tardius scindebantur aliena ? Quid opus est
mensam evertere ? Quid pocula adfligere ? Quid se
in columnas impingere ? Quid capillos avellere, femur
pectusque percutere ? Quantam iram putas, quae,
quia in alium non tam cito quam vult erumpit, in se
156

ON ANGER, I. x\iii. 6-xix. 4

because you were the cause of your comrade's con-
demnation ; you, because you did not obey your
commander when you were ordered to kill." It
thought out three charges because it had grounds
for none.

Angeivl say, has this great fault — it refuses to be »■
ruled. It is enraged against truth itself if this is
shown to be contrary to its desire. With outcr\' and
uproar and gestures that shake the whole body it
pursues those whom it has marked out, heaping upon
them abuse and curses. Not thus does reason act.
But if need should so require, it silently and quietly
wipeFbut whole families root and branch, and house-
holds that are baneful to the state it destroys together
^nth wives and children ; it tears down their very
houses, levelling them to the ground, and exterminates
the very names of the foes of liberty. All this it will
do, but \^ith no gnashing of the teeth, no ^vild tossing
of the head, doing nothing that would be unseemly
for a judge, whose countenance should at no time
be more calm and unmoved than when he is dehver-
ing a weighty sentence. " What is the need," asks
Hieronymus,* '• of biting your own lips before you
start to give a man a thrashing ? " What if he had
seen a proconsul leap dowTi from the tribunal, snatch
the fasces from the lictor, and tear his own clothes
because some \'ictim's clothes were still untorn !
^\'hat is to be gained by overturning the table, by
hurhng cups upon the floor, by dashing oneself
against pillars, tearing the hair, and smiting the
thigh and the breast ? How mighty is the anger,
think you, which turns back upon itself because it<
cannot be vented upon another as speedily as it
" See Index.

157

SENECA

revertitur ? Tenentur itaque a proximis et rogantur,
ut sibi ipsi placentur.

5 Quorum nil facit quisquis vacuus ira meritam cuique
poenam iniungit. Dimittit saepe eum, cuius pec-
catum deprendit. Si paenitentia facti spem bonam
pollicetur, si intellegit non ex alto venire nequitiam,
sed summo, quod aiunt, animo inhaerere, dabit im-
punitatem nee accipientibus nocituram nee dantibus ;

6 nonnumquam magna scelera levius quam minora com-
pescet, si ilia lapsu, non crudelitate commissa sunt,
his inest latens et operta et inveterata calliditas ;
idem delictum in duobus non eodem malo afficiet,
si alter per neglegentiam admisit, alter curavit ut

7 nocens esset. Hoc semper in omni animadversione
servabit, ut sciat alteram adhiberi, ut emendet malos,
alteram, ut tollat ; in utroque non praeterita, sed
futura intuebitur — nam, ut Plato ait, nemo prudens
punit, quia peccatum est, sed ne peccetus ; revocari
enim praeterita non possunt, futura prohibentur — ,
et quos volet nequitiae male cedentis exempla fieri,
palam occidet, non tantum ut pereant ipsi, sed ut

8 alios pereundo deterreant. Haec cui expendenda
aestimandaque sunt, vides quam debeat omni per-
turbatione liber accedere ad rem summa diligentia

" Laws xi. 934. a.
158

ON ANGER, I. XIX. 4-8

desires ! And so such men are seized by the by-
standers and begged to become at peace vnth
themselves.

None of these things ^\•i^ he do, who, being free
from anger, imposes upon each one the punishment
that he merits. He ^^■i^l often ,let a man go free
even after detecting his guilt)^ if regret for the act
warrants fair hope, if he discerns that the sin does
not issue from the inmost soul of the man, but, so
to speak, is onlv skin-deep, he \\ill grant him im-
punit}', seeing that it ^^•ill injure neither the recipient
nor the giver. Sometimes he ^^^ll ban great crimes
less ruthlessly than smairdiies, if these, in the one
case, were committed not in cruelty but in a moment
of weakness, and, in the other, were instinct ^^■ith
secret, hidden, and long-practised cunning. To two
men guilty of the same offence he ^\i\\ mete out
different punishment, if one sinned through careless-
ness, while the other intended to be wicked. Always
in ever}- case of punishment he \vill keep before him
the knowledge that one form is designed to make the
wcked better, the other to remove them ; in either
case he ^^■ill look to the future, not to the past. For
as Plato says " : " A sensible person does not punish
a man because he has sinned, but in order to keep
him from sin ; for while the past cannot be recalled,
the future may be forestalled," And he will openly
kill those whom he wishes to have serve as examples
of the wickedness that is slow to jield, not so much
that they themselves may be destroyed as that they
may deter others from destruction. These are the
things a man must weigh and consider, and you see
how free he ought to be from all emotion when he
proceeds to deal v^ith a matter that requires the

159

SENECA

tractandam, potestatem vitae necisque ; male irato
ferrum committitur. ^

20. Ne illud quidem iudicandum est, aliquid iram
ad magnitudinem animi conferre. Non est enim ilia
magnitude ; tumor est. Nee corporibus copia vitiosi
umoris intentis morbus incrementum est sed pestilens
abundantia. Omnes, quos vecors animus supra cogi-
tationes extollit humanas, altum quiddam et sublime
spirare se credunt ; ceterum nil solidi subest, sed in
ruinam prona sunt quae sine fundamentis crevere.
Non habet ira cui insistat. Non ex firmo mansuroque
oritur, sed ventosa et inanis est tantumque abest a
magnitudine animi, quantum a fortitudine audacia,
a fiducia insolentia, ab austeritate tristitia, a severi-
tate crudelitas. Multum, inquam, interest inter sub-
limem animum et superbum. Iracundia nihil amplum
decorumque molitur ; contra mihi videtur veternosi
et infelicis animi, imbecillitatis sibi conscii, saepe
indolescere, ut exulcerata et aegra corpora, quae ad
tactus levissimos gemunt. Ita ira muliebre maxime
ac puerile vitium est. " Atincidit et in viros." Nam
viris quoque puerilia ac muliebria ingenia sunt.
: " Quid ergo ? Non aliquae voces ab iratis emittuntur
quae magno emissae videantur animo ? " Immo^
veram ignorantibus magnitudinem, qualis ilia dira
et abominaq.da : " Oderint, dum metuant." Sullano
scias saeculo scriptam. Nescio utrum sibi peius
^ immo added by Madvig.

<» Accius, Atreus {Trag. Rom, Frag, v., Ribbeck).
160

ON ANGER, I. XIX. 8-xx. 4

utmost caution — the use of power over life and death. ^„^^
Tis ill trusting an angry man .^\■ith a sword. •^''^

And^.j;SiiJ[]?ust not suppose this, either— ^that anger 3nijtt Jf
contributes anything to greatness of soul. That is mar^'J/i
not greatness, it is a swelling ; nor when disease dis-
ten(£'the Body with a mass of watery corruption is
the result growth, hut a pestilent excess. All whom
frenzy of soul exalts to powers that are more than
human believe that they breathe forth something
lofty and sublime ; but it_x£stsJ3li-O0thing sohd, and
whatever rises without a firm foundation is liable
to fall. Anger has nothing on which to stand ; it -^
springs from nothing that is stable and lasting, but
is a pufFed-up, empty thing, as far removed from
greatness of soul as foolhardiness is from bravery,^
arrogance from confidence, sullenness from austerity,
or cruelt}' from sternness. The difference between
a lofty and a haughty soul, I say, is great. Anger
aims at nothing splendid or beautiful. On the other
hand, it seems to me to show a feeble and harassed
spirit, one conscious of its ovm weakness and over-
sensitive, just as the body is when it is sick and
covered ^\ith sores and makes moan at the shghtest
touch. Thus anger is a most womanish and childish
weakness. " But," you will say, " it is found in
men also." True, for even men may have childish
and womanish natures. " WTiat then?" you cry;
" do not the utterances of angry men sometimes
seem to be the utterances of a great soul ? " Yes,
to those who do not know what true greatness is.
Take the famous Avords : " Let them hate if only
they fear," " which are so dread and shocking that
you might know that they were written in the times
of Sulla. I am not sure which wish was worse — that

VOL. I M 161

SENECA

optaverit, ut odio esset, an ut timori. " Oderint."
Occurrit illi futurum, ut exsecrentur, insidientur,
opprimant. Quid adiecit ? Di illi male faciant, adeo
repperit dignum odio remedium. " Oderint " — quid
turn ? Dum pareant ? Non ; dum probent ? Non ;
quid ergo ? " Dum timeant." Sic ne amari quiden

5 vellem, Magno hoc dictum spiritu putas ? Falleris ;
nee enim magnitudo ista est sed immanitas.

Non est quod credas irascentium verbis, quorum
strepitus magni, minaces sunt, intra mens pavidissima.

6 Nee est quod existimes verum esse, quod apud
disertissimum virum T. Livium dicitur : " Vir ingenii
magni magis quam boni." Non potest istud separari ;
aut et bonum erit aut nee magnum, quia magni-
tudinem animi inconcussam intellego et introrsus
solidam et ab imo parem firmamque, qualis inesse

7 malis ingeniis non potest. Terribilia enim esse et
tumultuosa et exitiosa possunt ; magnitudinem qui-
dem, cuius firmamentum roburque bonitas est, non
habebunt. Ceterum sermone, conatu et omni extra

8 paratu facient magnitudinis fidem ; eloquentur ali-
quid, quod tu magni animi^ putes, sicut C. Caesar,
qui iratus caelo, quod obstreperetur pantomimis,
quos imitabatur studiosius quam spectabat, quod-
que comessatio sua fulminibus terreretur — -prorsus
parum certis — ad pugnam vocavit lovem et

^ animi added by Gertz.

many
162

Frag. 54 Hertz.

i.e.y Caligula, of whose impiety Suetonius (xxii.) records

ly instances.

ON ANGER, I. XX. 4-8

he should be hated, or that he should be feared.
" Let them hate," quoth he ; then he bethinks him
that there will come a time when men will curse him,
plot against him, overpower him — so what did he add?
O may the gods curse him for devising so hateful a
-cure for hate ! " Let them hate " — and then what ?
If only they obey ? No ! If only they approve ?
No ! WTiat then ? " If only they fear !'" On such
tenuis "T should not have wished even to be loved.
You thihk this the utterance of a great soul ? You
deceire yourself ; for there is nothing great in it — it is
moBstrous.

You_need put no trust in the words of the angry,
for their noise is loud and threatening, but within,
their heart is very cowardly. Nor need you count
as true the saying found in that most eloquent writer,
Titus Li\ius " : "A man whose character was great
rather than good." In character there can be no— /— ~
such separation ; it will either be good or else not
great, because greatness of soul, as I conceive it, is t^'*'"-
a thing unshakable, sound to the core, uniform and
strong from top to bottom — something that cannot
exist in evil natures. Evil men may be terrible,
turbulent, and destructive, but greatness they will
never have, for its support and stay is goodness.
Yet by speech, by endeavour, and by all outward
display they will give the impression of greatness ;
they will make utterances which you may think
bespeak the great soul, as in the case of Gaius Caesar.*
He grew angry at heaven because its thunder
interrupted some pantomimists, whom he was
more anxious to imitate than to watch, and when
its thunderbolts — surely they missed their mark
— affrighted his own revels, he challenged Jove to

163

SENECA

quidem sine missione, Homericum ilium exclamans
versum :

H jx avaeip ry eyw ere.

9 Quanta dementia fuit ! Putavit aut sibi noceri ne ab
love quidem posse aut se nocere etiam lovi posse.
Non puto parum momenti hanc eius vocem ad in-
citandas coniuratorum mentes addidisse ; ultimae
enim patientiae visum est eum ferre, qui lovem non
ferret !

1 21. Nihil ergo in ira, ne cum videtur quidem
vehemens et deos hominesque despiciens, magnum,
nihil nobile est. Aut si videtur alicui magnum
animum ira producere, videatur et luxuria — ebore
sustineri vult, purpura vestiri, auro tegi, terras trans-
ferre, maria concludere, flumina praecipitare, nemora

2 suspendere ; videatur et avaritia magni animi —
acervis auri argentique incubat et provinciarum
nominibus agros colit et sub singulis vilicis latiores

3 habet fines quam quos consules sortiebantur ; videa-
tur et libido magni animi — transnat freta, puerorum
greges castrat, sub gladium mariti venit morte con-
tempta ; videatur et ambitio magni animi — non est
contenta honoribus annuis ; si fieri potest, uno nomine
occupare fastus vult, per omnem orbem titulos

4 disponere. Omnia ista, non refert in quantum pro-
cedant extendantque se, angusta sunt, misera, de-
pressa ; sola sublimis et excelsa virtus est, nee
quicquam magnum est nisi quod simul placidum.

11

" Iliad, xxiii. 724. After a protracted wrestling-bout,
Ajax thus challenges Odysseus to some decisive manoeuvre.
*> The reference is to artificial lakes and cascades.

164

ON ANGER, I. XX. 8-xxi. 4

fightj even to the death, shoutiog in the words of
Homer :

Or uplift me, or I will thee."

What madness ! He thought that not even Jove
could harm him, or that he could harm even Jove.
I suppose that these words of his had no httle
weight in arousing the minds of conspirators ; for
to put up Avith a man who could not put up with
Jove seemed the limit of endurance !

There is in anger, consequently, nothing great,
nothing noble, even when it seems impassioned, con-
temptuous alike of gods and men. Else let him who
thir^s'tharXnger reveals the great soul, think that
luxur£3oes the same ; it desires to rest on ivoiy, to be
arrayed in^urple, toT^e roofed with gold, to remove
lanck, to confine the waters of the sea, to hurl rivers
headloxig,* to hang gardens in the air. Let him
think that avarice also betokens the great soul ; it
broods over heaps of gold and silver, it tills fields
that are pro\"inces in all but name, and holds under
a single steward broader acres than were allotted
once to consuls. Let him also think that lust
betokens the great soul ; it swims across straits, it ^
unsexes lads by the score, and despising death
braves the husband's sword. And let him think that
ambition also betokens the great soul ; it is not y
content with annual office ; it would fill the calendar "^
with only one name if that might be, and set up its
memorials throughout all the world. Such quahties,
it matters not to what height or length they reach,
are all narrow, pitiable, grovelling. Virtue alone is —
lofty and subHme, and nothing is great that is not ^
at the same time tranquil.

165

LIBER IV

AD NOVATVM

DE IRA

1 1. Primus liber, Novate, benigniorem habuit ma-
teriam ; facilis enim in proclivia vitiorum decursus
est. Nunc ad exiliora veniendum est ; quaerimus
enim ira utrum iudicio an impetu incipiat, id est
utrum sua sponte moveatur an quemadmodum plera-
que, quae intra nos non^ insciis nobis oriuntur.

2 Debet autem in haec se demittere disputatio, ut ad
ilia quoque altiora possit exsurgere. Nam et in corpore
nostro ossa nervique et articuli, firmamenta totius et
vitalia, minime speciosa visu, prius ordinantur, deinde
haec, ex quibus omnis in faciem adspectumque decor
est ; post haec omnia, qui maxime oculos rapit, color
ultimus perfecto iam corpore adfunditur.

3 Iram quin species oblata iniuriae moveat non est
dubium ; sed utrum speciem ipsa statim sequatur
et non accedente animo excurrat, an illo adsentiente

^ non added by Hermes.

" i.e., since men are prone to vice, there has been ample
material for the earlier discussion.

166

BOOK IV

TO NOVATUS
ON ANGER

My first book, Novatus, had a more bountiful theme ;
for easy is the descent into the dowTiward course of
vice." Now we must come to narrower matters ;
for the question is whether anger originates from
choice or from impulse, that is, ^vhether it is aroused
of its own accord, or whether, like much else that
goes on ^vitTun us, it does not arise ^vithout our know-
ledge. But tHe discussion must be lowered to the
consideration of these things in order that it may
afterwards rise to the other, loftier, themes. For in
our bodies, too, there comes first the system of bones,
sinews, and joints, which form the framework of the
whole and are vital parts, yet are by no means fair to
look upon ; next the parts 'on which all the comeliness
of face and appearance depend, and after all these,
when the body is now complete, there is added last
that which above all else captivates the eye, the colour.
Therejcan bejiodoubt that anger is aroused by the
direct impression of an mjury'; "but the questFoh is^vA. "*
whet^F it fottows inunediately upon the impression u/z/A^**-/
and sprmgs up without "assistance from the mind, or '^^^^%
whetherTtTs aroused only \\\\h. the assent of the mind.
' "- 167

SENECA

4 moveatur quaerimus. Nobis placet nihil illam per
se audere sed animo adprobante ; nam speciem
capere acceptae iniuriae et ultionem eius coneupiscere
et utrumque coniungere, nee laedi se debuisse et
vindicari debere, non est eius impetus, qui sine

5 voluntate nostra concitatur. Ille simplex est, hie com-
positus et plura continens ; intellexit aliquid, in-
dignatus est, damnavit, ulciscitur : haec non possunt
fieri, nisi animus eis quibus tangebatur adsensus est.

1 2. " Quorsus," inquis, " haec quaestio pertinet ? "
Ut sciamus quid sit ira. Nam si invitis nobis nascitur,
numquam rationi succumbet. Omnes enim motus,
qui non voluntate nostra fiunt, invicti et inevitabiles
sunt, ut horror frigida aspersis, ad quosdam tactus
aspernatio ; ad peiores nuntios subriguntur pili et
rubor ad improba verba sufFunditur sequiturque
vertigo praerupta cernentis. Quorum quia nihil in
nostra potestate est, nulla quo minus fiant ratio

2 persuadet. Ira praeceptis fugatur ; est enim volun-
tarium animi vitium, non ex his, quae condicione
quadam humanae sortis eveniunt ideoque etiam sa-
pientissimis accidunt, inter quae et primus ille ictus
animi ponendus est, qui nos post opinionem iniuriae

3 movet. Hie subit etiam inter ludicra scaenae spec-

168

ON ANGER, II. I. 4-n. 3

Oui_OEinion is that it ventures nothing^ by itself, but -
acts mHyLJiyitlL-tlie approval oi the mind. For to
form the impression of ha\-ing received an injury
and to long to avenge it, and then to couple together
the two propositions that one ought not to have been
wronged and that one ought to be avenged — this is
not a mere impulse of the mind acting -without our
volition. The one is a single mental process, the
other a complex one composed of several elements ;
the jMndhas grasped something, has become in-
dignant, has condemned the act, and now tries to
avenge Ttr~These processes are impossible unless
the mind has given assent to the impressions that
moved it.

" Butrllyou askj "what is the purpose of such an
inquiry ?^' I answer, in order that we may know
what anger is ; for if it arises against our ^\-ill, it ^^•i^l
never succumb to reason. For all sensations that do
notTesviIt from our own volition are uncontrolled and
unavoidable, as, for example, shivering when we are
dashed ^yiih cold water and recoilment from certain
contacts ; bad news makes the hair stand on end, \i\e
language causes a blush to spread, and when one
looks down from a precipice, dizziness follows. Be-
cause none of these things lies A\-ithin our control, no
reasoning can keep them from happening. But
anger may be routed at our behest ; for it is a weak-<
ness of the miad that is subject to the will, not one
of those things that result from some condition of
the general lot of man and therefore befall even the
■vWsest, among which must be placed foremost that
mental shock which affects us after we have formed
the rmpression of a ^\Tong committed. This steals
upon us even from the sight of plays upon the stage

169

SENECA

tacula et lectiones rerum vetustarum. Saepe Clodio
Ciceronem expellenti et Antonio occidenti videmur
irasci ; quis non contra Mari arma, contra Sullae
proscriptionem concitatur ? Quis non Theodoto et
Achillae et ipsi puero non puerile auso facinus in-

4 festus est ? Cantus nos nonnumquam et citata
modulatio instigat Martiusque ille tubarum sonus ;
movet mentes et atrox pictura et iustissimorum

5 suppliciorum tristis adspectus ; inde est quod ad-
ridemus ridentibus et contristat nos turba maerentium
et efFervescimus ad aliena certamina. Quae non sunt
irae, non magis quam tristitia est, quae ad conspectum
mimici naufragii contrahit frontem, non magis quam
timor, qui Hannibale post Cannas moenia eircum-
sidente lectorum percurrit animos, sed omnia ista
motus sunt animorum moveri nolentium nee adfectus

6 sedprincipiaproludentiaadfectibus. Sicenimmilitaris
viri in media pace iam togati aures tuba suscitat
equosque castrenses erigit crepitus armorum. Alex-
andrum aiunt Xenophanto canente manum ad arma
misisse.

1 3. Nihil ex his, quae animum fortuito impellunt,
adfectus vocari debet ; ista, ut ita dicam, patitur
magis animus quam facit. Ergo adfectus est non ad
oblatas rerum species moveri, sed permittere se illis

" The youthful king Ptolemy XII., who compassed the
murder of Pompey when he sought refuge in Egypt after
the battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.). Achillas, commander of
the army, and Theodotus, the king's adviser, shared the
responsibility of the crime.

* Timotheus is the name of the flutist in other versions of
the story ; cf. Dion Chrys. Or. i. 1 ; Suidas, s.v.

170

ON ANGER, II. 11. 3-m. 1

and from reading of happenings of long ago. _Hqw
often we seem to grow angry with Clodius for banish-
ing Cicero^ with Antony for kilhng him ! Who is not
aroused against the arms which Marius took up,
against the proscription which Sulla used ? WTio is
not incensed against Theodotus and Achillas, and the
child himself " who dared an unchildish crime ? Sing-
ing sometimes stirs us, and quickened rhythm, and
the well-known blare of the War-god's trumpets ;
our minds are perturbed by a shocking picture and
by the melancholy sight of punishment even when it
is entirely just ; in the same way we smile when
others smile, we are saddened by a throng of
mourners, and are thrown into a ferment by the
struggles of others. Such_sensations, however, are
no more anger than that is sorrow which furrows the
brow at-Si^ght of a mimic shipwTCck, no more anger
than that is fear which thrills our minds when we
read how Hannibal after Cannae beset the walls of
Rome^ but_they are all emotions of a mind that \
wottkL prefer -^ not to be so affected ; they are nolj-
passions, but the beginnings that are prehminaryi
to passions. So, too, the warrior in the midst of
peace, wearing now his ci\"ihan dress, will prick up
his ears at the blast of a trumpet, and army horses
are made restive by the clatter of arms. It is said
that Alexander, when Xenophantus * played the
flute, reached for his weapons.

None of these things which move the mind through
the agency of chance should be called passions ; the
mind suffers them, so to speak, rather than causes
them. Passion, consequently, does not consist in
being moved by the impressions that are presented
to the mind, but in surrendering to these and follow- '■
^ 171

SENECA

2 et liunc fortuitum motum prosequi. Nam si quis
pallorem et lacrimas procidentis et irritationem umoris
obsceni altumve suspirium et oculos subito acriores
aut quid his simile indicium adfectus animique signum
putat, fallitur nee intellegit corporis hos esse pulsus.

3 Itaque et fortissimus plerumque vir dum armatur
expalluit et signo pugnae dato ferocissimo militi
paulum genua tremuerunt et magno imperatori ante-
quam inter se acies arietarent cor exsiluit et oratori
eloquentissimo dum ad dicendum componitur summa

4 riguerunt. Ira non moveri tantum debet sed ex-
currere ; est enim impetus ; numquam autem impetus
sine adsensu mentis est, neque enim fieri potest ut de
ultione et poena agatur animo nesciente. Putavit se
aliquis laesum, voluit ulcisci, dissuadente aliqua causa
statim resedit. Hanc iram non voco, motum animi'
rationi parentem ; ilia est ira, quae rationem trans-

5 silit, quae secum rapit. Ergo prima ilia agitatio '
animi, quam species iniuriae incussit, non magis ira
est quam ipsa iniuriae species ; ille sequens impetus,
qui speciem iniuriae non tantum accepit sed adpro^.
bavit, ira est, concitatio animi ad ultionem voluntate
et iudicio pergentis. Numquam dubium est quin
timor fugam habeat, ira impetum ; vide ergo an put( -
aliquid sine adsensu mentis aut peti posse aut caveri.
172

ON ANGER, II. III. 2-5

ing—ap^ such a chance prompting. For if any one
supposes that pallor, falling tears, prurient itching
or deep-d^a^%•n sigh, a sudden brightening of the
eyes, and the Hke, are an e\'idence of passion and a
manifestation of the mind, he is mistaken and fails to
understand that these_ar£ .disturbances of the body.
And so very often even the bravest man turns pale
while he fits on his arms, the knees of the boldest
soldier often tremble a little when the battle-signal
is given, the might}* commander has his heart in his
throat before the battle-lines clash, and while the
most eloquent orator is getting ready to speak,
his extremities becpme rigid. Anger must not only
be aroused but it must rush forth, for it is an active
impulse ; but an^ active impulse never comes without
th^e consent of the will, for it is impossible for a man
to aim at revenge and punishment ^\ithout the
cognizance of his mindL_ A nian thinks himself
injured, ^\•ishes to take vengeance, but dissuaded by
some consideration immediately calms down. This
I do not call anger, this prompting of the mind which
is submissive to reason ; anger is that which over-
leaps reason and sweeps it away. Therefore that
primarj' disturbance of the mind which is excited
by the impression of injury is no more anger than
the impression of injury is itself anger ; the active
impulse consequent iipon it, which has not only
admitted the impression of injury but also approved
it, is really anger — the tumult of a mind proceeding
to revenge by choice and determination. There can
never be any doubt that as fear involves flight, anger
involves assault ; consider, therefore, whether you
beheve that anything can either be assailed or
avoided without the mind's assent.

173

SENECA

1 4. Et ut scias quemadmodum incipiant adfectus
aut crescant aut efferantur, est primus motus non
voluntarius, quasi praeparatio adfectus et quaedam
comminatio ; alter cum voluntate non contumaci,
tamquam oporteat me vindicari, cum laesus sim, aut
oporteat hunc poenas dare, cum scelus fecerit ; tertius
motus est iam impotens, qui non si oportet ulcisci vult,

2 sed utique, qui rationem evicit. Primum ilium animi
ictum efFugere ratione non possumus, sicut ne ilia
quidem quae diximus accidere corporibus, ne nos
oscitatio aliena sollicitet, ne oculi ad intentationem
subitam digitorum conprimantur. Ista non potest
ratio vincere, consuetudo fortasse et adsidua ob-
servatio extenuat. Alter ille motus, qui iudicio
nascitur, iudicio tollitur,

1 5. lUud etiamnunc quaerendum est, ii qui vulgo
saeviunt et sanguine humano gaudent an irascantur,
cum eos occidunt, a quibus ne.c acceperunt iniuriam
nee accepisse ipsi se existimant ; qualis fuit Apollo-

2 dorus aut Phalaris. Haec non est ira, feritas est ;
non enim quia accepit iniuriam nocet, sed parata est,
dum noceat, vel accipere, nee illi verbera lacerationes-

3 que in ultionem petuntur sed in voluptatem. Quid
ergo est^ ? Origo huius mali ab ira est, quae ubi

^ est added by Oertz.

" See Index.
174

ON ANGER, II. IV. l-v. 3

That you may know, further, how the passions
begin, grow, and run riot, I may say that the Jirst
promptings isJiLYoluntary, a preparation for passiion,
as it werej_and^asort of rnenace ; the next is combined
with an act of volition, although not an unruly one,
which assumes jthat it is right for me to avenge
myself because I have been injured, or that it is
right for the other person to be punished because
he has committed a crime ; the tliird prompting is
now beyond control, in that it wishes to take venge-
ance, not if it is right to do so, but whether or no,
and has utterly vanquished reason. We can no
more avoid by the use of reason that first shock
which the mind experiences than we can avoid
those effects mentioned before which the body
experiences — the temptation to yawn when another
yawns, and \\'inking when fingers are suddenly pointed
toward the eyes. Such impulses cannot be overcome
by reason, although perchance practice and constant
watchfulness will weaken them. Different is that
prompting which is born of the judgement, is
banished by the judgement.

This point also must now be considered, ^vhether
thosejffho are habitually cruel and rejoice in human
blood are angrywhen tKev kill people from whom
thej[_haye_neither received injury nor think even
themselvesjthat they have received one ; of such
sort were Apollodorus " and Phalaris." But this is
not anger, it is brutahty ; for it does not harm
because it has received an injur}', but it is even
ready to receive one provided that it can harm, and
its purpose in desiring to beat and to mangle is not
vengeance but pleasure. And why does it happen ?
The source of this evil is anger, and when anger from
- — — 175

SENECA

frequenti exercitatione et satietate in oblivionem
clementiae venit et omne foedus humanum eiecit
animo, novissime in crudelitatem transit. Rident
itaque gaudentque et voluptate multa perfruuntur
plurimumque ab iratorum vultu absunt, per otium
saevi.

4 Hannibalem aiunt dixisse, cum fossam sanguine
humano plenam vidisset : " O formonsum speeta-
culum ! " Quanto pulchrius illi visum esset, si flumen
aliquod lacumque complesset ! Quid mirum, si hoc
maxime spectaculo caperis innatus sanguini et ab
infante caedibus admotus ? Sequetur te fortuna
crudelitati tuae per viginti annos secunda dabitque
oculis tuis gratum ubique spectaculum ; videbis istud
et circa Trasumennum et circa Cannas et novissime

5 circa Carthaginem tuam, Volesus nuper sub divo
Augusto proconsul Asiae, cum trecentos uno die
securi percussisset, incedens inter cadavera vultu
superbo, quasi magnificum quiddam conspiciendum-
que fecisset, graece proclamavit : " O rem regiam ! "
Quid hie rex fecisset ? Non fuit haec ira sed maius
malum et insanabile.

1 6. " Virtus," inquit, " ut honestis rebus propitia
est, ita turpibus irata esse debet." Quid, si dicat w-
tutem et humilem et magnam esse debere ? Atqui
hoc dicit, illam^ extolli vult et deprimi, quoniam
laetitia ob recte factum clara magnificaque est, ira
ob alienum peccatum sordida et angusti pectoris est.

^ illam Hermes, after Miiller : qui illam uss,
176

ON ANGER, II. V. ^vi. 1

nft-rpppatfH inrlnlgpnr'i^ f^p^j surfeJt has arrived at a
disregard^or mercy and has expelled from tHe mind
every conception oTfheTiuman bonclT it passes at last
into_cnj£ity. And so these men Taugh and rejoice
and experience great pleasure, and wear a counten-
ance utterly unlike that of anger, making a pastime
of ferocity.

WTien Hannibal saw a trench flowing with human
blood, he is said to have exclaimed, " O beauteous
sight ! " How much more beautiful would it have
seemed to him if the blood had filled some river or
lake ! WTiat wonder, O Hannibal, if you, born to
bloodshed and from childhood famihar with slaughter,
find especial dehght in this spectacle ? A fortune will
attend you that for twenty years ^vill gratifv vour
cruelty, and will everywhere supply to your eyes the
welcome sight ; you will see it at Trasumennus and
at Cannae, and last of all at your own Carthage !
Only recently Volesus, governor of Asia under the
deified Augustus, beheaded three hundred persons
in one day, and as he strutted among the corpses
\vith the proud air of one who had done some glorious
deed worth beholding, he cried out in Greek, " What
a kingly act ! " But what would he have done if he
had been a king ? No, this was not anger y, but an
e\TLstill greatenand -iacurAble .

" If/'_sorae_one arguesj.'' Airtue is well disposed a/>gf^^
toward what is honourable, it is her duty to feel anger
towarrd what i^ Ixi^^e." "^liat if he should say that
virtue must be both low and great ? And yet this
is \\-Hat he does say— he would have her be both
exalted and debased, since joy on account of a right
action is splendid and glorious, wlaile anger on
account of another's sin is mean and narrow-minded.
VOL. I N -— —-- j^^

SENECA

2 Nee umquam eommittet virtus, ut vitia, dum com-
pescit, imitetur ; iram ipsam castigandam habet, quae
nihilo melior est, saepe etiam peior is delictis quibus
irascitur. Gaudere laetarique proprium et naturale
virtutis est ; irasci non est ex dignitate eius, non
magis quam maerere. Atqui iracundiae tristitia
comes est et in hanc omnis ira vel post paenitentiam

3 vel post repulsam revolvitur. Et si sapientis est
peccatis irasci, magis irascetur maioribus et saepe
irascetur ; sequitur, ut non tantum iratus sit sapiens,
sed iracundus. Atqui si nee magnam iram nee
frequentem in animo sapientis locum habere credi-
mus, quid est, quare non ex toto ilium hoc adfectu

4 liberemus ? Modus enim esse non potest, si pro facto
cuiusque irascendum est ; nam aut iniquus erit, si
aequaliter irascetur delictis inaequalibus, aut ira-
cundissimus, si totiens excanduerit quotiens iram
scelera meruerint.

1 7. Et quid indignius quam sapientis adfectum ex
aliena pendere nequitia ? Desinet ille Socrates posse
eundem vultum domum referre, quem domo ex
tulerat ? Atqui si irasci sapiens turpiter factis debet
et concitari contristarique ob scelera, nihil est
aerumnosius sapiente ; omnis illi per iracundiam

2 maeroremque vita transibit. Quod enim momentum
erit, quo non improbanda videat ? Quotiens pro-
cesserit domo, per sceleratos illi avarosque et prodigos

178

ON ANGER, II. VI. 2-vii. 2

And virtue will never be guilty of simulating vice in
thev^xrtDfre^es&Jng it : anger in itself she considers
repFeheasible* fox it is in no way better, often even
worse, than those shortcomings which provoke anger.
The distinctive and natural property of wtue is to
rejoicgiand be'gTad ; it no more comports \\ith her
dignit}' to be angry than to be sad. But sorrow is the
cornp2nl5S~of 'angler, and all anger comes round to
this as the result either of remorse or of defeat.
Besides, irit is the part of a ^\ise man to be angry
at-,siSiI3Ee greater this is the more angry will he
be, .aaiL he A^ill be angry often ; it follows that the
wise Jiian will not only become angr}', but A^ill be
prone to anger. But if we believe that neither great
anger nor frequent anger has a place in the mind of
a wise man, is there any reason why we should not
free him from this passion altogether ? No limit,
surely, can be set if the degree of his anger is to
be determined by each man's deed. For either he
will be unjust if he has equal anger toward unequal
delinquencies, or he will be habitually angry if he
blazes up every time crimes give him warrant.

And what is more unworthy of the A^ise man than /
that his passion should depend upon the wickedness \ ,
of ^hers ? Shall great Socrates lose the power to
carr}- back home the same look he had brought from
jhome ? But if the \\-ise man is to be angered by base
[deeds, if he is to be perturbed and saddened by
crimes, surely nothing is more woeful than the \sise
man's Tot ; his whole life >\ill be passed in anger
and in grief. For what moment will there be when
hewlH-notr^ee something to disapprove of ? Every
time he leaves his house, he will have to walk
among criminals and misers and spendthrifts and

179

SENECA

et impudentis et ob ista felices incedendum erit ;
nusquam oculi eius flectentur, ut non quod in-
dignentur inveniant. Deficiet, si totiens a se iram
3 quotiens causa poscet exegerit. Haec tot milia ad
forum prima luce properantia quam turpes lites,
quanto turpiores advocatos habent ! Alius iudicia
patris accusat, quae vereri satius fuit, alius cum matre
consistit, alius delator venit eius criminis, cuius
manifestior reus est ; et iudex damnaturus quae
fecit eligitur et corona pro mala causa stat^ bona
patroni voce corrupta.

1 8. Quid singula persequor ? Cum videris forum
multitudine refertum et saepta concursu omnis fr
quentiae plena et ilium circum, in quo maximam s
partem populus ostendit, hoc scito, istic tantundera'

2 esse vitiorum quantum hominum. Inter istos quos
togatos vides nulla pax est ; alter in alterius exitium
levi compendio ducitur ; nulli nisi ex alterius iniuria
quaestus est ; felicem oderunt, infelicem contemnunt ;
maiorem gravantur, minori graves sunt ; diversis
stiraulantur cupiditatibus ; omnia perdita ob levem
voluptatem praedamque cupiunt. Non alia quam
in ludo gladiatorio vita est cum isdem bibentium

3 pugnantiumque. Ferarumisteconventus est, nisi quod
illae inter se placidae sunt morsuque similium abs-

^ stat added by Gertz.
180

i

ON ANGER, II. VII. 2-^^II. 3

profligates — men who are happy in being such.
Nowhere will he turn his eyes without finding some-
thing to move them to indignation. He \n\\ give out
if he forces himself to be angry ever}' time occasion
requires. All these thousands hurrj-ing to the forum
at break of day — how base their cases, and how
much baser are their advocates ! One assails his
father's will, which it were more fitting that he
respect ; another arraigns his mother at the bar ;
another comes as an informer of the very crime in
which he is more openly the culprit ; the judge,
too, is chosen who will condemn the same deeds
that he himself has committed, and the crowd, mis-
led by the fine voice of a pleader,^ shows favour to
a wicked cause.

But why recount all the different t}-pes ? When-,
ever you^aee-jthe forum, with its thronging multitude,
and the polling-places filled with all the gathered
concourse, and the great Circus where the largest
part of the populace displays itself, you may be sure
that just as many vices are gathered there as men._^
Aroong those whom^ymTsee in civilian garb there is
no peace ; for a slight reward any one of them can
be led to compass the destruction of another ; ng
one makes gain save by another's loss 3 the pros-
perous they hate, the unprosperous they despise ;
superiors they loathe, and to inferiors are loathsome ;
they are goaded on by opposite desires ; they desire
for the sake of some httle pleasure or plunder to
see the whole world lost. They hve as though they
were in a gladiatorial school — those with whom they
eat, they likewise fight. It is a community of wild
beasts, only~thaTbeasts are gentle toward each other
and reirion from tearing their own kind, while men

181

SENECA

tinent, hi mutua laceratione satiantur. Hoc omnino'^
ab animalibus mutis difFerunt, quod ilia mansuescunt
alentibus, horum rabies ipsos a quibus est nutrita
depascitur. i

1 9. Numquam irasci desinet sapiens, si semel I
coeperit. Omnia sceleribus ac vitiis plena sunt ; plus
committitur quam quod possit coercitione sanari.
Certatur ingenti quidem nequitiae certamine. Mai or
cottidie peccandi cupiditas, minor verecundia est ;
expulso melioris aequiorisque respectu quocumque I
visum est libido se impingit, nee furtiva iam scelera ^
sunt. Praeter oculos eunt, adeoque in publicum
missa nequitia est et in omnium pectoribus evaluit, ut

2 innocentia non rara sed nulla sit. Numquid enim
singuli aut pauci rupere legem ? U ndique velut signo
dato ad fas nefasque miscendum coorti sunt :

Non hospes ab hospite tutus,
non socer a genero ; fratrum quoque gratia rara est.
imminet exitio vir coniugis, ilia mariti ;
lurida terribiles miscent aconita novercae ;
filius ante diem patrios inquirit in annos.

3 Et quota ista pars scelerum est ! Non descripsit
castra ex uno partu contraria et parentium libero-
rumque sacramenta diversa, subiectam patriae civis
manu flammam et agmina infestorum equitum ad in-
quirendas proscriptorum latebras circumvolitantia et
violatos fontes venenis et pestilentiam manu factam et
praeductam obsessis parentibus fossam, plenos carce-

^ hoc omnino Vahlen : hoc in uno A.

" Ovid, Met. i. 144 sqq.
182

ON AXGER, II. Mil. 3-LX. 3

glut themselves_with_ren(iing one anothfii^ They
differ from the dumb animals in this alone — that
animals grow gentle toward those who feed them,
whil£;_jnen in their madness prey upon the very
persons by whom they are nurtured.

Never will the wi-e man cea^e to be ajigry- if oncei
he Begins. "Every place is full of crime and \lce ;|
too many crimes are committed to be cured by any'
possible restraint. Men struggle in a mighty rivalry
of AV if kediie?^. Every day the desire for wTong-doing
is greater, the dread of it less ; all regard for what
is better and more just is banished, lust hurls itself
wherever it likes, and crimes are now no longer covert.
They stalk before our very eyes, and wickedness has
come to such a pubUc state, has gained such power
over the hearts of all, that innocence is not rare — it
is_non-existent. For is it only the casual man or the
few wlio break the law ? On ever}' hand, as if at a
given >ignal, men rise to level all the barriers of
right and WTong :

No guest from host is safe, nor daughter's sire
From daughter's spouse ; e'en brothers' love is rare.
The husband doth his wife, she him, ensnare ;
Ferocious stepdames brew their ghastly banes ;
The son too soon his father's years arraigns."

And yet how few of all the crimes are these ! The
poet makes no mention of the battling camps that
claim a common blood, of the parents and the children
sundered by a soldier's oath, of the flames a Roman
hand applied to Rome, of the hostile bands of horse-
men that scour the land to find the hiding-places of
citizens proscribed, of springs defiled by poison, of
plague the hand of man has made, of the trench flung
around beleaguered parents, of crowded prisons, of

183

SENECA

resetincendiatotas urbes concremantia dominationes-
que funestas et regnorum publicorumque exitiorum
clandestina consilia, et pro gloria habita, quae quam
diu opprimi possunt, scelera sunt, raptus ac stupra et
4 ne OS quidem libidini exceptum. Adde nunc publica
periuria gentium et rupta foedera et in praedam^
validioris quidquid non resistebat abductum, eircum-
scriptiones, furta, fraudes, infitiationes, quibus trina
non sufficiunt fora. Si tantum irasci vis sapientem,
quantum scelerum indignitas exigit, non irascendum
illi sed insaniendum est.

1 10. Illud potius cogitabis, non esse irascendum
erroribus. Quid enim, si quis irascatur in tenebris
parum vestigia certa ponentibus ? Quid, si quis
surdis imperia non exaudientibus ? Quid, si pueris,
quod neglecto dispectu officiorum ad lusus et ineptos
aequalium iocos spectent ? Quid, si illis irasci velis,
qui,^ quod aegrotant senescunt, fatigantur ? Inter
cetera mortalitatis incommoda et hoc est, caligo
mentium nee tantum necessitas errandi sed errorum

2 amor. Ne singulis irascaris, universis ignoscendum
est, generi humano venia tribuenda est. Si irasceris
iuvenibus senibusque, quod peccant, irascere et^ in-
fantibus : peccaturi sunt. Numquis irascitur pueris,
quorum aetas nondum novit rerum discrimina .'' Maioi

^ 80 editors : praedam A : pro praeda Gertz,

* qui added by Hermes,

* et added by Gertz.

» i.e., the Roman Forum, the Forum of Julius Caesai^
and the Forum of Augustus.

184

ON ANGER, II. IX. 3-x. 2

fires that burn whole cities to the ground, of baleful
tyrannies and secret plots for regal power and for
subversion of the state, of acts that now are glorified,
but still are crimes so long as power endures to crush
them, rape and lechery and the lust that spares not
even human mouths. Add now to these, pubhc acts
of perjury between nations, broken treaties, and all
the booty seized when resistance could not save it
from the stronger, the double-dealings, the thefts
and frauds and debts disowned — for such crimes all
three forums " supply not courts enough I If you
expect the ^\ise. man to be as angry as the shameful- /
negs of,crimes compels, he must not be angrj' merely,
butgo mad.

TIus rather is what you should tliink — that no one -s ,"-
should be angry at the mistakes of men. For tell me,
should one be angry Miih those who move -with
stumbling footsteps in the dark ? with those who do
not heed commands because they are deaf ? \s.-iih
children because forgetting the observance of their
duties they watch the games and foohsh sports of
their playmates ? Would you want to be angr}' with
those who become weary because they are sick or
gro\\'ing old ? Among the various ills to which
humanity is prone there is this besides — the darkness
that fills the mind, and not so much the necessity of
going astray, as the love of straying. Th*L-yauxaay-J
not Jtie^angry with individuals, you must forgive man- '
kind at large, you must grant indulgence to the
human race. If you are ,angry with the young and
tbe^d^^cause they sin, be angry with babes as well ;
they are destined to sin. But who is angry \vith
children who are still too young to have the power of
discrimination ? Yet to be a himian being is an even

185

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est excusatio et iustior hominem esse quam puerum.

3 Hac condicione nati sumus, animalia obnoxia non
paucioribus animi quam corporis morbis, non quidem
obtusa nee tarda, sed acumine nostro male utentia,
alter alteri vitiorum exempla. Quisquis sequitur prio-
res male iter ingressos, quidni habeat excusationem,

4 cum publica via erraverit ? In singulos severitas
imperatoris destringitur, at necessaria venia est, ubi
totus deseruit exercitus. Quid tollit iram sapientis ?
Turba peccantium. Intellegit quam et iniquum sit et
periculosum irasci publico vitio.

6 Heraclitus quotiens prodierat et tantum circa se
male viventium, immo male pereuntium viderat,
flebat, miserebatur omnium, qui sibi laeti felicesque
occurrebant, miti animo, sed nimis irabecillo, et ipse
inter deplorandos erat. Democritum contra aiunt
numquam sine risu in publico fuisse ; adeo nihil illi
videbatur serium eorum quae serio gerebantur. Ubi
istic irae locus est ? Aut ridenda omnia aut flenda
sunt.

6 Non irascetur sapiens peccantibus. Quare ? Quia
scit neminem nasci sapientem sed fieri, scit paucis-
simos omni aevo sapientis evadere, quia condicionem
humanae vitae perspectam habet, nemo autem
naturae sanus irascitur. Quid enim, si mirari velit
186

ON ANGER, ir. X. ^-6

greater and truer excuse for error than to be a child.
This isThe lot to which we are born — we are creatures
subject to as many ills of the mind as of the body,
and though our power of discernment is neither
blunted nor dull, yet we make poor use of it and
become examples of \'ice to each other. If any one
follows in the footsteps of others who have taken
the wrong road, should he not be excused because
it was the public highway that led him astray ?
Upon the individual soldier the commander may
unsheathe all his sternness, but he needs must for-
bear Avhen the whole army deserts. ^\^latJ then,
ke^s_the wise man from anger ? The great mass ^
of sinners!! TTe understands both how unjust and
how dangerous it is to grow angry at universal sin.

Whenever Heraclitus went forth from his house
and saw all around him so many men who were
li\ing a wTetched life — no, rather, were dpng a
wretched death — he would Aveep, and all the joyous
and happy people he met stirred his pity ; he was
gentle-hearted, but too weak, and was himself one of
those who had need of pity. Democritus, on the
other hand, it is said, never appeared in pubhc
without laughing ; so little did the serious pursuits
of men seem serious to him. \yhere in all this is
there room for anger ? Everything gives cause for
erEhcr laughter or tears.

The wi-e man will have no anger toward sinners.
Do you ask why ? Because he knows that no one is
born wise but becomes so, knows that only the fewest ■<
in ever\' age turn out wise, because he has fully
grasped the conditions of human life, and no sensible
man becomes angry with nature. Think you a sane
man would marvel because apples do not hang from

187

SENECA

non in silvestribus dumis poma pendere ? Quid, si
miretur spineta sentesque non utili aliqua fruge com-
pleri ? Nemo irascitur, ubi vitium natura defendit.

7 Placidus itaque sapiens et aequus erroribus, non
hostis sed corrector peccantium, hoc cottidie procedit
animo : " Multi mihi occurrent vino dediti, multi
libidinosi, multi ingrati, multi avari, multi furiis
ambitionis agitati." Omnia ista tam propitius aspiciet

8 quam aegros suos medicus. Numquid ille, cuius
navigium multam undique laxatis compagibus aquam
trahit, nautis ipsique navigio irascitur ? Occurrit
potius et aliam excludit undam, aliam egerit, mani-
festa foramina praecludit, latentibus et ex occulto
sentinam ducentibus labore continuo resistit, nee ideo
intermittit, quia quantum exhaustum est subnascitur.
Lento adiutorio opus est contra mala continua et
fecunda, non ut desinant, sed ne vincant. Mi

1 11. " Utilis est," inquit, " ira, quia contemptuir
efFugit, quia malos terret." Primum ira, si quantum
minatur valet, ob hoc ipsum quod terribilis est et j
invisa est ; periculosius est autem timeri quam de-
spici. Si vero sine viribus est, magis exposita con-
temptui est et derisum non efFugit ; quid enim est
iracundia in supervacuum tumultuante frigidius ?

2 Deinde non ideo quaedam, quia sunt terribiliora,
188

!

ON ANGER, II. X. 6-xi. 2

the brambles of the woodland ? Would he marvel
because thorns and briars are not covered ^\■ith some
useful fruit ? No^one becomes angry Avith a fault for
which nature stands sponsor. And so the wise man i
is kindly and just toward errors, he is not the foe,-^
but the reformer of sinners, and as he issues forth •
each day his thought will be : "I shall meet many
who are in bondage to wine, many who are lustful,
many ungrateful, many grasping, many who are
lashed by the frenzy of ambition." He will view all
these things in as kindly a way as a physician \iews
the sick. When the skipper finds that his ship has
sprung her seams and in every part is letting in a
copious flow of water, does he then become angry
with the seamen and with the ship herself? No,
he rushes rather to the rescue and shuts out a part
of the flood, a part he bales out, and he closes up
the \'isible openings, the hidden leaks that secretly
let water into the hold he tries to overcome by
ceaseless labour, and he does not relax his effort
simply because as much water springs up as is
pumped out. The succour against continuous and <
prolific e\-ils must be tenacious, aimed not at their
cessation but against their victory.

" Anger," it is said, " is expedient because it k tC c<t5
escapes contempt, because it terrifies the wicked," ^ ^ .^^^
In the first place, if the power of anger is commen-
surate with its threats, for the very reason that it is
terrible it is likewise hated ; besides, it i-. more
dangerousto be feared than to be scorned. If, how-
ever, anger is powerless, it is even more exposed to
contesipr^and does not escape ridicule. For what is L-
more silly than the futile blustering of anger ? In
the second. place,_because_e£rtaiu things are more

189

SENECA

potiora sunt, nee hoc sapienti dici velim : " Quod ferae,
sapientis quoque telum est, timeri." Quid ? Non
timetur febris, podagra, ulcus malum ? Numquid
ideo quicquam in istis boni est ? An contra omnia
despecta foedaque et turpia, ipsoque eo timentur ?
Sic ira per se deformis est et minime metuenda, at
timetur a pluribus sicut deformis persona ab in-

3 fantibus. Quid, quod semper in auctores redundat
timor nee quisquam metuitur ipse securus ? Occurrat
hoc loco tibi Laberianus ille versus, qui medio civili
bello in theatro dictus totum in se populum non aliter
convertit, quam si missa esset vox publici adfectus :

Necesse est multos timeat quem multl timent.

4 Ita natura constituit, ut quidquid alieno metu mag-
num est, a suo non vacet. Leonum quam pavida
sunt ad levissimos sonos pectora ! Acerrimas feras
umbra et vox et odor insolitus exagitat. Quidquid
terret et trepidat. Non est ergo quare concupiscat
quisquam sapiens timeri, nee ideo iram magnum
quiddam putet, quia formidini est, quoniam quidem
etiam contemptissima timentur ut venena et ossa

5 pestifera et morsus.^ Nee mirum est, cum maximos
ferarum greges linea pinnis distincta eontineat et in

^ venena . . . morsus so A : mortifera for pestifera L :
venenato bestiae pestiferae morsu Haupt : venenato aspis
viperave morsu Gertz : venenato serpens pestifera morsu
Hermes.

" Laberius 126 (Com. Rom. Frag. Ribbeck).

* By Laberius himself, impersonating a Syrian slave, in
the presence of Julius Caesar, at whom it was aimed ; cf.
Macrobius, Sat. ii. 7. 4.

" If " contemptible," probably the trumpery of magic !

** For their use in magic see Hor. Sat. i. 8. 22; Tac.j
Ann. ii. 69. 5.

]90

ON ANGER, II. XI. 2-5

terrible, they are not for that reason preferable, and
I woulcT not Tiave it said to the wise man: "The
■wild bea'-t and the v. ise man have the same weapon ;
they are feared." What ? Is not a fever feared,
the gout, a malignant sore ? And do they for that
reason have any good in them ? Or are they, on
the contrary, all despised and loathsome and ugly,
and for this and no other reason are feared ? So
anger is in itself onlj^ repulsive and is by no means
to be Hreaded, yet most people fear it just as children
f&ar a" repulsive maslu-— Andr-wha^of the fact that
fear ahtays recoils upon those who inspire it and
that no one whois feared is himself unafraid ? You
may recall m this connexion the famous line of
Laberius :

Full many he must fear whom many fear,"

which when delivered in the theatre '' in the height
of civil war caught the ear of the whole people as if
utterance had been given to the people's voice.
Nature has so ordained it that wliatever is misrlitv
through the fearthat otheTsTeel is not without its
own. Htow even" the Tioh^s heart quakes at the
shghtest sound ! The boldest of wild beasts is
startled by a shadow or a voice or an unfamiliar
smell. Whatever terrifies must also tremble. There
is no reasmi, then, why any wise man should desire
to be leaFed, nor should he think that anger is a
naighty^thing' simply because it arouses dread, since
yen the most contemptible things, such as poisonous
>rews " and iioxious bones <* and bites are likewise
•eared. Since a cord "hung with feathers will stop
he mightiest droves of wild beasts and guide them
nto traps, it is not strange that this from the very

191

SENECA

insidias agat, ab ipso efFectu dicta formido ; vanis
enim vana terrori sunt. Curriculi motus rotarumque
versata fades leones redegit in caveam, elephantos
6 porcina vox terret. Sic itaque ira metuitur, quomodo
umbra ab infantibus, a feris rubens pinna. Non ipsa
in se quicquam habet firmum aut forte, sed leves
animos movet.

1 12. " Nequitia," inquit, " de rerum natura toUenda
est, si velis iram tollere ; neutrum autem potest
fieri." Primum potest aliquis non algere, quamvis
ex rerum natura hiemps sit, et non aestuare, quamvis
menses aestivi sint. Aut loci beneficio adversus in-
temperiem anni tutus est aut patientia corporis

2 sensum utriusque pervicit. Deinde verte istud :
necesse est prius virtutem ex animo tollas quam
iracundiam recipias, quoniam cum virtutibus vitia
non coeunt, nee magis quisquam eodem tempore et
iratus potest esse et vir bonus quam aeger et sanus.

3 " Non potest," inquit, " omnis ex animo ira tolli,
nee hoc hominis natura patitur." Atqui nihil est
tam difficile et arduum quod non humana mens vincat
et in familiaritatem perducat adsidua meditatio,
nullique sunt tam feri et sui iuris adfectus, ut non

4 disciplina perdomentur. Quodcumque sibi imperavit
animus, obtinuit. Quidam ne umquam riderent con-
secuti sunt ; vino quidam, alii venere, quidam omiii
umore interdixere corporibus ; alius contentus brevi

» Cf. Virgil, Aen. xii. 750 sq. :

cervum aut puniceae saeptum formidine pennae
venator cursu canis et latratibus instat.

*■ The implication would then be that if a man cannot
banish anger, no man can be virtuous,

192

ON ANGER, II. XI. 5-xii. 4

result should be called a " scare " " ; for to the foolish
fooUsh things are terrible. The speeding of the race-
chariot and the sight of its revohing wheels will drive
back lions to their cage, and elephants are terrified by
the squealing of a pig. And so we fear anger just as
children fear the dark and -svild beasts fear a gaudy ;
feather. Anger in itself has nothing of the strong J"
or the heroic, but shallow minds are affected by it.

" Wickedness," it is said, " must be eliminated ^'>'<i'>''«^
from ttrrrcheme of nature, if you would eliminate ^ vtrfttt
anger ; neither, however, is possible." In the first Z^"*^*'^
place, one can avoid being cold although in the
scheme of nature it is ^Wnter, and one can avoid being
dot although the hot months are here. A man may
either ■&€ protected against the inclemency of the
season by a favourable place of residence, or he may
l>y physical endurance subdue the sensation of both
deat and cold. In the second place, reverse^ this
jtatgment : A man must banish wtue from his heart
t)efore he can admit >vrath, since vices do not consort
with virtues, and a man can no more be both angry >__
md good at the same time than he can be sick and
B^ell. " But it is not possible," you say, " to banish
mger altogether from the heart, nor does the nature
jf man permit it." Yet nothing is so hard and
iifficult that it cannot be conquered by the himaan
nteUect and be brought through persistent study into
ntimate acquaintance, and there are no passions so
ierce and self-willed that they cannot be subjugated
>y^_discipline. \Vhatever command the mind gives
»_ltself holds its ground. Some have reached the
)oint^f never smilirigV some have cut themselves off
rem Avine, others from sexual pleasure, others from
ivery kind of drink ; another, satisfied by short
VOL. I o 193

SENECA

somno vigiliam indefatigabilem extendit ; didicerunt
tenuissimis et adversis funibus currere et ingentia
vixque humanis toleranda viribus onera portare et in
immensam altitudinem mergi ac sine ulla respirandi

5 vice perpeti maria. Mille sunt alia, in quibus per-
tinacia impedimentum omne transcendit ostenditque
nihil esse difficile cuius sibi ipsa mens patientiam in-
diceret. Istis quos paulo ante rettuli aut nulla tarn perti-
nacis studii aut non digna merces fuit — quid enim mag-
nificum consequitur ille qui meditatus est per intentos
funes ire ? qui sarcinae ingenti cervices supponere ?
qui somno non summittere oculos ? qui penetrare in
imum mare ? — et tamen ad finem operis non magno

6 auctoramento labor pervenit. Nos non advocabimus
patientiam, quos tantum praemium expectat, felicis
animi immota tranquillitas ? Quantum est efFugere
maximum malum, iram, et cum ilia rabiem, saevitiam,
crudelitatem, furorem, alios comites eius adfectus !

1 13. Non est quod patrocinium nobis quaeramus
et excusatam licentiam, dicentes aut utile id esse aut
inevitabile ; cui enim tandem vitio advocatus defuit ?
Non est quod dicas excidi non posse ; sanabilibus
aegrotamus malis ipsaque nos in rectum genitos na-
tura, si emendari velimus, iuvat. Nee, ut quibusdam
visum est, arduum in virtutes et asperum iter est ;

" The thought is a commonplace and is found as early as
Hesiod, Works and Bays, 289 sqq. :

Tijy 5' dpeTTJs iSptDra Oeol TrpoirapoiOev iOr/Kav
addvaroL' fj.aKpbs 5i Kal 6pdios oi/nos es avrijv
Kal Tp7)x^s rb TrpuTov.

Cf. the beginning of Aristotle's Hymn to Virtue (Bergk,
Poet. Lyr. Graec. ii. p. 360) :

'Aperd, woKvfioxde yivei. ^porelij),
d-qpajia KaWicrrov ^i<^.

194

ON ANGER, II. XII. i-xiii. l

sleep, prolongs his waking hours unwearied ; some
have learned to run on very small and slanting ropes,
to carry huge burdens that are scarcely ^\'ithin the
compass of human strength, to dive to unmeasured
depths and to endure the sea ^^ithout any drawing
of breath. There are a thousand other instances to
show that persistence giiT-rnnnntg. every obstacle and
that nothiiig-is-i:eaUy.di£ettlt which the mind enjoins
itself to endure. The men I mentioned a httle
while ago had either no reward for their unflagging
zeal or none worthy of it — for what glory does he
attain who has trained himself to walk a tight rope,
to carry a huge load upon his shoulders, to Avithhold
his eyes from sleep, to penetrate to the bottom of the
sea ? — and yet by effort they attained the end for
which they worked although the remuneration was
not great. Shall we, then, not summon ourselves to
endurance when so great a reward awaits us — the
unbro5?Tr~cahn of the happy soul ? How great a
blessingto r?cape anger, the greatest of all ills, and
along with it madnes's, ferocity, cruelty, rage, and
the xjther passions that attend anger !

It is not for us to seek a defence for ourselves and
an excuse for such indulgence by saying that it is
either expedient or unavoidable ; for what \ice, prav,
has ever lacked its defender ? It is. not for vou to say
that anger cannot be eradicated ; the ills from which
we suffeTlire curable, and sirice~xrH~aTe"^6rn to do
right, nature herself hetp<" us' tf tre desirr'+o be
improved. Nor. as some think. i"= the path to the
virtues steep and rough ,g4_ they are^jeachgd by a

195

SENECA

2 piano adeuntur, Non vanae vobis auctor rei venio.
Facilis est ad beatam vitam via ; inite modo bonis
auspiciis ipsisque dis bene iuvantibus. Multo diffi-
cilius est facere ista quae facitis. Quid est animi
quiete otiosius, quid ira laboriosius ? Quid dementia
remissius, quid crudelitate negotiosius ? Vacat pudi-
citia, libido occupatissima est. Omnium denique
virtutum tutela facilis est, vitia magno coluntur.

3 Debet ira removeri — hoc ex parte fatentur etiam qui
dicunt esse minuendam ; tota dimittatur, nihil pro-
futura est. Sine ilia facilius rectiusque scelera
tollentur, mali punientur et transducentur in melius.
Omnia quae debet sapiens sine ullius malae rei
ministerio efficiet nihilque admiscebit, cuius modum
soUicitius observet.

1 14. Numquam itaque iracundia admittenda est ;
aliquando simulanda, si segnes audientium animi con-
citandi sunt, sicut tarde consurgentis ad cursum equos
stimuhs facib usque subditis excitamus . Aliquando in-
cutiendus est iis metus apud quos ratio non proficit ;
irasci quidem non magis utile est quam maerere, quam

2 metuere. " Quid ergo ? Non incidunt causae quae
iram lacessant ? " Sed tunc maxime ilh opponendae
manus sunt. Nee est difficile vincere animum, cum
athletae quoque in vilissima sui parte occupati tamen
ictus doloresque patiantur, ut vires caedentis ex-
hauriant, nee cum ira suadet, feriant, sed cum occasio.
196

ON ANGER, II. xiii. 2-xiv. 2

level road^ It is-naidl^^ tale that I come to teU you, /
The road to the happy life is an easy one ; do but /
enter on it — with good auspices and the good help
of th,e^ods themselves ! It is far harder to do what
you are now doing. \\Tiat is more reposeful than
peace of mind, what more toilsome than anger ?
What is" more disengaged than mercy, what more
busy than cruelty? Chastity keeps holiday, while r"
lust is ahvays^ occupied. IrL,short, the maintenance
of alL_the^yirtues is easy, but it iscoitly to cultivate
the vices. Anger must be dislodged — even those who
say that it ought to be reduced admit this in part ;
let us be rid of it altogether, it can do us no good. <
Without it we shall more easily and more justly
abolish crimes, punish the A\-icked, and set them
upon the better path. The wise man \vi\\ accom-
phsf^is whole duty without the assistance of any-
thing evil, and he Avill associate with himself nothing
whichTieeds to be controlled Mith anxious care.

Wrath is therefore never admissible ; sometimes ,
we must feign it if we have to arouse the sluggish
minds of our hearers, just as we apply goads and
brands to arouse horses that are slow in starting upon
their course. Sometimes we must strike fear into
the hearts of those ^^•ith whom reason is of no avail ;
yet it is no more expedient to be angry than to be_
sad or to be afraid. " What then ? " you say ; " do
not incidents occur which provoke anger ? " Yes,
but it is then most of all that we must grapple mth
it hand to.iiand. Nor is it difficult to subdue the
spirit, since even aJhlfiifiSjL concerned as they are
'with pawn's basest part, nevertheless endure blows
and pain in order that they may drain the strength
of their assailant and strike, not when anger, but

197

SENECA

3 Pyrrhum maximum praeceptorem certaminis gymnici
solitum aiunt iis quos exercebat praecipere, ne
irascerentur ; ira enim perturbat artem et qua noceat
tantum aspicit, Saepe itaque ratio patientiam suadet,
ira vindictam, et qui primis defungi malis potuimus, in

4 maiora devolvimur. Quosdam unius verbi contumelia
non aequo animo lata in exilium proiecit, et qui levem
iniuriam silentio ferre noluerant, gravissimis malis
obruti sunt, indignatique aliquid ex plenissima
libertate deminui servile in sese adtraxerunt iugum.

1 15. " Ut scias," inquit, " iram habere in se generosi
aliquid, liberas videbis gentes, quae iracundissimae
sunt, ut Germanos et Scythas." Quod evenit, quia
fortia solidaque natura ingenia, antequam disciplina
molliantur, prona in iram sunt. Quaedam enim non
nisi melioribus innaseuntur ingeniis, sicut valida
arbusta laeta quamvis necleeta tellus creat, et alta

2 fecundi soli silva est. Itaque et ingenia natura fortia
iracundiam ferunt niliilque tenue et exile capiunt
ignea et fervida, sed imperfectus ilBs vigor est ut
omnibus, quae sine arte ipsius tantum naturae bono
exsurgunt, sed nisi cito domita sunt, quae fortitudini

3 apta erant, audaeiae temeritatique consuescunt. Quid?
Non mitioribus animis vitia leniora coniuncta sunt, ut

198

'

ON ANGER, II. XIV. 3-xv. 3

when advantage, prompts. PjTrhus, the most
famous trainer for gymnastic contests, made it a rule,
it is said, to warn those whom he was training against
getting angr)^ ; for anger confounds art and looks
onlyjfqr a chance to injure. Often, therefore, reason
counsels patience, but anger revenge, and when we
have" been able to escape our first misfortunes, we
are plunged into greater ones. Some have been
caTt into exile because they could not bear calmly
one insulting word, and those who had refused to bear
in silence a slight >\Tong have been crushed -w-ith the
severest misfortunes, and, indignant at any diminu-
tion of the fullest liberty, have brought upon them-
selves the yoke of slavery.

" That you may be con\-inced," says our opponent,
" that anger does have in it something noble, you
\vi\\ see that such nations as are free — for example,
the Germans' and Scythians — are those which are
most prone t« anger." The reason of this is
that natures which are inherently brave and sturdy
are prone to anger before they become softened by
disciphne. For certain qualities are innate only in
better natures, just as rich ground, although it is
neglected, produces a strong growth and a tall forest
is the mark of fertile soil. And so natures^that have^
innate \igoiir_like\vise produce A\Tath, and being hot
and fiery they have no room for anything weak and
feeble, but their energj' is defective, as is the case
witli even'thing that springs up A^thout cultivation
through the bounty merely of nature herself ; yes,
and, unless such natures are quickly tamed, wliat was
a disposition to braverv' tends to become recklessness
and temerit}". And tell me, is it not A\-ith the more
gen'Eteteniprei^-that th^ "ffilMer fatdtsrsuch as pityi

199

SENECA

misericordia et amor et verecundia ? Itaque saepe
tibi bonam indolem malis quoque suis ostendam ; sed
non ideo vitia non sunt, si naturae melioris indicia sunt.

4 Deinde omnes istae feritate liberae gentes leonum
luporumque ritu ut servire non possunt, ita nee
imperare ; non enim humani vim ingenii, sed feri
et intractabilis habent ; nemo autem regere potest

6 nisi qui et regi. Fere itaque imperia penes eos
fuere populos, qui mitiore caelo utuntur. In frigora
septemtrionemque vergentibus immansueta ingenia
sunt, ut ait poeta :

Suoque simillima caelo.

1 16. "Animalia," inquit, "generosissima habentur,
quibus multum inest irae." Errat qui ea in exemplum
hominis adducit, quibus pro ratione est impetus ; ho-
mini pro impetu ratio est. Sed ne illis quidem omni-
bus idem prodest ; iracundia leones adiuvat, pavor

2 cervos, accipitrem impetus, columbam fuga. Quid,
quod ne illud quidem verum est, optima animalia esse
iracundissima? Feras putem, quibus ex raptu alimenta
sunt, meliores quo iratiores ; patientiam laudaverim
boum et equorum frenos sequentium. Quid est autem
cur hominem ad tam infelicia exempla revoces, cum
habeas mundum deumque, quem ex omnibus animali-

» Frag. Poet. Rom. p. 359. 23 Baehrens.
200

ON ANGER, II. XV. 3-xvi. 2

and love^and-Jiashfulness, are-fJound combined? j
Accordinglyj I can often prove to you even by a man's
own e\'ils that his natural bent is good ; but these
e\'ils~'aTe~noneThe less \-ices even though they are
indicative of a superior nature. Then, again, all those
peoples which are, like lions and wolves, free by reason
of their very ^\ildness, even as they cannot submit to /
servitude, neither can they exercise dominion ; for
the ability they possess is not that of a human being
but of something v. ild and ungovernable ; and no
man is able to rule unless he can also submit to be
ruled. Consequently, the peoples who have held
empire^ arelJDiOiSolily those who live in a rather mild
climate. Those who Ke toward the frozen north have
savage tempers — tempers which, as the poet says, are

Most like their native skies."

" Those animals," you say, " which are much given
to anger are held to be the noblest." But it is -WTong
for one to hold up the creatures in whom impulse
takes the place of reason as a pattern for a human
being ; in roan reason takes the place of impulse. ■(
But not even in the case of such animals is the same
impulse equally profitable for all ; anger serves the
lion, fear the stag, aggressiveness the hawk, cowardice
the dove. But what if it is not even true that it
is the best animals that are most prone to anger ?
Wild beasts which gain their food by rapine, I can
beheve, do so the better the angrier they are ;
but it is the endurance of the ox and the horse,
obedient to the rein, that I would commend. For
what reason, however, do you direct man to such
miserable standards when you have the universe
and God, whom man of all creatures alone com-

201

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3 bus, ut solus imitetur, solus intellegit ? " Sim-
plicissimi," inquit, " omnium habentur iracundi."
Fraudulentis enim et versutis comparantur et sim-
plices videntur, quia expositi sunt. Quos quidem
non simplices dixerim sed incautos ; stultis, luxuriosis
nepotibusque hoc nomen imponimus et omnibus vitiis
parum callidis.

1 17. " Orator," inquit, " iratus aliquando meliof
est." Immo imitatus iratum ; nam et histriones
pronuntiando non irati populum movent, sed irati
bene agentes ; et apud iudiees itaque et in eontione ei
ubicumque alieni animi ad nostrum arbitrium agenc
sunt, modo iram, modo metum, modo misericordiar
ut aliis incutiamus, ipsi simulabimus, et saepe idl
quod veri adfectus non effecissent, effecit imitatio
adfectuum. " Languidus," inquit, " animus est qui

2 ira caret." Verum est, si nihil habet ira valentius.
Nee latronem oportet esse nee praedam, nee miseri-
cordem nee crudelem ; illius nimis molUs animus,
huius nimis durus est. Temperatus sit sapiens et ad
res fortius agendas non iram sed vim adhibeat.

1 18. Quoniam quae de ira quaeruntur tractavimus,
accedamus ad remedia eius. Duo autem, ut opinor,
sunt : ne incidamus in iram et ne in ira peccemus.
Ut in corporum cura alia de tuenda valetudine, alia de
restituenda praecepta sunt, ita aliter iram debemus
202

ON ANGER, II. XVI. 3-xyiii. 1

prebends in order that he alone naay imitate him ? •
" Tho^e who are prone to anger," you say, " are of
all men considered the most ingenuous." Yes, in
contrast with the tricky and the crafts' they do seem
ingenuous because they are undisguised. I, however,
should call them, not ingenuous, but reckless; that
is the-^^wrr^ire appbr to fools, to voluptuaries and
spendthrifts, and to all who ill disguise their %-ices.

" Tbg^orator," you say. " at times does better when
he is angr\'. Not so, but when he pretends to be -V"
angrv. For the actor likev.i^e stir^ an audience by
his declamation not when he is angry, but when he i-
plavs well the role of the angiy man ; consequently
before a jury, in the popular assembly, and wherever
we have to force our will upon the minds of other
people, we must pretend now anger, now fear, now
pity, in order that we may inspire others with the
same, and often the feigning of an emotion produces
an effect which would not be produced by genuine
emotiorn " The mind that is devoid of anger,"
yoiTsay, " is inert." Very true, unless it is actuated
by something more powerful than anger. A man
should be neither a highwayman nor his victim,
neither soft-hearted nor cruel ; the one is too mild
in spirit, the other too harsh. Let, the— wise man
show moderation, and to situations that require strong
measufesTeTTiim apply, not anger, but force.

Ha%'ing dealt with the questions that arise con- r, ■
cerni^^nger, let us now pass to the Consideration
of its remedies'. In my opinion, however, there are
but two rules — not to fall into anger, and in anger to
do no wTong. Just as in caring for the body certain
ruTes'~are to be obser^^ed for guarding the health,
others for restoring it, so vjue_JSLyst_-Use-xuie_naeans

203

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repellere, aliter compescere. Ut vitemus, quaedam
ad universam vitam pertinentia praecipientur ; ea in
educationem et in sequentia tempora dividentur.
2 Educatio maximam diligentiam plurimumque pro-
futuram desiderat ; facile est enim teneros adhue
animos componere, difficulter reciduntur vitia quae
nobiscum creverunt.

1 19. Opportunissima ad iracundiam fervidi animi
natura est. Nana cum elementa sint quattuor, ignis,
aquae, aeris, terrae, potestates pares his sunt, fervida,
frigida, arida atque umida. Et locorum itaque et ani-
malium et corporum et morum varietates mixtura
elementorum facit, et proinde aliquo magis incumbunt
ingenia, prout alicuius elementi maior vis abundavit.
Inde quasdam umidas vocamus aridasque regiones et
calidas et frigidas. Eadem animalium hominumque

2 discrimina sunt ; refert quantum quisque umidi in
se calidique contineat ; cuius in illo elementi portio
praevalebit, inde mores erunt. Iracundos fervida
animi natura faciet, est enim actuosus et pertinax
ignis ; frigidi mixtura timidos facit, pigrum est enim

3 contractumque frigus. Volunt itaque quidam ex
nostris iram in pectore moveri efFervescente circa cor
sanguine ; causa cur hie potissimum adsignetur irae
locus non alia est, quam quod in toto corpore caUdis-

4 simum pectus est. Quibus umidi plus inest, eorum

" In the order of the corresponding elements these are :
hot, moist, cold, dry. According to the Stoic view, in the
processes of nature the four elements were changed from one
into the other in fixed order. Cf. Cicero, De Nat, Deor. ii.
33. 84: "nam ex terra aqua, ex aqua oritur aer, ex aere
aether {i.e. ignis) ; deinde retrorsum vicissim ex aethere aer,
inde aqua, ex aqua terra infima."

204

ON ANGER, II. xviii. 1-xix. 4

to re£el_anger,_another to restrain it. In order that
; njayavoid anger, certain rules will be laid dowTi
which appTyTo" the whole period of life ; these ^\ill
fall under two heads— the period of education and
the l^erjpengds of life .

The period of education calls for the greatest, and
what >\'ill also prove to be the most profitable,
attentionT"^r it is easy to train the mind while it
is stiir~"tender7nBiut it is a difiicult matter to curb
the \'ices that have gro^^Ti up with us.

Th^fiery mind i^ by it- nature most hable to wrath.
For as there are t!ie four elements of fire, water, air,
and earth;~s() there are the corresponding properties,
the hot, the cold, the dry, and the moist." Accordingly,
the various diiferences of regions, of animals, of sub-
stances, and of characters are caused by the minghng
of the elements ; consequently, also, dispositions
show a greater bent in some one direction, according
as they abound in a larger supply of some one element.
Hence it is that we call some regions moist, some dry,
some hot, some cold. The same distinctions apply
to animals and to men ; it makes a great difference
how much of the moist and the hot each man has
in him; his character vnW be determined by that
element in him of which he will have a dominant
proportion. A fiery constitution of mind ^\i\\ pro-
duce A^Tathful men, for fire is active and stubborn ;
a mixture of cold makes cowards, for cold is sluggish
and shrunken. Consequently, some of our school
hold that anger is aroused in the breast by the boiling
of the blood about the heart ; the reason why this
particular spot is assigned to anger is none other than
the fact that the warmest part of the whole body is
the breast. In the case of those who have more of

205

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paulatim crescit ira, quia non est paratus illis calor
sed motu adquiritur ; itaquepuerorumfeminarumque
irae acres magis quam graves sunt levioresque dum
incipiunt. Siccis aetatibus vehemens robustaque est
ira, sed sine incremento, non multum sibi adiciens,
quia inclinaturum calor em frigus insequitur. Senes
difficiles et queruli sunt, ut aegri et convalescentes et
quorum aut lassitudine aut detractione sanguinis ex-
5 haustus est calor ; in eadem causa sunt siti fameque
tabidi et quibus exsangue corpus est maligneque
alitur et deficit. Vinum incendit iras, quia calor em
auget ; pro cuiusque natura quidam ebrii efferves-
cunt, quidam saucii. Neque ulla alia causa est, cur
iracundissimi sint flavi rubentesque, quibus talis
natura color est, qualis fieri ceteris inter iram solet ;
mobilis enim illis agitatusque sanguis est.

1 20. Sed quemadmodum natura quosdam proclives
in iram facit, ita multae incidunt causae, quae idem
possint quod natura. Alios morbus aut iniuria cor-
porum in hoc perduxit, alios labor aut continua per-
vigilia noctesque sollicitae et desideria amoresque ;
quidquid aliud aut corpori nocuit aut animo, aegram

2 mentem in querellas parat. Sed omnia ista initia
causaeque sunt ; plurimum potest consuetude, quae
si gravis est, alit vitium. Naturam quidem mutare
difllicile est, nee licet semel mixta nascentium
elementa convertere ; sed in hoc nosse profuit, ut

" Apparently the dominating element, and consequently
the natural tendency, varies according to age and condition.

* Designating conditions where in the combination of the
dry, the hot, and the cold, cold becomes dominant. " Cold "
was the property of air, and this element was associated with
calmness and poise (Lucretius, iii. 292 sq.). We may think
here, probably, of the middle periods of life.

" i.e., of the body.
206

ON ANGER, II. XIX. 4-xx. 2

the moist in them, anger grows up gradually because
they have no heat ready at hand but obtain it by
movement : and so theanger of children '^ and women
is more vehement than serious, and it is hghter at the
start. In the dry periods of life ^ anger is powerful
anB'strong, but is ^\ithout increase, sho^^'ing Uttle
gain because cold succeeds heat,*^ which is now on the
dechne. Old men are simply testy and querulous,
as also are invahds and convalescents and all whose
heat has been drained either by exhaustion or by
loss of blood ; the same is the condition of those who
are gaunt from thirst and hunger and of those whose
bodies are anaemic and ill-nourished and weak. Wine
kindles anger because it increases the heat ; some
boil over when thev are drunk, others when thev are
simply tipsy, each according to his nature. And the
only reason why red-haired and ruddy people are
extremely hot-tempered is that they have by nature
the colour which others are wont to assume in anger ;
for their blood is active and restless.

But while nature makes certain persons prone to
anger, tliere are hke\\'ise many accidental causes
which are just as effective as nature. Some are
brought into this condition by sickness or injury of
the body, others by toil or unceasing \'igils, by
nights of anxiety, by yearnings and the affairs of
love ; whatever else impairs either body or mind,
produces a diseased mental state prone to complaint.
But these are all only beginnings and causes ; habit
counts for most, and if this is deep-seated, it fosters
theTault: As for nature, it is difficult to alter it, and
we may not change the elements that were combined
once for all at our birth ; but though this be so, it
is prQfitablejtp know that fiery temperaments should

207

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calentibus ingeniis subtrahas vinum, quod pueris
Plato negandum putat et ignem vetat igne incitari.
Ne cibis quidem implendi sint ; distendentur enim

3 corpora et animi cum corpora tumescent. Labor illos
citra lassitudinem exerceat, ut minuatur, non ut
consumatur calor nimiusque ille fervor despumet.
Lusus quoque proderunt ; modica enim voluptas laxat

4 animos et temperat. Umidioribus siccioribusque et
frigidis non est ab ira periculum, sed ignaviora vitia
metuenda sunt, pavor et difficultas et desperatio et
suspiciones. Extollenda itaque fovendaque talia
ingenia et in laetitiam evocanda sunt. Et quia aliis
contra iram, aliis contra tristitiam remediis utendum
est nee dissimillimis tantum ista sed contrariis
curanda sunt, semper ei occurremus quod in-
creverit.

1 21. Plurimum, inquam, proderit pueros statim
salubriter institui ; difficile autem regimen est, quia
dare debemus operam, ne aut iram in illis nutriamus

2 aut indolem retundamus. Diligenti observatione res
indiget ; utrumque enim, et quod extollendum et
quod deprimendum est, similibus alitur, facile autem

3 etiam adtendentem similia decipiunt. Crescit licentia
spiritus, servitute comminuitur ; adsurgit, si lau-
datur et in spem sui bonam adducitur, sed eadem
ista insolentiam et iracundiam generant ; itaque

» Laws, ii. Q6Q a.
208

ON ANGER, II. XX. 2-xxi. 3

be kept_awa^froDCL wine, which Plato " thinks ought
to be forbidden to children, protesting against adding
fire to fire. Neither_should such men gorge ihem-
selves with food ; for their bodies will be distended
and'iKeir spirits mil become swollen along with the
body. They should get exercise in toil, stopping
short of exhaustion, to the end that their heat may
be reduced, but not used up, and that their excessive
fever may subside. Games also will be beneficial ;
for pleasure in moderation relaxes the mind and
gives it balance.- The more moist and the drier
natures, and also the cold, are in no danger from
anger, but they must beware of faults that are
more base — fear, moroseness, discouragement, and
suspicion. And so such natures have need of
encouragement and indulgence and the summons to
cheerfulness. And since certain remedies are to be
employed against anger, others against sullenness,
and the two faults are to be cured, not merely by
different, but even by contrary, methods, we shall
always attack the fault that has become the stronger.
It^jvill be of the utmost profit, I say, to give
children sound training from the very beginning ;
guidance, however, is difficult, because we ought to
take pains neither to develop in them anger nor
to blunt their native spirit. The matter requires
careful" watching ; for both qualities — that which
should be encouraged and that which should be
checked — are fed by like things, and like things easily
deceive even a close observer. By freedom the
spirit growSjJjy^ servitude it isjcrushed ; if it is com-
mended and is led^to expect good things of itself,
it mounts up, but these same measures breed in-
solence and temper ; therefore we must guide the
VOL. 1 p 209

SENECA

sic inter utrumque regendus est, ut modo frenis

4 utamur modo stimulis. Nihil humile, nihil servile
patiatur ; numquam illi necesse sit rogare sup-
pliciter nee prosit rogasse, potius causae suae et
prioribus factis et bonis in futurum promissis donetur.

5 In certaminibus aequalium nee vinci ilium patiamur
nee irasci ; demus operam, ut familiaris sit iis cum
quibus contendere solet, ut in certamine adsuescat
non nocere velle sed vincere ; quotiens superaverit
et dignum aliquid laude fecerit, attolli non gestire
patiamur, gaudium enim exultatio, exultationem

6 tumor et nimia aestimatio sui sequitur Dabimus
aliquod laxamentum, in desidiam vero otiumque
non resolvemus et procul a contactu dehciarum re-
tinebimus ; nihil enim magis facit iracundos quam
educatio mollis et blanda. Ideo unicis quo plus
indulgetur, pupillisque quo plus licet, corruptior
animus est. Non resistet offensis cui nihil umquam
negatum est, cuius lacrimas sollicita semper mater

7 abstersit, cui de paedagogo satisfactum est. Non
vides, ut maiorem quamque fortunam maior ira
comitetur ? In divitibus et nobilibus et magistratibus
praecipue apparet, cum quidquid leve et inane in
animo erat secunda se aura sustulit. Felicitas

<» i.e., the slave who was the child's special guardian, not
his teacher.
210

ON ANGER, II. XXI. 3-7

child between the two extremes, using now the curb,
no w_ the spm\ He shouM be subjected to nothing
that is humiliating, nothing that is servile ; it should
never be necessar}- for him to beg submissively, nor
should begging ever prove profitable — rather let his
own desert and his past conduct and good promise
of it in the future be rewarded. In struggles with
his playmates we should not permit him either to
be beaten or to get angry ; we should take pains to
see that he is friendly toward those A^ith whom it is
his practice to engage in order that in the struggle
he may form the habit of wishing not to hurt his
opponent but merely to mn. \Mienever he gets the
upper hand and does something praiseworthy, we
should allow him to be encouraged but not elated, for
joy leads to exultation, exultation to over-conceit and
a too high opinion of oneself. We shall grant him
some relaxation, though we shall not let him lapse
into sloth and ease, and we shall keep him far from
all taint of pampering ; for there is nothing that
makes the child hot-tempered so much as a soft
and coddhng bringing up. Therefore the more an
only child is indulged, and the more liberty a ward
is allowed, the more will his disposition be spoiled.
He will not withstand rebuffs who has never been
denied anything, whose tears have always been
wiped away by an anxious mother, who has been
allowecl^fo"'have his own way with his tutor." Do
you not observe that ^vith each advancing grade of
fortune there goes the greater tendency to anger ?
It is especially apparent in the rich, in nobles, and
in officials when all that was light and tri\ial
in "their mind soars aloft upon the breeze of good
fortune. Prosperity fosters wrath when the crowd

211

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iracundiam nutrit, ubi aures superbas adsentatorum]
turba circumstetit : " Tibi enim ille respondeat ?
non pro fastigio te tuo metiris ; ipse te proicis " et
alia quibus vix sanae et ab initio bene fundatae

8 mentes restiterunt. Longe itaque ab adsentatione
pueritia removenda est ; audiat verum. Et timeat
interim, vereatur semper, maioribus adsurgat. Nihil
per iracundiam exoret ; quod flenti negatum fuerit,
quieto ofFeratur. Et divitias parentium in conspectu

9 habeat, non in usu. Exprobrentur illi perperam
facta. Pertinebit ad rem praeceptores paedago-
gosque pueris placidos dari. Proximis adplicatur
omne quod tenerum est et in eorum similitudinem
crescit ; nutricum et paedagogorum rettulere mox

10 adulescentium mores, Apud Platonem educatus
puer cum ad parentes relatus vociferantem videret
patrem : " Numquam," inquit, " hoc apud Platonem
vidi." Non dubito quin citius patrem imitatus sit

11 quam Platonem. Tenuis ante omnia victus sit^
et non pretiosa vestis et similis cultus cum aequalibus.
Non irascetur aliquem sibi comparari quern ab initio
multis parem feceris.

1 22. Sed haec ad liberos nostros pertinent ; in
nobis quidem sors nascendi et educatio nee vitii
locum nee iam praecepti habet ; sequentia ordinanda

^ sit added by Ruhkopf.

" i.e., of older people. The discussion here passes to the
second topic formulated in ch. 18. 2.

* In the earlier discussion the reverse was true — anger was
associated with the fortune of birth (ch. 19), and precept
with the corrective value of education (ch. 21).

212

ON ANGER, II. XXI. 7-xxn. 1

o£JjtttererSi^athered around, whispers to the proud
ear : "\VTiat, should that man answer 1/011 back ?
Your estimate of yourself does not correspond with
your importance ; you demean yourself " — these and
other adulations, which even the sensible and origin-
ally well-poised mind resists Mith difficult}^. Child-
hood, therefore, should be kept far from all contact
with flattery ; let a child, hear the truth, sometimes
even let him fear, let him be respectful always, let
him rise before his elders. Let him gain no request
by anger ; when he is quiet let him be offered what
was refused when he wept. Let him, moreover, have
the s^Kf "15iit hot the use of his parents' wealth.
Wher^he has done wrong, let him be reproved. It
will workTo^the advantage of children to give them
teachers"and tutors of a quiet disposition. Every
youn^ thing attaches itself to what is nearest and
grows to be hke it ; the character of their nurses and
tutors is presently reproduced in that of the young
men. There was a boy who had been brought up
in the house of Plato, and when he had returned to
his parents and saw his father in a blustering rage,
his comment was : "I never saw this sort of thing
at Plato's." I doubt not that he was quicker to
copy his father than he was to copy Plato ! Above
all, let his food be simple, his clothing inexpensive,
and his style of li\-ing like that of his companions.
The boy ^vill never be angry at some one being
counted eqnal to himself, whom you have from the
first treated as the equal of many.

But these rules apply to our children. In our
case,** however, our lot at birth and our education
give no excuse — the one for the \'ice, or the

other, any longer, for instruction *4 jt_Js__their

213

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2 sunt. Contra primas itaque causas pugnare debe-
mus. Causa autem iracundiae opinio iniuriae est,
cui non facile credendum est. Ne apertis quidem M
manifestisque statim accedendum ; quaedam enim

3 falsa veri speciem ferunt. Dandum semper est
tempus ; veritatem dies aperit. Ne sint aures
criminantibus faciles ; hoc humanae naturae vitium
suspectum notumque nobis sit, quod, quae inviti
audimus, libenter credimus et, antequam iudicemus,

4 Irascimur. Quid, quod non criminationibus tantum,
sed suspicionibus impellimur et ex vultu risuque
alieno peiora interpretati innocentibus irascimur ?
Itaque agenda est contra se causa absentis et in
suspenso ira retinenda ; potest enim poena dilata
exigi, non potest exacta revocari.

1 23. Notus est ille tyrannicida, qui imperfecto opere
comprehensus et ab Hippia tortus, ut conscios
indicaret, circumstantes amicos tyranni nominavit
quibusque maxime caram salutem eius sciebat ; et
cum ille singulos, ut nominati erant, occidi iussisset,
interroganti, ecquis superesset, " Tu," inquit, " solus ;
neminem enim alium cui carus esses reliqui." Effecit
ira, ut tyrannus tyrannicidae manus accommodaret

2 et praesidia sua gladio suo caederet. Quanto ani-

" i.e., of birth and education.
" See Index.

214

ON ANGER, II. xxn. 2-xxin. 2

consequences^ that we must regulate. We ought,
therefore, to make our fight agamst the primary
causes. Now the cause of anger is an impres-
sion of injury, and to this we should not easily give
credence. We ought not to be led to it quickly
even by open and e\-ident acts ; for some things
are false, that, have the appearance of truth. We
should always allow some time ; a day discloses the
trutK^ EeTus not give ready ear to traducers ; this
weakness of human natm-e let us recognize and mis-
trust— we are glad to believe what we are loth to
hear, and we become angry before we can form a
judgement about it. And what is to be said when
we are actuated, not merely by charges, but by bare
suspicions, and ha\-ing put the worse interpretation
on another's look or smile, become angry at innocent
men ? Therefore we should plead the cause of the
absent person against ourselves, and anger should be
held in abeyance ; for punishment postponed can still
be exacted, but once exacted it cannot be recalled.

Every one knows the story of the tjTannicide who
having been arrested before he had finished his task
was put to torture by Hippias * in order that he
might be forced to reveal his accomplices ; where-
upon he named the friends of the tyrant who were
gathered around him, the very ones to whom, as he
knew, the safety of the tyrant was especially dear.
After Hippias had ordered them to be slain one by
one, as they were named, he asked whether there
was still any other. " No," said the man, " you
alone remain ; for I have left no one else who cares
anything about you." The result of his anger was
that the tyrant lent his might to the tyrant-slayer
and slew his owti protectors with his own sword.

215

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mosius Alexander ! Qui cum legisset epistulam
matris, qua admonebatur, ut a veneno Philippi
medici caveret, acceptam potionem non deterritus

3 bibit. Plus sibi de amico suo credidit. Dignus fuit
qui innocentem haberet, dignus qui faceret ! Hoc
eo magis in Alexandre laudo, quia nemo tarn obnoxius
irae fuit ; quo rarior autem moderatio in regibus,

4 hoc laudanda magis est. Fecit hoc et C. Caesar
ille qui victoria civili clementissime usus est ; cum
scrinia deprendisset epistularum ad Cn. Pompeium
missarum ab iis, qui videbantur aut in diversis aut
in neutris fuisse partibus, combussit. Quamvis
moderate soleret irasci, maluit tamen non posse ;
gratissimum putavit genus veniae nescire quid
quisque peccasset.

1 24. Plurimum mali credulitas facit. Saepe ne
audiendum quidem est, quoniam in quibusdam rebus
satius est decipi quam diffidere. Tollenda ex animo
suspicio et coniectura, fallacissima irritamenta.
" Ille me parum humane salutavit ; ille osculo meo
non adhaesit ; ille inchoatum sermonem cito abrupit ;
ille ad cenam non vocavit ; ilUus vultus aversior

2 visus est." Non deerit suspicioni argumentatio.
Simplicitate opus est et benigna rerum aestimatione.
Nihil nisi quod in oculos incurret manifestumque
erit credamus, et quotiens suspicio nostra vana

» i.e., his own judgement.
216

ON ANGER, II. XXIII. 2-xxiv. 2

How much more courageous was Alexander ! After
reading a letter from Ins mother warning him to
beware of poison from his physician Philip, he took
the draught and drank it without alarm. In the
case of his own friend he trusted himself "^ more. He
deserved to find him innocent, deserved to prove
him so ! I applaud this all the more in Alexander
because no man was so prone to anger ; but the
rarer self-control is among kings, the more praise-
worthy it becomes. The great Gains Caesar also
showed this, he who, \ictorious in civil war, used his
victory most mercifully ; ha\-ing apprehended some
packets of letters wTitten to Gnaeus Pompeius by those
who were beheved to belong either to the opposing
side or to the neutral part}', he burned them. Al-
though he was in the habit, within bounds, of indulg-
ing in anger, yet he preferred being unable to do so ;
he thought that the most gracious form of pardon
was not to know what the offence of each person had
been.

Creduhty is a source of very great mischief.
Often one should not even hsten to report, since
under some circumstances it is better to be deceived
thaii^to be suspicious. Suspicion and surmise —
provocations that are most deceptive — ought to be
banished from the mind. " That man did not give
me a civil greeting ; that one did not return my
kiss ; that one broke off the conversation abruptly ;
that one did not invite me to dinner ; that one
seemed to avoid seeing me." Pretext for suspicion
will jjpt be lacking. But there is need of frankness
and generosity in interpreting things. We should
beheve only what is thrust under our eyes and
becomes unmistakable, and every time our suspicion

SENECA

apparuerit, obiurgemus credulitatem ; haec enim
castigatio consuetudinem efficiet non facile credendi.

1 25. Inde et illud sequitur, ut minimis sordi-
dissimisque rebus non exacerbemur. Parum agilis
est puer aut tepidior aqua poturo aut turbatus torus
aut mensa neglegentius posita — ad ista concitari
insania est. Aeger* et infelieis valetudinis est quem
levis aura contraxit, adfecti oculi quos Candida vestis
obturbat, dissolutus deliciis cuius latus alieno labore

2 condoluit. Mindyriden aiunt fuisse ex Sybaritarum
civitate, qui cum vidisset fodientem et altius rastrum
adlevantem, lassum se fieri questus vetuit ilium opus
in conspectu suo facere ; idem habere se peius
questus est, quod foliis rosae duplicatis incubuisset.

3 Ubi animum simul et corpus voluptates corrupere,
nihil tolerabile videtur, non quia dura, sed quia
mollis patitur. Quid est enim, cur tussis alicuius
aut sternutamentum aut musca parum curiose fugata
in rabiem agat aut obversatus canis aut clavis ne-

4 glegentis servi manibus elapsa ? Feret iste aequo
animo civile convicium et ingesta in contione curiave
maledicta, cuius aures tracti subsellii stridor ofFendit ?
Perpetietur hie famem et aestivae expeditionis
sitim, qui puero male diluenti nivem irascitur ?

" Wine was often drunk mixed with hot water ; cf. Mart,
i. 11. 3.
218

ON ANGER, II. XXIV. 2-xxv. 4

proves to be groundless we should chide our credulity;
for this self-reproof will develop the habit of being
slow to believe.

Next, too, comes this — that we should not be ex-
asperated by trifling and paltry incidents. A slave is
too slow, or the water for the wine" is lukewarm, or
the couch-cushion disarranged, or the table too care-
lessly set — it is madness to be incensed by such things.
The man is ill or in a poor state of health who shrinks
from a slight draught ; something is WTong with a
man's eyes if they are offended by white clothing ;
the man is enfeebled by soft living who gets a pain
in his side from seeing somebody else at work ! The
story is that there was once a citizen of Sybaris, a
certain Mindyrides, who, seeing a man digging and
smnging his mattock on high, complained that it
made him weary and ordered the man not to do such
work in his sight ; the same man complained that
he felt worse because the rose-leaves upon which he
had lain were crumpled ! When pleasures have cor-
rupted both mind and body, nothing seems to be
tolerable, not because the suffering is hard, but
because the sufferer is soft. For why is it that we
are thro^v•n into a rage by somebody's cough or
sneeze, by negligence in chasing a fly away, by a dog's
hanging around, or by the dropping of a key that
has slipped from the hands of a careless servant ?
The poor wretch whose ears are hurt by the grating
of a bench dragged across the floor — will he be able
to bear with equanimity the strife of public life and
the abuse rained down upon him in the assembly or
in the senate-house ? Will he be able to endure the
hunger and the thirst of a summer campaign who
gets angry at his slave for being careless in mixing

219

SENECA

Nulla itaque res magis iracundiam alit quam luxuria
intemperans et impatiens ; dure tractandus animus
est, ut ictum non sentiat nisi gravem.

1 26. Irascimur aut iis, a quibus ne accipere quidem
potuimus iniuriam, aut iis, a quibus accipere in-

2 iuriam potuimus. Ex prioribus quaedam sine sensu
sunt, ut liber, quern minutioribus litteris scriptum
saepe proiecimus et mendosum laceravimus, ut vesti-
menta, quae, quia displicebant, scidimus. His irasci
quam stultum est, quae iram nostram nee meruerunt

3 nee sentiunt ! " Sed ofFendunt nos videlicet qui ilia
fecerunt." Primum saepe antequam hos apud nos
distinguamus irascimur. Deinde fortasse ipsi quoque
artifices excusationes iustas afferent. Alius non
potuit melius facere quam fecit, nee ad tuam con-
tumeliam parum didicit ; alius non in hoc ut te
ofFenderet fecit. Ad ultimum quid est dementius
quam bilem in homines collectam in res effundere ?

4 Atqui ut his irasci dementis est, quae anima carent,
sic mutis animalibus, quae nullam iniuriam nobis
faciunt, quia velle non possunt ; non est enim iniuria
nisi a consilio profecta. Nocere itaque nobis possunt
ut ferrum aut lapis, iniuriam quidem facere non

6 possunt. Atqui contemni se quidam putant, ubi
idem equi obsequentes alteri equiti, alteri con-
tumaces sunt, tamquam iudicio, non consuetudine

" i.e., with the wine.
220

I

ON ANGER, II. XXV. 4-xx\'i. 5

the snow ° ? Nothing, therefore, is more conducive
to anger than the intemperance and intolerance that
comes from soft Hving ; the mind ought to be schooled
by hardship to feel none but a crushing blow.

Our anger is stirred either by those from whom
w^^could notTiave received any injur)' at all, or by
those from whom we might have received one. To
the fbrmer class belong certain inanimate things,
such as the manuscript which we often hurl from us
because it is WTitten in too small a script or tear up
because it is full of mistakes, or the articles of cloth-
ing which we pull to pieces because we do not like
them. But how foolish it is to get angr)- at these
thinga^vvhich neither desen'e our \\Tath nor feel it !
" But of course," you say, " it is those who made
them^who have given us the affront." But, in the
first place, we often get angry before we make this
distinction clear to our minds ; in the second place,
perhaps also the makers themselves -s^ill have reason-
able excuses to offer : this one could not do better
work than he did, and it was not out of disrespect for
you that he was poor at his trade ; another did not
aim to affront you by what he did. In the end what
can be madder than to accumulate spleen against men
and then vent it upon things ? But as it is the act of a
madman to become angr}- aFThmgs 'without life, it is
not less mad to be a.ngry at dumb animals, which do
us no~iiijury because they cannot ^\^ll to do so ; for
there~can be no injury unless it arises from design.
Therefore they can harm us just as the sword or a
stone may do, but they cannot injure us. But some
people think that a man is insulted when the same
horses which are submissive to one rider are rebelhous
toward another, just as if it were due to the animal's

221

SENECA

et arte tractandi quaedam quibusdam subiectiora
6 sint. Atqui ut his irasci stultum est, ita pueris et
non multum a puerorum prudentia distantibus ;
omnia enim ista peccata apud aequum iudicem pro
innocentia habent imprudentiam.

1 27. Quaedam sunt quae nocere non possunt
nullamque vim nisi beneficaih et salutarem habent,
ut di immortales, qui nee volunt obesse nee possunt ;
natura enim ilhs mitis et placida est, tam longe re-

2 mota ab ahena iniuria quam a sua. Dementes itaque
et ignari veritatis ilUs imputant saevitiam maris,
immodicos imbres, pertinaciam hiemis, cum interim
nihil horum quae nobis nocent prosuntque ad nos
proprie derigatur. Non enim nos causa mundo
sumus hiemem aestatemque referendi ; suas ista
leges habent, quibus divina exercentur. Nimis nos
suspicimus, si digni nobis videmur propter quos tanta
moveantur. Nihil ergo horum in nostram iniuriam

3 fit, immo contra nihil non ad salutem. Quaedam
esse diximus quae nocere non possint, quaedam quae
nolint. In iis erunt boni magistratus parentesque
et praeceptores et iudices, quorum castigatio sic
accipienda est quomodo scalpellum et abstinentia

4 et alia quae profutura torquent. AfFecti sumus

222

ox ANGER, II. xx\i. 5-xx\ii. 4

choice and not rather to the rider's practised skill in
management that certain animals prove more tract-
able to certain men. But it is as foolish to be angry
with these as it is to be angr}- with children and all
who are not much different from children in point of
wisdom : for in the eyes of a just judge all such
miitake- can plead ignorance as the equivalent of
innocence.

But there are certain agents that are unable to
harm us and have no power that is not beneficent
and salutary, as, for example, the immortal gods,
who neither \A'ish nor are able to hurt ; for they
are by nature mild and gentle, as incapable of
injuring others as of injuring themselves. Those,
therefore, are mad and ignorant of truth who lay to
the gods' charge the cruelt\- of the sea, excessive rains,
and the stubbornness of ^^inter, whereas all the while
none of the phenomena which harm or help us are
planned personally for us. For it is not because of us
that the universe brings back winter and summer ;
these have their ovm laws, by which the di\'ine plan
operates. We have too high a regard for ourselves
if we deem ourselves worthy to be the cause of
such mighty movements. Therefore none of these
phenomena takes place for the purpose of injuring
us, nay, on the contrary, they all tend toward our
benefit. I have said that there are certain agents
that cannot, certain ones that would not, harm us. To
the latter class Mill belong good magistrates and
parents, teachers and judges, and we ought to
submit to the chastening they give in the same spirit
in which we submit to the surgeon's knife, a regimen
of diet, and other things which cause suffering that
they may bring profit. We have been visited \\ith

223

SENECA

poena ; succurrat non tantum quid patiamur, sed
quid fecerimus, in consilium de vita nostra mittamur ;
si modo verum ipsi nobis dicere voluerimus, pluris
litem nostram aestimabimus.

1 28. Si volumus aequi rerum omnium indices esse,
hoc primum nobis persuadeamus, neminem nostrum
esse sine culpa ; hinc enim maxima indignatio
oritur : " Nihil peccavi " et " nihil feci." Immo
nihil fateris ! Indignamur aliqua admonitione aut
coercitione nos castigatos, cum illo ipso tempore
peccemus, quod adicimus malefactis adrogantiam

2 et contumaciam. Quis est iste qui se profitetur
omnibus legibus innocentem ? Ut hoc ita sit, quam
angusta innocentia est ad legem bonum esse !
Quanto latius officiorum patet quam iuris regula !
Quam multa pietas, humanitas, liberalitas, iustitia,
fides exigunt, quae omnia extra publicas tabulas

3 sunt ! Sed ne ad illam quidem artissimam in-
nocentiae formulam praestare nos possumus. Alia
fecimus, alia cogitavimus, alia optavimus, aliis
favimus ; in quibusdam innocentes sumus, quia non

4 successit. Hoc cogitantes aequiores simus delin-
quentibus, credamus obiurgantibus ; utique bonis
ne irascamur (cui enim non, si bonis quoque ?),
minime diis ; non enim illorum vi,^ sed lege mor-

^ vi added by Hermes.
224

ON ANGER, II. XXVII. 4-xx\'iii. 4

punishment ; then let it bring up the thought, not
so much of what we suffer, as of Avhat we have done ;
let us summon ourselves to give a verdict upon our
past life ; if only we are wilUng to be frank ^vith
ourselves, we shall assess our fines at a still higher
figure.

If, we are willing in all matters to play the just
judgfiiJet us convince ourselves first of this — that
no one of us is free from fault. For most of our
indignation arises from our saying, " I am not to
blairi^" " I have done nothing wTong." Say,
rather, you admit nothing WTong ! We chafe against
the censure oT some reprimand or chastisement
although at the very time we are at fault because
we are adding to -wrong -doing arrogance and
obstinacy. What man is there who can claim that
in thg eyes of every law he is innocent ? But assum-
ing that this may be, how limited is the innocence
whose standard of virtue is the law ! How much
more comprehensive is the principle of duty than"/
that of law ! How many are the demands laid upon
us by the sense of duty, humanity, generosity, justice,
integrity — all of which lie outside the statute books ! '^
But even under that other exceedingly narrow
definition of innocence we cannot vouch for our
claim. Some sins we have committed, some we
have^contemplated, some we have desired, some
we have encouraged ; in the case of some we are
innocent only because we did not succeed. Bearing
this in mind, let us be more just to transgressors,
more heedful to those who rebuke us ; especially let
us not be angry with the good (for who will escape
if we are to be angr}^ even with the good ?), and least
of^^afrvvillt the gods.~';For_it is not by their power,
VOL. I Q 225

SENECA

talitatis patimur quidquid incommodi accidit. " At
morbi doloresque incurrunt." Utique aliquo de-
fungendum est domicilium putre sortitis.

Dicetur aliquis male de te locutus ; cogita an

5 prior feceris, cogita de quam multis loquaris. Cogi-
temus, inquam, alios non facere iniuriam sed re-
ponere, alios pro nobis facere, alios coactos facere,
alios ignorantes, etiam eos, qui volentes scientesque
faciunt, ex iniuria nostra non ipsam iniuriam petere ;
aut dulcedine urbanitatis prolapsus est, aut fecit
aliquid, non ut nobis obesset, sed quia consequi ipse
non poterat, nisi nos repulisset ; saepe adulatio,

6 dum blanditur, offendit. Quisquis ad se rettulerit,
quotiens ipse in suspicionem falsam inciderit, quam
multis officii s suis fortuna speciem iniuriae induerit,
quam multos post odimn amare coeperit, poterit
non statim irasci, utique si sibi tacitus ad singula^
quibus offenditur dixerit : " Hoc et ipse commisi."

7 Sed ubi tam aequum iudicem invenies ? Is qui
nulUus non uxorem concupiscit et satis iustas causas
putat amandi, quod aliena est, idem uxorem suam
aspici non vult ; et fidei acerrimus exactor est
perfidus, et' mendacia persequitur ipse periurus, et
litem sibi inferri aegerrime calumniator patitur ;
pudicitiam servulorum suorum adtemptari non vult
226

ON ANGER, II. XXVIII. 4-7

but by the terms of our mortality, that we are
forcea to suffer whatever ill befalls. " But," you
say, " sickness and pain assail us." At any rate
there must be an ending some time, seeing that we
have been given a crumbling tenement !

it^wjlljbe said thjit some one spoke ill of you ;
consider wheTher you spoke ill of him first, consider
how, many there are of whom you speak ill. Let us
consider, 1 say, that some are not doing us an injury
but repaying one, that others are acting for our good,
that some are acting under compulsion, others in
ignorance, that even those who are acting intention-
ally and ^vittingly do not, while injuring us, aim only
at the injury ; one slipped into it allured by his wit,
another did something, not to obstruct us, but
because he could not reach his o^^'n goal without
pushing us back ; often adulation, while it flatters,
offends. If any one will recall how often he himself
has fallen under undeserved suspicion, how many of
his good services chance has clothed Avith the appear-
ance of injury, how many persons whom once he
hated he learned to love, he -will be able to avoid all
hasty anger, particularly if as each offence occurs he
vnW first say to himself in silence : " I myself have
ak(> hppn guilty nf thif;" But where will you find
a judge so just ? The man who covets everybody's
wife and considers the mere fact that she belongs
to another an ample and just excuse for loving her — ■
this same man will not have his own wife looked at ;
the strictest enforcer of loyalty is the traitor, the
punisher of falsehood is himself a perjurer, and the
trickster lavvj'er deeply resents an indictment being
brought against himself ; the man who has no regard
for his own chastity \vi\\ permit no tampering with

227

SENECA

8 qui non pepercit suae. Aliena vitia in oculis habe-
mus, a tergo nostra sunt ; inde est quod tempestiva
filii convivia pater deterior filio castigat, et nihil
alienae luxuriae ignoscit qui nihil suae negavit, et
homieidae tyrannus irascitur, et punit furta sacrilegus.
Magna pars hominum est quae non peccatis irascitur
sed peccantibus. Faciet nos moderatiores respectus
nostri, si consuluerimus nos : " Numquid et ipsi
aliquid tale commisimus ? Numquid sic erravimus ?
Expeditne nobis ista damnare ? "

1 29. Maximum remedium irae mora est. Hoc ab
ilia pete initio, non ut ignoscat, sed ut iudicet : graves
habet impetus primos ; desinet, si expectat. Nee
universam illam temptaveris tollere ; tota vinceturjj

2 dum partibus carpitur. Ex is, quae nos offendunt,!
alia renuntiantur nobis, alia ipsi audimus aut videmus.
De iis, quae narrata sunt, non debemus cito credere ;|
multi mentiuntur, ut decipiant, multi, quia deceptij
sunt. Alius criminatione gratiam captat et fingit
iniuriam, ut videatur doluisse factam ; est aliquisl
malignus et qui amicitias cohaerentis diducere veHt ;'
est subdicax^ et qui spectare ludos cupiat et ex

3 longinquo tutoque speculetur quos conlisit. Dej
parvola summa iudicaturo tibi res sine teste nor
probaretur, testis sine iureiurando non valeretJ

^ subdicax Badstuhner : subprocax Lipsius : suspicax ALj:

" Cf. Catullus, xxii. 20 sq. :

suns ciiique attributus est error :
sed non videmus manticae quod in tergo est..

228

ON ANGER, II. xxvni. 8-xxix. 3

that of his slaves. The vices of others we keep
before our eyes, our own behind our back'' ; hence it
happens "that a father who is even worse than his
son rebukes his son's untimely revels, that a man
does not pardon another's excesses who sets no bound
to his ovm, that the murderer stirs a tyrant's wrath,
and the temple-robber punishes theft. It is not_^
^vith the sins but with the sinners that rnost men
are angry. We shall become more tolerant from
self-inspection if we cause ourselves to consider :
" Have we ourselves never been guilty of such an
act ? Have we never made the same mistake ? Is it
expedient for us to condemn such conduct ? "

T^re^est corrective of anger lies in delay. Beg
this concessiorTfrbrn anger at the first, not in order
that it may pardon, but in order that it may judge.
ItsTitst as'Sanlts are heavy ; it will leave off if it
waits. And do not try to destroy it all at once ;
attacked piecemeal, it will be completely con-
quered. Of the things which offend us some are
reported to us, others we ourselves hear or see. As
to what is told us, we should not be quick to beheve ;
many falsify in order that they may deceive ; many
others, because they themselves are deceived. One
courts our favour by making an accusation and
invents an injury in order to show that he regrets
the occurrence ; then there is the man who is spite-
ful and wishes to break up binding friendships, and
the one who is sharp-tongued and, eager to see the
sport, watches from a safe distance the friends whom
he has brought to blows. If the question of even a
small payment should come before you to be judged,
you would require a ^^■itness to prove the claim, the
witness Avould have no weight except on oath, you

229

SENECA

utrique parti dares actionem, dares tempus, non
semel audires ; magis enim Veritas elucet quo
saepius ad manum venit. Amicum condemnas de
praesentibus ? Antequam audJas, antequam inter-
roges, antequam illi aut accusatorem suum nosse
liceat aut crimen, irasceris ? lam enim, iam

4 utrimque quid diceretur audisti ? Hie ipse, qui
ad te detulit, desinet dicere, si probare debuerit.
" Non est," inquit, " quod me protrahas ; ego pro-
ductus negabo ; alioqui nihil umquam tibi dicam
Eodem tempore et instigat et ipse se certamini
pugnaeque subtrahit. Qui dicere tibi nisi clam non
vult, paene non dicit. Quid est iniquius quam
secreto credere, palam irasci ?

1 30. Quorundam ipsi testes sumus ; in his naturam
excutiemus voluntatemque facientium. Puer est ;
aetati donetur, nescit an peccet. Pater est ; aut
tantum profuit, ut ilU etiam iniuriae ius sit, aut
fortasse ipsum hoc meritum eius est quo ofFendimur.
Mulier est ; errat. lussus est ; necessitati quis nisi
iniquus suscenset ? Laesus est ; non est iniuria pati
quod prior feceris. ludex est ; plus credas ilhus
sententiae quam tuae. Rex est ; si nocentem punit,

230

i

ON ANGER, II. XXIX. 3-xxx. 1

would grant to both parties the right of process,
you would allow them time, you would give more
than one hearing ; for the oftener you come to
close quarters vnih truth, the more it becomes
manifest. Do you condemn a friend on the spot ?
Will you be angry >;\-ith him before you hear his side,
before you question him, before he has a chance to
know either his accuser or the charge ? What, have
you already heard what is to be said on both sides ?
The man who gave you the information will of his
own accord stop talking if he is forced to prove what
he says. " No need to drag me forward," he says ; "if
I am brought forward I shall make denial ; other-
wise, I shall never tell you anything." At one and
the same time he both goads you on and ^\-ithdraws
himself from the strife and the battle. The man
who is un^^ilBng to tell you anything except in
secret has, we may almost say, nothing to tell. \\'hat
is more unfair than to give credence secretly but to
be a.ngrj openly ?

To some offences we can bear witness ourselves ;
in such cases we shall search into the character and
the purpose of the offender. Does a child offend ?
Excuse ^sllbuld be made for his age — he does not
know what is A\Tong. A father ? Either he has
beeir"s?J'goad"to us that he has the right even to
injure us, or mayhap the very act which offends us
is really a serAice. A woman ? It was a blunder. -^
Some one under orders ? WTiat fair-minded person
chafes against the ine\itable ? Some one who has been
wronged ? There is no injustice in your having to
submit to that which you were the first to inflict.
Is it a judge ? You should trust his opinion more
than your own. Is it a king ? If he punishes you

SENECA

2 cede iustitiae, si innocentem, cede fortunae. Mutum
animal est aut simile muto ; imitaris illud, si irasceris.
Morbus est aut calamitas ; levius transiliet sus-
tinentem. Deus est ; tarn perdis operam cum illi
irasceris, quam cum ilium alteri precaris iratum.
Bonus vir est qui iniuriam fecit ; noli credere.
Malus ; noli mirari ; dabit poenas altei-i quas debet
tibi, et iam sibi dedit qui peccavit.

1 31. Duo sunt, ut dixi, quae iracundiam concitent :
primum, si iniuriam videmur accepisse — de hoc satis
dictum est; deinde, si iniqiie accepisse — de hoc
dicendum est. Iniqua quaedam iudicant homines,
quia pati non debuerint, quaedam, quia non spera-
verint. Indigna putamus quae inopinata sunt ;

2 itaque maxime commovent, quae contra spem ex-
pectationemque evenerunt, nee aliud est quare in
domesticis minima ofFendant, in amicis' iniuriam

3 vocemus neglegentiam. " Quomodo ergo," inquit,
" inimicorum nos iniuriae movent ? " Quia non ex-
pectavimus illas aut certe non tantas. Hoc efficit
amor nostri nimius. Inviolatos nos etiam inimicis
iudicamus esse debere ; regis quisque intra se animum

4 habet, ut hcentiam sibi dari velit, in se nolit. Itaque
nos aut insolentia iracundos facit aut ignorantia
rerum ; quid enim mirum est malos mala facinora

232

1

ON ANGER, II. xx\. 2-xxxi. 4

when you are guilt}', submit to justice, if when you —
are-innncent^- submit to fortune. A dumb animal
perhaps, or something just as dumb ? You become
hke it if you get angr}-. Is it a sickness or a mis-
fortune ? It will pass by more Ughtly if you bear
up under it. Is it God ? You waste your pains
when you become angry ^\-ith him as much as when _-
yoiTpray himrto be angry with another. Is it a good i
man~who hasdone you injury ? Do not beheve it.
A bad man ? Do not be surprised ; he aWII suffer
from another the punisliment which is due from vou, _, ^
and he who has sinned has already punished himself. ''

Thfere are, as I have said, two conditions under
which anger is aroused : first, if we think that we
have received an injury — about this enough has been
said ; second, if we think that we have received it )>ivt»ce t
unjusth'=^about this something must now be said, ^•'m t
Men judge some happenings to be unjust because
they did not deserve them, some merely because
they did not expect them. \Miat is unexpected we
count undesened. And so we are mightily stirred
by all that happens contrary to hope and expectation,
and fHIs^is the only reason why in domestic affairs we
are vexed i>T trifles, why in the case of friends we call
neglect a wTong. " Why, then," you query, " do
the ^\Tongs done by our enemies stir us ? " Because
we did not expect them, or at any rate not MTongs
so serious. This, in turn, is due to excessive self-
love. We decide that we ought not to be harmed
even by our enemies ; each one in his heart has
the king's point of view, and is -wilhng to use Ucence,
but umnlling to suffer from it. And so it^is either
arrogance or ignorance that makes us prone to
anger ; for what is there surprising in A^icked men's

233

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edere ? Quid novi est, si inimicus nocet, amicus
offendit, filius labitur, servus peccat ? Turpissimam
aiebat Fabius imperatori excusationem esse : " Non
putavi," ego turpissimam homini puto. Omnia puta,
expecta ; etiam in bonis moribus aliquid exsistet

5 asperius. Fert humana natura insidiosos animos,
fert ingratos, fert cupidos, fert impios. Cum de
unius moribus iudicabis, de publicis cogita.

Ubi maxime gaudebis, maxime metues. Ubi
tranquilla tibi omnia videntur, ibi nocitura non
desunt sed quiescunt. Semper futurum aliquid
quod te offendat existima. Gubernator numquam
ita totos sinus securus explicuit, ut non expedite

6 ad contrahendum armamenta disponeret. Illud
ante omnia cogita, foedam esse et exsecrabilem vim
nocendi et alienissimam homini, cuius beneficio etiam
saeva mansuescunt. Aspice elephantorum iugo
colla summissa et taurorum pueris pariter ac feminis
persultantibus terga impune calcata et repentis inter
pocula sinusque innoxio lapsu dracones et intra
domum ursorum leonumque ora placida tractantibus
adulantisque dominum feras ; pudebit cum anima-

7 libus permutasse mores. Nefas est nocere patriae ;
ergo civi quoque, nam hie pars patriae est — sanctae
partes sunt, si universum venerabile est, — ergo et
homini, nam hie in maiore tibi urbe civis est. Quid

<• Cf. Pliny, iVa«. Hist. viii. 2. 4 : " Romae iuncti primum
subiere currum Pompei Magni Africano triumpho."
" Gf. Martial v. 31. 1-4:

aspice quam placidis insultet turba iuvencis
et sua quam facilis pondera taurus amet ;
cornibus hie pendet summis, vagus ille per armos
currit et in toto ventilat arma bove.

« i.e., by letting anger turn us into brutes, which are
naturally fierce.
234

ON ANGER, II. XXXI. 4-7

practising wicked deeds ? WTiy is it strange if an
enemy injures us, a friend offends us, a son errs, or
a servant blunders ? Fabius used to say that tlxe
excuse, " I did not think," was the one most shame-
ful for a commander ; I think it most shameful for
any man. Think of everything, expect everything ;
even in good characters some unevenness will appear.
Human nature begets hearts that are deceitful, that
are ungrateful, that are covetous, that are undutiful.
When you are about to pass judgement on one single
man's character, reflect upon the general mass.

WTien you are about to rejoice most, you will have
most to fear. When everything seems to you to be
peaceful, the forces that will harm are not non-
existent, but inactive. Alwa^:§__belieye that there
will come some blow to strike you. No skipper is
ever^s"o reckless as to unfurl all his canvas without
having his tackle in order for quickly shortening sail.
AbQX£_^all, bear this in mind, that the power of hijury
is \il^an(l (kt ratable and most unnatural for man, by
whose kindness even fierce beasts are tamed. Look
how~eIepHants " submit their necks to the yoke, how
boys and women alike leap upon bulls ^ and tread
their backs unhurt, how serpents crawl in harmless
course among our cups and over our laps, how gentle
are the faces of bears and lions when their trainers
are inside their cages, and how wild beasts fawn
upon their keeper — we shall blush to have ex-
changed characters with the beasts'^! To injure
one's country is a crime ; consequently, also, to injure
a fellow-citizen — ^for he is a part of the country, and
if we reverence the whole, the parts are sacred — con-
sequently to injure any man is a crime, for he is your
fellow-citizen in the greater commonwealth. \\Tiat

235

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si nocere velint manus pedibus, manibus oculi ?
Ut omnia inter se membra consentiunt, quia singula
servari totius interest, ita homines singulis parcent,
quia ad coetum geniti sunt, salva autem esse societas
8 nisi custodia et amore partium non potest. Ne
viperas quidem et natrices, et si qua morsu aut ictu
nocent, effligeremus, si in reliquum mansuefacere
possemus aut efficere, ne nobis aliisve periculo essent.
Ergo ne homini quidem nocebimus, quia peccavit,
sed ne peccet, nee umquam ad praeteritum, sed ad
futurum poena referetur ; non enim irascitur, sed
cavet. Nam si puniendus est cuicumque pravum
maleficumque ingenium est, poena neminem excipiet.

1 32. " At enim ira habet aliquam voluptatem et
dulce est dolorem reddere." Minime ; non enim ut
in beneficus honestum est merita meritis repensare,
ita iniurias iniuriis. IlUc vinci turpe est, hie vincere.
Inhumanum verbum est et quidem pro iusto recep-
tum ultio, et talio non multum difFert^ nisi ordine ;
qui dolorem regerit tantum excusatius peecat.

2 M. Catonem ignorans^ in balineo quidam percussit
imprudens ; quis enim illi sciens faceret iniuriam ?
Postea satis facienti Cato : " Non memini," inquit,

^ et quidem . . . difFert AL : ultio et deleted by most
editors : et vitiose quidem pro iusto receptum, talio. pro-
posed by Qertz : et quidem pro iusta receptum ultione
" talio." Non multum difFert nisi ordine, qui dolorem
regerit : P. Thomas,

^ ignorans most editors consider a gloss on imprudens.

" In the code of the XII. Tables talio is the Mosaic "an
eye for an eje," and ultio {dolorem reg.rere), says Seneca,
is merely a more excusable form of this savage law,

236

ON ANGER, II. XXXI. 7-xxxii. 2

if the hands should desire to harm the feet, or the
eyes the hands ? As all the members of the body
are in harmony one \\'ith another because it is to the
advantage of the whole that the indi\'idual members
be unharmed, so mankind should spare the individual
man, because all are bom for a Ufe of fellowship, and
socielEy can be kept unharmed only by the mutual
protection and love of its parts. We would not
erusK~even a \'iper or a water-snake or any other
creature that harms by bite or sting if we could
make them kindly in future, or keep them from being
a source of danger to ourselves and others. Neither,
therefore, shall we injure a man because he has done
wrong, but in order to keep him from doing \^Tong,
and his punishment shall never look to the past, but
always to the future ; for that course is not anger,
but precaution. For if every one whose nature is evil
and^epraved must be punished, punishment will
exempt no one.

" BuL-of course, tkere. is .some pleasure in anger,"
you gay, " and it is sweet to return a smart." Not at
all ; for it is not honourable, as in acts of kindness to
requite benefits v\ith benefits, so to requite injuries
with injuries. In the one case it is shameful to be
outdone, in the other not to be outdone. " Revenge "
is an inhuman word and yet one accepted as legiti-
mate, and " retahation " is not much different
except in rank ; the man who returns a smart
commits merely the more pardonable sin." Once
when Marcus Cato was in the pubhc bath, a certain
man, not knowing him, struck him unvvittingly ; for
who would knovvingly have done injury to that
great man ? Later, when the man was making
apology, Cato said, " I do not recall that I received

2.S7

SENECA

" me percussum." Melius putavit non agnoscere
3 quam vindicare. " Nihil," inquis, " illi post tantam
petulantiam mali factum est ? " Immo multum
boni ; coepit Catonem nosse. Magni animi est
iniurias despieere ; ultionis contumeliosissimum genus
est non esse visum dignum, ex quo peteretur ultio.
Multi leves iniurias altius sibi demisere, dum vindi-
cant. Ille magnus et nobilis, qui more magnae
ferae latratus minutorum canum securus exaudit.

1 33. " Minus," inquit, " contemnemur, si vindi-
caverimus iniuriam." Si tamquam ad remedium
venimus, sine ira veniamus, non quasi dulce sit
vindicari, sed quasi utile ; saepe autem satius fuit
dissimulare quam ulcisci. Potentiorum iniuriae
hilari vultu, non patienter tantum ferendae sunt ;
facient iterum, si se fecisse crediderint. Hoc habent
pessimum animi magna fortuna insolentes : quos

2 laeserunt et oderunt. Notissima vox est eius qui
in cultu regum consenuerat. Cum ilium quidam
interrogaret, quomodo rarissimam rem in aula con-
secutus esset, senectutem : " Iniurias," inquit, " ac-
cipiendo et gratias agendo." Saepe adeo iniuriam
vindicare non expedit, ut ne fateri quidem expediat.

3 C. Caesar Pastoris splendidi equitis Romani filium
cum in custodia habuisset munditiis eius et cul-
238

ON ANGER, II. XXXII. 2-xxxiii. 3

a blow." It was better, he thought, to ignore the
incident than to resent it. " Then the fellow," you
ask, "got no punishment for such an act of rudeness?"
No, but much good — he began to know Cato. Onlv-^
a great soul can be superior to injur}'^ ; the most
hurmliating kind of revenge is to have it appear that
the man was not worth taking revenge upon. Many
have taken slight injuries too deeply to heart in the
act of revenging them. He is a great and noble man
who acts as does the lordly ■s\'ild beast that Ustens
unconcernedly to the bajnng of tiny dogs.

" iTvce^avenge an injury," you say, " we shall be
less ^bjecFTo-fconternpt." If we must resort to a
reriae3v, as if were, for contempt, let us do so ^vithout
anger— ^not with the plea that revenge is sweet, but
that it is expedient ; it is often, however, better to
feigtr^gnoranee of an act than to take vengeance for
it. Injuries from the more powerful must be borne,
not merely with submission, but even with a cheerful
countenance ; they will repeat the offence if they are
con\Tnced that they have succeeded once. Men
whose spirit has gro>\'n arrogant from the great
favour of fortune have this most serious fault — those
whom they have injured they also hate. The words
of the man who had grown old in doing homage to
kings are famihar to all. \Vlien some one asked
him how he had attained what was so rarely achieved
at court; namely old age, he replied, " By accepting
injuries and returning thanks for them." So far from
its being expedient to avenge injuries, it is often
inexpedient even to acknowledge them. Gaius
Caesar, offended with the son of Pastor, a dis-
tinguished Roman knight, because of his foppishness
and his too elaborately dressed hair, sent him to

239

SENECA

tioribus capillis offensus, rogante patre ut salutein
sibi filii concederet, quasi de supplicio admonitus
duci protinus iussit ; ne tamen omnia inhumane
faceret adversum patrem, ad cenam ilium eo die

4 invitavit. Venit Pastor vultu nihil exprobrante.
Propinavit ilh Caesar heminam et posuit ilH custodem;
perduravit miser, non ahter quam si fih sanguinem
biberet. Unguentum et coronas misit et observare
iussit an sumeret ; sumpsit. Eo die, quo filium
extulerat, immo quo non extulerat, iacebat conviva
centesimus et potiones vix honestas natalibus libe-
rorum podagricus senex hauriebat, cum interim non
lacrimam emisit, non dolorem aliquo signo erumpere
passus est ; cenavit tamquam pro fiho exorasset.

5 Quaeris, quare ? Habebat alterum. Quid ille
Priamus ? Non dissimulavit iram et regis genua
complexus est, funestam perfusamque cruore fiH
manum ad os suum retulit, cenavit ? Sed tamen
sine unguento, sine coronis, et ilium hostis saevis-
simus multis solaciis, ut cibum caperet, hortatus est,
non ut pocula ingentia super caput posito custode

6 sicearet. Contempsisses^ Romanum patrem, si sibi
timuisset ; nunc iram compescuit pietas. Dignus
fuit cui permitteretur a convivio ad ossa fili legenda

^ contempsisses Hermes, after Gertz : contempsisset AL.

" Cf. Iliad, xxiv. 477-479, for the incident. Achilles had
slain Hector, and P.riam, a suppliant in the lodge of the
victor, now seeks to ransom the body of his son.

240

ON ANGER, II. XXXIII. 3-6

prison ; when the father begged that his son's life
might be spared, Caesar, just as if he had been
reminded to punish him, ordered him to be executed
forth^\-ith ; yet in order not to be wholly brutal to
the father, he in\-ited him to dine with him that day.
Pastor actually came and showed no reproach in his
countenance. Caesar, taking a cup, proposed his
health and set some one to watch him ; the poor
>\Tetch went through ^\ith it, although he seemed to
be drinking the blood of his son. Caesar then sent
him perfume and garlands of flowers and gave orders
to watch whether he used them : he used them.
On the very day on which he had buried — no, before
he had yet buried — his son, he took his place among
a hundred dinner-guests, and, old and gouty as he
was, drained a draught of wine that would scarce have
been a seemly potion even on the birthday of one
of his children, all the while shedding not a single
tear nor by any sign suffering his grief to be revealed ;
at ihe dinner_he. acted as if he had obtained the
pardonTie had sought for lii^ ^on. Do you ask why ?
He^jad"a sccdncTson . And what did great Priam do ?
DioTie not disguise his anger and embrace the knees
of the klfig? Did he not carry to his lips the murder-
ous liaiid all stained with the blood of his son?"
Did he not dine ? True, but there was no perfume
for liim, no garlands, and his bloodthirsty enemy
with many soft words pressed him to take food, and
did not force him to cbain huge beakers while some
one stood over him to watch. The Roman father you
would have despised if hi- fears had been for himself ;
as it was. affection curbed his anger. He deserved
to be permitted to leave tl\e banquet in order that
he might gather up the bones of his son, but that
VOL I R 241

SENECA

discedere ; ne hoc quidem permisit benignus interim
et comis adulescens ; propinationibiis senem crebris,
ut cura leniretur admonens, lacessebat ; contra ille
se laetum et oblitum, quid eo actum esset die,
praestitit. Perierat alter filius, si carnifici conviva
non placuisset.

1 34. Ergo ira abstinendum est, sive par est qui
lacessendus est sive superior sive inferior. Cum
pare contendere anceps est, cum superiore furiosum,
cum inferiore sordidum. Pusilli hominis et miseri
est repetere mordentem. Mures formicaeque, si
manum admoveris, ora convertunt ; imbecillia se

2 laedi putant, si tanguntur. Faciet nos mitiores, si
cogitaverimus, quid aliquando nobis profuerit ille
cui irascimur, et meritis offensa redimetur. Illud
quoque occurrat, quantum nobis commendationis
allatura sit clementiae fama, quam multos venia

3 amicos utiles fecerit. Ne irascamur inimicorum et
hostium liberis, inter SuUanae crudelitatis exempla
est, quod ab re publica liberos proscriptorum sub-
movit. Nihil est iniquius quam aliquem heredem

4 paterni odii fieri. Cogitemus, quotiens ad ignoscen-
dum difficiles erimus, an expediat nobis omnes
inexorabiles esse. Quam saepe veniam qui negavit
petit ! Quam saepe eius pedibus advolutus est,
quem a suis reppulit ! Quid est gloriosius quam

242

ON ANGER, II. XXXIII. fr-.xxxiv. 4

stripling prince, all the while so kindly and polite,
did not permit even this ; pledging the old man's
health again and again, he tortured him by m-ging
him to lighten his sorrow, while on the other hand
the father made a show of being happy and obh\ious
of all that had been done that day. The other .
son was doomed, had the guest displeased the -4 —
executioner.

We must, therefore, refrain from anger, whether
he I)e~aii equ»l— of a supn4or'-t)T an~iTifertor who
provo^s its power. A contest ^^ith one's equal is
hazardous, with a superior mad, with an inferior
degraHing. It is a petty and sorry person who will
bile J2ack^\yhen he is bitten. Mice and ants, if you
bring your hand near them, do turn at you ; feeble
creatures think they are hurt if they are only touched.
It will make us more kindly if we remember the
benefit we once received from him who now provokes
our anger, and let his kindnesses atone for his offence.
Let us jilso bear in mind how much approval we shall
gain from a reputatTon for forbearance, how many
have been made useful friends through forgiveness.
From the examples of Sulla's cruelty comes the
less^i ■ that— we^ should feel no anger toward the
chilclren of pergonal and political enemies, since he
remcjved from the state even the children of the
proscribed. Tliere is no greater injustice than to
make a man the inheritor of hatred borne toward his
father. Whenever we are loth to pardon, let us
consider whether we ourselves should benefit if all
men were inexorable. How often has he who refused
forgiveness sought it ! How often has he grovelled
at the feet of the man whom he had repulsed from
his o\vn ! WTxat is more splendid than to exchange

243

SENECA

iram amicitia mutare ? Quos populus Romanus
fideliores habet socios quam quos habuit pertina-
cissimos hostes ? Quod hodie esset imperium, nisi
salubris providentia victos permiscuisset victoribus ?
5 Irascetur aliquis ; tu contra beneficiis provoca.
Cadit statim simultas ab altera parte deserta ; nisi
paria non pugnant. Sed utrimque certabit ira,
concurritur, ille est melior qui prior pedem rettulit ;
victus est qui vicit. Percussit te, recede ; referiendo
enim et occasionem saepius feriendi dabis et ex-
cusationem ; non poteris revelli, cum voles.

1 35. Numquid velit quisquam tarn graviter hostem
ferire, ut relinquat manum in vulnere et se ab ictu
revocare non possit ? Atqui tale ira telum est ;
vix retrahitur. Arma nobis expedita prospicimus,
gladium commodum et habilem ; non vitabimus
impetus animi istos^ graves et onerosos et irre-

2 vocabiles ? Ea demum velocitas placet, quae ubi
iussa est vestigium sistit nee ultra destinata pro-
currit flectique et a cursu ad gradum reduci potest ;
aegros scimus nervos esse, ubi invitis nobis moventur ;
senex aut infirmi corporis est, qui cum ambulare
vult currit. Animi motus eos putemus sanissimos
validissimosque, qui nostro arbitrio ibunt, non suo
ferentur.

3 Nihil tamen aeque profuerit quam primum intueri
deformitatem rei, deinde periculum. Non est ullius

1 istos Oertz : . . . hos A'^A^.
244

ON ANGER, II. XXXIV. 4-xxx'\-. 3

anger for friendship ? What— more faithful allies
doe&^the Roman people possess than those who were
once its most stubborn foes ? WTiere would the
empire~l5e to-day had not a sound foresight united
tho^victors "and the vanquished into one ? Does a
man get angry ? Do you on the contrary challenge
hina with kindness. Animosit}^ if abandoned by
one side, forthwith dies ; it takes two to make a
fight. But if anger shall be rife on both sides, if the
conflict comes, he is the better man who first with-
dra\tsj. the vanquished is the one who \\-ins. If
some one strike-^ yuu. step back ; for by striking back
you^jwtti gi^G hiiu lx>th the opportunity and the
excuse to repeat lu< blow ; when you later wish to
extalcSltEryDUrself, it will be impossible.

WouljJ^any one want to stab an enemy ^^ith such
force as to~Teave hi? oa^ti hand in the wound and be
unable to recover himself from the blow ? But such
a weapon is anger ; it is hard to draw back. We
take care to have light arms, a handy and nimble
sword ; shall we not avoid those mental outbursts
that are clumsy, unwieldy, and beyond control ?
The only desirable speed is that which ^v^ll check its
pace when ordered, which will not rush past the
appointed goal, and can be altered and reduced from
running to a walk ; when our muscles t^\•itch against
our ^^'ill, we know that they are diseased ; he who
runs when he tries to walk is either old or broken in
body. In the operations of the mind we should
deem those to be the sanest and the soundest which
will start at our pleasure, not rush on at their o^vn.
Nothing, however, \vill prove as profitable as to con-
sider first the hideousness of the thing, and then its
danger. No other emotion has an outward aspect

2i5

SENECA

adfectus facies turbatior ; pulcherrima ora foedavit,
torvos vultus ex tranquillissimis reddit ; linquit
decor omnis iratos, et sive amictus illis compositus
est ad legem, trahent vestem omnemque curam sui
effundent, sive capillorum natura vel arte iacentium
non informis habitus, cum animo inhorrescunt ;
tumescunt venae ; concutietur crebro spiritu pectus,
rabida vocis eruptio colla distendet ; turn artus
trepidi, inquietae manus, totius corporis fluctuatio.

4 Qualem intus putas esse animum, cuius extra imago
tam foeda est ? Quanto illi intra pectus terribilior
vultus est, acrior spiritus, intentior impetus, rupturus

6 se nisi eruperit ! Quales sunt hostium vel ferarum I
caede madentium aut ad caedem euntium aspectus,
qualia poetae inferna monstra finxerunt succincta
serpentibus et igneo flatu, quales ad bella excitanda
discordiamque in populos dividendam pacemque
lacerandam teterrimae inferum exeunt : talem
nobis iram figuremus, flamma lumina ardentia,
sibilo mugituque et gemitu et stridore et si qua his
invisior vox est perstrepentem, tela manu utraque
quatientem (neque enim ilh se tegere curae est),
torvam cruentamque et cicatricosam et verberibus
suis hvidam, incessus vaesani, ofFusam multa caligine,
incursitantem, vastantem fugantemque et omnium
odio laborantem, sui maxiine, si aliter nocere non
possit, terras, maria, caelum ruere cupientem,
246

ON ANGER, II. XXXV. 3-5

so disordered: it-jnakes^ ugly the most beautiful ^«<]f^'" <-<
faces4^ through it the most peaceful countenance
becomes transformed and fierce ; from the angry all
grace departs ; if they were well-kempt and modish
in their dress, they A\-ill let their clothing trail and
cast off all regard for their person ; if their hair was
disposed by nature or by art in smooth and becoming
style, it bristles up in sympathy ^^•ith their state of
mind ; the veins swell, the breast \\i\\ be racked
by incessant panting, the neck will be distended
by the frantic outrush of the voice ; then the limbs
tremble, the hands are restless, the whole body is
agitated. What state of mind, think you, lies within
when its out warxT manifestation is so horrible ?
Within the man's breast how much more terrible
must be the expression, how much fiercer the breath-
ing, how much more \iolent the strain of his fury,
that would itself burst unless it found an outburst !
As is the aspect of an enemy or wild beasts wet with
the blood of slaughter or bent upon slaughter ; as are
the helHsh monsters of the poet's brain, all girt about
with snakes and breathing fire ; as are those most
hideous shapes that issue forth from hell to stir up
wars and scatter discord among the peoples and
tear peace all to shreds ; as such let us picture anger —
its eyes aflame with fire, blustering with hiss and
roar and moan and sltriek and every other noise
more hateful still if such there be, brandishing
weapons in both hands (for it cares naught for self-
protection I), fierce and bloody, scarred, and black
and blue from its own blows, wild in gaitl enveloped
in deep darkness, madly charging, ravaging and rout-
ing, in travail with hatred of all men, especially of
itself, and ready to overturnearth and sea and sky

247

SENECA

6 infestam pariter invisamque. Vel, si videtur, sit
qualis apud vates nostros est :

Sanguineum quatiens dextra Bellona flagellum,
aut scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla,

aut si qua magis dira facies excogitari diri adfectus
potest.

1 36. Quibusdam, ut ait Sextius, iratis profuit
aspexisse speculum ; perturbavit illos tanta mutatio
sui ; velut in rem praesentem adducti non agnoverunt
se. Et quantulum ex vera deformitate imago ilia

2 speculo repercussa reddebat ? Animus si ostendi
et si in ulla materia perlucere posset, intuentis nos
confunderet ater maculosusque et aestuans et
distortus et tumidus. Nunc quoque tanta de-
formitas eius est per ossa carnesque et tot impe-
dimenta effluentis ; quid si nudus ostenderetur ?

3 Speculo quidem neminem deterritum ab ira credi-
deris : quid ergo est^ ? Qui ad speculum venerat,
ut se mutaret, iam mutaverat ; iratis quidem nulla
est formonsior effigies quam atrox et horrida, quales-
que esse etiam videri volunt.

4 Magis illud videndum est, quam multis ira per
se nocuerit. Alii nimio fervore rupere venas et
sanguinem supra vires elatus clamor egessit et

^ est added by Gertz.

" An adaptation of Virgil, Aeneid, viii. 702 sq. :
Et scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla,
quam cum sanguineo sequitur Bellona flagello,

248

ON ANGER, II. XXXV. &-xxx\'i. 4

if it^an find no other May to harm, equally hating and
hated. Or7rryou"\rill, let us take the picture from
our poets :

Flaunting her bloody scourge the War-dame strides.
Or Discord glorying in her tattered robe."

Or make you any other picture of this dread passion
that can be devised still more dread.

As Sextius remarks, it has been good for some
people to see themselves in a mirror while they are
angry ; the great change in themselves alarmed
them ; brought, as it were, face to face -sWth the
reahty they did not recognize themselves. And how
little of the real ughness did that image reflected in
the mirror disclose ! If the soul could be sho\\Ti, if
it were in some substance through which it might
shine^~Tts black^ and mottled, inflamed, distorted
and swollen appearance would confound us as we
gazedjjpon it. Even as it is, though it can only come
to the surface through flesh, bones, and so many
obstacles, its hideousness is thus great — what if it
could be sho\vn stark naked ? You_ may perhaps
think that no one has really been frightened out of
anger~by a min-or. Well, what then ? The man
who had gone to the mirror in order to effect a change
in himself was already a changed man ; while men
remain angrj' no image is more beautiful than one'
which is fierce and savage, and such as they are they
\\ish also to appear.

This, rather, is ^^h^t "w*^ f>"ght to r^flhVf^ — how
many men anger in and of itself has injured. Some
through too much passion h4Ve "blH'St fReir veins, a
shout that strains our strength has carried with it
blood, and too powerful a rush of tears to the eyes

249

SENECA

luminum suffudit aciem in oculos vehementius umor
egestus et in morbos aegri reccidere. Nulla celerior

5 ad insaniam via est. Multi itaque continuaverunt
irae furorem nee quam expulerant mentem umquam
receperunt. Aiacem in mortem egit furor, in
furorem ira. Mortem liberis, egestatem sibi, ruinam
domui imprecantur et irasci se negant non minus
quam insanire furiosi. Amicissimis hostes vitandique
carissimis, legum nisi qua nocent immemores, ad
minima mobiles, non sermone, non officio adiri faciles,
per vim omnia gerunt, gladiis et pugnare parati et

6 incumbere. Maximum enim illos malum cepit et
omnia exsuperans vitia. Alia paulatim intrant,
repentina et universa vis huius est. Omnis denique
alios affeetus sibi subicit. Amorem ardentissimum
vincit, transfoderunt itaque amata corpora et in
eorum quos occiderant iacuere complexibus ; avari-
tiam, durissimum malum minimeque flexibile, ira
calcavit adactam^ opes suas spargere et domui
rebusque in unum conlatis inicere ignem. Quid ?
Non ambitiosus magno aestimata proiecit insignia
honoremque delatum reppulit ? Nullus affeetus est,
in quem non ira dominetur,

^ adactam Michaelis and Gertz : adacta A.
<» A reference to Ajax's act of self-destruction.

250

ON ANGER, II. xxx\'i. 4-6

has blurred tlie sharpness of their vision, and sickly-
people have fallen back into illnesses. There is no
quicker road to madness. Many, therefore, have
continued in the frenzy of anger, and have never
recovered the reason that had been unseated. It was
frenzy that drove Ajax to his death and anger drove
him into frenzy. These all call down death upon
their cliildren, poverty upon themselves, destruction
upon their house, and they deny that they are angry
just as the frenzied deny that they are mad. They
becorne enemies to their closest friends and have to
be shunned by those most dear ; regardless of all
law except as a means to injure, swayed by trifles,
difficult to approach by either word or kindly act,
they conduct themselves always with violence and.
are ready either to fight with the sword or to
fall upon it.* For the fact is that the greatest of all
e\"ilS74fce-^ee^that surpasses all others, has laid hold
upoji, them. Other ills come gi-adually, but the
power of this is sudden and complete. In short, it
brings into subjection all other passions. It con-
quers the most ardent love, and so in anger men have
stabbed the bodies that they loved and have lain in
the arms of-those whom they had slain ; avarice, the
most stubborn and unbending e\il, has been trodden
under foot by anger after being forced to scatter her
wealth and to set fire to her home and all her col-
lected treasure. Tell me, has not also the ambitious
man torn off the highly prized insignia of his office
andr rejected the honour that had been conferred?
There is no passion of any kind over which anger
does not hold mastery.

251

LIBER V

AD NOVATVM

DE IRA

LIBER III

1 1. Quod maxime desiderasti, Novate, nunc facere
temptabimus, iram excidere animis aut certe re-
frenare et impetus eius inhibere. Id aliquando
palam aperteque faciendum est, ubi minor vis mali
patitur, aliquando ex occulto, ubi nimium ardet
omnique impedimento exasperatur et crescit ; refert
quantas vires quamque integras habeat, utrum
reverberanda et agenda retro sit an cedere ei de-
beamus, dum tempestas prima desaevit, ne remedia
ipsa secum ferat.

2 Consilium pro moribus cuiusque capiendum erit ;
quosdam enim preces vincunt ; quidam insultant
instantque summissis, quos terrendo placabimus ;
alios obiurgatio, alios confessio, alios pudor coepto
deiecit, alios mora, lentum praecipitis mali remedium,

3 ad quod novissime descendendum est. Ceteri enim
adfectus dilationem recipiunt et curari tardius
252

BOOK V

TO NOVATUS

ON ANGER

BOOK III

We shall now, Novatus, attempt to do what you have
especially desired — we shall try to banish anger
from the mind, or at least to bridle and restrain its
fury. This must be done sometimes plainly and
openly, whenever a slighter attack of the malady
makes this possible, sometimes secretly, when its
flame burns hot and every obstacle but intensifies
and increases its power ; it depends upon how much
strength and \igour it has whether we ought to beat
back its attack and force a retreat, or should yield
before it until the first storm of its fury has passed,
in order to keep it from sweeping along with it the
very means of relief.

Each man's character will have to determine his
plan- of action : some men yield to entreaty ; some
trample and stamp upon those who give way, and we
shall quiet these by making them fear ; some are
turned from their course by reproof, others by a 4"
confession of guilt, others by slvame, others by pro-
crastination— a slow remedy, this last, for a swift
disorder, to be used only as a last resort. For while
the other passions admit of postponement and may

" 253

SENECA

possunt, huius incitata et se ipsa rapiens violentia
non paulatim procedit sed, dum incipit, tota est ;
nee aliorum more vitiorum sollicitat animos, sed
abducit et impotentes sui cupidosque vel communis
mali exagitat, nee in ea tantum in quae destinavit,

4 sed in occurrentia obiter^ furit. Cetera vitia im-
pellunt animos, ira praecipitat. Etiam si resistere
contra affectus suos non licet, at certe afFectibus
ipsis licet stare ; haec non secus quam fulmina
procellaeque et si qua alia irrevocabilia sunt, quia
non eunt, sed cadunt, vim suam magis ac magis

5 intendit. Alia vitia. a ratione, hoc a sanitate de-
sciscit ; alia accessus lenes habent et incrementa
fallentia ; in iram delectus animorum est. Nulla
itaque res urget magis attonita et in vires suas prona
et, sive successit, superba, sive frustratur, insana ;
ne repulsa quidem in taedium acta, ubi adversarium
fortuna subduxit, in se ipsa morsus suos vertit. Nee
refert quantum sit ex quo surrexerit ; ex levissimis
enim in maxima evadit.

i 2. NuUam transit aetatem, nullum hominum genus
excipit. Quaedam gentes beneficio egestatis non
novere luxuriam ; quaedam, quia exercitae et vagae
sunt, efFugere pigritiam ; quibus incultus mos
agrestisque vita est, circumscriptio ignota est et
fraus et quodcumque in foro malum nascitur. Nulla
gens est, quam non ira instiget, tam inter Graios

1 obiter A^ : ob iter C. F. W. Muller.
254

ON ANGER, III. I. 3-II. 1

be cured more leisurely, this one in hurried and self-
driyeh vTdtence does not advance by slow degrees,
but becomes full-gro^^Tl the moment it begins ; and,
unlikeTRe^Tijer yicjes, it does not seduce but abducts
the, mind, and it goads on those that, lacking all
self-control, desire, if need be, the destruction of
all, and its fury falls not merely upon the objects
at whichTTt aims, but upon all that meet it by the
way;-— Tha-other ^"iees incite the mind, anger over-
throwsjtr~E\'en if a man may not resist his passions,
yet at least the passions themselves may halt ;
anger intensifies its vehemence more and more, hke
the hghtning's stroke, the hurricane, and the other
things that are incapable of control for the reason
that they not merely move, but fall. Other \-ices
are a revolt against intelligence, this against sanity ;
the._o£h£rs approach gently and grow up unnoticed,
but the mind plunges headlong into anger. There-
fore no more frenzied state besets the mind, none
more reliant upon its 0"\\ti power, none more arrogant
if it is successful, none more insane if it is baffled ;
since it is not reduced to weariness even by defeat,
if chance removes its foe it turns its teeth upon itself.
And the source from which it springs need not be
great ; for rising from most trivial things it mounts
to monstrous size.

It _passes by no time of hfe, makes exception of
no_ class of-iaen. Some races by the blessing of
poverty know nothing of luxury ; some because they
are restless and wandering have escaped sloth ; the
uncivilized state of some and their rustic mode of
life keep them strangers to trickery and deception
and all the evil that the forum breeds. But there
lives no race that does not feel the goad of anger,

255

SENECA

quam inter barbaros potens, non minus perniciosa
leges metuentibus quam quibus iura distinguit

2 modus virium. Denique cetera singulos corripiunt,
hie unus adfectus est, qui interdum publice con-
cipitur. Numquam populus universus feminae amore
flagravit, nee in pecuniam aut lucrum tota civitas
spem suam misit ; ambitio viritim singulos occupat ;

3 impotentia una est malum publicum. Saepe in iram
uno agmine itum est ; viri feminae, senes pueri,
principes vulgusque consensere, et tota multitude
paucissimis verbis concitata ipsum concitatorem
antecessit ; ad arma protinus ignesque discursum
est et indicta finitimis bella aut gesta cum civibus ;

4 totae cum stirpe omni crematae domus et modo
eloquio favorabili habitus in multo honore iram
suae contionis excepit ; in imperatorem suum
legiones pila torserunt ; dissedit plebs tota cum
patribus ; publicum consilium senatus non expectatis
dilectibus nee nominato imperatore subitos irae suae
duces legit ac per tecta urbis nobiles consectatus

5 viros supplicium manu sumpsit ; violatae legationes
rupto iure gentium rabiesque infanda civitatem tuht,
nee datum tempus, quo resideret tumor publicus,
sed deductae protinus classes et oneratae tumul-
tuario milite ; sine more, sine auspiciis populus ductu
irae suae egressus fortuita raptaque pro armis gessit,

256

ON ANGER, III. 11. 1-5

which masters alike both Greeks and barbarians, and
is no less ruinous to those who respect the law than
to those who make might the only measure of their
right. Lastly, though the other \'ices lay hold of
individual men, this is the only passion that can at
times possess a whole state. No entire people has
ever burned with love for a woman, no whole state
has set its hope upon money or gain ; ambition is
personal and seizes upon the individual ; only fury
is an affliction of a whole people. Often in a single rr^ •
mass~tHey^rush into anger ; men and women, old men
and boys, the gentrj^ and the rabble, are all in full
accord, and the united body, inflamed by a very
few incendiary words, outdoes the incendiary himself;
they fly forthwith to fire and sword, and proclaim
war against their neighbours or wage it against their
countrymen ; whole houses are consumed, root and
branch, and the man who but lately was held in high
esteem and applauded for his eloquence receives now
the anger of his foUoA^ing ; legions hurl their javelins
upon their o>vn commanders ; all the commoners are
at discord ^\•ith the nobles ; the senate, the high
council of the state, without waiting to levy troops,
without appointing a commander, chooses impromptu
agents of its vvrath, and hunting down its high-born
victims throughout the houses of the cit}-, takes
punishment in its own hand ; embassies are outraged,
the law of nations is broken, and unheard of madness
sweeps the state, and no time is given for the pubhc
ferment to subside, but fleets are launched forthvvith
and loaded with hastily gathered troops ; without
training, without auspices, under the leadership of its
own anger, the populace goes forth, snatching up for
arms whatever chance has offered, and then atones
VOL. I s 257

SENECA

deinde magna clade temeritatem audacis irae luit.
6 Hie barbaris forte ruentibus in bella exitus est ;
cum mobiles animos species iniuriae perculit, aguntur
statim et qua dolor traxit ruinae modo legionibus
incidunt incompositi, interriti, incauti, pericula ad-
petentes sua ; gaudent feriri et instare ferro et tela
corpore urgere et per suum vulnus exire.

1 3. " Non est," inquis, " dubium, quin magna ista
et pestifera sit vis ; ideo quemadmodum sanari
debeat monstra." Atqui, ut in prioribus libris dixi,
Stat Aristoteles defensor irae et vetat illam nobis
exsecari ; calcar ait esse virtutis, hac erepta inermem
animum et ad conatus magnos pigrum inertemque

2 fieri. Necessarium est itaque foeditatem eius ac
feritatem coarguere et ante oculos ponere quantum
monstri sit homo in hominem furens quantoque
impetu ruat non sine pernicie sua perniciosus et ea
deprimens, quae mergi nisi cum mergente non

3 possunt. Quid ergo ? Sanum hunc aliquis vocat,
qui velut tempestate correptus non it sed agitur et
furenti malo servit, nee mandat ultionem suam, sed
ipse eius exactor animo simul ac manu saevit caris-
simorum eorumque quae mox amissa fleturus est

4 carnifex ? Hunc aliquis affectum virtuti adiutorem

° Cf. i. 9. 2 ; 17. 1 ; ii. 13. 1.
258

ON ANGER, III. n. 5-ni. 4

for the rash daring of its anger by a great disaster.
Such is the outcome, when barbarians rush haphazard
into war ; the moment their excitable minds are
roused by the semblance of injury, they are forthwith
in action, and where their resentment draws them,
Uke an avalanche they fall upon our legions — all
unorganized, unfearful, and unguarded, seeking their
owTi destruction ; with joy they are struck down,
or press forward upon the sword, or thrust their
bodies upon the spear, or perish from a self-made
wound.

" Ttiere can be no doubt," you say, " that such a
force is powe~rftil~and pernicious; show, therefore,
how it js to be cured." And yet, as I said in my earlier
books,** Aristotle stands forth as the defender of
anger, and forbids us to cut it out ; it is, he claims,
a spur to virtue, and if the mind is robbed of it, it
becomes defenceless and grows sluggish and in-
different to high endeavour. Therefore our first
necessity is to prove its foulness and fierceness, and
to set before the eyes what an utter monster a man
is Mclien he is enraged against a fellow-man, >rith
what furylTe rushes on working destruction — destruc-
tive of himself as well and wTCcking what cannot be
sunk_ unless he sinks with it. Tell me, then, will
any one calFthe man sane who, just as if seized by
a hurricane, does not walk but is driven along, and
is at the mercy of a raging demon, who entrusts not
his revenge to another, but himself exacts it, and thus,
bloodthirst}' ahke in purpose and in deed, becomes
the murderer of those persons who are dearest and
the destroyer of those things for which, when lost, he
is destined ere long to weep ? Can any one assign
this passion to \irtue as its supporter and consort

259

SENECA

comitemque dat consilia, sine quibus virtus nihil
gerit, obturbantem ? Caducae sinistraeque sunt
vires et in malum suum validae, in quas aegrum

5 morbus et accessio erexit. Non est ergo quod me
putes tempus in supervacuis consumere, quod iram,
quasi dubiae apud homines opinionis sit, infamem,
cum sit ahquis et quidem de illustribus philosophis,
qui illi indicat operas et tamquam utilem ac spiritus
subministrantem in proelia, in actus rerum, ad
omne, quodcumque calore aliquo gerendum est?

6 vocet. Ne quem fallat tamquam ahquo tempore,
aliquo loco profutura, ostendenda est rabies eius
efFrenata et attonita apparatusque illi reddendus
est suus, eculei et fidiculae et ergastula et cruces
et circumdati defossis corporibus ignes et cadavera
quoque trahens uncus, varia vinculorum genera,
varia poenarum, lacerationes membrorum, inscrip-
tiones frontis et bestiarum immanium caveae — inter
haec instrumenta collocetur ira dirum quiddam
atque horridum stridens, omnibus per quae furit
taetrior.

1 4. Ut de ceteris dubium sit, nulli certe adfectui
peior est vultus, quem in prioribus libris descrip-
simus : asperum et acrem et nunc subducto re-
trorsus sanguine fugatoque pallentem, nunc in os

» The course of the thought is : The question whether
anger is a good or an evil is not, as might be thought, so
clearly settled that further discussion of it is unnecessary ;
for so great a philosopher as Aristotle found anger commend-
able for certain purposes.

» Cf. i. 1. 3-7.

260

ON ANGER, III. HI. 4-iv. l

when it confounds the resolves without which virtue
accompUshes nothing ? Transient aiadhftneful, and
potent only for its o^\-n harm, is the strength which
a sicic man acquires" Itom the rising of Ixis fever.
Therefore when I decry anger on the assumption that
men are not agreed" in their estimate of it, you are
not to think that I am wasting time on a superfluous
matter ; for there is one, and he, too, a distinguished
philosopher, who ascribes to it a function, and on
the ground that it is useful and conducive to energy
would evoke it for the needs of battle, for the
business of state — for any undertaking, in fact, that
requires some fervour for its accomplishment. To
the end that no one may be deceived into supposing
that at any time, in any place, it will be profitable,
the unbridled and frenzied madness of anger must
be exposed, and there must be restored to it the
trappings that are its very own — the torture-horse,
the cord, the jail, the cross, and fires encircling Uving
bodies implanted in the ground, the drag-hook that
seizes even corpses, and all the different kinds of
chains and the different kinds of punishment, the
rending of limbs, the branding of foreheads, the
dens of frightful beasts — in the midst of these her
implements let anger be placed, while she hisses
forth her dread and hideous sounds, a creature more
loathsome even than all the instruments through
which she vents her rage.

Whatever doubt there may be concerning anger
in other respects, there is surely no other passion
whose countenance is worse — that countenance
which we have pictured in the earher books ''—now
harsh and fierce, now pale by reason of the back-
ward flow and dispersing of the blood, now flushed

261

SENECA

omni calore ac spiritu verso subrubicundum et
similem cruento, venis tumentibus, oculis nunc
trepidis et exsilientibus, nunc in uno obtutu defixis

2 et haerentibus ; adice dentium inter se arietatorum
ut aliquem esse cupientium non alium sonum quam
est apris tela sua adtritu acuentibus ; adice articu-
lorum crepitum, cum se ipsae manus frangunt, et
pulsatum saepius pectus, anhelitus crebros tractosque
altius gemitus, instabile corpus, incerta verba subitis
exclamationibus, trementia labra interdumque com-

3 pressa et dirum quiddam exsibilantia. Ferarum,
me hercules, sive illas fames agitat sive infixum
visceribus ferrum, minus taetra facies est, etiam
cum venatorem suum semianimes morsu ultimo
petunt, quam hominis ira flagrantis. Age, si exaudire
voces ac minas vacet, qualia excarnificati animi

4 verba sunt ! Nonne revocare se quisque ab ira volet,
cum intellexerit illam a suo primum malo incipere ?
Non vis ergo admoneam eos, qui iram summa potentia
exercent et argumentum virium existimant et in
magnis magnae fortunae bonis ponunt paratam
ultionem, quam non sit potens, immo ne liber quidem

5 dici possit irae suae captivus ? Non vis admoneam,
quo diligentior quisque sit et ipse se circumspiciat,
alia animi mala ad pessimos quosque pertinere,
iracundiam etiam eruditis hominibus et in alia sanis
inrepere ? Adeo ut quidam simplicitatis indicium

262

ON ANGER, III. IV. 1-5

and seemingly steeped in blood when all the heat
and fire of the body has been turned toward the face,
^\•ith swollen veins, with eyes now restless and
darting, now fastened and motionless in one fixed
gaze ; mark, too, the sound of clashing teeth, as if
their o^^'ners were bent on devouring somebody, like
the noise the wild boar makes when he sharpens his
tusks by rubbing ; mark the crunching of the joints
as the hands are \iolently crushed together, the
constant beating of the breast, the quick breathing
and deep-drawn sighs, the unsteady body, the
broken speech and sudden outcries, the hps now
trembhng, now tight and hissing out a curse. Wild
beasts, I swear, whether tormented by hunger or by
the steel that has pierced their vitals — even when,
half dead, they rush upon their hunter for one last
bite — are less hideous in appearance than a man
in^amed by anger. If you are free to listen to his
cries and threats, hear what language issues from
his tortured soul ! Will not every one be glad to
check any impulse to anger when he realizes that it
begins by working harm, first of all, to himself ? If
there are those who grant full sway to anger and
deem it a proof of power, who count the opportunity
of revenge among the great blessings of great estate,
would you not, then, have me remind them that a^
man cannot be calle4 powerful^— no, not even free^
if he is the captive of his anger ? To the end that
each one may be more careful and may set a guard
upon himself, would you not have me remind him
that while other base passions affect only the worst
t}'pe of men, ^\Tath steals upon those also Avho are
enlightened and other^v^se sane ? So true is this,
that there are some who call wTath a sign of in-

263

SENECA

iracundiam dicant et vulgo credatur facillimus
quisque huic obnoxius.

1 5. " Quorsus," inquis, " hoc pertinet ? " Ut nemo
se iudicet tutum ab ilia, cum lenes quoque natura et
placidos in saevitiam ac violentiam evocet. Quemad-
modum adversus pestilentiam nihil prodest firmitas
corporis et diligens valetudinis cura — promiscue
enim imbecilla robustaque invadit— , ita ab ira tarn
inquietis moribus periculum est quam compositis et
remissis, quibus eo turpior ac periculosior est, quo

2 plus in illis mutat. Sed cum primum sit non irasci,
secundum desinere, tertium alienae quoque irae
mederi, dicam primum quemadmodum in iram non
incidamus, deinde quemadmodum nos ab ilia libere-
mus, novissime quemadmodum irascentem retinea-
mus placemusque et ad sanitatem reducamus.

3 Ne irascamur praestabimus, si omnia vitia irae
nobis subinde proposuerimus et illam bene aestima-
verimus. Accusanda est apud nos, damnanda ;
perscrutanda eius mala et in medium protrahenda
sunt ; ut qualis sit appareat, comparanda cum

4 pessimis est. Avaritia adquirit et contrahit, quo
aliquis melior utatur ; ira impendit, paucis gratuita
est. Iracundus dominus quot in fugam servos egit,
quot in mortem ! Quanto plus irascendo quam id
erat, propter quod irascebatur, amisit ! Ira patri
luctum, marito divortium attulit, magistratui odium,

6 candidato repulsam. Peior est quam luxuria, quoniam

<• Cf. ii. 16. 3.
264.

ON ANGER, III. IV. 5-v. 5

genuousness," and that it is commonly believed that
the best-natiired people are most liable to it !

" Whaty" you say, "is the purpose of this?"
That no man may consider himself safe from anger,
since it summons even those who are naturally kind
and^gentle into acts of cruelt}' and \-iolence. As
soiuidness of body and a careful regard for health
avail nothing against the plague — for it attacks in-
discriminately the weak and the strong — so calm and
languid natures are in no less danger from anger
tharT thelnore excitable sort, and the greater the
change it works in these, the greater is their disgrace
and danger. But since the first requirement is not to
becOTne_angry» the second, to cease fronx anger, the
third, to cure also the anger of others, I shall speak z po>nt*.
first jaf_haiv_ we may avoid falUng into anger, next of
how Ave may free ourselves from it, and lastly of how
wejuay curb an angry man — how we may calm him
and restore him to sanity.

We shall forestall the possibiUty of anger if we
repeatedly set before ourselves its many faults and
shalljightly appraise it. Before our o^v■n hearts we
must arraign it and convict it ; we must search out
its e\ils and drag them into the open ; in order that
it may be shown as it really is, it should be com-
pared with all that is worst. Man's avarice assembles
and gathers wealth for some one who is better to
use ; but anger is a spender — few indulge in it with-
out cost. How many slaves a master's anger has
driven to flight, how many to death ! How much
more serious was his loss from indulging in anger
than was the incident which caused it ! Anger
brings to a father grief, to a husband divorce, to a
magistrate hatred, to a candidate defeat. It is worse

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ilia sua voluptate fruitur, haec alieno dolore. Vincit
malignitatem et invidiam ; illae enim infelicem fieri
volunt, haec facere ; illae fortuitis malis delectantur,
haec non potest expectare fortunam — nocere ei

6 quern odit, non noceri vult. Nihil est simultatibus
gravius, has ira conciliat ; nihil est bello funestius,
in hoc potentium ira prorumpit ; ceterum etiam ilia
plebeia ira et privata inerme et sine viribus bellum
est. Praeterea ira, ut seponamus, quae mox secutura
sunt, damna, insidias, perpetuam ex certaminibus
mutuis sollicitudinem, dat poenas dum exigit ;
naturam hominis eiurat : ilia in amorem hortatur,
haec in odium ; ilia prodesse iubet, haec nocere.

7 Adice quod, cum indignatio eius a nimio sui suspectu
veniat et animosa videatur, pusilla est et angusta ;
nemo enim non eo, a quo se contemptum iudicat,
minor est. At ille ingens animus et verus aestimator

8 sui non vindicat iniuriam, quia non sentit. Ut tela
a duro resiliunt et cum dolore caedentis solida feri-
untur, ita nulla magnum animum iniuria ad sensum
sui adducit, fragilior eo quod petit. Quanto pul-
chrius velut nulli penetrabilem telo omnis iniurias
contumeliasque respuere ! Ultio doloris confessio
est ; non est magnus animus, quern incurvat iniuria.

266

ON ANGER, III. V. 5-8

than wantonness, since that finds satisfaction in its
o\\Ti enjoyment, this in another's pain. It exceeds
spite and envy ; for they desire a man to be un-
happy, while anger tries to make him so ; they
dehght in the ills that chance may bring, while
it cannot wait for chance — to the man it hates
itnot merely A\ishes harm to come, but brings it.
There is nothing more baleful than enmity, yet it is
anger that breeds it ; nothing is more deadly than
war, yet in that the anger of the powerful finds its
vent ; none the less anger in the common folk or
private persons is also war — war without arms and
without resources. Moreover, leaving out of account
the~Imme3iate consequences that vdW come from
anger, such as losses of money, plots, and the never-
ending anxiety of mutual strife, anger pays for the
penalty it exacts — itjenounces human nature, which
incites to love, whereas if incites to hate ; which bids
us help, whereas it bids us injure. And besides,
though its chafing originates in an excess of self-
esteem and seems to be a show of spirit, it is petty
and narrow-minded ; for no man can fail to be
inferior to the one by whom he regards himself
despised. But the really great mind, the mind that
has taken the true measure of itself, fails to revenge -r
injury only because it fails to perceive it. As missiles
rebound from a hard surface, and the man who strikes
solid objects is hurt by the impact, so no injury
whatever can cause a truly great mind to be aware
of it, since the injury is more fragile than that at
which it is aimed. How much more glorious it is
for the mind, impervious, as it were, to any missile,
to repel all insults and injuries! Revenge is the^,^
confession of a hurt ;- no mind- is truly great that

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Aut potentior te aut imbecillior laesit ; si imbecillior,
parce illi, si potentior, tibi.

1 6. Niillum est argumentum magnitudinis certius
quam nihil posse quo instigeris accidere. Pars
superior mundi et ordinatior ac propinqua sideribus
nee in nubem cogitur nee in tempestatem impellitur
nee versatur in turbinem ; omni tumultu caret,
inferiora fulminantur. Eodem modo sublimis animus,
quietus semper et in statione tranquilla conlocatus,
omnia infra^ se premens, quibus ira contrahitur,
modestus et venerabilis est et dispositus ; quorum

2 nihil invenies in irato. Quis enim traditus dolori et
furens non primam reiecit verecundiam ? Quis
impetu turbidus et in aliquem ruens non quidquid
in se venerandi habuit abiecit ? Cui officiorum
numerus aut ordo constitit incitato ? Quis linguae
temperavit ? Quis uUam partem corporis tenuit r

3 Quis se regere potuit immissum ? Proderit nobis
illud Democriti salutare praeceptum, quo mon-
stratur tranquillitas, si neque privatim neque publice
multa aut maiora viribus nostris egerimus. Num-
quam tarn feliciter in multa discurrenti negotia dies
transit, ut non aut ex homine aut ex re ofFensa

4 nascatur, quae animum in iras paret. Quemad-
modum per frequentia urbis loca properanti in multos
incursitandum est et aliubi labi necesse est, aliubi

^ infra inferior uss. : intra AL.

" The Stoic doctrine of apathy {dirddeia) — the exemption
from emotion, which was the negative aspect of virtue ;
Horace's nil admirari (Epistles, i. 6).

* Cf. Diets, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Demokritos,3.
268

ON ANGER, III. V. 8-vi. 4

bends before injury. The man who has offended
you is eitTxeffstfonger or weaker than you : if he is
weaker, spare him ; if he is stronger, spare yourself.

There is no surer proof of greatness than to be in
a state where nothing can possibly happen to disturb
yqu. The higher region of the universe, being
better ordered and near to the stars, is condensed ',
into no cloud, is lashed into no tempest, is churned
into no whirhWnd ; it is free from all turmoil ; it is
in the lower regions that the lightnings flash. In
the same way the lofty mind is always calm, at rest,
in a quiet haven " ; crushing dovm. all that engenders
anger, it is restrained, commands respect, and is
properly ordered.^ In an angry man you will find
nonejjf these things. For who that surrenders to
anger and rage does not straightway cast behind
him all sense of shame ? Who that storms in ^vild
fury and assails another does not cast aside what-
ever he had in him that commands respect ? WTio
that is enraged maintains the full number or the
order of his duties ? \Mio restrains his tongue ?
Who controls any part of his body ? Who is able to
rule the self that he has set loose ? We shall do
well to heed that sound doctrine of Democritus * in
which he shows that tranquillity is possible only if
we avoid most of the activities of both private and
pubhc hfe, or at least those that are too great for
our strength. The man who engages in many
affairs is never so fortunate as to pass a day that
does not beget from some person or some circum-
stance a vexation that fits the mind for anger. Just
as a man hurrying through the crowded sections of
the city cannot help colliding with many people, and
in one place is sure to slip, in another to be held back,

269

SENECA

retineri, aliubi respergi, ita in hoc vitae actu dis-
sipate et vago multa impedimenta, multae querellae
incidunt. Alius spem nostram fefellit, alius dis-
tulit, alius intercepit ; non ex destinato proposita

6 fluxerunt. Nulli fortuna tam dedita est, ut multa
temptanti ubique respondeat. Sequitur ergo, ut
is, cui contra quam proposuerat aliqua cesserunt,
impatiens hominum rerumque sit, ex levissimis
causis irascatur nunc personae, nunc negotio, nunc

6 loco, nunc fortunae, nunc sibi. Itaque ut quietus
possit esse animus, non est iactandus nee multarum,
ut dixi, rerum actu fatigandus nee magnarum
supraque vires adpetitarum. Facile est levia aptare
cervicibus et in banc aut ill am partem transferre
sine lapsu ; at quae alienis in nos manibus imposita
aegre sustinemus, victi in proximo efFundimus.
Etiam dum stamus sub sarcina, impares oneri vac-
cillamus.

1 7. Idem accidere in rebus civilibus ac domesticis
scias. Negotia expedita et habilia sequuntur ac-
torem ; ingentia et supra mensuram gerentis nee
dant se facile et, si occupata sunt, premunt atque
abducunt administrantem tenerique iam visa cum
ipso cadunt. Ita fit, ut frequenter irrita sit eius
voluntas, qui non quae faciba sunt adgreditur, sed

2 vult facilia esse quae adgressus est. Quotiens
270

ON ANGER, III. VI. 4-vii. 2

in another to be splashed, so in this diverse and rest-
less acti\-it)^ of life many hindrances befall us and
many occasions for complaint. Qiir^hopes one man
deceiYes,..aiiother defers, another destroys ; our pro-
jects do not proceed as they were planned. To no ]
man is Fortune so wholly submissive that she will -I"
always respond if often tried. The result is, con-
sequently, that when a man finds that some of his
plans have turned out contrary to his expectations,
he becomes impatient with men and things, and on
the slightest provocation becomes angry now >vith
a person, now \nth his calling, now mth his place
of abode, now with his luck, now A\-ith himself. In
order, therefore, that the mind may have peace, it
must not be tossed about, it must not, as I have i
said, be wearied by acti\ity in many or great affairs, "^
or by attempting such as are beyond its powers. It
is easy to fit the shoulders to light burdens, and to
shift the load from this side to that -vnthout sUpping ;
but it is hard to support what others' hands have
laid upon us, and exhausted we cast the load upon a
neighbour. Even while we stand beneath the burden,
we stagger if we are too weak to bear its weight.

In pubhcjynLdJrLprivate-aflEairs, be sure, the same
conditioiL-holds. Light and easy tasks accept the
control of the doer ; those that are hea\y and beyond
the capacity of the performer are not easily mastered ;
and if they are undertaken, they outweigh his efforts
and run away A\'ith him, and just when he thinks he
has them in his grasp, do^^■Tl they crash and bring him
down with them. So it happens that the man who
is unwilhng to approach easy tasks, yet \\ishes to
find easy the tasks he approaches, is often dis-
appointed in his desire. Whenever you would

271

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aliquid conaberis, te simul et ea, quae paras quibusque
pararis ipse, metire ; faciet enim te asperum pae-
nitentia operis infecti. Hoc interest utrum quis
fervidi sit ingenii an frigidi atque humilis ; generoso
repulsa iram exprimet, languido inertique tristitiam.
Ergo actiones nostrae nee parvae sint nee audaces et
improbae, in vicinum spes exeat, nihil conemur,
quod mox adepti quoque successisse miremur.

1 8. Demus operam, ne accipiamus iniuriam, quia
ferre nescimus. Cum placidissimo et facillimo et
nainime anxio morosoque vivendum est ; sumuntur a
conversantibus mores et ut quaedam in contactos cor-
poris vitia transiliunt, ita animus mala sua proximis

2 tradit. Ebriosus convictores in amorem meri traxit,
impudicorum coetus fortem quoque et, si liceat,^
virum emolBit, avaritia in proximos virus suum trans-
tulit. Eadem ex diverso ratio virtutum est, ut omne
quod secum habent mitigent ; nee tarn valetudini
profuit utilis regio et salubrius caelum quam animis

3 parum firmis in turba meliore versari. Quae res

quantum possit intelleges, si videris feras quoque

convictu nostro mansuescere nullique etiam immani

bestiae vim suam permanere, si hominis contubernium

diu passa est ; retunditur omnis asperitas paulatim-

^ si liceat mss. : ingenious is siliceum Pincianus, but in
usage the trans/erred meaning is " hard-hearted " : solidura
Comelissen : si placet O&rtz : si lis erat Petschenig.

272

ON ANGER, III. VII. 2-viii. 3

attempt anything, measure yourself and at the same
time the undertaking — both the thing you intend
and the thing for which you are intended ; for the
regret that springs from an unaccomphshed task -svill
make vou bitter. It makes some difference whether
a man is of a fiery or of a cold and submissive nature ;
th£, man of spirit will be driven b}' defeat to anger, a
dullandsluggish^-nature -to sorrow. Let our acti\'i-'
ties, consequently, be neither pett^', nor yet bold
and presumptuous ; let us restrict the range of hope ;V
let us attempt nothing which later, even after we have
achieved it, will make us surprised that we have
succeeded.

Since we do not know how to bear injury, let us j
endeavour not fo receive one. We should hve ■with
a very calm and good-natured person — one that is
never worried or captious ; we adopt our habits from
those A\'ith whom we associate, and as certain diseases
of the body spread to others from contact, so the mind
transmits its faults to those near-by. The drunkard
lures his boon companions into love of wine ; shame-
less company corrupts even the strong man and, per-
chance, the hero ; avarice transfers its poison to its
neighbours. The same principle holds good of the
\-irtues, but with the opposite result— that they
ameliorate whatever comes in contact with them ;
an invalid does not benefit so much from a suitable
location or a more healthful chmate as does the mind
which lacks strength from association wth a better
company. You will understand what a powerful
factor this is if you observe that even wild animals
grow tame from intercourse with us, and that all
beasts, no matter how savage, after enduring long
companionship with man cease to be violent ; all
VOL. I T 273

SENECA

que inter placida dediscitur. Accedit hue, quod
non tantum exemplo melior fit qui cum quietis
hominibus vivit, sed quod causas irascendi non
invenit nee vitium suum exercet. Fugere itaque
debebit omnis quos irritaturos iracundiam sciet.

4 " Qui sunt," inquis, " isti ? " Multi ex variis eausis
idem facturi : offendet te superbus contemptu, dicax
contumelia, petulans iniuria, lividus malignitate,
pugnax contentione, ventosus et mendax vanitate >
non feres a suspieioso timeri, a pertinaee vinci, a

5 delieato fastidiri. Elige simpliees, faeiles, moderatos,
qui iram tuam nee evoeent et ferant. Magis adhuc
proderunt summissi et humani et dulces, non tamen
usque in adulationem, nam iracundos nimia assentatio

6 ofFendit. Erat certe amicus noster vir bonus, sed
irae paratioris, eui non magis tutum erat blandiri
quam male dieere.

Caelium oratorem fuisse iracundissimum constat.
Cum quo, ut aiunt, cenabat in eubieulo lectae
patientiae cliens, sed difficile erat illi in copulam
coniecto rixam eius cum quo cohaerebat effugere ;
optimum iudicavit quidquid dixisset sequi et secundas
agere. Non tulit Caelius adsentientem et exclama-
vit : " Die aliquid contra, ut duo simus ! " Sed ille
quoque. quod non irasceretur, iratus cito sine adver-
274

ON ANGER, III. vni. 3-6

their fierceness is blunted and gradually aniid peace-
ful conditions is forgotten. Moreover, the man who
hves ^^ith tranquil people not only becomes better
from their example, but finding no occasions for
anger he does not indulge in his weakness. It will,
therefore, be a man's dutv to avoid all those who he
knows aWII provoke his anger. " Just whom do you
mean ? " you ask. Tliere are many wlio from
various causes will produce the same result. The
proud man will offend you by his scorn, the caustic
man by an insult, the forward man by an affront, the
spiteful man by his mahce, the contentious by his
^vranghng, the windy har by his hollowness ; you
^\ill not endure to be feared by a suspicious man, to
be outdone by a stubborn one, or to be despised by
a coxcomb. Choose frank, good-natured, temperate
people^^ivha will not call forth your anger and yet
willlbfiar with it. Still more helpful will be those
who are yielding and kindly and suave — not, how-
ever, to the point of fa^^Tiing, for too much cringing
incenses hot-tempered people. I, at any rate, had
a friend, a good man, but too prone to anger, whom
it was not less dangerous to wheedle than to curse.

It is well kno>^-n that Caelius, the orator, was very
hot-tempered. A cUent of rare forbearance was,
as the story goes, once dining ^\ith Caelius in his
chamber, but it was difficult for him, ha\-ing got into
such close quarters, to avoid a quarrel vriih the com-
panion at his side ; so he decided that it was best
to agree with whatever Caelius said and to play up
to him. Caelius, however^ could not endure his
comphant attitude, and cried out, " Contradict me,
that there may be two of us I '* But even he, angry
because he was not angered, quickly subsided when

275

SENECA

7 sario desit. Eligamus ergo vel hos potius, si conscii
nobis iracundiae sumus, qui vultum nostrum ac
sermonem sequantur. Facient quidem nos delicatos
et in malam consuetudinem inducent nihil contra
voluntatem audiendi, sed proderit vitio suo inter-
vallum et quietem dare. Difficiles quoque et
indomiti natura blandientem ferent. Nihil asperum

8 territumque palpanti est. Quotiens disputatio lon-
gior et pugnacior erit, in prima resistamus, antequam
robur accipiat. Alit se ipsa contentio et demissos
altius tenet. Facilius est se a certamine abstinere
quani abducere.

1 9. Studia quoque graviora iracundis omittenda
sunt aut certe citra lassitudinem exercenda, et
animus non inter plura^ versandus, sed artibus
amoenis tradendus. Lectio ilium carminum obleniat
et historia fabulis detineat ; mollius delicatiusque

2 tractetur. Pythagoras perturbationes animi lyra
componebat ; quis autem ignorat lituos et tubas
concitamenta esse, sicut quosdam cantus blandi-
menta, quibus mens resolvatur ? Confusis oculis
prosunt virentia et quibusdam coloribus infirma
acies adquiescit, quorundam splendore praestringitur ;

3 sic mentes aegras studia laeta permulcent. Forum,
advocationes, iudicia fugere debemus et omnia quae
exulcerant vitium, aeque cavere lassitudinem corpo-

^ inter plura A : inter dura Gertz.

276

ON ANGER, III. VIII. 7-ix. 3

he had no antagonist. Consequently, if we are
conscious of being hot-tempered, let us rather pick
out those who ^vill be guided by our looks and by
our words. Such men, it is true, will pamper us and
lead us into the harmful habit of hearing nothing
that we do not hke, but there ^^■ill be the advantage
of gi\ing our weakness a period of respite. Even
those who are churlish and intractable by nature
will endure caressing ; no creature is savage and
frightened if you stroke it. Whenever a discussion
tends to be too long or too quarrelsome, let us check
it at the start before it gains strength. Controversy
grows of itself and holds fast those that have plunged
in too deeply. It is easier to refrain than to retreat
from a struggle.

Hot-tempered people should also abstain from the
morejburdensome pursuits, or at least should not ply
these to the point of exhaustion, and the mind should
not be engaged by too many interests, but should
surrender itself to such arts as are pleasurable. Let
it be soothed by the reading of poetry and gripped
by the tales of history- ; it should be much coddled
and pampered. Pythagoras used to calm his troubled
spirit with the l}Te ; and who does not know that the
clarion and the trumpet act as incitements to the
mind, and that, similarly, certain songs are a soothing
balm that brings it relaxation ? Green things are
good for disordered eyes, and certain colours are
restful to weak \ision, while by the brightness of
others it is bUnded. So pleasant pursuits soothe the
troubled mind. We should shun the courts, court-'
appearances, and trials, and everything that aggra-
vates our weakness, and we should equally guard
against physical exhaustion ; for this destroys what-

277

SENECA

ris ; consumit enim quidquid in nobis mite placidum-

4 que est et acria coneitat. Ideo quibus stomachus
suspectus est, processuri ad res agendas maioris
negotii bilem cibo temperant, quam maxime movet
fatigatio, sive quia calorem in media compellit et
nocet sanguini eursumque eius venis laborantibus
sistit, sive quia corpus attenuatum et inflrmum
incumbit animo ; certe ob eandem causam ira-
cundiores sunt valetudine aut aetate fessi. Fames
quoque et sitis ex isdem causis vitanda est ; exasperat

5 et incendit animos. Vetus dictum est a lasso rixam
quaeri ; aeque autem et ab esuriente et a sitiente
et ab omni homine quern aliqua res urit. Nam ut
ulcera ad levem tactum, deinde etiam ad suspicionem
tactus condolescunt, ita animus adfectus minimis
ofFenditur, adeo ut quosdam salutatio et epistula
et oratio et interrogatio in litem evocent. Numquam
sine querella aegra tanguntur.

1 10. Optimum est itaque ad primuni mali sensum
mederi sibi, tum verbis quoque suis minimum liber-

2 tatis dare et inhibere impetum. Facile est autem
adfectus suos, cum primum oriuntur, deprehendere ;
morborum signa praecurrunt. Quemadmodum tem-
pestatis ac pluviae ante ipsas notae veniunt, ita irae,
amoris omniumque istarum procellarum animos

3 vexantium sunt quaedam praenuntia. Qui comitiali
vitio solent corripi, iam adventare valetudinem
intellegunt, si calor summa deseruit et incertum

278

ON ANGER, III. IX. 3-x. 3

ever gentleness and mildness we have and engenders
sharpness. Those, therefore, who distrust their
digestion, before they proceed to the performance
of tasks of unusual difficulty, allay their bile with
food ; for fatigue especially arouses the bile, possibly
because it drives the body's heat toward the centre,
\-itiates the blood, and stops its circulation by clog-
ging the veins, or because the body when it is worn
and feeble weighs down the mind. For the same
reason, undoubtedly, those who are broken bv ill-
health. and age are more irascible than others.
Hunger and thirst also, for the same reasons, must
be avoided ; they exasperate and irritate the mind.
There is an old proverb that " the tired man seeks a
quarrel," but it apphes just as well to the hungry and
thirsty man, and to any man who chafes under some-
thing. For just as a bodily sore hurts under the
slightest touch, afterwards even at the suggestion
of a touch, so the disordered mind takes offence at the
merest trifles, so that even, in the case of some people,
a greeting, a letter, a speech, or a question provokes
a dispute. There will always be a protest if you
touch a sore spot.

It is best, therefore, to treat the malady as soon
as it is discovered ; then, too, to allow oneself the
least possible hberty of speech, and to check im-
pulsiveness. It is easy, moreover, to detect one's
passion as soon as it is born ; sickness is preceded
by symptoms. Just as the signs of storm and rain
appear before the storms themselves, so there are
certain forerunners of anger, of love, and of all those
tempests that shake the soul. Those who are subject
to fits of epilepsy know that the attack is coming on
if heat leaves their extremities, if their sight wavers,

279

SENECA

lumen nervorumque trepidatio est, si memoria
sublabitur caputque versatur ; solitis itaque remediis
incipientem causam occupant, et odore gustuque
quidquid est quod alienat animos repellitur, aut
fomentis contra frigus rigoremque pugnatur ; aut
si^ parum medicina profecit, vitaverunt turbam et

4 sine teste ceciderunt. Prodest morbum suum nosse
et vires eius antequam spatientur opprimere. Videa-
mus quid sit, quod nos maxime concitet. Alium
verborum, alium rerum contumeliae movent ; hie
vult nobilitati, hie formae suae parci ; hie elegantis-
simus haberi cupit, ille doctissimus ; hie superbiae
impatiens est, hie contumaciae ; ille servos non putat
dignos quibus irascatur, hie intra domum saevus est,
foris mitis ; ille rogari invidiam iudicat, hie non rogari
contumeliam, Non omnes ab eadem parte feriun-
tur ; scire itaque oportet, quid in te imbecillum sit,
ut id maxime protegas.

1 11. Non expedit omnia videre, omnia audire.
Multae nos iniuriae transeant, ex quibus plerasque
non accipit qui nescit. Non vis esse iracundus ?
Ne fueris curiosus. Qui inquirit quid in se dictum
sit, qui malignos sermones, etiam si secreto habiti
sunt, eruit, se ipse inquietat. Quaedam inter-
pretatio eo perducit, ut videantur iniuriae ; itaque
alia differenda sunt, alia deridenda, alia donanda.

^ aut si A : [aut] si Hermes.
280

ON ANGER, III. X. 3-xt. 1

if there is a t\\-itching of the muscles, or if memory
forsakes them and the head swims ; therefore by
customary remedies they try to forestall the disease
in its incipiency, and they ward off whatever it is
that causes unconsciousness by smelhng or tasting
something, or they battle against cold and stiffness
with hot apphcations ; or if the remedy is of no
avail, they escape from the crowd and fall where no
one may see. It is well to understand one's malady
and to break its power before it spreads. Let us
discern what it is that especially irritates us. One
man is stirred by insulting words, another by insulting
actions ; this man craves respect for his rank, this
one for his person ; this one ^vishes to be considered
a fine gentleman, that one a fine scholar ; this one
cannot brook arrogance, this one obstinacy' ; that
one does not think his slaves worthy of his \vrath,
this one is x-iolent inside his house and mild outside ;
that man considers it a disgrace to be put up for
office, this one an insult not to be put up. We are
not all wounded at the same spot ; therefore you
ought to know what your weak spot is in order that
you^may^specially protect it.

It is well not to see everything, not to hear every-
thing. Many affronts may pass by us ; in most
cases the man who is unconscious of them escapes
them. Would you avoid being provoked ? Then
do not be inquisitive. He who tries to discover what
has been said against him, who unearths mahcious
gossip even if it was privately indulged in, is respon-
sible for his own disquietude. There are words
which the construction put upon them can make
appear an insult ; some, therefore, ought to be put
aside, others derided, others condoned. In various

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2 Circumscribenda multis modis ira est ; pleraque
in lusum iocumque vertantur. Socraten aiunt
colapho percussum nihil amplius dixisse quam
molestum esse, quod nescirent homines, quando

3 cum galea prodire deberent. Non quemadmodum
facta sit iniuria refert, sed quemadmodum lata ;
nee video quare difficilis sit moderatio, cum sciam
tyrannorum quoque tumida et fortuna et licentia

4 ingenia familiarem sibi saevitiam repressisse. Pisi-
stratum certe, Atheniensium tyrannum, memoriae
proditur, cum multa in crudelitatem eius ebrius
conviva dixisset nee deessent qui vellent manus ei
commodare, et alius hinc alius illinc faces subderent,
placido animo tulisse et hoc irritantibus respondisse,
non magis illi se suscensere quam si quis obligatis
oculis in se incurrisset.

1 12. Magna pars querellas manu fecit aut falsa
suspicando aut levia adgravando. Saepe ad nos ira
venit, saepius nos ad illam. Quae numquam arces-

2 senda est ; etiam cum incidit, reiciatur. Nemo dicit
sibi : " Hoc propter quod irascor aut feci aut fecisse
potui " ; nemo animum facientis, sed ipsum aestimat
factum. Atqui ille intuendus est, voluerit an in-
ciderit, coactus sit an deceptus, odium secutus sit

282

ON ANGER, III. XI. 2-xii. 2

ways anger must be circumvented ; most offences >
may be turned into farce and jest. Socrates, it is
said, when once he received a box on the ear, merely
declared that it was too bad that a man could not
tell when he ought to wear a helmet while taking
a walk. Not how an affront is offered, but how it is
borne is oiu: concern ; and I do not see why it is
difficult to practise restraint, since I know that even
desjxjtSj^ though their hearts were puffed up with
success and pri\'ilege, have nevertheless repressed
the cruelt}^ that was habitual to them. At any rate,
there is the story handed down about Pisistratus, the
Athenian despot — that once when a tipsy table-
guest had declaimed at length about his cruelty,
and there was no lack of those who would gladly
place their swords at the ser\'ice of their master, and
one from this side and another from that supphed
fuel to the flame, the tyrant, none the less, bore the
incident calmly, and rephed to those who were goad- ^
ing him on that he was no more angry at the man
than he would be if some one ran against him bUnd-
fold.

A great many manufacture grievances either by
suspecting the imtrue or by exaggerating the tri\ial.
Anger often comes to us, but more often we go to it.
It should never be united ; even when it falls upon
us, it should be repulsed. No man ever says to
himself, " I myself have done, or at least might have
done, this very thing that now makes me angry " ;
nQ_ one considers the intention of the doer, but
merely the deed. Yet it is to the doer that we 1.
should give thought — whether he did it intentionally »^
or by accident, whether under compulsion or by
mistake, whether he was led on by hatred or by the •

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an praemium, sibi morem gesserit an manum alteri
commodaverit. Aliquid aetas peccantis facit, aliquid
fortuna, ut ferre aut pati^ aut humanum sit aut

3 humile.2 Eo nos loco constituamus, quo ille est cui
irascimur ; nunc facit nos iracundos iniqua nostri
aestimatio et quae facere vellemus pati nolumus.

4 Nemo se differt ; atqui maximum remedium irae
dilatio est, ut primus eius fervor relanguescat et
caligo quae premit mentem aut residat aut minus
densa sit. Quaedam ex his, quae te praecipitem
ferebant, hora, non tantum dies molliet, quaedam
ex toto evanescent ; si nihil egerit petita advocatio,
apparebit iam indicium esse, non iram. Quidquid
voles quale sit scire, tempori trade ; nihil diligenter

6 in fluctu cernitur, Non potuit impetrare a se Plato
tempus, cum servo suo irasceretur, sed ponere ilium
statim tunicam et praebere scapulas verberibus
iussit sua manu ipse caesurus ; postquam intellexit
irasci se, sicut sustulerat manum suspensam detinebat
et stabat percussuro similis ; interrogatus deinde
ab amico, qui forte intervenerat, quid ageret :
" Exigo," inquit, " poenas ab homine iracundo."

6 Velut stupens gestum ilium saevituri deformem
sapienti viro servabat, oblitus iam servi, quia alium
quem potius castigaret invenerat. Itaque abstulit

^ aut pati A : ac pati Hermes, after Lipsius.
^ humile A : non humile Hermes, after Madvig.

284

ON ANGER, III. XII. 2-6

hope of reward, whether he was pleasing himself or
lending aid to another. The age of the offender
counts for something, his station for something, so
that to tolerate or to submit becomes merely in-
dulgence or deference. Let_us put ourselves in the
place of the man with whom we^re~angrT ; as it is,
an~ unwarranted opinion of self makes us prone to
anger, and we are unwilling to bear what we ourselves
would have been willing to inflict. No one makes
himself wait : yet the best cure for anger is waiting,
to allow the first ardour to abate and to let the dark-
ness that clouds the reason either subside or be less
dense. Of the offences which were dri\ing you head-
long, some an hour will abate, to say nothing of a
day, some will vanish altogether ; though the post-
ponement sought shall accomphsh nothing else, yet
it will be e\ident that judgement now rules instead of
anger. If ever you want to find out what a thing
really^ is, entrust it to time ; you can see nothing
clearly in the midst of the billows. Plato once,
when he was angry with his slave, was unable to
impose delay upon himself, and, bent upon flogging
him with his own hand, ordered him forthwith to
take off his shirt and bare his shoulders for the blows ;
but afterwards reahzing that he was angr}^ he stayed
his uphfted hand, and just as he was stood with his
hand in the air hke one in the act of striking. Later,
when a friend who happened to come in asked him
what he was doing, he said, " I am exacting punish-
ment from an angrj- man." As if sturmed he main-
tained that attitude, unbecoming to a philosopher,
of a man in the act of venting his passion, forgetful
now of the slave since he had found another whom
he was more anxious to punish. He therefore denied

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sibi in suos potestatem et ob peccatum quoddam
commotior : " Tu," inquit, " Speusippe, servulum
7 istum verberibus obiurga ; nam ego irascor." Ob
hoc non cecidit, propter quod alius cecidisset,
" Irascor," inquit ; " plus faciam quam oportet,
libentius faciam ; non sit iste servus in eius potestate
qui in sua non est." Aliquis vult irato committi
ultionem, cum Plato sibi ipse imperium abrogaverit ?
Nihil tibi liceat, dum irasceris. Quare ? Quia vis
omnia hcere.

1 13. Pugna tecum ipse ! Si vis-"^ vincere iram,
non potest te ilia. Incipis vincere, si absconditur,
si illi exitus non datur. Signa eius obruamus et illam
quantum fieri potest occultam secretamque teneamus .

2 Cum magna id nostra molestia fiet, cupit enim exilire
et incendere oculos et mutare faciem ; sed si eminere
ilH extra nos hcuit, supra nos est. In imo pectoris
secessu recondatur feraturque, non ferat ; immo in
contrarium omnia eius indicia flectamus. Vultus
remittatur, vox lenior sit, gradus lentior ; paulatim

3 cum exterioribus interiora formantur. In Socrate
Irae signum erat vocem summittere, loqui parcius.
Apparebat tunc ilium sibi obstare. Deprendebatur
itaque a familiaribus et coarguebatur, nee erat illi
exprobratio latitantis irae ingrata. Quidni gauderet,

^ vis added by Hermes, after Madvig.
286

ON ANGER, III. XII. 6-xiii. 3

himself all power over his own household, and once,
when he was deeply provoked at some fault, he said,
" Do you, Speusippus, punish this dog of a slave
A\-ith a whip, for I am angry." His reason for not
striking was the very reason that would have caused
another to strike. " I am angry," said he ; " I
should do more than I ought, and with too much
satisfaction ; this slave ^ould not be in the power
of a master who is not master of himself." Can any
one wish Jto entrust punishment to an angry man
w^hen even Plato denied himself this authority ?
Let nothing be lawful to you while you are angry.
Do you ask why ? Because then you wish every-
thing to be lawful.

^ight^against__yauxS£l£-J- If you will to conquer

angerj it cannot conquer you. If it is kept out of
sight, if it is given~no' outlet, you begin to conquer.
Let us conceal its signs, and so far as it is possible
let us keep it hidden and secret. We shall have
great trouble in doing this, for it is eager to leap
forth and fire the eyes and transform the countenance;
but if we allow it to show itself outside of us, at once
it is on top of us. It should be kept hidden in the
deepest depths of the heart and it should not drive,
but be driven ; and more, all symptoms of it let us
change into just the opposite. Let the countenance
be unruffled, let the voice be very gentle, tlie step
very slow ; gradually the inner man conforms itself
to the outer. In the case of SocrafesVit was a sign of
anger if he lowered his voice and became sparing of
speech. It was e\ident then that he was struggling
against liimself. And so his intimate friends Mould
find him out and accuse him, yet he was not dis-
pleased by the charge of concealing his anger. Why

287

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quod iram suam multi intellegerent, nemo sentiret ?
Sensissent autem, nisi ius amicis obiurgandi se

4 dedisset, sicut ipse sibi in amicos sumpserat. Quanto
magis hoc nobis faciendum est ! Rogemus amicissi-
mum quemque, ut tunc maxime libertate adversus
nos utatur, cum minime illam pati poterimus, nee
adsentiatur irae nostrae ; contra potens malum et
apud nos gratiosum, dum consipimus, dum nostri

5 sumus, advocemus. Qui vinum male ferunt et
ebrietatis suae temeritatem ac petulantiam metuunt,
mandant suis, ut e convivio auferantur ; intem-
perantiam in morbo suam experti parere ipsis in

6 adversa valetudine vetant. Optimum est notis
vitiis impedimenta prospicere et ante omnia ita
componere animum, ut etiam gravissimis rebus
subitisque concussus iram aut non sentiat aut magni-
tudine inopinatae iniuriae exortam in altum retrahat

7 nee dolorem suum profiteatur. Id fieri posse
apparebit, si pauca ex turba ingenti exempla pro-
tulero, ex quibus utrumque discere licet, quantum
mali habeat ira, ubi hominum praepotentium po-
testate tota utitur, quantum sibi imperare possit,
ubi metu maiore compressa est.

1 14. Cambysen regem nimis deditum vino Prae-
xaspes unus ex carissimis monebat, ut parcius
biberet, turpem esse dicens ebrietatem in rege,
quern omnium oculi auresque sequerentur. Ad haec

288

ON ANGER, III. xin. 3-xiv. l

should he not have been happy that many perceived
his anger, yet no man felt it ? But they would have
felt it, had his friends not been granted the same right
to criticize him which he himself claimed over them.
How much more ought we to do this ! Let us beg all
our best friends to use to the utmost such liberty
toward us, especially when we are least able to bear
it, and let there be no approval of our anger. While
we are sane, -while we are ourselves, let us ask help
against an e\-il that is powerful and oft indulged by
us. Those who cannot carry their ^^^ne discreetly
and fear that they ^^•ill be rash and insolent in their
cups, instruct their friends to remove them from
the feast ; those who have learned that they are
unreasonable when they are sick, give orders that in
times of illness they are not to be obeyed. It is
best to pro\'ide obstacles for recognized weaknesses,
and above all so to order the mind that even when
shaken by most serious and sudden happenings it
either shall not feel anger, or shall bury deep any
anger that may arise from the magnitude of the
unexpected affront and shall not acknowledge its
hurt. That this can be done will become clear if
from a great an-ay of instances I shall cite a few
examples ; from these you may learn two things —
how great e\il there is in anger when it wields the
complete power of supremely powerful men, and
how great control it can impose upon itself when
restrained by the stronger influence of fear. x/

Since Cambyses was too much addicted to ^^•ine,^K.
Praexaspes, one of his dearest friends, urged him to ^
drink more sparingly, declaring that drunkenness is
disgraceful for a king, towards whom all eyes and
ears are turned. To this Cambyses repHed : "To
VOL. I u 289

SENECA

ille : " Ut scias," inquit, " quemadmodum numquam
excidam mihi, adprobabo iam et oculos post vinuxn

2 in officio esse et manus." Bibit deinde liberalius
quam alias capacioribus scyphis et iam gravis ac
vinolentus obiurgatoris sui filium procedere ultra
limen iubet adlevataque super caput sinistra manu
stare. Tunc intendit arcum et ipsum cor adule-
scentis, id enim petere se dixerat, figit rescissoque
pectore haerens in ipso corde spiculum ostendit ac
respiciens patrem interrogavit, satisne certam haberet
manum. At ille negavit Apollinem potuisse certius

3 mittere. Dii ilium male perdant animo magis quam
condicione mancipium ! Eius rei laudator fuit,
cuius nimis erat spectatorem fuisse. Occasionem
blanditiarum putavit pectus filii in duas partes
diductum et cor sub vulnere palpitans. Contro-
versiam illi facere de gloria debuit et revocare iactum,
ut regi liberet in ipso patre certiorem manu]

4 ostendere ! O regem cruentum ! O dignum in'
quem omnium suorum arcus verterentur ! Cum
exsecrati fuerimus ilium convivia suppliciis funeri-
busque solventem, tamen sceleratius telum illud
laudatum est quam missum. Videbimus quomodo
se pater gerere debuerit stans super cadaver fili sui
caedemque illam, cuius et testis fuerat et causa.
Id de quo nunc agitur apparet, iram supprimi posse.

290

ON ANGER, III. XIV. 1-4 r

convince you that I never lose command of myself,
I shall proceed to prove to you that my eyes and
my hands perform their duty in spite of wine."
Thereupon taking larger cups he drank more reck-
lessly than ever, and when at length he was heavy
and besotted \\-ith ^\•ine, he ordered the son of his
critic to proceed beyond the threshold and stand
there with his left hand lifted above his head. Then
he drew his bow and shot the youth through the very
heart — he had mentioned this as his mark — and
cutting open the breast of the victim he showed
the arrow-head sticking in the heart itself, and then
turning toward the father he inquired whether he
had a sufficiently steady hand. But he replied that
Apollo himself could not have made a more unerring
shot. Heaven curse such a man, a bondslave in
spirit even more than in station I He praised a deed,
which it were too much even to have mtnessed.
The breast of his son that had been torn asunder, his
heart quivering from its wound, he counted a fitting
pretext for flattery. He ought to have provoked a
dispute -v^ith him about his boast and called for
another shot, that the king might have the pleasure
of displaying upon the person of the father himself
an even steadier hand I What a bloodthirsty king !
What a worthy mark for the bows of all his followers ! >^
Though we may execrate him for terminating a
banquet "vvith punishment and death, yet it was more
accursed to praise that shot than to make it. We
shall see later how the father should have borne
himself as he stood over the corpse of his son, vie^ving
that murder of which he was both the witness and
the cause. The point now under discussion is clear, n^
namely, that it is possible to suppress anger. He

^ 291

SENECA

5 Non male dixit regi, nullum emisit ne calamitosi
quidem verbum, cum aeque cor suum quam fili trans-
fixum videret. Potest dici merito devorasse verba ;
nam si quid tamquam iratus dixisset, nihil tamquam

6 pater facere potuisset. Potest, inquam, videri
sapientius se in illo casu gessisse, quam cum de
potandi modo praeciperet ei, quem satius erat vinum
quam sanguinem bibere, cuius manus poculis occu-
pari pax erat. Accessit itaque ad numerum eorum,
qui magnis cladibus ostenderunt, quanti constarent
regum amicis bona consiUa.

1 15. Non dubito quin Harpagus quoque tale aliquid
regi suo Persarumque suaserit, quo offensus liberos
illi epulandos adposuit et subinde quaesiit, an
placeret conditura ; deinde ut satis ilium plenum
malis suis vidit, adferri capita illorum iussit et quo-
modo esset acceptus interrogavit. Non defuerunt
misero verba, non os concurrit : " Apud regem,"

2 inquit, " omnis cena iucunda est." Quid hac
adulatione profecit ? Ne ad reliquias invitaretur.
Non veto patrem damnare regis sui factum, non veto
quaerere dignam tam truci portento poenam, sed
hoc interim colligo, posse etiam ex ingentibus malis
nascentem iram abscondi et ad verba contraria sibi

3 cogi. Necessaria ista est doloris refrenatio, utique
292

ON ANGER, III. XIV. 5-xv. 3

did not curse the king, he let shp no word even of
anguish, though he saw his o\^ti heart pierced as
well as his son's. It may be said that he was right
to choke back words ; for even if he had spoken as
an angry man, he could have accomplished nothing
as a father. He may, I say, be thought to have
acted^more_wisely in that raisfortune than he had
done in recommending moderation in drinking to a
man who would have much better drunk wine than
blood, viith whom peace meant that his hands were
bilSy with the wine-cup. He, therefore, added one
more to the number of those who have sho%\'n by
bitter misfortune the price a king's friends pay for
giving good ad\ice.

I~donbt not that Harpagus also gave some such
ad\ice to his king, the king of the Persians, who,
taking offence thereat, caused the flesh of Harpagus's
oym children to be set before him as a course in the
banquet, and kept inquiring whether he hked the
cooking ; then when he saw him sated >^ith his ovm
ills, he ordered the heads of the children to be brought
in, and inquired what he thought of his entertain-
ment. The poor ^^Tetch did not lack words, his hps
were not sealed. " At the king's board," he said,
" any kiruLof food is delightful." And what did he
gain by this flattery ? He escaped an invitation to
eat what was left. I do not say that a father must
not condemn an act of his king, I do not say that he
should not seek to give so atrocious a monster the
punishment he deserves, but for the moment I am
drawing this conclusion — that it is possible for a man
to conceal the anger that arises even from a monstrous
outrage and to force himself to words that belie it.
Such restraint of distress is necessary, particularly for

293

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hoc sortitis vitae genus et ad regiam adhibitis mensam.
Sic estur apud illos, sic bibitur, sic respondetur,
funeribus suis adridendum est. An tanti sit vita
videbimus ; alia ista quaestio est. Non consolabimur
tarn triste ergastulum, non adhortabimur ferre
imperia carnificum ; ostendemus in omni servitute
apertam libertati viam. Si aeger animus et suo vitio

4 miser est, huic miserias finire secum licet. Dicam
et illi, qui in regem incidit sagittis pectora amicorum
petentem, et illi, cuius dominus liberorum visceri-
bus patres saturat : "Quid gemis, demens ? Quid
expectas, ut te aut hostis aliquis per exitium gentis
tuae vindicet aut rex a longinquo potens advolet ?
Quocumque respexeris, ibi malorum finis est. Vides
ilium praecipitem locum ? Iliac ad libertatem
descenditur. Vides illud mare, illud flumen, ilium
puteum ? Libertas illic in imo sedet. Vides illam
arborem brevem, retorridam, infelicem ? Pendet
inde libertas. Vides iugulum tuum, guttur tuum,
cor tuum ? EfFugia servitutis sunt. Nimis tibi
operosos exitus monstro et multum animi ac roboris
exigentes ? Quaeris quod sit ad libertatem iter ?
Quaelibet in corpore tuo vena ! "

1 16. Quam diu quidem nihil tarn intolerabile nobis
videtur, ut nos expellat e vita, iram, in quocumque
294

ON ANGER, III. x\'. 3-xvi. i

those whose lot is cast in this sort of life and who are
invited to the board of kings. So must they eat in
that company, so must they drink, so must they
answer, so must they mock at the death of their
dear ones. Whether the hfe is worth the price we
shall see ; that is another question. We shall not
condole with such a chain-gang of prisoners so
wretched, we shall not urge them to submit to the
commands of their butchers ; we shall show that in
any kind of ser\'itude the way lies open to libert}'.
If the soul is sick and because of its o\\ti imperfection
unhappy, a man may end its sorrows and at the same
time himself. To him to whom chance has given a
king that aims his shafts at the breasts of his friends,
to him who has a master that gorges fathers with
the flesh of their cliildren, I would say : " Madman,
why do you moan ? Why do you wait for some
enemy to avenge you by the destruction of your
nation, or for a mighty king from afar to fly to your
rescue ? In whatever direction you may turn your
eyes, there lies the means to end your woes. See you
that precipice ? Down that is the way to liberty.
See you that sea, that river, that well ? There sits
liberty — at the bottom. See you that tree, stunted,
bUghted, and barren ? Yet from its branches hangs
liberty. See you that throat of yours, your gullet,
your heart ? They are ways of escape from servitude.
Are the ways of egress I show you too toilsome, do
they require too much courage and strength ? Do
you ask what is the highway to libertv' ? Any veiiT
in your body ! "

So long indeed as there shall be no hardship so
intolerable in our opinion as to force us to abandon
life, let us, no matter what our station in hfe may

295

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erimus statu, removeamus. Perniciosa est ser-
vientibus. Omnis enim indignatio in tormentum
suum proficit et imperia graviora sentit quo con-
tumacius patitur. Sic laqueos fera, dum iactat,
adstringit ; sic aves viscum, dum trepidantes ex-
cutiunt, plumis omnibus inlinunt. Nullum tam
artum est iugum, quod non minus laedat ducentem
quam repugnantem. Unum est levamentum malo-
rum ingentium, pati et necessitatibus suis obsequi.

2 Sed cum utilis sit servientibus adfectuum suorum
et huius praecipue rabidi atque efFreni continentia,
utilior est regibus. Perierunt omnia, ubi quantum
ira suadet fortuna permittit, nee diu potest quae
multorum malo exercetur potentia stare ; peri-
clitatur enim, ubi eos, qui separatim gemunt, com-
munis metus iunxit. Plerosque itaque modo singuli
mactaverunt, modo universi, cum illos conferre in

3 unum iras publicus dolor coegisset. Atqui plerique
sic iram quasi insigne regium exercuerunt, sicut
Dareus, qui primus post ablatum Mago imperium
Persas et magnam partem orientis obtinuit. Nam
cum bellum Scythis indixisset orientem cingentibus,
rogatus ab Oeobazo nobili sene, ut ex tribus liberis
unum in solacium patri relinqueret, duorum opera
uteretur, plus quam rogabatur pollicitus omnis se
illi dixit remissurum et occisos in conspectu parentis

4 abiecit, crudelis futurus, si omnis abduxisset. At

" The false Smerdis, dethroned 521 b.c. Cf. Herodotus,
iii. 70 if.

* The true founder of the Persian empire, Darius extended
his supremacy as far as the Indus.
296

ON ANGER, III. XVI. 1-4

be, keep ourselves from anger. It is harmful for all
who serve. For any sort of chafing grows to self-
torture, and the more rebelhous we are under
authority, the more oppressive we feel it to be. So a
wild beast by struggling but tightens its noose ; so
birds by trying in their alarm to get free from bird-
lime, smear all their plumage with it. No yoke is
so tight but that it hurts less to carry it than to
struggle against it. The only rehef for great mis-
fortunes is to bear them and submit to their coercion.
But though it is expedient for subjects to control
their passions, especially this mad and unbridled one,
it is even more expedient for kings. When his
position permits a man to do all that anger prompts,
general destruction is let loose, nor can any power
long endure which is %\'ielded for the injurj' of many ;
for it becomes imperilled when those who separately
moan in anguish are united by a conmaon fear. Con-
sequently, many kings have been the \ictims now of
individual, now of concerted, violence, at times when
a general animosity had forced men to gather together
their separate angers into one. Yet many kings
have employed anger as if it were the badge of regal
power ; for example Darius, who after the dethrone-
ment of the Magian " became the first ruler of the
Persians and of a great part of the East.^ For after
he had declared war on the Scythians who were on his
eastern border, Oeobazus, an aged noble, besought
him to use the ser\ices of two of his sons, but to
leave one out of the three as a comfort to his father.
Promising more than was asked, and saying that
he would exempt all three, Darius flung their dead
bodies before their father's eyes — for it would have
been cruelty if he had taken them all with him !

297

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quanto Xerses facilior ! Qui Pythio quinque filiorum
patri unius vacationem petenti, quem vellet eligere
permisit, deinde quem elegerat in partes duas
distractum ab utroque viae latere posuit et hac
victima lustravit exercitum. Habuit itaque quem
debuit exitum ; victus et late longeque fusus ac
stratam ubique ruinam suam cernens medius inter
suorum cadavera incessit.

1 17. Haec barbaris regibus feritas in ira fuit, quos
nulla eruditio, nullus litterarum cultus imbuerat.
Dabo tibi ex Aristotelis sinu regem Alexandrum. qui
Clitum carissimum sibi et una educatum inter epulas
transfodit manu quidem sua, parum adulantem et
pigre ex Macedone ac libero in Persicam servitutem

2 transeuntem. Nam Lysimachum aeque familiarem li
sibi leoni obiecit. Numquid ergo hie Lysimaehus
felicitate quadam dentibus leonis elapsus ob hoc,

fj cum ipse regnaret, mitior fuit ? Nam Telesphorum
Rhodium amicum suum undique decurtatum, cum
aures illi nasumque abscidisset, in cavea velut novum
aliquod animal et invisitatum diu pavit, cum oris
detruncati mutilatique deformitas humanam faciem
perdidisset ; accedebat fames et squalor et inluvies

4 corporis in stercore suo destituti ; callosis super

298

ON ANGER, III. xvi. 4-xvii. 4 ^

But how much kinder was Xerxes I For he, when
Pythius, the father of five sons, begged for the
exemption of one, permitted him to choose the one
he ^^ished ; then he tore into halves the son who
had been chosen, and placing a half on each side of the
road offered the body as an expiatory- sacrifice for the
success of the army. And so the army met the fate
it deser\-ed. Defeated, routed far and wide, and
seeing its o^vn destruction spread on every side,
between two lines of the dead bodies of its comrades
it trudged along.

Such was the ferocity of barbarian kings when
in anger — men who had had no contact with learning
or the culture of letters. But I shall now show you
a king from the very bosom of Aristotle, even
Alexander, who in the midst of a feast with his
own hand stabbed Clitus, his dearest friend, ^\"ith
whom he had gro\\'n up, because he ^\^thheld his
flattery and was reluctant to transform himself from
a Macedonian and a free man into a Persian slave.
Lysimachus, likewise a familiar friend, he threw to a
lion. Though Lysimachus escaped by some good
luck from the lion's teeth, was he therefore, in view
of this experience, a whit more kind when he himself
became king ? Not so, for Telesphorus the Rhodian,
his own friend, he completely mutilated, and when
he had cut off his ears and nose, he shut him up in a
cage as if he were some strange and unknown animal
and for a long time Hved in terror of him, since the
hideousness of his hacked and mutilated face had
destroyed every appearance of a human being ; to
this were added starvation and squalor and the filth
of a body left to wallow in its ovvti dung ; further
more, his hands and knees becoming all calloused —

299

. i SENECA

haec'genibus manibusque, quas in usum pedum
angustiae loci cogebant, lateribus vero adtritu ex-
ulceratis non minus foeda quam terribilis erat forma
eius visentibus, factusque poena sua monstrum
misericordiam quoque amiserat. Tamen, cum dis-
simillimus esset homini qui illi patiebatur, dis-
similior erat qui faciebat.

1 18. Utinam ista saevitia intra peregrina exempla
mansisset nee in Romanos mores cum aliis adven-
ticiis vitiis etiam suppliciorum irarumque barbaria
transisset ! M. Mario, cui vicatim populus statuas
posuerat, cui ture ac vino supplicabat, L. Sulla prae-
fringi crura, erui oculos, amputari linguam, manus
iussit et, quasi totiens occideret quotiens vulnerabat,

2paulatim et per singulos artus laceravit. Quis erat
huius imperii minister ? Quis nisi Catilina iam in
omne facinus manus exercens ? Is ilium ante
bustum Quinti Catuli carpebat gravissimus mitissimi
viri cineribus, supra quos vir mali exempli, popularis
tamen et non tam immerito quam nimis amatus per
stillicidia sanguinem dabat. Dignus erat Marius
qui ilia pateretur, Sulla qui iuberet, Catilina qui
faceret, sed indigna res publica quae in corpus suum
pariter et hostium et vindicum gladios reciperet.

3 Quid antiqua perscrutor ? Modo C. Caesar Sex.
300

ON ANGER, III. XVII. 4-xvin. 3

for by the narrowness of his quarters he was forced
to use these instead of feet — his sides, too, a mass of
sores from rubbing, to those who beheld him his
appearance was no less disgusting than terrible, and
ha%ing been turned by his punishment into a monster
he had forfeited even pity. Yet, while he who
suffered these things was utterly unlike a human
being, he who inflicted them was still less like one.

Would to heaven that the examples of such cruelty
had been confined to foreigners, and that along with
other vices from abroad the barbarity of torture and
such venting of anger had not been imported into the
practices of Romans ! Marcus Marius, to whom the
people erected statues in every street, whom they
worshipped \Wth offerings of frankincense and ^^'ine —
this man by the command of Lucius Sulla had his
ankles broken, his eyes gouged out, his tongue and
his hands cut off, and little by little and limb by limb
Sulla tore him to pieces, just as if he could make
him die as many times as he could maim him. And
who was it who executed tliis command ? Who but
Catiline, abeady training his hands to every sort of
crime ? He hacked him to pieces before the tomb
of Quintus Catulus, doing violence to the ashes of
that gentlest of men, above which a hero — of evil
influence, no doubt, yet popular and loved not so
much undeservedly as to excess — shed his blood
3brop by drop. It was meet that a Marius should
mffer these things, that a Sulla should give the
orders, and that a Catihne should execute them, but

was not meet that the state should receive in her
breast the swords of her enemies and her protectors
ilike. But why do I search out ancient crimes ?
Duly recently Gains Caesar slashed with the scourge

301

SENECA

Papinium, cui pater erat consularis, Betilienum
Bassum quaestorem suum, procuratoris sui filium,
aliosque et senatores et equites Romanos uno die
flagellis cecidit, torsit, non quaestionis sed animi
4 causa ; deinde adeo impatiens fuit difFerendae
voluptatis, quam ingentem crudelitas eius sine
dilatione poscebat, ut in xysto maternorum hortorum,
qui porticum a ripa separat, inambulans quosdam
ex illis cum matronis atque aliis senatoribus ad
lucernam decollaret. Quid instabat ? Quod peri-
culum aut privatum aut publicum una nox minabatur ?
Quantulum fuit lucem expectare denique, ne
senatores populi Romani soleatus occideret !

1 19. Quam superba fuerit crudelitas eius ad rem
pertinet scire, quamquam aberrare alicui possimus
videri et in devium exire ; sed hoc ipsum pars
erit irae super solita saevientis. Ceciderat flagellis
senatores ; ipse efFecit, ut dici posset " solet fieri."
Torserat per omnia, quae in rerum natura tristissima
sunt, fidiculis, talaribus, eculeo, igne, vultu suo.

2 Et hoc loco respondebitur : " Magnam rem ! si tres
senatores quasi nequam mancipia inter verbera et
flammas di visit homo, qui de toto senatu trucidando
cogitabat, qui optabat, ut populus Romanus unam
cervicem haberet, ut scelera sua tot locis ac tem-
poribus diducta in unum ictum et unum diem
cogeret." Quid tam inauditum quam nocturnum

« Literally "sandals," a conventional detail of Roman
dinner-dress.
302

ON ANGER, III. x\in. 3-xix. 2

and tortured Sextus Papinius, whose father had been
consul, and Betihenus Bassus, his own quaestor and
the son of his procurator, and others, both Roman
senators and knights, all in one day — and not to
extract information but for amusement. Then so
impatient was he of postponing his pleasure — a
pleasure so great that his cruelty demanded it >\ith-
out delay — that he decapitated some of his victims
by lamplight, as he was strolling \viih some ladies
and senators on the terrace of his mother's gardens,
which runs between the colonnade and the bank of
the river. But what was the pressing need ? What
public or private danger was threatened by a single
night's delay ? How small a matter it would have
been if he had waited just till davvTi, so as not to
kill the senators of the Roman people in his pumps <* !
It is relevant, too, to note the insolence of his cruelty,
though some one may consider that we are straying
from the subject and embarking upon a digression ;
but such insolence will be an element in cruelty
when it is extravagant in its fury. He had scourged
senators, but he himself made it possible to say, " An
ordinary event." He had tortured them by every
unhappy device in existence — by the cord, by knotted
bones, by the rack, by fire, by his own countenance.
But here also will come the answer : " A great
matter, truly ! Because three senators, as if no
better than worthless slaves, were mangled by whip
and flame at the behest of a man who contemplated
murdering the whole senate, a man who used to wish
that the Roman people had only one neck in order
that he might concentrate into one day and one
stroke all his crimes, now spread over so many places
and times." What was ever so unheard of as an

303

SENECA

supplicium ? Cum latrocinia tenebris abscond!
soleant, animadversiones, quo notiores sunt, plus

3 in exemplum emendationemque proficiant. Et hoc
loco respondebitur mihi : " Quod tanto opere ad-
miraris, isti beluae cotidianum est ; ad hoc vivit,
ad hoc vigilat, ad hoc lucubrat." Nemo certe
invenietur alius, qui imperaverit omnibus iis, in quos
animadverti iubebat, os inserta spongea includi, ne
vocis emittendae haberent facultatem. Cui umquam
morituro non est relictum qua gemeret ? Timuit,
ne quam liberiorem vocem extremus dolor mitteret,
ne quid quod noUet audiret ; sciebat autem in-
numerabilia esse, quae obicere illi nemo nisi periturus

4 auderet. Cum spongeae non invenirentur, scindi j
vestiraenta miserorum et in os farciri pannos im-
peravit. Quae ista saevitia est ? Liceat ultimum
spiritum trahere, da exiturae animae locum, liceat

5 illam non per vulnus emittere ! Adicere his longum
est, quod patres quoque occisorum eadem nocte
dimissis per domos centurionibus confecit, id est,
homo misericors luctu liberavit ! Non enim Gai
saevitiam, sed irae, propositum est describere, quae
non tantum viritim furit sed gentes totas lancinat,
sed urbes et flumina et tuta ab omni sensu doloris:
converberat.

1 20. Sic rex Persarum totius populi nares recidit

" See the story of Cyrus and the river Gyndes, De Ira, ill.
21; of Xerxes' rage against the Hellespont, Herodotus, vii.
35.
304

ON ANGER, III. XIX. 2-xx. l

execution by night ? Though robberies are generally
curtained by darkness, the more publicity' punish-
ments have, the more may they avail as an admonition
and warning. But here also I shall hear the answer :
" That which surprises you so much is the daily habit of
that beast ; for this he lives, for this he loses sleep, for
this he burns the midnight oil." But surely you ^^^ll
find no other man who has bidden that the mouths of
all those who were to be executed by his orders should
be gagged by inserting a sponge, in order that they
might not even have the power to utter a cry. WTiat
doomed man was ever before deprived of the breath
>vith which to moan ? Caesar feared lest the man's
last agony should give utterance to some speech too
frank, lest he might hear something that he would
rather not. He was well aware, too, that there were
countless crimes, ^vith which none but a dpng man
would dare reproach him. If no sponges were to be
found, he ordered the garments of the poor \vretches
to be torn up, and their mouths to be stuffed with
the strips. \Miat savagery is this ? Let a man
draw his last breath, leave a passage for his depart-
ing soul, let it have some other course of exit than
a wound ! It would be tedious to add more — how he
sent officers to the homes of his ^"ictims, and on that
same night made away with their fathers too — that
is, out of human pity he freed the fathers from their
sorrow ! And, indeed, tny purpose is not to picture
the cruelty of Gaius, but the erueltj^of anger, which
not only vents its fury on a man here and there, but
rends in pieces whole nations, which lashes cities and
rivers ** and lifeless things that are immune to all
feeling of pain.

Thus, the king of the Persians cut off the noses of
VOL. I X 305

SENECA

in Syria, unde Rhinocolura loco nomen est. Peper-
cisse ilium iudicas, quod non tota capita praecidit ?

2 Novo genere poenae delectatus est. Tale aliquid
passi forent et Aethiopes, qui ob longissimum vitae
spatium Macrobioe appellantur ; in hos enim, quia
non supinis manibus exceperant servitutem missisque
legatis libera responsa dederant, quae contumeliosa
reges vocant, Cambyses fremebat et non provisis
commeatibus, non exploratis itineribus, per invia,
per arentia trahebat omnem bello utilem turbam.
Cui intra primum iter deerant necessaria, nee quic-
quam subministrabat sterilis et inculta humanoque

3 ignota vestigio regio. Sustinebant famem primo
tenerrima frondium et cacumina arborum, turn coria
igne mollita et quidquid necessitas cibum fecerat ;
postquam inter harenas radices quoque et herbae
defecerant apparuitque inops etiam animalium
solitudo, decimum quemque sortiti alimentum ha-

4 buerunt fame saevius. Agebat adhue regem ira
praecipitem, cum partem exercitus amisisset, partem
comedisset, donee timuit, ne et ipse vocaretur ad
sortem. Turn demum signum receptui dedit. Serva-
bantur interim generosae illi aves et instrumenta
epularum camelis vehebantur, cum sortirentur
milites eius, quis male periret, quis peius viveret.
306

ON ANGER, III. XX. 1-4

a whole population in Syria, whence it gets its name
of " Land-of-the-stump-nosed." Think you he was
merciful because he did not cut off their entire heads ?
No, he got some pleasure from a new kind of punish-
ment. And the Ethiopians, who on account of the
prodigiously long time they live are kno\vn as the
" Longevals," might also have suffered some such fate.
For Cambyses became enraged against them because,
instead of embracing servitude with outstretched
arms, they sent envoys and made reply in the in-
dependent words which kings call insults ; where-
fore, without pro\dding supphes, Avithout investigating
the roads, through a trackless and desert region he
hurried against them his whole host of fighting men.
During the first day's march his food supplies began
to fail, and the country itself, barren and uncultivated
and untrodden by the foot of man, furnished them
nothing. At first the tenderest parts of leaves and
shoots of trees satisfied their hunger, then skins
softened by fire and whatever necessity forced them
to use as food. After, amid the desert sands, even
roots and herbage failed them, and they viewed a
wilderness destitute also of animal life, choosing
very tenth man by lot, they secured the nutriment
hat was more cruel than hunger. And still the
was driven headlong onwards by his anger,
til having lost one part of his army and having
.evoured another part, he began to fear that he too
ght be summoned to the choice by lot. Only then
id he give the signal for retreat. And all the while
owls of choice breed were being kept for him, and
;amels carried supplies for his feasts, while his
oldiers drew^lots to discover who should miserably
>erish, who should more miserably^ve^^

307

SENECA

1 21. Hie iratus fuit genti et ignotae et immeritae,
sensurae tamen ; Cyrus flumini. Nam cum Baby-
lona oppugnaturus festinaret ad bellum, cuius
maxima momenta in occasionibus sunt, Gynden late
fusum amnem vado transire temptavit, quod vix
tutum est, etiam cum sensit aestatem et ad minimum

2 deductus est. Ibi unus ex iis equis, qui trahere
regium currum albi solebant, abreptus vehementer
commovit regem ; iuravit itaque se amnem ilium
regis comitatus auferentem eo redacturum, ut^

3 transiri calcarique etiam a feminis posset. Hoc
deinde omnem transtulit belli apparatum et tarn
diu adsedit operi, donee centum et octoginta cuni-
culis divisum alveum in trecentos et sexaginta rivos
dispergeret, siccum relinqueret in diversum fluentibus

4 aquis. Periit itaque et tempus, magna in magnis
rebus iactura, et militum ardor, quem inutilis labor
fregit, et occasio adgrediendi imparatos, dum ille

6 bellum indictum hosti cum flumine gerit. Hie furor
— quid enim aliud voces ? — Romanos quoque con-
tigit. C. enim Caesar villam in Herculanensi pul-
cherrimam, quia mater sua aliquando in ilia custodita
erat, diruit fecitque eius per hoc notabilem for-
tunam ; stantem enim praenavigabamus, nunc
causa dirutae quaeritur.
308

ON ANGER, III. XXI. 1-5

This man raged against a people unknown and
inoffensive, yet able to feel his anger : Cyrus, how-
ever, raged against a river. For when, with the
purpose of taking Babylon, he was hastening to war
— in which the favourable opportunity is of the
utmost importance — he attempted to ford the river
Gyndes, then in full flood, though such an under-
taking is scarcely safe even after the river has felt
the heat of siunmer and is reduced to its smallest
volume. There, when one of the white horses
which regularly drew the royal chariot was swept
away, the king became mightily stirred. And so
he swore that he would reduce that river, which was
carrying away the retinue of the king, to such pro-
portions that even women could cross it and trample
it under foot. To this task, then, he transferred all
his preparations for war, and ha\ang lingered thereat
long enough to cut one hundred and eighty run-
ways across the channel of the river, he distributed its
water into three hundred and sixty runnels, which
flowing in different directions left the channel dr^'.
And so he sacrificed time, a serious loss in important
operations, the enthusiasm of his soldiers, which
was crushed by the useless toil, and the opportunity
of attacking the enemy unprepared, while he waged
against a river the war he had declared against
a foe. Such madness — for what else can you call
it ? — has befallen Romans also. For Gaius Caesar
destroyed a very beautiful villa near Herculaneum
because his mother had once been imprisoned in it,
and by his very act gave publicity to her mis-
fortune ; for while the villa stood, we used to sail
by unconcerned, but now people ask why it was
destroyed.

309

SENECA

1 22. Et haec cogitanda sunt exempla, quae vites,
et ilia ex contrario, quae sequaris, moderata, lenia,
quibus nee ad irascendum causa defuit nee ad ulci-

2 scendum potestas. Quid enim facilius fuit Antigono
quam duos manipulares duci iubere, qui incumbentes
regis tabernaculo faciebant, quod homines et perieu-
losissime et libentissime faciunt, de rege suo male
existimabant ? Audierat omnia Antigonus, utpote
cum inter dicentes et audientem palla interesset ;
quam ille leviter commovit et : " Longius," inquit,

3 " discedite, ne vos rex audiat." Idem quadam nocte,
cum quosdam ex militibus suis exaudisset omnia
mala imprecantis regi, qui ipsos in illud iter et in-
extricabile lutum deduxisset, accessit ad eos, qui
maxime laborabant, et cum ignorantis a quo adiu-
varentur explicuisset : " Nunc," inquit, " male dicite
Antigono, cuius vitio in has miserias incidistis ; ei
autem bene optate, qui vos ex hac voragine eduxit."

4 Idem tarn miti animo hostium suorum male dicta
quam civium tulit. Itaque cum in parvulo quodam
castello Graeci obsiderentur et fiducia loci con-
temnentes hostem multa in deformitatem Antigoni
iocarentur et nunc staturam humilem, nunc collisum
nasum deriderent : " Gaudeo," inquit, " et aliquid

5 boni spero, si in castris meis Silenum habeo." Cum
hos dicaces fame domuisset, captis sic usus est, ut
eos qui militiae utiles erant in cohortes discriberet,
ceteros praeconi subiceret, idque se negavit facturum

310

ON ANGER, III. XXII. 1-5

These should be regarded as examples to be
avoided ; the following, on the other hand, are to
be imitated, being instances of restrained and gentle
men, who lacked neither the provocation to anger
nor the power of requital. What indeed would have
been easier than for Antigonus to order the execution
of the two common soldiers, who, while they leaned
against the royal tent, expressed — as men will do
with equally great danger and delight — their ill
opinion of their king ? Antigonus heard ever\'thing,
only a canvas intervening between the speakers and
the listener ; this he gently shook and said, " Move
a little farther off, for the king might hear you."
Again, one night, when he overheard some of his
soldiers invoking all kinds of curses upon the king
for having led them into such a road and inextricable
mud, he went up to those w^ho were struggling most,
and when he had got them out, without reveal-
ing who their helper was, he said, " Now curse
Antigonus, by whose fault you have fallen upon this
mishap, but bless him who has led you out of this
swamp." He also bore the abuse of his enemies
as calmly as that of his countrymen. And so, when
he was besieging some Greeks in a small fort, and
they, confident in their position, showed open
contempt for the enemy, and cracking many jokes
upon the ugliness of Antigonus scoffed now at his
diminutive stature, now at his flattened nose, he
merely said, " If I have a Silenus in my camp, I am
fortunate and hope for good luck." When he had
subdued these wags by hunger, he disposed of his
captives as follows : those who were fit for military
ser\-ice he assigned to regiments ; the rest he put
up at auction, saying that he would not have done

311

SENECA

fuisse, nisi expediret iis dominum habere, qui tam
malam haberent linguam.

1 23. Huius nepos fuit Alexander, qui lanceam in
convivas suos torquebat, qui ex duobus amicis, quos
paulo ante rettuli, alterum ferae obiecit, alterum
sibi. Ex his duobus tamen qui leoni obiectus est

2 vixit. Non habuit hoc avitum ille vitium, ne pater-
num quidem ; nam si qua aha in Phihppo virtus, fuit
et contumeliarum patientia, ingens instrumentum
ad tutelam regni. Demoehares ad ilium Parrhesi-
astes ob nimiam et procacem linguam appellatus
inter alios Atheniensium legatos venerat. Audita
benigne legatione Philippus : " Dicite," inquit,
" niihi, facere quid possim, quod sit Atheniensibus
gratum." Excepit Demoehares et : " Te," inquit,

3 " suspender e." Indignatio circumstantium ad tam
^ inhumanum responsum exorta erat ; quos Philippus

conticiscere iussit et Thersitam ilium salvum in-
columemque dimittere. " At vos," inquit, " ceteri
legati, nuntiate Atheniensibus multo superbiores
esse, qui ista dicunt, quam qui impune dicta audiunt."

4 Multa et divus Augustus digna memoria fecit
dixitque, ex quibus appareat iram illi non imperasse.
Timagenes historiarum scriptor quaedam in ipsum,
quaedam in uxorem eius et in totam domum dixerat
nee perdiderat dicta ; magis enim circumfertur et

5 in ore hominum est temeraria urbanitas. Saepe
ilium Caesar monuit, moderatius lingua uteretur ;

" A mistake. Alexander was the grandson of Amyntas ;
Antigonus (Movi^^aX/ios) was one of Alexander's generals.

' i.e., "the Outspoken " (Uapprja-LaffTTjs).

" A Greek in the camp before Troy, noted for his bold
and impudent tongue.
312

ON ANGER, III. XXII. 5-.xxiii. 5

so had it not seemed good for men who had such an
e\il tongue to find a master.

The grandson of this man was Alexander," who
used to hurl his spear at his dinner-guests, who, of the
two friends mentioned above, exposed one to the
fury of a wild beast, the other to his own. Of these
two, however, the one who was thro%^"n to a Hon hved,
Alexander did not get this weakness from his grand-
father, nor from his father either ; for if PhiUp
possessed any \'irtues at all, among them was the
abiUty to endure insults — a great help in the main-
tenance of a throne. Demochares, sumamed Par-
rhesiastes^ on account of his bold and impudent
tongue, came to him once in company with other
envoys from the Athenians. Having granted the
delegation a friendly hearing, Pliihp said, " Tell
me what I can do that ^\i\\ please the Athenians."
Demochares took him at his word and replied,
" Hang yovu-self." All the bystanders flared up in
indignation at such brutal words, but Philip bade
them keep quiet and let that Thersites*^ \sithdraw
safe and unharmed. " But you," he said, " you
other envoys, go tell the Athenians that those who
speak such words show far more arrogance than
those who listen to them \\ithout retaliation."

The deified Augustus also did and said many
things that are memorable, which prove that he
was not ruled by anger. Timagenes, a writer of
history, made some unfriendly remarks about the
emperor himself, his wife, and all his family, and
they had not been lost ; for reckless wit gets bandied
about more freely and is on everybody's bps. Often
did Caesar warn him that he must have a more
prudent tongue ; when he persisted, he forbade

313

SENECA

perseveranti domo sua interdixit. Postea Timagenes
in contubernio Pollionis Asinii consenuit ac tota
civitate direptus est. Nullum illi limen praeclusa

6 Caesaris domus abstulit. Historias, quas postea
scripserat, recitavit et libros acta Caesaris Augusti
continentis in igne posuit et combussit ; inimicitias
gessit cum Caesare ; nemo amicitiam eius extimuit,
nemo quasi fulguritum refugit, fuit qui praeberet

7 tam alte cadenti sinum. Tulit hoc, ut dixi, Caesar
patienter, ne eo quidem motus, quod laudibus suis
rebusque gestis manus attulerat ; numquam cum

8 hospite inimici sui questus est. Hoc dumtaxat
Pollioni Asinio dixit : drjpLOTpoffteis ; paranti deinde
excusationem obstitit et " Fruere," inquit, " mi
Pollio, fruere ! " et cum PoUio diceret : " Si iubes,
Caesar, statim illi domo mea interdicam," " Hoc
me," inquit, " putas facturum, cum ego vos in
gratiam reduxerim ? " Fuerat enim aliquando Tima-
geni Pollio iratus nee ullam aliam habuerat causam
desinendi, quam quod Caesar coeperat.

1 24. Dicat itaque sibi quisque, quotiens lacessitur :
" Numquid potentior sum Philippo ? Illi tamen
impune male dictum est. Numquid in domo mea
plus possum quam toto orbe terrarum divus Augustus
potuit ? Ille tamen contentus fuit a conviciatore

2 suo secedere." Quid est quare ego servi mei clarius
responsum et contumaciorem voltum et non per-

" There is greater wit in the Greek, which permits also

the interpretation " You keep a menagerie " — a common
amusement of rich men.
314

ON ANGER, III. xxiii. 5-xxiv. 2

him the palace. After this, Timagenes Hved to old
age in the house of Asinius Pollio, and was honized
by the whole city. Though Caesar had excluded
lum from the palace, he was debarred from no
other door. He gave readings of the history' which
he had written after the incident, and the books
which contained the doings of Augustus Caesar he
put in the fire and burned. He maintained hostility
against Caesar, yet no one feared to be his friend,
no one shrank from him as a blasted man ; though
he fell from such a height, he found some one ready
to take him to his bosom. As I have said, Caesar
bore all of this patiently, not even moved by the
fact that his renown and his achievements had been
assailed ; he made no complaint against the host
of his enemy. To Asinius PolUo he merely said,
" You're keeping a wld beast." " Then, when the
other was trj-ing to offer some excuse, he stopped
liim and said, " Enjoy yourself, my dear Polho, enjoy
yourself ! " and when Pollio declared, " If you bid
me, Caesar, I shall forth>\'ith deny him the house,"
he replied, " Do you think that I would do this,
when it was I who restored the friendship between
you ? " For the fact is, Polho had once had a
quarrel ^^ith Timagenes, and his only reason for
ending it was that Caesar had now begun one.

Whenever a man is provoked, therefore, let him
say to himself, " Am I more mighty than PhiUp ?
Yet he was cursed and did not retaliate. Have I
more authority over my house than the deified
Augustus had over all the world ? Yet he was
content merely to keep away from his maligner."
What right have I to make my slave atone by stripes
and manacles for too loud a reply, too rebelhous a

315

SENECA

venientem usque ad me murmurationem flagellis
et compedibus expiem ? Quis sum, cuius aures
laedi nefas sit ? Ignoverunt multi hostibus ; ego
non ignoscam pigris, neglegentibus, garrulis ?

3 Puerum aetas excuset, feminam sexus, extraneum
libertas, domesticum familiaritas. Nunc primum
offendit, cogitemus quam diu placuerit ; saepe et
alias offendit, feramus quod diu tulimus. Amicus
est, fecit quod noluit ; inimicus, fecit quod debuit.

4 Prudentiori credamus, stultiori remittamus. Pro
quocumque illud nobis respondeamus, sapientis-
simos quoque viros multa delinquere, neminem esse
tam circumspectum, cuius non diligentia aliquando
sibi ipsa excidat, neminem tam maturum, cuius non
gravitatem in aliquod fervidius factum casus impingat,
neminem tam timidum offensarum, qui non in illas,
dum vitat, incidat.

1 25. Quomodo homini pusillo solacium in malis
fuit etiam magnorum virorum titubare fortunam,
et aequiore animo filium in angulo flevit, qui vidit
acerba funera etiam ex regia duci, sic animo aequiore
fert ab aliquo laedi, ab aliquo contemni, cuicumque
venit in mentem nullam esse tantam potentiam,

2 in quam non occurrat iniuria. Quod si etiam pru-
dentissimi peccant, cuius non error bonam causam
habet ? Respiciamus quotiens adulescentia nostra
in officio parum diligens fuerit, in sermone parum
modesta, in vino parum temperans. Si iratus est,
demus illi spatium, quo dispicere quid fecerit possit ;

316

ON ANGER, III. XXIV. 2-xxv. 2

look, a muttering of something that I do not quite
hear ? \\Tio am I that it should be a crime to
offend my ears ? Many have pardoned their enemies ;
shall I not pardon the lazy, the careless, and the
babbler ? Let -a.-_^hild be excused by his age, a
woman by her sex, a stranger by his independence,
a servant by the bond of intercourse. Does some one
offend for the first time ? Let us reflect how long
he has pleased us. At other times and often has
he given offence ? Let us bear longer what we have
long borne. Is he a friend ? He has done what
he did not mean to do. Is he an enemy ? He did
what he had a right to do. One that is sensible
let us believe, one that is foolish let us forgive, \yho-
everit may be, let us say to ourselves on his behalf
that even the wisest men have many faults, that no
man is so guarded that he does not sometimes let his
dihgence lapse, none so seasoned that accident does
not drive his composure into some hot-headed action,
none so fearful of giving offence that he does not
stumble into it while seeking to avoid it.

As to the humble man, it brings comfort in trouble
that great men's fortune also totters, and as he
who weeps for his son in a hovel is more content if
he has seen the piteous procession move from the
palace also, so a man is more content to be injured
by one, to be scorned by another, if he takes thought
that no power is so great as to be beyond the reach
of harm. But if even the wisest do wTong, whose
siri"^ll not have good excuse ? Let us look back
upon our youth and recall how often we were too
careless about duty, too indiscreet in speech, too
intemperate in wine. If a man gets angry, let us
give him enough time to discover what he has done ;

317

SENECA

ipse se castigabit. Denique debeat poenas ; non

3 est quod cum illo paria faciamus. Illud non veniet
in dubium, quin se exemerit turbae et altius steterit
quisquis despexit lacessentis. Proprium est magni-
tudinis verae non sentire percussum. Sic immanis
fera ad latratum canum lenta respexit, sic irritus
ingenti scopulo fluctus adsultat. Qui non irascitur,
inconcussus iniuria perstitit, qui irascitur, motus

4 est. At ille, queni modo altiorem omni incommodo 1
posui, tenet amplexu quodam summurn bonum, nee
ho mini tantum, sed ipsi fortunae respondet : " Omnia
licet facias, minor es, quam ut serenitatem meam
obducas. Vetat hoc ratio, cui vitam regendam dedi.
Plus mihi nocitura est ira quam iniuria. Quidni
plus ? Illius modus certus est, ista quo usque me
latura sit dubium est."

1 26. " Non possum," inquis, " pati ; grave est in-
iuriam sustinere." Mentiris ; quis enim iniuriam
non potest ferre, qui potest iram ? Adice nunc quod
id agis, ut et iram feras et iniuriam. Quare fers aegri
rabiem et phrenetici verba, puerorum protervas
manus ? Nempe quia videntur nescire quid faciant.
Quid interest, quo quisque vitio fiat imprudens ?

2 Imprudentia par in omnibus patrocinium est. " Quid ■
ergo ? " inquis, " impune illi erit ? " Puta velle te,
318

ON ANGER, III. XXV. 2-xxvi. 2

he, will chastise himself. Suppose in the end he
deserves punishment ; then there is no reason why
we should match his misdeeds. There will be no
doubt about this — that whoever scorns his tormentors
removes himself from the common herd and towers
above them. The mark of true greatness is not to
notice that you have received a blow. So does the
huge wild beast calmly turn and gaze at barking
dogs, so does the wave dash in vain against a mighty
cliff. The man who does not get angrj' stands
firm, unshaken by injur}- ; he who gets angrj- is over-
thrown. But he whom I have just set above the
reach of all harm holds, as it were, in his arms the
highest good, and not only to a man, but to Fortune
herself, he will say : " Do what you \vill, you are too
puny to disturb my serenit}'. Reason, to whom I
have committed the guidance of my life, forbids it. .
My anger is Ukely to do me more harm than youi-l —
■wTong. And why not more ? The hmit of the
injury is fixed, but how far the anger \\-ill sweep me
no man knows."

" I cannot," you say, " be forbearing ; it is
difficult to submit to a vrrong." That is not true ;
for who that can tolerate anger will yet be unable
to tolerate ^\Tong ? Besides, what you now propose
is to tolerate both anger and ^^Tong. Why do you
tolerate the delirium of a sick man, the ra\'ings of a
lunatic, or the wanton blows of children ? Because,
of course, they seem not to know what they are doing.
What difference does it make what weakness it is
that makes a person irresponsible ? The plea of
irresponsibility holds equally good for all. " ^^^lat
then ? " you say ; " shall the man go unpunished ? "
Grant that you wish it so, nevertheless it will not be

319

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tamen non erit ; maxima est enim factae iniuriae
poena fecisse, nee quisquam gravius adficitur quam

3 qui ad supplicium paenitentiae traditur. Deinde
ad condicionem rerum humanarum respiciendum
est, ut omnium accidentium aequi indices simus :
iniquus autem est, qui commune vitium singulis
obiecit. Non est Aethiopis inter suos insignitus
color, nee rufus crinis et coactus in nodum apud
Germanos virum dedecet. Nihil in uno iudicabis
notabile aut foedum, quod genti suae publicum est ;
et ista, quae rettuli, unius regionis atque anguli
consuetude defendit. Vide nunc, quanto in iis
iustior venia sit, quae per totum genus humanum

4 vulgata sunt. Omnes inconsulti et improvidi sumus,
omnes incerti, queruli, ambitiosi, — quid lenioribus
verbis ulcus publicum abscondo ? — omnes mail
sumus. Quidquid itaque in alio reprenditur, id
unusquisque in sinu suo inveniet. Quid illius
pallorem, illius maciem notas ? Pestilentia est.
Placidiores itaque invicem simus ; mali inter male-
vivimus. Una nos res facere quietos potest, mutuaj

5 facilitatis conventio, " lUe lam mihi nocuit, ego
illi nondum." Sed iam aliquem fortasse laesisti,
sed laedes. Noli aestumare banc horam aut hunc
diem, totum inspice mentis tuae habitum ; etiam si
nihil mali fecisti, potes facere.

1 27. Quanto satius est sanare iniuriam quam '
320

I

ON ANGER, III. XXVI. 2-xxvii. l

so,; for the greatest punishment of wTong-doing is -<^
the ha\-ing done it, and no man is more heavily
punished than he who is consigned to the torture of
remorse. Again, we must consider the hmitations
of~6uT human lot if we are to be just judges of all
that happens ; he, however, is unjust who blames
the individual for a fault that is universal. Amongst
his own people the colour of the Ethiopian is not
notable, and amongst the Germans red hair gathered
into a knot is not unseemly for a man. You are to
count nothing odd or disgraceful for an individual
which is a general characteristic of his nation ; even
those examples that I have cited can plead in defence
the practice of some one section and corner of the
world. Consider now how much more justly excuse
may be made for those qualities that are common to
the whole human race. We are all inconsiderate and
unthinking, we are all untrustworthy, discontented,
ambitious — why should I hide the universal sore by
softer words ? — we are all wicked. And so each
man will find in his own breast the fault which he
censures in another. Wliy do you notice the pallor
of A, the gauntness of B ? These quahties are
epidemic ! And so let us be more kindly toward _i
one another ; we being wicked hve among then^
wicked. Only one thing can bring us peace — the
compact of mutual indulgence. You say, perhaps,
" That man has already injured me, but I have not
yet injured him." But perhaps you have already
harmed, perhaps you will some day harm, some man.
Do not count only this hour or this day ; consider
the whole character of your mind — even if you have
done no wrong, you are capable of doing it.

How much better it is to heal than to avenge an -f-
voL. I V 321

SENECA

ulcisci ! Multum temporis ultio absumit, multis
se iniuriis obicit, dum una dolet ; diutius irascimur
omnes quam laedimur. Quanto melius est abire
in diversum nee vitia vitiis opponere ! Numquis
satis constare sibi videatur, si mulam calcibus repetat

2 et canem morsu ? " Ista," inquis, " peccare se
nesciunt." Primum quam iniquus est, apud quem
hominem esse ad impetrandam veniam nocet !
Deinde, si cetera animalia hoe irae tuae subducit,
quod consilio carent, eodem loco tibi sit quisquis
consilio caret ; quid enim refert an alia mutis dis-
similia habeat, si hoc, quod in omni peccato muta

3 defendit, simile habet, caliginem mentis ? Peccavit ;
hoc enim primum ? Hoc enim extremum ? Non
est quod illi credas, etiam si dixerit : " Iterum non
faciam." Et iste peccabit et in istum ahus et tota
vita inter errores volutabitur. Mansuete imman-

4 sueta tractanda sunt. Quod in luctu dici solet
efficacissime, et in ira dicetur : utrum aliquando
desines an numquam ? Si aliquando, quanto satius
est iram relinquere quam ab ira relinqui ! An
semper haec concitatio permanebit ? Vides quam
impacatam tibi denunties vitam ? Quahs enim erit

6 semper tumentis ? Adice nunc quod, cum bene te
ipse succenderis et subinde causas, quibus stimuleris,
322

I

ON ANGER, III. xxvii. 1-5

injury ! Vengeance consumes much time, and it -i-
exposes the doer to many injuries while he smarts i
from one ; our anger always lasts longer than the
hurt. How much better it is to take the opposite
course and not to match fault with fault. Would
any one think that he was well balanced if he repaid
a mule with kicks and a dog with biting ? But you
say, " Those creatures do not know that they are
doing wrong." In the first place, how unjust is he
in whose eyes being a man is fatal to obtaining
pardon ! In the second place, if other creatures
escape your anger for the verj' reason that they
are lacking in understanding, every man who lacks
understanding should hold in your eyes a like
position. For what difference does it make that his
other qualities are unlike those of dumb animals if he
resembles them in the one quality that excuses dumb
animals for every misdeed — a mind that is aU dark-
ness ? " He did wrong," you say. Well, was this
the first time ? Will it be the last time ? You need
not beUeve him even if he should say, " I will never
do it again." He will go on sinning and some one
else will sin against him, and the whole of life will
be a tossing about amid errors. Unkindness mustL*-
be treated with kindness. The words so often '
addressed to one in grief will prove most effective
also for a man in anger : " Will you ever desist — or
never ? " If ever, how much better it is to forsake
anger than to wait for anger to forsake you ! Or
shall this turmoil continue for ever ? Do you see to
what life-long unrest you are dooming yourself ? For
what will be the life of one who is always swollen
with rage ? Besides, when you have successfully
inflamed yourself with passion, and have repeatedly

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renovaveris, sua sponte ira discedet et vires illi dies
subtrahet. Quanto satius est a te illam vinci quam
a se !

1 28. Huic irasceris, deinde illi ; servis, deinde
libertis ; parentibus, deinde liberis ; notis, deinde !
ignotis ; ubique enim causae supersunt, nisi de-
precator animus accessit. Hinc te illo furor rapiet,
illinc alio, et novis subinde irritamentis orientibus
continuabitur rabies. Age, infelix, ecquando ama-
bis ? O quam bonum tempus in re mala perdis !

2 Quanto nunc erat satius amicos parare, inimicos
mitigare, rem publicam administrare, transferre in
res domesticas operam, quam circumspicere, quid
alicui facere possis mali, quod aut dignitati eius aut
patrimonio aut corpori vulnus infligas, cum id tibi
contingere sine certamine ac periculo non possit,

3 etiam si cum inferiore concurses ! Vinctum licet
accipias et ad arbitrium tuum omni patientiae
expositum ; saepe nimia vis caedentis aut articulum
loco movit aut nervum in his quos fregerat dentibus
fixit. Multos iracundia mancos, multos debiles
fecit, etiam ubi patientem est^ nancta materiam.
Adice nunc quod nihil tam imbecille natum est, ut
sine elidentis periculo pereat ; imbecillos valentis-

4 simis alias dolor, alias casus exaequat. Quid, quod
pleraque eorum, propter quae irascimur, offendunt
nos magis quam laedunt ? Multum autem interest,

^ est added by Petschenig.
324

ON ANGER, III. XXVII. 5-xxvin. 4

renewed the causes that spur you on, yowF- anger
will leave you of its own accord, and lapse of time
will reduce its power. How much better it is that
it should be vanquished by you than by itself I

You will be angr}- first >vith this man, then with
that one ; first with slaves, then with freedmen ;
first with parents, then ^^ith children ; first with
acquaintances, then with strangers ; for there are
causes enough everywhere unless the mind enters
to intercede. Rage Avill sweep you hither and yon,
this way and that, and your madness will be pro-
longed by new provocations that constantly arise.
Tell me, unhappy man, will you ever find time to
love ? ^Vhat precious time you are wasting upon
an evil thing ! How much better would it be at this j
present moment to be gaining friends, reconciling!
enemies, ser\'ing the state, devoting effort to private
affairs, than to be casting about to see what evil you
can do to some man, what wound you may deal to
his position, his estate, or his person, although you
cannot attain this mthout struggle and danger even
if your adversary be an inferior ! You may take
him in chains and at your pleasure expose him to
every test of endurance ; but too great violence in
the striker has often dislocated a joint, or left a sinew
fastened in the very teeth it had broken. Anger has
left many a man crippled, many disabled, even when
it has found its victim submissive. Besides, there
lives no creature so weak that it will die without
trying to harm its destroyer ; sometimes pain, some-
times a mishap, makes the weak a match for the
strongest. And is it not true that most of the things
that make us angry offend us more than they harm
,ns ? But it makes a great difference whether a man

325

SENECA

utrum aliquis voluntati meae obstet an desit, eripiat
an non det. Atqui in aequo ponimus, utrum aliquis
auferat an neget, utrum spem nostram praecidat
an difFerat, utrum contra nos faciat an pro se, amore

5 alterius an odio nostri. Quidam vero non tantum
iustas causas standi contra nos, sed etiam honestas
habent. Alius patrem tuetur, alius fratrem, alius
patriam, alius amicum ; his tamen non ignoscimus
id facientibus, quod nisi facerent improbaremus,
immo, quod est incredibile, saepe de facto bene

6 existimamus, de faciente male. At me hercules
vir magnus ac iustus fortissimum quemque ei
hostibus suis et pro libertate ac salute patriae per-
tinacissimum suspicit et talem sibi civem, talemt
militem contingere optat.

1 29. Turpe est odisse quem laudes ; quanto vero
turpius ob id aliquem odisse, propter quod miseri-
cordia dignus est. Si captivus in servitutem subito
depressus reliquias libertatis tenet nee ad sordida
ac laboriosa ministeria agilis occurrit, si ex otio piger
equum vehiculumque domini cursu non exaequat,
si inter cottidiana pervigiBa fessum somnus op-
pressit, si rusticum laborem recusat aut non fortiter
obiit a servitute urbana et feriata translatus ad

2 durum opus, distinguamus, utrum aliquis non possit
an nolit. Multos absolvemus, si coeperimus ante
iudicare quam irasci. Nunc autem primum impetum
326

ON ANGER, III. xxviii. 4-xxix. 2

thwarts my msh or fails to further it, whether he robs
me or merely fails to give. And yet we attach the
same value to both — whether a man deprives us of
something or merely withholds it, whether he shatters
our hope or defers it, whether he acts against us or
in his o^^■n interest, whether from love of another or
from hatred of us. Some men, indeed, have not only
just, but even honourable, reasons for opposing us.
One is protecting his father, another his brother,
another his country, another his friend. Neverthe-
less, we do not excuse these for doing the very thing
which we should blame them for not doing ; nav,
more, though it is quite unbeUevable, we often think
w6tt-of an act, but ill of its doer. But, in very truth,
a great and just man honours those of his foes who
are bravest and are most stubborn in the defence
of the hberty and the safet}- of their country; and
prays that fortune may grant him such men as fellow-
citizens, such as fellow-soldiers.

It is base to hate a man who commands your praise,
but how much baser to hate any one for the very
reason that he deserv'^es your pity. If a captive,
suddenly reduced to servitude, still retains some
traces of his freedom and does not run nimbly to
mean and toilsome tasks, if sluggish from inaction
he does not keep pace with the speed of his master's
horse and carriage, if worn out by his daily vigils he
yields to sleep, if when transferred to hard labour from
service in the city with its many holidays he either
refuses the toil of the farm or does not enter into it
with energy — in such cases let us discriminate, asking
whether he cannot or will not serve. We shall
acquit many if we begin Avith discernment instead of
Mithanger. But as it is, we obey our first impulse; then,

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sequimur, deinde, quamvis vana nos concitaverint,
perseveramus, ne videamur coepisse sine causa, et,
quod iniquissimum est, pertinaciores nos facit
iniquitas irae ; retinemus enim illam et augemus,
quasi argumentum sit iuste irascentis graviter
irasci.

1 30. Quanto melius est initia ipsa perspicere quam
levia sint, quam innoxia ! Quod accidere vides
animalibus mutis, idem in homine deprendes ;
frivolis turbamur et inanibus. Taurum color rubi-
cundus excitat, ad umbram aspis exsurgit, ursos
leonesque mappa proritat ; omnia, quae natura fera

2 ac rabida sunt, consternantur ad vana. Idem in-
quietis et stolidis ingeniis evenit. Rerum suspicione
feriuntur, adeo quidem, ut interdum iniurias vocent
modica beneficia, in quibus frequentissima, certe
acerbissima iracundiae materia est. Carissimis enim
irascimur, quod minora nobis praestiterint quam
mente conceperimus quamque alii tulerint, cum

3 utriusque rei paratum remedium sit. Magis alteri
indulsit ; nostra nos sine comparatione delectent.
Numquam erit felix, quem torquebit felicior. Minus
habeo quam speravi ; sed fortasse plus speravi quar
debui. Haec pars maxime metuenda est, hinc per-J
niciosissimae irae nascuntur et sanctissima quaeque
invasurae.

4 Divum lulium plures amici confecerunt quar
inimici, quorum non expleverat spes inexplebiles^

328

ON ANGER, III. XXIX. 2-xxx, 4

although we have been aroused by mere trifleSj we con-
tinue to be angry for fear that we may seem to have
had no reason to be so from the first, and — what is
most unjust — the verj- injustice of our anger makes us
the more obstinate. P'or we hold on to it and nurse it,
as if the \'iolence of our anger were proof of its j ustice.

How much better it is to perceive its first be-
ginnings— how shght, how harmless they are ! You
Mill find that the same thing happens with a man
which you observe in dumb animals ; we are ruffled
by silly and petty things. The bull is aroused by a-
red colour, the asp strikes at a shadow, bears and
lions are irritated by a handkerchief ; all creatures by
nature wild and savage are alarmed by trifles. The
same is true of men, whether they are by nature
restless or inert. They are smitten with suspicions,
so powerfully, even, that they sometimes call moderate
benefits injuries ; these are the most common,
certainly the most bitter, source of anger. For we
become angry at oiu" dearest friends because they
have bestowed less than we anticipated, and less
than they conferred upon another ; and yet for both
troubles there is a ready remedy. More favour has
been shown another ; then let us without making
comparison be pleased ^^•ith what we have. That
man wll never be happy whom the sight of a happier
man tortures. I may have less than I hoped for ; but
perhaps I hoped for more than I ought. It is from
this direction that we have most to fear ; from this
springs the anger that is most destructive, that will
assail all that is most holy.

Among those who dispatched the di\ine Julius
there were more fiiends than enemies — friends whose
insatiate hopes he had failed to satisfy. He wished

329

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Voluit quidem ille — ^neque enim quisquam liberalius
victoria usus est, ex qua nihil sibi vindicavit nisi
dispensandi potestatem, — sed quemadmodum suf-
ficere tam improbis desideriis posset, cum tantum
omnes concupiscerent, quantum unus poterat ?
6 Vidit itaque strictis circa sellam suam gladiis com-
militones suos, Cimbrum Tillium, acerrimum paulo
ante partium defensorem, aliosque post Pompeium
demum Pompeianos. Haec res sua in reges arma
convertit fidissimosque eo compulit, ut de morte
eorum cogitarent, pro quibus et ante quos mori
votum habuerant.

1 31. Nulli ad aliena respicienti sua placent. Inde
diis quoque irascimur, quod aliquis nos antecedat,
obliti quantum hominum retro sit, et paucis inviden-
tem quantum sequatur a tergo ingentis invidiae.
Tanta tamen importunitas hominum est, ut, quamvis
multum acceperint, iniuriae loco sit plus accipere

2 potuisse. " Dedit mihi praeturam, sed consulatum
speraveram ; dedit duodecim fasces, sed non fecit
ordinarium consulem ; a me numerari voluit annum,
sed deest mihi ad sacerdotium ; cooptatus in col-
legium sum, sed cur in unum ? Consummavit
dignitatem meam, sed patrimonio nihil contulit ;
ea dedit mihi, quae debebat alicui dare, de suo nihil

3 protuht." Age potius gratias pro his, quae accepisti ;
reliqua expecta et nondum plenum esse te gaude ;

" i.e., ironically, open enemies of Caesar.

* Under the empire the term of the consular office was]
shortened, and several pairs of consuls were nominated fori
one year ; those who entered upon office at the beginning of]
the year gave their names to the year {consules ordinarii),i
and thus gained more prestige than the others {consules !
suffecti).
330

ON ANGER, III. XXX. 4-xxxi. 3

indeed to do so — for no man ever made a more generous
use of \'ictory, from which he claimed nothing for
himself except the right to give away — but how could
he gratify such unconscionable desires, since every one
of them coveted as much as any one could possibly
covet ? And so he saw his fellow-soldiers around
his chair with their swords drawn — Tillius Cimber, a
httle while before the boldest defender of his cause,
and others who, after Pompey was no more, had at
length become Pompeians." It is this that turns
against kings their o^vn weapons, and drives their
most trusted followers to the point of planning for
the death of those for whom and before whom they
had vowed to die.

No man when he views the lot of others is content
with his own! This is why we grow angry even at the
god§rbecause some person is ahead of us, forgetting
how many men there are behind us, and how huge a
mass of envy follows at the back of him who envies but
a few. Nevertheless such is the presumptuousness
of men that, although they may have received much,
they count it an injury that they might have received
more. " He gave me the praetorship, but I had
hoped for the consulship ; he gave me the twelve
fasces, but he did not make me a regular consul ;
he was ^^illing that my name should be attached to
the year,* but he disappointed me A\"ith respect to
the priesthood ; I was elected a member of the
college, but why of one only ? he crowned me with
public honour, but he added nothing to my patrimony ;
what he gave me he had to give to somebody — he
took nothing out of his own pocket." Express thanks
rather for what you have received ; wait for the rest,
and be glad that you are not yet surfeited. There is a

331

SENECA

inter voluptates est superesse quod speres. Omnes
vicisti, primum esse te in animo amici tui laetare ;
multi te vincunt, considera, quanto antecedas plures
quam sequaris. Quod sit in te vitium maximum
quaeris ? Falsas rationes conficis ; data magno
aestumas, accepta parvo,

1 32. Aliud in alio nos deterreat. Quibusdam
timeamus irasci, quibusdam vereamur, quibusdam
fastidiamus. Magnam rem sine dubio fecerimus,
si servulum infelieem in ergastulum miserimus !
Quid properamus verberare statim, crura protinus

2 frangere ? Non peribit potestas ista, si difFeretur.
Sine id tempus veniat, quo ipsi iubeamus ; nunc ex
imperio irae loquemur ; cum ilia abierit, tunc vide-
bimus, quanto ista lis aestumanda sit. In hoc enim
praecipue fallimur ; ad ferrum venimus, ad capitalia
supplicia, et vinculis, carcere, fame vindicamus rem

3 castigandam flagris levioribus. " Quomodo," inquis,
" nos iubes intueri, quam omnia, per quae laedi
videamur, exigua, misera, puerilia sint ? " Ego
vero nihil magis suaserim quam sumere ingentem
animum et haec, propter quae litigamus, discurrimus,
anhelamus, videre quam humilia et abiecta sint,
nulli qui altum quiddam aut magnificum cogitat
respicienda.

1 33. Circa pecuniam plurimum vociferationis est.
Haec fora defetigat, patres liberosque committit,
venena miscet, gladios tam percussoribus quam legio-

332

ON ANGER, III. XXXI. 3-xxxin. 1

pleasure in having something left to hope for. Have
you outstripped all others ? Rejoice that you are first
in the regard of your friend. Are there many who out-
strip you ? Consider how many more you are ahead
of than behind. Do you ask me what is your greatest
fault ? Your book-keeping is WTong ; what you have
paid out you rate high ; what you have received, low.

Different considerations should in different cases
restrain us. From some let fear stay our anger, from
others respect, from others pride. A fine thing we
shall have done, no doubt, if we send a wTetched slave
to prison ! Why are we in such a hurry to flog him at
once, to break his legs forthwith ? Such power, though
deferred, \W11 not perish. Wait for the time when
the order will be our own ; at the moment we
shall speak under the dictation of anger ; when that
has passed, then we shall be able to see at what
value we should appraise the damage. For it is in
this that we are most liable to be wrong. We resort
to the sword and to capital punishment, and an act
that deserves the censure of a very light flogging
we punish by chains, the prison, and starvation.
" In what way," you ask, " do you bid us discover
how paltry, how pitiful, how childish are all those
things by which we think we are injured ? " I,
assuredly, could suggest nothing better than that you
acquire a truly great .spirit, and that you realize how
sordid and worthless are all these things for the sake
of which we wTangle, rush to and fro, and pant ; these
do not deserve a thought from the man who has any
high and noble purpose

Most of the outcry is about money. It is this which
wearies the coiurts, pits father against son, brews
poisons, and gives swords ahke to the legions and to

333

SENECA

nibus tradit ; haec est sanguine nostro delibuta ;
propter hanc uxorum maritorumque noctes strepunt
litibus et tribunalia magistratuum premit turba,
reges saeviunt rapiuntque et civitates longo saecu-
lorum labor e constructas evertunt, ut aurum argen-

2 tumque in cinere urbium scrutentur, Libet intueri
fiscos in angulo iacentis. Hi sunt propter quos oculi
clamore exprimantur, fremitu iudiciorum basilicae
resonent, evocati ex longinquis regionibus iudices

3 sedeant iudicaturi, utrius iustior avaritia sit. Quid
si ne propter fiscum quidem, sed pugnum aeris aut
imputatum a servo denarium senex sine herede
moriturus stomacho dirumpitur ? Quid si propter
usuram vel milensimam valetudinarius faenerator
distortis pedibus et manibus ad computandum non
relictis clamat ac per vadimonia asses suos in ipsis

4 morbi accessionibus vindicat ? Si totam mihi ex
omnibus metallis, quae cum maxime deprimimus,
pecuniam proferas, si in medium proicias quidquid
thensauri tegunt, avaritia iterum sub terras referente,
quae male egesserat, omnem istam congeriem non
putem dignam quae frontem viri boni contrahat.
Quanto risu prosequenda sunt quae nobis lacrimas
educunt !

1 34. Cedo nunc, persequere cetera, cibos, potiones
horumque causa paratas in ambitionem munditias.
verba contumeliosa, motus corporum parum honori-
ficos, contumacia iumenta et pigra mancipia, et

" Literally, "interest of one thousandth," reckoned as a
monthly payment. This rate of one and one-fifth per cent
per annum was absurdly low; the usual rate was twelve
per cent.

334

ON ANGER, III. -xxxiii. i-xxxiv. 1

cut-throats ; it is daubed Mith our blood ; because of
it husbands and \Wves make night hideous with their
quarrels, crowds swarm to the tribunals of the magis-
trates, kings rage and plunder and overthrow states
that have been built by the long labour of centuries,
in order that they may search for gold and silver
in the very ashes of cities. It is a pleasure, you say,
to see money-bags lying in the corner. But these
are what men shout for until their eyeballs t>tart ; for
the sake of these the law-courts resound ^^ith the
din of trials, and jurors summoned from distant parts
sit in judgement to decide which man's greed has the
juster claim. But what if it is not even a bag of
money, but only a handful of copper or a silver piece,
reckoned by a slave, which causes an heirless old
man on the verge of the grave to spUt with rage ?
And what if it is only a paltry one per cent of
interest " that causes the money-lender, sick though
he be, with crippled feet and with gnarled hands
that no longer serve for counting money, to shout
aloud, and in the very throes of his malady to
require securities for his pennies ? If you were to
offer me all the money from all the mines, which
we are now so busy in digging, if you were to cast
before my eyes all the money that buried treasures
hold — for greed restores to earth what it once in
wickedness drew forth — I should not count that
whole assembled hoard worth even a good man's
fro^vn. With what laughter should we attend the
things that now draw tears from our eyes !

Come, now, run through the other causes of anger
— foods, driiiks, and the refinements in regard to them
devised to gratify pride, insulting words, disrespectful
gestures, stubborn beasts of burden and lazy slaves,

335

SENECA

suspiciones et interpretationes malignas vocis alienae,
quibus efficitur, ut inter iniurias naturae numeretur
sermo homini datus. Crede mihi, levia sunt propter
quae non leviter excandescimus, qualia quae pueros

2 in rixam et iurgium concitant. Nihil ex is, quae
tarn tristes agimus, serium est, nihil magnum.
Inde, inquam, vobis ira et insania est, quod exigua
magno aestimatis. Auferre hie mihi hereditatem
voluit ; hie me diu in spem supremam captatis
criminatus est ; hie scortum meum concupivit.

3 Quod vinculum amoris esse debebat, seditionis atque
odi causa est, idem velle. Iter angustum rixas
transeuntium concitat, diffusa et late patens via ne
populos quidem collidit. Ista quae appetitis, quia
exigua sunt nee possunt ad alterum nisi alteri erepta
transferri, eadem afFectantibus pugnas et iurgia,
excitant.

1 35. Respondisse tibi servum indignaris libertui
que et uxorem et chentem ; deinde idem de rl
publica libertatem sublatam quereris, quam dor
sustulisti. Rursus, si tacuit interrogatus, conti

2 maciam vocas. Et loquatur et taceat et rideatj
" Coram domino ? " inquis. Immo coram pat
familiae. Quid clamas ? Quid vociferaris ? Quic
flagella media cena petis, quod servi loquuntur, quod
non eodem loco turba contionis est, silentium soli-

" Cf. Sallust, Catiline, 20. 4: "nam idem velle atque
idem nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est."

I

ON ANGER, III. XXXIV. l-xxxv. 2

suspicion and the malicious misconstruction of
another's words, the result of which is that the very
gift of human speech is counted among the injustices
of nature. Believe me, these things which incense
us not a little are little things, like the trifles that
drive children to quarrels and blows. Not one of
them, though we take them so tragically, is a serious
matter, not one is important. From this, I say, from
the fact that you attach great v^alue to petty things,
come your anger and your madness. This man
wanted to rob me of my inheritance ; this one
slandered me to people whom I had long courted
in the expectation of a legacy ; this one coveted
my mistress. The desire for the same thing, which
ought to have been a bond of love,** becomes the
source of discord and of hatred. A narrow path drives
passers-by to blows ; on a wide and open road even
a multitude \^ill not jostle. Because the things you
strive for are trifles, and yet cannot be given to one
without robbing another, they provoke those desiring
the same things to struggle and strife.

You are indignant because your slave, your freed-
man, your ^dfe, or your client answered you back ; and
then you complain that the state has been deprived
of that liberty- of which you have deprived your o^vn
household. Again, you call it obstinacy if a man
'ES'ep's silent when he is questioned. But let him
speak and let him keep silent and let him laugh !
" In the presence of his master ? " you ask. Yes,
even in the presence of the head of the family. WTiy
do you shout ? Why do you rant ? Why do you call
for the whip in the midst of dinner, all because the
slaves are talking, because there is not the silence
of the desert in a room that holds a crowd big as a
VOL. I z 337

SENECA

3 tudinis ? In hoc habes aures, ut non modulata
tantum et mollia et ex dulci tracta compositaque
accipiant ; et risum audias oportet et fletum, et
blanditias et lites, et prospera et tristia, et hominum
voces et fremitus animalium latratusque. Quid
miser expavescis ad clamorem servi, ad tinnitum
aeris aut ianuae impulsumi ? Cum tam delicatus

4 fueris, tonitrua audienda sunt. Hoc, quod de
auribus dictum est, transfer ad oculos, qui non minus
fastidio laborant, si male instituti sunt. Macula
ofFenduntur et sordibus et argento parum splendido

5 et stagno non ad solum perlucente. Hi nempe oculi,
qui non ferunt nisi varium ac recenti cura nitens
marmor, qui mensam nisi crebris distinctam venis,
qui nolunt domi nisi auro pretiosiora calcari, aequis-
simo animo foris et scabras lutosasque semitas
spectant et maiorem partem occurrentium squa-
lidam, parietes insularum exesos, rimosos, inaequales.
Quid ergo aliud est, quod illos in publico non offendat,
domi moveat, quam opinio illic aequa et patiens,
domi morosa et querula ?

1 36, Omnes sensus perducendi sunt ad firmi-
tatem ; natura patientes sunt, si animus illos desit
corrumpere, qui cotidie ad rationem reddendam
vocandus est. Faciebat hoc Sextius, ut consum-
mato die, cum se ad nocturnam quietem recepisset,

338

ON ANGER, III. XXXV. 3-xxxvi. 1

mass-meeting ? You do not have ears only for the
purpose of listening to melodious sounds, soft and
sweetly drawn and all in harmony ; you should also
lend ear to laughter and weeping, to soft words and
bitter, to happiness and sorrow, to the voices of men
and the roars and barking of animals. Poor fellow !
why do you shudder at the shouting of a slave, at
the rattling of bronze, or the banging of a door ?
Although you are so sensitive, you have to hsten to
thunder. And all this which I have said about the
ears you may apply as well to the eyes, which if they
are not well schooled suffer not less from squeamish-
ness. They are offended by a spot, by dirt, by
tarnished silver, and by a pool that is not transparent
to the bottom. These same eyes, forsooth, that
cannot tolerate marble unless it is mottled and
pohshed ^vith recent rubbing, that cannot tolerate a
table unless it is marked by many a vein, that at
home would see under foot only pavements more
costly than gold — these eyes when outside will
behold, all unmoved, rough and muddy paths and
dirty peoplej as are most of those they meet, and
tenement walls crumbled and cracked and out of
line. Why is it, then, that we are not offended on
the street, yet are annoyed at home, except that in
the one case we are in an unruffled and tolerant state
of mind, and in the other are peevish and fault-
finding ?

All our senses ought to be trained to endurance.
They are naturally long-suffering, if only the mind
desists from weakening them. This should be
summoned to give an account of itself every day.
Sextius had this habit, and when the day was over
and he had retired to his nightly rest, he would put

339

SENECA

interrogaret animum suum : " Quefd hodie malum
tuum sanasti ? Cui vitio obstitisti ? Qua parte

2 melior es ? " Desinet ira et moderatior erit, quae
sciet sibi cotidie ad iudieem esse veniendum. Quic-
quam ergo pulchrius hac consuetudine excutiendi
totum diem ? Qualis ille somnus post recognitionem
sui sequitur, quam tranquillus, quam altus ac liber,
cum aut laudatus est animus aut admonitus et
speculator sui censorque secretus cognovit de mori-

3 bus suis ! Utor hac potestate et cotidie apud me
causam dico. Cum sublatum e conspectu lumen ,
est et conticuit uxor moris iam mei conscia, totum
diem meum scrutor factaque ac dicta mea remetior
nihil mihi ipse abscondo, nihil transeo. Quare enim
quicquam ex erroribus meis timeam, cum possim
dicere :

4 " Vide ne istud amplius facias, nunc tibi ignosco.
In ilia disputatione pugnacius locutus es ; noli
postea congredi cum imperitis ; nolunt discere, qui
numquam didicerunt. Ilium liberius admonuisti
quam debebas, itaque non emendasti, sed offendisti.
De cetero vide, non tantum an verum sit quod dicis,
sed an ille cui dicitur veri patiens sit. Admoneri
bonus gaudet, pessimus quisque rectorem asperrime
patitur."

1 37. In convivio quorundam te sales et in dolorem
tuum iacta verba tetigerunt. Vitare volgares con-

340

ON ANGER, III. XXXVI. l-xxxvii. l

these questions to his soul : " What bad habit have
you cured to-day ? What fault have you resisted ?
In what respect are you better ? " Anger will
cease and^become more controllable if it finds that
it fnust appear before a judge every day. Can any-
thing be more excellent than this practice of thor-
oughly sifting the whole day ? And how deUghtful the
sleep that follows this self-examination — how tranquil
it is, how deep and untroubled, when the soul has
either praised or admonished itself, and when this
secret examiner and critic of self has given report of
its own character ! I avail myself of this pri\ilege,
and every day I plead my cause before the bar of
self. When the light has been removed from sight,
and my ^v-ife, long aware of my habit, has become
silent, I scan the whole of my day and retrace all
my deeds and words. I conceal nothing from myself,
I omit nothing. For why should I shrink from any of
my mistakes, when I may commune thus mth myself?

" See that you never do that again ; I will pardon
you this time. In that dispute, you spoke too
offensively ; after this don't have encounters ^v'ith
ignorant people ; those who have never learned do
not want to learn. You reproved that man more
frankly than you ought, and consequently you have
not so much mended him as offended him. In the
future, consider not only the truth of what you say,
but also whether the man to whom you are speaking
can endure the truth. A good man accepts reproof
gladly ; the worse a man is the more bitterly he
resents it."

At a banquet the mt of certain people and some
words aimed to sting you reached their mark. But
remember to avoid the entertainments of the vulgar ;

341

SENECA

victus memento ; solutior est post vinum licentia,

2 quia ne sobris quidem pudor est. Iratum vidisti
amicum tuum ostiario causidici alieuius aut divitis,
quod intrantem summoverat, et ipse pro illo iratus
extremo mancipio fuisti. Irasceris ergo catenario
cani ? Et hie, cum multum latravit, obiecto cibo

3 mansuescit. Recede longius et ride ! Nunc iste
se aliquem putat, quod custodit litigatorum turba
limen obsessum ; nunc ille, qui intra iacet, felix
fortunatusque est et beati hominis iudieat ac potentis
indicium difficilem ianuam. Nescit durissimum esse
ostium carceris. Praesume animo multa tibi esse
patienda, Numquis se hieme algere miratur ?
Numquis in mari nausiare, in via concuti ? Fortis

4 est animus ad quae praeparatus venit. Minus
honorato loco positus irasci coepisti convivatori,
vocatori, ipsi qui tibi praeferebatur. Demens, quid
interest, quam lecti premas partem ? Honestiorem

5 te aut turpiorem potest facere pulvinus ? Non
acquis quendam oculis vidisti, quia de ingenio tuo
male locutus est. Recipis hanc legem ? Ergo te
Ennius, quo non delectaris, odisset, et Hortensius,
si orationes eius improbares,^ simultates tibi in-
diceret, et Cicero, si derideres carmina eius,

^ si . . . improbares added by Haupt.
342

ON ANGER, III. xxxvii. 1-5

after drinking their licence becomes too lax, because
they want any sense of propriety even when they are
sober. You saw one of your friends in a rage because
the porter had thrust liim out when he was trying
to enter the house of some pettifogger or rich man,
and you yourself on your friend's account became
angry with that lowest kind of a slave. Will you
then become angry wath a chained watchdog ? He,
too, after all his barking, \\ill become gentle if you
toss him food. Retire a httle way and laugh ! As
it is, the fellow thinks himself a somebody because he
guards a threshold beset by a throng of litigants ; as
it is, the gentleman who reclines within is bhssful and
blest and considers it the mark of a successful and
powerful man to make it difficult to darken his door.
He forgets that the hardest door of all to open is the
prison's. Make up your mind that there are many
things which you must bear. Is any one surprised
that he is cold in ^vinter ? That he is sick at sea ?
That he is jolted about on the highroad ? The mind
will meet bravely everytliing for which it has been
prepared. Because you were given a less honour-
able place at the table, you began to get angry at
your host, at the A\Titer of the in\itation, at the man
himself who was preferred above you. Madman !
what difference does it make on what part of the
couch you recline ? Can a cushion add to either
your honour or your disgrace ? You did not look
with fair eyes upon a certain man because he spoke
ill of your talent. Do you accept this as a principle ?
Then Ennius, whose poetry you do not like, would
hate you, and Hortensius, if you disapproved of his
speeches, would proclaim animosity to you, and
Cicero, if you made fun of his poetrj', would be your

343

SENECA

inimicus esset. Vis tu aequo animo pati candidatus
sufFragia !

1 38. Contumeliam tibi fecit aliquis. Numquid
maiorera quam Diogeni philosopho Stoico, cui de
ira cum maxime disserenti adulescens protervus
inspuit ? Tulit hoc ille leniter et sapient er : " Non
quidem," inquit, " irascor, sed dubito tamen an

2 oporteat irasci," Quanto Cato^ noster melius !
Qui, cum agenti causam in frontem mediam quantum
poterat attracta pingui saliva inspuisset Lentulus
ille patrum nostrorum memoria factiosus et impotens,
abstersit faciem et : " Adfirmabo," inquit, " omni-
bus, Lentule, falli eos qui te negant (^ habere."

1 39. Contigit iam nobis. Novate, bene componere
animum ; aut non sentit iracundiam aut superior
est. Videamus quomodo ahenam leniamus ; nee
enim sard esse tantum volumus, sed sanare.

2 Primam iram non audebimus oratione mulcere.
Svu-da est et amens ; dabimus illi spatium. Re-
media in remissionibus prosunt. Nee oculos tumentis
temptamus vim rigentem movendo incitaturi, nee
cetera vitia, dum fervent. Initia morborum quies

3 curat. " Quantulum," inquis, " prodest remedium
tuum, si sua sponte desinentem iram placat ! "
Primum, ut citius desinat, efficit ; deinde custodit,

^ Cato added by Fickert : quanto noster A.

<• To reproduce the pun in the Latin the word must
suggest also its vulgar use in the sense of " effrontery."

344

ON ANGER, III. XXXVII. 5-xxxix. 3

enemy. But when you are a candidate, you are
^\•illing to put up calmly — with the votes !

Some one, perhaps, has offered you an insult ; was
it any greater than the one Diogenes, the Stoic
philosopher, suffered, who at the very time he was |
discoursing upon anger was spat upon by a shame-
less youth ? Yet he bore this calmly and wisely.
" Really, I am not angrj," he said, " but nevertheless
I am not sure but that I ought to be angry." Yet
how much better the course of our own Cato ! For
when he was pleading a case, Lentulus, that factious
and unruly man who lingers in the memorj' of our
fathers, gathering as much thick sahva as he could,
spat it full upon the middle of Cato's forehead. But
he wiped it off his face and said, " To all who affirm
that you have no cheek," Lentulus, I'll swear that
they are mistaken."

We_haY£-now succeeded, Novatus, in bringing com-
posure to the mind ; it either does not feel anger,
or is siiperior to it. Let us now see how we may
allay the anger of others. For we wish not merely
to be-healed ourselves, but also to heal.

We shall not venture to soothe the first burst of
anger with words. It is both deaf and mad ; we
must give it room. Remedies are effective when
the malady subsides. We do not tamper with the
eyes when they are swollen — for in their stiff condi-
tion we are hkely to irritate them by mo'ving them —
nor with other affected parts while they are inflamed.
Rest is the cure in the first stages of illness. " How
httle," you say, " is yom- remedy worth, if it quiets
anger when it is subsiding of its own accord ! " In
the first place, it makes it subside all the more
quickly ; in the second, it prevents its recurrence ;

345

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ne recidat ; ipsum quoque impetum, quern non
audet lenire, fallet ; removebit omnia ultionis
instrumenta, simulabit iram, ut tamquam adiutor
et doloris comes plus auctoritatis in consiliis habeat,
moras nectet et, dum maiorem poenam quaerit,
4 praesentem differet. Omni arte requiem furori
dabit. Si vehementior erit, aut pudorem illi cui non
resistat incutiet aut metum ; si infirmior, sermones
inferet vel gratos vel novos et cupiditate cognoscendi
avocabit. Medicum aiunt, cum regis filiam curare
deberet nee sine ferro posset, dum tumentem
mammam leniter fovet, scalpellum spongea tectum
induxisse. Repugnasset puella remedio palam ad-
moto, eadem, quia non expectavit, dolorem tulit.
Quaedam non nisi decepta sanantur.

1 40. Alteri dices : " Vide ne inimicis iracundia tua
voluptati sit," alteri : " Vide ne magnitudo animi
tui creditumque apud plerosque robur eadat. In-
dignor me hercules et non invenio dolendi modum,
sed tempus expectandum est ; dabit poenas ; serva
istud in animo tuo ; cum potueris, et pro mora
reddes." Castigare vero irascentem et ultro obirasci

2 incitare est ; varie adgredieris blandeque, nisi forte
tanta persona eris, ut possis iram comminuere,

346

ox ANGER, III. xxxix. 3-xl 2

it ^\'ill baffle, also, even the first outburst which it
makes no effort to soothe, for it "will remove all the
weapons of revenge ; it ^\-i\\ feign anger in order that, /
posing thus as a helper and comrade of our resent---(—
ment, it may have more influence in counsel ; it
will contrive delays, and ynW postpone immediate
punishment by looking about for a hea%-ier one. It
will employ every artifice to give respite to the mad-
nes§. If the victim grows \iolent, it will enforce on
him a^ sense of shame or fear that he cannot resist ;
if calmer, it will introduce conversation that is either
interesting or novel, and will divert him by stirring
his desire for knowledge. There is a story that once
a physician had to cure the daughter of a king, and
yet could not without using the knife. And so, Avhile
he was gently dressing her swollen breast, he inserted
a lance concealed in a sponge. The girl would have
fought against the remedy openly applied, but
because she did not expect it, she endured the pain.
Some matters are , cured jonly by deception. ^

To .one man you will say, " See to it that you do
not by your anger give pleasure to your foes " ; to
another, " See to it that you do not lose your great-
ness of mind and the reputation you have in the eyes
of many for strength. By heavens, I myself am
indignant and I am sorr\- beyond measure, but we
must await our time. He shall pay the penalty ;i_
keep that well in mind. WTicn you can, you ^^iHT'
make liim pay for the delay as well." To reprove
a man when he is angry and in turn to become angry
at him serve only to increase his anger. You will
approach him with various appeals and persuasively,
unless you happen to be an important enough person
to be able to quell his anger by the same tactics the

347

SENECA

quemadmodum fecit divus Augustus, cum cenaret
apud Vedium Pollionem. Fregerat unus ex servis
eius crustallinum ; rapi eum Vedius iussit ne vulgari
quidem more periturum ; murenis obici iubebatur,
quas ingentis in piscina continebat. Quis non hoc
ilium putaret luxuriae causa facer e ? Saevitia erat.

3 Evasit e manibus puer et confugit ad Caesaris pedes
nihil aliud petiturus, quam ut aliter periret, ne esca
fieret. Motus est novitate crudelitatis Caesar et
ilium quidem mitti, crustallina autem omnia coram

4 se frangi iussit complerique piscinam. Fuit Caesari
sic castigandus amicus ; bene usus est viribus suis :
" E convivio rapi homines imperas et novi generis
poenis lancinari ? Si calix tuus fractus est, viscera
hominis distrahentur ? Tantum tibi placebis, ut

6 ibi aliquem duci iubeas, ubi Caesar est ? " Sic cui
tantum potentiae est, ut iram ex superiore loco
adgredi possit, male tractet, at talem dumtaxat,
qualem modo rettuli, feram, immanem, sanguinariam,
quae iam insanabilis est, nisi maius aliquid extimuit.

1 41. Pacem demus animo, quam dabit praecep-
torum salutarium adsidua meditatio actusque rerum
boni et intenta mens ad unius honesti cupiditatem.
Conscientiae satis fiat, nil in famam laboremus.

2 Sequatur vel mala, dum bene merentis. " At

<• Cf. Be dementia^ i. 18. 2.
348

ON ANGER, III. XL. 2-xli. 2

deified Augustus used when he was dining with
Vedius Ponio.<* When one of his slaves had broken
a crystal cup, Vedius ordered him to be seized and
doomed him to die, but in an extraordinary way —
he ordered him to be thro^\Tl to the huge lampreys,
which he kept in a fish-pond. Who would not
suppose that he did this merely for display ? It
was really out of cruelty. The lad slipped from his
captors and fled to Caesir's feet, begging only that
he might die some other way — anything but being
eaten. Caesar, shocked by such an innovation in
cruelty, ordered that the boy be pardoned, and,
besides, that all the crystal cups be broken before
his eyes and that the fish-pond be filled up. It was
so that it befitted Caesar to rebuke a friend ; he
employed his power rightly : " Do you order men
to be hurried from a banquet to death, and to be torn
to pieces by tortures of an unheard-of kind ? If your
cup was broken, is a man to have his bowels torn
asunder ? Will you vaunt yourself so much as to
order a man to be led to death in the very presence
of Caesar ? " Thus if any man's power is so great
that he can assail anger from an eminent position, let
him deal >vith it harshly, but only such anger as that
I have illustrated — fierce, inhuman, and bloodthirsty,
and now quite incurable unless it is made to fear
something more powerful.

Let_us^ve-to the soul that peace which is afforded
by constant meditation on wholesome instruction,
by noble deeds, and a mind intent upon the desire
for (5Trly what is honourable. Let us satisfy our
conscience ; for reputation let us strive not at all.
Let even a bad name attend us, provided that we
are really well-deserving. " But the populace," you

34-9

SENECA

volgus animosa miratur et audaces in honore sunt,
placidi pro inertibus habentur." Primo forsitan
aspectu ; sed simul aequalitas vitae fidem fecit non
segnitiem illam animi esse sed pacem, veneratur illos
3 populus idem colitque. Nihil ergo habet in se utile
taeter iste et hostilis adfectus, at omnia ex contrario
mala, ferrum et ignes. Pudore calcato caedibus
inquinavit manus, membra liberorum dispersit, nihil
vacuum reliquit a scelere, non gloriae memor, non
infamiae metuens, inemendabiUs, cum ex ira in
odium obcalluit.

1 42. Careamus hoc malo purgemusque mentem et
exstirpemus radicitus, quae quam\'is tenuia undecum-
que haeserint renascentur, et iram non temperemus,
sed ex toto removeamus — quod enim malae rei
temperamentum est ? Poterimus autem, adnitamur

2 modo. Nee ulla res magis proderit quam cogitatio
mortahtatis. Sibi quisque atque alteri dicat : " Quid
iuvat tamquam in aeternum genitos iras indicere et
brevissimam aetatem dissipare ? Quid iuvat dies,
quos in volup^ateiQ-honestam impendere licet, in
dolorem alicuius tormentumque transferre ? Non
capiunt res istae iacturam nee tempus vacat perdere.

3 Quid ruimus in pugnam ? Quid certamina nobis
arcessimus ? Quid imbecillitatis obliti ingentia odia
suscipimus et ad frangendum fragiles consurgimus ?
lam istas inimicitias, quas implacabili gerimus animo,

350

ON ANGER, III. xLi. 2-xlii. 3

say, " admires spirited action, and the bold are held
in horibur while quiet people are considered in-
effective." Perhaps so, at first sight. But when
these have proved by the even tenor of their hves
that they seek, not inaction, but peace of mind, that
same pubhc "will reverence and respect them. Con-
seq^uentlsL Jliis Jiideous and ruinous passion serv'es
not a single useful end, but, on the contrary, evil of
every sort, the sword, and flame. Tramphng under
foot every scruple, it stains the hands with murder, it
scatters abroad the limbs of children, it suffers no
place fo be free from crime, \\'ith no thought of
glorj', with no fear of disgrace, it is incurable when
once, from anger, it has hardened into hate.

Let us be freed from this evil, let us clear it from
our minds and tear it up by the roots, for if there
should Unger the smallest traces, it Mill grow again ;
and let us not tr}^ to regulate our anger, but be rid
of it altogether— ior what regulation can there be
oflmye\il thing ? Moreover, we can do it, if only
we^^all make the effort. And nothing \nl\ help
us so much as pondering our mortality. Let each/
man say to himself and to his fellow-mortal : " Why^
do we,_as if born to live for ever, take dehght in pro-
claiming our wTath and in wasting the little span of
life ? \\ hy do we delight to employ for somebody's
distress and torture the days that we might devote to I
virtuous pleasure ? Your fortunes admit no squander-~r
ing, and you have no spare time to waste. Why
do we rush into the fray ? Why do we in\ite trouble
for ourselves ? WTiy do we, forgetting our weakness,
take up the huge burden of hate, and, easily broken
as we are, rise up to break ? Soon a fever or some
other bodily ill will stay that war of hatred, which

351

SENECA

febris aut aliquod aliud malum corporis vetabit
4 geri ; iam par acerrimum media mors dirimet.
Quid tumultuamur et vitam seditiosi conturbamus ?
Stat supra caput fatum et pereuntis dies imputat
propiusque ac propius accedit ; istud tempus,
quod alienae destinas morti, fortasse circa tuam
est."

1 43. Quin potius vitam brevem colligis placidamque
et tibi et ceteris praestas ? Quin potius amabilem
te, dum vivis, omnibus, desiderabilem, cum ex-
cesseris, reddis ? Quid ilium nimis ex alto tecum
agentem detrahere cupis ? Quid ilium oblatrantem
tibi, humilem quidem et contemptum, sed superiori-
bus acidum ac molestum exterere viribus tuis
temptas ? Quid servo, quid domino, quid regi, quid
clienti tuo irasceris ? Sustine paulum ; venit ecce

2 mors quae vos pares faciat. Videre solemus inter
matutina harenae spectacula tauri et ursi pugnam
inter se colligatorum, quos, cum alter alterum
vexarunt, suus confector expectat. Idem facimus,
aliquem nobiscum adligatum lacessimus, cum victo
victorique finis et quidem maturus immineat. Quieti
potius pacatique quantulumcumque superest exi-
gamus ! Nulli cadaver nostrum iaceat invisum !

3 Saepe rixam conclamatum in vicinia incendium solvit
et interventus ferae latronem viator emque diducit.
Colluctari cum minoribus malis non vacat, ubi metus
maior apparuit. Quid nobis cum dimicatione et
insidiis ? Numquid amplius isti cui irasceris quam

352

ON ANGER, III. xLii. 3-xliii. 3

we now wage 'vWth such unrelenting purpose. Soon
death will step in and part the fiercest pair of fighters.
Why do we run riot and perturb life with our uproar ?
Fate looms above our heads, and scores up to our
account the days as they go by, and draws ever nearer
and nearer. That hour which you appoint for the
deathpf another is perchance near your own."

Why do you not rather gather up your brief life
and render it a peaceful one to yourself and all others ?
Why do you not rather make yourself beloved by all
while you live, and regretted by all when you die ?
Why do you long to drag down the man who deals
with you from too lofty a height ? Why do you try
with all your might to crush the man who rails against
you, a low and contemptible fellow, but sharp-tongued \^
and troublesome to his betters ? Why are you angry
with your slave, you ^\^th your master, you with your
patron, you with your client ? Wait a little. Behold,
death comes, who will make you equals. At the
morning performances in the arena we often see a
battle between a bull and a bear tied together, and
when they have harried each other, an appointed
slayer awaits them. Their fate is ours ; we harass
some one bound closely to us, and yet the end, all
too soon, threatens the victor and the vanquished.
Rather let us spend the little time that is left in
repose and peace ! Let no man loathe us when we
lie a corpse ! A cry of fire in the neighbourhood
often ends a fight, and the arrival of a wild beast
rescues a traveller from the brigand. We have no
time to struggle with lesser ills when a more threaten-
ing fear appears. Why do we concern ourselves A\ith
combat and with snares ? Can you wish for the _].
victim of your \^Tath a greater ill than death ? Even
VOL. I 2 a 353

SENECA

mortem optas ? Etiam te quiescente morietur.
Perdis operam, si facere vis quod futurum est.

4 " Nolo," inquis, " utique occidere, sed exilio, sed
ignominia, sed damno adficere." Magis ignosco ei,
qui vulnus inimici quam qui pusulam eoncupiscit ;
hie enim non tantum mali animi est, sed pusilli.
Sive de ultimis suppliciis cogitas sive de levioribus,
quantulum est temporis, quo aut ille poena sua
torqueatur aut tu malum gaudium ex aliena per-

6 cipias ! lam istum spiritum exspuemus. Interim,
dum trahimus, dum inter homines sumus, colamus
humanitatem. Non timori cuiquam, non periculo
simus, detrimenta, iniurias, convicia, vellicationes
contemnamus et magno animo brevia feramus in-
commoda. Dum respicimus, quod aiunt, versamus-
que nos, iam mortalitas aderit.

3o4

ON ANGER, III, xLiii. 3-5

though you do not move a, finger, he \\-ill die. You
waste your pains if you -wish to do what needs must
U£. " I do not wish," you say, " to kill him at all,
but to punish him with exile, with pubhc disgrace,
with material loss." But I am more indulgent to the
man who would give his enemy a wound than to the
one who would give him a bUster ; for the latter has
not only an e\il mind, but a petty mind as well.
WTiether your thoughts '•un on tortures severe or
shght, how short is the time in which either your
\ictim can w*rithe under your torments, or you derive
a wicked joy from another's pain ! Soon shall we
spew forth this frail spirit. Meanwhile, so long as
we draw breath, so long as we Uve among men, let
us cherish humanity. Let us not cause fear to any
man, nor danger ; let us scorn losses, wTongs, abuse,
and taunts, and let us endure with heroic mind our
short-Uved ills. While we are looking back, as they
say, and turning around, straightway death will be
upon us.

355

AD NERONEM CAESAREM
DE CLEMENTIA

LIBER I

1 1. Scribere de dementia, Nero Caesar, institui, ut
quodam modo speculi vice fungerer et te tibi osten-
derem perventurum ad voluptatem maximam om-
nium. Quamvis enim recte factorum verus fructus
sit fecisse nee ullum virtutum pretium dignum illis
extra ipsas sit, iuvat inspicere et circumire bonam
conscientiam, turn immittere oculos in hanc im-
mensam multitudinem discordem, seditiosam, im-
potentem, in perniciem alienam suamque pariter
exultaturam si hoc iugum fregerit, et ita loqui

2 secum : " Egone ex omnibus mortalibus placui
electusque sum, qui in terris deorum vice fungerer ?
Ego vitae necisque gentibus arbiter ; qualem
quisque sortem statumque habeat, in mea manu
positum est ; quid cuique mortalium fortuna datum
velit, meo ore pronuntiat ; ex nostro response
laetitiae causas populi urbesque concipiunt ; nulla
pars usquam nisi volente propitioque me floret ;
haec tot milia gladiorum, quae pax mea comprimit,

356

TO THE EMPEROR NERO
ON I<IERCY

BOOK I

I HAVE undertaken, Nero Caesar, to write on the
subject of mercy, in order to serve in a way the
purpose of a mirror, and thus reveal you to yourself
as one destined to attain to the greatest of all
pleasures. For, though the true profit of virtuous i
deeds Ues in the doing, and there is no fitting reward
for the virtues apart from the virtues themselves,
still it is a pleasure to subject a good conscience to
a round of inspection, then to cast one's eyes upon
this vast throng — discordant, factious, and unruly,
ready to run riot alike for the destruction of itself
and others if it should break its yoke — and finally
to commune with oneself thus : " Have I of all
mortals found favour with Heaven and been chosen
to serve on earth as vicar of the gods ? I am the
arbiter of life and death for the nations ; it rests in
my power what each man's lot and state shall be :
by my lips Fortune proclaims what gift she would
bestow on each human being ; from my utterance
peoples and cities gather reasons for rejoicing ;
without my favour and grace no part of the wide world
can prosper ; all those many thousands of swords

357

SENECA

ad nutum meum stringentur ; quas nationes funditus
excidi, quas transportari, quibus libertatem dari,
quibus eripi, quos reges mancipia fieri quorumque
capiti regium circumdari decus oporteat, quae ruant

3 urbes, quae oriantur, mea iuris dictio est. In hac
tanta facultate rerum non ira me ad iniqua supplicia
compulit, non iuvenilis impetus, non temeritas homi-
num et contumacia, quae saepe tranquillissimis
quoque pectoribus patientiam extor§it, non ipsa
ostentandae per terrores potentiae dira, sed frequens
magnis imperiis gloria. Conditum, immo con-
strictum apud me ferrum est, summa parsimom'a
etiam vilissimi sanguinis ; nemo non, cui alia desunt,

4 hominis nomine apud me gratiosus est. Severitatem
abditam, at clementiam in procinctu habeo ; sic me
custodio, tamquam legibus, quas ex situ ac tenebris
in lucem evocavi, rationem redditurus sim. Alterius
aetate prima motus sum, alterius ultima ; alium
dignitati donavi, alium humilitati ; quotiens nullam
inveneram misericordiae causam, mihi peperci.
Hodie dis inmortalibus, si a me rationem repetant,
adnltmerare genus humanum paratus sum."

5 Potes hoc, Caesar, audacter praedicare omnia,
quae in fidem tutelamque tuam venerunt, tuta
haberi,^ nihil per te neque vi neque clam adimi rei
publicae. Rarissimam laudem et nulli adhuc princi-

^ -que tuam . . . tuta ha- supplied by Gertz.

" Literally, " I have spared myself " i.e., by sparing
another, according to the reasoning set forth in i. 5. 1.

358

ON MERCY, I. I. 2-5

which my peace restrains will be drawn at my nod ;
what nations shall be utterly destroyed, which
banished, which shall receive the gift of liberty, which
have it taken from them, what kings shall become
slaves and whose heads shall be crowned with royal
honour, what cities shall fall and which shall rise —
this it is mine to decree. With all things thus at my
disposal, I have been moved neither by anger nor
youthful impulse to unjjst punishment, nor by the
foolhardiness and obstinacy of men which have often
wrung patience from even the serenest souls, nor
yet by that vainglory which employs terror for the
display of might — a dread but all too common use
of great and lordly power. With me the sword is
hidden, nay, is sheathed ; I am sparing to the utmost
of even the meanest blood ; no man fails to find
favour at my hands though he lack all else but
the name of man. Sternness I keep hidden, but
mercy ever ready at hand. I so hold guard over
myself as though I were about to render an account
to those laws which I have summoned from decay
and darkness into the light of day. I have been
moved to pity by the fresh youth of one, by the
extreme old age of another ; one I have pardoned
for his high position, another for his humble state ;
whenever I found no excuse for pity, for my own sake
I have spared." To-day, if the immortal gods should
require a reckoning from me, I am ready to give full
tale of the human race."

This pronouncement, Caesar, you may boldly
make, that whatever has passed into your trust and
guardianship is still kept safe, that through you the
state suffers no loss, either from violence or from
fraud. It is the rarest praise, hitherto denied to all

359

SENECA

pum concessam concupisti innocentiam. Non perdit
operam nee bonitas ista tua singularis ingratos aut
malignos aestimatores nancta est. Refertur tibi
gratia ; nemo unus homo uni homini tam carus
umquam fuit, quam tu populo Romano, magnum

6 longumque eius bonum. Sed ingens tibi onus im-
posuisti ; nemo iam divum Augustum nee Ti.
Caesaris prima tempora loquitur nee, quod te imitari
velit, exemplar extra te quaerit ; principatus tuus
ad gustum^ exigitur. Difficile hoc fuisset, si non
naturalis tibi ista bonitas esset, sed ad tempus
sumpta. Nemo enim potest personam diu ferre,
ficta cito in naturam suam recidunt ; quibus Veritas
subest quaeque, ut ita dicam, ex sohdo enascuntur,
tempore ipso in maius meliusque procedunt.

7 Magnam adibat aleam populus Romanus, cum
incertum esset, quo se ista tua nobilis indoles daret ;
iam vota publica in tuto sunt ; nee enim periculum
est, ne te subita tui capiat obhvio. Facit quidem
avidos nimia felicitas, nee tam temperatae cupiditates
sunt umquam, ut in eo, quod contigit, desinant ;
gradus a magnis ad maiora fit, et spes improbissimas
complectuntur insperata adsecuti ; omnibus tamen
nunc civibus tuis et haec confessio exprimitur esse
felices et ilia nihil iam his accedere bonis posse, nisi

8 ut perpetua sint. Multa illos cogunt ad hanc con-

^ So N : augustum most uss. : obrussam Haase,
360

ON MERCY, I. I. 5-8

other princes, that you have coveted for yourself —
innocence of WTong. Nor has the effort been in
vain, and that unparalleled goodness of yours has not
found men ungrateful or grudging in their appraise-
ment. Thanks are rendered to you ; no human
being has ever been so dear to another as you are
to the people of Rome — its great and lasting blessing.
But it is a mighty burden that you have taken upon
yourself ; no one to-day talks of the deified Augustus
or the early years of Tiberius Caesar, or seeks for
any model he would have you copy other than your-
self ; the standard for your prineipate is the foretaste
you have given. This would have indeed bfeen diffi-
cult if that goodness of yoiu-s were not innate but
only assimied for the moment. For no one can
wear a mask long ; the false quickly lapses back into
its own nature ; but whatever has truth for its
foundation, and whatever springs, so to speak, from
out the solid earth, grows by the mere passing of
time into something larger and better.

Great was the hazard that the Roman people
faced so long as it was uncertain what course those
noble talents of yours would take ; to-day the
prayers of the state are assured, for there is no danger
that you \n\l be seized by sudden forgetfulness of
yourself. Over-much prosperity, it is true, makes
men greedy, and desires are never so well controlled
as to cease at the point of attainment ; the ascent
is from great to greater, and men embrace the
widest hopes when once they have gained what they
did not hope for ; and yet to-day your subjects one
and all are constrained to confess that they are
happy, and, too, that nothing further can be added
to their blessings, except that these may last. Many

361

SENECA

fessionem, qua nulla in homine tardior est : securitas
alta, adfluens, ius supra omnem iniuriam positum ;
obversatur oculis laetissima forma rei publicae, cui
ad summam libertatem nihil deest nisi pereundi
9 licentia. Praecipue tamen aequalis ad maximos
imosque pervenit clementiae tuae admiratio ; cetera
enim bona pro portione fortunae suae quisque sentit
aut expectat maiora niinoraque, ex dementia omnes
idem sperant ; nee est quisquam, cui tam valde
innocentia sua placeat, ut non stare in conspectu
clementiam paratam humanis erroribus gaudeat.

1 2. Esse autem aliquos scio, qui dementia pessimum
quemque putent sustineri, quoniam nisi post crimen
supervacua est et sola haec v-irtus inter innocentes
cessat. Sed primum omnium, sicut medicinae apud
aegros usus, etiam apud sanos honor est, ita clemen-
tiam, quamvis poena digni invocent, etiam innocentes
colunt. Deinde habet haec in persona quoque
innocentium locum, quia interim fortuna pro culpa
est ; nee innocentiae tantum dementia succurrit,
sed saepe virtuti, quoniam quidem condicione tem-
porum incidunt quaedam, quae possint laudata
puniri. Adice, quod magna pars hominum est, quae
reverti ad innocentiam possit, si <poenae remissio

2 fuerit > .^ Non tamen vulgo ignoscere decet ; nam
ubi discrimen inter malos bonosque sublatum est,
confusio sequitur et vitiorum eruptio ; itaque ad-

^ si best Mss. with a lacuna : sed AT.

" Stoicism produced many " conscientious objectors "
who were high-minded, yet futile, opponents of imperial rule.

362

ON MERCY, I. I. 8-II. 2

facts force them to this confession, which more than
any other a man is loath to make : a security deep "^
and abounding, and justice enthroned above all
injustice ; before their eyes hovers the fairest vision
of a state which lacks no element of complete liberty
except the hcence of self-destruction. Above all,
however, aUke to the highest and the lowest, extends
the same admiration for your quahty of mercy ; for
although of other blessings each one experiences or
expects a larger or smaller measure in proportion to
his lot, yet from mercy men all hope to have the
same ; nor is there any man so wholly satisfied with
his own innocence as not to rejoice that mercy stands
in sight, waiting for himian errors.

I know, however, that there are some who think
that mercy upholds the worst class of men, since it is
superfluous unless there has been some crime, and
since it alone of all the virtues finds no exercise among
the guiltless. But, first of all, just as medicine is
used by the sick, yet is held in honour by the healthy,
so >\'ith mercy — though it is those who deserve punish-
ment that invoke it, yet even the guiltless cherish it.
Again, this xirtue has scope even in the person of i
the guiltless, because at times fortune takes the ''
place of guilt ; and not only does mercy come to the
rescue of innocence, but often of righteousness also,
inasmuch as, from the state of the times," there arise
certain acts which, while praised, may yet be
punished. Then, too, there are a great many people
who might be turned back to the path of \artue if
[they are released from punishment]. Nevertheless,
pardoning ought not to be too common ; for when
the distinction between the bad and the good is
removed, the result is confusion and an epidemic of

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hibenda moderatio est, quae sanabilia ingenia di-
stinguere a deploratis sciat. Nee promiscuam habere
ae vulgarem clementiam oportet nee abscisam ; nam
tam omnibus ignoscere crudelitas quam nulli.
Modum tenere debemus ; sed quia difficile est
temperamentum, quidquid aequo plus futurum est,
in partem humaniorem praeponderet.

3. Sed haec sue melius loco dicentur. Nunc in tres
partes omnem hanc materiam dividam. Prima erit
manumissionis ; secunda, quae naturam clementiae
habitumque demonstret : nam cum sint vitia
quaedam virtutes imitantia, non possunt secerni,
nisi signa, quibus dinoscantur, impresseris ; tertio
loco quaeremus, quomodo ad hanc virtutem per-
ducatur animus, quomodo confirmet eam et usu
suam faciat.

Nullam ex omnibus virtutibus homini magis con-
venire, cum sit nulla humanior, constet necesse est
non solum inter nos, qui hominem sociale animal
communi bono genitum videri volumus, sed etiam
inter illos, qui hominem voluptati donant, quorum
omnia dicta factaque ad utilitates suas spectant ;
nam si quietem petit et otium, hanc virtutem naturae
suae nanctus est, quae pacem amat et manus retinet.
Nullum tamen dementia ex omnibus magis quam
regem aut principem decet. Ita enim magnae vires
decori gloriaeque sunt, si illis salutaris potentia est ;
nam pestifera vis est valere ad nocendum. Illius
demum magnitudo stabilis fundataque est, quem

" A reference to the Stoic emphasis upon the responsibility
of the individual to the community.
* i.e., the Epicureans.

364

ON MERCY, I. n. 2-in. 3

vice. Therefore a wise moderation should be exer-
cised which will be capable of distinguishing between
curable and hopeless characters. Neither should
we have indiscriminate and general mercy, nor yet
preclude it ; for it is as much a cruelty to pardon
all as to pardon none. We should maintain the
mean ; but since a perfect balance is difficult, if
anything is to disturb the equipoise it should turn
the scale toward the kindlier side.

But these matters will be more fitly discussed in
their proper place. Here I shall divide this subject
as a whole into three parts. The first will treat of
the remission of punishment ; the second will aim
to show the nature and aspect of mercy ; for since
there are certain vices which counterfeit virtues,
they cannot be separated unless you stamp them
Avith marks by which they may be kno^vn apart.
In the third place I shall inquire how the mind is led
to adopt this virtue, and how it establishes it and
by practice makes it its owTi.

That no one of all the virtues is more seemly for
a man, since none is more human, is a necessary -
conviction not only for those of us who maintain that
man is a social creature, begotten for the common
good," but also for those who give man over to
pleasure,** whose words and deeds all look to their own
advantage. For if a man seeks calm and quiet, he
finds this \irtue, which loves peace and stays the
hand, forthwith suited to his bent. Yet of all men
none is better graced by mercy than a king or a
prince. For great power confers grace and glory
only when it is potent for benefit ; it is surely a
baneful might that is strong only for harm. He
alone has firm and well-grounded greatness whom

365

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omnes tarn supra se esse quam pro se sciunt, cuius
curam excubare pro salute singulorum atque univer-
sorum cottidie experiuntur, quo procedente non,
tamquam malum aliquod aut noxium animal e cubili
prosilierit, difFugiunt, sed tamquam ad clarum ac
beneficum sidus certatim ad volant. Obicere se
pro illo mucronibus insidiantium paratissimi et sub-
sternere corpora sua, si per stragem illi humanam
iter ad salutem struendum sit, somnum eius noc-
turnis excubiis muniunt, latera obiecti circumfusique
defendunt, incurrentibus periculis se opponunt,

4 Non est hie sine ratione populis urbibusque con-
sensus sic protegendi amandique reges et se suaque
iactandi, quocumque desidera\'it imperantis salus ;
nee haec vilitas sui est aut dementia pro uno capite
tot milia excipere ferrum ac multis mortibus unam
animam redimere nonnumquam senis et invalidi.

5 Quemadmodum totum corpus animo deservit et,
cum hoc tanto maius tantoque speciosius sit, ille in
occulto maneat tenuis et in qua sede latitet incertus,
tamen manus, pedes, oculi negotium illi gerunt,
ilium haec cutis munit, illius iussu iacemus aut in-
quieti discurrimus, cum ille imperavit, sive avarus
dominus est, mare lucri causa scrutamur, sive
ambitiosus, lam dudum dextram flammis obiecimus
aut voluntarii terram subsiluimus, sic haec immensa
multitudo unius animae circumdata illius spiritu
366

ON MERCY, I in. S-5

all men know to be as much their friend as he is
their superior ; whose concern they daily find to be
vigilant for the safety of each and all ; upon whose
approach they do not flee as if some monster or
deadly beast had leaped from his lair, but rush
eagerly forward as toward a bright and beneficent
star. In his defence they are ready on the instant
to throw themselves before the swords of assassins,
and to lay their bodies beneath his feet if his path
to safety must be paved with slaughtered men ; his
sleep they guard by nightly \igils, his person they
defend with an encirchng barrier, against assailing
dangers they make themselves a rampart.

Not A\"ithout reason do cities and peoples show
this accord in giWng such protection and love
to their kings, and in flinging themselves and all
they have into the breach whenever the safety
of their ruler craves it. Nor is it self-deprecia-
tion or madness when many thousands meet the
steel for the sake of one man, and with many
deaths ransom the single life, it may be, of a feeble
dotard.

The whole body is the servant of the mind, and
though the former is so much larger and so much
more showy, while the unsubstantial soul remains
in\isible not knowing where its secret habitation
lies, yet the hands, the feet, and the eyes are in its
employ ; the outer skin is its defence ; at its bidding
we he idle, or restlessly run to and fro ; when it
commands, if it is a grasping tyrant, we search the sea
for gain ; if covetous of fame, ere now we have thrust
a right hand into the flame, or plunged willingly into
a chasm. In the same way this vast throng, encirchng
the life of one man, is ruled by his spirit, guided by his

367

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regitur, illius ratione flectitur pressura se ac fractura
viribus suis, nisi consilio sustineretur.

1 4. Suam itaque incolumitatem amant, cum pro uno
homine denas legiones in aciem deducunt, cum in
primam frontem procurrunt et adversa vulneribus
pectora ferunt, ne imperatoris sui signa vertantur,
Ille est enim vinculum, per quod res publica cohaeret,
ille spiritus vitalis, quem haec tot milia trahunt nihil
ipsa per se futura nisi onus et praeda, si mens ilia
imperii subtrahatur.

Rege incolumi mens omnibus una :
amisso rupere fidem.

2 Hie casus Romanae pacis exitium erit, hie tanti
fortunam populi in ruinas aget ; tam diu ab isto
periculo aberit hie populus, quam diu sciet ferre
frenos, quos si quando abruperit vel aliquo casu
discussos reponi sibi passus non erit, haec unitas
et hie maximi imperii contextus in partes multas
dissiliet, idemque huic urbi finis dominandi erit,

3 qui parendi fuerit. Ideo principes regesque et
quocumque aho nomine sunt tutores status publici
non est mirum amari ultra privatas etiam necessi-
tudines ; nam si sanis hominibus publica privatis
potiora sunt, sequitur, ut is quoque carior sit, in quem
se res publica convertit. Olim enim ita se induit
rei publicae Caesar, ut seduci alterum non posset
sine utriusque pernicie ; nam et illi viribus opus
est et huic capite.

"" Virgil, Oeorgics, iv. 212, where he is speaking of bees
and their devotion to their " king."

ON MERCY, I. III. 5-iv. 3

reason, and would crush and cripple itself with its
own power if it were not upheld by >visdom.

It is, therefore, their ovra safety that men love, "
when for one man they lead ten legions at a time into
battle, when they rush to the forefront and expose
their breasts to wounds that they may save the
standards of their emperor from defeat. For he is
the bond by which the commonwealth is united, the
breath of life which these many thousands draw, who
in their own strength would be only a burden to
themselves and the prey of others if the great mind
of the empire should be withdrawn.

If safe their king, one mind to all ;
Bereft of him, they troth recall."

Such a calamity would be the destruction of the
Roman peace, such a calamity will force the fortune
of a mighty people to its downfall. Just so long will
this people be free from that danger as it shall know
how to submit to the rein ; but if ever it shall tear
away the rein, or shall not suffer it to be replaced if
shaken loose by some mishap, then this unity and
this fabric of mightiest empire will fly into many
parts, and the end of this city's rule will be one with
the end of her obedience. Therefore it is not strange
that kings and princes and guardians of the public
order, whatever different name they bear, are held
more dear even than those bound to us by private
ties ; for if men of sense put public interests above-l-
private, it follows that he too is dearer upon whom
the whole state centres. At an earlier day, in fact,
Caesar so clothed himself with the powers of state
that neither one could be withdrawn without the
destruction of both. For while a Caesar needs power,
the state also needs a head.

VOL. I 2 B 369

SENECA

1 5. Longius videtur recessisse a proposito oratio
mea, at mehercules rem ipsam premit. Nam si, quod
adhuc colligit, tu animus rei publicae tuae es, ilia
corpus tuum, vides, ut puto, quam necessaria sit
dementia ; tibi enim parcis, cum videris alteri
parcere. Parcendum itaque est etiam improbandis
civibus non aliter quam membris languentibus, et,
si quando misso sanguine opus est, sustinenda est

2 manus,^ ne ultra, quam necesse sit, incidat. Est
ergo, ut dicebam, dementia omnibus quidem homini-
bus secundum naturam, maxime tamen decora
imperatoribus, quanto plus habet apud illos, quod
servet, quantoque in maiore materia apparet. Quan-
tulum enim nocet privata crudelitas ! Principum

3 saevitia bellum est. Cum autem virtutibus inter
se sit Concordia nee ulla altera melior aut honestior
sit, quaedam tamen quibusdam personis aptior est.
Decet magnanimitas quemlibet mortalem, etiam
ilium, infra quem nihil est ; quid enim mains aut
fortius quam malam fortunam retundere ? Haec
tamen magnanimitas in bona fortuna laxiorem locum
habet meliusque in tribunali quam in piano con-
spicitur.

4 dementia, in quamcumque domum pervenerit,
eam felicem tranquillamque praestabit, sed in regia,
quo rarior, eo mirabilior. Quid enim est memora-
bilius quam eum, cuius irae nihil obstat, cuius
graviori sententiae ipsi, qui pereunt, adsentiuntur,
quem nemo interpellaturus est, immo, si vehementius

^ manus added by Haase.
370

ON MERCY, I. V. 1-4

My discourse seems to have withdra\vTi somewhat
far from its purpose, but, in very truth, it bears
closely upon the real issue. For if — and this is what
thus far it is estabhshing — ^j'ou are the soul of the
state and the state your body, you see, I think, how
requisite is mercy ; for you are merciful to yourself
when you are seemingly merciful to another. And
so even reprobate citizens should have mercy as being
the weak members of the body, and if there should
ever be need to let blood, the hand must be held
under control to keep it from cutting deeper than
may be necessary. The quality of mercy, then, as I
was saying, is indeed for all men in accordance ■with
nature, but in rulers it has an especial comehness
inasmuch as with them it finds more to save, and
exhibits itself amid ampler opportunities. For how
small the harm the cruelty of a private citizen can
do ! But when princes rage there is war. Though,
moreover, the virtues are at harmony with each
other, and no one of them is better or more noble
than another, yet to certain people a certain \Trtue^] —
Avill be more suited. Greatness of soul is a virtue
that is seemly for every human being, even for him
who is the lowliest of the lowly. For what is greater
or braver than to beat do^\Ti misfortune ? Yet this
greatness of soul has freer play under circumstances
of good fortune, and is shown to better advantage
upon the judge's bench than on the floor.

Every house that mercy enters she ^\i\\ render
peaceful and happy, but in the palace she is more
wonderful, in that she is rarer. For what is more
remarkable than that he whose anger nothing can
withstand, to whose sentence, too heavy though it be,
even the \ictims bow the head, whom, if he is very

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excanduit, ne deprecaturus est quidem, ipsum sibi
manum inicere et potestate sua in melius placidiusque
uti hoc ipsum cogitantem : " Occidere contra legem
nemo non potest, servare nemo praeter me " ?
6 Magnam fortunam magnus animus decet, qui, nisi
se ad illam extulit et altior stetit, illam quoque infra
ad^ terram deducit ; magni autem animi proprium
est placidum esse tranquillumque et iniurias atque
ofFensiones superne despicere. Muliebre est furere
in ira, ferarum vero nee generosarum quidem prae-
mordere et urguere proiectos. Elephanti leonesque
transeunt, quae impulerunt ; ignobilis bestiae per-

6 tinacia est. Non decet regem saeva nee inexorabilis
ira, non multum enim supra eum eminet, cui se
irascendo exaequat ; at si dat vitam, si dat dig-
nitatem periclitantibus et meritis amittere, facit,
quod nulli nisi rerum potenti licet ; vita enim etiam
superiori eripitur, numquam nisi inferiori datur.

7 Servare proprium est excellentis fortunae, quae
numquam magis suspici debet, quam cum illi con-
tigit idem posse quod dis, quorum beneficio in lucem
edimur tam boni quam mali. Deorum itaque sibi
animum adserens princeps alios ex civibus suis, quia
utiles bonique sunt, libens videat, alios in numerum
relinquat ; quosdam esse gaudeat, quosdam patiatur.

1 6. Cogitato, in hac civitate, in qua turba per

^ ad added by Lipsius.
372

ON MERCY, I. V. 4-vi. 1

greatly incensed, no one will venture to gainsay,
nay, even to entreat — that this man should lay a
restraining hand upon himself, and use his power to
better and more peaceful ends when he reflects,
" Any one can ^iolate the law to kill, none but I,
to save " ? A lofty spirit befits a lofty station, and
if it does not rise to the level of its station and even
stand above it, the other, too, is dragged downward
to the ground. Moreover, the pecuUar marks of a
lofty spirit are mildness and composure, and the lofty
disregard of injustice and wTongs. It is for woman to^
rage in anger, for wild beasts doubtless — and yet not
even the noble sort of these — to bite and worry their
prostrate victims. Elephants and hons pass by what
they have stricken do>vn ; it is the ignoble beast that
is relentless. Cruel and inexorable anger is not
seemly for a king, for thus he does not rise much
above the other man, toward whose own level he
descends by being angry at him. But if he grants hfe,
if he grants position to those who have imperilled
and deserve to lose them, he does what none but a
sovereign may ; for one may take the life even of a
superior, but not give it ever except to an inferior.
To save life is the peculiar pri\ilege of exalted station,
which never has a right to greater admiration than
when it has the good fortune to have the same power
as the gods, by whose kindness we all, the e\il as welh-
as the good, are brought forth into the Ught. Let a
prince, therefore, appropriating to himself the spirit
of the gods, look with pleasure upon one class of his
citizens because they are useful and good ; others
let him leave to make up the count ; let him be glad
that some of them hve, some let him merely endure.
Consider this city, in which the throng that streams

373

SENECA

latissima itinera sine intermissione defluens eliditiir,
quotiens aliquid obstitit, quod cursum eius velut
torrentis rapidi moraretur, in qua tribus eodem
tempore theatris caveae^ postulantur, in qua con-
sumitur, quidquid terris omnibus aratur, quanta
solitudo ac vastitas futura sit, si nihil relinquitur,

2 nisi quod iudex severus absolverit. Quotus quisque
ex quaesitoribus est, qui non ex ipsa ea lege teneatur,
qua quaerit ? quotus quisque accusator vacat culpa ?
Et nescio, an nemo ad dandam veniam difficilior sit,

3 quam qui illam petere saepius meruit. Peecavimus
omnes, alii gravia, alii leviora, alii ex destinato, alii
forte impulsi aut aliena nequitia ablati ; alii in bonis
consiliis parum fortiter stetimus et innocentiam
inviti ac retinentes perdidimus ; nee deliquimus
tantum, sed usque ad extremum aevi delinquemus.

4 Etiam si quis tam bene iam purgavit animum, ut
nihil obturbare eum amplius possit ac fallere, ad
innocentiam tamen peccando pervenit.

1 7. Quoniam deorum feci mentionem, optime hoc
exemplum principi constituam, ad quod formetur,
ut se talem esse civibus, quales sibi deos velit.
Expedit ergo habere inexorabilia peccatis atque
erroribus numina, expedit usque ad ultimam infesta

^ caveae Hosius : viae mss.

" Those of Pompey, Marcelhis, and Balbus, each of
which, it must be remembered, seated many thousands.
"" i.e., of the ideal wise man of the Stoics, so rarely produced,
j Their doctrine that virtue is not merely the greatest but the
only good allowed no gradation of goodness or badness, and
I frankly recognized the almost universal depravity of man-
kind. Seneca with his humane tendencies gives passionate
emphasis to this belief, making it the basis of a plea for
mercy and kindness.

374

ON MERCY, I. VI. 1-vii. 1

ceaselessly through its widest streets is crushed
to pieces whenever anything gets in the way to
check its course as it streams like a rushing torrent, —
this city in which the seating space of three theatres °
is required at one time, in which is consumed all the
produce of the plough from every land ; consider how
great would be the loneliness and the desolation of it
if none should be left but those whom a strict judge
would acquit. How fe\.- prosecutors there are who
would escape conviction under the very law which
they cite for the prosecution ; how few accusers are
free from blame. And, I am inclined to think, no
one is more reluctant to grant pardon than he who
again and again has had reason to seek it. We have
all sinned — some in serious, some in tri\ial things ;
some from deliberate intention, some by chance
impulse, or because we were led away by the ■wicked-
ness of others ; some of us have not stood strongly
enough by good resolutions, and have lost our
innocence against our ^^ill and though still chnging
to it ; and not only have we done WTong, but we
shall go on doing wTong to the very end of life. Even
if there is any one who has so thoroughly cleansed his
mind that nothing can any more confound him and
betray him, yet it is by siiming that he has reached
the sinless state.*

Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall do
very well to estabhsh this as the standard after which
a prince should model himself — that he should wish
so to be to his subjects, as he would \\ish the gods to be
to himself. Is it, then, desirable to have deities that
cannot be moved to show mercy to our sins and
mistakes ? Is it desirable to have them our enemies
even to the point of our complete destruction ? And

375

SENECA

•perniciem ? Et quis regum erit tutus, cuius non

2 membra haruspices colligant ? Quod si di placabiles
et aequi delicta potentium non statim fulminibus
persequuntur, quanto aequius est hominem hominibus
praepositum mitianimo exercereimperium et cogitare,
uter mundi status gratior oculis pulchriorque sit,
sereno et puro die, an cum fragoribus crebris omnia
quatiuntur et ignes hinc atque illinc micant ! Atqui
non alia facies est quieti moratique imperii quam

3 sereni caeli et nitentis. Crudele regnum turbidum
tenebrisque obscurum est, inter trementes et ad
repentinum sonitum expavescentes ne eo quidem,
qui omnia perturbat, inconcusso. Facilius privatis
ignoscitur pertinaciter se vindicantibus ; possunt
enim laedi, dolorque eorum ab iniuria venit ; timent
praeterea contemptum, et non rettulisse laedentibus
gratiam infirmitas videtur, non dementia ; at cui
ultio in facili est, is omissa ea certam laudem man

4 suetudinis consequitur. Humili loco positis exercere
manum, litigare, in rixam procurrere ac morem irae
suae gerere liberius est ; leves inter paria ictus sunt ;
regi vociferatio quoque verborumque intemperantia
non ex maiestate est.

1 8. Grave putas eripi loquendi arbitrium regibus,
quod humillimi habent. " Ista," inquis, " servitus
est, non imperium." Quid ? tu non experiris istud
nobis esse, tibi servitutem ? Alia condicio est

<» To be struck by lightning was interpreted by the sooth-
sayers as a sign of the displeasure of the gods.

S76

ON MERCY, I. VII. i-viii l

•what king will escape the danger of ha\-ing the sooth-
sayers gather up his riven h'mbs ? <* But if the gods,
merciful and just, do not instantly avenge with the
thunderbolt the shortcomings of" the mighty, how
much more just is it for a man, set over men, to
exercise his power in gentle spirit and to ask him-
self which condition of the world is more pleasing
to the eye and more lovely — when the day is cahn
and clear, or when all nature quakes ^^ith crash
upon crash of thunder, and hither and yonder the
lightnings flash ? And yet the aspect of a quiet and
well-ordered empire is not different from that of a
calm and shining sky. A reign that is cruel is stormy
and overcast >\ith gloom, and, while men tremble and
grow pale at the sudden uproar, even he who is the
cause of all the turmoil does not fail to shudder. One
in private life, if he stubbornly seeks revenge, is more
easily pardoned ; for it is possible for him to receive
an injur\% and his resentment springs from a sense
of ^\Tong ; besides, he is afraid of being scorfted, and,
when one is injured, the failure to make requital
seems a show of weakness, not of mercy. But the
man for whom vengeance is easy, by disregarding it,
gains assured praise for clemency. Those placed in
lowly station are more free to use force, to quarrel,
to rush into a brawl, and to indulge their WTath ;
when the odds are matched, blows fall light ; but in
a king, even loud speech and unbridled words ill
accord \\ith his majesty.

You think that it is a serious matter to deprive
kings of the right of free speech, which belongs to
the humblest man. " That," you say, " is ser\-itude,
not sovereignty." WTiat ? are you not aware that
the sovereignty is ours, the servitude yours ? Far

377

SENECA

eorum, qui in turba, quam non excedunt, latent,
quorum et virtutes, ut appareant, diu luctantur et
vitia tenebras habent ; vestra facta dictaque rumor
excipit, et ideo nullis magis curandum est, qualem
famam habeant, quam qui, qualemcumque meruerint,

2 magnam habituri sunt. Quam multa tibi non licent,
quae nobis beneficio tuo licent ! Possum in qualibet
parte urbis solus incedere sine timore, quamvis
nullus sequatur comes, nullus sit domi, nullus ad
latus gladius ; tibi in tua pace armato vivendum est.
Aberrare a fortuna tua non potes ; obsidet te et,
quocumque descendis, magno apparatu sequitur.

3 Est haec summae magnitudinis servitus non posse
fieri minorem ; sed cum dis tibi communis ipsa
necessitas est. Nam illos quoque caelum alligatos
tenet, nee magis illis descendere datum est quam

4 tibi tutum ; fastigio tuo adfixus es. Nostros motus
pauci sentiunt, prodire nobis ac recedere et mutare
habitum sine sensu publico licet ; tibi non magis
quam soli latere contingit. Multa circa te lux est,
omnium in istam conversi oculi sunt. Prodire te

6 putas ? Oriris. Loqui non potes, nisi ut vocem
tuam, quae ubique sunt gentes, excipiant ; irasci
non potes, nisi ut omnia tremant, quia^ neminem
adfligere, nisi ut, quidquid circa fuerit, quatiatur.
Ut fulmina paucorum periculo cadunt, omnium metu,
sic animadversiones magnarum potestatum terrent

^ quin Baehrens : quia MSS.

" Prodeo is the ordinary word for "going out of doors,"
orior is used of the sun.

378

ON MERCY, I. Mil. 1-5

different is the position of those who escape notice in
a crowd that they do not overtop, whose \Trtues
must struggle long in order to be seen, whose Mces
keep under the cover of obscurity ; but the words
and deeds of such as you are caught up by rumour,
and, consequently, none should be more concerned
about the character of tneir reputation than those
who, no matter what reputation they may deserve,
are sure to have a great one. How many things there
are which you may not do, which we, thanks to you,
may do ! It is possible for me to walk alone without
fear in any part of the city I please, though no com-
panion attends me, though I have no sword at my
house, none at my side ; you, amid the peace you
create, must live armed. You cannot escape from
your lot ; it besets you, and, whenever you leave the
heights, it pursues you AWth its magnificence. In
this lies the ser^tude of supreme greatness — that it
cannot become less great ; but you share with the
gods that incMtable condition. For even they are
held in bondage by heaven, and it is no more lawful
for them to leave the heights than it is safe for you ;
you are nailed to your pinnacle. Our movements
are noticed by few ; we may come forth and retire and
change our dress without the world being aware ;
you can no more hide yourself than the sun. A flood
of Ught surrounds you ; towards it ever)- one turns his
eyes. Think you to " come forth " ? Nay, you rise."
You cannot speak but that all the nations of the
earth hear your voice ; you cannot be angrv' without
causing everj-thing to tremble, because you cannot
strike any one down without shaking all that is around
him. As the hghtning's stroke is dangerous for the
few, though feared by all, so the punishment bom of

379

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latius quam nocent, non sine causa ; non enim, quan-
tum fecerit, sed quantum facturus sit, cogitatur in

6 eo, qui omnia potest. Adice nunc, quod privates
homines ad accipiendas iniurias opportuniores accep-
tarum patientia facit, regibus certior est ex man-
suetudine securitas, quia frequens vindicta paucorum

7 odium opprimit, omnium irritat. Voluntas oportet
ante saeviendi quam causa deficiat ; alioqui, quemad-
modum praecisae arbores plurimis ramis repullulant
et multa satorum genera, ut densiora surgant,
reciduntur, ita regia crudelitas auget inimicorum
numerum tollendo ; parentes enim liberique eorum,
qui interfecti sunt, et propinqui et amici in locum
singulorum succedunt.

1 9. Hoc quam verum sit, admonere te exemplo
domestico volo. Divus Augustus fuit mitis princeps,
si quis ilium a principatu suo aestimare incipiat ; in
communi quidem rei publicae gladium movit. Cum
hoc aetatis esset, quod tu nunc es, duodevicensimum
egressus annum, iam pugiones in sinum amicorum
absconderat, iam insidiis M. Antonii consulis latus

2 petierat, iam fuerat collega proscriptionis. Sed
cum annum quadragensimum transisset et in Galha
moraretur, delatum est ad eum indicium L. Cinnam,
stolidi ingenii virum, insidias ei struere ; dictum

<» i.e., while associated with Antony and Lepidus in the
triumvirate.

'' This allusion determines approximately the date of the
composition of the essay ; Nero's eighteenth birthday was
Dec. 15, A.D. 55. Octavius was really over twenty at the
time of the proscriptions mentioned,

" Cassius Dio, Iv. 14-22, places the incident in Rome.
The story supplied the theme of Corneille's Cinna.

■* Dio gives correctly the praenomen Gaius ; Lucius
380

ON MERCY, I. VIII. 5-ix. 2

great power causes wider terror than harm, and not
without reason ; for when the doer is omnipotent, men
consider not how much he has done, but how much he
is Ukely to do. Consider, too, that whereas private
citizens, by enduring the \\Tongs aheady received,
he more open to recei\'ing others, yet kings by
clemency gain a security more assured, because
repeated punishment, while it crushes the hatred of
a few, stirs the hatred of all. The inchnation to vent
one's rage should be less strong than the provocation
for it ; otherwise, just as trees that have been
trimmed throw out again countless branches, and as
many kinds of plants are cut back to make them grow
thicker, so the cruelty of a king by removing his
enemies increases their number ; for the parents and
children of those who have been killed, their relatives
too and their friends, step into the place of each
single \ictim.

By an example from your own family I wish to
remind you how true this is. The deified Augustus
was a mild prince if one should undertake to judge
him from the time of his principate ; but when he
shared the state with others," he A^-ielded the sword.
When he was at your present age, having just passed
his eighteenth year," he had already buried his
dagger in the bosom of friends ; he had already in
stealth aimed a blow at the side of the consul, Mark
Antony ; he had already been a partner in pro-
scription. But when he had passed his fortieth year
and was staying in Gaul,'^ the information was brought
to him that Lucius Cinna,"* a dull-witted man, was
concocting a plot against him. He was told where

Cornelius Cinna, son-in-law of Pompey, was the father of the
conspirator.

381

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est, et ubi et quando et quemadmodum adgredi

3 vellet ; unus ex consciis deferebat. Constituit se
ab eo vindicare et consilium amicorum advocari
iussit. Nox illi inquieta erat, cum cogitaret adule-
scentem nobilem, hoc detracto integrum, Cn. Pompei
nepotem, damnandum ; iam unum hominem occidere
non poterat, cui M. Antonius proscriptionis edictum

4 inter cenam dictarat. Gemens subinde voces varias
emittebat et inter se contrarias : " Quid ergo ?
Ego percussorem meum securum ambulare patiar
me sollicito ? Ergo non dabit poenas, qui tot
civilibus bellis frustra petitum caput, tot navalibus,
tot pedestribus proeliis incolume, postquam terra
marique pax parata est, non occidere constituat,
sed immolare ? " (nam sacrificantem placuerat adoriri).

5 Rursus silentio interposito maiore multo voce sibi
quam Cinnae irascebatur : " Quid vivis, si perire
te tam multorum interest ? Quis finis erit suppli-
ciorum ? Quis sanguinis ? Ego sum nobilibus adu-
lescentulis expositum caput, in quod mucrones
acuant ; non est tanti vita, si, ut ego non peream,

6 tam multa perdenda sunt." Interpellavit tandem
ilium Livia uxor et : " Admittis," inquit, " muliebre
consilium ? Fac, quod medici solent, qui, ubi usitata
remedia non procedunt, temptant contraria, Se-
veritate nihil adhuc profecisti ; Salvidienum Lepidus
secutus est, Lepidum Murena, Murenam Caepio,
Caepionem Egnatius, ut alios taceam, quos tantum

" Cf. Cassius Dio, xlviii. 33 ; Suetonius, Augustus, 66.

^ Suetonius, Aug. 19, mentions these, in the same order,
and others.
382

ON MERCY, I. IX. 2-6

and when and how he meant to attack him ; one of
the accomplices gave the information. Augustus
resolved to revenge himself upon the fellow, and
ordered a council of his friends to be called. He
spent a restless night, reflecting that it was a young
man of noble birth, blameless but for this act, the
grandson of Gnaeus Pompeius, who was to be con-
demned. He could not now bear to kill one man,
he to whom Mark Antony had dictated the edict of
proscription while they dined. He moaned, and now
and then would burst forth into fitful and inconsistent
speech : " What then ? shall I let my murderer walk
about in unconcern while I am filled with fear ?
What ! Shall he not pay the penalty who, sought
in vain as my life has been in so many civil wars,
saved unhurt in so many battles of fleets and armies,
now that peace prevails on land and sea, is determining
not to murder but to immolate me ? " (for the plan
was to attack him while off"ering sacrifice). Again,
after an interval of silence, in louder tone he would
express much greater indignation at himself than
at Cinna : " Why do you live on if so many are
concerned to have you die ? What end vriW there be
of punishments, and of bloodshed ? I am the ob\ious
victim for whom young men of noble birth should
whet their swords. If so many must perish in order
that I may not, my life is not worth the price." At
length Livia, his wife, broke in and said : " Will you
take a woman's advice ? Follow the practice of
physicians, who when the usual remedies do not
work try just the opposite. So far you have accom-
pUshed nothing by severity. SaMdienus " was fol-
lowed by Lepidus, Lepidus by Murena, Murena by
Caepio, Caepio by Egnatius,** to say nothing of the

383

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ausos pudet. Nunc tempta, quomodo tibi cedat
dementia ; ignosce L. Cinnae. Deprensus est ;
iam nocere tibi non potest, prodesse famae tuae

7 potest." Gavisus, sibi quod advocatum invenerat,
uxori quidem gratias egit, renuntiari autem extemplo
amicis, quos in consilium rogaverat, imperavit et
Cinnam unum ad se accersit dimissisque omnibus
e cubiculo, cum alteram Cinnae poni cathedram
iussisset : " Hoc," inquit, " primum a te peto, ne
me loquentem interpelles, ne medio sermone meo
proclames ; dabitur tibi loquendi liberum tempus.

8 Ego te, Cinna, cum in hostium castris invenissem,
non factum tantum mihi inimicum sed natum,
servavi, patrimonium tibi omne concessi. Hodie
tam felix et tam dives es, ut victo victores invideant.
Sacerdotium tibi petenti praeteritis compluribus,
quorum parentes mecum militaverant, dedi ; cum

9 sic de te meruerim, occidere me constituisti." Cum
ad banc vocem exclamasset procul hanc ab se abesse
dementiam : " Non praestas," inquit, " fidem,
Cinna ; convenerat, ne interloquereris. Occidere,
inquam, me paras " ; adiecit locum, socios, diem,
ordinem insidiarum, cui commissum esset ferrum.

10 Et cum defixum videret nee ex conventione iam,
sed ex conscientia tacentem : " Quo," inquit, " hoc
animo facis ? Ut ipse sis princeps ? Male me-
hercules cum populo Romano agitur, si tibi ad im-

384

ON MERCY, I. IX. 6-10

others whose monstrous daring makes one ashamed.
Try now how mercy will work : pardon Lucius Cinna.
He has been arrested ; now he cannot do you harm,
but he can help your reputation." Happy to have
found a supporter, he thanked his A\1fe, then ordered
that the request to the friends who had been asked
to the conference be at once countermanded, and
sunmioned only Cinna to his presence. Ha\ing sent
every one else from the room, he ordered a second
chair to be placed for Cinna and said : '• My first
request of you is, that you will not interrupt me
while I am talking, that you will not in the course
of my words utter a protest ; you will be given free
opportunity to speak. Cinna, though I found you
in the camp of the enemy, not made, but born, my
deadly foe, I saved you, I allowed you to keep the
whole of your father's estate. To-day you are so
prosperous, so rich, that your conquerors en\y you,
the conquered. When you sought holy office, I
gave it to you, passing over many whose fathers had
fought under me. Though such is the service that
I have done you, you have determined to kill me."
When at these words Cinna cried out that he was
far from such madness, he said : " You are not keeping
faith, Cinna ; it was agreed that you were not to
interrupt. You are making ready, I say, to kill me."
He mentioned, further, the place, his confederates,
the plan of the plot, the one who had been entrusted
with the dagger. And when he saw that Cinna had
dropped his eyes, silent now, not because of his
compact, but because of his conscience, he said :
" What is your purpose in this ? Is it that you your-
self may become the prince ? On my word, the Roman
people are hard put to it if nothing stands in the
VOL. I 2 c 385

SENECA

perandum nihil praeter me obstat . Domum tueri tuam
non potes, nuper libertini hominis gratia in private
iudicio superatus es ; adeo nihil facilius potes quam
contra Caesarem advocare. Cedo, si spes tuas solus
impedio, Paulusne te at Fabius Maximus et Cossi
et Servilii ferent tantumque agmen nobilium non
inania nomina praeferentium, sed eorum, qui imagini-
bus suis decori sint ? "

11 Ne totam eius orationem repetendo magnam
partem voluminis oceupem (diutius enim quam
duabus horis loeutum esse constat, cum hanc poenam,
qua sola erat contentus futurus, extenderet) :
" Vitam," inquit, " tibi, Cinna, iterum do, prius
hosti, nunc insidiatori ac parricidae. Ex hodierno
die inter nos amicitia incipiat ; contendamus, utrum
ego meliore fide tibi vitam dederim an tu debeas."

12 Post hoc detulit ultro consulatum questus, quod non
auderet petere. Amicissimum fidelissimumque ha-
buit, heres solus illi fuit. Nulhs amplius insidiis
ab ullo petitus est.

1 10. Ignovit abavus tuus victis ; nam si non igno-
^dsset, quibus imperasset ? Sallustium et Cocceios
et DeilHos et totam cohortem primae admissionis
ex adversariorum castris conscripsit ; iam Domitios,
Messalas, Asinios, Cicerones, quidquid floris erat
in civitate, clementiae suae debebat. Ipsum Lepi-
dum quam diu mori passus est ! Per multos annos
386

ON MERCY, I. IX. lo-x. l

way of your ruling except me. You cannot guard
your ovm house ; just lately the influence of a mere
freedman defeated you in a private suit ; plainly,
nothing can be easier for you than to take action
against Caesar ! Tell me, if I alone block your
hopes, >nll Paulus and Fabius Maximus and the
Cossi and the Servilii and the great hne of nobles,
who are not the representatives of empty names,
but add distinction to their pedigree — will these
put up ^\ith you ?

Not to fill up a great part of my book in repeating
all his words — for he is known to have talked more
than two hours, lengthening out this ordeal with
which alone he intended to be content — at last he
said : " Cinna, a second time I grant you yom- Ufe ;
the first time you were an open enemy, now, a plotter
and a parricide. From this day let there be a
beginning of friendship between us ; let us put to
the test which one of us acts in better faith — I in
granting you your life, or you in ONving it to me."
Later he, unsolicited, bestowed upon him the consul-
ship, chiding him because he did not boldly stand
for the office. He found Cinna most friendly and
loyal, and became his sole heir. No one plotted
against him further.

Your great-great-grandfather spared the van-
quished ; for if he had not spared them, whom
would he have had to rule ? Sallustius and a
Cocceius and a Deillius and the whole inner circle
of his court he recruited from the camp of his
opponents ; and now it was his own mercifulness
that gave him a Domitius, a Messala, an Asinius, a
Cicero, and all the flower of the state. What a long
time was granted even Lepidus to die ! For many

387

SENECA

tulit ornamenta principis retinentem et pontificatum
maximum non nisi mortuo illo transferri in se passus
est ; maluit enim ilium honorem vocari quam

2 spolium. Haec eum dementia ad salutem securita-
temque perduxit ; haec gratum ac favorabilem
reddidit, quamvis nondum subactis populi Romani
cervicibus manum imposuisset ; haec hodieque
praestat illi famam, quae vix vivis principibus servit.

3 Deum esse non tamquam iussi credimus ; bonum
fuisse principem Augustum, bene illi parentis nomen
convenisse fatemur ob nullam aliam causam, quam
quod contumelias quoque suas, quae acerbiores
principibus solent esse quam iniuriae, nulla crudelitate
exsequebatur, quod probrosis in se dictis adrisit,
quod dare ilium poenas apparebat, cum exigeret,
quod, quoscumque ob adulterium filiae suae damna-
verat, adeo non occidit, ut dimissis quo tutiores essent,

4 diplomata daret. Hoc est ignoscere, cum scias
multos futuros, qui pro te irascantur et tibi sanguine
alieno gratificentur, non dare tantum salutem, sed
praestare.

1 11. Haec Augustus senex aut iam in senectutem
annis vergentibus ; in adulescentia caluit, arsit ira,
multa fecit, ad quae invitus oculos retorquebat.
Comparare nemo mansuetudini tuae audebit divum
Augustum, etiam si in certamen iuveniUum annorum

" The notorious Julia, banished by Augustus on account
of her infidelity to Tiberius.

388

ON xMERCY, I. X. 1-xi. 1

years he suffered liipi to retain the insignia of a
ruler, and only after the other's death did he permit
the office of chief pontiff to be transferred to him-
self; for he preferred to have it called an honour
rather than a spoil. This mercifulness led him on
to safety and security, this made him popular and
beloved, although the necks of the Roman people
had not yet been humbled when he laid hand upon
them ; and to-day this preserves for him a reputation
which is scarcely -within the power of rulers even
while they live. A god we beUeve him to be, but
not because we are bidden ; that Augustus was a
good prince, that he well deserved the name of
father, this we confess for no other reason than
becaiise he did not avenge with cruelty even the
personal insults which usually sting a prince more than
wrongs, because when he was the victim of lampoons
he smiled, because he seemed to suffer punishment
when he was exacting it, because he was so far from
killing the various men whom he had convicted of
intriguing with his daughter <* that he banished
them for their greater safety, and gave them their
credentials. Not merely to grant dehverance, but
to guarantee it, when you know that there will be
many to take up your quarrel and do you the favour
of shedding an enemy's blood — this is really to
forgive.

Such was Augustus when he was old, or just upon
the verge of old age. In youth he was hot-headed,
flared up vvith anger, and did many things which he
looked back upon with regret. To compare the
mildness of the deified Augustus with yours no
one will dare, even if the years of youth shall
be brought into competition with an old age

389

SENECA

deduxerit senectutem plus quam maturam : fuerit
moderatus et clemens, nempe post mare Actiacum
Romano cruore infectum, nempe post fractas in
Sicilia classes et suas et alienas, nempe post Peru-

2 sinas aras et proscriptiones. Ego vero clementiam
non voco lassam crudelitatem ; haec est, Caesar,
dementia vera, quam tu praestas, quae non saevitiae
paenitentia coepit, nullam habere maculam, num-
quam civilem sanguinem fudisse ; haec est in
maxima potestate verissima animi temperantia et
humani generis comprendens ut sui amor non cupi-
ditate aliqua, non temeritate ingenii, non priorum
principum exemplis corruptum, quantum sibi in
cives suos liceat, experiendo temptare, sed hebetare

3 aciem imperii sui. Praestitisti, Caesar, civitatem
incruentam, et hoc, quod magno animo gloriatus es
nullam te toto orbe stillam cruoris humani misisse,
eo maius est mirabiliusque, quod nulli umquam
citius gladius commissus est.

4 dementia ergo non tantum honestiores sed
tutiores praestat ornamentumque imperiorum est
simul et certissima salus. Quid enim est, cur reges
consenuerint liberisque ac nepotibus tradiderint
regna, tyrannorum exsecrabilis ac brevis potestas
sit } Quid interest inter tyrannum ac regem (species
enim ipsa fortunae ac licentia par est), nisi quod
tyranni in voluptatem saeviunt, reges non nisi ex
causa ac necessitate ?

1 12. " Quid ergo ? Non reges quoque occidere

" In the battle with Antony and Cleopatra (31 b.c).

^ When Sextus Pompey was defeated in 36 b.c.

* A rumour was current that Octavius after the siege of
Perusia (41-40 b.c.) sacrificed many of the captives at an
altar erected to Julius Caesar ; c/. Suetonius, Augustus, 15 ;
Cassius Dio, xlviii. 14.
390

ON MERCY, I. XI. 1-xii. 1

that was more than ripe. Granted that he was
restrained and merciful — yes, to be sure, but it
was after Actium's waters had been stained" with
Roman blood, after his o\vn and an enemy's fleet
had been wrecked off Sicily,* after the holocaust
of Perusia <= and the proscriptions. I, surely, do not
call weariness of cruelty mercy. True mercy, Caesar,
is this which you display, which arises from no regret
for Wolence, that bears no stain and never shed a
compatriot's blood. In a position of unhmited power
this is in the truest sense self-control and an all-
embracing love of the human race even as of one-
self—not to be perverted by any low desire, or by
hastiness of nature, or by the precedent of earlier
princes into testing by experiment what Hcence one
may employ against fellow-citizens, but rather to
dull the edge of supreme power. Your gift, Caesar,
is a state unstained by blood, and your prideful boast
that in the whole world you have shed not a drop
of human blood is the more significant and wonder-
ful because no one eyer had the sword put into his
hands at an earlier age.

Mercy, then, makes rulers not only more honoured,
but safer, and is at the same time the glory of
sovereign power and its surest protection. For why
is it that kings have groM'n old and have handed on
their thrones to children and grandchildren, while
a tyrant's sway is accursed and short ? What differ-
ence is there between a tyrant and a king (for they
are aUke in the mere outward show of fortune and
extent of power), except that tyrants are cruel to
serve their pleasure, kings only for a reason and by
necessity ?

" What then ? " you say ; " do not kings also often

391

SENECA

Solent ? " Sed quotiens id fieri publica utilitas
persuadet ; tyrannis saevitia cordi est. Tyrannus
autem a rege factis distat, non nomine ; nam et
Dionysius maior iure meritoque praeferri multis
regibus potest, et L. Sullam tyrannum appellari quid
prohibet, cui occidendi finem fecit inopia hostium ?

2 Descenderit licet e dictatura sua et se togae reddi-
derit, quis tamen umquam tyrannus tam a\'ide
humanum sanguinem bibit quam ille, qui septem
milia civium Romanorum contrucidari iussit et, cum
in vicino ad aedem Bellonae sedens exaudisset
conclamationem tot milium sub gladio gementium,
exterrito senatu : " Hoc agamus," inquit, " patres
conscripti ; seditiosi pauculi meo iussu occiduntur " ?

3 Hoc non est mentitus ; pauci SuUae videbantur. Sed
mox de Sulla, cum quaeremus, quomodo hostibus
irascendum sit, utique si in hostile nomen cives et
ex eodem corpore abrupti transierint ; interim, hoc
quod dicebam, dementia efficit, ut magnum inter
regem tyrannumque discrimen sit, uterque licet
non minus armis valletur ; sed alter arma habet,
quibus in munimentum pacis utitur, alter, ut magno
timore magna odia compescat, nee illas ipsas manus,

4 quibus se commisit, securus adspicit. Contrariis in
contraria agitur ; nam cum invisus sit, quia timetur,
392

ON MERCY, I. XII. 1-4

kill ? " Yes, but only when they are induced to do
so for the good of the state. Tyrants take delight
in cruelty. But the difference between a tyrant
and a king is one of deeds, not of name ; for while
the elder Dionysius " may justly and deservedly be
counted better than many kjngs, what keeps Lucius
Sulla from being styled a tyrant, whose killing was
stopped only by a dearth of foes ? Though he
abdicated the dictatorship and returned to private
life, yet what tyrant ever drank so greedily of human
blood as he, who ordered seven thousand Roman
citizens to be butchered at one time, and who, as he
sat nearby at the temple of Bellona and heard the
mingled cry of the many thousands moaning beneath
the sword, said to the terror-stricken senate, " Let
us attend to business, Gentlemen of the Senate ;
only a few seditious persons are being killed by my
order " ? This was no he ; to Sulla they seemed a
few. But more about Sulla by and by, when we shall
take up the question of the sort of anger we should
have for enemies, particularly if fellow-countrymen
have broken away from the body politic and passed
over into the category of enemies. Meanwhile, as I
was saying, it is mercy that makes the distinction
between a king and a tyrant as great as it is, though
both are equally fenced about vrith arms ; but the
one uses the arms which he has to fortify good- will,
the other to curb great hatred by great fear, and
yet the very hands to which he has entrusted himself
he cannot view ^^ithout concern. Conflicting causes
force him to conflicting courses : for since he is
hated because he is feared, he \\ishes to be feared

" See Index.

393

SENECA

timeri vult, quia invisus est, et illo exsecrabili versu,
qui multos praecipites dedit, utitur :

Oderint, dum metuant,

ignarus, quanta rabies oriatur, ubi supra modum
odia creverunt.

Temperatus enim timor cohibet animos, adsiduus
vero et acer et extrema admovens in audaciam
5 iacentes excitat et omnia experiri suadet. Sic feras
linea et pinnae clusas contineant ; easdem a tergo
eques telis incessat, temptabunt fugam per ipsa,
quae fugerant, proculcabuntque formidinem, Acer-
rima virtus est, quam ultima necessitas extundit.
Relinquat oportet securi aliquid metus multoque
plus spei quam periculorum ostentet ; alioqui, ubi
quiescenti paria metuuntur, incurrere in pericula
iuvat et^ aliena anima abuti.

1 13. Placido tranquilloque regi fida sunt auxilia
sua, ut quibus ad communem salutem utatur,
gloriosusque miles (publicae enim securitati se dare
operam videt) omnem laborem libens patitur ut
parentis custos ; at ilium acerbum et sanguinarium

2 neeesse est graventur stipatores sui. Non potest
habere quisquam bonae ac fidae voluntatis ministros,
quibus in tormentis ut eeuleo et ferramentis ad
mortem paratis utitur, quibus non aliter quam bestiis
homines obiectat, omnibus reis aerumnosior ac
solhcitior, ut qui homines deosque testes facinorum
ac vindices timeat, eo perductus, ut non liceat illi

* Hosius, after Haase, inserts ut after et.

" A favourite quotation ; cf, De Ira, i. 20. 4 ; De Clem.

ii. 2. 2.

ON MERCY, I. XII. 4-xiii. 2

because he is hated, and not kno^ving what frenzy
is engendered when hatred grows too great, he takes
as a motto that accursed verse which has driven many
to their fall :

Let them hate, if only they fear."

Now fear in moderation restrains men's passions, *"
but the fear that is constant and sharp and brings
desperation arouses the sluggish to boldness, and
urges them to stop at nothing. In the same way, a
string of feathers may keep ^\^ld beasts hemmed in,
but let a horseman come upon them from behind with
javelins, and they ^vill try to escape through the very
objects that had made them run, and aWII trample
do^^^l their fear. No courage is so bold as that
forced by utter desperation. Fear should leave some
sense of security, and hold out much more of hope than
of peril; otherwise, if an inoffensive man is made to fear
the same peril as others, he takes pleasure in rushing
into peril and making an end of a hfe that is forfeit.

A king that is peaceable and gentle finds his guards
trusty, since he employs them for the common safety,
and the soldier, seeing that he is gi\ing liis service
for the security of the state, is proud and wilhng to
undergo any hardship as a protector of the father of
his countr)' ; but he that is harsh and bloodthirsty
inevitably gets the ill-will of his own henchmen. It
is impossible for any one to hold the good-will and
loyalty of servitors whom he uses, like the rack and
the axe, as instruments of torture and death, to whom
he flings men as he would to wild beasts ; no prisoner
at the bar is so troubled and anxious as he, seeing
that he is in fear of men and gods, the witnesses and
the avengers of crimes, yet has reached a point where

395

SENECA

mutare mores. Hoc enim inter cetera vel pessimum
habet crudelitas, perseverandum est nee ad meliora
patet regressus ; scelera enim sceleribus tuenda
sunt. Quid autem eo infelicius, cui iam esse malo

3 necesse est ? O miserabilem ilium, sibi certe !
Nam ceteris misereri eius nefas sit, qui caedibus ac
rapinis potentiam exercuit, qui suspecta sibi cuncta
reddidit tarn externa quam domestica, cum arma
metuat, ad arma confugiens, non amicorum fidei
credens, non pietati liberorum ; qui, ubi circum-
spexit, quaeque fecit quaeque facturus est, et
conscientiam suam plenam sceleribus ac tormentis
adaperuit, saepe mortem timet, saepius optat,

4 invisior sibi quam servientibus. E contrario is, cui
curae sunt universa, qui alia magis, alia minus tuetur,
nullam non rei publicae partem tamquam sui nutrit,
inclinatus ad mitiora, etiam si ex usu est animad-
vertere, ostendens quam invitus aspero rpmedio
manus admoveat, in cuius animo nihil hostile, nihil
efFerum est, qui potentiam suam placide ac salu-
tariter exercet approbare imperia sua civibus cupiens,
felix abunde sibi visas, si fortunam suam publicarit,
sermone adfabilis, aditu accessuque facilis, vultu,
qui maxime populos demeretur, amabilis, acquis
desideriis propensus, etiam iniquis non^ acerbus, a

5 tota civitate amatur, defenditur, colitur, Eadem de

^ non added by Haase.
396

ON MERCY, I. XIII. 2-5

he has not the power to change his conduct. For
added to all the rest, this is still cruelty- 's greatest
curse — that one must persist in it, and no return to
better things is open ; for crime must be safeguarded
by crime. But what creature is more unhappy than
the man who now cannot help being ^vicked ? A
wTctch to be pitied, at least by himself ! for that
others should pity him would be a crime — a man who
has utilized his power for murder and pillage, who
has caused mistrust of all his deahngs whether at
home or abroad, who resorts to the sword because he
fears the sword, who trusts neither the loyalty of
friends nor the affection of his children ; who, when
he has surveyed what he has done and what he
intends to do, and has laid bare his conscience
burdened ^^■ith crimes and torturings, often fears to
die but more often prays for death, more hateful as
he is to himself than to his servitors. On the other
hand, he whose care embraces all, who, while guard-
ing here with greater vigilance, there with less, yet
fosters each and ever\' part of the state as a portion
of himself ; who is inclined to the milder course even
if it would profit him to punish, showing thus how
loath he is to turn his hand to harsh correction ; whose
mind is free from all hostiUty, from all brutality ;
who so covets the approbation of his countrj-men
upon his acts as ruler that he wields his power with
mildness and for their good ; who thinks himself
aboundingly happy if he can make the public sharers
in his own good fortune ; w-ho is affable in speech,
easy of approach and access, lovable in countenance,
which most of all ^vins the affection of the masses,
well-disposed to just petitions and even to the unjust
not harsh — such a one the whole state loves, defends,

397

SENECA

illo homines secreto loquuntur quae palam. Tollere
filios cupiunt et publicis malis sterilitas indieta
recluditur ; bene se meriturum de liberis suis
quisque non dubitat, quibus tale saeculum ostenderit.
Hie princeps suo beneficio tutus nihil praesidiis eget.
arma ornamenti causa habet.

1 14. Quod ergo officium eius est ? Quod bonorum
parentium, qui obiurgare liberos non numquam
blande, non numquam minaeiter solent, aliquando
admonere etiam verberibus. Numquid aliquis sanus
fiUum a prima offensa exheredat ? Nisi magnae
et multae iniuriae patientiam evicerunt, nisi plus
est, quod timet, quam quod damnat, non accedit ad
deeretorium stilum ; multa ante temptat, quibus
dubiam indolem et peiore iam loco positam revocet ;
simul deploratum est, ultima experitur. Nemo ad
supplicia exigenda pervenit, nisi qui remedia con-

2 sumpsit. Hoc, quod parenti, etiam principi facien-
dum est, quem appellavimus Patrem Patriae non
adulatione vana adducti. Cetera enim cognomina
honori data sunt ; Magnos et Felices et Augustos
diximus et ambitiosae maiestati quidquid potuimus
titulorum congessimus illis hoc tribuentes ; Patrem
quidem Patriae appellavimus, ut sciret datam sibi
potestatem patriam, quae est temperantissima

3 liberis consulens suaque post illos reponens. Tarde
sibi pater membra sua abscidat, etiam, cum absci-

" i.e., to disinheritance in his will.

i

ON MERCY, I. XIII. 5-xiv. 3

and reveres. ^Vhat people say of such a man is the
same in secret as in public. They are eager to rear
up sons, and the childlessness once imposed by pubUc
ills is now relaxed ; no one doubts that his children
will have cause to thank him for permitting them to
see so happy an age. Such a prince, protected by his
own good deeds, needs no bodyguard ; the arms he
wears are for adornment only.

What, then, is his duty ? It is that of the good
parent who is wont to reprove his children sometimes
gently, sometimes vrith threats, who at times ad-
monishes them even by stripes. Does any father in
his senses disinherit a son for his first offence ? Only
when great and repeated >\Tong-doing has overcome
his patience, only when what he fears outweighs what
he reprimands, does he resort to the decisive pen " ;
but first he makes many an effort to reclaim a charac-
ter that is still unformed, though inclined now to the
more e^■il side ; when the case is hopeless, he tries
extreme measures. No one resorts to the exaction
of punishment until he has exhausted all the means
of correction. This is the dut^' of a father, and it is
also the duty of a prince, whom not in empty flatterv'
we have been led to call " the Father of his Country."
For other designations have been granted merely by
way of honour ; some we have styled " the Great,"
" the Fortunate," and " the August," and we have
heaped upon pretentious greatness all possible titles
as a tribute to such men ; but to " the Father of his
Country " we have given the name in order that he
may know that he has been entrusted with a father's
power, which is most forbearing in its care for the
interests of his children and subordinates his own to
theirs. Slow would a father be to sever his own flesh

399

SENECA

derit, reponere cupiat, et in abscidendo gemat
cunctatus multum diuque ; prope est enim, ut
libenter damnet, qui cito ; prope est, ut inique
puniat, qui nimis.

1 15. Trichonem equitem Romanum memoria nostra,
quia filium suum flagellis occiderat, populus graphiis
in foro confodit ; vix ilium Augusti Caesaris auctoritas
infestis tarn patrum quam filiorum manibus eripuit,

2 Tarium, qui filium deprensum in parricidii consilio
damnavit causa cognita, nemo non suspexit, quod
contentus exilio et exilio delicato Massiliae parri-
cidam continuit et annua illi praestitit, quanta
praestare integro solebat ; haec liberalitas efFecit,
ut, in qua civitate numquam deest patronus peioribus,
nemo dubitaret, quin reus merito damnatus esset,
quem is pater damnare potuisset, qui odisse non
poterat.

3 Hoe ipso exemplo dabo, quem compares bono patri.
bonum principem. Cogniturus de filio Tarius advo-
cavit in consilium Caesarem Augustum ; venit in
privatos penates, adsedit, pars alieni consilii fuit,
non dixit : " Immo in meam domum veniat " ; quod
si factum esset, Caesaris futura erat cognitio, non

4 patris. Audita causa excussisque omnibus, et his,
quae adulescens pro se dixerat, et his, quibus argue-

" Cf. the story of Milo's enjoying in exile the mullets
of Marseilles in Cassius Dio, xl. 54.

400

ON MERCY, I. XIV. 3-xv. 4

and blood ; aye, after severing he would yearn to
restore them, and while severing he would groan
aloud, hesitating often and long ; for he comes near
to condemning gladly who condemns swiftly, and to
punishing unjustly who punishes unduly.

Within my memorv^ the people in the forum stabbed
Tricho, a Roman knight, \\ith their -wTiting-styles
because he had flogged his son to death ; Augustus
Caesar's authorit\" barely rescued him from the in-
dignant hands of fathers no less than of sons. Tarius,
on the other hand, having detected his son in a plot
against his hfe, when after investigating the case he
found him guilty, won the admiration of ever}" one
because, satisfying himself ^\^th exile — and a luxuri-
ous exile — he detained the parricide at Marseilles,"
furnishing him with the same liberal allowance that he
had been in the habit of giving him before his guilt ;
the effect of this generosity was that, in a community
where a \-illain never lacks a defender, no one doubted
that the accused man had been justly condemned,
since the father who could not hate him had found it
possible to condemn him.

I will now use tins ver}^ case to show you an example
of a good prince v\ith whom you may compare the
good father. When Tarius was ready to open the
inquir}^ on his son, he invited Augustus Caesar to
attend the council ; Augustus came to the hearth
of a private citizen, sat beside him, and took part
in the dehberation of another household. He did
not say, " Rather, let the man come to my house " ;
for, if he had, the inquiry would have been conducted
by Caesar and not by the father. When the case
had been heard and all the evidence had been sifted
— what the young fellow said in his defence, and
VOL. I 2 p 401

SENECA

batur, petit, ut sententiam suam quisque scriberet,
ne ea omnium fieret, quae Caesaris fuisset ; deinde,
priusquam aperirentur codicilli, iuravit se Tarii,

5 liominis locupletis, hereditatem non aditurum. Dicet
aliquis : " Pusillo animo timuit, ne videretur locum
spei suae aperire velle filii damnatione." Ego contra
sentio ; quilibet nostrum debuisset adversus opiniones
malignas satis fiduciae habere in bona conscientia,
principes multa debent etiam famae dare. Iuravit

6 se non aditurum hereditatem. Tarius quidem eodem
die et alterum heredem perdidit, sed Caesar liber-
tatem sententiae suae redemit ; et postquam ap-
probavit gratuitam esse severitatem suam, quod
principi semper curandum est, dixit relegandum, quo

7 patri videretur. Non culleum, non serpentes, non
carcerem decrevit memor, non de quo censeret, sed
cui in consilio esset ; molhssimo genere poenae
contentum esse debere patrem dixit in fiho adules-
centulo impulso in id scelus, in quo se, quodproximum
erat ab innocentia, timide gessisset ; debere ilium

1 ab urbe et a parentis oculis submoveri. 16. O dignum,
quem in consilium patres advocarent ! O dignum,
quern coheredem innocentibus liberis scriberent !
Haec dementia principem decet ; quocumque
venerit, mansuetiora omnia faciat.

" i.e., Caesar as well as his son.

* In early times the parricide was sewn into a sack with
a dog, a cock, a snake, and a monkey, and drowned.
402

ON MERCY, I. x^^ 4-.v^i. 1

what was brought up in accusation against him —
Caesar requested each man to give his verdict in
^\Titing, lest all should vote according to his lead.
Then, before the tablets were opened, he solemnly-
declared that he would accept no bequest from
Tarius, who was a rich man. Some will say, " He
showed weakness in fearing that he might seem to
be trying to clear the field for his ovm prospects by
sentencing the son." I think differently ; any one
of us might well have had enough faith in his own
good conscience to \\ithstand hostile criticism, but
princes are bound to give much heed even to report.
He solemnly declared that he would not accept a
bequest. Tarius did indeed on one and the same day
lose a second heir " also, but Caesar saved the integrity
of his vote ; and after he had proved that his severity
was disinterested — for a prince should always have
regard for this — he said that the son ought to be
banished to whatever place the father should decide.
His sentence was not the sack,^ nor serpents, nor
prison, since his thought was not of the man on whom
he was passing sentence, but of him for whom he
Mas acting as counsellor. He said that the mildest
sort of punishment ought to satisfy a father in the
case of a son who was verj- youthful and had been
moved to commit this crime, but in committing it
had shown himself faint-hearted — which was next
door to being innocent ; therefore the son should be
banished from the city and from his father's sight.
How worthy he was of being asked by parents to
share their counsels ! how worthy of being recorded
a co-heir with the children who were innocent ! This
is the spirit of mercy that graces the prince ; wherever
he goes he should make everything more peaceable.

403

SENECA

Nemo regi tarn vilis sit, ut ilium perire non

2 sentiat, qualiscumque pars imperii est. In magna
imperia ex minoribus petamus exemplum. Non
unum est imperandi genus ; imperat princeps civibus
suis, pater liberis, praeceptor discentibus, tribunus

3 vel centurio militibus. Nonne pessimus pater vide-
bitur, qui adsiduis plagis liberos etiam ex levissimis
causis compescet ? Uter autem praeceptor liberali-
bus studiis dignior, qui excarnificabit discipulos, si
memoria illis non constiterit aut si parum agilis in
legendo oculus haeserit, an qui monitionibus et
verecundia emendare ac docere malit ? Tribunum
centurionemque da saevum : desertores faciet,

4 quibus tamen ignoscitur. Numquidnam aequum est
gravius homini et durius imperari, quam imperatur
animalibus mutis ? Atqui equum non crebris ver-
beribus exterret domandi peritus magister ; fiet
enim formidolosus et contumax, nisi eum blandiente

5 tactu permulseris. Idem facit ille venator, quique
instituit catulos vestigia sequi quique iam exercitatis
utitur ad excitandas vel persequendas feras : nee
crebro illis minatur (contundet enim animos et, quid-
quid est indolis, comminuetur trepidatione degeneri)
nee licentiam vagandi errandique passim concedit.
Adicias liis licet tardiora agentes iumenta, quae,
cum ad contumeliam et miserias nata sint, nimia
saevitia cogantur iugum detractare.

<» i.e., though guilty of desertion.
404

ON MERCY, I. XVI. 1-5

In the eyes of a ruler let no man count for so little
that his destruction is not noted ; be he what he
may, he is part of the realm. From the forms of
lesser power let us draw a parallel for great power.
There is more than one kind of power : a prince has
power over his subjects, a father over liis children,
a teacher over his pupils, a tribune or a centurion
over his soldiers. Will he not seem the worst sort
of father who controls his children by constant
whippings for even the most trifling offences ? And
of teachers, which ^«ll reflect more credit upon the
Uberal studies — the one who will draw the blood of
his pupils if their memory is weak, or if the eye is
not quick and lags in reading, or the one who chooses
rather by kind admonition and a sense of shame to
correct, and so to teach, his pupils ? Show me a
tribune or centurion that is harsh ; he will cause
deserters, who all the same " are pardonable. Is it
just, I ask, that man should be subjected to severer
and harsher rule than dumb beasts ? And yet the
horse is not plied with the lash and terrified by the
horse-breaker who is an expert ; for it wll grow
fearful and obstinate unless it is soothed with caress-
ing hand. The same is true of the hunter, whether
he is teaching young dogs to follow the trail, or makes
use of those already trained for routing out the game
or running it down : he neither employs constant
threats (for that \n\] break their spirit, and all their
native qualities Nnll be gradually lost in a timidity
unworthy of their breed), nor does he allow them to
range and roam around without restraint. This applies
again to drivers of the more sluggish beasts of burden,
which, though they are born to abuse and misery, may
be driven to refuse the yoke by too much cruelty.

405

SENECA

1 17. Nullum animal morosius est, nullum maiore
arte tractandum quam homo, nulli magis parcendum.
Quid enim est stultius quam in iumentis quidem et
canibus erubescere iras exercere, pessima autem
condicione sub homine^ hominem esse ? Morbis
medemur nee irascimur ; atqui et hie morbus est
animi ; mollem medicinam desiderat ipsumque

2 medentem minime infestum aegro. Mali medici
est desperare, ne curet : idem in iis, quorum animus
adfectus est, facere debebit is, cui tradita salus
omnium est, non cito spem proicere nee mortifera
signa pronuntiare ; luctetur cum vitiis, resistat,
aliis morbum suum exprobret, quosdam molli
curatione decipiat citius meliusque sanaturus re-
mediis fallentibus ; agat princeps curam non tantum

3 salutis, sed etiam honestae cicatricis. Nulla regi
gloria est ex saeva animadversione (quis enim
dubitat posse ?), at contra^ ma^dma, si vim suam
continet, si multos irae alienae eripuit, neminem
suae impendit.

1 18. Servis imperare moderate laus est. Et in
mancipio cogitandum est, non quantum illud impune
possit pati, sed quantum tibi permittat aequi bonique
natura, quae parcere etiam captivis et pretio paratis

^ homine added by Lipsius.
406

ON MERCY, I. XVII. 1-xviii. 1

No creature is more difficult of temper, none needs
to be handled with greater skill, than man, and to
none should more mercy be shown. For what is more
senseless than to subject man to the foulest treatment
at the hands of man, while one will blush to vent his
anger on beasts of burden and dogs ? Diseases do
not make us angry — we try to cure them ; yet here
too is a disease, but of the mind ; it requires gentle
treatment, and one to treat it who is anything but
hostile to his patient. It is a poor physician that
lacks faith in his ability to cure ; and he who has
been entrusted with the life of all the people ought
to act upon the same principle in dealing ^ath those
whose mind is diseased ; he ought not to be too
quick to give up hope or to pronounce the symptoms
fatal ; he should ^\Testle with their troubles and
stay them ; some he should reproach with their
malady, some he should dupe by a sugared dose in
order to make a quicker and a better cure by using
deceptive remedies ; the aim of the prince should be
not merely to restore the health, but also to leave
no shameful scar. No glory redounds to a ruler from
cruel punishment — for who doubts his ability to give
it ? — but, on the other hand, the greatest glory is his
if he holds his power in check, if he rescues many
from the WTath of others, if he sacrifices none to his
own.

It is praiseworthy to use authority over slaves
with moderation. Even in the case of a human
chattel you should consider not how much he can be
made to suffer without retaliating, but how much
you are permitted to inflict by the principles of
equity and right, which require that mercy should
be shown even to captives and purchased slaves.

407

SENECA

iubet. Quanto iustius iubet hominibus liberis,
ingenuis, honestis non ut mancipiis abuti sed ut his,
quos gradu antecedas quorumque tibi non servitus

2 tradita sit, sed tutela. Servis ad statuam licet con-
fugere ; cum in servum omnia liceant, est aliquid,
quod in hominem licere commune ius animantium
vetet. Quis non Vedium Pollionem peius oderat
quam servi sui, quod muraenas sanguine humano
saginabat et eos, qui se aliquid offenderant, in
vivarium, quid aliud quam serpentium, abici iubebat ?
O hominem mille mortibus dignum, sive devorandos
servos obiciebat muraenis, quas esurus erat, sive in
hoc tantum illas alebat, ut sic aleret.

3 Quemadmodum domini crudeles tota civitate
commonstrantur invisique et detestabiles sunt, ita
regum et iniuria latius patet et infamia atque odium
saeculis traditur ; quanto autem non nasci melius
fuit, quam numerari inter publico malo natos !

1 19. Excogitare nemo quicquam poterit, quod
magis decorum regenti sit quam dementia, quo-
cumque modo is et quocumque iure praepositus
ceteris erit. Eo scilicet formosius id esse magnifi-
centiusque fatebinmr, quo in maiore praestabitur
potestate, quam non oportet noxiam esse, si ad

2 naturae legem componitur. Natura enim commenta
408

ON MERCY, I. XVIII. 1-xix. 2

With how much more justice do they require that
free, free-born, and reputable men should not be
treated as mere chattels, but as those who, out-
stripped by you in rank, have been committed to
your charge to be, not your slaves, but your wards.
Even slaves have the right of refrige at the statue
of a god ; and although the law allows anything
in deahng with a slave, yet in deahng ^ith a human
being there is an extreme which the right common to
all li\-ing creatures refuses to allow. Who did not
hate Vedius Polho even more than his o^\"n slaves
did, because he would fatten liis lampreys on human
blood, and order those who had for some reason
incurred his displeasm-e to be thrown into his fish-
pond— or why not say his snake-preserve ? The
monster ! He deserved to die a thousand deaths,
whether he threw his slaves as food to lampreys
he meant to eat, or whether he kept lampreys only
to feed them on such food !

Even as cruel masters are pointed at mth scorn
throughout the whole city, and are hated and loathed,
so with kings ; while the WTong they do extends more
N^-idely, the infamy and hatred which they incur is
handed down to the ages. But how much better not
to have been born than to be counted among those
born to the public harm !

It Avill be impossible for one to imagine anything
more seemly for a ruler than the quality of mercy,
no matter in what manner or with what justice he
has been set over other men. We shall admit, of
course, that this quality is the more beautiful and
wonderful, the greater the power under wliich it is
displayed ; and this power need not be harmful if
it is adjusted to Nature's law. For Nature herself

409

SENECA

est regem, quod et ex aliis animalibus licet cognoscere
et ex apibus ; quarum regi amplissimum cubile est
medioque ac tutissimo loco ; praeterea opere vacat
exactor alienorum operum, et amisso rege totum
dilabitur, nee umquam plus unum patiuntur meliorem-
que pugna quaerunt ; praeterea insignis regi forma
est dissimilisque ceteris cum magnitudine turn

3 nitore. Hoc tamen maxime distinguitur : ira-
cundissimae ac pro corporis captu pugnacissimae
sunt apes et aculeos in volnere relinquunt, rex ipse
sine aculeo est ; noluit ilium natura nee saevum esse
nee ultionem magno constaturam petere telumque
detraxit et iram eius inermem reliquit.

Exemplar hoc magnis regibus ingens ; est enim
illi mos exercere se in parvis et ingentium rerum

4 documenta minima largiri.^ Pudeat ab exiguis
animalibus non trahere mores, cum tanto hominum
moderatior esse animus debeat, quanto vehementius
nocet. Utinam quidem eadem homini lex esset
et ira cum telo suo frangeretur nee saepius liceret
nocere quam semel nee alienis viribus exercere
odia ! Facile enim lassaretur furor, si per se sibi
satis faceret et si mortis periculo vim suam effunderet.

5 Sed ne nunc quidem illi cursus tutus est ; tantum
enim necesse est timeat, quantum timeri voluit, et
manus omnium observet et eo quoque tempore,

^ minima argere (agere) 0 : urgere Haupt : spargere
Madvig : largiri ego scripsi : in minima {sc. re) parere
Hosius : arguere Ball.

" Really the queen-bee.

"" Cf. Virgil's mock-heroic description of the battle of the
bees in Georgics, iv. 67-87.
" i.e., from the tiniest things.

410

ox MERCY, I. XIX. 2-5

conceived the idea of king, as we may recognize
from the case of bees and other creatures ; the king "
of the bees has the roomiest cell, placed in the central
and safest spot ; besides, he does no work, but super-
intends the work of the others, and if they lose their
king, they all scatter ; they never tolerate more than
one at a time, and they discover the best one by
means of a fight* ; moreover the appearance of the
king is striking and different from that of the others
both in size and beauty. His greatest mark of dis-
tinction, however, lies in this : bees are most easily
provoked, and, for the size of their bodies, excellent
fighters, and where they wound they leave their
stings ; but the king himself has no sting. Nature
did not wish him to be cruel or to seek a revenge that
would be so costly, and so she removed his weapon,
and left his anger unarmed.

Great kings will find herein a mighty precedent ;
for it is Nature's way to exercise herself in small
matters, and to bestow the tiniest " proofs of great
principles. Shameful, were it not to draw a lesson
from the ways of the tiny creatures, since, as the
mind of man has so much more power to do harm,
it ought to show the greater self-control. Would
at least that a man were subject to the same
law, and that his anger broke off along with his
weapon, and that he could not injure more than
once or use the strength of others to wreak his hatred ;
for he would soon grow weary of his rage if he had no
instrument to satisfy it but liimself, and if by giWng
rein to his violence he ran the risk of death. But
even as it is, such a man has no safe course ; for he
must fear as much as he wishes to be feared, must
watch the hands of every person, and count himself

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quo non captatur, peti se iudicet nullumque momen-
tum immune a metu habeat. Hanc aliquis agere
vitam sustinet, cum liceat innoxium aliis, ob hoc
securum, salutare potentiae ius laetis omnibus
tractare ? Errat enim, si quis existimat tutum esse
ibi regem, ubi nihil a rege tutum est ; securitas

6 securitate mutua paciscenda est. Non opus est
instruere in altum editas arces nee in adscensum
arduos colles emunire nee latera montium abscidere,
multiplicibus se muris turribusque saepire : salvum
regem dementia in aperto praestabit. Unum est
inexpugnabile munimentum amor civium.

7 Quid pulchrius est quam vivere optantibus cunctis
et vota non sub custode nuncupantibus ? si paulum
valetudo titubavit, non spem hominum excitari,
sed metum ? nihil esse cuiquam tam pretiosum,
quod non pro salute praesidis sui commutatum velit ?

8 O ne ille, cui contingit, sibi quoque vivere debeat ;
in hoc adsiduis bonitatis argumentis probavit non
rem publicam suam esse, sed se rei publicae. Quis
huic audeat struere aliquod periculum ? Quis ab hoc
non, si possit, fortunam quoque avertere velit, sub
quo iustitia, pax, pudicitia, securitas, dignitas florent,
sub quo opulenta civitas copia bonorum omnium
abundat ? Nee alio animo rectorem suum intuetur,
quam, si di immortales potestatem visendi sui faciant,

" i.e., the pleasure derived from so much solicitude
becomes in itself a motive for living.

412

ON MERCY, I. XIX. 5-8

assailed even when no one is for laying hold on him,
and not a moment must he have that is free from
dread. Would any one endure to live such a hfe
when, doing no harm to others and consequently
fearless, he might exercise beneficently his pri\-ilege
of power to the happiness of all ? For if any one
thinks that a king can abide in safety where notliing
is safe from the king, he is AATong ; for the price of
security is an interchange of security. He has no
need to rear on high his towering castles, or to wall
about steep hills against ascent, or to cut away the
sides of mountains, or to encircle himself A\ith rows
of walls and turrets ; through mercy a king vriW be
assured of safety on an open plain. His one im-
pregnable defence is the love of his countrjTnen.

And what is more glorious than to live a life which
all men hope may last, and for which all voice their
prayers when there is none to watch them ? to
excite men's fears, not their hopes, if one's health
gives way a little ? to have no one hold anything so
precious that he would not gladly give it in exchange
for his chieftain's safety ? Oh, surely a man so
fortunate would owe it also to himself to hve " ; to
that end he has shown by constant evidences of his
goodness, not that the state is his, but that he is
the state's. Who would dare to de\ise any danger
for such a man ? Who would not ^vish to shield him
if he could, even from the chance of ill — him beneath
whose sway justice, peace, chastity, secxirity, and
honour flourish, under whom the state abounds in
wealth and a store of all good things ? Nor does it
gaze upon its ruler ^\■ith other emotion than, did
they vouchsafe us the power of beholding them,
we should gaze upon the immortal gods — vnth

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intueamur venerantes colentesque. Quid autem ?
9 non proximum illis locum tenet is, qui se ex deorum
natura gerit, beneficus ac largus et in melius potens ?
Hoc adfectare, hoc imitari decet, maximum ita
liaberi, ut optimus simul habeare.

1 20. A duabus causis punire princeps solet, si aut
se vindicat aut alium. Prius de ea parte disseram,
quae ipsum contingit ; difficilius est enim moderari,

2 ubi dolori debetur ultio, quam ubi exemplo. Super-
vacuum est hoc loco admonere, ne facile credat, ut
verum excutiat, ut innocentiae faveat et, ut appareat,
non minorem agi rem periclitantis quam iudicis sciat ;
hoc enim ad iustitiam, non ad clementiam pertinet ;
nunc ilium hortamur, ut manifeste laesus animum
in potestate habeat et poenam, si tuto poterit, donet,
si minus, temperet longeque sit in suis quam in

3 alienis iniuriis exorabilior. Nam quemadmodum
non est magni animi, qui de alieno liberalis est, sed
ille, qui, quod alteri donat, sibi detrahit, ita clemen-
tem vocabo non in alieno dolore facilem, sed eum,
qui, cum suis stimulis exagitetur, non prosilit, qui
intellegit magni animi esse iniurias in summa po-
tentia pati nee quicquam esse gloriosius principe
impune laeso.

1 21. Ultio duas praestare res solet : aut solacium
414

1

ON MERCY, I. xix. 8-xxi. 1

veneration and with worship. But tell me : he who
bears himself in a godlike manner, who is beneficent
and generous and uses his power for the better end
— does he not hold a place second only to the gods ?
It is well that this should be your aim, this your ideal :
to be considered the greatest man, only if at the
same time you are considered the best.

A prince usually inflicts punishment for one of
two reasons, to avenge either himself or another. I
shall first discuss the situation in which he is person-
ally concerned ; for moderation is more difficult when
vengeance serves the end of anger rather than of
discipline. At this point it is needless to caution him
to be slow in behe\"ing, to ferret out the truth, to be-
friend innocence, and to remember that to prove
this is as much the business of the judge as of the man
under trial ; for all this concerns justice, not mercy,
WTiat I now urge is that, although he has been
clearly injured, he should keep his feehngs under
control, and, if he can in safety, should remit the
punishment ; if not, that he should modify it, and be
far more ^villing to forgive wTongs done to himself
than to others. For just as the magnanimous man
is not he who makes free ^vith what is another's,
but he who deprives himself of what he gives to
some one else, so I shall not call him merciful
who is peaceable when the smart is another's, but
him who, though the spur galls himself, does not
become restive, who understands that it is mag-
nanimous to brook injuries even where authority is
supreme, and that there is nothing more glorious
than a prince who, though "WTonged, remains un-
avenged.

^'engeance accomplishes usually one of two pur-

415

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adfert ei, qui accepit iniuriam, aut in reliquum securi-
tatem. Principis maior est fortuna, quam ut solacio 5
egeat, manifestiorque vis, quam ut alieno malo '
opinionem sibi virium quaerat. Hoc dico, cum ab
inferioribus petitus violatusque est ; nam si, quos
pares aliquando habuit, infra se videt, satis vindicatus
est. Regem et servus occidit et serpens et sagitta ;
servavit quidem nemo nisi maior eo, quern servabat.

2 Uti itaque animose debet tanto munere deorum
dandi auferendique vitam potens. In iis praesertim,
quos scit aliquando sibi par fastigium^ obtinuisse,
hoc arbitrium adeptus ultionem implevit perfecitque,
quantum verae poenae satis erat ; perdidit enim
vitam, qui debet, et, quisquis ex alto ad inimici pedes
abiectus alienam de capite regnoque sententiam
expectavit, in servatoris sui gloriam vivit plusque
eius nomini confert incolumis, quam si ex oculis
ablatus esset. Adsiduum enim spectaculum alienae

3 virtutis est ; in triurapho cito transisset. Si vero
regnum quoque suum tuto relinqui apud eum potuit
reponique eo, unde deciderat, ingenti incremento
surgit laus eius, qui contentus fuit ex rege victo
nihil praeter gloriam sumere. Hoc est etiam ex
victoria sua triumphare testarique nihil se, quod

^ <par> fastigium Pincianus : fastigio ifss.
416

ON MERCY, I. XXI. 1-3

poses : if a person has been injured, it gives him
either a compensation or immunity for the future.
But a prince's fortune is too exalted for him to feel
the need of compensation, and his power is too
evident to lead him to seek a reputation for power
by injury to another. That, I say, is so, when he has
been assailed and outraged by his inferiors ; for
in the case of foes whom he once counted his equals,
he has vengeance enough if he sees them beneath
his heel. A slave, a snake, or an arrow may slay
even a king ; but no one has saved a hfe who was
not greater than the one whom he saved. Con-
sequently he who has the power to give and to take
away life ought to use this great gift of the gods in
a noble spirit. If he attains this mastery over those
who, as he knows, once occupied a pinnacle that
matched his own, upon such especially he has abeady
sated his revenge and accomplished all that genuine
punislunent required ; for that man has lost his hfe
who owes it to another, and whosoever, ha\ing been
cast down from high estate at his enemy's feet, has
awaited the verdict of another upon his hfe and
throne, lives on to the glory of his preserver, and
by being saved confers more upon the other's name
than if he had been removed from the eyes of men.
For he is a lasting spectacle of another's prowess ;
in a triumph he would have passed quickly out of
sight. If, however, it has been possible in safety
to leave also his throne in his possession, and to
restore him to the height from which he fell, the
praise of him who was content to take from a con-
quered king nothing but his glory will rise in increas-
ing greatness. This is to triumph even over his
own victory, and to attest that he found among
VOL. I 2e 417

SENECA

4 dignum esset victore, apud victos invenisse. Cum
civibus et ignotis atque humilibus eo moderatius
agendum est, quo minoris est adflixisse eos. Qui-
busdam libenter parcas, a quibusdam te vindicare
fastidias et non aliter quam ab animalibus parvis sed
obterentem inquinantibus reducenda manus est ;
at in iis, qui in ore civitatis servati punitique erunt,
occasione notae clementiae utendum est.

] 22. Transeamus ad alienas iniurias, in quibus
vindicandis haec tria lex s^cuta est, quae princeps
quoque sequi debet : aut ut eum, quem punit,
emendet, aut ut poena eius ceteros meliores reddat,
aut ut sublatis malis securiores ceteri vivant. Ipsos
facilius emendabis minore poena ; diligentius enim
vivit, cui aliquid integri superest. Nemo dignitati
perditae parcit ; impunitatis genus est iam non

2 habere poenae locum. Civitatis autem mores magis
corrigit parcitas animadversionum ; facit enim
consuetudinem peccandi multitudo peceantium, et
minus gravis nota est, quam turba damnationum
levat, et severitas, quod maximum remedium habet,

3 adsiduitate amittit auctoritatem. Constituit bonos
mores civitati princeps et vitia eluit, si patiens
eorum est, non tamquam probet, sed tamquam
invitus et cum magno tormento ad castigandum
veniat. Verecundiam peccandi facit ipsa dementia
418

ON MERCY, I. XXI. 4-xxii. 3

the vanquished nothing that was worthy of the
victor. To his fellow-countrymen, to the obscure,
and to the lowly he should show the greater modera-
tion, as he has the less to gain by crushing them.
Some men we should be glad to spare, on some we
should scorn to be avenged, and we should recoil
from them as from the tiny insects which defile the
hand that crushes them ; but in the case of those
whose names ^\■ill be upon *he hps of the community,
whether they are spared or punished, the oppor-
tunity for a notable clemency should be made use of.
Let us pass now to the injuries done to others, in
the punishment of which these three aims, which the
law has had in \iew, should be kept in \iew also by
the prince : either to reform the man that is punished,
or by punishing him to make the rest better, or by
remo\ing bad men to let the rest live in greater
security. You Avill more easily reform the culprits
themselves by the hghter form of punishment ; for
he will hve more guardedly who has something left
to lose. No one is sparing of a ruined reputation ;
it brings a sort of exemption from punishment to
have no room left for punishment. The morals of
the state, moreover, are better mended by the
sparing use of punitive measures ; for sin becomes
familiar from the multitude of those who sin, and
the official stigma is less weighty if its force is
weakened by the very number that it condemns, and
severity, which provides the best corrective, loses its
potency by repeated application. Good morals are
estabUshed in the state and vice is wiped out if a
prince is patient v\ith vice, not as if he approved of
it, but as if unvvilhngly and vvith great pain he
had resort to chastisement. The very mercifulness

419

SENECA

regentis ; gravior multo poena videtur, quae a miti
viro constituitur.

1 23. Praeterea videbis ea saepe committi, quae
saepe vindicantur. Pater tuus plures intra quin-
quennium culleo insuit, quam omnibus saeculis
insutos accepimus. Multo minus audebant liberi
nefas ultimum admittere, quam diu sine lege crimen
fuit. Summa enim prudentia altissimi viri et rerum
naturae peritissimi maluerunt velut incredibile scelus
et ultra audaciam positum praeterire quam, dum
vindicant, ostendere posse fieri ; itaque parricidae
cum lege coeperunt, et illis facinus poena monstravit ;
pessimo vero loco pietas fuit, postquam saepius

2 culleos vidimus quam cruces. In qua civitate raro
homines puniuntur, in ea consensus fit innocentiae
et indulgetur velut publico bono. Putet se inno-
centem esse civitas, erit ; magis irascetur a communi
frugalitate desciscentibus, si paucos esse eos viderit.
Periculosum est, mihi crede, ostendere civitati,
quanto plures mall sint.

1 24. Dicta est aliquando a senatu sententia, ut
servos a liberis cultus distingueret ; deinde apparuit,
quantum periculum immineret, si servi nostri nume-
rare nos coepissent. Idem scito metuendum esse,
si nulli ignoscitur ; cito apparebit, pars civitatis
deterior quanto praegravet. Non minus principi

" i.e., Claudius, Nero's adoptive father ; not a cruel, but
an antiquarian, emperor.

" i.e., punished more parricides ; cf. i. 15. 7.
420

ON MERCY, I. xxii. 3-xxiv. 1

of the ruler makes men shrink from doing wrong ;
the punishment which a kindly man decrees seems
all the more severe.

You will notice, besides, that the sins repeatedly-
punished are the sins repeatedly committed. Your
father" ^nthin five years had more men sewed up in the
sack ^ than, by all accounts, there had been \-ictims
of the sack throughout al' time. Children ventured
much less often to incur the supreme sin so long as
the crime lay outside the pale of the law. For by
supreme wisdom the men of the highest distinction
and of the deepest insight into the ways of nature
chose rather to ignore the outrage as one incredible
and passing the bounds of boldness, than by punishing
it to point out the possibility of its being done ; and
so the crime of parricide began with the law against
it, and punishment showed children the way to the
deed ; filial piety was truly at its lowest ebb after
the sack became a more common sight than the
cross. In that state in which men are rarely punished
a sympathy for uprightness is formed, and encourage-
ment is given to this virtue as to a common good.
Let a state think itself blameless, and it ^^^ll be so ;
its anger against those who depart from the general
sobriety \\'ill be greater if it sees that they are few.
Believe me, it is dangerous to show a state in how
great a majority evil men are.

A proposal was once made in the senate to dis-
tinguish slaves from free men by their dress ; it then
became apparent how great would be the impending
danger if our slaves should begin to count our number.
Be sure that we have a like danger to fear if no man's
guilt is pardoned ; it will soon become apparent how
greatly the worse element of the state preponderates.

421

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turpia sunt multa supplicia quam medico multa
2 funera ; remissius imperanti melius paretur. Natura
contumax est humanus animus et in contrarium
atque arduum nitens sequiturque facilius quam
ducitur ; et ut generosi ac nobiles equi melius facili
freno reguntur, ita clementiam voluntaria innocentia
impetu suo sequitur, et dignam putat civitas, quam
servet sibi. Plus itaque hac via proficitur.

1 25. Crudelitas minime humanum malum est in-
dignumque tarn miti animo ; ferina ista rabies est
sanguine gaudere ac vulneribus et abiecto homine
in silvestre animal transire. Quid enim interest,
oro te, Alexander, leoni Lysimachum obicias an ipse
laceres dentibus tuis ? Tuum illud os est, tua ilia
feritas. O quam cuperes tibi potius ungues esse,
tibi rictum ilium edendorum hominum capacem !
Non exigimus a te, ut manus ista, exitium familiarium
certissimum, ulli salutaris sit, ut iste animus ferox,
insatiabile gentium malum, citra sanguinem cae-
demque satietur ; dementia iam vocatur, ad occi-
dendum amicum cum^ carnifex inter homines

2 eligitur. Hoc est, quare vel maxime abominanda sit
saevitia, quod excedit fines primum solitos, deinde
humanos, nova supplicia conquirit, ingenium advocat
ut^ instrumenta excogitet per quae varietur atque

^ cum added by Baehrens.
* ut added by Gertz.

" i.e., " mercy."
* One of Alexander's generals ; cf. T>e Ira, iii. 17. 2.

422

ON MERCY, I. XXIV. 1-xxv. 2

Numerous executions are not less discreditable to a
prince than are numerous funerals to a physician ;
the more indulgent the ruler, the better he is obeyed.
Man's spirit is by nature refractorj-, it struggles
against opposition and difficulty, and is more ready
to follow than to be led ; and as well-bred and high-
spirited horses are better managed by a loose rein,
so a voluntary uprightress follows upon mercy under
its own impulse, and the state accounts it" worthy
to be maintained for the state's own sake. By this
course, therefore, more good is accompHshed.

Cruelty is an e\i\ thing befitting least of all a man,
and is unworthy of his spirit that is so kindly ; for
one to take dehght in blood and wounds and, throw-
ing off the man. to change into a creature of the
woods, is the madness of a ^^^ld beast. For what
difference does it make, I beg of you, Alexander,
whether you throw Lysimachus * to a hon, or yourself
tear him to pieces with your teeth ? That hon's maw
is yours, and yours its savager}". How pleased you
would have been had its claws been yom^ instead,
and yours those gaping jaws, big enough to swallow
men I We do not require of you that that hand of
yours, the surest destruction of familiar friends,
should save the life of any man, that yoiu* savage
spirit, the insatiate curse of nations, should sate
itself with anything short of blood and slaughter ;
we call it now a mercy if to kill a friend the butcher is
chosen among niankind. The reason why brutality
is most of all abhorred is this : because it trans-
t^resses first all ordinary, and then all human,
liounds, searches out new kinds of torture, calls
ingenuity into play to invent de\ices by which
suffering may be varied and prolonged, and takes

423

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extendatur dolor, delectatur malis hominum ; tunc
illi dirus animi morbus ad insaniam pervenit ultimam,
cum crudelitas versa est in voluptatem et iam

3 occidere hominem iuvat. Matura talem virum a
tergo sequitur aversio, odia, venena, gladii ; tarn
multis periculis petitur, quam multorum ipse peri-
culum est, privatisque non numquam consiliis, alias
vero consternatione publica circumvenitur. Levis
enim et privata pernicies non totas urbes movet ;
quod late furere coepit et omnes appetit, undique

4 configitur. Serpentes parvulae fallunt nee publice
conquiruntur ; ubi aliqua solitam mensuram transit
et in monstrum excrevit, ubi fontes sputu inficit et,
si adflavit, deurit obteritque, quacumque incessit,
ballistis petitur. Possunt verba dare et evadere

6 pusilla mala, ingentibus obviam itur. Sic unus aeger
ne domum quidem perturbat ; at ubi crebris mortibus
pestilentiam esse apparuit, conclamatio civitatis ac
fuga est, et dis ipsis manus intentantur. Sub uno
aliquo tecto flamma apparuit : familia vicinique
aquam ingerunt ; at incendium vastum et multas
iam domos depastum parte urbis obruitur.

1 26. Crudelitatem privatorum quoque serviles
manus sub certo crucis periculo ultae sunt ; tyran-
norum gentes populique et, quorum erat malum,

" With probably allusion to Caligula, the stock example.
424

ON xMERCY, I. xxv. 2-xxvi 1

delight in the afflictions of mankind ; then indeed
the dread disease of that man's " mind has reached
the farthest limit of insanity, when cruelty has
changed into pleasure and to kill a human being
now becomes a joy. Hot upon the heels of such a
man follow loathing, hatred, poison, and the sword ;
he is assailed by as many perils as there are many men
to whom he is himself a peril, and he is beset some-
times by the plots of individuals, at times, indeed,
by an uprising of the community. For whole cities
are not roused by the trivial destruction of single
individuals ; but that which begins to rage wide-
spread and aims at all becomes the mark of every
weapon. Tiny snakes pass unnoticed and no
organized hunt is made for them ; but when one
exceeds the usual size and grows into a monster,
when it poisons springs with its venom, with its
breath scorches and destroys, then, wherever it
advances, it is attacked \\ith engines of war. Petty
evils may elude us and escape, but we go out against
the great ones. So, too, one sick person causes no
confusion even in his own household ; but when
repeated deaths show that a plague prevails, there
is a general outcry and flight of the community,
and threatening hands are hfted toward the gods
themselves. If a fire is discovered beneath some
single roof, the family and the neighbours pour on
water ; but a widespread conflagration that has now
consumed many homes is put down only by the
destruction of half the city.

The cruelty even of men in private station has
been avenged by the hands of slaves despite their
certain risk of crucifixion ; nations and peoples have
set to work to extirpate the cruelty of tyrants, when

425

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et ei, quibus inminebat, exscindere adgressi sunt.
Aliquando sua praesidia in ipsos consurrexerunt
perfidiamque et impietatem et feritatem et, quidquid
ab illis didicerant, in ipsos exercuerunt. Quid enim
potest quisquam ab eo sperare, quern malum esse
doeuit ? Non diu nequitia apparet nee, quantum

2 iubetur, peccat. Sed puta esse tutam crudelitatem,
quale eius regnum est ? Non aliud quam captarum
urbium forma et terribiles facies publici metus.
Omnia maesta, trepida, confusa ; voluptates ipsae
timentur ; non convivia securi ineunt, in quibus
lingua sollicite etiam ebriis custodienda est, non
speetacula, ex quibus materia criminis ac periculi
quaeritur. Apparentur licet magna impensa et
regiis opibus et artificum exquisitis nominibus, quem
tamen ludi in carcere iuvent ?

3 Quod istud, di boni, malum est occidere, saevire,
delectari sono catenarum et civium capita decidere,
quocumque ventum est, multum sanguinis fundere,
aspectu suo terrere ac fugare ? Quae alia vita
esset, si leones ursique regnarent, si serpentibus
in nos ac noxiosissimo cuique animali daretur po-

4 testas ? Ilia rationis expertia et a nobis immanitatis
crimine damnata abstinent suis, et tuta est etiam
inter feras similitudo ; horum ne a necessariis quidem
sibi rabies temperat, sed externa suaque in aequo
426

ON MERCY, I. XXVI. 1-4

some were suffering from it and others felt its
menace. At times the tyrants' own guards have
risen up against them, and have practised upon their
persons the treachery and disloyalty and brutality
and all else that they themselves had taught them.
For what can any one expect from him whom he
himself has taught to be bad ? Wickedness is not
obsequious long, nor guil;:y of crime only to the extent
that it is bid. But suppose that cruel rule is safe,
what sort of a kingdom has it ? Nothing but the
bare outUnes of captured cities and the terror-
stricken countenances of widespread fear. Every-
where is sorrow, panic, and disorder ; even pleasures
give rise to fear ; men are not safe when they go to
the festal board, for there the tongue even of the
drunkard must guard itself with care, nor to the
pubUc shows where the material is sought for accusa-
tion and ruin. Provided though they are at huge
expense, in regal opulence, and with artists of the
choicest reputation, yet whom would games dehght
in prison ?

Ye gods ! what curse is this — to kill, to rage, to
take dehght in the clank of chains and in cutting off
the heads of fellow-countrymen, to spill streams of
blood wherever one may go, and by one's appearance
to terrify and repel ? What else would living be if
lions and bears held sway, if serpents and all the
creatures that are most destructive were given
supremacy over us ? These, devoid of reason and
doomed to death by us on the plea of their ferocity,
yet spare their kind, and even among wild beasts
likeness forms a safeguard ; but t}Tants do not
withhold their fury even from their kin, strangers
and friends are treated just alike, and the more they

427

SENECA

habet, quo plus se exercitat, eo incitatior.^ A
singulorum deinde caedibus in exitia gentium serpit,
et inicere tectis ignem, aratrum vetustis urbibus
inducere potentiam putat ; et unum occidi iubere aut
alterum parum imperatorium credit ; nisi eodem
tempore grex miserorum sub ictu stetit, erudelitatem
suam in ordinem coactam putat.

Felicitas ilia multis salutem dare et ad vitam ab
ipsa morte revocare et mereri dementia civicam.
Nullum ornamentum principis fastigio dignius pul-
chriusque est quam ilia corona ob cives servatos, non
hostilia arma detracta victis, non currus barbarorum
sanguine cruenti, non parta bello spolia. Haec
divina potentia est gregatim ac publice servare ;
multos quidem occidere et indiscretos incendii ac
ruinae potentia est.

^ <eo incitat>ior supplied by Gertz.

» A chaplet of oak leaves, with which the soldier who
had saved the life of a fellow-Roman in battle was
honoured. The distinction was bestowed on Augustus
as the saviour of citizens and was frequently assumed by
later emperors.

428

ON MERCY, I. XXVI. 4-5

indulge their fury, the more \iolent it becomes.
Then from the murder of one and again another it
creeps on to the wiping out of nations, and to hurl
the firebrand on the roofs of houses and to drive
the plough over ancient cities are considered a sign
of power, and to order the kilhng of one or two is
believed to be too small a show of royal might ;
unless at one time a herd of poor wretches stands
beneath the blade, rage counts its cruelty forced
under control.

True happiness consists in giving safety to many,
in calling back to life from the very verge of death,
and in earning the ci\ic crown" by showing mercy.
No decoration is more worthy of the eminence of a
prince or more beautiful than that crown bestowed
for saving the hves of fellow-citizens ; not trophies
torn from a vanquished enemy, nor chariots stained
•with barbarian blood, nor spoils acquired in war.
To save life by crowds and universally, this is a
godlike use of power; but to kill in multitudes
and without distinction is the power of conflagration
and of ruin.

429

AD NERONEM CAESAREM
DE CLEMENTIA

LIBER II

1 1. Ut de dementia scriberem, Nero Caesar, una
me vox tua maxime compulit, quam ego non sine
admiratione et, cum diceretur, audisse memini et
deinde aliis narrasse, vocem generosam, magni
animi, magnae lenitatis, quae non composita nee
alienis auribus data subito erupit et bonitatem tuam
cum fortuna tua litigantem in medium adduxit.

2 Animadversurus in latrones duos Burrus praefectus
tuus, vir egregius et tibi principi natus, exigebat
a te, scriberes, in quos et ex qua causa animadverti
velles ; hoc saepe dilatum ut aliquando fieret,
instabat. Invitus invito cum chartam protulisset
traderetque, exclamasti : " Vellem litteras ne-

3 scirem ! " O dignam vocem, quam audirent omnes
gentes, quae Romanum imperium incolunt quaeque
iuxta iacent dubiae libertatis quaeque se contra
viribus aut animis attollunt ! O vocem in con-
430

TO THE EMPEROR NERO
ON MERCY

I HAVE been especially induced to write on mercy
by a single utterance of yours, Nero Caesar, which
I remember, when it was made, I heard not without
admiration and afterwards repeated to others — a
noble, high-minded utterance, showing great gentle-
ness, which unpremeditated and not intended for
others' ears suddenly burst from you, and brought
into the open your kind-heartedness chafing against
your lot. Burrus, your prefect, a rare man, born to
serve a prince like you, was about to execute two
brigands, and was bringing pressure upon you to
record their names and the reasons why you wished
their execution ; this, often deferred, he was insist-
ing should at last be done. He was reluctant, you
were reluctant, and, when he had produced the paper
and was handing it to you, you exclaimed, " Would
that I had not learned to ^^Tite." \Miat an utterance !
All nations should have heard it — those who dwell
^^ithin the Roman empire, and those on its borders
who are scarcely assured of their liberty, and those
who through strength or courage rise up against it
WTiat an utterance ! It should have been spoken

431

SENECA

tionem omnium mortalium mittendam, in cuius
verba principes regesque iurarent ! O vocem publica
generis humani innocentia dignam, cui redderetur
4 antiquum illud saeculum ! Nunc profecto con-
sentire decebat ad aequum bonumque expulsa alieni
cupidine, ex qua omne animi malum oritur, pietatem
integritatemque cum fide ac modestia resurgere et
vitia diuturno abusa regno dare tandem felici ac
puro saeculo locum.

1 2. Futurum hoc, Caesar, ex magna parte sperare
et confidere libet. Tradetur ista animi tui man-
suetudo difFundeturque paulatim per omne imperii
corpus, et cuncta in similitudinem tuam formabuntur.
A capite bona valetudo : inde omnia vegeta sunt
atque erecta aut languore demissa, prout animus
eorum vivit aut marcet. Erunt cives, erunt socii
digni hac bonitate, et in totum orbem recti mores

2 revertentur ; parcetur ubique manibus tuis. Diutius
me morari hie pater e, non ut blandum auribus tuis
(nee enim hie mihi mos est ; maluerim veris oflfendere
quam placere adulando) ; quid ergo est ? Praeter
id, quod bene factis dictisque tuis quam famiharissi-
mum esse te cupio, ut, quod nunc natura et impetus
est, fiat indicium, illud mecum considero multas
voces magnas, sed detestabiles, in vitam humanam
pervenisse celebresque vulgo ferri, ut illam :
" Oderint, dum metuant," cui Graecus versus similis

« The Golden Age— Shelly's

The world's golden dawn
Earliest and most benign.
* Cf. i. 12. 4.

' 'E/ioC davdvTOS yaia fux^W'^ irvpi'

oi'dep fxiXei fioi' rd/jLa yap koXQs ^xei.
(Nauck. Traff. Graec. Fragm., Adesp., 513.)

432

ON MERCY, II. I. 3-n. 2

before a gathering of all mankind, that unto it princes
and kings might pledge allegiance. What an utter-
ance ! Worthy of the universal innocence of man-
kind, in favour whereof that long past age " should be
renewed. Now assuredly it were fitting that men,
thrusting out covetousness from which springs every
evil of the heart, should conspire for righteousness
and goodness, that piety and uprightness along ^\-ith
honour and temperance should rise again, and that
vice, ha\"ing misused its long reign, should at length
give place to an age of happiness and purity.

We are pleased to hope and trust, Caesar, that in
large measure this ^\ill happen. That kindness of
your heart will be recounted, ^\^ll be diffused httle
by httle throughout the whole body of the empire,
and all tilings ^^•ill be moulded into your hkeness.
It is from the head that comes the health of the
body ; it is through it that all the parts are lively
and alert or languid and drooping according as
their animating spirit has life or withers. There
^\^ll be citizens, there will be alhes worthy of this
goodness, and uprightness will return to the whole
world ; your hands will every^vhere be spared.
Permit me to linger longer on this point, but not
merely to please your ears ; for that is not my way —
I would rather offend with the truth than please by
flattery. What then is my reason ? Besides wishing
you to be as familiar as possible with your own good
deeds and words in order that what is now a natural
impulse may become a principle, I reflect upon this,
that many striking but odious sayings have made
their entry into human life and are bandied about
as famous ; as for example, " Let them hate if only
they fear," * and the Greek verse '' similar to it, in
VOL. I 2 F 433

SENECA

I

est, qui se mortuo terrain misceri ignibus iubet, et
3 alia huius notae. Ac nescio quomodo ingenia in^
immani et in\isa materia secundiore ore expresserunt
sensus vehementes et concitatos ; nullam adhuc
vocem audii ex bono lenique animosam. Quid ergo
est ? Ut raro, invitus et cum magna cunctatione,
ita aliquando scribas necesse est istud, quod tibi in
odium litteras adduxit, sed, sicut facis, cum magna
cunctatione, cum multis dilationibus.

1 3. Et ne forte decipiat nos speciosum clementiae
nomen aliquando et in contrarium abducat, videamus.
quid sit dementia qualisque sit et quos fines habeat.

Clementia est temperantia animi in potestate
ulciscendi vel lenitas superioris adversus inferiorem
in constituendis poenis. Plura proponere tutius
est, ne una finitio parum rem comprehendat et, ut
ita dicam, formula excidat ; itaque dici potest et
inclinatio animi ad lenitatem in poena exigenda.

2 Ilia finitio contradictiones inveniet, quamvis maxime
ad verum accedat, si dixerimus clementiam esse
moderationem aliquid ex merita ac debita poena
remittentem : reclamabitur nullam \irtutem cui-
quam minus debito facere. Atqui hoc omnes
intellegunt clementiam esse, quae se flectit citra id,
quod merito constitui posset.

1 4. Huic contrariam imperiti putant severitatem ;

^ in added by Madvig : ingenia inmania et invisa materia
secundiori expresserunt OT corrected by Lipsius.

" Here, apparently "pity," which is shown below to be
a fault, not a virtue.

'' A praetor's statement of the issue between contestant
in a suit was called a formula. This was transmitted in
the iudex, who after hearing the evidence decided whether j
the statement was true or false. Hence to lose a suit was ;
formula cadere or excidere.

4S4

ON MERCY, II. II. 2-iv. 1

which a man would have the earth convulsed with
flame when once he is dead, and others of this type.
And somehow or other gifted men when dealing ^nth
a cruel and hateful theme have moulded violent and
passionate thoughts into more felicitous phrase ; never
before have I heard from good and gentle lips an
utterance that was full of spirit. What then is the
conclusion ? Though it oe seldom, against your ^^^ll,
and after great reluctance, yet there are times when
you must wTite the sort of thing that made you hate
all WTiting, but you must do it, as you now do, after
great reluctance, after much procrastination.

And in order that we may not perchance be
deceived at times by the plausible name of mercy
and led into an opposite quality," let us see what
mercy is, what is its nature, and what its hmitations.

Mercy means restraining the mind from vengeance
when it has the power to take it, or the leniency of
a superior towards an inferior in fixing punishment.
In the fear that one definition may not be com-
prehensive enough, and, so to speak, the case* be
lost, it is safer to offer several ; and so mercy may
also be termed the inclination of the mind towards
leniency in exacting punishment. The follo^ving
(definition -will encounter objections, however closely
iit approaches the truth ; if we shall say that merc}^
lis the moderation which remits something from the
punishment that is deserved and due, it will be
objected that no \-irtue gives to any man less than
Tiis due. Everybody, however, understands that
the fact of the case is that mercy consists in
stopping short of what might have been deservedly
imposed.

The ill-informed think that its opposite is strict-

435

SENECA

sed nulla virtus virtuti contraria est. Quid ergo
opponitur clementiae ? Crudelitas, quae nihil aliud
est quam atrocitas animi in exigendis poenis. " Sed
quidam non exigunt poenas, crudeles tamen sunt,
tamquam qui ignotos homines et obvios non in
compendium, sed occidendi causa occidunt nee inter-
ficere contenti saeviunt, ut Busiris ille et Procrustes
et piratae, qui captos verberant et in ignem vivos

2 imponunt." Ha6c crudelitas quidem ; sed quia nee
ultionem sequitur (non enim laesa est) nee peccato
alicui irascitur (nullum enim antecessit crimen),
extra finitionem nostram cadit ; finitio enim con-
tinebat in poenis exigendis intemperantiam animi.
Possumus dicere non esse hanc crudelitatem, sed
feritatem, cui voluptati saevitia est ; possumus
insaniam vocare : nam varia sunt genera eius et
nullum certius, quam quod in caedes hominum et

3 lancinationes pervenit. Illos ergo crudeles vocabo,
qui puniendi causam habent, modum non habent,
sicut in Phalari, quem aiunt non quidem in homines
innocentes, sed super humanum ac probabilem
modum saevisse. Possumus efFugere cavillationem
et ita finire, ut sit crudelitas inclinatio animi ad
asperiora. Hanc dementia repellit longe iussam
stare a se ; cum severitate illi convenit.

4 Ad rem pertinet quaerere hoc loco, quid sit
misericordia ; plerique enim ut virtutem earn
laudant et bonum hominem vocant misericordem.
Et haec vitium animi est. Utraque circa severitatem
circaque clementiam posita sunt, quae vitare de-
bemus ; per speciem enim severitatis in crudelitatem

436

ON MERCY, II. IV. 1-4

ness ; but no \-irtue is the opposite of a virtue. What
then is set over against mercy ? It is cruelty, which
is nothing else than harshness of mind in exacting
punishment. " But," you say, " there are some who
do not exact punishment, and yet are cruel, such as
those who kill the strangers they meet, not for the
sake of gain, but for the sake of kilhng, and, not
content ^^"ith killing, they torture, as the notorious
Busiris and Procrustes, and the pirates who lash their
captives and commit them to the flames alive."
This indeed is cruelty ; but because it does not
result from vengeance — for no injur}' was suffered —
and no sin stirs its wTath — ^for no crime preceded it —
it falls outside of our definition ; for by the definition
the mental excess was limited to the exaction of
punishment. That which finds pleasure in torture
we may say is not cruelty, but savager}- — we may
even call it madness ; for there are various kinds of
madness, and none is more unmistakable than that
which reaches the point of murdering and mutilating
men. Those, then, that I shall call cruel are those
who have a reason for punishing, but do not have
moderation in it, like Phalaris, who, they say,
tortured men, even though they were not innocent,
in a manner that was inhuman and incredible.
Avoiding sophistry we may define cruelty* to be the
inchnation of the mind toward the side of harshness.
This quality' mercy repels and bids it stand afar from
her ; with strictness she is in harmony.

At this point it is pertinent to ask what pity is.
For many commend it as a virtue, and call a pitiful
man good. But this too is a mental defect. We
ought to avoid both, closely related as they are to
strictness and to mercy. For under the guise of

437

SENECA

incidimus,^ per speciem clementiae in misei'icordiam.
In hoc leviore periculo erratur, sed par error est a

1 vero recedentium. 5. Ergo quemadmodum religio
deos colit, superstitio violat, ita clementiam man-
suetudinemque omnes boni viri praestabunt, miseri-
cordiam autem vitabunt ; est enim vitium pusilli
animi ad speciem alienorum malorum succidentis.
Itaque pessimo cuique familiarissima est ; anus et
mulierculae sunt, quae lacrimis nocentissimorum
moventur, quae, si liceret, carcerem efFringerent.
Misericordia non causam, sed fortunam spectat ;
dementia rationi accedit.

2 Scio male audire apud imperitos sectam Stoicorum
tamquam duram nimis et minime principibus regi-
busque bonum daturam consilium ; obicitur illi,
quod sapientem negat misereri, negat ignoscere.
Haec, si per se ponantur, invisa sunt ; videntur
enim nullam relinquere spem humanis erroribus,

3 sed omnia delicta ad poenam deducere. Quod si
est, quidnam haec scientia, quae dediscere humani-
tatem iubet portumque adversus fortunam certis-
simum mutuo auxilio cludit ? Sed nulla secta
benignior leniorque est, nulla amantior hominum
et communis boni attentior, ut propositum sit usui
esse et auxilio nee sibi tantum, sed universis sin-

4 gulisque consulere. Misericordia est aegritudo animi
ob alienarum miseriarum speciem aut tristitia ex
alienis malis contracta, quae accidere immerentibus

^ per . . . incidimus supplied by Gertz.
438

ON MERCY, II. IV. 4-v. 4

strictness we fall into cruelty, under the guise of
mercy into pity. In the latter case a Ughter risk is
involved, it is true, but the error is equal in both,
since in both we fall slxort of what is right. Con-
sequently, just as religion does honour to the gods,
while superstition >\Tongs them, so good men will all
display mercy and gentleness, but pity they ^vill
avoid ; for it is the failing of a weak nature that
succumbs to the sight of others' ills. And so it is
most often seen in the poorest tjpes of persons ;
there are old women and wretched females who are
moved by the tears of the worst criminals, who, if
they could, would break open their prison. Pity
regards the plight, not the cause of it ; mercy is
combined with reason.

I am aware that among the ill-informed the Stoic
school is unpopular on the ground that it is excess-
ively harsh and not at all likely to give good counsel
to princes and kings ; the criticism is made that it
does not permit a ^nse man to be pitiful, does not
permit him to pardon. Such doctrine, if stated in
the abstract, is hateful ; for, seemingly, no hope is
left to human error, but all failures are brought to
punishment. And if this is so, what kind of a theory
is it that bids us unlearn the lesson of humanity, and
closes the surest refuge against ill-fortune, the haven
of mutual help ? But the fact is, no school is more
kindly and gentle, none more full of love to nian
and more concerned for the common good, so that
it is its avowed object to be of service and assistance,
and to regard not merely self-interest, but the
interest of each and all. Pity is the sorrow of the
mind brought about by the sight of the distress of
others, t)r sadness caused by the ills of others which

439

SENECA

credit ; aegritudo autem in sapientem virum non
cadit ; serena eius mens est, nee quicquam incidere
potest, quod illam obducat. Nihilque aeque ho-
minem quam magnus animus decet ; non potest
5 autem magnus esse idem ac maestus. Maeror con-
tundit mentes, abicit, contrahit ; hoc sapienti ne
in suis quidem accidet calamitatibus, sed omnem
fortunae iram reverberabit et ante se franget ;
eandem semper faciem servabit, placidam, incon-
cussam, quod facere non posset, si tristitiam reciperet.

1 6. Adice, quod sapiens et providet et in expedito
consilium habet ; numquam autem liquidum sin-
cerumque ex turbido venit. Tristitia inhabilis est
ad dispiciendas res, utilia excogitanda, periculosa
vitanda, aequa aestimanda ; ergo non miseretur,

2 quia id sine miseria animi non fit. Cetera omnia,
quae, qui miserentur, volo facere, libens et altus
animo faciet ; succurret alienis lacrimis, non accedet ;
dabit manum naufrago, exuli hospitium, egenti
stipem, non hanc contumeliosam, quam pars maior
horum, qui misericordes videri volunt, abicit et
fastidit, quos adiuvat, contingique ab iis timet, sed
ut homo homini ex communi dabit ; donabit lacrimis
maternis filium et catenas solvi iubebit et ludo
eximet et cadaver etiam noxium sepeliet, sed faciet

3 ista tranquilla mente, vultu suo. Ergo non misere-
bitur sapiens, sed succurret, sed proderit, in com-

4i0

ON MERCY, II. V. 4-^^. 3

it believes come undeservedly. But no sorrow befalls
the wise man ; his mind is serene, and nothing can
happen to becloud it. Nothing, too, so much befits
a man as superiority* of mind ; but the mind cannot
at the same time be superior and sad. Sorrow blunts
its powers, dissipates and hampers them ; this Anil
not happen to a \vise man even in the case of personal
calamit}', but he \\i\\ beat back all the rage of fortune
and crush it first ; he A\ill maintain always the same
calm, unshaken appearance, and he could not do this
if he were accessible to sadness.

Consider, further, that the wise man uses foresight,
and keeps in readiness a plan of action ; but what
comes from a troubled source is never clear and pure.
Sorrow is not adapted to the discernment of fact, to
the discovery of expedients, to the avoidance of
dangers, or the weighing of justice ; he, consequently,
Avill not suffer pity, because there cannot be pity
without mental suffering. All else which I would
have those who feel pity do, he \vi\\ do gladly and with
a lofty spirit ; he vriW bring relief to another's tears,
but A^ill not add his oaati ; to the shipwTecked man he
will give a hand, to the exile shelter, to the needy
alms ; he ^\i\\ not do as most of those who wish to
be thought pitiful do — fling insultingly their alms,
and scorn those whom they help, and shrink from
contact Avith them — but he will give as a man to his
fellow-man out of the common store ; he aWII grant
to a mother's tears the life of her son, the captive's
chains he will order to be broken, he will release the
gladiator from his training, he will bury the carcass
even of a criminal, but he will do these things with un-
ruffled mind, and a countenance under control. The
wise man, therefore, will not pity, but will succour,

441

SENECA

mune auxilium natus ac bonum publicum, ex quo
dabit cuique partem. Etiam ad calamitosos pro-
portione improbandosque et emendandos bonitatem
suam permittet ; adflictis vero et forte laborantibus
multo libentius subveniet. Quotiens poterit, for-
tunae intercedet ; ubi enim opibus potius utetur
aut viribus, quam ad restituenda, quae casus impulit ?
Vultum quidem non deiciet nee animum ob crus
alicuius aridum aut pannosam maciem et innixam
baculo senectutem ; ceterum omnibus dignis proderit
et deorum more calamitosos propitius respiciet.

4 Misericordia vicina est miseriae ; habet enim
aliquid trahitque ex ea. Imbecillos oculos esse scias,
qui ad alienam lippitudinem et ipsi subfunduntur,
tarn mehercules quam morbum esse, non hilaritatem,
semper adridere ridentibus et ad omnium oscita-
tionem ipsum quoque os diducere ; misericordia
vitium est animorum nimis miseria paventium, quam
si quis a sapiente exigit, prope est, ut lamentationem
exigat et in alienis funeribus gemitus.

1 7. " At quare non ignoscet ? " Agedum con-
stituamus nunc quoque, quid sit venia, et sciemus
dari illam a sapiente non debere. Venia est poenae
meritae remissio. Hanc sapiens quare non debeat
dare, reddunt rationem diutius, quibus hoc pro-
positum est ; ego ut breviter tamquam in alieno
442

ON MERCY, II. VI. 3-vii. 1

will benefit, and since he is born to be of help to all
and to serve the common good, he will give to each his
share thereof. He will extend a due measure of his
goodness even to the unfortunates who deserve to be
censured and disciphned ; but much more gladly
will he come to the rescue of the distressed and those
strugghng with mishap. Whenever he can, he will
parry Fortune's stroke : for in what way will he
make better use of his resources or his strength
than in restoring what chance has overthrown ?
And, too, he will not avert his countenance or his
sympathy from any one because he has a withered
leg, or is emaciated and in rags, and is old and
leans upon a staff ; but all the worthy he will aid,
and will, like a god, look graciously upon the un-
fortunate.

Pity is akin to wretchedness ; for it is partly com-
posed of it and partly derived from it. One knows
that his eyes are weak if they too are suffused at the
sight of another's blear eyes, just as always to laugh
when other people laugh is, in faith, not merriment,
but a disease, and for one to stretch his jaws too when
everybody else yawns is a disease. Pity is a weakness
of the mind that is over-much perturbed by suffering,
and if any one requires it from a wise man, that is
very much like requiring him to wail and moan at
the funerals of strangers.

" But," you ask, " why Avill he not pardon ? "
Come then, let us now also decide what pardon is,
and we shall perceive that the wise man ought not
to grant it. Pardon is the remission of a deserved
punishment. Why a wise man ought not to give
this is explained more at length by those who make a
point of the doctrine ; I, to speak briefly as if giving

443

SENECA

iudicio dicam : " Ei ignoscitur, qui puniri debuit ;
sapiens autem nihil facit, quod non debet, nihil
praetermittit, quod debet ; itaque poenam, quam

2 exigere debet, non donat. Sed illud, quod ex venia
consequi vis, honestiore tibi via tribuet ; parcet
enim sapiens, consulet et corriget ; idem faciet,
quod, si ignosceret, nee ignoscet, quoniam, qui
ignoscit, fatetur aliquid se, quod fieri debuit, omisisse.
Aliquem verbis tantum admonebit, poena non
adficiet aetatem eius emendabilem intuens ; ali-
quem invidia criminis manifeste laborantem iubebit
incolumem esse, quia deceptus est, quia per vinum
lapsus ; hostes dimittet salvos, aliquando etiam
laudatos, si honestis causis pro fide, pro foedere,

3 pro libertate in bellum acciti sunt. Haec omnia
non veniae, sed clementiae opera sunt, dementia
liberum arbitrium habet ; non sub formula, sed ex
aequo et bono iudicat ; et absolvere illi licet et,
quanti vult, taxare litem. Nihil ex his facit, tam-
quam iusto minus fecerit, sed tamquam id, quod
constituit, iustissimum sit. Ignoscere autem est,
quem indices puniendum, non punire ; venia debitae
poenae remissio est. dementia hoc primum prae-
stat, ut, quos dimittit, nihil aliud illos pati debuisse
pronuntiet ; plenior est quam venia, honestior est.

444

ON MERCY, II. ^^I. 1-3

another's opinion, explain it thus : " Pardon is given
to a man who ought to be punished ; but a A\-ise man
does nothing which he ought not to do, omits to do
nothing which he ought to do ; therefore he does not
remit a punishment which he ought to exact. But
in a more honourable way he will bestow upon you
that which vou A\-ish to obtain by pardon ; for the
wise man will show mercy, be considerate, and rectify;
he will do the same that he would do if he pardoned,
and yet he will not pardon, since he who pardons
admits that he has omitted to do something which
he ought to have done. To one man he will give
merely a reproof in words, and he \n\\ not inflict
punishment if he sees that the other's age \\i]\ permit
reformation ; another who is clearly suffering from
the odium of crime he ^\^ll order to go free, because
he was misled, because ^nne made him fall ; he
will let his enemies go unharmed, sometimes even
with praise if they were stirred to fight by honour-
able motives — to maintain their loyalty, a treaty, or
their Uberty. These are all the operations of mercy,
not of forgiveness. Mercy has freedom in decision ;
it sentences not by the letter of the law, but in
accordance with what is fair and good ; it may acquit
and it may assess the damages at any value it pleases.
It does none of these things as if it were doing less
than is just, but as if the just est thing were that
which it has resolved upon. But to pardon is to fail
to punish one whom you judge worthy of punish-
ment ; pardon is the remission of punishment that
is due. Mercy is superior primarily in this, that it
declares that those who are let off did not deserve
any different treatment ; it is more complete than
pardon, more creditable. In my opinion the dispute

445

SENECA

4 De verbo, ut mea fert opinio, controversia est, de
re quidem convenit. Sapiens multa remittet, multos
parum sani, sed sanabilis ingenii servabit. Agricolas
bonos imitabitur, qui non tantum rectas procerasque
arbor es colunt ; illis quoque, quas aliqua depravavit
causa, adminicula, quibus derigantur, applicant ;
alias circumcidunt, ne proceritatem rami premant,
quasdam infirmas vitio loci nutriunt, quibusdam

5 aliena umbra laborantibus caelum aperiunt. Videbit,
quod ingenium qua ratione tractandum sit, quo modo
in rectum prava flectantur." . . .

" The rest of the essay is lost. It had apparently three
books corresponding to the three divisions of the subject
indicated in i. 3. 1.

446

ON MERCY, II. VII. 4-5

is about words, but concerning the fact there is
agreement. The wise man ■will remit many punish-
ments, he will save many whose character though
unsound can yet be freed from unsoundness. He
>vill be like the good husbandman who tends, not
merely the trees that are straight and tall, but also
apphes props to those that for some reason have
grown crooked in order that they may be straightened;
others he will trim, in order that their branching
may not hamper their height ; some that are weak
because set in poor soil he will fertilize ; to some
suffering from the shade of the others he will open
up the sky. So the ^vise man will see what method
of treatment a given character should have, how
the crooked may be made straight." . . .<*

447

SENECA

Hildehertus Cenomanensis ep. i.3 (cLXxi. 145 Mign.) :
De dementia quoque compendiosa principibus capitula
Seneca evigilavit, i?i quibus ideo hrevitatem dilexit non
obscuram, ut magnis occupatos legere non taederet. Ea
igitur pro ie et ad te suscepta suscipe atque recordare,
quae dudum didiceris ex te et per ie. Pauca ea sunt :

Clementiae est aliquid ultrici detrahere sententiae.
Quisquis nihil reatus impunitum relinquit, delinquit.
Culpa est totam persequi culpam. Immisericordem
profitetur, cui quiequid licet, libet.

Item : Gloriosa virtus est in principe citra punire
quam liceat. Virtus est ad vindictam necessitate
trahi, non voluntate venire. Magnum quid et
divinum sapit offensus clemens.

Item : Bonus princeps neminem sine poena punit,
neminem sine dolore proscribit. Bonus princeps ita
crimen insequitur, ut quem punit, hominem re-
miniscatur.

Item : Bonus princeps sibi dominatur, populo
servit, nullius sanguinem contemnit : inimici est,
sed eius, qui amicus fieri potest ; nocentis est, sed
hominis. Cuiuscumque sit, quia non potuit dare,
crimen putat auferre. Ideo quotiens funditur,
confunditur.

448

ON MERCY : FRAGMENTS

Extracts from the treatise " On Mercy "preserved
in a letter by Hildebert of Tours

It is the part of mercy to cause some abatement of
a sentence that aims at revenge. He who does not
remit the punishment of wTong-doing is a -wTong-doer.
It is a fault to punish a fault in full. He shows himself
merciless whose might is his deHght.

It is a shining \'irtue for a prince to punish less
than he might. It is a virtue to be forced by neces-
sity to take vengeance, not to vTsit it voluntarily.
The merciful man when injured savours of something
great and godUke.

A good prince punishes no one without being
punished, proscribes no one "without suffering. A
good prince follows up crime, yet keeps in mind the
man whom he is punishing.

A good prince masters himself, serves his people,
esteems lightly the hfe-blood of no man ; if it is an
enemy's, yet it is of one who may become a friend ; if
it is a criminal's, yet it is a human being's ; whose-
ever it may be, because he could not give it, he
considers it a crime to take it away. Therefore its
effusion is ever his confusion.

2g 449

INDEX OF NAMES

{The references are to the pages of the English translation.)

Achillas (assassin of Poinpey), 171

Actium (promontory in Acarnania
otf wliich Octa^ian defeated
Antony and Cleopatra, 31 b.c.)>
391

Africa, 135

Ajax (legendary liero of Greece ;
defeated by Odysseus in a con-
test for the arms of Achilles, he
went mad and killed himself), 251

Alexander (the Great, king of
Macedon, 336-323 b.c.)i entered
Babylon, 07 ; stirred by the flute,
171; courage of, 217; prone
to anger, 217 ; murdered Clitus,
299; cruelty of, 313; threw
Lysimachus to the lions, 423

Alps, crossed by Cimbrians and
Teutons, 133

Antigonus (one of the generals of
Alexander the Great), mildness
of his temper, 311

Antisthenes (disciple of Socrates,
founder of the Cynic School),
self-restraint of, 103

Antony, Mark (triumvir with
Octavian and Lepidus), Cicero
victim of, 171 ; Octavian seeks
his life, 381 ; his proscriptions,
383

Apollo, the archer-god, 291

Apollodorus (tyrant of Cassandrea
about 280 B.C.), type of cruelty,
175

Appius (Claudius Caecus, a famous
Roman, censor 312 b.c. ; began
the Via Appia and built the
great Appian aqueduct), blind-
ness of, 35

450

Aristotle (384-322 b.c, founder of
the Peripatetic School), his de-
finition of anger, 115 ; commends
anger, 129, 151, 259; Alexander
a follower of, 299

Asia, 87, 135, 177

Asinius Pollio, C. (celebrated
Roman politician, author, and
patron of letters), befriends
Timagenes, 315 ; follower of
Octavian, 387

Atlienian despot (Pisistratus), 283

Athenians, their envoys to Philip,
313

Attalus (name of several kings of
Pergamon, famous for their
patronage of literature and their
munificence; in 133 B.C. the la.st
of the line bequeathed his king-
dom to the Roman i)eople), type
of a rich man, 87

August, the (honorary title), 399

Augustus (Cae.sar, first emperor of
Rome, 27 B.C.-14 a. p.), 177, 313,
315, 349, 3G1, 381, 389, 401

Babylon, walls of, 67 ; Cyrus wars
against, 309

Baclrians (inhabitants of Bactria,
a province of the former Persian
empire, conquered by the Par-
thians about 130 b.c), 87

Bellona (Roman goddess of war),
temple of, 393

Betilienus Bassus, quaestor under
Caligula, 303.

Burrus, Sextus Afranius (prefect

Lofnthe praetorian guard, who

INDEX OF NAMES

helped Seneca to guide the early
years of Xero's reign), 431
Busiris (reputed king of Egypt,
who cruelly sacrificed strangers
to Zeus), 437

Caelius (Rufus, M., politician and
orator of the Ciceronian age,
noted for his sarcasm and his
power in invective), 275

Oaepio, Fannius, conspired against
Augustus, 383

Caesar, C. lulius (the dictator),
power of, 13 ; type of power, 23 ;
Cato greater than, 51 ; merciful
in victory, 217 ; assassins of, 329

Caesar (title of the Roman
emperors), Augustus, 313, 315,
349, 369, 387, 401, 403; Nero,
359, 391, 433 ; Caligula, 241, 305

Caligula, nickname of Gains Caesar,
101

Cambyses (king of Persia, 529-522
B.C., son and successor of Cyrus
the Great;, addicted to wine, 289 ;
rage of, 307

Campus Martins, 83

Cannae (scene of Hannibal's great
victory over the Romans in 216
B.C.), 171, 177

Capitol (ancient temple on' the
Tarpeian Rock, sacred to Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva, symbol of
the eternity of Rome), 67

Carthage, 67, 135, 177

Carthaginian array, 135

Castor, temple of, 87

Catiline, Lucius Sergius, instru-
ment of Sulla, 301

Cato, M. Porcius (the Younger, an
ardent and high-minded Stoic,
supporter of Pompey's cause,
who committed suicide after
Caesar's victory at Thapsus, 46
Rc), noble death of, ll", 13, 17 ;
struggles of, 23, 25 ; unappreci-
ated by his age, 51, 53 ; greatness
of, 69, 91, 237, 239, 345

Catulus, Quintiis (colleague of
Marius in the consulship, but
later condemned to death by
him), tomb of, 301

Chaerea, Cassius (tribune of the

praetorian guards and assassin
of Caligula), 101

Chrysippus (Stoic philosopher of
Soli in Cilicia, successor of
Clean thes and third head of the
Stoic School), quoted, 97

Cicero, Marcus Tullius(the famous
orator, 106-43 b.c.), wit of, 97 ;
banishment of, 171 ; poetry of,
343

Cicero, Marcus Tullius (son of the
orator, after the death of Caesar
a partisan of Brutus and later
of Sextus Pompeius), Augustus
showed mercy to, 387

Cimbrians, invasion of, 133

Cinna, Lucius, plots against Augus-
tus, 381, 383, 385, 387

Circus (Maximus), 181

Clitus, killed by Alexander, 299

Clodius, Publius (Roman dema-
gogue and enemy of Cicero),
corruptness of, 51 ; banishes
Cicero, 171

Cocceius ( Jf erva, M., consul 36 bc,
a partisan of Anthony), spared
by Augustus, 387

Corbulo, Cn. Domitius (Roman
general, distinguished by his
campaigns against the Germans
and the Parthians under Claudius
and Xero), 97

Cornelian Law, 21

Cornelius Fidus, son-in-law of
Ovid, 97

Cossi, a noble family, 387

Cras.sus, M. Licinius (triumvir with
Caesar and Pompey), 23

Cyrus (the Great, king of Persia),
rages against the river Gyndes,
309

Danube, 33

Darius (king of Persia), 297

Deillius, Quintus (follower of

Antony, who shortly before the

battle of Actium joined the side

of Octavian), 387
Demetrius (Cynic philosopher, who

taught at Rome during the

reign of Caligula), saying of, 17,

37
Demetrius (Poliorcetes, liberator

of Athens and Megsra, 307 B. c. ), 63

451

INDEX OF NAMES

Demochares (Athenian orator,
neplifiw of Demosthenes), 313

Democritus (Greek philosopher,
born about 460 B.C., early ex-
ponent of the atomistic theory),
despises riches, 43; the "laugh-
ing philosopher," 187; teaches
tranquillity, 269

Diogenes (Stoic philosopher, pupil
of Chrysippus), self-control of,
345

Dionysius (the Elder, tyrant of
Syracuse, 405-367 B.C.), praise of.
393

Domitius(Ahenobarbus,Cn., great-
grandfather of the emperor
Nero ; in the civil struggle he
was a follower of Antony, but
deserted to the side of Octavian
shortly before the battle of
Actium), 387

Egnatius (Rufus, M.), conspired

against Augustus, 383
Elius, a panderer, 3,5
Bnnius, Quintus (the " father of

Roman poetry," 239-169 B.c.),

343
Epicurus (Greek vhilosopher of

Samos, 341-270 B.C.), advocate of

inaction, 93 ; indulged the fle.sh, 95
Ethiopians, long life of, 307 ;

colour of, 321

Fabius, Arch of (erected by Q.
Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus to
celebrate his victory over the
AUobroges in 121 b c), 51

Fabius (Maximus, Q., see note,
p. 134), dilatory policy of, 135;
saying of, 235

Fabius Maximus (descendant of the
dictator), representative of a
noble house, 387

Fabricius (Luscinus C, prominent
general in the war against
Pyrrhus, a stock type of Roman
Integrity and simplicity), tried
by poverty, 17, 19

Father of his Country (honorary
title bestowed upon Augustus
and some of his successors), 399

Fortunate, the (title assumed by
Sulla), 399

452

Gains Caesar (Caligula, emperor of

Rome, 37-41 a.d.), 99, 163, 239,

301, 309
Gains, see Gaius Caesar
Gaul, Augustus in, 381
Gauls, conquerors of the Germans,

135
Germans, uncivilized, 33 ; courage

of, 133; freedom of, 199; their

hairdress, 321
Great, the (honorary title), 399
Greek (language), 177, 433
Greeks, 117, 257, 311
Gyndes (tributary of the Tigris),

Cyrus at the, 309

Hannibal, policy of Fabius and
Scipio towai-d, 135; before
Rome, 171 ; .saying of, 177

Harpagus (a noble Mfde, preserver
of the infant Cyrus and later one
of his generals), made to feast
upon the flesh of his children,
293

Heaven, Lord of (Jupiter), 11

Heraclitus (Greek philosopher of
Ephesus, who lived about 535-
475 B.C.), weakness of, 187

Herculaneum (city in Campania),
villa at, 309

Hercules, type of wise man, 51

Herennius " Macer (unknown),
offends Caligula, 101

Hieronymus (of Rhodes, Peripa-
tetic philosopher and disciple of
Aristotle), quoted, 157

Hippias (son of Pisistratus, whom
he succeeded as tyrant of
Athens in 527 B.C.), cruelty of,
215

Homer, words of, 165

Hortensius, Quintus (celebrated
orator, rival of Cicero and ex-
ponent of the Asiatic manner),
speeches of, 343

Ida, Mount (see note p. 102), 103

Juba (king of Numidia; see note,

p. 12), 13
Julius, see Caesar

Laberius, Df'cimus (Roman knight
born about 107 B.C., famed for

f

INDEX OF NAMES

his talent in writing mimes),
famous line of, 191

Lacedaemonians, discipline of,
31

Land-of-the-stmnp-nosed (Syria),
307

Lentulus (probably P. Cornelius
Lentulns Sura, chief among the
Catilinarian conspirators), insults
Cato, 345

Lepidus, M. Aemilius (the trium-
vir ; though subdued by Octavian
in 36 B.C. and stripped of power,
he lived until 13 B.C.), clemency
of Augustus to, 387

Lepidus, M. Aemilius (son of the
triumvir), conspired against
Augustus, 383

Livia (Drusilla, second wife of
Augustus and mother of the
emperor Tiberius), counsels
Augustus, 383

Livius, Titus (ihe most popular of
Roman historians, 59 B.C. -17
A.D.), saying of, 1>53

Longevals, appellation of the
Ethiopians, 307

Lucilius (friend of Seneca, Roman
knight and procurator of Sicily,
see Introd., p. xi), 3

Lysimachus (one of Alexander's
generals, who having escaped
death at the hands of Alexander
became king of Macedonia),
thrown to a lion, 299, 423

Macedonian, 209

Maecenas, Gains Cilnins (Roman
statesman, courtier, and patron
of literature in the reign of
Augustus^ felicity of, 21, 23

Marias, Gaius (leader of the demo-
crats in the struggle against
Sulla, consul for the seventh
time 86 b.c), violence of con-
demned, 171

Marias, Marcus (nephew, by adop-
tion, of Gaius Marius), tortured
by Sulla, 301

Marseilles, place of exile, 401

Medes, subjects of Parthia, 87 ;
king of the, 87

Megara (capital of the Megarid, a

district north of Corinth), cap-
tured by Demetrius, 63

Messala (CorAinus, M. Valerius,
famous orator and piatron of
letters; pardoned by the trium-
virs after Philippi, he became
one of the chief friends of
Augustus), spared by Augustus,
387

Metellus, L. Caecilius (distin-
guished general in the First Punic
War, who is sai<l to have lost his
sight in rescuing the Palladium
from the burning Temple of
Vesta), blindness of, 35

Mindyrides, a Sybarite, 219

Mucins (Scaevola, C, hero of the
Roman-Ktriiscan wars ; having
stolen into the enemy's camp
seeking the life of Porsena, the
Etruscan king, he was captured
and condemned to be burned
alive, whereupon he contemptu-
ously thrust his right hand into
the lighted fire), tried by fire, 17,
19

Murena, A- Terentins Varro, con-
spired against Augustus, 383

Neptune, god of the sea, 59

Nero Caesar (Roman emperor, 54-
68 A.D.X 357, 431

Novatus (Seneca's eldest brother,
known after his adoption as
Gallio, see Introd. p. xiiiX 107,
167, 253, 345

Numantia (chief town in the dis-
trict of Celtiberia in Spain),
capture of, 67 ; siege of, 135

Oeobazus, cruelty of Darius to,

297
Olympic games, 25
Ovidius Naso, P. (prominent poet

of the Augustan Age), son-in-law

of, 97

Papinius, Sextus, tortured by
Caligula, 303

Parrhesiasies (see note, p. 31 2X
appellation of Demochares, 313

Parthians (a Soythic people belong-
ing to the Persian empire ; after
250 B.C, they founded an inde-

453

INDEX OF NAMES

pendent monarchy, which lasted
until 226 a.d.), 87

Pastor, a Roman knight, 230, 241

Paulus, representative of a noble
house, 387

Persian slave, 209

Persians, king of, 203, 305 ; Darius,
first ruler ot', 297

Perusia (city of Etruria, modern
Perugia, refuge of L. Antonius,
brother of the triumvir, in the
Civil Wars ; see note, p. 390),
holocaust of, 391

Petreius, Marcus (see note, p. 12),
13

Phalaris (notorious tyrant of Agri-
gentuni, made famous by the
story of the brazen bull in which
his victims were roasted alive),
cruelty of, 175, 437

Philip, physician of Alexander,
217

Philip (the Second, king of Macedon
and father of Alexander the
Great), his endurance of insults,
313, 315

Pisistratus (tyrant of Athens 560-
527 i).c.), a story about, 283

Piso, Gnaeus (descendant of an old
and powerful house, appointed
governor of Syria by Tiberius,
and represented by Tacitus as
tlie murderer of Germanicus),
injustice of, 165

Plato (Athenian philosopher, 428-
347 B.C.), condemns anger, 123 ;
his theory of punishment, 159 ;
forbids wine for children, 209 ;
character of, 213 ; controlled
anger, 285, 287

Poliorcetes (appellation of Deme-
trius), 63

Pollio. see Asinius

Pompeians (followers of Pompey),
831

Pompeius Magnus, Gnaeus (formed
the so-called First Triumvirate
with Caesar and Crassus in 60
B.C., later leader of the senatorial
party in opposition to Caesar,
defeated at Pharsalus in 48 B.C.,
and murdered in Egypt shortly
after the battle), member of the
coalition, 23 ; type of greatness,

454

51 ; Caesar's consideration for,
217 ; his death, 331 ; grandson
of, 383

Pompey, see Pompeins

Praexaspes, friend of Cambyses,
289

Priam (last king of Troy), 241

Priapus, watchword given by Cali-
gula. 101

Pyrrhus, gymnastic trainer, 199

Pyrrhus (a king of Epirus, who
invaded Italy 280 B.C.), Fabricius
waged war on, 19

Pythagoras (Greek philosopher,
who flourished 540-500 B.C.),
calmed by the lyre, 277

Regulus, M. Atilius (hero of First
Punic War ; captured by the
Carthaginians and sent to Rome
to sue for peace, he advised the
Senate to refuse the otters of
the enemy, returned to Carthage
and died by torture), tried by
torture, 17, 21 ; type of misfor-
tune, 23

Rhodian (Telesphorus), 299

Roman (citizens), 21, 393 ; (civil-
ization), 33 ; (way.s), 135 ; (legion),
135 ; (hand), 183 ; (knight), 230 ;
(father), 241 ; (people), i4o, 303,
361, 385, 389 ; (senators and
knights), 303 ; (peace), 369 ;
(blood), 391 ; (empire), 431

Romans, 135, 301, 309

Rome, 19, 67, 171, 361

Rutilius (Rufus, P., Roman states-
man, forced into exile in 92 B.C.
because he had repressed the
extortions of the tax-collectors
in Asia), tried by exile, 17 ; re-
called by Sulla, 19

Sallustius (Crispus, C, grand-
nephew and heir of Sallust the
historian, after the death of
Maecenas, chief adviser of Augus-
tus), opponent of Augustus, 387

Salvidienus (Rufus, Q., officer in
the army of Octavian, accused
in 40 B.C. of plotting against him
and condemned by the Senate),

INDEX OF NAMES

conspired against Angustus,
SS3

Scipio (Africanus Maior, P. Cor-
nelius, conqueror of Hannibal
at Zama ■202 bc.)i his dilatory
policy, 135

Scipio (Africanus Minor, see note,
p. 134X idles before Numantia,
135

Sc>-thians (a nomadic people of
southeastern Europe), freedom
of, 199 ; Darius declares war on,
297

Serenus, Annaeas (friend of Seneca,
to whom are addressed the De
Constantia, De Otic, and Ik Tran-
quiUUate Animi. See Introd.,
p. xii)

Sen-ilii, a noble family, 387

Serrilius, pool of, 19

Sextius, Qiiintus (an eclectic Roman
philosopher, who flourished under
the late Republic and the early
Empire), saying of, 249 ; practice
of, 339

Sicily (see note, p. 390), 391

SUenus (companion of Bacchus, a
jovial old man with bald head
and blunt nose, gifted with pro-
phetic power), 311

Socrates (Athenian philosopher,
469-399 B.C.), poisoning of, 17,
23 ; condemnation of, 69 ; self-
control of, 103, 145, 179, 283,
287

Spaniards, conquerors of the Ger-
mans, 135

Speusippus (Athenian philosopher,
nephew of Plato), 287

Stilbo (Greek philosopher of the
fourth century B.C., skilled in
dialectic, forerunner of the Stoics
in his conception of virtue), say-
ing of, 63

Stoic, 55, 93 ; philosopher, 345 ;
school, 439

Stoics, 49, 51, 53, 67

Sulla, Lucius (Roman dictator,
died 78 ac), recalls Rutilius,
19 ; proscription of, 19, 171 ;
cruelty of, 21, 243, 301 ; times of,
161 ; tyranny of, 393

Sun-god (Phoebus), 41

Sybaris (Greek town in Lacania,

proverbial for its wealth and
luxury), 219
Syria, 135, 307

Tarios (Rnfiis, L., a man of hnmble
origin who attained public dis-
tinction and great wealth in the
reign of Augustus), 401, 403

Tarpeian Rock, 149

Telesphorus, mutilated by Alex-
ander, 299

Terentia (see note, p. 22), 23

Teutons (see note, p. 132), in-
vasion of, 133

Theodotus (see note, p. 170), 171

Theophrastus (successor of Aris-
totle as head of the Peripatetic
School), saying of, 137, 141

Thersites (see note, p. 312), 313

Thracian woman, 103

Tiberius Caesar (emperor of Rome,
14-37 Ji-D.), 27, 361

Tillius Ciniber, L. (a favoured
friend of Caesar, but subsequently
one of his enemies), faithlessness
of, 331

Tiraagenes (Alexandrinns, historian
and rhetorician at Rome in the
reign of Augustus), unfriendly to
Augustas, 313; burned his record
of the acts of Augustus, 314

Tiasuniennus (lake in Etroria,
memorable for the victory of
Hannibal over the Romans in
217 B.C.), 177

Tricho, a Roman knight, 401

Triumphus, a gladiator, 27

Ulysses, type of a wise man, 51

Valerius Asiaticus, friend of Cali-
gula, 99

Vatinius, Publius (a political ad-
venturer in the last days of the
Republic), 23. 51, 97

Vedius Pollio (Roman knight, noted
for his riches and his cruelty),
349, 409

Venus, watchword given by Cali-
gula, 101

VolesQS, L. Valerius Messala (con-

455

INDEX OF NAMES

sul in A.D. 5 and several years
later pro-consul of Asia), his
cruelty, 177

War-god (Mars), 139, 171

Xanthippe (shrewish wife of So-
crates), 103

Xenophantus, flutist of Alexander,

171
Xerxes (king of Persia 485-465 b.c.)i

cruelty of, 299

Zeno (probably the founder of the
Stoic School, flourished about
300 B.C.), saying of, 149

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LATIN AUTHORS.

APULEIUS. THE GOLDEN ASS (METAMORPHO-
SES). Trans, by W. Adlington (1566). Revised by
S. Gaselee. (3rd Impression^
AULUS GELLIUS. Trars. by J. C. Rolfe. 3 Vols.
AUSONIUS. Trans, by H. G. Evelyn White. 2 Vols.
BOETHIUS: TRACTS and DE CONSOLATIONE

PHILOSOPHIAE. Trans, by the Rev. H. F. Stewart

and E. K. Rand. {2nd Impression.)
CAESAR: CIVIL WARS. Trans, by A. G. Peskett.

{2nd Impression.)
CAESAR : GALLIC WAR. Trans, by H. J. Edwards.

{4th Impression.)
CATULLUS. Trans, by F. W. Cornish ; TIBULLUS.

Trans, by J. P. Postgate ; PERVIGILIUM VENERIS.

Trans, by J. W. Mackail. {7th Impression.)
CICERO : DE FINIBUS. Trans, by H. Rackham. {2nd

Impression.)
CICERO : DE OFFICIIS. Trans, by Walter Miller. {2nd

Impression.)
CICERO : DE REPUBLICA and DE LEGIBUS. Trans.

by Clinton Keyes.
CICERO: DE SENECTUTE, DE AMICITIA, DE

DIVINATIONE. Trans, by W. A. Falconer. {2nd

Impression.)
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Winstedt. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 4ith Impression, II. and

III. 2nd Impression.)
CICERO: LETTERS TO HIS FRIENDS. Trans, by

W. Glynn WiUiams. 3 Vols. Vol. I.
CICERO : PHILIPPICS. Trans, by W. C. A. Ker.
CICERO : PRO ARCHIA POETA, POST REDITUM IN
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DOMO SUA, DE HARUSPICUM RESPONSIS, PRO
PLANCIO. Trans, by N. H. Watts.
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CICERO : PRO CAECINA, PRO LEGE MANILIA,
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Grose Hodge.

CICERO: TUSCULAN DISPUTATIONS. Trans, by

J. E. King.
CLAUDIAN. Trans, by M. Platnauer. 2 Vols.
CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Trans, by W.

Watts (1631). 2 Vols. {3rd Impression.)
FRONTINUS : STRATAGEMS and AQUEDUCTS.

Trans, by C. E. Bennett.
FRONTO : CORRESPONDENCE. Trans, by C. R.

Haines. 2 Vols.
HORACE: ODES and ERODES. Trans, by C. E.

Bennett. {7th Impression.)
HORACE: SATIRES, EPISTLES, ARS POETICA.

Trans, by H. R. Fairclough.
JUVENAL AND PERSIUS. Trans, by G. G. Ramsay.

{'ith Impression.)
LIVY. Trans, by B. O. Foster. 13 Vols. Vols. I.-IV.

(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)
LUCRETIUS. Trans, by W. H. D. Rouse.
MARTIAL. Trans, by W. C. A. Ker. 2 Vols, {2nd

Impression.)
OVID : HEROIDES, AMORES. Trans, by Grant Shower-
man. {2nd Impression.)
OVID: METAMORPHOSES. Trans, by F. J. Miller,

2 Vols. (Vol. I. Uh Impression, II. Srd Impression.)
OVID : TRISTIA and EX PONTO. Trans, by A. L,

Wheeler,
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APOCOLOCYNTOSIS. Trans, by W. H. D. Rouse.

{5th Impression.)
PLAUTUS. Trans, by Paul Nixon. 5 Vols. Vols. I.-III.

(Vol. I. Srd Impression.)
PLINY: LETTERS, Melmoth's translation revised by

W. M, L. Hutchinson, 2 Vols. {Srd Impression.)
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SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE. Trans, by

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SENECA : MORAL ESSAYS. Trans, by J. W. Basore.

3 Vols, ^'ol. I.
SENECA: TRAGEDIES. Trans, by F. J. MiUer

2 Vols. {2nd Impression.)
STATIUS. Trans, by J. H. Mozley. 2 Vols.
SUETONIUS. Trans, by J. C. Rolfe. 2 Vols. (3rd

Impression.)
TACITUS : DIALOGUS. Trans, by Sir Wm. Peterson ;

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Hutton. {Srd Impression.)
TACITUS : HISTORIES. Trans, by C. H. Moore. 2 Vols.

Vol. I.
TERENCE. Trans, by John Sargeaunt 2 Vols. {5th

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VELLEIUS PATERCULUS and RES GESTAE DIVI

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VIRGIL. Trans, by H. R. Fairclough. 2 Vols. (Vol. I.

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GREEK AUTHORS.

ACHILLES TATIUS. Trans, by S. Gaselee.

AENEAS TACTIC US, ASCLEPIODOTUS and ONA-

SANDER. Trans, by The Illinois Greek Club.
AESCHINES. Trans, by C. D. Adams.
AESCHYLUS. Trans, by H. Weir Smytb. 2 Vols.

(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)
APOLLODORUS. Trans, by Sir James G. Frazer. 2 Vols.
APOLLONIUS RHODIUS.' Trans, by R. C. Seaton.

(3rd Impression.)
THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS. Trans, by Kirsopp Lake.

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APPIAN'S ROMAN HISTORY. Trans, by Horace

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ARISTOPHANES, Trans, by Benjamin Bickley Rogers.

3 Vols. (Verse translation.) {2nd Impression.)
ARISTOTLE : THE " ART " OF RHETORIC. Trans.

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ARISTOTLE : THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. Trans.

by H. Rackham.
ARISTOTLE : POETICS ; " LONGINUS " : ON THE

SUBLIME. Trans, by W. Hamilton Fyfe, and DE-
METRIUS : ON STYLE. Trans, by W. Rhys Roberts.
ATHENAEUS: THE DEIPNOSOPHISTS. Trans, by

C. B. Gulick. 7 Vols. Vols. I. and II.
CALLIMACHUS and LYCOPHRON. Trans, by A. W.

Mair, and ARATUS, trans, by G. R. Mair.
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. Trans, by the Rev.

G. W. Butterworth.
DAPHNIS AND CHLOE. Thornley's translation revised

by J. M. Edmonds: and PARTHENIUS. Trans, by

S. Gaselee. {2nd Impression.) I

DEMOSTHENES: DE CORONA and DE FALSA '

LEGATIONE. Trans, by C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince.
DIOCASSIUS: ROMAN HISTORY. Trans, by E. Cary.

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EURIPIDES. Trans, by A. S. Way. 4 Vols. (Verse

translation.) (Vols. I. and IV, 3rd, II. 4<A, III. 2nd

Impression.)
EUSEBIUS: ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Trans.

by Kirsopp Lake, 2 Vols. Vol, I,
GALEN: ON THE NATURAL FACULTIES. Trans. by

A. J. Brock. {2nd Impression.)
THE GREEK ANTHOLOGY. Trans, by W. R. Paton,

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THE GREEK BUCOLIC POETS (THEOCRITUS,

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HESIOD AND THE HOMERIC HYMNS. Trans, by

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HIPPOCRATES. Trans, bv W. H. S. Jones and E. T.

Withington. 4 Vols. Vols. I.-III.
HOMER: ILIAD. Trans, by A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)
HOMER : ODYSSEY. Trans, by A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

(\'ol. I. ith, II. 2nd Impression.)
ISAEUS. Trans, by E. S. lorster.
ISOCRATES. Trans, by G. NorUn. 3 Vols. Vol. I.
JOSEPHUS. Trans, by H. St. J. Thackeray. 8 Vols.

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JULIAN. Trans, by Wilmer Cave Wright 3 Vols.
LUCIAN. Trans, by A. M.Harmon. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-IV.

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MARCUS AURELIUS. Trans, by C. R. Haines. {2nd

Impression.)
MENANDER. Trans, by F. G. Allinson.
OPPIAN, COLLUTHUS and TRYPHIODORUS. Trans.

by A. W. Mair.
PAUSANIAS : DESCRIPTION OF GREECE. Trans.

by W. H. S. Jones. 5 Vols, and Companion Vol. Vols.

I. and II.
PHILOSTRATUS : THE LIFE OF APOLLONIUS OF

TYANA. Trans, by F. C. Conybeare. 2 Vols. (Vol. I.

3rd, II. 2nd Impression.)
PHILOSTRATUS and EUNAPIUS : LIVES OF THE

SOPHISTS. Trans, by Wibner Cave Wright.
PINDAR. Trans, by Sir J. E. Sandys, {ith Impression.)
PLATO : CHARMIDES, ALCIBIADES I. and II.,

HIPPARCHUS, THE LOVERS, THE AGES. MINOS.

EPINOMIS. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.
PLATO : CRATYLUS. P.\RMENIDES, GREATER and

LESSER HIPPIAS. Trans, by H. N. Fowler.
PLATO: EUTIFk'PHRO. APOLOGY, CRITO, PHAEDO,

PHAEDRUS. Trans, by H. N. Fowler. {5th Impression.)
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PLATO: LACHES, PROTAGORAS, MENO, EUTHY-

DEMUS. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.
PLATO : LAWS. Trans, by Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.
PLATO : LYSIS, SYMPOSIUM, GORGIAS. Trans, by

W. R. M. Lamb.
PLATO : STATESMAN, PHILEBUS. Trans, by H. N.

Fowler ; ION. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.
PLATO : THEAETETUS, SOPHIST. Trans, by H. X.

Fowler.
PLUTARCH : THE PARALLEL LIVES. Trans, by

B. Perrin. 1 1 Vols. (Vols. I., II. and VII. 2nd Impression.)
PLUTARCH: MORALIA. Trans, by F. C. Babbitt.

14 Vols. Vol. I.
POLYBIUS. Trans, by W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.
PROCOPIUS ; HISTORY OF THE WARS. Trans, by^

H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols. Vols. I. -IV. «

QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS. Trans, by A. S. Way. (Verse ,

translation.)
ST. BASIL : THE LETTERS. Trans, by R. Deferrari.

4 Vols. Vol. I. vi

ST. JOHN DAMASCENE : BARLAAM AND I0ASAPH.4

Trans, by the Rev. G. R. Woodward and Harold Mattingly.
SOPHOCLES. Trans, by F. Storr. 2 Vols. (Verse trans-
lation.) (Vol. I. Uh Impression, II. Srd Impression.)
STRABO : GEOGRAPHY. Trans, by Horace L. Jones.

8 Vols. Vols. I.-V.
THEOPHRASTUS : ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS. Trans.

by Sir Arthur Hort, Bart. 2 Vols.
THUCYDIDES. Trans, by C. F. Smith. 4 Vols. (Vol. I.

2wd Impression.)
XENOPHON : CYROPAEDIA. Trans, by Walter Miller.

2 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)
XENOPHON : HELLENICA, ANABASIS, APOLOGY.

AND SYMPOSIUM. Trans, by C. L. Brownson and

O. J. Todd. 3 Vols.
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TUTION, Edward Capps.

RRIAN : HISTORY OF ALEXANDER asd INDICA,

the Rev. E. Iliffe Robson. 2 \'ols.
)EMOSTHENES : MEIDIAS, ANDROTION, ARISTO-

CRATES, TIMOCRATES, J. H. Vince.
»EMOSTHENES : OLYNTHIACS, PHILIPPICS, LEP-

TINES, MINOR SPEECHES, J. H. Vince.
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)IO CHRYSOSTOM, W. E. Waters.
^REEK IAMBIC AND ELEGIAC POETS.

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lANETHO, S. de Ricci.

•APYRI, A. S. Hunt

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EXTUS EMPIRICUS, the Rev. R. G. Bury. '
HEOPHRASTUS : CHARACTERS, J. M. Edmonds;

HERODES ; CERCID.\S, etc., A. D. Knox.

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5EDE : ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
ICERO : CATILINE ORATIONS, B. L. UUman.
:iCERO : DE NATURA DEORUM, H. Rackham.
:iCERO : DE ORATORE, ORATOR, BRUTUS, Charles

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LUCAN, J. D. Duff.
OVID: ARS AMATORIA, REMEDIA AMORIS, etc.,

F. H. Mozley.
OVID : FASTI, Sir J. G. Frazer.
PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY, W. H. S. Jones an

L. F. Newman.
ST. AUGUSTINE : MINOR WORKS.
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